rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
the tests were high, above 90 percent in all waves. The HIV prevalence rate in the sample was 6.9 percent Obare et al. (2009). In 2004, test results were available ve to seven weeks after testing. The testing component of the survey was linked to an experiment that is described and analyzed by Thornton (2008). Respondents were assigned vouchers

> 14data.worldbank.org

> 15Detailed information on the Malawi Diusion and Ideational Change Project can be obtained at http://www.malawi.pop.upenn.edu/.

> 16Attanasio (2009) and Delavande et al. (2010) review existing subjective expectations data from developing countries.

17
requires that every vessel serving any U.S. domestic route must be (1) at least 75% owned by U.S. citizens; (2) built in the U.S.; (3) crewed by U.S. citizens or permanent residents; and (4) registered in the U.S. At least 75% of the crew should be U.S. citizens, and all of its officers and engineers (Beason et al. (2015), cited in Olney (2020)). The U.S.-build requirement includes some infrequently used exceptions that happen to be relevant in the Puerto Rican setting.

> 2It is likely that the JA has similar effects on other U.S. islands and outlying areas, including Hawaii (HI) and Alaska (AK). The U.S. does not collect the detailed intra-national trade data for AK and HI that we use here. There is similar data available for other U.S. possessions, but these island economies are quite small, usually more distant from the U.S., and not subject to the same breadth of JA restrictions that apply to PR.

1
and Segev, 2000; Chen et al., 2011). In 1980 the central government designated four cities, Shenzhen, Zhuhai, Shantou and Xiamen, to be the special economic zones. A few years later, another 14 cities were designated as „open coastal cities‟. These cities were granted special policy advantages in attracting FDI, which meant fewer restrictions on FDI and some tax concessions from the central government. During our sample period, the policy differentials across Chinese cities became much smaller. However, there may still be path-dependence effects or some policy advantages enjoyed by these open cities.

The second institutional variable is custom efficiency, as proxied by the log of the district average number of days for export to pass customs plus the district average number of days for import to pass customs.<sup>7</sup> As a measure of the efficiency of bureaucracy, it should be negatively correlated with FDI inflows. The third variable, the share of domestic private firms in a district with access to bank loans, reflects the maturity of a locality‟s financial institutions. If domestic private firms have good access to finance, particularly bank loans, the need for foreign direct investment might be lower (Huang and Di, 2004; Huang, 2007). Moreover, due to diminishing returns to capital, the return to foreign direct investment should be lower in a locality with relatively more abundant capital.

The fourth institutional factor we consider is the cost of maintaining _guanxi_ (relationship) with the relevant government officials and departments. In China, maintaining _guanxi_ means dining and wining, and it is costly. We therefore expect this cost to have a negative impact on FDI. The ratio of entertainment and travel costs (ETC) to sales is used as a proxy for the cost of _guanxi_ . ETC is an expenditure item in standard accounting books of firms in China, and it is a large sum, amounting to about 20% of the total wage bills in the sample firms of the investment climate survey of
# _3. Social and Bureaucratic Culture and Incentives_

We analyze the bureaucratic culture and incentives under four categories:

- Attitude of the Bureaucracy towards Society and Business

- Predictability of Laws and Policies

- Effective Public Service Delivery

- Perception of the State by the Society

For the first category we use a rating from the Political Risk Services, which measures the attitude of the state towards private investment. For the next two categories we use two survey questions from the 1997 World Development Report: government’s adherence to announced policies and public perception of government as an effective public service provider. Assuming that societies with more “hierarchical” religions, such as Catholicism, Orthodoxy, Islam, are more inclined to have a heavy-handed bureaucracy, we use the Protestant population in a country as an indicator of the perception of the state as a tool for public service. This index is re-scaled such that low numbers are associated with a more service-oriented bureaucracy.

An additional measure related to bureaucratic culture and incentives is the colonial past. To capture the colonial past of a country we use a dummy variable that is equal to one if country was ever a colony in the last two centuries.

# _4. Localization/ decentralization_

For decentralization two measures are commonly used in the literature. One is the level of sub-national government expenditures. The other one is the ratio of employment in non-central government administration to general civilian government employment. In this study we use the second measure. This is not only highly correlated with subnational government expenditures (r=0.67), but also covers more countries. SchiavoCampo et. al. (1997) argue that this variable may perform better in terms of capturing decentralization rather than deconcentration (the geographical dispersal of central 15
disadvantage is that, to our knowledge, there are no low-income countries with such datasets. A suggested methodology for how to apply this to low-income countries in the same region is as follows. One could use the health and nutrition dataset from a given region to estimate the probability of cardiovascular risk and diabetes risk (via hypertension and blood glucose) among adults over 25 by BMI, by age cohorts and by socioeconomic group. These rates could then be applied to similar socioeconomic groups in low-income countries who, it is predicted, will follow similar paths.

