rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
Sánchez-Martín, Escribano and de Arce, 2014. “How regional integration and transnational energy networks have boosted FDI in Turkey” To sum up, it is possible to conclude that the literature discussing foreign direct investment in Turkey points to economic and political unsteadiness during the 1990s as the main deterrent for permanent inward capital flows to the economy. Over the past decade, reduced inflation levels coupled with improvements in institutions helped Turkey attracting foreign investors. At the same time, and related also to institutional aspects, a number of authors argue that the signaling of the EU accession negotiations contributed also significantly to the boost in FDI inflows observed from 2005 onwards. It is the aim of this paper to discuss the role of recent regional integration processes on FDI attraction in Turkey.

# **4. Regional integration and FDI in Turkey: A qualitative framework analysis**

It has been argued in recent studies that regional integration and, more concretely, the official start of accession negotiations with the European Union, is one of the main factors explaining the significant increase in FDI flows to Turkey observed in the second half of the past decade. In this section, we discuss the role of regional integration in foreign investment drawing from the qualitative analysis framework elaborated by Blomstrom and Kokko (1997). We wonder why FDI did not start to flow earlier, considering that Turkey signed a Customs Union agreement for industrial products with the European Economic Community in 1996, which was a notable step ahead in regional integration.

_Regional integration: Customs Union agreement with the EU and inward FDI in Turkey_ In 1996 Turkey entered in a Customs Union agreement with the European Economic Community, adopting a common external tariff for most manufactured products, and eliminating all customs duties, quotas and charges affecting bilateral exchange. This has helped Turkey significantly to boost trade with the EU. According to World Bank (2014:23,24) simulations, the value of Turkish exports from the EU and EU exports to Turkey would have been 3.0-7.2 percent and 4.2 percent smaller, respectively, if they had signed a free trade agreement instead of a custom union. Another positive contribution of the Customs Union is that it has facilitated the integration of Turkey into regional value chains. The World Bank (2014) concludes that, even if the Customs Union has been successful in fostering trade, a series of limitations (persisting restrictions in trading agricultural products, road transport permits, EU visa restrictions) and asymmetries (in Turkish participation in the decision making, 10
assigned cultural roles, may be considered by others and themselves as inactive even when they perform economic activities. In this context, it may be particularly difficult to capture women’s work (Mata Greenwood, 2000).

In addition to key features of questionnaire design, different surveys adopt different approaches to designating the respondent to the questionnaire. For example, standard surveys in developing countries, like Household Budget Surveys (HBS), Income/Consumption Expenditure Surveys (ICES) and Core Welfare Indicator Questionnaires (CWIQ) typically ask the household head employment questions about all household members. An alternative approach is to ask each household member above a certain age directly. This is done in the Living Standards Measurement Study surveys (LSMS) (Glewwe and Grosh, 2000) and it is also the approach adopted by Labor Force Surveys (LFS). While responses by proxy are accepted for household members who are not available for interview, LFS guidelines warn that proxy respondents may not always provide accurate information and this can cause biases in estimation of employment and jobs (Hussmanns, Mehran, and Verma, 1990). The premise is that self-reporting provides more accurate information than the use of proxy respondents. At the same time, however, requiring all individuals to self-report makes the fieldwork quite burdensome and expensive, creating a trade-off between accuracy of the information and the cost to obtain it. It must be said, however, that although intuitively self-reporting should be superior to proxy response in generating more reliable information, there are few studies that provide evidence on this.<sup>8</sup> Some experimental evidence exists on the reporting of

> 8 Experimental studies are especially useful in assessing the ‘true effect’ of using proxy- vs. selfrespondents. Non-experimental studies tend to suffer from the problem of self-selection (Hill, 1987; Moore, 1988) – that is, proxy respondents may be individuals who happen to be at home. These proxy

8
Financial distortions and the
            distribution of global volatility
Why are emerging economies excessively
            vulnerable to shocks to external funding? What was the role
            of financial flows from emerging to developed economies in
            setting the stage for the subprime crisis? This paper
            addresses these questions in a simple general equilibrium
            framework that emphasizes the aggregate implications of the
            misallocation of funds on the micro level. The analysis
            shows that the misallocation of funds amplifies volatility
            even in a closed economy. Financial integration between
            relatively distorted emerging economies and relatively
            undistorted developed economies leads to a further
            divergence in volatility, thereby providing a new and simple
            explanation for the divergent trends in output volatility up
            to the recent crisis. In the integrated environment, cheap
            funding leads to an endogenous deterioration of the
            financial system in developed economies. These predictions
            are consistent with a wide variety of microfoundations, in
            which distortions cause productive projects to be relatively
            more sensitive to aggregate shocks. The paper provides some
            empirical evidence for these microfoundations.
