rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
27 (iv) In order for legal reforms to be more reponsive to their needs, countrie **s** hould strive to achieve broad participation of members of local legal professions in tieir legal reforns.

(v) To make legal reforms more sustiable, govemments should integrate training activies in tfieir legal reforms.

# 2. W___ t _ aoa

**(i)** The Bank should ensure a direct and obvious link bewee proposed reforms and econominc development and pnontize the areas of legal refom whih are s4gficant from the viewpoint of aceating economic growth.

(n) The Bank should reWond to countre requests for legal tehical as ne in a more systmatic manner which may best be based on an asment or a diagnostic study of the legal or juicia system, as the cs may be.

Cii) The Bank should ensure that its legal assistance projects are in aordance with its policy of non-ierferce in the polihics of its member comtries (iv) The Bank shoud be more active in mobiliing and coodinating legal techndc resources, espcialy with bilatal and multilateal donor aecies.

(v) Traiming activitie **s** ould be inead in all of the legad tchnica asitanc activities.

3. Concluson Over the last several years the Bank has become icgsgly involved in ass gal reform efforts in its mmber counties. In light of the complxi and exent of tie Bank's involvemen **t** , is report points out issues that frequetly come up and m nn s lessos learned. The experience that has been gained by the Legl Deprtment t g he tehdnical uasta efforts in the legal area ae many imes appicable to tehncal assismce in generaL Such lessons include the necessity of goement commitment, ownership and coordiati lingt of the close
_Table 15: Robustness check for noisy welfare measure_

||Sri Lanka<br>|||||Tanzania<br>|<br>||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||Mean<br>poverty|Mean<br>MSE|Mean<br>CV|Corr|CR|Mean<br>poverty|Mean<br>MSE|Mean<br>CV|Corr|CR|
|Direct estimates (H-T<br>approximation)|4.0|15.9|65.3|59.0|74.6|20.0|82.3|45.4|77.2|83.0|
|Area level Fay-Herriot<br>model|4.0|10.5|54.1|75.9|80.7|16.8|53.2|39.5|72.8|88.1|
|Household-level EB<br>model|3.7|7.3|68.1|79.5|84.9|17.6|18.1|31.7|85.2|79.9|
|Household Model<br>Diagnostics<br>|||||||||||
|Marginal R<sup>2</sup>|||0.196|||||0.208|||
|Conditional R<sup>2</sup>|||0.304|||||0.329|||
|Skewness of area<br>effect|||0.14|||||-0.04|||
|Kurtosis of area effect|||2.99|||||2.61|||
|Wilks-Shapiro P-value|||0.40|||||0.33|||
|Skewness of<br>household error|||-0.03|||||-0.06|||
|Kurtosis of household<br>error|||3.12|||||3.08|||
|Variance of estimated<br>area effect|||0.110|||||0.122|||
|Variance of estimated<br>household residual|||0.702|||||0.671|||
|Percentage of variance<br>of error term due to<br>area effect|||15.7%|||||18.2%|||

# VI. Simulations

The results presented in the preceding two sections are based on small area estimation using one sample of households for each country.<sup>35</sup> The samples that were used are particularly significant, since they reflect the actual enumeration areas sampled by the National Statistics Offices for their household

> 35 MSE in the baseline estimates were estimated by simulating different populations while maintaining the same sample composition in each parametric bootstrap replication.

35
formulating an integrated solution in the form of a network for non-motorized transport. The total length of the feeder roads which is to be renovated is 41.5 kms, with 23.8 kms in the vicinity of BRTS1 (Satara Road) and 17.7 kms on BRTS2 (Sholapur Road). The average width of the feeder roads is 20 meters. The construction includes footpaths, cycle tracks, cycle stands, underpasses, and trees, etc. The width of the footpaths and cycle tracks are 2 meters each. The construction should be completed in about one year after the project is approved, and the quality will last for at least 10 years. This project aims to provide better access to urban activity centers for pedestrians and cyclists and make the roads a safer place for them to travel. Separate lanes for cyclists and pedestrians, wide roads, and leveled pavements free of debris and other material will make walking & cycling attractive alternatives to using motorized vehicles. Visual signs in the form of road markings, signage, would be put up and distinctive paving material used .The facilities which are created especially for pedestrians & cyclists would also make motor vehicle users conscious of the rights and privileges of the pedestrians & cyclists on the road. A more equitable distribution of road space would be sought to be achieved for motorized and non-motorized traffic. The whole project will be enthusiastically promoted to encourage citizens to use the facilities created for them.<sup>4</sup>

# **4. Survey Design, Implementation and Summary Statistics**

# 4.1 Survey design and administration

A CV survey was conducted in Pune in March-April, 2009, to provide data estimating the potential multi-dimensional benefits that NMT could bring to the residents of Pune. Prior to the main survey, two focus groups and 116 pretests were carefully conducted to enhance the

> 4 World Bank (2008) provides more details about the project, but the final project design has been changed significantly after this study.

