rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
estimated the matched double-difference average treatment effects. The estimates indicate clearly that the training programs have strong effects on the adoption of standard management practices and the willingness to pay for the admission to a similar training program in future, and that there are information spillovers from the training participants to non-participants. Our experimental data also suggest that the training participants are less likely to exit the industry, even though we need longer-run observations to confirm this further.

These results of the training experiments lend strong support to our arguments about the role that management training programs can play in promoting industrial development.<sup>20</sup> However, we must emphasize that the trial training programs that we have offered are not meant to push firms remaining in the quantity-expansion phase to enter the quality-improvement phase. The content of the training programs was too rudimentary and the training period was too short to expect such a transition to take place.<sup>21</sup> Moreover, the training programs focused on management and did not include any aspect of technical training. Probably, a series of training programs are needed to impart sufficient management knowledge for successful IPM that allow trained firms to transition to the quality-improvement phase. Nonetheless, the encouraging results of our experiments suggest that further research is warranted on the impacts of training, the effective contents and design of training programs, and the way in which management and technology training is institutionalized and can be scaled up from a single cluster

> 20 These results are highly consistent with the results of other studies involving management training in developing countries (e.g., Bloom _et al._ 2011; Bruhn, Karlan, and Schoar 2010; Drexler, Fischer, and Schoar 2010; Field, Jayachandran, and Pande 2010; Karlan and Valdivia 2011)

> 21 In general we offered classroom training for three hours per day for total of 15 days.  In addition we implemented on-site visits of management consultants to participating firms twice in the cases of training programs in Vietnam (cases 6 and 14),
Policy Research Working Paper 10949

# **Abstract**

Using Business Pulse Survey data for 61 countries during the COVID-19 pandemic, this paper presents novel findings on remote work, enabled by digitalization, as a source of resilience for firms. The results suggest the following. First, firms in sectors with greater amenability to remote work experienced a smaller adverse impact of the pandemic in countries with better digital infrastructure. Second, these effects apply to both exporting and non-exporting firms. Third, there are differences across sectors. Among firms in the manufacturing sector, the benefits of remote work in countries with better digital infrastructure accrue more to exporters relative to non-exporters, thereby reflecting a premium to exporting. This exporting premium is not observed in the service sector, which largely comprises firms in non-knowledge intensive services in the sample. Fourth, the effects of the amenability to work remotely in countries with better digital infrastructure do not dissipate over time.

This paper is a product of the Office of the Chief Economist, Prosperity Practice Group, the Development Research Group, Development Economics, and the International Finance Corporation. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank Group to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/prwp. The authors may be contacted at agrover1@ifc.org; ineagu@worldbank.org; and gnayyar@worldbank.org. A verified reproducibility package for this paper is available at http://reproducibility.worldbank.org, click **here** for direct access.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in
more than 35,300 metric tons (40,000 short tons) of debris. By end of March 2006, the U.S. had wrapped up its relief operations, as had all other foreign organizations.<sup>10</sup> From this point on, the transition to reconstruction had begun, and aid was channeled almost entirely through the Pakistan Government’s Earthquake Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Authority (ERRA).

The answers to our organization question ranged from very precise names such as “MSFDoctors without Borders”, “Islamic Relief”, “UNHCR”, “Christian Aid” Pakistan Army, to ”A Group of Teachers” “A Group of Foreigners”, “A Japanese NGO” and “No One Came”. In all, we documented 203 distinct names of organizations or groups that were reported in the census. The mean number of organizations reported per village was more than 13 and some villages reported more than 45 different groups who came to offer aid.

There are two reasons why we use household self-reports rather than administrative data to construct our measure of foreign presence and assistance. First, the earthquake zone lay predominantly in a hilly and mountainous area. Village populations are scattered over hilly, rugged terrain and an organizations’ claim of reaching a village with aid may be relevant only to a small portion of the village. Thus it is entirely likely that some households within the same village could report aid while others would not. In our data, in line with the geography of the area, there is considerable within-village variation in terms of reports of aid received. Second, administrative data that currently exist for most aid providers is typically reported at the district level. Most aid providers do not have any standardized methods of reporting at the village level, or, as is relevant for our analysis, of differentiating small settlements within villages from the village administrative boundaries as defined in the Pakistan population census. We use district fixed-effects in our estimation strategy and thus rely entirely on within district variation
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# **_4.3.2 The effect of intensification on farm performance and structural transformation_**

This sub-section summarizes the effects of the intensification packages on farm performance, specialization, market orientation and food security of rice growing households in Côte d’Ivoire. Full results are presented in tables A2 to A9 in the supplementary appendix.

