rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
given reason was that the firm was happy with their business performance: 28.6 percent of control firms gave this reason, dropping to only 15.8 percent of treatment firms. Our interpretation of this effect is that the information sheet made firms realize that they were not using best business practices. At the same time, firms report being time constrained, which also aligns with the finding from section 5.1 that even the firms that sought out SEBRAE services predominantly accessed light touch services.

Since table 4 only includes firms that did not use SEBRAE services, the finding that treatment firms are less likely to be happy with their business performance than control firms may be driven by differential selection in the treatment and control groups. However, the results in table A5 suggest that the effect on being happy with the firm’s performance is not only due to selection. Table A5 shows the answers to the related question: “what prevents you from adopting additional business practices?” that was posed to all firms that participated in the follow-up survey. As in table 4, treatment firms are 12
Figure 3.3 Parental expectation of child attending tertiary education (marginal change in probability) <!-- Start of picture text --> Child's school performance top<br>Child's school performance upper middle<br>Child's school performance middle<br>Child's school performance lower middle<br>Family economic condition-well off<br>Family economic condition-middle<br>Parent has post-secondary education<br>Parent has upper sec or equivalent education<br>Child attending school in rural area<br>Child attending school in city area<br>-0.1-0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45<br><!-- End of picture text --> _Source_ : Authors’ calculation based on the CEPS.

Students’ own expectation for their future education is similar to that of parents. There is a high correlation between students’ academic performance and their own expectation on the highest level of education they will attain. Students who ranked themselves top performers expect to receive higher educational attainment than lower performing students. In addition, students whose mothers achieved post-secondary-level education expect to have higher educational achievement than students whose mothers achieved senior or junior secondary-level education (Figure 3.4).

26
equals 3 percent); short-term debt as a share of GDP (threshold equals 4 percent); public debt held by non-residents as a share of gross debt (threshold equals 45 percent); and EMBI global diversified yield spread (threshold equals 600 basis points). The debt sustainability framework (DSF) uses indicative thresholds, linked by country classification, to analyze the risk of external debt distress. Thresholds are (statistically determined) bounds above which the risk of debt distress is considered elevated. Note that these thresholds were derived to maximize their joint correlation with a very specific definition of a debt distress event conditional on a very specific set of control variables. In this methodology we use the data on actual defaults, which may not correlated perfectly with the debt distress indicators used for deriving these thresholds.<sup>8</sup> Figure 11 compares the unweighted average debt to GDP ratios for different shares of indices exceeding their thresholds over time. In the majority of cases very high debt is associated with a higher share of indicators breaching their thresholds.

**Figure 11:** Share of indicators exceeding thresholds

<!-- Start of picture text --> Debt and judgment<br>2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2019 2020<br>150<br>100<br>50<br>0<br>0.4 0.8 0.4 0.8 0.4 0.8 0.4 0.8 0.4 0.8 0.4 0.8 0.4 0.8 0.4 0.8 0.0 0.4<br>Share of indices<br>Debt (%GDP)<br><!-- End of picture text --> Note that DSA’s are subject to revisions. This makes sense as new types of information and analytical tools help to make analysis more concise. As an example, the new MAC-DSA framework includes several new features and is being rolled
In general, the estimated attainment data compares favorably with the census and survey information. The less accurate fit for 1981 is here believed to be due to large measurement errors or the possible manipulation of the census, which took place during the peak of the armed conflict in Guatemala. Consequently, this discrepancy was not smoothed over. Equally, data for 1998 differs slightly from the estimate. This is due to the fact that the survey largely oversamples the urban population of the economy in that year. Given the simplicity of the assumptions of the underlying model, however, the overall results have been found quite satisfactory.

