rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
consistently larger than that of father's height (Barrera 1990, Thomas and Strauss 1992, Lavy _et al._ 1996). Note that the average height of mothers is highest in Jalapa and lowest in Totonicapan, probably reflecting the poorer living conditions found in the latter department.

Since the mother plays the central role in household domestic activities pertaining to childrearing, maternal education has usually been considered among the most important determinants of child health in developing countries. Mothers of children in the EGSF sample have on average 2.3 years of education. Note that half of the women in Totonicapan have no education.

Husband' s education is also likely to affect child anthropometry through the allocation of resources and the ability to use different types of health services more effectively. The majority of husbands in the EGSF sample have attended primary school, although few of them have completed the full six-year cycle. They have on average 3.1 years of schooling. As with mothers' education, average husbands' education is lowest in Totonicapan and highest in Chimaltenango.

Per capita expenditure (measured in quetzals per month) is highest and most variable among communities in Jalapa and lowest and least dispersed among communities in Totonicapan and Chimaltenango.

# **6.2 Community Characteristics**

We used two classes of variables to represent the community environment in which children grew up. First, _global_ variables are community indicators collected separately from the main individual questionnaire (Bilsborrow and Guilkey 1987). The global variables we use in our analysis come from the community questionnaire.]<sup>4</sup> '<sup>1 5</sup> Second, _contextual_ variables are obtained by aggregating data collected from the individual questionnaire (Bilsborrow and Guilkey 1987; Goldstein 1995). The EGSF design was such that households were selected randomly in each community. Surveyed households are therefore scattered randomly across the community so that contextual variables are likely to be representative of the whole community and not only of selected areas.

The community-level covariates in our study are divided into six groups that aim to capture the different mechanisms through which the community environment can influence child growth: (1) public

- **14** The only exception is the data on altitude of municipality capitals that were coded from information supplied by the Guatemalan Military Geographic Institute and the National Statistical Institute (Pebley and Goldman 1995).

> **15** The EGSF collected information from three key informants in each community. When there was lack of agreement among the answers given by the three key informants, we reconciled the responses as follows. For _continuous_ variables, such as distances and prices, we computed the median value. For _ordinal_ and _categorical_ variables, when possible, we selected the answer on which two informants agreed. When all responses were distinct, we chose the value which fell between the other two in the first case and the answer given by the mayor in the second case.

14
47 should be explored with more sophisticated 2-D models with detailed topographic data, and we suggest it as a key next step in the roadmap in Appendix C.

# **_Uncertainties Associated with Future Exposure_**

Future population and economic exposure are also uncertain. The total Ho Chi Minh City population, the geographic distribution of the population in the city, and the poverty rate determine the exposure of the poor and non-poor in the study area. The average annual economic growth and the geographic distribution of that economic growth in the city determine the exposure of economic assets.

## **Ho Chi Minh City Population**

The Ho Chi Minh City Statistics Office estimates the city’s 2010 population at 7.4 million people (2011). The population is expected to grow in the coming decades, and the literature offers several projections. The Ministry of Planning and Investment estimates a population range from 9.4 million to 10.55 million people in 2034, depending on assumptions about fertility rate (Ministry of Planning and Investment 2011). The Word Bank offers a wide range of population projections, from a low of 12 million to a high of 20.8 million by 2050 (World Bank, 2010). By scaling the highest of these projections – the Bank’s estimate of 20.8 million by 2050 to the year 2045, we consider cases in which population in the city overall is as much as 19.1 million people.

While the lowest scaled projection for 2045 is 10.3 million (based on the Ministry of Planning and Investment’s low-growth case), we use 7.4 million as the lowest possible estimate, corresponding to a future with no change in population. This allows us to explore risk in cases in which the future is similar to benchmark conditions, even though these cases may be inconsistent with expectation of population.

