rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
college; 70.9% identified as White, 12.9% as Black, 5.3% as Asian, and 4.6% as Hispanic. On a 7-point scale of political ideology (1=Strongly liberal to 7=Strongly conservative), the sample scored on average 3.14 (SD=1.78).

_Procedure_ . We explained to participants that “The following questions ask for your predictions about the economic success of low-income women in the context of Niger.” They were asked <mark>“Of these 4 qualities, which do you predict will be the most important for women's economic success in this context?” and were asked to rank order four options: working hard, having peacefulness, showing personal initiative and being strategic, and having good social connections. They were also asked “Of these 4 reasons, which do you predict will be the most important for why women are not economically successful in this context?” and were asked to rank order four options: not respecting others, not persevering in the face of obstacles, having tension in the household, and not having a plan for the future. They were also asked to make several other predictions.</mark> _Empirical strategy_ : These analyses were not pre-registered as this study was exploratory and descriptive in nature.

# **<mark>Study 2: Policy Experiment</mark>**

The methodology for treatment effect analysis and construction of measures were pre-registered in the AEA RCT registry: https://www.socialscienceregistry.org/trials/2544. The study received approval from the Innovations for Poverty Action Institutional Review Board (#00006083).

_Participants_ . Women from low-income households in predominantly rural areas of Niger. Individuals were eligible for participation in the multi-faceted productive inclusion components of the Sahel Adaptive Social Protection (ASP) program on the basis of a Proxy Means Targeting (PMT) score and other methods seeking to identify poor and vulnerable households.<sup>15<
**Figure 3: Panel Growth Rates by Percentiles of Distribution**

<!-- Start of picture text --> Changes 08-05 , all Urban<br>+20% +20%<br>+15% +15%<br>+10% +10%<br>+5% +5%<br>+0% +0%<br>-5% -5%<br>-10% -10%<br>1 25 50 75 100 1 25 50 75 100<br>Percentiles of 2005 welfare Percentiles of 2005 welfare<br>% pctl growth mean 95-perc confidence % pctl growth mean 95-perc confidence<br>Rural<br>+20%<br>+15%<br>+10%<br>+5%<br>+0%<br>-5%<br>-10%<br>1 25 50 75 100<br>Percentiles of 2005 welfare<br>% pctl growth mean 95-perc confidence<br>Annual growth rate for welfare , Annual growth rate for welfare ,<br>Annual growth rate for welfare ,<br><!-- End of picture text --> _Note: welfare rank is based on household consumption divided by its lower poverty line. Source: own estimates based on HIECPS 2005-2008._ Growth incidence curves for panel data show that in reality very few households moved along with the average growth rate of the economy (of about 2 percent per year when measured in per capita and against a cost of poverty basket): 15 percent of the population experienced annual losses in their welfare of more than 10 percent, and 25 percent experienced gains of similar magnitude. This extreme degree of mobility and a clear pattern of negatively sloped growth incidence immediately raise concerns about the impact of the measurement error. To see whether measurement error is behind the observed pattern we move now 15
involves comparing two groups over time. Due to their distinct characteristics, we expect differences in outcomes between the groups. However, the evolution of these differing outcomes over time, while holding group characteristics constant, should follow a similar trend (i.e., the common trend assumption) until an exogenous shock occurs. The presence of this parallel trend is crucial for establishing causal evidence of impact. The difference-in-differences research design is particularly suitable for ‘event’ studies and the quantification of the impact of unexpected shocks on economic outcomes. This method has been extensively employed in the reviewed literature (Card & Krueger, 2000; Galiani et al., 2005). In our case studies, we are using the canonical difference in difference, which means two groups and two time periods (before and after).

