rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
_ANDR EE_<sup>_ ́_</sup> _AND PAPE_ _SEPTEMBER 5, 2023_ _4_ systems. To handle the relatively large temporal gaps in the IFPRI data, the paper incorporates exchange rate data, showing that the methods can also produce estimates of unofficial parallel-market exchange rates that allow dollarizing the price data streams in real-time. Finally, the paper shows that the methods are applied successfully to short time series, opening the door to piloting the methods in conjunction with ongoing mobile phone surveys in a high-frequency setting.

The application to PNG data is valuable as formal traditional methods suitable for high frequency price tracking are not implemented in the Pacific Island region for a number of reasons, including low capacity, challenging geography and incomplete digitalization of market price information. Furthermore, prices collected with traditional methods are released often only after the data are already outdated. The Pacific Islands are generally import dependent for food products such as grains, meats, dairy products and vegetable oils, which all rose sharply during the previous major global food price spike in 2008 (McGregor et al., 2009). However, without adequate price monitoring capabilities, it is difficult to assess how the development context is changing in the region while countries across the world are grappling with falling living standards (Egger et al., 2021), high inflation (Etang et al., 2022; World Bank, 2022), and volatility in commodity prices (World Bank Group, 2022). The paper concludes that the explored methods may have wider applicability and could help to fill crucial data gaps in the Pacific Islands, especially in conjunction with specifically designed continuous surveys.

The remainder of the paper is as follows. Section II discusses the survey data and imputation methodology. Section III presents imputation results for different setups in terms of the number of food items, markets and the temporal dimension of the survey data. Section IV concludes on the viability of the methods and the potential use of machine-learning augmented high frequency surveys in the Pacific Islands.

# **II
distortions. We find that distortions mitigate each other’s detrimental effect on aggregate productivity aggregate gains would be up to 15% higher if there was no such interaction. This result sheds light on the magnitude of the biases that are incurred when evaluating distortions in isolation, a common practice in the literature. The second exercise compares the contribution of the modelbased estimates of entry barriers an aggregate productivity gains with those stemming from de-jure based estimates, such as the World Bank’s Doing Business Indicators. We find that the DBI attribute a substantially less prominent role to entry barriers, motivating the mistaken perception that entry barriers are a less prominent than idiosyncratic distortions in hindering economic development.

The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 relates our work to the existing literature. Section 3 presents the model assuming exogenous exit and exogenous firm dynamics. This section also derives the theoretical insights underlying the identification strategy of distortions. Section 4 presents our data, explains the adjustments and selection criteria to construct the final sample, and characterizes the average size to income per capita elasticity. Section 5 conducts the quantitative analysis, presents the extensions of the simple theory to allow for endogenous exit and endogenous innovation and the calibration strategy, and performs the counterfactuals for computing the TFP gains. Section 6 concludes. All proofs are in the appendix.

# **2 Related Literature**

Our work is closely related to the literature studying the effect of distortions on aggregate productivity. Salient work studying entry taxes includes Djankov et al. [2002], Poschke [2010],Barseghyan and DiCecio [2011], and Boedo and Mukoyama [2012]. Djankov et al. [2002] developed a methodology to measure entry barriers that ultimately became the backbone of the World Bank’s DBI, the leading and most comprehensive database of de jure regulation of entry around the world. Poschke [2010], Barseghyan and DiCecio [2011], and Boedo and Mukoyama [2012] characterize the response of a model economy to entry 6
|Croatia|4.5|3.8|4.6|26|32|44|22|23|169|232|
|Romania|9.0|6.9|5.8|3|10|16|3|5|184|296|
|Albania|1.1|1.8|1.5|79|74|56|194|69|107|82|
|Macedonia|0.5|1.0|0.6|23|17|17|22|43|74|74|
|Moldova|4.2|1.5|0.5|2|50|37|58|112|69|52|
|Serb&Mont|6.2|4.2|3.2|12|11|11|15|28|120|126|

Note: For Serbia and Montenegro the most recent data available are for 2002. Source: Computations based on UN COMTRADE Statistics.

Although the share of furniture network in Bulgaria’s exports of manufactured goods, excluding chemicals, remains low, it almost doubled between 1996 and 2003. Moreover, it is low only by standards of CEEC-8 and Romania but not in comparison to SEE economies except Serbia and Montenegro. However, in the latter, these exports have been falling since 1996.