## **Distribution of Ho Chi Minh City Population**

Few estimates exist about how the city’s population will be distributed across districts. Recent distribution of population in the districts in our study area offer one estimate. World Bank ( 2010, Table 3.14) offers a second estimate of future population distribution, which reflects a projection that the bulk of the population growth will take place beyond the study area, on the outskirts of the city. These distributions are listed in Table A.5. We use these two estimates as boundary cases for population distribution, with the World Bank estimate of population distribution as the low end of the distribution range, and the recent distribution as the high end of the range. The distribution in different futures varies between these bounds.
Policy Research Working Paper 10726

# Who Did Covid-19 Hurt the Most in Sub-Saharan Africa?

_Feraud Tchuisseu Seuyong Ifeanyi Edochie David Newhouse Ani Rudra Silwal_ Poverty and Equity Global Practice & Development Data Group March 2024 A verified reproducibility package for this paper is available at http://reproducibility.worldbank.org, click **here** for direct access.
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The Google Scholar search identified 951 documents, though widely ranging in relevance and rigor. For both engines, a Boolean search was used with the following search terms: ‘FMIS’, ‘IFMIS’, ‘Financial Management Information System’, or ‘Financial Management System’. Results were limited to publication date 2000 and after. The articles selected for inclusion in this review were restricted to English-language studies only. The review focused primarily on evidence from low-income and middle-income countries, though some evidence was drawn from high-income countries where this complemented available evidence from LMICs. False positives and duplicates were identified and excluded after a title and abstract review. Studies considered of insufficient quality through e.g. lacking peer review process or data were excluded. Forward and backward tracing was confirmatory. The final list of studies used for the analysis (44) is provided in the list of references.

1.12 This study draws on five rigorous FMIS project level evaluations (IEG  2016a-e) that serve as purposeful case studies (Cambodia, Ghana, Malawi, Vietnam, and Zambia). While the standard objective based evaluation protocol was employed in the assessment, a deliberate and structured effort was made to capture the FMIS implementation experience through dedicated annexes. Case studies were required to systematically reflect on the design, implementation, and utilization experience of FMIS as per protocol and document key success factors and failure points. The case study design follows the guidance of Yin (2013) and with the purpose of informing causal mechanisms (rather than causal effects) on what worked during a systems life cycle and why. The intent here was to explore depth rather than breadth and boundedness and is by definition exploratory rather than affirmative. An extensive discussion of the merits and drawbacks of qualitative work can be found in Gerring (2004). The five case studies are not (and cannot be) representative of the entire portfolio and all regions and were not selected with that objective. Rather the intent was to derive in-depth qualitative information on causal mechanisms of systems at different stages in their lifecycle and varying degrees of sophistication and utilization. While the findings of these are context specific, an effort has been made to assess convergence with the literature and broader documentation of World Bank experience to address external validity concerns.

1.13 The experience of FMIS operations as documented in World Bank selfevaluations and IEG validations thereof was drawn upon and systematically coded following a grounded theory approach. This complements an earlier effort of doing so by Dener et al 2011 and extends the exercise until 2017. In total, 80 ICRs and ICR Reviews were reviewed. Appraisal documents for projects to which these lessons relate were consulted on an as-needed basis. A database of all FMIS operations was kindly made available to the team by the World Bank FMIS Community of Practice.

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investments, LAC airports are on average significantly less efficient than those in the other regions included in the study.

Using the DEA efficiency scores, we estimated a truncated regression model in order to find factors that might explain the observed differences in airport efficiency. As expected, the regression analysis shows that hub airports tend to be more efficient. Moreover, airports which are located in cities with more than 5 million inhabitants are also more efficient than airports located in smaller cities. The level of income (GDP) also seems to positively influence productive efficiency. Airports that rely more on revenue sources other than aeronautical tariffs also tend to be more efficient, a finding consistent with the recent literature (ATRS, 2008). Finally, airports which are privately operated tend to stand closer to the efficient frontier than their publicly operated counterparts, although this effect is not significant across all the different specifications of the model we tested.

Probably the most unexpected result is that privately operated airports in Latin America have not outperformed publicly operated airports. Given the wide variety of private participation schemes used by Latin American countries, this result should lead to more detailed and case by case research to assess the effects of private participation on airport performance. In addition, future research should also assess the impact of private sector participation on the financial efficiency of LAC airports as well as on the quality of service they deliver.

23
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* Industry associations should build up their human resource base through higher salaries and better conditions so that they can attract the same high quality personnel as ouner collective support providers. To accomplish this relatively quickly, for instance, the government could commit itself to matching the contributions of association members on the condition that the recipient agency accept certain specified reforms.

