rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
<!-- Start of picture text --> THE PDIA PROCESS<br><!-- End of picture text --> <!-- Start of picture text -->
1. Initial problem analysis<br>eT DEE Constructing, deconstructing, and er EE “<br>: sequencing your problem. : :<br>2. Identify action steps : 6. Adapt and iterate<br>What can we do first to start Lececccccaneesssseeseeeeccccceacsseussesseeesceceeeseneusaneeseeeeeet” Based on lessons learned adapt<br>solving the problem? potential solution designs and iterate.<br>v A No<br>: Is the problem solved? B> YES ----.---- EXIT process<br>i i and think about<br>3. Take action 5. Sustain authority and legitimacy diffusion/scaling<br>Local agents take action and are Communicate quick wins and lessons to<br>held accountable. sustain and expand existing support.<br>4. Check-in<br>achieved? Lessons learned? Challenges<br>encountered? How were they overcome?<br><!-- End of picture text -->

Building State Capability at Harvard | PDIAtoolkit

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The second major socio-economic determinant of child mortality, which we quickly assess here in a descriptive way, is mother’s education. As can be seen in Figure 6, the share of mothers who completed at least primary education seems to show little correlation with child mortality rates. Except for Senegal, all West African countries tend to have very low rates of primary completion while mortality levels as well as performance vary greatly within this group. No country in West Africa has significantly expanded mothers’ education in the respective period covered by the surveys. Yet, we have seen above, this has not prevented Niger from achieving a considerable reduction in child mortality. This also holds for Mozambique. In the remaining two fairly successful countries, Uganda and Madagascar, child mortality improvements have been accompanied by improvements in mothers’ educational endowments.

**Figure 6: Mothers with at least primary education and U5M rates**

<!-- Start of picture text --> 260 2<br>Gui<br>240 Ni<br>Mal 0<br>220<br>-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6<br>200 -2 Mal<br>Ke<br>180<br>Ug<br>-4 Gui<br>160<br>Moz<br>Sen<br>Moz<br>140 -6<br>Ug<br>Sen Ke<br>120 Mad Mad<br>-8<br>100<br>Ni<br>80<br>-10<br>60<br>0.00 -12 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60<br>Share of mothers with at least compleAnnual GDP pc grow t ed primary educationh<br>U5M rate<br>Annual % point change in U5M<br><!-- End of picture text --> Source: Authors’ calculation from DHS surveys. Note: The arrows point from the first survey year to the second for each country.

With regard to access to tap water (including both private and public access), the aggregate figures also hardly reveal any systematic pattern. Figure 7 illustrates that this holds in particular for the variation between countries, while some within-country changes show the expected pattern, i.e. that better access to safe drinking water is accompanied by child mortality reductions. Yet, the largest expansions in terms of access to tap water were recorded in Mali and Senegal, i.e. countries without major successes in child mortality reduction. In 22
Gulati, Ashok, Hanson, James and Pursell, Garry (1990) Effective Incentives in India's Agriculture. Policy, Planning and Research Working Paper No. 332 (Trade Policy). pp. VII + 138. The World Bank. January.

Gulati, Ashok and Chadha, Rajesh (1991) "Prices, Technology and Incentives: A Study of Oilseeds and Pulses." Mimeo. November.

Joshi, P.K. and Singh, N.T. (1991) "Environmental Issues in Relation to Incentives and Resource Allocation in Indian Agriculture." September. Mimeo, Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana Kalra, G.D. and Gulati, Ashok (1991) "Pricing of Sugarcane in Cooperative Factories: Case of Maharashtra". Mimeo. July.

(1992) "Protection to Tractors in India: a Firm Level Study." Mimeo. February.

Kalra, G.D. (1992) "Effective Incentives in India's Agriculture: Canegur and Sugar Cane in Uttar Pradesh." Mimeo. April.

Katula, Rajni and Ashok Gulati (1991) "Cooperative Sugar Factories in Maharshtra: Pricing of Sugarcane." Mimeo.

(1992) Electricity Subsidy to Indian Agriculture Mimeo.

January.

_ (1992) "Estimating Electricity Subsidy to Indian Agriculture: an Exploratory Exercise." April. Mimeo.

(1992) "Institutional Credit to Agriculture: Issues Related to Interest and Default Subsidy". _Journal of Indian School of Political Economy._ Vol. IV no.4 ,October-December.

