rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
Beyond state-supported schemes, policy distortions against agriculture, especially for export, and scant public investment in rural areas reduced private investors’ incentives so that most area expansion was by smallholders. Policy reforms of the 1990s allowed agricultural growth to accelerate and paved the way for renewed investor interest in the continent. Still, structural issues arising from long-standing neglect of technology, infrastructure, and institutions continued to contribute to disappointing performance of commercial cultivation of bulk commodities, where, in light of its land endowment, Africa should have a comparative advantage (World Bank 2009a). Past success with commercial agriculture was limited to traditional export crops such as cotton, cocoa, and coffee produced by smallholders, and more recently horticultural exports, by both small and large farms. Plantation crops such as sugarcane in Southern Africa -aided by preferential access to developed markets- and oil palm in West Africa also had some success. Although smallholder-based growth remains critical to achieve poverty-reduction in Africa (Diao _et al._ 2010), there is increasing recognition of the need to overcome market imperfections if smallholders are to play this role (Hazell _et al._ 2010). In the wake of market liberalization, multiple institutional challenges associated with effective service provision to smallholders remain and have, in many instances, not yet been addressed effectively (Dorward _et al._ 2009).

Recent land acquisitions in Africa attracted not only large amounts of media attention but were also quantitatively large; in fact compared annual rate of area expansion of some 1.8 million ha in the 19612007 period, demand in 2009 alone amounted to some 39.7 million hectares –greater than the total agricultural land in Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, the Netherlands, and Switzerland combined (Deininger _et al._ 2011). Data from six countries where reliable information could be gathered -often aggregated up from regional figures- highlight that the size of lands transferred recently is significantly above what was observed in the past. Total transfers in 2004-09, in millions of ha (table 2
sshggo We also include a set of controls, namely exporter-partner-sector ( i ) , exporter-time ( i ) , partner-time ( i ) and sector time ( ) fixed effects to account for potentially omitted variables, while γγ ii γγ i i is the error zzii γγ γγ εε

> 7 Production disruptions could also have trade effects if firms can switch input suppliers. However, switching input suppliers is difficult in the short term, particularly when inputs are customized in GVCs. We therefore expect that a reshaping of value chains in response to a shock is a longer-term process and is more difficult in the period considered in this paper. For an empirical analysis of longer-term effects of natural disasters on GVCs, see Freund, Mattoo, Mulabdic, Ruta (2020).

> 8 In the next section, we use mirror export data to investigate the trade impact of Covid-19 in a larger set of developed and developing countries.

9
The role of the non-communicable disease as a population health challenge is central because, among other reasons, these diseases exacerbate social inequalities and reduce the well-being of populations living in poverty. For instance, individuals in the top income quintile are more likely to be diagnosed with diabetes, the leading cause of DALYs nationally, due to better health care access. However, populations living in poverty have a greater risk for diabetes, and once the disease is diagnosed the probability of experiencing complications increases up to 18 percentage points, in comparison to the population with the highest income quintile (Gutiérrez... [ _et al_ .], 2016b).

Similarly, national health surveys indicate that the presence of at least one person with a diagnosis of diabetes and/or hypertension increases the resources allocated to health as a percentage of total household expenditure. This increase is greater among households in the lowest income quintile (Gutierrez, Garcia-Saiso and Aracena, 2018), exacerbating social inequalities and contributing to a decrease in well-being among populations living in poverty.

Two events have progressed in tandem with these national trends that are relevant for the accumulation of human capital: the overweight and obesity epidemic and trends in teenage pregnancy. The following subsections discuss these subjects in further detail.

# _A. Overweight and obesity_

The trends of increasing prevalence of overweight and obesity are related to the challenge of combatting the diabetes epidemic in Mexico. Between 1999 and 2016, the combined prevalence of overweight and obesity among Mexican adult women increased from 61.0% to 73.8%; among girls ages 5 to 11 it increased from 22.8% to 32.8%; and for adolescent women ages 12 to 19 it increased from 28.3% to 39.2% (Shamah-Levy et al., 2018; Uribe-Carvajal et al., 2018). Despite the high prevalence of overweight and obesity in 1999, the situation has worsened over time. In the 2006, 2012, and 2016 National Health and Nutrition Survey (ENSANUT in Spanish),
- Hsieh, C. and P. Klenow (2009): “Misallocation and Manufacturing TFP in China and India,” _Quarterly Journal of Economics_ , 124, 1403–1448.

