rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
- -vi

collection by time-of-day _larit_ and made obligatory on vehicle owners within a jurisdiction. Even though the cost of the electronic equipment for AVI is not considered trivial, the benefits are considerably higher than the cost. As the sensitivity analysis performed on the Hong Kong ERP Scheme in 1983-85 clearly demonstates, even after excluding time savings on philosophical or other grounds, the savings in operating cost stil yield benefit figures that outweigh the system cost. The much touted invasion-of-privacy issue that plagued the Hong Kong ERP scheme in the past can now be dealt with by providing road users access to confidential *numbered account arangements" with prepaid cash deposit. The capital cost of _ekctronic road pricing with smail card technology_ is higher than AVI alone technology, but the cost is still le than the beneilts. Put together, the benefit-cost ratio and the cost per taction can be regarded as acceptable, but this technology is stil not yet widely used on a commercia basis. Nevertheless, rapid progress in micoelectronics, cryptology and microwave technologies will continue to yield large-scale economies in the manu of AVI equipment, read-write trponders, smart cards and the hardware and software accompaniments.

Electronic approaches of direct road use chaWn are shown to be superior to manual approaches whether from the pewective of a road user, road authority or society as a whole. Within these broad categories, ERP using AVI is anked highe than ERP using smart card based on an unweighted index of all the criteria. In generl, ALS is superior to cordon pricing. Hence, if budgetary conditions allow it, the feasibility of implementing ERP ought to be investigated. However, if budget is tight, then _AMS_ (with its low cost and correspondingly high benefit-cost ratio) ought to be regarded favorably. It is argued that the most important measure (out of the twenty criteria listed) is the passage of the benefit-cos **t** est. Nevertheles, by pursuing the multicriteri **a** nalysis introduced in the paper, the road auhiority could choose from amongst other criteria for deciding on the appropriate congestion charging instument.

Finally, the disposition of the revenues collected from road pricng is crucial to its success. Based on experience as well as conceptual grounds, it appears that earmarking of the proceeds from road pricing would serve as an important prerequisite to the actual implementation of marginal cost pricing in the road sector.
are concerns that apprenticeships may not actually improve labor market outcomes for youth because of their reliance on traditional (often outdated) technology and the lack of standards and quality assurance (Darvas & Palmer, 2014).

In this paper we conducted a randomized field experiment to examine how apprenticeships for youth affect their labor market participation, earnings, and other life outcomes. We partnered with the Ghanaian government to evaluate the National Apprenticeship Programme (NAP), which placed youth applicants into apprenticeships with small informal sector firms (microenterprises). Because apprenticeships typically require the up-front payment of a training fee, many youth may be locked out of training opportunities by credit constraints (Darvas & Palmer, 2014; Frazer, 2006). The program eliminated these fee barriers and offered youth the opportunity to train in one of five trades: garment making, cosmetology, carpentry, welding, and masonry.<sup>4</sup> The evaluation was conducted in 32 districts across all regions of Ghana starting in 2012. It featured two, sequential randomizations: the first selected the participants from the pool of applicants, and the second matched the selected participants with training providers (firms). To participate in the program, youth were required to complete an application form indicating their trade of choice and attend an in-person interview with a local (district) selection committee to ascertain their suitability for the program. Each selection committee would either reject applicants outright or categorize them as eligible for the the the committees could access program. Among eligible applicants, guarantee to the for to 16 them as The program up percent by designating “priority applicants.” remaining (nonpriority but eligible) applicants were then randomly assigned to the treatment or control group. This randomization was conducted in late 2012. It was stratified by district and trade and designed to fill all available program slots.

Both the selected applicants and potential training providers were invited to a series of matching meetings in mid- to late 2013. Separate meetings were organized for each trade within each of the 32 evaluation districts. In these meetings trainers would make a brief presentation outlining their location, experience, and other characteristics of their business. Choosing among trainers within walking distance, the treatment group participants would then list those they were interested in training with (that is, a preference set). They were then assigned to train with a provider randomly selected from their preference set. Training began shortly after these meetings.