In all, developments in trade of ‘buyer-driven’ value chains seem to support the following observations: Respective industrial sectors in Bulgaria are not enclaves, but appear to be soundly immersed in the domestic economy. All of them have been very competitive in EU markets indicating significant progress in industrial restructuring. They have become part of global value chains, organized mainly by EU firms.

# **B** **_._** _‘Producer-driven’ chains: automotive and information technology networks_

Despite huge differences, both ICT (information communication technology) and automotive sectors share an important characteristic; under the pressure
Policy Research Working Paper 5908

# **Abstract**

This paper revisits the role of land measurement error in the inverse farm size and productivity relationship. By making use of data from a nationally representative household survey from Uganda, in which self-reported land size information is complemented by plot measurements collected using Global Position System devices, the authors reject the hypothesis that the inverse relationship may just be a statistical artifact linked to problems with land measurement error. In particular, the paper explores: (i) the determinants of the bias in land measurement, (ii) how this bias varies systematically with plot size and landholding, and (iii) the extent to which land measurement error affects the relative advantage of smallholders implied by the inverse relationship. The findings indicate that using an improved measure of land size strengthens the evidence in support of the existence of the inverse relationship.

This paper is a product of the Poverty and Inequality Team, Development Research Group. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://econ.worldbank.org. The author may be contacted at gcarletto@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent._ Produced by the Research Support Team
provision (Keefer and Vlaicu, 2008). In addition to these three alternative hypotheses, we also examine whether beliefs about councillors’ trustworthiness are associated with a household’s past exposure to war violence, their participation in community associations and their demographic characteristics.

# **3 Case-Selection: Sierra Leone**

For several reasons, the case of post-conflict Sierra Leone provides a justifiable context to test the antecedents of trustworthy government. The protracted nature of the decentralization process has yielded sub-national variation on several key dimensions of interest. In 2004, an ambitious program of decentralization reforms was launched by the national government with significant support from the donor community. Since then, two rounds of nation-wide local elections were completed, while a simple system of inter-governmental fiscal transfer was set up enabling local councils to carry out the service delivery functions devolved to them and to meet their administrative costs (Larizza and Glynn, 2011). However, this process of organizational reconstructing is occurring unevenly across time and across sub-national units. As a result, there is significant variation in our key independent variables including the administrative capacity of councils and the ability of councils to delivery services. We exploit the sub-national variation and test our hypothesis using a particularly rich set of survey data that has been collected in Sierra Leone to monitor the implementation of the decentralization reform program.

7
, would be to start the QAS as a national-level system, using a random sample of schools to identify quality problems, nationally. The diagnostic research tool and QAS tool data were most consistent at the national level in identifying similar strengths and weaknesses in KG quality in Egypt. Policy makers often do not know the specific quality issues their schools face, or the depths of the learning crisis, and so a nationally representative sample can be a good starting point for a QAS (Wiseman 2014). National quality enhancement actions, such as improvements to the curriculum or nation-wide training programs (e.g., teacher education and induction training) can then be revised to target key quality issues and enhance quality.

Where we did find higher levels of consistency was in the similar national results across tools, as there were similar national means on the QAS tool and diagnostic research tool. An important implication of this finding is that shorter, simpler monitoring tools (which are more feasible and affordable for governments to implement) are as good as more detailed research tools for measuring quality, on average, nationally. This has implications for sustainability in both bringing such data collection within the purview of governments (rather than research institutes or other organizations) and in financing data collection on quality. Since the training was one-

> 18 Another potential issue would be whether enumerators successfully observed and entered data for the exact same teacher, classroom, or child. Although there were detailed training instructions on identifying the class list, children, etc., together, there may have been deviations in the field. However, if these were major, we would expect much more consistency on the school level, which is not what we observe.

23
facilitation agenda has been developed, the question of what qualifies as a potential measure that facilitates trade in services remains unidentified. The core element of the concept of trade facilitation in services revolves around the administration and transparency of regulations. Regulatory measures dealing with facilitating trade in services would make it easier for foreign suppliers to access the domestic market for any given levels of (discriminatory) policy restrictiveness. As a result, one important component of a potential TFiS agenda is not to liberalize services markets by undertaking regulatory reform as such, but to improve the implementation and administration of policies that broadly relate to reducing information costs for foreign as well as domestic service providers so as to make it easier for them to access domestic markets.

