rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
measure inequality. This choice is guided by the interest on horizontal inequality across the different care and fiscal groups, rather than vertical inequality across the entire population of households, as is the case in a traditional fiscal incidence study. Thus, we look to break down an aggregate inequality index into two components: within-household and between-household inequality, allowing to focus separately on the extent of inequality occurring between fiscal and care groups.

The Theil index (GE(1)),<sup>10</sup> is a summary measure of the difference between the shares of the income and the shares of population of each group, in this case, each type of household. It reflects the extent to which the distribution of income between groups differs from the distribution of the population in those groups. When all the groups have a share of income equal to their population share, the distribution is completely equal (the overall Theil index is zero). Unlike the Gini index, the Theil is sub-group decomposable,<sup>11</sup> which is why we prefer it over the Gini coefficient, although we still present the latter for comparability with Rodriguez and Wai-Poi (2021).<sup>12</sup> _Figure 1. Definition of CEQ Income Concepts and Fiscal Interventions in Jordan_ <!-- Start of picture text --> Contributory social<br>insurance old-age pensions<br>(net of contributions)<br>Direct cash transfers: NAF;<br>bread compensation<br>scheme, Zakat, non-<br>contributory pensions,<br><!-- End of picture text --> <!-- Start of picture text --> Indirect subsidies (direct<br>and indirect impacts):<br>electricity; water<br>In-kind transfers net of<br>user fees: health;<br><!-- End of picture text --> <!-- Start of picture text -
on UNCTAD’s NTM data. Note: The total number of products at the HS 6-digit is 5,400 (HS Combined).

# **3.4 Colombian Firms and Non-Tariff Measures in LAC**

We now study the extent to which Colombian exporters face NTMs in their regional product-destination sales markets. The focus is on technical trade regulations since they are the most frequently used type of NTM, as discussed above. To make sense of the high-dimensional data, we define three groups of exporting firms. Fully exposed firms (green bar chart) are defined as those facing at least one NTM in each product-destination market. Partially exposed firms (blue bar chart) enjoy at least one productdestination market without trade regulation. The last group is made up of firms whose exports do not face any trade regulations in productdestination markets.

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sup> Inspections were carried out on a tablet and the inspection protocol and scoring system was publicly available, allowing facilities to evaluate themselves as required, even prior to the inspection. A monitoring system, including real-time reports, was also put in place to facilitate planning and follow-up visits according to the regulation schedule.

# **III.2 Experimental Design, Timing and Data, Design Integrity**

We discuss three components of the experimental design: The construction of markets, the allocation of treatment and control arms and the timing of inspections. Section 4 of the Supplemental Material documents IRB approvals of the trial and a discussion of the ethical issues.

**Construction of Markets** : We started with a census of 1,258 facilities that we could locate in the 3 counties between January and September 2015 and a census update conducted between October and November 2016 (see Section 1 of the Supplemental Material). We defined a market using a “z-center” clustering algorithm that assigned facilities to markets such that no facility was

> 14In the endline survey, 76% of facility in-charges commented on their experience with inspections and of these, only 2% of the comments were related to corruption. In addition, random inspection quality checks performed during the implementation showed minor discrepancies with inspectors’ results. Finally, a third-party qualitative assessment, separate from our team, similarly found few facility complaints with the inspection process (Tama et al., 2021).

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May 2012)

- ii. Did community members contribute labour, money or local materials for this project (Including work for food and work for pay)?

- iii. Were any community members involved in the planning of this project?

- (b) Collective action {com}

- i. Has this community worked together to address any problem facing this community? For each project: (In the past one year since May 2012)

> A2 The analysis plan mis-specified financial contributions as originating from the community survey, but it was part of the clinic survey and is included in index ii accordingly.

> A3 Originally, both the CDPE and Community Support indices included the HMC / HMF meetings variables. We retain these as a part of the Community Support index, as this index is intended to more directly gauge the monitoring mechanism more directly. However, we verify that omitting these variables from the CDPE index has no consequence on the estimated effect. (These results are available upon request).

> A4 The baseline survey asked for projects in the past two years while the endline survey asked for the past year. In the ANCOVA specification, we therefore control for projects in the past two years.

A8
> 5The prevalence of roads as a mode of transportation is also reflected in the PIDA action plan, where most of the priority transportation projects concern the road network (or a combination of roads and borders). Railways, on the other hand, are typically associated with port hub development, except for the Djibouti-Addis corridor and the Kinshasa-Brazzaville road-rail bridge project. We also prioritize road transport because the rail network in Africa is composed of several disconnected components with heterogeneous market sizes, making them difficult to compare.

