Agricultural wage labor is the largest category of employment in rural Tanzania and Uganda. In Ethiopia and Malawi, the highest category is “unknown” sector wage employment, which is casual wage labor for which no sector codes or job descriptions were collected. Most likely, this labor is supplied to the agriculture sector<sup>9</sup> . Based on the descriptions provided, most agricultural jobs involve casual labor on farms for food or cash crop production, or they involve livestock tending, hunting, fishing, and collection of forestry products, such as fuel wood. Agricultural sector NFEs, of which there are few, also tend to be businesses associated with the production of livestock, fishery, or forestry products.

Within the industry sector, mining does not play an important role in rural or urban areas of any of the datasets we analyze. Manufacturing accounts for between 14% and 38% of NFEs, with the smallest share in Tanzania and the largest in Malawi. However, only 2-6% of jobs occur in manufacturing. Manufacturing NFEs focus heavily on elementary activities such as brewing of alcoholic beverages, charcoal production, milling grains, butchering and other agricultural processing, baking and other value addition activities, and the production of textiles as well as weaving and other handicrafts. Manufacturing jobs are similar, with a focus on agri-processing for food, timber, and textiles, as well as the manufacturing of bricks and other construction materials. Utilities provision is not an important source of employment anywhere, nor is it a key focus of household firms, except for in Ethiopia. Construction accounts for between 2% and 7% of rural jobs and between 5% and 10% of urban jobs but fewer than 2% of NFEs. Construction firms tend to focus on brick-laying and building construction, while construction jobs include working as a laborer in the construction of a road or building and contracting.

Individuals and households who participate in the industry sector are involved mainly in manufacturing activities that have strong links with primary agricultural production. Industry sector participants contribute to manufacturing raw agricultural materials into typically nontradable goods meant for local consumption. These patterns suggest strong links between rural industry-sector activities and agricultural activities. In rural areas, the manufacturing industry stands to gain from productivity growth in agriculture, and rural manufacturing workers are poised to benefit from demand spurred by rising agricultural incomes in rural areas. Because the manufacturing activities reported in these surveys are so closely linked with agriculture, one would not expect to see expansion of rural industry sector activities independently, without any agricultural growth. These classic Mellor-Johnston linkages are quite prominently featured in rural households’ economic activities.

Commerce is the dominant focus of NFEs in the services sector, while jobs tend to involve general services provision. Commerce comprises of between 30% and 66% of both rural and urban firms. These are involved in activities such as the wholesale and retail trade of fruits and vegetables, other food items, charcoal, second hand goods, and other household goods. Commerce accounts for up to 20% of jobs in urban areas of Tanzania, but the share is more often closer to 5%-10% in urban areas, and lower in rural areas. Commerce wage earners are most commonly sales clerks and store attendants. The transport sub-sector accounts for about 8% of Ethiopian firms, and a much smaller share of firms and jobs elsewhere. Transport activities tend to focus on transportation services provided by bicycle, taxi, bus, or vehicle. Finance and real

> 9 This impression is based on my own experience shadowing LSMS-ISA survey teams in Ethiopia during the 201213 round of surveys, and on discussions with survey teams from both countries.

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