rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
schools could better respond to the students’ needs when schools reopened. Whether the impact of school closures on learning varies with the school’s administration level is still an open question in the literature. Several papers identify benefits of decentralized management of education (Galiani et al. (2008), Faguet (1999), Jimenez and Sawada (1999), Filmer (2002), King and Ozler (2000)). Having a policymaker close to the population helps identify households’ needs. In the context of school shutdowns, parents of students of municipal schools have lower transaction costs to demand actions from the local authority to help students catch up with the school curriculum.

# **5.1 Robustness Checks**

## **_Effects on municipal schools_**

In the municipalities where the local authorities opted not to extend the winter break, 11% of the contracted teachers of their locally-managed schools also worked on at least one statemanaged school that adopted the school shutdown.<sup>22</sup> It could be that some of these teachers opted not to lecture, making students from the locally-managed network miss school content even though the municipal government opted not to extend their winter break. To deal with this potential spillover effect, we rerun the regressions controlling for the percentage of teachers working in a state and a locally-managed school. The estimates are shown in Column 2 of Table 3 and are very similar to the baseline specification.

As pointed out in Section 4, the DiD analysis is run on a sample of locally-managed schools. Therefore, none of these schools were included in the state government’s managerial practices program implemented in 2008 and 2009. However, some teachers of the locally-managed network who also worked in a state-managed school where this intervention was implemented. This is the case for 5.4% of teachers in locally-managed schools that extended the winter break, and for 1.3% of teachers in the comparison municipalities. Even though the percentages are small, DiD could be slightly biased if these teachers took better managerial practices to the locally-managed schools. We then add as control the percentage of teachers in each one of the locally-managed schools that also work in a state-managed school that implemented the

> 22School Census, 2009.

19
<!-- Start of picture text --> eS : =" - ee —<br>‘ ye ~y, 4 I<br>:<br>*<br>aia x) A. oe te,<br>. | | yb AY om<br>PY) No Unbundling a | OY Y: i .<br>{9}.[9 FunctionallyLegally Unbundled/IToUnbundled wr, ¥ ) k “a : as —<br><=<br>HEE Ownership Unbundled } ) pin<br>\<br>| wcaathinnaeceil[se ramnyameemmarseee | OCTOBERIBRD 484482024| \\ v i<br>‘Thiscolors,‘the Worldmapdenominations Bankwas produced Group, anyand anyby the judgment otherCartographyinformation on the Unit legal of status shownthe onWorldofany thisBank territory,map Group. donotor imply, anyThe boundaries, endorsement on the part of or \ < a ve 4<br><!-- End of picture text -->

<!-- Start of picture text --> Account unbundling Functional Unbundling Legal Unbundling Ownership Unbundling<br>_— | | Parent }<br>fo<br>—-® | © Company \_ = H)<br>Costs & ——~. Firewallbetween ~<br>revenue of firm j ~ units<br>Separate accounts are created for Market sectors are separated into Market sectors are divided into Each market sector is separately owned<br>each distinct market sector showing distinct entities that operate separate legal entities and tasked with and managed, and neither entity has<br>costs and revenues from each independently network activities stake in any other market or entity<br>activity.<br>ee<br>Decreased separation of entities Increased separation of entities<br>Increased political influence Decreased political influence<br><!-- End of picture text -->
Singh, D. (1998). Internal migration in India: 1961-1991. Demography India 27 (1), 245–61.

Srivastava, R. and T. McGee (1998). Migration and the labour market in India. _Indian Journal of Labour Economics_ 41 (4), 583–616.

Srivastava, R. and R. Sutradhar (2016). Labour Migration to the Construction Sector in India and its Impact on Rural Poverty. _Indian Journal of Human Development_ July 14.

Srivastava, R. (2012). Internal Migration in India: An Overview of its Features, Trends and Policy Challenges, Internal Migration in India Initiative, National Workshop on Internal Migration and Human Development in India, UNESCO and UNICEF, New Delhi.