> 6Note that we use border compliance time and do not include export documentation compliance (which is a one-time cost). Whether the country of entry is the final destination of the shipment or just a transit point, the border compliance time is the same. There may be a risk of overestimating border compliance time for transit shipments. However, in a non-free trade zone, it is not obvious that transit trucks would have less wait time than trucks arriving at their final destination. In the context of a broad study of Africa, using a single border wait time seems a safe simplifying assumption.

> 7Details can be found in Table A2 in the Appendix A.

> 8UNCATD reports ship dwell time at ports, this information is constructed from Maritime Traffic data and can be accessed here: `https://unctadstat.unctad.org/wds/TableViewer/tableView.aspx`

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websites. Second, women entrepreneurs have lower levels of digital skills, with skill upgrading limited by time and mobility constraints (Campos et al. 2019).<sup>31</sup> There is still a scarcity of causal evidence on the effects of digital skills training for women entrepreneurs. Alhorr (2023) studied the effect of assisting female entrepreneurs in Jordan with creating and managing Facebook pages for their business, and of offering women digital marketing training. The findings indicated that the Facebook business page intervention had positive effects on business outcomes for women more affected by mobility constraints. However, women with higher mobility constraints were also less likely to apply for digital marketing training, resulting in muted average effects.

Business-to-business distribution platforms can assist women entrepreneurs in connecting with corporate manufacturers and improve their integration into corporate value chains.<sup>32</sup> Additional research is needed to determine how to encourage women entrepreneurs to join these platforms and to assess the impact of training designed to help women better navigate and use these platforms.<sup>33</sup> Jin and Sun (2020) found that a program in China, which trained over 2 million new sellers on a large e-commerce platform, had small positive effects on revenues for both men and women; however, women sellers were less likely to participate in the training. Finally, recent research cautions that merely bringing many firms onto e- commerce platforms may not be sufficient to foster their growth due to significant demand-side frictions. Policies such as the creation of premium market segments or focusing on promising newcomers might be necessary to enhance market efficiency (Bai et al. 2021).

# 6. Interventions that Address Contextual Constraints

According to the 2023 World Bank’s Women, Business and the Law dataset, in 101 of 190 economies, women face at least one legal constraint that prevents them from operating a business in the same way as men (World Bank 2023). Significant improvement over the last 50 years has led to most economies allowing women
# **Figure 2: Probability of dying during a 5 year period, by birth cohort, Cambodia DHS 2000, Siblings' mortality data**

<!-- Start of picture text --> 0.16<br>0.14<br>0.12<br>0.1<br>0.08<br>0.06<br>0.04<br>0.02<br>0<br>1950-1954 1955-1959 1960-1964 1965-1969 1970-1974 1975-1979 1980-1984 1985-1989 1990-1994 1995-1999<br>Period<br>Born 40-44 Born 45-49 Born 50-54 Born 55-59 Born 60-64 Born 65-69 Born 70-74<br>Born 75-79 Born 80-84<br>Probability to die<br><!-- End of picture text --> 22
**MONGOLIA'S INFORMAL SECTOR** -

**Reasons** for **Growth**

**18**

42. But not all informals are **An Escape From Poverty** skilled factory workers unable to find formal employment. Many are How successful is the informal sector at providing families with unskilled people making a living in the means to escape poverty? It is well-known that a large number unskilled peoplemkingalvinh **o** f useholds fall under the official poverty line, but an the informal sector because there are examination of the SSO Household Survey data for late 1996 tells no other alternatives. Among those a much deeper story. While the data confirm that roughly 38% of who tell the _duureg_ that they are not Ulaanbaatar households had poverty-level income, the data also employed, many say the reason they allows us to answer the counterfactual: how many would be in provide is that they have no skills.<sup>50</sup> poverty if they did not have informal income? A startling 53% of For them, the informal sector is their Ulaanbaatar households would fall below the official poverty line, only available means of escaping attesting to the contribution to poverty alleviation made by micropoverty. Box 3 illustrates the enterprise. As an illustration of the importance of this result, the importance of the informal sector for households raised from poverty by informal income provide alleviating poverty in Ulaanbaatar.<sup>5</sup> ' homes for an estimated 31,000 children in Ulaanbaatar

## **Box 3**

_Source:_ Author's estimates based on data from the SSO Household Survey.

# **- Rural-Urban Migration Supplying Informal Labor**

43. In many countries, growth of the informal sector is associated with migration from rural areas to urban centers. New migrants arrive without jobs, providing a large pool of labor for informal "employment." In Mongolia, however, migration is not currently a driving force of the informal sector - although
resource prices, the degree of persistence,  pR, is set at 0.93 and the standard deviation of the nonsystematic shock <sup>pR</sup> is set at 0.25, as in Maliszewski (2009).<sup>12</sup> For the nonresource sector, elasticities of production with respect to labor,  N and  T, are set equal to 0.7 and 0.6, respectively, to capture the fact that production in the nontradable sector is relatively more labor intensive than production in the nonresource tradable sector (  N >  T). The elasticity of output with respect to public capital,  is set at 0.17, which corresponds to the long-run value estimated through meta-regression analysis by Bom and Ligthart (2014, Table 4) for core public capital. Thus, public infrastructure is equally productive in the production of tradables and nontradables.

