of men admitting they had tried to limit their wife’s contact with her family, with the all significant at the 1 percent level. These large differences between the methods suggest that, for one reason or another, men believe that they should report that they do not limit their wife’s contact with her family. The added privacy of ACASI addresses some of this underreporting, but even more is addressed by the list method’s anonymity. For the second men’s question about threatening behavior, prevalence was much lower and although the pattern held, the differences were not statistically significant.

Table 3: Prevalence of sexual and intimate partner violence by survey method

|||||Differe|nce between<br>methods|pairs of|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|_Rwanda_|(1)<br>Face-to-<br>Face<br>mean|(2)<br>ACASI<br>mean|(3)<br>List method<br>prevalence<br>(difference in<br>means)|(4)<br>List-<br>F2F<br>(3)-(1)|(5)<br>List-<br>ACASI<br>(3)-(2)|(6)<br>ACASI-<br>F2F<br>(2)-(1)|
|Women|||||||
|Q1: husband pushed/ thrown you against|0.093***|0.103***|0.206***|0.113***|0.103**|0.01|
|something in past 12 months|(0.010)|(0.010)|(0.035)|[0.007]|[0.014]|[0.552]|
|_N_|918|914|2,728||||
|Q2: someone other than current husband ever|0.051***|0.082***|0.088***|0.037|0.006|0.031**|
|forced you to have sex when didn't want to|(0.007)|(0.009)|(0.034)|[0.443]|[0.872]|[0.017]|
|_N_|917|914|2,727||||
|Men|||||||
|Q1: tried to limit wife's contact with her|0.133***|0.326***|0.451***|0.318***|0.125***|0.193***|
|family in past 12 months|(0.011)|(0.016)|(0.038)|[0.001]|[0.007]|[0.001]|
|_N_|909|877|2,728||||
|Q2: threatened to hurt wife or someone close|0.041***|0.059***|0.071**|0.03|0.012|0.018|
|in past 12 months|(0.007)|(0.008)|(0.036)|[0.542]|[0.816]|[0.113]|
|_N_|909|926|2,728||||
|_Nigeria_|||||||
|In the past 12 months, has your husband:|||||||
|Q1: said or done something to humiliate you|0.299***||0.397***|0.098**|||
|in front of others|(0.012)||(0.032)|[0.015]|||
|_N_|1,394||2,817||||
|Q2: slapped you, pushed you, shaken you, or|0.192***||0.266***|0.074*|||
|thrown something at you|(0.011)||(0.043)|[0.083]|||
|_N_|1,394||2,817||||
|Q3: physically forced you to have sex even|0.281***||0.260***|-0.017|||
|when you did not want to|(0.012)||(0.031)|[0.551]|||
|_N_|1,381||2,817||||

_Note:_ The left column shows the violence variables. Columns 1, 2 and 3 show prevalence by method. Standard errors are shown in parentheses. Columns 4, 5 and 6 shows differences in prevalence between pairs of methods. For the test of difference in means, Benjamini Hochberg (1995) adjusted q-values are displayed in square brackets, from a chi-square test of the differences in means across groups. ***, **, and * indicate significance at the 1, 5, and 10 percent critical level. Nigeria regressions are adjusted for sampling stratification. List estimates show robust standard errors.

Overall, these results suggest that women’s experience and men’s perpetration of emotional and physical IPV may be substantially underreported when measured using face-to-face or ACASI methods. In Rwanda, where we tested three methods, the smaller differences between ACASI and face-to-face prevalence suggest that it is primarily the list method’s anonymity rather than ACASI’s privacy that makes people more likely to report IPV. If shame were the biggest driver of misreporting, it seems likely 11