rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
International Monetary Fund. Trade liberalization dates come from Wacziarg and Welch (2008) who extended and refined the database of Sachs and Warner (1995).<sup>13</sup> The data on Legal System and Property Rights used in Section 6 come from the Economic Freedom Database by Fraser Institute. The index captures the degree of protection of property rights in the countries for the year 1980. The index varies from 0 to 10, with the lower number corresponding to a lower level of investor protection. Gwartney, Lawson, and Norton (2008) provide more details. The alternative measures of legal environment used in Online Appendix E (Efficiency of Judicial System, Rule of Law, Risk of Expropriation, Repudiation of Contracts by Government, and Investor Protection - an average of the three previous measures) are based on La Porta et al. (1998). The original sources of data for these alternative measures are from Business International Corporation and International Country Risk Guide (see La Porta et al. 1998 for details).

# **3.4 Preliminary evidence and descriptive statistics**

Figure 1 and Figure 2 show Kaplan-Meier survival functions capturing the probability of a new export spell to survive after year 1,2, etc. Given the annual frequency of the data, the survival probability in the first year is one by default. Both figures focus on the average export survival rate for products that are in the 25th and 75th percentile of distance to comparative advantage, i.e. products that are close versus far away from the comparative advantage of the exporting country. Only countries that did liberalize during the period 1980-1997 are included. For these countries, Figure 1 reports the survival rate before and Figure 2 the survival rate after the event of stock market liberalization.

The comparison of Figure 1 and Figure 2 reveals that the overall export performance of countries improves after they allow foreign investors to acquire equity stakes in domestic companies - both survival functions move upwards. However, this effect is not uniform across products
anti-Suharto and pro-democracy forces in Indonesia, leading to his ouster in 1998 and to the emergence of a democratic order which has culminated in the recent political defeat of Sukarno’s daughter Megawati Sukarnoputri.<sup>10</sup> Along with democracy has come a concerted effort to decentralize the political and fiscal authority of state and district governments. At the village level, this has had several implications for SPGs. The authority of the _kepala desas_ and _lurahs_ is increasingly questioned. But, as recent survey data demonstrate, the spirit of _gotong royong_ has by no means disappeared. Rather, it has been so deeply institutionalized that not abiding by it is sensed by people as a violation of a communitarian ethic, which remains even now part of the foundation of what it means to be a good Indonesian. A recent survey shows that levels of participation in public goods construction remains high at 47 percent, and 59 percent of respondents say that they participate primarily because of “tradition” or “obligation.” This has real consequences – 37 percent of the cost of village public goods are contributed by the community, with 60 percent coming from the government.<sup>11</sup> However, life is far less dictatorial now, and other important political players have emerged to compete with state authority. Much of this can be seen in the profusion of mosques all over the countryside – some with shiny stainless steel domes, others painted blue or white, some with particularly large loudspeakers attached to their minarets,<sup>12</sup> others, more traditional, made of stone and brick with large tree-lined courtyards. As Hefner (2000) shows, much of the resistance to Suharto was led by Islamic groups – in particular by NU and the Mohamediya. To compete with these movements, Suharto attempted to create a “regimist Islam” with state-funded mosques staffed by government employees belonging to the Ministry of Religion. Often, all three types – NU mosques, Mohamediya mosques and “Golkar”<sup
, General, and Administrative Expenses (SGA) which are an increasingly vital share of variable costs for firms and accounts for intangible organization/management capital, there is no rise in markups. To address these issues, we adjust the conventional ROIC measures, measures of capital stock, variable costs and measures of pricing power to take into account investment in intangible capital.

Once we re-compute the ROIC calculations to factor in estimates of intangible capital from the

> 4Successful idiosyncratic growth strategies may also be due to successful innovation or superior management practices (e.g. Bloom and Van Reenen [2007]).

> 5We restrict our sample to large firms (defined as firms with assets more than $200 million in 2009 dollars, adjusted for inflation) to replicate the equivalent figure in the previous studies. However, the evidence in Council of Economic Advisors [2016], Furman and Orszag [2015], and Koller et al. [2017] is based on a proprietary dataset of US firms from McKinsey & Co. whereas Figure 1 is based on publicly available Compustat data. If we were to use the full sample of Compustat firms without restricting to large firms, we get much higher increases in ROIC for the top decile of

2
|**Uganda**|15|3.45|Increasingblock tariff|
|**Zambia**|100|2.07|Increasingblock tariff|
|Zimbabwe|50|5.50|Increasingblock tariff|

_Source_ : Utility and regulator websites and reports, and World Bank staff calculations.

