rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
in tenure security increases investment in agriculture; instead, we find that _nonfarm_ investments increase in households provided with land titles.

Field (2007) documented important labor supply effects of improved land property rights as time otherwise used to “guard” property against expropriation in urban Peru. Goldstein et al. (2018) find that women farmers respond to a land formalization program by moving production away from relatively secure towards less secure land in order to guard those parcels.

Land tenure rights that are based on land use are at the heart of our analysis. Cultivators maintain usufruct rights over land only by continuing to cultivate that land; otherwise land might be expropriated without compensation. This generates an incentive to cultivate more land, with more investment, than a farmer otherwise would. Exogenous improvements in tenure security may reduce the need for the cultivator to make these defensive investments. This argument is parallel to that made by Giles and Mu (2014) and Zhao (2014), who describe periodic land reallocations in Chinese villages based on the recent history of each resident family’s land use, and with that of De Janvry et al. (2015), who describe a similar process in Mexican _ejidos_ . In both cases, expected future landholdings increase with the amount of land currently self-cultivated, and with the intensity of ownlabor used on that land. And in both cases, off-farm labor and migration are discouraged by the insecurity of land tenure. Our findings are consistent with the idea that the security of a farmer’s tenure over land are endogenous to her cultivation choices, and thus that she might have an incentive to use extra resources in cultivation to reduce the chance of expropriation.

The context of the title registration pilot is important. While most studies that investigate the effects of land titling concentrate on either rural or urban households, this study builds on data collected in a peri-urban setting. That is, in the study location there is considerable competition among alternative land uses: agricultural, commercial and residential. The increasing rate of urbanization
randomized evaluation design. PEC is a major school-based management program launched in 2001 by the Mexican federal government to improve the quality of public schools in urban areas. In Colima, the state government enjoyed certain flexibility in the implementation of the intervention.

Our study contributes to the previous literature in two ways. First, the random allocation of PEC benefits to schools permits the unbiased identification of the effect of this SBM initiative on education outcomes. We can isolate the impact of PEC from that of other educational reform initiatives that may be simultaneously operating in the school. Second, the short- and mediumterm impacts of the program can be analyzed due to 12 years of information on the program in Colima and eight years of student test scores.

We take advantage of these factors to assess the short- and medium-term impacts of PEC over eight school years – from school year 2006-07 to school year 2012-13 – on school performance and student learning. More specifically, we follow a sample of 98 experimental primary schools where we have randomized the allocation of benefits. The present study follows two alternative strategies to identify the effects of PEC on test scores. The first compares treatment and control groups exogenously determined by a randomization. The second strategy exploits the differencein-difference approach to investigate the intensity of the treatment over time on test scores.

The comparison of means between Treatment and Control schools did not detect any impact of the intervention on learning outcomes. However, the difference-in-difference shows that the intensity of treatment increased test scores during the time of the intervention and after. The intuition behind these results is that the participating schools, control and treatment, were SBM schools before, during and after the intervention; a formal SBM intervention with a cash grant was not enough to improve learning outcomes in schools with regular SBM practices. However, the program has a heterogeneous impact on test scores conditional on the level of intensity-in terms of years participating in the program-of the treatment.

# **BACKGROUND AND RECENT TRENDS**

A small, well-connected state, with just two major urban
fraction of students from every quintile is concentrated in the middle tiers. Because of this “thick middle,” cumulative performance varies little, on average, across abilities. A similar picture holds for year 5 (panel b), although by then all the performance distributions are more concentrated in the top three tiers. Further, the performance distribution for low-ability students is more dispersed than that of high-ability students in both years.

**Figure 6: Tiers of Cumulative Classes Completed, by Ability.**

<!-- Start of picture text --> 60 60<br>50 50<br>40 40<br>30 30<br>20 20<br>10 10<br>0 0<br>1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5<br>Ability quintile Ability quintile<br>Tier 1 Tier 2&3 Tier 4 Tier 1 Tier 2&3 Tier 4<br>Percent Percent<br><!-- End of picture text --> <!-- Start of picture text --> a. Year 1 b. Year 5<br><!-- End of picture text --> _Source_ : Calculations based on SPADIES for students from the 2006 entry cohort (first semester). _Notes_ : For students of a given ability who start year 1, panel a shows their classification into tiers of cumulative classes completed by the end of year 1. Panel b does the same for students beginning year 5.

