rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
the estimation of a production or a cost function, the regulator needs to take into account the specificities of the sector he/she is working on. An important characteristic in regulated utilities is that in general, the firms are required to provide the service at a preset tariff. In other words, the firms are required to meet the demand and are not allowed to pick the level of output to supply. Since output is exogenous, the regulated firm maximizes benefits simply by minimizing its costs of producing a given level of output. Under this situation, in principle, the specification of a cost frontier is often the natural choice. 2 In Chile (water sector) and Spain (electricity), the frontier is calculated on the basis of engineering data instead of relying on best practice.
percentage of total energy saved by using each type of these measures is about 29% for floor insulation and 38% for both low-temperature and condensing boilers. The cost-effectiveness of energy renovation measures is widely dependent on energy prices. Through the exchange program of replacing inefficient bulbs with LED bulbs of 181 households in low-income areas of Salt Lake City, Utah, Witt et al. (2019) estimate that residents saved approximately US$18,219 annually in electricity bills, an equivalent of about US$100 per household. This translates to savings of about 2.6% of the total electricity consumed by each household. Using artificial neural networks and empirical models on a sample of 16 household refrigerator replacements under the Appliance Replacement Offer in low-income households in Australia, Ren et al. (2021) find most low-income households save, on average, 53% of their energy consumption in refrigeration through the replacement of old refrigerators with energy-efficient ones. However, they also find that some portion of the energy savings could be compromised if the size of a new refrigerator is larger than the old one.

It is not necessarily true that the adoption of clean or energy-efficient technologies reduces energy consumption. Employing a Logit regression model on 2010 household budget survey of Ireland, Chesser et al. (2019) show households that have adopted micro renewable energy systems, such as PV panels, micro wind turbines, solar thermal water heaters, wood pellet boilers, geothermal heat pumps and combined heat and power (CHP) units, have increased their electricity use. Using micro-level data from the National Survey of Family Income and Expenditure in Japan, Inoue and Matsumoto (2019) find households began spending more electricity on space cooling and food preservation after the implementation of the EE program that sets efficiency standards for major home appliances. They find that a large size and increased stock of home appliances contributed to an increase in the electricity use. Based on a controlled field experiment of 154 apartments in the Greater Boston area in 2011, Tiefenbeck et al. (2013)
# **1. Introduction**

The economic integration of developing countries into world markets is an important stepping stone for economic transitions and growth. This integration can be quite challenging, however, due to the many differences across countries in language, cultural understanding, legal regulations, and much more. As a consequence, business and social networks are valuable mechanisms for achieving this integration (Rauch 2001). Ethnicity-based interactions and diaspora connections are a prominent form of these networks. The benefits typically cited for diaspora networks include stronger access to information (especially very recent or tacit knowledge), matching and referral services that link firms together, language skills and cultural sensitivity that improve interactions, and repeated relationships that embed trust in uncertain environments and provide sanction mechanisms for misbehavior. Such traits are hard to construct yet crucial for business success in many developed and emerging economies. The history of these connections stretches back to the earliest of international exchanges (e.g., Aubet 2001), and studies continue to find diasporas important for trade flows, foreign investments, and knowledge diffusion.

Over the last two decades, the Internet has become a potent force for global economic exchanges. The Internet links customers and companies together worldwide, enables labor to be provided at a distance, provides instant access to information about foreign locations, and much more. How will the Internet affect the importance of diaspora networks? On one hand, the substantial improvements in connectivity and reduced frictions of the Internet may reduce the importance of diaspora connections. On the other hand, the online capabilities may provide an effective tool that complements traditional diaspora connections (e.g., Saxenian 2006). To shed light on these important questions, we investigate the role of the Indian diaspora in online outsourcing to India using data from oDesk. oDesk is the world’s largest online labor market, processing $30 million per month in contracts as of May 2012. It provides a platform for companies to post job opportunities, interview workers, monitor performance, and pay
0.115|0.183|0.141|0.157|0.225|
|Test:In-Kind=Recognition|0.501|0.780|0.250|0.633|0.592|0.252|

