rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
**Table 4. Calibration of ε at different points of the income distribution**

|Countries|ε1|ε2|ε3|ε4|ε|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Argentine|0.7|1.0|1.5|1.6|1.2|
|Bolivia|1.3|0.7|1.8|1.6|1.4|
|Brazil 1/|||3.5|1.8|2.7|
|Chile 1/||1.9|1.5|1.3|1.6|
|Colombia|1.2|3.2|2.5|1.5|2.1|
|Honduras|1.1|1.1|1.2|1.1|1.1|
|Mexico|0.6|1.5|0.5|1.7|1.1|
|Nicaragua|1.0|1.6|1.5|1.4|1.3|
|Peru|1.5|1.8|1.8|1.9|1.8|
|Average|1.1|1.6|1.7|1.5|1.6|

1/In the cases of Brazil and Chile there are consecutive quintiles that report no income tax and thus both expressions (6) and (7) are 0. Source: Own calculations The first noteworthy point from this table is the dramatic impact of the different growth scenarios. Judging from averages for the group, we find that under the most pessimistic growth scenario the social discount rate would be around 3 percent. Similarly, under the FTC1 scenario (reform under a continue trend scenario mixed with the past track record for the region), the discount rate would be close to 4 percent. On the other hand, under the dramatic reform scenario we estimate discount rates of about 7 percent and in the cases of Bolivia and Brazil above 9 percent. Finally, under the FDC1 scenario we obtain an average discount rate of 5 percent.

**<u>Table 5. Calibration of</u>** **_<u>r</u>_**

|||||Growth ra|r<br>te scenario||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||_β_|ε|Average|FDC|FTC1|FDC1|
|Argentine|1|1.3|2.9|6.2|3.0|4.6|
|Bolivia|1|1.5|1.9|9.4|2.7|5.7|
|Brazil|1|1.8|5.1|9.5|6.4|7.3|
|Chile|1|1.3|4.6|6.7|5.5|5.7|
|Colombia|1|1.8|4.2|5.3|4.1|4.7|
|Honduras|1|1.1|2.1|4.5|2.1|3.3|
|Mexico|1|1.3|3.3|5.6|4.0|4.4|
|Nicaragua|1|1.4|0.9|8.4|2.9|4.6|
|Peru|1|1.9|3.1|6.7|4.1|4.9|
|Average|1|1.5|3.1|6.9|3.9|5.0|

Source: Own calculations Thus if the recent track record in terms of growth in the region is an indicative of future performance, our estimates of the social discount rate would be in the 3-4 percent range. However, to the extent that the region improves on its past performance, which taking into account how dismal it has been in principle should not be that difficult, the social 13
2016; Djankov, Porta, Lopez-De-Silanes, & Shleifer, 2002; Klapper, Laeven, & Rajan, 2006).

Following the above discussion, we control for all macro or country-level factors using dummy variables for the country where the firm operates (Country fixed effects). Similarly, all industry-wide factors are accounted for by using dummy variables for the industry (at 2-digit ISIC Rev. 3.1) to which the firm belongs (Industry fixed effects). The data source for country and industry fixed effects is ES. The remaining controls in the baseline specification are for various firm characteristics and the business environment and include the following (all taken from ES): firm size proxied by (log of) total real or deflated sales of the firm (in constant 2009 USD) during the last fiscal year ( _Annual Sales_ ); dummy equal to 1 if the firm is part of a larger establishment and 0 otherwise ( _Multi-establishment firm_ ); (log of) age of the firm; proportion of the firm’s annual sales made abroad ( _Exports_ ); proportion of the firm’s ownership that is with foreign individuals and companies ( _Foreign Ownership_ ); dummy equal to 1 if the firm has one or more female owners and 0 otherwise; a proxy measure of capital use which is a dummy equal to 1 if the firm purchased fixed assets during the last fiscal year and 0 otherwise; dummy equal to 1 if the firm’s accounts were audited in the last fiscal year and 0 otherwise; total hours of power outages faced by the firm in a typical month over the last fiscal year; a dummy equal to 1 if the firm suffered losses due to crime, theft and vandalism during the last fiscal year and 0 otherwise; and a dummy equal to 1 if the firm was inspected by tax officials during the last fiscal year and 0 otherwise. Measures of the business environment that are typically commonly shared by all firms in the country or country-industry are also included. These are country-industry level average of the proportion of firms that compete against informal sector firms, and a similar average of how severe is the (lack of 15
26

