rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
<mark>the Jewish infants in New York City it was shown that diluting milk formula with tap water containing a high concentration of sodium will result in the infant being fed a high-salt diet and a spike in blood pressure (Pomeranz et al., 2002). A meta-analysis of several studies linked salt in drinking water to hypertension (Talukder et al, 2017). Overall globally, climate change is likely to increase salinity in drinking water and adversely affect the health of the population in developing countries. It is also likely to negate all the gains made in recent years (Chong et al., 2014). As mentioned earlier, studies on the impact of salinity on infant and neonatal mortality in Bangladesh are virtually non-existent and this study intends to fill this gap.</mark>

# **III. Data Sources**

# _(i) Maternal and child health outcomes_

Data on maternal and child health outcome indicators were obtained from the 2000, 2004, 2007, 2011 and 2014 Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) of Bangladesh, which are nationally representative covering a wide range of indicators on health and nutrition. In this study, we focused on two primary maternal and child health outcomes: infant mortality and neonatal mortality. Clusters represented the primary sampling unit for each BDHS year from which representative households were selected for interviews. Women between 12 and 49 years old from the selected households were interviewed for live birth and infant and neonatal mortality. The study units for this paper were children who were born within the three-year window prior to the interview year. Infant death is defined as a baby who died within 12 months after birth, and neonatal death is defined as a baby who died within two months after birth.

_(ii) Relevant covariates_ Women were also interviewed for the household socioeconomic characteristics of infant and neonates who died, birth order and maternal age during the time of delivery. Some sociodemographic variables based on a priori causal knowledge were included as covariates in this study, such as educational status
Tables 9-13 report the results of the regressions of trainer characteristics on student psychology scores measured post training, among the sample of entrepreneurs who participated in the trainings. The regressions use ANCOVA estimation with standard errors clustered at the classroom level (the six TVET colleges had multiple training rounds where the student could have attended a training) and include the baseline measure of the dependent variable, i.e., the lagged psychology score is controlled for.

Column (5) in each table shows that there is a statistically significant positive association between students' psychology and the trainer having ever been a business owner themselves even after sequentially adding different sets of controls. Personal initiative, self-efficacy, locus of control and error competence measured 1.5 years after the training are all significantly higher among the students who had a trainer who had ever owned a business. These associations are stronger when the years as a teacher and years at TVET colleges are controlled for. The women entrepreneurs appear to benefit from having a shared identity with their trainer. The TVET trainers’ limited exposure to the world of entrepreneurship may be one of the major barriers to successfully train women entrepreneurs on these socioemotional skills.

A supplemental qualitative analysis using videos of five trainers offering PI training sheds some light on how differences between trainers’ attributes may manifest during the training (Wolf & Frese, 2019). The systematic comparison of training videos suggests that the PI trainer who has owned a business before differs from the remaining PI trainers with regard to his teaching behavior. First, according to the evaluation of three independent Ethiopian raters, the owner trainer is unanimously perceived as more competent, confident, and enthusiastic than his four non-owner trainer colleagues. Second, a qualitative content analysis of training video transcripts reveals that he has a more profound understanding of the training content than the non-owner trainers. They are more likely to communicate learning intentions, to make meaningful connections to students’ daily life, and to provide informative feedback than his colleagues. It is conceivable, for example, that due
*2000-2008**|2.1|2.2|1.5|4.6|3.2|1.9|2.6|2.7|
|**2010-2020**|3.1|2.1|1.4|4.7|3.2|2.0|3.2|3.0|
|**Total**|2.7|1.9|1.6|5.6|3.3|2.7|2.9|3.1|
|||||Free of c<br>|harge<br>||||
|**1989 -1998**|11.9|4.9|2.8|6.8|6.2|7.7|7.7|7.0|
|**2000-2008**|11.6|8.8|3.9|5.1|6.1|8.4|8.4|7.3|
|**2010-2020**|12.1|10.3|5.4|4.4|5.6|8.1|9.7|7.5|
|**Total**|11.8|8.0|4.0|5.5|6.0|8.1|8.6|7.2|

Source: Our elaboration on SHIW data.

