rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
adoption of definitions has hampered cross-country comparability of migration data. Some destination countries grant citizenship to foreign-born people who are family members of citizens or who satisfy certain legal and residency requirements. These naturalized citizens continue to be recorded as migrants under the foreign-born definition, but not under the foreign citizen definition. Many countries (for example, the USA) grant automatic citizenship to people born within their territory regardless of the citizenship status of the parents. Yet others, such as Japan, require at least one parent to be a citizen, even if children were born within the country’s borders. Because of these differences in citizenship and naturalization laws, the number of migrants will be substantially higher in the USA if the foreign-born criterion is used. In Japan, on the other hand, the number of migrants is higher under the foreign citizenship criterion.<sup>6</sup> Most bilateral migration databases use the criterion under which census data are collected, which tends to be the country of birth. First, this is more appropriate in analyzing physical movements and handling the cases of former colonies and dependencies. Second, while nationality can change, place of birth cannot. Third, the possibility of holding multiple nationalities complicates matters further. Fourth, naturalization laws and rates vary enormously across destination countries. Differences in laws on citizenship criteria (for both migrants and their children born in the destination country) do not affect data based on place of birth. Finally, when migrants, especially refugees and asylum seekers, cannot be assigned to a specific nationality, they are often recorded under an aggregated umbrella heading, leading to ambiguity.

> 6. Further confounding interpretation of the underlying definitions is the fact that countries variously apply the foreign-born definition (Docquier and Marfouk, 2006).

11
ANGOLA’S INFRASTRUCTURE: A CONTINENTAL PERSPECTIVE

**Table 14. Evolution of operational indicators associated with EPAL**

|**2005**|Water delivered<br>(million m<sup>3</sup>/year)<br>99|System losses<br>(%)<br>62|Collection<br>ratio<br>(%)<br>86|Average total<br>cost<br>($/m<sup>3</sup>)<br>1.5|Average<br>effective tariff<br>($/m<sup>3</sup>)<br>1.2|Total hidden<br>costs<br>($ million/year)<br>45|Total hidden<br>costs<br>(% revenues)<br>98|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|**2006**|100|60|82|1.3|1.5|37|63|
|**2007**|94|65|58|2.4|2.3|77|100|
|**2008**|98|60|48|2.5|2.5|100|100|
|**2009**|105|61|45|2.7|2.3|125|132|

_Source:_ Derived from Briceño-Garmendia, Smits, and Foster (2009). _Note:_ Total cost is estimated based on the assumption of a capital cost of 40 cents per cubic meter.

**Figure 19. Urban versus rural access to water supply and sanitation, 2007**

<!-- Start of picture text --> a. Water supply b. Sanitation<br>100 100<br>90 90<br>80 80<br>70 70<br>60 60<br>50 50<br>40 40<br>30 30<br>20 20<br>10 10<br>0 0<br>Piped Stand Posts/ Wells and Surface Water Septic thanks Improved Traditional Open<br>Shared Boreholes Latrines Latrines Defecation<br>Urban Rural Urban Rural<br>% population % population<br><!-- End of picture text --> _Source:_ AICD water supply and sanitation utilities database (www.infrastructureafrica.org/aicd/tools/data). _Note:_ Access figures calculated by AICD using data the 2007 Malaria Indicator Survey.

# Information and communication technology

## **Achievements**

Access to ICT has improved markedly since the end of Angola’s civil war in the early 2000s. Mobile penetration rose from less than 1 subscriber per 100 people in 2000 to almost 50 subscribers per 100 people in 2009. Fixed-telephone access has risen marginally, but this is offset to some extent by the development of wireless access (table 15) (Narain 2009).

Angola has made reforms to its telecommunications sector. The Ministry of Telecommunications and Information Technology is responsible for overall sector oversight, while the Angolan Institute of Communications (INACOM), created in 1999, is the industry regulator. Two mobile operators have been licensed: Movicel, an Angolan firm, and Unitel, partly owned by Portugal Telecom, which entered the market in April 2001. In addition to the incumbent, four fixed-line operators have been licensed (Mercury, Nexus, Mundo Startel, and Wezacom).