**Table 10: Change in actual expenditures on energy for an 80 % price increase**

(percent of total expenditures)

|income|Elastici|ty0|||| Elastic|ity -0.5|||| Elastici|ty -1|||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|group|district<br>heat|electri<br>city|gas|all<br>energy|disLrict<br>heat|electri<br>city|gas|all<br>energy|heat|electri<br>city|gas|all<br>energy|
|1(poorest)|<br>1.20|2.88|1.04|5.92|0.12|0.29|0.10|0.59|-0.96|-2.30|-0.83|474|
|2|1.76|2.72|1.36|7.20|0.18|0.27|0.14|0.72|-1.41|-2.18|-1.09|-5.76|
|3|2.08|2.80|1.60|8.16|0.21|0.28|0.16|0.82|-1.66|-2.24|-1.28|653|
|4|2.08|2.56|1.76|8.64|0.21|0.26|0.18|0.86|-1.66|-2.05|-1.41|-6.91|
|**5(rlches)**|1.76|2.16|2.16|8.24|0.18|0.22|0.22|0.82|-1.41|-1.73|-1.73|659|
|worker|2.16|2.40|1.52|7.04|0.22|0.24|0.15|0.70|-1.72|-1.92|-1.22|-5.63|
|farmer|0|2.56|0.56|5.36|0.00|0.26|0.06|0.54|0.00|-2.05|-0.45|-4.29|
|mixed|0|2.32|0.96|5.12|0.00|0.23|0.10|0.51|0.00|-1.86|-0.77|-4.10|
|pension<br>er|2|2.96|1.76|**9.36**|0.20|0.30|0.18|0.94|-1.60|-2.36|-1.41|-7.49|
|self-<br>employed|1.68|2.72|2.00|7.12|0.17|0.28|0.20|0.71|-1.34|-2.18|-1.6|-5.70|
|social<br>recipient|1.68|3.2|1.36|7.2|0.17|0.32|0.14|0.72|-1.34|-2.56|-1.09|-5.76|
|all<br>groupsl|1.76|2.64|1.52|7.60|0.18|0.26|0.15|0.76|-1.41|-2.11|-1.22|-6.08|

Note: A positive number indicates that a _larger share_ of total xpenditures willbe spent on that energy category after the price rise than was spent before. In other words, the _income effect dominates._ (A negative number implies that the _substitution effect_ dominates and that _less_ will be spent on energy after the prices rises because of the decline in<sup>consumption). Each entry</sup> is calculated as (A+C) - (C+D) = A-D from figure 1, the actual calculation is: change in expenditure<sup>= SO(P,-PWP[)If +</sup> e(P,-P,/Po) **+1].**
7 Figure 1 plots the hours with no electricity (as per the scheduled outages) each month from January to December 2016. In the early months of the year, people were without power for about half of the time. Load shedding occurred every single day between July and October 27, 2016. In July and the first half of August 2016, there was no electricity for about 9 hours a day. The load shedding lasted seven hours every day in the second half of August, September, and the first three weeks of October 2016. In late October 2016, the outage schedule was suspended indefinitely, bringing the load shedding hours to zero in November and December 2016.

# _B. VoLL definition and measurement_

The value of avoided outages and lost consumption is often summarized into a metric known as the Value of Lost Load (VoLL). The VoLL can be expressed in dollars (or other currency) per hour of disruption, or dollars per kWh. It can be assessed separately for different classes of electricity customers. The VoLL has been traditionally used to assess the viability of projects aimed at adding capacity to the grid, and as of late, has been providing valuable information to capacity markets, balancing authorities, and aggregators seeking to help balance the market.<sup>7</sup> The European Union defines the VoLL as "value attributed by consumers to unsupplied energy."<sup>8</sup> It is the willingness to pay to avoid the loss of one kWh in an outage, or—assuming no income effects—the willingness to accept the loss of one kWh in a service interruption.<sup>9</sup>

> 7 Most recently, much controversy arose when PG&E cut power to an estimated total of 2.5 million people in California in hopes of reducing the risk of wildfires sparked by power lines and electrical equipment

> ( <u>https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/09/us/pge-shut-off-power-outage.html ). The VOLL would have been an</u> appropriate metric to quantify the costs and damages caused to the public by these service disruptions.

