IV. Data and Metadata We compiled a panel dataset at the Federative Unit (FU) level (including 26 states and 1 federal district) for all FUs and at annual frequency across the overlapping periods from 2010 to 2020 that are available from all data sources. All data are collected from credible national sources including Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE), Brazilian National Agency of Petroleum, Natural Gas and Biofuels (ANP), Energy Research Office (EPE) of the Brazilian Ministry of Mines and Energy (MME), and Greenhouse Gas Emission and Removal Estimating System (SEEG).

**Fuel prices** for our analysis are final consumer prices at retail stations of automotive fuels. A typical retail price of fuel in Brazil consists of cost to producers (mostly Petrobras) or importers, federal and state taxes ( _i.e._ , CIDE, PIS, COFINS and ICMS), cost of biofuel that is mixed into the fossil fuel, and cost to distributors and retailers. The retail prices are surveyed in ANP’s Fuel Price Survey (LPC) that cover prices of gasoline C, hydrous ethanol, diesel oil B, vehicular natural gas (CNG), as well as Diesel oil B S10 that was introduced at the end of 2012. The survey was conducted weekly around 459 locations across all Brazilian FUs (ANP, 2020). The LPC is the most comprehensive and authoritative survey of fuel prices in the country, and it has been used for developing public policies (ANP, 2020). We obtained data for our analysis from the historical series aggregated at the monthly frequency and FU level, and combined datasets from different time periods, resulting in continuous series from 2001 to 2022. Prices at FU level is weighted by sales of distributors after October 2004. We take a simple average of the monthly values to aggregate it into quarterly and annual series.

We use **GDP** compiled from the income perspective for our analysis. Total income of an administrative region consists of employee remuneration (salary plus social contribution), operation surplus, mixed income, and taxes (net of subsidies). We obtained country, region, and FU level GDP/income data from the country’s System of Regional Accounts (SCR) 2020 that is produced by the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE) in collaboration with the State Statistical Offices, State Government Departments, and the Superintendence of the Manaus Free Zone. The SCR, revised in 2015, is compatible with international methodologies of the System of National Accounts 2008 (IBGE 2020). We collected three income series, _i.e._ , total income, employee remuneration, and other income (operation surplus plus mixed income). The data is available at annual frequency from 2010 to 2020.

Estimates of **greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions** are focused on those that arise from fuel combustion for road transportation covering all vehicles ( _e.g._ , cars, trucks, buses, and motorcycles) that respond to prices of automobile fuels. During combustion, carbon (C) stored in the fuel is oxidized and released as carbon dioxide (CO2) and, to the extent of incomplete combustion, methane (CH4), carbon monoxide (CO) and non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs). In addition, minor emissions from nitrogen (N2) oxidation result in nitrogen oxides (NOx) and/or nitrous oxide (N2O) depending on process temperature (de Azevedo, T., Costa Junior, C., Brandão Junior, A. et al., 2018).

We obtained emission data from the latest version of System for Estimating Greenhouse Gas Emissions (SEEG version 10, 2022). An initiative of Climate Observatory, SEEG estimates are based on Brazilian Inventory (BI) of Anthropogenic Emissions and Removals of Greenhouse Gases from the Ministry of Science, Technology, and Innovation (MCTI) that are consistent with guidelines of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). SEEG reproduces and validates BI data, and improves its coverage and granularity (de Azevedo, T., Costa Junior, C., Brandão Junior, A. et al., 2018). For our analysis, we 10