Kishor, Nalin (1990) "Trends in Manufacturing Protection in India, 1970/71 to 1987/88". Mimeo. November.

(1991) "Estimating Output Protection for Kapas ,India: 1970 - 89". Mimeo. May.

xxxvi
we do not know their ultimate destination which makes these export transactions difficult to compare to the rest of the transactions.<sup>11</sup> Sales to free zones/customs warehouses represent about 2-5 percent of aggregate exports in Turkey. Also regarding the destination variable, we account for the changes in name that some statistical territories have undergone over time due to spatial divisions.<sup>12</sup> After applying the cleaning procedures the dataset includes a total of 8.8 million firm-HS 12-digit product-destination-year observations and 7.3 million firm-HS 6-digit productdestination-year observations for the 2002-2011 period.

To assess the quality of our dataset we compare the corresponding aggregate export flows versus the aggregate export flows available in the WITS/COMTRADE. The ratios indicate that the exporter-level customs data represents 100% of the export flows reported in WITS/COMTRADE, which is not surprising since both are sourced from the same institution _Turkstat_ .

Table 1 provides summary statistics on the cleaned exporter-level dataset. The number of exporters in Turkey increases substantially from 30,219 in 2002 to 45,818 in 2007 before the global trade collapse that accompanied the global financial crisis, and 51,371 in 2011. Turkey has a very large number of exporters for its income level, its size in terms of GDP, and its degree of openness (Cebeci, Fernandes, Freund, and Pierola, 2012). Over the sample period, Turkish exporters send as a whole more than 4,500 HS 6-digit products to more than 200 destinations.<sup>13</sup> The range of HS 6-digit products exported and the range of destinations served increases over the sample period. The range of products and destinations is substantially larger than that of exporters in Costa Rica shown in Lederman, Rodriguez-Clare, and Xu (2011), which is not surprising given Turkey’s economic size, level of development, and strategic geographical location.

At the firm-level, the average exporter in Turkey exports 1.1 Million USD in 2002, 2.2 Million USD in 2007, and 2.5 Million USD in 2011. However, the distribution of average

> trade regime” considers transactions where goods are sold from any national territory ( _including free zones_ ) to third countries only as exports (see p. 32 of United Nations, 2008).

> 11 See p. 34 of United Nations (1998).

> 12 The Former Republic of Yugoslavia was divided into Bosnia, Croatia and Serbia in 1996 and Serbia was further divided into Serbia and Montenegro in 2006. Some countries recognize Kosovo as an independent state rather than a part of Serbia since 2009. For technical and consistency purposes we treat Serbia, Montenegro and Kosovo as a single destination. While some other territories have undergone changes in names, those changes either occurred before the beginning of our sample period or do not involve the merger or separation of states (e.g., Zaire changed its name to Democratic Republic of Congo in 2006).

> 13 This number of HS 6-digit products is based on original non-consolidated HS codes as described earlier.

7
18 -

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described in more detail in a recent CEPAL publication (CEPAL, 1989). It is probably unlikely that such an action is reproducible, at least in covntrie.s with representative government.

48. The Spanish approach combines elements of the gradualist with relatively drastic organizational changes. Workers previously administered througn the OTP have been transferred as employees of new joint governtment/emplover companies (see Annex 3), with whom new contracts are being, negotiated. The principal practical effect of the change is that the new companies have to be self financing, so that they are under pressure to negotiate away restrictive practices. This, coupled with the generally competitive environment of Spanish ports, is likely to be a reasonably effective strategy for improving port efficiency in the medium term. In the longer term the proportion of workers permanently allocated to the individual employers, at present around 30%, will increase.

# Related Changes in Cargo Handling Organization

49. The increasing specialization of port labor and the sharply reduced numbers required have meant that the previous organization with labor pools, the rotation of work, fixed gang allocations and so on, can no longer be accepted. At the same time, the previous practice of regular working hours with an expensive premium for overtime work is not suitable for high productivity ships, whose time in port may be measured in hours rather than in days. The aim now is to have smaller numbers of more specialized workers, available on a more flexible time basis.

