rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
**Figure 3: Variance Decomposition**

<!-- Start of picture text -->
1.2<br>1.0 Interaction GDP and<br>Population<br>Population<br>0.8<br>Population Density<br>0.6<br>Poverty Gap<br>0.4<br>Fuel<br>0.2 Offshore<br>- GDP per Capita<br>Residual<br>(0.2)<br>Bank Bank Net Stock Mrkt Listed Turnover Institutional Private Public ATMs /<br>Credit / Deposits / Interest Cap / GDP Firms / Mill Ratio Investors Bonds / Bonds / 100,000<br>GDP GDP Margin / people GDP GDP people<br>Assets<br><!-- End of picture text -->

# **h. Dynamic analysis**

For the indicators for which long series are available (mainly bank and equity market size and efficiency), it is possible to estimate structural regressions based on a panel with time varying coefficients. These allow for a deeper look into the more distant past, thereby providing a fuller perspective on historical trends and bumps along the way (results are shown in Appendix Table 5). The evolution through time of the income elasticities appears in Figure 4.

- Except for equity market capitalization, changes over time, while statistically significant, are economically not very large. This suggests that the process of financial development, at least from a sufficiently aggregated perspective, is fairly stable and predictable.

- It is also very remarkable, however, that all elasticities (except for the net interest margin, because it is an inefficiency indicator) trend upwards, suggesting that economic development plays an increasingly crucial role over time in determining financial development.

either, it seems also improbable that they could be sizable enough to account for more than a small fraction of the residuals. Moreover, as emphasized in Section II, the residuals share is likely to under-estimate the impact of policy, which is already captured by the per capita income and poverty terms. Ultimately, of course, interpreting benchmarks remains a matter of judgment and should be done with caution. Benchmarking is only meant to provide initial guidance, not final answers.

32
However, the perception of worsening does not reflect a true worsening from 2005 to 2011 because the reference period is a year ago from the survey date. However, it may reflect a worsening from 2010 to 2011. It could be that on some dimensions, wellbeing improved before worsening. Therefore, without additional, more frequent surveys it is not possible to test this hypothesis. With these limitations, however, when perception about well-being is considered as one indicator in the poverty dimensions the overall progress from 2000-2011 would be small than the one discussed in the previous sections.

# **_5.3 Disconnect with results from index-based studies_**

This study offers evidence on the dynamics of multidimensional poverty using a non-index approach. Although the results are not directly comparable with index based studies, the considerable reductions found in overlapping deprivations do not match the story coming from the findings of the MPI study (OPHI, 2014). In addition to the differences in the methodology of aggregating the indicators there are also differences in the choice and measurement of them. All these are expected to lead to differences in the results. The dimensions in this study are based on inputs rather than outcomes. The HCES data only reflects inputs to health outcomes: access to health services and improved sanitation and drinking water, and not health outcomes. There has been progress on other inputs measured in the DHS such as the proportion of women receiving an antenatal visit (increased from 27 percent to 43percent) and in full immunization coverage (14 percent to 24 percent). However, further improvements are needed and progress is also needed on the quality of diets and increased awareness of health behaviors. Although fast improvement was recorded in monetary poverty (which used to reflect command over resources), the measures of living standards used in the MPI suggests a very high proportion of people deprived in this 24
- 10 -

the system design must include a phase-in stage. For public acceptability and softening of the system's full impact, a gradual introduction in the form of a road pricing experiment may be necessary at first (as is being done in Singapore, the Netherlands, Norway and the United States (see Office of the Federal Register, 1992)). The final road pricing system should be technologically capable of handling the vehicle population of an entire city (or even a country).

(16) Compatibility with Other Systems. For the convenience of both out-of-state motorists, domestic and foreign govemnmental road authorities, it is desirable that a particular road pricing system be compatible (or at least be nonintrusive or integrable without major modifications) with other road pricing systems from other jurisdictions. (To this end, current efforts to standardize both automatic vehicle identification technology as part of the Heavy Electronic License Plate (HELP) program in the United States and road pricing systems as part of the Dedicated Road In-VEhicle Safety (DRIVE) project in Europe are consistent with this criterion of compatibility). In addition, if any electronic charging system is adopted, it should conform to the radio frequency bands and safety standards set by the International Standards Organization (ISO).

