rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
and distortions are caused by the same set of factors, we cannot remove bribery and keep all the distortions as they are determined at the same time. In fact, corrupt officials may create problems to exploit bribery opportunities (Myrdal (1968)). Therefore, my conclusion would differ if the level of corruption and distortion can be endogenized in a model where government officials create more distortions to exploit bribery and the agents sort themselves into three different careers: worker, manager and government official. This model environment may result in different conclusions because of two reasons: some of the high ability agents may choose to be government officials to enjoy bribery and corrupt officials may increase the distortion levels, as managers pay bribes.

# **7 Conclusion and Future Work**

In this study, I show that big plants in Türkiye spend a smaller fraction of their output on bribery compared to small plants. I focus on Turkish data as an example because of data availability. It was not selected because the problems of bribery and size dependent distortions are presumed to be more prevalent in Turkey than in other comparable countries. I build a span-of-control model where managers choose to bribe officials to decrease the tax rate, which is imposed based on their output. After I calibrate this model to match the Turkish plant size distribution and bribery payments of different size groups, I quantify the anti-bribery and anti-distortion policies on the aggregate output, mean size, the employment share of big enterprises, the average effective tax, and the average bribe rate response. Given that bribery opportunities exist, the effect of size dependent distortions is reduced, as managers can decrease them with bribery. In addition, changes in the distortion level do not have large effects on the aggregate economy, as they can be ruled out by bribery. By removing the distortions, which removes bribery incentives as well, the output level and the mean size may increase by more than 60% and 80% respectively.

Despite the fact that bribery can lower distortions for bribe payers, it can
statistically significant effect on children with 3 (β = 0.57, p > .1), 4 (β = 2.01, p > .1) or 6 siblings (β = - 0.15, p > .1).

Based on these results, we further estimate the number of individual children who potentially may be triaged into the aforementioned alternative treatment and behavioral management programs (as described in Table 1). The difference in proportion of children with an RBRI score of 20-29 (category 1), 30-39 (category 2), 40-49 (category 3) and 50-60 (category 4) were observed between the intervention group (with PIP) and control group (without PIP). Such a difference in proportion was applied to the actual data collected by Homel et al. (2015), suggesting either a potential reduction or increase in the number of children who may require future behavioral management interventions. The estimated number of children who require additional behavioral management interventions is based on the percentage of children sorted into one of the four RBRI score categories before and after the intervention. This is calculated by applying the percentages derived from the simulated dataset to the actual number of participants in the Homel dataset. We present these results in 26
about the coverage of firms in the more rural districts because it is clear from the data that the coverage of firms in rural areas was limited (Kerr and McDougall, 2019).

# 6 Conclusion

In most African economies manufacturing output and employment is growing, but the rate of growth is slower than that of other sectors, resulting in declining shares of GDP, and what Rodrik (2016) has called premature industrialization. A number of possible explanations for this situation have been put forward including a lack of a business and investment climate suited to firm growth and a lack of access to credit, as well as more recent explanations such as first mover advantages, the increasing sophistication of manufacturing and the extent of global value chains in which buyers have substantial market power.

Agglomeration has been shown to be a source of growth in many developed and developing countries but there is some evidence that agglomeration economies are weaker in African economies than they are in other parts of the world (Collier et al, 2018).

In this paper we have investigated the impact of various agglomerative forces that have been identified in the literature, using data from two Ghanaian firm censuses. The study is, to our knowledge, the first to use nationally representative firm data including both the formal and informal sectors to investigate the impact of agglomerative forces on employment growth in an African economy. We followed Combes (2000) in examining the importance of both urbanization and localization economies, which was possible with the Ghanaian firm census data we have made use of.

