rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
in Romania is used to investigate the determinants of employment growth in the new private sector. The data contain detailed measures of loans, tax breaks, technical assistance, managerial and employee human capital, and the business environment, as well as employment in 1992-2001.

Russian registry data for 1985-2001, Ukrainian registry data for 1989 and 1992-2002, Hungarian registry data for 1986-2001, Romanian registry data for 19922002 are used in the studies of privatization’s effects on productivity and workers. In

> 15 The size and ownership selection criteria for the registry imply that observed entrants are more likely to represent reorganizations of existing assets than startups from scratch.

17
a 5 percentile increase in socio-emotional skills levels, based on the women’s distribution. This gap is similar without project fixed effects, indicating that the gap holds across the whole sample and is not only due to within-country variations. One factor to note is that sample sizes differ across the specific individual skills, we therefore take the aggregate measures as our preferred estimates of general differences in skills and conduct robustness checks in section 5 to examine how sensitive gender gaps in individual skills are to skills measures. We confirm that these main results with our aggregate measures are unlikely to be driven by sample selection, using data from the Ghana and Kenya STEP surveys, which include a random sample of respondents drawn from a general urban population. Consistent with our pooled results, we find in the STEP surveys that men have significantly

> 9 The findings below are not sensitive to additionally controlling for number of children. Because of the reduced sample size, these results are not presented here but available upon request.

18
Table 4: Lagged IV results

||No lags|1 lag|2 lags|3 lags|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|Mean PM2_._5|-0.0075<sup>_∗∗_</sup>|-0.0066<sup>_∗_</sup>|0.0022|0.0009|
||(0.0033)|(0.0036)|(0.0029)|(0.0032)|
|N|6,142|5,628|5,114|4,596|
|Sum of lags||-0.008|0.009|-0.002|
|||(0.006)|(0.009)|(0.010)|
|**Weather controls:**|||||
|Temperature|Y|Y|Y|Y|
|Precipitation|Y|Y|Y|Y|
|Relative humidity|Y|Y|Y|Y|
|Surface pressure|Y|Y|Y|Y|
|Wind speed|Y|Y|Y|Y|
|Wind direction|Y|Y|Y|Y|
|**Fixed efects:**|||||
|Fiscal year|Y|Y|Y|Y|

Notes: The outcome is the first difference within a district of the log of annual GDP measured at the district level. We instrument for annual average of PM2 _._ 5 measured at the district level during a fiscal year from April to March and weighted by population with inversions and inversion strength. Pollution data comes from the Van Donkelaar group. Inversion data comes from the MERRA re-analysis data and measures the incidents when temperature at atmospheric levels above the surface is higher than at the surface by district for each fiscal year. Inversions are measured as the
at that level. Aggregation results in little attrition. Moving from 10- to 6-digit product classification implies a reduction of about 6% in the number of observations included in our reference sample.

## **2.3 Tariff Data**

Ad-valorem tariffs for Colombia’s 17 regional trading partners come from UNCTAD TRAINS. Measured at the importer-HS 6-digit product level between 2007 and 2017, tariffs reflect the effectively applied rate, which is defined as the lowest available tariff. If a preferential tariff exists, it is used as the effectively applied tariff. Otherwise, the Most-Favored-Nation (MFN) applied tariff is used.

Thus, while we measure tariffs in terms of ad valorem price effects, NTMs are measured in count terms. The reason is that bilateral, product-specific ad valorem equivalents (AVEs) of NTMs remain scarce, despite recent progress for standard-like NTMs (Adarov and Ghodsi, 2023).

# **3 Stylized Facts**

Before diving into our empirical exercise, we present a series of stylized facts on Colombian exporting firms as well as the tariffs and NTMs they face in their regional sales markets.

