rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
thus mitigating the concern that the preferences underlying the observed tradeoffs are correlated with unobserved characteristics. A second advantage of choice experiments is that they allow us to estimate the valuation for job attributes that do not vary substantially across workers, and thus may be difficult to identify using revealed preference data (Hanley, Wright and Adamowicz 1998). This can happen either because certain attributes are relatively standard (e.g. paid vacations) or relatively uncommon (e.g. working from home or unlimited vacation). Relatedly, choice experiments also allow the estimation of valuations of novel attributes that are not included in standard surveys. Another important difference, as pointed out by Mas and Pallais (2017), is that valuations from hedonic wage regressions reflect preferences of marginal workers in jobs with and without the attribute being examined; in contrast, choice experiments allow us to recover the average valuation of attributes in the study population.

The potential disadvantage in using a stated preference method is that it is possible that what workers _say_ they will do in a choice experiment might not reflect what they would _actually_ do if faced with the choice in real life. This concern is particularly important when respondents are faced with choices they are not familiar with, and are asked to make tradeoffs over which they have “an absence of preferences” (Diamond and Hausman 1994). We took several steps to mitigate this concern. First, we carefully identified the types and levels of job benefits to reflect realistic conditions that workers in Bangladesh were likely to face in the labor market, based on a review of the Bangladesh Labour Law, discussions with policymakers and other stakeholders in Bangladesh, and focus groups with workers. Second, as discussed in more detail below, we limited the survey to cover only working adults, since they are more likely to have had real-world experiences in making tradeoffs 5
“access to technology” as significantly more important than did foreign investors; this most likely reflects the expectation of benefiting from technology spillover effects from multinationals.

# <u>Utilities</u>

Access to reliable, competitively‐priced utilities<sup>19</sup> was ranked as the most important investment consideration by firms in African EPZs. Where high quality, consistent utilities are available, companies can deploy modern production techniques and ensure the efficient utilization of resources; where they are absent costs rise, productivity suffers, and output is inconsistent. Overall, African countries generally fare poorly in the provision of basic utilities services. For example, according to data from the World Bank Enterprise Surveys, electricity‐related downtime costs African businesses almost 6% of sales, more than 2.5 times the average in OECD countries and the second worst‐performing region (next to South Asia); nearly 26% of all electricity in the region is reported to be reliant on generators, 40% more than in the next worst‐performing region (Latin America and Caribbean). Thus, EPZs have the potential to offer a substantially improved operating environment to investors, by providing additional infrastructure (e.g. electricity substations, reservoirs, etc.) or by ensuring dedicated or prioritized utility supplies.

The results of the survey are mixed. In most African countries surveyed, locating inside an EPZ offers much‐improved reliability of utilities relative to what would be available in the domestic economy. However, as the quality of the national utilities infrastructure in most countries is so poor, the relative improvement in the EPZ‐setting remains well below what would be required to establish a globally‐ competitive environment for investors. The results are presented below for electricity. A similar pattern of results was found for water.

For most manufacturing and services companies operating in EPZs, electricity is the most important consideration in terms of utilities – both reliability and cost are critical. The results (see Figure 9) show that all African
4 individual, however, is impractical, time consuming, and cumbersome, which may help explain why households share meals in practice. When sharing, diets would need to be sufficiently nutrient-dense to meet all nutrient needs of all individuals; they would need to be equally or more nutrient-dense than individualized diets and have lower upper limits on certain nutrients (e.g., copper, zinc) to ensure that the most sensitive member would not exceed their limit (Schneider et al. 2021).

At the extreme, perfect sharing requires a food basket dense enough in each nutrient to provide a sufficient amount such that every member will have their nutrient requirements satisfied from the total quantity of the family meal meeting their energy need (Schneider et al. 2021). Costing this shared diet provides an upper bound on the cost of adequate diets for the family. It must include more nutrient dense foods (i.e., have higher total nutrient density) to meet that shared set of needs than the summation of individuals procuring a diet meeting only their individual requirements, hence being higher in cost. But it also must optimize the combination of foods to meet nutrient density constraints with smaller ranges between the minimum requirement and upper limit, hence potentially becoming less feasible.

