rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
# systems:

- 1) Electricity is essential for many lifeline infrastructure systems to function; 2) Electrical distribution systems are particularly vulnerable to disruption from natural and manmade hazards;

- 3) Highly networked systems can be unstable even when their individual components are functioning as intended;

- 4) Redundancy and network density can increase reliability but also increase the likelihood of cascade effects when failures do occur;

- 5) Disruption of ports and roads can limit fuel supplies for generators and replacement components.

Network connectivity is a key to understanding these aspects of a system, but data is lacking in many developing regions. A lack of appropriate independent redundancies is also consistently shown to limit network resiliency and interdependencies were found to increase the likelihood of cascade effects. Another theme that is consistent among the literature reviewed is that interdependencies within lifeline infrastructure are poorly quantified.

**Recommendations** .  In the above context, several areas emerge as deserving particular nearterm attention to help guide the allocation of funds for lifeline infrastructure development:

- a) Develop data on the connectivity of lifeline infrastructure systems to determine key interdependencies and how these vary geographically or with other parameters such as per capita GDP or HDI;

- b) Use data on ports of entry and transportation infrastructure to identify regions where supply chain bottlenecks could impact lifeline infrastructure;

- c) Use high spatial and temporal resolution global historical data on wind velocities to determine where electricity grids would be particularly susceptible to damage;

- d) Develop a methodology to identify lifeline infrastructure systems that lack important redundancies.

The above might, at first glance, appear difficult to achieve. However, if the focus is narrowed to electrical distribution and power system supply chains (essential for other lifeline infrastructure) data exist with which to move forward on these goals. Considerable data exists from agencies within the United States with which to construct initial databases to address the first three. This includes data on several island states whose infrastructure can be used as a proxy for that found in many developing regions.

3
|**Item**|**Example**|
|---|---|
|Numbering of the province TT (I–XXVIII), numbering for<br>each stretch(1,2,etc)|I.1|
|Province and location|Quang Ninh, dike system in Quang Yen<br>town: Ha An dyke|
|Location bykilometer|K0–K8+500|
|Length(in kilometers)|8.5|
|Flood protection level according to QĐ 58 (Grades 9–12,<br>Tide 5%)|Grade 9, Tide 5%|
|Floodprotection level based on new design(Grades I–V)|Grade IV|
|Type(sea dike,estuarydike,revetment)|Estuarydike|
|Current crest height(in meters)|+4.5 ÷ +5.0|

The Technical Standards in Sea Dike Design (MARD 2012) have been used to extract relevant information, including the sea dike grade classification (table 2.2). This document provides guidance for the design and rehabilitation of various types of sea dike and other relevant structures in Vietnam and includes information on the grading classification system. The grade determines the safety standard, which depends on the area and population the section protects: the larger the protected area and number of people; the higher the safety standard. In areas of industrial or economic importance, the safety level can be upgraded on a case-by-case basis. The classification system is used to set the safety standard for each stretch of the coastal protection system. Grade I offers protection for a 150-year return period; Grade V for 10–30 years. This assessment has applied a 20-year return period for Grade V as a starting point.

**Table 2.2 Sea dike grade classification**

|**Area**|**Protected area**<br>**(hectares, thousands)**|**Population*
that the top 20% richest households would gain proportionately more than the bottom 20%. Yet, the poor would benefit more than the rich in 25 countries.

We also demonstrate the importance of having very disaggregated data by showing that using more aggregated data yields biased estimates of the gains from trade. The mean absolute difference in average gains estimated using disaggregated data versus aggregated data is 0.75 percentage points, or 30% of the average gains from trade across countries.

Granularity and heterogeneity are among the key features of the HIT data set, which can be downloaded from **http://www.worldbank.org/en/research/brief/hit** . The website also contains an online tariff reform simulation tool. The online data appendix describes in more detail how the data were harmonized, and how the tariff data can be updated.