World Bank (2016). South Asia’s Turn: Policies to Boost Competitiveness and Create the Next Export Powerhouse. Washington, DC: World Bank Group Zelazny, F. (2012). The evolution of India’s UID program: Lessons learned and implications for other developing countries. CGD Policy Paper 8.

26
beneficiary households in the endline survey is likely to be due to the process of annual beneficiary selection done at the program level.

**Table 1. Distribution of households across the surveys**

||EGPP|Non-EGPP|Total|Attrition|Replacement|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Baseline survey|1594|1601|3195|||
|End-line survey|563|2553|3116|207|128|

However, the number of households interested to participate in the program did not decrease much during this period. Of the 1,957 households who had knowledge about the program during both the survey rounds 66.8% were repeat applicants. Of the non-participating households who knew about EGPP in the baseline sample, 43.47% applied for the program but did not get in, while 45.66% of the households in the endline sample applied for the EGPP but did not get in. This implies some level of oversubscription to EGPP and the exclusion of households from participating in the program despite their interest to do so.<sup>17</sup> The household surveys also include information on household level demographic status, spending on food and nonfood items, asset endowments, access to facilities, savings and loans, employment activities, food insecurity and shocks, as well as information on participation in EGPP across the various phases. The two phases of the program implementation reflecting the two lean seasons (i.e. phase 1 representing the October – December lean season, and phase 2 representing the March-April lean season) allow us to identify reasonable control groups for our impact analysis (see Table 2). For instance, we are able to identify the _same_ EGPP households who were covered during the baseline and endline surveys except for one difference: one set of households participated in November 2010 and 2012 lean seasons (first set of treatment households or T1), while another set of households participated in November 2010 lean season and in March 2012 lean season but not in the November 2012 lean season (first set of control households or C1). We expect that both treatment and control households face seasonal poverty (as

> 17 Due to the sampling strategy we are not able to quantify the level of oversubscription at the PSU level.

15
Table 6: Fertility: Number of children as a function of ultrasound availability and firstborn sex

||Nu|mber of bir|ths|Excess|Fertility|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||(1)|(2)|(3)|(4)|(5)|
|_Firstborn girl_|0.155***|0.141***|0.189***|0.117***|0.115**|
||(0.012)|(0.015)|(0.031)|(0.018)|(0.043)|
|_Firstborn girl_ * _Post1_|-0.088***|-0.079***|-0.081***|-0.085***|-0.085***|
||(0.016)|(0.019)|(0.019)|(0.024)|(0.024)|
|_Firstborn girl_ * _Post2_|-0.112***|-0.100***|-0.106***|-0.093***|-0.093***|
||(0.018)|(0.023)|(0.024)|(0.025)|(0.026)|
|_Ideal no. of children_||0.315***<br>(0.018)|0.314***<br>(0.023)|||
|_Ideal fraction of sons_||0.052***|0.073***|-0.345***|-0.346***|
|||(0.018)|(0.025)|(0.024)|(0.032)|
|_Firstborn girl_ * _Ideal no. of children_|||0.002<br>(0.016)|||
|_Firstborn girl_ * _Ideal fraction of sons_|||-0.044<br>(0.028)||0.002<br>(0.028)|
|N|118,663|88,475|88,475|88,475|88,475|
|Baseline mean|3.001|3.001|3.001|0.451|0.451|

NOTES: Estimates of specification (3) estimated using OLS regression. The dependent variable in columns (1)-(3) is the number of births at the time of interview and in columns (4)-(5) is excess fertility which equals number of births minus ideal number of children. Baseline means are average of the outcome variable in each column for mothers who had both their first and last birth within 1973-1984. Standard errors in parentheses *** ** * are clustered by state. Data: NFHS. 1%, 5%, 10%.

