rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
Schofield. 2018. “Poverty and Cognitive Function.” In C. B. Barrett, M. Carter, and J.-P. Chavas (Eds.). _The Economics of Asset Accumulation and Poverty Traps_ . Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

- Breda, T., J. Grenet, M. Monnet, and C. Van Effenterre. 2020. “Can female role models reduce the gender gap in science? Evidence from classroom interventions in French high schools.” _IZA Discussion Paper_ 13163. Bonn: Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA) **.**

- Brockmeyer, A., Q. T. Do, C. J. E. Joubert, M. Abdel Jelil, and K. Bhatia. 2020. “Transnational Terrorist Recruitment - Evidence from Daesh Personnel Records.” _Revise and Resubmit at Review of Economics and Statistics_ . July version, available at: https://bit.ly/3u9ikJc

- Carlana, M. 2019. “Implicit Stereotypes: Evidence from Teachers' Gender Bias.” _Quarterly Journal of Economics_ 134(3): 1163–1224.

- Carlana, M., E. La Ferrara, and P. Pinotti. 2021. “Goals and Gaps: Educational Careers of Immigrant Children.” _Econometrica_ (forthcoming). July 2019 version available at: https://bit.ly/3uUYSBl

- Campante, F. R., and D. Chor. 2012. "Why Was the Arab World Poised for Revolution? Schooling, Economic Opportunities, and the Arab Spring." _Journal of Economic Perspectives_ 26 (2): 167–88.

- Chiapa, C., J. L. Garrido, and S. Prina. 2012. “The effect of social programs and exposure to professionals on the educational aspirations of the poor.” _Economics of Education Review_ 31(5): 778–798.

- Contreras Suarez, D., and L. Cameron. 2020. “Conditional
Policy Research Working Paper 8994

# **Abstract**

The purpose of this paper is to introduce applications of RUSMOD—a microsimulation model for fiscal incidence analysis in the Russian Federation. RUSMOD combines household survey micro-data and fiscal policy rules to simulate the Russian tax-benefit system: the size and distribution of taxes collected and benefits paid, and the impact of the system on different population groups. Microsimulation models, such as RUSMOD, are habitually used in developed countries, and can be versatile budgetary policy tools. Using this model, the current tax-benefit system in Russia is examined. The impact of the system is measured across the income distribution, age groups, family types, localities, as well as across time. One of the applications of RUSMOD this paper aims to assess is the role of the tax-benefit system in explaining the incidence of informal employment in Russia. The paper investigates whether the existing system creates disincentives for formalization in terms of reducing disposable incomes and increasing poverty and inequality, and whether a hypothetical tax reform would be able to reduce the opportunity costs of formalization for informal workers, improve distributional outcomes, and increase fiscal revenues.

This paper is a product of the Poverty and Equity Global Practice. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/prwp. The authors may be contacted at mmatytsin@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and
follow-up. Next, we add a series of covariates, such as gender, age, marital status, parental status, ethnicity, and employment, a set of district and T&E provider-specific control dummy variables. The results indicate that attrition is not correlated with treatment status, and hence differential attrition between treatment and control groups is not an issue in this evaluation.

# **c. Uptake of EF-Sponsored Training Courses**

Another threat to our study is imperfect compliance, which occurs when those offered treatment choose not to participate, or when people from the control group gain access to the program. These deviations from treatment assignment may bias our estimates of program impact, because the factors that determine one’s actual participation, such as motivation and tenacity, cannot be observed and are likely correlated with the outcomes of interest.

> 40 We have redone the baseline balance tests after matching, and the results indicate that though the similarity of treatment and control groups has improved, significant differences remain. The post-matching balance tests are available upon request.

> 41 Because the EF-sponsored training courses vary in length from 1 to 3 months, the follow-up survey examines outcomes 9 to 11 months after the end of the training.

> 42 The EF itself conducts follow-up with a sample of participants up to 6 months after the training to verify employment and earnings. Hence, the impact evaluation follow up survey occurs 3-5 months after the treatment group’s last contact with the program.