(17) Modularity to Add-on Options. If a modular system is used to electronically charge for road use, public on-street parking could in principle be charged for in this way eventually. To the extent possible, and if deemed cost effective, the uldmate road pricing system should be compatible with: a) other payment schemes such as public and private off-street parking and gasoline purchases, b) automatic route guidance, c) origindestination management information systems, and d) the control systems of commercial vehicles of private firms.

(18) Toleance to Culture of Non-omplance. Any pricing or tolling mechanism requires a reasonably law-abiding citzenry and a culture of compliance to rules and regulations. For instance, with supplementary licensing, a good rule of thumb to test
Table (G2) Impacts of the Program on Assimilation Gap

|**Outcomes**|**Treatment**|**(se)**|**Treatment**<br>***Refugee**|**(se)**|**Refugee**|**(se)**|**ctrl. mean**|**(sd)**|**N**|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Housing Expenditure (PC) PPP|30.02|(97.82)|-38.97|(93.38)|-31.25*|(18.05)|57.04|(274.59)|2,491|
|Log total consumption (PC) PPP|-0.13|(0.22)|0.17|(0.25)|-0.83***|(0.07)|7.76|(0.68)|1,482|
|CESD Score|-0.24|(0.16)|0.41|(0.30)|-0.05|(0.05)|0.02|(0.99)|2,471|
|Child Strengths and Diffculties|-0.24|(0.32)|0.59|(0.39)|-0.01|(0.11)|0.01|(1.00)|1,321|

**_Notes_** :

- The table shows the regression results on pre-specified main outcomes using the 2022 neighbor survey data _and_ 2021 refugee survey data. Each row is its own dependent variable.

- This table reports estimates from the assimilation gap specification described in the pre-analysis plan amendment, which reports the degree to which treatment reduced the gap between Syrian refugees on 4/5 of the primary outcomes. Regrettably, housing quality is excluded due to data collection errors in the field.

- Housing expenditure includes total monthly rent payment, mortgage payment, and home upgrade costs, converted to USD PPP, then divided by household size. Log total consumption is the sum of the monetary value of goods consumed by households through purchase, gift and barter, excluding housing costs, converted to annual USD PPP, then divided by household size. Goods include food consumption, non-food consumption and durables purchases. CESD score is a standardized version of the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression scores which measures depressive symptoms. 10 questions are scaled and summed according to the scoring guidelines, then standardized with respect to the control group. An increase corresponds to an increase in the CESD score which indicates increased symptoms of depression. Child strengths and difficulties is scored and summed according to the guidelines, then standardized with respect to the control group. An increase corresponds to an increase in the SDQ score, which indicates increased difficulties.

- The regressions also have enumerator fixed effects, community-level controls (Irbid/Mafraq governorate and population quartile), refugee household-level controls (shelter program, baseline number of children, baseline number of children plus adults), the Marlowe–Crowne scale, and respondent gender, education, and age. In the parentheses are robust standard errors clustered at the locality level. Statistical significance represented by * (10%), ** (5%), and *** (1%). Q-values are calculated per Anderson (2008) and correspond to Family 2 in the pre-analysis plan.

40
'7 01 .

Table 2.1 Comparison of adjusCing and non adjusting countries

# (a) Initial conditions

|Debt/<br>-exports|Fiscal<br>deficit|Resource<br>balance|Real GDP<br>growth|Invest.<br>rate|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|EIAL<br>204.7|-6.4|5.1|4.6|22.5|
|OAL<br>206.2|-7.0|7.3|3.9|21.3|
|-NAL<br>144.6|-4.4|6.7|_5.5_|23.4|

# (b) Exteal shocks

|-..<br>;..*<br>-<br>X-1981-84 aga|inst70-80|:|1985-88 a|gainst 70-80||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Termsnof<br>trade<br>_BA:_<br>_-.10.5_|-Real<br>interest-<br>-1.9|Total<br>-12.4|-Terms of<br>trade<br>-6.0|:Real interest<br>-32|Total<br>-9.2|
|_O_..<br>_.,:At_<br>: --: -. 9:|-2.0|-4.9|-3.4|-3.6|-7.0|
|_1_<br>NAt- =' .,':--10.4|-1.2|-11.6|-13.9|-2.0::|-45.9|

: Note:totshock is. sum -of the: terms 'of -trade and real interest rate -shocks- For calculation o these.shock **s** ee' -rl 99: .