* Technical support systems for SMEs deserve the highest priority in Korea at this stage in its development. Technical support is not only the least available from the private sector but also the most likely to grow in importance given the increasing complexity and specificity of industry's technical needs. In this regard, as an industry evolves in response to technical and market changes, it is imperative that support systems evolve accordingly to ensure that SME assistance is relevant and timely. Recent attempts to create industryspecific R&D institutes in Korea appear to be an important step in this direction.

* A relevant lesson from the woven textile experience is that it is wise to locate R&D support centers near clusters of SMEs in the same industry. Institutions such as KATECH and KETI would do well to offer national networks of local support providers, to assure that their services are readily available to geographic clusters of SMEs in the same industry.

* In the design of delivery systems,there are significant tradeoffs between the benefits of specificity and comprehensiveness. Narrowly focused agencies have the benefit of being able to concentrate on the most efficient way of achieving a single objective; they can also hire geuiine specialists, and can reduce the trasaction costs of preparing and reviewing applications for support. On the other hand, agencies with a broader mandate can take advantage of economies of scope, can more easily develop national networks of local support providers, and can serve a broader cross-section of firms, tu enhancing the agency's viability. Choices should be support-system specific and perhaps also industryspecific. Technology support probably has the greatest need to be industry-specific. Financial support, given the fbngiitity of money, probably needs the least specificity.

* Our survey provides evidence that collective support providers play a more important and catalytic role in the earlier years of both finn and industry cycles, a time when alternative sources of support may be less available. Therefore, proposals to encourage greater private sector SME support in the later stages of firm and industry cycles should be considered. Collective suppliers should charge fees sufficient to cover service costs at later stages, leveling the playing field between collective and private support providers. Even in cases where support services need to be provided at nominal fees, provision of services could sometimes be contracted out to private providers on a competitive basis. Finally, even if private providers of a given service do not exist, the collective service providers could be privadzed later.

43
For ‘Getting Credit’, as the most important DBI for economic growth overall, it appears that the Legal Rights Index, followed by the Credit Information Index are the most important. Citizen coverage under a public registry or a credit bureau is only marginally or not at all significant. Finally, the two marginally significant sub-components for the ‘Protecting Investors’ index are the Disclosure Index and the Shareholder Suits Index.

With these results, policy advice can be given as follows: the most important DBI to focus on is ‘Getting Credit’, closely followed by ‘Enforcing Contracts’. As a general rule, DB-inspired reforms are more likely to have an effect on economic growth when they focus on reducing the cost aspect of the regulatory environment.

But does reform really bring about economic growth? Table 4 aims to answer this question by focusing on the sub-components of two indicators: ‘Starting a Business’ and ‘Enforcing Contracts’. This analysis is limited by the availability of data. The DBIs were first published in 2004 with fewer countries than more recently, and with less data coverage. Focusing on the change of these two indicators between 2005 and 2006 allows for substantial data coverage. They are also among the most important indicators for economic growth, as shown by figure 1.

Data availability allows for calculating average growth over 4 years from 2006. The same control variables are included as in the analyses for figures 1 and 2, but in addition, the initial value of the respective DBI sub-components in 2006 will be included as controls as well. 151 countries can be included for the ‘Starting a Business’ components and 150 countries can be included for the ‘Enforcing Contracts’ component.

The table suggests that, indeed, DBI reform can stimulate economic growth. The general gist of figure 2 is upheld: DBI reform has a particular impact on economic growth when focusing on reducing the cost of doing business, followed by the time required for dealing with regulatory requirements. The strength of the results is striking. The coefficients for the variables denoting changes in the cost of ‘Starting a Business’ and ‘Enforcing Contracts’ are large (9.3 and 6.2 respectively) and statistically significant at the 1% level. This clearly shows that DBI reform can enhance economic growth.

