rafmacalaba/datause-encoder-data huggingface dataset:
GUADELOUPE: Both the IMR and life expectancy at birth are from _World Population Prospects 1990._ The U.N. based its estimates on the 1982 census and the vital registration system. The IMR and life expectancy for 1985-89 were projected with the U.N. medium mortality decline scenario.

GUATEMAIA: Both the IMR and life expectancy at birth are from _World Population Prospects 1990._ The U.N./CELADE used the 1981 census results, projected with the U.N. medium mortality decline scenario. The estimates are consistent with the 1987 Demographic and Health Survey.

GUYANA: Both the IMR and life expectancy at birth are from _World Population Prospects 1990._ These estimates are based on the 1980 census and on current vital registration data, projected with the U.N. medium mortality decline scenario.

HAITI: Both the IMR and life expectancy at birth are from _World Population Prospects 1990._ The U.N./CELADE based its estimates on an analysis of the 1982 census, the 1981 Contraceptive Prevalence Survey, and other surveys. The U.N. medium mortality decline scenario was used to obtain 1985-89 estimates.

HONDURAS: Both the IMR and life expectancy at birth are from _World Population Prospects 1990._ The U.N./CELADE based its estimates on an analysis of the 1982 National Demographic Survey of Honduras and projected them with the U.N. medium mortality decline scenario.

JAMAICA: Both the IMR and life expectancy at birth are from _World Population Prospects 1990._ The U.N. based the IMR estimate on the 1989 Contraceptive Prevalence Survey and life expectancy at birth on a 1969-70 life table projected with the U.N. medium mortality decline scenario.

MARTINIQUE: Both the IMR and life expectancy at birth are from _World Population Prospects 1990._ The U.N. based its estimates on the 1982 census and on vital registration data, and applied the U.N. medium mortality decline scenario.

MEXICO: Both the IMR and life expectancy at birth are from _World Population Prospects 1990._ The U.N./CELADE based the IMR estimate on the 1987 Demographic and Health Survey and life expectancy at birth on a corresponding model life table. The U.N. medium mortality declire scenario was used to obtain 1985-89 estimates.

MONTSERRAT: An estimate of the IMR for 1979-81 made by the U.S. Bureau of the Census, the official CDR, and the 1980 census were used in selecting a Coale-Demeny model life table to estimate current IMR and life expectancy estimates.

NEMIIERLANDS ANTILLES: The IMR is an official vital registration estimate, as published in _PVSR_ 10/1990. Life expectancy at birth is from Coale-Demeny model life tables, selected on the basis of the official CDR and age-sex distribution.

PANAMA: Both the IMR and life expectancy at birth are from _World Population Prospects 1990._ These estimates are based on the 1980 census and the vital registration system, and projected to 198589 with the U.N. medium mortality decline scenario.

PARAGUAY: The IMR is obtained from the 1990 Demographic and Health Survey. Life expectancy at birth estimates are from _World Population Prospects 1990,_ which are based on the 1982 census.

15
38 Table 8. Original Homes of Employees in Sample TVP Enterprises in China, by County (percentage of total)

|County|Sa. township/<br>village|Other township/<br>village in county|Other county|Other|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|Wuxi|94.0|3.0|1.6|1.4|
|Ji,shou|79.7|12.7|4.8|2.8|
|Nanhai|50.9|33.8|14.2|1.1|
|Shangrao|80.9|14.8|2.1|2.2|

Source: Meng Xin (1990).
maintenance manager and it is wholly unrealistic to suppcse that it takes less elsewhere.

Nevertheless in some countries, notably in sub-Saharan Africa, there persists a belief that it is possible to localize even the most senior posts within a few years of the recruitment of an appropriately-trained university graduate as an understudy, a belief which places an excessive weight on formal education and which undervalues the contribution of experience to the successful development of management skills. In some cases the premature localization of parastatal management has had such an adverse effect on performance that the management has had to be delocalized, expatriate contracting firms being brought in to reverse the decline.

The successful use of 3xpatriates depends not only on the careful selection of the trainee but also of the expatriate, who should be capable of training himself out of a job and motivated to do it. Expatriates recruited through multinationals or international agencies may be relatively costly compared with those recruited individually, but the fact that they belong to large organizations which can offer them alternative employment at the completion of their assignment makes them less difficult to dislodge.

# 8.6 Military traininf in civilian skills

In many countries training received during military service is a significant type of skill development for the civilian labor force and it is unaccountably overlooked by plannirng authorities. In the U.S., for example, vast sums are spent by the armed forces on training which is not specific to military applications. While much of this expenditure is on basic education and remedial in nature, the military is also an important source of training for some occupations: at the time of a 1963 survey, it had provided the following proportions of formal training: health technicians, 44%; electrical, engineering and related technicians, 25%; bakers, 64%; telephone and power linemen and related workers, 28%; airplane mechanics, 61%; auto mechanics, 22%; radio and television repairmen, 25% (U.S. Department of Labor, 1964, Table 4).

