being Dynamics in rural Ethiopia.<sup>6</sup> Their finding confirms that of the Alkire and Roche (2013) results.<sup>7</sup> However, deprivation rates are higher in rural than in urban areas in 2011. As indicated in Figure 1 Panel C, the deprivations in rural areas are higher than that of the urban areas. In most cases the 2011 deprivation levels in rural areas are higher than that of the urban areas in 2005 and 2011. There are more households below the poverty line in rural areas. Rural households still have more children out of school, about one-third of them still live farther than 5 kilometers from a health facility, and the practice of female circumcision is still more prevalent in rural areas. Rural households own fewer assets, and have less access to information and safe drinking water.

> 6 The indicators they investigated include (i) _education_ : attainment, literacy and enrollment; (ii) _health:_ antenatal visits, immunization, child morbidity and undernutrition; (iii) _household access to basic services_ : electricity, clean cooking fuels, piped water, distance to water source, and toilet facility; (iv) household infrastructure: floor material and roof material, (v) _household possessions_ : tenancy of crop land, livestock, mobile phones and bank account; and (vi) _women empowerment_ : employment, cash earnings (if employed), control over cash earnings and attitudes toward wife beating. There has been improvement over the 2000-2011 period in all but a few indicators including tenancy of crop land in the household possessions category and two indicators in the women empowerment category including employment and control over cash earnings.

7 The MPI captures multi-dimensional poverty and covers 104 developing countries. Instead of measuring poverty indirectly by consumption – usually measured by household expenditures over a short recall period – the MPI assesses deprivation directly in the three Human Development Index dimensions: health, education, and living standards. The index is based on a deprivation score and calculated by the product of the incidence and the intensity of deprivation. Alkire and Roche (2013) use the DHS data and a person is identified as MPI poor if he or she is deprived in at least one third of the following 10 indicators: (i) _Years of schooling_ : if no household member has completed at least 5 years of schooling; (ii) _Child school attendance_ : if any school-aged child is not attending school in years 1 to 8; (iii) _Child mortality_ : if any child has died in the family; (iv) _Nutrition_ : if any adult or child for whom there is nutritional information is malnourished; (v) _Electricity_ : if the household has no access to electricity, (vi) _Drinking water_ : if the household has no access to clean drinking water or clean water is more than a 30-minute walk from home; (vii) _Improved_ s _anitation_ : if the household doesn’t have an improved toilet or if the toilet is shared; (viii) _Flooring_ : if the household has dirt, sand or dung floor; (ix) _Cooking Fuel_ : if the household cooks with wood, charcoal or dung; and (x) _Assets_ : deprived if the household does not own more than one of the following: radio, TV, telephone, bicycle, or motorbike, and does not own a car or tractor.

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