50. Parallel to these changes affecting labor arrangements, the growth of specialized terminals has led to an increase in management specialization either of different operating units within one organization or from the entry of private sector firms. The previous "horizontal" port organization with separate firms working on the ships, on the quays and possibly even in the sheds is giving way to a "vertical" organization, in which work on a berth or group of berths - ship, shore and shed - is concentrated into one management unit.

51. The emergence of these management units, coupled with the need for increased labor specialization, has resulted in a movement away from the casual employment of large numbers of men to the permanent employment of much smaller numbers, allocated to individual employers on a full time basis (with or without a tonnage related element in theit pay). This is the process of 'decasualization". For the individual employer it means that he has the highly trained labor force that he requires. At the same time it represents an increase in his fixed costs, so that he has every incentive to increase labor productivity and to encourage flexibility between the different tasks on the terminal. The abolition of restrictive practices, the decasualization of labor, compensation payments for redundant labor and the emergence of separate management units, most probably by the entry of the private sector, are all elements in the improvement of port efficiency.
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politicians plays a role in determining participation in the program; and two, whether participation in the program has a positive impact on household poverty.

The panel survey data we use contain information on participants of the EGPP program and similar households, including their access to local politicians. Further, the surveys were designed to collect information on the three stages of program participation – having access to knowledge about the program; submitting an application; and being selected by the program. Such detailed data allow us to unpack the relative importance of the role of politicians at the various stages of the program participation process. Using design features of the baseline and follow up surveys, we also assess the impact of participation in EGPP on household consumption expenditure as a proxy measure of poverty. Our results suggest that when EGPP is oversubscribed, politicians are likely to influence who benefits from the program. We also find that poorer households benefit relatively more from participation in EGPP than the less poor. These results emphasize the disadvantageous position of poor households who may not have access to local politicians, and provide some insights on how the Government of Bangladesh could best manage its public works interventions to ensure the most effective use of public resources earmarked for poverty reduction.

The paper is organized as follows. The next section briefly describes the Bangladesh context and the design of the EGPP program. Section 3 discusses the analytical framework and empirical strategy. Section 4 offers a description of the data and presents the main findings of the paper while section 5 concludes.

# **2. Context and program description**

Since the 1990s Bangladesh has experienced a steady decline in poverty, which has gone hand-inhand with remarkable improvements in human development indicators. This remarkable reduction in poverty in recent years helped Bangladesh attain both the MDG goals of halving the poverty headcount and the depth-of-poverty. Survey-based estimates using national poverty lines show that the pace of poverty reduction in Bangladesh picked up considerably during 2000-2010 compared to that observed during 1990s. The steady decline in poverty rates has been sufficient to ensure substantial reductions over the decade in the number of people living in poverty — from nearly 65 million in 2000 to 48 million in 2010, or a 26 5
the number of competitors. In case of a negative shock, in the short term the number of competitors stays the same while demand drops, and the latter may be perceived as more elastic demand. This explanation is supported by two findings from the data. First, firmreported capacity utilization (which is highly correlated with the business cycle) is correlated with firm-reported elasticity of demand, whereas there is no evidence of correlation between the number of competitors and capacity utilization. Second, patterns at the country level suggest a relationship between macro performance and changes in the elasticity of demand. Uzbekistan', for example, has grown relatively slowly in recent years and is a country where demand has been becoming more elastic. On the other hand, in countries that grew reasonably fast, the reported elasticity has been falling (e.g., Russia, Ukraine). Thus, although market structure as measured by the number of competitors has become more competitive over the 1999-2005 period in transition economies, the substantial macro recovery in the region may be responsible for the reported falls in elasticity of demand faced by firms.

We turn now to firms’ assessments of the “importance” of competition. This is approached in several ways in the BEEPS survey. Firms are asked about the importance of competition from imports in the market for their main product or service. Separately, they are asked about the importance of pressure from customers and from foreign and domestic competitors for developing new products, services or markets, and for reducing production costs. These latter measures are particularly relevant for this paper, since they measure the competitive pressures to engage in restructuring.

Table IV.3 shows a now familiar pattern: the perceived level of competition from imports in transition countries (III-V) in 2002 and 2005 differs little from that in the developed EU market economies (I-II). A closer look at country groups suggests that variations across regions are driven primarily by country size, i.e., the size of the domestic market and the scale of domestic competition. Thus in 2005, 11-14% of firms in the cohesion countries (II), the EU8 members (III), the SEE countries (IVa), and the low income CIS countries (V) stated that competition from imports was high, whereas the figures for West Germany (I) and the middle-income CIS countries – most of which are Russian firms – 26
the FFE program. The stipend is zero if the household is not selected for FFE participation.