The central contributions of this paper are twofold. The first is methodological. It extends the least-cost diets framework from individuals to households and demonstrates that widely available nationally representative household survey data on household composition and food consumption can be linked with frequently collected sub-national monthly food prices and local food composition data to estimate a bounded range of the cost of nutrient adequate diets that meet the needs of all household members. This enables policy makers to assess the extent to which markets can supply their population with an adequate diet at an affordable cost. The range between the bounds offers a more useful policy indicator than either bound on its own, as both
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empirical evidence casts doubt on that assumption. Relevant evidence includes:<sup>7</sup> (i) evidence that rejects a unitary model of the household, suggesting new sources of inequality within households; (ii) studies explaining the ‘missing women’ phenomenon; (iii) evidence of discrimination against certain household members such as orphans and widows; and (iv) evidence of unequal exposure to transitory shocks. Heterogeneity in factors influencing individual poverty can also mean that transfers to poor households often miss deprived individuals. It is important for policy makers to know whether standard household data sources can be relied upon to also reach poor individuals.

This paper tries to throw light on how well widely-used household-based measures perform in identifying disadvantaged individuals. Are we reaching such individuals adequately by simply targeting “poor” households? Or do many of them live in households that are not identified as poor? Is it harder or easier to reach vulnerable women and children using household data in settings in which the incidence of individual level disadvantage is high or average income is low?

Missing data on individual-level poverty present a significant hurdle to examining these issues. However, there is one dimension of individual welfare that can be observed in many surveys, namely nutritional status as indicated by anthropometric measures. Undernutrition can stem from inadequate caloric intakes or deficiencies in protein or micronutrient intakes, or from illness that impedes nutritional absorption. Such nutritional deprivations are of direct and immediate concern, and there is also evidence of longer-term social and economic costs, especially of low birth weight and chronic undernutrition in childhood. Although nutritional status admittedly represents only one dimension of individual poverty, there can be no doubt that it is an important dimension. It is also frequently used as a proxy for individual welfare.

The paper uses undernutrition as the measure of individual welfare to explore the questions posed above. We use data for 30 countries in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), where chronic undernutrition among children is a major policy concern. The latest data at the time of writing indicate
(TTBs) – the relatively substitutable import restrictions under antidumping, countervailing duty, global safeguards, and the China-specific safeguard policies – because these are the predominant means through which industrialized countries have implemented _new_ protection under the GATT and WTO since the 1980s.<sup>1</sup> Quantitatively, these restrictions have been economically important; e.g., the European Union and United States subjected 4-6 percent of their imported products at the 6-digit Harmonized System level to these policies at various points during our sample period (Bown 2011a; Prusa, 2011). We focus on five economies – the United States, European Union, Australia, Canada and South Korea – for three reasons. First, they are economically important - together they constituted more than 40 percent of world imports and more than half of world GDP in 2010. Second, we can accurately track and consistently measure trade policy changes over time and at high frequency (i.e., quarterly) due to the similarity of their trade policy institutions and international commitments. Third, these economies have high quality macroeconomic data at the quarterly frequency over a relatively long time series which facilitates an examination of business cycles.

Given the severity of macroeconomic shocks that took place during the Great Recession, an open research question is why was the trade policy response so mild relative to expectations? Our formal analysis tackles this question by proceeding in three steps. Our first step is to estimate a model of macroeconomic determinants of import protection for these five policy-imposing economies over the pre-crisis period of 1988:Q1 – 2008:Q3. Figure 1 shows for each economy the time series of real exchange rate fluctuations, changes to domestic unemployment rates, and counts of imported products subject to new TTB policies in the quarterly data over 1988-2010.

Our second step is to use the model estimates from 1988:Q1-2008:Q3 to generate out-ofsample predictions for trade policy responses during 2008:Q4-2010:Q4, given the macroeconomic shocks that arose during the Great Recession. The model predicts a surge in
- Public availability of information on how budgets are prepared and executed and minimum content of budgets and financial reports; and

- Financial data meeting accepted quality standards and subjected to independent audit scrutiny (IMF, “Manual on Fiscal Transparency, 2001).

For tax expenditure, countries comply with fiscal transparency differently among group 1 (established tax benchmarks and estimated and projected tax expenditures), group 2 (no established tax benchmarks, but partially estimated tax expenditures), and group 3 (no established tax benchmarks, no estimated tax expenditures). The situation can be illustrated as follows: In group 1, all countries publish tax expenditure estimates and projections by types of taxes and by functional classification in the central government. Some countries also publish limited local governmental tax expenditures.