We have shown that Accra, the largest district and the most densely populated in Ghana, has increased its share of manufacturing employment. This would suggest that agglomeration economies are present and contributing to employment and productivity growth. But our main 15
), too, finds evidence that women’s education, incomes, and assets all are important aspects of women's bargaining power and that these effects are important both for a female's own welfare and that of her children, confirming earlier findings that women’s property improves the welfare outcomes of the entire household (Doss et al. 2011). Inequality in ownership, control, and use of productive assets can impede females’ control over household resources and spending decisions, with welfare implications for future generations (World Bank 2012). Similar findings are reported by Valera et al. (2018), who find, based on a unique rural household survey from Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Odisha, and West Bengal, that land title ownership by females has positive effects on their participation in decisions about farming, livelihoods, and household activities. Additionally, research by Oduro et al. (2015) conducted in Ecuador and Ghana shows that property ownership by females is also instrumental in reducing violence against them. The study finds that females who have a larger share of their couple’s wealth are significantly less likely to suffer physical violence in Ecuador and emotional violence in Ghana.

> 9. The LGBT community (also known as the LGBTQ+ community, GLBT community, or the gay community) is a loosely defined grouping of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, LGBT organizations, and subcultures.

6
started to lose this competitive edge as labor cost more than doubled or tripled along the Chinese coast. For some companies, production relocation, either to inland China or to other developing countries, became a must if their businesses were to survive. Africa, a remote and unfamiliar destination for most Chinese firms until recently, became increasingly noticeable as a place offering relatively abundant and cheap labor as well as low-cost land.

Other studies support this finding. In the CCPIT survey, almost half of the surveyed firms said “increased domestic labor costs” were an important reason for them to seek relocation overseas. In addition, an internal study by Zhejiang Department of Commerce found that intensified labor shortages (due to reduced supply of migrant workers) and increased factory wages were pressing firms from that coastal province to venture out to other developing world including Africa.<sup>16</sup> Wages in Ethiopia were particularly attractive, even by African standards. Companies interviewed reported monthly wages from $30-50 for a factory worker, to $50-80 for a

> 16 “Study on Zhejiang Outbound Direct Investment” by Zhejiang Provincial Department of Commerce, 2012

19
education level. Educated urban females felt confident they could handle property matters just as well as men.

## 6.1.4 Other factors are also important in encouraging female ownership

**_Other considerations, such as gender-based loan concessions, ensuring equality, income contributions, and income tax complexities of accounting and compliance, also play roles in female property ownership decisions in various ways_** . While agreeing that stamp duty discounts are indeed powerful incentives for female homeownership, multiple FGD participants outlined additional factors that contributed equally to their decisions to register properties in females’ names. Loan concessions offered to females buying properties in their names or in joint ownership, security of inheritance and providing equal property ownership rights to females, and income contributions all positively contributed to female property ownership.

# 6.2 Limited impact of gender-based incentives on subnational revenues

### **_Gender-based discounts for property-related taxes affect tax revenues, but the impact is small._** In most

of the cities providing gender-based discounts for property-related taxes, government officials reported that gender-disaggregated data for the revenues collected from property taxes and stamp 27
having a contract and having a permanent job are strong predictors for almost all countries, though weaker than either health insurance or retirement benefits. Overall, job benefits are the strongest job quality predictors that a family is not living in poverty in Latin America.

# **6 Robustness**

In this section we show that our results are not sensitive to changes in model specification or estimation strategies. Table 11 shows variations of column 2 from Table 5, using _JQR_ as the dependent variable. Table 12 shows variations of column 2 from Table 8, regressing the likelihood of a family being in poverty on the dimensions of job quality along with individual controls. Each of the five columns in Tables 11 and 12 represent a different test of robustness. The regression in column 1 of the tables weights the observations using the specific weights for each household from SEDLAC. Columns 2 and 3 use a different income cutoff point for determining whether or not the individual either earns a wage or lives above the poverty line. The $1.25/day poverty line is used in column 2, while the $4.00/day poverty line is used in column 3, both in 2005 PPPs.

