rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
anemia, which could impair their ability to learn (Dickson et al., 2000; Miguel and Kremer, 2004).

The emphasis on child health in developing countries is understandable—the health problems children face may be so pressing that other factors are of secondary importance. However, there are a number of important questions that have received little attention in poor countries. First, while there is abundant evidence that children in poorer households are generally in worse health (for reviews, see Behrman and Deolalikar, 1988; Strauss and Thomas, 1998), little is known about socioeconomic gradients in cognitive development. If poorer children in developing countries grow up with poorer cognitive skills, leading to lower incomes in adulthood, which in turn influence the cognitive skills of their own children, then low levels of cognitive development in early childhood may be one way in which poverty is transmitted across generations. Second, the way in which low socioeconomic status interacts with poor health and inadequate parenting behavior in determining child cognitive development in poor countries is not well understood. Yet these interactions are critical for the design of appropriate policies. Third, there is a large body of research on the determinants of low educational attainment among school-aged children in developing countries (for a review, see Glewwe, 2002). A common finding is that children from poorer households are less likely to go to school, less likely to make satisfactory progress conditional on school attendance, and less likely to learn and acquire skills in school. However, if the factors that affect school performance (and eventually earnings) are determined at earlier ages, then policies that focus on school-aged children may be less effective than those that concentrate on children at younger ages.

This paper examines the role of SES, child health and parenting in the cognitive development of 3,153 Ecuadorean children who were 36 to 71 months old at the time of assessment. The children in our sample are predominantly poor—all live in households that fall into one of the lower three quintiles of a nationwide wealth index, and the majority are from the bottom two quintiles. Cognitive development is assessed using the _Test de Vocabulario en Imágenes y Peabody_ (TVIP), the Spanish version of the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT), a test of vocabulary recognition that has been widely used as a general measure of 2
**Table 3**

|**TEST**|**FOR E**<br>|**XCLUSI**<br>|**ON:**LR<br>|TEST<br>|2<br>χ (r)<br>||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|r|dgf|)<br>(<br>2 _n_<br>χ|agri|manu|Trans|com.|fin.|gov|oil|const.|
|1|1|3.84|8.95|14.68|3.52|0.04|4.75|1.62|1.40|11.33|
|2|2|5.99|8.97|16.32|7.39|0.17|22.63|19.67|17.96|25.14|
|3|3|7.81|10.20|16.51|20.43|11.10|25.18|32.63|27.20|37.58|
|4|4|9.49|11.13|17.17|23.90|16.91|25.35|38.67|33.97|38.00|
|5|5|11.07|11.77|17.54|23.93|19.99|26.16|39.77|36.67|38.01|
|6|6|12.59|19.80|27.17|33.54|28.65|35.79|45.30|45.55|47.60|
|**TEST**|**FOR ST**<br>|**ATION**<br>|**ARITY:**<br>|LR TE|ST<br>2<br>χ(p<br>|-r)|||||
|r|dgf|)<br>(<br>2 _n_<br>χ|agri|manu|Trans|com.|fin.|gov|oil||
|1|7|14.07|50.66|50.47|50.68|50.61|50.73|50.31|50.70||
|2|6|12.59|35.72|35.53|35.72|35.66|35.77|35.37|35.82||
|3|5|11.07|18.24|18.04|18.23|18.17|18.40|17.89|18.51||
|4|4|9.49|5.26|5.05|5.24|5.19|5.41|4.90|5.50||
|5|3|7.81|3.75|3.61|3.75|3.70|4.07|3.44|3.89||
|6|2|5.99|3.75|3.60|3.74|3.69|4.05|3.43|3.89||
|**TEST**|**FOR W**<br>|**EAK-EX**|**OGEN**<br>|**EITY:**|LR TEST<br>|<br>2<br>χ(r)|||||
|r|dgf|)<br>(<br>2 _n_<br>χ|agri|manu|Trans|com.|fin.|gov|oil||
|1|1|3.84|0.36|0.64|5.75|3.85|0.82|8.05|0.53||
|2|2|5.99|0.38|0.67|9.81|3.89|18.36|26.09|16.91||
|3|3|7.81|6.85|4.58|11.39|14.38|24.58|36.53|19.02||
|4|4|9.49|12.65|6.05|17.77|18.08|24.99|38.96|24.40||
|5|5|11.07|14.03|7.44|20.86|18.53|28.00|41.78|26.24||
|6|6|12.59|23.62|15.73|25.37|18.97|37.58|44.31|33.98||

