rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
Table (G6) Impacts of the Program on Dwelling Characteristics

|**Outcomes**|**Treatment**|**(se)**|**FDR**<br>**q-values**|**Control**<br>**mean**|**(sd)**|**N**|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Housing expenditure (PPP PC)|158.54|(203.08)|[1.00]|96.06|(564.32)|1,096|
|Rent paid (PPP)|101.12|(94.99)|[1.00]|371.63|(169.40)|232|
|=1 if owns home|-0.10|(0.07)|[1.00]|0.80|(0.40)|1,102|
|Dwelling value (PPP)|9,320.34|(18,361.52)|[1.00]|46,908.00|(85,074.48)|566|
|=1 if hh paid for any improvements|0.06|(0.07)|[1.00]|0.40|(0.49)|1,102|
|=1 if NGO paid for any improvements|-0.00|(0.01)|[1.00]|0.00|(0.06)|1,102|
|Index of improvements|0.01|(0.04)|[1.00]|0.16|(0.23)|1,102|
|FR childcare and chore hours|-3.66|(2.86)|[1.00]|19.51|(18.70)|1,070|
|HH childcare and chore hours|1.25|(5.31)|[1.00]|32.70|(25.24)|681|
|Any domestic employees|0.01|(0.02)|[1.00]|0.02|(0.15)|1,102|
|N domestic employees|0.02|(0.03)|[1.00]|0.02|(0.15)|1,102|
|N Syrian domestic employees|-0.00|(0.01)|[1.00]|0.01|(0.07)|1,102|

**_Notes_** :

- The table shows the regression results on pre-specified main outcomes using the 2022 neighbor survey data. Each row is its own dependent variable.

- The outcomes that require definitions are: Housing expenditure is the sum of monthly rent paid, mortgage paid and money spent on housing upgrades, divided by household size. Rent paid corresponds to the monthly rent paid by households who rent. Dwelling value corresponds to “If you were to sell your house in the next month, how much money do you think it would sell for? In other words, what is the current market value of your home?” =1 if .. paid for any improvements corresponds to “ Have you or an NGO made (or paid for) housing improvements where you live since October 2019?” Index of improvements is an index of structural, cosmetic, mold, insulation and utilities upgrades. FR/HH childcare and chores hours corresponds to the hours spent by the focus respondent/household in the last 7 days on childcare and chores. Any domestic employees is an indicator equal to 1 if the household currently employs any domestic employees, and N refers to the number of employees.

- The regressions also have enumerator fixed effects, community-level controls (Irbid/Mafraq governorate and population quartile), refugee household-level controls (shelter program, baseline number of children, baseline number of children plus adults), the Marlowe–Crowne scale, and respondent gender, education, and age. In the parentheses are robust standard errors clustered at the locality level. Statistical significance represented by * (10%), ** (5%), and *** (1%). Q-values are calculated per Anderson (2008) and correspond to Family 6 in the pre-analysis plan.

44
**Table 6: Summary of cost elasticity for different farm size classes**

||<br>**Small**|**Farm size group**<br>**Medium**|**Large**|
|---|---|---|---|
|Simpson index|**Full Sample**<br>0.631***|0.413***|0.011|
||(5.027)|(3.161)|(0.090)|
|Spatial fragmentation|0.017|0.057***|0.103***|
||(0.838)|(3.511)|(7.082)|
|Observations|1,977|1,582|1,231|
||**Producers with inherited fragments**|**only**||
|Simpson index|0.622***|0.436***|0.021|
||(4.220)|(3.011)|(0.146)|
|Spatial fragmentation|0.004|0.068***|0.107***|
||(0.176)|(3.827)|(6.515)|
|Observations|1,528|1,260|1,026|
||**Paddy fragments only**|||
|Simpson index of fragmentation|0.234*|0.474***|0.375**|
||(1.677)|(3.233)|(2.059)|
|Spatial fragmentation|-0.003|0.046**|0.066***|
||(-0.119)|(2.144)|(2.990)|
|Observations|1,231|817|523|
||**Wheat fragments only**|||
|Simpson index of fragmentation|0.685***|0.603***|0.432***|
||(4.948)|(4.686)|(3.511)|
|Spatial fragmentation|0.061**|0.004|0.115***|
||(2.093)|(0.196)|(6.021)|
|Observations|825|718|673|

