rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
Abouleinein, El-Laithy and Kheir-El-Din, which makes use of the same input-output information made available for this present study. The importance of subsidies can be appreciated by comparing for various energy sectors the value added at factor cost and value added at market prices (exchange prices paid by buyers). As seen in Table 2, subsidies account for a large percent of value added at factor prices, especially in the case of LPG. These subsidies are in exchange for lower energy prices to other industries, which to some degree translate into lower prices generally for consumers. Abouleinein, El-Laithy and Kheir-El-Din examine in some detail simulated impacts on the consumer price index of various scenarios for reducing energy subsidies; the effects on consumer prices of removing subsidies appear to be considerable. In this present study, we examine the impact of removing the subsidy at the industry level through the subsidies contribution to the ERPs.

Lederman (2005) presents rough estimates of the impacts of energy subsidies on ERPs for selected industries taken from the 2005 input-output information and the 2007 Egyptian tariff schedule. Although recognizing that energy subsidies enter the valueadded equation via costs, the basic formula used by Lederman for the ERP of an industry g takes the form where the aI is the share of intermediate factors (ideally in terms of prices without intervention) and Sg are net subsidies: indirect taxes and other subsidies plus energy subsidies estimated in terms of an ad valorem equivalent addition to output price. In his appendix, Lederman does discuss the ERP accounting for an adjustment in the price of tradable inputs by both tariffs and a subsidy rate on inputs, SI: which is the approach we take here.<sup>7</sup> For those five inputs with subsidies of interest – namely, natural gas, fuel oil (mazot), diesel oil (solar), LPG and gasoline – the cost shares of gross revenues that would H otherwise prevail without both protection and subsidies for an individual input, a gi , can again be written in terms of the currently observed cost share
can also either be used directly as an input into deep learning models, or as inputs to derive interpretable features such as building footprints, roads, and vehicles. Unlike call detail records, satellite-based indicators typically cover the entire country and therefore avoid selection bias. Call Detail Records (CDR) from mobile phones, in addition to only representing mobile phone users, are also more difficult to obtain for privacy reasons. However, CDR can in some contexts provide more informative indicators such as location information, cell phone behavior, and connection quality and device type. Internet records such as Twitter usage can also be informative (Tonneau et al, 2022). Information from online platforms also suffers from selection bias, however, since only a portion of the population uses it in developing countries, and it is difficult to estimate the extent to which this source of bias affects estimates.

A rich variety of geospatial indicators derived from satellite imagery have become publicly available and can be found in Google Earth Engine, Microsoft Planetary Computer, and other freely accessible websites. These offer access to several climate-related variables as well as a host of predictive features such as night-time lights, land classification, year of switch from pervious to impervious surface, estimates of net primary production, cell phone placement, a wide variety of climate and temperature variables, pollution estimates from the Sentinel 5-P satellite, a variety of soil quality measures, and countless other geospatial indicators. Meta has also publicly released the Relative Wealth Index, based on the pioneering work of Chi et al. (2021). Modeled population estimates from Worldpop, Meta, or 2
Policy Research Working Paper 10094

# **Abstract**

This paper examines the effect of tradable services growth on non-tradable services across Indian districts. The analysis uses a shift-share “Bartik-type” instrumental variable, which relies on changes in foreign demand shocks for tradable services, weighted by the initial district employment shares in tradable services. Using multiple rounds of the Indian Economic Censuses, the findings show that an increase in tradable services employment leads to an increase in non-tradable services employment and increases the number of firms in non-tradable services. The evidence suggests that this positive impact is due to an increase in consumer demand for local non-tradable services that results from the growth in tradable services employment, and not due to sectoral linkages between tradable and non-tradable services sectors. The employment impact is much larger for female workers compared to male workers, and for the number of female-owned firms relative to male-owned firms. Further, the employment impact is only significant for small non-tradable service firms.

This paper is a product of the Office of the Chief Economist, Equitable Growth, Finance and Institutions Practice Group. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank. org/prwp. The authors may be contacted at gnayyar@worldbank.org; bavdiu@worldbank.org; rchaurey@jhu.edu; and vbk.singh@gmail.com.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank
of households. For each of the 100 simulations, the implied rr rr νν εε XX ββ̂ + XX ββ̂ poverty rate is calculated across all households contained within each district, using the household size variable in the census as aggregation weights when averaging across households. The poverty line used is 1,570,739, which translates to about 96 cents per day at current market exchange rates. This was selected such that the overall poverty rate in the survey data is consistent with the reported 75.2% national rate. For stunting, the relevant threshold is height-for-age Z score of -2. The implied poverty or stunting rates for each district are then averaged across the 100 simulations. Because the random area effect is conditioned on the sample data, the estimates place a larger weight on the model predictions from the model when they are precise relative to the direct survey estimates, and conversely a larger weight on the survey estimates when they are more precise relative to the model predictions.

