rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
Resources records of the over 2,700 distinct TTLs in our sample. Another difference is that Limodio (2021) considers the preparation TTLs exclusively, while we broaden the staff considered to include supervision TTLs, Practice Managers, and Country Directors. Limodio (2021) finds that good preparation TTLs change fewer countries, are in charge of more and larger projects. He does not find correlations between TTL performance and their gender nor years of experience, but the number of internal promotions positively correlates with performance. Moreover, Limodio (2021) documents a negative assortative matching between high-performing TTLs and low-performing countries. Honig (2020) takes a different approach, focusing on the relationship between staff presence in recipient countries and project performance, rather than individual characteristics. He finds that the TTL presence in country-offices during preparation and implementation has no significant effect on project success. However, Honig (2020) finds that the local presence of a Country Director is associated with greater project success, especially in fragile states and since the "Strategic Compact" initiative increased the power of Country Directors.

# **_2.3. Country-level characteristics_**

Alongside micro-correlates of project success, various studies have looked at macro-correlates of project success such as financial and growth indicators and, especially, institutional quality. Isham et al. (1997), for instance, report that recipient country civil liberties indicators positively relate with projects' economic rate of return and likelihood of a successful rating. The view that strong public sector institutions matter for project success is supported by documenting the effects of the government effectiveness index (Buntaine and Parks, 2013) and state capacity measures (Hanson and Sigman, 2019) on project outcomes. In a related vein, Denizer et al. (2013) and Geli et al. (2014) find that institutional quality, measured by the Country Policy and Institutional Assessment (CPIA) score, has a significant and positive correlation with project success.<sup>6</sup> There are contradictory findings elsewhere, however. Using
own website to communicate with clients or suppliers, _email_ = 1 if firm uses email to communicate with clients or suppliers. This technology indicator captures both worker skills and productivity.

In a second step, we substitute regional determinants of exporting and agglomeration economies for regional dummies. Following the economic geography literature, we include variables related to investment climate, which yields the following equation: where the regional determinants of exporting are defined as follows:

- _customs_ =  average number of days to clear imports from customs in logarithms by region

- _electr_ = hours of power outages per month in logarithms by region

- _license_ = average number of days to obtain either operating license, import license or construction-related permit in logarithms by region

- _credit_ = the percentage of firms with a credit line by region, and

- _corrup_ is the percentage of firms expected to pay informal payment to public officials by region.

The calculation of these regional indicators is based on all firms in the sample, regardless of a firm’s specific industry. We used weights provided by the Enterprise Analysis Unit to calculate regional averages. Note that we only include some regional determinants of exporting due to data limitations of our available regional investment climate indicators (see Tables 1 and 2). Thus, we only use one variable to capture infrastructure ( _electr_ ), transport and trade facilitation ( _customs_ ), permits and licenses ( _license_ ), corruption ( _corrup_ ), and access to finance ( _credit_ ), respectively. We don’t capture regulation and tax, and by focusing on regional investment climate, it might be possible that we omit other regional determinants of exporting, e.g., related to average skills and productivity. However, we believe that these are indirectly captured by agglomeration economies.

Finally, we include three types of regional agglomeration economies, namely (i) a region’s number of firms as percentage of a country’s total number of firms ( _agg_size_ ), (ii) a region’s number of direct and indirect exporters as percentage
at the average production shares of the two sub-periods. For example, the contribution of maize area is calculated as (all numbers are taken from the first column): 8.2 = 0.221*37.1, where 0.221 = 0.5*(0.174 + 0.269). Numbers may not add up due to rounding.

**Source** : Authors’ calculations based on FAO data.

_— 19 —_
the scheme is still reaching poor people and also reaching the scheduled tribes and backward castes.

Participation rates on the scheme are higher for poor people than others. This holds at the official poverty line, but the scheme is also reaching many families just above the official line. It is only at relatively high consumption levels that participation drops off sharply. This should not be interpreted as indicating that well-off families in rural India are turning to MGREGS. There may well be shocks that are not evident in the household consumption aggregates. And there may be individual needs for help that are not evident in those aggregates.

18
the same rights as men or, vice versa, that women may be still discriminated despite the presence of laws that protect them from gender-based discrimination. Such differences have been documented for the business environment regulations in general using firm-level data (Hallward-Driemeier and Pritchett, 2015), but not for gender-specific laws. Through the existence of a unique firm-level data set of 400 private-sector firms operating in the manufacturing and services sectors in the DRC, the paper can verify if employers discriminate in the presence of discriminatory laws, or if they discriminate despite the presence of laws that protect from gender discrimination. Furthermore, the study can explore whether employers’ discriminatory behavior has any correlation with women’s participation in the private sector either in positions of power, like a firm’s top manager or owner, or in the general workforce. As the data are characterized by good geographical coverage, the analysis can also explore to what extent restrictions from discriminatory behaviors apply to women living and working in the capital city as compared to those who live and work outside the capital city, offering some interesting insights on the possible roles of culture and law enforcement.

