rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
the regional market, Uganda is likely to face intense competition from neighboring countries, most of which are coffee producers with similar ambitions and marketing strategies.

Third, pursuing value‐added activities in coffee is unlikely to have any effect on the welfare of coffee growers because roasters and instant coffee producers will pay the same price as exporters, so farmers are unlikely to receive a higher price simply because their coffee will undergo some transformation domestically.

# **_5.3 Undertaking Coffee Promotion Activities_**

There are proposals for Ugandan coffee to target the less‐contested markets of Korea, China, Japan, Middle East, Russia, and East Europe where there is evidence of market opportunities and good price history for Ugandan coffee (Giovannucci 2002, p. 14). Yet, the top destinations for Uganda’s coffee is the EU which along with Switzerland ac‐ counts for more than 80 percent of its coffee exports, followed by Sudan with 15 per‐ cent. Less than five percent of coffee goes to other destinations. Moreover, industry rep‐ resentatives believe that Uganda may export up to 4.5 million bags of robusta without jeopardizing its premium (this is more than twice the robusta that Uganda currently exports).

Through Uganda missions to exhibitions and conferences, numerous attempts have been undertaken to build strategic alliances with international coffee roasters with the ultimate objective to introduce new marketing channels to Uganda brands. These al‐ liances include a joint venture with the Beijing North Star Corporation to promote the consumption of Ugandan coffee in China. That company operates a roasting facility and a number of coffee shops. The same promotion strategy was undertaken with an Egyp‐ tian company where a roasting facility along with coffee shops was expected to operate in Egypt. It appears, however, that the alliance with the Chinese company did not pro‐ ceed as smoothly as expected. It was reported in a Ugandan newspaper on September 14, 2005 that “... their core business is not coffee. They sold their shares [to UCDA] and they have gone back to real estate business” (The New Vision, p. 31).

The costs of such activities can be quite high. For example, according to the 2002/03 Income and Expenditures Statement of UCDA, of the Ush 4.73 billion (US$2.5 million) that the government released for poverty alleviation in coffee areas, Ush 4.28 billion ($2.3 million) went to the replanting program, Ush 0.34 billion ($183,000) went to the coffee promotion component, while only Ush 0.10 billion ($54,000) was allocated for coffee research.

# **_5.4 Increasing Domestic Consumption_**

Promotion of domestic consumption has figured prominently in various reports as well, such as the UCTF _2004/05 Annual Report_ where domestic consumption was mentioned on at least 5 occasions: _“If Uganda could consume at least 20% of its coffee production, it_

**_— 10 —_**
I POLICY RESEARCH WORKING PAPER 1867

# **Summary findings**

Using data assembled from the Demographic Health Surveys of over 50 countries and from the National Family Health Surveys of individual states in India, Filmer, King, and Pritchett create a new data set of comparable indicators of gender disparity. They establish three findings:

- As is by now well-known, the _level_ of gender disparities in health and education outcomes for girls in South Asia is the highest in the world.

* Even within South Asia, and within India or Pakistan, there are huge variations in gender disparity. _Differences_ in gender disparity among Indian states or among provinces of Pakistan are typically greater than those among the world's nations. The ratio of female to male child mortality in one Indian state (Haryana) is

worse than in any country in the world, although in another state (Tamil Nadu) it is lower than in all but three countries.

* Across and within the set of developing nations, gender disparity is not only a phenomenon of poverty. There is almost no correlation between per capita income and the gender disparities in health and education outcomes. So although _absolute levels_ of health and education outcomes for girls are strongly related to economic conditions, the _disparities_ between outcomes for girls and boys are not.

Understanding what causes such great gender disparity _within_ South Asia is the next pressing question for researchers.

