rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
45 _Including violence prevention in sexual and reproductive health education_ The inclusion of sexual and reproductive health modules in national or provincial educational curricula is common in Latin America. These modules tend to focus on the prevention of teen pregnancy, as well as the prevention of HIV/AIDS and sexually transmitted diseases. They have only infrequently incorporated the issue of GBV. While school-based programs have successfully improved students’ knowledge about HIVAIDS and other health issues in many settings, they have had a more limited impact on sexual behavior (Leach et al., 2003). In many cases, researchers suggest that weak programming may be to blame; school-based programs often suffer from poor content, lack of teacher training, resistance by teachers, cultural barriers, and parental objections to sex education. Little is known about the ability of these programs to improve violence-related attitudes or behaviors, especially in Latin America. One quasi-experimental study of life skills education among 9th graders in South Africa found that the program had only a minor impact on attitudes towards sexual coercion. Even when GBV prevention is incorporated into sexual and reproductive health curricula, what is generally missing is recognition that gender roles play—and more specifically norms surrounding masculinity—not only in sexual and reproductive health risk taking (Stern et al., 2001), but also in reinforcing and perpetuating GBV.

_School-based programs to prevent GBV and other forms of violence_ Beginning in the 1970s, schools and universities throughout the United States launched programs designed to prevent child sexual abuse, “dating violence,” or other forms of sexual coercion among students. Typically these programs were based on the theory that children and young women could be taught to protect themselves by recognizing abuse, reporting threatening situations, and adopting basic safety precautions. Few low and middle-income countries have adopted this model, but the number of program experiences and the breadth of the research on these initiatives make them worthy of mention. By 1992, these programs were so widespread in the United States that a national survey of young people (aged 10-16, n
activities to the ENPSF, but much more comprehensive and frequent national survey data would help identify progress and challenges. We particularly recommend adding additional measures of ECD to the ONDH panel for future rounds. ECD is a crucial measure of human development and the regular frequency of the ONDH panel would provide valuable updates. Information can also help galvanize policy and programmatic actions. Data on progress and challenges can help identify what programs and policies are or are not working well and spur change. It is difficult to hold policymakers and organizations accountable for their goals in ECD without frequent measures of progress.

# **_6 Conclusions_**

ECD provides the foundation for subsequent human development. It is a critical period and one during which development is profoundly affected by the early environment. This paper has examined ECD in Morocco across multiple dimensions of development and over time. Morocco has experienced substantial improvement in economic growth over time (Furceri, Mazraani, & Versailles, 2013). However, the persistent inequalities in economic and human development remain major concerns at the highest levels of government (Morocco World News, 2014). The fact that the trends in ECD have been mixed over time and that inequalities have also persisted likely contributes to the unequal human capital and economic outcomes Moroccans experience. The deficits and inequalities we observe in ECD are troubling from the perspective of human rights and issues of equity because children are being affected by circumstances entirely outside of their control. These deficits and inequalities are also limiting the human and economic potential of the country.

As this paper has discussed, there are a number of highly effective ECD investments, often ones with very high returns, which could be implemented to improve human and economic development and promote equity. Targeted ECD investments are critical. As this paper corroborates and other research has found (Vollmer, Harttgen, Subramanyam, et al., 2014), ECD does not necessarily improve simply because of economic growth. Prioritizing ECD and taking policy action is vital for not only improving ECD but also for ensuring greater and
(Haushofer et al. [2021]). On the curative care side, the subsidy significantly increases the use of oral rehydration treatment for children acutely ill with diarrhea.

The effects on preventive and curative care behaviors by parents are equal or greater in the full program group in almost every aspect of care seeking. In families receiving both interventions, caretakers are more knowledgeable about ORS and self-report higher water disinfectant use. Moreover, formal care is increased significantly in the 0-2 age group, while ORT use is significantly higher among 2-4 year olds. Overall, the findings suggest better targeting and use of care in the group receiving both interventions, although with the caveat that the sample size of 102 children with diarrhea is small. This is consistent with the results on formal care seeking in the 2013 survey, which show that the CHW complement the subsidy in increasing medically needed care for the youngest children.

The two interventions seem to work particularly well together for the use of ORT, likely due to the fact that ORT use is promoted by both CHW and formal health care providers. We saw that the subsidy-only group significantly more often receive ORT than the control. They are also 9.7% more likely than the control to know the recipe for ORS (Table 3, column (4)). For both receipt of ORT and ORS knowledge, effects are largest for households that received both CHW visits and the subsidy.

