rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
Mexico. The results suggest that the efficiency and equity of the price structure can be improved through small movement in the tax of some key products. In particular, a reduction in the taxes levied on maize-based products would be beneficial both on the basis of equity and efficiency. Moreover, an increase in the taxes levied on oils and fats, pulses and sugar would be beneficial in terms of efficiency but would increase inequality.

Mexico was chosen as the country of analysis for several reasons, primarily the high quality and quantity of household surveys. In addition, Mexico implemented a considerable number of economic reforms that likely caused large changes in prices, which are necessary for the estimation of price elasticities. Finally, despite Mexico’s status as a middle-income country, more than one-third of the population lives below the poverty line and there is a large degree of inequality (Ianchovicina, Nicita, Soloaga 2001). These features make Mexico a good candidate for estimating elasticities by income level and assessing the impact of a marginal tax reform.

The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 describes the consumption patterns of Mexican households. Section 3 presents the methodology for estimating household behavioral responses. Section 4 presents and discusses the elasticity estimates. Section 5 produces the results of a micro simulation to identify welfare-improving tax reforms. Section 6 concludes. Appendix A describes the data and appendix B gives further details on the micro simulation.

# **2. Consumption in Mexico**

This paper focuses on 10 key commodity groups that constitute the bulk of the diet of Mexican households.<sup>2</sup> The commodity groups are aggregated over different qualities and varieties.<sup>3</sup> Table 1.a reports yearly average budget shares for product aggregates disaggregated by income quintile and urban/rural areas.

> 2 The ten product groups: wheat, maize, alcohol and tobacco, meat, legumes, dairy products, oil and fats, other vegetables, fruit, and sugar. In total, those product aggregates account for about one third of the expenditures basket of the average household.

> 3 For example, meat includes beef, chicken and pork as well as different qualities of cut.

2
<!-- Start of picture text --> ln(GDP) ln(lights)<br>30 10<br>9<br>29<br>8<br>28 7<br>6<br>27<br>5<br>26<br>4<br>25 3<br>2<br>24<br>1<br>23 0<br>Ln(GDP) Ln(lights)<br>1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012<br><!-- End of picture text --> Source: WDI (2014) and NGDC (2014). Authors’ calculations One can argue that the close relationship between GDP and night lights illustrated in Figures 1 and 2 is due to the sheer magnitude of the events. After all, we would expect the intensity of lighting to respond to a halving of the economy (Zimbabwe) or a 27-fold increase of it (Equatorial Guinea). Night lights however also seem to respond to events that impact economic activity to a far lesser extent. To illustrate, take the Eritrean-Ethiopian border conflict of 1998-2000. While for a country the size of Ethiopia the localized border conflict did not have a discernible impact on the economy, GDP in Eritrea, a small country with less than four million inhabitants at the time, contracted by 6 percent during the conflict. The intensity of night lights reacted to the temporary contraction in GDP between 1998 and 2000, and picked up again after 2000 with renewed economic growth (Figure 3).

Figure 3: The Ethiopian-Eritrean border war and night lights in Eritrea 5
poverty over time. Our re-examination of the NTX experience provides us with the opportunity to update earlier analyses based on a recent household survey conducted among smallholders in a selection of the communities that participated in the early NTX boom.

Adoption was widespread and rapid, which led the project to be hailed as a pro-poor success, reaching all but the smallest landholders. But constraints to sustained production have proven to be numerous, particularly in the second decade of the period considered; foremost among these constraints has been the deterioration of prices in global markets as new market entrants expanded supply and suppressed prices. Over time, more than two-thirds of adopters eventually dropped out, presumably reverting back to more traditional crops, or leaving agriculture altogether. While some challenges to sustainability (such as soil depletion and pesticide resistance) were noted earlier on, we exploit information for a period spanning across more than two decades to explore the long-term sustainability of snowpeas production in the study area.