_Note_ : Names of countries with household survey data are shown in bold. “Cannot exceed so many kWh a month” means that the lifeline rate does not apply if monthly consumption exceeds the limit, and the entire consumption is charged a higher tariff, instead of increasing block tariffs. n.a. = not applicable.

a. The monthly size of a tariff subject to a lifeline rate, or the size of the first block when there are two or more blocks. Some countries have multiple schedules, each of which has a single block. Senegal defines the size of the consumption blocks over two months. The first block is 150 kWh over two months, shown here as 75 kWh a month.

b. The ratio of the effective energy charge, inclusive of ad valorem tax such as VAT but exclusive of fixed charges and taxes applied to fixed charges, between the second block (or the second level of service if there are several schedules of a single block each with increasing installed capacity).

c. These numbers are for Johannesburg. Depending on eligibility, poor households are provided with 50, 100, or 150 kWh of free electricity a month in Johannesburg.

To the extent that subsidies for the poor are offered, all countries use some measure of consumption (kWh a month, amperage, or kilovolt‐amperes) as a proxy for income. One exception is Johannesburg in South Africa, where the city calculates a poverty index for each household based on income and other indicators and offers three different levels of free electricity—currently 50, 100, and 150 kWh a month—depending on the poverty index.

The most common lifeline block size is 50 kWh (8 countries), followed
on the basis of individual and fixed family characteristics (e.g., Borjas, 1987; Gibson et al., 2013). We show how the endogeneity with family structure affects migration decisions and impacts even when the main factors influencing individual self-selection are held constant. Second, we build on a small but growing strand of literature at the crossroads between migration and family economics. This includes three papers on international migration out of Mexico, with Bertoli and Murard (2020) and Bertoli et al. (2023), which document the extent of changes in co-residence choices after the occurrence of a migration episode, and Bratti et al. (2020), who analyze withinsibship selection into migration; and three papers focusing on internal migration in Indonesia,

> 2The Mexican Family Life Survey would allow tracing the evolution of the family composition after the occurrence of an international migration episode; however, the limited sample size implies that the number of migration episodes is much lower than those that we can observe in the ENOE.

4
# Table 4 ).<sup>8</sup>

The national picture points to a pattern of sustained crop income growth across the years of the panel survey: 2006 to 2012. However, when crop income is disaggregated across regions, a slightly different picture emerges. First, from Figure 5 it is clear that the level of agricultural income varies substantially across regions, with much higher levels of crop income recorded in the Western region. The lowest levels of crop income are seen in the Northern region. Although crop income in the Central region is not particularly high, this reflects the fact that a much lower share of total income in the Central region comes from agriculture. In the Northern and Eastern regions agricultural income is the dominant source of income, as in the Western region, but overall levels of income are much lower.

Secondly, Figure indicates that agricultural income growth was negative between 2010 and 2011 in the Eastern and Northern regions. Although growth recovered between 2011 and 2012, the negative growth rate in the north and east resulted in both regions falling behind the center and west. In the following section we examine what drove these patterns.

**Figure 3. Real income per capita levels by source of income, all households**

<!-- Start of picture text --> 900,000<br>800,000<br>700,000<br>600,000<br>500,000<br>400,000<br>300,000<br>200,000<br>100,000<br>0<br>2005/06 2009/10 2010/11 2011/12<br>Crop Livestock Agr. Wage Non‐agr. wage Self‐emp<br>Source: UNPS 2006-2012<br>Ugandan Schillings (2011 prices)<br><!-- End of picture text -->

**Figure 4. Real income levels by source of income, bottom 40 percent**
Valletta 2013; Rothstein 2011; Tatsiramos 2009; Van Ours and Vodopivec 2006). Using macro level panel data, Pignatti and Van Belle (2018) showed that in developed countries, when coupled with sufficiently high spending on ALMP, higher public spending on PLMP can cut unemployment and boost employment rates. However, in developing countries, increased public spending on PLMP did not significantly affect unemployment or employment rates.

Country-level research on developing economies suggests that while generous UB tend to increase unemployment and reduce their formal employment more prominently compared to developed economies, this is not necessarily due to moral hazard. For instance, in Turkey, a two-month extension of UB during 2002-2012 decreased the likelihood of job finding by 15 percent, surpassing effects observed in the United States, Germany, and Austria (Filiz 2017). However, individuals entitled to longer UB periods showed reduced tendency to exploit the system, indicating lower moral hazard. Similarly, an increase in UB duration in 2002-2010 led to a lower probability of returning to a formal job. Yet, its efficiency cost was lower than observed in the United States (Gerard and Gonzaga 2021). In Mauritius, Liepmann and Pignatti (2021) found positive and significant welfare effects of UB during 2012-2108 in a highly informal context, with smaller efficiency costs than in developed economies. In addition, the shift to informal employment was more influenced by layoffs than by UB generosity. Therefore, contrary to studies 5
>countries|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|Road network density [a]|km/1000 km2 of land area|59|72|318|
|Classified road network density|km/1000 km2 of land area|38|51|278|
|GIS rural accessibility|% of rural pop within 2 km from all-season road|26|27|31|
|Household survey rural accessibility|% of rural pop within 2 km from all-season road|36|51|63|
|Classified paved road network condition [b]|% in good or fair condition|68|52|82|
|Classified unpaved road network condition|% in good or fair condition|61|65|58|
|Classified paved road traffic|Average annual daily traffic|1,402|1,099|2,558|
|Classified unpaved road traffic|Average annual daily traffic|25|60|75|
|Primary network overengineering|% of primary network paved with 300 AADT or less|20|16|18|
|Primary network underengineering|% of primary network unpaved with 300 AADT or more|9|36|20|

