rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
Do subsidized health programs in
            Armenia increase utilization among the poor
This article analyzes the extent to
            which the Basic Benefit Package (BBP), a subsidized health
            program in Armenia, increases utilization and affordability
            of outpatient health care among the poor. The authors find
            that beneficiaries of the BBP pay approximately 45 percent
            less in fees for doctor visits (and display 36 percent
            higher outpatient utilization rates) than eligible users not
            receiving the BBP. However, even among BBP beneficiaries the
            level of outpatient health care utilization remains low.
            This occurs because the program mainly provides discounted
            fees for doctor visits, but fees do not constitute the main
            financial constraint for users. The authors estimate suggest
            that other non-fee expenditures, such as prescription
            medicines, constitute a more significant financial
            constraint and are not subsidized by the BBP. As a result,
            outpatient health care remains expensive even for BBP beneficiaries.
Restructuring Uganda's coffee
            industry : why going back to the basics matters
After experiencing a boom during the
            mid-1990s, the performance of Uganda's coffee industry
            has been disappointing. Most existing analyses see the
            sector's problems as quality deterioration, poor
            marketing position in the global market, weak regulatory
            framework, and poor infrastructure. Recommendations range
            from setting up a coffee auction to increasing the share of
            specialty coffees. This paper concludes that such advice has
            been largely inconsistent with the stylized facts of the
            Ugandan coffee industry. It argues that the coffee wilt
            disease and the effectiveness of the coffee replanting
            program are the two key issues on which policymakers and the
            donor community should focus their activities and allocate
            their resources.
The basic analytics of access to
            financial services
Access to financial services, or rather
            the lack thereof, is often indiscriminately decried as a
            problem in many developing countries. The authors argue that
            the "problem of access" should rather be analyzed
            by identifying different demand and supply constraints. They
            use the concept of an access possibilities frontier, drawn
            for a given set of state variables, to distinguish between
            cases where a financial system settles below the constrained
            optimum, cases where this constrained optimum is too low,
            and-in credit services-cases where the observed outcome is
            excessively high. They distinguish between payment and
            savings services and fixed intermediation costs, on the one
            hand, and lending services and different sources of credit
            risk, on the other hand. The authors include both supply and
            demand side frictions that can lead to lower access. The
            analysis helps identify bankable and banked population, the
            binding constraint to close the gap between the two, and
            policies to prudently expand the bankable population. This
            new conceptual framework can inform the debate on adequate
            policies to expand access to financial services and can
            serve as the basis for an informed measurement of access.
Economic growth, education, and AIDS
            in Kenya : a long-run analysis
The AIDS epidemic threatens Kenya with a
            long wave of premature adult mortality, and thus with an
            enduring setback to the formation of human capital and
            economic growth. To investigate this possibility, the
            authors develop a model with three overlapping generations,
            calibrate it to the demographic and economic series from
            1950 until 1990, and then perform simulations for the period
            ending in 2050 under alternative assumptions about
            demographic developments, including the counterfactual in
            which there is no epidemic. Although AIDS does not bring
            about a catastrophic economic collapse, it does cause large
            economic costs-and many deaths. Programs that subsidize
            post-primary education and combat the epidemic are both
            socially profitable-the latter strikingly so, due to its
            indirect effects on the expected returns to education-and a
            combination of the two interventions profits from a modest
            long-run synergy effect.
Fiscal and social impact of a
            nominal exchange rate devaluation in Djibouti
Limited fiscal space limits
            Djibouti's ability to meet the Millennium Development
            Goals and improve the living conditions of its population.
            Djibouti's fiscal structure is unique in that almost 70
            percent of government revenue is denominated in foreign
            currency (import taxes, foreign aid grants, and military
            revenue) while over 50 percent of government expenditure is
            denominated in local currency (wages, salaries, and social
            transfers). Djibouti's economic structure is also
            unusual in that merchandise exports of local origin are
            insignificant, and the country relies heavily on imported
            goods (food, medicines, consumer and capital goods). A
            currency devaluation, by reducing real wages, could
            potentially generate additional fiscal space that would help
            meet Djibouti's fundamental development goals. Using
            macroeconomic and household level data, the authors quantify
            the impact of a devaluation of the nominal exchange rate on
            fiscal savings, real public sector wages, real income, and
            poverty under various hypothetical scenarios of
            exchange-rate pass-through and magnitude of devaluation.
            They find that a currency devaluation could generate fiscal
            savings in the short-term, but it would have an adverse
            effect on poverty and income distribution. A 30 percent
            nominal exchange rate devaluation could generate fiscal
            savings amounting between 3 and 7 percent of GDP. At the
            same time, a 30 percent nominal devaluation could cause
            nearly a fifth of the poorest households to fall below the
            extreme poverty line and pull the same fraction of upper
            middle-income households below the national poverty line.
            The authors also find that currency devaluation could
            generate net fiscal savings even after accounting for the
            additional social transfers needed to compensate the poor
            for their real income loss. However, the absence of formal
            social safety nets limits the government's readiness to
            provide well-targeted and timely social transfers to the poor.
Crime and violence in development :
            a literature review of Latin America and the Caribbean
The authors review the recent literature
            on crime and violence in Latin America and the Caribbean and
            present a broad overview of the main ideas and empirical
            findings. They provide estimates of the magnitude of the
            problem, trends, and the manifestations of crime and
            violence in Latin America. They also discuss the ways in
            which violence affects development, the root causes of
            violence, and the empirical evidence on the determinants of
            crime. The authors conclude by stressing that preventive
            measures and innovative social policies are efficient and
            underutilized strategies to address the problem and call for
            both more research and operational experimentation.
Crime and violence in development :
            a literature review of Latin America and the Caribbean
WPS4041

