rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
Occupational Segregation and
            Declining Gender Wage Gap : The Case of Georgia
This paper examines the role of
            industrial and occupational segregation in explaining the
            gender wage gap and its evolution in Georgia between 2004
            and 2015. It first documents the declining trends observed
            in the gender wage gap in Georgia during this period,
            commenting on some of the possible underlying factors
            driving such trends. It then presents evidence that
            employment patterns by industry and occupations are highly
            concentrated in the country and measures the degree of
            segregation using the Duncan index. Next, it analyzes if and
            how much industrial and occupational segregation have
            contributed to the gender wage gap and its decline by
            decomposing the gender wage gap into the within-category and
            between-category components. The results point to existing
            gender wage gaps within sectors, industries, and occupations
            being the primary drivers of the wage gap in Georgia, and
            find a smaller role of gender segregation per se in these categories.
Training to Teach Science :
            Experimental Evidence from Argentina
This paper evaluates the learning impact
            of different teacher training methods using a random
            controlled trial implemented in 70 state schools in Buenos
            Aires, Argentina. A control group receiving standard teacher
            training was compared with two alternative treatment arms:
            providing a structured curriculum unit or receiving both the
            unit and weekly coaching. Following a 12-week intervention,
            there are substantial learning gains for students whose
            teachers were trained using structured curriculum units, as
            well as for those whose teachers received coaching (between
            55 percent and 64 percent of a standard deviation more than
            those students in the control group). Coaching teachers does
            not appear to be cost-effective, as the unit cost per 0.1
            standard deviation is more than twice the cost of using only
            the structured curriculum unit. However, additional coaching
            is particularly beneficial for inexperienced teachers with
            less than two years of teaching Science. Coaching teachers
            also showed specific gains for girls, who both learned and
            declared to enjoy science lessons more. Higher-performing
            students especially benefited from both interventions, with
            students from coached teachers performing particularly well
            in harder questions. Using structured curriculum units and
            providing coaching also affected teacher perceptions:
            teachers expressed that they enjoyed teaching Science more
            and taught more hours of Science, and that their students
            developed more skills. Results from a follow-up survey
            suggest persistent change in teacher practice, with the vast
            majority reporting using the structured curriculum unit one
            year after the intervention.
Does Premature Deindustrialization
            Matter The Role of Manufacturing versus Services in Development
The shares of manufacturing in value
            added and employment across a range of developing economies
            peaked at lower levels of per capita income compared with
            their high-income, early-industrializer precursors. Based on
            the statistical analysis of input-output tables and
            firm-level data, the paper contributes to the discussion on
            whether this "premature deindustrialization"
            matters by showing that: a) the premature declining share of
            the manufacturing sector is largely not driven by a
            statistical artifice whereby what was earlier subsumed in
            manufacturing value added is now accounted for as service
            sector contributions; b) Some features of manufacturing that
            were thought of as uniquely special for development, such as
            scale economies, exports, and innovation, are increasingly
            shared by services sector firms. Yet, a given service
            subsector is unlikely to provide opportunities for
            productivity growth and job creation for unskilled labor
            simultaneously; c) Some high-productivity services serve
            final demand or derive demand from several sectors, while
            others are more closely linked to a manufacturing base.
Methodology for a World Bank Human
            Capital Index
This paper describes the methodology for
            a new World Bank Human Capital Index (HCI). The HCI combines
            indicators of health and education into a measure of the
            human capital that a child born today can expect to obtain
            by her 18th birthday, given the risks of poor education and
            health that prevail in the country where she lives. The HCI
            is measured in units of productivity relative to a benchmark
            of complete education and full health, and ranges from 0 to
            1. A value of x on the HCI indicates that a child born today
            can expect to be only x x100 percent as productive as a
            future worker as she would be if she enjoyed complete
            education and full health. The methodology of the HCI is
            anchored in the extensive literature on development accounting.
