rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
conscientious, and less emotionally stable. These results point to differentiated skill needs in wage and self-employment, which can explain part of the observed substitution between wage employment and self-employment. Findings also suggest that different behavioral skills are shaped through different formative experiences, and that the process of writing an academic thesis may be relatively more effective in shaping traits such as conscientiousness than entrepreneurship training. As such, these results confirm that behavioral skills are indeed malleable, but also highlight that the content of skills training requires particular attention to the extent that different skills may be needed for different occupations.

As stated above, the design of the impact evaluation does not allow us to formally disentangle the effects of the entrepreneurship track (business training and personalized coaching) from the start-up capital offered to winners of the business plan competition. However, fewer than fifteen winners actually cashed their prize and evidence that the intervention alleviated credit constraints for participants is very limited. Indeed, most of the findings also remain robust when restricting the sample to students who did not win a prize. We interpret this as suggestive that the results are mainly driven by participation in the entrepreneurship track (training and coaching) rather than by the prizes. In fact, participants report lack of access to credit as the largest constraint to entry into self-employment.

Finally, the follow-up survey was conducted 3-6 months after the Tunisian revolution.<sup>27</sup> The occurrence of the revolution does not affect the internal validity of the findings, but the postrevolution political and economic context may have implications for their external validity. On the one hand, between 2010 and 2011, a large number of jobs were lost in the country, with immediate consequences for youth unemployment. In 2011, new social programs were rolled out and may also have affected job search intensity among graduates. On the other hand, students perceived the revolution as having improved prospects for growth opportunities in the medium term. The follow-up survey shows that most respondents had positive perceptions of their prospects in the labor market,
and US$13,500 for South Africa. Thus, for example, Indonesia is reasonably comparable to Nigeria in terms of natural resource endowment and population size.

# 3.2. Rationale for selection of this group of comparators

Part of the rationale for the choice of the four countries as external comparators to countries in Africa is that it permits invoking evidence in the literature on drivers of the differences in the

> 5 Our population estimates come from the CEPII gravity dataset, except those for the Democratic Republic of Congo. Population estimates for the Democratic Republic of Congo are obtained from the World Development Indicators of the World Bank, which is also our source of estimates of income per capita.

9
Coxhead, 2013). Moreover, Vietnam’s transition from an agrarian, rural and informal economy, to an urban, manufacturing and services-based and formal economy is not complete either (cf. World Bank, 2014b). According to an investment climate survey, in Vietnam more enterprises see the practices of competitors in the informal economy as the biggest obstacle for doing business than is the case for any other element of the business environment apart from access to finance (cf. World Bank, 2009). Moreover most working people in Vietnam remain engaged in agrarian, rural and informal work.

Table 1 breaks Vietnam’s workforce down by sector and type of employment. Almost half of the country’s workforce is still engaged in small-scale agriculture. Another third of the workforce is active in non-agricultural household enterprises. With regard to types of employment, Table 1 shows that a majority of working people actually work outside of the employer-employee, “dependent employment” model on which most labor market policies are based: 45 percent of workers are self-

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interest. It is possible, for instance, that as income grows, a larger share of the population becomes better educated or lives longer. The use of country fixed effects and the consideration of initial income would try to capture relevant initial conditions and variables that could have been omitted.

Furthermore, studies on poverty or on income typically address reverse causality by lagging the explanatory variables so that income growth in a given year is explained by the values on the explanatory variables in the previous year. In this spirit and similar to Dollar and Kraay (2002) and Dollar et al. (2016), we have used the value of the variable at the beginning of the spell. For example, it seems reasonable to assume that income-growth over the period 2000-2005 would be unlikely to influence life expectancy in 2000.

> 12 Accordingly, ρ itself is expected to be negative but not too far from 0. Since the model includes mean income growth, the term reflects specifically steady-state convergence for the respective income group _j_ under investigation. 13 In macro panels with a sufficiently large time dimension, this endogeneity issue can be addressed using internal instruments. However, the short time dimension of household-survey-based income data makes this approach infeasible or at least highly unreliable.

> 14 Of course, this positive effect will be balanced by the negative effect of the higher income level (via _ρY-t_ ) that corresponds to the higher _X_ . Nevertheless, we find the formulation as in equation (1) instructive.