Table 7: Fertility: Investigating the margin of response by distribution of number of children

|||Number|of children|||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||_≥_2|_≥_3|_≥_4|_≥_5|_≥_6|
||(1)|(2)|(3)|(4)|(5)|
|_Firstborn girl_|-0.012**|0.054***|0.069***|0.034***|0.009***|
||(0.005)|(0.005)|(0.006)|(0.004)|(0.002)|
|_Firstborn girl_ * _Post1_|0.010|-0.011|-0.042***|-0.034***|-0.009**|
||(0.007)|(0.007)|(0.007)|(0.005)|(0.003)|
|_Firstborn girl_ * _Post2_|0.017**|-0.023***|-0.058***|-0.036***|-0.009***|
||(0.007)|(0.008)|(0.009)|(0.005)|(0.003)|
|N|118,663|118,663|118,663|118,663|118,663|
|Baseline mean|0.886|0.615|0.315|0.127|0.042|

NOTES: This table presents estimates from specification (3) using indicators for the mother having various number of children at the time of survey in columns (1)-(5). Data: NFHS. *** 1%, ** 5%, * 10%.

44
# **IV. Policy Issues and Future Prospects**

This section discusses the continuing policy issues facing the insurance industry and insurance regulation in Jordan and evaluates the future prospects for accelerated growth and development.

## **A. Policy Issues**

The creation of the Insurance Commission and adoption of a modern approach to insurance regulation and supervision represent major steps forward in promoting the development of the insurance industry. The new Commission has expanded its staff and undertaken a wide-ranging training program to upgrade skills. It has adopted a multi-year plan aiming at modernizing the regulatory framework, strengthening supervision and enhancing the efficiency of the sector.

Most of the measures introduced by the Commission, such as the new rules on accounting and asset valuation, risk-based capital and solvency margin, technical provisions, reinsurance, and requiring the creation of separate subsidiaries for general and life business aim in the right direction. The two significant exceptions are the very large increase in the minimum capital of new companies and the “grandfathering” of existing companies from meeting the new high capital requirements and from creating separate subsidiaries for life and general insurance.

The minimum capital requirements should ideally be lowered and set at more realistic levels, while existing companies should be given a clear timetable to comply with the capital and business separation rules. Many companies engage in life business on a very rudimentary basis and their licenses could be withdrawn without causing a negative effect on competition.

The need to complete the modernization of insurance regulation and supervision and the restructuring and consolidation of the insurance industry cannot be overstressed. The budgetary and operational autonomy of the IC should be strengthened, while the Commission should be empowered to vet the probity and financial standing of founders and large shareholders of insurance companies and approve changes in their control.

The IC should complete the issuance of new instructions strengthening corporate governance and internal controls, setting out sound diversification principles for investment policies, and introducing a code of market conduct for both insurance companies and intermediaries. Full implementation of the Insurance Regulatory Information System and publication of a clear regulatory ladder would facilitate the taking of early and consistent intervention action on weak companies.

The regulatory framework covering life insurance requires considerable strengthening. There is a need to provide for cooling off periods and for clear disclosure of meaningful information to policyholders, including surrender values, benefit 34
Table 5: Relationship between general management practices and energy management practices.

||(1)|(2)|(3)|
|---|---|---|---|
||All Firms|Manufacturing|Services|
|General|0.416<sup>_∗∗∗_</sup>|0.482<sup>_∗∗∗_</sup>|0.322<sup>_∗∗∗_</sup>|
||(0.017)|(0.027)|(0.028)|
|No. Employees|0.053<sup>_∗∗∗_</sup>|0.055<sup>_∗∗∗_</sup>|0.030|
||(0.011)|(0.018)|(0.018)|
|Capital Stock||0.034<sup>_∗∗∗_</sup><br>(0.007)||
|Log(Sales)|0.033<sup>_∗∗∗_</sup>|0.018|0.036<sup>_∗∗∗_</sup>|
||(0.007)|(0.012)|(0.011)|
|3-digit sector|✓|✓|✓|
|Age|✓|✓|✓|
|Country|✓|✓|✓|
|Observations|7080|3162|2363|
|Adjusted _R_<sup>2</sup>|0.244|0.300|0.180|
|df<br>m|121|85|66|