Columns 4 and 5 use alternative job quality dimensions. The variable _Ftim_ measures whether or not the worker is employed full time at his principal job. That is, this variable measures underemployment, a relatively recent concept in the job quality literature (Bescond, Chataignier and Mheran, 2003). A success in the _Ftim_ dimension is recorded if the observation works at least 30 hours a week on average 36
br>**150**<br>|
|Public administration and...|**4**<br>**58**<br>|Public administration and...|**4**<br>**60**<br>|
|Water transport|**3**<br>**28**|Water transport|**3**<br>**49**|
|Communications|**3**<br>**38**|Communications|**3**<br>**69**|
|Utilities|**1**<br>**16**|Utilities|**1**<br>**14**|
|0|%<br>25%<br>50%<br>75% 100%||0%<br>25%<br>50%<br>75% 100%|
|Exports to RCE|P<br>Exports to ROW|Imports from RCE|P<br>Imports from ROW|

# Source: own elaboration with data from Comtrade and GTAP.

The RCEP agreement was signed in November 2020.<sup>5</sup> The agreement includes 20 chapters, which cover a wide variety of provisions: trade in goods, trade in services, rules of origin, government procurement, intellectual property, sanitary measures, technical standards, and investment, among others. It does not include any provisions on the environment or labor. Tariffs are expected to be reduced over 20 years, with a large drop upfront for some products, and most tariffs being eliminated over the next 20 years. The agreement includes more agricultural trade liberalization than originally anticipated, with modest sensitive lists, mainly by Japan in key products such as rice, wheat, dairy, meat and sugar, and Indonesia in rice and alcoholic
**|
|Peers|0.89***|0.83***|0.86***|0.92**|0.98***|0.91***|
|N|11706|10981|6262|7027|12462|10710|

_* p<0.10 ** p<0.05 *** p<0.01. Source: Own calculations based on Lao PDR customs data. Exponentiated coefficients. The time dependence of the hazard is introduced as log(time) in all models. All models include the gravity variables, RCA and initial value, but are omitted for clarity._ The first alteration excludes from the sample all monthly transactions which are below USD1000, to ensure that they are indeed commercial transactions and not gifts, samples or personal items. Next is an exclusion of all exports to Thailand (a significant share in the dataset) to isolate the impact of this very large, developed and culturally similar trade partner, where different effects could be at play that are not captured in 27
%**|||||
|**Property tax**|**7,298**|**0.8%**|**7,298**|**0.8%**|**1,240**|**17.0%**|
|**Vehicles tax**|**741**|**0.1%**|**741**|**0.1%**|**486**|**65.6%**|
|**Other taxes***|**42,708**|**4.6%**|||||
|**Social security contributions****|**49,915**|**5.4%**|**49,915**|**5.4%**|**41,245**|**82.6%**|
|**Other income**|**2,520**|**0.3%**|||||

**Source:** Ministry of Finance and Public Credit, National Statistical Office, Directorate of National Taxes and Customs, Internal calculations based on the 2017 ENPH.

**Note:*** 0.4% of GDP was deducted from the other taxes, which is equivalent to the external collection (different from external VAT) of the general government of the nation. The corresponding amount for local governments could not be discounted due to a lack of information. ** The social security contributions amounts are the contributions of the general government to social security, which appear in the medium-term fiscal framework of the Ministry of Finance and Public Credit

# **_a) Direct taxes and contributions to the social security system_**

The personal income tax
I POLIcY RESEARCH WORKING PAPER 2103

# Summary findings

Kim investigates whether the credit channel is a key monetary transmission mechanism in the Republic of Korea, especially after its recent financial crisis.

To identify the existence of a distinctive credit channel (especially the bank lending channel), he applies two empirical tests to both aggregate financial data and disaggregated bank balance sheet data.

As a more definitive analysis of the role of the credit channel, he estimates a disequilibrium model of the bank loan market, specifying separate loan demand and supply equations to characterize the credit crunch and identify its intensity in the wake of the crisis.