- Hsieh, C.-T. and P. J. Klenow (2014): “The Life Cycle of Plants in India and Mexico,” _The Quarterly Journal of Economics_ , 129, 1035–1084.

- Kalemli-Ozcan, S., B. Sorensen, C. Villegas-Sanchez, V. Volosovych, and S. Yesiltas (2015): “How to construct nationally representative firm level data from the ORBIS global database,” Tech. rep., National Bureau of Economic Research.

- Keller, W. and S. R. Yeaple (2009): “Multinational enterprises, international trade, and productivity growth: firm-level evidence from the United States,” _The Review of Economics and Statistics_ , 91, 821–831.

- Midrigan, V. and D. Y. Xu (2014): “Finance and Misallocation: Evidence from Plant-Level Data,” _The American Economic Review_ , 104, 422–458.

- Moll, B. (2014): “Productivity Losses from Financial Frictions: Can Self-Financing Undo Capital Misallocation?” _The American Economic Review_ , 104, 3186–3221.

- Peters, M. (2016): “Heterogeneous Mark-Ups, Growth and Endogenous Misallocation,” _Working Paper_ .

- Restuccia, D. and R. Rogerson (2008): “Policy Distortions and Aggregate Productivity with Heterogeneous Establishments,” _Review of Economic Dynamics_ , 11, 707–720.

- ——— (2017): “The Causes and Costs of Misallocation,” Tech. rep., National Bureau of Economic Research.

18
non-IPV domestic violence into a single category. However, we decided to change this structure to improve parallelism with the other outcomes.

As described in our pre-analysis plan, we constructed indicators of controlling behavior, emotional violence, physical violence and sexual violence as dummy variables, equal to 1 if any question about exposure to the specific type of violence in that category during the previous 12 months received an affirmative response. This structure of outcome measure is used worldwide (UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs Statistical Office 2014). The indicators of physical or sexual violence by a household member were each generated by a single question. The indicators of physical or sexual violence by a nonhousehold member included responses to questions regarding violence from any of the following individuals: friend or family, authority, random stranger, and other. If any question was answered within the set of questions comprising the index, we included that woman in the analysis. However, if she did not answer any of the questions within the category, we considered this a non-response and did not include her in the analysis of that particular index.

Summary statistics from the “non-empowered” control group indicate that just under one half of women reported experiencing controlling behavior by their spouse, just under one third reported emotional and physical violence, and just under one fifth reported sexual violence (Table 3). These levels of IPV are significantly higher than those reported in the Lao National Survey on Women’s Health and Life Experiences, where 10%, 4% and 3.1% of respondents reported exposure to emotional violence, physical and sexual violence respectively in the last 12 months prior to the interview. Our data exceeds these rates by a factor of seven for physical violence, a factor of six for sexual violence, and by a factor of 3 for emotional violence. There are several possibilities that explain this discrepancy. Firstly, these poor, rural women may have a higher experience of violence than the national average. Secondly, and, perhaps, most importantly, more
percentage of the sample, however, – 28.8% - had access to safety nets, the most common being food-related safety net programs such as VGF and VGD (13.1%), followed by secondary school stipends/training programs (12.4%) while 9.2% of households had access to other cash-based safety net programs.

# Insert Table 2

The cross-sectional nature of the dataset poses some limitations for the analysis of vulnerability and risk-management approaches. For instance, the literature suggests households can adopt both _ex ante_ and _ex post_ coping strategies. One illustration is that households in a community may undertake _ex ante_ income-smoothing strategies and adopt a low-return, low-risk crop portfolio (Morduch, 1990; Dercon, 1996) or informally agree to insure each other in the event of crises (Rosenzweig, 1988; Besley, 1995). Panel data is ideal to capture both changes in any measure of vulnerability as well as the various coping strategies. The survey we use collects information mainly on _ex post_ coping strategies and, thus, we cannot account for any _ex ante_ coping mechanisms households may have adopted.

