rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
|||||||||s (N)|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|||All Regi|ons, Exce|pt Slav|onia||||
|Manufacturing||0.545|0.145|0.289|0.351|0.555|0.724|0.758|193|
|<br>Services|<br>0.532|0.149|0.278|0.3826|0.538|0.712|0.750|247|
||||Slavon|ia|||||
|Manufacturing||0.535|0.165|0.217|0.306|0.565|0.706|0.774|66|
|<br>Services|<br>0.519|0.147|0.229|0.292|0.533|0.685|0.726|79|

Notes: ‘Management Score’ is calculated following MOPS (See Bloom et al., 2018).

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Policy Research Working Paper 9288

# **Abstract**

This paper studies the impact of a computer-assisted learning program on learning outcomes among high school students in The Gambia. The program uses innovative technologies and teaching approach to facilitate the teaching of mathematics and science. Since the pilot schools were not randomly chosen, the study first used administrative and survey data, including a written test, to build a credible counterfactual of comparable groups of control students. It used these data to conduct a pre-analysis plan prior to students taking the high-stakes certification exam. The study later used the certification exam data on the same students to replicate the results. The findings show that the program led to a 0.59 standard deviation gains in mathematics scores and an increase of 15 percentage points (a threefold increase) in the share of students who obtained credit in mathematics and English, a criterion for college admission in The Gambia. The impact is concentrated among high-achieving students at the baseline, irrespective of their gender or socioeconomic background.

This paper is a product of the Office of the Chief Economist, Africa Region and the Education Global Practice. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/prwp. The authors may be contacted at mblimpo@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of
- 92 -

respect will be increased capacity to monitor the labor market outcomes of training through tracer studies, and enterprise and labor market surveys.

6.46 Alternative Financing: The Bank's exper'.ence is, of course, restricted to investment in training systeris in which the government is a financial partner. With the exception of the subsidized loan program for private vocational schools in Korea (paragraph 3.85), all the institutions financed were, to some degree or another, directly subsidized by governments. Thus the possibilities inherent in privately owned non-profit or profit-making training institutions fall outside the scope of this review.

6.47 In fact, government financing in the establishment of vocational education end training institutions has been the norm in developing countries. The rationale for public financing, when explicitly addressed, has generally been couched in terms similar to those of investments in infant industries. Skilled manpower is necessary for economic growth; public investment in establishing VET capacity is therefore justifiable on the grounds of externalities beyond productivity and earnings gains. Much VET, of course, has been directed towards public sector employment. And in any case, neither fledgling enterprises nor poor clients have had the means to finance training.

6.48 Some vocational and diversified secondary school investments, though justified primarily on anticipated employment outcomes, may in fact have been rather more intended to have broader social benefits (i.e., broader awareness of technology in society), and thus could be thought to hpve merited public financing on the same basis of general education.

6.49 While direct public subsidy has been justifiable in early stages of systems development, even :ln middle income countries, increasing attention has been given to alternative financing arrangements. The impetus for such arrangements comes from two sources. The first is economic. To the extent possible, socially efficient investment requires that those who benefit pay for services received. Vocational training and education ostensibly intended to increase employability and productivity benefit the worker and the firm most directly. [igh private
Franc is ambiguous in this respect too. Using plant-level data for Cameroon, Barba Navaretti _et al._ (1996) show that the median wage fell by 11 percent compared to output prices between 1992-93 and 1994-95. But on the other hand the average wage increased by about 13 percent.

- _5_ Given the insignificance of changes in the SMIG over the whole sample, these changes could be positively correlated with changes in the labor costs of private firms only if they were at the same time negatively correlated with changes in the labor costs of state-owned enterprises, which is unlikely.

23
and the government expenditure share are from the Penn World Table, version 6.3 (Heston et al., 2009). Data on political institutions are from the Polity IV database (Marshall and Jaggers, 2009). The data on civil war incidence are from the PRIO/UPPSALA database on armed conflicts (CSCW, 2010). Data on GDP of agricultural

> 9 This functional form of the commodity export price index follows common practice in the literature. See for example, Collier and Goderis (2007) and the references cited therein.

8
respect to encouraging vaccination. Another meta-analysis from Mayer and Fontelo (2017) found significant positive effects of text message reminders for HIV-related treatment compliance. Yet another meta-analysis found significant impacts from reminders on treatment for coronary heart disease (Zhao, 2019). Other studies have found significant impacts on feeding programs (e.g. Zhou et al.) and case management practices (e.g. Zurovac, 2011).

In the face of both past success using similar methods, suggestive evidence of positive uptake in crosssectional survey measures, and initial null effects from an RCT evaluation of a similar project design, uncertainty remains as to whether and under what circumstances SMS-based messages can be effective at encouraging risk reducing behavior during a public health crisis like COVID-19.