The difference-in-difference regression is specified as follows: = T T T 1 + P P 2 + Treatment 3 4 (1) YYwhere ii,tt is the average log of nightlights data for each flooded pixelTTiiββ PPTT PPT TTttββ ii,ttββ + ccPPccT PPT TTPPii,tt _i_ ββat time + εεiitt _t._ The use of remote sensing data allows us to explore immediate to short term impact of the flood over our two groups. ii,tt T T T YY is a dummy variable equal to 1 for flooded pixel _i_ located within the conflict buffer zone _i_ before the flood event, and to 0 for flooded pixel located in a non-conflict affected area before the ii flood eventTT _._ P P is a dummy variable that represents the period after the exogeneous shock.<sup>10</sup> T T T T is the treatment variable, i.e., the variable of interest in a difference-intt PPTT PPT TT difference specification which accounts for the interaction of the treated and Post period variable; iitt TT is the set of additional explanatory variable suspected to impact the level of nightlights radiance; and is an independent and identically distributed error term, clustered at the iitt administrative level 2,
# **1. Introduction**

Ethiopia has one of the highest child malnutrition rates in the world. A considerable effort to monitor child malnutrition rates over the last two decades shows that, despite some improvements, approximately half of the children under five are still malnourished (Alderman and Christiaensen, 2001). Much of the burden of deaths resulting from malnutrition, estimated to be over half of childhood deaths in developing countries, can be attributed to just mild and moderate undernutrition.<sup>1</sup> Underweight children are particularly vulnerable to increased risk of death from infectious illnesses such as diarrhea and pneumonia (WHO, 2002). For those children that do survive, the impact of chronic malnutrition in the first few years of life are long lasting and can lead to cognitive and physical developmental deficits, higher levels of chronic illness and disability in adult life (resulting in reduced work capacity), as well as adverse pregnancy outcomes (low birth weight).

Several biological and social economic factors contribute to malnutrition. A conceptual framework developed by UNICEF, and extended by Engle, Menon, and Haddad (1997), recognizes three levels of determinants of children’s nutritional status. The immediate determinants of children’s nutritional status are dietary intake and health status. These are in turn influenced by underlying determinants: food security, adequate care for mothers and children, and a proper healthy environment, which includes the availability of safe water, sanitation, health care, and environmental safety. The ability of households to translate resources to achieve food security, care, and a healthy environment are limited by political, economic, cultural, and social factors at the community and national level, which are the basic determinants of children’s nutritional status (Smith and Haddad, 1999).

Previous studies have concentrated on the impacts of several of the underlying determinants, particularly maternal education and access to health care, on malnutrition rates. Maternal education, which is often used as a proxy for the quality of care received
aggregations to avoid any kinks due to definitional changes across years. Our data span 1992 to 2013, with our analyses concentrated on the decade from 1999 to 2009 around the GQ reform.

# 3.2 GQ and NS-EW Mapping

We measure the spatial distance of Indian districts to the GQ or NS-EW highway system using official highway maps and ArcMap GIS software. We calculate distances using shortest straight-line metrics measured from the edge of each district. These results are robust to instead measuring distances from district centroids. The Empirical Appendix of Ghani et al. (2016) provides additional details on data sources and preparation, with 10 See Ghani et al. (2016). For additional detail on the manufacturing survey data, see Fernandes and Pakes (2008), Hasan and Jandoc (2010), Kathuria et al. (2010), Nataraj (2011), and Ghani et al. (2014).

7
.3|3.4|1.5|
|Short-Term Fixed-Rate Bonds (% of Total)|3.1|0.0|0.6|
|Medium-Term Fixed-Rate Bonds (% of Total)|1.8|17.3|17.6|
|Long-Term Fixed-Rate Bonds (% of Total)|0.0|24.7|36.2|
|Variable Cost Bonds (% of Total)|47.2|36.4|28.8|
|Non Marketable Debt (% of Total)|21.5|18.2|15.4|
|Total|100.0|100.0|100.0|
|Domestic (% of Total)|79.4|75.8|94.4|
|Foreign (% of Total)|20.6|24.2|5.6|
|Total Central Government Debt in GRD billion|31982|48337|52275|
|Intergovernmental Debt in GRD billion|2379|4916|5381|
|Total General Government Debt in GDR billion|29603|43421|46894|
|Total Central Government Debt (% of GDP)|119.0|116.7|117.1|
|Total General Government Debt (% of GDP)|110.2|104.8|105.0|
|GDP in GRD billion|26884|41407|44638|

Source: Estimated on the basis of Bank of Greece, Ministry of Finance, IMF and OECD data.