Parents maximize (1) subject to (2) and (3) with respect to _C, S, H_ and L, given _w, b, Z_ and T. This is equivalent to maximizing (1) with respect to _C, H,_ and S, subject to: _C + (w-b)S + wH= wT+Y(Z) (4)_ This makes clear that _w-b_ is the price of schooling. With no other constraints on time allocation, the parents' choice equates the MRS between consumption and schooling with school price _w-b,_ and it equates the MRS between consumption and leisure with the price of leisure, w. The derived demand function of parents for their children's schooling and leisure are then: The supply of child labor is then determined as a residual using (2). The corresponding utilitycompensated demand functions minimize the full expenditure, _C +(w-b)S+wH,_ needed to attain a given level of utility, and so are given by: The effect of an increase in the stipend reveals how time allocation varies with the price of schooling. Using the Slutsky decomposition, the effect on the supply of child labor is: If this is negative then child labor is a substitute for schooling. Quasi-concavity of U implies that - the first term on the RHS of (9) the utility compensated own-price effect on demand for

- schooling is negative. The third term in (9) is negative, assuming that schooling and leisure are a normnal good in total (i.e., that _H+S_ is increasing in full income at given w and _b)._ The

9
migration data’, Report of the Commission on International Migration Data, Washington, DC: Center for Global Development.

Chand, S. and M.A. Clemens (2008), ‘Skilled emigration and skill creation: a quasiexperiment’, International and Development Economics Working Papers idec0805, International and Development Economics.

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De, P.K. (2008) ‘Identifying the impacts of international migration on women’s contraceptive use in Mexico’, mimeo, New York: New York University.

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De Brauw, A., J. Huang, S. Rozelle, L. Zhang and Y. Zhang (2002),‘The evolution of China’s rural labor markets during the reforms’, _Journal of_ _Comparative Economics_ , **30** (2), 329–53.

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49
We also characterize the population residing in close proximity to combustion power plants and show that the burden of excess PM2 _._ 5 falls disproportionately among groups with lower socioeconomic status.

The fourth set of results projects these costs into the future, accounting for possible changes in the climate, demography, and the electricity sector. Specifically, we extend the counterfactual calculations until 2059, which roughly corresponds to the expected operational lifespan of the combustion power plants in service. We begin by computing the evolution of the FHD using data from 22 climate and earth system models under three Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSPs). Concerningly, for the region, we find that the FHD is expected to increase between 22 and 24 percent over the next four decades. Consistent with the increase in the FHD, we also find that premature deaths and monetized losses are also likely to increase. When assessing the effect of the SSPs in conjunction with three highly stylized electricity sector scenarios, we find that merely flattening out the losses would require the most optimistic SSP scenario in conjunction with an electricity sector scenario where combustion power plants are phased out following regional pledges. These results are important because they indicate that the health burden of excess PM2 _._ 5 is largely permanent over the next four decades and is a first-order concern for policy makers in the region. Another important feature of these results is that there are considerable differences in sub-regional trends, for example, with the Andean Region (Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru) poised to experience a decrease in hydrological droughts and consequently in their FHD.

Our paper contributes to several stands of literature. Most narrowly, it extends recent work in the U.S. quantifying the relationship between hydrological droughts, energy generation, and air quality (Eyer and Wichman, 2018; Herrera-Estrada et al., 2018; Qiu et al., 2023). Specifically, we demonstrate that this relationship also exists in LAC, we recover the first region-wide estimates of excess PM2 _._ 5 for the region, and we offer three novel insights about this relationship. First, we provide the first estimates of the nexus between hydrological droughts and excess PM2 _._ 5 created by combustion power plants that use oil and biomass. We also show that these plants lead to some of the largest decreases in air quality. These findings are important because oil and biomass power plants are common in developing countries. Second, we show that the link between hydrological droughts and worsening air quality can be observed even for short-duration droughts. We can document this response because we observe small hydropower plants (greater than 1 MW), which often lack dams, and as a result, their generation capacity is more immediately affected by droughts. Third, we show that small-capacity com4