# 8.7 Progrietarv schools

Proprietary schools play a significant role in skill development is some countries but their contribution, actual and potential, tends to be discounted. When statistical authorities are aware of the scope of their activities, which is seldom the case, it is frequently assumed that their role is too marginal to justify the commitment of the resources necessary to maintain useful records on their highly-diversified activities. Distaste for their profit motive, an unfounded assumption that their programmes are confined to minor types of skill development, and suspicions about-the quality of the instruction provided reinforce official neglect.

Nevertheless they are big business in some developed countries. In the U.S., for example, they enroll 3,000,000 students each year, three times

- 98 -
presented.

Our final variable belongs to a category of its own: the local supply of finance, which we measure as the number of bank branches within a community.<sup>11</sup> This variable is directly obtained from the CHFS data. Based on the classifications in the CHFS, a village (i.e., a rural community) has 2,367 residents and 579 households on average, while a neighborhood committee (i.e., an urban community) has 8,147 residents living in 2,607 households. The ability to measure access to a financial facility at such a micro level is a clear advantage of this data set. Presumably, having greater access to financial facilities at the local level increases the supply of financial services (see e.g., Burgess and Pande, 2005; Bruhn and Love, 2014). We thus expect bank branch density to be associated with more borrowing and lower financing costs.

# **III.** **<u>Access to Finance, Household Characteristics and the Rural-Urban Differences</u>**

Table 2 presents the summary statistics for the pooled, the urban, and the rural samples. The sample splits indicate that it is important to examine access to finance separately for rural and urban residents because they face vastly different levels of access. Relative to urban residents, those in rural areas are poorer, have significantly less usage of financial services, and likely face fewer opportunities to establish businesses, though the CHFS does not have questions that enable us to demonstrate this last point. Perhaps due to the disadvantages faced by rural residents, a key concern for policy makers in China is their access to and costs of finance. About 44% of our sample residents come from the rural areas.

While the level of access to loans is reasonably high in China, it is achieved mainly through the informal channel. On average, 48.3% of households have some type of loan. However, only 11 Again, a community means either a village in rural areas or a neighborhood committee in urban areas. 11
The authors also argue that higher food prices, whilst in the long run beneficial, will have had an adverse short run impact on health.

The share of govermnent spending to social sectors was also found to be a significant determinant of underweight prevalence in a cross section global model (UJN, 1993: 96) - but this variable was not important in 'he African sub-sample. However, in both models female secondary education was found to be a significant factor, a finding borne out by many other studies (e.g. Subbarao and Raney, 1992'). This is one of the links pursued in the next section, in which issues of gender and adjustment are addressed.

_6.3_ Gender and **Adjustment** Moser (1993) identifies five phases in development policy towards women in developing countries: welfare (promote welfare of women for their benefit and that of their children); equity (redress imbalance of resources between the sexes); anti-poverty (a toned down version of the equity approach); efficiency (gender differences impede efficient resource allocation); and empowerment (empower women to control own resources). These phases have their parallels in theoretical developments concerning gender aspects of development.

The equity/anti-poverty approach made much of the fact that in sub-Saharan Africa the bulk of agricultural work is done by women.11 But this conception also introduced a dualism: women were seen as food producers and men as producers of cash crops. Structural adjustment policies, promoting the latter at the expense of the former were thought likely to shift the intrahousehold income distribution away from women, to the detriment of their welfare and that of their children. Due and Gladwin (199 1) present a recent example empirical analysis carried out in this framework for the cases of Zambia and Tanzania.

More recent work by Collier has emphasized that food production too can be tradable. Collier's work is rooted strongly in the efficiency approach and gender restrictions are seen as limiting the response to changes in price signals. He argues that discrimination may act in credit or labor markets or through access to services (principally education9f). Hence discimination is a brake on adjustment (and relaxing the brake will increase women's income), rather dtan adjustment reinforcing discrimination.

Elson (1991) counters that any expansion in women's contribution to production will be in 103
Policy ReseaRch WoRking PaPeR 4368

# **Abstract**

This paper finds that a 1 percent reduction in the cost of exporting or the cost of international transport is associated with an export diversification gain of 0.3 percent or 0.4 percent respectively. Lower domestic market entry costs can also promote diversification, but the elasticity is weaker (-0.1). To obtain these results, the authors construct new measures of export diversification for 118 developing countries using highly detailed 8- digit mirror data from the European Union. The analysis also incorporates new export cost data from the World Bank’s Doing Business database, covering document preparation, inland transport, administrative fees, and port/customs charges. Findings are highly robust, including to the use of geography and colonial history as instruments for trade and entry costs. Both the signs and relative magnitudes of these effects are consistent with predictions from a heterogeneous firms model of trade with asymmetric costs.