(*) The reference person is defined as the member with the highest income.

**Table A3 – Ownership of houses occupied in usufruct or free of charge in Italy, 2002-2016** _(percentages)_

|**Period**|**Parents**|**Sons or**<br>**Daughters**|**Other**<br>**relatives**
# **3.2 Not only are informal firms pessimistic about future sales, they also perceive uncertainty to be higher than formal firms.**

Our baseline results, using expectations of change in sales as the dependent variable, suggest that informal firms have relatively lower expectations compared to formal firms (Table 2, panel A columns 1-2). Parasite firms have the lowest expectations compared to formal firms, followed by De Soto. These differences by the type of informal firms remain significant even after controlling for labor productivity (Table 2, panel B columns 3-4). The overall result of lower expectations among informal firms is driven by the intensive margin of informality (Table 2, panel C columns 1-2), suggesting that operational issues rather than constraints to entry affect firms’ expectations.

Turning to uncertainty, we observe that informal firms perceive uncertainty to be significantly higher than formal firms (Table 2, panel A columns 5-6). Among the types of informal firms, necessity and De Soto firms perceive uncertainty to be larger than parasite firms when initial productivity is not accounted for (Table 2, panel B column 7), while parasite firms perceive uncertainty to be highest when controlling for initial productivity (Table 2, panel B column 8). The latter difference across types of informal firms are, however, not statistically significant. Firms at the extensive margin of informality perceive the levels of uncertainty to be higher, implying that not fulfilling registration formalities implicitly increases the variation in expectations across scenarios.

Uncertainty and expectations are innately linked. In line with the global results from BPS data (Avalos et al., 2022), this relationship is V-shaped for South-Asia (Figure 2, panel a) with discontinuity around zero. This suggests that positive expectations about their future sales can be associated with a significant drop in uncertainty. Nevertheless, during the recovery period, when sales are picking up, uncertainty is higher because the expectations of sales in a pessimistic scenario are still negative, thereby leading to a larger variance.

12
...................................|46|
|Statistical Table 4 Indicator of overall institutional environment and components (Ea<br>Caribbean) ...........................................................|st<br>47|
|Statistical Table 5 Results focus indicator and components (East Caribbean)<br>........|......<br>54|
|Statistical Table 6 Accountability indicator and components (East Caribbean) ......... .|.. 54|
|Statistical Table 7 Employee morale indicator and components (East Caribbean) .......|. 54|
|Statistical Table 8 Overall performance indicator and components (East Caribbean)|..._55_|
|Statistical Table 9 Calculating the IRRs (Bolivia) ........................................................|63|
# 1 Introduction

In their recently launched trade talks, the European Union and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) agreed to focus not on tari¤s and quotas but on what Pascal Lamy, the EU trade commissioner, called "the real 21st century trade issues": harmonizing standards.<sup>1</sup> This is the latest episode in a process of deep integration that is most advanced within the European Union but also underway in many other regions. Two factors explain the shift in regional negotiating emphasis away from conventional barriers and toward standards. First, multilateral negotiations have achieved remarkable reductions in tari¤s and quotas but done relatively little to reduce the trade restrictive impact of technical barriers. Second, while multilateral trade rules governing regional agreements on tari¤s seek at least in principle to balance the interests of integrating countries and the rights of excluded countries,<sup>2</sup> the rules treat regional agreements on standards as always benign and worthy of encouragement.<sup>3</sup> Are regional agreements on technical barriers indeed an unambiguous blessing for global trade? The voluminous research on regionalism with its almost exclusive focus on tari¤s and quotas provides no adequate answer. This paper is a ...rst step in the theoretical and empirical analysis of regional initiatives on technical barriers to trade. Using a simple analytical model, it asks: How must the conventional analysis of free trade areas and customs unions be modi...ed to apply to agreements on standards? And what elements of international agreements on standards are relevant to predicting their impact on patterns of trade? Then employing a specially constructed panel dataset that directly identi...es di¤erent types of policy initiatives in each manufacturing industry, the paper addresses two empirical questions: Do regional agreements on standards lead to signi...cant increase

