4 content and the quantity of each fuel but also the efficiency of the stove and other appliances used. Because kerosene and LPG are uniform in energy content and the variation in the efficiency of stoves for these fuels is relatively narrow, it is possible to make a reasonable comparison of the use of these fuels in terms of usable energy delivered and cost per unit of usable energy (see Bacon, Bhattacharya, and Kojima 2009 for an example of comparison of household use of kerosene and LPG). This general observation also holds for natural gas. In contrast, the efficiency of stoves for biomass spans a much wider range for the purpose of calculating usable energy. Without detailed information on the fuel itself and on the appliances, it is not possible to carry out quantitative analysis—for example, how much of the total usable energy consumed by a household is derived from firewood, dung, charcoal, kerosene, LPG, and/or natural gas. Such information, however, is rarely collected and never in national household surveys.

What is possible with data supplied by national household surveys is detailed analysis and econometric testing of kerosene, LPG, and natural gas. This study focuses on LPG in a group of countries where, with one exception, it is the most commonly used clean form of energy for cooking and heating, and examines its uptake and consumption. Identification of potential factors influencing a household’s decision to use LPG and how much to use could help formulate policies that encourage LPG use and reduce energy poverty, as both economic and non-economic circumstances change.

# **2. Study purpose and coverage**

The objective of this study is to identify and assess the quantitative importance of the different factors that lead households to use LPG. Using national household surveys conducted in recent years, this study focuses in particular on competition from biomass. The factors that determine whether a household may choose to use LPG (decision 1, or selection) may be different from those that determine how much LPG the household will consume if it has chosen to use it (decision 2, or consumption). To account for this possibility, a two-stage process is used to explain these decisions separately. The data requirements to carry out this analysis fully are demanding. This study examines six household surveys with the requisite data and sufficient LPG users. Four additional surveys, which did not report quantities consumed but where national average LPG prices were available from other sources, are also analyzed to conduct more limited modeling of selection and consumption.

Section 3 brings together evidence on the use of LPG and of solid fuels as the primary cooking fuel in 110 developing countries. Section 4 covers econometric analysis of household use of LPG in 10 developing countries. Section 5 discusses the findings of the study in the context of policy options for encouraging the increased uptake and consumption of LPG.

# **3. Evidence on household use of LPG and biomass for cooking in developing countries**

The World Health Organization (WHO) maintains an extensive database of household energy use for cooking, drawing upon information collected on the primary cooking fuel in nationally representative surveys of households. Results are presented nationally and for urban