# _Fact 6: Higher-ability students attempt a higher number of classes._

Although a student cannot fully control her performance, she can control the number of classes she attempts (registers for) in a given year. While she may not pass all the classes attempted, the number of attempts is informative of her intended effort. As Figure 8 shows, on average students attempt fewer than the 20 required classes. In addition, on average high-ability students attempt more classes than low-ability students. We will
e., agriculture, manufacturing, retail, and other services, including construction). The sampling frame excluded micro-firms and/or businesses in agriculture in some countries. In other countries, when micro-businesses were included, the survey instrument offered simplified versions of some questions to facilitate data collection. The sampling frame in most countries where the BPS was not run as a follow-up of the Enterprise Survey was based on censuses from Statistics Agencies, Ministries of Finance or Economy, or business listings from Business Associations and typically only included registered businesses.

Our paper uses three waves of data from the Business Pulse Surveys for three Central Asian countries: the Kyrgyz Republic, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. The first wave was implemented in August-September 2020, the second wave was implemented in May-July 2021, and the third wave was implemented in March-May 2022. The survey data was collected by interviewing respondents on the phone. In Kyrgyzstan, 1,743 firms were interviewed in the first wave, 1,025 in the second wave, and 1,075 in the third wave. In Tajikistan, 1,690 firms were interviewed in the first wave, 1,032 in the second wave, and 1,031 in the third wave. In Uzbekistan, 1,886 firms were interviewed in the first wave, followed by 1,008 firms and 1,017 firms in the second and third waves, respectively. The sample frame was based on the statistical data from the National Statistical Committees of each country during the first wave in 2020. For the later waves, the list of companies was updated by using lists of business associations and internal lists of entrepreneurs from the survey firm. Data was collected on firms across all four sizes (micro, small, medium, and large) and four sectors (agriculture, manufacturing, retail, and other services).

The analysis in our paper is conducted using a balanced panel of firms. To limit the potential noise induced by the variation in our sample of firms across BPS waves, our analysis focuses
br>140 134<br>130<br>120<br>117<br>120<br>125 125<br>107 121 120<br>110<br>113<br>100 107<br>104<br>90<br>2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018<br>Bottom 40 Top 60 Overall<br><!-- End of picture text --> <!-- Start of picture text --> Source : World Bank calculations using data from TUIK<br><!-- End of picture text -->

> 14 The decision to use the Bottom 40 and Top 60 as opposed to the 1st and 10th deciles has to do with a relatively large number of workers from the bottom decile with zero earnings. Since the population of interest for this part (full-time workers) is not the full population, the Bottom 40 and Top 60 do not match exactly the groups defined using total per capita consumption or total per capita income.

20
The existing price indexes for Mexican states do not allow comparisons of cost of living across states. For this reason we create two indices using the ending module of the National Survey of Household Income and Spending (ENIGH 1992/8 Encuesta Nacional de Ingresos y Gastos de los Hogares). Since food likely comprises a larger share of the consumption basket in LDCs,<sup>6</sup> we generate a Laspeyres Index of a consumption basket of 200 items where the price and basket of reference are the national average in 1992. The housing price index was created using hedonic prices for rented houses only and is analogous to those used in the industrial country literature. Housing characteristics include number of rooms; kitchen; bathroom; electricity; telephone; water drainage and potable water; and type of walls, floors and ceilings and community size. Both indexes were included separately and as an average measure of the cost of living and were included free standing to allow for the effects described above. The most satisfactory results were gained with an average measure and these we report.