The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 presents the data and harmonization procedures, as well as some descriptive statistics both on the structure of protection as well as households’ income and consumption portfolios. Section 3 presents a simple framework for assessing the first-order impacts of trade reform on household welfare. Section 4 presents the results from agricultural tariff cuts. A final section concludes.

# **2 Harmonizing Household Survey and Trade Data**

## **2.1 Harmonizing household surveys**

Household surveys are the predominant instrument for analyzing poverty and income inequality and are thus a natural starting point for evaluating the distributional impacts of trade policy. In this paper we introduce a harmonized household-level information data set, which is designed to assess trade policy, that covers 54 low- and middle-income countries (see Table 1 for a list of all surveys included in the HIT data set).<sup>1</sup> These data fill an important gap in the toolbox of policy makers and researchers, because these types of household-survey-based data are not usually readily amenable to analyzing the impacts of trade-reforms and can be hard to access.
# **Training Teachers on the Job:**

# **What Works and How to Measure It**

Anna Popova David K. Evans Violeta Arancibia

**JEL Codes:** I20, J24, O10 **Keywords:** Education quality, teacher training, professional development, economic development

Acknowledgments: The authors are grateful for comments from Denise Bello, Luis Benveniste, Mary Breeding, Barbara Bruns, Joost de Laat, Margaret Dubeck, Deon Filmer, Andrew Ragatz, and Halsey Rogers, and for financial support from the Strategic Impact Evaluation Fund at the World Bank. They are also grateful for excellent research assistance by Fei Yuan, for the generous time provided by numerous teacher training implementers to fill in knowledge gaps, and for data on World Bank projects from Mary Breeding. Most work for this paper was completed when Popova and Evans worked in the Office of the Chief Economist for the Africa Region at the World Bank, and Arancibia is based at the Catholic University of Chile. The corresponding authors can be contacted at Popova (apopova@stanford.edu) and Evans (devans2@worldbank.org).
including transboundary water systems essential for biodiversity <mark>(Stroud et al. 2022). Regional treaties have also proven effective in managing specific environmental challenges. The Convention on the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea Against Pollution, known as the Barcelona Convention, exemplifies collaborative frameworks that address pollution and habitat degradation in marine environments (Raftopoulos 1992; Montefalcone et al, 2021).</mark> In a related context, the Transboundary Freshwater Dispute Database<sup>10</sup> provides information on treaties across the world for more than 300 international river basins (McCracken and Wolf 2019). Turgul et al. (2024) provide an overview of major findings about transboundary water conflict and cooperation the last three decades. Since the 1960s, the environment has been increasingly highlighted in treaties (Giordano et al. 2014). However, Turgul et al. (2024), in their overview of major findings for transboundary water conflict and cooperation during the last three decades, note that more attention is needed to environmental issues. Several international river basin treaties incorporate biodiversity measurements or frameworks to monitor and

> 9 Roberson et al. (2021) point out that multinational coordination is required, especially for marine species, given that nearly all species in their sample span multiple national jurisdictions.

> 10 Product of the Transboundary Freshwater Diplomacy Database, College of Earth, Ocean, and Atmospheric Sciences, Oregon State University.  Additional information about the TFDD can be found at: http://transboundarywaters.science.oregonstate.edu.

20
that we draw on not just psychology, but also from sociology and anthropology to determine a situation’s civic trust in authority (Hoff and Stiglitz, 2016). Alternatively, diminished trust in the legitimacy or integrity of the enforcing entity may dissuade public assistance, deepening both that entity’s inability to confront violence as well as public reluctance to assist (Rossmo, 2018) . The emergence of online language metadata enables scope to measure sentiment about related topics, the circumstances that affect them, and how sentiment about topics affects both sentiment about law enforcement and incidents of violence. Measuring the relationship of online language sentiment about violence-relevant topics has already been shown to not only relate to change in violence, but to also enable significant accuracy in predicting its change (Mahony et al., 2019).

