rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
expenditure rises from 3.5 percent in the lower quartile to 14.7 percent to the richest quartile which alludes to better-off households purchasing more expensive qhat (probably of higher quality).

**_In Djibouti, unlike many other developing countries, the poor consume a disproportionately large share of tradable goods._** Table 1 shows that tradable goods<sup>7</sup> (of which food makes up the largest share) accounts for more than 76 percent of the overall expenditure of households in the first income quartile. This declines to 57 percent for the richest group in the forth quartile. The share of tradable is even large for rural households again due to the contribution of food consumption. Figure 2 and 3  illustrates the negative relationship between the share of tradable in overall household expenditure and adult-equivalent consumption for both 1996 and 2002, respectively.

**Table 1 Djibouti: Household Expenditure Share of Tradable Goods, 1996**

|**Income Categories**||**All Djibou**|**ti**||**Rural Ar**|**ea**|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||**food**|**qhat**|**tradables**|**food**|**qhat**|**tradables**|
|All|42.7|9.5|66.2|58.0|8.3|79.5|
|poorest|57.1|3.5|76.2|65.7|3.7|71.5|
|2nd quartile|45.2|7.5|67.6|49.5|10.5|61.5|
|3rd quartile|38.1|12.2|63.8|46.0|20.1|52.1|
|richest|30.4|14.7|57.3|33.9|24.1|42.9|

_Note: Budget shares are expressed as a percentage of total household expenditure. Source: Authors' calculation based on EDAM 1996._

**_While most Djiboutians earn labor income from the non-tradable sector, better-off households earn a higher share of their labor income from the public sector in contrast to poorer households_** . Figure 4 shows the modest contribution of labor earnings from the tradable sector<sup>8</sup> which rises slightly with per-capita adult equivalent household consumption. Better-off households earn a higher share of their wage incomes from the public sector in contrast to poorer households as indicated in Figure 5<sup>9</sup> .

> 7 Tradable goods based on the 1996 survey data consist of tobacco, qhat, school supplies, clothing and medical drugs while non-tradable  goods and services are water and electric expenses, rent, health services and transportation 8 Tradable sectors include manufacturing, retail and port services. The retail trade involves local distribution (a nontradable component), but given the small size of the country this component is not significant.

> 9 In the first quartile, the poorest household share of public sector wages in overall labor income is 18.3 percent, rising to 38 percent for the richest group (the fourth quartile).

8
Table 2 (cont.) The Gains From Agricultural Tariff Liberalization

|Country|Aggregate<br>Gains|St.Dev.<br>Gains|Consumption<br>Efects|Income<br>Efects|Pro-Poor<br>Bias|Gains<br>Poor|Gains<br>Rich|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Developing world|2.50|1.01|4.64|-2.15|-0.44|2.20|2.64|
|Liberia|2.22|0.72|3.22|-1.00|-1.41|1.28|2.69|
|Madagascar|0.53|0.78|3.08|-2.55|-1.80|-0.24|1.55|
|Malawi|0.55|1.33|3.36|-2.81|-3.40|-0.72|2.67|
|Mali|2.30|1.52|3.59|-1.29|3.65|4.25|0.60|
|Mauritania|3.27|0.96|4.94|-1.67|1.99|4.13|2.14|
|Moldova|0.78|0.43|1.44|-0.66|0.50|1.18|0.68|
|Mongolia|2.37|0.49|2.93|-0.55|1.25|2.87|1.63|
|Mozambique|3.18|1.97|4.98|-1.81|-4.93|0.91|5.84|
|Nepal|2.66|0.60|3.19|-0.52|1.52|3.37|1.85|
|Nicaragua|3.85|1.06|5.42|-1.57|1.80|4.60|2.80|
|Niger|0.99|1.04|4.06|-3.07|-2.41|-0.16|2.25|
|Nigeria|3.22|1.65|5.93|-2.71|-2.80|0.89|3.69|
|Pakistan|2.31|1.90|3.58|-1.27|4.92|4.45|-0.47|
|Papua New Guinea|2.24|0.65|4.90|-2.65|0.46|2.36|1.90|
|Rwanda|1.57|1.39|4.33|-2.76|2.89|3.40|0.51|
|Sierra Leone|2.40|1.48|5.40|-3.00|-3.36|0.98|4.34|
|South Africa|1.71|0.42|1.75|-0.04|0.60|1.66|1.06|
|Sri Lanka|3.02|1.52|4.74|-1.72|4.21|4.97|0.75|
|Tajikistan|3.08|0.41|3.24|-0.16|-0.38|2.93|3.31|
|Tanzania|3.68|1.65|5.94|-2.26|3.04|5.26|2.22|
|Togo|3.70|1.38|5.39|-1.69|-3.21|1.62|4.83|
|Uganda|3.26|1.09|5.44|-2.18|0.72|4.39|3.67|
|Ukraine|3.44|0.19|3.64|-0.20|-0.42|3.17|3.59|
|Uzbekistan|3.97|0.69|4.68|-0.71|-1.71|3.25|4.96|
|Vietnam|1.99|0.82|5.52|-3.53|-1.70|1.04|2.74|
|Yemen, Rep.|3.68|0.49|4.64|-0.96|0.67|3.84|3.17|
|Zambia|6.93|0.46|8.07|-1.14|0.75|7.35|6.60|