<u>Amenities:</u> Price indices, however, may also simply reflect amenities available in the new area, implying a positive relation with migration decisions. Further, as Roback (1982) showed, they affect equilibrium wages as well and hence should be included as part of the net utility change of moving from one region to another. A measure of amenities across Mexican states was created by the National Institute of Economic and Geographical Information using the 2000 General Census of Population and Housing. However, it includes measures of labor market tightness as well as migration variables (percentage of resident population who were born in other states and percentage residing in other states), variables whose influence we are trying to separate out. We therefore create a new index incorporating information on the percentage of the population living in urban areas, mortality rates, health infrastructure (number of nurses per capita, doctors per capita, hospitals per capita, beds) education
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- Disdier, A.-C., Fontagné, L., and Cadot, O. (2014). North-south standards harmonization and international trade. _The World Bank Economic Review_ , 29(2):327–352.

- Disdier, A.-C., Stone, S., and van Tongeren, F. (2020). Trade and Economic Effects of IRC: Further Empirical Evidence from SPS and TBT provisions. PSE Working Papers hal-02953673, HAL.

- Espitia, A., Pardo, S., Piermartini, R., and Rocha, N. (2020). Technical barriers to trade. In _Handbook of Deep Trade Agreements_ , pages 343–366. The World Bank.

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24

# **V. Conclusions**

Over the last twelve years, many countries have substantially reformed components of their bank-regulatory regimes. Based on our analyses of the pros and cons of a wide range of bank regulations (BCL, 2006), there is no reason for believing that countries around the world have primarily reformed for the better. While many have followed the Basel guidelines and strengthened capital regulations and empowered supervisory agencies, existing evidence does not suggest that this will improve banking-system stability, enhance the efficiency of intermediation, or reduce corruption in lending. The empirical work above is compromised by some missing data, but certainly no one would read these results and come away with greater faith in the Basel approach to bank regulation and supervision.

While our preliminary examination of the data challenges the confident proclamations of many observers about improvements in bank regulation and supervision, the qualifications associated with these results should be emphasized. We are merely taking a first look at the latest survey data. Much work remains in assessing which regulatory and supervisory policies work best in different countries.
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a proxy for initial levels of urbanization does not change our findings. We can use these insights to predict which settlements are experiencing a large inflow of displaced people, with a true positive rate of 66 percent.

This paper provides a first basis for better understanding the drivers and spatial characteristics of settlement growth. Future expansions of the methodology could draw on additional sources of geospatial data (e.g., shifts in vegetation density due to drought). Evidence from the ground suggests that there are regional differences across

> 11 The regressions were run including the average, median, standard deviation, minimum and maximum of NTL in settlements during the year 2018, the year 2020 and the difference between the two.

11
# 3. Indirect debt data disclosure

How is Debt Sustainability Analysis (DSA) formulated for all LIDCs<sup>18</sup> on a regular basis despite limited or inexistent direct reporting, as described in Section 2? This is possible because DSAs are supported by data collected and managed by the IMF and the WB. National authorities engage in indirect reporting by providing these international financial institutions (IFIs) and other external agents with data either through participation in existing reporting initiatives or disclosing data upon request.

LIDCs may report debt data to four main statistical databases hosted by the IMF and WB, which are closely aligned with international definitions: Quarterly Public Sector Debt Statistics (QPSDS), Quarterly External Debt Statistics (QEDS), Government Finance Statistics (GFS, annual), and the Debtor Reporting System (DRS). As these databases were created for different purposes, their debt coverage and definitions differ (WB, IMF, 2020c, Annex 2). The DRS provides the most granular data breakdown, it also has the broadest coverage for external debt, and is the only compulsory data disclosure exercise whilst the others are voluntary. Countries that have borrowed from IDA at least once are supposed to complete DRS standardized templates on their external public and publicly guaranteed (PPG) debt on a quarterly and annual basis. These data are then revised by WB staff<sup>19</sup> and published in the International Debt Statistics (IDS).<sup>20</sup> Other IFIs or regional Institutions maintain databases with narrower geographical or instrument coverage (e.g., African Development Bank’s Bond Market Database or the forthcoming Institute of International Finance’s database on external commercial debt). Additional databases that rely on one or multiple existing indirect sources add to the complexity of this environment .<sup>21</sup> In parallel to this structured data collection, indirect reporting may occur as a response to _ad-hoc_ requests coming from the same IFIs; this could be for IMF
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14. Velasco, V. y col. 2003. “Muestreo y Tamaño de Muestra. Una guía práctica para personal de salud que realiza investigación”. e-libro.net. Buenos Aires 15. Salganik M, Heckathorn D. 2004. “Sampling and Estimation in Hidden Populations Using Respondent-Driven Sampling”. Sociological Methodology, Vol. 34. (2004), pp. 193-239 16. Muhib F, Lin L, et al. 2001. “A venue-based method for sampling hard-to-reach populations”. Public Health Rep. 2001; 116(Suppl 1): 216–222.

