rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
association of productivity and employment growth, using an employment-based definition ensures that this link is not overstated.

# **_TFP Estimation_**

Several techniques tackle the simultaneity issue inherent in TFP estimations. These methods typically use readily observable data as proxies for productivity shocks, such as investment (Olley and Pakes, 1996) or intermediate inputs (Levinsohn and Petrin, 2003). The LMMIS database has rather poor information on investment but high-quality information on the use of intermediate inputs. Thus, the paper uses the Levinsohn and Petrin (LP) estimator to estimate plant-level TFP.<sup>27</sup> More recently, frontier literature on productivity measures emphasize the importance of estimating physical output based measures of TFP (referred as TFPQ), vis-à-vis the widely-used revenue based measure (referred as TFPR) (e.g. Foster et al., 2008). The criticism for using TFPR is that differences in revenue-based efficiency measures could reflect differences in price, elasticity and scale economies rather than efficiency or quality. One limitation of estimating TFPQ is that it requires detailed information on product-level prices. Although such information exists for Ethiopia and certain studies have successfully computed TFPQ (e.g. Bigsten et al. 2012), it is nonetheless less meaningful in the context of a study on HGFs. This is so because TFPQ can be meaningfully estimated only for products that are homogenous, that is, where quality differentiation cannot be argued to play a role in determining price differences among products. Considering such product categories dramatically reduces the observation count from 13,975 to 5,565.<sup>28</sup> Furthermore, this is even more complicated for multiproduct plants where the methodology approximates TFPQ by considering only the major product of the firm.<sup>29</sup> In an analysis where firm growth is measured by change in overall employment, it would be misleading to consider plant TFPQ of the major product of the plant.<sup>30</sup>

# **_Distances
**Figure 5: Saving Behavior in Africa**

<!-- Start of picture text --> Saves at a Financial Institution Saves using other methods only<br>World<br>Africa<br>North Africa<br>Southern Africa<br>Eastern Africa<br>Western Africa<br>Central Africa<br>0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60%<br>Percent of Adults<br><!-- End of picture text --> _S ource_ : Demirguc-Kunt and Klapper, 2012.

While many savers blend formal and informal methods, a large share uses _only_ community savings clubs. In Sub-Saharan Africa, 34% of those who save report having only used a community based savings club in the past 12 months. This percentage is as high as 46% in Western Africa and 32% in Central Africa. More than half of all respondents in North Africa and about half of all respondents in Central Africa who report having saved or set aside any money in the past 12 months did not report having done so using a formal financial institution, informal savings club, or a person outside the family. While the Global Findex survey did not gather data on these alternative methods, they might include saving through asset accumulation (such as gold or livestock) and saving ―under the mattress‖.

# **_3.6 Credit and Insurance_**

The rate of origination of new loans – formal and informal – is relatively high in Sub-Saharan Africa with 47% of adults reporting having borrowed money in the past 12 months compared to 34% worldwide and North Africa. In Sub-Saharan Africa 40% of adults report having borrowed money from friends or family in the past 12 months, including 29% who report this as their only source of borrowing. Family or friends is the most popular source of borrowing in North Africa as well with almost one third of adults reporting having borrowed from family or friends. In Sub11
foreign currency debt. The share of local currency debt is over 70% now, as of end-2011. Eighty-eight percent of total liabilities are in the form of securities or bonds issued in local and international markets, in contrast with 77% at the end of 2002. The remainder includes external loans.

Given the change in the portfolio structure, the debt database primarily accounts for securities. Each security is represented with an MS Access Database record with identifying attributes such as instrument type, currency, coupon rate etc. The database is updated at the end of each month by using designated queries—delete overdue bonds, add new issuances, and update coupon payment dates—in order to calculate key debt structure metrics.

At the start of the simulation procedure, the debt stock database is checked to ensure that it reflects recent issuances and redemptions, and adjusted if needed. This data is fed into the cash-flow engine module to calculate the debt redemptions arising from outstanding bond issues.