32
**Table 9. Effect of preschool availability on female’s industry**

||(1)<br>Agricultu<br>re|(2)<br>Mining|(3)<br>Manufactu<br>ring|(4)<br>Utility|(5)<br>Construct<br>ion|(6)<br>Trade|(7)<br>Logistic|(8)<br>Finance|(9)<br>Social|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|**Panel A: Public**||||||||||
|Public * Eligible|0.013|0.001**|0.006|-0.001**|0.001|-0.004|0.000|-0.000|0.012**|
||(0.015)|(0.000)|(0.007)|(0.000)|(0.001)|(0.009)|(0.001)|(0.001)|(0.006)|
|Public Preschools|0.031*|-0.001|-0.021**|0.000|0.001|-0.007|-0.001**|-0.002*|-0.013*|
||(0.018)|(0.001)|(0.010)|(0.000)|(0.001)|(0.009)|(0.001)|(0.001)|(0.007)|
|Eligible Child|0.005|-0.001*|-0.008***|0.000|-0.001|-0.005**|-0.000|-0.000|-0.005**|
||(0.004)|(0.000)|(0.002)|(0.000)|(0.001)|(0.003)|(0.000)|(0.001)|(0.002)|
|FDR q-value|0.754|0.323|0.754|0.149|0.754|0.754|0.754|0.754|0.323|
|**Panel B: Private**||||||||||
|Private * Eligible|-0.001|0.000|0.001*|0.000|0.000|-0.000|0.000|0.000|0.000|
||(0.001)|(0.000)|(0.001)|(0.000)|(0.000)|(0.001)|(0.000)|(0.000)|(0.001)|
|Private Preschools|0.002|-0.000|-0.002*|-0.000|-0.000|0.001|-0.000**|-0.000|-0.001|
||(0.002)|(0.000)|(0.001)|(0.000)|(0.000)|(0.001)|(0.000)|(0.000)|(0.001)|
|Eligible Child|0.010|-0.001*|-0.012***|-0.000|-0.001|-0.005|-0.000|-0.001|-0.005*|
||(0.007)|(0.000)|(0.003)|(0.000)|(0.001)|(0.005)|(0.000)|(0.001)|(0.003)|
|FDR q-value|0.872|0.872|0.747|0.872|0.872|0.872|0.872|0.872|0.872|
|Observations|224,925|224,925|224,925|224,925|224,925|224,925|224,925|224,925|224,925|
|Mean|0.098|0.001|0.049|0.000|0.002|0.098|0.001|0.003|0.064|

Notes: Sample is restricted to females aged 19-45 in at least two IFLS rounds. We infer preschool data in-between PODES years. Each column regresses the dummy for being employed in a certain industry category indicated in column heading on the density of public (Panel A) or private (Panel B) preschools, defined as the number of preschools divided by the population of children aged 3-6 in each district, a dummy for having a preschool-aged eligible child, and their interaction. Comparison group includes all mothers of children of the wrong ages and non-mothers. All regressions include mother’s age fixed effect, urban dummy, district, year, and individual fixed effects. Robust standard errors clustered at district level. Stars denote statistical significance at 1, 5, and 10 percent levels based on unadjusted p-values. FDR q-values for the interaction coefficient of preschool density and eligible child are computed over all 9 outcomes and are shown in the last row of each panel. FDR q-values indicate the probability of false positives among _significant_ tests. Number of female-year observations and means of dependent variables are indicated in the last two rows. See Table 8 for a list of top-3 occupations per category.

54
16

# Footnotes

- 1/ Conditions for product mix upgrading have been analyzed by Falvey (1979) and Rodriguez (1979). Quality upgrading for automobiles and footwear have been shown by Feenstra (1984) and Aw and Roberts (1986).

