rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
0.668|0.523|0.458|0.879|0.826|

_∗ ∗∗ ∗∗∗ p <_ 0 _._ 1, _p <_ 0 _._ 05, _p <_ 0 _._ 01. In each case, Model (2) corrects for selection bias (the occurrence of zero-export) using the dummy variable approach, as in previous tables. Significance of coefficients is based on robust standard errors.

Focusing on the models that account for selection-bias (Model (2) in the second, fourth and sixth columns of the table), we see that institutions have a favorable differential effect on the export of contractive-intensive products. Moreover, the effect materializes through both the intensive and extensive margins. Consistent with the results from aggregate data, more of the influence comes about through the intensive margin.

# **5.3 Robustness Checks**

In this subsection, we conduct a variety of sensitivity analyses to check the robustness of our main results. We employ an alternative definition of institutional quality, re-estimate the relationship in sub-samples (within OECD, within non-OECD, within region and across region trade), and reassess the basic hypothesis with Poisson regression.

**Contract Enforcement** As our first robustness check, we re-estimate the relationships assessed earlier using an alternative measure of institutional quality – _contract enforcement_ . The results for the extended model (with regional dummy variable interactions) are presented in Table 9. As the coefficients of the interaction between a country’s contract enforcement and the sectoral contract-intensity measure indicate, there is a robust positive effect of institutional quality on export intensity that rises with the contract-intensity of sectors (in non-OECD countries). The same is true for OECD members, even though the effect is relatively smaller in the OECD sample. This confirms the results in Table 6. Moreover, and again in line with the findings in Table 6, the relatively lower return to contract enforcement in OECD (compared to non-OECD) countries
and that open trade regimes are more conducive to growth.<sup>8</sup> Mor-eover, virtually all recent development success stories have been based on strong indlustrial export growth and relatively low barriers to imports - Chile, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Mauritius, and Singapore - or continually falling barriers - the Republic of Korea and Taiwan (China). Industrial sectors in these economies not only have higher export: growth but generate more employment as well; and trade reforms have usually been accompanied by increased flows of foreign investment.

An effective trade policy is central to the integration of developing countries into the international economic system and the growth that will generate. It provides links with international markets, and, together with the exchange rate, forms the transmission mechanism through which international trade affects domestic resource allocation, the efficient and competitive restructuring of industry and agriculture, access to new and diverse technologies, improved incentives to exporters, and reduction of smuggling, rentseeking<sup>9</sup> and corruption in customs.

Tariff policy is the centerpiece of trade policy in a markei: system. Tariffs are, with very few exceptions, the only acceptable policy tool for pro tection under the GATT/WTO. They are superior to alternative instruments of protection, such as nontariff barriers (NTBs) like quotas, licenses and technical barriers to trade (TBTs), because they are less likely to lead to rent seeking and corrupt practices, and because tariffs limit the exercise of domestic monopoly power where it exists whereas NTBs do not.

# **III. The Problems of an Overvalued Exchange Rate**

Experience has shown that countries that attempt to maintain overvalued exchange rates significantly impede their growth in the medium t;o long term. Theory, cross-country statistical studies, and case histories all reinforce the basic findings that exchange rate overvaluation can reduce economic efficiency, misallocate resources, increase capital flight, and most perniciously, lead to exchange aad trade controls.

# **Problems Caused by an Overvalued Exchange Rate - Theory
0.030)|
|Enumerator education|-0.093|-0.014|-0.102|-0.102|0.178***|0.124**|-0.083*|0.040|
||(0.108)|(0.141)|(0.070)|(0.118)|(0.055)|(0.044)|(0.044)|(0.087)|
|Enumerator from urban locality|0.569***|0.740***|-0.022|0.551***|0.645***|0.668***|-0.010|0.436***|
||(0.180)|(0.225)|(0.054)|(0.166)|(0.122)|(0.109)|(0.044)|(0.058)|
|Observations|4,044|4,114|4,239|4,116|2,201|2,219|2,314|2,204|
|R-squared|0.452|0.423|0.241|0.438|0.675|0.618|0.353|0.642|

_Source_ : Data for the study comes from a survey of farmers in northern Uganda. The survey was conducted by Innovations for Poverty Action.