8
Policy ReseaRch WoRking PaPeR 4342

# **Abstract**

This study uses the Ricardian approach to analyze the impact of climate change on Ethiopian agriculture and to describe farmer adaptations to varying environmental factors. The study analyzes data from 11 of the country’s 18 agro-ecological zones, representing more than 74 percent of the country, and survey of 1,000 farmers from 50 districts. Regressing of net revenue on climate, household, and soil variables show that these variables have a significant impact on the farmers’ net revenue per hectare.

The study carries out a marginal impact analysis of increasing temperature and changing precipitation across the four seasons. In addition, it examines the impact of uniform climate scenarios on farmers’ net revenue per hectare. Additionally, it analyzes the net revenue impact of predicted climate scenarios from three models for the years 2050 and 2100. In general, the results indicate that increasing temperature and decreasing precipitation are both damaging to Ethiopian agriculture. Although the analysis did not incorporate the carbon fertilization effect, the role of technology, or the change in prices for the future, significant information for policy-making can be extracted.

This paper—a product of the Sustainable Rural and Urban Development Division, Development Economics Research Group Department—is part of a larger effort in the department to mainstream economic research on climate change. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://econ.worldbank.org. The author may be contacted at ttderessa@yahoo.com.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent._ Produced by the Research Support Team
The addition of time-use data can make the analysis even richer. Time-use data demonstrated that in both Armenia and Jordan, some children and elders can aid with household tasks and care for family members. This participation in social reproduction from some dependents can reduce gender gaps in labor earnings. In these countries, therefore, a formal extension of affordable and convenient public childcare or elderly care services should positively influence women’s labor supply decisions as well as provide access to fiscal policies that support social reproduction.

In sum, the results discussed in this paper from the cases of Jordan and Armenia bode well for the application of the proposed Engendered CEQ methodology in other countries, in different fiscal and socioeconomic settings, and in settings with different cultural expectations regarding the economic and social roles of men and women. In both Armenia and Jordan, richer results were discovered in a contextualized household, in the application of the CEQ assessment methodology across different household types, and in the incorporation of time-use data as a link between household organization and the fiscal policies under examination. The flexibility of the approach should allow analysts and researchers to carry out an engendered analysis, which in turn can help policy makers understand how fiscal policies treat individuals in their different roles and improve reform efforts that benefit men, women, and children.

Going forward, a number of methodological extensions can be explored. We already noted the incorporation of time-use data. Further work can be done to incorporate savings into the notion of income. More granularity can be added to taxes. For instance, it would be interesting to examine in any particular country context the structure of rates and deductions in personal income taxes; for instance, higher marginal rates on secondary income affects women more than men as they are the ones considered to be secondary earners. How can the CEQ be applied to countries with schedular, e.g., different rates for personal income, capital income, and capital gains, as opposed to global rate structures? Other extensions include adding presumptive taxes for small entrepreneurs, land and property taxes, and corporate income taxes, including whether and how dividends are allocated to income. Early work from some countries suggests these other taxes all have different income effects on male and female taxpayers and entrepreneurs (Komatsu and others 2021). Finally, future research can explore a range of policy simulations, for instance, removing subsidies or tax expenditures and replacing them with direct transfers. These extensions can further enrich an already useful tool for understanding fiscal policy.

35
**Table 4. Pandemic onset and layoff restriction effects on hires and separations:** **<u>Interrupted time series estimates.</u>**

||<br>Days since<br>pandemic|Days since<br>layoff<br>restrictions|Days since<br>pandemic|Days since<br>layoff<br>restrictions|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|Dependent variable:<br>|[1]|[2]|[3]|[4]|
|Total new hires<br>|-.0112***<br>(.0029)|-.0058**<br>(.0023)|.0002<br>(.0020)|-.0047**<br>(.0019)|
|Full-time new hires|-.0071***<br>|-.0055***<br>|.0011<br>|-.0049***<br>|
||(.0027)|(.0020)|(.0019)|(.0019)|
|Part-time new hires|-.0138***<br>|-.0056**<br>|-.0007<br>|-.0044**<br>|
||(.0031)|(.0025)|(.0021)|(.0021)|
|Shift-work new hires|-.0209***|-.0079***|-.0011|-.0049*|
||(.0038)|(.0031)|(.0028)|(.0028)|
|Total separations|-.0001<br>|-.0070***<br>|.0050***<br>|-.0099***<br>|
||(.0030)|(.0022)|(.0017)|(.0016)|
|Quits|.0020<br>|-.0087***<br>|.0060***<br>|-.0103***<br>|
||(.0028)|(.0020)|(.0016)|(.0015)|
|Firings|.0041<br>|-.0120***<br>|.0075***<br>|-.0137***<br>|
||(.0031)|(.0020)<br>|(.0016)|(.0014)<br>|
|Contract terminations|-.0031|-.0028|.0024|-.0077***|
||(.0037)|(.0031)|(.0028)|(.0025)|
|Day of week fixed effects|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|
|Month fixed effects|No|No|Yes|Yes|
|Year fixed effects|No|No|Yes|Yes|
|Daily time trend|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|
|Period covered|01 Jan 2020 –<br>30 Jun 2020|01 Jan 2020 –<br>30 Jun 2020|01 Jan 2018 –<br>30 Jun 2020|01 Jan 2018 –<br>30 Jun 2020|
|Observations|182|182|912|912|