# **_Contexts where state control of territory is contested_**

In the future, capacity may emerge to forecast when, for example, criminal networks or the state are consolidating or ceding control over communities to one another and how strong a shift in control over territory might be.<sup>8</sup> Emerging data sources, such as geolocated online language data may assist in indicating change in phenomena such as which entity exercises effective authority over specific territory.

Once we have identified the mechanisms associated with decline in criminal conduct, we can use available data to identify the most efficient use of resources to advance that decline. For example, because more _certain_ (not longer) punishment is more heavily associated with decline in youth violent conduct than severity of sentence, redirecting money away from incarceration and prisons and toward (evidentially-informed) community policing constitutes a more efficient allocation of scarce resources to reduce youth violence (Lee and McCrary, 2005). This is known in the criminological literature as justice reinvestment. Using data procured from existing World Bank and other justice sector analytical products may assist in maximizing identification of the specific elements of community policing capacity that demand prioritized support. Identifying armed groups’ deterrence or incentives when designing
parameter in the informal sector to unity and we assume that the productivity in the formal sector is 30 percent higher than in the informal sector.<sup>16</sup> Regarding the parameters specic to the search and matching framework, the gross replacement rate for unemployment benets _b_ in the formal sector is set to 13 percent for the United States and 15.2 percent for Brazil. The parameter measuring rms' bargaining power, _η_ , is equal to 0.4, as estimated by Flinn (2006). The elasticity of the matching function _ε_ is equal to 0.4, so that it falls within the range of estimates reported by Petrongolo and Pissarides (2006) and the Hosios condition holds. We set the costs of vacancy posting ( _κF_ and _κI_ ), matching eciency ( _χF_ and _χI_ ) and exogenous separation rate ( _λF_ and _λI_ ) in the formal and informal sectors so to match the underlying structure of the two countries, with the values of steady-state ratios summarized in Table 1. We choose a calibration based on the long-run averages (1992-2017) from ILO data. Steady-state unemployment rates are respectively 6 percent and 8.7 percent in the United States and Brazil, while the ratio of informal employment to total employment is respectively 7 percent and 30 percent in the United States and Brazil.<sup>17</sup> This calibration yields an informal wage gap (i.e. dierence between wages for formal and informal workers) equal to 66 percent in the United States and 11 percent in Brazil. This latter value is very close to estimates in Bargain and Kwenda (2010, 2014) who conclude that earning dierentials driven by the informal wage penalties are quite modest in Brazil and remain below 10 percent all along the distribution. Labor market regulations and high employer costs attached to formal employment in Brazil may simultaneously explain the large extent of informal work and the relatively modest informal

> 15As a caveat, we point out that the World Bank
, the main source of data used in this study, a related survey, the Nigeria's Demographic Health Survey (DHS) 2018, was exploited to infer information on the nutritional status of individuals. The general approach used was to build a model from DHS data, from which the nutritional status of individuals interviewed in the NLSS were inferred, in order to reproduce the representative distribution of the nutritional status in DHS. We succinctly describe in this Appendix the construction of this model.

## ⮚ **_Nutritional statuses_**

The nutritional status of individuals was first defined considering the age and sex of the individuals. Three main categories were thus retained: children, defined as all individuals between 0 and 5 years of age inclusive, and adult men and women, i.e., those over 5 years of age.

The nutritional status of children was measured on the basis of the height for age z score - number of standard deviations of the actual height of a child from the median height of the children of his/her age as determined from the standard sample - from which three standard classes were identified:

- -2 < HAZ Normal (Well nourished)

- -3 < HAZ < -2 Moderately Stunted (Moderately Malnourished)

- `o` HAZ < -3 Severely Stunted (Severely Malnourished)

Stunting is a condition that results from chronic or recurrent undernutrition, usually associated with poverty, poor maternal health and nutrition, frequent illness and/or inappropriate feeding and care in early life. Stunting prevents children from reaching their physical and cognitive potential. (WHO) As for the nutritional status of adults, it has been defined on the basis of the body mass index (BMI), which is calculated according to height and body mass, and which makes it possible to estimate the corpulence of a person. Three categories have been formed from the indicator:

