rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
growth would offer job opportunities that would attract many of the Japanese émigrés, possibly reverse the net outflow and even induce more talented foreigners to seek work in Japan. Political developments in 2005, increased the likelihood of this scenario, but Japan’s ability to rebound still needs to be tested.

Fifth and finally, the demographic trends might also favor a few urban agglomerations such as Tokyo and Nagoya over other urban centers. Both these areas have almost continually gained population through in-migration since the early 1950s. Osaka, however, has experienced net out-migration since 1974.<sup>25</sup> Firms located in metropolitan areas where the population and economic activity are declining would find themselves at a disadvantage and it is conceivable that a substantial geographical redistribution of industrial activity within and beyond Japan could occur. In the process there are likely to be many exits of firms and some industrial clusters might lose critical mass and not survive.

Japan’s demographics will force firms to modify their strategies if they want to survive. For some, the best course will be to follow markets and knowledge workers overseas, largely or completely switching their focus to foreign markets. Others might find that a change in product mix will be desirable. In some cases a greater reliance on services and products catering to the needs of an older population might be a far better bet. Health care is certain to be a growth industry and in this industry there is a plenty of scope for innovation, IT use and regulatory changes that would spur productivity.

Entertainment, biotechnology, and robotics are other possibilities. Dynamic companies

> 25 Statistics Bureau (2003).  Tomiura (2003) also notes the decline in the fortunes of the Osaka region relative to the other two.

15
<!-- Start of picture text --> IRR% 25<br>20<br>oeae<br>10<br>5<br>0<br>2000(TypelV 2200(Typelll) 2400(Typell) 2600(Typel) 2800(Typel><br>)<br>Full load operation Hours<br>—— No generation lost —&- With 0-3-5-10% generation lost<br><!-- End of picture text -->
|**Table 16.**QML<br>with<br>|E elasticities es<br>IV without and|timates of a fractiona<br>with inclusion ofDi|l Probit forP3(Pa<br>Difvr<sup>+</sup>|rticipation)|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|Variable<br>|MENA|OECD|MENA|OECD|
|P2(Provision)<br>|−0.54<sup>∗∗∗</sup>|0.36<sup>∗∗∗</sup>|−0.44<sup>∗∗∗</sup>|0. 34<sup>∗∗∗</sup>|
||(0.12)|(0.06)|(0.11)|(0.05)|
|P1(Protection)<br>|1.41<sup>∗∗∗</sup>|1.01<sup>∗∗∗</sup>|1.34<sup>∗∗∗</sup>|1.03<sup>∗∗∗</sup>|
||(0.15)|(0.07)|(0.14)|(0.07)|
|rf_rp<br>|−0.21<sup>∗∗∗</sup>|−0.09<sup>∗∗∗</sup>|−0.23<sup>∗∗∗</sup>|−0.09<sup>∗∗∗</sup>|
||(0.04)|(0.01)|(0.04)|(0.01)|
|rf_iu<br>|0.19<sup>∗∗∗</sup>|−0.02<sup>∗∗∗</sup>|0.21<sup>∗∗∗</sup>|−0.02<sup>∗∗</sup>|
||(0.06)|(0.01)|(0.05)|(0.01)|
|rf_hdi<br>|−0.71<sup>∗∗∗</sup>|−0.60<sup>∗∗∗</sup>|−0.75<sup>∗∗∗</sup>|−0.53<sup>∗∗∗</sup>|
||(0.22)|(0.10)|(0.22)|(0.10)|
|LvD 3_DiDifvr<br>|||1.53<sup>∗∗</sup>|−1.37<sup>∗∗∗</sup>|
|<br>|||(0.63)|(0.28)|
|<br>(LvD 3_DiDifvr)<sup>2</sup><br>|||−0.76<sup>∗∗</sup>|0.65<sup>∗∗∗</sup>|
|<br>|||(0.32)|(0.14)|
|<br>p�21<br>|0.00|−0.00<sup>∗∗∗</sup>|0.00<sup>∗</sup>|−0.00<sup>∗∗∗</sup>|
||(0.00)|(0.00)|(0.00)|(0.00)|
|p�22|−0.01<sup>∗∗∗</sup>|0.01<sup>∗∗∗</sup>|−0.01<sup>∗∗∗</sup>|0.01<sup>∗∗∗</sup>|
||(0.00)|(0.00)|(0.00)|(0.00)|
|Wald statistic<br>|210.52<sup>∗∗∗</sup><br>|3503.65<sup>∗∗∗</sup><br>|242.76<sup>∗∗∗</sup><br>|3538.62<sup>∗∗∗</sup><br>|
|Obs.<br>|122<br>|350<br>|112<br>|350<br>|
|+Dependent variable:P3<br>for MENA data: Domestic<br>of goods and services (ann<br>data: Tax revenues (% of<br>capita;<sup>*</sup>:p< 0.10,<sup>**</sup>:p<|; Standard errors i<br>credit to private se<br>ual growth rate), F<br>GDP), Military ex<br>0.05,<sup>***</sup>:p< 0.0|n parentheses obtained us<br>ctor (% of GDP), Exports<br>DI (net outflows, % of G<br>penditures (% of total go<br>1.|ing 500 bootstrap repli<br>of goods and services<br>DP), and real GDP; In<br>vernment expenditures|cations; Instruments<br>(% of GDP), Imports<br>struments for OECD<br>), and Real GDP per|