Prioritizing Infrastructure
            Investments : A Comparative Review of Applications in Chile
Governments worldwide face the difficult
            challenge of deciding which infrastructure projects to
            prioritize and select for implementation, given the limits
            of available funding and the need to attain their
            developmental goals. The key objective of this report is to
            conduct a comparative exercise between the World Bank's
            Infrastructure Prioritization Framework, a multicriteria
            analysis–based methodology to project prioritization, and a
            more complex cost-benefit analysis–based approach. The
            report focuses on Chile, which has a well-institutionalized
            evaluation process that uses cost-benefit analysis to assess
            projects on their quality and ability to generate value for
            money. The analysis compares the results of the
            Infrastructure Prioritization Framework alongside
            Chile's current cost-benefit analysis–based and
            multicriteria analysis approaches to the same subsets of
            projects in the road transport and water reservoir
            subsectors, respectively. The results show that the
            Infrastructure Prioritization Framework has application
            beyond its original proposition and can complement a
            traditional cost-benefit analysis by directly considering
            social and environmental policy goals that are otherwise
            difficult to quantify in a cost-benefit analysis. The
            analysis also finds that in Chile there is a discrepancy
            between the stated goals and objectives of the appraisal
            system and the actual implementation. In the case of
            transport sector projects, there is an evident deviation
            between cost-benefit analysis–based selection policy and
            actual decisions made for project implementation. In the
            case of water catchment selection, there is a bias toward
            projects with higher financial-economic performance as
            compared to social-environmental performance, despite policy
            intentions to afford consideration to environmental and
            social development goals.
Assessing the Effect of Public
            Capital on Growth : An Extension of the World Bank Long-Term
            Growth Model
To analyze the effect of an increase in
            the quantity or quality of public investment on growth, this
            paper extends the World Bank’s Long-Term Growth Model
            (LTGM), by separating the total capital stock into public
            and private portions, with the former adjusted for its
            quality. The paper presents the Long-Term Growth Model
            Public Capital Extension (LTGM-PC) and accompanying freely
            downloadable Excel-based tool. It also constructs a new
            Infrastructure Efficiency Index (IEI), by combining quality
            indicators for power, roads, and water as a cardinal measure
            of the quality of public capital in each country. In the
            model, public investment generates a larger boost to growth
            if existing stocks of public capital are low, or if public
            capital is particularly important in the production
            function. Through the lens of the model and utilizing
            newly-collated cross-country data, the paper presents three
            stylized facts and some related policy implications. First,
            the measured public capital stock is roughly constant as a
            share of gross domestic product (GDP) across income groups,
            which implies that the returns to new public investment, and
            its effect on growth, are roughly constant across
            development levels.  Second, developing countries are
            relatively short of private capital, which means that
            private investment provides the largest boost to growth in
            low-income countries. Third, low-income countries have the
            lowest quality of public capital and the lowest efficient
            public capital stock as a share of gross domestic product.
            Although this does not affect the returns to public
            investment, it means that improving the efficiency of public
            investment has a sizable effect on growth in low-income
            countries. Quantitatively, a permanent 1ppt GDP increase in
            public investment boosts growth by around 0.1-0.2ppts over
            the following few years (depending on the parameters), with
            the effect declining over time.
Ghana Private Equity and Venture
            Capital Ecosystem Study
This paper discusses the landscape for
            private equity and venture capital financing in Ghana. It
            provides an overview of the private equity and venture
            capital market in the country, describing key players,
            including funds, fund managers, investors, and public sector
            entities. The paper provides an analysis of key market
            drivers and impediments, as well as legal, regulatory, and
            taxation drivers and impediments that affect Ghana’s private
            equity and venture capital industry.
Are Banks Engines of Export
            Financial Structures and Export Dynamics
This paper studies the impact of
            financial structures on the dynamics of the export sector
            using rich data from over 60 countries. The results reveal
            that bank-oriented financial systems boost the size of the
            export sector more than market-oriented financial systems.
