rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
, D. H., F. Levy, and R. Murnane. 2003. “The Skill Content of Recent Technological Change: An Empirical Exploration.” _Quarterly Journal of Economics_ 118(4): 1279–1333.

Bellemare, M. F. 2015. “A Rant on Estimation with Binary Dependent Variables.” _Personal blog_ .

- ______. 2018. “Causal Inference with Observational Data: Nonstandard Dependent Variables.” _Lecture_ . University of Copenhagen, Denmark.

- Burning Glass Technologies. 2019. “Mapping the Genome of Jobs: The Burning Glass Skills Taxonomy.” _White Paper_ . Boston, MA: Burning Glass Technologies.

- Cammeraat, E., and M. Squicciarini. 2021. “Burning Glass Technologies’ data use in policy-relevant analysis: An occupation-level assessment.” _OECD Science, Technology and Industry Working Papers_ 2021/05. Paris: OECD.

- Caunedo, J., E. Keller, and Y. Shin. 2021. “Technology and the Task Content of Jobs across the Development Spectrum.” _NBER Working Paper_ 28681. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.

- CSC (Malaysia’s Critical Skills Monitoring Committee). 2019. _Critical Occupations List 2018/2019: Technical Report_ . Kuala Lumpur: TalentCorp. Available at: https://bit.ly/3uZ6G4E

- Cirera, X., A. D. Mason, F. de Nicola, S. Kuriakose, D. S. Mare, and T. T. Tran. 2021. _The Innovation Imperative for Developing East Asia_ . World Bank East Asia and Pacific Regional Report. Washington, DC: World Bank.

- Cunningham, W. 2018. “Meeting the Jobs Challenge in Southeast Asia: Lessons from Cambodia, Myanmar, and Vietnam” in World Bank (eds). _Navigating Uncertainty: East Asia and Pacific Economic Update._ World Bank East Asia and Pacific Regional Report. Washington, DC: World Bank.

37
-0.05**<br>R-squared<br>Within 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.22 0.22<br>Between 0.27 0.27 0.26 0.26 0.26<br>Overal 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13<br>Observations 959 959 959 959 «959<br><!-- End of picture text -->

||()<br>Gini|(2)<br>Gini|(3)<br>Gini|(4)<br>Gini|6)<br>Gini||(1)<br>Theil|(2)<br>Theil|(3)<br>Theil|(4)<br>Theil|(6)<br>Theil|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Total paymentsper capita|-0.06**|||||Totalpaymentsper capita|-0.11**|||||
|Paymentspercapita for pillarl||-0.06+||||Payments percapitafor pillarl||-0.12**||||
|Paymentspercapita for pillar2|||-0.16**|||Payments percapitafor pillar2|||-0.24*|||
|Coupledpayments percapita||||-0.00||Coupledpaymentsper capita||||-0.01||
|Decoupled paymentspercapita|||||-0.03|Decoupledpaymentspercapita|||||-0.04|
|GDPper inhabitant|-0.19|0.36|-0.30|—--0.67
, A. J. 2006. Personal Bests (PBs): A proposed multidimensional model and empirical analysis. _British Journal of Educational Psychology_ , **76** , 803–825.

- Martin, A.J. 2011. Personal best (PB) approaches to academic development: Implications for motivation and assessment. _Educational Practice and Theory_ , **33** , 93–99.

- Martin, A.J., & Elliot, A.J. 2016a. The role of personal best (PB) and dichotomous achievement goals in students academic motivation and engagement: A longitudinal investigation. _Educational Psychology_ , **36(7)** , 1285–1302.

- Martin, A.J., & Elliot, A.J. 2016b. The role of personal best (PB) goal setting in students’ academic achievement gains. _Learning and Individual Differences_ , **45** , 222–227.

- Martin, A.J., & Liem, G.A.D. 2010. Academic personal bests (PBs), engagement, and achievement: A cross-lagged panel analysis. _Learning and Individual Differences_ , **20(3)** , 265–270.