One other limitation arises from the scope of the questions asked in the survey. In particular, the questionnaire does not include any information on the impact or severity of the shock. For this reason, as we discuss below, we emphasize the capacity of households to deal at all with shocks, as reflected by their ability to find (ex-post) coping mechanisms to manage the shock.

In general, however, this survey allows us to gain new insights into, not only the shocks experienced by households in Bangladesh, but also the instruments used to cope with them. Next we discuss the key findings from the survey in this respect.

# **3. Shocks and coping mechanisms: A descriptive analysis**

In this section we present the data on the distribution of shocks in our sample. The objective is to present a description of what kinds of shocks occurred over the survey period, who
Policy Research Working Paper 5715

# **Abstract**

The aim of this paper is to study the short and longterm fertility effects of mass violent conflict on different population sub-groups. The authors pool three nationally representative demographic and health surveys from before and after the genocide in Rwanda, identifying conflict exposure of the survivors in multiple ways. The analysis finds a robust effect of genocide on fertility, with a strong replacement effect for lost children. Having lost siblings reduces fertility only in the short term. Most interesting is the continued importance of the institution of marriage in determining fertility and in reducing fertility for the large group of widows in Rwanda.

This paper is a product of the Gender and Development Unit, Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Network. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://econ.worldbank. org. The author may be contacted at kschindler@diw.de.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent._ Produced by the Research Support Team
reserves rather than balance of payments crises per se. Since the essence of balance of payments crises is a decline in reserves, year-on-year growth rates of gross international reserves can be used as an indicator in order to avoid seasonal fluctuations.<sup>(5)</sup>

# **2.3.2 Banking Crises**

Banking crises can be divided into liquidity and solvency crises. As the essence of liquidity type banking crises is _bank runs_ , deposit figures especially demand deposits seem to be an appropriate indicator. Demand deposits are more suitable than time deposits, since time deposits are tied in certain periods and difficult to cancel before maturity. Therefore, time deposits may not properly capture bank run situations. In order to measure a solvency problem of the banking system, capital figures are used as an indicator. Demand deposits and capital account figures are adjusted by the ratio in total assets. This is because absolute levels or growth rates in local currencies are distorted when banking crises are associated with currency crises. Although BIS (Bank for International Settlement) own capital ratio is widely used to measure the healthiness of the banking system, data is difficult to obtain on a timely basis and time -series data is mostly unavailable in developing countries.

# **2.3.3 Currency Crises**

The conceptual definition of currency crises is generally agreed, which is an abrupt depreciation of the currency, though there are two issues such as whether to include unsuccessful currency attacks and whether to choose nominal or real exchange rates. The supporters of the inclusion of unsuccessful currency attacks propose to construct a currency pressure index composed of exchange rates, interest rates and international 8
Figure B5: Distribution of poor population across urban versus rural areas <!-- Start of picture text --> (A) $2.15 poverty line<br>Official definition DOU DB<br>100 100 100<br>80 80 80<br>60 60 60<br>40 40 40<br>20 20 20<br>Urban Rural Urban center Rural Core Town<br>Urban cluster Suburb Other rural<br>(B) $3.65 poverty line<br>Official definition DOU DB<br>100 100 100<br>80 80 80<br>60 60 60<br>40 40 40<br>20 20 20<br>Urban Rural Urban center Rural Core Town<br>Urban cluster Suburb Other rural<br>Share of poor population (%)<br>Share of poor population (%)<br><!-- End of picture text --> Source: International Urban Poverty Database.

Note: GHSPOP 1km is used for the DOU and DB methods. Each boxplot shows the distribution of the share of the poor population over different geographic areas in 16 SSA countries.

