rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
in Table 1. The samples for all children consist of 34,585 observations in 1992/93 and 39,562 observations in 2006. The average numbers of children per family are 2.35 in 1992/93 and 1.98 in 2006. The shares of singleton families in our sample of 16 to 27 years olds are 25 percent in 1992/93 and 36 percent in 2006. More than a third of the families have two children in both survey years. About 63 percent and 59 percent of our total samples are brothers in 1992/93 and 2006 respectively. As reported in Table 1, sample sizes for different sub-samples are considerable, the smallest sample size being 2208 for sisters in less-developed states in 1992/93. The large sample sizes ensure precision of our estimates of sibling and intergenerational correlations for both survey years.

Summary statistics from our main samples are presented in Table 2. The education levels of both boys and girls improved between 1992/93 and 2006. Average education of boys increased from 7.63 years in 1992/93 and 8.76 years in 2006. The gains in girls‘ education were more dramatic: it increased from 6.9 years in 1992/92 to 8.67 in 2006. As a result, the gap between boys and girls has narrowed considerably between these two survey years.<sup>27</sup> A similar trend can be detected in mother and father‘s education as well though the gender gap in the parent‘s generation remained substantial. Average education of father increased from 5.33 years to 6.43 years between the two survey years, while that of mother increased from 2.63 years to 3.75 years. The improvements in years of education were associated with a decline in the standard deviation of education levels between the survey years. Consistent with international evidence in Hertz et al. (2009), the variances of education levels are higher in parent‘s generation compared with the kids in both the survey years. This decline in variance implies that relying on intergenerational regression coefficient to understand intergenerational mobility may be misleading.

The summary statistics for the rural sample are also reported in Table 2. As expected, average education levels are lower in rural areas compared with our full sample. Consistent with national trends, average years of schooling have increased for both boys and girls in rural areas. The gender gap in education has also narrowed though the gap is still larger in rural areas compared with our full sample. Summary statistics for other sub-samples also confirm improvements in education attainment of children during this period. The trends in education levels reported here are consistent with those reported in other studies (ASER reports, World Bank (2011)).

In addition to education levels, Table 2 provides summary statistics for age and caste and religion composition of our sample. Overall, the samples from two years appear to be comparable to each other in terms of age and caste-religion composition.

> 27 Similar convergence in educational attainment between boys and girls over the reform period is observed in China (see, for example, Behrman et al. (2008)).

14
35

|_'h_[In(MC,/pL)I<sup>2</sup>|0.0007|0.0001|
|---|---|---|
||(0.585)|(0.313)|
|ln(pmIpL).1n(MCeIpL)|-0.0005<br>(-0.603)|0.0002<br>(0.692)|
|in(pm/pL)-IneN|-0.0142|-0.0118|
||(-0.861)|(-0.772)|
|ln(MC./pL)-In eN|0.0004<br>(0.217)|0.0004<br>(0.801)|
|In Q. In (PM/PL)|0.0128<br>(0.614)|0.0488<br>(2.386)|
|In Q. In(MC,/pL)|-0.0061<br>(-2.831)|-0.0016<br>(-2.250)|
|In Q. In eN|-.1186|-0.0494|
||(-1.711)|(-0.840)|
|In K. In (PM/PL)|0.0098|-0.0358|
||(0.636)|(-1.938)|
|In K. In(MC,/pL)|0.0006|-0.0001|
||(0.339)|(-0.175)|
|Number of<br>Observations|118|131|
# **_3.2 Budgetary Policy_**

Table 3.2 Efficiency and Poverty Implications of Budgetary Policy

||Base|Exp3|Exp2|Exp1|Reference|Exp4|Exp5|Exp6|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Exports|30.0|106.3|104.3|102.2|100.0|97.7|95.3|92.8|
|Domestic Good|75.0|97.9|98.6|99.3|100.0|100.8|101.6|102.4|
|Final Imports|27.0|106.7|104.5|102.3|100.0|97.6|95.1|92.5|
|Intermediate Imports|3.0|103.0|102.1|101.1|100.0|98.8|97.4|96.1|
|Total Consumption|100.0|99.9|100.0|100.0|100.0|100.0|100.0|99.9|
|Rural Consumption|40.0|107.7|107.4|107.1|106.7|106.3|105.8|105.4|
|Urban consumption|60.0|94.8|95.0|95.3|95.6|95.8|96.1|96.3|
|Total Poverty Incidence|59.2|97.1|97.2|97.3|97.5|97.6|97.8|98.0|
|Rural Poverty Incidence|78.3|94.4|94.7|94.9|95.2|95.5|95.8|96.1|
|Urban Poverty Incidence|30.5|107.6|107.2|106.8|106.4|106.0|105.6|105.3|
|Overall Poverty Gap|29.7|95.3|95.4|95.6|95.8|96.1|96.3|96.6|
|Rural Poverty Gap|38.7|92.5|92.8|93.1|93.5|93.9|94.3|94.7|
|Urban Poverty Gap|16.3|104.9|104.7|104.4|104.1|103.9|103.6|103.4|