Reducing trade costs by way of regulatory reform and implementing sound regulatory procedures forms an important factor in the economy. Previous research has shown that reform in services markets not only improves productivity performance of services markets themselves (van der Marel, 2012), but also further downstream in the economy, namely for those that use services as inputs (Beverelli et al., 2017; Arnold et al., 2015; 2011). If the costs of using services are higher than they would be in a competitive market environment where regulatory policies are conducive to an effective supply of the service, they will form a non-revenue generating (for the government) tax on the economy. The focus of this paper is to determine how and what type of regulatory policies dealing with the ineffective rules and administrative procedures for both domestic but in particular for foreign service supplies can contribute to lower trade costs, thereby facilitating trade in services and ultimately contributing to greater levels of per capita gains.

This paper is the first one to take a functional approach to the concept of TFiS and attempts to provide a policy-relevant definition of the concept. It does so by discussing TFiS theoretically and by taking the concept of TFiS to trade data in order to analyze how the various aspects of TFiS form an important costs factor for trading services. Only in
- Marshall, N. L., C. G. Coll, F. Marx, K. McCartney, N. Keefe, and J. Ruh (1997). After-school time and children’s behavioral adjustment. _Merrill-Palmer Quarterly (1982-) 20_ (3), 497–514.

- Marshall, P., B. Reeb, Fox, C. Nelson, and C. Zeanah (2008). Effects of early intervention on eeg power and coherence in previously institutionalized children in romania. _Dev Psychopathol_ , 861–880.

- Martinez-Leon, J.-A., J.-M. Cano-Izquierdo, and J. Ibarrola (2016). Are low cost brain computer interface headsets ready for motor imagery applications? _Expert Systems with Applications 49_ (1), 136–144.

MINED (2015). Estadisticas del Ministerio de Educacin de El Salvador.

- Moffitt, T. E., L. Arseneault, D. Belsky, N. Dickson, R. J. Hancox, H. Harrington, R. Houts, R. Poulton, B. W. Roberts, S. Ross, et al. (2011). A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety. _Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108_ (7), 2693–2698.

- Moya, A. (2018). Violence, psychological trauma, and risk attitudes: Evidence from victims of violence in colombia. _Journal of Development Economics 131_ , 15–27.

- Newman, S. A., J. A. Fox, E. A. Flynn, and W. Christeson (2000). America’s After-School Choice: The Prime Time for Juvenile Crime, or Youth Enrichment and Achievement. Technical report, Fight Crime: Invest in Kids, Washington, DC.

- OECD (2015). Skills for social progress: The power of social and emotional skills. Technical report, OECD Center for Research and Innovation (CERI).

-
7 treatment for the sector. For example, if high-income countries’ import tariffs are at near-prohibitive levels for temperate farm products but are low for tropical products such as coffee, their import-weighted average agricultural tariff could be quite low yet agricultural value added in those rich countries would have been enhanced substantially. Consider also the case of a developing country with a strong agricultural comparative advantage in all but one small farming industry, and with high tariffs to reduce import competition for that industry and for all manufacturing industries. Overall agricultural value added would be depressed by that structure of protection, yet the import-weighted average tariff protection for agriculture would be high and possibly above that for manufactures. A third case is where the non-agricultural primary sector receives a similar level of import protection as the farm sector and less than the manufacturing sector, but is much more export-focused than agriculture: trade reform may cause it to expand at the expense not only of manufacturing but also of farming. Hence it is not possible to say from the tariff data in Table 1(a) alone whether developing country policies now have a pro-agricultural bias, even though the ratio of agricultural to all goods tariffs in that table is well above unity for each of the regions shown. What is needed is a general equilibrium model to estimate the net effects of own and other countries’ various sectoral distortions on agricultural markets and net farm income. The latter impact, on agricultural value added, is a measure of the global general equilibrium effective rate of assistance to the primary agricultural sector, a portion of which is attributable to own-country policies.<sup>4</sup>

> 4 This approach is similar to that taken by Dihel (2004) except that only own-country policies are considered in that study.
# **A Brief Primer on the Data and Transparency Literature**

Centuries ago, rulers acknowledged the need for systematic data collection. Historical data collection can be traced to the first recorded census undertaken by Babylonians around 3800 BC (Grajalez et al., 2013). Early data collection served rulers with the aim of accounting for wealth and power. Information was gathered for taxation purposes, counting of men for military recruitment and workforce, and ascertaining conquered populations and territories (World Bank 2021). Data was kept secret from the public and not meant to improve their lives but to help rulers pursue their agenda. This raised general distrust of data collection activities among the populace. In contrast, the enlightenment ideals in eighteenth century Europe emphasized objective scientific inquiry. The role of data evolved to a means of examining society and became more public. In the late eighteenth century, statistical agencies were set up in Europe and North America to publish official statistics and inform the public.

