rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
# **Child Labor, Schooling, and Child Ability**<sup></sup>

Richard Akresh University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Damien de Walque The World Bank Emilie Bagby Mathematica Policy Research Harounan Kazianga Oklahoma State University _Keywords_ : Fetal origins hypothesis; Education; Child Labor; Sibling Rivalry _JEL classification_ : I21, J12, O15, J13

* The data used in this paper were collected for a project evaluating social protection programs in Burkina Faso, which benefited from support by Marie-Claire Damiba, Seydou Kabré, and Victorine Yameogo from the Secrétariat Permanent du Comité National de Lutte contre le SIDA et les Infections Sexuellement Transmissibles (SP-CNLSIST) in Burkina Faso and Hans Binswanger, Nono Ayivi-Guedehoussou, Ousmane Haidara, Timothy Johnston, Mead Over, and Tshiya Subayi-Cuppen at the World Bank. Robert Ouedraogo, Jean-Pierre Sawadogo, Bambio Yiriyibin and Pam Zahonogo from the University of Ouagadougou, Department of Economics supervised the data collection. The project is funded by the NBER Africa Project and the following World Bank trust funds grants: Spanish Strategic Impact Evaluation Fund (SIEF), Bank-Netherlands Partnership Program (BNPP), Gender Action Plan (GAP), Knowledge for Change Program (KCP), WB-DFID Evaluation of the Community Response to HIV and AIDS, and Luxembourg Poverty Reduction Partnership (LPRP). The authors also thank German Caruso and Moussa Kone for research assistance and Christopher Udry, Aziz Ouedraogo, Zah Marie Sawadogo, Dembélé Youssouf, and Samuel Alnaa for assistance procuring the rainfall data. We are grateful to Adam Wagstaff for useful comments. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the World Bank, its Executive Directors, or the countries they represent.

Contact Information: Richard Akresh, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Department of Economics, 1407 West Gregory Drive, Room 214, Urbana, IL 61801. Email: akresh@illinois.edu; Emilie Bagby, Mathematica Policy Research, 1100 1<sup>st</sup> Street,
Policy Research Working Paper 7526

# **Abstract**

This paper estimates slum residents’ willingness to pay for formalized land tenure in Pune, India. In so doing, it offers evidence that the legal assurance of slum residents’ occupancy of their lands could benefit them. Previous studies have discussed legal and non-legal factors that substantially influence the tenure security of residents in informal settlements. However, it remains unclear to what extent, and how, the assignment of legal property rights through the formalization of land tenure improves the tenure security of residents in informal settlements and living conditions, even in the presence of other legal and non-legal factors that also contribute to their tenure security. To address the question, this study focuses on the city of Pune, India, where government agencies have formalized slums by legally ensuring the occupancy of the residents under “slum declaration.” Applying a hedonic price model to an original household survey, this paper investigates how slum residents evaluate formalized land tenure. A spatial econometrics method is also applied to account for spatially autocorrelated unobserved errors. The spatial hedonic analysis finds that the premium of slum declaration is worth 19 percent of the average housing rent in slums. The associated marginal willingness to pay is equivalent to 6 percent of the average household expenditure, although it is heterogeneous depending on a household’s caste and other legal conditions. This finding suggests that the assurance of occupancy rights is a vital component of land-tenure formalization policy even if it does not directly provide full property rights.

This paper is a product of the Poverty and Equity Global Practice Group. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://econ.worldbank.org. The author may be contacted at snakamura2@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues.
# **References**

<mark>Aktas, Nihat, Ettore Croci, and Dimitris Petmezas (2015). “Is working capital management valueenhancing? Evidence from firm performance and investments.”</mark> _<mark>Journal of Corporate Finance</mark>_ <mark>30(Feb): 98-113.</mark> https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcorpfin.2014.12.008 Alesina, Alberto F., Francesca Lotti, and Paolo Emilio Mistrulli (2013). “Do women pay more for credit? evidence from Italy.” _Journal of the European Economic Association_ , 11(suppl 1): 45–66.

<mark>Allison, Lee, Yu Liu, Samuele Murtinu, and Zuobao Wei (2023). “Gender and firm performance around the world: The roles of finance, technology and labor.”</mark> _<mark>Journal of Business Research</mark>_ <mark>, 154: 113322.</mark> Aristei, D. and M. Gallo (2016). “Does gender matter for firms’ access to credit? Evidence from international data.” _Finance Research Letters_ 18: 67–75.

