rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
for gross and net revenue excluding family labor (Rs 16,693 _vs._ Rs. 22,062 and Rs 11,051 _vs._ Rs 14,565, respectively). Interestingly, and consistent with predictions, this difference in net revenues is not due to higher levels of input use on _barga_ plots; to the contrary, intensity of fertilizer, pesticide, seed, draught power, and family labor use are significantly lower on _barga_ plots, as one would expect.

Data on investment suggest that land-attached investment is much lower on _barga_ than on owned plots. Although access to irrigation is a coarse measure only, we find a 10 point difference in access to private irrigation, largely borewells, which exist on 54% of owned but 44% of _barga_ plots. By contrast, there is no difference between owned and _barga_ plots in access to public irrigation.<sup>10</sup> Flows of less observable investments to maintain or improve land quality point in the same direction: Over the last 8 years, such investment was undertaken on 39% of owned vs. 12% of _barga_ plots. Amounts of capital and family labor spent on such investment in 2007 are 3 and 4 times larger on the former (Rs. 203 _vs._ 51 and 6.8 _vs._ 1.8 days, respectively). Econometric analysis can help to more clearly assess the magnitude of tenancyinduced effects.

> 10 This can be consistent with the finding that tenancy reforms, institutional credit, and public support through distribution of minikits fostered irrigation investment and drops in water prices that benefited all farmers and drove the 1980s and 90s green revolution (Bardhan, Mookherjee, and Kumar 2009).

10
Vickery, 1977). Inability to access justice processes also exaggerates other inequalities that render the poor time-poor. The wealthy enjoy chlorinated water, regular and directly bank-deposited salaries often with automatically deducted pension and health care contributions. The poor expend time and scarce resources to organize and engage justice processes to obtain these items (Banerjee and Duflo, 2011). A CBT needs to understand and respond to the logic of how poor people cope individually and collectively in specific contexts. Existing measures of access to justice (e.g. the World Justice Project Rule of Law Index) (The World Justice Project, 2019) alongside data collected by governments and development actors, may be incorporated into a CBT. Using CBA tools that incorporate heterogenous outcomes is important in order to determine how resources directed to eliminate barriers to justice can be efficiently and effectively allocated.

7
Tunisian Labor Force Survey, unemployment among youth (aged 29 or below) holding a university degree increased from 34 percent in 2005 to 56 percent in 2011. These figures are suggestive of a long education-to-work transition for university graduates. University graduates constitute a large share of unemployed youth in Tunisia. While tertiary educated youth (15-29 years old) made up less than 16 percent of those employed in the Tunisian labor market in 2010, they accounted for over 34 percent of the unemployed. In this context, the graduates’ employment problem has become one of the main concerns for policymakers in Tunisia.

As part of a Development Policy Loan aiming to support a broad set of employment policies in Tunisia, an innovative entrepreneurship track was introduced into the tertiary curriculum in academic year 2009/10. Up to then, during the last semester of the applied undergraduate curriculum, students took an internship and wrote an academic thesis as graduation requirements. In June 2009, the Ministry of Education and Higher Education passed a reform creating an entrepreneurship track where students would receive business training and coaching to develop a business plan. In August 2009, the Ministries of Education and Higher Education and of Vocational Training and Labor jointly signed an order to allow students to graduate by submitting their business plan instead of a traditional thesis. The newly established entrepreneurship track aimed primarily at increasing self-employment and fostering an entrepreneurship culture among university graduates, as well as more broadly at improving participants’ employment outcomes.

To increase students’ awareness of the new track, communication campaigns took place on campus and through the media to inform students about the newly introduced alternative to the standard curriculum. Once in the entrepreneurship track, students were offered support for developing a business plan through business training and personalized coaching. The entrepreneurship track provided students with: (i) entrepreneurship courses organized by the public employment office; (ii) external private sector coaches, mainly entrepreneurs or professionals in an industry relevant to the student’s business idea; and (iii) supervision from university professors in development and
leads to 19 different sectors, but only 10 sectors are manufacturing sectors. Moreover, the skills data generated from the GTAP IO tables cover only 3 years: 2004, 2007, and 2011. These data are matched with our GVC data according to these 3 years and for corresponding manufacturing sectors. A panel of three years of data is generated accordingly and used in the analysis. Our underlying assumption is that, we expect skilled labor content in exports to have a positive and significant impact on countries’ participation in GVCs while unskilled labor is expected to have less impact on GVC participation for a given country.

# **_b. Human capital index_**

The Human Capital Index (HCI), developed by the WBG, measures the human capital of the next generation. It captures the amount of human capital a child born today could expect to attain by age of 18, in view of prevailing risks associated with poor health and poor education in the country where she/he lives (WBG, 2018). The index has three components: survival, expected years of learning-adjusted school and health. The survival component is measured using the mortality rate of child under 5 years. This component reflects the fact that children born today need to survive before they can benefit from human capital accumulation through formal education. For expected years of learning-adjusted school, this component measures how much children learn in school based on countries’ relative performance on international student achievement tests. Finally, the health component combines adult survival rate and the rate of stunting for children under 5 years old to measure a country’s overall health environment. In this study, the HCI, which runs from zero to one, is used as a proxy to measure a country’s initial human capital endowment. A score of 1 means that a child born today in a country can expect to achieve both full education potential (i.e. 14 years of high-quality school by age of 18) and full health (i.e. no stunting and 100
distribution weight,</sup><sup>_σl_and</sup><sup>_τ_ ̃</sup><sup>_l_</sup> _j,t_<sup>are the trade-weighted</sup> average elasticities and trade costs in sector _l_ , respectively. Regions _j_ in this analysis are PR, U.S. and ROW.

It is straightforward to calibrate this expenditure function with data from PR’s IO table. Let _Sj,t_<sup>_l_be region</sup><sup>_j′s_observed share of Puerto Rican purchases of sector</sup><sup>_l_.</sup>

> 41For final demand categories other than private consumption, we replace expenditure with cost and utility with output and conduct the same calculations.

> 42Our data on PR’s purchases of its own output (and value added) do not allow us to calculate welfare at the same level of disaggregation as the structural regressions, so we aggregate _τJA_<sup>_k_’s and</sup> _σ_<sup>_k_</sup> ’s using trade weights and replace superscript _k_ with _l_ .

37
recently the availability of affordable and more reliable GPS devices has made GPS measurement a practical alternative that is increasingly being applied in surveys worldwide.

Being able to measure land with any degree of accuracy is clearly of outmost importance in economies that are largely agricultural based and for communities that derive a large share of their livelihood from agriculture and for whom land constitutes the main, when not the only, capital asset. In particular, an accurate measure of land size is necessary if one is to measure agricultural productivity with any degree of confidence.

This paper has shown that GPS technologies clearly hold promise for improving the accuracy in the collection of land size measures in the context of large household surveys. On the other hand, while we are not able to account in full for the determinants of the deviation between GPS and selfreported measures, we do find that self-reported land measures are a reasonable alternative in a well conducted survey, particularly for medium-sized farmers. The overall distribution as well as their mean and standard deviation, are fairly close to each other, and the measurement error did not change the substance of our productivity analysis. The respondents‟ rounding of responses can however create fairly serious differences in measurements, particularly when plots are small, as is the case here (but also in most of the developing regions).

The continuing fall in the price and increasing precisions and reliability of GPS devices make them an increasingly attractive element of every survey team toolbox. For mainly logistic reasons, however, GPS readings are hardly ever taken on all plots, and this raises concerns on the potential selectivity bias resulting from measuring only a sub-set of plots. While allocating adequate resources could go a long way in ensuring that this bias is reduced, farmer‟s self-reported measures must also be collected possibly together with information on the possible sources of the bias, to complement the GPS estimates and correct for potential biases. How to do that in practice is a subject that warrants further investigation.

13
Policy Research Working Paper 6419

# **Abstract**

This paper explores how the expansion of labor-intensive manufacturing exports resulting from the United States– Vietnam Bilateral Trade Agreement in 2001 translated into wages of skilled and unskilled workers and the skill premium in Vietnam through the channel of labor demand. In order to isolate the impacts of trade shock from the effects of other market-oriented reforms, a strategy of exploiting the regional variation in difference in exposure to trade is employed. Using the data on panel individuals from the _Vietnam Household Living Standards Surveys_ of 2002 and 2004, and addressing the issue of endogeneity, the results confirm the existence of a Stolper-Samuelson type effect. That is, those provinces more exposed to the increase in exports experienced relatively larger wage growth for unskilled workers and a decline of (or a smaller increase in) the relative wages of skilled and unskilled workers. During the period 2000– 2004, the skill premium increased for Vietnam’s economy as a whole in the sample of panel individuals. Thus, the Stolper-Samuelson type effect appears to have mitigated but did not outweigh the impacts of other factors that contributed to the rise in the skill premium.

This paper is a product of the Agriculture and Rural Development Team, Development Research Group. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://econ.worldbank.org. The author may be contacted at efukase@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of
this paper also suggests that there are differential effects across Brazilian regions. Agriculture is highly developed in Brazil’s south, southeast and center-west, with much lower productivity in the Legal Amazon (Souza-Rodrigues, 2019). States outside the Legal Amazon have already gone through a process of deforestation. This also suggests that the land supply there is already relatively low since natural forest stocks are used up in those areas and land markets are more developed (Helfand and Taylor 2018). Therefore, agricultural productivity gains in these parts of Brazil would reduce deforestation pressures by shifting more production to those parts of the country and away from the forests of the Legal Amazon.

Finally, this paper draws attention to the fact that deforestation is not merely a problem of the Legal Amazon states. While it is well known that global agricultural demand is a driver of deforestation in Brazil (Assunção et al. 2015) and globally (WRI, 2019), the role of economic development and deforestation within the Brazilian federation is less well researched. Cattaneo (2005, 2008) analyzed the differential effects of productivity increases in agriculture, when

> 4 According to Brazil’s 2019 National Accounts.

5
disaggregate by type of tourist. It could be assumed that tourist origins are significantly correlated with their income, and then as done in the literature, European and American tourists are considered as the representatives of tourist tastes and behavior. As noted above, flight arrivals from developed countries are connected only through Lisbon, and as such, it can be safely assumed that most tourists are from Europe.

Expenditures by tourists is also an outcome variable of interest. Expenditures associated with the activity of visitors have been traditionally identified with the travel item of the Balance of Payments (BOP). In the case of outbound tourism, those expenditures associated with resident visitors are registered as “debits” in the BOP and refer to “travel expenditure”. As in the case of _inbound tourism_ , BOP data are used. The 2008 International Recommendations for Tourism Statistics consider that “tourism industries and products” include transport of passengers. Consequently, a better estimate of the tourism-related expenditures by resident and non-resident visitors in an international scenario would be, in terms of the BOP, the value of the travel item plus that of the passenger transport item.

A key variable for our analysis is the average spending per tourist. Given information limitations, this is approximated by the ratio between Expenditure and Arrivals, measured as the log of the ratio Expenditure / Arrivals (LN_EA). This is a proxy of prices paid by a representative tourist. As noted above, this aggregate and average measure is not rich enough to study the prices of different tourism services _._ Supply-side information is used from airline schedules on numbers of flights and seats. This corresponds to the total number of flights reported by commercial airlines among the destinations (including local flights within countries) and the seats that were reported available from each flight.

8
# **1. INTRODUCTION**

Sub-Saharan Africa will be undergoing substantial demographic changes in the coming decades with the rising working age share of its population. Recent analyses suggest that demographic dividends in the region could account for 11 to 15 percent of GDP volume growth by 2030, while accounting for 40 million to 60 million fewer poor in 2030 (Ahmed et al. 2016). However, the realization and magnitude of demographic dividends for a given African country would depend on their current demographic profile and their trends in their demographic changes, as well as their ability to create an appropriate enabling environment (World Bank 2015a). An appropriate enabling environment would include improvements in educational attainment and quality, labor productivity, savings and investment, and job creation.

This paper examines how demographic dividends may play out in the economically linked but otherwise diverse Southern African Customs Union (SACU) economies, when presented with similar economic policy outcomes. SACU economies - Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, South Africa, and Swaziland – have relatively diverse demographic and economic starting points. This diversity is present in terms of their demographic profile, as evidenced by South Africa being further along in the demographic transition process than the other countries. The diversity is also present in terms of their development indicators, as illustrated by the relatively lower educational attainment rates in Lesotho and Swaziland, or the extremely high unemployment rates in South Africa.

Three broad questions are addressed:

- 1) What is the potential contribution of demographic change to growth in the different SACU economies?

- 2) What is the potential effect of demographic change on poverty reduction for SACU economies?

- 3) What policy intervention might have the largest impact on the size of a SACU economy’s demographic dividend?

Several different possible scenarios for demographic change and development in the SACU economies are considered following the approach of Ahmed et al. (2016) where a global dynamic simulation model is applied in tandem with a microsimulation model based on harmonized household and labor force survey data. Demographic changes in
18.31|45.94|18.47|
|Panel E: Industries characteri|stics||||||||
|Low-educated workers|64.20|33.09|59.46|31.65|59.94|32.03|56.20|31.57|
|High-educated workers|35.80|33.09|40.54|31.65|40.06|32.03|43.80|31.57|
|Female workers|31.96|31.12|33.62|30.43|30.85|27.17|30.01|27.27|
|Male workers|68.04|31.12|66.38|30.43|69.15|27.17|69.99|27.27|

Source: Authors’ calculations based on Susenas 2005-2015, Sakernas 2005-2015, and 2015-2016 Philippines STEP survey.