The estimates obtained from the simulation were then benchmarked to match the survey estimates at the regional level published in World Bank (2023), to arrive at poverty estimates for each district. The benchmarking procedure used the “benchmark complement” option in the povmap package. This 8 | P a g e
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facilities and other amenities (e.g., Orford, 2000; Tu et al., 2007; Jaeger, 2013; Gedal and Ellen, 2018). The current paper follows this approach: where _Vi_ is the land value at location _i_ . While _X_ is a variable representing connectivity to the CBD, _Z_ contain a set of locational characteristics observed.

13. In the literature, the connectivity _X_ is often defined by distance between a parcel of land and the CBD. Unlike earlier studies, the current paper uses more realistic variables: travel time estimates and the Job Accessibility Index (JAI). First, travel time is used, which is estimated by spatial software with road conditions and traffic taken into account. This is a more realistic measurement to capture the people’s actual accessibility to the CBD, because the accessibility can be different depending on actual traffic speed even if the distance is the same.

14. Second, the JAI is also used, which is considered to be even more comprehensive. Instead of measuring the distance or travel time to one particular place, i.e., the CBD, it takes into account the accessibility to multiple potential destinations. It is defined by the average size of economic activities or job opportunities inversely weighted by transport connectivity. The CBD is generally a good proxy of destination for many people, but where they actually go may differ: The CBD is only one of the destinations in reality. Therefore, the JAI is constructed based on the level of attractiveness of each destination and the transport connectivity from location _i_ to that destination. Formally, it is calculated by this: where _Ym_ represents the size of job opportunities at destination _m_ , which can be understood as the probability to visit this place. _dim_ is the connectivity between location _i_ and destination
common in longer episodes (those lasting a decade or more) and shorter ones (lasting less than a decade). The most common form of crisis in debt accumulation episodes was a currency crisis, often combined with other types of crises.<sup>4</sup> More than three quarters of debt accumulation episodes associated with crises (either government or private) had currency crises.

# 2.3 Results

The one-half of debt accumulation episodes that were associated with financial crises had considerably weaker macroeconomic outcomes than those that subsided without crises.

Government debt accumulation episodes . Government debt accumulation episodes that involved crises were typically associated with greater debt buildups, weaker economic outcomes, and higher vulnerabilities than non-crisis episodes (Figure 4, Table 3). In the episodes associated with financial crises, the government debt buildup was, statistically significantly, 14 percentage points of GDP larger after eight years than in non-crisis episodes. After eight years, GDP and GDP per capita in episodes with crises were around 10 percent lower than in episodes without a crisis; investment was 22 percent lower; and consumption was 6 percent lower. International reserves deteriorated more in episodes associated with crises than in non-crisis episodes, as governments drew down reserves in an effort to stem currency depreciation. Nevertheless, currencies depreciated, and shortterm debt could not be rolled over.

Private debt accumulation episodes . Over an eight-year period, private debt accumulation episodes associated with crises featured weaker GDP and GDP per capita (by about 6 percent); consumption (by 8 percent); and investment (by 15 percent; Figure 5; Table 4). Private debt episodes with crises also saw significantly more pronounced deteriorations in external positions, especially international reserves and external debt, than non-crisis episodes. Episodes associated with crises featured broadly stable real exchange rates, in contrast to non-crisis episodes which were accompanied by strong real exchange rate appreciation; this would be consistent with a more productive use of borrowed funds in non-crisis episodes.

Similarities. Regardless of the borrowing sector, rapid debt accumulation episodes
Policy Research Working Paper 6288

# **Abstract**

This paper reassesses what works in banking regulation based on the new World Bank survey (Survey IV) of bank regulation and supervision around world. The paper briefly presents new and official survey information on bank regulations in more than 125 countries, makes comparisons with earlier surveys since 1999, and assesses the relationship between changes in bank regulations and banking system performance. The data suggest that many countries made capital regulations more stringent and granted greater discretionary power to official supervisory agencies over the past 12 years, but most countries have not enhanced the ability and incentives of private investors to monitor banks rigorously—and several have weakened such private monitoring incentives. Although it is difficult to draw causal inferences from these data, and while there are material cross-country differences in the evolution of regulatory reforms, existing evidence suggests that many countries are making counterproductive changes to their bank regulations by not enhancing the ability and incentives of private investors to scrutinize banks.

