rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
of subsidies’ distributional and targeting performance are arithmetic, nonbehavioral, and express a partial equilibrium.<sup>4</sup>

# **2.1 Data sources**

As no single data source provides all the information needed to compute the efficient economic cost of service, which is needed to estimate efficient subsidies at the household level, we use several data sources combined with a series of assumptions to construct the variables for our analysis.

## **Household surveys**

We estimate piped water access, connections, and expenditure using information self-reported during national household-level surveys (see the appendix for details). These surveys also provide, with varying degrees of quality across countries, the information necessary to construct total expenditure (and/or income) variables for each household. The quantities of water consumed, and the prices or tariffs paid by each household, are usually not reported in household surveys. We therefore estimate these by complementing the household-level surveys with administrative data from service providers and government programs detailing tariff structures.

## **Administrative data on tariff structures**

We gathered information about tariff structures from the International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNET) database. Some countries list most of their water providers in IBNET, while others list only a few. For example, IBNET includes data on the tariff structures of all water providers in Mali and Niger, each of which has only one piped water provider. Meanwhile, for countries such as Ethiopia, Nigeria, Uganda, and Bangladesh—where the provision of services is decentralized and a multitude of utilities provide piped water—IBNET covers only a sample of providers.

## **Data on cost-reflective tariffs**

Cost-reflective tariffs cover the costs of providing service, including not only the efficient economic cost but also the costs arising from the inefficiencies of the service provider. The _efficient economic cost_ , meanwhile, covers all the economic resources required for efficient service delivery. These include operation and maintenance expenses and also all capital costs such as
: PM2 _._ 5 only seems to reduce hours worked among individuals in households with susceptible individuals.

Finally, we examine sample attrition as a source of selection bias. Note that, by using a panel sample and household fixed effects, we reduce concerns of residential sorting bias, i.e, bias due to systematic household differences that are correlated with exposure to pollution. However, households may drop from the panel sample in a systematic way. For example, wealthier, better educated, households may be more able to re-locate in response to changes in air pollution, and thus be more likely to drop from the panel sample. To the extent that

> 37Results are also insignificant when using average PM2 _._ 5 in weeks _t_ + 1 or _t_ + 2.

> 38 We use the STATA ado file _reg2hdfespatial_ developed by Fetzer (2014) and based on Hsiang (2010). We use a 1 year time lag and a distance cutoff of 8 kilometers.

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29

**19** For more on this point with respect to rural Pakistan, see Adams (1995).

20It should be noted, however, that these Ginis of per capita household income for Bolivia and Brazil are based on the distribution of overall (that is, urban and rural) incomes, while the income Ginis used in this study are based on rural household income. In theory, one would expect that the distribution of rural household income to be more egalitarian than that of overall household income. See World Bank, World Development Indicators (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1998, Table 2.8).

21There is an active rental market for land in rural Egypt. Thus, while 75.7 percent of the survey households own no land, in terms of land access (that is, land owned plus land rented in) a slightly smaller percentage (61.6 percent) of the survey households have no land access.

22 For example, during the three-year period 1996-98, while wheat yields in Jordan averaged 1,170 kilograms per hectare per year, those in Egypt averaged 5,742 kilograms.

23In analyzing whether an income source is inequality-increasing or -decreasing, it is assumed that additional increments of that income source are distributed in the same fashion as the original units.

24Bent Hansen, The Egyptian Labor Market: An Overview, Development Research Department Discussion Paper N. DRD160 (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1985), p. 9.

25 In Egypt and Jordan government and public sector employment function as a kind of "work-welfare" program by providing work (and income) for large numbers of skilled and unskilled rural inhabitants. However, it should be noted that government/public sector employment in both countries favors the educated. In Egypt, for example, the government employment scheme of the 1960s -- which promised government employment to all high school and university graduates -- has in theory been abandoned. Yet in practice, most high school and university graduates still
because arsenic risk induced mothers to breastfeed longer. Such reductions in mortality would make testing even more cost-effective.<sup>21</sup> Note also that testing would remain cost-effective even if only a fraction of switchers actually moved to a safe source.

Last but not least, it must be highlighted that while group sales with cost-sharing appears to be the most cost-effective strategy for a given budget, it comes at a high cost in terms of equity. This is of course a by-product of low demand, which leads three quarter of households not to learn about the safety status of their well. For instance, even under the scenario of only 20% of unsafe wells, while 4,444 unsafe wells would be identified, and 2,178 of them would no longer be used for drinking, we also find that in the same communities where sales took place there would be an additional 13,333 unsafe wells that would not be tested. Equity concerns, if individuals sales are not allowed, may be particularly serious for households who are isolated, either geographically or socially.

