**Table 3: Associations of individual property ownership, fixed effects**

||**(1)**|**Rural**<br>**(2)**|**(3)**|**(4)**|**Urban**<br>**(5)**|**(6)**|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||**All**|**Men **|**Women **|**All**|**Men **|**Women **|
|Male|0.141***|||0.060***|||
||(0.021)|||(0.011)|||
|Number of Years of Education|0.002***|0.001|-0.000|0.005***|0.005***|0.003***|
||(0.001)|(0.001)|(0.000)|(0.001)|(0.001)|(0.001)|
|Age|0.023***|0.016***|0.034***|0.008***|0.003|0.016***|
||(0.001)|(0.002)|(0.001)|(0.001)|(0.002)|(0.002)|
|Age Squared|-0.000***|-0.000***|-0.000***|0.000|0.000***|-0.000***|
||(0.000)|(0.000)|(0.000)|(0.000)|(0.000)|(0.000)|
|_Work Reference Category: Not Working_|||||||
|Professional|0.038***|0.031***|0.062***|0.079***|0.077***|0.089***|
||(0.010)|(0.011)|(0.015)|(0.007)|(0.008)|(0.012)|
|Agriculture|0.104***|0.080***|0.118***|0.150***|0.160***|0.136***|
||(0.010)|(0.008)|(0.012)|(0.010)|(0.013)|(0.011)|
|Services|0.005|0.000|0.076***|0.028***|0.019***|0.057***|
||(0.009)|(0.008)|(0.013)|(0.005)|(0.005)|(0.009)|
|Manual|0.041***|0.020|0.079***|0.032***|0.032***|0.034***|
||(0.009)|(0.013)|(0.013)|(0.006)|(0.007)|(0.009)|
|_Marital Status Reference Category: Never in union_|||||||
|Married|0.372***|0.379***|0.369***|0.193***|0.195***|0.201***|
||(0.016)|(0.020)|(0.012)|(0.010)|(0.011)|(0.012)|
|Living with partner|0.333***|0.328***|0.343***|0.147***|0.144***|0.172***|
||(0.016)|(0.022)|(0.013)|(0.013)|(0.014)|(0.014)|
|Widowed|0.365***|0.377***|0.307***|0.158***|0.167***|0.137***|
||(0.014)|(0.018)|(0.017)|(0.012)|(0.013)|(0.030)|
|Divorced|0.223***|0.220***|0.212***|0.056***|0.061***|0.062***|
||(0.023)|(0.028)|(0.015)|(0.011)|(0.013)|(0.018)|
|No longer living together/separated|0.164***|0.141***|0.222***|0.016*|-0.002|0.099***|
||(0.019)|(0.025)|(0.015)|(0.009)|(0.009)|(0.018)|
|Size of Household|-0.006***|-0.004***|-0.007***|0.001|0.002**|0.001|
||(0.001)|(0.001)|(0.001)|(0.001)|(0.001)|(0.001)|
|Number of Children|0.005***|0.005***|0.006***|0.012***|0.007***|0.019***|
||(0.001)|(0.002)|(0.001)|(0.002)|(0.002)|(0.002)|
|_Wealth Reference Category: Lowest Wealth Decile_|||||||
|Second Wealth Decile|-0.011**|-0.012*|-0.007*|-0.036***|-0.040***|-0.026*|
||(0.005)|(0.006)|(0.004)|(0.010)|(0.012)|(0.014)|
|Third Wealth Decile|-0.025***|-0.023***|-0.025***|-0.051***|-0.055***|-0.051***|
||(0.006)|(0.009)|(0.005)|(0.011)|(0.014)|(0.013)|
|Fourth Wealth Decile|<br>-0.046***|<br>-0.040***|<br>-0.054***|<br>-0.095***|<br>-0.099***|<br>-0.091***|
||(0.008)|(0.010)|(0.007)|(0.012)|(0.015)|(0.014)|
|Top Wealth Decile|<br>-0.072***|<br>-0.066***|<br>-0.076***|<br>-0.094***|<br>-0.097***|<br>-0.090***|
||(0.018)|(0.020)|(0.016)|(0.013)|(0.017)|(0.015)|
|Constant|-0.241***|-0.124***|-0.275***|-0.066**|0.016|-0.106***|
||(0.025)|(0.033)|(0.020)|(0.029)|(0.031)|(0.036)|
|Country-Region Fixed Effects|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|
|Observations|309,504|204,097|105,407|177,357|115,914|61,443|

_Notes:_ Standard errors in parentheses. * p<0.10, ** p<0.05, *** p<0.01. _Source:_ DHS.

# **5. Conclusion**

Using the latest DHS data from 28 African countries, this paper investigates the extent of gender gaps in the incidence of property ownership (land and housing) and the factors associated with these gaps. We find that there is substantial variation in gender gaps across countries, but in almost all African countries 25