Source: Author’s calculations This section replicates and extends the policy experiments reported in Devarajan, Lewis and Robinson (1990)<sup>7</sup> . Our extension concerns the disaggregation of the household account, the redistributive assumptions associated with public expenditure, and the computation of the poverty implications. Three indirect tax instruments are available to the government: tariffs on final and intermediate goods and an indirect tax on domestic sales. The base data in the SAM represent a solution of the model with no government intervention i.e. all taxes set equal to zero.

The results in table 3.2 involve seven experiments and are presented in the form of ratios (in percentage) of the value taken by a variable in a given scenario to the baseline value of the same variable. The reference experiment sets the tax on domestic sales at 15.4 percent and both tariffs at 12.5 percent. Considering the pattern of production and imports, the results show that there is no change from the base case where there is no government intervention. In terms of efficiency, this configuration of taxes is optimal in the sense that it does not distort private sector decisions. The redistributive

> 7 These authors framed the issue in terms of optimal taxation and solved the model as a mathematical programming problem using GAMS (General Algebraic Modeling System).  Our numerical implementation uses EViews 5.1 which cannot solve the programming problem. We simply took the reported levels of different taxes and solved the model as a system of non-linear equations to find the efficiency and poverty implications of these policies.  The interested reader can request the computer code we used to generate the results.

18
# **References**

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- Aguiar, M., S. Chatterjee, H. Cole, and Z. Stangebye (2016). Quantitative models of sovereign debt crises. In _Handbook of Macroeconomics_ , Volume 2, pp. 1697–1755. Elsevier.

- Aguiar, M. and G. Gopinath (2006). Defaultable debt, interest rates and the current account. _Journal of International Economics 69_ , 64–83.

- Aguiar, M. and G. Gopinath (2007). Emerging market business cycles: The cycle is the trend. _Journal of Political Economy 115_ , 69–102.

- Akey, P., A. Robertson, and M. Simutin (2023). Noisy factors. Mimeo.

- Alesina, A., F. Campante, and G. Tabellini (2008). Why is fiscal policy often procyclical? _Journal of the European Economic Association 6_ (5), 1006–1036.

- Alfaro, L., S. Kalemli-Ozcan, and V. Volosovych (2008). Why doesn’t capital flow from rich to poor countries? An empirical investigation. _The Review of Economics and Statistics 90_ (2), 347–368.

- Alfaro, L. and F. Kanczuk (2022). Undisclosed debt sustainability. _AEA Papers and Proceedings 112_ , 521–525.

- Alvarez-Parra, F., L. Brandao-Marques, and M. Toledo (2013). Durable goods, financial frictions, and business cycles in emerging economies. _Journal of Monetary Economics 60_ (6), 720–736.

- Arellano, C. (2008). Default risk and income fluctuations in emerging economies. _American Economic Review 98_ (3), 690–712.

- Arellano, C. and A. Ramanarayanan (2012). Default and the maturity structure in sovereign bonds. _Journal of Political Economy 120_ (2), 187–232.

- Arezki, R., V. A. Ramey, and L. Sheng (2017). News shocks in open economies: Evidence from giant oil discoveries. _The Quarterly Journal of Economics 132_ (1), 103–155.

- Aruoba, S. B. (2008). Data revisions are not well behaved. _Journal of Money, Credit and Banking 40_ (2-3), 319–340.

- Asonuma, T., D. Niepelt, and R. Ranciere (2023). Sovereign bond prices, haircuts and maturity. _Journal of International Economics 140_ , 103689.

- Asonuma, T. and C. Trebesch (2016). Sovereign debt restructurings: Preemptive or postdefault. _Journal of the European Economic Association 14_ (1), 175–214.