The cash-flow characteristics of the non-securitized loans are not standard and differ significantly from market instruments such as bond and bills. There are also considerable differences among the many loans with regard to their amortization and interest payment schemes. From a modeling perspective, and in terms of a cost-benefit analysis, the time and other resources required to emulate the cash-flows of the loan portfolio in detail would not be justified by their diminishing share in the government’s debt stock. Therefore, a different approach is adopted and the cash flows of loans are computed outside the Debt Database and aggregated into clusters of two main foreign currencies: US Dollar (USD) and Euro. The loans denominated in other currencies are represented in the USD cluster using prevailing cross currency rates. The computed payments for each currency group are then fed to the ―Cash-Flow Engine‖ as underlying assumptions.

# **4.2 Financial Scenario Generation**

The cost and risk distributions of alternative strategies depend entirely on the scenario paths created for financial variables. As discussed in Section 2, the general approach
/mark> _<mark>Quarterly Journal of Economics</mark>_ <mark>,</mark> _<mark>132</mark>_ <mark>(2), 811870.</mark>

- <mark>Banerjee, A., Duflo, E., Goldberg, N., Karlan, D., Osei, R., Parienté, W., ... & Udry, C. (2015). A multifaceted program causes lasting progress for the very poor: Evidence from six countries.</mark> _<mark>Science</mark>_ <mark>, 348(6236), 1260799.</mark>

- <mark>Banerjee, Abhijit, Esther Duflo, and Garima Sharma. 2021. "Long-Term Effects of the Targeting the Ultra Poor Program."</mark> _<mark>American Economic Review: Insights</mark>_ , <mark>3 (4): 471-86.</mark>

- <mark>Baum-Snow, N., & Lutz, B. F. (2011). School desegregation, school choice, and changes in residential location patterns by race.</mark> _<mark>American Economic Review</mark>_ <mark>,</mark> _<mark>101</mark>_ <mark>(7), 3019-46.</mark>

- Benjamin, D., Brandt, L., & McCaig, B. (2017). Growth with equity: income inequality in Vietnam, 2002–14. _Journal of Economic Inequality_ , 15(1), 25-46.

- <mark>Blakeslee, D., Chaurey, R., Fishman, R., & Malik, S. (2022). Land rezoning and structural transformation in rural india: Evidence from the industrial areas program.</mark> _<mark>World Bank Economic Review<
service charge_ distance services. Even though Ethiopia has a Burundi ... ... ... Kenya ... 220.44 37.51 monopoly in access to the international data Rwanda ... ... 86.38 gateways, government subsidies have reduced Tanzania ... 38.87 29.74 the price for access to the Internet. Prices for Uganda ... 300.00 300.00 telephone services in the rest of EAC are <u>Source: AICD.</u> governed by the levels of competition in longdistance services. Internet prices generally remain high due to lack of access to the submarine cable.

# **Box 4.3 . A shared model for backbone infrastructure development in East Africa**

A challenge faced by most incumbent operators in Africa has been the sheer difficulty of building and operating networks that meet the needs of the market. A partnership between the public and private sectors has been formed to develop a stronger backbone infrastructure in East Africa. Under this approach, existing private operators have formed a consortium and built and operated networks in underserved areas. Governments have also provided financing to ensure that cost-oriented wholesale prices are offered and to ensure regulatory protection.

This shared model of ICT infrastructure development has been used in the Eastern Africa Submarine Cable System (EASSy), an undersea cable project established by 20 telecommunications operators, mostly from East and Southern Africa, and partially financed by a few international financial institutions.

The system has been designed to minimize the problems associated with the lack of competition and regulation in the region. This is done through a special purpose vehicle that makes it possible to sell network capacity in any market in the region on an open-access, nondiscriminatory basis, enabling other members of the consortium to compete. The agreements that established the special purpose vehicle require members to pass through to customers any cost savings arising from increased traffic volumes. These mechanisms for competition and pass-through of cost reductions are intended to lower prices and increase access.