Mozambique Cashew reforms revisited
Cashew policy reforms in Mozambique have
            been controversial. They are often invoked by critics as an
            illustration of how agricultural policy reforms supported by
            international financial institutions may fail to have their
            intended effects. This paper revisits the reforms and their
            outcomes almost two decades later. While the reforms
            resulted in higher producer prices and an increase in
            output, lack of consensus on the specifics of the reforms
            and associated non-price support arrangements created a
            situation in which the sector was not able to withstand
            international price shocks that ultimately led to a collapse
            of both the processing industry and cashew production.
            Non-price support by donors improved the efficiency of the
            processing industry but this was not complemented by an
            expansion in cashew nut supply as such support did not
            extend to smallholder cashew producers. For the reforms to
            have had their intended results, greater investment in --
            and support to -- smallholder production was needed to
            increase yields and overall output. Such a more
            comprehensive approach to cashew policy reform would have
            required a greater focus on achieving consensus on the
            causes of the cashew sector's problems and agreement by
            all stakeholders on a common institutional framework for
            pricing and non-price support.
Services liberalization and
            productivity of manufacturing firms : evidence from Ukraine
This paper brings new evidence on the
            impact of services liberalization on the performance of
            manufacturing firms. Using a unique database of Ukrainian
            firms in 2001-2007, the authors utilize an external push for
            liberalization in the services sector as a source of
            exogenous variation to identify the impact of services
            liberalization on total factor productivity (TFP) of
            manufacturing firms. The results indicate that a standard
            deviation increase in services liberalization is associated
            with a 9 percent increase in TFP. Allowing services
            liberalization to dynamically influence TFP through the
            investment channel leads to an even larger effect. The
            effect is robust to different estimation methods and to
            different sub-samples of the data. In particular, it is more
            pronounced for domestic and small firms.
Emerging economies in the 2000s :
            real decoupling and financial recoupling
The paper documents an intriguing
            development in the emerging world in the 2000s: a decoupling
            from the business cycle of advanced countries, combined with
            the strengthening of the co-movements in the main emerging
            market assets that predates the synchronized sell-off during
            the crisis. In addition, the paper tests the hypothesis that
            financial globalization, to the extent that it creates a
            common, global investor base for emerging markets, could
            lead to a tighter asset correlation despite the weaker
            economic ties. While an examination of the impact of
            alternative financial globalization proxies does not yield
            conclusive results, a closer look at global emerging market
            equity and bond funds shows that the latter indeed foster
            financial recoupling during downturns, reflecting the fact
            that they trade near their respective benchmarks and respond
            to withdrawals by liquidating holdings across the board.
An economic integration zone for the
            East African Community : exploiting regional potential and
            addressing commitment challenges
Integration in the East African
            Community offers significant opportunities not only to
            expand trade among member states, but more importantly to
            scale up regional production to take advantage of much
            larger global market opportunities. Special economic zones
            are a potentially valuable instrument to facilitate the
            integration of regional value chains in support of this
            scaling up. They also have the potential to deliver powerful
            demonstration effects on the benefits of integration and to
            help entrench the integration process. This paper discusses
            the proposal for developing an "economic integration
            zone" in the East African Community. The benefits of
            such a zone could be substantial, as would be the practical
            challenges to implementation -- in particular the political
            economy challenges. However, a number of institutional and
            commercial solutions exist to address these challenges.