Notes: Authors’ calculations based on HIT data. The table presents the gains associated with the elimination of country’s own agricultural import tariffs.

30
accidents in the oil and gas industry. One of the biggest accidents in the developed world so far was the Gulf of Mexico accident occurred on April 20, 2010 where a deep-water horizontal drilling rig, owned and operated by British Petroleum, exploded. It caused a fire on the mobile offshore drilling unit and caused deaths of 11 workers and seriously injured 17 others. The oil spill caused by this accident is considered the largest accidental marine oil spill in the world, and the largest environmental disaster in U.S. history.<sup>5</sup> Some notable and relatively recent oil and gas transportation (pipeline, tanker) related accidents include 2013 Lac-Mégantic accident in Quebec, Canada (July7); 1998 oil pipeline explosion in Nigeria (October 18), 1989 Ufa train disaster in former Soviet Union (June 4). The 2013 Lac-Mégantic accident occurred when an oil tanker train (73 tank cars) carrying light crude oil exploded causing 47 deaths; It was the fourth-deadliest rail accident in Canadian history.<sup>6</sup> The 1998 Nigerian oil pipeline accident occurred in Niger Delta (October 18, 1998) due to a cigarette ignited fire on leaked oil around the oil pipeline and caused deaths of more than 1,000 people.<sup>7</sup> The Ufa accident ignited by wheel sparks from two passenger trains heading in opposite directions at a site where a leaking natural gas liquids (mainly propane and butane) created a highly flammable cloud of fuel vapor, killed 575 people and injured another 800 people.<sup>8</sup> In the United States, the Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC) reports that during the recent oil and gas boom period (2003-2013), 1,189 work-related fatalities occurred in the oil and gas extraction industry; two-thirds of these fatalities were attributed to transportation incidents and contact with objects/equipment (Mason et al. 2015).

Hydropower accidents are few in number, 22 during the 1970-2008 period, but they caused 38% of the energy sectors total accidental deaths during the period (see Figure 3). 87% of the hydropower accident fatalities during the period occurred in a single accident in China, Banqiao

> 5 Goldenberg, Suzanne; MacAlister, Terry (November 28, 2012). "BP suspended from new US federal contracts over Deepwater disaster". The Guardian. London; Zeller, Jr., Tom (May 28, 2010). "Estimates Suggest Spill Is Biggest in U.S. History". The New York Times; "Bird Habitats Threatened by Oil Spill" from National Wildlife". National Wildlife Federation. April 30, 2010.

> 6 Associated Press, July 11, 2013. http://www.syracuse.com/news/index.ssf/2013/07/canadian_train_derailment_death_roll_at_50_residents_of_lacmegantic_jeer_rail_c.html

> 7 Greenleft Weekly, July 19, 2000 NIGERIA: Hundreds die in pipeline disaster by Norm Dixion. https://www.greenleft.org.au/content/nigeria-hundreds-die-pipeline-disaster. Retrieved June 17, 2017.

> 8 Russia remembers 1989 Ufa train disaster". RIA Novosti. 2009-06-04, https://sputniknews.com/russia/20090604155167464/

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- 34 -

5.4 Address Collection Am Well Ag Valuation. One frequent problem in the design of interventions is an excessive concentration on the "upstream" stages of property tax administration--discovery and valuation--to the neglect of collection. Given the extremely low level of collection efficiency in developing countries, much of the effort spent in mapping and valuation is likely to be wasted if corresponding efforts ara not made to improve collection administration: newly discovered and valued property does not yield revenue if the system of collection administration is dysfunctional. Evidence from the Philippines and Brazil programs suggests, in fact, that collection efficiency-which had averaged 50% before project intervention--declined following the completion of tax administration projects, substantially offsetting the programs' impacts on yields.

5.5 Under some conditions2' there is, in fact, a good case for starting the process of administrative reform at the collection end of the taxation process. This can be a more efficient use of effort--in that collection improvements directly result in increased revenue, without depending upon a subsequent phase of administration. And it can yield results more quickly: sorting records to identify major delinquents, combined with conspicuous enforcement of penalties, can produce a major one-time increase in collections on arrears, as well as have a salutary effect on collection efficiency over the long term.