Estimating the share of different types of investors in holding government debt in 2000 is even more difficult than for earlier periods (Table 3.10). This is both because of the absence of sectoral financial accounts and because of the use of nominee accounts in the central depository system. The holdings of banks, mutual funds, insurance companies and pension funds are estimated from published data on the assets of these institutions in the same fashion as for 1995. The
26

- The water utility/concessionaire is empowered to propose potential subsidy candidates on the basis of its payment records, and to ifacilitate the applications process from those who may wish to apply spontaneously.

- Pending a fuller integration of the schemes, the Ministry of Housing would be encouraged to supply information about the subsidy scheme to beneficiaries of the housing subsidy with whom it comes into regular contact, and to facilitate the completion of the applications of these candidates.

The Operational Unit for the subsidy scheme would then conduct a preliminary screening process based on the information provided in the application form. Those who would appear to qualify would then be visited by a social worker who would conduct an extensive household interview aimed at collecting the additional information required to apply the eligibility criteria. To avoid the falsification of information by the social worker, it was recommended that a supervisor repeat a small proportion of the interviews to ascertain whether the information supplied was correct. The social workers' reports would be submitted to an Executive Committee, where the final decision regarding eligibility would be taken. Any customers dissatisfied with their treatment at any stage in the process would have the right of appeal to the Regulatory Agency.

Figure 6.1: Alternative Routes **for Subsidy Applications** <!-- Start of picture text --> REGULA RY I<br>7 ~~~~~10<br>ICFHOUS cF axy IoIIr spa&wwm c<br>I CFFRAIIcIS I b&piy<br><!-- End of picture text -->

# **_Payment_**

Regarding the payment process, the following recommendations were made.

- The customer's monthly bill should state the total cost of the service, the amount discounted as a result of the subsidy and the remaining balance to be paid. In order to ensure that subsidy beneficiaries do not lose the habit of paying for the service, the
level panel data, find that the PRC’s capital market became more fragmented between 1980s and 2001, and the government tended to systematically reallocate capital from more productive regions to less productive ones. Zhang and Tan (2007), using the data of 1978–2001 with four sectors (urban industry, urban services, agriculture, and rural enterprise) in each region, find that estimates of marginal productivity of capital were much higher and rising for the rural nonfarm sector compared to the other three sectors, and the variability of marginal product of capital rose through 1990s.

There is evidence that the stock market in the PRC did not function well either. The PRC’s stock market was established in 1990, after which the stock market capitalization grew quickly, to 54% of GDP in 2000. However, there is no evidence that it contributed to better allocation of capital. Wang, Xu, and Zhu (2004) examine the effect of public listing on firm performance. They find that operating performance in listed firms did not necessarily improve, and some actually declined. This could be due to either moral hazard associated with lower managerial ownership stake, or financial packaging (i.e., window-dressing a firm’s performance) before listing. Firm performance tends to be better when top shareholders have more equal ownership stakes and could monitor one another more effectively. The benefits of public listing are mostly enjoyed only by large firms with good access to finance, and they tend to be state-owned or state-controlled with poor corporate governance. Thus, the stock market has not facilitated small firms’ access to financing, despite their higher returns of capital.

But there are also signs of progresses in the financial sector. The return to capital has been high despite high investment rates (at 45% of GDP in 2008). It is highest in the coastal area, followed by the central region, then the west region. The dispersion of returns to capital across provinces has decreased over time. <mark>Bai, Hsieh
2009 (Table 4-Panel C).

Trading at or near closing prices might be an efficient strategy for open-end funds. For example, mutual funds are “forwarded priced,” which means that while investors can place orders to buy or sell shares throughout the day, these orders will be executed at the same price, i.e. the end-of-day net asset value of the fund. A fund manager that trades at closing prices mitigates the timing risk due to non-simultaneous purchases or sales of the fund shares and the underlying portfolio. In this scenario, the price that new shareholders pay for shares that are created coincides with the value of the underlying securities of the fund. Conversely, the price that old shareholders receive for their

> 11According to Factset Institutional Equity Ownership Database, the percentage of assets managed by foreign owned self-declared index funds grew from 0.1 percent in the first quarter of 2006 percent to 33.6 percent in the last quarter of 2015. Our time series should capture “closet-indexers” as well as self-declared index funds.