# _Effects of rice intensification on productivity and profitability_

Compared to the traditional package with mean yield of 1,037 kg/ha, yields increase progressively by 641, 794 and 1,334 kg/ha going from the semi-traditional, to the semi-modern and the modern production packages respectively (Table 6), or an increase by 62, 77, and 129 percent. Other studies have also reported an increase in yields when draught animals and tractors are used (Mano et al. (2020) for the use of tractors in land preparation in <mark>Côte</mark> d’Ivoire and Kirui (2019) using pooled data from 11 countries in Africa).

As for profit (return to land), there is only a positive and significant effect of the semimodern package. Specifically, rice profit increases by 80.7 thousand FCFA/ha, which corresponds to a 48 percent increase for the SMP (compared to the traditional package). Consistent with Mano et al. (2020), modern production packages involving tractor use in land preparation is not significantly associated with a greater return per ha. The increase in yields (and gross revenue) does not suffice to compensate for the greater cost of production (higher input use) and especially the greater use of hired labor. These results are also consistent with Adu-Baffour et al. (2019), who demonstrate that the demand for hired labor in mechanized production systems, increases due to land expansion and due to a shift from family labor, including that of children, to hired labor. As shown in the next column, the real benefit from the modern package lies in the greater return to
on wages is negative but for the least routine (skilled) occupations, the net e¤ects are positive. Recalling the Grossman and Rossi-Hansberg (2008) model of Section 2.3.1, one might interpret these ...ndings roughly as implying that the labor-supply e¤ect of o¤shoring exceeds the productivity e¤ect for the lower-skill workers who specialize in the more-easily-o¤shored routine tasks.

Hummels, Jorgensen, Munch, and Xiang (2010) analyze the relationship between o¤shoring and workers’wages and employment opportunities. They use a matched worker-...rm data set that encompasses the Danish labor force from 1995-2006 as well as a data set on o¤shoring at the ...rm level. They estimate the impact of exogenous shocks to o¤shoring and exporting on ...rm characteristics and on the wages of individual workers. Further, they assess the dependency of these estimates on the education and occupational characteristics of the workers so as to understand the relative sensitivity of types of workers and occupations to o¤shoring. They ...nd that exogenous import shocks will have signi...cant and opposite e¤ects on skilled and unskilled labor wages: skilled labor wages will increase by 8.5 percent while unskilled labor wages will decrease by 7.3 percent. In contrast, shocks to exporting will increase both skilled and unskilled labor wages but low and medium skill workers will see a greater increase.

The examination by Hummels et al of the role of occupational characteristics in wage inequality reveals that workers who are exposed to unsafe working conditions and workers in the natural sciences and engineering will see their wages fall in the case of o¤shoring shocks while those workers in the social sciences and language industries will be less a¤ected by those shocks.

Hummels et al also consider the relationship between displaced workers and o¤shoring, ...nding that those workers displaced by o¤shoring generally experience greater and more persistent wage and
(Andrews and Lovenheim, 2014), teaching a second language (Chin et al., 2013), teaching math or reading skills (Xu and Jaggars, 2011), and providing academic remediation (Bettinger and Long 2009).

- 9 This literature refers mostly to online training (Bettinger et al., 2017; Cellini and Grueso, 2021; Deming et al., 2016; Figlio et al., 2013; Johnson and Mejia, 2014; Jaggars and Xu, 2016). Evidence is lacking on the effects of other types of infrastructure for practical training.

- 10 Evidence on faculty characteristics mostly refers to gender (Bettinger and Long, 2005; Carrell et al., 2010; Kofoed et al., 2019; Lim and Meer, 2019; Porter and Serra, 2020). On faculty-related practices, the literature focuses on faculty assessment (Hoffmann and Oreopoulos, 2009; Kane and Staiger, 2012; Daniel et al., 2007), without robust evidence on faculty training or hiring practices.

- 11 Most of these papers analyze internship agreements between firms and HEIs (Di Meglio et al. 2022; Jaeger et al. 2020; Wesley et al. 2019; Yi 2018); few papers study industry engagement in curriculum design (Plewa et al., 2015).

- 12 See Teixeira et al. (2013), Hoxby and Bulman (2015), and Bound, Lovenheim, and Turner (2010).

- 13 Our paper is also in the spirit of Dobbie and Fryer (2013) for K-12 education. The authors collect data on charter school practices and use it to explain the variation in charter school effectiveness.

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- 43 -

3.61 Testing and certification systems were more prevalent in middle-income countries, and were more likely to receive Bank support. Bank financing assisted in the development of national testing systems in Kenya, Korea, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Jordan, Turkey, Brazil, Uruguay, El Salvador and Ecuador. Development of these systems typically spanned several projects.