_Note:_ Small is below 2 ac., medium between 2 and 5 ac., and large above 5 ac. Asymptotic t-ratio reported in parentheses. Constant and other variables such as household’s characteristics, price of inputs and output and village level characteristics are included but not reported. *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 19
3 infancy and concentrated itn low-technology intensive processes. Consequently, Ecuador imported more than two-thirds of installed machinery in the<sup>years before the</sup> debt crisis started (see Table 1). Imported industrial intermediate goods also constituted a major supply of thic product category. Imports of consumer<sup>goods made</sup> up hardly 10% of the total imfiport bill, leaving very little leeway to<sup>restructure import</sup> expenditures in favor of productive factors in times of foreign exchange scarcity.

Exports were highly concentrated in oil, bananas and coffee. The undiversified export base can be partly explained by the high discrimination against<sup>non-traditional</sup> exports which resulted from the high protection of domestic consumer<sup>goods industries</sup> and a strong appreciation of the Sucre accompanying the<sup>capital inflows and the oil-</sup> boom in the 1970s. Exports were relied on to finance necessary imports<sup>of capital</sup> and technology-intensive intermediate inputs. Domestic production<sup>was dominated by</sup> the nontradables sector - it accounted for 58% of domestic value<sup>added in 1981.3</sup> Table 1: Trade structure **and** indicators of import intensity<sup>of</sup> domesfic production before the debt crsis, 1979-1981

|TCpsda<br>o*;**-**f<br>---<br>:impor--<br>capitai-go<br>39%-<br>'''<br><br>'~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1%|
|---|
|~~gods<br>-<br>10<br>' .<br>-petroleumrand<br>petr<br>produs<br>'<br>62%'<br>.--coffee<br>-%|
|-<br>otherfood>--ao--rlo-d,<br>S<br>of imporcedcapital g-<br>in installmentof<br>machinery=m-<br>70%|
|Share-ofimported industrial raw'<br>'<br>:= -<br>- materials in manufacturing output -<br>3%.|
|Share of imported industrial intermediate<br>goods in apparent consumption of<br>3-<br>--<br>%<br>--<br>this product category.,|

Source: Calculations from UNCTAD, UNIDO. Woxld Bank (see Annex).

3 Janvry et al. (1991). p. 25.
It is equally difficult to keep the technical expertise of instructors up-to-date. Even one of bodies most ardently advocating vocational education in the U.S. concedes that "problems plague in-service training for vocational teachers, administrators and teacher educators" (National Commission on Secondary Vocational Education, 1984).

Many of the problems surrounding instructor recruitment and retention stem from the determination of their salaries with reference to bureaucratic norms rather than to market conditions. In some cases this can actually lead to an inflation of salaries, and hence unit costs, evidence being furnished by comparisons of salaries in public and proprietary programmes providing similar training. For example Wilms (1975), in a representative comparative analysis of training for selected occupations (accountant, data-processing programmer, dental assistant, secretary, cosmetologist) in the U.S. in 1973, found that public post-secondary (noncollege) schools paid their instructors salaries which were 40% to 60% higher than competing proprietary schools, which kept their levels just above the market rates for the corresponding occupations.

The public schools, unlike the proprietaries, departed further from market norms by allowing their instructors to teach for only 9 months of the year and giving them relatively light weekly teaching loads--averaging 18 hours per week, as opposed to the proprietaries' 27 hours per week. Taking these factors into account, Wilms concluded that the cost of teacher input was several times greater in the public schools than in the proprietary schools.

