the 3-P theoretical framework as an empirically operational analytical tool to study the SC in MENA countries and explore the role of digitalization in its transformation, we deemed it worthwhile to pursue despite the admittedly simplifying assumption made.<sup>7</sup> More specifically, we construct a database that covers the last two decades for countries of the MENA region and use it to estimate the 3-P model. The main variables of interest in this database are three synthetic indices that we calculate from raw data for the purpose of reasonably proxying the three main dimensions of the SC. We also construct a similar database for countries of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) that we use as a benchmark, in particular, to assess the relative quality of the SC in MENA countries.<sup>8</sup> Our findings suggest that in MENA countries, contrary to OECD member countries, the social benefits provided to citizens in the form of improved telecom services have come at the cost of weakening their participation in society's decision-making process. This feature of the MENA region's SC could clearly be perceived as a root cause of the social turmoil that the countries of the region have experienced in recent decades.

The weakness of the SC in the MENA region highlighted by our analysis seems to be a structural phenomenon; yet does that mean there is nothing to do about it?<sup>9</sup> As alluded to, there 7 As regards basic services provision digitization effects, the overall assumption is that it will strengthen service delivery quality through greater efficiency (better matching of customer needs to supply as well as lower cost), greater transparency, and ultimately better accountability between service providers, customers, and government. Digital transformation of health care delivery goes beyond telemedicine applications and utilization as it enhances customization of health services to match specific needs of each patient. For this to be put in motion, each patient needs to be identified and registered in a national social registry as it is the case with the Carte Vitale in France or Medicare Beneficiary Identifier in the US. In developing countries, the World Bank and development partners have been working with client governments to establish a universal access regime to health care which also requires the establishment of social registry identifying citizens eligible to the scheme. In short, the digitization of health care provision systems ultimately improves its ability to deliver services including for the poor. Regarding education, the digital transformation is well advanced through the deployment of digital platforms allowing pedagogical content to be accessible remotely in synchronous or asynchronous modes. The issue to be dealt with here is to ensure affordability and accessibility to such platforms. Deploying broadband internet across the country, ensuring that citizens, teachers and schooling facilities are well equipped, and enhancing digital literacy, e.g., through access to Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) are among the critical policy measures to be considered. Road connectivity ensures access to markets and is therefore indirectly impacted by digitization. Providing farmers with better market information on prices and other aspects of demand through access to digital platforms has an impact on the implementation of mobility solutions offered by the private sector and hence on the way road infrastructure is utilized and even maintained since collected traffic information can also bring along information on quality of the infrastructure. All in all, information digitization is affecting the way basic social services are delivered and how their delivery can be improved. Digitization also brings together greater interplay and convergence of basic social services. 8 For a list of the OECD countries, see the appendix.

> 9 Concerns about the quality of the SC in MENA have been raised both in institutional and academic circles. A top development journal has recently published a special issue on the framing of a new SC in the region. See Loewe et al. (2021) for an enlightening introduction to this special issue. Moreover, the World Bank has recently organized a series of webinars involving high-level decision makers, policy makers, private sector business leaders, and influencers, seeking to examine ways to improve the SC in MENA. See also, Amaney and Robbins (2022) and Robbins (2022). UNDESA (2021) discusses the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the world of work and the resulting changes in people's trust in public institutions, a milestone of the SC.

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