> 1 The two groups of countries have ageed to begin by harmonizing sanitary standards in the agricultural and ...sheries sector, as
||Control mean|(1)|(2)|(3)|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|**Child health**(children < 5years old)|||||
|Diarrhea prevalence 48 hours|0.040|-0.006<br>(0.011)|-0.003<br>(0.011)|-0.002<br>(0.011)|
|Diarrhea prevalence 7 days|0.060|-0.001<br>(0.016)|0.001<br>(0.016)|0.002<br>(0.016)|
|ALRI prevalence 48 hours|0.041|-0.008<br>(0.019)|-0.014<br>(0.018)|-0.011<br>(0.019)|
|ALRI prevalence 7 days|0.051|-0.009<br>(0.024)|-0.019<br>(0.022)|-0.017<br>(0.022)|
|Weight-for-age z-score|-0.69|0.006|0.041|0.000|
|||(0.099)|(0.089)|(0.085)|
|Length/Height-for-age z-score|-1.453|-0.013|-0.019|-0.056|
|||(0.099)|(0.086)|(0.080)|
|Weight-for-length/height z-score|0.203|0.074|0.111|0.076|
|||(0.086)|(0.082)|(0.079)|
|Anemia
reason for this is that even when a firm is identified as an exporter of intermediate inputs (rather than of final goods), it is virtually impossible to establish whether those inputs are fully absorbed in the importing country, or whether they are re-exported to third markets by the importing firms after having added value to them. We envision a future in which researchers will be able to conduct more satisfactory analyses with linked customs-data datasets from a variety of countries, but this future is not yet here.

It should be stressed that the above firm-level measures only identify the extensive margin of GVC participation, while industry-level measure based on global Input-Output tables also capture the intensity of GVC participation. Computing intensive measures of GVC participation at the firmlevel data is however challenging, particularly in situations in which complementary census-level information is not available. The reason for this is that customs-level data have no information on firms’domestic purchases of inputs and on firms’domestic sales of goods. As a result, it is diffi cult to infer the ratio of foreign inputs used in production, and it is even more challenging to disentangle the foreign-input content of exports from the foreign-content of overall production (see Kee and Tang, 2016, for an attempt using processing trade in China).

Firm-level information on importing and exporting can also be used to shed light on the extent to which global Input-Output tables provide an accurate description of value-added trade flows across countries. Even when the entries of these tables provide an accurate account of the origin of inputs in a country’s industrial production, the standard methods used to compute bilateral value-added trade flows from these tables assume that the same combination of inputs is used in production regardless of the destination of sales of a country and industry’s output. As demonstrated by de Gortari (2018) with firm-level evidence from Mexico, in practice, firms selling output to different markets use very different combinations of sources of inputs, and this has significant implications for the type of bilateral value-added trade flows one infers from global Input-Output tables.
|
|WPS115 Asia Region Population<br>Projections<br>1988-89 edition|My T. Vu<br>Eduard Bos<br>Rodolfo A. Bulatao|October 1988|S. Ainswor<br>31091|
|WPS116 Latin America and the Caribbean<br>Region Population Projections<br>1988-89 edition|My T. Vu<br>Eduard Bos<br>Rodolfo A. Bulatao|October 1988|S. Ainswor<br>31091|
Policy Research Working Paper 6074