> 8 See <u>https://www.emissions-euets.com/internal-electricity-market-glossary/966-value-of-lost-load-voll</u> 9 The literature distinguishes between the direct and indirect damage costs of outages. Direct costs are the damages experienced directly from the subject or entity in question (e.g., production lost or delayed because of disrupted electricity service), while indirect costs are those borne by others (e.g., missed or delayed deliveries to other firms). Only the direct damage costs should enter in the calculation of the VoLL (Schoeder and Kuckshinrichs, 2015). The
led the Republic of Korea to adopt antitrust laws similar to those of the United States. However, he also notes that while consistent enforcement of antitrust laws in the United States has been effective in breaking existing monopolies and preventing their creation, Korea's preference was to have a selective approach to enforcement of these antitrust laws in order to facilitate the growth of Korean industries and increase their international competitiveness.

An important source of all knowledge is the media industry (Djankov et al., 2002, Islam 2006, Islam 2008). Therefore, not only are they important players in effecting institutional change, but also, industry and regulatory structure in the media industry are of critical importance for how subsequent institutions develop.<sup>29</sup> Technological innovation has created the need for new institutions to support/regulate the media industry; regulating the industry in the digital age is complicated. For example, whether Facebook is accepted as simply a “platform” or whether it is considered a news provider, will determine how it should be regulated. In this sphere as in others, innovation constantly puts pressure on institutions. For example, even while certain countries restrict access to certain types of news, new technology and knowledge allows circumvention of regulation and fosters competition in the news market.

**_Knowledge (one form of which is transparency) can be a strong force for institutional change, particularly knowledge that demonstrates the impact of institutions on outcomes that people care about._**

# **<u>Conflict and conquest: Forced transplants</u>**

History is replete with instances of conquests, following which, new rulers have imposed new rules on the conquered. Several historical studies (legal, economic, political or social) examine the impact of transplants by conquest. Some of these insights are summarized later in the paper. Many of the new

> 29 Since the WDR 2002 was written, the structure of the media industry and the ways in which people obtain knowledge has been changing fast, though the issues addressed remain similar: reach and access to information, competition in the industry, market segmentation and pricing, and the impact on society.

19
Policy Research Working Paper 5273

# **Abstract**

Using a recently compiled dataset on migration and remittances in Ghana, this paper estimates the determinants of an individual’s likelihood to be an internal migrant and the relationship between internal migration and welfare. The analysis finds that the likelihood to migrate is determined by a combination of individual (pull) and community-level (push) characteristics. The probability of migration is higher for younger and more educated individuals, but communities with higher levels of literacy, higher rates of subsidized medical care, and better access to water and sanitation are less likely to produce migrants. The analysis finds that households with migrants tend to be better off than similar households without migrants, even after controlling for the fact that households with migrants are a non-random sample of Ghanaians. However, the positive relationship is only true for households with at least one migrant in urban areas; the welfare of households with migrants exclusively in rural areas is no different from households without any migrants.

This paper—a product of the West Africa Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Unit, Africa Region—is part of a larger effort in the department to produce policy-relevant research which addresses key development issues in West Africa. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://econ.worldbank.org. The author may be contacted at dmedvedev@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent._ Produced by the Research Support Team
|Firmcharacteristics<br>(1999)|Numberoffinnsa)|Average<br>employment|Average change<br>inemployment|Employment<br>g<br>rate(%)|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|||<br>(1999)|<br>(persons)|<br>|
|_Productivity_|||||
|Verylow(Istquintile)|2593|31.0|-1.1|_-3.5_|
|Low(2ndquintile)|2593|45.2|-2.6|-5.9|
|Medium(3rdquintile)|2592|45.0|-1.8|-4.0|
|High (4thquintile)|2593|47.0|-2.5|-5.3|
|Veiyhigh (5thquintile)|2592|32.1|0.8|2.5|
|_Unitlaborcosts_|||||
|Verylow(1stquintile)|2591|24.6|0.9|3.6|
|Low(2ndquintile)|2591|38.3|-1.4|-3.5|
|Medium(3rdquintile)|2591|52.0|-2.7|-5.2|
|High(4thquintile)|2591|55.2|-3.5|-6.4|
|Veryhigh(5thquintile)|2590|29.9|-0.5|-1.8|
|_Profitability(%)_|||||
|Negative orzero|5836|40.1|-3.4|-8.5|
|10|4882|43.1|-0.5|-1.1|
|25|1594|35.0|2.3|6.5|
|Morethan25%|651|29.1|-0.1|-0.4|