We examine the impact of the NAP training on youth labor market outcomes using the baseline applicant data collected during the application process in 2012, the baseline

> 4 In our analysis we pool carpentry, welding, and masonry into one group, which we refer to as construction.

2
Table A9. Regional emissions intensity index of non-CO2 emissions, North-Western Federal District, SUST-RUS sectoral classification (thousands tons of emission per trillion nominal RUB of output of 2006)

|**North-**<br>**Western FD**|**Hydrocarbons**|**Carbon**<br>**monoxide**|**Nitrogen**<br>**oxide**|**Particulate**<br>**matter**|**Sulphur**<br>**dioxide**|**Volatile**<br>**organic**<br>**components**|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||**CnHm**|**CO**|**NOx**|**PM**|**SO2**|**VOC**|
|A||44,55||||5,96|
|CA_col|1 302,67|34,77|1,45|||1,93|
|CA_gas|46,17|170,18|||616,60|43,11|
|CA_oil|446,27|2 269,31|60,46|287,39|709,08|945,20|
|CB||610,48|83,16|297,77|59,68|29,28|
|DA||77,93|13,62|||16,61|
|DB||160,06|44,14|62,25||17,76|
|DC|||18,91|202,21|101,47||
|DD||411,96|39,09|103,34||32,78|
|DE||186,70|88,79|247,82|63,61|29,58|
|DF|37,61|159,46|21,21|||236,19|
|DG|17,79|339,84|80,22|117,92||175,96|
|DH||16,34|6,01|||115,60|

104
Bruno, V and H.S. Shin (2015b). “Capital Flows and the Risk Taking Channel of Monetary Policy”. Journal of Monetary Economics 71, pp. 119-132.

Burns, A., M. Kida, J. Lim, S. Mohapatra, M. Stocker (2014). Unconventional Monetary Policy Normalization in High-Income Countries Implications for Emerging Market Capital Flows and Crisis Risks. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 6830.

Calvo, G., L. Leiderman, L. and Reinhart, C. (1993). “Capital Inflows and Real Exchange Rate Appreciation in Latin America: the Role of External Factors.” IMF Staff Papers: 108-151.

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Fratzscher, M., M. Lo Duca, and R. Straub (2014). “On the International Spillovers of U.S. Quantitative Easing”, European Central Bank Working Paper 1557.

Eichengreen, B. and P. Gupta (2013). “Tapering Talk: The Impact of Expectations of Reduced Federal Reserve Purchases on Emerging Markets”. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 6754.

Eichengreen, B., and A. Mody (1998a). "Interest Rates in the North and Capital Flows to the South: Is There a Missing Link?", International Finance, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 35-57.

Eichengreen, B., and A. Mody (1998b). "What Explains Changing Spreads on Emerging-Market Debt: Fundamentals or Market Sentiment?," NBER Working Paper 6408.

Fratzscher M. (2011). “Capital Flows Push Versus Pull Factors and the Global Financial Crisis”. ECB Working Paper No. 1364.

Fratzscher, M., M. Lo Duca, and R. Straub (2013). “On the International Spillovers of U.S. Quantitative Easing”, European Central Bank Working Paper 1557.

Ghosh A. Kim, J. Qureshi, M. and J. Zalduendo (2012). “Surges”. IMF Working Paper WP/12/22.

International Organization of Securities Commissions (IOSCO) (2014). “Securities Markets Risk Outlook 2014-2015”, October 2014.

Koepke, R. (2014). “Fed Policy Expectations and Portfolio Flows to Emerging Markets”, Institute of International Finance Working Paper.

Koepke, R. (2015). “What Drives Capital Flows to Emerging Markets? A Survey of the Empirical Literature” Institute of International Finance Working Paper.