# **Crime and Violence in Development**

## **A Literature Review of Latin America and the Caribbean**

### **By**

### **Alessandra Heinemann and Dorte Verner**<sup>**1**</sup>

### **Abstract**

The authors review the recent literature on crime and violence in Latin America and the Caribbean and present a broad overview of the main ideas and empirical findings. They provide estimates of the magnitude of the problem, trends, and the manifestations of crime and violence in Latin America. They also discuss the ways in which violence affects development, the root causes of violence and the empirical evidence on the determinants of crime. The authors conclude by stressing that preventive measures and innovative social policies are efficient and under-utilized strategies to address the problem and call for both more research and operational experimentation.

### World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 4041, October 2006

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the view of the World Bank, its Executive Directors, or the countries they represent. Policy Research Working Papers are available online at http://econ.worldbank.org._

> 1 We are very grateful to our colleagues in the Social Development Department at the World Bank for excellent comments and suggestions.
Learning through monitoring :
            lessons from a large-scale nutrition program in Madagascar
Monitoring data are generally collected
            as a by-product of the process of monitoring program
            implementation. Yet this rich source of data have not been
            exploited to assess the effectiveness of the program. In
            this paper the authors use detailed administered data from a
            large-scale, community-based nutrition program in Madagascar
            to argue that this data can be used to estimate the
            differential effect of increased exposure to the program and
            study how these returns to exposure evolve over time. They
            find that the returns to exposure are positive: communities
            exposed for an additional one or two years display on
            average lower malnutrition rates of around 7-9 percentage
            points. And they find that the returns decrease as time and
            duration increase, although they do not dissipate to zero.
            These results are consistent with the hypothesis that the
            returns to the program reflect learning effects from the
            intervention. Finally, the results show higher differential
            returns to the program in poorer areas and areas more
            vulnerable to diseases. These findings have important
            implications for how such programs should be scaled-up
            within a country.
Corporate governance and Shariah
            compliance in institutions offering Islamic financial services
The structures and processes established
            within an institution offering Islamic financial Services
            (IIFS) for monitoring and evaluating Shariah compliance rely
            essentially on arrangements internal to the firm. By being
            incorporated in the institutional structure, a Shariah
            supervisory board (SSB) has the advantage of being close to
            the market. Competent, independent, and empowered to approve
            new Shariah-conforming instruments, an SSB can enable
            innovation likely to emerge within the institution. The
            paper reviews the issues and options facing current
            arrangements for ensuring Shariah compliance by IIFS. It
            suggests a framework that draws on internal and external
            arrangements to the firm and emphasizes market discipline.
            In issuing its fatwas, an SSB could be guided by
            standardized contracts and practices that could be
            harmonized by a self-regulatory professionals'
            association. A framework with the suggested internal and
            external features could ensure adequate consistency of
            interpretation and enhance the enforceability of contracts
            before civil courts. The review of transactions would mainly
            be entrusted to internal review units, which would
            collaborate with external auditors responsible for issuing
            an annual opinion on whether the institution's
            activities has met its Shariah requirements. This process
            would be sustained by reputable entities such as rating
            agencies, stock markets, financial media, and researchers