_Note:_ For r = 3, the test of long-run exclusion shows that none of the variables can be excluded from the cointegration space and the tests for stationarity indicate that none of the variables can be considered stationary. The tests of weak exogeneoity indicate that for r =3 that _manufacturing_ could be treated as weakly exogeneous.

Normalising the first cointegration vector on the 2<sup>nd</sup> and the second and the third cointegration vector on the 3<sup>rd</sup> element, yields the following estimates for β1, β2 and β3 (Table 4) and α1 , α2 and α3 (Table 5):

**Table 4**

||1<br>β|2<br>β|3<br>β|
|---|---|---|---|
|_Agr_|0.296|-0.014|-0.110|
|_Manu_|1.000|0.090|-0.093|
|_Transp._|-0.644|1.000|1.000|
|_Commerce_|-0.048|-0.155|-0.888|
|_Fin._|-0.136|-0.257|-0.014|
|_Gov._|0.255|-1.028|-0.085|
|_Petrol_|-0.051|-0.218|0.035|
|_Constant_|-6.716|4.981|2.105|

_Source:_ Authors’ calculations.

7
Promoting Democracy in Fragile States

# **3.1 The civic education program**

For the civic education and town hall intervention, ten members of local civil society organization chapters were hired as program facilitators for both programs. The facilitators included seven men and three women who were civil society organization staff or professional teachers from the counties or adjacent counties of the villages in which they worked. For villages assigned to receive a program (randomization is discussed below), facilitators traveled via motorbike to the villages and met with the town chief to discuss the intended program and seek their consent to work in the village. Of all the villages approached, consent was denied in only one instance (in Lofa county) and it was in association with the security program.

Program facilitators administered a civics and elections curriculum combined with either a gender rights or peace education curriculum in program villages. Then at least an hour, and often more, was devoted to town hall style discussion of electoral procedures, candidates, and rights issues. All communities received the same civic education curriculum, while the complementary gender rights or peace education curriculum was randomly assigned. The curriculum was administered in nine monthly open meetings taking place inside participating villages on weekends. The civic education and elections components of the curriculum were based on Liberian National Elections Commission civic education outreach materials and provided instruction on the structure of Liberian government, including distribution of powers and office-holder duties; the candidates, parties, and offices for which votes were being cast; and rules for legal campaigning and election-day balloting. (Examples of outreach materials are displayed in the supplemental appendix.) During the meetings, the facilitators would begin a lesson plan based on the outreach materials. When discussing candidates and parties, the facilitators were strictly instructed to avoid trying to persuade villagers to favor one or another candidate. At the same time, the facil10
- From the direct assessment: verbal counting; producing a set; number identification; number comparison; simple addition

- From the teacher report: shape identification; color identification; counting; size comparison; time comparison; number comparison

- Executive function

- From the direct assessment: head, toes, knees and shoulders tasks; forward digit span; pencil tap

- Socio-emotional skills

- From the direct assessment: perspective taking; understanding feelings

- From the teacher report: on task; instructions; planning; stopping; interrupting; hardworking; curiosity; responsibility; consideration; collaboration; helping others; taking turns; sharing; adjusting to transitions; settling; self-control; kicking/pushing/poking; upset when left; sadness; describing feelings; play pretend

- An overall “school readiness” factor including all these items

For pre-primary quality, we examine:

- Teaching practices

- From the classroom observation: math; reading and writing; expressive language; books or stories; tell stories; fine motor skills; singing/music; major motor skills; modifying bad behavior; oral praise; participation; wait time; supervised; individualized; track children’s development