# **7 Conclusions**

Information on household-specific environmental health risks can be a relatively inexpensive policy tool to mitigate those risks. However, the design of information campaigns often has to contend with resistance to behavioral change even when the presence of such risks has been revealed to target

> 21There are few estimates of the value of a statistical life (VLS) for Bangladesh, and their range is very broad. For instance Mahmud et al. (2019), using data on willingness to pay to reduce mortality risk from air pollution in urban Bangladesh estimates a value of 17,500-22,500 in PPP terms, or about 10-12 times per capita GDP, while Viscusi and Masterman (2017) use a figure about ten times larger.

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) answer even at the price of zero<sup>15</sup> .

The statistics of the responses to the MBDC WTP question are summarized in Table 3. For each price listed in the questionnaire, the percentage of respondents who choose a specific likelihood answer are provided. In table 3, we can see that the percentage of ―definitely yes‖ answers is decreasing rapidly from 99.54% at the price of zero to 0.97% at the price of 60 yuan. While the percentage of ―definitely no‖ answers increases steadily with the price offered, from 0% at price of zero to about 99.54% when the price increases to 350 yuan. Between the prices of 5 and 30 yuan, 12 to 30% of the respondents chose the ―probably yes/no‖ or ―not sure‖ response options, showing the respondents actually have relatively important uncertainties in their preferences to the bid prices as proposed in the WTP question.

# **5. WTP Estimation**

# 5.1 Estimation Methodology

Wang and He (2010) developed a new methodology for estimating and analyzing the MBDC valuation data, which is summarized below and will be used in this study. Suppose an individual i’s WTP is Vi, which is a random variable with a cumulative distribution function

> 14 The answers given by these two respondents for follow-up question shows that, one does not think he should pay extra fee and the other believe his household can handle their own trash. In some sense, these two answers can be regarded as protest response. Therefore we remove them from our following statistical analyses.

> 15 From the response to the follow-up question, we find this household located close to the new landfill site. So his no-response can be considered as a protest.

10
_Ingo Borchert and Mattia Di Ubaldo_ We also show how the existence of services PTAs affects the international sourcing of services _inputs_ . Using information from the Trade in Value Added (TiVA) database, we find that economies source more services value added from PTA partners for their services exports, relative to non-preferential imports or domestic services inputs. For instance, in agreements with liberal definitions as to which firms and service professionals qualify to benefit from the PTA (Mode 3 and Mode 4 trade, respectively) the share of services value added from PTA partners is higher by 15-35%. This finding is consistent with service PTAs playing a role in facilitating value-chain trade that relies on commercial presence abroad and the movement of natural persons.

Our results represent reduced form, average partial effects and therefore should not be interpreted in a general equilibrium or welfare sense; nevertheless, they demonstrate the substantial impact that deep services PTAs can have on trade and value added. The findings are also robust to controlling for the depth of other agreement chapters outside of services.

In future work, we plan to study in greater detail the differential effects of provisions that confer benefits exclusively to the PTA partner, as opposed to non-discriminatory provisions that may generally improve trading conditions. Also more work needs to be done that recognises the endogenous nature of services PTAs.

45
2000s, both in absolute terms and as a percentage of GDP (UNICEF 2022)).</mark> <mark>Yet, tr</mark> ends in service _equality_ lag behind. Regional average measures of education and health equality<sup>21</sup> presented in Figure 10 show that SSA remains the lagging region on health equality and only above SAR in terms of education equality. These relatively stable averages hide high levels of variations at the country level. Some countries such as Burundi, Eritrea, and Namibia have seen large decreases in their scores, while others such as Gabon, Liberia, Republic of Congo, and Tanzania have seen sustained increases in their scores. To some extent, these subpar outcomes can be traced back to financing challenges. First, while spending on social services has increased, it remains close to the lower end of international benchmarks: for example, African countries spend on average 4.1 percent of their GDP on education, compared to a global average of 4.3 percent. There are wide variations in the levels of government education expenditure across countries, which range from about 1 percent of GDP in the Central African Republic to 8 percent in Sierra Leone (UNICEF 2021). This challenge is compounded by a bias toward recurrent expenditure, to finance salaries, versus capital expenditure to which countries devote on average 13 percent of total education expenditures only. Beyond financing, improvements in health and education hinge on governance challenges, including poor teacher and health worker management and the lack of autonomy and accountability of education and health organizations and workers - which negatively affect the quality of service delivery.

> 20 Data available at https://data.worldbank.org/.