            who would channel signals to market players. This framework
            would enhance public understanding of the requirements of
            Shariah and lead to more effective options available to
            stakeholders to achieve improvements in Islamic financial services.
International trade, security, and
            transnational terrorism : theory and empirics
The authors offer a general analytical
            framework illustrating the complex two-way interactions
            between trade and transnational terrorism. Then they survey
            the recent economic literature in light of this framework by
            pointing to the importance in empirical studies of (1)
            controlling appropriately for theses interactions, (2)
            distinguishing between "source" countries and
            "target" countries of terrorism, and (3) taking
            into account the intertemporal persistence of terrorism
            between specific pairs of countries.
Factors impacting youth development
            in Haiti
Of the 1.6 million Haitian youth aged
            15-24, only 13 percent are content with their lives. More
            than half of 20-year-olds have not completed secondary
            education and nearly half of youth in the labor market are
            unemployed. This paper investigates protective and risk
            factors predisposing youth to positive and negative
            behaviors. These factors, including poverty, gender,
            education, labor market, migration, family, health, and
            violence, are examined by using statistics and probability
            models based on Haiti's first household living
            conditions survey. Key findings show that female youth need
            special attention because they are more likely than their
            male peers to drop out of school and to be unemployed or
            inactive. Role models, guidance, expectations, and contacts
            in the form of parents or household heads are decisive
            factors in keeping youth in school, and to some extent, in
            their finding employment. In addition, domestic migration
            has a negative impact on the probability of being unemployed
            or inactive (positive self-selection), while marriage, drug
            abuse, and domestic violence increase the probability of
            dropping out of school.
Self-selection patterns in
            Mexico-U.S. migration : the role of migration networks
The authors examine the role of
            migration networks in determining self-selection patterns of
            Mexico-U.S. migration. They first present a simple
            theoretical framework showing how such networks impact on
            migration incentives at different education levels and,
            consequently, how they are likely to affect the expected
            skill composition of migration. Using survey data from
            Mexico, the authors then show that the probability of
            migration is increasing with education in communities with
            low migrant networks, but decreasing with education in
            communities with high migrant networks. This is consistent
            with positive self-selection of migrants being driven by
            high migration costs, and with negative self-selection of
            migrants being driven by lower returns to education in the
            U.S. than in Mexico.
Incentives, supervision, and
            sharecropper productivity
Although sharecropping has long
            fascinated economists, the determinants of this contractual
            form are still poorly understood and the debate over the
            extent of moral hazard is far from settled. The authors
            address both issues by emphasizing the role of landlord
            supervision. When tenant effort is observable, but at a cost
            to the landlord, otherwise identical share-tenants can
            receive different levels of supervision and have different
            productivity. Unique data on monitoring frequency collected
            from sharetenants in rural Pakistan confirm that,
            controlling for selection, "supervised" tenants
            are significantly more productive than
            "unsupervised" ones. Landlords' decisions
            regarding the intensity of supervision and the type of
            incentive contract to offer depend importantly on the cost
            of supervising tenants.
Incentives, supervision, and
            sharecropper productivity
WPS4125