This is possible for cardiovascular disease, the number one cause of death globally, as well as for diabetes. Although it would be desirable to extend this to the number two risk, all cancers combined, making estimates is more difficult. Unlike cardiovascular disease, there are no readily measurable biomarkers indicating longer-term risk, and the term cancer covers a large number of heterogeneous conditions affecting different sites such that prospective studies of cancer require very large populations. There are fewer large scale prospective cohort studies of cancer than there are involving CVD. Our understanding of the dietary risks for cancer is still evolving.

# 8. Potential for Testing Using Prospective Cohort Studies

Prospective cohort studies have become more common as researchers note their usefulness for NCD conditions whose antecedents begin even prior to adulthood, but which mainly manifest in disease outcomes three or more decades later. Ongoing prospective cohort studies which include dietary recall and health measures include PURE (in 27 high, middle and low income countries: <u>https://www.phri.ca/research/pure/),</u> ELSA-Brazil (began 2008-2010: Aquino et al. 2012), the US Nurses Health Study (https://nurseshealthstudy.org), the EPIC study <u>(https://iarc.epic.fr) in a number of European countries,</u> 13
.25 + 6.56 * (current assets – current liabilities)/total assets + 3.26 * retained earnings/total assets + 6.72 * EBIT/assets + 1.05 * book value of equity/total liabilities, using a sample of 1,101 firm-year observations from the World Bank Infrastructure SOEs Database.

In our data, the median levels for the current assets minus liabilities and retained earnings ratios (both over assets) are near zero (0.031 and 0.016, respectively), and almost 40 percent of the 22
excludes the Moscow‐Beijing high speed rail or the Bering Strait connection, which were proposed but have no real plans. Moreover, condition 3 excludes small road projects in Cambodia that are clearly not along any shortest path linking major cities.

We then simplify the list of projects from Reed and Trubetskoy (2018) and keep only the rail and maritime elements. Then, to ensure consistency with the information on the ground, we validate it with the help of World Bank country teams. As a result, the exact list of all projects used in the analysis and sources can be found in Table A1 in annex. We then geo‐localize each of these projects in our map and generate links with the current rail lines, ports and maritime links, which creates a denser transportation network on which we can run our shortest path algorithm.

Beyond the data by Reed and Trubetskoy (2018), other sources of information on BRI investment have been compiled elsewhere and might have different inclusion criteria. One example is the WIND BRI database, which gathers China’s Oversea Direct Investment (ODI) projects in BRI countries. Compared to the data used in our paper, this source is both more restrictive along certain aspects as it contains only projects that are associated with ODI, and at the same time more extensive in the sectoral coverage. Moreover, it comprises planned projects for which ODI amounts have been announced, which is likely to be more restrictive than our definition. Note that some projects still appear in both our list and the WIND database, such as the Malaysia East Coast Rail Link Project or the Moscow‐Kazan High Speed Rail Project. Another example of alternative source is the database collected by Reconnecting Asia at the Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS)<sup>8</sup> which includes transportation projects (roads, rails, ports, bridges and tunnels) as well as other elements such as electrification projects of special economic zones in Asia.

# **c. Working assumptions**

_The
points to a number of further research questions. We close by highlighting three examples of such additional work, which would permit a more accurate estimation of the overall change in household welfare due to changes in food prices, given by equation (5). First, it would be great if one of Brazil‟s excellent household surveys (either the POF or the PNAD, both of which have recently undergone reforms) included a more detailed module on agricultural production and sales at the household level. This would enable researchers to compute net purchases of agricultural commodities for all households involved in family farming.

> 16 On the role of Brazil‟s social protection system in the recent process of poverty reduction, see Ferreira et al. (2010) and Veras et al. (2006).
to using medians). The results from these exercises are broadly in line with our headline results (see Table 5).

# **VI.1. Oil prices**

Our baseline exercises employ growth of nominal oil prices. We replace them here with two alternative price series: (i) growth of real oil prices, and (ii) growth of nominal energy prices.<sup>8</sup> The corresponding measures are depicted in Figure 4, where they are shown to be very similar. In the baseline exercise, oil price shocks account for about 4 percent of inflation variance. When the alternative measures are used in estimations, the share is around 6 percent.