> a) Active in both 1999 and 2000.

> Definitions of variables: Access to credit = liabilities to credit institutions.

Fixed capital formation = % increase in the value of fixed tangible assets over one year. Capital intensity (capital-to-labor ratio) = value of fixed tangible assets over employment. Productivity = sales over employment Unit labor costs = wages and social security contnbutions over sales. Profitability = operating profit over sales Note: the "no data" category is shown only if includes a large number of firms.

_Source. Survey of enterprises main financial indicators (F OI)for 1999 and 2000, Lithuanian Department of Statistics; Bank staffcalculatwns._

> Foreign direct investment has no clear direct impact on job creation. If anything, the impact is negative, as firms with foreign capital tend to cut on average more jobs than domestic firms. However, firms with a majority foreign stake perform markedly better than firms with the minority stake. The former reduced employment by less than

> 4 percent while the latter by over 8 percent. Still, why is FDI associated with

> employment decline instead of employment growth? The likely reason is that firms with foreign capital are engaged in intensive restructuring to improve their competitiveness.

30
intervention, and in three times, as a monitoring survey, after the intervention started. _The post-intervention follow up survey_ was conducted in early 2011, and it collected, in great part, the outcomes collected in the baseline survey.

The survey reported an average of 70% of households with improved access to water and sanitation, but improved access among poorest households was just over 36%. The poor rely mainly on unprotected wells for water sources. Also, more than half of the poorest households practice open defecation, while the largest majority of non-poor households have access to improved sanitation. Access to improved water sources and improved sanitation varies significantly among regions; Fatick is the least privileged of the regions.

_Diarrhea, Nutrition and Acute Respiratory Infections (ALRI) Indicators_ Survey data showed that one in every 10 children had diarrhea symptoms in the previous 14 days. ALRI symptoms were reported only in 2.3% of the households. Diarrhea symptoms were lower among those households with access to a facility for handwashing with soap and water. Diarrhea and ALRI do not seem to be correlated with income; however surveys showed considerable regional differences. Anemia prevalence is observed in the majority of households, and does not seem to be highly correlated with income. Moreover, households without access to a facility for washing hands stocked with soap and water, without access to improved water, or without access to improved sanitation showed more hours devoted to care for child illnesses and have slightly higher anemia prevalence.

Children in poorer households were less likely to receive nutritional supplements such as vitamin A or iron pills. Nearly 13% of children in poor households reported underweight, and almost 20% reported stunted growth. Children among households with a designated place for handwashing with soap and water reported slightly lower levels of malnourishment.