Standard errors in parentheses Capital, labor, and output enter in logs. _∗ ∗∗ ∗∗∗ p <_ 0 _._ 1, _p <_ 0 _._ 05, _p <_ 0 _._ 01

# **4.4 Energy Intensity and Energy Management Practices**

Table 6 indicates a negative and significant relationship between energy management practices and energy intensity (expenditure) for manufacturing firms (columns (2) and (5)). Increasing the energy management score from the 25th to the 75th percentile is associated with lower energy intensity (in value terms) by about 10% in manufacturing. While this relationship is also negative and significant for services in (3), the significance is lost once additional covariates are added in (6). Controlling for generic management practices reduces the sample size substantially. The relationship between energy management and energy expenditure intensity is no longer statistically significant when manufacturing is broken down by energy intensity and services by knowledge intensity (see Table A12).

24
developing countries nds that the VAT is not necessarily regressive. Empirical evidence from Bangladesh based on household income expenditure survey data nds that the VAT may have progressive elements (Faridy and Sarker (2011)). Therefore, as pointed out by the International Tax Dialogue (2013), the incidence of this regressivity is very country specic and generalizations can be misleading. Moreover, Ciminelli et al. (2019) nd that the labor market response does matter to assess the redistributive eects of the VAT. The VAT can reduce income inequality by triggering a positive labor supply channel. Higher indirect taxes increase the price of the consumption basket and create incentives for agents to increase their labor supply. This eect tends to be stronger for middle-aged women.

# 6 Conclusions

In this paper, we show that trade liberalization boosts economic activity in both developed and emerging countries. However, we nd that trade liberalization is associated to higher informality, which ultimately implies less job security and lower employment quality.

Policy makers should consider placing a high priority on promoting job quality and income equality. Policy interventions to curb informality should follow a comprehensive approach that rests on three pillars: increasing the benets of formality, decreasing the costs of formalization and improving enforcement methods. In this respect, we investigate whether taxation may smooth the way for formalization of jobs. To this purpose, we extend the Melitz (2003) model and develop a two-country DSGE model, featuring a developed and emerging (or developing) country as in Cacciatore and Ghironi (2015). In addition, we embed the tax system and the informal labor sector in the model with the aim to analyze whether taxation may correct the bias toward informality introduced by trade liberalization. We argue that a scal reform can mitigate these adverse eects of trade on the labor market. A Social VAT, switching the tax burden from payroll taxes paid by rms in the formal sector to the consumption tax, can increase the incentives to operate in the formal sector. Overall, output and economic eciency improve as the share of formality increases by 1 percentage point. However, these (small) gains in formalization come at the cost of widening inequality between formal and informal workers. Our model estimates that the wage gap will rise from 65.7 to 69.2 percent in the advanced economy and from 10.6 to 14.4 percent in the emerging economy.

Our results suggest that (budget-neutral) tax reforms might play only a minor role in improving formalization rates in emerging countries. To reduce the incidence of informality, tax policy interventions should go hand in hand with other more eective spending and regulatory policies. Extending unemployment benets to all workers in the formal sector including those working part-time and/or on temporary contracts, could prevent the unemployed from looking for an informal job. Another step to enhance the quality of existing jobs is intensifying labor inspections in those sector where the incidence of informal work is higher.

28
care worker wages. Based on US longitudinal data, Hotz and Xiao (2011) find that more stringent regulations on establishment inputs increase quality (particularly in high-income locations) but reduce child care provision (particularly in low-income locations). Bastos and Cristia (2012) develop a model of monopolistic competition to explain the behavior of child care providers in a large Brazilian city. Consistent with their model, they find a positive empirical association between household income and child care quality. We also model the supply side as one with monopolistic competition. We build on the two-stage model of Mazzeo (2002), whose study is known in the industrial organization literature as one of the first to estimate an entry model with endogenous product characteristics (Reiss and Wolak (2007)). This framework has been extended and adapted to study competition among health maintenance organizations (Dranove et al. (2003)), and in the the video retail (Seim (2006)) and airline industries (Ciliberto and Tamer (2009)).