This paper—a joint product of Doing Business and the Trade Team, Development Research Group—is part of a larger project on trade costs, trade facilitation, and economic development, supported through a Trust Fund of the U.K. Department for International Development (http://econ.worldbank.org/projects/trade_costs). Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://econ.worldbank.org. The authors may be contacted at adennis@worldbank. org and bshepherd@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent._ Produced by the Research Support Team
across countries, which undermines the quality of investment data.<sup>10</sup> Also investment data are rarely available at the bilateral sectoral level. To circumvent these limitations, we use investments from the fDi Markets database collected by fDi Intelligence, a division of Financial Times Ltd. The data is available at the firm-project level and corresponds to announcements of “Greenfield FDI in a new physical project or expansion of an existing investment, which creates new jobs, and capital investment.” The announcements are collected from publicly available sources, such as media sources, industry and investment promotion agencies, or market search and publication companies. Each project identifies is cross-referenced against multiple sources. One concern is that recorded announcements differ in their advancement. The data set includes (but does not clearly distinguish) FDI projects that have been announced or opened by a company, which means that firms have made their final decision and projects are moving towards implementation in the former case or are already fully operational in the latter.<sup>11</sup> Yet, to the extent possible, project status is updated if a company makes further announcements. Large, announced projects above $1 billion, are researched on a quarterly basis to verify their progress. If the project is cancelled, it is removed from the database. Working with announcements represents an important advantage for our identification strategy in that it reduces the scope for endogeneity caused by simultaneity.<sup>12</sup> fDi Intelligence mentions that it takes on average two years for a project to materialize after an announcement is made in the media. Hence, regressing announcements on PTA variables at time _t_ is

> 10 Despite the international reporting practices set by the IMF, countries tend to i) deviate from the 10 percent ownership threshold, ii) not use uniform industrial classification, or iii) not report all types of investment properly (short-term intra-company loans, re-invested earnings are often missing).

11 The data does not cover merge and acquisition or other equity and non-equity investments. Typically, projects are captured at the announcement stage for capital-intensive projects and at the opening stage of services operations with limited capital investment required. Capital-intensive projects take on average 2 years to become operational.

12 Recent academic research using fDi Markets data includes: (Crescenzi, Pietrobelli and Rabellotti 2013), Paniagua and Sapena 2014), (Amoroso, Dosso and Moncada-Paternò-Castello 2015), and (Antonietti, Bronzini and Cainelli 2015).

10
period of public display of at least 2 weeks, the information is formally registered, creating the precondition for award of a formal certificate upon payment of a nominal fee.<sup>7</sup> Figure 1 displays the location of the trial areas on the map, and a brief review of their main characteristics will be of interest (Republic of Rwanda 2008). Nyamugali, located in a densely populated peri-urban area (3,500 inhabitants per km<sup>2</sup> ) in Kigali city, is a largely residential area interspersed with small agricultural plots where a thriving informal land market and high levels of expropriation risk had created demand for legalization of existing land records. Kabushinge cell represents a high population density rural area (768 inhabitants per km<sup>2</sup> ) in the North where high population pressure and land scarcity together with land conflicts arising from high levels of polygamy and post-genocide land allocation to refugees and soldiers created land pressure. Biguhu cell, in a moderately populated Western area (337 persons/km<sup>2</sup> ), represents areas severely affected by the genocide with many female household heads and orphan landholders. Finally, Mwoga cell is in a low population density sector (274/km<sup>2</sup> ) in the East where extensive land sharing and high concentration of refugees caused widespread fear and tenure insecurity. Completion and careful analysis of operational aspects of the pilot experience allowed NLC to scale up to a nation-wide program that currently deploys more than 60 field teams who, in the program‟s first year, demarcated a total of 4.8 million parcels.

# **4. Sampling, econometric approach, and data**

While the program presents a number of interesting aspects, a key methodological challenge to overcome for a rigorous socio-economic assessment of the pilots was the lack of a baseline data. To deal with this, we adopt a spatial discontinuity design and administered a short survey to some 3,500 households on both sides of the boundaries of the four pilot cells. This section describes the sample design and the econometric methodology, relying on the use of spatial fixed effects that is used to interpret the data.

# **4.1 Sampling strategy**

As there was no usable baseline survey to assess the impact the pilot program, we rely on cross-sectional data, sampled from both sides of the boundaries of the pilot cells to allow comparison of outcome variables between treated and non-treated households (inside and outside the borders of the pilot cells, respectively) close to the borders of the pilot cells. We thus exploit the discontinuity which administrative boundaries created in the introduction of the pilot program as an identification strategy. The key assumption is that before the start of the program, households close to a cell boundary were similar in unobservable and observable factors affecting relevant outcomes.