23
# Abbreviations and Acronyms

|AGOA|Africa Growth and Opportunity Act|
|---|---|
|ASYCUDA|Automated System for Customs Data|
|CAR|Central African Republic|
|CFTA|Continental Free Trade Area|
|CEMAC|Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa|
|CET|Common External tariff|
|CGE|Computable General Equilibrium|
|DB|Doing Business|
|DTIS|Diagnostic Trade Integration Study|
|ECOWAS|Economic Community of West African States|
|FCFA|Franc Communauté Financière Africaine|
|GDP|Gross Domestic Product|
|GVC|Global Value Chain|
|ICT|Information and Communication Technology|
|NTBs|Non-Tariff Barriers|
|RCA|Releveled Comparative Advantage|
|REC|Regional Economic Communities|
|ROW|Rest of the World|
|SME|Small and Medium Enterprises|
|TFA|Trade Facilitation Agreement|
|WAEMU|Economic and Monetary Union for West Africa|
|WBG|World Bank Group|
|WTO|World Trade Organization|

i
al., 2024).

Third, the paper brings in evidence from a rural, low-income context regarding the feasibility and utility of physical activity tracking data collection for time use measurement – a topic that has not been the subject of previous research – based on a significantly larger sample of human subjects vis-à-vis earlier work in low-income countries. While accelerometers<sup>3</sup> are widely used to document physical activity levels for specific population groups (see Troiano et al., 2008 and Colley et al., 2011, and the studies cited therein), the vast majority of accelerometer data collection campaigns has been implemented in high-income contexts. The uses of accelerometers in low-income contexts, and specifically as part of socioeconomic surveys and development research, have been rare events, except for a handful of small-scale studies (Benefice et al., 2001; Assah et al., 2011; Christensen et al., 2012; Zanello et al., 2017; Picchioni et al., 2020; Srinivasan et al., 2020).

The paper is organized as follows. Section 2 describes the data collection steps and provides descriptive statistics of the data. Section 3 presents the methodology of data preprocessing, and the machine learning models. Section 4 discusses the results, focusing on model outcomes, model and data validation, and insights into activity patterns of various population groups. Section 5 applies the trained model on actual data to obtain the time allocation of Malawian people. Section 6 concludes and draws implications for future work.

# **2 Data**

# **2.1 The datasets**

The data used in this paper were collected in the Ntcheu and Zomba districts of Malawi in 2017 as part of a larger methodological survey experiment on measurement of agricultural labor, managed by the World Bank Living Standards Measurement Study (LSMS). This was in collaboration with the World Bank’s Gender Group, Development Research Group, the Active Living Research (ALR) team at the

> 3 See Chen et al
being accessible places developed through inclusive processes. While much has been written on the topic by urban designers and architects, most of this literature consists of theoretical design principles or case studies situating public spaces in the historical context of specific cities (see, for example, Madanipour, 2013). It is generally acknowledged that public spaces are promising sites to promote social interaction and cohesion (Buijs at al., 2010), but to our knowledge, there are no rigorous assessments of whether urban design can foster intergroup exposure by increasing the willingness of citizens from diverse backgrounds to use a public space.

This study makes two contributions to the relatively scant literature on social cohesion, intergroup exposure, and public spaces. First, it sheds some light on the link between urban design and social cohesion, pointing to potential interactions and trade-offs between the two, in the context of a socially diverse megacity. Second, it takes advantage of innovative VR technology to generate empirical evidence on an understudied area, namely the interplay between intergroup exposure and urban design of public spaces. The findings not only have implications for policy makers on building cohesion in socially stratified societies, but also illustrate the value of technology in identifying and addressing behavioral barriers to social interaction.

# **3. Study Design, Data, and Methodology**

This study was conducted in Karachi between April and May 2019. Over 2,000 youth between the ages of 18 and 30 years old<sup>4</sup> were recruited from 21 randomly selected locations across the city to participate in the intervention. The locations for the experiment were selected from 50 localities included in the list of Urban Census Circle, with an average of 96 participants per location. To recruit the participants, data collectors identified target individuals in public places (e.g., colleges, universities, shopping malls, cinemas, parks or theatres), as well as used door-to-door recruiting and provided transportation to a nearby field office for participants to take the experiment.

The sampling method was
: Authors’ calculations using SEDLAC data.

not show the change in average job quality across time for the different employment sectors, the change in job quality does not seem to be associated with a substantial structural change in the type of work. With the exception of the mining industry which witnessed a small decline in job quality in all years, the rise in job quality was uniformly distributed across the different job sectors.

The growth of good jobs across the different countries reveals similar patterns. Figure 7 displays the job quality trends across each of the Latin American countries in the sample. Nicaragua is omitted since there is only one year of data. For most of these countries, the overall trend is unambiguously positive. There is a slight decline 22