Miranda-Agrippino S. and H. Rey (2012). “World asset Markets and Global Liquidity” presented at the Frankfurt ECB BIS Conference, London Business School, mimeo, February.

Rajan, R. (2013).”A Step in the Dark: Unconventional Monetary Policy after the Crisis”. Bank for International Settlements, Andre Crockett Memorial Lecture, June 2014.

21
be expected based on China’s characteristics. In 2004 China’s national saving rate was almost 10 percentage points higher than the average 37 percent between 1978 and 1995, if calculated as the sum of gross capital formation plus the current account balance, as is the case in the empirical studies (see footnote 7). Thus, China’s national saving in recent years has been 15-20 percent of GDP higher than what would be expected on the basis of these traditional determinants of saving.

In section IV.2 we show that there is some scope for improvement in estimating cross country patterns of saving. However, even with an extended set of determinants, a significant part of China’s saving rate remains unexplained. We will argue that the remainder is because of policy-related factors particular to China.

# **III. GOING BEYOND TOTALS: THE COMPOSITION OF SAVING AND INVESTMENT**

An understanding of the factors behind China’s high saving and investment requires a look at the sectoral composition.

# **III.1 An overview of sectoral patterns of saving and investment**

While it is well-known that China’s national saving and investment are quite high, compared with other countries, it is less well-known who saves. Kraay (2000) notes that before to the 1978 reforms high saving “were engineered by state fiat”, via administered relative prices that ensured high profits in state-owned enterprises, which then could be directed to the state’s investment priorities. Household saving were low in the pre-reform area. After the reform, such “state-engineered” saving has diminished, whereas rising household incomes made household saving newly prominent.

However, saving by enterprises and the government has remained important. The following are key points on the sectoral patterns of investment and saving, derived from the flow of funds tables in the national accounts. More detail can be found in Kuijs (2005).<sup>7</sup> Table 3 shows these patterns, based on our estimations, pending the revision of demand-side GDP data and flow of fund data subsequent to the revision of the production-side GDP data in January 2006. The Appendix describes how we estimate the revised demand-side and flow of funds data.

# **_Saving_**

Table 4 compares the sectoral composition of saving and investment in China with that in other countries.<sup>8</sup> Households in China contribute significantly to national saving. The household saving rate, as a share of household disposable income, rose steadily from about 5 percent before

> 7 This paper introduced the approach of using the flow of funds data for this purpose.

> 8 The numbers in this paragraph are updated and revised to take into account the revision of the productionside GDP data and an estimate of the pending demand-side GDP revision.

6
believed that the data set represents base year equilibrium. The resulting empirical model may then be used to conduct _counterfactual simulations_ in order to examine the likely change in equilibrium values of endogenous variables induced by changes in some exogenous variables. We briefly describe the calibration of the general equilibrium model and the estimation of the parameters characterizing the general quadratic Lorenz curve.

# _Calibration of the General Equilibrium Model_

The necessary data for an empirical economy-wide model must be organized in a frame that reflects the _circular flow of economic activity_ for the chosen year. The Social Accounting Matrix (SAM) offers such a framework. It provides an analytically integrated data set which reflects various aspects of the economy such as production, consumption, trade, accumulation and income distribution. A SAM is a square matrix, the dimension of which is determined by the chosen degree of disaggregation which itself is constrained by the issues of concern and data availability. Each account is represented by a combination of one row and one column with the same label. _Each entry represents a payment to a row account by a column account_ . Thus, all receipts into an account are read along the corresponding row while payments by the same account are recorded in the corresponding column. In accordance to the principles of double-entry bookkeeping, the whole construct is subject to a consistency restriction which makes the column sums equal to the corresponding row sums. This restriction also means that the SAM obeys Walras’ Law in the sense that, for an **n** -dimensional matrix, if the ( **n-1** ) accounts balance, so must the last one. Table 2.1 shows the structure of the SAM underlying the basic model described above. The government account is not included because all taxes and transfers are assumed to be zero in the base year<sup>4</sup> .