In the following, I describe a mass SMS text-messaging campaign conducted together with the health authorities in Tajikistan and implemented alongside a monthly individual panel survey that measured self-reported risk reduction behavior. The results demonstrate that receiving and relying on text messages for information on COVID-19 led to a significant increase in self-reported risk reduction behaviors. Listing SMS as a primary source of information increased the number of reported behaviors by .15 units (p = 0.000) and receiving an official text message in the past week increased the number by .47 units (p = 0.000). These effects were driven by more positive responses for wearing masks, reducing visits with friends and relatives, reducing travel, practicing safer greetings (fewer handshakes, etc.) and safety-related changes to work. The results suggest that SMS-based public health messaging was a cost-effective means of increasing awareness in a large and geographically dispersed audience during the COVID-19 pandemic, and that the program led to an increase in self-reported risk reducing behaviors.

The remainder of the paper is structured as follows. Section II provides details on the country context, discussion of the messaging campaign, and a description of the data used in the study. Section III briefly describes the pooled ordinary least squares (OLS), and fixed effects estimators used
# References

- Albrecht, James, Anders Björklund, and Susan Vroman. 2003. ÎIs There a Glass Ceiling in Sweden?” _Journal of Labor Economics_ 21 (1): 145-77.

Atkinson, Anthony B. 2015. _Inequality What Can Be Done?_ Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press.

- Lopez-Acevedo, Gladys, Gordon Betcherman, Ayache Khellaf, and Vasco Molini. 2021. Morocco’s Jobs Landscape: Identifying Constraints to an Inclusive Labor Market. International Development in Focus. Washington, DC: World Bank.

- Bandiera, Oriana, and Ashwini Natraj. 2013. ÎDoes Gender Inequality Hinder Development and Economic Growth? Evidence and Policy Implications.” _World Bank Research Observer_ 28 (1): 2-21.

- Bertoni, Eleonora, Fabio Clementi, Vasco Molini, Francesco Schettino, and Hitomi Teraoka. 2016. _Poverty Work Program: Poverty Reduction in Nigeria in the Last Decade_ . Technical Report, World Bank, Washington DC. <u>http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/103491483646246005/Poverty-workprogram-poverty-reduction-in-Nigeria-in-the-last-decade.</u>

- Betcherman, Gordon. 2012. _Labor Market Institutions: A Review of the Literature_ . Policy Research Working No. 6276, World Bank, Washington DC. <u>https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/12139.</u>

- Blau, Francine D., and Lawrence M. Kahn. 2007. “Changes in the Labor Supply Behavior of Married Women: 1980-2000.” _Journal of Labor Economics_ 25 (3): 393-438.

- Burtless, Gary. 1999. ÎEffects of Growing Wage Disparities and Changing Family Composition on the U.S. Income Distribution.” _European Economic Review_ 43 (4-6): 853-65.

- Canberra Group. 2011. _Handbook on Household Income Statistics (2nd edn.)_ . New York and Geneva: United Nations.

- Choe, Chung, and Philippe Van Kerm. 2018. “Foreign Workers and the Wage Distribution: What Does the Influence Function
prevalent in Poland and Hungary and are focused on consumer products. For example, Hungary has a global consumer goods quota affecting a variety of textile and clothing products (except for WTO members), automobiles, and leather products (WTO, 1998). Poland's NTBs focus on motor vehicles, beverages and tobacco (Kaminski, 1999).

_5 The trade statistics of Tajikistan and Turkmenistan are far too unreliable to make ajudgement about the evolution of their trade patterns over time._ 10
7|0.7|
|Public administration|7.5|6.1|1.4|
|Other services|22.1|26.1|4.0|

_Source_ : Kinshasa Survey 2018. _Note_ : Difference-in-means tests are conducted. ***p < 0.01; **p < 0.05; *p < 0.1.

# **3. Assessment of employment conditions**

## **3.1 Who engages in better/worse jobs?**

Younger workers endure less favorable employment situations, as they are more likely to engage in private sector jobs, informal jobs, and/or part-time jobs. The previous section shows that the youth are facing higher unemployment rates. Even among the employed, young workers appear to work in unfavorable conditions (Table 6). The chance of working in public sector jobs is limited among workers in the younger cohort. Only 6 percent of workers in the cohort of ages 15–24 (and 9 percent of workers of ages 25–34) engaged in public sector jobs in 2018.<sup>6</sup> In addition, the youth (ages 15–24) tend to work in informal jobs (70 percent) and/or work for less than 25 hours per week (45 percent).