## **3.1 Colombian Firm-Level Exports**

Table 1 shows the evolution of Colombian exports between 2007 and 2017 and their geographical composition in eight major regions, following the World Bank classification. Three results stand out. First, Colombian exports reached a peak in 2012 (first row) and declined from then until 2016. This decline was driven by the collapse of oil prices, which matter for 35% of Colombian exports related to minerals. Second, Latin American and Caribbean (LAC) countries have become the most important destination market for Colombian exports, surpassing North America, and, in particular, the United States, since 2012. Given the importance of regional exports 8
|Outcome|Table|Population|Primary?|Rounds|Description|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Change in Subjective<br>Wellbeing from Five<br>Years Ago to Today|IV|Core<br>Respondent|Yes|4|The change in subjective wellbeing asks the<br>respondent where she sees herself on a 10-step<br>ladder comparing five years ago to today,<br>where zero represents the worst possible life<br>she could have and 10 represents the best<br>possible life she could have.|
|Super-Index of Unmarried<br>Empowerment<br>(Standardized)|IV|Core<br>Respondent|Yes|4|Standardized super index of unmarried<br>empowerment, measured for core respondents<br>who are not married at the time of the<br>household survey. Includes two components<br>described below: index of non-abuse and index<br>of autonomy.|
|Index of Unmarried non-<br>Abuse (Standardized)|-|Core<br>Respondent|No|4|Standardized index of unmarried non-abuse,<br>measured for core respondents who are not<br>married at the time of the household survey.<br>Includes question on whether the core<br>respondent has been beaten or mistreated<br>physically, whether the core respondent has<br>been forced to have sex against her will, and a<br>series of five questions on threats or physical<br>violence. The variable is constructed so that<br>higher values are an indication of not<br>experiencing physical abuse.|

67
Lopez, Ramon, John Nash, and J. Stanton. 1995. “Adjustment and Poverty in Mexican Agriculture: How Farmers’ Wealth Affects Supply Response.” World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 1494, Washington, DC.

Melitz, Marc. 2003. “The Impact of Trade on Intra-industry Reallocations and Aggregate Industry Productivity.” _Econometrica_ 71: 1695-1725.

Porto, Guido. 2007. “Globalization and Poverty in Latin America: Some Channels and Some Evidence.” _World Economy_ 30(9): 1430-56.

Porto, Guido. 2006. “Using Survey Data to Assess the Distributional Effects of Trade Policy.” _Journal of International Economics_ 70: 140-60.

15
: 'Les Salaires Bruts Moyens en Algerie" and refer to 1993.

Bahrain Central Government employment, education and health employment are taken from IMF Report SM 94/85 of April 1, 1994 and relate to 1993. There is no local Government structure in Bahrain. Source: Mr. Buhiji of the Embassy of Bahrain.

GDP at market prices, Average Government wage and wage bill are taken from IMF Report SM/96/39 of February 12, 1996 and relates to 1995. All other data stems from this data.

Egypt Paid employment in non-agricultural activities is drawn from the ILO's Yearbook of Labor Statistics 1995 and refers to 1992.

Central Govemment, Non-Central Government, and employment in State-owned enterprises are taken from IMF Report No. SM 95/226 of September 6, 1995 and relate to FY 1993/94. Education employment data are taken from EMTHR (John Evans mission of September 1995) and are for 1994-95. The data reflect the number of "Full time equivalent" teachers in the primary, secondary and university sectors. It does not include University teachers. In addition it does not reflect the official Egyptian definition of teachers. Teachers are under Governorate jurisdiction in Egypt; however, the system remains highly centralized. Accordingly, they have been included in central government employment. Health employment is a WB Staff estimate. Military employment data include conscripts (222,000), but do not include paramilitary units, i.e., the Coast Guards (2,000), the Central Security Forces (60,000) under the authority of the Ministry of Interior, and the Border Guard forces (12,000).

GDP at market price is taken from World Tables 1995 and refers to 1994 (estimate). Data on wages and salaries of Consolidated Central Government is taken from the IMF's Report No. SM/95/226 of September 6, 1995.

Jordan Paid employment in non-agricultural activities is drawn from the ILO's Yearbook of Labor Statistics 1995 and refers
*Figure 6: Mean time in home production by labor market state (%)** Males without children Males with children

<!-- Start of picture text --> 60 60<br>50 50<br>40 40<br>NP NP<br>30 30<br>UE UE<br>20 PT 20 PT<br>10 FT 10 FT<br>0 0<br>Females without children Females with children<br>60 60<br>50 50<br>40 40<br>NP NP<br>30 30<br>UE UE<br>20 PT 20 PT<br>10 FT 10 FT<br>0 0<br><!-- End of picture text --> _Source:_ Author’s calculations based on 2017 UNDP-WB-EC Roma Regional Survey. _Note:_ Each bar represents the average time allocation in home production of husbands and wives on each labor market state.