Regarding the government, the fraction of resource revenues saved in the sovereign fund,  , is set initially equal to 0. The initial stock of assets in the sovereign fund, F, is set at 1 percent of GDP (assumed to correspond to an initial lump-sum transfer from the government), whereas the coefficient <sup>F</sup> , which measures the management fee paid to non-residents, is set as in Agénor (2016) at 0.25 percent of the stock of assets held in the fund.<sup>13</sup> The interest rate on assets held in the sovereign wealth fund, r<sup>F</sup> , is set at 4 percent initially, and sensitivity analysis is conducted later on.

According to IMF data, total revenue and grants amounted to 20.1 percent of GDP in 2012 (corresponding to T/Y in the model), whereas total expenditure amounted to 19.6 of GDP in the same year. To abstract from debt accumulation, it is assumed that the overall balance, 0
the poor. Public, nonmonetary spending programs, such as pre-school and primary education, the subsidized health insurance regime, and early childhood programs are progressive.

## **4.1 Public Monetary Transfers**

34. **Publically financed monetary transfers from the central government to the Colombian population increase income inequality by one Gini point.**<sup>**22**</sup> This is because the rich receive the bulk of public monetary transfers: 90 percent of cash transfers are received by the richest 40 percent of the population. The richest quintile receives 79.0 percent of the total, while the poorest quintile receives only 3.1 percent of the total. The second and third poorest quintiles receive 2.6 and 3.8 percent, respectively (Table 4).

35. **The concentration of monetary transfers among the rich is explained by sizeable and highly regressive pension transfers.** Close to all pension payments (97.4 percent) are received by the richest 40 percent of Colombians. Even within this group, there is a strong concentration in the top quintile, which receives 86.3 percent of pension transfers. Pension transfers have the effect of increasing the Gini coefficient by 1.63 percentage points. This contrasts strongly with the experience of other countries in the region, where pensions typically reduces income inequality.

> 21 This section draws upon the work of Nuñez (2009), which is the source of all statistics quoted in the section, unless otherwise mentioned.

> 22 According to Nuñez (2009) using 2008 ECV data.  Goñi et al (2011), using 2003 ECV data, concludes that monetary transfers do not have any impact on the Gini coefficient, as mentioned in Section 2.

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br>average ($ per tonne)|15|8.5|13.5|10|8|8|9|
|Bulk dry-handling charge (ship to gate or rail)—<br>average ($ per tonne)|5|5|5|3|||5|

_Source:_ Derived from the AICD port operator database (www.infrastructureafrica.org/aicd/tools/data). _Note:_ *Concession for building and operating container terminals, not the whole port. TEU = 20-foot equivalent unit.

## **Figure 8. Evolution of traffic and vessels moving through the Port of Dakar**

<!-- Start of picture text --> a. Traffic, 2005–09<br>900000<br>800000<br>700000<br>600000<br>500000<br>400000<br>300000<br>200000<br>100000<br>0<br>2005 2006 2007 2008 2009<br>Global transit Transit to Mali<br>Imports Exports<br><!-- End of picture text --> <!-- Start of picture text --> b. Vessels, 2003–09<br>3000<br>2500<br>2000<br>1500<br>1000<br>500<br>0<br>2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009<br>Vessels Container ships<br>Carriers Tankers<br>Others<br><!-- End of picture text --> _Source:_ Port Autonomme de Dakar 2010.

# Air transport

## **Achievements**

Senegal is an emerging hub and a major player in air transportation in West Africa (table 8, figure 9), ranking only second to Nigeria. Senegal’s air transport sector accounts for more than 2.6 million seats per year across all traffic categories and has experienced rapid growth over the past few
taxes revenues in Brazil were also above average in 2019, with a value very close to the 2009 estimate, and only behind the level of South Africa, Namibia, Georgia, and Botswana. Finally, Brazil's 2019 non-tax revenues, also above the sample average, are in third place, only below Ecuador and Botswana.

**Figure 15. Components of social spending, upper‐middle‐income countries (% of GDP)**

<!-- Start of picture text --> 25<br>20<br>15<br>10<br>5<br>0<br>Direct transfers Health Education<br><!-- End of picture text --> Source: Authors based on CEQ Data Center.