> 7 The fee of RWF 1000 (US$ 1.84 at the 2008 rate) per parcel or about RWF 4000 (US$ 7.36) per household taking the national average of four parcels per household compares to a cost of approximately US$ 9-11 in the pilot—since then reduced to about US$ 5—per parcel.

10
# The Limits of Commitment: Who Benefits from Illiquid Savings Products?<sup>_∗_</sup>

Niklas Buehren Markus Goldstein Leora Klapper Tricia Koroknay-Palicz Simone Schaner<sup>_†_</sup>

> _∗_ We thank Emmanuel Apiors, Virginia Ceretti, and Ervin Dervisevic for excellent research assistance, Innovations for Poverty Action Ghana for expert field implementation, and Robert Osei for helpful comments and advice. This project would not have been possible without the support of the North Volta Rural Bank and its staff. We are particularly indebted to Patrick Ata and S. S. Mohenu, who provided invaluable advice and leadership throughout the project. This paper is an output of the Africa Gender Innovation Lab. Financial support for this study was provided by the World Bank’s Umbrella Facility for Gender Equality (UFGE), the World Bank’s Development Research Group Finance and Private Sector Development Team’s Knowledge for Change Program (KCP II), the World Bank’s Africa Region’s Vice President’s Office, the World Bank’s Ghana Country Management Unit, and the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation as part of their work on financial inclusion. The study protocol was approved by IRBs at the University of Ghana, Legon (CPN 009/13-14) and Dartmouth College (CPHS # 24177) and registered in the AEA RCT registry (AEARCTR0001630) and the International Initiative for Impact Evaluation’s Registry for International Development Evaluations (study ID 5409d4c83af40). The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent.

> _†_ Buehren, Goldstein, Klapper, and Koroknay-Palicz: The World Bank. Schaner: The University of Southern California, NBER, and BREAD. Buehren: nbuehren@worldbank.org, Goldstein: mgoldstein@worldbank.org, Klapper: lklapper@worldbank.org, Koroknay-Palicz: tgonwa@worldbank.org, Schaner: schaner@usc.edu.
Figure 2: Examples of Breakpoints – Germany and South Africa <!-- Start of picture text --> A. Germany – lpe<br>Dickey-Fuller t-statistics Dickey-Fuller autoregressive coefficients<br>0.5 1.04<br>0.0 1.00<br>-0.5<br>0.96<br>-1.0<br>0.92<br>-1.5<br>0.88<br>-2.0<br>0.84<br>-2.5 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015<br>1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015<br>B. South Africa – lye<br>Dickey-Fuller t-statistics Dickey-Fuller autoregressive coefficients<br>-0.5 .96<br>-1.0<br>.92<br>-1.5<br>-2.0 .88<br>-2.5<br>.84<br>-3.0<br>.80<br>-3.5<br>-4.0 .76<br>1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015<br>Source: Authors' calculations.<br>Notes: lye = ln[DEtt ] ; lpe = ln[PPttde]. The graphs are from Eviews’ breakpoint unit root test for intercept break and innovation outlier.<br><!-- End of picture text --> Take two well-known cases, Germany and South Africa. Figure 2A indicates a break for ln ~~[~~ PPttde ~~]~~ in 1989 for Germany, coinciding with the fall of the Berlin Wall that led to the unification of East and West Germany in 1990.<sup>14</sup> Figure 2B shows that South Africa had a break for Et in 1991, the year trade ln[Dt ~~]~~ sanctions began to end when the country repealed its Apartheid legislation, leading to a new democratic government in 1995. In the case of Germany, however, the tests also suggest 1989 for ln[PPttde] but 1994 for ln[MDtt] and 1985 for ln[PPttmd ~~]~~ . In the case of South Africa, the breakpoint tests also indicate 1987 for ln[PPttde], 1990 for ln[MDtt], and 1989 for both intercept and trend of ln[PPttmd ]. After testing alternatives and considering the history, we choose 1990 for Germany and 1991 (versus 1995) for South Africa for an intercept break. As a final check, we confirm the existence of a cointegration equation with the Johansen test (using both the Trace and Max-eigenvalues rank tests).

Conflicts, regime changes, and crises could also affect data quality. In this regard, we follow WDI's data vetting process about the first year to use while allowing for data splicing from the U.N. national accounts for one or two data series of a country. We only include countries with at least 20 years of time series data.

> 14 Unlike former Soviet republics and the allied communist states, Germany has data prior to the unification in 1990 and that goes back to 1970.

12
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