# **7. Gender Gap Decomposition**

**The gender gap decomposition equalizes female parameters to male values; this describes a Roma labor market and time use without gender differences.**<sup>34</sup> Table 10 <mark>presents the definitions for the six</mark>

> 34 As males’ search cost is higher than that for females, the search costs implemented in this experiment are those of the females.

28
<mark>WPS3571</mark>

**Does tariff liberalization increase wage inequality? Some empirical evidence**

Branko Milanovic and Lyn Squire<sup>1</sup>

# ABSTRACT

The objective of the paper is to answer an often-asked question : if tariff rates are reduced, what will happen to wage inequality ? We consider two types of wage inequality : between occupations (skills premium) and between industries. We use two large databases of wage inequality that have become recently available and a large data set of average tariff rates all covering the period between 1980 and 2000. We find that tariff reduction is associated with higher inter-occupational and inter-industry inequality in poorer countries (those below the world median income) and the reverse in richer countries. However, the results for inter-occupational inequality though must be treated with caution.

_JEL classification_ : F1, F13, D31, J31 _Keywords_ : tariffs, trade, liberalization, wages, inequality Corresponding author: <u>bmilanovic@ceip.org</u> World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 3571, April 2005 _The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the view of the World Bank, its Executive Directors, or the countries they represent. Policy Research Working Papers are available online at http://econ.worldbank.org._

> 1 World Bank Research Department and Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, and Global Development Network respectively. The work was in part financed out of World Bank Research Grant PO85725 (project on Globalization and Middle Classes). Milanovic would also like to acknowledge the support of McArthur Foundation. The paper is forthcoming in the book “Globalization and
(2016, p. 101) suggested, “better data collection, with an intent to collect richer measures of informality along multiple dimensions, may be important for further work”.

Finally, the narrow focus on informal enterprises overlooks broader links with the formal sector despite evidence suggesting these linkages exist. For instance, a small survey of enterprises in Indonesia by the ILO (2015) found that formal enterprises outsource parts of their production process to home-based, informal workers. However, the extent and features of these subcontracting arrangements remain poorly understood. At the same time, formal enterprises may also directly employ workers on an informal (e.g., unpaid) basis in addition to hiring formal workers (Marquez-Ramos, 2020).<sup>9</sup> Why formal enterprises engage in this arrangement is still unclear, highlighting the need for more research.

# **Informal employment in Indonesia**

Indonesia’s thriving informal economy has been a key source of livelihoods for a sizable share of the population. Recent estimates based on the 2019 SAKERNAS suggest that informal employment accounts for 75 percent of total employment in the country (Wihardja & Cunningham, 2021).<sup>10</sup> Even in relative terms, Indonesia’s informality rate emerges as one of the highest in Southeast Asia, exceeding the likes of Thailand, Vietnam, and even Myanmar (ILO, 2018).

Informal workers constitute a highly diverse group, ranging from owners of household enterprises, casual workers, unpaid family workers, and even employees. Of these, nearly half (48 percent) are owners of household enterprises; 26 percent are casual workers or wage employees without contracts working in those enterprises; and 15 percent are unpaid family workers (Wihardja & Cunningham, 2021). All in all, these three groups account for nearly 90 percent of informal employment.<sup>11</sup>

> 9 Both the IMK Survey and the Manufacturing Survey collect data on the number of paid and unpaid workers
> Polky anning, and Resarch !

EnryStrategy, Mabnagement, and A"essen This paper presents guidelines for admin;stering houisehold energy surveys.

Typically, country energy balances, national budget surveys, and microstudies have been the source of information about residential energy consrmption. A dedicated nationwide household energy survey will generate more relevant data for planners, policymakers, and evaluators - but may overturn assumptions in the process.

The subsidized promotion of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) as a charcoal substitute in Senegal, for example, was based on the assumption that subsidies alone would lead to widespread adoption of butane fuel and that as the use of butane increased, the use of charcoal would decline. But a 1987 survey indicated that although 65 percent of the households in Dakar have LPG stoves, only 2 percent use the fuel exclusively. And in the households that use both LPG and charcoal, consumption of charcoal has not changed.