> 43 The reasons given for loss to follow-up for the 2010 and 2011 cohorts include: inability to track the household (11%), no one in the household during multiple visits (15%), refusal (8%), respondent migrated for work within Nepal or abroad (8%), respondent migrated after marriage (10%), or other (40%).

14
132 savings (e.g., to firms) across experigents vould assist the next generation of projects avoid pitfalls and focus on the most valuable project designs of the projects revieved in this study. Only the Philippines' Philippine-Hawaiian program measured company costs and savings of the family planning effort, but even there, no contraceptive-costs are included, since commodities were donated Some new projects plan to do impact evaluations, but none has even begun. The lack of analysis will inhibit their ability to measure the savings from family planning service delivery, and prevent comparisons across alternative delivery arrangements.

Thus, collection of cost information and assessments of relative efficiency and effectiveness is key to helping donors and policymakers make sound decision regarding resource allocations and program design. Currently, little information is available to assist that process in family planning.

The private sector is a major actor in family planning--and its actual and potential role should be much better understood. The future agenda should address the gaps in information regarding consumer behavior and consumer demand for private services; introduce greater rigor in analysis of existing data (e.g., CPS and DHS data); collect specific data that can address the topics suc as cost and cost effectiveness of alternative providers; introduce sound evaluations into planned or initiated efforts aimed at promoting the private sector; experiment with and document alternative means for establishing effective incentives to promote private activity; experiment with and assess privatization of public services; and, introduce greater cost recovery in NGO programs.

**l.fp:Wasily** Pluaing Papr **(whole)**
**Constant**|7.0465***|5.7400***|‐12589***|‐5697***|‐121334***|0.7821***|
||67.38|14.06|‐4.1|‐8.86|‐8.12|22.73|
|r2/ln L||0.3||||0.29|
|F||135.18|0.77|16.14|3.56|127.76|
|N|47,167|46985|46985|46985|46985|46916|

Pooled VHLSS data from 2002, 2004 and 2006. ML corrected for spatial correlation, cluster design and heteroskedasticity. OLS and Tobit estimators corrected for cluster design and heteroskedasiticy using Hubert‐White correction. Drought if 20% below annual median rainfall; excess rainfall if > 300 mm in 5 consecutive days at least once in a year; flooding recorded in Darthmouth Flood Observatory and within 2 m elevation difference from river or coast; hurricane force winds if wind 65 knots (118 km/hour) or more.

ln(hours) from 500k city are in effect the ln(1+ tenths of hours) from 500k city with tenths of hours being 6 minute periods
|0.56|19.9|14.7|8.1|9.1|

Note: In all tables, figures may not add up to given totals because of rounding.

more people are now being added to the planet every year than ever before, even though the peak population growth rate (2.1 percent in 1965-70) is past. In 1987, about 88 million people were added, and this number will increase for another decade, eventually reaching about 92 million.

In the next century, the projections indicate that world population will continue to grow, though more slowly. Not until the 22nd century do the projections show population stabilizing. At that point, world population will probably be well above 10 billion. Changes in the oroiections Table 3 indicates that these projections involve important changes since the 1980 projections, but only minor changes since last year.

