(e.g., getting married or having children [World Bank 2005e]). It is a transition period characterized by psychological change, and by development and maturation of personality and identity. During the period youth become part of alliances, but also strive for independence, for instance by obtaining economic security. Values and attitudes are developed, and important decisions are made that affect earning potential by choice of education, for example (Moser and Bronkhorst 1999). Thus, the beginning and end of the transition period from child to adult varies from one individual to another, a variation not accounted for in this paper.

The focus of this paper is youth at risk in Haiti. Youth at risk include those facing environmental, social, and family conditions that hinder personal development and successful transition into society and the economy.

# **Risk and Protective Factors**

The framework to address youth at risk used in this paper is an ecological framework widely used in the health literature that reflects the linkages between youth and their environment in the form of family, community, state, etc. by considering the connection between risk and protective factors and youth and adult outcomes. The assumption underlying this framework is that various risk and protective factors early in life build an individual’s preferences, expectations, evaluation, and responsibilities, and establish an understanding of the person’s place in and way of interacting with society. Risk factors may expose youth to risk-taking behavior that compromise well-being and hinder personal development. Such behavior includes school dropout or early (unprotected) sexual initiation. Counterbalancing the risk factors are protective factors that mediate risk, such as a high level of completed education and employment, and act as protective mechanisms that insulate youth from negative effects (Fitzpatrick 1997).

In the transition from childhood to adulthood some youth will undertake risktaking behavior, which carries a risk of negative outcomes that decrease the likelihood of a happy and healthy life both as youth and adult<sup>6</sup> (World Bank 2005a, 2003). Risk-taking behavior early in life is likely to have negative impacts on the ability of youth to handle stressful experiences later in life and may lead to destructive or antisocial behavior (Barker and Fontes 1996). For example, early unprotected sexual activity may lead to HIV/AIDS infection. Youth at risk are more likely than other youth to engage in such risky activities.

One way of associating risk and protective factors and their potential outcomes is to consider development as taking place in three overlapping spheres (World Bank 2005a, 2003, Fitzpatrick 1997): (1) at the _individual level_ youth who are disadvantaged, e.g., by lack of life skills or self-esteem, are more likely to engage in risk-taking behaviors. In contrast, intelligence, self-confidence, and strong coping skills protect

> 6 Negative outcomes can also be risk factors themselves. For example, school dropout can be a negative outcome of poverty, but may also be a risk factor since low human capital may predispose youth to early unprotected sexual activity or unemployment.

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