In Niger, wealthy residents, because of their lifestyle and income, were considered the logical market for modem fuels. But a 1986 study indicated that they used a lot of wood because they could afford to buy it in bulk (which made it the cheapest fuel) and they suffered none of the health or other disadvantages of wood fires because their servants did all the cooking.

This paper, a product of .' e Household Energy Unit, Energy Strategy, Management and Assessment Division, Industry and Energy Department, has also appeared as an Industry and Energy Department Working Paper. Copies are available free from the World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington DC 20433. Please contact Janine Littlzford, room S2-274, extension 33627.

The PPR WoPking Paper Series disseminates the fr dings of work under way in the Bank's Policy Plamning, and Research Complex. An obiective of the series is to get these findings out quickly. even if presentations are less than fuilly polished. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions in these papeTs do not necessarily ,-epresent of ficial policy of the Bank.

Produced at
# REFERENCES

- ACEMOGLU, DARON, SIMON JOHNSON, AND JAMES A. ROBINSON, “Reversal of Fortune: Geography and Institutions in the Making of the Modern World Income Distribution,” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 117, no. 4 (2002), 1231–1294.

- AKCIGIT, UFUK., HARUN ALP, AND MICHAEL PETERS, “Lack of Selection and Limits to Delegation: Firm Dynamics in Developing Countries,” NBER Working Paper no. 21905, 2017.

- AGHION, PHILLIPE, AND PETER HOWITT, “A Model of Growth through Creative Destruction,” _Econometrica_ , 60, no. 2 (1992), 323–351.

- AMINADAV, GUR, AND ELIAS PAPAIOANNOU. “Corporate Control Around the World,” Revised draft of NBER WP 23010, (2016).

- AMIT, RAPHAEL, YUAN DING, BELÉN VILLALONGA, AND HUA ZHANg, “The role of institutional development in the prevalence and performance of entrepreneur and family-controlled firms”, _Journal of Corporate Finance_ (2015), 284-305.

- ATKIN, DAVID, FRANCISCO BUERA, AMIT KHANDELWAL, AND YONGSEOK SHIN, “Constraints to the Growth of Firms: All in the Family?,” Meeting Paper 1191 (2013), Society for Economic Dynamics.

- Anderson, Ronald, and David Reeb. 2003. "Founding-Family Ownership and Firm Performance: Evidence from the SandP 500." The Journal of Finance 58 (3): 1301-1328.

- BENNEDSEN, MORTEN, KASPER NIELSEN, FRANCISCO PEREZ-GONZALES, AND DANIEL WOLFENZON, “Inside the Family Firm: The Role of Families in Succession Decisions and Performance”, _The Quarterly Journal of Economics_ , 122, no. 2 (2007), 647–691.

- BERLE, ADOLF, AND GARDINER MEANS, The Modern Corporation and Private Property (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, [1932] 1968).

- BERTRAND, MARIANNE, “CEOs,” _Annual Review of Economics_ , 1, no. 1 (2009), 121-150.

- BERTRAND,
The first evidence comes from the literature on returns to capital in developing countries. Udry and Anagol (2006) estimate 150 to 250 percent annual returns to pineapple cultivation (more capital-intensive than the traditional crops) in Ghana. Duflo, Kremer and Robinson (2011) also find very high returns (ranging between 52 percent and 85 percent, annualized) to the relatively low capital-intensive task of applying fertilizer to the maize crop in rural Kenya. Returns are similarly high for non-agricultural microenterprises. In a randomized control trial (RCT) involving a subset of microenterprises in Sri Lanka, de Mel, McKenzie and Woodruff (2008) find the average return on capital to be as high as 4 percent per month; high returns to capital are similarly found among a group of microenterprises in Ghana (Fafchamp et al., 2011). In a very similar intervention in Mexico, McKenzie and Woodruff (2008) find this return to be in the range of 20-33 percent per month.