- 2/ These two allocation criteria are found by Hamilton (1986a) in his survey of export license criteria for clothing exports among ASEAN countries subject to VERs.

- 3/ The analysis with increasing marginal costs is available in appendix form from the authors upon request.

- 4/ McCulloch and Johnson analyze the simpler case of two-tier allocation tchemes for import licenses with a single market demand curve and do &..t have to consider tradeoffs between welfare and efficiency.

- 5/ This quota solution could have been achieved by an export tax to the -

- restricted market at the rate (PR C').

- 6/ More precisely if the unit elasticity point is to the right (left) of the mid-point between H and R, foreign exchange earnings in the nonrestricted market will rise (fall).

- 7/ In his fascinating description of US negotiation of footwear VERs with Korea and Taiwan, Yoffie states that Korean and Taiwanese officials urged footwear producers to increase shipments to the US in early 1976 because they anticipated that a VER would soon have to be negotiated.

- 8/ When export earnings are maximized, the efficiency loss, a. as a portion of rents is given by the expression:

<!-- Start of picture text --> aO(PNR _ - 1) e R " PNR<br>X~ 0\ - 1)<br><!-- End of picture text --> where tan - AHIAC a.

9/ Since 1980, over 300 anti-dumping cases have been initiated by both the EC and the US. The NICs share in the US and EC increased sharply in 1985 reaching 45Z of all cases in both the US and the EC. We thank Patrick Messerlin for providing this information.
39

- (Table 1 cont.)

lb. Correlations Matrix for Inflation and Selected Nominal Variablesa

||DP|DW|DM1|DM3|DC|DPC|DER|INT|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|DP|1.00||||||||
|DV|.33<br>(.08)|1.00|||||||
|DM1|<br>.17<br>(-.27)|.46<br>(.33)|1.00||||||
|DM3|<br>.66<br>(-.33)|.28<br>(.12)|.48<br>(.60)|1.00|||||
|DC|.66<br>(-.10)|.40<br>(.34)|.41<br>(.32)|.64<br>(.32)|1.00||||
|DPC|<br>.87<br>(.62)|.19<br>(.04)|.19<br>(-.19)|.61<br>(-.39)|.55<br>(.04)|1.00|||
|DER|<br>.80<br>(-.00)|.34<br>(-.19)|.32<br>(-.09)|.73<br>(.15)|.80<br>(.33)|.67<br>(.10)|1.00||
|INT|<br>.72<br>(-.27)|.40<br>(.04)|.37<br>(.31)|.58<br>(.46)|.78<br>(.24)|.59<br>(-.17)|.75<br>(.23)|1.00|

Notes: a) The variables DP, DW, DM1, DM3, DC, DPC, and DER denote the rates of change of the CPI, nominal wage, M1, M3, credit, controlled prices, and nominal (basket) exchange rate. INT denotes the nominal interest rate. Each entry gives a correlation coefficient for the period 1980:2-1985:6. Figures in parentheses are correlation coefficients for the period 1986:1-1988:12.
## **Figure 5: Experiment 2 - Real GDP per capita growth**

**(higher foreign aid; deviation from baseline)**

# **Foreign aid is 15 % of GDP**

<!-- Start of picture text --> 5<br>4.5 Experiment 2G (all allocated to CG)<br>4 Experiment 2H (all allocated to IG)<br>3.5<br>Experiment 2I (50% allocated to IG, 50% allocated to CG)<br>3<br>2.5<br>2<br>1.5<br>1<br>0.5<br>0<br>Foreign aid is 12 % of GDP<br>5<br>Experiment 2D (all allocated to CG)<br>4.5<br>4 Experiment 2E (all allocated to IG)<br>3.5<br>Experiment 2F (50% allocated to IG, 50% allocated to CG)<br>3<br>2.5<br>2<br>1.5<br>1<br>0.5<br>0<br>2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030<br>2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030<br><!-- End of picture text --> 25
# **Figure 5: Calling Efficiency Indicators**