**Table 3. Guatemala: Education Level of Labor Force, 1950-2002** (in percent)<sup>a/</sup>

|Year|Source|No school|Some Primary|Some<br>Secondary|Some Tertiary|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|1950|SEGEPLAN (1978)|72.3|24.9|2.3|0.5|
|1964|SEGEPLAN (1978)|60.7|33.4|4.7|1.2|
|1973|SEGEPLAN (1978)|51.7|40.8|6.1|1.4|
|1981|CENSO (1981)|(37.7)|(48.7)|(10.9)|(2.7)|
|1989|ENS (1989)|38.9|47.7|11.4|2.1|
|1994|CENSO (1994)|35.4|47.8|14.1|2.7|
|1998|ENIGFAM (1998)|(30.8)|(50.3)|15.9|3.1|
|2000|ENCOVI (2000)|28.9|48.
................................................. 29|
|Annex 1: Post-Conflict Poverty Estimation Studies in Syria ........................................................................ 31|
|Annex 2: The Humanitarian Needs Assessment Programme (HNAP) ........................................................ 33|
|Annex 3: Geospatial population estimates for Syria................................................................................... 36|
|Annex 4: Distribution neutral poverty projections using private per capita consumption from NA ......... 38|
|Annex 5: Distribution neutral poverty projections using GDP per capita, and poverty lines at 2011 PPP . 41|
|Figure 1: FCV Pass-through rate for Syria 2009-2020 ...........................
work. The site appears to be operated by three women — project manager, a project administrator, and a podcast presenter (as of March 2015).

This platform is reviving African poetry via digital technology without hiring an army of staff. Moreover, the catalog can always be transcribed into the text with new voice recognition technology. Nonetheless, it could be argued that a level of ‘digital literacy’ is needed to effectively benefit from Badilisha as a contributor and also as a user. Generally speaking, however, the issue of digital literacy is a broad one; it also affects other fields where the problem of the so-called “digital divide” is prevalent. It would be useful indeed to have printed copies of African poetry. But given the current evolution of the book publishing industry and African literature in particular, Badilisha seems to be filling a gap much needed not only in Africa but also elsewhere. One can only conclude that this example shows how digital technology can be used to promote creative work. Badilisha’s effort provides lessons for organizations and policy makers who seek to promote such creative output in the developing world.

***

# _Artsy in the Digital World_

In the developed world, meanwhile, Artsy an online art resource whose “mission is to make all the world’s art accessible to anyone with an Internet connection” is worth noting. Founded in 2012, Artsy “features the world’s leading galleries, museum collections, foundations, artist estates, art fairs, and benefit auctions, all in one place.” Its “growing database of 250,000 images of art, architecture, and design by 40,000 artists spans historical, modern, and contemporary works, and includes the largest online database of contemporary art. Artsy is used by art lovers, museum-goers, patrons, collectors, students, and educators to discover, learn about, and collect art.”<sup>29</sup> Based in New York, Artsy is trying to position itself as a middleman
0.168)|
|FEM|0.0946|0.1007|0.111|0.113|0.108|0.111|0.100|0.104|
||(0.1091)|(0.1086)|(0.110)|(0.109)|(0.109)|(0.109)|(0.109)|(0.109)|
|Const|-0.3456*|0.2480|-0.341*|0.101|-0.342*|0.124|-0.343*|0.201|
||(0.1874)|(0.3527)|(0.187)|(0.346)|(0.187)|(0.345)|(0.187)|(0.350)|
|N. Obs|14,656|14,656|14,656|14,656|14,656|14,656|14,656|14,656|
|R2|0.0821|0.0871|0.091|0.093|0.089|0.092|0.085|0.089|
|CY FE|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|
|IQis|||Control of|Corruption|Rule|of Law|Government|Effectiveness|

*** p<0.01; ** p<0.05; * p<0.1

28
Pd** the percent variation in domestic prices for local sales, Δ **Ex** the percent variation in the volumes of exports, **Ex/Xp** the ratio of exports to domestic output (the sectoral export orientation), Δ **Xp** the percent change of domestic output, and Δ **Px** the percent change of output prices.