The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 describes the model, and Section 3 presents the data. Section 4 discusses econometric issues, including identification and estimation procedure. Section 5 presents the estimation results, and Section 6 reports the policy simulations. Section 7 concludes, and Appendices A–F contain additional materials.

# **2 Model**

The economy includes two sets of agents: households and child care providers. Households consist of one or two parents and one child. Parents are the decision makers, as they choose their own labor supply and the child’s care. They can care for the child fully by themselves, in which case they cannot both work full time. They can also use non-parental child care providers, in which case they have three options. The first is child care centers, operated by private firms. Potential center-based providers decide whether to enter the market or not, and choose quality and price. Their supply is endogenous; in equilibrium, it depends on parental demand. The second option is paid caregivers, such as nannies and baby-sitters (henceforth, non-relatives), that provide a homogeneous quality service at the child’s home, at an equilibrium-determined price. The third option is unpaid caregivers, such as grandparents or other relatives (henceforth relatives), who provide the services in their own homes. Their services are of homogeneous quality and free, yet are only available to some households (e.g., those that have grandparents living nearby). In equilibrium, no household wishes to alter its decisions on labor supply or child care, and actual providers make non-negative profits and do not wish to alter their price or quality.

## **2.1 Environment**

### **2.1.1 Households**

Each household includes either one or two parents and operates under a unitary model, where parents maximize total household utility. Two-parent households include a mother (denoted by subscript _m_ ), a father (denoted by subscript _f_ ), and a child. One-parent households include a mother and one child. Since one-parent households are a straightforward 6
alyzes pixels to classify facial expressions. The accuracy level of these algorithms (that is, success rate in predicting emotional state) is around 60%–80% (McDuff et al., 2015; Stockli, 2018). Affectiva’s metrics indicate when individuals manifest a specific emotion or expression (for example, a smile) along with the degree of confidence.<sup>43</sup> The Reactiva application, in particular, follows a protocol similar to that of EganadelSol (2016a), Egana-delSol (2016b), and Egana-delSol et al. (2023) to construct arousal (proxy of alertness and stress) and valence (proxy of emotional self-regulation) indices at the onset of positive and negative stimuli using emotionally laden videos from the Geneva Affective Picture Database (GAPED) (Dan-Glauser, 2011). Valence is a composite emotional metric that measures overall emotional experience. Valence values from 0 to 100 indicate a neutral to positive experience, while values from -100 to 0 indicate a negative to neutral experience. We interpret a reduction of valence, either positive or negative, as a proxy of a decrease in the emotional reaction to a stimulus or, put differently, an increase in emotion regulation.

Arousal is defined as the physiological and psychological state of being awake or reactive to stimuli. Arousal values range from 0 to 100. We interpret a reduction of arousal as a proxy of a decrease in emotional reaction to a stimulus, or, in other words, as an increase in emotion regulation. We present more details about the rationale for using these metrics, . our collection procedure for these measures, and how we analyzed them in Appendix 3 Both outcomes, valence and arousal, were coded by averaging the 10 highest arousal or valence scores recorded with the Reactiva application during the interval in which the student is watching the emotionally laden videos from GAPED (Dan-Glauser, 2011). Based upon the confidence variable provided by Reactiva with each video observation, we keep only measures that are above the 30th percentile of the standardized AI confidence for the group of observations. First, for each country separately, and with respect to the control group’s confidence, we standardize the confidence variable in the baseline; second, we trim observations that stem from videos that are below the 30th percentile of detection

> 43See Figure 4 in Appendix 3 for an illustration.

22