- Environment

- From the classroom observation: space inside the class; seats/writing surface; yard space; games/equipment for major motor activities; soap/water; handwashing; clean/appropriate toilets; safety hazards

- Materials

- From the classroom observation: portfolios; textbooks; writing utensils; art; fantasy play; blocks; education toys or math materials; storybooks; activities hall essentials; number of storybooks

- Adherence to the curriculum

- From the classroom observation: education 2.0 curriculum used; preparation record matches lesson; schedule followed

- Teacher attitudes:

- From the teacher interview: job satisfaction; feels valued; job importance; professional support; training; understands education 2.0; overwhelmed

For stimulation at home, we examine, based on the parent reports, children’s books at home, and in the past 7 days engaging in the following activities: reading at home, singing songs, playing, telling stories.

# **_3.5 Covariates_**

We control for child sex and the child’s age in months in our models. In terms of family background, we include a number of items we refer to in brief as socio-economic status (SES). An asset index based on a factor analysis of owning various durable goods and housing conditions is included in the SES domain. Data on mother (or female caregiver) and father (or male caregiver) 10
- 36 -

- Krueger, Anne O., "Trade Policies in Developing Countries",in R. W. Jones and P. B. Kenen, eds. Handbook of International Economics, Elsevier Science Publishing (1984).

- Landau, Daniel, "Government Expenditures and Economic Growth: A CrossCountry Study," Southern Economic Journal 49 (January 1983): pp. 783-92.

- Landau, Daniel, "Government and Economic Growth in the Less Developed Countries: An Empirical Study for 1960-80," E5onomic Development and Cultural Change (October 1986): pp. 35-75.

- Lucas, Robert E., "On the Hechanics of Economic Development", mimeo, University of Chicago (1985).

- Manas-Anton, Luis A., "Structure of Taxation and Growth in Developing Economies", Mimeo, IMF Fiscal Affairs Department (September, 1985).

- Marsden, Keith, "Links Between Taxes and Economic Growth: Some Empirical Evidence," World Bank Staff Working Paper #605, (August, 1983).

- Martin, Ricardo, "Fiscal Variables and Growth: A Cross Sectional Analysis," mimeo (n.d.).

- Ram, Rati, "Government Size and Economic Growth: A New Framework and Some Evidence from CrossSection and TimeSeries Data," American Economic Review 76 (March 1986a) p. 191-203.

- Ram, Rati, "Causality Between Income and Government Expenditure: A Broad International Perspective," Public Finance/Finance Publigues (1986) 41(3): pp. 393-413.

- Robinson, Sherman, "Sources of Growth in Less Developed Countries: A Gross-Section Study", Ouarterly Journal of Economics (1971) pp. 391-408.

- Schneider, Friedrich, and Bruno S. Frey, "Economic and Political Determinants of Foreign Direct Investment," World DeveloRmet 13 (1985): pp. 161-175.

- Seidman, Laurence S., "Conversion to a Consumption Tax: The Transition in a LifeCycle Model," Journal of Political Economy 92 (April 1984) pp. 247-67.

- Shalizi, Z. V. Gandhi, and J. Ehdaie, "Patterns of Taxation in Sub-SaharanAfrica: Trends in 'Tax Effort' and Composition during the period 1966-81", mimeo, The World Bank (1985).

- Stewart, Douglas B. and Yiannis P. Venieris, "Sociopolitical Instability and the Behavior of Savings in Less-Developed Countries", Review o Economics and Statistics, (November, 1985), pp. 557-63.

- Taylor, L., and S.L. Black, "Practical General Equilibrium Estimation of Resource Pulls under Trade Liberalization", Journal of International Economics (1974) pp. 37-55.
account. In 2014, the share of formal firms with bank accounts was higher at 53%. The share of firms having an overdraft facility is quite low in comparison. Only 6.4% of informal firms had access to an overdraft facility while 23% of their counterparts in the formal sector had such facility in 2008. In 2014, the ratio was lower at 6.4% among formal sector firms. An analogous situation with low levels of access to a line of credit by firms emerges. Only 6% of informal firms and 4% of formal firms had access to a line of credit in 2008. This ratio did not change by much in 2014 and only 4.4 % of formal firms reported having a line of credit.