35
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<mark>Amanatullah, E. T., and Morris, M. W. (2010). Negotiating gender roles: Gender differences in assertive negotiating are mediated by women’s fear of backlash and attenuated when negotiating on behalf of others.</mark> _<mark>Journal of personality and social psychology</mark>_ <mark>,</mark> _<mark>98</mark>_ <mark>(2): 256.</mark> Anthony, D., and Horne, C. (2003). Gender and Cooperation: Explaining Loan Repayment in xzzzdcz Micro-Credit Groups. _Social Psychology Quarterly, 66(3): 293-302_ .

Arbache, J. S., Kolev A. and Filipiak E., eds. (2010). Gender disparities in Africa’s labor market. Washington, DC: World Bank.

<mark>Ashraf, N., Bohnet, I. and Piankov, N.</mark> (2006). <mark>Decomposing trust and trustworthiness.</mark> _<mark>Exp Econ 9, 193– 208.</mark>_ <u><mark>https://doi.org/10.1007/s10683-006-9122-4</mark></u> Balliet, Daniel, LI, Norman P., Macfarlan, Shane J., & Van Vugt, Mark. (2011). Sex Differences in Cooperation: A Meta-analytic Review of Social Dilemmas. Psychological Bulletin, 137(6): 881-909. <u>https://ink.library.smu.edu.sg/soss_research/1130</u> Baumeister, R. F., Campbell, J. D., Krueger, J. I., & Vohs, K. D. (2003). Does high self-esteem cause better performance, interpersonal success, happiness, or healthier lifestyles? _Psychological science in the public interest_ , _4_ (1), 1-44.

Bazelais, P., Lemay, D., and Doleck, T. (2016). How Does Grit Impact College Students' Academic Achievement in Science? _European Journal of Science and Mathematics Education_ , 4(1): 33-43. 2016 <mark>Bear, J. B., & Woolley, A. W. (2011). The role of gender in team collaboration and performance.</mark> _<mark>Interdisciplinary science reviews</mark>_ <mark>,</mark> _<mark>36</mark>_ <mark>(2), 146-153.</mark> <mark>Bernard, T., Dercon, S., Orkin, K., & Taffesse, A. (2014). The future in mind: Aspirations and forwardlooking behaviour in rural Ethiopia (p. 10224). London: Centre for Economic Policy Research.</mark> 31
11 countries. Lederman et al. (2001) also argue that higher social capital, measured using levels of trust in each country, leads to lower rates of homicides. Kennedy, et al. (1998), using data on 39 U.S. states, find that inequality affects violent crime mostly through its effect on social capital.