Poor, or just feeling poor on using
            subjective data in measuring poverty
The challenges faced in calibrating
            poverty and welfare measures to objective data have long
            been recognized. Until recently, most economists have
            resisted a seemingly obvious solution, namely to ask people
            themselves: "Do you feel poor?" The paper studies
            the case for and against this approach. It is argued that,
            while one would not want to use self-assessments as welfare
            metrics in their own right, there is scope for using such
            data to help calibrate multidimensional measures. Indeed,
            the idea of a "social subjective poverty line"
            (below which people tend to think they are poor, but above
            which they do not) is arguably the most conceptually
            appealing way of defining poverty. However, the paper points
            to a number of concerns that have received insufficient
            attention, including the choice of covariates, survey design
            issues, measurement errors, frame-of-reference effects, and
            latent heterogeneity in personality traits and personal
            tradeoffs. Directions for future research are identified.
Geography and exporting behavior :
            evidence from India
This paper examines locational factors
            that increase the odds of a firm's entry into export
            markets and affect the intensity of its participation. It
            differentiates between two different sources of spillovers:
            clustering of general economic activity and that of
            export-oriented activity. It also focuses on the effect of
            the business environment and that of institutions at the
            spatial unit of districts in India. The study disentangles
            the within-industry effect from the within-firm effect. A
            simple logit specification is used to model the probability
            of entry. The analysis is based on a panel of manufacturing
            firms in India, which allows for the introduction of
            firm-specific controls and a battery of fixed effects. The
            findings suggest that exporter-specific clustering, general
            economic agglomeration, and institutional factors affect
            firms' export behavior.
Can we trust shoestring evaluations
Many more impact evaluations could be
            done, and at lower unit cost, if evaluators could avoid the
            need for baseline data using objective socio-economic
            surveys and rely instead on retrospective subjective
            questions on how outcomes have changed, asked
            post-intervention. But would the results be reliable? This
            paper tests a rapid-appraisal, "shoestring,"
            method using subjective recall for welfare changes. The
            recall data were collected at the end of a full-scale
            evaluation of a large poor-area development program in
            China. Qualitative recalls of how living standards have
            changed are found to provide only weak and biased signals of
            the changes in consumption as measured from contemporaneous
            surveys. Importantly, the shoestring method was unable to
            correct for the selective placement of the program favoring
            poor villages. The results of this case study are not
            encouraging for future applications of the shoestring
            method, although similar tests are needed in other settings.
Index based crop insurance product
            design and ratemaking : the case of modified NAIS in India
Designing and rating insurance products
            requires both science and judgment. In developing and
            emerging economies, actuarial procedures must be robust and
            implementable, as well as offering a sufficient degree of
            transparency and flexibility so as to allow expert judgment
            to be incorporated. This paper outlines an approach to
            designing and rating a portfolio of index insurance products
            that uses both temporal and spatial aspects of the data to
            increase the efficiency of statistical estimates. The
            approach has formed the basis for the design and ratemaking
            methodology implemented by the Agriculture Insurance Company
            of India for the modified National Agricultural Insurance
            Scheme, which was initiated by the Government of India in
            late 2010.
Subjective perceptions of the impact
            of the global economic crisis in Europe and Central Asia :
            the household perspective
This paper analyzes the subjective
            impact of the global economic crisis on households in Europe
            and Central Asia and relates subjective impacts to
            consumption, actual shocks, and coping strategies, using the
            2010 Life in Transition Survey. Two-thirds of respondents in
            Europe and Central Asia report their household was
            subjectively affected, primarily through the labor market.
            The findings underscore the limitations of cross-country
            comparisons of subjective perceptions, due to reporting
            biases. Within countries, richer households felt a decline
            in their relative income position, consistent with evidence
            from household budget surveys that the crisis reduced the
            consumption of the middle and upper classes. But the
            analysis also finds that poorer households report being
            (subjectively) affected by the crisis more. Differences in
            the feasibility of coping strategies may help explain
            variations in subjective perceptions: the poorest were
            forced to reduce their staple food consumption and health
            spending, and tended to depend on public safety nets. Richer
            households had more options to cope, pursuing so-called
            "active strategies" (such as increasing their
            labor supply), borrowing, and cutting spending on
            non-essentials. Transition countries differed significantly
            from western European comparator countries in that public
            safety nets had lower coverage, private safety nets and
            informal insurance mechanisms could not meet the shortfall
            in income, and a large proportion of their populations
            reduced the consumption of basic necessities. The paper
            finds subjective perceptions of the impact of the crisis to
            be relevant to socio-political outcomes: the harder the
            impact, the lower the life satisfaction level and the more
            negative the assessment of government performance.