36
for cash holdings rather than agency conflicts.<sup>25</sup> Kahle and Stulz (2010) focus on the 2008 US financial crisis and find that cash holdings went up substantially after September 2008 which is consistent with the observation that given the increase in risk and cost of financing, firms strengthened their balance sheets by hoarding cash.

Re-examining these hypotheses taking into account cross-country differences, one would predict that cash holdings should be larger in countries with weak investor protection (agency motive) and in countries with poorly developed capital markets (precautionary motive). However, Dittmar, Mahrt-Smith, and Servaes (2003) and Kalcheva and Lins (2007) find no evidence that firms hold more cash when capital markets are poorly developed but do find evidence that firms hold more cash when shareholder protection is weak. Lins, Servaes, and Tufano (2010) reconcile these findings with the theory in their survey of CFOs in public and private firms in 28 countries. They find that non-operational cash holdings (i.e. excess cash and marketable securities above that which is used in normal course of business) are only a small fraction of book assets and are used as a general insurance policy against future cash shortfalls. Lines of credit, on the other hand, are the dominant form of corporate liquidity and are strongly related to a firm‟s need for external financing to fund future investment opportunities. So while they find no evidence that non-operational cash is higher when credit markets are less developed, they do find that lines of credit, which are the more dominant source of liquidity, are larger when credit markets are less developed, thus consistent with the precautionary motive.

There is an emerging literature looking at corporate liquidity management choices during times of financial crises that has somewhat contradictory findings to the above. Campello, Giambona, Graham, and Harvey (2009) survey CFOs from 31 countries regarding liquidity choices before and after the 2007 credit crisis and find that firms view cash and lines of credit as liquidity substitutes – firms with
To analyze short-term labor-market and productivity effects of MNREGS and the underlying channels, we use 1999-00 and 2007-08 ARIS-REDS panel data that include member-level labor supply, and details on agricultural production as well as information on the total amount of employment generated by MNREGS in a subset of villages. A Difference-In-Difference (DID) design with household fixed effects is used to control for time invariant unobservables and 1982 data to test for pre-treatment parallel trends between treated and control groups.

# **3.1 Data and analytical approach**

Our primary data source is the 1981/82, 1999/00, and 2007/8 rounds of ARIS-REDS, a nationally representative panel survey first conducted in 1971 that provides comprehensive information for more than 4,000 panel households in 232 villages from 17 Indian states.<sup>12</sup> The survey contains detailed information on labor supply and wage receipts by each household member and inputs and outputs from agricultural production. To assess MNREGS impacts, we draw primarily on the survey’s labor and agricultural modules to assess impacts of the program being available on labor markets and agricultural productivity.

When the 2007/8 round was administered, MNREGS had been implemented in phase I and II districts (our treated group) but not yet in those to be covered under phase III of the program, allowing us to use the latter as a control.<sup>13</sup> Letting _i_ denote households, _d_ district, and _t_ time (with _t_ =0 for the 1999/2000 and _t_ =1 the 2007/08 round), we use the REDS panel data to estimates the impact of MNREGS on various outcome variables using a regression framework of the form where _Yidt_ is the outcome variable of interest _MNREGSdt_ is an indicator variable that equals 1 if district _d_ was part of phases I or II of the MNREGS roll-out and zero otherwise; _Postt_ is a time dummy; **_X_** is a vector of time varying controls at individual (sex, age, age square
to absolute income in explaining satisfaction. Relative income has been found to have a significant and positive effect on satisfaction but the sign and significance of this variable may be affected by collinearity with other variables such as income or income inequality. It is important therefore to test how the inclusion and exclusion of this variable may alter results for income inequality.

Countries’ wealth ( _W_ ) is measured with GDP per capita for each country and year. As already mentioned, this variable has been extracted from the IMF database and is used in real terms, USD and PPP values.

We also use a number of control variables ( _C_ ) as follows. A first set of variables measures _individual and family attributes_ which are possible predictors of life-satisfaction. These are being unemployed (dummy), sex (female), age (continuous with the addition of age squared) and a dummy for tertiary education and marriage status (dummy where one includes: “ _married_ ” and “ _living together as married_ ”). These are all variables which have

> 11Note that for countries that changed currency during the period considered (adoption of the EURO or USD or introduction of a new local currency) the IMF data use only the latest currency. This meant that we had to transform first the income values from our database into the same currencies used by the IMF using the appropriate exchange rates for each currency and each year and only then apply the constant, USD and PPP transformations.

> 12For the selection of the most appropriate Gini, we followed indications provided by Gruen and Klasen (2008). According to tests conducted by these authors on the Gini WIDER database: “ _Gini coefficients based on expenditures or consumption are significantly lower than based on incomes, and those based on disposable incomes are also significantly lower than those based on gross incomes, particularly in OECD countries._ ” (p. 219).

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