Since 1980, the world population for the year 2000 has been revised upward by 2 percent, because of a substantial upward revision for Africa and a smaller upward revision for Asia, only partly balanced by downward revisions for America and Europe. The current projections give a population for the entire continent of Africa in the year 2000 that is 8 percent larger than in the 1980 projections. This is based on ample recent evidence that fertility levels are more resistant to change than had earlier been assumed. For Asia, the change in the projections mainly concerns China. A recent upswing in the birth rate makes it less likely that Chinese fertility will soon dip below replacement and stay below for an appreciable period. In contrast to Africa, Latin America has shown larger fertility declines than previously projected. For Europe and other developed countries, the revision has mainly involved stretching out the period of below-replacement fertility.
As noted in the introduction, the literature on developing countries mainly focuses on intergenerational educational mobility because of data limitations. Although there is a growing literature studying the persistence of educational attainment across generations at the country level, the studies that attempt to provide comparable estimates across a sample of developing countries remain limited.<sup>19</sup> The most widely known cross-country analysis of intergenerational educational mobility is Hertz et al. (2008) that provides estimates of relative mobility using intergenerational regression coecient (IGRC) and intergenerational correlation (IGC) between father and children for 42 countries. Neidhofer et al. (2018) report estimates of a variety of measures of absolute and relative educational mobility for 18 Latin American countries. A number of recent papers focus on Sub-Saharan African countries, see, for example, Alesina et al. (2021), Azomahou and Yitbarek (2021), and Razzu and Wambile (2022).<sup>20</sup> The most extensive analysis of intergenerational educational mobility around the world is oered in a recent book by Narayan et al. (2018) covering 153 countries. They provide estimates of a number of absolute and relative educational mobility measures, but their main analysis is based on the IGRC estimates. Perhaps, more important, all the cross-country studies noted above focus on the intergenerational link between parents' and children's educational attainment, and none report estimates of sibling correlation.

In more than two decades following the publication of the handbook of labor economics chapter by Solon (1999), there have been only a few studies on developing countries that use sibling correlation as a measure of educational mobility. This is puzzling because Solon (1999) and the subsequent surveys of the eld (e.g., Bjorklund and Salvanes (2011)) provide substantial discussions on the advantages of sibling correlation as a measure, especially in the data scarce environment common in developing countries. The most widely cited is a study by Dahan and Gaviria (2001) who
estimates published in the World Economic Outlook Database, growth rates averaged 2.47% across Sub-Saharan Africa in 2009, significantly below the rates enjoyed in the pre-crisis years (about 5.5%) between 2004 and 2008.

> 6 On the occasion of that tenth anniversary of the millennium declaration, the latest issue of IMF’s Finance & Development— _Restoring Hope: Reinvigorating the Millennium Development Goals_ —is entirely devoted to the MDGs (for further details, see IMF, 2010).

3
and those remaining were only able to offer poor quality services. After the end of the terrorism government made efforts to involve the community in the realization of different development objectives. The main objective was to improve the quality and the coverage of basic health services. The creation of community-managed and publicly-financed health committees ( _CLAS_ ) are an example of the effort to experiment with new ways of providing services involving the community in all phases of planning, administration, management, and supervision of public resources. Government’s initiatives were complementary to those initiatives promoted by spontaneous community organization and were based on the high level of social participation in Peru.

# **4.  Data and Variables**

The YL project collects longitudinal data in four developing countries (Peru, Ethiopia, India and Vietnam) and for two cohorts of children.<sup>9</sup> The survey includes two waves: the first phase of data collection took place in 2002, when the youngest cohort of children were aged 6-18 months and the oldest 7-8 years. The second wave was collected between the end of 2006 and the beginning of 2007, when children were aged 4-5 and 11-12 years, respectively. The attrition rate between waves is quite low (3.1 percent of the children in the youngest cohort). In the present analysis, I use the youngest cohorts which from here onward will be referred to as “1 year old cohort” at wave 1 who turns to be 5 years old at wave 2.

The YL sample for Peru gathers information for approximately 2,000 households with an over-sampling of poor areas; therefore these data are not nationally representative. The sample is spread over 20 areas (clusters) in different geographical regions.<sup>10</sup> Each cluster has to include 100 1-year-old children and thus it might be spread over several districts, towns and villages and might include both rural and urban areas. For this reason, within each cluster one or more communities can be identified. In total the
7%|
|North|South|1.0%|1.8%|1.3%|2.7%|
|South|North|0.5%|1.2%|1.0%|1.6%|
|South|South|0.2%|0.4%|0.3%|0.8%|

