|26Hanley andYamamura(1977) and Howe(1996)ascitedinFrank(1998:106-107)<br>27Maddison(2001:47)|
|---|
|28Landes(1969:13-14)ascitedinMaddison(2001:47)|
|29Maddison(2001:47)|
|30SeeFrank(1998) forahistoricalassessmentofEuropeanandAsiantechnology includinggun<br>manufacturing,shipbuilding,printing,textile production, metallurgy,andtransport.Heprovides<br>convincing evidenceofAsia'sstrengthsinall theseareas.<br>31Bairoch(1993:93)|
|32Chaudhury andMorineau(1999:1)|
|33Historians dividethetradingworldinavarietyofwaysbutthe traderoutes areessentiallythesame.<br>ThesearebasedontrademapsappearinginFrank(1998).Fordetailedmapsoftrade routes and goods<br>tradedoneachseeFrank'sChapter2.<br>34 Feldbiek(1991: 96)|
|35Feldbak(1991:96)|
|36Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie- Dutchtradingcompany.Seefollowingsectionon'GlobalTrade'|
|<br>fordiscussionofthesecompanies.|
|37ThePortuguesemade"limitedbeginnings"inintra-Asian tradebutthistradewasnot partoftheiroverall<br>strategyfortradeintheregiotn,asitwaswiththeDutch(Prakash1999:181-182).|
|3Prakash(1999:181-183and187-188)|
|<br>39Gaastra(1999:189)|
|40Prakash(1999:186)|
|41Frank(1998:179)fromBarendse(1997:ChapterI)|

42 At the time in Asia, commerce was considered an unacceptable occupation for upper-class men. Therefore, the women of the lamily conducted the business using their servants as liaisons for communicating with the outside world. 43 Pomeranz and Topik (I 999: 28-31) 44 Steensgaard (1991: 6) 45 See footnote 35 of Chaudhury and Morineau (1999: 8) for the origin of this phrase and citations of its reference in other literature. 46 Chaudhury and Morineau ( 1999: 2-3) 47 Feldbnek (1991: 96-97) 48 Including Kaoru Sugihara (Osaka University), Heita Kawakatsu (Waseda University) and Takeshi Hamashita (Tokyo University). 49 Akita (1999: 143) _50_ Sugihara (1990: 143) 51 Sugihara (1985: 146-147) 52 Japan's trade with Asia differs between the two tables (1.6 and 1.7), although both are sourced from Sugihara (1990). It is presumed, although not certain, that this is because the data is for different time periods and includes different countries in the "Asia" grouping.

5 Sugihara(1990: 135-136) 54 Sugihara (1985: 146) as cited in Akita (1999: 144) **55** Akita (1999) and Sugihara (1990) Frank (1998: 138) 7 Frank (1998: 61) 58 Feldbaek (1991: 96)

**59** The first two paragraphs of this section draw heavily from Maddison (2001: 66-69 and 117-118). 60 Maddison (2001: 66)

61 This system of trade can be defined as a type of ritualistic commerce that involved the exchange of "gifts" of specific quality between the Chinese rulers and those with whom they dealt, be it native chiefs and kings or foreign "barbarians". The relationship of each of these groups to the central authority of China was reflected in the type and quality of gifts given and received. Among these, silk was a strong status symbol and even came to be used as a form of currency. Although the tribute system was based on culture, politics and social status (as opposed to economic gain) it "helped define a vast common market, giving it its currencies, defining tastes that helped create markets worth producing for, and creating the standards (both of fashion and of behavior) by which its elites recognized in each other the people they could deal 67