41
|Table 3. Type and Industrial Dis<br>Percentag<br>D<br>|tribution of Assets Fi<br>e<br>istribution,<br>Based on C<br>|nanced by**OLP**und<br>ontract Values<br>|er the Project<br>|
|---|---|---|---|
|Type of Asset|Microenterprise|Small-Scale|Total|
|<br>**I**|<br> <br>**I**|Business||
|Machinery<br>&Plant|64.91 %|67.91 %|67.16 %|
|Office Equipment|20.06 %|16.73 %<br>-|17.57 %|
|Commercial<br>Vehicles|15.03 %|15.36 %|15.28 %|
|Total|100.00 %|100.00 %|100.00 %|
|Industry Sector|Microonterprise<br>I|Small-Scale<br>**I**Business|Total|
|Energy|0|0.73 %|0.55 %|
|Services|35.14 %|20.93 %|24.51 %|
|Consumer<br>Goods|1.83 %|4.76 %|3.56 %|
|Textile**&**Allied|2.61 %|7.24 %|6.07 %|
|Trading|1.48 %|4.03 %|3.38**%**|
|<br>Paper, Board**&**Printing|2.76 %|1.59 %|1.88 %|
|<br>Construction|0|1.57 %|1.18**%**|
|Chemical/<br>Pharmaceutica|l<br>2.03 %|6.60 %|**5A5**%|
|Steel & Engineering|10.01 %|15.00 %|13.74 %|
|<br>Ceramics|0|0.44%|0.33%|
|Food**&**Allied|1.66 %|8.75%|<br>6.54 %|
|Garments,<br>Jute & Allied|9.60 %|11.21 %|10.81 %|
|Miscellaneous|32.89 %|18.32 %|21.99 %|
|Total|100.00 %|100.00 %|100.00 %|

Source of data: **Aide Memire.** Back-To-Office Report, Bank Review Mission, September 1994.

# **Grameen Bank, Bangladesh**

48. Grameen Bank started leasing power-looms in 1992 to poverty-level weavers in the Araihazar area of Dhaka Zone. Successful implementation and satisfactory experience led to expansion of the leasing program to other zones. At present, all fourteen zones covered by the bank's operations have incorporated leasing into their microfinance programs. As of October 1996, the leasing program had booked 1,951 leases amounting to Tk. 61.738 million, or an average of Tk 31,645 (_ US$ 760) per lease contract.

49. Grameen Bank's leasing program has achieved loan repayment and default rates which are consistent with the bank's regular microfinance program -- 139 leases out of 1,951 in default, a 7.12% default rate in terms of number and 1.47% in terms of value of lease contracts. Also, 18.35 % or 358 out of the 1,951 lease contracts have moved into ownership of the equipment financed. The pattern of ownership after full payment is striking -- 344 female as against 14 male, which follows the pattern of distribution for lease contracts of 1802 female lessees as against 149 male lessees. Grameen Bank's leasing program exhibits a wide variety of equipment financed-from battery chargers and ball-point pen production machines to power looms, sugarcane grinders, shallow machines, power tillers, baby taxis and mini transport.

22
This paper therefore examines the role of migration networks in shaping the selfselection pattern of Mexico-U.S. migration. We begin by augmenting the simple theoretical model in Chiquiar-Hanson (2005) to allow for network effects, and use this to determine the impact of increasing network size on selectivity. Using survey data from Mexico we then show that in communities with small migration networks, education increases the probability of migration, giving rise to positive self-selection among migrants. However, for communities with large migration networks, education is shown instead to decrease migration propensities, giving rise to negative selfselection, as conjectured by Borjas (1987). We use historic migration networks to instrument for current networks in this analysis. The results are found to be robust to attempts to account for the undercounting of migrants who move with their entire households to the United States, and to allowing education to be itself affected by the prospect of migration.

These findings further demonstrate the pivotal role played by migration networks in determining the pattern of migration, and go part of the way towards reconciling the conflicting evidence on migrant selectivity arising from the recent literature.

The remainder of the paper is structured as follows. Section 2 lays out a model of selfselection which includes migration networks. Section 3 describes our identification strategy and empirical methodology, while Section 4 discusses the data used. Section 5 provides the main results and Section 6 robustness to undercounting and endogenous education formation. Section 7 concludes.

# **2. The model**

# **2.1 Wage Equations**

Starting with Sjaastad (1962), migration has been modeled as an investment decision where prospective migrants make their decision based on the net discounted value of income streams across locations. Given that migration incentives and costs vary according to age, gender, education, and other individual characteristics, immigrants self-select out of the general population non-randomly. Following Borjas (1987), a series of recent papers have adapted Roy's (1951) model of self-selection to the issue of Mexican immigration to the U.S. (e.g., Chiquiar and Hanson, 2005, Orrenious and Zavodny, 2005, Ibarraran and Lubotsky, 2005). We extend these models to allow for 4
11 an assessment of the respective legal frameworks before suppordng the countries' legl reform efforts. On the other hand, bere engaging in the _Tehniccal Auusance for Eonomic Rebnn Project Loan No. 3384-BUL)_ in _Bulgaia_ and in the UNDP-funded and Bank-ected _ANw Econoink MechanLn Progrnam Support in the Lao Peopre's Reppic,_ mch diagnosic studies were not requestBd by the Govenment and were not made. It seems that in both cases a prior assmet might have delayed tie prjects but made them more effective. In _Ohina,_ for example, the _Economic Law Refnn Project_ grew out of years of Bank work on the legal faewrk for economic reform, and, in pardcul, enterprise form.