# **Abstract**

Teenage pregnancy has been a cause of concern for policy makers because it is associated with a complex and often adverse social context for women. It is seen as the cause of lower social and economic achievement for mothers and their children, and as the potential determinant of inter-generational poverty traps. However, the question of whether pregnancy—and the subsequent rearing of a child—is actually _the_ trigger of poverty, higher dependence on social welfare and/ or other undesirable social and economic consequences has not been studied in developing countries with enough rigor to establish a causal relation. This paper follows a methodology previously applied in the United States, using Mexican data from the National Survey of Demographic Dynamics, to exploit information about miscarriages as an instrument to identify the long-term consequences of early child bearing. Thus, the paper takes the advantage of a natural experiment: it compares the outcomes of women who became pregnant in adolescence, and gave birth, to outcomes of women who became pregnant in adolescence and miscarried. This approach only allows for estimating the costs of adolescent childbearing for teenagers in a risk group, that is, teenagers who are likely to experience a pregnancy. The results are consistent with findings in the United States, suggesting that, contrary to popular thinking, adolescent childbearing does not hamper significantly the lifelong opportunities of the young mothers. Actually, women who gave birth during their adolescence have on average 0.34 more years of education, and are 21 percentage points more likely to be employed, compared with their counterparts who miscarried. The results also suggest, however, greater dependence on social welfare among women who gave birth during adolescence: their social assistance income is 36 percent higher, and they are more likely to participate in social programs, especially the conditional cash transfer program _Oportunidades._ This paper is a product of the Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Unit, Latin America and the Caribbean Region. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open
pit toilet in 2003.<sup>17</sup> 15 Although protected spring is generally considered improved water source, DHS 2003 does not distinguish between protected and unprotected springs. In order to have time-consistent water source categories, we categorize both protected and unprotected springs as an unimproved water source in 2008. According to the Kenya DHS report 2008, 8% of households use protected spring and 5.6% use unprotected spring for drinking water (KNBS and ICF Macro 2010).

16 DHS 2008 defines flush toilets connected to other than piped sewer system, septic tank or pit latrine as unimproved. In 2003, information on where the flush toilet is connected to is not available. In order to have timeconsistent sanitation categories, we consider all flush toilets in 2008 improved. Only 1% of households in 2008 has a flush toilet connected to other than piped sewer system, septic tank or pit latrine (KNBS and ICF Macro 2010). 17 Although pit latrine with slab that is not shared is generally considered improved sanitation facility, DHS 2003 does not distinguish between pit latrines with and without slab. In order to have time-consistent sanitation categories, we categorize all pit latrines as unimproved sanitation in 2008. According to the Kenya DHS report 2008, 7.8% of households use a not shared pit latrine with slab and 37.9% use pit latrine without slab. Information on shared pit latrines with slab was not published (KNBS and ICF Macro 2010).
7 market participants are potentially covered by severance pay regulations, the analysis concentrates on those government and private sector employees who experienced a job separation. For the IFLS (2007) survey, the job separation refers to the previous five years of employment; to the previous two years in the Sakernas (2008) survey.

The specific reason for the job separation is important because it affects both the entitlement to compensation and the size of the prospective payment. For instance, if a job separation is due to an economic cause beyond the control of the employee, the compensation package (both severance pay and long-service leave) is significantly larger and the cost to the firm is greater.

In the IFLS (2007) survey, involuntary separations (lay-off and business closure) accounted for 21.8 percent of all job separations; voluntary separations were 56.3 percent and “other” accounted for 21.9 percent. The responses identifying the reason for a separation are similar in the Sakernas (2008) survey. Involuntary separations (lay-off and business failure) accounted for 27.9 percent of all job separations. But 39.4 percent of all responses were due to “other” reasons where the initiative for the separation cannot be identified. Not knowing the reason for the separation makes it difficult to determine the potential severance payment.

As stated above, most of the job separations in both of the surveys are voluntary. Table 1 compares job separators with all government and private sector employees using the Sakernas (2008) survey. Employees who experienced a job separation in the previous two years are disproportionately younger, female, and well-educated. Job separations are concentrated in industries where entry and exit is relatively easy and mainly in the private domestic sector. Job separators have a relatively short employment relationship with the firm and tend to earn lower monthly wages.

The turnover rate is higher for younger age groups and steadily decreases with age (except for the oldest group aged 55 years and older). While there are about twice as many men
the market. Second, the scholarship that covered most of the tuition costs aimed to tackle a participation constraint originated by the high costs of these courses. Third, the coding schools in both locations worked closely with gender specialists to define strategies to make bootcamps more gender inclusive, key in order to increase participation in a sample of female beneficiaries. Last, the eligibility criteria were designed to attract a sample of women with high motivation, willingness to complete the course, and high potential to benefit from it.