> 21 Public service equality as defined by V-DEM refers to the extent that high quality service is guaranteed to all, sufficient to enable them to exercise their basic political rights as adult citizens.

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average monthly transfer amounts to match the administrative data. For the social protection in-kind transfers, all households reported as receiving this transfer from the government have been directly identified and included.

# **4.3 Direct taxes**

## _4.3.1 Personal income tax (PIT)_

**As with the pension contributions, rates for the West Bank and Gaza are applied to those working in the West Bank and Gaza and subject to tax by the PA (in Gaza this includes only PA employees), and Israeli income tax rates are applied to the West Bank and Gaza population working in East Jerusalem, Israel, or the settlements.** Personal Income Taxes paid are simulated by applying statutory rates to formal, tax-liable workers’ self-reported income). Formal workers are restricted to workers of working age, not an unregistered refugee, and that report making pension contributions on their behalf. They are treated as tax liable if they are tax resident in the West Bank and Gaza or Israel (i.e., not working abroad or for a foreign government) and exempt if they have a disability that has a difficulty level of 50 percent of more. The simulation is effective – 109,200 taxpayers are identified in the survey compared to 112,500 in the administrative data.

**Taxable income:** For employees, income is assumed to be net of tax while for employers and selfemployed workers it is assumed to be gross of tax. We observe income in the survey from wages and

> 38 The modeling proceeds under the assumption that the payment is annual.

> 39 Note that while these are described in the PECS 2016/2017 as in-kind transfers, in this assessment they are referred to as near-cash transfers. This is in keeping with CEQ terminology which distinguishes between in-kind transfers such as public health and education services - which are valued at an average cost of provision - and near-cash transfers, such as school feeding or fertilizer - which are valued according to the change in a
, WTP surveys can contribute a valuable participatory element to the development planning process, and they provide an important type of ‘field experiment’ in which the analyst can mix control and realism in a practical way.

> 10 We investigate the options for targeting through geography and proxy means in a companion paper (Pattanayak et al., 2005). We conclude that while still imperfect, a mix of geographic and proxy means would be the most effective _form_ of targeting for poverty reduction. These could be combined with several _types_ of targeting, including placement of new pipelines (fundamentally geographic) and subsidized water connections and consumption (potentially based on proxy means).

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# [Table 10 here]

Even though the survey data used in this section have some noted limitations, primarily that prevalence of the behaviors before conception and the timing during the pregnancy are not known,<sup>61</sup> the results presented are suggestive of changes in key maternal behaviors important for newborn outcomes, and overall, in a negative direction for mothers who give birth to baby girls. Some potential explanations behind these patterns of behavioral change emerge from the literature. Parents may respond differently to the shock depending on the gender of the baby, for example, if they knew that male fetuses are more vulnerable and need more protection from shocks (Bharadwaj and Lakdawala 2013). It is known that intra-household allocations are not even, with parents investing more in the human capital of their preferred children (e.g. Do and Phung 2010). Hence, it would be possible that, as investments in the baby’s health, the differential maternal behaviors responses are driven by biased gender preferences held by parents. This would be hard to corroborate, not least because, to my knowledge, there is no evidence of boy preference in Colombia that could easily substantiate the claim.<sup>62</sup> Although the surveys do not have enough information to say whether these changes occurred before or after knowing the gender of the baby, it is likely, as most of the changes were associated with exposure to violence in the later stages of pregnancy, when the gender of the fetus is likely be known.<sup>63</sup>

# **VI. Conclusion**

This study set out to analyze one indirect effect of war violence: the one caused by exposure of pregnant women on their newborns’ health. Violent attacks against civilians were used to capture such exposure, which emphasizes the experience of violence in the community where people live, because the distress, fear and anxiety do not arise exclusively through individual victimization. The identification of the effect relied in the variation
To answer the second question – how countries can increase their national evidence base – we first establish that a country’s statistical capacity is predictive of data research even after controlling for population and GDP, and articles not using data (which we use as a proxy for the general research interest in the country). To understand which part of a country’s statistical capacity is most important for increasing data-driven research, we explore the data sources most related to academic data use. We find that the availability of geospatial data at the first administrative level is associated with a 1.1% increase in data use, that a population census in the past decade is associated with a 0.3% increase in data use, and that two or more labor force (agriculture) surveys over the past 10 years is associated with a 0.4% (0.2%) increase in data use. Though we are unable to establish these links causally, there are concrete data products that governments could supply to likely increase the evidence-base at its disposal.