We find mixed evidence in terms of enforcement of laws – whether or not some forms of discriminatory laws exist does not result in uniform firm behavior, calling into question whether these laws are known, or 3
**Figure 25.  Estimated Age – Unemployment Risk Profiles. Latvia, 1997 and 2002**

<!-- Start of picture text --> Unemployment risk for economically active population,<br>1997 and 2002<br>0.35<br>0.3<br>0.25<br>0.2 1997<br>0.15 2002<br>0.1<br>0.05<br>0<br>15-19 20-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65-74<br>age<br>Unemployment risk for economically active persons<br>with work experience, 1997 and 2002<br>0.12<br>0.1<br>0.08<br>1997<br>0.06<br>2002<br>0.04<br>0.02<br>0<br>15-19 20-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65-74<br>age<br>unemployment risk<br>unemployment risk<br><!-- End of picture text --> Notes: Upper panel is derived from logit models, controlling for education, gender, ethnicity and region. Lower panel is derived from models which control also for sector of economic activity and ownership (last job is used for unemployed). _Source:_ Calculation based on LFS data.

**Regional disparities have increased.** Table 11 summarizes information on regional effects from Appendix Tables 32-34. It shows clearly that the gap in labor market conditions between Riga region (excluding Jurmala) and the rest of the country, as well as the gap between Latgale, on one hand, and Riga, Vidzeme, and Zemgale, on the other, have increased during last 5 years (a finding which was not evident when registered unemployment rates and officially reported wages were considered in Section B). Unfavorable developments have been especially significant in terms of activity of both genders in Kurzeme and men’s activity in Latgale.
control groups was that any confounding effects of the incentive itself on subsequent financial attitude or behavior change (i.e. Hawthorne-type effects) would be netted out.<sup>10</sup> During these calls, in addition to questions about the storyline, the surveyors asked questions related to financial knowledge, attitudes, and behavior. Since the scope of questions asked over the telephone was limited, a face-to-face follow-up survey was conducted four months after conclusion of the storyline with more comprehensive knowledge and behavior questions. In addition, administrative daily call data was obtained from the NDMA so we could track incoming calls to the financial advisory call center following the public call to action. Finally, in order to be able to understand mechanisms of impact, three qualitative focus groups were conducted after the final follow-up survey.

An important aspect of the above research design is the comparability of viewers across Scandal and Muvhango. Clearly, if the demographic profiles varied substantially, we could have significant differences in take-up among our random sample of treatment and control groups. Hence, prior to the study, we researched all available alternative soap operas to Scandal and found Muvhango to be very similar in content and in viewership profile.<sup>11</sup> Both series had approximately 2.5 million adult viewers who came predominantly from mid to low income groups (LSM 2-4, LSM 5-6 and LSM 7-8), and viewership was distributed similarly across race with most viewers being non-white and primarily Sotho speaking.

# _4.2 Study Timeline_

The study spanned a period of one year, from December 2011 to December 2012. The initial listing exercise described in the previous sub-section was conducted in early December 2011, after which our study sample was selected. An initial Computer Assisted Telephone Interview (CATI) was conducted in February 2012, prior to the airing of the storyline. The soap opera storyline then began airing from mid February to end March.

> 10 This design is similar to an experimental evaluation of radio programming to change social norms and
br>.22 5.2<br>.2<br>5.18<br>.18<br>.16<br>5.16<br>Mothers have a formal job<br>.14 Log of monthly working hours<br>.12 5.14<br>2.7 7.95<br>2.65 7.9<br>2.6 7.85<br>Log of hourly wage Log of monthly wage<br>2.55 7.8<br>2.5 7.75<br><!-- End of picture text --> <mark>Note: The vertical axis indicates women’s wages and type of employment, and the horizontal axis gives the birth month of children with contiguous birth months. Children born in December are 1 month older than those born in January.</mark> <mark>Sources: Authors’ estimation from VHLSS 2010, 2012, 2014 and 2016.</mark> 30
_Table 2. Overview of data used by country and territory_

|Country|Total number of health care-<br>related tenders in country<br>data set|Total number of health care-<br>related tenders in combined<br>health care data set|Years covered|
|---|---|---|---|
|Ecuador|22609|22609|2013-2017|
|Brazil<br>(federal)|14108|2140|2014-2016|
|Amazonas<br>(Brazil)|9030|2797|2014-2018|
|Santa<br>Catarina<br>(Brazil)|1348|948|2013-2018|
|Paraguay|2899|830|2012-2016|
|Panama|56738|5439|2014-2018|
|Uruguay|12319|1008|2014-2018|
|Peru|9217|686|2015|
|Costa Rica|517|154|2016-2017|
|Total|128785|36611||