Source: ERGANI. Authors’ calculations. Notes: Negative binomial regression estimates. Robust standard errors in parentheses. *** at 1%, ** at 5% and * at 1%.

Turning to the DiD estimates, this approach requires an identifying assumption that control and treated weeks move on parallel trends before the exposure period. To assess this, we have graphed weekly trends for total employment, hires, and separations for both time periods (see Appendix Figure A.2). In each case, the figures show that the trends move in parallel before the outbreak.

Table 5 presents the DiD results for cumulative employment, total new hires and total separations. Results for the last two variables are also presented by type of hire and separation. In all cases, the estimated DiD parameters are sizeable and highly significant confirming that the labor market impact of the pandemic has been quite severe, at least in the short-run. Cumulative employment and new hires (overall and by job type) in 2020 fell substantially after week 9, relative to the control group. For separations, the exposure period is set at week 12 when the government intervened to restrict layoffs. The associated DiD coefficients, overall and by separation type, are also sizeable and significant.

In addition to the graphical evidence confirming that employment, hires, and separations trended similarly before the pandemic onset and the layoff restrictions (Appendix Figure A.2), we also report results of an additional test. In this test outcomes are regressed on the set of controls already controlled for in Table 5, plus leads of the interaction term (Equation (2)) that range from one to five weeks before 26
# **_3.6 How has ODA affected the cyclical nature of fiscal policy in Sub-Saharan Africa?_**

Figures 4a shows that the median size of official development assistance (ODA) flows to GNI remains large in Sub-Saharan Africa, although it is below the peaks levels in 1990-99. Importantly, in many poor developing countries, ODA supports over half of public spending. Net official development assistance (net-ODA) is an important source of funds for many cash-strapped countries in Sub-Saharan Africa.

**Figure 4** . Sub-Saharan Africa: Net Official Development Assistance

<!-- Start of picture text --> (a) Net ODA received as % of GNI, (b) Growth rate of net ODA and GNI w.r.t. the previous decade,<br>(Median by period) (Based on median by period of net-ODA and GNI indexes, 1970-1979=100)<br>14 13.3 200%<br>Net ODA GNI<br>12<br>10.1 160%<br>10 9.3 9.5<br>8 6.8 120%<br>6<br>80%<br>4<br>40%<br>2<br>0 0%<br>1970-1979 1980-1989 1990-1999 2000-2014 1970-2014 1980s 1990s 2000-2014<br>Source: Authors’ calculations based on the WDI database<br><!-- End of picture text --> Table 8 tests whether the cyclical stance of fiscal policy changes between countries that receive a greater amount of foreign aid from those that do not. In this context, we use two different criteria to classify SSA countries: first, countries receiving net ODA equivalent to 10 percent or more of their gross national income (GNI), which is the median of the SSA country-year distribution for this variable. Second, we also consider countries receiving net ODA equivalent to 13 percent or more of their GNI —about the top tercile of the SSA foreign aid distribution. The results are reported in Table 8.

Our results show that government consumption of high-ODA countries (when using the threshold of 10 percent of GNI) is procyclical while low-ODA countries is acyclical. When we increase the threshold to 13 percent, the result is the opposite: government consumption of high-ODA countries is acyclical while that of low-ODA countries is procyclical.<sup>16</sup> Note that the coefficient of business cycle is not significant when we control for the quality of institutions. Other studies (Thornton 2008, Lledó, Yackovlev and Gadenne, 2011) also find that the procyclical bias is greater among countries in the region that are highly dependent on foreign aid inflows. In our analysis, this finding is obtained when we use the lower threshold of ODA and we do not account for the quality of institutions of SSA countries. It is important to caveat here that although most of ODA is given to promote a country’s development and welfare, we are not capturing the effect on government investments (developing expenditure). Our finding might suggest that when a 16 Note that lifting the threshold from 10 to 13 percent reduces the sample of SSA countries from 27 to 22 (see Appendix-Table A.3). The countries excluded are: Benin, Rep. of Congo, Guinea, Senegal, and Togo. Note that the average ratio of foreign aid to GDP for high-ODA countries is 16.5%.

