rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
most countries, car ownership rates are very low. We therefore explore the determinants of vehicle ownership as well as vehicle use. The increase in first-time transport users and the extent to which the demand for private transport through vehicle ownership and use increases faster than the demand for public transport services will have different impacts on changes in carbon emission and inequality.

The paper is organized in three parts. First we present a series of stylized facts between incomes and the different margins of consumption of transport goods and services. We then use LSMS survey micro-data for 18 countries to estimate household Engel-curve expenditure elasticities. We finally use these estimates to simulate changes in transport consumption and the resulting changes in transport carbon footprint and carbon inequality in a business-as-usual scenario as incomes rise to their 2035 levels.

**Main results** We start by documenting the relationship between income and transport consumption across countries with a series of new stylized facts. As countries get richer, (1) more households choose to consume transport goods and services, (2) households spend an increasing share of their expenditure on transport, increasingly for private transport, and (3) car ownership as well as car use increase. We document the extent to which transport consumption significantly varies within countries across income groups. As households get richer, they spend more on transport. Rural households spend relatively less than urban households, except in high-income countries.

We then use LSMS household surveys for 18 countries to identify the main determinants of household consumption of transport goods and services and estimate elasticities of transport expenditures. We use a Zero-Inflated Poisson model given the large number of zeros expenditure and compare its results with a Poisson-Pseudo Maximum Likelihood model. Our results suggest that total expenditures per capita are a main determinant of transport expenditures. We find that on average, as per capita expenditure increases by 10%, transport expenditures increase by 17% for all transport, by 10% for transport services, and by 20% for private transport. These findings imply that private transport is a luxury good whereas
developments in near-real-time. However, without such capabilities, it is difficult to monitor the situation and inform policies in a timely manner, which is particularly crucial in such a volatile environment.

To gain near-real-time insights, this paper applied a recently developed machinelearning approach to impute local market prices for fresh produce in local markets in PNG. The aim is to investigate the feasibility of monitoring food price inflation continuously relying only on incomplete and intermittent local market-level survey data that can be gathered in a rapid fashion. The application to fresh produce prices in PNG is made particularly challenging by high intra-month price volatility, low cross-market price correlations, and weakly defined food-specific price trends.

The paper runs cross-validations for imputation strategies under different designs in terms of numbers of markets, food items and time periods covered. The results show that imputations can achieve accuracy that is attractive when compared to costly direct measurement of prices. For instance, the imputations processed 27 food items across 8 markets and explains approximately 71% (20092022) to 77% of (2017-2022) of variation in out-of-sample data. When natural price volatility is taken into account, it is likely that this approach only sacrifices a little over 10% of accuracy when compared to direct measurement. Consider-
) of gender sustaining Gender sustaining household labor earnings household earnings • Combined with the presence of + presence of retirees who may contribute to children and domestic tasks and care elderly • Combined with the presence of dependent household members:

- Calculated from gender and age of all household members (self-reported) in household interview roster; labor earnings reported by gender of household members

- Children <6 years old

- Elderly 80+ years old

_Note:_ ILCS = Integrated Living Conditions Survey.

18
MSBs are household-based activities, where there may be no clear demarcation between family needs-based activities (like consumption) vis-a-vis income-generating activities. Nonetheless, access to simple technology embodied in equipment that can be powered by alternative energy systems provides a basis for sustaining and expanding the householdbased income generating business activity.

41. For instance when lease financing makes possible the acquisition of alternative energy systems that facilitate and increase the household's access to water supplies, productivity of labor is correspondingly enhanced. It is also probable that, in the project design of the alternative energy programs specific statistical data and information on the number of household-based MSB establishments that would directly be benefited simply was not readily available. This would then result in defining beneficiary targets as simply "households and small commercial establishments" rather than better-identified and defined MSBs.