- Michelmore, K., & Dynarski, S. 2017. The Gap within the Gap: Using Longitudinal Data to Understand Income Differences in Educational Outcomes. _AERA Open_ , **3** , 1–18.

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- MOEVT. 2017. _Zanzibar Education Development Plan II 2017/18 2021/22_ .

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- Mosedale, J. 2010. _Political Economy and Tourism: A critical perspective_ . Routledge.

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estimate the production function parameters. Once I have my measure of productivity, I then use a difference-in-differences matching estimator as proposed by Heckman et al. (1997) to examine whether firms improve productivity when they begin to export and the relative importance of the two channels (imports and investment in R & D).

The paper contributes to the literature in the following ways. _First_ , I use a measure of productivity that captures physical productivity, which does not suffer from the drawbacks of productivity measures that are generally used in the trade-productivity literature. I do so by measuring output from firm revenues and firm prices rather than industry prices, as is typically done. _Second_ , I explicitly model both imports of intermediate inputs and R & D into the production function. This allows me to examine two mechanisms for productivity improvement and to decompose gains to productivity from export entry into these two channels. _Third_ , I use data on firms from India. This country provides an interesting setting to study this question. While theoretical models emphasize the market size - investment in technology route to productivity improvements through export market entry, most of the world R & D takes place in developed nations. In 2011, seven countries accounted for 72 percent of global R & D spending.<sup>6</sup> There is little known on the R & D-productivity link in developing countries. The evidence on the R &D productivity link in India is mixed. Sharma (2014) finds the role of R & D in overall manufacturing productivity growth to be insignificant using a production function framework, but finds some evidence of it using a growth accounting framework.

The results from the paper suggest that productivity improvements from selling in international markets have largely been understated in the export-productivity empirical literature. After accounting for firm pricing heterogeneity, I find that over a six-year period, the difference in productivity growth between export entrants and their non exporter counterparts is about 11 percentage points. The estimates indicate that about 15 percent of the differences in productivity growth is explained
involves grants of 80 percent and 20 percent in subsidized loans. Deutsche Bundesbahn must keep the terminal open for public use for 20 years and the private operator must keep the terminal open for 5, 10 or 20 years depending on their financial contribution (the more the private company finances itself, the shorter the obligation to keep the terminal open for public use).

**3. Improving the management of container terminals**

- a. A system to automatically track the containers inside a terminal from the reception to the delivery at the gate has been developed and the prototypes tested in a number of trials.

- b. The efficiency of terminal operations is improved by the possibility of continuously and automatically updating the terminal operating system database with the position of each container handled by this system.

- c. The benefits produced by this type of technology include: (i) a reduction of the average time for container handling; (ii) increase of terminal productivity; (iii) a better level of service for terminal customers; and (iv) a general reduction in operational costs.

**4. Exploiting and integrating ICT**

- a. The availability, quality and timeliness of information can significantly improve the efficiency of the activities carried out in intermodal terminals. Reliable expected time of arrivals and unloading information can help receiving terminals to provide information to forwarders and truckers, enabling them to arrive on time at the terminal.

_Source: “In search of efficiency to support intermodality growth” European Commission (2006)_

# 5.4.2 Cross‐border rail

Despite long term operational problems on cross‐border rail services in Southern Africa, there is an increased desire by all the governments to support a road‐to‐rail shift. Both Grindrod Freight Services and Transnet have committed large investments into cross‐border rail services, and are under pressure to increase general freight rail volumes in order to achieve profitable and sustainable operations.

## **Box 13: Improving integration for regional railways: Lessons
In the empirical analysis, we analyze survey data from 18,553 displaced and non-displaced individuals in the context of urban and peri-urban areas of El Fasher, a city in Darfur, which includes two IDP areas: Abu Shouk and El Salam ( **Figure 1** ).<sup>2</sup> The large majority of IDP households in both areas arrived many years ago ( **Figure A1** ).<sup>3</sup> We also match the survey data spatio-temporally with conflict event data from the Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project (ACLED), which provides detailed geo- and time-tagged information about conflict events of inter-group and one-sided violence in Sudan.

