**Appendix Table A1: Estimates of  σ, the Armington CES Elasticities**

|**Country**||**Estimate**|**and test**|||||**Model**|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||**σ**|**Standard**<br>**Error**|**t-**<br>**statistic**|**NOB**<br>**after**<br>**adj**|**Method**|**Lags**<br>**intervals**<br>**in VEC**|**Constant and**<br>**trend structure in**<br>**VEC**|**Additional specifications**|
|Tonga|0.920|0.198|4.636|43|FMOLS|||CE deterministic regressors = C, dummy 1985 and<br>after|
|Trinidad and Tobago|0.937|0.168|5.580|46|VEC|1,2|C, T in CE, VAR|xgr exogenous in CE; xgr exogenous in VAR|
|Tunisia|0.595|0.048|12.508|46|VEC|1,2|C, T in CE; C in VAR|mshare exogenous in VAR|
|Türkiye|0.915|0.098|9.370|46|VEC|1,2|C, T in CE, VAR|mshare exogenous in VAR|
|Turkmenistan|0.471|0.088|5.323|25|VEC|1,3|C, T in CE, VAR|mgr, mshare exogenous in VAR|
|Tuvalu|0.745|0.071|10.553|46|VEC|1,2|C, T in CE; C in VAR|xgr, mshare exogenous in VAR|
|Uganda|0.669|0.125|5.358|44|VEC|1,4|C, T in CE; C in VAR|xgr exogenous in CE; dummy 1998 and after<br>exogenous in VAR|
|Ukraine|0.685|0.243|2.815|26|VEC|1,2|C, T in CE, VAR|factor demand spec; mgr exogenous in VAR|
|United Arab Emirates|1.822|0.335|5.443|46|VEC|1,2|C, T in CE, VAR|factor demand spec; dummy 1993 and after<br>exogenous in CE and VAR; xgr exogenous in CE;<br>eshare exogenous in VAR|
|United Kingdom|1.897|0.330|5.741|45|VEC|1,3|C, T in CE, VAR|mgr exogenous in VAR|
|United States|2.141|0.210|10.181|45|VEC|1,3|C in VAR|mgr exogenous in VAR|
|Uruguay|0.989|0.023|42.842|45|VEC|1,3|C in CE, VAR|mshare exogenous in VAR|
|Uzbekistan|0.746|0.050|14.892|25|VEC|1,3|C, T in CE; C in VAR|xgr exogenous in CE; mshare exogenous in VAR|
|Vanuatu|0.837|0.141|5.926|38|FMOLS|||CE deterministic regressors= C, T, mshare;<br>additional deterministic regressors= T^2, eshare|
|Venezuela|0.633|0.106|5.981|44|VEC|1,4|C in CE|factor demand spec; lyx exogenous in CE|
|||||||||factor demand spec; CE deterministic regressors=|
|Vietnam|0.622|0.219|2.840|32|FMOLS|||C, dummy 1990 and after, T, eshare; additional<br>deterministic regressors= T^2, xgr|
|West Bank and Gaza|0.747|0.056|13.375|22|VEC|1,2|C, T in CE; C in VAR|xgr exogenous in CE; mshare exogenous in VAR|
|Yemen|0.748|0.289|2.590|24|VEC|1,4|C in CE|factor demand spec; xgr exogenous in VAR|
|Zambia|0.910|0.063|14.445|48|FMOLS|||CE deterministic regressors= C, dummy after 1989,<br>additional deterministic regressors= T, mshare|
|||||||||CE deterministic regressors= C, T, mshare, dummy|
|Zimbabwe|0.660|0.122|5.409|48|FMOLS|||after 1997; additional deterministic regressors=<br>T^2,dummyafter 2007|

**Source:** Authors' calculations **Notes:**

C = constant CE = cointegration equation dummy = dummy variable egr = growth rate of real exports eshare = exports/GDP FMOLS = fully modified OLS for cointegration regression global demand and price ratios = variables in equation 9 GMM = generalized method of moments inst(s) = instrument variable(s) lyx = log of output (real GDP) index mgr = growth rate of real imports mshare = imports/GDP NOB = number of observations after adjustments T = linear trend T^2 = quadratic trend reduced eq of export system = equation 9 VEC = vector error correction VAR = error correction part in VEC or vector autoregression xgr = growth of output (real GDP) 30