Leson learned: The asitan rnanced by the lank should ft wih the needs of the county as wel as with the Bank's country _astiune_ traegie Coutries usaly beneit from priw digostic studi or sector analyse

# 2. ndfL _fknfi=_

The refom process has tD be timely and responsive to the neds of a partcuar country, and, teefoe, the extent of reform efforts depends on the partclar c in each ountry. Governmnts need to establish law refom agedas and proti te areas where legal assistance is m,os needed. To ilustate, the laumching ofbankrupty or secrites laws has linted value for a country with no company law, as coporate foms have not yet been esiablished and reonized. Conversely, banldng laws and prudential reguaions need to be a high priority as soon as a country removes the monopoly prevuy given to state banks. Depeding on the counties' levEl of devdopmenl, the prorties and content of legl reforms difer. On the one hand, most Central Eurmpean and Itiii American, and many African countris _wie_ by and large establishud legl fameworks for a market economy. With rpect tD the "rules" aspect of legal reforms, in a maWoty of these countries, legal technical assia is mosdy neeled in highly speialized areas of law, sch as privain, im al, bankruptcy, antimonopoly, dumping and countervailing duies or secrites laws. Equally important, however, these counties seek assistance from outside sources for the "process" and "instituions" aspects of legal reforms to ensure thai their legal systens function propely. Among the key institutional 12IThe Bank did not finace the appusised project because Namibia did not wish to bonrow to finane technical asistanoe
# **Table 7.  Exposure of the LECZ in Developing Countries to Sea-Level Rise and Storm Surge Intensification**

||**% of Co**<br>**(2005)**<br>|**astal GDP**<br>**Exposed**<br>|**% of**<br>**Agricult**<br>**Exp**<br>|**Coastal**<br>**ural Area**<br>**osed**<br>|**% of**<br>**Wetlan**<br>**Imp**<br>|**Coastal**<br>**ds Area**<br>**acted**<br>|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||**Curren**<br>**t Storm**<br>**Surge**|**Intensifie**<br>**d Storm**<br>**Surge**|**Current**<br>**Storm**<br>**Surge**|**Intensifie**<br>**d Storm**<br>**Surge**|**Current**<br>**Storm**<br>**Surge**|**Intensifie**<br>**d Storm**<br>**Surge**|
|**Developing Country**|**7.0%**|**12.5%**|**4.3%**|**8.9%**|**10.1%**|**17.1%**|
|East Asia & Pacific|5.9%|11.1%|4.6%|9.0%|11.3%|18.1%|
|Latin America &|||||||
|Caribbean|5.5%|9.9%|1.7%|4.1%|5.5%|9.9%|
|Middle East & North<br>Africa|15.1%|23.8%|1.0%|4.1%|18.9%|29.3%|
|South Asia|7.9%|14.4%|4.2%|10.7%|12.2%|22.0%|
|Sub-Saharan Africa|3.9%|8.6%|1.3%|3.5%|7.6%|14.6%|

The low elevation coastal zone (LECZ) is the contiguous area along the coast that is less than 10 m above sea level.

The table compares current exposure to inundation from a 1‐in‐100 year storm surge with exposure to a 1 meter (m) sea‐level rise accompanied by a 10% intensification of storm surges.

Adapted from Dasgupta, S. Laplante, B., Murray, S. and Wheeler, D. 2011. “Exposure of developing countries to sea‐level rise and storm surges.” _Climatic Change_ 106:567‐579, Tables 2 and 3.

Table 8 indicates the climate change vulnerability of the 15 countries with the largest poor rural LECZ populations in 2000 (see Table 6). For each country, the table shows the share (%) of coastal GDP (in 2005), agricultural area and wetlands in the LECZ that could be exposed to future inundation from a 1 m sea-level rise accompanied by a 10% intensification of storm surges. In addition, the rural LECZ population growth for each country from 2000 to 2010 is included.

Across all 15 countries with large poor rural LECZ populations, around 31% of coastal GDP, 22% of agricultural area and 32% of wetlands are likely to be exposed to future inundation from sea-level rise and storm surges. In addition, in these countries, rural LECZ population has expanded on average by 18% from 2000 to 2010.