Note: This table presents OLS regression results for equation (1). For each column, the outcome variable is (an increasing) categorical variable (1-4) which measures the openness to vote for a political party, namely, the Democratic Party (DP), the Forum for Democratic Change (FDC), the National Resistance Movement (NRM), and the Uganda People’s Congress (UPC)
# Annex D: Qualitative Data Collection

The quantitative survey tool was developed using insights from qualitative interviews, the analysis of which also provides essential context to interpreting the results of this quantitative study. The fieldwork was conducted in 3 provinces during November 2022: Madhesh Province, Bagmati Province, and Sudurpashchim Province. In-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted with both men and women, divided equally between those working for pay and those not working for pay within each gender group. A detailed analysis of the qualitative data is presented in World Bank (2024, Forthcoming).

Qualitative interviews revealed that social norms, along with beliefs, culture, traditions, intra-household relationships, and family circumstances shape women's decisions to work and the nature of their jobs. A key finding was the strong adherence to traditional gender roles within the home, with women primarily seen as caretakers in the household for which men were not considered good substitutes. Women’s presence outside the home came with concerns about the family’s reputation being harmed if the woman interacted with other men or the possibility of her being seen as unfaithful, as well as disapproval of women having a long commute for work. These findings guided the focus of social norms explored in the quantitative survey across two broad themes: (i) gender roles at the household level, and (ii) women’s mobility in the public space. Interviews also revealed that women’s participation in paid work outside the home is context dependent, influenced by factors such as having young children, financial status of the family, and job characteristics such as work location. As such, specific situations are explored in the quantitative study using a set of context dependent behaviors and characteristics. Additionally, marital status and reference groups seem to be crucial in shaping women's work decisions. Married women faced more significant social restrictions, and their decision to work was observed to be primarily influenced by household dynamics, particularly their husbands' beliefs and expectations. Though women's social circles also include other community members
Dec 2017, N=1,507)<br><!-- End of picture text --> <!-- Start of picture text --> Randomly<br>selected Eligible<br>applicants<br>(N=2,292)<br>Treatment ‐<br>Control offered training<br>and grant<br>(N=1,148)<br>(N=1,144)<br>Non‐ compliers<br>Training but no Training and ‐ Did not attend<br>Control<br>grant grant training or open<br>(N=757) (N=408) (N=210) bank account<br>(N=132)<br><!-- End of picture text --> The intensification of violence between 2015 to 2017 forced many study participants to migrate reducing the number of participants that could be located for the endline survey. About a quarter of the population of South Sudan was displaced during the study period, which made it difficult to locate all participants of the original control and treatment group. Before the endline survey, the World Bank

> 2 Of those deemed ineligible, the desired purchase of land was the main reason. Other explanations included blank or unrealistic business ideas, age listed outside target range (18‐35 years), no identification attached, or not being South Sudanese.

7
Area yield indexes offer an alternative to overcome some of these issues. Area yield indexes use average yields in a given area as the index that determines payments to the farmer. The index provides a better reflection of farmers’ actual experience, as it accounts for the entire impact of weather on yields (not just related to rainfall) and non‐ weather risks, such as crop disease. This form of insurance has been adopted extensively in many states of India, receiving much support from the public sector, which provides subsidies on the premiums. Adopting an effective index‐based insurance scheme requires a degree of sophistication on part of the insurer to operate at a large scale and diversify its risk exposure. It also needs accurate historical data on rainfall patters and yields to price the service appropriately and determine payouts. In addition, it is important to note that these instruments do not eliminate basis risk. For these reasons, weather insurance – while promising – should be complemented with additional strategies. Other financial services, such as microcredit and savings, are viable alternatives: they have been used to great effect in Bangladesh to protect households against weather shocks. Social assistance programs can also address agricultural risk. An example is Kenya’s Hunger Safety Net, which offers cash transfers to vulnerable households and scales up in event of a drought.