This paper-a product of Poverty and Human Resources, Development Research Groupis part of a larger effort in the group to understand the determinants of gender differentials. The study was funded by the Bank's Research Support Budget under the research project "Explaining Gender Disparity in South Asia" (RPO 681-29). Copies of this paper are available free from the World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433. Please contact Sheila Fallon, room MC3-638, telephone 202-473-8009, fax 202-522-11S3, Internet address sfallon@worldbank.org. January 1998. _(59_ pages) _The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings_ **_out_** _quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should he cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represen_ **_t_** _he view of the World Bank. its Executive Directors, or the countries they represent._ Produced by the Policy Research Dissemination Center
multilateral donors, bilateral donors, private sector actors). Once costs have been estimated, at country levels as well as at the global level, an effective engagement strategy to end data deprivation can be developed. The key driver of change would be the countries themselves, with the donors playing an enabling role by providing support ranging from technical assistance to funding.

# **References**

Chen, S., and M. Ravallion, 2010. “The Developing World is Poorer than We Thought, But No Less Successful in the Fight Against Poverty.” _Quarterly Journal of Economics_ , 125 (4): 1577-1625.

Chen, S., M. Ravallion, and P. Sangruala. 2008. “Dollar a Day Revisited." World Bank Policy Working Paper 4620.

Demombynes, G., and J. Sandefur. 2014. “Costing a Data Revolution.” Working Draft Paper, Copenhagen Consensus Center.

Devarajan, S. 2013. “Africa's Statistical Tragedy." _Review of Income and Wealth_ . Series 59, Special Issue.

IEAG (Independent Expert Advisory Group on a Data Revolution for Sustainable Development). 2014. _A World That Counts: Mobilizing the Data Revolution for Sustainable Development._ IEAG Secretariat. (http://www.undatarevolution.org/report/) IMF. 2013. _The General Data Dissemination System: Guide for participants and users_ . Washington D.C.: International Monetary Fund.

Jolliffe, D., P. Lanjouw, S. Chen, A. Kraay, C. Meyer, M. Negre., E. Prydz, R. Vakis, and K. Wethli. 2014. _A Measured Approach to Ending Poverty and Boosting Shared Prosperity: Concepts, Data, and the Twin Goals_ . Policy Research Report. Washington, DC: World Bank, 2014.

PARIS21. 2004. “National Strategy for the Development of Statistics (NSDS) Essential.” Paris.

Sandefur, J., and A. Glassman. 2014. “The Political Economy of Bad Data: Evidence from African Survey and Administrative Statistics," _Journal of Development Studies_ , forthcoming.

22
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- Vargas Hill, R., & Vigneri, M. (2011). “Mainstreaming gender sensitivity in cash crop markets supply chains.” Working Paper No. 11-08, ESA, FAO.

Vaughan, S. & Tronvoll, K. (2003). “The Culture of Power in Contemporary Ethiopian Political Life.” Sida Studies No. 10.

World Bank (WB) (2006). _World Data on Education: Ethiopia._ Washington, DC: The World Bank.

World Bank (WB) (2007). W _orld development report 2008: Agriculture for Development._ Washington, DC: The World Bank.

- World Bank (WB) & International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) (2010). _Gender and governance in rural services: insights from India, Ghana, and Ethiopia._ Washington, DC: The World Bank.

- World Bank (WB) (2011). W _orld development report 2012: Gender Equality and Development._ Washington, DC: The World Bank.

20
# 3.1.1 Skills Measures

Measures of skills are needed to construct the dependent variables in the regressions: wage bill shares and employment shares of skilled workers. Our surveys provide information on employment, wages and the average number of years of education for fi ve types of workers (management, professionals, skilled production workers, unskilled production workers and other nonproduction workers).<sup>23</sup> We consider total compensation i.e., wages and salaries plus bonuses and other bene fi ts as the measure of wages. Our fi rst measure of skilled workers is based on occupation: nonproduction workers de fi ned as the sum of management, professionals and nonproduction workers.<sup>24</sup> Most previous studies use datasets for which the skilled/unskilled workers distinction can be proxied only by this nonproduction/production worker distinction. However, this is imperfect since, for example, some of the nonproduction workers are in fact engaged in low skilled tasks. Our second measure of skilled workers is also based on occupation but improves upon the nonproduction/production worker distinction: workers in managerial, engineering and technical occupations, de fi ned as the sum of management and professionals.<sup>25</sup> This measure excludes the type of workers called in our surveys other nonproduction workers i.e., those that are not directly involved in production but that are neither part of management nor classi fi ed as professionals.<sup>26</sup> Our third measure of skilled workers is based on education: workers with at least some college education.<sup>27</sup> For China, we use information on average educational levels for each type of workers. Skilled worker wage bill shares (employment shares) are de fi ned

> 23A detailed de fi nition of these fi ve types of workers is available from the authors upon request. In the Chinese survey, some of the worker types have different labels (professionals are called engineering and technical personnel, skilled production workers are called basic production workers and unskilled production workers are called auxiliary production workers) and some worker types are actually different but can be mapped into these fi ve worker types (service personnel and other employees are mapped into other nonproduction workers).