Boosting the supply of data is one way for a country to increase the data-driven research it is subject to, another is to increase the demand for its data. This is particularly relevant for countries that have already invested in relevant data products but are nonetheless subject to relatively little data-driven research. These are cases where existing data are underutilized and where it may be relevant to make existing data more accessible to researchers and possibly boost data literacy in the country. To explore this distinction between boosting data supply and data demand, and building upon Porteous (2020), we classify countries into four groups: _Deserts_ have little data demand and little data supply, _swamps_ have high data supply but little data demand, _oases_ have high data demand but little data supply, and _lakes_ have high data demand and high data supply. Nearly two-thirds of low-income countries and countries in Sub-Saharan Africa are oases, suggesting that these countries are getting relatively large evidence from their data supply and that they
lowest in Europe and Central and South America (0.08 toe per thousand 2015 US$) (Figure 3 scatter plot).

# **3. Green/Clean Investments and Firm’s Productivity in General**<sup>**5**</sup>

A large number of existing studies investigate the relationship between investments in cleaner or greener technologies and the cost of production or productivity. In general, productivity measures the efficiency with which firms, organizations, industry, and the economy convert inputs (e.g., labor, capital, and raw materials) into output. Productivity grows when output grows faster than inputs when both inputs and outputs are measured at the same or constant prices. Depending upon the input in consideration, there are many different measures for productivity, such as singlefactor productivity (e.g., labor productivity or capital productivity) or multifactor (e.g., capital and labor or capital-labor-energy-materials) productivity. It can be measured at the firm or industry, or organization or country level (OECD, 2001). Unless specified otherwise, productivity in this study refers to total factor productivity (TFP)<sup>6</sup> . In this section, the literature that presents overall relationships between green/clean energy investment and productivity at the industry level are discussed, followed by the section on various attributes, such as firm size, ownership, and regulations, that can influence the relationship.

# **3.1. Relationship between green/clean investment and productivity**

> 5 We have divided the discussions on clean/green investments and their impacts on production costs in two sections. The studies analyzing the relationship using the firm level data are presented in Section 3. The firms could be from any sector, manufacturing, electricity supply, transportation services. In Section 4, we discuss studies that focus on a particular sector such as a manufacturing sector (e.g., chemicals), electricity generation sector, power
# **Table of Contents**

|1<br>Introduction.......................................................................................|1|
|---|---|
|2<br>Countries and Data Included in the Global Antidumping Database......................|7|
|2.1 The “Master” Spreadsheet for Each Country – AD-CTY-Master..........|9|
|2.2 The “Product” Spreadsheets – AD-CTY-Products...........................|11|
|2.3 The “Domestic Firms” Spreadsheets – ADT-CTY-Domestic-Firms......|12|
|2.4 The “Foreign Firms” Spreadsheets – ADT-CTY-Foreign-Firms...........|12|
|3<br>More Country-Specific Information on AD Sources and Data...........................|13|
|3.1 Argentina (ARG).................................................................|
opening public agencies to stakeholder participation can distort decisions in favor of particular groups. Citizen representatives can influence decisions to their own benefit in ways that may be detrimental to others in the community. Similarly, union representatives might defend workers against legitimate disciplinary actions or lobby for benefits to their members even when they reduce the quality or quantity of available care. Professional associations can use their involvement in policy decisions to restrict the number of practitioners and boost incomes even when this might not be in the social interest.

A first step to analyzing stakeholder participation as a governance determinant in public health care provision would be to measure:

- share of hiring decision bodies that include union representatives,

- share of facilities with citizen representatives on governing or advisory boards, and

- share of planning boards with representatives of planning associations.

These measures would give an indication of whether these three key stakeholders play a significant role in public health care provision. Nevertheless, they are only approximations and might miss a large number of alternative ways that stakeholders can participate. For example, unions might not have a formal role in hiring decisions, but they may exert public pressure effectively through strikes or political lobbying; citizens might be regularly interviewed or surveyed for feedback on service quality; or professional associations might not need formal representation to influence policy decisions. Therefore, a fuller characterization of stakeholder participation might require measurements like:

- dissemination of public expenditure data to the public,

- public advertising of jobs, selection criteria and outcomes of hiring decisions,

- share of representative bodies that file minutes, and

- numbers of meetings per year of representative bodies.

Additional indicators of stakeholder participation that have been proposed in other studies and that could be considered include:

- Active hospital health boards as indicated by number of meetings

- Participation in local health organizing committees

- Institutional arrangements for community and stakeholder participation

- number of regional coordinating meetings that are held each year (Ethiopia)

# **_Measuring the context for governance_**

Contextual Factors influence public health care provision in many ways,