11
77

|COUNTRY|PROJECI|LEGAL COMPONENT|FINANCIERS|
|---|---|---|---|
|South Africa|UNDPfUNEP Project on<br>Environmental Law and Institutions<br>in Africa|As member of Steering Committee for the project, the Bank<br>has the lead in identifying the needs for development of<br>environmental laws and institutions (beginning in two<br>provinces).|UNDP/UNEP|
|Sri Lanka|Tbird Small and Medium Industries<br>(Cr No. 1860 CE), February 10,<br>1988|Study of debt recovery laws.|IDA SDR15.8 m.<br>Asian Development Bank|
||Third Industrial Development<br>(Cr No. 1948 CE), September 19,<br>198_|lmprovements in debt recovery legislation; preparation of<br>draft legislation to restructure the telecommunications sector.|IDA SDR31.7 m.<br>Asian Development Bank|
||Public Manufacturing Enterprises<br>Adjustment Credit<br>(Cr No. 2185 CE), Novembet 30,<br>**1990_**|Preparation of mining and minerals legislation; study of<br>company law and company registry.<br>________|IDA SDR90.7 m.|
||Fourth Small and Medium Industries<br>(Cr No. 2250 CE), July 15, 1991|Assistance in improving debt recovery and collection.|IDA SDR33.3 m.<br>Asian Development Bank|
||Plantation Sector Restructuring<br>Japanese Grant Agreement, July 19,<br>1991|Reform of regulatory framework of plantation sector.|Japanese Grant Y135 m.|
||Ho-tehold Energy Development<br>Japanese Grant Agreement, June 4,<br>1992|Study of legal and regulatory framework to promote private<br>sector participation in energy sector.|Japanese Grant Y9t. I m.|
||Private Sector Development<br>Japanese Grant Agreement, June 25,|Identification of policy and regulatory changes required to<br>support private sector development.|Japanese Grant Y67.5 m.|
COVID-19. Before COVID-19, children living in urban areas and under the age of 15 are more to attend school than children in rural areas that have the same likely living age. From the age of 15 onward, no difference in school attendance is observed between urban and rural children. After schools reopened, i.e., during COVID-19, no difference is observed between urban and rural children, although before the age of 15, urban residents are more still likely to attend school than rural residents.

Overall, Figure 2 suggests that COVID-19 decreased school attendance among all age groups, but even more so, among those whose education is no longer compulsory (agegroup 15-18). Figure 2 also suggests that COVID-19 did not discriminate between the genders or between rural and urban children.

# **2.2.6 Learning Activities and Contact with Teachers during the School-Closure Period**

In the analysis of the heterogeneous effects, we are interested in whether the impact of temporary schools’ closure on attendance differs by the opportunity of being engaged in any learning activities or in contact with their teachers during the school closure period in Nigeria. We hypothesize that people who were engaged in any learning activities during the lockdown are more likely to return to school than those who were not. Indeed, losing contact with the education system over the whole period of schools’ disruption is expected to lower students’ motivation to schooling by making other options (like employment and marriage) more attracting alternatives.

# **_(i) Learning Activities_**

To capture learning activities during the school closure period, we exploit the first five rounds of the COVID-19 NLPS in Nigeria, using the question asking if children have been in education or activities the seven engaged any learning during days preceding each round survey.<sup>16</sup> Therefore, we construct a dummy variable equal to 1 if a child resides in a household where children have been engaged in these types of activities in 16The question was asked in each of the first five rounds of the COVID-19 NLPS that took place between May and September (during the temporary closure of schools to households) to households with children in either primary or secondary school and aged 5 ́ 20.

18
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temporary contracts in Europe, and show that the negative employment effects of a credit crunch tend to be larger in countries with stronger EPL for permanent workers.<sup>8</sup> The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 explains the empirical methodology, and Section 3 presents the data sets used. Section 4 discusses the main results, while Section 5 investigates the role of EPL during a credit crunch. Section 6 concludes.

# 2. Methodology

The methodology proposed in this paper is an adaptation of that used in RZ1998, a seminal study that tests the hypothesis that financial development facilitates economic growth. RZ1998 first identify an industry’s need for external finance (the difference between investments and cash generated from operations) using data for publicly listed US firms. They claim that this is an indicator of an industry’s inherent demand for external finance, which is driven purely by technological factors. The prediction tested is that sectors more dependent on external finance expand relatively faster than others in more financially developed countries.

The hypothesis of this paper is similar to that of RZ1998, but instead of focusing on the economic effects of long-term financial development, it focuses on the short-term effects of a credit shortage. More specifically, the hypothesis is that sectors more heavily dependent on external finance would be more sensitive to a tightening of credit conditions. This method could be applied to different settings to study the impact of a credit crunch on firms and individuals.

The hypothesis is tested using the following empirical specification:

- ��,�,� = �+ � ������ ��������,� × ��� + ��,� + ��,� + ��,� + +��,�,� (1)

- 8 See, for example, Bentolila and Dolado (1994); Cahuc and Postel-Vinay (2002); Bentolila et al. (2012).

6
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