However, none of the countries has published imputed tax revenue from a normative tax structure to make comprehensive information publicly available even though that information is available during the process of estimating tax expenditures and is critical background for tax expenditures and the transparency of the size and magnitude of tax expenditures. Also, none of the countries has performed audits or published related auditing information. This group is not completely satisfied with the fiscal transparency criteria in tax expenditures.

For example, both the U.S. Treasury and the Congressional Joint Committee estimate and project tax expenditures. Both of them publish such information regularly. The GAO also publishes reviews and analyses of the effectiveness and efficiency of tax expenditures spending, their impacts on fiscal finance and the economy, and recommendations to improve them. However, neither Treasury nor the GAO publishes the imputed normative tax revenue.

In Germany the “Subsidies Report” includes both budgetary direct subsidies and tax provisions with estimates and projections. This publication is useful to assess the efficiency of total government financial assistance and to reduce overlap and conflict spending between tax expenditures and subsidies. Recently, Germany has studied and intends to audit tax subsidies. However, the imputed normative tax revenue is not published in any government documents.

In group 2, though some countries
# IV. **Some Econometric Results:**

The pricing model developed in this article offers an intuitive perspective on the relationship between default risk premium on foreign currency loans to projects in emerging market economies and the country and project risk attributes. To provide evidence on this relationship, we compiled data on a sample of infrastructure projects having reached financial closure between 1994 and 1996 in developing countries. Out of a sample of 68 greenfield infrastructure projects, we were able to compile detailed information regarding financing mixes, terms, size, sector, and country for only 26 of them, which provide the database for our empirical analysis (for more details on the larger project database, see Dailami and Klein, 1997). This information was compiled from published industry trade sources and communication with major developers, investment banks, export credit agencies, ECAs, and multilateral financial institutions.

We measure the credit risk premium as the spread over a benchmark (e.g. LIBOR or US treasuries) of foreign currency private loans to infrastructure projects.<sup>14</sup> We focus on private dollar-denominated loans advanced to projects in the core infrastructure sectors of power, road, telecom, transport, and water in emerging market economies. Since most projects had more than one private foreign currency loan, the spread used was the weighted average of constituted loans. As summarized in Table 4, the spreads vary both across countries and projects, within a range of 100 bps to 530 bps, with higher spreads associated with loans to road projects.

We relate this measure of the risk premium to a set of macroeconomic and project-specific explanatory variables, through a simple linear regression analysis (OLS). The main macroeconomic variables include: rate of inflation, GDP per capita, and ratios of external debt to exports, short-term debt to foreign exchange reserves, and reserves to imports. On the project side, we have included project size, leverage ratio, and a set of dummy variables to distinguish projects in different sectors. Table 6 reports
show that when the direct and indirect effects are combined, the positive association with fertility rates disappears, but the positive correlation between female labor participation and lower infant mortality remains significant. Ruhm (1998) considers the impact of parental leave on the gap between female and male labor market outcomes, using data from nine countries in the European Union (EU) from 1969 to 1993. The author finds that paid parental leave is associated with higher levels of female employment, but that excessively long durations of leave are associated with a decline in women’s wages. Leave for a period of three months is associated with increased employment without a corresponding wage penalty. On the other hand, Klerman and Leibowitz (1999) consider the United States’ Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 and show that maternity-leave legislation is unlikely to have a major effect on female job continuity, because new mothers already presented high levels of job continuity before its introduction.

2 ILO Maternity Protection Convention, 2000 (No. 183), Article 4.
1%|4%|
|GSP LDC duty-free|1,670||79%||
|AGOA Apparel|555|555|11%|3%|
|AGOA Non-LDC||1,610||64%|
|AGOA Only|225|225|0%|0%|
|No Preference (MFN>0)|1,096|1,156|0%|1%|
|Total|10,184|10,184|100%|100%|

Panel B. US MFN tariff rates on GSP LDC-eligible or AGOA-eligible HS 6-digit products

||<br>GSP<br>LDC<br>(810)|<br> <br> <br>AGOA<br>Non-LDC<br>(769)<br>AGOA/GSP|<br>AGOA<br>Only<br>(91)<br>Countries|<br> <br> <br>AGOA<br>Apparel<br>(239)|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|Mean<br>US MFN triff rt|5.0%|4.3%|7.3%|11.2%|
|described in Section 2.<br>Maximum<br>a ae|21.9%|10.0%|13.3%|15.6%|

Source: US database described in Section 2.