Consistent with previous findings, we find that smallholders are quite responsive to price incentives when repeatedly making their decision to adopt. As pointed out in Dadi et al. (2004) in their study in rural Ethiopia, if price incentives are strong enough, smallholders may be able to overcome possible deterrents to adoption, such as low education and risk aversion. The importance of improving marketing channels to enable farmers to fetch better and more stable prices, combined with the establishment of appropriate price information systems, emerges as a crucial policy message deriving from the results. Further, the centrality of prices for the success of continued NTX adoption raises a cautionary note on the viability of NTX promotion as a sustainable poverty alleviation strategy among poor, risk-averse small scale producers with limited capacity to weather volatile and/or declining prices. For communities such as these, increased trade in NTX stemming from openness to the global market may be an 36
- 15 -

Table 1: The Output Equation Applied to Turkey and Horoccoal

||Turkey<br>(1963-83 estimated period)|(1968-8|Morocco<br>5 estimated period)|
|---|---|---|---|
|Constant|-91.4<br>(69.6)||-89.6<br>(5.88)|
|in w(t-l)|-.30<br>(.08)||-.24<br>(.11)|
|ln q(t-1)|||-.15<br>(.067)|
|in p(t-1)|.10<br>(.04)||.39<br>(.068)|
|In Pi(t-l)|lob/|||
|Time|.049<br>(.037)||.050<br>(.003)|
|in (expsub+ U)CI|.43<br>(.21)||.64<br>(.53)|
|CpM/p+pX] (t-i)|||-.07|
|In Y(t-l)|.58<br>(.31)||(.07)|
|RE2|.994||.987|
|DV|1.76||2.29|
|LH Test (X<sup>2</sup>1)|.69||.50|
|Chow Test F1,14|.54.8|||
|Hendry Test (X<sup>2</sup>1)|<br>.55||2.17|

a/ Standard errors in parenthesis. bL Constrained coefficient. EL Export subsidy. _dL_ F1.10
Santos Silva, J., and S. Tenreyro. 2006. “The Log of Gravity.” _Review of Economics and Statistics_ 88(4): 641-658.

Shepherd, B. 2010. “Geographical Diversification of Developing Country Exports.” _World Development_ 38(9): 1217-1228.

Shepherd, B., and J.S. Wilson. 2010. “Trade Facilitation in ASEAN Member Countries: Measuring Progress and Assessing Priorities.” _Journal of Asian Economics_ 20(4): 367-383.

Wilson, J., C. Mann, and T. Otsuki. 2005. “Assessing the Benefits of Trade Facilitation: A Global Perspective.” _The World Economy_ , 28(6), 841-871.

World Bank. 2007. “Stratégie de Développement des Services et Infrastructures Logistiques en Tunisie.” Working Paper.

Yi, K.-M. 2003. “Can Vertical Specialization Explain the Growth of World Trade?” Journal of Political Economy 111, 52-102.

Zaki, C. 2010. “Does Trade Facilitation Matter in Bilateral Trade?” Working Paper, Paris School of Economics, http://www.parisschoolofeconomics.eu/IMG/pdf/JobMarket-1paper-ZAKI-PSE.pdf.

23
# **EXECUTIVE SUMMARY**

Since the Stockholm Conference on Environment and Development in 1972, many countries have taken steps to mitigate environmental damage. More systematic comparative analysis of countries' environmental performance would undoubtedly help clarify the major policy issues and options. Unfortunately, comparable data on regulatory measures are available only for developed countries, and even these data are frequently scanty.

In this paper, we undertake a comparative assessment using environmental reports presented to tlLe United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED, 1992) by 145 countries. From the information in these reports, we have developed a set of indicators which measure the status of environmental policy and performance. This paper describes our methodology, the indices, **aiid** some results from a statistical analysis of their relationship to other more conventional measures of socioeconomic development.

The UNCED reports are similar in form as well as coverage, and permit cross-country comparisons. To an impressive degree, they seem to reflect real environmental conditions and issues. For this exercise, we have randomly selected 31 UNCED reports from the total of 145 (see Table 2A, p. 6). These 31 countries range from highly industrialized to extremely poor, they are drawn from every world region, and they range in size and diversity from China to Jamaica.

Our analysis focuses on three dimensions of environmental policy and performance: Overall, "Green" sector, and "Brown" sector. We develop and test a set of hypotheses about regulatory development which can be summarized as follows:

- Overall environmental performance should be positively correlated with:

- 1) Income per capita;

- 2) Degree of popular representation;

- _3)_ Freedom of information;

- 4) Security of property rights;

- 5) Development of the legal and regulatory system.