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, Dastrup, and Ellen (2016), and Corradin, Fillat, and Vergara-Alert (2017). Bigelow, Ifft, and Kuethe (2020) concentrate on farmland owners in New York State. They advocate comparisons across both self-estimates and market transactions because of key differences in the way farmers and market participants perceive the value of farmland. They point to the importance of taking into account the level of activity or thickness of the market, where thickness refers to a level of transactions that is above the median. For instance, landowners in thick markets seem generally to overestimate the value of their land. Comparing self-reported valuations and market selling prices by zip code over time (1984–2013 in Corradin, Fillat, and Vergara-Alert 2017, and 1997–2011 in Chan, Dastrup, and Ellen 2016), Corradin, Fillat, and Vergara-Alert (2017) and Chan, Dastrup, and Ellen (2016) reach a similar conclusion: the average value of housing price misperception is countercyclical if this value is compared with the housing market cycle. Tur-Sinai, Fleishman, and Romanov (2020) conduct a similar exercise on Israeli data at the census tract level. They investigate the bias size of subjective valuations against transaction prices across a distribution of dwelling prices and find that the effect of the bias is opposite at the opposite ends of the distribution. Homeowners living in the most inexpensive dwellings tend to give upward-biased estimates, while homeowners living in the most expensive dwellings tend to understate the values of their homes.

Other approaches compare information found in different surveys. Several authors compare the approach to homeowner dwellings adopted by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics for the CPI with the approach adopted by the Bureau of Economic Analysis for personal consumption expenditures. While the CPI calculations of the former rely on self-reported homeowner estimates, the latter uses rent-to-value ratios. Lebow and Rudd (2003), for instance, suggest that homeowners may give quite inaccurate estimates of the rent values of their homes, and this may create large biases in the computation
and Malaysia were the top ten export and

> 7Table A1 displays shares of top five Other Products and pre and during the lockdown in the Philippines.

> 8Forward GVC participation means a country mainly exports intermediate commodities that are used in other countries’ exports. Backward linkages is when a country’s exports are mainly composed of imported intermediate inputs. Latest data from OECD TiVA confirms relatively higher forward GVC participation of the Philippines.

> 9Specifically other manufactures, special transactions, chemicals, processed food and beverages and petroleum products as per Table A1.

> 10Latest data from OECD TiVA confirms relatively low backward GVC participation of the Philippines.

10
the project local governments on the APA to undertake the same process of data gathering and scoring for non-project LGAs. However, due to the intensity of data gathering required for the APAs under the project, the same auditing firm could not administer APAs in comparison LGAs under the same timeline as project LGAs. Given both this and the additional cost, the evaluation draws on the survey data for the difference-in-differences analysis. We also report single differences results using the APAs in project LGAs (see Table B1).

Through extensive field testing and in collaboration with the government to ensure we measured indicators of state capacity that were locally valued, we designed the surveys to gather the following types of data grouped into modules under the different categories covered by the APAs. In each module, we aimed to include at least some questions in accordance with the project guidelines on how to undertake the APAs, so that the measures are as close as possible to the outcomes incentivized by the project. In the list below, we discuss the consistency between the APA questions/scoring guidelines and the questions in our survey.

# **1. On urban planning systems:**

Government officials were asked the following questions that are likely to be informative about institutional capacity for urban planning.

- Whether a General Plan had been approved since 2015, and conditional upon an affirmative answer, whether the official in charge of planning could show interviewers the plan. This set of questions follows the guidelines issued by the project to the firms that were contracted to undertake the APAs. Specifically, the APA scoring guide indicates to assign points if LGAs are compliant with steps including plan preparation process, data analysis and plan adoption and approval

- The respondents’ estimate of the percentage of unplanned settlements in the LGA

- The respondents’ view of whether the LGA experiences delays in receiving guidelines for preparing their budget. This question and the following one directly measure one of the key outcomes targeted by the project—to reduce delays in communication between the President’s Office for Regional and
Mexico City) exhibit the highest levels of average labor income, while states in the Southwestern regions (Guerrero, Oaxaca, and Chiapas) have the lowest. The Marginalization Index,<sup>3</sup> which accounts for different dimensions of human development, shows a similar pattern to that of economic indicators. Figure 3 displays the marginalization index by state. The lower the marginalization index, the higher the vulnerability of the state. The southwestern states of Guerrero, Chiapas, and Oaxaca are the states with the highest levels of vulnerability, all of them with a negative internal migration net balance in metropolitan cities in the period 2005-2010 (Pérez and Santos, 2013).