To arrive at ai exact comparison one would need to take account of the fact that proprietary courses are more intensive, but shorter, than public training, and one would a'.so need to take account of possible differences in the quality of the instruction. In Wilms' study there did not appear to be any major differences in the labor market effectiveness of the training, but it is clear that there were systematic differences in the clienteles of the two types of institution, those attending proprietary schools coming from families with lower socioeconomic status and sometimes being screened for aptitude. Teachers at the proprietary schools had less credentials but more likely to be hired, retained and promoted on the basis of demonstrated teaching ability.

In many developing countries the problem is the reverse: bureaucratic norms lead to salaries being set so low that there is a chronic loss of competent instructors to industry, if they can be recruited in the first place. As the UNESCO study observes, "in most of the countries, the technically qualified are few in number to begin with and are much sought after by business and industry where salaries are such that the education system can rarely compete for the services of these people". This problem is also encountered by nonformal training providers and its implications are discussed in Section 6.

- 76 -
but be poorly targeted. Modifying the block structure of an IBT can result in small improvements in terms of better targeting of the subsidy to the poor households. Introducing a VDT or well-targeted income transfers through the social protection system rather than the electricity sector can result in significant improvements.<sup>16</sup> While it is usually true that an IBT does not result in well-targeted subsidies, in Montenegro electricity consumption is highly correlated with income. Households in the top decile of total per capita expenditures consume almost three times as much electricity as households in the bottom decile (Appendix Table 2). Although per capita consumption of electricity is almost constant with respect to income, the average household size is almost twice as large in the top as in the bottom decile. Figure 3 clearly shows the strong correlation between total household electricity consumption and household size. As a consequence of this strong correlation, an IBT or a VDT will be better targeted in Montenegro than in most other countries.

<!-- Start of picture text --> Figure 3: Electricity consumption and<br>household size in Montenegro<br>1200 5<br>1000<br>4<br>800<br>3 kWh/month<br>600<br>Household size<br>2<br>400<br>1<br>200<br>0 0<br>1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10<br>deciles of total PCE<br>household size<br>kWh/month per household<br><!-- End of picture text --> Source: Calculated from 2004 ISSP Montenegro Household Survey.

**_Benefit incidence analysis of alternative electricity tariff scenarios in Montenegro._** In the remainder of this section we evaluate the distributional and fiscal impact of alternative electricity tariff reform scenarios by conducting benefit incidence analysis of in-kind electricity subsidies that households in Montenegro would receive in five policy scenarios. The analysis includes three steps. First, we calculate the subsidy per kWh as the difference between the cost-recovery price, assumed here to be 7 c€/kWh, and the electricity tariff households are charged. Second, we estimate the total annual subsidy received by each household as the average level of electricity consumption multiplied by the subsidy per unit. Third, we calculate the total subsidy received by the poor and non-poor households. Last, we compare the coverage and targeting

> 16 Komives et. al. (2005).

12
HAVNEVIK, Kjell J. (ed.). The IMF and the World Bank in Africa: Conditionality. Impact and Alternatives. Scandinavian Institute of African Studies: Uppsala, 1987.

- HICKS, Norman L. "Expenditure Reductions in Developing Countries Revisited." World Bank. March 21, 1990.

- HICKS, Norman L. and Anne KUBISH. "Cutting Government Expenditures in LDCs." IMF, Finance and Development, Number 21, 1984. pp. 37-39.

- HINCHLIFFE, Keith. "Economic Austerity, Structural Adjustment and Education: The Case of Nigeria." IDS Bulletin, Vol. 20, No. 1. January 1989. pp. 5-10.

- HOPPERS, Wim H.M.L 'The Response from the Grassroots: Self-Reliance in Zambian Education." IDS Bulletin, Vol. 20, No. 1. January 1989. pp. 17-23.

- ILO. "Humanizing Adjustment." Development Business. No. 237, December 1987. p. 3, 19.

- LM1F SURVEM . "Adjustment Policies Can Protect Poor From Adverse Effects of Shocks, Says Fund Study." Vol. 17, No. II, May 30, 1988. pp. 162-164.