15
Evidence from previous studies concerning the evolution of the market structure and competition is incomplete and fragmented. While many studies have focused on the effect of market structure and competition on firm restructuring and performance (see, e.g., Aghion, Carlin and Schaffer 2002; Angelucci, Estrin, Konings, and Zolkiewski 2002 _)_ , little is known about changes and convergence in this aspect of business environment per se. Carlin, Estrin and Schaffer (2000) is one of the few exceptions that offers benchmarking of competition in the transition and market economies, using a survey sample of manufacturing firms in Poland, Romania and Spain.

The BEEPS surveys contain several measures of competition. The BEEPS market structure measure is the response to the question: “Thinking of your firm’s major product line or main line of services in the domestic market, how many competitors do you face?” There are three possible responses: none (monopoly); 1-3 (oligopoly or rivalry); 4 or more (competitive). A measure of the price elasticity measure is captured by the response to the question: “If you were to raise your prices of your main product line or main line of services 10% above their current level in the domestic market, which of the following would best describe the result assuming that your competitors maintained their current prices?” There are four possible responses based on how the firm’s customers would respond, ranging from (1) customers would continue to buy the same quantities from the firm, to (4) customers would buy from the competition instead. The BEEPS surveys also contain questions relating to the importance of import competition, and on the role of competition in spurring restructuring and innovation.

We begin with market structure. Table IV.1 shows the composition of the year and region samples according to the proportion stating the number of competitors they faced (none, 1-3, or 4+). The degree of competition faced by firms in TEs (country groups IIIV) increased between 1999 and 2002, and in 2005, was similar to, though still slightly below that, faced by firms in the pre-2001 EU members (country groups I-II). These results are robust to controlling for firm characteristics such as size and industry, and across country region. The similar levels of competition in 2002 and 2005 in the TEs may be contaminated by a change in the way the question was asked (in 2005, firms were 24
10

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(PPWD) projects are, for the most part, small-scale. A far more sustained approach is needed if women are to participate fully in the social, economic and cultural future of Africa.

# Infertility

Facts and figures on population growth rates in Africa mask tile fact that, for many couples, talk of family planning is a craei joke. Infertility is a serious problem in some parts of Africa. Surveys have found that an average of 12%/ **Of** women who had passed their childbearing years in 18 Sub-Saharan countries were childless, compared with 2 to 3% in other developing countries. Childlessness -'primary infertility' -was greatest in Central African Republic (17%), Cameroon (17%), Zaire (21%), Congo (2 1%) and Gabon (32%). In parts of Zaire, up to 65% of women aged 45-49 were childless. Of course, very high matemal mortality rates may influence these figures. Childlessness in younger age groups is less common (presumably owing to improved medical care) but still high. In addition, many women have 'secondary' infertility -inability to conceive or give birth again following an earlier birth. It affects 14-39% of women aged 15-50 in different regions of Cameroon. Thougi. women are usually held responsible for childlessness, they account for only about 40% of infertility cases. Men account for another 40%, and both partners for the remaining 20%. The consequen_es of infertility are particularly severe for women, who may be ostracized, abandoned or divorced if they do not produce children.

The principal causes of infertility in Africa are the spread of sexually transmitted diseases, poor obstetric care, and linskilled abortion practices. Infertility faces decision-makers with ethically difficult choices in the need to decide whether to give priority to preventing infertility or to treating it. Better obstetric practices are needed everywhere. The spread of sexually transmitted diseases can be reduced by preventive programmes designed to inform and educate people about the causes ofinfertility, and they can be prevented by limiting the number of sexual partners, and the use of barrier methods of contraception, especially condoms. Such programmes are of particular significance in many African countries where infection with the human immuno-deficiency virus (HIV) is spreading rapidly, as its control depends on the same measures. Treatment of infertility is costly, difficult and uncertain in outcome, and there arefewspecialistcentresfordiagnosis and treatment in Sub-Saharan Africa. Depending on the cause, only onequarter to one-half of couples treated may subsequently have a live birth. This indicates that meagre health resources should be reserved for prevention rather than treatment, but this does little to relieve the misery of infertile couples. The concept of planned parenthood has always embodied concern for individuals and couples who cannot have children when they desire them; programmes should provide sympathetic counselling for infertile couples, and make every effort to help them come to terms with infertility.