- BMI < 18.5 Undernourished

- BMI >= 18.5 & BMI < 30 Normal (Well nourished)

- BMI >
18</sup> Regression (i) includes the democracy index from the Polity dataset, commonly used in political science research. In contrast to the Freedom House indicator, the Polity index does not measure _outcomes_ (such as individual rights) often associated with democracy, but focuses instead on democratic _processes_ , particularly the methods used in selecting chief executives.<sup>19</sup> Despite this difference, the two variables are correlated at .91, and results for the Polity index in column (i) are very similar to results for _Political Freedoms_ in Table 3. Its coefficient is positive and significant, and a standard deviation increase (about 4.5 points on the 0-10 scale) is associated with an increase in the probability of graduating of about 2 percentage points.

Regression (ii) of Table 5 includes a different Polity variable, an index of executive constraints. This index is very highly correlated (at .95) with the democracy index from the same source, so it is not surprising that it produces similar results. A standard-deviation increase (about

> 15 Fixed-effects probit models cannot be estimated using conditional maximum likelihood, and unconditional fixedeffects probit estimates are biased.

> 16 The 14 countries are Cyprus, Czech Republic, Estonia, Gabon, Hungary, Korea, Latvia, Lithuania, Oman, Portugal, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Trinidad and Venezuela.  Barbados graduated in 1984 but is missing data on _Institutional Capacity_ .  Bahamas graduated in 1989 but is missing data on _Credit Rating_ until 2000.  Iraq de-graduated in 2003 but is missing data on income.

17 A Hausman test prefers random over fixed effects estimation, when both are run using the same sample and specification.

> 18 Regressions in this table are all based on the larger sample of observations (Sample 1), and use the _ex post_ measure of per capita income.  However, we obtain similar results for the institutional variables if we switch to Sample 2 or to contemporaneous income data.

19 Our main regressions, in Table 3, use
build in order to do that. Additional analysis not undertaken in this paper could further establish sector targets and specific policies required.

# IV. Results

## A. Which capabilities matter most for GVC participation overall?

GVC participation is to a great extent the result of the available mix of capabilities in the economy. Some capabilities may matter more than others. For each traded product, our database of revealed capability intensities (RCI) provides a measure of the extent to which each of the nine chosen capabilities is associated with the export of each GVC product, on a global basis. Taking these RCI estimates, we run a test of statistical significance between GVC products and non‐GVC products on each capability. Table 4 shows the results. Confirming our expectations, nearly all of these capabilities assessed in this study are important for participation in GVC trade. Overall, logistics, proximity to markets and strength of institutions seem to be most important. Even though they are not considered significant, we choose to leave wages and market access in the model because these two capabilities are likely to be important at the sector level even though they do not appear to be significant at the aggregate level.

**Table 4: Revealed Capability Intensity (RCI) of GVC Products versus Non‐GVC Products**

|**Category**|**Capability**|**GVC Products**|**Non‐GVC**<br>**Products**|
|---|---|---|---|
|Fixed|Proximityto markets|0.0085***|0.003|
||Natural capital|0.0061***|0.0024|
|Long‐term|Human capital|0.012***|0.0035|
|Policy<br>|Physical capital|0.0079***|0.0042|
|Variables|Institutional capital|0.0113***|
# **7.2 The Urban Environment and Employment Types**

To explore how the urban environment correlates with job types, we use big data and the Mozambique Census to explore how urban density, poverty, and cell service correlate with the spatial distribution of job types across five urban areas. A visual depiction of the spatial distribution of the variables is provided in Annex 2. The multivariate estimates are presented in Table 6.