Given that the key precondition for unit price analysis is the use of sufficiently detailed and standardized product categories which are in addition comparable across 7 countries, we offer further details on the product codes and their processing. We identified health care-related tenders included in the initial, broad data sets based on product classification codes and higher level descriptions as defined in Annex A, Table A1. The health care-related product code harmonization was based on a host of classification schemes as used in the national data sets following national legislation (Table 3). In the absence of a generic, reference categorization, we considered the Ecuadorian nomenclature as the master reference as it was the most comprehensive for the health care products analyzed in the study. We identified the equivalent classification levels in all data sets by using a semi-automated matching method with extensive manual crosschecks. We excluded unmatched categories from the current analysis to enable cross-country pooled analysis. While a large number of categories and tenders were excluded as 12
is appropriately named “many shades of wrong” by Aragao and Linsi (2022).

# **Future directions**

More optimistically, the world is expected to be moving toward an integrated national data system (INDS) framework, which enables the production of data relevant to development, and fosters the equitable and safe flow of data between government, individuals, civil society, academia, and the private sector (World Bank, 2021). In this process, countries at different levels of data (or resources) development can formulate their own best strategy to improve their statistical capacity. Specifically, at the basic level, countries can prioritize establishing the fundamentals of a national data system. Once the fundamentals are in place, countries can seek to initiate better 14
have adopted this model, but the number of program experiences and the breadth of the research on these initiatives make them worthy of mention. By 1992, these programs were so widespread in the United States that a national survey of young people (aged 10-16, n = 2000) found that approximately two-thirds had participated in a sexual abuse prevention program through their school (Finkelhor and Dziuba-Leatherman, 1995b).

A large number of evaluations have gauged the effectiveness of these programs (Finkelhor and Strapko, 1992; Meyer and Stein 2000; Bolen, 2003; Chalk and King, 1998), some with rigorous scientific designs, control groups, extensive quantitative outcome measures, and long-term follow-up. This research indicates that while programs can improve knowledge and reported willingness to report abuse, they do not appear to reduce victimization among participants compared to controls. Thus, many researchers and advocates argue against focusing on girls' ability to protect themselves; instead, they argue that initiatives should aim to change male norms and behaviors and to promote positive models of forming relationships (Chalk and King, 1998; Bolen, 2003).

In Latin America, in contrast, we are unaware of any school-based programs that directly address GBV, whether child sexual abuse, dating violence, other sexual abuse among students, or sexual abuse of students by teachers or other school staff, with the exception of
# **1.  Introduction**

Entrepreneurship is essential for the continued dynamism of the modern market economy and a robust entry rate of new businesses can foster competition and economic growth (Klapper et al., 2006; Djankov et al., 2002). Entrepreneurial activity can also contribute to employment generation. For instance, in the United States and Canada, young firms have been shown to be an important source of net job creation, relative to incumbent firms (Brander et al., 1998; Haltiwanger et al., 2009). In the wake of the 2008 financial crisis, a better understanding of new firm creation, and its relationship with macroeconomic indicators and the local business environment, can help policymakers working toward economic recovery.

This paper uses a panel dataset for 95 countries on the number of newly registered limited liability firms to study the dynamics of entrepreneurial activity. We use a unique methodology for collecting comparable, international data on new business creation. Data are collected directly from the Registrar of Companies, which is the entry point for entrepreneurs joining or transitioning to the formal sector. We use the data to study the relationship between the regulatory environment, institutional quality, and entrepreneurship.

We find that the ease of starting a business, country-level governance and the corporate tax rate are significant indicators of new firm registrations, even after controlling for the overall level of economic development. These results are consistent with prior work on the efficient allocation of inputs and other resources to entrepreneurial activities (Jovanovic, 1982) and the impact of regulatory reform and institutional quality (Mullainathan and Schnabl, 2009; Demirguc-Kunt, Love, Maksimovic, 2006).