21
MFN tari¤ is 3 percent, while the import weighted AVE of NTMs is 3.4 percent. However, given that the UK currently is part of the EU Single Market, the OTRI in the EU facing UK exports is 0. Both the US and China impose MFN tari¤s on UK exports. For the US, the import-weighted average MFN tari¤ is 1.2 percent, while for China, it is 5 percent. When factoring in import demand elasticity and AVE of NTMs, the OTRI of US and China facing UK exports is 0.5 percent and 2.4 percent respectively.

Table 3 presents the potential trade impact of Brexit in the short run, according to Eq (3). Here we assume that no new trade agreements will be signed between the UK and its partners, so the UK’s exports will face MFN treatment in all markets. For the US and China, nothing will change in terms of tari¤s and NTMs, so the potential trade impact is zero. For the EU, moving from no tari¤ to MFN tari¤ will lead to the OTRI to increase to 0.93 percent, which may cause trade to decrease by almost 2 percent, which is equivalent to a loss of USD$3.14 billion. The short-term disruption in trade due to trade policy is likely to be small: the OTRI of the main partners are low, even after factoring in possible compliance costs of NTMs facing the UK exporters in these markets.<sup>6</sup> The bottom line is that, without any new trade deals, UK exports to the EU may drop by less than 2 percent, while UK exports to the US and China may not be a¤ected by Brexit in the short term, before any relocation adjustment of FDI.

It may be surprising that the short-run trade impact of Brexit is not larger. This is because OTRI can be decomposed into the sum of the import-weighted tari¤ (and AVEs) and the covariance between tari¤(and AVEs) and import demand elasticity.<sup>7</sup> For the EU, the covariance between tari¤ and trade elasticity is negative, meaning higher tari¤s are placed

> 6It should be noted that NTMs consist of many di¤erent areas, including standards conformity and assessment, certi...cation requirements and more. Currently UK ...rms exporting to the EU satisfy all their NTMs requirements. We assume that there are no further compliance costs associated with the existing NTMs should the UK leave the EU.

> 7Please see Kee (2007), which shows that OTRI equals import weighted average tari¤ and the import weighted covariance between tari¤ and trade elasticity.

6
4 _No. 291-HO)_ fiuded lgal uas e in con with die rview and desg of pe rights, title recording and mortgages. In _iwya,_ dhe _Para l R amd Pdw itizad P?hject (Ord& No. 2440-IE)_ financed a study including a comprehensive eview of die laws of Kenya affecng the deveopment of the privat sector and the restr g of public entpises. In _India,_ the _Maharhtira Power 11 Project (Loan . 3498-IN)_ fimded an nstutonal review of India's power sctor. In _orocro, the Land DveWopuem for LowIlnme Famlies Pect n No. 3618MOR)_ prmvided finances for t rview of the legd frmework gvrin land acqtionm and resetlemernt. In _Russia, the HighIW Rwbtadon Aw MYraawce Project (a No. 370-RU)_ finanis assisnce in drafting tnoao legison and regula 3. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Over the years, the Bank has pwvided funding under fieestanding tchnia assistmce los to support the **instutonal** dims of stuamul and sector prgams, and to fahcilitae the buildup and stWegteng of insitutin necesury for a succes im m of nadetoreted refoms and for econmic develqpment in general. Techical assLsance las fequ y coain sepat legal componts tat pvide funds for assisance in differnt aspet of counties' **legal** fms. Among **tie** first of such **prqecs** was **the** 1988 _ecid Project Pqpradon Fadly_ gant tD _Guie_ wlich fimded the _prepwaon_ of a leg mpot in the _Second EFonc Managmnt Suppon Project (COdv No. 1963-GUI)._ Tis prject fuded asiam in the **issemnion** and **publication** of legl irmation. In o **instances,** _Angola,_ fthu the _Econmi Management Capadty Buid Project (Credit No. 2274-ANG),_ receved fimding for a revie and drfing of com al, finanl, ainisve and pr m t lesaion; strengthening the capabilities of venmenta **lega** servies responsible for the introdution and implementaton _of_ new laws and rgultons; and the e of new poedues for the disseminatn of new leglation. In _Annna, the uon uidng Ftiect (on_ . _3585ARAJ_ inc luded tae in the rmew and drafting of econoic eiati. The _Tenical Asriuace Project (LoaNo. 3648-ES) in El SadV4dor_ proided fOr the prpartion of environmentl leesation. In _China,_ a free-stading legal tehical assistance project, the _Fxonmi Law Rebrnm Project (Cnd No. 2654-CHA) encompasses_ ubqects tD assist drffng of key economic kws, sub-projects to devlop new lea aining opprnitie, and institutonal spport to te leal agencies.