**Table 2: Salient Features of Afghan Firms**

||**ES2014 (Formal)**|**ES2008 (Formal)**|**IES2008 (Informal)**|
|---|---|---|---|
|**General Characteristics (share in**<br>|**percent)**|||
|Age: 10 years or less|60.6|79.7|74.6|
|Manager’s Years of Experience|13.1|13.2|13.8|
|Female Ownership|2.7|4.5|1.4|
|Head Manager Female|4.2|1.9|0.7|
|Investment|28|40.3|28|
|**Access to Finance (share in perce**|**nt)**|||
|Account|52.6|43.4|21.7|
|Overdraft Facility|6.4|23.0|6.4|
|Line of Credit|4.4|4.0|6.0|
|Applied for Loan|1.7|8.5|6.5|
|<br>**Education of Principal Owner (s**|**hare in percent)**<br>|||
|None|5.1|2.9|8.4|
|Primary School|13.2|8.5|26.7|
|Mid/High School|34.2|42.2|44.2|
|Vocational/Technical|6.6|3.1|5.5|
|University|39.9|40.5|15.0|
|Other|1.0|2.8|0.2|
|**Legal Status (share in percent)**||||
|Shareholding Company|0.2|4.8|2.1|
|Sole Proprietorship|70.2|66.6|81.4|
|Partnership|27.8|22.4|15.8|
|Limited Partnership|1.7|5.7|0.5|
|Other|0.0|0.5|0.2|

_Source: World Bank Enterprise Surveys 2014, 2008 and World Bank Informal Enterprise Survey 2008._ Looking at education levels of principle owners of firms, the data show the majority of firm owners both in the formal and informal sectors have some level of education. Not surprisingly, the majority of informal firm owners have mid/high school level of education, while in the formal sector university level 11
# **3. Trying to track employment outcomes in SSA: Lessons from Uganda**

## **3.1 Evolution of the UNHS survey and the labor force/employment module**

Uganda’s National Household Surveys (UNHS) (formerly the Integrated Household Survey, or IHS) has been conducted by the Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS) at regular intervals since 1988. The UNHS are multipurpose household surveys, originally developed as a tool for poverty monitoring and analysis. They have been conducted on a random sample of households over a 12 month period since 1992. Core modules include a household demographic module, health and education modules, questions measuring household living conditions assets and access to infrastructure, and a standard LSMS-type (recall) consumption module.<sup>12</sup> The analysis in this paper focuses on the 1992/93 surveys onwards. This series of household surveys is noteworthy for the consistency of the overall design and quality of execution in the field. UBOS was one of the first offices in SSA to regularly make clean, anonymized unit record data available to researchers<sup>13</sup> , despite numerous obstacles such as funding gaps and the regional conflict in the early 1990s.

The consistency of the overall design of the household surveys did not extend to the labor force and employment modules. These modules have been altered in each survey, displaying a range of good and not so good practices. Some changes in the employment module were made to shorten the questionnaire, making room for a topic given a higher priority that year, while more recent changes were made to improve the measurement of labor force participation and employment outcomes (e.g. more extensive screening questions) as more attention was focused on better capturing labor outcome indicators in the country. Consequently the information content differs across surveys in terms of scope and content. This has meant that the methodology used to compute variables on the measurement of labor market outcomes - levels and trends –changed over time as well, posing challenges for analysis.

Table 2 below summarizes how the five Uganda UNHS surveys since 1992 have measured (i) labor force participation rate, (ii) unemployment, and (iii) characteristics of _all_ economic activities undertaken, including earnings. It shows where key measurement recommendations for these indicators in low-income countries discussed in the previous section - such as screening questions and long recall periods to ensure that all economic activities are captured, careful measurement of unemployment, and use of both individual and household level modules to collect complete information on hours worked and income of the venture (farm or non-farm) - were and were not used.

