Although violence tends to be discussed in terms of homicide rates, domestic violence is in fact among the most pervasive types of violence in Latin America, even if its visibility is low. Surveys undertaken by Heise, Ellsberg and Gottmoeller (1999) indicate that between 10% and 50% of women declared having been beaten or mistreated physically by their current or former partner.<sup>24</sup> In up to half of the cases, domestic violence goes hand in hand with psychological and sexual violence.<sup>25</sup> In Colombia, domestic violence affects almost half of the Colombian households while criminal victimization affects less than 10% of them.<sup>26</sup> The same study reveals that women from the bottom quintile of the income distribution are 15% more likely to suffer from domestic violence than women from the top quintile. The probability of being a victim of domestic violence rises as much as 10% from the top to the bottom quintile of the income distribution in urban Colombia. Empirical evidence suggests that the main risk factor for domestic violence is the lack of education: each year of schooling reduces the probability of domestic violence by more than 1%.<sup>27</sup> The costs of domestic violence go beyond the public health burden, as domestic violence affects the productivity and employability of women. Cost projections based on the estimated number of national victims, estimate the total cost to society from domestic violence at 1.6% of GDP for Nicaragua and at 2% of GDP for Chile.<sup>28</sup> In contrast to domestic violence, youth violence is highly visible, whether in the form of gangs, in schools or on the streets. In Latin America, both the perpetrators and victims of violence are mostly young and male. In the Caribbean, an estimated 80% of violent crimes are committed by men, the majority of whom are under 35 years, with an increasing number under 14.<sup>29</sup> In 1995 in Rio de Janeiro, 91% of the city’s homicide victims were men and 57% were between the ages of 15 and 29.<sup>3031</sup> For the year 2000, the World Health Organization estimated the homicide rate for Latin American youth aged 10 – 29 at 36.4 per 100,000, more than double the African rate of 17.6.<sup>32</sup> However, there are substantial regional variations in youth homicide rates and youth homicides have not risen equally fast in all countries. Colombia shows the most severe increase, with rates rising 159% between 1985 and 1994, from 36.7 per 100,000 to 95 per 100,000. For the same period, Venezuela recorded an increase of 132% from 10.4 per 100,000 to 24.1 per 100,000. In Mexico, youth homicide rates have been slightly more stable, rising from 14.7 per 100,000 to 15.6 per 100,000 for the period above.<sup>33</sup> Youth violence often occurs in the context of gangs. There are an estimated 30,000 – 35,000 gang members in El Salvador with a similar number in Honduras.<sup>34</sup> Gangs are a primarily male

> 24 Heise, Ellsberg, and Gottmoeller (1999) quoted in Buvinic, Morrison, and Orlando (2002). 25 Buvinic, Morrison and Orlando (2002).

> 26 Gaviria and Velez (2001).

> 27 Ibid.

> 28 Morrison and Orlando (1999) quoted in Buvinic, Morrison and Orlando (2002). 29 Gabriel and Bishop (1995) quoted in Moser and van Bronkhorst (1999).

> 30 Veija (1997) quoted in Moser and van Bronkhorst (1999). 31 De Roux (1994) quoted in Ayres (1998).

> 32 World Health Organization (2002). 33 Ibid.

> 34 Ibid.

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