**Global insurance.** Some shocks transcend national borders and threaten populations from several countries at once. The severity of the recent Ebola crisis, which extended across Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone and caused economic losses of $2.8 billion, is a reminder that pandemics pose a serious threat to the prosperity of developing countries, especially to the poorest. Large‐scale natural disasters that afflict more than one country are another form of a global shock.  The Indian Ocean Tsunami of 2004 affected 14 countries with close proximity to the Indian Ocean, causing major loss of life—close to 230,000 deaths—and substantial economic damages amounting to $10 billion. The magnitude
Reconceptualizing Global Multidimensional Poverty Measurement, with Illustration on Nigerian Data<sup>1</sup> Benoit Decerf<sup>2</sup> and Kike Fonton<sup>3</sup> Originally published in the <u>Policy Research Working Paper Series on</u> _October 2023._ This version is updated on _December 2023._ To obtain the originally published version, please email <u>prwp@worldbank.org.</u> 1 We are grateful to Deon Filmer, Lain Jonathan and Tara Vishwanath for helpful discussions and suggestions. We thank Berk Ozler and Aart Kraay who commented on an earlier version of this paper. We thank all the participants at the Conference “Honoring Martin Ravallion’s Legacy” organized jointly by the World Bank and Georgetown University and an internal seminar of the World Bank and in particular Gaurav Datt, Jed Friedman, Christoph Lakner, Michael Lokshin and Daniel Malher. We are also thankful to the code reviewers Samih Ferrah, Anisur Bali, Muhsine Senart, for their invaluable help in reviewing the analysis codes compiled within this framework. We thank Maria Reyes Retana from the WB reproducibility team for her efforts. All errors remain ours. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the author and should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, to its affiliated organizations, or to members of its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent. E-mail address: bdecerf@worldbank.org.

2 World Bank.

3 Université Gaston Berger de Saint-Louis & Ghent University.
panel household survey, Bertoli and Murard (2020) find that Mexican migrant households have a 25 percent higher probability of receiving a new member within one year after the migration episode, and they also have a significantly higher probability of attrition, with the members of the household of origin of the migrant joining another household within Mexico. Bertoli et al. (2023) find that Mexican children left behind when their fathers migrate often experience a further change in their living arrangements by going to live with their grandparents, and a substantial share of them also experiences the dissolution of the marital union of their parents.

# **4 Evidence from the American Community Survey**

We use the 2017-2021 5-year sample of the American Community Survey (ACS) (Ruggles et al., 2023) to provide an illustration of a few stylized facts related to how frequently the marital status of immigrants changes after migration decisions. We focus on individuals aged 18 to 60 who migrated from a developing country to the U.S., and moved when they were adults between 18 and 40. The ACS asks respondents about both their year of immigration, and the year of their last marriage (independently of their current marital status). Comparing these two variables enables one to see what percentage of married immigrants were married prior to migrating, in the same year as migration, and after migrating, and (to some extent) to reconstruct the marital status of the migrant at the time of migration.<sup>14</sup>

## **4.1 New empirical evidence on marital changes with migration**

Table 1 reveals that 19.4 percent of the migrants aged 18 to 60 and who migrated to the U.S. when they were aged 18 to 40 were never married at the time of the survey, with this share being larger for males, and strongly declining with the age at migration. Panel A of Table 1 restricts the sample to ever-married migrants. Overall, only 38.5 percent of

>
substantial empirical evidence that labor market reforms aimed at relaxing the conditions for the use of temporary contracts were important propellers of this increase (Kahn [2010]; Cahuc et al. [2016]), which may help explain why we do not find evidence that the Internet has played a major role in explaining such changes. Analyses of the drivers of second job holding are scarce. Zangelidis (2014) argues that job insecurity and volatility are important drivers of second job holding in Europe, as it provides a hedging strategy against labor market risk. Regarding self‐employment, it has declined or remained stable across most European countries during the last 20 years (OECD [2014]). However, standard labor force surveys may fail to capture the increase in self‐employment and multiple job holding allowed by online platforms (Katz and Krueger, 2016), which may contribute to explain why our findings do not support the hypothesis that the Internet has contributed to the rise of these forms of work.

The remainder of this paper is structured as follows. Section 2 describes the methodology and data sets used. They include the European Labour Force Surveys and the database on telecommunications reforms of Howard and Mazaheri (2009). Section 3 presents the main results and Section 4 concludes.