Subjective perceptions of the impact
            of the global economic crisis in Europe and Central Asia :
            the household perspective
WPS5995 Policy Research Working Paper 5995 Subjective Perceptions of the Impact of the Global Economic Crisis in Europe and Central Asia The Household Perspective _Benu Bidani Mame Fatou Diagne Salman Zaidi_ The World Bank Europe and Central Asia Region Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Unit March 2012
The law's majestic equality the
            distributive impact of litigating social and economic rights
Optimism about the use of laws,
            constitutions, and rights to achieve social change has never
            been higher among practitioners. But the academic literature
            is skeptical that courts can direct resources toward the
            poor. This paper develops a nuanced account in which not all
            courts are the same. Countries and policy areas
            characterized by judicial decisions with broader
            applicability tend to avoid the potential anti-poor bias of
            courts, whereas areas dominated by individual litigation and
            individualized effects are less likely to have pro-poor
            outcomes. Using data on social and economic rights cases in
            five countries, the authors estimate the potential
            distributive impact of litigation by examining whether the
            poor are over or under-represented among the beneficiaries
            of litigation, relative to their share of the population.
            They find that the impact of courts varies considerably
            across the cases, but is positive and pro-poor in two of the
            five countries (India and South Africa),
            distribution-neutral in two others (Indonesia and Brazil),
            and sharply anti-poor in Nigeria. Overall, the results of
            litigation are much more positive for the poor than
            conventional wisdom would suggest.
Does India's employment
            guarantee scheme guarantee employment
In 2005 India introduced an ambitious
            national anti-poverty program, now called the Mahatma Gandhi
            National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme. The program
            offers up to 100 days of unskilled manual labor per year on
            public works projects for any rural household member who
            wants such work at the stipulated minimum wage rate. The aim
            is to dramatically reduce poverty by providing extra
            earnings for poor families, as well as empowerment and
            insurance. If the program worked in practice the way it is
            designed, then anyone who wanted work on the scheme would
            get it. However, analysis of data from India's National
            Sample Survey for 2009/10 reveals considerable un-met demand
            for work in all states. The authors confirm expectations
            that poorer families tend to have more demand for work on
            the scheme, and that (despite the un-met demand) the
            self-targeting mechanism allows it to reach relatively poor
            families and backward castes. The extent of the un-met
            demand is greater in the poorest states -- ironically where
            the scheme is needed most. Labor-market responses to the
            scheme are likely to be weak. The scheme is attracting poor
            women into the workforce, although the local-level rationing
            processes favor men.
Putting services and foreign direct
            investment with endogenous productivity effects in
            computable general equilibrium models
With the growing importance of services
            and foreign direct investment in services, it is important
            to have a framework to analyze the impact of the
            liberalization of barriers to foreign direct investment in
            services. This paper summarizes several recent papers and
            builds policy-based computable general equilibrium models
            showing the dynamics of services, foreign direct investment
            and the endogenous productivity effect from services. The
            modeling framework shows that the liberalization of barriers
            against foreign direct investment in services yields welfare
            gains several times larger than the usual estimates from
            traditional computable general equilibrium models, which
            focus on goods trade, not foreign direct investment in
            services. The larger estimates are consistent with
            econometric evidence on the gains from services
            liberalization. The paper begins with a small stylized model
            to help understand the fundamental economics. Then it
            describes models developed at the request of the Russian
            government to assess the potential impact of Russia's
            accession to the WTO. Reviews of the work indicated that the
            modeling helped the Russian government gain public support
            for the WTO entry. The paper also describes a new technique
            that allows modelers to include tens of thousands of
            households in the model.