numeracy skills tend to have considerably lower science achievement than their female counterparts with equivalent early literacy and numeracy skills by grade 4, while science achievement of boys and girls with stronger early literacy and numeracy skills tends to be similar. In other words, boys who begin school at an early learning disadvantage to their peers are further disadvantaged as they progress through the education system and appear to be at more risk of falling behind than girls who begin school with weaker early skills. This can also be seen in students’ reports, in NALO, that boys are more likely to repeat a year in school because of poor academic performance.

It is important that parents are aware that early childhood development lays a foundation for future education, health, well-being, and economic success. Public health and education agencies should promote awareness among parents and provide guidance and resources to encourage greater engagement in early learning in the family. For example, simple activities that can contribute to a child’s early literacy and numeracy development could include reading together, describing a scene in everyday life, counting everyday objects or singing counting songs, and using mathematical and spatial language while playing with shapes or other objects (e.g., “behind”, “above”, “beside”, “straight”, “curved”, “double”). Data from TIMSS 2019 show that parents in Saudi Arabia report engaging in activities of these types less frequently with young boys than young girls. Taking steps to increase the level of support for early childhood learning at home for boys, in particular, would likely lead to a stronger foundation in the future for boys starting school and to greater progress in learning among boys. Cultural and social barriers that contribute to low enrollment of young children in kindergarten—for example, social expectations relating to motherhood and childrearing at home—also need to be considered in this respect.

It is noteworthy that, despite the differences seen across the four sets of models, two variables were found to be significantly associated with both mathematics and science achievement at both grade levels. These were students’ confidence in mathematics or science (positively associated with achievement in all cases) and students’ reported levels of absenteeism (more frequent absences being negatively associated with achievement in all cases). The consistency of these findings demands attention from Saudi Arabia’s education community. In particular, student absenteeism, as an issue that is likely more responsive to policy making compared to others (e.g., students’ socio-economic status), should be considered carefully. The analyses presented in this paper have shown that student absenteeism in Saudi Arabia is widespread, frequent, and consistently associated with achievement in at least two key areas of study (mathematics and science), at both elementary and intermediate school levels. In many countries, student absenteeism is relatively rare and structures are in place to monitor and promote regular attendance at school. These structures can encompass both informal channels (e.g., between the schoolteacher or principal and the child’s parents) and formal channels (e.g., formal communication between the school and the home or, in more extreme cases, a state agency tasked to follow up to ensure minimal levels of attendance at school). The frequency of absenteeism for many students in Saudi Arabia, coupled with the likely negative implications of regular absenteeism for achievement, suggest that Saudi Arabia’s policy makers should study efforts in other countries to combat absenteeism (e.g., Knoster 2016; Rogers and Vegas 2009) and consider how similar approaches could be usefully adapted to the local context.

A similar problem is apparent with the teaching workforce in Saudi Arabia’s schools. A substantial proportion of school principals, at both elementary and intermediate levels, indicated that teacher absenteeism and poor teacher timekeeping (teachers arriving late to school or leaving early) are problems in their schools. This is consistent with previous research indicating that teachers in Saudi Arabia’s schools often lack enthusiasm for the profession and are poorly motivated (OECD 2020).. Without taking steps to ensure that teachers are both highly skilled and present and engaged in teaching during scheduled working hours, students will continue to be at risk of failing to reach their full potential as a result of failures in school management practices. Other initiatives that may be taken to, for example, build supportive school climates, are likely to be limited as long as they are undermined by poor teacher 33