> 24In this case, unskilled workers are production workers de fi ned as the sum of skilled production workers and unskilled production workers.

> 25In this case, unskilled workers are de fi ned to be the sum of skilled production workers, unskilled production workers and other nonproduction workers.

> 26An example of such workers would be janitors.

> 27In this case, unskilled workers are de fi ned as workers that have completed secondary education or less.

11
Policy Research Working Paper 9896

# **Abstract**

This paper examines the factors that are associated with boys’ underachievement in mathematics and science in Saudi Arabia, where students attend gender-segregated schools from grade 1 onward, as well as student achievement in these two subjects in grades 4 and 8 more generally. The paper employs data from two recent large-scale assessments of education: Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study 2019 and Saudi Arabia’s National Assessment of Learning Outcomes 2018. The results suggest that in grade 4, school climate was more strongly associated with boys’ compared with girls’ achievement in both mathematics and science, with boys attending schools of poorer school climate having a considerably lower performance compared with girls attending such schools. The findings also indicate that although greater literacy and numeracy readiness was linked with higher science achievement among boys and girls, grade 4 boys tended to benefit more from this readiness than girls. In addition, the results show that student absenteeism in grade 4 is particularly strongly associated with decreases in mathematics achievement among boys. In grade 8, interactions between student gender and students’ confidence in science, the degree of schools’ emphasis on academic success, and teachers’ age are observed. The paper concludes by discussing some of the implications of these findings for educators and policy makers in Saudi Arabia.

This paper is a product of the Education Global Practice. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/prwp. The authors may be contacted at melsayed@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent._ Produced by the Research Support Team
Education and Earnings in a Transition Economy

# Peter R. Moock, Hany Anthony Patrinos and Meera Venkataraman*

## INTRODUCTION

The most recent study of the benefits of education in Vietnam appeared almost 30 years ago (Stroup and Hargrove 1969), and this covered only a part of what was then South Vietnam. Since that time Vietnam has gone through a process of reunification and rebuilding, and now a realignment of the economy towards a more market-oriented approach. Economic transition has led to certain problems in the labor market. The education system that may have served the country well in a command economy will need to be adapted to serve the needs of a market economy.

There is a strong commitment to education in Vietnam. This is reflected in high levels of schooling participation and adult literacy that exceed neighboring countries and even some of the more advanced Asian nations (World Bank 1995a; Tan and Mingat 1992). In the late 1980s, however, enrollments in pre-primary, primary and especially secondary schooling declined (World Bank 1997). Opening up the economy has provided many new income-earning opportunities,

> * This paper was written as background for the World Bank's _Vietnam Education Financing Sector Study._ A preliminary version of this paper was presented at the Microeconomics: Theory and Applications Workshop at the University of Illinois at Chicago, April 11, 1997, where useful comments were received, especially from Carmela Chiswick and Barry Chiswick. Comments also received from Christopher Shaw and Maureen Woodhall.
liberties are increasingly being tested in cross-country growth regressions.

# **TI)** Civil liberties and1 project performance

## A) Indicators of civil liberties

Developing a meaningful cross-country indicator of civil liberties is obviously difficult. There is little international consensus on liberties that ought to be permitted. Moreover, when those liberties about which there might exist some consensus are suppressed, it is almost always done surreptitiously. That said, several large efforts have attempted to rank countries by degree of civil liberties. In this study, we use data from three of these efforts:

* Freedom House<sup>19</sup> (1994 and previous years) has constructed a ranking of civil liberties for 165 countries from 1972 to 1994. This ranking--on a seven point scale--is based upon a fourteen item checklist of civil liberties<sup>20</sup> ;

