rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
As discussed by Foster, Haltiwanger, and Foster (2008), it is important to distinguish between plants’ TRPR and TFPQ when estimating the effects of plant turnover on an industry’s productivity. If all firms are price takers, simultaneous entry and exit processes lead to a selection outcome in which the industry’s least productive firms (in the sense of having have lower TFPQ) exit the market in (long‐run) equilibrium. However, it is also possible to have an alternative scenario in which a plant’s revenue productivity (TFPR) is a better predictor of its survival than its physical productivity (TFPQ). Such a case could arise if some plants in the industry exercise a degree of market power that allows them to charge higher prices for their product than others. If this were the case, plants with higher TFPR could survive in the long run, even if they were less productive (in the sense of having lower TFPQ) than plants exiting the market. In such cases, empirical studies that measure establishment‐level productivity using TFPR might thus overestimate the “true” link between a firm’s productivity and the probability of its survival.

This kind of measurement error arises when factors other than inter‐firm gaps in factor productivity determine inter‐firm price differentials. Such factors include the many sources of product differentiation that firms use to lower product substitutability as well as idiosyncratic demand differences that can arise in markets. While such factors drive a wedge between marginal factor productivities and product prices in monopolistic markets, they are not easy to observe or measure. This complicates the empirical task of identifying the impact of supply and demand factors on productivity measures.

To get around this problem, we control for the influence of product differentiation simply by focusing on Ethiopian industries that produce only relatively homogeneous goods. We focus on 11 four‐digit ISIC industries. The identification relies on Melitz and Ottaviano (2008), which sets out a structural model of production under monopolistic competition, which we use to interpret the results of estimation of a reduced form productivity equation. The main predictions of the model are all borne out in the most homogenous of the 11 industries: cinder blocks (ISIC 2695). In this industry, the expansion of the local market boosts revenue productivity while increases in transport costs and licensing fees reduce it. The picture is mixed in the other industries, but it is still broadly supportive of the model in as far as local market size is a major factor in determining aggregate revenue productivity within nine of the eleven industries that we examine. Rising 4
out other productive activities and misallocating resources within and across economies. While these results are important and must be considered in the design of financial regulation in advanced countries, we should not forget that the trade-off is alive and strong for a large share of the world economy, providing a useful framework to assess the impact of policies targeting financial deepening, diversity, and inclusion (World Bank, 2013).

The discussion on the existence of a growth/risk trade-off is also relevant when we look at withincountry distributional impacts of financial deepening and financial crises. For instance, U.S. policy makers, who pushed in the 1990s for a large expansion of credit to less creditworthy borrowers, believed that it could bring a host of socio-economic benefits, especially for the poor and minorities. The evidence shows, first, that these policies did not sufficiently account for the tradeoff inherent in financial deepening and inclusion: without proper financial regulation and supervision, the expansion of household mortgage credit led to a massive financial crisis. More controversially, there is some evidence that these financial liberalization policies in the U.S. have had, through general equilibrium effects, adverse effects on the dynamics of segregation during the credit boom and a widening of wealth gaps during the bust and its aftermath.

What is the likely direction of future research? First, it will consider a larger heterogeneity of agents and impacts of financial deepening. Recent advances in both the static and dynamic modeling of household consumption decisions are pushing the frontier in the analysis of the distributional impacts of credit supply. The progress has been twofold: (i) dynamic and static models that feature rich household heterogeneity in preferences, consumption patterns, and price responses have been introduced (Bajari, Chan, Krueger, and Miller, 2013, Landvoigt, Piazzesi, and Schneider, 2015, and Ouazad and Rancière 2017), and (ii) newly available household panel data, particularly in the context of real estate tax and deeds files, has enabled the estimation of such dynamics using the most recent developments in the econometrics of discrete choice panels (Kuminoff, Smith, Timmins, 2013, and Baltagi and Bresson, 2017). Key topics in future contributions include the interaction of credit constraints, lenders’ and households’ beliefs, and life-cycle dynamics. The challenge will be to relate these heterogenous effects and complex interactions to macroeconomic outcomes regarding economic growth and crisis risk.

