177 The CGE model is possibly the "most important tool used to quantify the costs and benefits of RIAs." (Fukase and Martin, 2001: 2). It is a simulation model that "measures how simultaneously reducing tariffs and nontariff barriers on either a preferential or a nondiscriminatory basis affects economywide variables, such as gross national expenditures and the exchange rate, and the prices and quantities of primary commodities and industrial goods produced, consumed, and traded." (DeRosa, 1995) 178 DeRosa (1995: 4) 179 The authors note "application of CGE models to the new member countries has been seriously constrained by data availability." They therefore use different types of CGE models for different countries: Vietnam - a standard multi-region and multi-sector GE model with data from GTAP (Global Trade Analysis Project) was used; Lao PDR and Cambodia - a small single-country model with only one production sector and highly disaggregated tradable sectors was created; Myanmar - a highly stylized EXCEL® spreadsheet model was used. [See Fukase and Martin (2001: 2) for further details.] 180 Key variables include: size, openness and factor endowments; trade patterns and protection structure of integrating and partner countries; and key parameter values such as the elasticity of substitution between domestic goods and imports and between imports from different sources (Fukase and Martin, 2001: 3). **181** Fukase and Martin (2001: 5) 182 Fukase and Martin (2001: 4) 183 Fukase and Martin (2001: 144) 184 Convergence generally has a broader meaning. For example, the EU (through the Maastricht Treaty) views convergence as the alignment of members' economic and monetary policies with convergence criteria of price stability, low long-term interest rates, stable exchange rates, and sound public finances. (Carbaugh, 2002: 275) 185 Ben-David (1993) **186** ASEAN (2002) 187 Soesastro and Morrison (2001: 57-62) **188** Tay (2000: 164-165) clairns that ASEAN's principle of non-intervention has not entirely stopped it from becoming involved in its members' internal affairs. He cites two examples: (1) ASEAN's involvement in the resolution of the Cambodlian conflict and (2) its "intervention" in Myanmar/Burma in the form of advice on the political situation and encouragement toward dialogue with the pro-democracy opposition. **189** Wain (2002) '90 Ariff(2000) **19'** Ariff (2000: 57) **192** Ariff (1997: 86) 193 The study was commissioned by ASEAN to assess its competitiveness and was based on microeconomic analyses and sector studies, including interviews with over 100 investor executives. Comparisons were made with the EU, MERCOSUR and NAFTA.

194 Various publications, including The Asian Wall Street Journal and the Business Times (Singapore) via Dow Jones Interactive at <http://www.djinteractive.com>.

'9" Urata (1998) 196 Yamazawa and Urata (2000) 197 Yamazawa and Urata (2000: 58) 198 "The NTM frequency of a product for each country is the percentage share of NTMs actually imposed on the product concemed. A 20% frequency means that a dozen core NTMs are imposed, which can include major effective NTM s and cannot be justified under any circumstances as WTO-consistent." [Yamazawa and Urata (2000: 96)] 199 Trewin and Azis (2000) 200 Australia DFAT (2001: 3) 201 Also, in Indonesia's case, tariffs were lowered on chemical, metal and agricultural products as part of its structural reform under the IMF's financing program after the crisis. (Japan METI, 2001: 20) **202** APEC (1999: iii)

**203** APEC (1999: 20)

204 Yamazawa and Urata (2000: 65-66) 205 Elek and Soesastro (2000: 220)

**206** Yamazawa (1997: 143)

71