# **5. Conclusion**

DB-inspired reform is controversial, and justifiably so, given the considerable limitations in the DB Reports’ prescriptive power. Yet many governments across the world do use the DB studies to guide their reform efforts. Acknowledging this reality, this paper has aimed to provide some suggestions on how to use the DB studies in a way that can leverage their potential for the benefit of the economy, helping countries in fostering private sector-led growth. Based on the discussion, the following policy advice is suggested:

- <mark>1) Investment climate reform should be feasible. It is feasible if the political economy in specific policy areas is conducive to reform, i.e. when the financial and political costs of reform are outweighed by the benefits and if they can be borne by the policymaker.</mark>

16
12 28. The margins starting at the UJS Treasury Bill (US T Bill) rate are high. Of course, these margins will never go to zero given the differences in credit risk across countries. tax treatment, and in efficiency of financial service provision. However, by comparing these margins to those which might reasonably be expected under more favorable macroeconomic conditions, or. given a more efficient financial system and securities markets, it is possible to highlight where attention should be placed.

29. _M1,acroeconomic_ factors account for 9 percent of the difference between GOM borrowing rates as measured by CETES and the rate on U.S. treasury bills as of December 1993, when these calculations were done. About 1 percent can be attributed to the country risk premium; about 4.5 percent can be attributed to expected inflation (minus expected inflation abroad); and the remaining 3.5 percent can be attributed to the real exchange rate risk.<sup>8</sup> _30. MAlicroeconomic_ factors help to explain an additional 8-25 percent of the margin between government borrowing rates and rates to large or small and medium enterprises. This additional margin can be separated into several components.

31. First, the 4 percent difference between CETES and CPP can be attributed equally to the risk of the banks themselves and to taxes that apply to commercial bank liabilities, but not to government liabilities. This margin is rather high and could be reduced through a combination of improved supervision and tax policy changes.

32. Second, the difference between CPP (the average cost of funds to commercial banks) and lending rates to large borrowers is about 6-8 percent. This difference, discussed in more detail in Annex 1 and in a recent study done by the Mexican Banking Commission, can be attributed primarily to the cost of bank operations (i.e. administrative and personnel costs account for about 70 percent of gross spreads). It also reflects implicit taxes such as capital requirements or deposit insurance quotas to FOBAPROA and provisions on bad loans i.e. "reservas preventivas".<sup>9</sup> This spread also reflects the costs imposed due to nonexistence of markets in which to manage domestic interest rate risk at low transactions costs (and lack of market liquidity) that forces greater holdings of reserves for liquidity purposes.'" Finally, the high spreads also reflect profit margins. Annex I provides a more detailed analysis of banking spreads based on both the work of the authors and the CNB in Mexico.

See Notes in Table 5 for an explanation of this decomposition.

'Commercial Bank loans are classified and it should be noted that having loans that are overdue (Cartera Vencida) does not imply that provisions have to be held against these assets.

"' Recent changes in Central Bank operating procedures have eliminated the need for commercial banks to keep deposits with the Central Bank to effect clearing of payments.
<!-- Start of picture text --> Figure 5<br>Diesel Prices. Average Country. Net of Taxes<br>$1.00<br>$090<br>$0.80<br>$0.70-<br>$0.60<br>O$0.50<br>$040<br>$0-30 _<br>$0.20<br>$0.10<br>$0.00<br>1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002<br>i RepsolYPF -Esso -Shell -- EG3<br><!-- End of picture text --> Source: Secretariat of Energy, Argentina

# 3. **Privatization model and its impact on competition.**

Governments have a wide variety of objectives when they embark in a privatization process. Reduction in fiscal deficits, benefits to users, improvements in infrastructure quality and capacity and a market structure that promotes competition are the most cited objectives (Estache, 2000). In the case of YPF, it could be argued that the government pursued fiscal as well as efficiency objectives. The privatization of YPF brought about a radical change to the Argentine oil sector. Before its privatization, YPF systematically lost money, needing transfers by the national government to continue its operations. Its privatization increased productivity and significantly improved efficiency in the exploration and extraction of crude oil, derivative products and natural gas.

However it is by no means clear that the government, when deciding how to privatize YPF, incorporated as a relevant concern the prospects of a competitive market structure. Or, on the contrary, it could be said that the government deliberately ignored the possibility of modifying the ex-ante market structure (before privatization) to promote a more competitive environment after the privatization.

12