# **Orient Leasing Pakistan Limited (OLP)**

42. The market niche chosen by the company is the medium to small private limited company with assets of Rs 20 - 30 million (_ US$ 0.900 - 1.350 million equivalent). The company likewise had already written substantial lease business with the small scale enterprise sector including some leasing business with microenterprises in Pakistan. The main constraint faced by OLP in developing this MSB-oriented business was its lack of Rupee resources. The average lease in its portfolio was Rs 250,000 (_ US$ 11,300), consisting mainly of leases of small-ticket equipment, although 34% of contracts written were for leases below this average lease contract amount.<sup>20</sup> 43. The organization's core competencies are its ability to carry out rigorous credit screening processes on target clients, and the quality of its staff. Its distinctive competence is identification of an unserved market niche in which it operates and where competition is low. OLP does not seek to compete in other market segments but will engage in price competition to hold an existing client. The company culture is to a very large extent determined by the culture of its
|

_Source_ : AICD road sector database on 40 Sub-Saharan African countries accessed June 2010.

a. Total network includes the classified and estimates of unclassified and urban networks.

b. Main network for most countries is defined as result of adding the primary and secondary networks.

c. Rural network is generally defined as the tertiary network and does not include the unclassified roads. d. World Bank–IFC Enterprise Surveys on 32 Sub-Saharan Africa countries.

Benin earns high scores for the condition of its rural roads and for rural accessibility. The rural network, 66 percent of which is in fair or good condition, has reached the average for the middle-income countries, enhancing the reliability of the rural network and increasing the potential for rural accessibility. The GIS Rural Access Index for Benin indicates that about 28 percent of the rural population lives within two kilometers from an all-season road, higher than the average of 25 percent for low-income nonfragile countries. With an average daily traffic of 63 vehicles on rural roads, maintaining the entire rural network with an earth road surface is a policy consistent with traffic levels (table 3).

# **Challenges**

Benin’s overall road network is in fragile condition. Sixty-nine percent of its roads are in good or fair condition, a level lower than the 72 percent average for low-income countries (table 3). Furthermore, twothirds of these roads are in only fair condition. If no routine and periodic maintenance is performed, a large share of the main network will fall into poor condition within a very short time. Also, heavy use by overload trucks of the two highways crossing Benin to and from Togo and Nigeria is causing degradation that is jeopardizing their serviceability.

The poor condition of the road network is manifested in the Benin portion of the Cotonou–Niamey (Niger) and Abidjan (Côte d’Ivoire)–Lagos (Nigeria) corridors, which capture the highest amount of traffic along the corridors. Sixty percent of Benin’s part is in poor condition on the Cotonou–Niamey
Policy Research Working Paper 9425

# **Abstract**

This paper provides insights to inform government efforts to attract and retain foreign direct investment, by analyzing the results of a survey of more than 2,400 affiliates of multinational enterprises across 10 middle-income countries. The paper explores corporate perspectives and decision-making on countries’ legal and regulatory environments, political risk, and investment promotion activities. The survey finds that a business-friendly policy environment is critical to multinational enterprises’ investment decisions, confirming the importance of removing regulatory barriers to foreign direct investment (particularly approval processes), lowering political risks, and having investment promotion agencies. The survey results also show that investors are heterogeneous, with affiliates’ sectors, trading behaviors, sizes, ages, source countries, and foreign ownership levels affecting their perceptions of and sensitivity to various policy factors. Thus, policy makers should tailor their policy efforts to the needs of priority investor segments. Notably, the analysis consistently finds variation based on the extent to which affiliates import their inputs, suggesting that this relatively understudied topic deserves increased research and policy attention.

This paper is a product of the Finance, Competitiveness and Innovation Global Practice. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/prwp. The authors may be contacted at asaurav@worldbank.org and rkuo@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/
# **2. Poverty Reduction in Nepal**

The earliest comprehensive poverty assessment in Nepal depicted dire living conditions of the country more than 30 years ago (World Bank 1991). About 40 percent of the population was deemed poor using a very frugal definition of poverty, but any reasonable international standard would have placed almost everyone in the country in poverty. In 1985, Nepal had the lowest GNI per capita among the 140 countries for which data was available. The share of labor force dependent on agriculture was 93 percent, the highest of any country listed in the 1989 World Development Report (World Bank 1989). The 1991 report concluded that poverty would most likely persist in Nepal for years to come (World Bank 1991). By all accounts, Nepal was one of the poorest countries in the world until the early 1990s.

While neighboring countries made a step forward in poverty reduction in the early 1990s, poverty in Nepal did not change by the time the first Living Standard Survey was conducted in 1995/96.<sup>10</sup> Furthermore, World Bank (1999) reported that poverty incidence had remained virtually constant since 1976/77 based on the Survey of Employment, Income Distribution and Consumption Patterns in Nepal, further reinforcing the notion of chronic poverty in Nepal. The 1990 prediction that poverty would persist held true; as much as 42 percent of Nepalis were deemed poor in 1995 (World Bank 1999).