# **VI.2. Global output growth and global inflation**

We proxied global output growth and global inflation with common global factors in our baseline exercises. Alternatively, they can be based on the: (i) median of, and (ii) weighted average across countries. These alternative measures move closely with our global factor estimates (see Figure 4). While these new measures do not affect the relative importance of global supply and oil price shocks in explaining inflation variance, they translate into a somewhat larger role for global

> 8 Nominal oil and energy prices are based on the series from the World Bank’s Pink Sheet data. Real oil prices are obtained by deflating nominal oil prices with the U.S. Consumer Price Index. The nominal energy price is an index that includes crude oil prices, natural gas prices, and coal prices.

12
grievances related to specific social groups if they are perceived to discriminate between groups. How and why the real or perceived unequal treatment of social groups actually occurs varies from one process to another. Frameworks to identify how accountability processes treat groups differently can help to identify ways in which to preempt spoilers and mitigate risks of conflict.” (Mahony, 2016; United Nations and World Bank, 2018)<sup>10</sup>

# **3. Method**

In this paper we use the enhanced CBA APP to process the cost and benefit data. We adopt the QTE method as described above. The enhanced APP proposes to overcome the shortcomings of existing cost-benefit tools (e.g. the Manning Cost-Benefit tool versions 1 and 2 (Manning et al., 2016; Manning and Wong, 2016a; Manning and Wong, 2016b)), with the inclusion of the heterogeneity component which allows us to: (i) identify variation or differences between groups or populations (e.g. individual actor attributes, political structures, institutions); (ii) identify how justice processes differ across groups/populations; and (iii) distribute costs and benefits according to heterogenous impact.

Figure 4 illustrates the enhanced CBA APP. In this study, we demonstrate three of the six interacting modules (Modules 1, 2 and 3). A full discussion of the six modules included in the enhanced CBA APP is provided by Manning et al. (2018).

> 10 The UN and World Bank cite a framework that breaks down the jurisdictional and functional elements of criminal justice processes that advance or undermine equality before the law.

21
Policy Research Working Paper 9058

# **Abstract**

In this paper, the impact of salinity on maternal and child - health in Bangladesh is analyzed using data from the Bangla desh Demographic Health Surveys. A U-shaped association between drinking water salinity and infant and neonatal mortality is found, suggesting higher mortality when salinity is very low or high. With fresh drinking water, the marginal effect of salinity measured by groundwater electricity conductivity on infant death is always negative. With brackish drinking water and slightly saline water, the negative effect is small. As drinking water becomes moderately saline, the predicted probability of infant death starts to increase, and the marginal effect becomes and remains positive. The relationship between drinking water salinity and neonatal death shows a similar pattern. Finally, freshwater with very low concentration of healthy minerals and severely saline water with very high detrimental sodium can be harmful for infant and neonatal health during pregnancy. Severe salinity needs to be addressed if the recent gains in infant and neonatal mortality are to be sustained, especially in the coastal areas of Bangladesh.

This paper is a product of the Water Global Practice. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/prwp. The authors may be contacted at gjoseph@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of
**Table 2: Philippine’s export and import shares pre and during the lockdown**

|**Product**|**Exports (% **|**shares)**|**Imports (% **|**shares)**|**Dife**|**rence**|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||**Pre-lockdown**|**Lockdown**|**Pre-lockdown**|**Lockdown**|**Exports**|**Imports**|
|Components/Devices|41.80|44.40|8.12|10.75|2.60|2.63|
|Electronic Data Processing|9.37|8.68|3.47|4.60|-0.69|1.12|
|Consumer Electronics|1.19|1.37|1.14|1.01|0.18|-0.13|
|Ignition wiring|3.30|2.94|0.07|0.07|-0.36|0.00|
|Machinery & Transport Equipment|3.76|3.47|15.73|11.12|-0.29|-4.61|
|Other Products|40.58|39.14|71.47|72.45|-1.44|0.98|

Note: Lockdown represents months trading partners of the Philippines imposed restrictions Source: Authors’ compilation using PSA data import trade partners of the Philippines before and after the lockdown. Approximately 79% of exports from the Philippines were to these countries before the lockdown. The share rose to 82% after the lockdown. As for imports, these countries made up to 77% and 80
data and we tried harder to match these businesses. We took the program data and looked at all the businesses in the same neighborhood as the unmatched businesses. We were able to find 6 new matches. These 6 matches are very imperfect matches with surnames somewhat different and first name sometimes different. For two cases, the match was not done with our main method because the surname is missing in the program data.