> 12The sample includes the period between February 6, 2012, and January 29, 2016 when the CSE synchronized its operations with the NYSE. The table is quantitatively similar if we include the period from February 9, 2011, to February 6, 2012, when the market traded from 8:30 to 15:00 hours and if we match the trading session.

10
mix exported by the South Asian countries to the region, with the exception of India. India’s regional exports increased both vertically (in value) and horizontally (in the number of product categories); see Annex Figure A1. India displayed an increasingly diversified export basket to the region, for which it increased its range of products by 33 percent between 1990 and 1998. Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka all had moderate to insignificant changes in their export baskets.

Certain regional exports among SACs dropped out during the mid-1990s owing to either supply-side weaknesses or increased competition from East Asian countries. Nepal has undergone a unique change in regional trade compared with the other members in the region. Annex Figure A1 provides a graphical view of changes in product clusters in three broad sectors: agriculture, crude material, i.e. jute, rubber, and manufactured goods. Nepal’s export basket to the region shrank considerably between 1990 and 1998, with a 60 percent reduction in the range of goods exported to the region. The raw data and Figure A1 demonstrate a critical feature: the increase in exports since reforms in the early 1990s has more or less occurred within the existing range of products for most SACs. In the case of Nepal, the expansion has been in a significantly smaller range of products compared with 1990.

B1 Pitigala et al. (2001).

In contrast, manufactured goods dominate South Asia’s extra-regional exports. India’s manufacturing exports are much more dispersed than those of the other South Asian countries. Cut diamonds, jewelry, cotton yarn, textiles, and leather products and their sub-categories are prominent Indian exports. Pakistan’s exports to the rest of the world are dominated by raw cotton and cotton-based products, representing an estimated 67 percent of its exports. Where Bangladesh and Sri Lanka are concerned the overwhelming global orientation is in textiles and apparel. For example, a staggering 75 percent of Bangladesh’s global exports consist of apparel, which experienced a fivefold increase from 1990 to 1998
the parliament in December 1995 after the failure of two large and popular banks. It is officially legislated and administered. The government provided the initial capital and is committed to cover any shortfall. Membership to the Fund is mandatory and the premium rate for banks and branches of foreign banks is 0.45% and for credit unions 0.2% of insured deposits. The deposits are covered 100% up to LTL 10,000 and 90% from LTL 10,000 to LTL 45,000 ($16,200 as of 2003) per depositor per institution. Under the new law, the insurance limit is projected to reach a level of EUR 20,000 by 2008.

_Sources_ : Brance, Kammer and Psalida (1996), IADI Survey: Lithuania (2002), IMF Country Report: Lithuania (2002).

**Luxembourg.** ( _Deposit Guarantee Association_ ) The scheme was established in 1989. It is privately administered. There is no permanent fund in place. Banks make ex-post contributions when needed. The coverage limit of LUF 500,000 was raised to 90% of ECU 15,000 in July 1995. Since January 2000, it is set at 90% of EUR 20,000 per depositor per institution. Branches of foreign banks are also members of the system. If a foreign bank is organized under the law of another EU member state, it does not have to participate in the system, but the coverage amount should be equal to that allowed in the Luxembourg system.

_Sources_ : Own survey of deposit insurers, Garcia (1999), Institute of International Bankers (1997), Kyei (1995).