Gender gap in employment conditions persists, as demonstrated by higher unemployment rates among highly educated women and the higher share of female workers in informal employment. As observed in the previous section, the unemployment rate of female working-age population with tertiary education is remarkably high. Female workers are also more likely to engage in informal jobs. In 2018, 70 percent female workers engaged in informal jobs, as opposed to 48 percent male workers (Table 6). As such, only a small fraction of female workers are managers or skilled employees.

> 6 Among the public sector employees, the workers of ages 15–24 and 25–34 constitute 5 percent and 19 percent
regard to Latin America, case studies of Argentina, Brazil, and Mexico from 1994 to 1999 indicate that foreign banks did not pull back from host countries in the face of their economic problems, but rather viewed these difficulties as an opportunity to become more firmly rooted in these economies (Peek and Rosengren, 2000). And in fact, in Argentina and Mexico foreign banks had higher growth rates and lower volatility of lending than domestic banks during the crises of the mid to late 1990s (Dages et al., 2000). More generally, foreign banks in Latin American countries (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Mexico, Peru, and Venezuela) showed more robust loan growth, a more aggressive response to asset deterioration, and greater ability to absorb losses than did domestic banks during this period (Crystal et al., 2001, 2002). In Eastern Europe, domestic banks contracted their credit base during crises from 1993 to 2000, whereas greenfield foreign banks did not (de Haas and van Lelyveld, 2006). Furthermore, a study of banks and firms in 13 countries in Eastern Europe from 2000 to 2005 shows that lending relationships for foreign banks tended to be more stable than those of domestic banks in that foreign banks were less likely to drop their clients, even in the aftermath of an acquisition (Giannetti and Ongena, 2012).

No doubt in response to the global scope and severity of the 2008-2009 crisis, there has been a recent proliferation of studies analyzing credit growth during this recent episode. In particular, there is evidence that foreign banks reduced their lending earlier and faster than domestic banks during the crisis (Claessens and van Horen, 2012; de Haas and van Lelyveld, 2011), in particular within Eastern Europe (de Haas, Korniyenko, Loukoianova, and Pivovarsky,

> Using data from 45 of the largest multinational banks from 1991 to 2004, de Haas and van Lelyveld (2010) find that their lending did not slow during systemic crises in host countries, which they attribute to the
stronger knowledge flows (e.g., Carlino et al. 2007, Arzaghi and Henderson 2008), and Audretsch and Fritsch (1994) use density as one source of convexity in local production that link to entry rates. Thus the conditional relationship between entry and population density is unclear, although many studies of advanced economies link higher population density to reduced manufacturing entry rates, especially for larger plants that are using established production techniques and seeking to minimize costs.

# _District-Level Conditions_

Beyond these basic demographics, we consider five primary traits of districts: education of the local labor force, quality of local physical infrastructure, access or travel time to major Indian cities, stringency of labor laws, and household banking conditions. While these traits do not constitute an exhaustive list of local conditions, they are motivated by the literatures on entrepreneurship and India‘s development. Unless otherwise noted, these traits are taken from the 2001 Population Census data for India.

We first measure the general education level of the local labor force. Doms et al. (2010) find that local skill levels correlate with higher rates of self-employment and better start-up performance in the United States, and Glaeser et al. (2010) associate higher education levels with higher entry rates using employment-based entry metrics. Many local policy makers stress developing the human capital of their workforces, and India is no different (Amin and Mattoo 2008). We measure the general education level of a district by the percentage of adults with a graduate (post-secondary) degree. All of our results below are robust to alternatively defining a district‘s education as the percentage of adults with higher secondary education.

Our second trait is the physical infrastructure level of the district. Basic services like electricity are essential for all businesses, but new entrants can be particularly dependent upon local infrastructure (e.g., established firms are better able to provision their own electricity if need be, which is quite common in India). Aghion et al. (2011) provide a theoretical model
|28.89|71.26|12.86|
|2006|17|28.19|68.52|12.76|
|2007|17|30.44|69.89|13.19|

The last column of Table 1 presents the standard deviation of effective corporate tax rates for every year of our sample. As mentioned previously, exemptions, deductions, and deferrals inherent to the Chilean tax code allow firms to have effective tax rates that are different than the statutory tax rate, resulting in dispersion in effective rates. To understand whether this dispersion is driven either by innate firm ability to utilize the tax code to reduce their tax burden over time (i.e. firm fixed effect), exemptions targeted at specific firm groups (i.e. region, industry, among others), or idiosyncratic variation, we carry out the following exercise. Using the unbalanced panel of firms between 9
there is an imperfect competition analogy in preferential liberalization of services to the trade diversion issue in goods. By assuming all commitments are multilateral, there is no trade diversion.