27
|**Onl**<br>**_SKI_**<br>|**ine programs**<br>**_P THIS SECTION FOR PROGRAMS WITH NO ONLINE COMPONENTS_**<br>|
|---|---|
|40|In total how many hours of training are provided under this program?|
|41|Whatproportion of this trainingdo teachers spendpracticingwith other teachers?|
|42|What proportion of this training do teachers spend practicing with students?|
|43|Over how many weeks is this training spread?|
|44|Do teachers have any contact with a trainer online, as part of the program?<br>1.<br>No<br>2.<br>Yes|
|45|If so, is the contact with trainers individual, in groups, or both?<br>1.<br>Individual<br>2.<br>Group<br>3.<br>Both|
|46|Are the online group sessions compulsory or voluntary?<br>1.<br>Compulsory<br>2.<br>Voluntary|
|47|In total, how many hours of online contact do teachers have with a trainer under the program?|

49
Duraiswamy and Duraiswamy (1995) used the DHTP data to estimate earning functions for public and private sector workers, and decompose earnings differentials into two parts – one reflecting differences in productive characteristics or “endowment” and the other reflecting differences in pay structures, or premiums, attached to particular characteristics common to both sectors (Blinder and Oxaca 1970). The authors found that wages are higher in the private sector and that about 87% of the sectoral wage difference could be attributed to the higher premium paid by the private sector, while the rest could be attributed to the superior human capital of private-sector workers. They showed that the endowments and the returns on these endowments are higher in the private sector, except for female and scheduled caste (SC) and scheduled tribe (ST) workers.

Madheswaran (1998) also applied Blinder-Oxaca (1970) decomposition to the DHTP and showed that the overall unadjusted wage differential (average public wage divided by average private wage) was 0.85, and that superior human capital endowments of workers in the private sector account for 29% of this difference.<sup>3</sup> For females, however, especially those from SC and ST, public wages are higher than private wages. Similar to Duraiswamy and Duraiswamy (1995), Madheswaran found that returns to productive characteristics were higher in the private sector, except for female and SC/ST workers.

Using DHTP data, Lakshmanasamy and Ramasamy (1999) model workers’ choice of sector of employment with the expected sectoral wage differential as one of their explanatory variables. Madheswaran and Shroff (2000) used a sub-sample of science graduates, around 40% of the DHTP sample, to examine public-private wage differentials among men and women. These authors also found that, on average, wages in the private sector are higher than the private sector wages.

# **4. Data, Definitions and Stylized facts**

Data for this study come from Round 50 and Round 55 of the all-India household survey collected routinely by the National Sampling Survey Organization (NSSO), Department of Statistics and Program Implementation, Government of India. Both Round 50 and Round 55 are so-called quinquenial surveys, which include a Consumption Survey (CS)

> 3 The difference with the Duraiswamy and Duraiswamy (1995) study is possibly a different specification of the earning functions.

9
- Fishbein, D. H., Herman-Stahl, M., Eldreth, D., Paschall, M. J., Hyde, C., Hubal, R., Hubbard, S., Williams, J., and Ialongo, N. (2006). Mediators of the stress–substance–use relationship in urban male adolescents. _Prevention Science_ , 7:113–126.

- Fletcher, J. M. (2008). Adolescent depression: diagnosis, treatment, and educational attainment. _Health Economics_ , 17(11):1215–1235.

- Frank, E. and Levenson, J. C. (2011). _Interpersonal Psychotherapy._ American Psychological Association.

- GBD 2019 Mental Disorders Collaborators (2022). Global, regional, and national burden of 12 mental disorders in 204 countries and territories, 1990–2019: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. _The Lancet Psychiatry_ , 9(2):137–150.

- Goldberg, D. and Williams, P. (1988). General Health Questionnaire.

- Guthold, R., Johansson, E. W., Mathers, C. D., and Ross, D. A. (2021). Global and regional levels and trends of child and adolescent morbidity from 2000 to 2016: an analysis of years lost due to disability. _BMJ Global Health_ , 6(3):e004996.

- Hardaway, C. R. and Smalls, C. (2009). Poverty and socioeconomic disadvantage in adolescence. _Handbook of Adolescent Psychology, Volume 2: Contextual Influences on Adolescent Development_ , 2:444.

- Haushofer, J., Larreboure, M., Lowes, S., and Mait, L. (2023a). Cash transfers and social preferences of children. Working Paper 31720, National Bureau of Economic Research.

- Haushofer, J., Mudida, R., and Shapiro, J. (2023b). The comparative impact of cash transfers and a psychotherapy program on psychological and economic well-being. Working paper.

- Horowitz, J. L. and Manski, C. F. (2000). Nonparametric analysis of randomized experiments with missing covariate and outcome data. _Journal of the American Statistical Association_ , 95(449):77–84.

- Jaroszewicz, A., Jachimowicz, J., Hauser, O., and Jamison, J. (2022). Cash can make its absence felt: Randomizing unconditional cash transfer amounts in the U.S. Working paper.

- Jefferies, P., McGarrigle, L., and Ungar, M. (2019). The CYRM-R: A rasch-validated revision of the child and youth resilience measure. _Journal of Evidence-Based Social Work_ , 16(1):70–92.

23
trade transaction cost is set at _Ad Valorem_ 25 percent. This comparison demonstrates the significance of improved transparency as a major institutional reform in trade policy.