|Outcomes|3617<br>total calls<br>3.6<br>avg calls<br>per respondent<br>December|1861<br>total calls<br>1.8<br>avg calls<br>per respondent<br>January|3320<br>total calls<br>3.3<br>avg calls<br>per respondent<br>February|3394<br>total calls<br>3.4<br>avg calls<br>per respondent<br>March|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|Contacts per 100 calls|35.7||48.5<br>24.7|22.3|
|Completed surveys per 100 calls|19|34.1|17.1|15.3|
|Distribution of calls by outcome:|||||
|Unreachable number|39.2|26.2||47.6<br>33.4|
|Correct Respondent|21.1|34.1|17.6|15.9|
|Call Back|10.6|11.6|5.3|4.6|
|No Network|10|11.4|18.7|31.8|
|No Answer|8|8.5|7.1|8|
|Disconnected Number|6|2.7|1.6|3.7|
|Incorrect Respondent|1.7|1.1|.5|.3|
|Contact Hangup|1.2|.6|.5|.7|
|Number is busy|1.1|2.7|.2|.8|
|Language Barrier|.7|.4|.4|.2|
|Wrong number|.4|.7|.5|.5|
|Deceased|0|.1|0|.1|

Other challenges during survey implementation related to content. For example, in February the rotating set of questions focused on governance and leadership, and call agents asked respondents to share perspectives on leadership quality. Many were reluctant to do so, citing concern that the information would be used against them. In January, when respondents were asked to list all member of the household in order to collect information on educational attainment, many were cautious and wanted reassurance the answers would be kept confidential.

Call agents at Horizon also reported many respondents complained about faulty batteries (among solar phone users) and the costs of recharging (among Nokia phone users). There was also some evidence that respondents lost track of their call date and that some research phones were sold. In some cases when interviewers called the lines and made a contact, the person on the other end was not the listed respondent and mentioned having bought the phone on the market. Unfortunately, Horizon did not keep exact track of the extent of these issues so it is difficult to gauge how influential they were in determining overall response rates.

# _Survey Results_

16
teaching and learning environment that benefits all types of students (Duflo, Dupas, and Kremer forthcoming).<sup>1</sup> Given the positive correlation between age and achievement, ability grouping basically narrows the relative age differences within the classroom and Duflo et al.’s (forthcoming) results imply that decreased classroom age variance should also lead to achievement gain. Several factors may explain the different implications based on studies of the effects of school starting age versus the study on the effect of ability grouping on achievement. First, studies examining the effects of school starting age tend to focus on why school starting age matters for outcomes and whether it is worthwhile to delay school entry age, rather than to identify whether increased classroom variance of student age influences achievement. Second, differences in the education systems studied and identification strategies employed by previous studies may be responsible for the disparate findings. Third, samples drawn from places where variance of student ages within grade level is small due to the enforcement of compulsory attendance laws and entry age policy may not be suitable candidates for examining the effect of classroom age heterogeneity, as the small variation in student age across a relatively small number of classrooms or schools might yield imprecise estimates.

This paper uses exogenous variation in the classroom variance of student age in 14 developing countries to examine its effects on student achievement. To utilize variation in classroom age variance that is arguably exogenous, I employ a school fixed effects estimator and focus on the variation of student age within ability-mixing elementary schools sampled from two waves of the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS). Because ability-

> 1 Studies on the effects of ability grouping and tracking on student achievement using observational data from developed countries show mixed findings. Examples include Betts and Shkolnik (1999), Figlio and Page (2002), Manning and Pischke (2006), and Hanushek and Woessman (2006).