3.62 Unique among all countries in the sample, Korea instituted a national system for accreditation of post-secondary junior colleges. Coming towards the end of the investment program, this scheme sought to establish and enforce quality standards for both public and private institutions. While problems were encountered in enforcement in the early stages of the effort, the government was reported to be intent on establishing the system.

3.63 Where national systems were not put in place, investments typically supported the development of testing capacity at the institutional level as part of curriculum development efforts.

3.64 Tracer studies and other monitoring mechanisms (such as labor market surveys) received relatively little attention. Indeed. one PCR recommended against them because of implementation difficulty (Indonesia). In some countries, however, these have provided useful feedback on systems performance (Korea, Jordan), though their use is far from routine or widespread.

# Staff Development

3.65 The continuing availability of an adequate number of qualified instructional staff is crucial to the efficiency and effectiveness of VET institutions, regardless of mode. Provision for teacher education or training was even more pervasive than curriculum development, with some level of investment in every country in the sample. However, the problems of teacher supply difiered across regions and over time, and were addressed in several ways with varying success (Table 22).
vaccinating children under the age of 16 for over 8 and over 13 months, respectively. This means that our assumption of zero vaccinated children under the age of 15 that we have to make for comparability between survey data estimates for the adult population (15+) and administrative data is likely too conservative and understates the true gap in this case.

> 18 Conservatively assuming that at the time of reporting no vaccinated children were included in the administrative data.

21
Policy Research Working Paper 8704

# **Abstract**

Estimates of total factor productivity growth, a measure of increases in the efficiency of production, have traditionally been based on a two-factor model of labor and fixed capital. Because profits are measured residually in the System of National Accounts, they implicitly include rents on natural resource exploitation, with the result that the contribution of fixed capital to growth in the inputs to gross domestic product is misstated, particularly in resource dependent developing countries. This leads to incorrect measures of total factor productivity growth. Using data on natural resources from the World Bank’s Wealth of Nations database and methods combining the Solow growth accounting model with recent work at the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, this paper makes new estimates of total factor productivity growth for 74 developing countries over 1996–2014. In the aggregate, including natural resources as a factor of production increases estimated total factor productivity growth across all country income classes and regions of the world when compared with the traditional two-factor approach. In addition, the estimated total factor productivity growth including natural resources is less volatile over time in the great majority of countries compared with the traditional approach. The availability of World Bank data on natural resource quantities and rents for a wide range of countries suggests that natural resources should be included in total factor productivity growth estimation going forward. Further research could focus on the distinctive roles played by different natural resource endowments.

This paper is a product of the Environment and Natural Resources Global Practice . It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/research. The authors may be contacted at glange1@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly
Table 2: Robustness I, Survival and Alternative Measures of Financial Development. The dependent variable is the hazard rate of trade relationships for product k of ...rm i operating in country c to destination country j: All regressions are estimated using the Cox Proportional Hazard Model. We control for destination country, year, ...rm and exporting country x HS2 ...xed e¤ects, and allow the baseline hazard to vary across HS8 product (strata). The variables of interest are de...ned in Table 1. Additional controls include an alternative measure of sanitary risk, the sanitary risk index computed using Poisson regression (alt_sanitary_riskk, see Jaud et al.,2009a). We use as alternative measures of ...nancial development proxied by trade credit over GDP in country c (TCc), by trade credit insurance over GDP in country c (ICc) and by the Ease of Getting Credit index (EGCc). Robust standard errors clustered at (exporting country) � HS4 sector level are in parentheses. *, **, and *** denote statistical signi...cance at the 10%, 5%, and 1% levels, respectively.

||(1)|(2)|(3)|(4)|(5)|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|FDc x sanitary_riskk|-0.263**<br>(0.106)|||||
|initial_exportcikj|-0.088***<br>(0.007)|-0.088***<br>(0.007)|-0.088***<br>(0.007)|-0.089***<br>(0.007)|-0.089***<br>(0.007
# IX. Welfare simulations

The net income gains from increasing taxes on tobacco could contribute to poverty reduction efforts in Georgia. <u>Table 9</u> shows the simulated reductions in the number of poor people in 2017, based on international poverty lines (US$1.90 and US$3.20 per capita per day, PPP 2011). Using the more relevant poverty measure for Georgia—the <mark>lower middle income class poverty line of</mark> US$3.20 PPP—and considering only out-of-pocket medical expenses, a 50 percent increase in the price of cigarettes could have reduced poverty by 4.2 thousand people in 2017. Implementing an equivalent _specific_ excise tax (assuming scenario c) could have lifted close to 7 thousand Georgians out-of-poverty in the same year. These projected reductions in poverty are only indicative of potential improvements in household welfare resulting from the tax increase in isolation. Additional channeling of tobacco revenues to poor households or improved government funding for health and social programs could reduce poverty further.