In this paper, we analyze the short-term effects of the program on two sets of primary outcomes of interest: skills, and employment in a technology job. Follow-up data collected between 2 and 5 months after program completion indicates that the program has a strong positive impact on skills, measured by an exam that resembles a coding test that an employer would use during an interview to an applicant for an entry-level coding job. We also find positive and significant effects of the program on the probability of getting a job in technology. Importantly, when we compare technology jobs with the rest of the jobs in our sample, we find that the former are 43 percent more likely to offer work-from home arrangements and flexible hours, and generate a job satisfaction that is 12 percent higher compared to non-technology jobs. These findings are in line with Goldin (2014). Given that the pay rate in technology jobs is similar to other jobs (at least in this short-term analysis), we interpret this increase in flexibility and job satisfaction as a net improvement in overall job quality. This is not trivial, since there exists evidence in the labor literature that documents that workers may take pay cuts when moving to a new job if that new job offers better amenities or career perspectives (Bagger et al., 2014).

The previous results refer to February 2020, which was between 2 and 5 months after program completion. Additionally, we also gathered employment information referred to May 2020. This provided us with a unique opportunity to measure whether
would be seriously in doubt. Gimpelson and Treisman (2018) analyze this point in an indirect way by contrasting LiTS round II respondents’ assets information -car and second house ownership- with their subjective ranking: in the poorest countries included in LiTS round II -Azerbaijan, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova and Ukraine- only a third of the households own a car according to official statistics, and given the average price of a car these households are among the richest. Still, they find that 60% of those who own a car in those countries position themselves in decile 5 or below. A similar pattern arises when looking at those who report owning a second house. In this sense, what emerges is that the survey does capture individuals clearly belonging to the top deciles of the distribution, but these individuals’ subjective ranking is simply different from their objective one.

**Ignorance.** A simpler reason for the “bunching in the middle” may be plain ignorance. Research in psychology has shown that individuals, when faced with _a priori_ identical choices, may systematically choose the “middle option” (Christenfeld, 1995); this has been found also in consumer product choice (Valenzuela and Raghubir, 2009) and in answer patterns to multiple-choice tests (Attali and Bar-Hillel, 2003). In this sense, if individuals are completely ignorant about the shape of the income distribution, all the choices in front of them (the ten steps of the ladder) may look the same and, therefore, may end up choosing the middle steps just as a result of a cognitive bias. As we will see later on in this

10
<!-- Start of picture text --> FIGURE C 2. STANDARD VARIANCE DECOMPOSITION OF MEAN INCOME GROWTH<br>Based on Nonfuel Commodity Prices<br>Panel A. All countries Panel B. Resource typology Panel C. Output growth typology<br>100 100 100<br>80 80 80<br>60 60<br>60<br>40 40<br>40<br>20 20<br>20<br>0 0<br>0<br>-20 -20<br>-20 NROC ROC HOGC LOGC MOGC<br>Based on Fuel Commodity Prices<br>Panel A. All countries Panel B. Resource typology Panel C. Output growth typology<br>100 100 100<br>80 80 80<br>60 60<br>60<br>40 40<br>40<br>20 20<br>20<br>0 0<br>0<br>-20 -20<br>-20 NROC R OC HOGC LOGC MOGC<br>Idiosyncratic: variance share Global commodity price: variance share<br>Global mean income growth: variance share Global income growth–commodity price: covariance share<br>Variance share (percentage) Variance share (percentage)<br>Variance share (percentage)<br>Variance share (percentage) Variance share (percentage)<br>Variance share (percentage)<br><!-- End of picture text --> _Source:_ Penn <mark>World Tab</mark> le 9.0, World Development Indicators, United Nations, and the author’s estimates. _Note:_ Variability is measured by the standard deviation of mean income growth. All pa <mark>nels consi</mark> der country regression information over the period 1980–2014. Similar results are obtained using the following periods instead: 1990–2014, 2000–2014, and 2005