'::.ource:;WorlcBanlc (1990: 13-14).

demonstrate that neither the initial conditions nor external factors were particularly similar between the three groups identified. Thne initial conditions were in most instances worst in "Other Adjusting Lending" (OAL) countries and best in "Non Adjusting Lending" (NAL) ones. On the other hand, OALs suffered least from external shocks; either NALs or "Early Intensive Adjustment Lending" (EIAL) countries were the most adversely affected, depending on the period of comparison.

Mosley _et aL_ made more effort to ensure comparability by matching forty countries into twenty pairs, where each adjusting country was matched with a non-adjusting partner with a similar economic structure. Despite this effort some of the pais (for exmple, Ghana-Zambia; Jamaica-Nicaragu **a** ; nd Philippines-Indonesia) seem ill-matched: both for reasons of internal structure and because there the countries do not share a common extemal environment as assumed. The data in Table 2.2, given by the authors themselves, confirm the view that some of controls are rather dissimilar to their partners.

8
cognitive development.<sup>3</sup> The data we use contain measures of SES, including household composition, maternal and paternal education, housing characteristics and household assets; direct assessments of child health, including blood hemoglobin levels and child height and weight, as well as maternal reports of breastfeeding duration; and measures of parenting quality, including parental responsivity and punitiveness, time spent reading to the child, and the number of other children in the household.

Our analysis contributes to the existing literature in a number of ways. First, we document a clear association between SES and cognitive development among poor children in Ecuador. Moreover, we show that the associations between many components of SES and cognitive development become larger with the age of the child. For example, the association between maternal education and the TVIP scores is more than twice as large among older children in our sample, aged 54-71 months, than among younger children, aged 36-53 months. The same is true for household wealth. Although we cannot rule out all other alternatives, a plausible explanation for this finding is that the effect of high SES on cognitive development is cumulative, so that children from poorer households and those with less educated parents fall increasingly behind their peers as they approach school-age.

Second, we show that some measures of child health, in particular hemoglobin levels, and some parenting measures, in particular parental responsivity and punitiveness and whether children are read to, are strongly associated with cognitive development. Health and parenting account for a portion, but not all, of the associations between measures of SES and test scores.

Third, our estimation method explicitly accounts for censoring in the test scores: In our sample, as in many samples of poor children, a fraction of children are unable to make any progress on the test, or receive raw scores that are so low given their ages that their scores cannot be normed. Rather than exclude these children from the analyses—which would result in biased estimates of the associations between cognitive development, SES, health and parenting quality—we present estimates using censored regression and censored least absolute deviations methods. Our results indicate that the use of methods that do not account for censoring understate the importance of SES, health and parenting quality on child cognitive development.

> 3 Earlier studies that have used the PPVT include Desai et al., 1989; Baydar and Brooks-Gunn, 1991; Blau and Grossberg, 1992; Parcel and Menaghan, 1994; Rosenzweig and Wolpin, 1994; Blau, 1999; McCulloch and Joshi, 2002.