Notes: in Panel A the number of tariff lines and total exports are for 2001 and the LDC and Non-LDC African country exports include only the exports of the 46 countries that are AGOA-eligible between 2001 and 2017 (therefore they do not account for country-year specific eligibility and they also do not account for preference utilization). Panel B shows the average and maximum MFN tariff computed across the HS 6-digit products part of the category listed in the column heading. The total number
Industrial Classification (ISIC) at the 4-digit level. The total number of firms in the data set across the years is 19,235 and on yearly average the number of observations comes down to 1,282 firms.

In order to measure internet access at the woreda level (equivalent to district or county), this study also uses HCES which is a nationally representative survey collected by the CSA for the years of 2004-5, 2010-11, and 2015-16. The surveys provide extensive socio-economic information about Ethiopian households in individual and household levels. Specifically, the data set includes sociodemographic characteristics of household members such as age, sex, education, health, and labor force participation information. Also, the surveys cover information on household expenditure by main items, housing amenities, assets, and access to infrastructure and service.

For the purpose of measuring internet access at the woreda level, we use household expenditures on communication items including mobile cards and mobile apparatus from HCES. Detailed discussions on construction of the internet access variables will follow in the next section.

The household expenditure data set has the total of 1,496 households across the years and on yearly average, the number of households each year is approximately 499 households. As the firm panel data LMMI only extends until 2014, we use the first two waves from the HCES data, namely 20040 5 and 2010-11.

# **3.1 Constructing Internet Access Measures at the Woreda Level**

The HCES communication questionnaire modules provide household expenditure information on various communication-related items. These include mobile apparatus, mobile cards, telegram, internet, sim cards, fixed line, fax, and email. Of those, we chose mobile cards in estimating a woreda’s mobile communication utilization intensity and internet access. As mobile cards are purchased to use data plans on smartphones, this variable is used to gauge what fraction of a woreda’s population has mobiles, thereby measuring level of internet access.

As Ethiopia introduced the 3G networks in 2008, thus permitting use of smartphones, the running
|Avail.|-|
|**United Kingdom**|Census|Count. Birth|National Stat.|25+|Avail.|Citizenship estimated on EC. Educ. attainment & share of 25+ on LFS|
|**United States**|Census 1% sample|Count. Birth|US Burau of Census(IPUMS)|25+|Avail.|IPUMS Sample 1%|

<u>Notes (*):</u> _EC = European Council data providing the immigration structure by country of citizenchip for European data_ _LFS = European Labor Force Survey data providing data on country of birth and educational attainment in EU-15 countries_
Policy Research Working Paper 10565

# **Abstract**

This paper describes a new survey designed to collect comprehensive and granular information about required skills and tasks for detailed occupations in Vietnam. The Survey of Detailed Skills asks workers in Vietnam about their skills and tasks for a set of 30 occupations that are in demand or of strategic importance for economic growth. In doing so, the survey generates practical, detailed information at the occupation level that policy makers and practitioners can use to inform their efforts to build skills in Vietnam. The Survey of Detailed Skills makes several contributions. Most existing efforts to profile occupational skills and tasks in developing countries draw on data from other countries, most frequently the Occupational Information Network (O*NET) in the United States. However, recent research has shown that translating these data across countries via occupational crosswalks yields inaccurate results. The Survey of Detailed Skills is among the first surveys to collect detailed O*NET-type information at the detailed occupational level in a developing country setting. The collection of information about detailed skills means that these skills can be flexibly grouped into different categories (for example, socioemotional skills, digital skills, routine skills, and interpersonal skills) as needed. The use of a consistent scale anchored to the time spent using or performing a skill or task creates clarity for respondents while also yielding a measure of skill and task importance that is easily interpreted. The Survey of Detailed Skills requires outlays on administering the survey, and inclusion of all occupations in Vietnam with regular updating would require ongoing investment.

This paper is a product of the Social Protection and Jobs Global Practice. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/prwp. The authors may be contacted at hmoroz@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress