rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
are interesting. Although ASOVEREIGN is still significant, its coefficient drops from 0.80 to 0.28, while NONHINCM*ASOVEREIGN is significant and exhibits a large coefficient (0.65). This implies that bank rating changes are sensitive to sovereign rating changes in both high and NHICs but the sensitivity in the former countries is much smaller than in the latter countries (0.28 against 0.93).

In full conformity with the non-bank panel, the third specification includes the additional variable NONHINCM*ASOVEREIGN*DOWNSOV, i.e. the variable singling out only sovereign downgradings for NHICs. Although the results differ with respect to the non-bank panel, in qualitative terms they point to the same direction. First, ASOVEREIGN is still significant, and its coefficient doesn't change substantially with respect to the second specification (0.27 instead of 0.28). Second, NONHINCM*ASOVEREIGN is still significant too but its coefficient drops from 0.65 to 0.48. Third, NONHINCM*ASOVEREIGN*DOWNSOV is significant and its coefficient

**16** Specifically, we consider the year-minimum rating for the banks of the following 57 countries: Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Chile, China, Colombia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Ecuador, Egypt, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, India, Indonesia, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Korea, Lebanon, Luxembourg, Malaysia, Malta, Mauritius, Mexico, Morocco, Netherlands, Norway, Oman, Pakistan, Panama, Peru, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Singapore, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Taiwan, Thailand, Tunisia, Turkey, UK, USA.

**17** As noted above, here we can identify a long-term relation between bank and sovereign ratings, which is equal to 1 in the first specification, to 0.83 in the second, and to 0
- Jain, T. (2014): “Where There Is a Will: Fertility Behavior and Sex Bias in Large Families,” _Journal of Human Resources_ , 49.

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Goos, M. and A. Manning. 2007. “Lousy and Lovely Jobs: The Rising Polarization of Work in Britain”. _Review of Economics and Statistics_ , 89(1), pp. 118-33.

21
|0.14|<br>0.10|0.18||0.15|0.35|0.50|0.08|0.32|0.15||0.35|0.12|0.15|<br>0.07|0.23||
||0.77|0.85||0.61|0.78|<br>0.35|0.82||0.49|0.79|0.67|0.24|0.75|0.38||0.54|0.61|0.59|<br>0.23|0.75||
||0.11|0.20||0.14|0.16|<br>0.09|0.16||0.10|0.36|0.19|0.06|0.19|0.13||0.15|0.12|0.09|<br>0.02|0.07||

Note: Information retrieved from EUROMOD I4.0+. Transition shares are differently defined in selected countries and based on country-specific information. This is the case for Germany, Greece, Ireland, Lithuania, Latvia, Malta, Romania, and Slovakia. The applied shares are documented in the respective country-models. Transition shares from employment to monetary compensation schemes are defined by gender and aggregated sectors. Sector 1 refers to agriculture and industry; sector 2 refers to construction; sector 3 refers to wholesale, retail, transport, communication and financial intermediation; sector 4 refers to real estate and business, public administration and defence, education, health and social work and other sectors; sector 5 refers to hotels and restaurants.

Source: EUROSTAT based on LFS statistic 29
by the OECD Weekly Tracker. They find that a 1pp increase in the share of people vaccinated would increase weekly GDP by between 0.042 - 0.061 pp one month later. The economic impact of vaccination has not yet been measured in a developing country, and no study has examined impacts on micro-level outcomes in a developing country either.

Using CPHS data, we can examine the relationship between vaccination and individual labor market outcomes. In a Covid Special Module fielded by the World Bank, individuals were asked about their vaccination status and the number of doses they have taken. This information was collected during the 24th Wave of CPHS between September - December 2021 when all adults were eligible for vaccination. India’s vaccination campaign took place in a phased manner. Vaccination of frontline workers started on January 16, 2021; individuals above 60 years and above 45 years with co-morbidities on March 1, 2021; for all individuals above 45 years on April 1, 2021; and finally, for all adults on May 1, 2021. However, survey data on individual vaccination status was not collected until September 2021. Due to the panel structure of CPHS, we are able to observe outcomes for the 18-45 years age-group both before they were eligible for vaccines (January – April 2021) and after (September – December 2021). Hence, the results in this section exploiting the panel structure of the data restrict the sample to adults aged between 18-45 years.

24
Policy Research Working Paper 8943

# **Abstract**

This paper documents novel evidence of positive assortative matching in African marriage markets along cognitive and socio-emotional skills, time and risk preferences, and education, using data from rural Mozambique, Côte d’Ivoire, and Malawi.

This paper is a product of the Gender Innovation Lab, Africa Region. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/prwp. The authors may be contacted at jmontalvao@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent._ Produced by the Research Support Team
in the same segments of the population across time. The maps<sup>7</sup> in Figure 1 show the mean percentage of respondents for each of Sierra Leone’s 165 chiefdoms who view local government councillors as trustworthy. The number of chiefdoms in which the average percentage of respondents who view local government councillors as trustworthy grew from three in 2007 to twelve in 2008.

# **4.2.2 Explanatory Variables**

# **Local Government Service Provision: Health and Education**

The 2004 Local Government Act devolved to the 19 local councils (LC) a range of sectoral fiscal and administrative functions and responsibilities related to basic service delivery. While the LGA established a formal deadline (2008) for the devolution of functional responsibilities to LCs, in practice, the devolution has been slower than expected, with varying degrees of responsiveness from central Ministries and government agencies. As of 2011, 34 out of 80 functions remain to be devolved in accordance with the law (Larizza and Glynn, 2011, pp. 14-15). In the case of health care and the registration of births and deaths, the functions have been clearly devolved to LCs since 2005.

Community leaders and household respondents were asked a set of questions about the quality of health care. The community survey includes a question about whether the health clinic in the community has a functioning refrigerator, which is a proxy for the quality of health infrastructure. As the maps in Figure 2 show, the percentage of health clinics with a functioning refrigerator grew between 2007 and 2008. We include an indicator of the type of health facility in the communities — whether the health facility is run by the government, a private group or a mission or NGO. We include a measure of the level of access to the health clinic or hospital; the survey asked community leaders if individuals can get treatment at the clinic or hospital even if they only have a little money. We also include an individual-level measure of the quality of health care. Respondents
conditions, but these improvements did not actually impact workers’ day to day experiences (as captured in their answers to the labor force survey).<sup>11</sup> For instance, firms could instruct lowerlevel managers not to abuse workers, but the managers may not follow these directions. It is also – possible that working conditions may improve on some dimensions in particular, those that are – easier to scrutinize and get worse on others, leading to a net zero change in an aggregate index of working conditions. Thus, whether labor markets are perfectly competitive or monopsonistic, we anticipate that working conditions either increased, or did not change if the push toward better conditions was subverted by firms.

# **6.2 Contracts**

The international scrutiny that workers faced after Rana Plaza may have increased the uncertainty that firms face about the future. For instance, firms may perceive an increased likelihood that orders will be cancelled if audits find any issues in their factories. In this environment, firms would place increased value on flexibility, such as the ability to quickly scale up or down the size of their labor force, and they may be less likely to offer workers formal contracts. At the same time, if international scrutiny involved direct pressure related to contracts, firms might be more likely to offer formal contracts. Thus, the theoretical prediction on contracts is ambiguous, whether labor markets are perfectly competitive or monopsonistic.

# **6.3 Wages and labor supply in perfectly competitive labor markets**

If firms did respond to international scrutiny by improving working conditions, then this response could impact their wage in a world in which firms divide total compensation between wages – and non-wage benefits. In the context of a perfectly competitive labor market where total compensation was set at workers’ marginal product, pre Rana Plaza – this would mean that wages decreased a greater fraction of total compensation was shifted towards non-wage benefits (Summers, 1989, Mitchell, 1990, Almeida and Carneiro, 2012).

> 11This
cannot be rejected for transport. This can be explained by the fact that vehicle purchases, a large part of transport expenditures, are common goods for the household.

Among the studies that examine the determinants of transport demand, Gandelman et al. (2019) show that incomes, gender, and age explained the level of household transport expenditures in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). The authors use income and expenditure surveys and find that transport expenditures increase with income. In particular, the income elasticity of public transport is lower than one while the income elasticity of private transport is greater than one. We complement this paper by doing a similar exercise for a different set of countries and improve their empirical strategy by using a ZIP regression model which performs better given the large number of zero observations. In the same vein, Graham and Glaister (2002) demonstrate that the demand of owning a car depends strongly on income with an income elasticity for fuel demand that falls in the range of 1.1 to 1.3. In another study, Thakuriah and Liao (2006) use consumer expenditure survey data to examine the relationship between transport expenditures and income in the United States. They found that transport expenditures and income belong to a virtuous circle. Indeed, they argue that increase income implies an increase of transport expenditures and vice-versa. Moreover, Thakuriah and Liao (2005) use consumer expenditure survey data to examine vehicle ownership in the United States. Using a 5
foods and beverages<br>consumed, requires some data on quantity<br>of consumption|• Valid quantitative measure of<br>nutrient adequacy and NCD risk<br>for men and women 15+ years<br>• Validated against health outcomes|• Limited availability of nationally<br>representative datasets (~7 LMIC,<br>as of 23-Jun-2023)<br>• Using both sub-scores is more<br>informative than using combined<br>score|
|**Global Dietary Database**<br>**(GDD) – 54 dietary risk**<br>**factors**|• Derived from modeling approach using<br>nationally or subnationally representative<br>surveys<br>• Model generates means for 54 dietary<br>factors for 185 countries|• Dietary intakes estimated for most<br>food groups, stratified by<br>demographic characteristics<br>(education, urban/rural residence)<br>• Validated with health outcomes|• For countries without 24-hour<br>dietary recall data, GDD estimates<br>are modeled based on existing data<br>sources<br>• Modeled data may be unclear to<br>non-experts|

> 5 DQ-Q also allows for monitoring intake of ultra-processed foods and is tracked in a way that has some relevance for sustainable diets.

29
|
|R-squared|0.293|0.319|0.024|0.059|0.065|0.062|
|# of EAs|433|433|433|433|290|143|
|N|13391|13391|13062|12937|9337|3600|

_Notes:_ This table provides estimates of the impact of logarithm of refugee intensity on logarithm of total household consumption expenditure per adult equivalent. Household sample weights from ESS2 applied. The first four columns report results for all households, while columns (5) and (6) report results for rural and urban households, respectively. All columns control for round FEs. Further, column (1) controls for woreda fixed effects, column (2) controls for EA FEs, and all other columns control for household (HH) FEs. Columns (4) to (6) additionally control for 12 time-varying characteristics. The coefficient estimates for these 12 control variables are not reported here, but can be available on request. Robust standard errors clustered at EA level are given in parenthesis. I report the overall and the within R-squared in the first two and other columns, respectively. Asterisks: *, **, and *** indicate statistical significance at 10%, 5%, and 1% levels, respectively.

53
impact of nitrogen pollution on health in other geographic settings: Vietnam and 33 countries in Africa.

# _Data for Vietnam_

The water quality data come from the Mekong River Commission (MRC), which collects data for four countries (Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand, and Vietnam) spanning the years 1985‐2010, and cover the main tributaries of the Mekong River. Our health data come from the latest Vietnam Living Standards Survey (VLSS) of 1997–98 where we focus on the health outcomes of children aged 4 to 12 years. The VLSS 97–98 was a nationally representative survey that sampled almost 6,000 households across the country. For each member of the surveyed household, the survey contains information on gender, year of birth, age, and anthropometric outcomes. At the household level, information is available on the ethnicity of the household head and the province of residence. Our sample is restricted to those who have always resided in the same place. Because nitrate‐nitrogen levels in Vietnam are relatively lower, exposure to nitrate pollution is examined at levels that are above the 75th percentile in the distribution, or roughly 7
/11/covid-19-high-frequency-monitoring-dashboard. The</u> dashboard currently includes 126 indicators covering 15 topics for 64 countries, with multiple rounds of data for some countries.

> 6 See Bundervoet et al (2021) and Kugler et al (2021) for detailed discussions.

> 7 The respondents were household heads in all countries where the phone surveys were sampled from a nationallyrepresentative pre-pandemic survey.

9
This paper attempts to analyze these three potential sources of bias in Mozambique’s national poverty figures and to isolate their effects on the final estimates. Revised estimates are also proposed; although tentative, the revised estimates are more consistent with a range of poverty correlates and with the historic geographical welfare distribution of the country. The paper is organized as follows: Section 2 presents an overview of potential measurement errors in the 2002/03 and 2008/09 surveys, it also describes our strategy for identifying observations affected by measurement errors and re-estimating them; Section 3 deepens the analysis of the relationship between consumption underreporting and the PLs and proposes an alternative methodology for calculating the PLs; Section 4 presents the results of using new PLs based on revised estimates of observations likely affected by underreporting and discusses the consequent differences between the official and revised poverty levels and trends over time; Section 5 concludes the analysis.

# **2.  Measurement Errors in Consumption Estimates**

## **2.1 Underreported consumption**

This section reports the most relevant general findings regarding the apparent underestimation of consumption and describes the background and rationale for the present work. This analysis has two objectives: first, it seeks to identify a subset of potentially downward-biased observations in foodconsumption reporting in the IOF 2008/09 data and, second, it attempts to examine and evaluate the possible sources of this bias. We explore the consumption data from three perspectives: overall calorie intake, dietary diversity patterns, and food-share patterns.

About 30 percent of households reported consuming an average of less than 1,000 k-calories per capita per day, which is considered to be below the minimum standard for survival by the World Health Organization (WHO 1985). Moreover, in some Southern regions of Mozambique median calorie intake is below even this basic threshold. Following the strategy described above, we run an OLS regression model in which per-capita consumption expenditure is regressed against poverty correlates. A clear pattern of error terms (not shown) becomes apparent: observations with a calorie intake
Global Trade, Assistance, and Production: The GTAP 8 Data Base</mark>_ <mark>, Center for Global Trade Analysis, Purdue University</mark> Escaith, Hubert (2014) “International Supply Chains, Trade in Value-Added and Development: A Small Economy's Perspective” (July 5, 2013). Available at SSRN: <u>https://ssrn.com/abstract=2536952or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2536952</u> Grossman, G.M and E. Rossi-Hansberg (2008), “Trading Tasks: A Simple Theory of Offshoring”, American Economic Review, 98(5), 1978-97.

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Chernozhukov, V., Demirer, M., Duflo, E., & Fernández-Val, I. (2023). Fisher-schultz lecture: Generic machine learning inference on heterogenous treatment effects in randomized experiments, with an application to immunization in india.

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- Hebous,
on MOLISA, VGCT, GSO, World Bank WDI and IMF WEO data. Notes: “**  **” denotes projections. Depicted are non-government sector minimum wages.**

As is evident from Figure 3, Vietnam’s non-government domestic sector minimum wages have been rising rapidly. Their real rate of increase has been in or near the double digits for each of the last ten years. Growth was particularly rapid in 2012 when minimum wages in the domestic sector and the FDI sector were aligned. The prolonged period of high growth rates has led to today’s situation where minimum wage levels are high by international standards (and therefore a threat for job creation and

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