We find that displacement and gender strongly combine and interact in shaping livelihood outcomes in protracted crises settings, and that being a long-term displaced woman is particularly challenging. Being an IDP increases the likelihood of both being economically active and poor at the same time. Yet, the employment gap between IDPs and non-IDPs is entirely driven by women: women work more (including paid labor and on- and off-farm self-employment) than non-IDP women, but are poorer, on average. For men, there is no such difference in employment between IDPs and nonIDPs. These outcomes are the result of the ‘double burden of female displacement’ facing IDP women in protracted settings: barriers to (decent) employment based on norms and institutions both at their destination (due to being a displaced person) and their place of origin (due to their gender), where disparities in education are created. At the destination, IDPs are strongly and consistently disadvantaged in various institutional-level factors, such as by lacking access to markets and services and a sense of safety.

Among IDPs, we observe important heterogeneities due to an individual’s age at arrival in El Fasher. Comparing two IDPs of the same age, the one who was older when their household arrived is less likely to be employed, and, if both work, works fewer months
real mean income in country , ,<sup>14,15</sup> follows the stochastic pattern shown in Equation (1). This stochastic process consists of four components, three of which involve random elements. The first cc cc gg component is an idiosyncratic fixed effect factor, , which measures the long-run trajectory of cc αα

> 11 Cowell and Flachaire (2015) discuss that the lognormal distribution is useful to fit few economic processes. These authors note that there are important theoretical weaknesses in a process that involves adjusting the upper tails of more broadly-based income distributions.

> 12 Lopez and Servén (2006) provide empirical evidence indicating that income can be effectively proxied by a lognormal distribution.

> 13 As mentioned in the introduction, our dynamic framework expands on World Bank (2014).

> 14 Both income and expenditure household survey information were retrieved from World Bank (2019). Consumption and GDP data were retrieved from PWT 9.0 (Feenstra, Robert Inklaar, and Marcel P. Timmer 2015).

> 15If household survey’s information of mean income or mean expenditure is not reported in a specific period, the missing observations are inputed using the growth rates of per capita consumption or GDP per capita.

Page **9** of **45**
of our knowledge this is one of the first studies to conduct a detailed analysis about how intrahousehold dynamics relate to attitudes towards vaccines. On topics other than vaccines there has been extensive work showing that intra-household dynamics shape attitudes (a notable example is pioneering work on social contagion theory (Christakis and Fowler, 2013)). There has also been some work on vaccines, prior to COVID-19, showing the existence of peer effects (e.g., see a review by Kontantinou et al., 2021). Previous studies that have focused on levels of acceptance of COVID-19 vaccines have relied on surveys with only one respondent per household, which limits the authors’ ability to dive deeply into intra-household dynamics. We overcome this hurdle by drawing on an in-person data set with individual level surveys covering all household members (aged 10 years and older) from a nationally representative sample of households in Zambia. The findings from the in-person survey informed the design of the randomized experiments that explicitly tested whether emphasizing benefits for individuals or their household had a greater impact on people’s willingness to get vaccinated. In addition, we examine heterogeneous treatment effects based on people’s beliefs about the attitudes of other household members towards vaccines and their role in household decision making. The small amount of prior experimental work has almost exclusively focused on individual benefits from vaccination and had not examined heterogeneous treatment effects along these dimensions.