For the economy as a whole, these low or moderate domestic market share losses are reflected in small declines of producer prices for local sales ( Δ Pd). Some of these effects are larger when disaggregated sectors are examined, and complementary analyses considering very disaggregated sectors of production may be needed to identify specific sensitive commodities.<sup>17</sup>

> 17 These usually analyses consider data at the tariff line level, i.e., at a very fine degree of disaggregation. Trade data at this level may be available, but production, consumption and other important data needed to calibrate CGE models are normally available at a much more aggregate level. Therefore tariff lines analyses are normally partial equilibrium analyses and they should be considered in conjunction with the general equilibrium analysis presented here.

22
- 30 -

female mortality rates, as well as the differences between annuity sales and annuity quotes. However, it is noteworthy that our MWRs increase between 1999 and 2003 while the MWRs estimated by James, Iglesias and Martinez remain stable or even decrease. This stability of MWRs is at odds with the behavior of the risk-free rate – annuity rate differential in the same period. As shown in Figure 4, the relation between the risk-free rate and the annuity rate would only be consistent with MWRs lower than one in 1999 and higher than one in subsequent years, including 2003.

The main conclusion of James, Iglesias and Martinez, that Chilean MWRs are high by international comparison and that Chilean annuitants have got a good deal for their money is the same as the one reached here, but their numbers probably underestimate the true MWRs in March 2003. In addition to the use of an outdated mortality table, it is possible that their results are also being affected by a small and non-representative sample of annuity quotes. The risk-free yield curve used for discounting is probably different and may be also contributing to the different results.

# **7. Conclusions**

On any measure, the results in Chile indicate good value for consumers. In part, this can be explained by the larger supply of assets indexed to consumer prices in Chile, including higher yield indexed instruments such as mortgage, corporate, and infrastructure bonds. Rocha, Morales and Thorburn (2006) provide separate evidence that the annuity rate is positively correlated with the share of higher yield assets in the portfolios of providers, suggesting that MWRs are also positively affected by this factor. In other countries, providers are either exposed to inflation risk, due to the absence of indexed instruments, or can only access lower yield indexed instruments such as indexed government bonds.

The high MWRs may also reflect aggressive pricing behavior in a very competitive annuities market. It is interesting to note that the _structure_ of MWRs suggests efficient risk differentiation – MWRs are higher for customers that present relatively lower
1985-1989 3.56 3.54 3.59 3.68 Notes: Authors’ calculations using quarterly Labor Force Surveys from 2000 to 2015. Earnings are in constant Mexican Pesos 2014:1. Earnings refer to full-time workers (at least 30 weekly hours of work) with a valid wage. Includes workers with college education: salaried, self-employment and owners. Earnings below and above the 1 and 99 percentile (within gender and education group) are dropped. Sample restricted to male workers between 23-65 years old.

Table 3 shows the results for male earnings with college education (the Appendix includes the calculation for women). There are several important aspects to highlight. First, the oldest cohort (1950-1954) shows declines in wages since the beginning of the period. The earnings of that cohort have declined close to 40 percent. This is the largest decline in earnings for any cohort. Second, the cohorts 1955-1959, 1960-1964, and 1965-1969 show stagnant earnings between 2000 and 2008; nevertheless, their earnings all decline after the macroeconomic crisis. This decline is largest for the oldest cohort in this group, 1955-1959. Third, mid-age cohorts, 19701974 and 1975-1979, show the largest gains in earnings between the period 2000 and 2008. Their earnings increase between 11 and 22 percent. However, after the macroeconomic crisis, their earnings fall, arriving at the same level as in 2000-2002. Fourth, the younger cohorts, 1980-1984 and 1985-1989 do not show a decline in earnings even after the macroeconomic crisis. However the gains of this cohort are modest, 5 and 2 percent between the first and final year observed. These gains are substantially lower than for older cohorts.