Controlling for these variables,

- "Green" sector indices should be positively correlated with:

- 1) Rural population density;

- 2) Agricultural and forest production share of national output.
# Pollcy Research Working Paper Series

||Title|Author|Date|Contact<br>for paper|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|WPS106|0 Economies<br>of the Former Soviet<br>Union: An Input-Output<br>Approach<br>to the 1987 National Accounts|Dmitri Steinberg|December<br>1992|E. Zamora<br>33706|
|WPS106|1 Dynamic<br>Response<br>to Foreign<br>Transfers and Terms-of-Trade<br>Shocks in Open Economies|Klaus Schmidt-Hebbel<br>Luis Serven|December<br>1992|A. Maranon<br>31450|
|WPS106|2 Economic Development,<br>Environmental<br>Regulation,<br>and the<br>International<br>Migration<br>of Toxic<br>Industrial Pollution, 1960-88|Robert E. B. Lucas<br>David Wheeler<br>Hemamala<br>Hettige|December<br>1992|WA.<br>31393|
|WPS106|3 Mongolia: Privatization<br>and System<br>Transformatio**n**<br>i An Isolated<br>Economy|Cevdet Denizer<br>Alan Gelb|December<br>1992|A. Oropesa<br>39075|
|WPS106|4 More Evidence<br>on Income<br>Distribution<br>and Growth|George R. G. Clarke|December 1992|R. Martin<br>39065|
|WPS106|5 Strengthening<br>Uganda's Policy<br>Environment<br>for Investing<br>in<br>University Development|Thomas Owen Eisemon<br>John Sheehan<br>George Eyoku<br>Franklin Van Buer<br>Delane Welsch<br>Louisa Masutti<br>Nat Colletta<br>Lee Roberts|January 1993|C. Cristobal<br>33640|
|WPS106|6 Pollution Control In a Decentralized<br>Economy:<br>Which Level of<br>Government<br>Should Subsidize What<br>in Brazil|Antonio<sup>Estache</sup><br>Kangbin<br>Zheng|January 1993|A. Estache<br>81442|
|WPS1<br>067|Returns to Investment<br>in Education<br>A Global Update|: George Psacharopoulo|s January 1993|G. Psacharopoulos<br>39243|
|WPS1<br>068|Enterprise<br>Reform in Eastern Europe|Sweder van Wijnbergen|January 1993|B. Pacheco<br>37033|
|WPS106<br>|9 Why Is There Proportionately<br>More<br>Enrollment<br>in Private Schools in Som<br>Countries?|Estelle James<br>e|January 1993|D. Evans<br>37496|
|WPS107<br>|0 Economic<br>Fundamentals<br>of Road<br>Pricing: A Diagrammatic<br>Analysis|Timothy Hau|December<br>1992|J. Francis<br>31005|
|WPS107<br>|1 Congestion<br>Charging Mechanisms:<br>An Evaluation<br>of Current Practice|Timothy Hau|December<br>1992|J. Francis<br>31005|
Bruhn, M. 2009. Female-owned firms in Latin America: Characteristics, performance, and obstacles to growth. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper #5122.

Bussmann, M. 2009. The Effect of Trade Openness on Women’s Welfare and Work Life. World Development, 37(6): 1027-1038.

Cagatay, N., and Ozler, S. 1995. Feminization of the Labour Force: The Effects of Long-Term Development and Structural Adjustment. World Development, 23(11): 1883-1894.

Castilho, M., M. Menéndez and A. Sztulman. 2012. Trade Liberalization, Inequality, and Poverty in Brazilian States. World Development, 40(4): 821-835.

Chandra, A. and E. Thompson, 2000. Does Public Infrastructure Affect Economic Activity? Evidence from the Rural Interstate Highway System. Regional Science and Urban Economics, 30(4): 457-490.

Charles, K. and J. Guryan. 2011. Studying Discrimination: Fundamental Challenges and Recent Progress. Annual Review of Economics, Annual Reviews, 3(1):479-511.

Chattopadhyay, R., and E. Duflo. 2004. Women as Policy Makers: Evidence from a Randomized Policy Experiment in India. Econometrica, 72(5): 1409-1443.

Cooray, A., I. Gaddis and K. Wacker. 2012. Globalization and Female Labor Force Participation in Developing Countries: An Empirical (Re-)Assessment. CRC-PEG Discussion Paper 129 University of Göttingen.