> 4 This base case was chosen by the authors because they were also interested in finding the optimal configuration of the tax instruments.  Such a configuration would not distort private sector decisions.

9
- 96-

Larsen, Odd I., and Farideh Ramjerdi (1991), 'Road Pricing as a Means of Financing Investment in Transport Ifratructure, The Case of Oslo," paper appeared in 'Public/Private Partnerships in Urban Mobility Proceedings," OECD/CETUR, Paris, France, April 3-5, 1991, pp. 1-17. An updated version was presented at the 71st Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C., January 12-16, 1992, pp. 1-12.

- Larsen, Odd I., P. Mathieu and Farideh Ramjerdi (1991), "Is 'Perfect' Road Pricing Cost Efficient?" Paper presented at Entretiens Jacques Cartier, Colloque "La reglation des daplacements urbains par leux prix," Lyon, France, December 4-6, 1991, pp. _1-15._

- Lauridsen, Henning (1990), "The Toll Rings in Bergen and Oslo: Evolution and Experience," paper presented at the East Europe Transport Policy Seminar, Paris, France, March 1821, 1991, pp. 1-17.

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May, Anthony D. (1991), "Demand Management: An Overview," Au' aia Road Reserch, Vol. 21, No. 2, June, pp. 56-68.

Menon, A. P. G., and P. A. Seddon (1991), "Traffic in the Centmal Area - Part I: Volume Chararistics," IS Joumal, The Institution of Engineers, Singapore, Vol. 31, No. 2, March/April, pp. 15-20.

Meyer, John R., John F. Kain and Martin Wohl (1965), ITh Urban z aLnh don Problem, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachu.

- Ministry of Transport (1964), Road Pricing: The Economic and Technical Posibilities, Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London, pp. 1-61.

- Ministry of Transport and Communications (1991), "Traffc for Growth and a Better Environment," A Summary of Provisions in Government Bill 1990/91: 87 Relating to the Audit of the Ministry of Transport and Communications, pp. 1-29.

- Ministry of Transport and Public Works (1989), _"Rekening Rjden:_ Road Pricing in the Netherlands," Projectteam Rekening Njden, (Dutch) Ministry of Tansport and Public Works, Information Services, 14 pages.

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- Office of the Federal Register (1992), "Federal Highway Administafion [FHWA Docket No. 92-241: Participation in the Congestion Pricing Pilot Program," E^ ste Vol. 57, No. 227, Tuesday, November 24, 1992, National Archives and Records Administrtion, Washington, D.C., pp. 55293-55298.

- Oldridge, Brian (1991), "Congestion Metering in Cambridge City," Canbridgesbire County Council, Cambridge, paper presented at the PIRC Conference on 'Practical Possibilities for a Comprehensive Transport Policy With or Without Road Pricing," London, England, December 5, 1990, pp. 1-14.
_Note:_ ***p < .01, **p < .05, *p < .1. Profit has been trimmed at the 99th percentile. All control variables come from the baseline survey. The list of controls include a dummy that equals one if the firm is already existing (vs new); dummies for whether the firm sector is industry or services, with agriculture being the reference; a share of correct recalls by the owner from a digit span memory test; a dummy that equals one if the owner is female; the age and number of years of professional experience of the owner; dummies for whether the owner is Christian or Muslim; dummies for whether the owner is of the two largest ethnic groups (Bissa or Mossi); dummies for whether the owner reads and writes French and a local language or reads and writes a local language only; dummies for whether the owner attained primary, secondary, or other education levels, with the excluded being no education level; the size of the owner household; the number of assets owned; and dummies for whether the owner is a household head and whether a member in the owner household is a community leader. The control group mean refers to the followup survey. The detailed regression results are provided in Table A.10 in the appendix.