He finds convincing evidence of the importance of the credit channel in the aftermath of the crisis. Bank lending plays a significant independent role in amplifying the real effects of the tightened monetary policy implemented in response to the crisis.

There is strong evidence to suggest a substantial excess demand for bank loans following the crisis. This excess demand was caused by a sharp decline in loan supply largely attributable to pervasive and stringent bank capital regulation (a capital-induced bank credit crunch), rather than by weak demand for loans.

- This paper -- a product of the Financial Sector Development Unit, East Asia and Pacific Sector Units was presented at the international conference on Exchange Rate Stability and Currency Board Economics on November 18-29, 1998, in Hong Kong. Copies of this paper are available free from the World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433. Please contact Debbie Peterson, room MC3-844, telephone 202-473-2692, fax 202-522-3454, Internet address dpeterson2@)worldbank.org. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://xvxw.worldbank.org/ html/dec/Publications/Workpapers/home.html. The author may be contacted at hkim8@cworldbank.org. April 1999. (32 pages)

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of wvork in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas abont| development issues. An objective of the series is to get
240|
|Qadis|1,792|1,190|21|
|Qala-e-Naw|12,289|8,510|0|
|Total|44,566|30,571|9,504|

# Description of OCHA data on displacement

OCHA reports conflict-induced displacements for districts and provinces of Afghanistan. OCHA dataset additionally includes dates of displacement. According to OCHA, in 2020, there were 66 incidents (dates) of displacement in the Badghis province (Table A4). Table A4 presents summary statistics for conflict-induced IDPs based on displacement incidents (not comparable to IOM data because IOM’s summary statistics is for settlements).

Table A4. The summary statistics for conflict-induced IDPs in 2020.

|Districts|Mean|Std. Dev.|Freq.|
|---|---|---|---|
||||<br>(# of displacement incidents)|
|Ab Kamari|20|0|1|
|Qala-e-Naw|120.95385|93.139417|<br>65|
|Total|119.42424|93.251861|66|

As reported by OCHA, in 2020, conflict-induced IDPs settled in two districts of the Badghis province Qala-e-Naw (7,882 people) and Ab Kamari (20 people) (Table A5).

> 17The IOM questionnaire asks to indicate the percentages of IDPs that arrived at a settlement due to conflict and natural disasters, which then in dataset are grouped into 4 categories: conflict, conflict-natural disasters, natural disasters, and natural disasters-conflict.
This version: 15 Feb 2024 40 do not believe that it is a complete explanation - though a revision of household survey instruments may be warranted. The question is whether this is a Malaysia-specific story, or whether the Malaysian paradox is indicative of something deeper about the nature of economic growth.

To understand this, we return to Polanyi and Hirsch. Our qualitative evidence is consistent with both their arguments. Polanyi’s thesis is that economic life is deeply embedded within social relationships, and that pro-growth “capitalist” policies by turning land and labor into “fictitious commodities” force individuals to fend for themselves subject to the whims of dis-embedded markets, with much weaker social ties. Our qualitative findings are consistent with this. Despite improvements in material well-being, our respondents repeatedly expressed a sense of anomie, a longing for a time when life was simpler, less stressful and more socially connected.

Our evidence is also consistent with some of Hirsch’s logic for why there may be “social limits” to growth. The six negative themes that we observed, despite Malaysia’s extraordinary success in meeting its citizens’ material needs, are consistent with the logic of social scarcity. In the process of meeting material needs, economic growth has led to the privatization of many things. Many people complain about public goods and services that used to be free, costing a lot of money and in particular a loss of access to open space and land. Those in the middle and lower end of the distribution have to live in congested multi-storied public housing blocks to secure access to city jobs and some have to additionally work extra hours and double jobs to cope with high cost of living. This has led to increased indebtedness and stress.