- JOLLY, Richard. "The Barbara Ward Lecture 1985." Society for International Development, Rome.

- KAKWANL Nanak, Elene MAKONNEN and Jacques VAN DER GAAG. "Structural Adjustment and Living Conditions in Developing Countries." World Bank, PRE Working Paper No. WPS 467. August, 1990.

- KNIGHT, John. "Educational policy issues in a period of stabilization and structural adjustment." United Nations, Journal of Development Planning, No. 19, 1989. pp. 59-72.

- KYDD, Jonathan. "Policy Reform and Adjustment in an Economy under Siege: Malawi 1980-87." IDS Bulletin, Vol. 19, No. 1. January 1988. pp. 31-41.

- KYDD, J. and _A._ HEWllT. 'The Effectiveness of Structural Adjustment Lending: Initial Evidence from Malawi." World Development, No. 14, 1986. pp. 347-365.

- LACHENMANN, Gudrun. 'The Social Problems of Structural Adjustment Policies in Africa." Economics, Vol. 38, 1988. pp. 74-96.

- LE-WIN, Keith M. Educatiun in Austerity: Options for Planners. UNESCO: Fundamentals of Educational Planning, No. 36. Paris: 1987.

- LEWIN, Keith and Dieter BERSTECHER. "The Costs of Recovery: Are User Fees the Answer?" IDS Bulletin, Vol. 20, No. 1. January 1989. pp. 59-71.

63
a process of adjustment of the values in the SAM is typical in the development of CGEs: real-world data rarely match the internal consistency requirements of a SAM. Nevertheless, our results should be interpreted with particular caution for the ‘problem’ countries, and for all countries lacking VATs (these are reported in the data appendix).

# **4 Results**

We calculated the MCFs associated with six different shocks to tax rates. In the first five experiments we increased each tax rate individually by 1% of the existing tax rate.<sup>13</sup> In the sixth experiment we increased all five tax rates simultaneously by 1%. In each case the additional tax revenue, ∆ _R_ , was redistributed to consumers as a lump sum transfer. The new equilibrium was established using a computable general equilibrium model written using GAMS MPSGE.

The welfare change induced by the combined tax and spend experiment was measured in terms of the numeraire using the equivalent variation ( _EV_ ).<sup>14</sup> The MCF of the experiment was calculated as _MCF_ = _−_ ( _EV −_ ∆ _R_ ) _/_ ∆ _R_ . The value of the additional transfer was subtracted from the consumer’s new welfare level because the MCF measures the cost of taxation and not the benefit of public spending.

## **4.1 Base Case Estimates**

The resulting MCF estimates are presented in Table 3. The estimates provide a basic blueprint for tax reform in each country. For any pair of tax instruments, the same total revenue could be achieved for lower deadweight loss by lowering tax rates associated with a high MCF and increasing low-MCF tax rates.

On average, the MCF associated with a marginal increase in all five tax rates is 1.17, indicating a required rate of return of 17% for African public projects. Among individual tax instruments, on average the lowest MCFs are associated with taxes on the two taxed consumption goods ( _domestic_ and _imports_ ), and the highest MCFs are associated with the two taxed factors ( _formal capital_ and _formal labor_ ). The _exports_ MCFs exhibit the greatest variation.

The high variance of _exports_ MCFs requires comment. Much of the variation comes from two countries: Burkina Faso and Rwanda. The _exports_ MCFs in these two countries are negative because the tax shock reduces tax revenue. The high absolute values occur because the exports tax rate shock induces a marginal change

> 13Where the tax rate was 0% we increased it to 1%.

> 14In theoretical papers on the MCF changes in utility are converted to a monetary measure by dividing by the marginal utility of income. When the utility function is linearly homogeneous (as is the case in our model) the equivalent variation gives the same measure of welfare change.

14
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where the first term in ( )⋅ is the effect of a change in the price of sugar on factor prices _w i_ , and the second set of terms are the effect of a change in the price of sugar on all home goods that in turn affect the factor prices _w i_ .

