the growth of total primary enrollments accelerated from 0.7 percent per year from 197580 to 3.2 percent per year from 1980-85 (Colclough and Lewin, 1990).

5.37 The literature provides little information on the quality and efficiency of education during the adjustment period. Because spending declined while enrollments increased, public education spending per primary student declined. Real recurrent spending per primary teacher increased by about 5 percent between 1980 and 1985 (Lewin and Berstecher, 1989). Despite declining public expenditures, the proportion of secondary graduates successful at placement exams improved between 1982 and 1985. Female primary enrollment rates paralleled total enrollment rates, declining from 97 percent in 1975 to 90 percent in 1980, but rising to 110 percent in 1985. The proportion of female students in primary enrollments increased slightly during the adjustment period.

# ZAMBIA

5.38 The Bank assisted adjustment in Zambia through sector adjustment programs and recovery credits, none of which targeted education explicitly. Copper prices collapsed in the mid-1970s, an,. terms of trade deteriorated. The currency became increasingly overvalued, and the network of controls on imports, foreign exchange and credit allocation became increasingly complex. Despite a declining revenue base, the government tried to maintain government services and employment, resulting in a growing budget deficit that attained 18 percent of GDP in 1980-82. Controlled adjustment began around 1982. Zambia received World Bank adjustment loans beginning in 1984: SECALs in 1984, 1985, and 1986 followed by recovery credits in 1986 and 1990. Conditionality focused on promoting exports (SECALs), as well as restructuring public expenditures, strengthening government capacity for economic management, and wage restraint (SALs).

5.39 Trends of fewer real resources to education and a higher share to wages began before adjustment. Increased spending levels around 1982 were only a brief interruption of declining trends. Unlike in Ghana and Malawi, education's share of the discretionary public budget and real education expenditures both declined from the period before to the period after adjustment. Colclough and L2win (1990) state that adjustment failed to increase the orientation of social spending to primary services delivery. Primary and tertiary education's shares of recurrent spending in fact did not change from 1980 to 1983.

5.40 Enrollment rates fell before, and rose after, 1980. The growth of total primary enrollments increased from 3.6 percent per year between 1975-80 to 5.3 percent in the 198085 period (UNDP 1990b). Given rising enrollments while sector resources declined, a decline in per student expenditures was inevitable: at the primary level they fell by onethird from 1975 to 1985, with the bulk of the decline before 1980. However, the evidence on quality and equity is scarce and contradictory. Most declines occurred between 1975 and 1980, and evidence suggests stagnation after 1980. The elimination of private enrollments between 1975 and 1980 (declining from 24 to 1 percent of primary enrollments) may have serious implications for education quality. Although it promoted greater equity between wealthy and poor students, it increased the burden on public resources at a time when the latter were shrinking and enrollments were rising. However, the difference between the 49