**Panel B. Regional Share of International Investment Positions**

|||**Portfolio E**|**quity**|||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|**Source**|**Destination**|**2001**|**2007**|**2008**|**2018**|
|North|North|86.4%|75.0%|77.2%|73.8%|
|North|South|9.2%|16.4%|12.9%|14.3%|
|South|North|3.6%|4.9%|5.4%|8.0%|
|South|South|0.7%|3.6%|4.5%|3.9%|

|||**Portfolio**|**Debt**|||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|**Source**|**Destination**|**2001**|**2007**|**2008**|**2018**|
|North|North|88.9%|87.4%|88.9%|78.3%|
|North|South|6.6%
**Table 4.2 (continued): Sample representativeness in Nigeria HFPS**

||**Nigeria(**|**GHS-Panel)**<br>|||
|---|---|---|---|---|
||**All**|**With**<br>**Contact info**|**HFPS**|**Sample**<br>_Difference†_|
||_Mean_|_Mean_|_Mean_|<br> _(3) -(2)_|
|**Characteristic**|_(1)_|_(2)_|_(3)_|_(4)_|
|**_Housing_**|||||
|Improved roof|0.886|0.887|0.884|0.002|
|Improved floor|0.776|0.780|0.777|-0.001|
|Improved toilet|0.602|0.603|0.609|-0.007|
|Improved water source|0.765|0.766|0.764|0.001|
|Access to electricity|0.554|0.558|0.565|-0.010|
|**_Asset ownership_**|||||
|Solar|||||
|Generator|0.246|0.247|0.237|0.009|
|TV|0.451|0.454|0.462|-0.011|
|Refrigerator|0.173|0.174|0.178|-0.005|
|Bicycle|0.157|0.157|0.151|0.006|
|Motorbike|0.306|0.305|0.310|-0.004
SIERRA LEONE‘S INFRASTRUCTURE: A CONTINENTAL PERSPECTIVE There is a wide disparity between urban and rural areas in access to the safest forms of water supply and sanitation. Whereas around 20 percent of the urban population has access to piped water, only 1 percent of rural counterparts have piped access. Access to standposts in urban areas is 26 percent versus less than 10 percent in rural areas (figure 15a). Similarly, whereas flush toilets are used by around 10 percent of the urban population, they are almost nonexistent in rural areas. Improved latrines are used by 12 percent of the urban population versus only 6 percent of the rural population (figure 15b). However, these figures do not reflect improvements since 2008.

The provision of water services is seriously affected by the poor performance of the Sierra Leone water utilities. The rapidly increasing population of Freetown is catered to by the Freetown water utility— Guma Valley Water Company (GVWC). The rest of Sierra Leone was supposed to be covered by Sierra Leone Water Company (SALWACO) and the Water Services department in the Ministry of Energy and Water Resources. However, SALWACO is not yet a functioning utility. As a result performance data could only be obtained from GVWC. In the case of GVWC,<sup>7</sup> the utility is struggling to cover 85 percent of its operational costs and is able to recover only 61 percent of its total costs (table 8). There is a lack of mechanism for setting tariffs to improve affordability of the service. The average effective tariff, at $0.22 per cubic meter, is just one third of the tariff charge in countries with comparably sufficient water resources, and well below cost-recovery levels. Distributional losses, at 40 percent of production, are twice as high as those in a well-run utility, and higher than those in utilities operating in comparable fragile states. Ongoing repairs of key water-supply veins is expected to improve this situation. But the GVWC only recovers 77 percent of total billings (table
.1 - *; OLS regressions at child level using baseline and 36-month data on scores. Standard errors in parentheses are clustered at the CBCC level. We use all children for whom the relevant variables are available. We weight observations using sampling weights. For each round, scores are stardardized using the (weighted) mean and standard deviation for the control group in that round. For Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children and Early Grade Math Assessment, total scores were obtained by constructing a weighted average of the subscale scores of each assessment (for Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children: Hand Movements, Triangles, and Number Recall / for Early Grade Math Assessment: Number Recognition, Quantity Discrimination, and Addition), where the weights were obtained using Inverse Covariance Weighting, as in Casey et al. (2012) and described in detail in the Appendix.