Source: AICD 2010b. _Note_ : a. Total network includes the primary, secondary, and tertiary networks. b. Classified roads are the roads that have been included in the roads legislation as public roads.

The existing fuel levy is set at an adequate level to cover road maintenance needs in Cameroon. At 9 cents per liter, Cameroon’s fuel levy is relatively high compared with other Sub-Saharan African peers (figure 7).

12
Therefore, the hypothesis of this analysis is that UB and ALMP are positively associated with employment and productivity and negatively associated with unemployment, assuming that their unintended negative effects are weaker than their positive effects. In addition, given that the countries with higher per capita income have more resources and stronger institutional capacity to design more comprehensive UB and ALMP as well as to implement and monitor them more effectively, impact of UB and ALMP on labor market outcomes might be stronger in these countries. To account for this impact, we incorporated interaction terms between income levels of countries and UB and ALMP indicators in the regression model. In addition, although our analysis does not disentangle the different types of unintended effects of UB and ALMP, since it employs macro level data, these effects are factored in the values of the indicators, allowing us to obtain the overall association of UB and ALMP indicators with labor market outcomes.<sup>15</sup> The crosscountry OLS estimations using data from 191 economies in 2019 are based on the following linear regression equation:<sup>16</sup> where i denotes country i and _Y_ is the dependent variable referring to labor market outcomes (i.e., aggregate unemployment rate; aggregate and sectoral employment rates, and self-employment rate; and growth rate of labor productivity). The variable _X1_ represents UB and ALMP indicators used in the analysis: the availability of UB schemes and UB after one year of contribution; maximum length of UB duration; minimum length of contribution period; the availability of PES and types of PES; and the availability of incentives for training and national skills funds.<sup>17</sup> The _X2_ variable refers to control variables informed by the literature: real GDP per capita, labor force participation, income share of labor, investment rate, openness to international trade, world governance indicator, life expectancy, innovation, employeeemployer cooperation, severance pay, labor tax and social contribution rates, inflation rate, gross government debt as a share of
# _<u>Family formation outcomes</u>_

The impacts of adolescent childbearing vary along the asset index dimension for family formation outcomes. Adolescent mothers from wealthier families are less likely to be single, and more likely to have a partner. The likelihood of being married does not seem to be affected differentially depending on the wealth of the household. This heterogeneity in the effect of adolescent childbearing suggests that the welfare of women plays a non-trivial role in the matching decisions – however, the ENADID data do not provide sufficient information to pinpoint the mechanism behind the observed effect.

# **4.2.2. Heterogeneity in impacts depending on community level characteristics**

Individual and household characteristics are not the only elements that can lessen or magnify the consequences of bringing up a child in adolescence. Certain features of the community may add yet another degree of difficulty to parenting a child as a teenager. Alternatively, the community may shoulder part of the burden – for example by providing educational opportunities or childcare. Following, we explore heterogeneity in the effects of adolescent childbearing depending on the municipal characteristics which provide imperfect proxies for educational and labor market opportunities in the municipality. Specifically, we analyze how labor market, education and welfare dependence outcomes differ depending on the fraction of residents aged 15 to 24 who are currently attending an educational institution and the fraction of employed who work 32 hours or less. These two characteristics are likely to capture educational and labor market opportunities in the municipality.

# _<u>Labor market outcomes</u>_

Raising a child differentially affects the labor market income, the probability of employment and the number of hours worked of teenage mothers depending on municipal-level characteristics. Although we do not observe an average effect of giving birth on labor market income (Table 5), we detect significant effects in specific labor markets, namely those characterized by high fractions of: individuals attending school (among people aged 15 to 24) and individuals who work less than 32 hours a week (among
the RSE for their community. In Vanuatu this was only asked in wave 2, 6 months into the RSE. The main benefits reported at this stage were job opportunities for people in the village, money to support the village church, and improvements in housing. Disadvantages were less people to do the community work, cases where a worker is not contributing to church or family, and concerns about the potential bad influence of alcohol abroad. In Tonga these questions were asked in waves 3 and 4, approximately one year and two years into the RSE. The main benefit reported at one year is income for families, along with some saying income for the community and church donations. After two years, there are also a few mentions of improved skills and improved English in the workers, and positive impacts on school enrolments. When asked the main disadvantage, at one year, more than half say none, the main other answer being family separation. At two years, one-third say family separation, 30 percent say less labor for village, church, and community projects, about 15 percent say fewer members for church activities.