_Notes._ Each column represents a separate regression on the midline data, estimated using equation 1. Data in columns (1) to (3) are restricted to observations where all teachers in a given grade and school report the same gender. This allows us to unique identify the gender of the teacher. Columns (2) and (3) split this sample to female and male teachers, respectively. Similarly, columns (4) to (6) restrict the sample to schools and grades where all teachers either selected “teacher” or all teachers selected another profession to the question, asked at baseline: “if you could choose again, what profession would you choose?”. Columns (4) and (5) split this sample to teachers who selected “teacher” or not. Standard errors are in parentheses, and clustered at the school level. _∗p <_ 0 _._ 1, _∗∗ p <_ 0 _._ 05, _∗∗∗p <_ 0 _._ 01
assesses the progressiveness of each fiscal instrument and its contribution to reducing poverty and inequality. The approach follows the Commitment to Equity (CEQ) methodology (Lustig and Higgins, 2013), allowing comparisons between Poland with other countries where the CEQ methodology has been applied.<sup>2</sup> The analysis is built on the 2014 Polish Household Budget Survey (HBS) collected by the Central Statistical Office of Poland (GUS), and data from National Income Accounts and public finance accounts from the Ministry of Finance for 2014. Although most of the analysis follows a partial equilibrium approach, we use the 2010 input-output matrix is used to capture the second-round effects of excise taxes on intermediate goods, such as fuel, since these can be important as they are passed through to prices of all other goods. In terms of coverage of components of fiscal policy, the analysis includes 62 percent of tax revenue and 51 percent of government spending, in line with other CEQ studies. The analysis does not cover the corporate profit tax and VAT paid by government or institutional consumption as these are difficult to assign to individual households

> 2 For more details, see <u>http://www.commitmentoequity.org .</u>

2
variable on the total number of children the woman has given birth to, so we instead focus on the number of children under five who live in the household (0.6).

The three business training samples of entrepreneurs (Ethiopia DOT, Ethiopia WALN, and Togo) are urban samples. Two of the land titling samples (Benin and Rwanda) are rural, and the third (Ghana) is peri-urban.

# **3.3 Empirical Strategy**

Our methodology leverages the empirical strategy used by the original impact evaluations (five randomized trials and one regression discontinuity design in Ghana), whose designs were described in Section 3.1. We run each of the six analyses separately, following an identical specification to the one used by the original impact evaluation authors to compute their primary treatment effects.

Our general specification follows the form: _Yi_ are our main outcomes—the number of children at follow-up for each woman and an indicator variable equal to one if the woman had a child post-treatment—while _Ti_ indicates

> 13It is worth noting that married women declaring that they are a household head often implies that the husband is not residing in the same place or is absent for long periods for work. In Ghana, 97.3% of women who are not household heads are co-residing with their spouse while only 8.5% of women household heads are. 14This data comes from survey questions asking “are you married?” or “are you formally married?”.

> 15This data comes from survey questions that asked: “how many children have you had with this man?” or “how many living children do you have?”.

> 16When the outcome is measured at two follow-ups, we interact the treatment with time: _Yi = α + β_ 1 _Ti_ 1 _+ β_ 2 _Ti_ 2 _+ λX i + μ j + εi j_ . _Ti_ 1 and _Ti_ 2 are equal to one for observations corresponding to the first and second follow-up, respectively.

13
Policy Research Working Paper 10973

# **Abstract**

This paper investigates the parenthood penalty in Indonesian labor markets, with a focus on gender disparities. It uses longitudinal data from the Indonesia Family Life Survey from 1993 to 2014 and employs a difference-in-differences approach with staggered adoption to estimate the impact of parenthood on labor market participation for both men and women. The results reveal that the birth of a child has a significant and persistent negative effect on women’s employment, with the penalty extending up to six years after childbirth. In contrast, men experience only short-lived and insignificant changes in employment after fatherhood. The analysis further identifies substantial heterogeneity across different subgroups. Women in urban areas and those with higher levels of education experience larger and more prolonged penalties, while rural women, those with lower levels of education, and those with extended family support recover more quickly. The findings highlight the role of socioeconomic factors in moderating the parenthood penalty and offer critical insights for policies aimed at promoting gender equality in the labor market.