Is there evidence that workers of newer cohorts are receiving a lower wage when they enter the workforce? This phenomenon could be interpreted as evidence consistent with the hypothesis that new entrants are, on average, of increasingly lower quality than new entrants in the preceding cohorts. As Table 3 shows, there is no evidence that this is occurring in the Mexican labor market
rates in the two plant samples.<sup>7</sup> Clearly, these results contradict the stereotype. At least one-third of the plants in the Manila sample are removing BOD at high rates, and many Thai plants seem to be running near OECD standards. Approximately 50% of the Thai factories in the sample are removing over 90% of their BOD from the waste stream, and 70-80% are removing 70% or more. **8** Indonesia is another Southeast Asian economy with historically weak regulation. Nonetheless, recently-gathered data reveal the same pattern (Afsah, 1995). Figures 3 and 4 present distributions of BOD concentrations relative to U.S. and Indonesian standards for large samples of Indonesian pulp/paper and textile mills. In each case, the Indonesian standard is several times that of its U.S. equivalent. While the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is well-staffed and has operated for over twenty years, the Indonesian national regulatory agency (BAPEDAL) is quite new, operates with a small staff, and has little power to punish plants which are not in compliance with existing regulations. Nevertheless, the actual distribution of 7 Organic water pollutants are oxidized by naturally-occuring microorganisms. Biological oxygen demand (BOD) removes dissolved oxygen from the water and can seriously damage some fish species which have adapted to the previous dissolved oxygen level. Organic water pollutants can also accelerate the growth of algae, which will crowd out other plant species. The eventual death and decomposition of the algae is another source of oxygen depletion as well as noxious smells and unsightly scum. The most common measure for BOD is the amount (kg.) of oxygen used by micro-organisms to oxidize the organic waste in a standard sample of pollutant during a five-day period (hence, '5day BOD').

8 Sources: World Bank consultant reports.

4
over 2000-2019, from PWT 10. When available, the user should use information on sectoral TFP growth.<sup>35</sup> In the Default submodel, private- and public-sector investment data are taken from IMF-FAD, which decomposes total investment into private and public from 1960 to 2017. The paths for private investment, , and the exogenous component pp tt ıı̅

> 35 For example, the Chilean 2016 Annual Report of the National Productivity Commission documents a large heterogeneity of TFP growth across the copper and non-copper sectors over 20002015, with an average fall of one percent in the copper sector and average growth of 1.4 percent in the non-copper sector.

23
While some individuals do not declare income in secondary or other paid occupations, these observations are not excluded but instead, this income source is treated as zero income (Bourguignon 2015).

Second, SEDLAC considers the utility return of the dwelling by imputing household rents as follows. If the National Statistics Office (NSO hereafter) provides a vector of imputed rent, the SEDLAC project adopts that vector as part of the harmonization. If such vector is not provided, the project uses the self-reported value by dwelling owners to the question, “If you had to rent this dwelling, how much would have you to pay for it?”<sup>2</sup> Once again, if this value is available, it is taken as given and used to impute rents. In case this question is not included in the survey, the project implements a hedonic model that considers the actual rent paid by tenants and impute a corresponding value to owners. Finally, in the absence of price data, the SEDLAC project scales up rural household income 15% to account for urban/rural differences.<sup>3</sup>

# **2.3. Matching Census data with household surveys**

The same age cohort of the population is analyzed to make the subgroups of population comparable between the census and the household surveys. For instance, if the range of time between the census and the survey is 30 years, and the age cohort in the census is from 0 to 15 years old, the age cohort analyzed in the household survey would be 30 to 45 years old. With respect to sub2 Or any of its variations.

3 This procedure is implemented for all countries except for Peru, since the NSO provides household incomes already deflated to the city of Lima.

7
- Premchander, S., Bloesch, U., Tuladhar, B., Raghunandan, D., 2011. External Review of Clean Building Technologies for Nepal: VSBK-CESEF Project 2008-2011. Government of Nepal (GON) and Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC), Kathmandu.

- PSCST, 2015. Utilization of Paddy Straw as Fuel in Brick Kilns. Punjab State Council for Science & Technology (PSCST), Chandigarh.

- Rajarathnam, U., Athalye, V., Ragavan, S., Maithel, S., Lalchandani, D., Kumar, S., Baum, E., Weyant, C., Bond, T., 2014. Assessment of air pollutant emissions from brick kilns. Atmospheric Environment 98, 549-553.

