rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
<!-- Start of picture text --> 77<br>18<br>15<br>9<br>8<br>142<br>62<br>15<br>12<br>8<br>7<br>121<br>47<br>9<br>9<br>8<br>5<br>80<br>22<br>3<br>5<br>3<br>2<br><!-- End of picture text --> Notes: Only up to 4 targeted individuals are shown in the graphs. Most households have between one to four eligible individuals. In Ethiopia, 95.75% of households have 4 eligible individuals or less. This number is 93.92% for Cambodia and 90.88% in Tanzania.

Overall, except for a few more complex-to-implement modules, module duration estimates appear to be modest for most of the individual questionnaire modules. While including modules that would be deemed critical for development research and policy making may not add as much time on the margin as one may think, the total respondent burden implied by the administration of both household and individual questionnaires is considerable irrespective of the country. As such, analyzing survey paradata to obtain objective proxies for respondent burden is precisely what survey practitioners should do in order to make evidence-based decisions regarding survey data collection, in particular regarding the scope of both household- and individual-level data collection vis-à-vis the budget constraints and the data priorities.

# **3.2. Cost Estimates**

While the limited cross-country availability of information on household survey costs continues to be a challenge for the international statistical community and the donor organizations, even when available, computing unit cost estimates on the basis of the number of interviewed households is a second-best approach when the surveys exhibit significant heterogeneity in terms of questionnaire design and field work organization (e.g. one visit versus multiple visits to sampled 15
g., Goodhart & Hofmann 2008; Del Negro & Otrok 2007). Since then, several international organizations and central banks have increased efforts to develop global property price indices and collated real property price data for various predominantly developed economies to monitor macro-financial stability and price developments. One early methodology to track property prices is the Case-Shiller National Home Price Index which measures the value of residential real estate in major US metropolitan areas and serves as a blueprint for subsequent price indices in other developed countries.<sup>4</sup> Extending the collection of residential property prices to EMDEs has been slow, in either indexed or other forms. In the following section, we briefly discuss the most important sources.

First, a primary source for residential property prices, covering a relatively large number of countries, is provided by the Bank for International Settlements (BIS). BIS collects quarterly data on residential property prices for 60 countries, predominantly focusing on advanced economies. Property prices are harmonized as much as possible by BIS according to the recommendations outlined in the Handbook on Residential Property Price Indices (RPPIs), which summarizes best practices in how to calculate property price indices (European Union [EU] et al. 2013). As BIS compiles data from various sources, the data series differ from country to country, varying in frequency, type of property, covered area, priced unit, compilation method, or seasonal adjustment . In addition, while BIS publishes some actual prices, most data are only available in an indexed format, allowing for tracking aggregate price movements over time. BIS does not provide

> 3 The UK Land Registry, for instance, makes house price data publicly available: https://www.gov.uk/guidance/about-the-price- <u>paid-data.</u>

> 4 <mark>These price indices, including twenty cities, low-, medium-, and high-tier home price indices, condominium indices, and a U.S. national index, are now published as
Lustig and Tommasi 2020). These studies find that Latin America was one of the regions hardest hit by the COVID-19 pandemic and the containment measures, with staggering costs in terms of lives, jobs, incomes and welfare.

Finally, there is a literature that studies the impact of the shock exploiting the World Bank’s HFPS surveys both around the globe, and specifically in Latin America (Ballon et al. 2021; Cucagna and Romero 2021; Khamis et al. 2021; Kugler et al. 2021; MejiaMantilla et al. 2021; Olivieri and Rivadeneira, 2021). The richness of these surveys allows exploring the impact of the shock in the labor market as well as in education, food security and other outcomes.

Our paper starts by making a contribution to this latter literature. By codifying the occupation variables and constructing a variable for the individual potential for WFH we are allowed to study some previously unexplored issues with HFPS data on the asymmetric impact of the shock. Our results also make a contribution to other strands of the literature. In particular, we shed some light on the role of teleworking in alleviating the costs of the crisis, and explore the mechanisms behind the gender asymmetries. Finally, our paper is also a contribution to a better understanding of the labor market impact of the pandemic and the social-distancing measures in the specific context of Latin America.

# **3 Data**

Our main source of data is the High-Frequency Phone Surveys (HFPS) conducted by the World Bank in 2020 to assess the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. In this section we present this data set, explain how we codify the occupation variables, present basic descriptive statistics of job losses, and discuss an index of the individual’s potential for work from home.