This paper is a product of the Poverty and Equity Global Practice. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/prwp. The authors may be contacted at jfajardog@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the
25

- Bursztyn, L., González, A. & Yanagizawa-Drott, D., 2018. Misperceived Social Norms: Female Labor Force Participation in Saudi Arabia. _National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper No. 24736_ .

- Cialdini, R.B., Kallgren, C.A. & Reno, R.R., 1991. A Focus Theory of Normative Conduct: A Theoretical Refinement and Reevaluation of the Role of Norms in Human Behavior. _Advances in Experimental Social Psychology Advances in Experimental Social Psychology Volume 24_ , pp.201–234.

- Dildar, Y., 2015. Patriarchal Norms, Religion, and Female Labor Supply: Evidence from Turkey. _World Development_ , 76, pp.40–61.

DiMaggio, P., 1997. Culture and Cognition. _Annual Review of Sociology_ , 23, pp.263–287.

Duckworth, A., 2018. _Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance_ , New York, NY: Scribner.

- El Feki, S., Heilman, B. and Barker, G., Eds. (2017) Understanding Masculinities: Results from the International Men and Gender Equality Survey (IMAGES) – Middle East and North Africa: Executive Summary. Cairo and Washington, DC: UN Women and Promundo-US.

Elster, J., 2003. _The Cement of Society: A Study of Social Order_ , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

- Eriksson, L., 2015. Social Norms Theory and Development Economics. _Policy Research Working Papers No. WPS 7450_ . World Bank, Washington DC.

- Evans, A., 2016. The Decline of the Male Breadwinner and Persistence of the Female Carer: Exposure, Interests, and Micro–Macro Interactions. _Annals of the American Association of Geographers_ , 106(5), pp.1135–1151.

- Field, E. et al., 2016. On Her Own Account: How Strengthening Women's Financial Control Affects Labor Supply and Gender Norms. _Working Paper_ .

- Gauri,
establishments and a strong association between these practices and higher productivity and profitability.<sup>2</sup> This paper provides the first experimental evidence on the importance of management practices in large firms. The experiment takes large, multi-plant Indian textile firms and randomly allocates their plants to treatment and control groups. Treatment plants received five months of extensive management consulting from a large international consulting firm. This

> 1 Lucas (1978, p. 511) notes that his model “does not say anything about the tasks performed by managers, other than whatever managers do, some do it better than others”.

> 2 See for example, Osterman (1994), Huselid and Becker (1996), MacDuffie (1995), Ichniowski, Shaw and Prennushi (1998), Cappelli and Neumark (2001) and Bloom and Van Reenen (2007). A prominent early example is Pack (1987), which, like the present study, deals with textile firms in developing countries. In related work, Bertrand and Schoar (2003) use a manager-firm matched panel and find that manager fixed effects matter for a range of corporate decisions. Lazear and Oyer (2009) and Bloom and Van Reenen (2010) provide extensive surveys.

1
The Venezuelan data typically reports duties in CIF (cost, insurance, freight) terms, though on some occasions they are reported as FOB (free on board). Furthermore, the data in P_AD_DATE and F_AD_DATE is missing. Resolutions would come into effect on the date of publication, but that date was not usually listed in the files. Some notes on publication may be available on the CASS website. Also, the “DUMP” and “INJ” series are largely identical, because CASS makes both decisions simultaneously.

# **3.15 South Africa (ZAF)**

South African antidumping investigations are administered by the Trade Remedies Directorates in the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI). The outcomes of investigations are published in the International Trade Administration Commission’s reports. Data for South Africa was kindly provided by Gustav Brink and is based on Brink (2005). Holden (2002) provides an earlier analysis of South African antidumping as a reaction to trade liberalization or an anti-competitive instrument. The two articles contain descriptions of the antidumping process in South Africa, but a current summary of antidumping procedures can be found on the Department of Industry and Trade’s website.