17. UNAIDS/WHO/UNICEF. 2008. “Epidemiological fact sheets on HIV and AIDS”. <u>http://www.unaids.org/en/KnowledgeCentre/HIVData/Epidemiology/epifactsheets.as p</u> 40
Thus outside the general government sector, the ratio of the statutory minimum to the median wage appears relatively high.<sup>2</sup>

**Figure 2 –Statutory minimum wages relative to mean and median wages**

<!-- Start of picture text --> Minimum relative to mean wages Minimum relative to median wages<br>Philippines Philippines<br>Cambodia Cambodia<br>Indonesia Thailand<br>Thailand Indonesia<br>New Zealand Turkey<br>Vietnam non-government Chile<br>Slovenia France<br>France Slovenia<br>Ireland New Zealand<br>Australia Vietnam non-government<br>Mongolia Israel<br>Chile Portugal<br>Israel Australia<br>Belgium<br>Hungary<br>Netherlands<br>Lithuania<br>Lithuania<br>Belgium<br>Hungary Poland<br>Poland<br>Romania<br>Canada<br>Mongolia<br>United Kingdom Latvia<br>Turkey<br>Ireland<br>Portugal<br>Netherlands<br>Slovak Republic<br>Latvia United Kingdom<br>Korea Slovak Republic<br>Spain Greece<br>Romania Canada<br>Luxembourg Korea<br>Japan Luxembourg<br>Estonia Spain<br>Czech Republic Japan<br>Greece Estonia<br>Mexico United States<br>United States Mexico<br>Vietnam government Czech Republic<br>China Vietnam government<br>Lao Lao<br>0% 25% 50% 75% 100% 0% 25% 50% 75% 100%<br><!-- End of picture text -->

**Sources: OECD (2014); World Bank (2014a); World Bank staff calculations based on 2013 labor force survey.**

**Notes: Full time workers; data are for 2013 (2008 for Laos; 2009 for Cambodia, Mongolia and Thailand; 2010 for China, Indonesia and Philippines);
Policy Research Working Paper 8938

# **Abstract**

This analysis assesses the role of skills, human capital endowment, and migration as determinants of Sub-Saharan Africa’s participation in manufacturing global value chains. Due to lack of reliable data on skilled labor, skilled and unskilled labor contents in exports were generated from the Global Trade Analysis Project database. A panel of 23 countries for which data on skills and manufacturing global value chains are available for 19 subsectors was constructed. A fixed-effect gravity model was used to estimate the determinants of backward and forward global value chain participation. The estimates obtained from the sample are compared with global data covering 115 countries for benchmarking purposes. The results indicate that for economies in Sub-Saharan Africa, skilled labor seems to be the strongest determinant of participation in backward and forward global value chains. Similarly, initial human capital endowment has a strong positive impact on global value chain participation at the global level. However, countries with relatively high initial capital endowment benefit more by incorporating foreign value-added products in their manufacturing exports. Finally, countries that receive net inflows of migrants tend to engage better in backward and forward global value chains than those with net outflows of migrants. The findings suggest that policies to improve Sub-Saharan Africa’s integration in manufacturing global value chains should target: shifting from unskilled to skilled labor-intensive backward and forward global value chain activities; upgrading the quality of the labor force, since unskilled workers are so far the most available and the most used in manufacturing global value chains; investing in the quality of human capital; and promoting intraregional skills mobility.

This paper is a product of the Office of the Chief Economist, Africa Region, commissioned as part of the _‘Industrialization for Jobs in Africa’_ regional study. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/prwp