Cragg, M., and M. Epelbaum. 1996. Why has Wage Dispersion Grown in Mexico? Is it the Incidence of Reforms or the Growing Demand for Skills? Journal of Development Economics, 51(1): 99–116.

Currie, J. and A. Harrison. 1997. Sharing the Costs: The Impact of Trade Reform on Capital and Labor in Morocco. Journal of Labor Economics, 15 (3, part 2):44–71.

Datta, S. 2011. The Impact of Improved Highways on Indian Firms. Journal of Development Economics, 99(1): 46-57.

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36
_8 PoW_ **_Racal CHL4z_** Table 2: Real inventories in the Polish enterprise sector

||1988|1989|1990|<br>1991|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|End-year inventories<br>|||||
|1 January 1988 = 100<br>|||||
|Assumed IL =1month<br>|92.9<br>|58.5<br>|55.3<br>|_51.1_<br>|
|Assumed IL = 2 months<br>|93.8<br>|64.9<br>|_55.6_<br>|50.8<br>|
|Assumed IL = 3 months|94.0|67.1|55.8|_50.8_|
|Real inventory accumulation<br>|||||
|as a % of start-year inventories<br>|||<br>||
|Assumed IL = 1 month<br>|-7.1<br>|-37.0<br>|-5.4<br><br>|-10.1<br>|
|Assumed IL = 2 months<br>|-6.2<br>|-30.8<br>|-14.2<br>|-11.1<br>|
|Assumed IL = 3 months|-6.0|-28.7|-16.8|-11.4|
|IL = inventory life|||||
|Memorandum item:<br>|||||
|Industrial sales growth, in %<br>|4.9|-1.4|-25.6|-14.2|
|(1988-90 - not incl. private sector<br>|||||
|19I - not incl. firms with**_<_**6 em<br>Compare with note 1.)|ployees||||

'Te estimates for real inventory accumulation are given in Table 2. As expected, the choice of deflator has the biggest effect on the estimates for 1989 and 1990.<sup>Note, however, that the year-end</sup> point estimates for 1990 and 1991 are not much affected. The picture is one of major<sup>inventory</sup> decumulation in 1989-90 and 1991; at the end of 1991, inventories amounted to about _50%_<sup>of their pre-</sup> 1989 level, perhaps somewhat less than the fall in enterprise sector output as captured in the<sup>statistics.</sup> The inventory accumulation and profit figures are combined in Table 3 to yield estimates of the inflation bias and of real profitability. Several checks on the consistency and plausibility of<sup>the results</sup> are given in the Appendix. An additional check is the results of Barbone (1992), who uses<sup>a different</sup> method to calculate the inflation bias for assumed inventory lives of three and six months. His<sup>estimate</sup> for three months is fairly close to the corresponding estimate presented in this paper.

**S.** Some of **the** drop may **be** caused by decreased **coveragc** of **the** enterprise sector in 1991. **See**<sup>note 1.</sup>
- 2) Broad geographical groupings to ensure efficiency of operations but without the formation of regional companies or consolidation of market power;

- 3) Portfolio of plants and IPP contracts to achieve management and operational synergy without dominating any part of the market or of the load curve; and

- 4) Such other factors as may be deemed beneficial to the best interest of the national government while ensuring attractiveness to potential investors.

One of the key milestones of the EPIRA was the privatization of at least 70 percent of the total capacity of NPC’s generation assets and IPP contracts in Luzon and Visayas within a three year period from its effectivity. It further provided that any unsold capacity should be privatized not later than eight years from the effectivity of EPIRA.

It was only 11 years after the promulgation of the EPIRA, on September 24, 2012, that the ERC, in a joint statement with the Department of Energy (DoE), declared the phased in and partial commercial commencement of RCOA on June 26, 2013, following a 6-month transition period that started December 26, 2012 for 1MW and above contestable customers in Luzon.

In 2005, aside from the transmission assets, PSALM had a total generation portfolio of 11,190MW composed of 6,234MW of NPC generation assets and 4,956 of IPP contracts. By 2016, PSALM had privatized the transmission assets and approximately 73 percent of its generation portfolio. 4,601MW of NPC’s generation assets have been sold and 3,607 MW of IPP contracts had been transferred to Independent Power Producer Administrators (IPPAs). By October 2016 PSALM privatization efforts had generated a total of US$19.96 billion, of which US$10.8 billion had been collected (see Table 2). Of this, PSALM had utilized US$9.6 billion of the collected privatization proceeds to liquidate its outstanding financial obligations.