**Table 6: Multivariate estimates, by job type**

|Variables|LE-SE|HE-SE|Unpaid<br>Worker|Employer|Informal<br>Employee|Formal<br>Employee|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Log Building|0.029|0.001|0.003|-0.012***|0.010|0.019|
|Density|(0.018)|(0.003)|(0.014)|(0.004)|(0.008)|(0.021)|
|Log|0.001|-0.0001|-0.001|-0.008|0.016**|-0.041***|
|Population|(0.011)|(0.002)|(0.011)|(0.007)|(0.008)|(0.014)|
|Log|-0.146**|-0.006|-0.131*|0.024|0.043|0.235***|
|Luminosity|(0.069)|(0.015)|(0.067)|(0.018)|(0.052)|(0.118)|
|Avg<br>Electrification<br>Likelihood|-
/98 (with an exchange rate of about 4 R per US $) amounted to more than US $ 1.5 billion. Evaluations, most of them based on the 1993 SALDRU data, suggest that the program provided a significant source of income, on a reliable and non-discriminatory (e.g. gender) basis to remote areas, reaching predominantly the poor and therefore being an effective tool for redistribution (Case and Deaton 1996). Two-thirds of pensions go to rural areas. Given that sixty percent of African households with pensioners are three generation households with children present, pensions may have considerable spillover effects and the pension system could be seen as an effective tool to provide income to households where poor children live. Roughly a third of all children below age of four are in households receiving pensions, and the percentage of children living with pensioners is higher in the poorer quintiles (Stats SA, 1997). It has been shown that pensions that accrue to women (but not to men) significantly reduce stunting of children in the recipient households (Duflo 1999).

The third program is the national housing subsidy scheme, administered through Provincial Housing Boards, which provides a once-off capital subsidy for land, housing and infrastructure to those beneficiaries earning less than R3,500 per month. The subsidy scheme represents a compromise between popular demands for the state to deliver complete houses for all and a concern to spread housing benefits 9
>**

|**_Dimension_**|**_Indicators_**|**_Sample size_**|
|---|---|---|
|Income/Consumption|Real Per capita Household Consumption|3,000 HHs (2,774 panel households)|
|Food insecurity|Proportion of households with food sufficiency of<br>6 months or less|3,000 HHs (2,774 panel households)|
|Education|School enrollment rate of 6-15 year olds|5,500 children|
|Health/Nutrition|Child Malnutrition (underweight) among children<br>under 5years|2,300 children|

# **3. Empirical Strategy**

We start with the “intent-to-treat” estimation specification using the following regression:

> 5 Cross-village spillovers are less likely given villages are far from each other.

> 6 The PAF monitoring system also collects data on income and other socio-economic characteristics at the household level to report on income changes for households assisted by the fund.

6
already relatively well connected prior to the placement (Table 2). For example, the communities that have received rural roads (i.e., treated communities) since 2010 were located closer to the nearest towns (91 minutes), compared to the other communities (i.e., untreated communities, 196 minutes). The length of rural roads was already longer in treated communities as of 2010. In addition, treated communities were located in woredas with higher population density. On the other hand, treated communities (or woredas they belong to) were not necessarily better-off in terms of poverty, educational level, and infrastructure and basic services. Nevertheless, this comparison clearly indicates the need to take account of the nonrandom placement in evaluating the impact of rural road development (discussed more in Section 3).

> 7 In addition to the URRAP, the Productive Safety Net Program (PSNP)—a large social protection project providing transfers to food insecure areas—also has a component of rural road construction. Those roads are generally earth roads for very low traffic levels, connecting watersheds to kebeles and other service centers. Some feeder roads were constructed under the Agricultural Growth Program (AGP), which is a program focusing on increasing sustainable agriculture growth in potentially rich, but underdeveloped woredas of the country. See World Bank (2018) for a comprehensive review of Ethiopia’s rural road programs.

8 The identification of URRAP and other rural roads is based on the Ethiopia road database. The total length of those roads does not necessarily correspond to the official records. Somali region and a part of Amhara and Oromia regions are not included for this study due to data availability.

9 The RAI was measured by the share of population in each community who lives within 2km from any allweather road. The calculated RAI differs from World Bank (2016) due to the definitions of all-weather roads, as well as the coverages of roads and geographic areas.

10 Market accessibility index (MAI) was calculated for each community