rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
scale model. On closer inspection of the implementation features of the PI/BSED trainings in Ethiopia, we find suggestive evidence that the role of the trainer appears to be key.

Much of the education literature within economics on teacher characteristics focuses on the relationship between specific teacher attributes (such as experience or education) and student achievement and has few consistent findings (Hanushek 2006). From a synthesis of more than 800 meta-analyses, Hattie (2008) suggests that the individual competence of the teacher, in bringing the material to the students, is most important. For example: being able to explain well, encouraging the students to try things out, encouraging meta-cognition in the students, providing quick feedback, and other facets. All structural characteristics (like class size) or how well the subject knowledge of the teacher was (or how well-studied) were not as important. In this paper we use detailed trainer characteristics and data from the participants of the PI/BSED study to analyze a range of teacher attributes that may have mattered for the women entrepreneurs who took the training.<sup>3</sup> We find a statistically significant positive association between student psychological constructs of empowerment, such as locus of control, self-efficacy, and personal initiative and the trainer having a history of entrepreneurship him- or herself. Since only 41% of the TVET trainers reported they ever owned a business we believe this mismatch between the trainers and entrepreneurs was critical for the lack of overall impact.

The TVET trainers’ limited exposure to the world of entrepreneurship may be one of the major barriers to successfully train women entrepreneurs on these psychology-focused skills. Perhaps those trainers with their own exposure to entrepreneurship have a better understanding of the target group and are more likely to provide relevant practical examples. These trainers may also be perceived as those who have already circumvented some of the issues that these women entrepreneurs are facing and are therefore perceived as more inspiring and influential role models to them.<sup>4</sup> Qualitative analyses of
# **Box 1. The Relationship between Spending Decisions and Sector Performance**

Significant budget expenditures in the past did not always bring improvement in service delivery.

_Health:_ It is estimated that total spending in the sector (public and private) exceeds 6 percent of the gross domestic product (GDP), which is rather high by international standards. However, the health outcomes remain extremely low and have not improved over the years. Infant and maternal mortality rates remain high at 110 and 8 per 1,000 births in 2005, respectively. Moreover, infant mortality increased by 20 percent between 1990 and 2005 (Nigeria 2006 MDGs Report). Communicable diseases (particularly malaria and diarrhea) are the main causes of mortality, which can be easily prevented or treated at relatively low cost.

_Education_ : The education sector has been attracting a significant amount of funding over the last four to five years from all tiers of the government without much change in social indicators. This significantly improved net primary enrollment. Also, the share of the primary school students that reach grade five increased from 71 percent in 2000 to 78 percent in 2005 (Nigeria 2006 MDGs Report). But the quality of nation‘s teaching and schooling remains of concern, and this is reflected in poor literacy outcomes. Adult literacy rate was only 64 percent in 2004.

_Roads:_ Inadequate funding for maintenance, rehabilitation, and asset renewal during the previous decades is the major reason for high transportation costs and poor safety conditions. It is estimated that between 50 and 70 percent of road network is in poor condition (Willoughby 2007). The FGN recently has increased funding for the sector to address the problem.

_Power:_ In 2001–05, the federal government spent, through investment grants, subsidies, and loans in the sector, about N270 billion or more than US$2 billion, while the massive power shortages remain the major development constraint for the private sector and a critical social problem. A partial explanation for this low impact of