economic (Grogger and Hanson, 2015; Kim et al., 2011) situation back home also mattered. along with the quality of life in host countries (Tan and Hugo, 2017).

# _(iii) Consequences of International Students_

There were also consequences of international students and scholars for host countries which could be both negative and positive. Among the negative impacts, while a National Academy of Sciences (2016) study emphasized the need for skilled immigration and international students, Beckhausen et al. (2013) question its wisdom. However, both studies have drawbacks as they do not address the fact that nearly 40 percent of all migrants into the US are spouses and children of US citizens. Many of these immigrants, although skilled, do not enter under the skilled category. Contrary to economic evidence (Biavaschi et al., forthcoming; Breunig et al., 2017; Islam and Fausten, 2008; Chapman and Cobb-Clark, 1999) **,** similar erroneous arguments have been made for skilled immigrants in Australia.<sup>14</sup> Furthermore, Cappelli (2015) claims that over-education is a major problem in the US without taking into consideration the problem of skill heterogeneity (quality), an issue that has been emphasized by Hanushek et al. (2017; 2015) and Hanushek and Woesmann (2012, 2011). Finally, these studies do not take into consideration the impact of FDI and trade and other benefits for both the migrant sending and receiving countries.

Borjas (2007) contends that the admission of international students has come at the expense of US males who have been crowded out. Hira and Gopalaswamy (2019) emphasize the need for reforming skilled immigration policies. However, both studies fail to identify the likely reasons for dependence on international students and talents: (i) cuts in US education budgets (Bound et al., 2016) which has forced universities to depend on international students and even multinationals for education finance and (ii) cuts in advanced placement classes at the pre-university levels, which short-changes many US students (Jackson et al., 2018; 2016; Hyman, 2017; Card and Payne, 2002).<sup>15</sup> Furthermore, although Bound et al. (2017) found that H-1B visas lead to decline in wages in the US, a result disputed by other studies (Peri et al., 2015; Kerr et al., 2015), it was also found that the lack of preparation of the US students<sup>16</sup> , which results in poor quality, does matter (Richey and Rosburg, 2017; Bound et al. 2010). School segregation and inequality of opportunities also aggravate the problem (Golden, 2006).<sup>17</sup> However, labs in the US

> 14 <u>https://www.cis.org.au/app/uploads/2015/04/images/stories/policy‐magazine/2010‐autumn/26‐1‐10‐bob‐ birrell.pdf</u>

> 15 In states such as Texas, budget cuts have been so severe that teachers have to spend their own money buying school supplies. <u>http://spectrumlocalnews.com/tx/austin/news/2018/05/21/study‐‐texas‐teachers‐paying‐more‐for‐school‐ supplies‐out‐of‐pocket‐</u>

> 16 <u>http://www.pewresearch.org/fact‐tank/2017/02/15/u‐s‐students‐internationally‐math‐science/</u>

> 17 <u>https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/white‐parents‐are‐enabling‐school‐segregation‐if‐it‐doesn‐t‐ ncna978446</u>

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