Living conditions of Nepali citizens in 1995 were as ominous as they were in the earlier years. According to the 1995 NLSS Report, only 13 percent of the households had access to toilet facilities; 24 percent of the households had access to piped water supply, of which only one-third had water supply piped to the residence. More than 80 percent of Nepali women 15 years and older were illiterate. Accessibility continued to be the bottleneck to the development of rural Nepal. About 30 percent of the rural household lived at least three hours away from a paved road, and 20
14 percent in good condition. The quality of paved/sealed roads is somewhat better than that of gravel and earth roads; nevertheless, a daunting 50 percent of classified paved roads are in poor condition and require costly rehabilitation. Based on the results of this survey, the government estimates that $2.9 billion would be needed to rehabilitate Zimbabwe‘s entire classified network.

**Figure 11. Benchmarking road conditions against regional peers 2006–08**

<!-- Start of picture text --> South Africa<br>Mauritius<br>Swaziland<br>Malawi<br>Namibia<br>Botswana<br>Mozambique<br>Madagascar<br>Zimbabwe<br>Zambia<br>Angola<br>Lesotho<br>0% 25% 50% 75% 100%<br>Percentage main road network length<br>Good Fair Poor<br><!-- End of picture text --> _Source:_ AICD road sector database on southern sub-saharan african countries (2008).

30
Micco, A., Panizza, U., Yañez, M., 2007. “Bank ownership and performance. Does politics matter?” _Journal of Banking & Finance 31_ , 219-241.

- OECD, 2009. _The financial crisis: reforms and exit strategies_ . <u>http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/55/47/43091457.pdf</u>

- OECD, 2010. Competition, concentration and stability in the banking sector. OECD Policy

Roundtables. http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/52/46/46040053.pdf

- Panzar, J.C., Rosse, J.N., 1982. “Structure, conduct and comparative statistics.” Bell Laboratories Economic Discussion Paper.

- Panzar, J.C.,  Rosse, J. N., 1987. “Testing for `monopoly' equilibrium.” _Journal of Industrial Economics 35_ , 443-456.

- Peek, J., Rosegren, E., 1996. “Small business credit availability: how important is size of lender.” In A. Saunders and I. Walter (eds.), _Financial system design: The case for universal banking_ . Homewood, IL, Irwin Publishing.

- Petersen, M. A., Rajan, R., 1994. “The benefits of lending relationships: evidence from small business data.” _Journal of Finance_ 49, 3-37.

- Petersen, M. A., Rajan, R., 1995. “The effect of credit market competition on lending relationships.” _The Quarterly Journal of Economics_ 110(2), 407-43.

- Rice, T., Strahan, P., 2010. “Does credit competition affect small-firm finance?” _Journal of Finance_ 65(3), 861-889.

- Ruckes, M., 2004. “Bank competition and credit standards.” _Review of Financial Studies_ 17(4), 1073-1103.

- Sapienza, P., 2002. “The effects of
the baseline model expressed in equation [1] is expanded to include interactions between knowledge r ) and market r ) factors—defined at the sectoral ( ) and regional ( ) level— and investment in innovation. This allows us to recover the influence of the ii ii (KK (MM different factors over the innovation returns coefficient (equation [2]). ss rr <u>i i i i i i i i i i</u> 0 1 r 2 r 3 r 4 r . i i i i i i i i i i YY CC II II II LL = αα+ ββLLiir ii + γγ LL + δδ LL + δδ MM ii + δδ [2] KK ii + δδ MM ii LL + δδ KK ii LL + uuii + ττii + eeiir ii Therefore, 0, 3 , and 4 are our main coefficients of interest because they estimate the marginal effect of market and knowledge complementary factors on innovation returns. Standard panel data procedures are used to produce estimates for coefficients. δδ δδ δδ

# _4.2.2 Endogeneity of Investment in Innovation_

The likely presence of omitted variables and simultaneity issues raises a challenge for the precise identification of the coefficients of the knowledge production function. In this section, we focus on the endogeneity of the investments in innovation variable, given that its returns over productivity are our main concern. We are aware that capital and labor variables are

> 19 Results are robust when we use sales as the dependent variable and include expenditure on intermediate goods in the regression.