As a result of this process, we use a conservative definition of a match between the business names in the two databases as “two businesses with a close surname, and at least one close 57
# **4. Descriptive Statistics**

The aim of this section is to describe the characteristics of the different groups included in the survey, and to illustrate their living conditions, as well as their future migration plans. A preliminary analysis of these data has already been done by (Etang-Ndip et al., 2015). Most of the surveyed people were displaced in April 2012, when Gao, Kidal and Timbuktu were occupied by rebels. A second wave of displacement occurred in June 2012 and a third one in January 2013.

# **4.1 Demographic characteristics**

Looking at the composition of our sample between refugees, returnees and IDPs, it is possible to claim that if they had not already done so by August 2014 (the time of the baseline) few returned between 2014 and 2015. The transition probability from being internally displaced in our sample to having returned to Northern Mali over the 12 waves is 2.4%. The same probability is even lower for refugees: only 0.3%. However, it should be pointed out that some refugee respondents changed migration status several times over the period considered in the survey. Having returned (early) to Northern Mali did not always lead to a stable condition either: the transition probabilities from returnee to IDP or to refugee are 1.1% and 0.2% respectively.

As we can see from Figure 1, the majority of the sample is Songhai and Kel Tamasheq (almost everybody identified themselves as Figure 1: Ethnic composition Muslim). There are clear differences in <mark>Displaced Refugee</mark> migration decisions between ethnic groups. The reaction of most of Arab and Kel <mark>Returnee Total</mark> Tamasheq origin was to leave the country, while most Songhai people preferred to go south, to Bamako, or, by the time of our Tamasheq Arab survey, had already returned to Northern SonghaiBella PeulhOther Mali. In fact, as pointed out in (Etang-Ndip Analytic weights used Source:
## 3.1.3 Other Variables

Estimating Eq. (5) also requires the use of plant-level data on sales and materials costs to construct value added, the book value of machinery and equipment to measure the capital stock, industry and region dummy variables. To reduce the in fl uence of extreme values, we eliminate from the estimation the top and bottom 1% of observations for the ratio of capital to value added in each industry.<sup>32</sup> The industry dummy variables are based on the industries shown in Table 2.<sup>33</sup> The region dummy variables represent thirteen states in Brazil and fi ve cities in China. Finally, we rely on information on the plant’s main manager level of education as a proxy for manager quality using three dummy variables: managers with secondary education, managers with college education and managers with graduate education.

# 3.2. Cross-Tabulation Results

The results from cross-tabulations between the wage bill shares of different measures of skilled labor and either measures of absorptive capacity or international economic activities are presented in Table 4 for Brazil (Panel A) and China (Panel B).<sup>34</sup> For each country, we calculate the difference between the average wage bill share of skilled workers for (i) plants with "better" absorptive capacity or (ii) plants "more" engaged in international economic activities and the average wage bill share of skilled workers for other plants and we test whether those differences in averages are statistically signi fi cant.<sup>35</sup> In Brazil, there is a positive and signi fi cant correlation between the wage bill share of skilled workers and both measures of absorptive capacity and international activities, however skills are measured. In China, the measures of absorptive capacity and FDI are also positively and signi fi cantly associated with wage bill

> 32As industries differ signi fi cantly in their capital intensity, the elimination is done for each industry separately.
governance. We now turn to examining whether high passport costs act as a barrier to migration. We employ migration stock data based on country of birth from version 4 of the bilateral migration stock database of Parsons, Skeldon, Walmsley and Winters (2005). This quantifies migration stock based largely on the population censuses taken in 2000/01. We then calculate emigration stock as a percentage of each countries population in 2000.

Figure 3 plots the relationship between the proportion of emigrants a country has and its passport costs. The figure is truncated at passport costs of 20% of per capita income, effectively dropping the six most expensive countries in Table 2.<sup>9</sup> There is a clear negative relationship, with countries with higher passport costs having fewer emigrants. The only country with emigrant share above 10 percent of the population among those countries with passport costs above 5 percent of per capita income is Bosnia and Herzegovina, a clear outlier on the graph. The high emigrant share for this country is likely a result of large refugee migration as a result of the civil war in the mid-1990s.

# **Figure 3: Higher Passport Costs are Associated with Less Emigrants**

> 9 Of these countries, Nepal has a 2.2% migrant share, while the other countries have migrant shares under 1% (data on migrants unavailable for Ethiopia).

- 11 -