The main contribution of our paper is in studying the impact of the 2008 global financial crisis on new firm creation. We find that with the onset of the financial crisis, new business creation slowed down, first in developed countries and then in the rest of the world, paralleling 2
j i(d RFkrmcIi W)ORKING RP.\iAt 2466

# Summary findings

tIsing household survey data for 1998, Datt and Hoogeveen assess the distributional impact of the recent economic crisis in the Philippines. The results suggest that the impact of the crisis was modest, leading to a **5** percent reduction in average living standards and a 9 percent increase in the incidence of poverty-with larger increases indicated for the depth and severity of poverty.

The greater shock came from El Ninio rather than through the labor market. The labor market shock was progressive (reducing inequality) while the El Nifio shock was regressive (increasinig inequality).

Not all households were equally vulnerable to the crisis-induced shocks. Household and community clharacteristics aiffected the impact of the shocks. Ownership of land made households maore susceptible to the El Niflo shocks; higlher levels of educaition made househiolds more vulnerable to wage and employment shocks.

The inpact of the crisis was greater in miore commercially developed communities. Occupational diversity within a household helped mitigate the adverse imipact.

Ther-e is some1w evidenice of consumlption smoothing by the houselholds affected bv the crisis, but the poor were less able to protect theil consumption, which is a matter of policy concern.

This paper-a product of the Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Sector Unit, East Asia and Pacific Regionis part of a larger effort in the region to better understanid the social impact of the crisis. Copies of the paper are available free from the World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433. Please contact Taranaki M\4ailei, room MC8-142. telephone 202-458-7347, fax 202-522-1557, email address tmailei@;worldbank.org. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at www.worldbaink.or-g/research/workinigpapers. The authors may be contacted at gdatt(/(worldbank.org or hhoogeveen(@.econ.vLi.nl. October 2000. (38 pages)

> _Ihe Policy Research WXorking Paper Series disseminates the findings of zerk in progrress to encounrae the exchange of idleas
**_Electricity Sector Reform in Developing Countries, Jamasb, Mota, Newbery, Pollitt_**

|**Study**|**Hypothesis**|**Dependent**<br>**Variable(s)**|**Independent**<br>**Variable(s)**|**Control Variables**|**Notes: # of countries, times**<br>**period, data source**|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||_influences the extent of_<br>_reform._||_not always significant, correlated_<br>_with extent of reform._<br>- economic ideology (composite<br>indicators/indices)<br>_Result: economic orthodoxy_<br>_positively, and mostly significant,_<br>_correlated with reform._<br>-distributional conflict<br>(composite indicators/indices)<br>_Results: mostly negatively,_<br>_though not always significant,_<br>_correlated with reform score._|||
|**Bergara,**<br>**Henisz and**<br>**Spiller (1997)**|_H0: Well-defined and_<br>_credible political institutions_<br>_are positively correlated_<br>_with investment in the_<br>_electricity sector._|-log of public & private<br>generation capacity per<br>1000 population<br>(PI)|-political index (CL) based on<br>the following elements:<br>_-_**_judicial independence with_**<br>index of law & order,<br>_-formal constraints on executive_<br>_discretion_<br>(federalist state dummy,<br>dual executive/legislature<br>dummy, bicameral legislatures
measure the exposure of a given firm to the minimum wage as the proportional rise in the wage bill that is needed to bring the wages of all workers up to the new statutory minimum level (Draca, Machin, and van Reenen, 2011). We then implement a difference-in-differences estimation strategy whereby we measure and compare the change in exit rates among high-exposure firms (the treatment group) and low-exposure firms (the control group) before and after the minimum- wage increase. To ensure the validity of the identification strategy, we run several placebo tests in periods prior to the minimumwage increase. We also provide evidence that the estimated effects are unlikely to have been driven by other shocks that affected the Turkish economy.

The paper is organized as follows: Section 2 provides background information on the minimum wage in Turkey, and on the increase that took effect in 2016. Section 3 describes the employee-employerlinked dataset and the national labor force survey that we use for our estimations and reports descriptive statistics. Section 4 presents the identification strategy and provides supportive evidence for its validity. Section 5 reports the main results on the exit of formal firms and on formal employment destruction. It also explores the potential reallocation of workers from exiting firms. Section 6 concludes.

# **2. Background on the minimum wage in Turkey**

## 2.1. Institutional setting

In 1974, Turkey established a nationwide minimum wage, with no variations across regions, industries, or occupations (Gürcihan and Yüncüler, 2016). By law, the national minimum wage must be adjusted at least every two years, although it has been modified every year over the past decade. Following a series of weekly consultations, the new, monthly minimum wage is typically announced for each year in December prior to the year in which it will take effect. The minimum wage can be set either as a single minimum wage that will be implemented for the full year, or for a graduated wage that has one level for the first half of the year, followed