<
Policy Research Working Paper 7592

# **Abstract**

This paper reviews the Republic of Korea’s experience with electronic tax invoices for its value-added tax regime from the perspectives of tax policy makers and administrators. The paper evaluates Korea’s implementation of electronic tax invoicing and analyzes its effect on tax compliance through enhanced transparency of business transactions and taxpayer services. First implemented in 2011, mandatory electronic tax invoicing has been credited with lowering tax compliance costs and raising the transparency of business transactions. Effective policy design and implementation have contributed to the country’s success with electronic tax invoicing. Measured in transaction value, the electronic tax invoice adoption rate reached 99.8 percent in the first year and rose to 99.9 percent by 2013, compared with 15 percent before electronic tax invoicing became mandatory. According to a survey of taxpayers and tax practitioners in Korea that was conducted as part of this research study, 69.4 percent of the respondents agreed or strongly agreed that mandatory electronic tax invoicing has contributed to curbing value-added tax evasion by raising transaction transparency, and 72.9 percent agreed or strongly agreed that it has improved taxpayer service by facilitating the convenience of tax filing or automating the issuance of invoices. The review of Korea’s experiences gives credence to the contention that well-planned and well-executed compulsory electronic tax invoices can materially enhance tax compliance through significant institutional and perceptual changes in tax administration.

This paper is a product of the Equitable Growth, Finance and Institutions Global Practice Group. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://econ.worldbank.org. The author may be contacted at hlee14@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the
Changes in employment structure are important in at least two ways. First, they tend to have far reaching labor market ramifications. Reallocation of labor across industries and sectors entails also reallocation across occupations and regions and as such is likely to give rise to structural mismatches. Jobs that are created in expanding industries usually require different skills and are located in different regions than jobs that are destroyed in declining industries. Particularly, the shift from industry to market services has been associated with a shift from bluecollar jobs to white-collar jobs requiring different skills. This imposes transition costs (in terms of time and effort) on workers who move from old to new jobs. Moreover, massive job and worker reallocation contributes to frictional and structural unemployment (when the skill and vocational structure of job openings differs from that of the unemployment). Accordingly it partially accounts for he high unemployment rates associated with the economic transition.

Second, the employment structure is an indicator of the level of economic development as well as the progress of the transition. In the particular case of transition economies, the share of market services, which was abnormally small before the transition, is a measure of successful labor reallocation. Figure 6 provides a ranking of ECA countries on this scale, indicating the progress of the transition toward a mature market economy.

# **Figure 6 Market services account for a much larger share of employment in European transition economies than in the CIS.**

**Market Services as a Percentage of Total Employment, 2002**

<!-- Start of picture text --> 40.0<br>35.0<br>30.0<br>25.0<br>20.0<br>15.0<br>10.0<br>5.0<br>0.0<br>EstoniaHungaryCroatiaCzech R.LatviaSloveniaSlovakia _CEEPolandBulgariaLithuaniaKazahstanRussiaUkraineAzerbaijan _BRUGeorgia_CIS-7 + KRomaniaMoldovaBelarusKyrgyzstanUzbekistanTajikistan<br>percent<br><!-- End of picture text --> Source: ILO LABORSTA database (LFS
# should be controlled for?

Our work is based on a set of developing countries in Africa where there is a literature focused on push-pull issues in the urbanization process. These are reviewed in Henderson and Kriticos (2018) or Gollin et al. (2016), with analysis of classical push arguments in Schultz et al. (1968), Matsuyama (1992), Gollin et al. (2007), and Bustos et al. (2016) and an analysis of pull arguments in Lewis (1954), Hansen and Prescott (2002), and Galor and Mountford (2008). While we know climate deterioration or conflict may also push people into cities (Henderson et al. (2017), Fay and Opal (1999), Barrios et al. (2006), Br ̈uckner (2012)), we want to see if in Africa there is the appearance of strong income pull factors. That is motivated by a literature which argues that, while African cities have high population densities, they remain unproductive for the development of traded goods such as manufactured goods because they have low economic density (Collier and Jones (2016), Venables (2018), and Lall et al. (2017)). Low economic density arises if firms and economic activity more generally are not clustered but spread throughout the city, potentially because of the high costs of commuting within cities inducing firms to locate nearer to residents (Fujita and Ogawa, 1982). We will explore whether African cities have a lower degree of clustering of economic activity relative to the rest of the world and we will take a detailed look at patterns of clustering within Nairobi and Kampala.