- Rawal, R., Maithel, S., Shukla, Y., Rana, S., Gowri, G., Patel, J., Kumar, S., 2020. Thermal Performance of Walling Material and Wall Technology, Part-1. Shakti Sustainable Energy Foundation, Greentech Knowledge Solutions Pvt. Ltd., Centre for Advanced Research in Building Science and Energy, New Delhi and Ahmedabad.

- Raza, A., Ali, Z., 2021. Impact of air pollution generated by brick kilns on the pulmonary health of workers. Journal of Health Pollution 11, 210906.

- Raza, A., Qamer, M.F., Afsheen, S., Adnan, M., Naeem, S., Atiq, M., 2014. Particulate Matter Associated Lung Function Decline in Brick Kiln Workers of Jalalpur Jattan, Pakistan. Pak. J. Zool. 46, 237-243.

- Sadavarte, P., Rupakheti, M., Bhave, P., Shakya, K., Lawrence, M., 2019. Nepal emission inventory – Part I: Technologies and combustion sources (NEEMI-Tech) for 2001–2016. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 19, 12953-12973.

- Sah, D.P.
Policy Research Working Paper 9117

# **Abstract**

This paper estimates private and social returns to investment in education in Azerbaijan, using the 2015 Azerbaijan Monitoring Survey for Social Welfare. The private rate of return to education is 6 percent; this is the first estimate of returns to schooling in Azerbaijan since 1995. The returns to schooling are 6 percent for men and 8 percent for women, even controlling for selection. In addition, the paper estimates the returns for higher education; for this level, the rate of return is 9 percent. Finally, using the full discount method, the private rate of return to tertiary education is 9 percent, and the social rate of return is 8 percent. One policy implication is to re-examine the funding of higher education and for its expansion.

This paper is a product of the Education Global Practice. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/prwp. The authors may be contacted at hpatrinos@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent._ Produced by the Research Support Team
us discuss the statistical and economic interpretations of Identification Assumption 2. From a statistical perspective, Identification Assumption 2 is simply a generalization of the standard difference-in-difference assumption (this generalization is employed in, for example, Wolfers (2006) and is discussed more generally in Mora and Reggio (2013)).<sup>37</sup> Setting _K_ = 0 results in a standard difference-in-difference estimator in which the control groups and treatment groups are assumed to have “parallel trends” pre-reform that would have persisted in the post-reform period had the reform not occurred. The standard difference-in-difference strategy therefore assumes that the difference between the treatment and control groups follow a 0<sup>_th_</sup> order polynomial in absence of the reform (i.e., that they differ by a constant). Larger values of _K_ require progressively weaker parallel assumptions. For instance, setting _K_ = 1 requires the “parallel growths” assumption which asserts that the growth rates in the treatment and control groups over time are the same (i.e., that second and higher differences between treatment and control groups are constant over time).<sup>38</sup> Setting _K_ = 2 leads to the “parallel accelerations” assumption which asserts that the acceleration rates in the treatment and control groups over time are the same (i.e., third and higher differences between treatment and control groups are constant over time). Setting _K >_ 2 results in what Mora and Reggio (2013) refer to as the “parallel- _K_ ” assumption which asserts that the _K_ + 1 and higher differences between the treatment and control groups are constant over time.

But what is the economic meaning of Identification Assumption 2? Fundamentally, there are complex structural relationships between the number of people reporting in each income bin; these relationships are determined by how the true income distribution is evolving over time, how the true income distribution is mapped to the reported income distribution, as well as growth of the BF registry
|{0.7}|{0.9}|(0.03)||
|N|510|314|824||

Each row is a regression of the dependent variable on binary variables for each nationality. Standard deviations are reported in brackets and standard errors are reported in parentheses. Significance * .10; ** .05; *** .01.

_Source: Authors’ calculations using SYPJ data_ The SYPJ has two main limitations. First, since the sample is restricted to youth it gives no information about older working populations. Second, retrospective data on job histories 12