Overall, the interventions are successful at changing parents’ care giving behavior, and we do not find any evidence of moral hazard on the part of the parents, in the sense that households for example reduce prevention in response to subsidized care. If anything, both preventive knowledge and behaviors and curative care are most improved in the full-program group.

Likely as a result, we find that the full program group has significantly lower diarrhea incidence than the other groups, driven by the youngest children, who are also the most vulnerable group, with the highest incidence in the control. The number of days with
said to be overtrading (undertrading) with its trading partner. Controlling for size of trading partners, trade frictions, sample selection and firm heterogeneity, this analysis suggests that the country is trading above the predicted level with China and Russia. Interestingly, although the gap between actual and predicted exports with Russia is shrinking over time, the gap with China seems to have increased lately (table 3). On the other hand, Brazil trades less than what the model predicts with the United States, with actual exports lagging predicted exports by about 5 percent over most of this period.

> 4 Specifically, the model used bilateral exports for 181 countries for each year between 2005 and 2010. The gravity equation regresses observed bilateral exports against the following bilateral characteristics: distance, contiguity, common language, colony, common colonial power, as well as country of origin and country of destination fixed effects. This model also incorporates three innovations to the standard model. _First_ , a measure of remoteness is computed by summing distances weighted by the share of GDP of the destination in world GDP. This is to take note of the fact that relative distances matter greatly, alongside absolute distances. _Second_ , the model controls for zero trade flows with the use of the Heckman sample selection correction method. When observations with nonexistent bilateral trade are dropped, as ordinary least squares (OLS) does, the dependent variable is not really measuring bilateral trade, but one _contingent_ on an existing relationship. An important variable left out of the model therefore is the probability of being included in the sample, that is, having a nonzero trade flow. To the extent that the probability of selection is correlated with GDP or distance, this has the potential to bias OLS estimates. _Third_ , following Helpman, Melitz and Rubinstein (2008), the model controls for firm heterogeneity without using firm-level data, utilizing the fact that the features of marginal exporters can be inferred from the export destinations reached. With these steps, the gravity results are better grounded on modern trade
be subject to containment of the fiscal deficit to the 2004–05 level. Subject to these provisions, if the revenue deficit were brought down to zero by 2008–09, the entire repayments during 2005–10 would be written off.

Carrying forward the momentum to support states toward urgent fiscal correction, the Thirteenth FC worked out a differentiated fiscal adjustment road map (described in the previous section), with a state-specific approach based on past fiscal performance (using 2007–08 as the base year) for different groups of states. A key requirement is that all states eliminate their revenue deficits (the deficit on current balance), but they can have a fiscal deficit of 3 percent of

> 35 The average of the quarterly average exchange rates from the 2nd quarter of 2005 to the 1st quarter of 2010 is used (from the IFS), which is Rs 44.64 = US$1.0.

23
These effects, however, are entirely conditional on access to radio. The third column reports results from interacting the radio access variable with the gender of the respondent and the number of children in the household. Female respondents with no access to radio are no more likely to know about ORS treatment; nor are households with children. However, among respondents in which the household respondent is female and the household has the median number of children (two), an increase in the number of community radio stations from zero to the median (two) leads to a 4.4 percentage point increase in the fraction of respondents who respond correctly to the ORS question; 48 percent of all respondents answered this question correctly.

Another survey question, which is likely correlated with household knowledge of good health practices, relates to awareness of the rates of child mortality. Greater knowledge of child mortality rates may be especially correlated with health messages related to malaria and the efficacy of bed-nets, given that this disease is one of the leading causes of death among children before they reach their fifth birthday. Respondents were asked to give a ball-park estimate of child mortality rates in Benin—around how many among any 100 children born in Benin would not survive beyond the age of five. Only 15 percent of respondents correctly answered with the right range (based on national statistics). The last column in Table 5 shows that village radio access has a significant positive effect on correctly identifying the range of child mortality rates in Benin. These results are consistent with media effects on household knowledge of health practices and outcomes, which would account for the estimated reduced-form effect of media access on household private investment in anti-malaria bed nets.

# **Robustness**

The results in Table 4 are robust to a large number of other specifications. First, the estimates are based on household observations. They are clustered and therefore not assumed to have independently-distributed errors at the village level. However, since bed net distribution could be focused on villages, and radio access varies by
reform that extended compulsory general education in Poland by one year was shown to significantly enhance the academic performance of fifteen-year-olds (see Box 3).