About 60 to 80 percent of the total trade cost reduction from transparency improvements in trade policy comes from the technical progress component, while the remaining 20 to 40 percent is attributed to the component related to irregular payments and transfer. The proportion of the impacts from irregular payments in trade costs is higher in some economies, such as Philippines, Mexico, Thailand and China. In Korea, only irregular payments appear to have a room for improvement in our scenario.

# **_Implementing Shocks to the Model_**

The shock variable for the transparency improvement measures to bring about technical progress, _ams,_ has bilateral arguments, and shocks can be implemented to any bilateral combinations. This is also the case for the shock variables for the reduction of irregular payments, which is emulated as import taxes _tms_ . Our simulation applies these shocks to all trading partner and is not limited to APEC members. This is similar to trade liberalization under the principle of most favored nation treatment. A salient technical feature of trade facilitation measures includes this non-discriminatory outcome, because it is technically not feasible to apply the trade facilitation reforms only to a limited number of trade partners in a discriminatory manner. The improvement of transparency in trade policy apparently shares this virtue.

Helble, Sheperd and Wilson (2007) use trade data in their gravity model with the following types of aggregation: (i) all the HS Chapters, (ii) excluding raw materials (HS 1-27)<sup>16</sup> , and (iii) excluding in addition basic manufactures (HS 1-83). The first type includes agricultural products and receives a strong bias from the existing higher tariffs. The third type suffers from fewer samples, resulting in their preferred set of results based on the second type. Our simulation includes two cases for applying shocks to the industrial sectors. The first case is to apply the same rate of shock to all the trading sectors, assuming that improvement in the transparency of trade policy accords benefits 16 The estimated value of tariff-factor-equivalent conversion (-1.312) draws from the regression in the second type.

19
Policy ReseaRch WoRking PaPeR 4347

# **Abstract**

This paper uses a duration analysis based on adoption data spanning more than 25 years from six communities in the Central Highlands of Guatemala. The analysis explores how household characteristics and external trends play into both the adoption and diffusion processes of non-traditional exports among smallholders. Adoption was initially widespread and rapid, which led nontraditional exports to be hailed as a pro-poor success, reaching all but the smallest landholders. However, over time more than two-thirds of adopters eventually dropped out of production of nontraditional exports. Based on the analysis, production of nontraditional exports appears to have delivered less prosperity to adopters than initially promised. Although smallholders may be enticed into entering into nontraditional exports markets when conditions are favorable, they may lack the capacity to overcome the difficulties that inevitably arise in complex types of cultivations and in highly variable global agricultural markets. Governmental and non-governmental organizations can attempt to mitigate these difficulties, but market forces may overwhelm their efforts, with some adopters still unable to compete in global markets.

This paper—a product of the Development Research Group—is part of a joint research project with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://econ.worldbank. org. The corresponding author may be contacted at gcarletto@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent._ Produced by the Research Support Team
et al. 2018). The 10-item scale has been shown to strongly predict clinical diagnoses of depression and anxiety disorders (Weissman et al. 1977). We find that victimization is related to a higher level of symptoms of depression. It is also possible that the extent of trauma following an event varies across different types of events. Indeed, contrary to our results on economic well-being, we find that whereas violent attacks are related to lower mental health, property-related events are not. Furthermore, as the motivations of different perpetrators can vary, the consequences of their attacks might also differ. Indeed, we find that events perpetrated by insurgents, bandits, and criminals are related to lower mental health, but those of communal clashes are not. Our findings highlight the importance of further studying the links between the economic and mental health consequences of victimization.

Our third contribution relates to the method of collecting the data. The victimization data used in the study are from a telephone survey among households that were part of the GHS panel collected between 2010 and 2016 (a Living Standards Measurement Study, or LSMS, data set by the World Bank). Information on household welfare and characteristics before, during, and after the conflict comes from the GHS panel. We have complemented these data with annual telephone survey data on the recall of victimization dating back to 2010.

Our data are also novel because we collected the information about household victimization over the phone;<sup>3</sup> this was considered a strong alternative to face-to-face interviews because close to 90 percent of all households in the GHS regions had phones. In addition, phone surveys have several advantages. Survey fatigue is less of an issue when interview time is short and the topic is limited to victimization only. Also, talking about conflict events might be psychologically burdensome, which is why keeping the interview short is particularly important. Finally, people living in conflict-affected areas might be afraid to be seen reporting these events to enumerators who work for the Nigerian government; therefore, they might feel more comfortable reporting such sensitive events over the phone. Administering the conflict module in a separate telephone-based survey allowed us to get detailed information on the events, without placing a large burden on the households during a long household interview.<sup>4</sup>

> 3 Similar telephone surveys have been conducted in six countries in Sub-Saharan Africa under the World Bank project Listening to Africa (Croke et al. 2012).