Table 9. Simulated changes in poverty, 2017

||Simulated scenar<br>Cigarette price increase|io<br>Smoking-related<br>medical expenses|Reduction in numb<br>by internation<br>US$1.90 PPP/day|er of poor people,<br>al poverty line<br>US$3.20 PPP/day|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|(a)|50 percent uniform price<br>increase|Out-of-pocket only|1,781|4,210|
|(b)|50 percent uniform price<br>increase|All medical expenses|4,276|5,750|
|(c)|Heterogenous price increase<br>(average 47percent)*|Out-of-pocket only|5,600|6,924|

_Source:_ Author estimations with results from section VIII
# **6 Conclusion**

Deep non-tariff provisions in trade agreements have gained a lot of policy attention. In this paper, we revisit an old question: do RTAs lower NTBs? In our gravity analysis, we do not find a robust independent trade-creating role for them, while tariffs—once properly measured—are robustly shown to be potent inhibitors of trade. Crucially, to obtain this result, measurement error in the tariff data, which tends to inflate estimates of NTBs, must be removed. Our result suggests that, across a large set of trade agreements, tariff reductions are still quantitatively important drivers of trade creation while non-tariff provisions might be less trade-creating. This does not mean, however, that such provisions are not important as they may actually reduce distortions in bilateral trade. Moreover, they can be the price to be paid for tariff reductions.

Interestingly, we find that, in deep FTAs, non-tariff provisions create additional trade in a non-discriminatory fashion. This is welcome from a welfare-theoretic point of view as inefficient trade diversion effects can be avoided. RTAs with this function can be seen as building blocks of multilateral trade liberalization. However, if policy makers want to use trade agreements to grant preferences between geopolitically aligned countries, tariffs are the better choice.

# **References**

Aichele, Rahel, Gabriel J. Felbermayr, and Inga Heiland (2016), “TTIP and Intra-European Trade: Boon or Bane?” _Jahrbucher fur Nationalokonomie und Statistik_ 2366, 639–664.

- Anderson, James E. and Eric Van Wincoop (2003), “Gravity with Gravitas : A Solution to the Border Puzzle.” _The American Economic Review_ 931, 170–192.

- (2004), “Trade Costs.” _Journal of Economic Literature_ 423, 691–751.

Baier, Scott L. and Jeffrey H. Bergstrand (2007), “Do Free Trade Agreements actually Increase Members’ International Trade?” _Journal of International Economics_ 711, 72–95. url: https:/
|1947|3329|

_∗ ∗∗_ Note. Standard errors are clustered at the state level. Asterisks indicate statistical significance: _p <_ 0 _._ 10, _p <_ 0 _._ 05,<sup>_∗∗∗_</sup> _p <_ 0 _._ 01. Observations are at the municipality-year-level. Hectares sowed are defined as the total hectares growing any rainfed agricultural crop as reported in SAGARPA production data. Panel A shows results from the OLS estimation of the first stage, which corresponds to estimating equation 1. Panel B shows results from the OLS estimation of the reduced form, which corresponds to estimating equation 2, and panel C displays 2SLS estimates. Column 1 is estimated with a linear polynomial on a sample of observations within the optimal bandwidth of 50 mm. Column 2 is estimated with a linear polynomial on a sample of observations within an alternative bandwidth of 70 mm. Column 3 is estimated using a quadratic polynomial on the entire sample.

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this study.

For the 34 countries for which data on the breakdown of consumption by consumer category were available, residential consumers were the largest group, accounting for 41 percent of sales. The second largest consumer category was industry, including mining companies (excluding captive power generation not connected to the grid), accounting for 30 percent of sales and in some countries more than half of sales, such as 57 percent in Kenya in 2015. This was followed by commercial users (21 percent), exported electricity (4 percent), government and agriculture (1 percent each), and the rest of consumers making up the remaining 1 percent.

# 3.6 Quality of service

In addition to the low levels of access discussed in section 1, quality of service for those connected is a critical factor. In the context of financially strained utilities, spending on operations and maintenance is often one of the first line items to be cut, reducing the quality of service.

Quality-of-service data are available for 16 countries. However, data were reported in an inconsistent manner. Only four utilities reported data according to the international standards of system average interruption duration index (SAIDI), the annual average outage duration for each customer served, and system average interruption frequency index (SAIFI), the average number of interruptions that a customer would experience in a year. These four are shown in Table 4. These statistics are not necessarily comparable across countries, because it is not clear if the measurements and methodologies are the same.

**Table 4: Available SAIDI and SAIFI data**

||**SAIDI**|**SAIFI**|
|---|---|---|
|**Cameroon**|105|25|
|**Liberia**|35|212|
|**Mozambique**|Transmission 59, distribution 1.25|Transmission 52, distribution 1.25|
|**South Africa**|36|20|

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