Secondly, we contribute to the sparse literature that generates causal evidence about what underpins the acceptance of vaccines in LICs and LMICs, being among one of the first experiments to explicitly focus on COVID-19 vaccines. Seminal studies prior to the COVID19 pandemic have tended to focus on how mistrust towards vaccines was influenced by questionable activities being brought to light (Archibong and Annan, 2021; Martinez-Bravo and Stegmann, 2022). Since the outset of the pandemic there has been some experimental work in high-income countries about ways to boost COVID-19 vaccine acceptance (e.g., Kaplan and Milstein, 2021), but in LICs and LMICs existing publicly
3.17**|-1.17|-1.73**|-0.68|
||(0.02)|(0.01)|(0.01)|(0.01)|
|No road|||||
|Road sometimes inaccessible|0.61|-0.05|2.13|-0.41|
||(0.01)|(0.01)|(0.02)|(0.01)|
|Road always accessible|1.94*|-0.09|2.01*|0.38|
||(0.01)|(0.01)|(0.01)|(0.01)|
|Distance to extension services|-0.06**||-0.05**|-0.01|
||(0.0003)||(0.0002)|(0.0002)|
|Distance to health clinic||-0.07*|||
|||(0.0004)|||
|Observed probability %|4.77|2.90|2.27|2.52|
|Predicted probability %|3.54|1.12|1.25|1.79|
|Observations|6789|6803|6789|6747|

Note: Marginal effects in percentage points, they are the change in the probability for an infinitesimal change in each independent, continuous variable and, the discrete change in the probability for dummy variables. These changes are calculated at the mean predicted probability.

Robust standard errors in parentheses, corrected for clustering; ** significant at 5% level; * significant at 10% level. Dependents ratio: Ratio of dependents to total number of household members.

25
our research. As this research grew out of the HRVS survey work, we initially intended solely to assess remoteness as it interacted with HRVS survey data.

However, Nepal’s recent transition to a federal administrative structure and the creation of 7 new provinces and 753 new local governments, all without baseline data sets, presented a clear need for quantifying and visualizing accessibility challenges at these various administrative levels. Based on this, we prepared the series of maps, charts and tables accompanying this report. Keeping in mind the sometimes rudimentary state of office infrastructure in remote areas and new government offices in Nepal, we prepared products that were equally useful in digital or print form.

## Analysis

Our research indicates that low average levels of access to services geographically cluster in hill and mountainous regions and the Far West. Population‐weighted shortfalls in cumulative access cluster in the hills and some mountainous areas, especially in the Far West, although pockets of inaccessibility exist in the Shivalik and Terai. The impact of the monsoon is apparent but not as dramatic as feared, suggesting access to essential services deteriorates but does not collapse during the monsoon season. However, we observed a high degree of variability in accessibility patterns across individual local government units; a significant minority of LGUs were outliers from their regional or geographical trends. We therefore encourage readers interested in regional or local implications of this research to consult the appropriate tables, charts and maps for their focus areas from the annexes to learn about the local context.

Making detailed recommendations to rectify these accessibility challenges requires sector‐specific knowledge that is beyond the scope of this paper. Nevertheless, we can make some high‐level observations on possible responses. For instance, the Nepal Rastra Bank recognizes that financial services have clustered around urban and semi‐urban areas and barely reach the Mid‐Western and Far‐Western areas (Pant 2016). Promoting alternative delivery channels (e.g. mobile banking) and streamlining the remittance transfer process to avoid
corporations (MNCs). And the Internet helps to send materials to a global audience (Wu, 2000). In the beginning of the new millennium, Beijing and Shanghai each found an opportunity to create new image: Beijing will hold the 2008 Olympic Games, while Shanghai will be the site of the World Expo 2010.

In support of the efforts on new image promotion, investment has been funneled into urban renewal. Beijing and Shanghai are competing with each other in attracting the MNCs to establish regional headquarters. A new term “headquarter economy” ( _Zongbu Jingji_ ) was invented to describe this phenomenon, which typically refers to the most luxury and modern district with numerous skyscrapers, modeled on Manhattan in New York.

