least 12 months with an informal (i.e., not formally registered) company, have fewer than 50 employees and operate outside of the agricultural sector. 1,500 applicant enterprises in Lomé, Togo’s capital city, were first stratified by gender of the owner and sector, and then grouped by baseline profits. 500 firms were randomized into a control group, while 500 were randomized into a treatment group that was offered the personal initiative training.<sup>7</sup> The training was delivered through three half-day sessions per week over the course of four weeks and resulted in an increase in the use of good business practices as well as a 30% increase in profits (Campos et al., 2017). We use two survey rounds: the baseline data collected in October 2013 and the third follow-up data collected in August 2015.<sup>8</sup>

# **3.1.2 Land Titling Interventions**

The property rights impact evaluations included in our dataset were conducted in Benin, Ghana and Rwanda. All three land titling programs increased household-level land tenure security. Only the Rwanda program put special emphasis on gender equality and increased the perceived and actual right of women to be registered as claimants on parcels owned by married couples.

The IE in Benin was an RCT of a land demarcation intervention, Plan Foncier Rural (PFR). The land intervention took place across nine of Benin’s 12 regions. 596 eligible villages<sup>9</sup> were identified in which 80 public lotteries were then organized, resulting in 300 villages in the treatment group and 296 in the control group for a total of 2,972 households. The objective of the program was to formalize existing customary rights over land, held almost exclusively by men. Within communities, the project demarcated all plots, which included resolving any property rights disputes. Plots were the primary unit of treatment. At follow-up, landholders—both owners and users of the land—had been guaranteed by local authorities that they would be issued a land title in their name (though they had not received the titles yet). The program considerably increased the share of delineated parcels in treatment villages, households’ perceived tenure security, and long-term investments in cash crops and trees. Treated female-headed households caught up with their male counterparts in land fallowing, another form of long-term investment (Goldstein et al., 2018).

The data from Ghana come from a land registration program implemented by the government in Awutu-Effutu-Senya. The evaluation took place in a peri-urban setting with a sample of 2,450 households. The analysis builds on three survey waves from twenty communities located on either side of a road. The “as good as random” division of communities by this road (which was arbitrarily chosen as the boundary of the treatment area) allowed for the implementation of a regression discontinuity design, since only households on one side were eligible to receive land titling. The program was initiated in 2009 with the support of the Millennium Development Authority (MiDA). By February 2012, MiDa had concluded the registration process for 2,296 parcels of land and had issued land title certificates for 1,481

> 7Another 500 were randomized into a traditional business training treatment group. We do not consider them here since this training did not have any significant economic impacts.

> 8We did not use follow-up rounds 1 and 2 because no fertility variable was available.

> 9Eligibility criteria included the region’s poverty index, potential for commercial activities, regional market integration, local interest in promoting gender equality, infrastructure for economic activities, adhesion to the Plan Foncier Rural (PFR) application procedure, incidence of land conflicts, and the production of main crops.

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