40
|Amount of sales in an average|60,828|73|281|‐1,052|3,596|0.934|0.618|0.342|0.755|
|week|[57,039]|(2,257)|(1,405)|(1,255)||||||
|Amount of profit in the last|46,249|139|316|1,156|3,596|0.941|0.634|0.527|0.791|
|month|[44,867]|(2,135)|(1,329)|(1,188)||||||
|Firm owner owns a bank<br>account|0.22<br>[0.414]|0.004<br>(0.003)|0.004** <br>(0.002)|0.005***<br>(0.002)|3,514|0.985|0.771|0.665|0.016**|
|_Taxes_||||||||||
|Firm pays taxes|0.561|‐0.013|‐0.017|‐0.022|3,560|0.927|0.8|0.807|0.687|
||[0.496]|(0.033)|(0.021)|(0.018)||||||
|Amount of taxes paid in the|19,450|‐3,867**|‐306|‐657|3,482|0.1|0.101|0.77|0.269|
|previous year<br>Notes: Baseline survey data (<br>coefficients and standard errors<br
garian manufacturing firms to show that import competition has some positive effect on productivity growth, but it was more than offset by the effects of (successful) lobbying for credits by the affected firns. Market structure is found to have a significant effect on productivity changes - the study shows increased productivity for firms in sectors which experienced a large number of entries either through spin-offs from existing companies or through start-ups. A recent study of Russian manufacturing firms in the period 1992-94 (Earle and Estrin, 1997) found a positive correlation between import competition and several enterprise adjustment indicators (labor productivity, total layoffs, new product lines). At a more aggregate level, a study of Polish industries in 1991-93 (Falk et al, 1996) finds that total factor productivity growth was positively associated with import penetration ratios and negatively associated with sectoral concentration.

We use these stylized facts to construct control variables in the regression analysis. In particular, we use firm-specific information on access to financing and competitive pressures to purge the effect of the extemal environment on firm restructuring. This will likely alleviate the bias in our estimates of the effect of privatization and different privatization methods on restructuring.

# 3, The Surveys

To study the relation between modalities of privatization to insiders and enterprise restructuring, a stratified random survey of 92 manufacturing finrs in Georgia and 149 manufacturing firms in Moldova was conducted in the autumn of 1997. Most enterprises included in the study went through some type of privatization, even though in some cases the state still has partial ownership. The Questionnaire was designed by the author, following a pilot phase dunrng which a dozen enterprises were visited in each country. During these visits, detailed interviews with the general directors, financial directors, and marketing and sales directors of the companies were conducted to document the process of restructuring. The pilot survey also revealed that managers were sensitive to the confidentiality of the data. All questionnaires hence featured an introductory section explaining that the results of the survey would only be used in an aggregated form in cross-country studies on the
Policy Research Working Paper 7903

# **Abstract**

This paper explores the landscape, contributions, and determinants of sovereign wealth funds’ long-term investments in Sub-Saharan Africa. The study finds that of all regions, Africa receives the lowest share of investment from sovereign wealth funds, and the landscape is dominated by Asian funds. The investment strategies of sovereign wealth funds established by African countries tend to be to invest less domestically and more abroad, contrary to Asian funds. In addition, using an enriched simple mean-variance portfolio model with an exponential utility function, the analysis shows that the investment rate of return and political connections have a positive and significant effect on sovereign wealth fund investments, and risk exerts a negative but not significant effect. The paper confirms these results empirically, using a database that includes 26 sovereign wealth fund investments over 19852013. Hence, sovereign wealth funds investing in Africa care more about high returns and the political interests of their country of origin than the risk of their investment.

This paper is a product of the Macroeconomics and Fiscal Management Global Practice Group and the Office of the Chief Economist, Africa Region. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://econ.worldbank.org. The authors may be contacted at diallobs@kfupm.edu.sa, ftchanatchana@worldbank. org, and azeufack@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/