The WALN sample is the most educated (26% have any higher education) while women in Benin are the least educated (69% have no education at all). Overall, the educational attainment of women in the land samples reflects national averages, while women in the business training samples have above-average education for their respective countries. For example, 73% of women completed at least secondary school in the Ethiopia DOT sample, while only 11% reached secondary education in the country overall (DHS 2021).

Women in our sample live in relatively large households, spanning from an average of 4.3 members in Ghana to around 7 in Benin (in line with respective national averages). The share of women that report being a household head varies across datasets, ranging from 61% of women in the Ethiopia WALN sample to close to zero in Benin and Rwanda.<sup>13</sup> Women tend to be younger than their spouses, spanning ten years younger in Ethiopia DOT to five years younger in Rwanda, which is in line with regional marital patterns (Hertrich, 2017). Importantly for our analysis, this age gap means that most women will eventually become widows. Most women in our sample are married to their partners, with the lowest rates in Ethiopia DOT (57 percent) and the highest rates in Benin and Ethiopia WALN (where virtually all women are married to their partners).<sup>14</sup> The number of children at baseline is lowest in the Ghana sample at approximately 1.5, medium for Ethiopia DOT at approximately 2, and high in Benin and Rwanda at over 3 children per women.<sup>15</sup> For Togo, we do not have a variable on the total number of children the woman has given birth to, so we instead focus on the number of children under five who live in the household (0.6).

The three business training samples of entrepreneurs (Ethiopia DOT, Ethiopia WALN, and Togo) are urban samples. Two of the land titling samples (Benin and Rwanda) are rural, and the third (Ghana) is peri-urban.

# **3.3 Empirical Strategy**

Our methodology leverages the empirical strategy used by the original impact evaluations (five randomized trials and one regression discontinuity design in Ghana), whose designs were described in Section 3.1. We run each of the six analyses separately, following an identical specification to the one used by the original impact evaluation authors to compute their primary treatment effects.

Our general specification follows the form: _Yi_ are our main outcomes—the number of children at follow-up for each woman and an indicator variable equal to one if the woman had a child post-treatment—while _Ti_ indicates

> 13It is worth noting that married women declaring that they are a household head often implies that the husband is not residing in the same place or is absent for long periods for work. In Ghana, 97.3% of women who are not household heads are co-residing with their spouse while only 8.5% of women household heads are. 14This data comes from survey questions asking “are you married?” or “are you formally married?”.

> 15This data comes from survey questions that asked: “how many children have you had with this man?” or “how many living children do you have?”.

> 16When the outcome is measured at two follow-ups, we interact the treatment with time: _Yi = α + β_ 1 _Ti_ 1 _+ β_ 2 _Ti_ 2 _+ λX i + μ j + εi j_ . _Ti_ 1 and _Ti_ 2 are equal to one for observations corresponding to the first and second follow-up, respectively.

13