Figure B6: Comparison of urban shares of poor populations between official and DOU/DB urban definitions <!-- Start of picture text --> (A) DOU vs. official definition (B) DB vs. official definition (C) DB vs. DOU<br>100 100 100<br>ETH<br>80 80 80<br>60 60 AGO 60 AGO<br>ETH ETH<br>UGATZA AGO<br>40 40 TZA 40 TZA<br>CIV GAB GAB<br>20 GINMWIGNBSENMRT GAB 20 SENMRT 20 MRTSEN<br>BFANERTCDLSOGHA BFANERGINMWITCDGNBUGALSOGHACIV LSOTCDBFANERGHAGINGNBMWICIV UGA<br>20 40 60 80 100 20 40 60 80 100 20 40 60 80 100<br>Share of poor in urban area (%) Share of poor in urban area (%
**Table 3.5: Earnings of Worker by Employment Size of Enterprises in Manufacturing, Average Earnings in the Public Sector and the Minimum Wage 1992-94**

|Earnings in<br>Manufacturing:<br>(monthly, in cedis)|Wave 1 (1992)|Wave 2 (1993)|Wave 3 (1994)|
|---|---|---|---|
|Large (100+).|41,420|48,876|56,849|
|Medium (30-100)|31,820|38,392|41,017|
|Small (5-29)|17,943|25,098|26,682|
|Micro (<5)|13,419|13,161|14,264|
|All|25,696|33,272|36,215|
|Average Earnings in<br>the Public Sector|62,687|||
|Minimum Wage|13,617|||

_Source: The data for the manufacturing enterprises are generated by the RPED surveys and are taken from the analysis of F. Teal (1996), Table 3, p. 971._ The average public sector earnings for 1991 are taken from ISSER 1994, Table 8.14, p. 153. They have been blown up by 80 percent in the across-the-board wage increase granted to public employees in July 1992. The figure for the minimum wage is from the same source, adjusted by the cost-of-living index for Accra.

While the figures of average wages in Table 3.5 strongly suggest that the recent wage hike has taken public sector wages to a new plateau-exceeding wages in the private formal sector by a substantial margin, the evidence is not conclusive because we are not able to control for differences in the quality of labor. It is possible to have more conclusive evidence if we confine ourselves to the sub-sector of public enterprises. The RPED surveys include state owned enterprises
|7.5|3.6|7.9|
|Air Botswana Corporation|6.6|5.8|4.7|
|Air Namibia|6.4|9.6|7.7|
|Air Mauritius|4.7|4.1|4.5|
|TAAG Angola Airlines|4.2|3.6|2.5|
|Zambian Airways|1.6|0.8|7.3|
|SA Airlink d/b/a South African Airlink|0|6.3|8|
|Comair Ltd.|0|6.5|5.8|
|South African Express Airways(Pty)Ltd.|0|7.2|5.3|
|**Other**|1.9|2.5|5.2|
|_Source:_Derived from Bofinger 2009.||||

significant development (figure 2.16). These deficiencies are highly correlated with national accident rates, suggesting that institutional failings can largely explain Africa’s poor accident record. Air navigation services and air traffic control throughout Sub-Saharan Africa are spotty and concentrated in a few centers. South Africa, among the SADC countries, has several radar installations and is able to actively monitor traffic. Zimbabwe is also equipped with radar installations. In Malawi, some surveillance coverage existed in the past, but the aged equipment was too expensive to repair and is now no longer salvageable.

The notion that air safety is a regional problem and requires regional solutions is gaining widespread support and momentum. In the SADC, a project called the Cooperative Development of Operational Safety and Continuing Airworthiness Program is under way to address air safety by pooling regional resources.

Another important factor in air safety is the vintage of the airline fleet. Southern Africa’s aircraft fleet has been renewing since 2001, and as of 2007, 55 percent of seats flown were on newer aircraft (figure 2.17)
# **Estimating the Impacts of Transport Corridor Development in Kazakhstan: Application of Dynamic Panel Data Models to Firm Registry Data**

Atsushi Iimi<sup>¶</sup> Eastern and Southern Africa, Transport The World Bank Group Key words: Transport connectivity, firm inventory, cost function, agriculture production, Dynamic panel regression.

JEL classification: D22; D24; Q12; C26.

> ¶ Corresponding author.
- Bento, P. and D. Restuccia (2017): “Misallocation, Establishment Size, and Productivity,” _American Economic Journal: Macroeconomics_ , 9, 267–303.

- ——— (2021): “On average establishment size across sectors and countries,” _Journal of Monetary Economics_ , 117, 220–242.

- Bhandari, A., T. J. M. Tobey Kass, E. R. McGrattan, and E. Schulz (2022): “On the Nature of Entrepreneurship,” _SOI Working Papers, Internal Revenue Service_ .

