**Table 7. Difference in the share of household heads or any household members engaged in non-farm enterprise activities between the lean season and non-lean season waves in the last seven days** _Panel A: Household head_

||Burkin|a Faso|M|ali|Ni|ger|Sen|egal|All exce|pt Chad|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||No|Full|No|Full|No|Full|No|Full|No|Full|
||controls|controls|controls|controls|controls|controls|controls|controls|controls|controls|
|Lean season<br>wave|0.0114|0.0209|0.0337|0.0383*|0.0397|0.0400**|0.0576***|0.0539***|0.0358***|0.0356***|
||(0.0244)|(0.0164)|(0.0257)|(0.0219)|(0.0241)|(0.0192)|(0.0189)|(0.0156)|(0.0122)|(0.0096)|
|N|7016|6936|6600|6568|6020|5919|7153|7107|26789|26530|
|R-squared|0.0002|0.1829|0.0015|0.0974|0.0018|0.1176|0.0038|0.0974|0.0016|0.1150|

_Panel B: Any household member_

||Burkin|a Faso|M|ali|Ni|ger|Sen|egal|All exc|ept Chad|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||No|Full|No|Full|No|Full|No|Full|No|Full|
||controls|controls|controls|controls|controls|controls|controls|controls|controls|controls|
|Lean season<br>wave|0.0247|0.0350|0.0131|0.0521**|0.0466*|0.0497**|0.0547**|0.0587***|0.0357**|0.0474***|
||(0.0313)|(0.0227)|(0.0324)|(0.0250)|(0.0277)|(0.0214)|(0.0216)|(0.0160)|(0.0156)|(0.0113)|
|N|7017|6936|6600|6568|6020|5919|7153|7107|26790|26530|
|R-squared|0.0006|0.1986|0.0002|0.1411|0.0022|0.1377|0.0034|0.1386|0.0013|0.1768|

Note: * p<0.10, ** p<0.05, *** p<0.01. Standard errors clustered at the ‘grappe’ level in parentheses. Dependent variable is a dummy variable taking 1 if the household head was engaged in non-farm enterprise work in the last seven days and 0 otherwise in Panel A. Dependent variable is a dummy variable taking 1 if any working-age household member (aged 15-64 years) was engaged in non-farm enterprise work in the last seven days and 0 otherwise in Panel B. Individual-level sampling weights applied. ‘Full controls’ specifications include controls for the gender, age, and education level of the household head, household size, the dependency ratio, household walls material, household roof material, household floor material, access to electricity, access to improved drinking water, and access to improved sanitation as well as an urban-rural dummy and region fixed effects. Source: EHCVM and World Bank estimates.

# 5.2. Rural-urban differences

We now examine whether the sharp differences in potential strategies for managing and coping with seasonality between rural and urban areas observed in Section 3, translate to rural-urban differences in welfare. It turns out that overall impacts on consumption observed in Section 4 are significantly concentrated in rural areas. Pooling the data from Burkina Faso, Niger, and Senegal, real per capita consumption is about 12.1 percent lower in the lean season in rural areas, a difference which is statistically significant at the 1 percent level and is robust to the inclusion of controls (Table 8). By contrast, there is no statistically significant difference in consumption levels between the lean and non-lean season in urban areas. Moreover, when the difference in the impacts of seasonality between rural and urban areas is assessed using a regression like in Equation 2, the interaction term (between the urban dummy and the lean season dummy) is statistically significant at the 1 percent level in the specification including full controls. This confirms the stark differences between rural and urban Sahelian households in terms of the effects of seasonality.

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