farmers intend to sell their produce at the start of the season. We also find that farmers are less likely to report producing only or mainly for sale at the beginning than at the end of the agricultural season. In Malawi, these changes over time in the intended destination of output are mostly driven by labor reallocations across agricultural products, particularly between subsistence crops and livestock — where the latter is more commercialized. However, changes in the self-reported intended use of output also play a role, as farmers, in the country contexts analyzed in this study, were more likely to report a given crop as being intended for sale at the end than at the beginning of the agricultural season. In addition, women appear to be less likely than men to report producing only or mainly for sale. In-depth analysis using the data from Malawi suggests that this primarily reflects differences in male and female farmers’ labor allocation across crop and, particularly, livestock products, which differ in their intended use of output. Last but not least, the correspondence between the activity-level and product-level estimates suggests that farmers understood the questions about the intended use of their output broadly in the way they were intended, i.e. they assessed whether their combined products, on average, are more likely to be sold or to be used for family consumption, despite the potential for cognitive bias inherent to such questions.

The revised standards have significant implications for our characterization of rural employment in Sub-Saharan Africa, in terms of its prevalence and sectoral distribution. In the two countries for which we have nationally representative data (Malawi and Nigeria), measured rural employment-to-population ratios drop by about 20 to 30 percent. In Malawi, the decline in rural employment is larger for the females than for males, while the opposite pattern holds true in Nigeria. The extent of the decline in the rural employment-to-population ratio partly reflects the extent to which male and female farmers are engaged simultaneously in non-farm household enterprises and/or wage work. In other words, many farmers who produce only or mainly for family consumption remain employed under the revised standards because they are engaged in these other, mostly non-agricultural, activities (for at least one hour during the reference week). Not surprisingly, under the revised standards, the share of rural employment in agriculture is significantly smaller than under the previous standards.

This work shows that as the 19<sup>th</sup> ICLS standards are being rolled out in household surveys in SubSaharan Africa and other developing regions, indicators and statistics on employment and labor force participation will change, sometimes drastically and particularly in rural areas, for reasons that are purely or primarily related to the introduction of new statistical concepts and definitions. Moreover, the new standards create an imperative to move away from employment and labor force participation as the headline indicators of labor supply and towards a full set of indicators outlined in the 19th ICLS resolution (besides 22