            However, especially in middle- and low-income countries,
            this effect mostly stems from banks slowing down
            exporters' exit rather than promoting firms' entry
            into export. The reduced exit from the export sector appears
            to reflect domestic banks' tendency to evergreen loans
            to exporters ("soft budget constraint") more than
            banks' buffering role in difficult times. Foreign banks
            mitigate this effect and enhance the dynamism of the export sector.
Contractual Frictions and the
            Margins of Trade
A growing body of work has shown that
            the quality of national institutions that enforce written
            contracts plays an important role in shaping a
            country's comparative advantage. Using highly
            disaggregated bilateral and unique harmonized firm-level
            trade data across a large number of countries, this paper
            contributes to this literature by providing a comprehensive
            analysis of the mechanisms through which institutional
            frictions affect the pattern of aggregate trade flow,
            distinguishing the effects on the intensive and extensive
            margins. The analysis finds that contractual friction
            distorts countries' trade pattern beyond its effect on
            domestic production structure, by deterring the probability
            of exporting (the extensive margin) and export sales after
            entry (the intensive margin), particularly in industries
            that rely more heavily on relationship-specific inputs (more
            vulnerable to holdup problems). The analysis also finds that
            contractual frictions matter more for the intensive margin
            than the extensive margin of exporting. In addition, better
            contracting institutions increase the probability of
            survival of new export products in more contract-intensive
            industries. These results have important policy implications
            for developing countries that seek to boost export growth
            but many of which suffer from poor contracting institutions.
The Limits of Commitment: Who
            Benefits from Illiquid Savings Products
Working with a private bank in Ghana,
            this study examines the impacts of a commitment savings
            product designed to help clients taking repeated overdrafts
            break their debt cycles. Overall, the product significantly
            increased savings with the bank without increasing
            overdrafts. However, after accounting for other sources of
            savings, the study finds that clients with above-median
            baseline overdraft histories do not accrue new savings
            during the commitment period. Rather, they draw down other
            savings to offset the committed amount and take on new debt.
            In contrast, individuals with below-median overdraft
            histories significantly increase savings during and after
            the commitment period.
Catastrophic Medical Expenditures :
            Reflections on Three Issues
There is a large empirical literature
            analyzing 'catastrophic' medical expenses. The
            'basic' approach defines expenses as catastrophic
            if they exceed a prespecified percentage of total
            consumption or income; the approach, in effect, tells us
            whether expenses cause a large percentage reduction in
            living standards. An alternative 'ability-to-pay
            approach' defines expenses as catastrophic if they
            exceed a prespecified percentage of consumption or income
            less actual expenses on nonmedical necessities or an
            allowance for them. This paper argues that this approach
            does not, contrary to what is sometimes claimed, tell us
            whether expenses are large enough to undermine a
            household's ability to purchase nonmedical necessities.
            The paper also compares the income- and consumption-based
            variants of the 'basic' approach, showing that if
            the individual is a borrower after a health shock, the
            income-based ratio will exceed the consumption-based ratio,
            while the opposite is true when the individual continues to
            be a saver after a health shock. The paper also explores the
            relationship between the income- and consumption-based
            ratios and the more theoretically correct ratio proposed by
            Flores et al. It shows that if the individual is a borrower
            after a health shock, both the consumption- and income-based
            ratios will exceed the Flores et al. ratio, with the
            income-based ratio overestimating it by more, while in the
            case when the individual continues to be a saver after a
            health shock, the income-based ratio will overestimate
            Flores et al.'s ratio by less and may not overestimate
            it at all. Last, the paper proposes a lifetime money metric
            utility approach that defines medical expenses as
            catastrophic in terms of their lifetime (rather than
            single-period) consequences. It shows that under certain
            assumptions, the money-metric utility approach and the
            Flores et al. approaches are identical, and both are
            operationalizable without data on how households finance
            their medical expenses.