**Table 2. Privatization Proceeds as of 3**<sup>**rd**</sup> **Quarter 2016 (in US$ Billion) ***

|Privatization Assets|Generated|Collected|Balance|
|---|---|---|---|
|Generation Assets|3.61|3.61|0.00|
|Decommissioned Plants|0.01|0.01|0.00|
|Transmission Assets|6.10|3.96|2.14|
|IPP Contracts|10.25|3.23|7.02|
|Total|19.96|10.80|9.15|

Source: PSALM. *US$ ≈50 PhP In 2016, PSALM had outstanding financial obligations of US$10.1 billion (PhP 506.3 billion), down from a peak of US$24.8 billion (PhP1.24 trillion) in 2003. Of this, US$4.6 billion (PhP 230.9 billion) was in IPP Obligation and $US$ 5.5 billion (PhP 275.4 billion) was in debt. Adding the forecasted interest and other charges would bring the total amount of debt to US$7.4 billion (PhP 372 billion) and total financial obligations of US$12.1 billion (PhP602.9 billion).

It is uncertain whether the remaining receivable balance of US$9.15 billion (PhP442 billion) plus the possible proceeds from the future privatization of the remaining 1,632.1MW generation assets and 1,298.75MW of IPP contracts will be able to liquidate the projected total financial obligation. Using the approximate average privatization value that has been realized from the 17
# Table V.9

# Use and Usefulness of Credit Guarantee Systems

|||Fre|quency Menti|oned||Usefulness|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||Woven<br>Textiles|Auto<br>Parts|Electric<br>Parts|Factory<br>Automation|Total||
|1. Bank's repayment guarantee|17|10|7|12|46|4.73|
|2. Credit Guarantee Fund's<br>credit guarantee|19|15|10|19|63|4.69|
|3. Credit guarantee by<br>|3|7|6|15|31|4.96|
|Technology Credit Guarantee<br>Fund|||||||
|4. Parent firm's credit guarantee|0|2|3|1|6|5.00|
|Total in each sector|39|34|26|47|146||
|Out of Possible sector total (N)|42|20|20|40|122||

* Average usefulness on a scale of 1 (low) to 5 (high).

75
# **4. Discussion**

The sampling strategies described in this paper were designed with the aim of producing a comprehensive longitudinal household survey of social, economic, and health indicators from a representative sample of Rohingya displaced and the host Bangladeshi population in Cox’s Bazar district. This effort was important to set an infrastructure that allowed for the representative tracking of both hosts and displaced in later years. In particular, with the COVID-19 pandemic, the existence of this representative survey with detailed contract information for all respondents allowed to implement a series of phone-based follow-ups that were critical to inform about the impacts of the pandemic in Cox’s Bazar.<sup>36</sup> This paper describes the strategy implemented to design a representative survey of this nature, using a combination of census data and publicly available humanitarian and geospatial data. Two different data collection exercises were carried out to assess the prevalence of Rohingya displaced outside the camps to inform the sampling strategy for Rohingya displaced. Administrative data from humanitarian agencies were used to design the sampling frame within the camps. Drone imagery and digital maps were used to implement the listing within camps and host communities. Two different open-source data sets were used to inform the design of the host strata and help generate the host enumeration areas. Government data such as the 2011 population census and administrative shapefiles were also used.

This paper aims to share these different strategies and lessons learned for researchers interested in designing representative surveys in displacement contexts. This is particularly relevant when attempting to do such exercises close to the time the displacement occurs, as it is unlikely that national sampling frames are updated. The analysis also highlights the importance of listing as a way to update population counts, and some of the potential risks of key informant approaches to estimate population counts. We also highlight the value of humanitarian data registries to inform ex-ante selection probabilities in contexts where those displaced are largely located in camps or areas covered by those data.

Although it was possible to solve many data gaps in this case, it is important to keep in mind that institutional solutions will make sampling frames more credible and compatible across surveys. Efforts to maintain detailed census cartography and consistent geocodes across surveys are central. As well as steps such as including refugees and non-nationals in national sample frames, which can provide a more sustainable infrastructure to design more accurate surveys and achieve more effective policies.

> 36 https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/bangladesh/brief/cox-s-bazar-panel-survey-briefs.

20