For example, the municipal authority of Beijing launched an urban renewal project in the heart area of Zhongguancun in 1999. Just along the former “Electronics street”, over 15 billion _Yuan_ was invested in an area of about 0.5 km<sup>2</sup> boosting the high-tech CBD of the new Zhongguancun High-tech Park<sup>8</sup> . The urban renewal project will totally change the landscape in the core of Zhongguancun. However, firms in Zhongguancun have responded variously. Most of small and medium technical firms complained that the project pushed by the government raised the housing price around this area and firms are finding that they cannot afford the soaring business costs. According to a human resource survey in Zhongguancun, sponsored by the real estate developers, over 70% of the respondents said they were thinking of relocating to a cheaper area. If the local SMEs cannot afford the increasing business cost in this area, the real estate developers involved with the renewal project have to rely on inducing MNCs to come to the area.

Taking the international city as the object of urban development, Shanghai has also invested heavily in urban renewal, but to some extent, in a different way. As most of manufacturing has been shifted to industrial parks in suburbs, abandoned plants and lofts in
# **1 Introduction**

During economic crises, governments often try to help struggling firms by providing financing with the idea of increasing their chances of survival and a faster recovery. In doing so, they face different trade-offs. One is the need to quickly reach broad coverage, at the expense of distributing untargeted assistance to firms that do not need help or are too risky. Another trade-off is that although these policies might be beneficial in sparing firms from collapse in the short term, they can increase the overall indebtedness of the private sector, affecting debt overhang, repayment rates, financial stability, and fiscal cost in the longer term.

The aggregate consequences and risks of government-induced credit injections hinge critically on how debt is actually distributed throughout firms. This depends on the incentives and reactions of borrowers and lenders and on different factors that can augment or mitigate micro and macro risk-taking. On the demand side, forces can help channel funds to those firms with the highest marginal returns to capital. But limited liability could also generate demand from firms with higher default risk. On the supply side, when banks have only partial insurance from the government for the credit they grant, they will tend to lend to firms that limit their risk-taking. But other reasons (such as changes in the cost of borrowing and lending) can also affect their decisions. Understanding which incentives and conditions matter in credit markets and their quantitative consequences on the aggregate equilibrium outcome is challenging and important and also requires comprehensive micro data.

In this paper, we study how credit and risk are distributed across the whole economy when market participants face different incentives, under a massive new policy during a systemic shock. We exploit a large-scale public credit guarantee program (henceforth credit program) established by the Chilean government to support firms during the COVID-19 pandemic. This allows us to study empirically and analytically the drivers and consequences of the distribution of “crisis credit” (credit during crisis times), which has implications beyond crises. To be able to conduct the analysis,
# **Sampling technique**

To understand the representativeness of a sample, it is very important to be aware of the sampling technique used. Selection bias happens when the selected participants are not

**_Selection bias occurs when the selected participants are not representative of the priority population._**

representative of the entire population to be studied. In the probability method, all individuals in a population group have the same opportunity of being selected, thereby obtaining representative samples of the priority population. By contrast, in a nonprobability sampling such as convenience sampling, each individual has a chance of getting selected based on a set of determined characteristics, which leads to less representative samples. The sampling method used by studies of hidden or hard-to-reach populations (for example, injection drug users or men who have sex with men) deserves special consideration. Because of the **_In the probability method, all_** discrimination and stigma often associated with **_individuals in a population group have_** these population groups, it is practically **_the same opportunity of being_** impossible to have a sampling framework that **_selected._** would accurately define the sample universe from which individuals are randomly selected. One example of a sampling framework for a general population is the telephone directory. However, this framework would be useful only if all inhabitants have a fixed telephone land line and each telephone number is listed in the directory. Otherwise, a selection bias would again be in play. For most hidden populations such a sampling framework cannot be established.

Thus, a strategy used in many studies is to obtain convenience sampling in places where members of the key population group frequently gather, such as bars or clubs. Obviously, individuals who frequent such places are the ones with a higher possibility of getting selected, a situation that does not comply with the principle of “equal likelihood of being selected for all individuals in a population group”—the definition of the probability

**_Alternative sampling techniques for use on hidden