There are several important limitations worth mentioning in this literature. First, the unit of observation for which crime is examined is relatively large. The work cited above refers mostly to cross-country studies and analyses of states and large metropolitan areas in the U.S. It is unlikely that the underlying process that produces crime is the same across countries. Various authors (Kelly, 2000; Chiu and Madden, 1998; Wilson and Daly, 1997) suggest that the appropriate geographical unit to study might well be much smaller, such as a neighborhood, rather than a state, county, or a large metropolitan area. A recent paper by Fafchamps and Moser (2002) looks at crime levels and its correlates in more than 1000 communes in Madagascar but does not address the issue of inequality and crime.

Second, comparability of definitions of crime categories and welfare indicators poses serious problems for most cross-country studies, as does aligmng data for various countries for the same time period. For example, Fajnzylber et al (1998) use the Deininger-Squire (1996) inequality data, the problems for which are well documented (Atkinson and Brandolini, 2000).

Third, most studies treat crime markets as closed, meaning that only the characteristics of own area, and not those of neighboring areas, are allowed to influence the crime rates. This may be a justifiable assumption when the unit of observation is a country or a state but quickly loses appeal when geographical units are such that travel
over time in the process of Korean economic growth. It is interesting to notice that there are virtually no gap until the mid-1980s and the gap started to emerge only after 1985 and gradually widened afterward. This implies that the compositional changes in aggregate capital seems to matter only after the mid-1980s. The comparison of the two simulations of ”Simul” and ”Average” in Figure 10 reveals another interesting feature of Korea’s growth process. The ”Average” represents mainly the long-run average growth effect holding the labor market demography and investment rates fixed. The simulated real GDP per capita of the ”Average” simulation is higher than that of the ”Simul” simulation for the 1960-1985 period, which is revered for the 1985-2014 period. This shows that the transitional growth factors such as improvements of the labor force participation and investment rate played a substantial role in Korea’s growth.

Third, to isolate the effect of the demographic factors, we simulate Korea’s GDP per capita by changing only the working-age population share, labor force participation rate, and population growth rate according to the quartic-polynomial-fit trends, and fixing the rest of variables at the long-run average values. Similarly, we can isolate the effect of investment promotion by allowing the time-varying investment rate only. The combined time-varying effect of both demography and investment parameters can be inferred by similar method also. The simulations labeled as ”Demography,” ”Investment,” and ”Both” in Figure 11 represent such effects, respectively. It is interesting to notice that using the nonlinear trends of labor market demography and investment parameters, the model (simulation ”Both”) can fit the data very well, even though we fix the ”fundamental parameters” of human capital growth rate and productivity growth rate. In this sense, the LTGM is a promising tool to predict what would happen in response to the changes of labor market and investment policies and environments, with the appropriate selection of the long-run growth rates of productivity and human capital.

Fourth, the tight-fit of the model simulation to Korean economic growth by the time-varying labor market demography and investment parameters does not imply that the main engine of Korea’s growth is such changes in transitional growth parameters. Such fitting performance is based on the productivity and human capital growth rates of 1.9% and 1.5% every year in the background. To evaluate the role of such fundamental parameters in the LTGM, we simulate the model at the time-varying labor market demography and investment parameters, but turning 27
eliminate the pure waste (dead-weight loss) which occurs in the importing process. In essence, therefore, the cost recovery from such facilitation measures represents a form of technological progress, represented by _ams_ .

# **_Reducing Trade Costs by Reducing the Scope for Corruption and Other Nontransparent Payments_**

The standard treatment introduced above applies to most of the trade facilitation measures we are interested in here. Some components of the transparency improvement require, however, further elaboration. In particular, as evidenced by the fact that the transparency indexes include the degree of irregular payments – as a proxy for corruption and other nontransparent payments – in each member economy, some form of tax-like transfer payments or bribes are sometimes demanded of exporters and importers. Reducing payments under such rent-seeking activities in the importing countries will serve to lower trade costs in the same way as other trade facilitation improvements. However, it cannot be simply treated as technical progress in measuring welfare impacts because this brings about a transfer of income to someone in the importing countries. The removal of the transfer will cause the reduction of transfer income, as well as trade costs. Accordingly, the welfare impact from the reduction of such transfers is expected to be smaller than that from technical progress, if the rates of the reduction in trade cost are the same.