# **<mark>Box 3. Extending general education improves cognitive skills in Poland</mark>**

<mark>As part of its 1999 structural reform of the education system, the Government of Poland introduced a new type of school—the “gymnasium”—to provide lower secondary education. Following the reform, Polish students would complete nine years of compulsory general education (six in primary school and three in the gymnasium) instead of the previous eight prior to entering general or vocational upper secondary education. In the course of their evaluation of Poland’s reform, Jakubowski, et al. (2010) found that delaying specialization and exposing students to general education for one additional year was shown to correspond to an average increase of one-quarter of a standard deviation in the math and reading PISA scores. Interestingly, this improvement was evident for both low and high achievers; and the improvement in the scores of likely vocational students was as high as one standard deviation.</mark> <mark>The authors suggest that delayed vocationalization improved academic performance “through increased hours of math instruction, possibly more exposure to testing, and increased motivation on the part of students and teachers.” Moreover, because PISA measures basic cognitive skills in math and reading, it follows that students who benefited from an extra year of general education in the gymnasium were acquired more of the skills that would allow them a greater degree of future flexibility in the labor market.</mark> <mark>Source: Jakubowski, et al. (2010)</mark> When introduced later in the education cycle, however, vocational education and technical training programs can serve an important role in preparing workers for the jobs of tomorrow. But in order for such programs to be relevant, they will need to be aligned with future labor market needs. At present, many vocational
.e., within-location variation) through the inclusion of location fixed effects.<sup>19</sup> For the DiD analysis we use the sample of households from Mogadishu as we can include fixed effects at the district level –which is the lowest geographical level available– providing a more precise comparison of households, as opposed to including region fixed effects.<sup>20</sup> Yet, we expand the analysis to the other samples as a robustness check.

> 18 Drought exposure corresponds to drought affected status from the Standardized Precipitation Index. Humanitarian aid is the percentage of beneficiaries reached through food aid and livelihood inputs by region. 19 It is unlikely the composition of neighborhoods changed substantially after a terrorist attack in the period of analysis. Only 1.6% of the Wave 2 sample of households in Mogadishu reported they were forced to leave their previous place of residence and moved to another region.

> 20 The delimitation of PSUs was different in Wave 1 and Wave 2, in part due to the lack of census data in Somalia. As a result, PSUs from Wave 1 and Wave 2 are not comparable nor mutually exclusive. Therefore, the lowest level of aggregation comparable across surveys corresponds to districts in Mogadishu.

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Policy Research Working Paper 10140

# **Abstract**

Evidence indicates that land rights are strongly associated with several indicators of well-being and development outcomes, including access to credit, resilience to shocks, productivity, and bargaining power. Accurately capturing gender differences in land rights is thus critical for development policy, prompting the need to shift from household-level land rights data collection to collecting more and better individual-level data on land rights. The importance of individual land rights has been recognized in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) agenda, with the inclusion of two key indicators on land rights—SDG indicators 1.4.2 and 5.a.1. Although clear guidance exists for computing and monitoring these, the choice of data collection methods may influence the resulting indicators and the understanding of the underlying land rights. Specifically, research has shown that the use of proxy respondents in the collection of data on assets, including land, results in a biased understanding of men’s and women’s holdings vis-à-vis self-reporting. This paper uses data from a methodological experiment in Armenia to assess the implications of survey design—namely, respondent strategy and the level of disaggregation of land data—on the measurement of individual land rights and SDG indicator monitoring. The findings suggest that in the context of Armenia, the measurement of SDG 5.a.1 and 1.4.2 (a) is robust to respondent approach and data disaggregation level, driven largely by the high rates of documentation. Meanwhile, land rights that are less objective, such as the right to bequeath and perception of tenure security, are sensitive to these survey design choices.

This paper is a product of the Development Data Group, Development Economics. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/prwp. The authors may be contacted at
in a city rather than just informal settlements or rural areas, a major difference from previous land titling studies is our use of administrative data for a relatively long period both before and after project interventions and changes in policy. Using administrative data as a frame for household surveys to explore the underlying distributional and growth dynamics could be of great interest.