3
Table 2: Main results: effect of PM2 _._ 5 on hours worked

|||Hours|worked||
|---|---|---|---|---|
||(1)|(2)|(3)|(4)|
|PM 2.5|-0.192***|-0.039|||
||(0.046)|(0.050)|||
|PM 2.5 above|||-6.817***|-0.107|
|35 _μ_g/m<sup>3</sup>|||(2.279)|(1.635)|
|Diference|-0.144**||-6.388**||
|(1)-(2) or (3)-(4)|(0.071)||(2.924)||
|Household has|Yes|No|Yes|No|
|susceptible individuals|||||
|Observations|2,167|3,051|2,167|3,051|
|R-squared|0.429|0.447|0.429|0.447|

Notes: Robust standard errors in parentheses. Standard errors are clustered at the municipality level. * denotes significant at 10%, ** significant at 5% and *** significant at 1%. Baseline specification includes household, week and municipalityby-year fixed effects, characteristics of individual (gender, age, age<sup>2</sup> , schooling, schooling<sup>2</sup> , type of household member, indicator for having a second job, indicator of being independent worker), and monthly temperature and humidity. Third row displays difference of estimates for both samples obtained from a model with full interaction terms. PM 2.5 is average PM2 _._ 5 in week _t −_ 1, where _t_ is the week of reference of labor outcomes. PM 2.5 above 35 _μ_ g/m<sup>3</sup> is an indicator equal to 1 if average PM2 _._ 5 in week _t −_ 1 exceeded the U.S. standard.

15
33

|Table 1: Nominal rates of assistanc|e<sup>a</sup>for impo|rt-competin|g, exportable|and all farm|products, b|y region and|globally, 1|960 to 2004|(percent)|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||1960-64|1965-69|1970-74|1975-79|1980-84|1985-89|1990-94|1995-99|2000-04|
|**Covered import-competing products**||||||||||
|Africa|12|4|-7|8|8|65|2|7|3|
|Asia|4|34|26|31|21|45|28|28|35|
|Latin America|20|3|-4|2|10|4|17|9|19|
|All developing countries|11|26|17|23|17|39|22|22|28|
|Europe’s transition economies|na|na|na|na|na|na|31|34|34|
|High-income countries|54|59|42|56|70|84|73|64|60|
|World|48|50|37|46|46|66|51|43|44|
|**Covered exportables**||||||||||
|Africa|-31|-39|-44|-45|-36|-36|-39|-26|-28|
|Asia|-13|-26|-20|-25|-44|-39|-19|-4|0|
|Latin America|-23|-17|-30|-26|-27|-24|-9|-3|-4|
|All developing countries|-25|-29|-29|-30|-40|-37|-19|-5|-3|
|Europe’s transition economies|na|na|na|na|na|na|-4|-1|0|
|High-income countries|4|10|8|7|8|17|13|6|5|
|World<br>|-2|-4|-7|-11|-24|-21|-8|-1|0|
|**All covered farm products**<sup>**b**</sup>||||||||||
|Africa|-13|-18|-22|-20|-12|1|-12|-7|-9|
|Asia|-3|3|0|0|-21|-15|-5|6|10|
|Latin America|-13|-13|-25|-20|-15|-14|1|1|3|
|All developing countries|-9|-5|-9|-8|-20|-13|-5|4|7|
|Europe’s transition economies|na|na|na|na|na|na|7|15|15|
|High-income countries|32|39|29|36|43|58|49|36|32|
|World|24|24|15|18|6|16|18|16|16|

Source: Anderson and Valenzuela (2008) a Weighted using the value of production at undistorted prices. b Includes nontradables. d Estimates for China pre-1981 and India pre-1965 are based on the assumption that the nominal rates of assistance to agriculture in those years were the same as the average NRA estimates for those economies for 1981-84 and 1965-69, and that the gross value of production in those missing years is that which gives the same average share of value of production in total world production in 1981-84 and 1965-69, respectively. This NRA assumption is conservative in the sense that for both countries the average NRA was probably even lower in earlier years.
25 women, possibly as a result of shorter intervals between births. Women who lost a sibling in 1994 do not differ significantly in the number of living children in the post-genocide period (Fig. 5c). In contrast, for widows the gap in the number of living children becomes larger over time compared to women of other civil status (Fig. 5d).