The direct, [11], total, [12] and indirect effects [13] are computed empirically by linking the farm level model with the CGE model.

The logic of the above analysis applied to the function λ _t_ ( _P A ,W h,_ 1 _,_ ⋅⋅⋅ _h, T d,_ ) can also be used to determine the _direct, indirect and total effects_ of macroeconomic reform on the productivity of water at the farm level. This is the nature of the analysis with the empirical model in later sections of this paper.

# **OVERVIEW OF RELEVANT POLICY ISSUES IN MOROCCO**

We demonstrate the micro-macro linkage approach by applying it to the case of Morocco where irrigated agriculture is a major sector. Using Moroccan data we demonstrate the impacts of various policy interventions and external shocks.

Agriculture accounts for about 15 percent of Morocco's gross domestic product and employs about 40 percent of the country's labor force. Agricultural products account for an average of 19 percent of the country's total imports and about 18 percent of total exports. Of the 9.2 million hectares of arable land, ten percent is irrigated but the products from irrigated agriculture account for 75 percent of total primary and processed agricultural exports. Agriculture is a key sector in the domestic economy, and it is a major trade sector and thus prone to macro economic shocks and to the trade policies of the country's major trading partner, the European Union.

The irrigated sector consumes about 85 percent of the country's total available water supplies. Besides the uneven geographic distribution of Morocco's water resources, the country faces an uneven and erratic rainfall pattern with large year to year variation from the arid South to the Northern regions of the country. Per capita annual renewable water resources are estimated at 800 m<sup>3</sup> , implying that Morocco is already a water stressed country. Morocco has invested heavily in developing its water resources, and is now reaching the physical limits of water availability from ground and surface sources (snow melt in the Atlas). The management of this critical resource for irrigation is carried out by nine administrative authorities (ORMVAs) in each of nine large scale irrigation schemes (regions), seven of which account for over 90 percent of the total irrigation water managed by public authority. The investment in and development of these irrigation districts has contributed in major ways to sustaining the income of rural areas, and employment opportunities. It is generally recognized that both economy wide and farm level policies are needed to increase water use efficiency.

_Key Policy Issues_ . The potential trade arrangements of Morocco with the EU are likely to increase competition for cereals while increasing opportunities for the export of fruits and 9
shock ( _εy_ ).<sup>11</sup> Realization of the income shock occurs after the fertility decision is made. Therefore, pregnancy decisions are based on expected income.

# 2.4 Perceived Infection Hazard

A woman's perceived exposure to HIV infection is modeled as a hazard process.<sup>12</sup> Let _h_ ( _t_ ) be the probability a woman assigns to getting infected at period _t,_ conditional on being HIV-negative until then. The perceived hazard rate for period _t_ is given by where _x_ ( _t_ ) is a vector containing the woman's characteristics, the duration of her marriage, her age and age squared, and a constant. The parameters related to the constant, age and age squared are allowed to dier for unobserved types.<sup>13</sup> The perceived unconditional probability of getting infected at period _t_ , _P_ ( _t_ ) _,_ is given by

# 2.5 Survival Expectations

A woman is assumed to know the mortality processes associated with HIV infection (for both adults and children). Survival to each additional period provides her with information about her HIV status. Specically, she reduces the probability of having gotten infected in each past period. Given these probabilities and the mortality process, the woman assigns probabilities to survival to each future period. The woman also updates expectations about the survival of children of ages zero to three in future periods. Conditional on the probabilities she assigns

> 11The Malawi Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 2006 estimates that 27.5 percent of children aged 5 to 11 are involved in at least one hour of economic work or 28 hours of domestic work per week. A more natural specication of the income function might take into account the ages of the children; however, I do not keep track of the ages of children above age 3 in the state space to reduce computational burden.

> 12Perceived and actual exposures to HIV infection are treated as exogenous to women's behavior because there is no variation in self reports of sexual behavior by women in the data. All but very few married women report having sex with their husbands and not having extramarital partners.

> 13The detailed specication of the perceived infection hazard function is presented in the appendix.

10