fewer hours per person per plot and that recall bias for them is significantly lower than for less educated households. The estimates confirm that there is no significant recall bias for households with above primary educational attainment (see bottom row in **Table 9** ), while households with lower education on average overestimate season-wide hours by approximately 37 hours per person per plot.

In terms of gender differences, our empirical results portray a more nuanced picture than we expected. Column (3) of **Table 9** includes an indicator variable that equals unity if the worker is female ( _Female_ ) and the interaction between this variable and the recall variable ( _Recall* Female_ ). The results show that women work around 40 hours per plot less than men over the season. The point estimates further suggest that season-wide hours per plot are overestimated by 17 hours for males, compared with only 1 hour for females (see bottom row), but the difference as indicated by the interaction term is just below the 10 percent significance threshold. Counter to our expectations, there is no indication that recall bias is larger for women. If anything, our point estimates suggest the opposite.

**Table 9: Estimation of recall bias in farm labor – heterogeneity**

||Labo<br>|r hours per person per<br>|plot<br>|
|---|---|---|---|
||No heterogeneity<br>(1)|By education<br>(2)|By gender<br>(3)|
|Recall|10.317**|36.794***|17.328**|
||(5.203)|(8.251)|(7.085)|
|Hh education above primary||-22.421***<br>(6.471)||
|Recall * Above primary||-42.694***<br>(10.444)||
|Female|||-39.695***<br>(6.204)|
|Recall * Female|||-16.379<br>(10.136)|
|N|4,462|4,462|4,462|
|R2|0.024|0.040|0.043|
|**Total recall bias for educated households**||-5.900|0.948|
|**(2) or females(3)**||(6.535)|(7.373)|

Note: Regressions control for the household numbers of workers and plots, and the average distance between the household’s residence and the plots (all at baseline). Hh education refers to the highest level of education attained by any household member. Standard errors in parentheses. *** denotes significance at the 1% level; ** at the 5% level; * at the10% level.

Our descriptive and econometric results above suggest that perhaps recall bias is lower for groups of farm workers with fewer hours of farm labor: both for the more educated households as well as for female workers we find that average hours per person per plot are significantly lower than for less educated households and male workers, respectively. The results in section 4.2 showed that recall bias stems primarily from listing bias, hence if particular sub-groups work fewer hours on average, perhaps the impact of listing bias is mitigated as the baseline workers and plots differ less from the ‘omitted’ workers and plots. On the other hand, and particularly with respect to education heterogeneity, if recall bias is lower due to higher cognitive ability, we would expect to see that listing bias itself is lower among more educated households. We now turn to explore this, by analyzing education and gender heterogeneity in the listing of plots and household workers. The first two columns of **Table 10** show the double-difference estimate of listing bias in _plots_ by household education. The third and fourth columns estimate listing bias in _persons_ 17