For countries with two datasets under study (Rwanda (Census and LFS), South Africa (Census and GHS), Tanzania (Census and LSMS)), results were similar on education and work indicators. However, results varied in terms of prevalence rates and disparities for some living conditions, perhaps due to different disability questions under use or other differences across datasets.

# _Implications_

Results overall suggest that disability matters when it comes to human development policy. Policy work is needed to curb the stark inequalities across functional status shown in this paper. In the context of calls to “leave no one behind” in the SDGs, this paper shows some of the gaps that need to be addressed and closed.

The microdata used in this study are rich and yet have limitations for the purpose of this study. They focus on a small set of development indicators, often economic in nature. For instance, there is no information on individual subjective well-being, nor on social connections. Besides, one limitation of the data sets under consideration is that they only cover the household population in each country. They exclude the homeless and the institutionalized population such as people in nursing homes or psychiatric hospitals. This is problematic as functional difficulties may make individuals less likely to live in a household. While institutionalization among adults is suspected to be low in the countries under study, no data could be found to confirm this. Homelessness may be a more significant problem in the countries under study and could affect the results.

This study uses general household surveys and censuses and not data sets that focus on disability. This stems from the objective to exploit data sets that are collected on a regular basis and may be potentially used to document and track human development for persons with disabilities. Complementary research is needed to use disability focused datasets, such as the Model Disability Survey developed by the World Bank and the World Health Organization. This work is needed notably to highlight the structural factors (e.g. social norms, attitudes, physical environment) that persons with disabilities may face in the workplace or in school settings for instance. In addition, information is lacking considerably, and more data are needed on health conditions that may lead to functional difficulties and/or socioeconomic deprivations. Data collection efforts that collect information on health conditions such as the Study of global AGEing and adult health (SAGE) are steps in this direction.

Despite the limitations of the data sets under use, this study has several implications for further research and data collection and monitoring. A measure of functional difficulties such as the WGSS should be included as a standard correlate in studies of inequalities. As it would be inconceivable _not_ to include age or gender as correlates, applied researchers should at least include a measure of disability based on the WGSS or similar questions as a potential correlate of socioeconomic outcomes.

Social protection programs were found to disproportionately reach persons with functional difficulties in some countries and yet they do not do away with inequalities. Policies and programs that some LMICs have adopted after ratifying the CRPD need to be assessed with 37