Administratively, Ethiopia is divided into 11 regions largely based on ethnic group segregation.<sup>11</sup> Each region is administratively subdivided into zones, _woredas_ (districts) and _kebeles._ Government development strategy has been lately geared toward smallholder agriculture. Recent policy changes have been focused to promote: (i) the liberalization of agricultural markets, (ii) investment in transportation infrastructure, and (iii) agricultural research and extension. Some of the most important government-related programs that have impacted agricultural development include the Productive Safety Net Program<sup>12</sup> and the Land Certification Program.<sup>13</sup> The latter issues landuse certificates to increase security in the access to land.

Nonetheless, this economic liberalization did not mean complete withdrawal of the government from markets. Seed and fertilizer markets are still subject to government intervention (Dorosh and Radish 2012). Land remains stated-owned with strong restrictions on transfers and rentals. Evidence suggests that the Land Certification Program had a positive effect on investment and soil conservation, and it can be a step toward a broader process of land policy reform (Deininger et al., 2007).

Women’s participation in agriculture varies by region, product and task performed. For instance, weeding is generally considered "women's work" and, depending on the region, cultural norms sometimes restrict women's participation in other productive activities. Female roles make them more likely to cultivate vegetable crops on small plots located close to their homes. Marketing and decisions over the revenues are usually taken by the household head, who tends to be male. The difference in roles played by males and females, added to cultural norms, usually restrict women's access to extension services. Recently, the government has made efforts to improve women's access to agricultural services, mainly extension and credit (World Bank and IFPRI 2010). Finally, rights to access land could sometimes be gender biased but this differs by region. Furthermore, women are usually left vulnerable upon dissolution of marriage and seldom keep land rights (Fafchamps and Quisumbing 2005).

# **3 Data**

The empirical analysis uses data from the first wave of the Ethiopia Rural Socioeconomic Survey (ERSS) conducted in 2011-2012.<sup>14</sup> The ERSS is modeled after the common Living Standards Measurement Study (LSMS) surveys with a total sample of 3,969 households. The sample is representative at the national and rural/small town levels. It is also representative at the regional level for the four largest regions: Amhara, Tigray, Oromia and SNNP. Of the total sample, 1,518

> 11 See Tronvoll and Hagmann (2012) for a review of Ethiopia’s particular “ethnic federalism” and the relation of traditional authorities with Ethiopia’s now-a-days political organization.

> 12 The Productive Safety Net Program is a food-for-work program. It provides cash transfers to individuals in exchange for labor in public works. As a result, infrastructure development (e.g. building of roads) benefited from the program.

> 13 These policy developments have contributed to major increases in national food production and enhanced food security (Dorosh and Radish 2012).

> 14 The ERSS survey was collected by the Ethiopia Central Statistics Agency (CSA) in collaboration with the World Bank Living Standard Measurement Study - Integrated Surveys on Agriculture (LSMS-ISA) team.

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