5.6 Address Policy As Well As Administrat Reform efforts have also tended to focus too narrowly on administration of the tax, to the neglect of property tax policy. Property tax policies--the rate structure and the method of revaluation--are key determinants of the level and buoyancy of the property tax. If nominal tax rates remain at low levels, administrative improvements will have little revenue impact in absolute terms. Even substantial one-time impacts can be offset if procedures permitting annual adjustr-ents in valuations are not introduced.

5.7 The experience of property tax administration projects in the Philippines and Brazil suggests that improvements in administration of the tax will, in fact, tend to increase political pressure for rate reductions: as valuations rise, property owners will campaign for lower rates to keep their tax liabilities from increasing. Bowing to that pressure can reduce tax revenues to the level at which the tax is not worth collecting. In the Philippines, the central government refused to permit RPTA valuations to be made in current prices. As a result, tax liabilities, post project, averaged only $3.80 per property. In Brazil, similarly, tax liabilities in the northern municipios averaged less than $9.80, post project. Rough cost calculations from the Brazil program suggest that if local authorities had been forced to amortize the full cost of the program out of revei 4es (along with recurrent costs of administration), many would not have seen a positive cash flow from the property tax for up to five years.

_20/_ That is, provided the gaps in coverage and the inequities in valuation are not too egregious.
described above, HSP households received not only full rental subsidies for 9 to 18 months but also physical upgrades to the home environment. These proximate outcome measures can be seen as capturing successful program implementation.

To measure physical improvements to the shelter, we constructed an index of self-reported floor, roof, and wall quality; electricity and water access; and crowding. Housing expenditures were measured in two ways: First, in the midline phone survey, respondents reported their total monthly housing expenditures, including the payments provided by the implementing organization. Second, in the endline in-person survey, once assistance had ended, participants reported their monthly out-of-pocket housing expenditures (excluding the amount paid by the implementer). The latter is our preferred measure of the direct effect of the program on housing expenditures, because it allows us to test whether treated households experienced rental savings. Because the endline measure was collected after assistance ended, any observed expenditure reductions would most likely be an underestimate of the benefits experienced during the program. Recall that HSP also required the landlord to not raise rent for an additional year after the assistance ended, which could help account for any persistent effects on housing expenditures in the treatment group.

2. _Primary well-being outcomes:_ This category includes three main outcomes that seek to capture refugee household well-being, including household consumption, mental health (measured through the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale, CES-D), and an index summarizing the 25-item child Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) that measures emotional and conduct problems, inattention, peer relations, and prosocial behaviors. Both the CES-D and SDQ are validated tools that have been utilized in a variety of international contexts (Park and Yu 2021, Woerner et al. 2004). In each of the three survey rounds, the primary respondent completed the CES-D depression screening. The SDQ was completed by an adult respondent regarding a randomly selected child aged 3 to 8 years old in the endline survey, as well as for the same child in the one and a half year follow-up. Total household consumption was measured only at endline (which was collected in person).

12
# **Challenges and opportunities of mobile phone-based data collection: Evidence from South Sudan**

Gabriel Demombynes<sup>1</sup> Paul Gubbins<sup>1</sup> Alessandro Romeo<sup>2</sup> JEL Codes: C81, C83, D04 Keywords: South Sudan, mobile phone, survey methodology Sector Board: POV Affiliations:<sup>1</sup> World Bank<sup>2</sup> University of Rome “Tor Vergata” The authors greatly appreciate the collaboration of both the South Sudan National Bureau of Statistics and Horizon Contact Centers in Nairobi on the project described in this paper. The authors thank Andrew Dabalen, Johannes Hoogeveen, and Alvin Etan Ndip for helpful comments. The views expressed in this paper are the authors’ alone. They do not necessarily reflect the views of the World Bank or its Executive Directors. Demombynes and Gubbins are part of the Poverty Reduction staff of the Poverty Reduction and Economic Management (PREM) unit of the World Bank’s Kenya office. Corresponding email: gdemombynes@worldbank.org
not reject the over-identi...cation restrictions.

Table 9 reports alternative speci...cations of the allocative e¢ ciency regressions. Overall the results uphold the conclusions drawn from the baseline speci...cations of Table 8 columns (3) and (4). The MTBF and MTPF coe¢ cient estimates maintain their prior patterns, although again the di¤erence transform model in column (3) performs somewhat poorly. The covariates openness and con‡ict do not display any signi...cant e¤ects on health spending volatility.