69
Figure 7: Reasons behind the reduction of enterprise revenue by % of households reporting the reason <!-- Start of picture text --> 50.0<br>45.0<br>40.0<br>35.0<br>30.0<br>25.0<br>20.0<br>15.0<br>10.0<br>5.0<br>0.0<br>Business Business Seasonal No Lack of Cannot Other<br>closure closure closure customer raw transport reasons<br>due to other materials products<br>COVID-19 reason<br>Female headed Male headed Total<br>%<br><!-- End of picture text --> Source: Author’s calculation using HFPS 2020 Figure 8: Coping strategy adopted by households (% of total households) in response to any shock during COVID-19 <!-- Start of picture text --> male hh female hh male hh female hh<br>rural urban<br>Relied on savings Help from family/friends<br>Reduced consumption Bought cheaper food<br>Sale of cattle Took no strategy<br>100<br>80<br>60<br>40<br>20<br>0<br><!-- End of picture text --> Source: Author’s calculation using HFPS 2020 Increases in food price and illness of income-earning members (both in rural and urban areas) and job loss and business closure (more in urban areas) are the most reported shocks by households. In urban areas, households are significantly more reliant on savings and help from family and friends as a coping strategy, whereas in rural areas, they are more likely to reduce consumption and sell animal livestock in response to the experienced shocks (Table 7). This variation in rural-urban coping strategies is not unexpected. Using similar COVID-19 phone surveys for four SSA
which everything else revolved. The preparation of the questionnaire, data codebook and documentation, sample design and household selection, scheduling of interviews, data entry and cleaning, preliminary tables and analyses and statistical abstract were all carried out using microcomputers. Environmental problems were prevented bv the use of dust covers, surge guards and air conditioning. Editing ('cleaning') of data was performed at regional centres so it was possible for interviewers to re-visit households whose records had inconsistent or missing data. The 'WHS should make full use of such experience and plan processing at the earliest stage of each survey.

A related development of considerable importance that has been pioneered at ORSTOM and is also being investigated at LSHTM is the use of hand held computers for data capture. This eliminates the data entry stage of survey processing and appears to reduce errors that arise from interviewers and coders misunderstanding the skip instructions on the questionnaire. It has considerable potential for reducing the cost and speeding up the processing cf survey data.

# 5.11 Stratexies for analysis

A useful strategy for analysis, comparable with that adopted bv other international programmes of survey research, would be to aim to produce a first report rapidly, outlining the design and conduct of the survey and presenting descriptive tables and a brief commentary on them. The emphasis would be on providing information on each aspect of health and health-related behaviour rather than on examining their inter-relationship. Important topics would include mortalitv; incidence or prevalence of disease; the nutritional status of children; access to clinics, drug dispensaries and other services; coverage achieved by vertically-organised health programmes; and exposure to enironmental contamination. Each table should be produced according to a series of background characteristics, in particular those most useful for identifying differential need and use of services, for example age, sex, region and residence.

At least two priorities for further analysis can be identified. One is use of the data to assess the past or future effectiveness of in43
# Figure 17.  Fiscal multiplier

<!-- Start of picture text --> Cumulative Multiplier<br>2<br>1.8<br>1.6<br>1.4<br>1.2<br>1<br>0.8<br>0.6<br>0.4<br>0.2<br>0<br>1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8<br>Quarters<br><!-- End of picture text --> Source: Computed by the authors from quarterly data for commodity exporters using a panel SVAR with the Blanchard-Perotti identification.
22 gave additional taxing powers to the national government which left the state governments with only residual tax opportunities. 1 While the evidence is not overwhelming, this review of country-level data regarding reliance of subnational governments on intergovernmental transfers reveal the following: no conclusion can be reached concerning trends in the relative importance of grants in the revenue structure of local governments; in some countries grant shares have risen whereas in others they have fallen; 5 grants do not command an extremely important role in the overall spending decisions of most developing countries, public expenditure allocations are still principally determined through direct expenditures; and there appears to be a concern on the part of granting governments to provide greater proportions of revenues to those governments which may be believed to have smaller revenues bases.

While grant allocations measured as a p.-oportion of total revenues may suggest that granting governments favor jurisdictions that have difficulties mobilizing resources of their own, it does not follow that the flow of funds to su.h jurisdictions is necessarily larger. For example, the primary general revenue grant provided to local governments in the Philippines, the Bureau of Internal Revenue Allotment, constituted 24.2

> 1 Margaret T. Okorodudu, "Nigeria: Analysis of Federal and State Taxing Powers," International Tax Journal, Vol. XI (Fall 1985), pp. 305326.

15A similar lack of uniformity in trends concerning the relative fiscal roles of central and subnational governments in industrialized countries is documented by Roy Bahl, "The Design of Intergovernmental Transfers in Industrialized Countries," Public Budgeting and Finance, Vol. 6, No. 4 (Winter 1986), p. 5.