Data transparency is defined as the regular publication of credible statistics by the state. This includes the frequency and availability of micro-data, socio-economic indicators, and adherence of data to international standards. The literature has acknowledged the importance of statistics and the benefits of evidence-based policy in terms of generating reforms through experimentation (Rodrik, 2010). However, theoretical arguments have been made that better statistics may not necessarily lead to reforms. Binswanger and Oechslin (2020) theoretically show that under certain political conditions better statistics can inhibit reforms. For instance, with better statistics, voters are less inclined to give politicians the benefit of the doubt when confronted with disappointing economic data, thereby weakening politicians’ incentives to experiment and carry out reforms in the first place. Thus, the benefits of data transparency warrant empirical validation. However, recent research indicates that democracies are more likely to transform talk of reform during economic downturns into self-correcting reforms than less democratic societies (Arezki et al. 2020).

The role of transparency in facilitating good institutions by limiting corruption has been well debated
# 2   Fieldwork—Establishing a qualitative baseline

## Framing qualitative fiscal information

Setting the qualitative baseline consists of documenting basic public expending processes related to infrastructure. The qualitative baseline component is divided into a number of parts.

- _National level_ , which covers budgetary institutions and processes. These institutional variables are collected at the national level following templates 5 and 6. The best sources for this information are ministries of finance, ministries of planning, and the budget offices of the parliament.

- _Operator level_ , which covers information pertaining to the governance quality of public providers (for example, parastatals, SOEs, PPPs). These institutional variables are collected at the operator level, following template 7. The best source for this information is the sector regulatory entity or—second best—the public operator itself, be it a corporation or a special fund.

## Qualitative templates at the national level

The purpose of qualitative templates at the national level (templates 5 and 6) is to provide a schematic and, where possible, a categorical description of the institutional process and general regulatory characteristics guiding the planning, programming, and budgeting of infrastructure services.

- Template 5. Basic budgetary institutions.  One questionnaire per country.

- Template 6. Budget cycle. A stylized scheme of the budgeting process. One questionnaire per country.

Sources of information for completing the templates include:

- Budget circulars/acts/laws.

- Literature reviews.

- World Bank Country Financial Accountability Assessments or similar public financial management diagnostics recently completed.

- Interviews with officials from the ministry of finance, line ministries, ministry of planning, regulators, state-owned enterprises, special funds, local governments, and any other infrastructure providers—senior-level meetings, for example, with the permanent secretary /secretary-general of finance (or equivalent) or director of budget to obtain reliable responses.

24
_5. Government’s budget constraint_ (27) _:_ _6. Previous underlying network investments:_ _In these constraints, Pdj is defined as in_ (8) _, Pj as in_ (9) _, κdi is given by_ _and bi comes from equation_ (13) _,_

# **4 Model Calibration**

We now give values to the model’s different parameters and exogenous variables. Except when noted, this calibration is performed using Brazilian data for the year 2010.

**Exogenously Calibrated Parameters.** Table 3 shows the parameters taken from the literature and their values. Let us start with the ones related to the household’s problem. The elasticity of substitution across sectors _ρ_ is set to 1;<sup>11</sup> otherwise, we cannot guarantee that the model equilibrium is unique (see Appendix D.1). The elasticity of substitution _σ_ for goods within the sector is set to 5 so that the elasticity of sectoral trade flows with respect to trade costs equals 4 as estimated by Simonovska and Waugh (2014). The parameters of the utility function _ωd_ are set to match the gross value added (GVA) share for each sector. Parameter _ν_ is estimated from the Brazilian consumer expenditure survey (POF) for 2008-2009 as one minus the average expenditure share in electricity. Following Allen and Arkolakis (2014), we map the parameter _θ_ to the expenditure share in housing, which equaled 25% for the POF 20022003 wave and 21% for the 2008-2009 period. This implies a value of _θ ∈_ ( _−_ 0.27, _−_ 0.33). Consequently, we take the intermediate value _θ_ = _−_ 0.3.<sup>12</sup>

The production function parameter _βd_ is obtained as one minus the share of energy consumption in production. The elasticity of trade costs to investment _γ_ is another key parameter for our results. We choose an intermediate value among those