> 4 Telephone surveys would also be recommended in situations with high migration, which might lead to systematic attrition. The migration rates in the LSMS panel were very low between 2010 and 2016, and in our telephone survey sample, all households had stayed in the same local government area since 2010.

5
**Table 5: Combined Effect of Round 1 or 2 Support on Round 3 Performance**

||Percentage<br>change in<br>sales|Percentage<br>change in<br>employment|Decreased<br>employment|Anticipate<br>falling<br>into<br>arrears|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|Received any support in<br>|4.315|1.013|1.476|2.669|
|Round 1 or 2|||||
||(3.739)|(2.516)|(2.357)|(3.412)|
|Log(labor productivity)|1.547*|1.688|-2.883|-2.730***|
||(0.768)|(2.653)|(2.180)|(0.825)|
|Log(number of<br>employees)|1.362|3.499|2.157*|-1.242|
||(1.022)|(2.068)|(1.053)|(1.017)|
|Log(firm age)|-2.071|0.668|-0.146|-8.339***|
||(2.188)|(2.694)|(2.095)|(2.004)|
|Top manager female|-0.219|2.601|1.627|-1.188|
|dummy|||||
||(3.123)|(3.955)|(2.649)|(1.889)|
|Innovated during 2017-19|-0.839|1.464|-0.458|2.908|
||(1.704)|(5.135)|(4.828)|(2.412)|
|State ownership (10%)|-10.590|-10.220|-9.962|-7.598|
||(8.382)|(24.472)|(17.058)|(10.223)|
|Foreign ownership (10%)|-1.441|8.682|-5.473|-5.805|
||(4.724)|(13.390)|(8.920)|(5.457)|
|Has line of credit or loan|1.634|2.041|1.431|-0.096|
||(2.157)|(2.591)|(1.921)|(2.586)|
|Owns a website|2.244|-1.305|2.697|0.858|
||(2.000)|(4.110)|(3.838)|(2.932)|
|National market dummy|4.945*|-0.180|-0.521|2.157|
||(2.540)|(5.171)|(4.276)|(3.454)|
|International market|3.991|-6.101|1.691|-2.143|
|dummy|||||
||(3.942)|(7.897)|(4.999)|(4.544)|
|Constant|-22.878*|-40.982|67.940**|74.194***|
||(12.041)|(29.101)|(23.510)|(9.539)|
|R<sup>2</sup>|0.049|0.101|0.060|0.229|
|Number of observations|3,507|3,546|3,546|3,247|

_Sources_ : Enterprise Surveys COVID-19 Follow-up Surveys and Enterprise Surveys. _Notes_ : All regressions are ordinary least squares and include sector and country fixed effects. Standard errors are clustered at the country level. *** p < 0.01, ** p < 0.05, * p < 0.1.

17
10 Also, due to the sgnificant dffences in legal systems and tadions in the world, it is important for those providing legal assistance to undertn the legal traditions of the counties receiving assistance and be fmiliar with tdeir legal systes. For example, U.S. style securities laws, which rely on common law definitions of fraud and mesenitaton, will require adaptaton in a civil code jurisdiction. An attmpt by a United Kingdom lawyer to prpae banidng legislaion in a Central European country met with a negative reaction form the local legal community.

The goal of achieving an inmnally conistent and coherent lega system that is in accordance with the legal traditions of a particular country can lead to an admittedly contrvesi dilenum It is difficult to transplant lga systms and impose ready-made solutions on counties. It might, however, be worth considering whether countries that need to build up their entir legal and rguatory famerks would not be well advised to adopt suiable intermonal conventions and model laws or follow closely examples that have proven functional in other societes. (This would apply to both rules" and "institutions".) For example, after the erosion of the socialist legal system, some of the republics of the former _Soiet Union_ are continuing to vaillate about which legal system to chose as a model, wheher to adhere solely to the continental civil law tradition or whether to adopt some aspects of the Anglo-Ameican common law system. In the past, there have been sveal examples of coumtres that adopted civil and commercial law ystems opwative in other countries. Turkey and Greece adopted the Swiss Code of Obligations and parts of the German Civil Code; and Japan and China adopted the same code frm Gemany.

Lesson learned: Each country needs to make a choice about the direction of its **legal refonn.** (b) On a related point, it has been the Bank's eoxpiece that countries undergoing legal reforms benefit fiom in-depth assessments or diapostic analyses and/or studies of thir lega systems (both legal and reguatory frameworks and institutional set-ups) prior to implementing legal techncal assistance projects. This applies equally to sector specific, partia legal reforms and to comprehensive ones. For example, in _Indonesia,_ the Bank prepared an in-depth analytic study of several areas of commercia **l** aw.'<sup>1</sup> Similarly, in _Mozambique and Namibia'_<sup>_2_</sup> the Bank codUC X me acmua tecnical assistance was ultmaly financed on a grant basis by a bilater agency.