4
# **Appendix Table A.9**

# **Determinants of High School Enrollment using Lagged Growth in Nearest City  Instrument Conditional on Completing Middle School, 1993-2003**

||Depen|dent Variable:|Enroll in High|School Next Ye|ar = 1|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Model|1|2|3|4|5|
||IV-GMM|IV-GMM|IV-GMM|IV-GMM|IV-GMM|
|Share of Migrants in Village|-2.179**|-2.638**|-2.181|-2.540*|-2.534*|
|Labor Force|(1.109)|(1.289)|(1.343)|(1.352)|(1.318)|
|Gender (1=male)|||0.036|0.039*|0.038|
||||(0.023)|(0.023)|(0.023)|
|First Born (1=yes)|||0.052**|0.026|-0.010|
||||(0.024)|(0.025)|(0.035)|
|First Born in Household|||-0.065***|-0.075***|-0.054**|
|was Male (1=yes)|||(0.022)|(0.022)|(0.024)|
|Father's Years of Schooling||||0.022***<br>(0.005)|0.022***<br>(0.005)|
|Mother's Years of Schooling||||0.023***<br>(0.005)|0.023***<br>(0.005)|
|Number of Potential Migrants,|||||-0.046*|
|Household, Male|||||(0.024)|
|Number of Potential Migrants,|||||-0.006|
|Household, Female|||||(0.020)|
|ln(Village Mean Income Per Capita)||-0.084|-0.080|-0.068|-0.066|
|||(0.097)|(0.090)|(0.094)|(0.095)|
|Village Total Land (/100)||0.002|0.002|0.003|0.003|
|||(0.002)|(0.002)|(0.002)|(0.002)|
|Village Cultivable Land Per Capita||0.639|0.501|0.514|0.507|
|Gini||(0.552)|(0.520)|(0.533)|(0.527)|
|(Village Labor Force)/10||-0.001|-0.001|-0.001|-0.001|
|||(0.001)|(0.001)|(0.001)|(0.001)|
|Cultivable Share of Village Land||0.170|0.143|0.110|0.112|
|||(0.205)|(0.189)|(0.199)|(0.198)|
|Cluster Corrected F statistic|6.079|4.571|4.533|4.539|4.556|
|Weak instrument robust Anderson-<br>Rubin F statistic|0.33|0.71|0.71|0.31|0.33|
|Anderson-Rubin p-value|0.566|0.399|0.399|0.581|0.563|
|Number of Obs.|2,154|2,154|2,154|2,154|2,154|

Notes: In parentheses, we show robust standard errors that allow for arbitrary correlation within city-year observations. All regressions control for factors related to village location with village fixed effects, and macroeconomic shocks using province*year fixed effects. All models are estimated using an instrumental variables-generalized method of moments estimator that is efficient in the presence of presence of heteroskedasticity and arbitrary within city-year cluster correlation (see Wooldridge 2002, page 193). Weak instrument robust Anderson-Rubin F statistics are calculated with a minimum distance estimator suggested by Finlay and Magnusson (2011). *-indicates significance at the 10 percent level; **- indicates significance at the 5 percent level; ***- indicates significance at the 1 percent level.

73
or small-scale programs, even if they are well-designed randomized field trials, can hardly be generalized to a much larger population. Our paper will exploit the large scale dimension of the monitoring data to document the extent to which the specific parameter of program impact (in our instance, returns to exposure) varies along some key socioeconomic characteristics in the context of a large scale, nutrition intervention.

# **3. The Program Seecaline: Program Design and Phase-in**

The program SEECALINE is a community-based nutrition program that started in 1999 and is gradually scaled up to cover more than half of the country’s districts. The objective of the program is to improve the nutritional status of children under the age of three and of pregnant and lactating mothers in the targeted project areas. To maximize geographical coverage as well as to provide quality services on a large-scale, the program is contracted out to local NGOs for implementation (management, delivery, operations research and supervision) at the local level<sup>8</sup> where the services are delivered locally by a community nutrition worker (ACN), who is usually an elected woman from the targeted community. The ACN's activities are in turn supervised by the NGO<sup>9</sup> .