Figure 2. There are important disparities in labor market outcomes across states _Average monthly wage by state, 2020_ <!-- Start of picture text --> 18,000 All Men Women<br>16,000<br>14,000 15,021<br>12,000<br>10,000<br>8,000<br>6,000<br>4,000 5,011<br>2,000<br>0<br>(Mexican pesos)<br>Average monthly labor income<br>CHH SON CDMX NL BC BCS QRO JAL COA QROO AGC MEX COL SIN SLP TAM CAM GTO YUC NAY MOR PUE DGO ZAC MICH TAB HGO VER TLA OAX GRO CHS<br><!-- End of picture text --> Source: Own estimates based on Population and Housing Census 2020. Abbreviation codes in Annex 1.

> 3 The Marginalization Index is a summary measure that accounts for deprivations in four dimensions: education (lack of access to education), housing (inadequate housing conditions), income (percentage of the employed population with income of up to 2 minimum wages), and degree of urbanization (percentage of people living in localities with fewer than 5,000 inhabitants).

5
Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Field, C.B., V.R. Barros, D.J. Dokken, K.J. Mach, M.D. Mastrandrea, T.E. Bilir, M. Chatterjee, K.L. Ebi, Y.O. Estrada, R.C. Genova, B. Girma, E.S. Kissel, A.N. Levy, S. MacCracken, P. R. Mastrandrea, and L. L. White (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1-32.

Lachaud, M. A., Bravo‐Ureta, B. E., & Ludena, C. E. (2022). Economic effects of climate change on agricultural production and productivity in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). _Agricultural Economics_ , 53(2), 321-332.

MODIS Landcover Collection (2018). _MCD12Q1.006 MODIS Land Cover Type Yearly Global 500m_ from Earth Engine Data Catalog <u>https://developers.google.com/earthengine/datasets/catalog/MODIS_006_MCD12Q1#description, maintained by the NASA EOSDIS</u> Land Processes Distributed Active Archive Center (LP DAAC) at the USGS Earth Resources Observation and Science (EROS) Center, Sioux Falls, South Dakota. Retrieved March 2022.

Moreno, H.; Bourguignon, F. & Dang, H.A (2021). On Synthetic Income Panels. _IZA Discussion Papers_ , No. 14236, Institute of Labor Economics (IZA), Bonn.

Ravallion, M. (1988). Expected poverty under risk-induced welfare variability. _The Economic Journal_ , 98(393), 1171-1182.

Reyer, C. P., Adams, S., Albrecht, T., Baarsch, F., Boit, A., Canales Trujillo, N., ... & Thonicke, K
# **4 Data**

# **_4.1 Data collection tools, training, and fieldwork_**

The data collection in Egyptian Kindergartens was designed to further two goals: (1) to do the first ever in-depth diagnosis of the quality of teaching and learning in Kindergartens, and (2) to pilot and validate a nimble monitoring tool that Egypt’s Ministry of Education can afford to administer periodically as part of its QAS. There were thus two overlapping data collection efforts, what we refer to as “the diagnostic research tool” and “the QAS tool.”

# _4.1.1 The diagnostic research tool_

The diagnostic research tool used as its starting point the Measuring Early Learning Quality Outcomes (MELQO) tools (UNESCO 2017). The MELQO tools were developed in order to measure child development and quality of early childhood education in LMICs (Raikes et al. 2019).<sup>5</sup> These tools were locally adapted to the Egyptian context, including to reflect the Egyptian KG curriculum. The curriculum had recently been updated as part of the “Education 2.0” reforms (Moustafa et al. 2022). There are two main parts to the MELQO tools: (1) the Measure of Early Development and Learning (MODEL) measures the development of children aged 3-6, and (2) the Measure of Early Learning Environments (MELE) measures learning environments and their quality.

For this study, we use MODEL data collected through a child direct assessment, a parent report of child development (which includes family background), and a teacher report of child development. We use MELE data collected through classroom observation, a teacher interview, and the school director interview.