The South African workbook contains the standard data items, as in Section 2, as well as a few additional data items described below.

**Table 3.15.1 : Additional South African Data Included in AD-ZAF-v1.0.xls**

|**Column**|**Variable Name**|**Description**|
|---|---|---|
|**In AD-Z**|**AF-Master :**||
|**U.**|**P_AD_DUTY**|The maximum (or range of) preliminary antidumping duty (duties) imposed|
|**V.**|**F_AD_DUTY**|The maximum (or range of ) final antidumping duty (duties) imposed|
|**
disks<sup>22</sup> that ORBIS can make available for downloads through File Transfer Protocol (FTP). ORBIS provides the option to access their historical vintage files, which are structured in different modules and years.<sup>23</sup> A set of technological specifications are required to process the files and build a single database. Raw vintage files can either be downloaded on the premises through a server such as Microsoft SQL server or Postgres, or hosted in a cloud-based data warehouse. Each of these methods has its costs and benefits. The local server option requires SQL coding and database management and administration skills to create, read, update, and delete tables. Because we are dealing with data in the order of 200Gb when compressed, the server must be large enough and needs to be expandable for additional updates. The data for the Global BOS database was obtained through a local Microsoft SQL server.

# **The main tables in the ORBIS raw “vintage disks” include:**

- **Entities:** this file contains the list of all entities found in ORBIS. Each entity is identified with a unique ID called BvD ID number. The table also contains information on the entity type. The entity type categories include bank, financial company, insurance company, hedge fund, marine vessels, private equity firms, public authorities, managers, individuals, among others. This file also provides information on the country of operation.

- **Links:** this file provides the ownership information. More precisely, the linkages files (one per year) define the relationship between a pair of entities by providing the shareholding percentage.<sup>24</sup> Each pair of shareholder and subsidiary has its own row and there is one Links table for each year from 2007 to 2020. The Links table for 2019 has about 1.9 billion ownership links.<sup>25</sup> Additional cleaning to remove duplicates as well as to identify
the age coefficient is positive and significant, while the interaction is negative and significant. The net effect of the two coefficients is never significantly different from zero.

In sum, outreach appears to be driven by two countervailing influences for individual-based lenders. Size (and to a lesser extent age) is associated with less outreach, while profitability is associated with more. On balance, the evidence suggests that, as they grow larger, individual-based lenders are more susceptible to mission drift than village banks. Outreach indicators for village banks and group lenders tend not to be significantly negatively associated with age, size, or financial self-sufficiency. For them, mission drift would appear to be a less severe concern, although large group lenders do have worse outreach than smaller ones.

# **6. Conclusion**

At the outset of this paper, we sought to address three questions. Does raising interest rates exacerbate agency problems as detected by lower repayment rates and less profitability? Is there evidence of a trade-off between the depth of outreach to the poor and the pursuit of profitability? Has “mission drift” occurred—i.e., have microbanks moved away from serving their poorer clients in pursuit of commercial viability?

Based on a high-quality survey of 124 microfinance institutions, we find that the answers to our questions depend on an institution’s lending method. For example, regarding interest rates and profitability, we find that individual-based lenders that charge higher interest rates are more profitable than others, but only up to a point.<sup>23</sup> Beyond

> 23  Again, we acknowledge the possibility of alternative interpretations.  For example, the social objectives of some MFIs might compel them to charge lower interest rates and thus reap lower profits.  Those institutions might require substantial subsidies to operate, consistent with the negative correlations between

27
annex B for more on the methodology and the various iterations of the estimation of tobacco price elasticities by decile.).<sup>9</sup> The estimated average cigarette price elasticity in Russia is −0.52, which is within the estimated elasticities found in the literature (−0.4 and −0.8), as well as those previously estimated for Russia.<sup>10</sup>

