earlier. The RCRE supplemental survey did not directly ask whether villages have five or six year primary schools, but when we examine completed years of schooling at the village level, it is fairly straightforward to discern whether completed schooling patterns are consistent with five or six year primary schools. We found that in some villages most children completed either 6, 9 or 12 years of school; as middle and high school each last three years, and these patterns were consistent with six year primary schools. In other villages, most children completed 5, 8, or 11 years of schooling, consistent with five year primary schools.<sup>3</sup> Using this information, we coded all of the villages as five or six year primary school villages. To illustrate our assumption, we show average enrollment rates for each grade level in five and six year primary school villages conditional on completing the previous grade (Table A.4). Until the decision to enter grade 9 or grade 10, transition probabilities from one grade to the next are well over 90 percent. The first significant decision node is clearly either the decision to move from grade 8 to grade 9 (in five year villages) or from grade 9 to grade 10 (in six year villages). We measure the decision to enroll in high school with a variable that includes the decision to enter grade 10 conditional on completing grade 9 for six year primary school villages and the decision to enter grade 9 conditional on completing grade 8 for five year primary school villages.<sup>4</sup> A final concern involves handling repeated years of schooling or skipped grades. Although the supplemental survey did not ask explicitly about repeats or skips, the protocol for the supplemental survey required respondents to report years of schooling completed and the common interpretation is to answer in terms of the level of schooling completed. Examination of the CCAP data, which asked explicitly about repeats, suggests their inclusion does not affect the general distribution of educational attainment. Therefore our findings should be robust to any errors in the measurement of years of schooling.

# **A.2. An Alternative Instrument for Migration: GDP Growth in Potential Migrant Destinations as a Proxy for Labor Demand**

An alternative approach to identifying migration involves using labor demand, or shocks at migrant destinations.<sup>5</sup> Measures of labor demand may identify effects of migration in sending

> 3In the one village in which our method was indeterminate, we assumed that the village had a five year primary school. Our results are robust to recoding the village as one with a six year primary school.

> 4All of our estimation results are robust to analyzing the grade 10 enrollment decision conditional on grade 8 completion.

> 5 Several researchers have recently used variants of this approach. In looking at the effects of parent migration on child time allocation in Mexico, Antman (2011) uses shocks to weighted city-level employment in sectors thought to employ migrants in destination cities. Yang and Martinez (2006) and Yang (2008) use exchange rate shocks to identify the effects of remittances to the Philippines on household investment, poverty headcounts, and agricultural production, respectively. In all three cases, the authors weight the destination unemployment rate or exchange rate by the fraction of migrants from the source going to specific destinations.

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