The Guatemala questionnaire asks whether the dwelling was already constructed, whether the household ordered it built, or whether the household members built it themselves and if so, who was involved in the construction. These questions provide useful information about how housing stock is being developed, but if the question of which household member owned the house were included, we would also be able to determine whether the pathways to housing ownership differ for men and women. In addition, since the survey asks about improvements to the dwelling, knowing the sex of the owner would provide insights into how gender and status of the individual owner affects whether and how improvements are made (with household labor, hired labor, etc.).

Since ownership is a complex concept and may or may not include all of the rights associated with private property, more detailed questions about the specific rights over the dwelling may provide important policy insights. Individuals may claim to own a dwelling for which they do not have a title or deed. And they may have rights over the dwelling without formal ownership rights. Thus, additional questions about the rights over the dwelling provide some insights into the security of tenure. These should include questions as to whether they can sell, bequeath, mortgage, or rent out the dwelling. At the individual level, we would want to know whether the respondent can make this decision individually or whether they have to consult or get permission from someone else. These questions are particularly important when the house is jointly titled; are both people whose names appear on the title involved in these decisions? Having information on the _de facto_ rights of individual respondents is as important as having the _de jure_ rights to a particular piece of property, which again can strengthen the effectiveness of different types of policies to promote home ownership. None of the questionnaires include these types of questions.

Thus, by adding only a few questions on ownership, value and means of acquisition, a much richer analysis of gender differences in housing can be obtained. Combined with the other data that is currently collected in these LSMS surveys, we could answer important policy questions about how men and women acquire property. In order to answer the more nuanced questions about security of tenure and women’s bargaining position within the household, questions on the rights over the dwelling and the rights to the proceeds from sale would need to be added.

# 5.2. Land

_Minimal questions._ Forms of land tenure vary widely both across and within countries, making the analysis of land ownership even more complex than for housing. Simply examining the ownership of titled land ignores much of the important information about access to and control over land. Thus, the minimum information that is needed is information about the tenancy status of each plot, the ownership of the plot, and its value.

Because the context for land ownership varies across the three countries examined here, the range of questions on land vary considerably. Neither the Guatemala nor the Vietnam surveys ask about individual plot access or ownership.<sup>32</sup> The Ghana survey asks who the 32