Such components of transparency improvement mean the reduction of transfer or virtual taxes levied on imports. The proper methodology here is to treat such payments as an import tax, and apply shocks to the rates of import tariff. Because government consumption does not depend on the level of tax collections in the GTAP model, this treatment does not bias expenditure. This has the merit of keeping the general model structure intact.

The import tariff rates in the existing GTAP database reflect the levels of nominal effective tariffs in 2004. These tariff rates in the original database are required to be the tax revenue. Here, an assumption of the cost from the lack of transparency is a pure dead-weight loss becomes meaningful.

14
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27
4 the industry and in all manufacturing activity.4 In addition, the NBER imposed a second criteria that imports by developed from developing countries totalled at least $100,000 at the three-digit level of the Standard International Trade Classifications (SITC) system in 1965. According to the NBER reasoning, this approach excluded clearly capital-intensive products while applying the test of the market (as reflected in imports) to iterils at or near the overall national average. The import value criteria was therefore added in recognition that -alue added per employee was not an infallible guide to South-North comparative advantage.

In contrast to the Heckscher-Ohlin (NBER) approach, Balassa (1965) developed the concept of "revealed" comparative advantage which is measured by the share of a given product in a countr-y's total exports relative to the good's 4 The reader should note that there is an inverse relation between the numeric value of the index defined in equation (1) and the labor intensity of a given product. That is, the lower the numeric value of the index the higher the labor intensity. It also follows that products with very high index values are capital intensive in production. The selection of items based on value added per employee in the U.S. was supplemented by detailed examination of manufactures itported by developed from less developed countries to see if additional products needed to be taken into account. On this basis, several items such as batteries, lamps and miscellaneous manufactures were added to the NBER list since relative valuf. added in other countries appeared below the United States average. However, a major conclusion of this analysis was that products manufactured by labor-intensive processes in the United States were also manufactured by re'latively Labor-intensive processes in other countries. Lary used these findings to justify extensive use of United States production statistics as a guide to factor proportion.
-3-

legislation or by the existence of an unbiased appeal procedure (or, more commonly, a combination of these three) and it would be better to talk in terms of buying the old book, to be replaced by a new book that is more appropriate to the new working environment.

6. There are many examples of restrictive practices in port work and a P,'stematic analysis is attempted in chapter III. Well known examples are 2 'spelling" or the "welt" , where gang members alternate, working for two hours then resting for two hours; "continuity", where a gang once formed cannot be modified until its task - usually emptying one hatch on a ship - has been completed, even if the nature of the cargo changes or there are more uLgent priorities; "fixed manning", where manning scales are determined irrespective of the nature of the cargo; and "no-transfer", where for example a man classified as a ship-worker can under no circumstances form part of a shore gang. Hours of work are arother area of restrictive practices; for example, in the UK until 1967, all work outside - the period 8 a.m. 5 p.m. was classed as overtime, effectively preventing normal two shift working. In another country, work during the two hour lunch break is charged at 175% of the normal rate. These practices typically have a long history and had their own rationale when they were introduced. In most cases they are inappropriate for modern working requirements and are used now as a form of protection against reductions in the work force and as a counter in the bargaining process.

7. This review of the scope and impact of restrictive practices in seaports cargo handling has been prepared as an input to the INUTD research project: "Labor Redlndancy in the Transportation Sector". Its objective is to ascertain the extent to which restrictive practices impede the realization of the benefits of investments in port modernization and to provide guidelines for easing this constraint. More specifically, it attempts the following:

- a) to document the origins, extent and most common types of restrictive practices in porte in developing countries;

- b) to identify all of the parties concerned and the extent to which their objectives conflict or coincide;

- 2/ "Welt" is a dialect word from NW England meaning "rotate" or "revolve", probably of Old Norse origin and known in the region at least since the 14th Century, as in "It was a wenyng vn-war (foolish thought) that welt in his mind", from the poem Patience, as quoted in "Early English Alliterative Poems in the West Midland Dialect", ed Richard Morris, 1864.