# _6.7 Did the intervention mitigate the adverse effects of the COVID-19 pandemic?_

The period between the baseline and the follow-up survey overlaps with the worldwide COVID-19 pandemic that also affected Burkina Faso. The first case of COVID-19 in Burkina Faso was detected on March 9, 2020. The country went through a prolonged lockdown, a nightly _couvre feu_ , and a closure of the international airport for several months, which affected imports and exports of goods as well as the number of international travelers. Although the health impact was less dramatic as initially feared, the impact on the economy was clearly visible.

Indeed, almost 60 percent of our sampled firms reported in the follow-up survey that they faced difficulties. About 58 percent reported problems in reaching out to their customers, 45 percent reported a decline in demand, 40 percent reported a problem in getting their supplies, and 13 percent reported problems with worker absenteeism (Figure 7).

## **Figure 7. Percentage of firms which encountered difficulties due to COVID-19 and government response measures**

_Source:_ Bagré Growth Pole Data Set.

28
Table (G3) Impacts of the Program on Host Community Relations and Attitudes Towards Refugees

|**Outcomes**|**Treatment**|**(se)**|**FDR**<br>**q-values**|**Control**<br>**mean**|**(sd)**|**N**|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|List experiment; Syrian as neighbor|0.13|(0.11)|[0.40]|1.23|(0.86)|1,102|
|Share Friends Syrian|-0.15|(0.13)|[0.40]|0.51|(0.92)|1,102|
|Share Advice Syrian|-0.24**|(0.11)|[0.32]|0.34|(0.72)|1,102|
|Kids have Syrian Friends|-0.19*|(0.11)|[0.37]|0.40|(0.49)|704|
|Kids share rec space w Syrians|-0.10|(0.08)|[0.40]|0.48|(0.50)|707|
|Accept Syrian marriage|-0.23|(0.15)|[0.40]|0.01|(1.00)|1,099|
|Accept Syrian Neighbor|-0.15|(0.15)|[0.44]|-0.00|(1.01)|1,101|
|Syrians pay more in taxes|0.06|(0.14)|[0.49]|0.03|(1.01)|1,078|

**_Notes_** :

- The table shows the regression results on pre-specified main outcomes using the 2022 neighbor survey data. Each row is its own dependent variable.

- The first outcome titled “list experiment” uses a different specification specific to the list experiment. All respondents were asked how many of the listed groups they’d accept as a neighbor. Half saw a list that included Syrian refugees, and the other half saw a list that did not include Syrian refugees. (The other 3 groups were Persons with disabilities, People in poverty, and Someone who does not follow the law). The reported coefficient is the coefficient on an indicator for seeing the list including Syrian refugees.

- The other outcomes that require definitions are: Share friends Syrian is the share of the 3 friends they visit regularly who are Syrian refugees. Share advice Syrian is the share of the 3 people they seek and give advice to who are Syrian refugees. Kids have Syrian friends is an indicator equaling 1 if the children in the household have any Syrian friends, and is missing for households without children.Kids share rec space is an indicator equaling 1 if the children in the houseold share recreational space with Syrian refugee children. Accept Syrian marriage is a standardized 5-point likert scale regarding “To what degree would people in your community feel comfortable accepting the marriage of their son/daughter/sister/brother to a Syrian refugee?” Accept Syrian neighbor is a standardized 5-point likert scale regarding “To what degree would people in your community feel comfortable being neighbors with a Syrian refugee?” Syrians pay more in taxes is a standardized 5-point likert scale where an increase corresponds with a belief that Syrian refugees pay more in taxes than the average Jordanian in response to a short vignette.

- The regressions also have enumerator fixed effects, community-level controls (Irbid/Mafraq governorate and population quartile), refugee household-level controls (shelter program, baseline number of children, baseline number of children plus adults), the Marlowe–Crowne scale, and respondent gender, education, and age. In the parentheses are robust standard errors clustered at the locality level. Statistical significance represented by * (10%), ** (5%), and *** (1%). Q-values are calculated per Anderson (2008) and correspond to Family 3 in the pre-analysis plan.

41