## **3.1 The High-Frequency Phone Surveys**

One of the reactions to understand the impact of the pandemic was to collect new data, given that regular national household surveys were not well-suited to deal with this novel situation. One of the
Figure 7. Gender gap by marital status and type of activity (men minus women). Hours per day Panel A. Market work <!-- Start of picture text --> 7.0<br>6.0<br>5.0<br>4.0<br>3.0<br>2.0<br>1.0<br>0.0<br>-1.0<br>-2.0<br>-3.0<br>Married/Living together Single/Widow Divorced/Separated<br>Panel B. Unpaid domestic work<br>0.0<br>-1.0<br>-2.0<br>-3.0<br>-4.0<br>-5.0<br>-6.0<br>-7.0<br>-8.0<br>Married/Living together Single/Widow Divorced/Separated<br>Albania Argentina Bangladesh Colombia Ecuador Ghana Guatemala Iraq Mexico Moldova Mongolia Pakistan WBG Peru South Africa Timor Turkey Uruguay USA<br>Albania Argentina Bangladesh Colombia Ecuador Ghana Guatemala Iraq Mexico Moldova Mongolia Pakistan WBG Peru South Africa Timor Turkey Uruguay USA<br><!-- End of picture text --> Source: Authors’ elaboration based on survey data. Notes: West Bank and Gaza survey only distinguishes between married and not married people.

44
|Guinea|3.1|‐0.3|3.0|0.4|0.4|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Burundi|3.3|3.5|4.1|4.7|‐2.3|
|South Sudan|..|5.0|‐8.0|3.4|‐5.3|
|_Equatorial Guinea_|22.7|‐4.5|‐0.7|‐0.3|‐9.3|
|_Sierra Leone_|7.3|3.2|11.5|4.6|‐20|

_Source: World Development Indicators, and Global Economic Prospects (June 2015)._ Even if we exclude Sierra Leone as a special case affected by the Ebola epidemic, the growth range in Sub‐Saharan Africa, from 10.2% in Ethiopia and 8.4% in Côte d’Ivoire, to ‐9.3% in Equatorial Guinea and ‐5.3% in South Sudan, is quite amazing. There are many factors behind this divergence, but one of the most important ones has to do with the country’s ability and preparedness to grapple with globalization.

In this brewing global challenge that has to do with labor, Africa will probably play a more major role than any other region in the developing world. This is because most of Africa will see a rise in its working‐age population—the so‐called ‘demographic dividend.’ China has already seen the high point of this; India still has more of this dividend to come but it is well on the way. It is Africa for which much of the demographic dividend still lies ahead. Without adequate global demand for this labor, the continent could get mired in conflict and forced migration. On the other hand, done right
%20Documents/Georgia/1/INDC_of_G eorgia.pdf</mark></u> Jackson, T. (1991). Least-cost greenhouse planning supply curves for global warming abatement. Energy policy, Vol. 19, No. 1, pp. 35-46.

Jackson, T. (1995). Joint Implementation and Cost Effectiveness under the Framework Convention on Climate Change, Energy Policy, Vo. 23, pp 117- .

Johnson, T.M., C. Alatorre, Z. Romo and F. Liu (2009). Low-Carbon Development for Mexico, World Bank, Washington, DC.

Knowledge, Attitude and behavior Baseline Survey, USAID’s “Enhancing Capacity for Low Emission Development Strategies (EC-LEDS) /Clean Energy Program”, Winrock International Georgia, 2014.

23
Policy Research Working Paper 5628

# **Abstract**

This paper uses firm-level survey data matched with official tax records to estimate the unobserved true sales of formal firms in Mongolia. Taking into account firmlevel incentives to comply with taxes and a production function technology linking unobserved true sales with observable firm-level production characteristics, the authors derive a multiple-indicators, multiple-causes model predicting unobserved true sales. Comparing predicted true sales with sales reported to the tax office, the analysis finds that 38.6 percent of firm-level sales are underreported. It also finds evidence that firm-level survey data suffer from significant underreporting. Finally, the paper compares this approach with two alternative approaches to measuring underreporting by firms.

This paper is a product of the Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Unit, East Asia and Pacific Region. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://econ.worldbank.org. The authors may be contacted at f.zhou@vu.nl and r.oostendorp@vu.nl.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent._ Produced by the Research Support Team
14 {c, j} (Dc,j) and combine it with 1991 census data on the corresponding population at risk obtaining Dc,j/Nc,j, the measure of interest. The data also include detailed information on causes of death, according to the 9th release of the International Classification of Diseases<sup>14</sup> . The evidence shows that the probability of dying over the decade 1991-2001 was lower among exempt 1963-65 cohorts by 0.34 percentage points (p-value: 0.034). At the same time, the difference among the two older cohorts is basically zero, and is estimated with a similar degree of precision as that between the younger cohorts. The difference among younger cohorts, as shown in the last two rows, is entirely due to a lower incidence of natural causes<sup>15</sup> . The drop in mortality rates is quite substantial: it amounts to about one fourth of the death rate from all causes estimated for non-exempt control cohorts and to about one half of deaths due to natural causes only. The difference implies that in the entire region targeted by the exemption about 600 males in their mid 20s who would have otherwise died earlier reached their mid 30s. The effect on life expectancy at age 25 is also substantial. Under the extreme assumption that the mortality rate reduction induced by the exemption is limited to ages 26 to 36, life expectancy at age 25 increased by about one quarter of a year. To put this in context, between 1980 and 1990 life expectancy at age 25 increased by about one year.

