toward poverty eradication in the EU, an absolute measure is recommended to track changes over time against a fixed benchmark.

# **Furthermore, distinguishing between transient and persistent poverty is crucial, as it allows**

**for a policy focus on preventing long-lasting poverty.** Though cross-sectional analysis of poverty is extremely important, moving beyond isolated snapshots of monetary deprivation in a single period is critical. In 2023, persistent at-risk-of-poverty rates<sup>6</sup> varied significantly across the EU. Croatia, Bulgaria, Estonia, and Romania reported rates between 14% and 20%, highlighting entrenched challenges, while Hungary and Czechia had rates below 4.0%. The persistence of poverty is a complex issue that requires a multifaceted approach.

**Finally, there are challenges to properly identifying some at-risk-of-poverty groups in the EU and designing policies to properly address poverty and social exclusion, particularly ethnic minority groups such as the Roma.** While official household surveys in European countries show that several identifiable groups face higher rates of poverty, chronic poverty, or at-risk poverty and social exclusion **,** in most EU countries, there are no official measures of poverty among the Roma population, as they cannot be accurately identified in household surveys. Ethnicity is not broadly collected, and if included in the survey instruments, they tend to be undercounted in censuses and under-sampled in household surveys, so poverty cannot be reliably measured (Annex 1).<sup>7</sup> Official data from countries with available ethnic identifiers, such as Bulgaria, indicates extremely high monetary and multidimensional poverty rates among this group. However, comprehensive estimates for this group are not universally available across all EU countries. The absence of data on poverty within this group may result in a lack of tailored policy responses, as policymakers may not be aware of the extent of their poverty, whether they are persistently poor or move in and out of poverty frequently, or the overlapping deprivations they face.

**Unofficial data on Roma populations collected by the Fundamental Rights Agency (FRA) shows large deprivations in several areas compared to the general population, which tend to persist over time.** Despite a well-defined strategy, the EU Roma Strategic Framework for equality, inclusion, and participation, and the allocation of EU funds for Roma inclusion through the European Structural and Investment Funds<sup>8</sup> , progress in enhancing development outcomes has been sluggish. Although recent data from the 2021 FRA Roma surveys in the EU demonstrate some improvement in recent years, the Roma community continues to grapple with limited access to essential services (such as education, health, and adequate housing conditions), enduring precarious living conditions, including in isolated communities.<sup>9</sup> In health, there is a significant life expectancy gap between Roma populations and the general European population, with estimates ranging from 5 to 20 years less. Adequate housing conditions are scarce. In housing, Roma communities often endure substandard living conditions, face challenges in

> 6 <mark>The persistent at-risk-of-poverty rate shows the percentage of the population living in households where the equivalized disposable income was below the at-risk-of-poverty threshold for the current year and at least two of the preceding three years. Source: Eurostat, 2024</mark>

> 7  Other vulnerable groups such as disabled individuals, sexual minorities, and migrants are also not covered in the EU-SILC surveys.

> 8 Source: EU funding for Roma equality, inclusion and participation

> 9 For example, enrollment rates for early childhood education (children aged 3 up to the primary compulsory school age) are extremely low and dropped from 44 to 42 percent between 2016 and 2021 in the EU.  The data also underscores a significant gap in educational attainment for 20-to 24-year-old Roma individuals, with only 27% having reached at least upper secondary education on average across all EU countries, with substantial country variations. The new EU Roma framework aims to reduce this gap by a third by 2030 and highlights the ongoing issue of school segregation among Roma children aged 6 to 15.

3