This paper is a product of the Finance and Private Sector Development Team, Development Research Group. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://econ.worldbank.org. The authors may be contacted at jbarth@milkeninstitute.org, Gerard.Caprio@williams.edu, and Ross_levine@haas.berkeley.edu.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations,
.

Second, despite a dominance of the firm intensive margin in accounting for the Turkish long-run aggregate export growth over the whole 2002-2008 period, net exporter entry plays a more substantive role for long-run growth than it does for short-run growth. Similarly, the churning across destination markets accounts for about a third of long-run growth of continuing

> 4 See Aysan and Hacihasanoglu (2007) for a macro perspective on the Turkish export boom in the 2000s and Erdal, Günçavdi, and Kayam (2012) for a sectoral perspective.

> 5 While writing this paper we became aware of a study by Lo Turco and Maggioni (2012) which uses a subset of the same exporter-level data to examine the effects of the global financial crisis of 2008-2009 in Turkey by decomposing manufacturing exports into the contribution of the extensive and intensive margins at the firm and firm-product level. Our focus here is, however, different, as we are interested in understanding the export boom, and moreover we do not focus our analysis exclusively on manufacturing firms with more than 19 employees as that study does but rather we cover all exporters of manufacturing but also agricultural and mining products. See also World Bank (2012) for a broader analysis of Turkey’s recent trade performance and competitiveness.

3
www.ilo.org/global/topics/equality-and-discrimination/indigenous-and-tribal-peoples/lang--en/.

> 22 For example, see General Recommendation XXVII on Discrimination against Roma, 57th session (2000), and General Recommendation XXIII on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, 51st session (1997); both are available on the United Nations Treaty Body Database, http://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/treatybodyexternal/TBSearch.aspx?Lang=en&TreatyID=6&DocTypeID=11.

> 23 See UNOHCHR, “Combating Discrimination against Minorities”, <u>http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Discrimination/Pages/ discrimination_minorities.aspx.</u>

> 24 See UNOHCHR, “Universal Periodic Review” website, http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/UPR/Pages/UPRMain.aspx.

> 25 Minority Rights Group International provides a nonexhaustive list of minorities in many countries on its website, http://minorityrights.org/.

> 26 See “EU-MIDIS: European Union Minorities and Discrimination Survey,” http://fra.europa.eu/en/project/2011/eu-midiseuropean-union-minorities-and-discrimination-survey.

> 27 On average, migrant workers around the world have to be legally employed and reside in the host country for 10 years before becoming eligible to apply for citizenship. Thus, the project sets 10 years as the length of time after which migrant workers should be covered by the study.

Anti-Discrimination Law and Shared Prosperity 11
The Impact of Ethiopia’s Road Investment Program on Economic Development and Land Use: Evidence from Satellite Data<sup>_∗_</sup> Simon Alder<sup>1</sup> , Kevin Croke<sup>2</sup> , Alice Duhaut<sup>3</sup> , Robert Marty<sup>3</sup> and Ariana Vaisey<sup>4</sup>

> 1Swiss National Bank

> 4University of Chicago Law School

**JEL codes: R4, R12, R14**

> _∗_ The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. The views expressed in this paper are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the SNB. In addition, they do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent. This project benefited from UK aid from the UK government.We thank Michael Andrews for his research assistance. Computational reproducibility verified by DIME Analytics.
the residence. More than 80 percent of Nepali women 15 years and older were illiterate. Accessibility continued to be the bottleneck to the development of rural Nepal. About 30 percent of the rural household lived at least three hours away from a paved road, and 20 percent of them from a dirt, vehicle passable road (Central Bureau of Statistics 1996).

The policy recommendations in the Poverty Assessment following the 1995 NLSS were far from auspicious and as pessimistic as in earlier years. Because “poverty in rural Nepal is too deep and too entrenched to be rapidly or widely alleviated,” the country “must improve its management of public expenditures and the climate for private investment.” In doing so, “priority must go to agriculture” (World Bank 1999).