# _4.1.2 The QAS tool_

The starting point for Egypt’s KG QAS tool was the Brief Early Childhood Quality Inventory (BEQI).<sup>6</sup> The BEQI was built on the MELQO tools, but was designed to be a
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47. While the wide-spread prevalence of poverty in SSA is generally acknowledged, there is less agreement on its quantitative dimensions due to the definitional problem and data deficiencies. Some international studies refer to poverty rates of well over fifty percent of the population which, given the income gap between rural and urban areas, would imply that the poverty prevalence rates for rural population would include the vast majority of rural dwellers. However, studies corducted in individual countries or regions within a country tend to produce estimates lower than these. Data from Kenya in rural surveys in the mid 1970s reveal that approximately forty percent of smallholder households are poor. Similarly, studies in countries such as Sierra Leone and Lesotho provide estimates of rural poverty prevalence in the forty to sixty percent range.

48. While large inequalities in income distributions between rural and urban areas are commonly recognized, it is often believed that the income distribution within rural areas is relatively equal. This belief is based on the assumption of land abundance, the ability of subsistence production using family labor to provide adequate food, and the role of traditional land tenure mechanisms in preventing landlessness. But this picture of the African country-side is no longer valid, if indeed it ever was. Recent studies provide evidence that there are significant inequalities in income distribution within rural areas and that these inequalities have sharpened in recent years. The growing inequalities seem to be particularly marked in countries such as Botswana, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Malawi and Nigeria that have experienced relatively high agricultural growth rates. Other studies show inequalities declining over
# **Impacts of Extremism in Refugee’s Integration: Evidence from Afghan Refugees in Tajikistan**<sup>*</sup>

Laurent Bossavie<sup>†</sup> Sandra V. Rozo<sup>‡</sup> Mar ́ıa Jos ́e Urbina<sup>§</sup> Originally published in the Policy Research Working Paper Series on _November 2023._ This version is updated on _January 2024._ To obtain the originally published version, please email prwp@worldbank.org.

**Keywords:** Refugees, Female Education, Extremism **JEL Classification:** F22, D74, J15, I21, I10

*The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent. All errors are our own. The team is grateful to the project “Enhancing Government capacity in hosting temporarily Afghan refugees”, funded under the Rapid Social Response Program (RSR) multi-donor Trust Fund of the World Bank, for funding data collection and allowing us to use the Afghan refugee survey as one of the multiple sources of data for the paper. The purpose of the project and the data it collected was to identify opportunities for refugee integration in Tajikistan. We acknowledge financial support from the Research Support Budget at the World Bank. We also thank Daniel Garrote for his initial support on instrument design and Merve Demirel for supporting data collection.

> †World Bank, e-mail: lbossavie@worldbank.org

- ‡World Bank, Dev. Research Group, e-mail: sandrarozo@worldbank.org

- §World Bank, e-mail: murbinaflorez@worldbank.org
26 were united into high malaria risk zone (mean PfPR higher than 5%); the first and the second category were united into low malaria risk zone (mean PfPR lower than 1%); the third group is the intermediate malaria risk zone. In the final classification, there are three categories with similar observation shares in each category.

# **Analysis remark**

All the analysis was conducted under consideration of the sampling design of the DHS survey, particularly of the weighting and clustering. However, an alteration was made to the stratum variable in the DHS 2003. Overall, there are 190 strata and 400 clusters in the DHS 2003. This design leads to strata with single cluster in our sample and makes it impossible to calculate standard errors. The DHS 2008 has 15 strata, defined as rural and urban provinces, and 398 clusters. We replaced strata in the DHS 2003 by the stratus definition from the DHS 2008 in order to be able to calculate the standard errors.

# **Assessment of costs per ITN**

The following strategies for delivery of ITNs have been in operation in Kenya since 2002: retail sale of ITNs at full cost, social marketing campaigns selling ITNs at a subsidized price, routine distribution through antenatal and child health clinics, and free mass distribution campaigns (Division of Malaria Control 2010). The overall costs of ITN delivery programs in Kenya are, to our best knowledge, not known. As for costs per ITN delivered, the experience shows that the costs vary greatly among the different delivery channels, with the amount of subsidy per ITN, between the type of bednet (traditional ITN or LLIN), and over time. Social marketing campaigns can be more costly than distributions through antenatal clinics (De Allegri 2009) or through commercial sector (Sexton 2011). Mass distribution campaigns deliver at a lower cost if integrated with other campaigns, e.g. with measles vaccination campaigns. In terms of types of bednets, there was a shift towards distribution of LLINs over
- Beaman, L., R. Chattopadhyay, E. Duflo, R. Pande, and P. Topalova (2009): “Powerful women: does exposure reduce bias?” _The Quarterly journal of economics_ , 124, 1497–1540.

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- ——— (2012