Nonetheless, the spatial distribution is different in Nigeria compared to Mozambique, we surprisingly observe that a peak of conflicts number also occurs from 2018. However, three main types of conflicts occurred from 2018: battles, protests and violence against civilians. To capture the indirect effects of these conflicts and considering the uniform distribution of those conflicts in Nigeria, we implement a buffer zone surrounding each event. Four studies examining geographic accessibility to markets, health care, and education by rural households in West Africa inform our understanding of the average distances of these households to such amenities in Nigeria. They showed that rural households are generally within 5 to 7 kilometers of essential amenities like markets, health care, and schools. These distances ranged from 4.82 to 7.10 kilometers for health care and approximately 6.9 kilometers for schools.<sup>14</sup> In peri-urban areas, households are closer, typically within 1 to 2 kilometers of amenities, with distances ranging from 1 to 1.8 kilometers for primary schools and around 1 kilometer for secondary schools.<sup>15</sup> To represent the extent of the impact of conflicts depending on the degree of urbanization, we consider two types of buffers around each conflict: large and small (see figures 13 and 14). Figure 14 also shows evidence of the uniform spatial distribution of conflicts within Nigeria. As opposed to Mozambique, where we observed a concentrated spatial distribution of conflicts as well as the context in Nigeria regarding conflicts, we cannot derive the same buffer zone size. Regarding these differences in settlement between Mozambique and Nigeria, we decide to specify different buffer zone areas that should better reflect Nigeria’s conflicts and population settlement (see Table 11).

> 14 Adetunji (2020) found that rural traders in Nigeria lived an average of 6.56 kilometers from markets, while Tanou et al. (2021) reported distances of 5.29 to 7.10 kilometers to health care facilities in rural North Benin. Oldenburg et al. (2021) found that households with young children in Northwest Burkina Faso were approximately 4.82 kilometers from health care facilities. Popoola's (2022) research in Nigeria showed that rural villages were, on average, 6.9 kilometers from the nearest primary school.

Adetunji, Musilimu A. (2020). Households Travel Behaviour to Markets in Rural Communities in Ayedaade Local Government Area of Osun State, Nigeria. Journal of Asian Rural Studies, 4, 202. https://doi.org/10.20956/jars.v4i2.2336 Tanou, M., Kishida, T., & Kamiya, Y. (2021). The effects of geographical accessibility to health facilities on antenatal care and delivery services utilization in Benin: A cross-sectional study. Reproductive Health, 18(205). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12978-021-01249-x Oldenburg, C. E., Sié, A., Ouattara, M., Bountogo, M., Boudo, V., Kouanda, I., Lebas, E., Brogdon, J. M., Lin, Y., Nyatigo, F., Arnold, B. F., & Lietman, T. M. (2021). Distance to primary care facilities and healthcare utilization for preschool children in rural northwestern Burkina Faso: Results from a surveillance cohort. BMC Health Services Research, 21(1), 212. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-021-06226-5

> 15 In peri-urban areas, households are typically closer to amenities, with distances ranging from 1 to 2 kilometers. Popoola (2002) observed that households in peri-urban settlements near secondary towns or capital cities were around 1.2 to 1.8 kilometers from primary schools, and approximately 1 kilometer from secondary schools.

Popoola, A., Magidimisha-Chipungu, H., & Chipungu, L. (2022). Towards rural inclusion: Improving the governance of service delivery in Nigeria. Cogent Social Sciences, 8(1), 2118793. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2022.2118793 22