In the December 2018 survey wave, 394,422 respondents who are administrators of Facebook-designated SME pages responded to the survey. Of the respondents, 39 percent were female, and 61 percent were male.

The sample for this paper includes all respondents with complete gender and industry information. Out of the total number of observations 91 percent of the respondents (357,877) responded to the gender question and, within this subset, 35 percent of the respondents (122,543) responded to the industry question. Since this paper is focused on female-owned and male-owned firms, we conduct the analysis only for respondents who name themselves as owners and/or managers in the survey and exclude employees from our analysis.<sup>12</sup> The owners and managers make up 54 percent of this remaining sample (66,908).<sup>13</sup> Within this subsample, we were able to clearly identify whether the firm in question was in a male-dominated sector or not for 84 percent. Therefore, the total sample size which we base the analysis in this paper is comprised of 55,932 observations. This sample will be used to define the male-dominated sectors and female-concentrated sectors as described in the following section.

The size of the sample changes depending on the outcome that is being analyzed (see Table 1). Questions that were asked later in the survey suffered from greater non-response (such as generalized self-efficacy or entrepreneurial identity indices). The household income and profits variables were reported in local currency and translated by the research team into USD using an average of the exchange rate for the survey period.

**Table 1. Sample Size for key outcomes**

|Number of employees|31,756|
|---|---|
|Total Average Monthly Profits|17,351|
|Generalized self-efficacy index|26,033|
|Error management Score|28,663|
|Entrepreneurial identity index|25,359|
|Career Fit Confidence: More Committed to staying in sector|25,527|
|Career Fit Confidence: Good relationships in sector|26,431|

The number of employees includes all workers who regularly work in the enterprise, including full-time, part-time and family members. The average monthly profits are self-reported and asked directly to the respondent i.e. not calculated from revenues minus expenses. Generalized self-efficacy index refers to one’s own belief in their own competences (based on Schwarzer, R., & Jerusalem, M. 1995). Error management score captures behavior and attitudes individuals display when confronted with errors and mistakes (based

> 12 The International Finance Corporation (IFC) defines a woman-owned enterprise as either: (a) 51.0 percent ownership/stake held by a woman/ women; or (b) 20.0 percent ownership/stake held by a woman/women AND 1 woman as CEO/COO (President/ VicePresident) as well as 30.0 percent of the board of directors being women where a board exists. The definition of a femaleowned/male-owned firm used in this paper is comparable to the one used by the IFC.

> 13 For those cases in which firms have multiple owners, they could be mostly men, mostly women or have the same number of women as men. Taking this into account, we identify two main definitions for determining a male-owned and female-owned firm. In the first definition, when the respondent reported they were an owner we assign the firm as male-owned if the respondent reported that most of the owners were men and we assign the firm as female-owned if the respondent reported most of the owners were women, we follow the same assignment for when the respondent’s role is the manager. In the second definition, when the respondent reported they were an owner, we assign to the firm the gender of the owner, regardless of whether the owners were mostly men or women, and when the respondent was the manager, we assign the firm as male-owned when the respondent reported that most of the owners were male and we assign the firm as female-owned when the manager reported most of the owners were female. Results were robust to these two definitions. Throughout this paper, the definition used is the first one.

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