# 4.3 Technical E¢ ciency

Table 10 presents the baseline regressions for technical e¢ ciency, measured as e¢ ciency scores from a stochastic frontier model of health delivery; see equations (2), (3), and Table 4. As expected, this indicator of ...scal performance is much more persistent than the previous ones. The FE-OLS bracketing range, based on columns (1) and (2), climbs to 0.858�0.999, indicating strong persistence. National health delivery is a complex system that may take decades to fully internalize the bene...ts of a given reform. The MTEF coe¢ cient estimates are all negative, small and far from statistically signi...cant. Hypothesis (3) above predicts that the top-phase MTEF (the MTPF) increases technical e¢ ciency.

Columns (3) and (4) present the D-GMM estimates of the MTEF e¤ects. The internal instruments are the second lag of technical e¢ ciency and the second and third lags of the MTEF indicators. Compared to the previous two columns, the estimated MTEF e¤ects turn positive and increase in magnitude. The speci...cation with external instruments is more precise. The MTPF e¤ect is 1.015 and statistically signi...cant at the 10 percent level. The lack of precision should be expected since the within-country variation in technical e¢ ciency is much smaller relative to the ...rst two measures of ...scal performance (1.67 vs. 9.59, 6.35). As before, the diagnostic tests perform well, increasing con...dence in the model speci...cation. Overall, these baseline results provide moderate support for hypothesis (H3).

Table 11 reports alternative speci...cations of the technical e¢ ciency regressions. The Hansen test suggests that the di¤erence transform and predetermined MTEFs in columns (3) and (5) respectively are not adequate speci...cations. The remaining three models have satisfactory diagnostics and display a pattern of coe¢ cients similar to the baseline. Among the alternative speci...cations only the speci...cation with collapsed instruments attains statistical signi...cance in the MTPF coe¢ cient (p-value 0.059). As in the baseline results, the covariates openness and con‡ict do not display measurable e¤ects on technical e¢ ciency.

19
MALAWI’S INFRASTRUCTURE: A CONTINENTAL PERSPECTIVE Malawi has not made much progress in rural water sector reform thus far. Malawi has adopted a rural water policy and created a dedicated budget line, but does not yet have a rural water agency, a costrecovery policy, or a map of rural water points. This lack of attention to rural water can be seen in the growing reliance on surface water that has been observed in rural areas in recent years.

**Table 4. Benchmarking water and sanitation indicators**

||Unit|Low-income<br>countries|**Malawi**|Middle-income<br>countries|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|Access to piped water|% pop|10.1|**6.5**|56.4|
|Access to standposts|% pop|16.1|**12.7**|20.4|
|Access to wells/boreholes|% pop|38.3|**69.0**|6.3|
|Access to surface water|% pop|33.8|**11.7**|13.9|
|Access to septic tanks|% pop|5.3|**3.6**|44.0|
|Access to improved latrines|% pop|9.3|**1.2**|0.9|
|Access to traditional latrines|% pop|47.9|**80.7**|33.0|
|Open defecation|% pop|37.1|**14.5**|15.8|
|Domestic water consumption|liter/capita/day|72.4|**109.4**|Na|
|Urban water assets in need of rehabilitation|%|35.5|**42.0**|25.0|
|Revenue collection|% sales|96.0|**50 (est.)**|99.2|
|Distribution losses|% production|33.0|**34.6**|23.1|
|Cost-recovery|% total costs|56.0|**67.7**|80.6|
|Total hidden costs as % of revenue|%|130.0|**153.7**|84.9|
|U.S. cents per m<sup>3</sup>|**Malawi**|Scarce water|resources|Other developing<br>regions|
|Residential tariff|**35.7**||60.26|30–600|
|Nonresidential tariff|**54.0**||120.74|..|

_Source:_ Banerjee and others 2009; Morella and others 2009. Derived from AICD water and sanitation utilities database, http://www.infrastructureafrica.org/aicd/tools/data.

In sanitation, the main policy challenge is how to upgrade traditional latrines to improved standards. While more than 80 percent of Malawi’s population has access to a traditional latrine, little more than 1 percent has access to an improved latrine. While this imbalance is typical across Africa, it is particularly marked in the case of Malawi. This suggests that the main sanitation challenge for the country is how to make it easier for households to improve their latrines. Given that a widespread subsidy policy is likely unaffordable, the right place to begin would be on the supply side, investigating the barriers that prevent the construction of improved latrines, such as lack of technical know-how or the nonavailability of key parts in the local market. There are a few countries in the region that have had some success in expanding traditional latrines—most notably Burkina Faso, Madagascar, and Rwanda—and their experience could be relevant to Malawi.

12
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