# Incentives, Supervision, and Sharecropper Productivity

Hanan G. Jacoby* Ghazala Mansuri*

## **Abstract**

Although sharecropping has long fascinated economists, the determinants of this contractual form are still poorly understood and the debate over the extent of moral hazard is far from settled. We address both issues by emphasizing the role of landlord supervision. When tenant effort is observable, but at a cost to the landlord, otherwise identical share-tenants can receive different levels of supervision and have different productivity. Unique data on monitoring frequency collected from sharetenants in rural Pakistan confirm that, controlling for selection, "supervised" tenants are significantly more productive than "unsupervised" ones. Also, landlords’ decisions regarding the intensity of supervision and the type of incentive contract to offer depend importantly on the cost of supervising tenants.

## World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 4125, February 2007

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the view of the World Bank, its Executive Directors, or the countries they represent. Policy Research Working Papers are available online at http://econ.worldbank.org._

*Development Research Group, World Bank. Contact Information: Jacoby: email: hjacoby@worldbank.org; Mansuri: email: gmansuri@worldbank.org.
Poverty and environmental impacts of
            electricity price reforms in Montenegro
The Government of Montenegro is
            preparing an electricity tariff reform due to recent
            developments in the national and regional electricity
            markets. Electricity tariffs for residential consumers in
            Montenegro are likely to gradually increase by anywhere from
            40 to over 100 percent. This significant price rise will
            impose a heavy burden on poor households and it may
            adversely affect the environment. In an ex-ante
            investigation of the welfare impact of this price increase
            on households in Montenegro, the authors show that the
            anticipated price increase will result in a significant
            increase in households' energy expenditures. A
            simulation of alternative policy measures analyzes the
            impact of different tariff levels and structures on the poor
            and vulnerable households in particular. Higher electricity
            prices could also significantly increase the proportion of
            households using fuelwood for space heating.
Foreign bank participation and
            crises in developing countries
This paper describes the recent trends
            in foreign bank ownership in developing countries,
            summarizes the existing evidence on the causes and
            implications of foreign bank presence, and reexamines the
            link between banking crises and foreign bank participation.
            Using data on the share of banking sector assets held by
            foreign banks in over 100 developing countries during
            1995-2002, the results show that countries that experienced
            a banking crisis tended to have higher levels of foreign
            bank participation than those that did not. Furthermore,
            panel regressions indicate that foreign participation
            increased as a result of crises rather than prior to them.
            However, post-crisis increases in foreign participation did
            not coincide with increased credit to the private sector,
            perhaps because in many cases foreign banks acquired
            distressed banks.
Health insurance for the poor :
            initial impacts of Vietnam's health care fund for the poor
Vietnam's Health Care Fund for the
            Poor (HCFP) uses government revenues to finance health care
            for the poor, ethnic minorities living in selected
            mountainous provinces designated as difficult, and all
            households living in communes officially designated as
            highly disadvantaged. The program, which started in 2003,
            did not as of 2004 include all these groups, but those who
            were included (about 15 percent of the population) were
            disproportionately poor. Estimates of the program's
            impact-obtained using single differences and propensity
            score matching on a trimmed sample-suggest that HCFP has
            substantially increased service utilization, especially
            in-patient care, and has reduced the risk of catastrophic
            spending. It has not, however, reduced average out-of-pocket
            spending, and appears to have had negligible impacts on
            utilization among the poorest decile.
Trade and human capital
            accumulation: evidence from U.S. immigrants
This study provides empirical evidence
            that trade increases on-the-job human capital accumulation
            by estimating the effect of home country openness on
            estimated returns to home country experience of U.S.
            immigrants. The positive effect of trade on on-the-job human
            capital accumulation remains significant when controlling
            for GDP, educational attainment, and institutional quality.
            It is not the result of self-selection, heterogeneity in
            returns to experience, English-speaking origin, or cultural
            background. The effect persists when restricting the sample
            to non-OECD countries, thereby resolving the theoretical
            ambiguity of whether trade increases or decreases
            learning-by-doing. The role of trade in generating economic
            growth is therefore likely to be more important than
            generally considered.