In the paper, Section 1 starts with how we define cities and what are the advantages and disadvantages of the LandScan (2012) dataset on economic activity that we use. We then try to ground-truth LandScan (2012) data using Nairobi and Kampala as test cases. Section 2 defines various measures of economic density for urbanized and rural areas,
)|(0.3780)|(0.2682)|(0.3926)|(0.3479)|(0.3670)|(0.2875)|
|Observations|28,796|28,796|28,796|28,796|28,796|28,796|28,796|
|R-squared|0.338|0.152|0.095|0.153|0.204|0.142|0.092|

Note: This table reports district fixed-effect RDD-DD regressions of income and poverty of households using household-level observations. Robust standard errors in parentheses. Standard errors are clustered by district and village-year levels. *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1.

79
Rwanda.<sup>10</sup> The full question can be found in the Appendix.

We use three alternative initial price bids in order to test for anchoring effects. The starting price was randomly drawn for each respondent. The starting prices were

> 9 Unfortunately, the consumption levels do not exactly mirror the different SE4All access tiers because they had not yet been defined at the time of the data collection in 2010 and 2011.

> 10 In the Senegal survey, the same incremental amounts were used, albeit with different starting bids and, of course, a different currency. In the Burkina Faso baseline survey, the incremental amounts were +/1,000 CFAF, +/- 2,000 CFAF, +/- 4,000 CFAF.

18
have adopted technology and those that have provided worker training prior to the pandemic. Firms associated with these ‘behavioral traits’ have pushed male employment up while not doing the same for female employment. They hurt women employment twice over. First, through their huge contribution to the gender gap to start with; and second through entrenching the gap further post-COVID.

The remainder of the paper is structured as follows. The next section is devoted to providing a historical background of Egypt’s development models since the 50s and what that means for the gender employment gap. Section 3 introduces the EIFBS and the stylized facts associated with the data. Section 4 details the methodology. Section 5 presents the results and 6 provides a discussion of these results and concludes.

# **2. Evolution of Egypt’s Economic Model and Implication on the Gender Gap**

The gender gap in Egypt has changed over time in response to changes in policy. The shifts in the adopted economic model have shaped female employment in the country. The stateled inward looking development model from the 50s to the 80s meant that the labour market was characterized by a large public sector including state-owned enterprises (SOEs); a small but growing private sector and a small informal sector. This structure was largely driven by the government public employment drive of the early 60s which constituted a package of policies from government employment guarantee for every secondary and post-secondary graduate, to lifetime job security, to numerous other benefits such as health insurance, pension and maternity leave (Assaad 1997). The implications were that female employment was disproportionately greater in the government sector, i.e. in Egyptian bureaucracy and in SOEs including in manufacturing.

This economic model has become increasingly unsustainable. By the 80s the economy suffered fiscal and external imbalances such as large budget and balance of payment deficits and accumulated foreign debt. As a result the government embarked on the Economic Reform and Structural Adjustment Program (ERSAP) in 1991 which entailed the privatization of SOEs and the removal of various subsidies among other
0|23.5|8.8|4.9|2.1|0.3|
|Technical|9.6|16.5|22.1|33.1|18.6|0.2|0.1|0.1|0.1|0.0|
|Technological|11.3|5.3|27.3|33.2|22.9|0.2|0.0|0.1|0.1|0.0|
|University|3.7|6.7|15.4|28.4|45.8|1.1|0.8|1.0|1.1|0.5|
|Total education|26.8|23.9|20.8|16.7|11.8|66.6|22.7|11.4|5.3|1.0|

Source: Nuñez (2009) using 2008 ECV data.