**Table 1 – Cigarette Price Elasticities, by Decile**

|_Price Elasticity_|_1_|_2_|_3_|_4_|_5_|_6_|_7_|_8_|_9_|_10_|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Lower bound|-0.48|-0.41|-0.38|-0.34|-0.32|-0.31|-0.29|-0.26|-0.25|-0.21|
|Medium|-0.68|-0.61|-0.58|-0.54|-0.52|-0.51|-0.49|-0.46|-0.45|-0.41|
|Upper bound|-0.88|-0.81|-0.78|-0.74|-0.72|-0.71|-0.69|-0.66|-0.65|-0.61|

_Source:_ Estimates based on Russia Longitudinal Monitoring Survey–HSE 2010–16. _Note_ : Deciles were created using per capita household expenditure. Lower- and upper-bound elasticities show average differences of −0.2 and +0.2, respectively, with the medium-bound elasticity. Demographic controls include area
Economies included in the Global Findex survey and database

||||**Data collection**<br>||**Design**<br>|**Margin**<br>|**Mode of**<br>||**Over-**<br>||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|**Economy**|**Region**<sup>**a**</sup>|**Income group**|**period**|**Interviews**|**effect**<sup>**b**</sup>|**of error**<sup>**c**</sup>|**interviewing**|**Languages**|**sample**<sup>**d**</sup>|**Exclusions and other sampling details**|
|Chile|LAC|Upper middle|Nov 9–Dec 8|1,009|1.41|3.7|Face to face|Spanish|||
|China|EAP|Upper middle|Jun 17–Jul 27|4,220|2.06|2.2|Face to face<br>and landline<br>telephone|Chinese|||
|Colombia|LAC|Upper middle|Nov 19–Dec 15|1,000|1.32|3.6|Face to face|Spanish|||
|Comoros|SSA|Low|Feb 26–Mar 14|1,000|1.19|3.4|Face to face|French,<br>Comorian|||
|Congo, Dem.
Table 1: General equilibrium conditions

|**Equilibrium Condition**|**(Eq**|**uation)**|**Associated Variable**|**Dimensions**|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|**Dual representation of preferences**|**and t**|**echnologies:**|||
|Armington unit-cost functions|(1)<br>|_∀i ∈I_<br>|_A_<sup>_~~g~~_</sup> : Armington Activity|_G_|
||(2)|_∀j ∈J_|||
||(3)|_∀k ∈K_|||
|Dixit-Stiglitz price indexes<br>|(4)|_∀g ∈_(_I ∪J_)|_Q_<sup>_g_</sup><br>_r_ <sup>: D-S Activity by region</sup><br>|(_I_ +_J_)_× R_|
|Zero Profts for Dixit-Stiglitz frms|(5)|_∀g ∈_(_I ∪J_)|_N_<sup>_g_</sup><br>_r_ <sup>: Number of Firms</sup>|(_I_ +_J_)_× R_|
|Dixit-Stiglitz composite input prices|(6)<br>(7)<br>|_∀g ∈_(_I ∪J_) and _r_ = _D_<br>_∀j ∈J_ and _r_ = _D_<br>|_Z_<sup>_g_</sup><br>_r_ <sup>: IRTS resource use</sup>|(_I_ +_J_)_× R_|
||(8)|_∀i ∈I_ and _r_ = _D_|||
|Input-output technologies|(9)<
in Kharif 2020, and 66 percent in summer 2020.

35 of the 50 systems experienced no breakdowns. Of the 15 systems that did, the most common problems were related to leakage in the distribution system and glitches in the control box, the control panel, or the wiring. In most of these cases the repair costs were negligible (5 cases) or small (less than Rs. 2,000). Managers of the two systems had to spend Rs. 27,000 and Rs. 35,000 on the repair. Water users mobilized the money for repair in both these cases. 45 of the 50 operators reported no significant disputes or discord in managing the irrigation systems. Where disputes did occur, they were triggered by disagreements over irrigation sequencing and water was scarce.

# _4.2 Farmer characteristics_

757 farmers were interviewed in the primary survey. Nearly 90 percent of the respondents were women. 39 percent of the respondents in the beneficiary group and 32 percent in the control group could not read or write. 65 percent of beneficiary households and 59 percent of households in the 11