51
found both for all teaching practices as well as all sub-domains of teaching. In most domains, effect sizes tended to be higher in the 2016 classroom observations than the 2017 classroom observations. The proportion of teachers in control schools fully implementing the teaching techniques increased between 2016 and 2017.

Table 8. Effect of CLRW on the proportion of teachers fully implementing all teaching practices targeted by the intervention

||Treatment|Control|Difference|
|---|---|---|---|
|School year 2016|0.926|0.518|0.407***|
||(0.006)|(0.019)|(0.02)|
|School year 2017|0.89|0.623|0.267***|
||(0.007)|(0.017)|(0.019)|

Standard errors included in parentheses. For differences, statistical significance at the 1, 5 and 10 percent levels are denoted by ***, **, and *, respectively.

Table 9. Effect of CLRW on average TEGRA reading scores (standard deviations)

||Effect on s<br> <br>|tudents' aver<br>reading score<br>|age TEGRA<br>s<br>|
|---|---|---|---|
||1 year<br>exposure|2 years'<br>exposure|1 year after<br>2 years of<br>exposure|
|all students|0.19***|0.33***|‐0.09**|
||(0.04)|(0.06)|(0.04)|
|girls|0.18***|0.34***|‐0.11***|
||(0
contract. Interstate wars have declined since the turn of the millennium, but the region has experienced a sharp uptick in violent events since 2015, with insecurity spreading across the Sahel region to the Horn of Africa as evidenced by the recent stream of military coups – eight successful since August 2020. Such instability and violence are core binding constraints to growth on the continent: instability creates policy volatility, shortens policy horizons leading to suboptimal macroeconomic policy decisions, and decreases investors’ confidence – with negative effects on economic performance. African democracies are more likely to invest in pro-poor growth: military expenditures are higher in autocratic regimes than in democratic regimes in Africa, whereas democratic regimes spend more on education and health (Ndayikeza 2021). Fang et al. (2020) estimate that in SSA annual growth in countries in conflict is about 2.5 percentage points lower on average, and that the impact on per capita GDP is cumulative and increases over time. Although transitions to democracy can be volatile, ultimately democracies tend be better governed and able to sustain inclusive growth.</mark>

# A high-level look at governance data

<mark>A high-level look at governance data suggests that change has been slow over the past 20 years in SSA and that governance in the region still tends to lag behind other world regions. Aggregate World Governance Indicators illustrate those macro-trends. The three aggregate variables presented in Figure 4 measure key dimensions of governance, namely government effectiveness, voice and accountability, and political stability. They show that SSA slightly improved its percentile rank for voice and accountability and</mark> 6
/sup> While absolute basics such as a readable blackboard and chalk seem to be common in these classrooms, more elaborate features such as functioning electricity is rare, especially in rural areas. Only around a third of classrooms have student work or other charts displayed on the walls. Availability of books for reading is extremely limited as evidenced by the almost complete lack of “corner libraries.”<sup>7</sup> Further to these indicators that describe physical features of the learning environment, Table 3 reports summary statistics on selected teacher practices and behaviors observed. Teachers tend to use textbooks and the blackboard, and generally engage positively with students (e.g. by standing as opposed to sitting, calling on students, or by visiting individual students). But only in about half of the classrooms were students invited to go to the blackboard, or was the teacher observed smiling, laughing, or joking with students. In about one in 5 classrooms, teachers were observed hitting a student. The vast majority of

> 6 These, along with the summary statistics reported in Table 3, are derived from data collected with the SDI instrument administered during the Grade 4 classroom observations. These data are used below to create aggregates that we compare to the other instruments.

> 7 Appendix 1 Table 5 reports the same means, but for the national sample.  The only variable for which there is a substantive difference is the availability of electricity in the classroom: in the national sample only 4 percent of classrooms had electricity while in the ETOS sample 13 percent did.

6