# **6.3 Robustness tests**

We conduct multiple tests on the robustness of the findings (results available upon request). First, the determinants of fertility are estimated with a Zero-Inflated Poisson model to allow the probability to give birth to the first child to differ across (latent) groups of women.<sup>12</sup> Two variants of the Zero-Inflated Poisson model are estimated, with INUNION and the complete set of independent variables used as inflation variables determining the binary process. In both variants of the Zero-Inflated Poisson model the point estimates of the conflict proxies are of comparable magnitude and level of significance as in the original Poisson estimates.<sup>13</sup> Second, we conduct a placebo genocide test, where we use child deaths and sibling deaths occurring between January 1990 and December 1993 as placebo conflict proxies. None of the placebo proxies significantly influences fertility in the short-term or long-term post-war period. This evidence confirms that our analysis captures fertility effects of the 1994 genocide.

Third, we define CHILDDEATH and SIBLINGDEATH as proportions of the total number of children and siblings born before the genocide, respectively. This allows the probability to lose a child and a sibling to vary with fertility at the time of the genocide and family size. The estimated coefficients are larger in magnitude, while the level of significance is similar.

Fourth, using the 1992 RDHS wave, we compare fertility among Hutu and Tutsi. Of the nationally representative sample of women surveyed in the 1992 RDHS, 8.6 percent are Tutsi.<sup>14</sup> Descriptive statistics point towards differences across both groups: On average, Tutsi women have 0.58 fewer children, they marry 1.73 years later and give birth to the first child

> 12 A negative binomial model would be our preferred alternative, as it relaxes the assumption of equidispersion. Yet, this model has difficulties to converge with the data at hand and the estimate of ln(alpha) is large and negative, which prevents the prediction of probabilities. Following Long and Freese (2006), we resort to the Zero-Inflated Poisson model.

> 13 Although the Vuong test, fitted probabilities of the count variable, AIC, BIC, and log likelihood all indicate a slightly better fit of the Zero-Inflated Poisson model over the Poisson model, the latter allows for a more forward interpretation of the estimated coefficients and remains our preferred model.

> 14 This self-reported ethnicity variable very likely underestimates the Tutsi population in 1992. Historical accounts on ethnic violence before 1994 suggest that many individuals tried to hide their ethnic identity in order to avoid discrimination and persecution (Desforges 1999). This may have also been the case in the RDHS data collection.
Sustainability of Solar Electricity: The Role of Endogenous Resource Substitution and Market Mediated Responses<sup>_∗_</sup> Jevgenijs Steinbuks<sup>_†_</sup> , Gaurav Satija<sup>_‡_</sup> , and Fu Zhao<sup>_§_</sup> January 23, 2015

# 1 Introduction

It is widely recognized in the economic literature that the provision of high quality public goods and services (Anand and Ravallion 1993, Kremer 1993, Besley and Ghatak 2006) and, particularly, energy services (Ferguson et al. 2000, Toman and Jemelkova 2003, Barnes and Toman 2006, Chakravorty et al. 2014), has a profound impact on economic development. The challenges to providing energy services are also widely recognized (Barnes 2007, Brew-Hammond 2010, Deichmann et al. 2011). Extension of traditional power supply systems tends to be uneconomic in developing countries when loads are small due to low population density and/or low consumption per user. Traditional smallscale generation (in particular, with small to medium size diesel generators) also tends to be uneconomic due to high fuel costs.

Renewable energy can help accelerate access to energy, particularly for the 1.4 billion people without access to electricity (IPCC 2011). In many developing

> _∗_ We thank Uwe Deichmann, David Newbery, Michael Pollitt, Michael Toman, Wally Tyner, and the participants of the USAEE Annual Meetings and Energy & Environment Research Seminars at the World Bank and the University of Cambridge for helpful comments. We also appreciate nancial support from Purdue Global Policy Research Institute, the National Science Foundation (award ENG-1336534), and the World Bank Research Support Budget.

> _†_ Steinbuks: Development Research Group, The World Bank. Email: jsteinbuks@worldbank.org.

> _‡_ Satija: Department of Agricultural Economics, University of Maryland.

> _§_ Zhao: School of Mechanical Engineering and Division of Environmental and Ecological Engineering, Purdue University.

1