<mark>Asiedu, Elizabeth, James A. Freeman, and Akwasi Nti-Addae (2012). "Access to credit by small businesses: How relevant are race, ethnicity, and gender?"</mark> _<mark>The American Economic Review</mark>_ <mark>102(3): 532-537</mark> _<mark>.</mark>_ <mark>Asiedu, Elizabeth, Kanyama, Isaac, Ndikumana, Leonce and Nti-Addae, Akwasi (2013). “Access to Credit by Firms in Sub-Saharan Africa: How Relevant Is Gender?”</mark> _<mark>The American Economic Review (Papers and Proceedings)</mark>_ <mark>
objectives as stated in its charter, and limitations on lending to the government. Huther and Shah (1996) find a weak but positive association between fiscal decentralization and central bank independence confirming our a priori judgment that central bank independence is strengthened under decentralized systems. Table 1 uses a cross section of 40 countries for the period 1995-2000 to provide econometric analysis of the impact of fiscal decentralization on central bank independence. The results confirm the positive impact of fiscal decentralization and federalism on central bank independence.

Increases in the monetary base caused by the central bank’s bailout of failing state and non-state banks represent occasionally an important source of monetary instability and a significant obstacle to macro economic management. In Pakistan, a centralized federation, both the central and provincial governments have, in the past, raided nationalized banks. In Brazil, a decentralized federation, state banks in the past made loans to their own governments without due regard for their profitability and risks causing the so called $100 billion state debt crisis in 1995. Brazil, nevertheless later dealt with this issue head on with successful privatization of stateowned banks in late 1990s and through prohibition of government borrowing from state banks or 6
not undermine our ability to infer the effects of AP management. The outcomes we examine are unlikely to benefit from mean reversion (improvements that would have occurred by themselves). Therefore, we can explicitly characterize the bias the preperiod differences we estimate may induce. Any improvements we detect due to AP management may be underestimates, and any worsening in outcomes may be overestimates. We also urge readers to consider how our control group strengthens our research design. Using AP’s selection process to identify the counterfactual to AP management balances concerns about internal and external validity, relative to a research design where we omit from our control group all areas that are dissimilar [56]. This decision supports both our narrow goal of evaluating AP’s impacts and our broader goal of estimating the trade-offs of transferring _any_ government-managed protected area to a private entity, not just particularly successful or struggling government-managed protected areas.

# **2.1 Wildlife Outcomes**

Biodiversity conservation is the foremost goal of protected areas, as well as of AP itself, rendering wildlife outcomes a primary gauge of the efficacy by which AP manages parks. Our evaluation requires wildlife data that meet two criteria. First, the data must be collected in a consistent manner, or else contain information regarding surveyor effort that can be used to make observations comparable across different areas and time periods. Second, they must provide sufficient spatial and temporal coverage to facilitate the application of the dynamic difference-in-differences estimator. Only two datasets meet these requirements: Monitoring the Illegal Killing of Elephants, which measures elephant poaching, and eBird, which provides data regarding bird abundances [57, 58].

We estimate that AP management reduces elephant poaching by a statistically significant 15.3 percentage points, which equates to a 35% reduction in elephant poaching relative to the mean poaching rate among control areas (Figure 3 and Table S3, Row 1). Areas destined for AP management experience rising rates of elephant poaching over the five years before transference, which suggests that law enforcement is weakening or poaching
Figure 6. Relative Growth: Markets and Products <!-- Start of picture text --> 260111 260111<br>100590 100590<br>710813 710813<br>270900 260112 270900 260112<br>20721 720712 17011190111 120100 20721 720712 17011190111 120100<br>230400 230400<br>20741 20741<br>281820 281820<br>470329 470329<br>240120 240120<br>170199 170199<br>88024020230 88024020230<br>870323 271000 870323 271000<br>-10 0 10 20 30 -10 0 10 20 30<br>World: Export Growth, 2006-2011(%) World: Export Growth, 2006-2011(%)<br>40 40<br>30 30<br>20 20<br>10 10<br>0 0<br>-10 -10<br><!-- End of picture text --> _Source:_ World Integrated Trade Solution; authors’ calculation.

A cross-country gravity model can be used to evaluate Brazil’s pairwise export relationships with its trading partners. The model uses bilateral export values between 2005 and 2010.<sup>4</sup> Based on a theorygrounded model, this exercise allows us to compare pairwise observed export relationships with the predicted value from the gravity equation. Figure 7 shows all bilateral trade relationships in the dataset of 181 countries (light grey dots). Brazil’s bilateral exports are colored in blue, and key trading partners are labeled according to their 3-digit ISO (International Organization for Standardization) code in red.

If an observation is above (below) the 45-degree line, the observed export relationship in the period is more (less) than what the gravity model predicts and the exporter is said to be overtrading (undertrading) with its trading partner. Controlling for size of trading partners, trade frictions, sample selection and firm heterogeneity, this analysis suggests that the country is trading above the predicted level with China and Russia. Interestingly, although the gap
new import protection. Second, our comprehensive temporary lack of inter-temporal variation, relative to all of the other variables included in the estimation which are defined at the _quarterly_ frequency, in addition to the lack of trading-partner variation, is likely a contributing explanation to the statistically insignificant IRR estimate described in the text.

