One of the most noticeable changes in connectivity relates to the rollout of telecommunications networks across the country. The speed and scale of this rollout has been documented elsewhere (see Mod 2016). Government of Myanmar figures show that in 2009/10 only 4 percent of households owned mobile phones; by April 2014 this figure had risen to 33 percent of households and by April 2015, fully 55 percent of households owned mobile phones (Government of Myanmar 2015). With a government target of connecting 90 percent of the population by 2019, this number will only continue to rise (ADB 2016).

Expanded mobile coverage is also having a significant impact. During fieldwork conducted in mid-2013, villagers reported that “previously, there might not even be one land line in a village; one would have to go to a village tract village to find a phone. Now, however, with the cost of mobile phones decreasing, there might be up to ten phones in a village” (QSEM June 2013). The QSEM research has documented the almost immediate impact mobile phone connectivity has had for migration networks, allowing potential migrants to confirm opportunities beforehand, improving safety and enabling ongoing communication through the migration experience (World Bank 2015a). It was assumed that coverage would offer immediate potential for farmers and other livelihood groups through expanded market information. Farmers initially placed greater confidence in information gained through their traditional networks. But patterns of mobile use to inform market choices are emerging (QSEM, forthcoming). Although still nascent, these changes are likely to have important implications on social relations and engagement with the state over time. Others have argued that adoption is likely to be significantly influenced by types of livelihoods and reliance on networks within those livelihoods (Aricat and Ling 2015).

More immediately, there are at least two areas where improved mobile phone connectivity is already having a direct effect on engagement with the state and social relations. First, more recent rounds of research have highlighted how technology and, in particular, social media networks are starting to be used to strengthen or supplement existing communal mechanisms, in particular to respond to community-wide shocks. Field research conducted in July 2015 and early 2016 identified how community organizations were drawing on social media to assist efforts in response to floods and landslides which affected large parts of Myanmar following Cyclone Komen in mid-2015. Villages covered by the research and affected by flooding in Magway Region and Chin State highlighted how they were using social media, in particular Facebook, to source donations from networks in Yangon and overseas and keep relatives and friends up to date with recovery efforts. Once immediate needs had been met, in at least one village, the social media group started to support the work of village authorities to raise funds and advocate for a potential move of the village to a new location (World Bank 2015b).

Second, mobile networks have strengthened access to alternative information flows with particular significance in villages facing major external challenges. Wells (2014) explores the increasing role of mobile phone access in strengthening citizen voice in land disputes in Ayeyarwady Region. This work focuses on the importance of expanding mobile phone coverage to strengthen advocacy by linking village advocates to external networks of journalists, members of parliament and technical experts. Our research shows that, in addition, expanded connectivity has played a crucial role in providing villages with alternative sources of information. Villagers have drawn from improved connectivity to access information about local development issues 12