***** Humana (1986) constructed an index of human rights achievement in 89 countries for the year 1985. This index, on a scale of zero to 100 (actual range is 13 to 98) was based upon the definition of human rights adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations in 1966 under the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights;

## **19** This index is more commonly known as the Gastil index, after its originator (Gastil 1987).

20 The fourteen items are: media free of censorship; open public discussion; freedom of assembly and demonstration; freedom of political organization; nondiscriminatory rule of law in politically relevant cases; free from unjustified political terror; free trade unions and peasant organizations; free businesses and cooperatives; free professional and other private organizations; free religious institutions; personal social rights (e.g. property, internal and external travel); socioeconomic rights; freedom from gross socioeconomic inequality; and freedom from gross government indifference or corruption.

- 12 -
convergence in policies and institutions will generate catch-up growth and thus convergence in productivity and living standards.

The Business Environment and Enterprise Performance Surveys (BEEPS) implemented in the transition economies by EBRD and the World Bank are part of this research effort. The BEEPS surveys, and the similarly-motivated Investment Climate Surveys (ICS), are large-scale surveys of firms that have been implemented in many countries since the late 1990s. In addition to standard questions about the characteristics and performance of the firms, the surveys have a strong focus on the economic and business environment in which managers have to operate. There have been many studies to date using the BEEPS and ICS data. Some of these studies have focused on direct measurement and characterization of various aspects of the business environment (e.g., the effectiveness government, corruption, the legal system, business infrastructure); Kaufman, Hellman, Jones and Schankerman (2000) and World Bank (2006) are examples. Others have tried to estimate econometrically the relationship between aspects of the business environment and productivity at the firm level (e.g., Dollar, Hallward-Dreimeier and Mengistae 2005, Svejnar and Commander 2007, Carlin, Schaffer and Seabright 2006).

Our paper is a contribution to this literature: we use the waves of BEEPS data to analyze the convergence process in the transition economies. The BEEPS consist of a series of 3 snapshots of virtually all transition economies in 1999, 2002 and 2005, plus, crucially, selected developed market economies in 2004-05. The BEEPS has a number of useful features for our analysis:

- The surveys are random and representative samples that cover all TEs, allowing ready identification of broad patterns.

- The first year of the BEEPS surveys is 1999, and it happens also to be the first post-financial crisis year, when the transformational recession is more or less over, and growth starts across the region.  We are able to analyze 6 years of change, convergence and growth.

6
32

# _Fnancial galns of commewM banks_

The AVC gives an a;veae measure of the value retained by each creditor. A closer look at the prices of each of the instruments right after the exchange took place reveals that some of the options on the menu (normalized per unit of old debt) had different post deal values. At the same time, not all banlks chose the same options at the actual exchange. This can only be because of differences in valuation between banks of the various options. If all banks valued the options in the same way, then they all would have picked the option expected to offer post deal the highest value. The clearest example is provided by the Venezuelan agreement (see Table 4). Excluding the new money option (this option was rationed as it was oversubscribed)2', the different exit options ranged in value between 45 and 49 cents. Yet many of the banks chose the least valuable option (the buyback), indicating that because of heterogeneity, options with the same intrinsic market value do not have the same opportunity value to each individual bank.

From the debtor country's perspective, the larger the difference between the AVC and the post deal, the better the deal it obtained. However, a large difference between the AVC and the post deal price is not a sufficient for the deal to be 'good" for the debtor compared to the status quo since the AVC may still be higher than the price that would have prevailed in the absence of a DDSR agreement. Figures 1 to 5 depict for each deal the AVC and the series of prices prevailing from before the announcement of the Brady plan until the date of the exchange. As can be observed, market prices moved in anticipation of the finalization of the agreement, the date of the exchange. Indeed, in the few weeks before the exchange actually took place, debt prices converged smoothly toward the AVC as the uncertainty about whether the exchange would I In te cas of Venezela, oil prices moved up betwee th agreement date and the actusl exchanp (becauw of the Gulf cnisis). As a result, Venezuela's debt became more valuable, and more banks than exper d chose the **Mw** Money optioa which thus had to be restricted.