Does Job Polarization Explain the
            Rise in Earnings Inequality Evidence from Europe
Earnings inequality and job polarization
            have increased significantly in several countries since the
            early 1990s. Using data from European countries covering a
            20-year period, this paper provides new evidence that the
            decline of middle-skilled occupations and the simultaneous
            increase of high- and low-skilled occupations are important
            factors accounting for the rise of inequality, especially at
            the bottom of the distribution. Job polarization accounts
            for a large share of the increasing inequality between the
            10th and the 50th percentiles, but it explains little or
            none of the increasing inequality between the 50th and 90th
            percentiles. Other important developments during this
            period, such as changing wage returns, higher educational
            attainment, and increased female labor force participation,
            account for a small portion of the changes in inequality.
Spatial Distributions of Job
            Accessibility, Housing Rents, and Poverty in Nairobi, Kenya
Whether individuals and job
            opportunities are well connected is a key determinant of
            productive urban labor markets. The overall level of job
            accessibility in a city depends on the locations of jobs and
            workers' residences, as well as transport networks.
            Moreover, who has good access to job opportunities hinges on
            the trade-off faced by households in their residential
            choices over job accessibility, living conditions, and
            housing costs. This paper empirically analyzes the spatial
            distributions of job accessibility, housing rents, and
            poverty in Nairobi, Kenya. It finds that workers and jobs
            are not well connected in the city: Nairobi residents can on
            average access fewer than 10 percent of existing jobs by
            foot within an hour. Even using a minibus, they can reach
            only about a quarter of the jobs. This paper further shows
            that poorer households and/or those who live in informal
            settlements can reach a more limited number of jobs. Living
            closer to job opportunities is indeed costly in Nairobi, not
            only because housing quality and living conditions tend to
            be better in such areas, but also job accessibility itself
            is valued as a great amenity in the housing markets, which
            challenges low-income households' residential location choice.
Feeding of Infants and Young
            Children in South Asia
Poor breastfeeding and complementary
            feeding practices predict child stunting and wasting in
            South Asia, suggesting that initiatives to end
            undernutrition in the region should focus on improving the
            diets of young children. This review of the literature finds
            that South Asia has made relatively good progress in
            improving breastfeeding practices compared with other
            regions, but the lack of diversity in complementary foods
            and low frequency of feeding continue to be problems.
            Children who are most at risk of experiencing poor feeding
            include those who are born small, have younger mothers, and
            live in poorer households or in communities with less access
            to, or lower uptake of, primary health services. Initiatives
            to improve feeding practices have not produced substantial
            improvement, particularly in complementary feeding, because
            such efforts have lacked the coverage, intensity,
            comprehensiveness, and continuity needed. Policy, legal, and
            program actions to protect, promote, and support recommended
            feeding practices should be informed by situation analyses
            and formative research on context-specific drivers of poor
            practices. The actions should involve multiple sectors and
            stakeholders, including governments, the private sector,
            communities, and households.
Vertical and Horizontal
            Redistribution : The Cases of Western and Eastern Europe
European countries have the world's
            most redistributive tax and transfer systems. Although they
            have been well equipped to deal with vertical inequality --
            that is, fostering redistribution from the rich to the poor
            -- less is known about their performance in dealing with
            horizontal inequality, that is, in redistributing among
            socioeconomic groups. In a context where individuals may not
            only care about vertical redistribution, but also about the
            economic situation of the specific groups to which they
            belong, the horizontal dimension of redistribution becomes
            politically salient and can be a source of social tensions.
            This paper analyzes the performance of the 28 EU countries
            on redistribution across (i) age groups, (ii) occupational
            groups, and (iii) household types over 2007–2014 using
            counterfactual simulation techniques. The analysis finds a
            great degree of heterogeneity across countries: changes in
            the tax and transfer system have particularly hit the young
            and losers of occupational change in Eastern European
            countries, while households with greater economic security
            have benefited from these changes. The findings suggest that
            horizontal inequality is a dimension that policy makers
            should take into account when reforming tax and transfer systems.