specific. When time diaries are used, one can choose between the leave‐behind/self‐reporting method, that is a paper‐based diary filled by the respondent, or recall, that is a time diary where the enumerators record the time spent in each activity (especially used in contexts when illiteracy is a concern).

# 4.3. Seasonality

Economic activities are subject to seasonal fluctuations related to climate, institutional aspects (e.g. holiday periods), religious and cultural events and the nature of jobs performed (e.g. casual, temporary, seasonal, full‐time or part‐time) (Comblon & Robilliard, 2015). Labor market participation is therefore volatile and will depend on the timing of the interview. This is even more the case for vulnerable groups, such as women, youth and rural households, that are more likely to engage in seasonal, temporary and part‐time employment.

There are basically three approaches to capture seasonality: (1) continuous surveys, which interview different households in different weeks over a 12‐month period; (2) surveys that visit the same households multiple times within the same (agricultural) year; and (3) complementing the standard 7‐day reference period with a 12‐month reference period. These approaches allow, to a varying extent, to estimate the average annual employment rate and may help to study seasonality and its impact on socioeconomic and labor market outcomes.

# 4.3.1. Continuous surveys

The LSMS reference work recommends continuous surveys and states that _‘the costs of using a 7‐day reference period can be minimized if random samples of households are interviewed in each month or season of the year, as has been done in many past LSMS‐type surveys. It is recommended that survey organizers maintain this feature’_ (Grosh & Glewwe, 2000, chapter 9) _._ Continuous surveys can be used to estimate the average, annual employment rate, as seasonal variations are averaged out. They do not capture (the effects of) seasonality at the individual‐level.

Contrary to this recommendation, of the 8 LSMS‐ISA surveys, only the 2013/14 Uganda LSMS‐ ISA survey is designed as a continuous survey. Other LSMS‐ISA surveys are often implemented over a relatively long period due to logistical constraints but are not designed as continuous surveys. In Malawi, for instance, the fieldwork lasted from April 2016 to April 2017. As a result, respondents are interviewed in different months. Some LSMS‐type surveys (e.g. Nepal) are continuous surveys. DHS are generally not designed as continuous surveys and recommend completing the fieldwork within 3 to 5 months (ICF International, 2012). LFS are often continuous surveys in developed countries, but continuous LFS remain exceptional in developing countries. For instance, according to the ILO review of national plans to implement the 19<sup>th</sup> ICLS standards (August 2018), out of 119 countries 57 implemented a continuous LFS. However, while all 30 European countries report implementing continuous LFS, only 1 of 27 African countries and 5 of 19 Asian and Pacific countries conduct continuous LFS.<sup>17</sup>

> 17 ILO Presentation available on <u>www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/‐‐‐dgreports/‐‐‐ stat/documents/meetingdocument/wcms_646789.pdf</u>

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