_<u>The preventive approach</u>_ <u>: Although conventional wisdom suggests that the</u> _quantity of food_ is the key to prevent growth faltering and retardation, recent studies have argued that nutrition practices, feeding methods, and the protection from diseases are equally important (Allen, Gillespie 2001, Cebu Study Team 1992, WHO 2003). Seecaline adopts a preventative approach to prevent growth from faltering before it becomes too severe. As a community-based nutrition program, Seecaline revolves around a monthly growth monitoring activity as a focal point. The participating communities are mobilized towards raising the awareness of the problem of malnutrition and are taught and encouraged to improve hygiene, child care and nutrition practices. All children under the age of three and the pregnant and lactating women in a community are eligible to participate in all of the program activities. On a monthly basis, the ACN weighs all of the children under the age of three and provides counseling to the mothers regarding the nutritional status of their children indicated by the growth chart. The ACN may also visit a participating family if its child’s growth chart shows no progress or if he/she misses a weighing sessions.

> 8 Specifically, by local level, we mean “sites,” which are defined to be geographically bound by a five kilometer radius.  This setup is designed to minimize the (direct and indirect) transport cost incurred by the mothers to participate in the site activities as well as to minimize the ACN'’s workload.  In this paper, we will use “sites” and “communities” interchangeably.

> 9 In the monthly situation meeting, the ACN and the NGO representatives discuss the problems of the participating community.

8
considers that there are 96 separate hypothesis tests in Tables 5 and 6, I should expect around five rejections at the 95% significance level even if the stance of monetary policy and the outcome of speculative attacks were independent. Moreover, even the few significant results in the OECD subsample are to a large extent driven by a handful of successful attacks in Greece, Turkey and Portugal.

At first glance, the descriptive evidence presented in this section is hardly consistent with the view that tightening monetary policy is effective during speculative attack episodes. At the same time, it is also hardly consistent with the alternative view that tighter monetary policy has the perverse effect of weakening the currency under attack. Rather, this descriptive evidence suggests a striking absence of any systematic relationship between the stance of monetary policy and the outcome of speculative attacks.

15
6 growth in the amount of labor (the contribution of labor) and growth in total factor productivity (TFP).

From equation (2), with the additional assumption of constant returns to scale, it can be shown that Equation (4) is simply the per worker specification of Equation (3). It states that the growth rate of per worker output is dependent on the grow rate of capital per worker and the growth rate of total factor productivity.

Traditional economic theory emphasizes the existence of diminishing returns to increases in aggregate output due to factor accumulation (increases in capital and/or labor). As such, increases in TFP are seen as the key to long-term economic growth and we turn to the determinants of TFP growth in the next section.

# **2.1 The Determinants of Total Factor Productivity**

Despite a long history of research on the determinants of total factor productivity, there is still much debate on what are the key determinants of total factor productivity (TFP). Solow (1956)<sup>1</sup> simply postulated that the level of productivity depended on time where _t_ is time.

Romer (1986<sup>2</sup> , 1990<sup>3</sup> ) and Lucas (1988<sup>4</sup> ) proceeded further by arguing that TFP levels depended on the stock of knowledge or human capital. The aggregate production function can be therefore be represented as

> 1 Solow, Robert (1956).  “A Contribution to the Theory of Economic Growth.”  Quarterly Journal of Economic Growth.” _Quarterly Journal of Economics_ .  Vol. 50, pp. 65-94.

> 2 Romer, Paul M. (1986).  “Increasing Returns and Long-Run Growth.” _Journal of Political Economy_ . Vol. 94, pp. 1002-37, October.

> 3 Romer, Paul M. (1990).  “Human Capital and Growth: Theory and Evidence.” _Carnegie-Rochester Conference Series on Public Policy._ .  Vol. 32, No. 0, pp. 251-86.

> 4 Lucas, Robert E., Jr. (1988).  “On the Mechanics of Economic Development.”  Journal of Monetary Economics.  Vol. 22, pp. 3-42.