# **2. Data and methodology**

# **2.1 Telecommunications reforms and Internet use in Europe**

Following Howard and Mazaheri (2009), this paper uses four different types of telecommunications reforms. The first one is the first year the telecommunications sector was opened to competition, by allowing firms to build infrastructure and provide services and thereby undermine the monopoly power of the incumbent. The second type of reform is a variable to indicate regulatory depoliticization, which is measured by the time a regulatory authority is judged to be fully autonomous from the executive branch. The third type is an indicator of the privatization of the sector, measured by the year in which the government first sells a majority stake in the relevant state‐owned
# **3.1 Carbon Emission by Source**

Most carbon emissions in Ethiopia emanate from the agriculture sector, land-use change and forestry, as shown in Figure 3.1. Most of the emissions from the agriculture sector come from livestock. This includes enteric fermentation, manure left on pasture, and manure applied on soil. Emissions from land-use change and forestry include emission due to forest clearance and land-use conversion for smallholder agricultural expansion, promotion of large-scale agriculture, human settlement and authorized and unauthorized logging. Emissions from unsustainable extraction of fuelwood also are typically included within forestry; however, in the subsequent analysis, fuelwood will be considered separately.

_Figure 3.1: The sources of carbon emission in Ethiopia_ <!-- Start of picture text --> Carbon Emission by Source Carbon Emission by Source<br>(in millions of tones) (in %)<br>6.11 2.51 4.45 1.83<br>27.50 20.03<br>1.00 25.30 0.73 18.43<br>74.86 54.53<br>Fuels Kerosene Firewood Fuels Kerosene Firewood<br>Livestock fertilizer forestry Livestock fertilizer forestry<br><!-- End of picture text --> _Source: The livestock and fertilizer data are sourced from FAO_ _<u>(</u>_ <u>www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/GT</u> _<u>, 2017a. The forestry and</u> firewood data are from the Environment, Forests and Climate Change Commission (MEFCC) (_ <u>Mefcc.gov.et/Ethiopia-forest-sectorghg-emissions, 2017)</u> _<u>.</u> The data on fuels and kerosene are from the International Energy Agency (IEA)_ _<u>(https://www.iea.org/statistics/statisticssearch/report/?
Figure A1 of the appendix reveals that having dependents – especially younger dependents – creates financial burdens that have not substantially decreased (in cash terms) via fiscal policy. Time-use data (Figure 12) shows that dependents create significant care responsibilities that are met by females whether or not they are working outside the home. Additional analysis in Jordan that places each household type in the pre-fiscal and post-fiscal income distributions would reveal whether and how fiscal policy creates impacts within household types. This is essential in understanding how, for example, households with multiple income earners and multiple dependents could be provided relief from high total tax burdens via tax credits for young dependents.

> 39. Single women with dependents spend nearly as much time in unpaid work as married women; however single women can share neither income generating responsibilities nor social reproduction responsibilities with an adult partner and will by necessity be the main contributor in both areas.

> 40. Current utilization of, and willingness to use childcare services in Jordan is low: only 9 percent of households with children under five years of age use some form of childcare; over half rely upon family, friends, or neighbors (World Bank 2022). Only 36 percent of non-users would be prepared to use formal childcare: 16 percent if it were free care, a further 16 percent if it were either free or paid, and 4 percent only if it were paid.

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||||
|‐ Transportation costs: gazoline|18 600 000|31 208|5,1%|42,0%|52,8%|
|‐ Communication|11 160 000|18 725|0,0%|44,3%|55,7%|
|‐ Maintenance of hardware and sofware:|6 147 000|10 314|5,1%|42,0%|52,8%|
|‐ Office rent|9 600 000|16 107|5,1%|42,0%|52,8%|
|‐ Grouptrainings organization:office supplies and coffee|16 500 000|27 685|0,0%|44,3%|55,7%|
|Total Set up costs|87 463 000|146 750|6,5%|41,2%|52,3%|
|Total Variable costs|283 732 904|476 062|5,5%|41,7%|52,8%|
|**Total costs ofprogram implementation**<br>Notes: Data on costs and group allocation from CGA and GU<br>2016)|371 195 904 <br>FE. 1 USD = 59|622 812<br>6 CFAF (exc|5,7%<br>hange rat|41,6%<br>e on June|52,7%<br>1st,|

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MLYTWIAL 9MRY OF THIITY EET SDtIES <!-- Start of picture text --> INwEmur VMIAlES<br>NTH RATE ----------------------------------------------------------------<br>tNIC- CALOAATIN RMSTSAL SECTOA R VIALES<br>PRDUCT ISTICS OF PERID AM AND ECDlC- _EPT IS soCio<br>FINCPh TYPE AM AN AMLYSIS MEIN ITIAL POLICY IETIu FOLITICAL<br>OF STI MC W RllXIES PERIOD WRAILES VAIALES UWIN FACTOS WVtAUIfr<br>FAIlN, eimpet of GP 69 eaitries 1 VOWr Per eqilta Exprfi 9rcmth Popiatein puirth R-s r emt)Ule<br>ANiEZ edlitoy (World (r amtl (polirg ino + + for *ll r qasnl<br>ad -p-dIF Pir) orc ep etIF 1952-70) n. a Vriatihn in (but Africa -) afsu s. btu<br>TAYLO prsented, Silent eilitry Coital 9cuth 40.31. Nobda<br>(1981) or by dmlep- weriables by apandiuta n.s. widthut eqplicit<br>Mnt Leel) coutry pro-tien<br>(fixed f ect) (but n.m. for functien<br>irdLtrial<br>cantries)<br>ExtwmL aid<br>(+ or ns.)<br>MFR ShN that OaWt GDP Smi-ln*ktr. 10 Ets EJIort gradt lint rate i-sr 0.69<br>(193) MGh he a (World cmaitries in Avuag ratrte wighted +<br>favrdbte Iqiact Ra) broed m16-13 by apart Popastien pwmh<br>en pr It g th (31), strIt aef ra<br>be spt MM (19), pract 4<br>matar ha hidhr act. 4<br>a_gmt oil-mqxertiru<
the overall consistency and adequacy of government<sup>policy (in the</sup> Moldovan case: is there any other government program that offers<sup>guarantees</sup> to this sector of the economy? At what prices? Is the success of the instrument contingent on the implementation of structural<sup>changes?).</sup>

95. In Moldova, a demand survey would have revealed that<sup>most of the working</sup> capital financing was being provided by multi-lateral institutions<sup>(thus demand for</sup> political risk insurance would be limited), that the facility<sup>would be crowded out by the</sup> Government's own guarantee program if the government<sup>did not discontinue the</sup> program, and that demand would be sluggish to begin with because<sup>the Government had</sup> stalled on structural reforms.

96. Finally, the Moldovan case study highlights the importance<sup>of an adequate pricing</sup> policy for the facilities' instruments. This is, however, not an<sup>easy undertaking especially</sup> in the case of contingent instruments, the prices of which<sup>basically have to be derived</sup> from complex option price models. If reference prices<sup>are used, the Moldovan case</sup> illustrates that it is important to ensure that the employed<sup>reference price matches the</sup> main features of the instruments offered in terms of maturity<sup>and types of risk covered.</sup>
# **_Second Stage_**

In the “second stage” the parameter estimates of the consumption model developed in the first stage are applied to data from the 1999 Census of Azerbaijan to obtain predicted consumption for each household within the Census.

We construct a series of simulations, where for each simulation r we draw a set of first stage parameters from their corresponding distribution estimated in first stage.

~ _r_ Thus we draw a set of beta and, β from the multivariate normal distributions described by the first stage point estimates and their associated variance–covariance matrices. Additionally ~ 2 _r_ ⎛ ⎞ we draw ⎜<sup>⎜</sup> ση ⎟<sup>⎟</sup> a simulated value of the variance of the location error component. ⎝ ⎠ ~ _r_ ~ _r_ For each household we draw simulated disturbance terms, η _c_ and ε _ch_ , from their ∧ _r_ corresponding distribution. We simulate a value of expenditure for each household, _y ch_ , based on ' ~ _r_ both predicted log expenditure, _xch_ β and their disturbance terms: ∧ _r_ expenditures, _y ch_ are used to calculate the estimate of the welfare measure for each spatial terms for each simulation. For each subgroup, we take the mean and standard deviation of each welfare measure over 100 simulations.

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