# (ii) **Border costs** .

The CASE study assumes that border costs amounted to 10.6 percent of the value of imports and exports, and that these costs would fall by 50 percent as a result of the DCFTA (see pages 149-150). The CASE study was conducted based on 2007 data. Although we are close to CASE in the estimate of the border costs in 2007, the Costs of Doing Business data shows that border costs have fallen in Armenia between 2007 and 2010. We estimate that border costs are only 8.9 percent of the costs of importing and exporting in 2010. Moreover, no rationale is provided for the assumption of a fifty percent cut in border costs. We assume that border costs of land-locked Armenia will not fall below those of Georgia and Ukraine, who have ports. Based on these assumptions we estimate that border costs will fall between 2.2 percentage points and 2.5 percentage points, depending on destination country and imports or exports. This compares with the larger assumed cut by the CASE study of 5.3 percentage points. Had we assumed the same cut in border costs 116
exp( _−_ 0 _._ 095) _−_ 1 = 0 _._ 090) after controlling for crime.

We next explore the differential effects of returned migrants on wages by gender. Considering that most Salvadoran migrants are men (around 80 percent in our sample), it is possible that they will mostly affect male salaries upon their return. However, it is also likely that the reduction in the cost of labor would induce firms to hire women too. Estimated effects on wage data separated 15
certain level the differences between products may not be meaningful from a discovery standpoint. For example, within the broad category of textiles, it is possible that discovering that a country can profitably produce shirts is different from discovering that it can profitably produce hats or bedsheets. However, there may not be a difference between discovering that a country can profitably produce long sleeve shirts as opposed to short sleeve shirts. With overlydisaggregated data, the filter will identify a product that is new to the export basket from an accounting viewpoint, but not from a discovery viewpoint<sup>4</sup> . As the appropriate level of disaggregation is not clear, we will use data for both the HS 4-digit level (approximately 1200 commodity groups) and the HS 6-digit level (approximately 5000 commodity groups). The level of disaggregation does bias the results in favor of certain industries over others, an issue discussed below.

In order to evaluate the robustness of some of our results, we also consider export data under SITC revision 1 system. Data under this classification system are available for a much longer time period than the HS data. However, the consistent lowest common denominator for this data over time is at the 3-digit level, which is highly aggregated and includes only around 175 commodity groups. Therefore, this level of aggregation may be too high to capture discoveries at the level where market failures arise, and therefore would not be suitable for our purposes. However, these data are available as far back as the 1970s, and allow us to exploit more robust time-series estimation techniques. As such, we use this time-series data to verify some of the results of the more disaggregated 1990s HS data.

> 4 The issue of the proper level of disaggregation is also problematic in the literature on intra-industry trade (Grubel and Lloyd (1975).

13
255)|(0.312)|(0.470)|(0.463)|
|Log of hourly wage|0.572|0.948|0.141|-0.275|-0.104|-0.421|
||(0.460)|(0.649)|(0.568)|(0.478)|(0.511)|(0.842)|
|Log of wage for the last|0.525|0.951|0.113|-0.078|0.071|-0.286|
|month|(0.410)|(0.586)|(0.521)|(0.523)|(0.580)|(0.895)|
|Log of total wage for the|0.903*|1.165|0.645|-0.068|0.397|-0.527|
|past 12 months|(0.524)|(0.743)|(0.666)|(0.678)|(0.733)|(1.183)|

This table reports the marginal effects from the bivariate probit regression and 2SLS of dummy employment variables on child care attendance and the control variables of women. For the dependent variables of wages and working hours, the regressions are 2SLS. The observations in these regressions are women of children age 1-5. Heteroskedasticity-robust standard errors in parentheses. Standard errors are corrected for sampling weights and cluster correlation at the commune level. *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1. Source: Estimation from VHLSS 2010, 2012, 2014 and 2016.

35
34

**Table 6:  Radio Access and Education Inputs**

||Student-<br>teacher<br>ratio|Textbook<br>-pupil<br>ratio|Absent/Total<br>teachers|Classroom<br>number|Proportion of<br>active<br>classrooms<br>with teachers|Level of<br>PTA<br>activity|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Community|-1.656|-0.505|-0.00856|-0.0978|-0.133|1.444|
|radio stations<br>received by<br>village (#)|(0.23)|(0.39)|(0.55)|(0.52)|(0.58)|(0.39)|
|Village|1.81|-.046|-.012|.041|.113|.902|
|population<br>(thousands)|(0.02)|(0.69)|(0.07)|(0.75)|(0.45)|(0.48)|
|Observations<br>|196|196|199|195|198|199|
|_R_<sup>_2_</sup>|0.59|0.32|0.43|0.37|0.47|0.51|

**Note** :  Commune-clustered _p_ -values in parentheses.  Regressions control for commune fixed effects.  Control variables are the same as in the base specification (column 2) of Table 3.  With isolated exceptions, none are significant.  Only village population and community radio stations are reported here.

In fact, in Table 6, no determinants of school inputs seem to