Fields are then measured by means of chaining and orthogonal offsetting. A separate sketch is made for each survey field. Plot boundaries within the survey field are also surveyed I4. After the map has been completed, the survey fields are numbered and the individual plots given sub-numbers. In the past, alleged changes in plot boundaries were physically marked on the ground, but this practice gave rise to so much litigation that plot areas and boundaries are now simply compared with those shown on the previous map. This is also possible because most areas have been surveyed at least once and so previous maps exist.

_Amins_ are responsible for plot-to-plot mapping. They follow 'The Technical Rules of the Settlement Department of Bihar and Orissa', 1927. The rules specify the instruments to be used and procedures to be followed in the field. Survey instruments and procedures have changed little over the last 70 years, and are in fact based on those developed by Todormal (Emperor Akbar's Finance Minister during the mid-16th century).

> <sup>5</sup> In recent years, the use of aerial survey methods has become more widespread in India<sup>1</sup> . In Orissa, however, the scheme for conducting aerial surveys is at a preliminary stage. A pilot project has been initiated in Angul district, in collaboration with the Research and Development Wing of the Survey of India, but progress has reportedly been slow due to the lack of efficient plotter equipment.

# **3.2 Preparation of the RORs**

After the village survey, the actual boundary of each individual plot is determined _(kistwar),_ and plot-wise information<sup>16</sup> provided in the prescribed format _(khanapuri)._ The preliminary ROR _(yaddast)_ is verified and validated in consultation with the landowner(s) _(bhujarat and attestation)._ Draft _khatiyans_ (the individual RORs) are then prepared and objections are invited (within a maximum of 60 working days) from concerned people for necessary amendments to the records _(draft publication and objection hearing)._ In case of objections, the _amin_ makes enquiries. On receipt of the _amin's_ report, the Assistant Settlement Officer fixes a suitable hearing date. The records are amended after the objections have been settled. Box 6 provides a brief description of the nature of objections at a typical settlement camp.

# **3.3 Settlement of rent**

The amended records are brought to the Settlement Office for rent assessment according to the government's rent policy _(rent fixation)._ This is followed by the preparation of the final ROR for the village, including relevant details from each landholder's final _khatiyan._ Four copies of the _khatiyan_ are produced for distribution to the landholder(s), tehsil office (to regularly update any changes and record through subsequent

- 14 Broadly, two types of survey methods are used: the 'plane table survey' conducted by the Settlement Office for plane surfaces/ level ground, and the 'traverse survey' conducted by the Survey and Map Publication Office for hilly areas, rivers and forests. Survey and Map Publication Office is a constituent part of the Directorate of Land Records and Surveys (see Figure 4).

- 15 The usefulness of aerial survey methods depends upon topography, vegetation cover and the types of plot boundaries. Hilly areas may require more sophisticated and expensive photogrammetric methods that eliminate errors due to altitude differences. Heavy vegetation cover may make certain boundaries invisible, making it necessary to at least supplement the aerial photography with a ground survey. In general, the use of aerial survey is most advantageous in open country with small, irregular fields having physical boundaries. Aerial survey is most feasible in rural areas with large, regular fields having physical boundaries (Hanstad, 1996).

- 16 Such as land owner(s), forms of land rights, land use types, actual area of each plot belonging to the land owner, lease/mutation/encroachment details, and other relevant details. This is primarily a fiscal record to show from whom the assessment of each holding is to be realised, and the amount.

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