The fact that business-owners do utilize other sources of money to meet their borrowing needs (money lenders, friends and family, etc.) attests to the fact that they are not unwilling to borrow. We examine this phenomenon more closely in the context of Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) in the following section. We also evaluate financial access in SSA more broadly, in order to gain better insight into business-related financing.

# **3. Microcredit in Sub-Saharan Africa**

# **_3.1 Gallup World Poll Database_**

The micro-level data that we analyze in this paper come from the 2009 and 2010 waves of the Gallup World Poll.<sup>2</sup> The Gallup World Poll is a nationally representative survey comprising annually up to 150,000 individuals from up to 157 countries. The core Gallup World Poll questionnaire includes detailed demographic, employment, and income information, as well

> 2 For additional information, see: https://worldview.gallup.com.

8
perspective.<sup>2</sup> As a final note we wish to emphasize that the nature of this study is explorative. Our findings are suggestive of important complementarities between various export activities, but we stay agnostic about their precise nature. Co-occurrence of specialization in particular activities might be driven by comparable developments in countries’ endowments such as the buildup of general human capital or the business environment. But it also points to the possibility of spillovers and

> 2 Relatedly, Diodato et al. (2022) enrich export product data with occupational statistics. They assume however that production technologies are the same across countries applying occupation structures found in U.S. production to all countries. We show however that production technologies are not constant around the world such that products will not map one to one into a set of activities.

5
[0.026]***|-0.079 [0.031]**|-0.089 [0.028]***|
|Employed full time for self-empl.|-0.112 [0.038]***|-0.105 [0.034]***|-0.126 [0.034]***|
|Employed full time for an empl.|-0.086 [0.021]***|-0.074 [0.022]***|-0.087 [0.022]***|
|Highest education level||||
|Secondary to 3 year of tertiary|-0.108 [0.034]***|-0.128 [0.042]***|-0.130 [0.036]***|
|4 years of tertiary and beyond|-0.302 [0.066]***|-0.306 [0.058]***|-0.294 [0.059]***|
|Instruments for SAR||||
|Religion is important|-0.152 [0.073]**|-0.171 [0.070]**|-0.191 [0.074]**|
|Sacrificing one’s life for beliefs|1.321 [0.096]***|1.290 [0.127]***|1.308 [0.113]***|
|Additional controls||||
|Weighted Conflict Index|||1.7e-05 [7.4e-06]**|
|Community attachment index||-6.8e-04 [6.7e-04]||
|Community basics index||2.3e-04 [7.8e-04]||
|
Corn Belt in the 1930s and 40s (Gerhart 1975). H611 has since served as the basis of many of the hybrids released by the national maize program (Hassan et al. 1998).

Similarly in Zimbabwe, just after independence in 1980, smallholder Africans rapidly adopted the R-200 series of maize hybrids. Originally bred for European settlers, they were suitable for cultivation on sandy soils in low-rainfall areas and performed relatively well for smallholders (Rohrbach 1988). Following independence in 1964, Zambia‘s maize breeders also introduced an impressive array of both hybrids and improved open-pollinated varieties (Howard 1994).

The lack of a large farm sector prior to independence and local consumption preferences delayed Malawi‘s maize revolution. Malawi‘s smallholder farmers preferred flint maize types that processed and stored well on their farms. At that time, regional breeding efforts were focused on dent maize types suited to large-scale milling, and flint breeding materials from outside Malawi were not easy to find. Malawi‘s breakthrough hybrids (MH17 and MH18), not accomplished until 1990, resulted from an innovative top-cross of Malawian lines, including SR52, with flint maize populations. The earlier-maturing of the two, MH18 often escaped dry spells, processed and stored well on-farm, and yielded more than local maize even when both were unfertilized (Heisey and Smale, 1995). According to surveys undertaken by the National Statistical Office in 2006, MH17 and MH18 were still planted to over half of the area of improved maize in this densely-populated, maize-dependent nation (Sauer and Tchale, 2009).

The International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) played a key role in the development of the successful hybrids in Malawi. Although CIMMYT had a regional presence in maize breeding from the late 1970s, it only seriously invested from 1985 when it established a research station at Harare in Zimbabwe. It has since maintained a strong presence in the region and many of the more recently released hybrids and OPVs contain CIMMYT parentage.

In West Africa, where there were no settler farmers