The finding that beyond the short-term effects of systematic initial registration, policy reforms associated with urban titling can activate land sales and mortgage markets raises two questions about design of programs in this area: In most contexts the potential for land and associated mortgage market activity and, if registration is easier, sporadic registration, is higher in cities than in the informal settlements or rural areas that have traditionally been the focus of titling programs. Supporting policy and institutional reforms to make it easier to register property in cities could launch a nationwide strategy while at the same time catalyzing expansion of registry coverage, activation of mortgage markets, and the realization of indirect benefits in terms of land use 18
_Table 7_ _Changes in Employment Status/Ownership_ _<u>for the Panel Individuals 2002-2004</u>_

||||||2004<br>Informal<br>|Self-<br>||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|||Foreign|State|Private|Wage|employed|student|Unemployed|2002 Total|
||Foreign|36|6|8|11|3|4|3|71|
|2|State|12|710|33|18|57|3|19|852|
|0|Private|17|12|81|24|20|1|1|156|
|0|Informal wage|8|26|80|672|306|15|44|1151|
|2|Self-employed|15|94|94|406|5071|129|194|6003|
||Student|17|59|38|87|391|1062|75|1729|
||Unemployed|4|20|16|67|213|25|219|564|
||2004 Total|109|927|350|1285|6061|1239|555|10526|

Source: Author’s calculation based on the VHLSS 2002 and VHLSS 2004.

Notes: The ownership is based on an individual’s “most time-consuming job in the last 12 months”.

_Table 8_

# _Log Differences in Hourly and Weekly Wages for the Panel Individuals 2002-2004_

|A. LogDi|fferences in Ho<br>200|urlyWages<br>4|<br>|||B. LogD<br>20|ifferences i<br>04|n WeeklyWages<br>||
|---|---|---
# **2.1 WIPO Green Patents**

We use information from the WIPO green patents data set for the period 2000-2021. This data set contains detailed information on green technology patents, inventions, and technologies from the WIPO Patentscope database, covering seven sectors: Energy, Water, Farming and Forestry, Pollution Waste, Transportation, Construction, and Products, Materials and Processes (PMP). Green technologies are defined by WIPO as “climate friendly technologies that protect the environment, are less polluting, use resources in more sustainable manner, recycle their wastes and products and handle residual waste in a more sustainable manner”. These technologies include know-how procedures, goods and services, and equipment as well as organizational and managerial procedures. WIPO systematically gathers patent data from 193 national Intellectual Property (IP) offices worldwide. The database provides information about the year of filling of the patent, the country where the IP office and the inventor are located, and technical description and status of the technology (e.g. in development, commercialization, etc.).

# **2.2 Earnings calls transcripts**

We use data from Refinitiv Eikon (formerly Thompson Reuters) on the transcripts from quarterly shareholder earnings calls meetings of publicly listed firms from 2012 to 2021, covering 10,554 firms in 82 countries. Earnings calls are key corporate events on the investor relations agenda in which senior management responds directly to questions from financial analysts and other market participants about the firm’s financial performance over the past quarter and, more broadly, discuss current developments (Hollander, Pronk, and Roelofsen, 2010; Hassan, Hollander, van Lent, and Tahoun, 2020). They consist of a management presentation and, importantly, a Q&A session which requires management to comment on subjects they might not otherwise have voluntarily proffered. The extent to which the adoption of green technologies is discussed in earnings conference calls serves as a proxy of their importance for both the firm’s management and market participants. Given that
All regressions include FinDev*ExtFin, FinDev*Nunn, Foreign Bank*ExtFin, Bank Concentration*ExtFin, country-year fixed effects and industry-year fixed effects, where FinDev is measured as all credit over GDP to control for total financial development and Bank Concentration is used to control for the concentration of the banking sector. Regressions in panel A also include Nunn*Rule of Law and FinDev*Nunn*Rule of Law. Regressions in panel B also include Nunn*Strength of legal rights and FinDev*Nunn*Strength of legal rights . The Nunn indicator of contractual complexity is defined in Section 3.3. The rule of law index is from the Worldwide Governance Indicators. The strength of legal rights is from Doing Business. The rule of law index and strength of legal rights are demeaned by the sample average. Robust standard errors, clustered at the country-year level, are in parentheses. ***, **, and * denote statistical significance at the 1%, 5%, and 10% level, respectively.
to 60.3 percent by 2016 (World Development Indicators, 2021). Importantly, this growth has been geographically heterogeneous due to differential implementation across districts.

Such a dramatic increase in access to preschools enabled Indonesian women, who have relatively high levels of human capital, to join the labor market. Halim et al. (2022) show that an additional public preschool per 1,000 eligible children increased women’s employment probability by 9.1 percent. This increase in labor supply may be particularly salient for Indonesian firms, which are more likely to cite inadequate skills as a barrier for hiring skilled workers compared to other neighboring countries, including Malaysia and Thailand. According to World Bank Enterprise Survey data, 55% of Indonesian firms report this constraint compared to 39.5% and 46% of Malaysian and Thai firms, respectively.

3