The first sign of poverty reduction became available when the second Nepal Living Standard Survey (NLSS) was conducted in 2003. The official poverty headcount rate declined to 31 percent, a decline by 11 percentage points over an 8-year period. Due to the long interval between the two surveys, it is not possible to pinpoint exactly when poverty incidence started taking a downward trend. But it finally did so sometime between 1995 and 2003 during which the country went through political turmoil and the Maoist insurgency that disrupted the rural livelihoods (World Bank 2006). Seven years later, the poverty headcount rate further declined to 12 percent, according to the 2010 NLSS. The pace of poverty reduction accelerated during the latter half of the 2000s, from 1.4 percentage points a year between 1995 and 2003 to 2.6 percentage points between 2003 and 2010. This impressive stretch of poverty reduction record led the government to re-evaluate the poverty line established in 1995 in order to reflect the evolving living standards in today’s Nepal.

> 10 The 1995 NLSS and the 1984/85 Multi-Purpose Household Budget Survey were different in design and scope, making it difficult to construct comparable poverty estimates. All available evidence, however, pointed to little to no change in poverty incidence between
the probability of not returning to the home country after _t_ years. To examine sensitivity of our results to return migration, we therefore need estimates of the rate of return migration by initial marital status.

To estimate the rates of return migration separately for migrants married and migrants unmarried before migration, we use yearly rounds of the ACS between 2008 and 2021 (no information on the year of marriage is available in the ACS before 2008).<sup>19</sup> We measure 19 Origin country census data on the relative timing of migration, marriage and return is scarce. IPUMS International reveals that, out of 156 dataset in 93 countries (either in 2000/01 or 2010/11), only three dataset contains data on the year of marriage for important origin countries (China, Indonesia and the Philippines). Yet, data on the year of emigration is never available for return migrants, which makes it impossible to know whether the latter were married or unmarried when they first migrated to the U.S.

20
34 <!-- Start of picture text --> Figure 2: Postneonatal Mortality vs. Insecticide-Treated Net Ownership by Province and<br>Urban/Rural Location by Year and Average Malaria Prevalence<br>Graphs by Year of the DHS survey<br>2003 2008<br>10<br>14 9<br>5 10<br>13<br>78 8<br>12 46211151 3 122 153 1 4 137 14 9<br>6 11 5<br>0 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1 0 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1<br>Fraction of households with at least one ITN<br>Risk of malaria according to malaria transmission rate<br>low risk<br>intermediate risk<br>high risk<br>Source: Authors ̳ calculations using Demographic and Health Surveys microdata.<br>Notes: Trends in the number of children who died at the age of 1 month or later and before reaching 12 months.<br>Measured per 1000 live births. Legend: 1 Central province urban, 2 Central province rural, 3 Coast province urban,<br>4 Coast province rural, 5 Eastern province urban, 6 Eastern province rural, 7 Northeastern province urban, 8<br>Northeastern province rural, 9 Nyanza province urban, 10 Nyanza province rural, 11 Rift Valley province urban, 12<br>Rift Valley province rural, 13 Western province urban, 14 Western province rural, 15 Nairobi province. These<br>figures are calculated using the actual live births that took place during the period 12-35 months before the survey<br>date.<br>150<br>120<br>90<br>60<br>30<br>0<br><!-- End of picture text -->
currency unit labor costs) has been very steep and much greater than the real exchange rate appreciation alone. This suggests that the latter may not fully capture the extent to which high remittance recipient economies have lost external competitiveness, at least for their labor intensive traded goods industries. Given that labor intensive traded goods industries have been an engine of growth for many of the fastest growing emerging markets and developing economies (EMDEs), factors which affect the external competitiveness of such industries have potentially important implications for viable growth strategies (Rodrik, 2008).

This paper examines the empirical relationship between remittances and real unit labor costs using data from the transition economies of ECA. We show that real unit labor costs, measured in both local currency and US dollars, rose much more quickly on average among those transition economies which received high levels of remittances compared to other transition economies during the period 2003-17. Estimating panel data fixed effects and Generalized Least Squares (GLS) regressions on 28 transition economies and on a subsample of 11 high remittance recipient transition economies, the coefficient on remittances was positive and significant at the 1 percent confidence level. Although problems of reverse causality cannot be entirely discounted, the results suggest that remittances have a causal effect on real unit labor costs in the transition economies.

2