43. **Pre-school and primary education expenditure is particularly well targeted to the poor, while the rich benefit from higher level education spending.** About 35 percent of the education subsidy in pre-school and primary education is received by the poorest quintile compared to rates of less than 5 percent for the richest quintile. Conversely, almost half (45.8 16
# **More Than You Can Handle**

**Decentralization and Spending Ability of Peruvian Municipalities**<sup>1</sup>

Norman V. Loayza Jamele Rigolini The World Bank Oscar Calvo-González JEL Codes: H7, H83, O11, O23 Keywords: Decentralization, Spending, Capacity, Governance 1 Tomoko Wada provided excellent research assistance, for which we are immensely grateful. For insightful discussions and comments, we kindly thank Carlos Prieto, Gloria León, Miguel Angel Ostos, Ricardo Goni, Gilman Farfán, César Tapia, Zoila Navarro, César Calvo, Oswaldo Molina, Waldo Mendoza, Eduardo Morón, José Luis Echevarría, Nancy Hidalgo, Javier Illescas, Ximena Del Carpio, Aart Kraay, Claudio Raddatz, Luis Servén, Juan Miguel Cayo, Hernán Vallejo, Andrés Fernández, Fabio Sánchez, Tim Smith, Raquel Bernal, Guillermo Perry, and seminar participants at the World Bank and Universidad de los Andes. We are especially indebted to Gloria León for data on municipal expenditures and to José Luis Echevarría and David Herrera for data on local electoral outcomes. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors, They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent.
relationship between shock and impact for other households of the same type (type being defined according the list of vulnerability‐determining household characteristics we identify as attenuating factors in the drought‐consumption relationship) that can be replicated in other contexts/ using other datasets. As noted below, one of the datasets used in the analysis has now been updated to a 2‐period panel, which could potentially be an informative extension to the analysis.

# **d. External validity**

External validity is concerned with whether results of any individual piece of analysis are generalizable to other contexts. Whilst in scientific contexts, it may be possible to establish complete external validity for certain experiments, in the context of social science, the question is rather _how_ generalizable are the results to other contexts? In our case, the model is to be estimated on rural Ethiopian (nationally representative) data, so as long as we believe the results to be internally valid, then we could say that they are representative for the population in that particular time and place (Ethiopia, 2011 for example). However, it is more difficult to establish whether the relationships we find between rainfall and consumption in 2011 are generalizable to other years with e.g. more extreme drought.

It is helpful to define three specific sub‐topics within overall external validity that are relevant in our context. These are referred to as EV1) out‐of‐sample shock estimates EV2) time‐stability of estimated relationships and EV3) concerns around over‐fitting to the training data. We define this in more detail below.<sup>13</sup> EV1) Antilla‐Hughes and Sharma (2014, hereafter, AHS) note that the main threat to external validity in the context of specifying the damage function D(.) as outlined above, lies in mis‐specifying the function for values of the hazard (shock) that were unavailable for the analysis‐ in particular, extreme values that occur only very infrequently (e.
**Table 6: long term impacts of the 4P program on assets**

||Hous<br>|ingconditions in<br>|dices<br>||Asset indices<br>||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||KKL|PCA|ICW|KKL|PCA|ICW|
||||Wo<br>|men<br>|||
|ITT|-0.062|-0.339|-0.290|0.001|-0.275|0.159|
||(0.21)|(0.13)|(0.46)|(0.98)|(0.31)|(0.81)|
|Observations|437|348|348|437|437|437|
|Adj. R2|0.11|0.08|0.05|0.09|0.12|0.02|
|Control mean|-0.035|0.059|0.951|-0.039|-0.315|-0.653|
||||M|en|||
|ITT|-0.052|-0.182|-0.332|-0.016|-0.361|-0.434|
||(0.30)|(0.44)|(0.43)|(0.57)|(0.15)|(0.51)|
|Observations|435|337|337|435|435|435|
|Adj. R2|0.11|0.15|0.06|0.03|0.12|0.02|
|Control mean|-0.055|-0.138