> 12 The guidelines for LSMS surveys can be found in Grosh and Glewwe, and online at www.web.worldbank.org (go to LSMS website).

> 13 UNHS questionnaires, documentation, and manuals are available at www.ubos.org.

11
also present a multivariate regression of the teacher’s classroom absence rate on all these characteristics, again controlling for country and day and month of survey fixed effects. The coefficients change little, with the exception of the effect of contract teacher status on classroom absence, which is halved relative to the bivariate regression and the significant coefficient on experience, which is small, however (for each five years of experience, the classroom absence rate is 1 point higher).

When it comes to teacher subject and pedagogical knowledge, teachers with a university degree and/or education degree perform significantly better on the test (4 points higher scores on both parts) and also display better skills in the classroom (7 points higher score). These conclusions remain true even when controlling for other teacher characteristics. Still, while significant, a degree in education or a university degree is only associated with a one-fifth standard deviation increase in content knowledge. Younger teachers score better on the pedagogy portion of the test, perhaps because their teacher training is more recent. The effect of age remains significant also when controlling for other teacher characteristics, but is small. Finally, we note that neither women nor contract teachers, both of whom had significantly higher presence in the classroom, have worse content or pedagogy knowledge, and when it comes to classroom skills, women perform significantly better (7 points, or 20 percent increase compared to the average).

While one should be careful in not over-interpreting correlations and summary statistics, the findings reported in Table 6 suggest that, in terms of orders of magnitude, roughly the same academic student achievement is achieved by a female contract teacher as by a male teacher with an advanced degree—and the former costs significantly less in terms of public funds. Importantly, however, switching the latter for the former would not significantly address what we argue is the core problem: students learn too little from primary schooling.

# **8. To what extent does teacher quality matter?**

So far we have focused on using the data to establish descriptive facts. The linked studentteacher data, however, also allow us to go one step further and to examine the extent to which teacher quality matters for student achievement. In other words, we ask whether, and to what extent, students’ academic performance would increase if they were taught by better teachers, in particular those with sufficient content and pedagogical knowledge.

To assess the effect of teacher quality on student achievement we face several challenges. First, the four dimensions of teacher quality (all linked to individual student measures of test 17
33 Table 3. Ownership Structure of Chinese Industry, Selected Years (percentage of total industrial output value)

|Category|1971|1978|1983|1987|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|State|85.9|77.6|72.6|59.7|
|Urban collective|10.9|13.7|14.4|14.6|
|Urban individual a||-|0.1|0.6|
|Urban other|||0.8|2.0|
|Rural nonstate (TVP)|3.2|8.7|12.1|23.1|
|Township|1.6|4.8|6.3|9.3|
|Village<br>Below village<br>Individual firms|}<br>)<br>1.6<br>}|}<br>)<br>3.9<br>}|}<br>)<br>5.8<br>}|8.4<br>5.4<br>3.3|

a. Includes partnerships.

Source: State Statistical Bureau of China (various years); China Rural Statistical Yearbook, Statistical Materials on China's Industrial Materials (various years).
“capabilities” (to be and to do things of intrinsic worth) can imply concern for more relative income equality—a reduction in relative poverty. The dramatic fall in absolute poverty in China over the reform period, reflecting the overall rise in personal income, strengthens the case for switching to the use of a poverty line that is expressed in relative terms.

The evaluation of income inequality requires a normative judgment. The economic literature on inequality commonly proceeds from the judgment that income inequality at the national level is the appropriate criterion and that the degree of inequality measured in this way is too high and should be reduced. This section delves more deeply into the basis for such a judgment. How much concern is there about income inequality in China? We focus first on the people and then on the government.

Research on subjective well-being in China shows why people are concerned about income inequality: “relative deprivation” is a common phenomenon (for instance, Knight and Gunatilaka 2011, using the 2002 CHIP survey). Regression analyses of happiness (or life satisfaction, or subjective well-being—we use the terms interchangeably) in China produce well-fitting equations with understandable and significant coefficients.<sup>4</sup> Two consistent findings are the importance of relative income and the importance of the chosen reference group.

14