14
# 4.3 Caseload

The SDI indicates that, on average, a health care provider in these countries attends roughly 13.3 outpatients per day (see **Table 4** ). Caseload ranges from a low of 2.8 patients per provider per day in Nigeria to a high of 23.2 in Mozambique. On average, providers in public facilities attend about 14.0 patients per day, while those in private facilities attend approximately 11.5 patients daily (though this trend varies by country). Rural facilities have higher caseload on average, again with some variation by country. Among public facilities, almost half (46.7%) have a caseload below 5 patients per provider per day. Table 4 also includes results on the percent of facilities with fewer than 5 patients per provider per day, which varies from 14.0% of facilities in Mozambique to 86.0% in Nigeria. In six of the nine countries, public facilities are less likely than private facilities to have fewer than 5 patients per provider per day. Variance decomposition shows that 72.0% of the variance is attributable to within-country differences, while 28.0% is attributable to between-country differences, as shown in **Appendix Table A8** .

**Figure 5** shows the distribution of caseload by rural and urban. In general, caseload is slightly higher at rural facilities, but this is not evident in all countries. Madagascar has a larger share of facilities in rural areas with a caseload below 5 patients per provider per day. Nigeria’s distribution shows that the majority of their facilities have fewer than 5 patients per provider per day, regardless of urban or rural location. Some countries, such as Mozambique and Kenya, show an even distribution suggesting that both urban and rural facilities see a highly variable number of patients.

_Figure 5. Distribution of caseload by country and rural/urban_ The caseload data have a strong left-model skewedness. To provide a clear visualization of the
Policy Research Working Paper 5488

# **Abstract**

Seasonal migration programs are widely used around the world, and are increasingly seen as offering a potential “triple-win”—benefiting the migrant, sending country, and receiving country. Yet there is a dearth of rigorous evidence as to their development impact, and concerns about whether the time periods involved are too short to realize much in the way of benefits, and whether poorer, less skilled households actually get to participate in such programs. This paper studies the development impacts of a recently introduced seasonal worker program that has been deemed to be “best practice.” New Zealand’s Recognized Seasonal Employer program was launched in 2007 with an explicit focus on development in the Pacific alongside the aim of benefiting employers at home. A multi-year prospective evaluation allows measurement of the impact of participation in this program on households and communities in Tonga and Vanuatu. Using a matched difference-in-differences analysis based on detailed surveys fielded before, during, and after participation, the authors find that the Recognized Seasonal Employer program has indeed had largely positive development impacts. It has increased income and consumption of households, allowed households to purchase more durable goods, increased the subjective standard of living, and had additional benefits at the community level. It also increased child schooling in Tonga. This should rank it among the most effective development policies evaluated to date. The policy was designed as a best practice example based on lessons elsewhere, and now should serve as a model for other countries to follow.

This paper—a product of the Finance and Private Sector Development Team, Development Research Group—is part of a larger effort in the department to study the determinants and consequences of migration and remittances. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://econ.worldbank.org. The author may be contacted at dmckenzie@ worldbank.org.

_The Impact Evaluation Series has been established in recognition of the importance of impact evaluation studies for World Bank operations and for development in general.
recovered very quickly afterwards. Moreover, enforcement became more stringent (World Bank, forthcoming). In short, Indonesian labor markets during the Suharto areas were flexible but became more rigid post-crisis. In our empirical analysis we will explore the impact of such changing labor regulations on the reallocative process.

Indonesia provides a very useful testing ground to examine the impact of crises on resource reallocation. The unexpected nature of the crisis facilitates identification of firm responses and Indonesia has a very detailed manufacturing level census, discussed in detail in section 4, which allows us to measure productivity, entry and exit dynamics whilst controlling for a rich set of firm characteristics. Moreover, although the extent to which reallocation dynamics in developing countries resemble those in developed countries is an actively researched issue (see e.g. Aw et al. (2002) and Eslava et al. (2004) for evidence of the importance of creative destruction in Taiwan, China and Colombia respectively), in their comparative analysis of harmonized firm-level data from 17 developing and developed countries Bartelsman et al (2004) conclude that reallocation dynamics in Indonesia are very similar to those operating in developed countries and other Asian economies. Thus, our findings are likely to be relevant for other countries.

# **3. Hypotheses and Approach**

# **3.1 Hypotheses**

The cleansing and scarring paradigms yield competing testable predictions at both the macro- and the micro-level. If the cleansing view is correct, one would expect crises to accelerate the weeding out of unproductive firms, resulting in a stronger association between productivity and survival at the micro-level; in other words, unproductive firms would be disproportionately affected. Furthermore the correlation between firm‟ productivity and employment growth would be expected to strengthen, as less productive firms should contract more in response to shocks.

8