At the household level, we construct outcome variables in three areas, i.e. changes in female empowerment; nutritional status; per capita income, consumption, and assets. For the first, social capital, economic empowerment and political participation are distinguished. Female social capital is measured by their self-reported level of trust in individuals of the same or different caste or religion from within or outside the village as well as in government officials and police, all on a 1-5 scale. Our measure of economic empowerment is based on whether a woman can set aside money for her own use, go to the market, to the clinic or the community center, visit friends, or work on fields outsides the village, without asking permission from her husband or other males in the family. In either case, we use principal component method to generate an index based on a single factor.<sup>7</sup> In addition, we measure female political participation based on the frequency of their attendance at village meetings ( _gram sabhas_ ). As these variables were also obtained retrospectively for 2000, our empirical measure is the change over time so as to sweep out fixed effects.

Household consumption includes food and non-food consumption over the past 30 days and more lumpy items over the past year.<sup>8</sup> We compute the amount of calories and protein consumed by multiplying physical quantities of more than 30 food items in the questionnaire’s consumption section each with their caloric and protein content based on the standard reference for Indian foods (Gopalan _et al._ 2004).<sup>9</sup> Income includes crop production revenue in each of three seasons, wages, self-employment profits, and sales and consumption of livestock and by-products. Consumption and income are expressed in per capita terms based on adult equivalent measures.<sup>10</sup> Village characteristics and initial conditions in terms of undesirable social practices in table 1 support the notion that DPIP focused on more backward areas. With 22% as compared to 16% in RPRP areas, the share of tribal households is significantly higher. Only about half (53%) of the DPIP villages compared to some three-quarters (74%) under RPRP have access to a bus and 46% compared to 60% a telephone. While levels of schooling were not significantly different between the two areas, level of female economic activity (from the PIP exercise) was much higher than in RPRP areas and initial social conditions less favorable in DPIP areas as indicated by significantly higher levels of prevalence of caste panchayats (49% vs. 32%) temple prostitution (8% vs. 4%) and untouchability (32% vs. 24%).

Household demographics, initial conditions, and outcome variables are illustrated in table 2 for the whole

> 7 The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure, a measure for the sampling adequacy or homogeneity of variables, is 0.91 for the social capital and 0.86 for the economic empowerment index. As measures larger than 0.80 are considered meritorious, this seems appropriate (Kim and Mueller 1978). 8 Although the survey instrument is less disaggregated than that used by the NSS, it follows the overall structure used there. 9 For fruits or vegetables where the survey includes only aggregate spending, we use the 55th round of the National Sample Survey (NSS) to derive the price and caloric content of a representative basket of these consumed in Andhra Pradesh.

> 10 The adult equivalent measures for caloric and protein consumption are obtained using nutritional requirements by sex and age as weights, i.e., weights are 1.2 for adult males, 0.9 for adult females, 1.0 for adolescents (12 to 21 years), 0.8 for children aged 9 to 12, 0.7 for children aged 7 to 9, 0.6 for children aged 5 to 7, 0.5 for children aged 3 to 5, and 0.4 for children younger than 3 (Gopalan _et al._ 2004). For income and overall consumption, we assign weights to be 0.78 for anyone older than 60 or younger than 14.

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