20 In unreported results available from the authors, we have also estimated versions of the model in which we introduce each of these two variables separately, and the broad pattern of results does not change.

21 First, the required data on WTO tariff bindings is only relevant and available for the post-1995 period. Second, the TTB stock variable is only constructed for TTBs imposed since the HS system has been in effect beginning in 1988. The implication is that earlier in our sample, the stock measure based on available HS data would severely underestimate the actual TTBs in effect as it is not able to consider all of the TTBs imposed prior to 1988 that were still effect in the early 1990s. This is important for the historical users of TTBs such as Australia, Canada, European Union, and the United States. Thus the TTB stock measure constructed from HS-06 data becomes more accurate over our sample period as (unaccounted for) TTBs that governments imposed prior to 1988 are increasingly removed.

> 22 A related research question is whether government decisions on TTB _removals_ are symmetrically affected by macroeconomic conditions. For example, when a government examines its previously-imposed antidumping import restrictions under the WTO’s guidelines for Sunset Reviews, is it less likely to remove such a measure if the domestic economy is undergoing a period of weak growth or a high rate of unemployment? This is an important and unaddressed question that we leave for future research, as it is beyond the scope of the current analysis for data limitation reasons.

15
promote the development of rural localities, as well as the regions they belong to.

These findings described are similar to those reported in studies on intergenerational occupational mobility performed after 10 years of intervention of the program in rural areas (see Yaschine, 2015). The main difference is that, while in the medium-term, no effect from the program on the inequality of labor opportunities was identified, in this study the findings suggest a possible effect from receiving a higher intensity of PROSPERA’s treatment. Nonetheless, the samples from both studies are not strictly comparable and the current results are not conclusive, consequently, they must be taken with a grain of salt. The comparison we carried out suggests that a higher treatment intensity may generate a greater probability for youths to have occupations related to better socioeconomic levels, through a greater inheritance of NM positions and a lesser inheritance of the agricultural stratum. However, in the backdrop of this distinction are the high intergenerational inheritance rates for both groups, which describes a less encouraging picture.

Due to the limitations of the sample, we consider that the results of this study are valid only for the subpopulation analyzed, although they may be considered as indicative for the beneficiary population of PROSPERA in rural areas. Furthermore, the estimated effects of PROSPERA reflect a reduced difference in treatment intensity and should not be taken as the overall effect that the program may have after 20 years. Additionally, the estimated effects may be underestimated for two reasons. First, ENCEL 2017 did not collect information on all migrants 55
Policy Research Working Paper 10920

# **Abstract**

In many countries, local governments struggle with inefficiency and inaction, often perpetuated by entrenched elites. This paper examines how leadership changes affect local bureaucratic performance by combining personnel and citizen surveys with a regression discontinuity design in a large sample of Indonesian villages. The findings show that electoral turnover revitalizes local bureaucracies and improves the flow of information about citizen preferences.

Bureaucrats serving new leaders interact more with citizens and are less connected to past or present village officials, resulting in a more responsive village government that better incorporates citizens’ demands in policy-making. This improves local service provision, as measured in both administrative data and citizen surveys. Overall, our findings suggest that leadership turnover can mitigate elite capture and improve governance in local administrations.

This paper is a product of the Development Research Group, Development Economics. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/prwp. The authors may be contacted at sbazzi@ucsd.edu, m.hilmy@unsw.edu.au, bmarx@bu.edu, mshaukat@worldbank.org, and andreas.stegmann@warwick.ac.uk.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent._ Produced by the Research Support Team
# **<u>D: Summary statistics of variables (yearly, 2020 only)</u>**

|Variable|N|Mean|S.D.|Min|Median|Max|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Log on-chain crypto-assets volume/GDP (all transaction<br>sizes)|147|-4.37|1.15|-8.91|-4.31|-1.69|
|Log on-chain crypto-assets volume/GDP (transaction<br>size < US$10K)|147|-6.43|1.06|-10.24|-6.43|-3.75|
|Log GDP per capita|194|8.63|1.40|5.54|8.53|11.67|
|Credit to private sector (% of GDP)|194|66.10|49.94|1.93|52.97|266.61|
|Account ownership (% of adult population)|165|61.63|25.73|8.57|58.84|99.92|
|Personal remittances, received (% of GDP)|229|4.68|6.61|0.00|2.33|38.98|
|Monetary Freedom Index|184|74.65|10.88|0|76.9|87|
|Financial Freedom Index|181|48.95|19.28|0|50|90|
|Mobile cellular subscriptions (per 100 people)|188|111.68|30.17|43.93|112.06|291.65|
|Fixed broadband subscriptions(per 100people)|184|17.61|14.53|0.00|15
committed to the program, with each applicant allocated around 86’000 Euros. In line with the principles of the ACP-EU partnership agreement singed in Cotonou in 2000, the PIP aims to contribute to the development of the ACP’s private sector and to promote regional integration.” As for the case study itself, the brochure explains that “[w]hen Myner Exports began working with the Pesticides Initiative Program, or PIP in 2002, it was exporting about 300 tonnes of French beans, snow peas, passion fruit, and sugar snaps a year to the European Union. Today, the company exports some 900 tonnes a year. ” Quoting this particular case study in their assessment of the EU’s TRA, te Velde et al. (2006) noted that “in an ideal world, one would compare this supported company with a similar one that was not supported” (p. 21). This is precisely what we set up to do in the present paper, although using Senegal instead of Kenya as our sample of study.