- Bolivia, I. (2017): “Encuesta de Hogares,” Instituto Nacional de Estad ́ıstica, Bolivia.

- Brooks, W. J., J. P. Kaboski, Y. A. Li, and W. Qian (2021): “Exploitation of labor? Classical monopsony power and labor’s share,” _Journal of Development Economics_ , 150, 102627.

- Busso, M., M. V. Fazio, and S. Levy (2012): “(In)Formal and (Un)Productive: The Productivity Costs of Excessive Informality in Mexico,” Research Department Publications 4789, Inter-American Development Bank, Research Department.

- Central Bureau of Statistics (2017-2018): “Nepal Labour Force Survey,” National Planning Commision, Central Bureau of Statistics, Government of Nepal.

- DANE (2019): “Gran Encuesta Integrada de Hogares, GEIH,” Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estad ́ıstica, Colombia.

- de la Rep ́ublica Dominicana], B. C. (2019): “Encuesta Nacional Continua de la Fuerza de Trabajo, ENCFT,” Banco Central, Rep ́ublica Dominicana.

- De Loecker, J. and J. Eeckhout (2018): “Global Market Power,” Working Paper 24768, National Bureau of Economic Research.

- De Loecker, J., J. Eeckhout, and G. Unger (2020): “The Rise
theoretical constructs in equation (14), with very similar results.<sup>111</sup> Table A6: District-Level Food Expenditure and Land Inequality

||**Depende**<br>Logof food|**nt variable:**<br>expenditures|
|---|---|---|
||(1)|(2)|
|Land inequality (ˆ_σ_<sup>2</sup><br>_Ln_<sup>)</sup>|-0.0035<br>(0.0040)|-0.0036<br>(0.0041)|
|Log of total expenditures (ln(_En_))|0.893<sup>_∗∗∗_</sup><br>(0.0259)|0.890<sup>_∗∗∗_</sup><br>(0.0265)|
|Constant|1.700<sup>_∗∗∗_</sup><br>(0.6305)|1.745<sup>_∗∗_</sup><br>(0.6469)|
|Adjustedln(_X_<sup>_A_</sup><br>_n_ <sup>)?</sup>|NO|YES|
|Observations|25|25|

_Notes_ :<sup>_∗∗∗_</sup> denotes significance at the 1% level,<sup>_∗∗_</sup> at the 5% level. The table shows results of district-level regressions relating aggregate food expenditures to land inequality and aggregate total expenditures. Regressions are estimated by Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) using data from the 2019 edition of the HIES. Land inequality in each district is defined as the variance of the log of landholding size across its landholders. Standard Errors are shown in parentheses. Column (
situations, suggesting that they induce moral hazard on the part of financial institutions and corporations. Furthermore, they studied a small cross-section of countries, raising the question as to whether these results can be generalized. Klingebiel, Kroszner, and Laeven (2002) investigate how financial crises affect the growth of sectors that depend on external sources of finance to various degrees. They use industry level data on real sectoral growth in value added and external financial dependence from 19 countries over 30 years and find that sectors highly dependent on external finance tend to experience a greater contraction of value added during a crisis in deeper financial systems than in countries with shallower financial systems. Finally, the International Monetary Fund (2003) has recently developed lessons from financial crises, although not in an empirical manner.

The studies on the containment and restructuring phase reviewed have typically analyzed a limited number of specific policies. In particular, three main policies have received much attention in the studies and debates: substantial liquidity support, explicit government guarantees of deposits, and forbearance from prudential regulation. These three policies are in many ways indicative of whether a more accommodative or strict “model” to crisis resolution is being followed. Countries applying substantial liquidity support,<sup>5</sup> explicit government guarantees of deposits<sup>6</sup> and large-scale forbearance from prudential regulations can be said to have an accommodative approach to crisis resolution, whereas those countries with limited liquidity support, no or limited guarantees and no forbearance from prudential regulations have a strict approach.

> 5 Substantial liquidity support is defined as a situation in which the government provides level of liquidity support that exceed aggregate banking sector capital and/or also provides support to institutions that are clearly known to be insolvent.

> 6 A government is considered to be providing an explicit full guarantee to depositors if it explicitly protects all depositors and creditors.

11