Table 6 then summarizes the results of questions in both the household and community leader surveys intended to measure qualitatively the impressions of the broader community-level impacts of the RSE. The RSE workers themselves believe that participation in the RSE either improved or left unchanged their family and community life. Non-RSE households in Tonga also see benefits in terms of community life, availability of paid jobs, and schooling opportunities. To 20
, other factors (comparative advantage, geography) make it more plausible countries exhibit a different production structure and that such is an outcome.

> 24Appendix B.1 shows that controlling for industrial composition increases the average firm size for the majority of the countries relative to having adopted country-specific distributions of economic activity.

> 25We read the distribution of firm shares across two-digit industries in the US’ manufacturing sector from the County Business Patterns database for 2007.

26Salient examples of recent work documenting the relationship between average firm size and economic development in the data are Bento and Restuccia [2017] and Poschke [2014].

26
subnational level and across groups. The questions were grouped into several modules: dimensions of trust (which institutions or entities are being trusted), performance of the public sector, public communications and transparency, corruption and integrity, behaviors linked to trust, impact of COVID-19, and socio-demographic questions.

# **2.3 Sample Description**

Many existing surveys covering Morocco have previously measured some aspect of trust, such as the Arab Barometer, the Afro-Barometer, the Gallup World Poll, and the Moroccan Institute for Policy Analysis (MIPA) surveys. An important added value of our survey, compared to existing opinion surveys, is the size of its sample which allows for sub-national inference. The international and regional instruments used to assess trust have shortcomings linked to their coverage which is often uneven both across countries and over time. Most of the other survey data come from a small sample (i.e., 1,000 to 1,500 respondents per country), precluding intra-country analysis and sometimes failing to be representative of the whole population.

The 5,916 respondents selected created a nationally representative sample of the population, age 18 and above. They were randomly selected using the quota method (age, gender, socio-professional category), following a stratification by region.<sup>15</sup> This allowed for each region, age, gender, and income groups to contain a relatively high level of respondents compared to other surveys described above. Selected sample statistics can be found in Table 1.<sup>16</sup> In addition, the sampling strategy ensured representativity between urban and rural populations. According to the Haut Commissariat au Plan’s 2014 population census, 41.12 percent of the population was rural. In the sample, 41.5 percent classified as rural. This addresses a common criticism of other widely used surveys in the region which disproportionately represent urban populations.

# **2.4 Timing of the Survey**

The survey took place at a specific time
In most instances where the two do not overlap, cell phone ownership is lower in the WFP surveys than in the pre-conflict estimate, which is expected given the negative shocks that have occurred since then.

> 24See Appendix 8 for estimates of the timing of the displacement crisis using the mVAM. Specifically, the figure reports the total number of displaced households by month-year of their first displacement, divided by the total number of households interviewed in the survey (18,078).

14
Global Investment Costs for Coastal Defense through the 21st Century Report to the World Bank 51 For this, data on local input and output levels and input prices are needed. However, international surveys on factor use or costs, such as material surveys, for dike construction are currently absent (Jonkman et al. 2013). In some cases, such information is seen as commercially sensitive and hence even if collected it is not in the public domain. Some case studies are nonetheless available that provide illustrations of factor use for construction of coastal protection measures (e.g. Dijkman 2007). However, case study information cannot be generalized across countries, as this is largely explaining the variation in unit costs, and input data are largely lacking for sea dikes.

## **A.2.4.2 Meta-analysis of case studies**

A meta-analysis as in Lenk et al. (2016), may be improved by more case studies, as well as by inclusion of country characteristics that have been omitted. However, this is a large effort, as available case studies are based on grey literature. Currently, the number of case studies remains insufficient for out-of-sample predictions of unit costs, and the sample of case studies needs to be increased.

# **A.2.5.       Other cost issues for further research**

## **A.2.5.1 Total costs**

Dronkers et al. (1990) apply dike length multipliers to coastline length "as the crow flies", to estimate total costs. This method is obsolete, and the applied dike length multipliers are likely to be inaccurate. Total cost estimates may not only be improved by updating unit cost estimates, but also by replacing previous dike length approximations by country totals of segment lengths as is already done in DIVA. However, the base coastline could be reviewed to test coastal lengths, especially where there are large populations and hence potential demands for defenses.

## **A2.5.2