We chose Senegal because the data we had access to provided a unique combination. Through a World Bank project run by Denisse Pierola and Paul Brenton at the World Bank, we obtained raw files from Senegal’s customs with export data at the transaction level for every year between 2000 and 2008. The data include the exporter’s ID, the product code, the country of destination, and the export value for over 500 HS8 fresh fruit and vegetable (FFV) products. We were able to merge the customs’ dataset with industrial-survey data and a list of PIP beneficiaries provided by the EU Commission.<sup>4</sup> This unique combination made it possible to construct a treatment group of firms that got assistance and a control group of firms that did not, and this for a sample period that ran from before the program to its end.<sup>5</sup> Using this rich data set, we used a wide array
at 0.181, compared with the in-sample value of 0.094. In terms of root mean squared deviation, the household and sub-area models are more accurate than the area-level estimates, which have a root mean squared deviation of 0.198.

Finally, the bottom row shows the correlation of municipality-level poverty with the relative wealth index (RWI) created by Chi et al. (2022) and part of Meta’s Data for Good project.<sup>20</sup> This wealth index is available for 56 different low- and middle-income countries across the globe. The correlation between the RWI and poverty rates is worse than any of the other estimates. However, this is not an indication that the RWI is incorrect; instead, it is an important reminder that wealth does not always correlate well with poverty. Interestingly, however, the correlation between the RWI and poverty is more than 12 percent lower in out-of-sample municipalities, even though the RWI was created with completely different data. In other words, the out-of-sample municipalities may simply be systematically different from in-sample municipalities.

Turning to coverage rates, the household model moderately underestimates mean squared error, which is reflected in estimated coverage of 76.9% in sample and 82.5% out of sample. This underestimate of uncertainty stems from the household model failing to account for uncertainty in the estimated variance of the sample. The sub-area model performs substantially better on coverage, due to its higher MSE estimates. Meanwhile, the coverage rate of the area-level model falls between the household and area-level model for in-sample municipalities and is the lowest for out-of-sample municipalities.

While the coverage rate is lowest for the household model, for in-sample municipalities the rate is only 9 percentage points lower than the Horvitz-Thompson direct survey estimates, and nearly twice as large as the very low coverage rate of the direct estimates when using standard clustered variance estimates. Overall, the results indicate that the household-level model is the most accurate and the most precise of the three estimators for in-sample municipalities and
We take these two functional relationships to get equations linking arrivals ( _A_ ) and departures ( _D_ ) in a region solely to its average temperature ( _T_ ), in Celsius degrees: where _KA_ and _KD_ are country-specific constants, accounting for all other factors different from temperature. We calibrate these parameters on the basis of regional data on yearly arrivals, departures and average temperature.

We can see that both relationships are non-linear. The maximum number of arrivals is obtained at the optimal average temperature of 13.9°C. The minimum number of departures is obtained at 18.6°C. For increases in temperature below the 13.9°C threshold, arrivals increase and departures decrease, therefore a country gets a beneficial net inflow of foreign currency. The opposite is found for increases in temperature above the 18.6°C threshold. For variations between 13.9°C and 18.6°C, effects are ambiguous, not only because arrivals and departures push to different directions, but also because the average expenditure level of an incoming tourist may be different from the expenditure level of an outgoing tourist<sup>2</sup> .

We estimated changes in arrivals and departures for 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 °C increases in average temperature from its baseline level, for all 140 countries and regions. Variations in arrivals multiplied by per capita expenditure minus variations in departures multiplied by per capita expenditure give a first estimate of changes in net foreign currency inflow.

Of course, changes can be be both positive and negative. Furthermore, summing up all changes does not typically gives a zero result. However, as it will be made clearer in Sub-section 6.3, if foreign currency flows are interpreted as international income transfers, we would actually need to impose that all variations sum up to one.

To this end, we scaled up or down all our estimates, by subtracting the average net inflow if positive, or adding it if it turns out to be negative.