# 4.2 Simple estimates of the long-run effects of avoiding military service

The results presented above represent the change in outcome associated with a randomly offered exemption from compulsory military service, the so-called intention-to-treat (ITT) effect. To infer the effects of not serving in the army on the outcomes of interest from the ITT it is necessary to quantify the proportion of the cohort that did not serve because of the exemption. In
, 1995; Smarzynska and Wei, 2000; Acemoglu et al, 2001; Benassy‐ Quere et al, 2007)<sup>5</sup> . Another set of literature focuses more on what may be called micro features of the investment climate, including infrastructure, trade facilitation, and business regulations. Empirical studies in this area have tended to focus on trade as the outcome rather than investment, although for at least for vertical FDI one can assume a strong correlation. Djankov, Freund, and Pham (2006) highlight the importance of trade and transport facilitation on trade outcomes, particularly for time‐sensitive products, such as those that are physically perishable of operating in global “just‐in‐time” production networks. More recently, Portugal‐Perez and Wilson (2010) assess aggregate indicators of hard and soft infrastructure in 101 developing countries and find a strong correlation between infrastructure quality and export outcomes. Eifert, Gelb, and Ramachandran (2005) show the impact of investment climate on firm‐level productivity and exports in Africa. Drawing on firm‐level surveys in eight developing countries, Dollar, Hallward‐Driemeier and Mengistae (2004) find that the investment climate – as defined by customs clearance times, infrastructure reliability, and access to financial services – is associated with firm‐level productivity and export propensity as well as with inward FDI flows.

The findings from this broad set of research supports the strong relationship between the investment climate and firm productivity. This translates into trade outcomes, although foreign investors tend to outperform domestic producers in export markets even in poor investment climates (Eifert, Gelb, and

> 5 Of course, this is not without debate. For example, Rodrik, Subramanian, and Trebbi (2004) point out that, despite their findings on the importance of property rights, investment levels are higher in China where property rights are absent than in Russia, where formal institutions are in place.

8
4. Confirmation process: businesses should ensure that the point at which consumers are asked to confirm a transaction, after which time payment is due or they are otherwise contractually bound, is clear and unambiguous, as should the steps needed to complete the transaction, especially for new payment mechanisms.

# **Post - Purchase**

5. Dispute resolution and redress: consumers should be provided with meaningful access to fair, easy-touse, transparent and effective mechanisms to resolve domestic and cross-border e-commerce disputes in a timely manner and obtain redress, as appropriate, without incurring unnecessary cost or burden. These should include out of court mechanisms, such as internal complaints handling and alternative dispute resolution. Subject to applicable laws, the use of such out-of-court mechanisms should not prevent consumers from pursuing other forms of dispute resolution and redress. (See below sub-section on online dispute resolution and redress.) 6. Privacy and security: businesses should protect consumer privacy by ensuring that their practices relating to the collection and use of consumer data are lawful, transparent and fair, enable consumer participation and choice, and provide reasonable security safeguards (see section on data privacy).

# **Other**

7. Education, awareness, and digital competence: governments and stakeholders should work together to educate consumers, government officials, and businesses about e-commerce to foster informed decision making. They should work towards increasing business and consumer awareness of the consumer protection framework that applies to their online activities, including their respective rights and obligations, at domestic and cross-border levels.

Source: **(OECD, Guidelines for Consumer Protection in the Context of Electronic Commerce 2000)**

**Table 5. Regulation on online consumer** **<u>protection around the world</u>**

|**protection arou**|**nd the wo**<br>**Online**|**rld**<br>**consumer p**<br>**regulation**|
dummy variable for internal conflict country-year pairs - as defined using the UCDP-Prio Dataset. Log of Total Population (lagged) is the one-year lagged log of population and is considered a proxy for the country size. Boom Dummy if Above Median Growth (lagged) is a one-year lagged dummy variable for economic booms if growth is greater than or equal to the previous 10-year median growth. Note that the unforeseen shocks taken into account in this regression occurred during the same year of the forecast, after the GDP growth forecasts were published in January.

The coefficient of growth volatility, measured as the standard deviation of GDP growth (lagged rolling 10year average), is positive and statistically significant at the 1 percent level across the three samples (see columns 4, 5, and 6). As expected, countries experiencing larger growth volatility have larger absolute forecast errors. Commodity price shocks and internal conflict shocks are positively correlated with larger absolute forecast errors. This is consistent with the hypothesized relationships between unexpected shocks and forecast errors. Absolute forecast errors are smaller after economic booms, measured as the economic growth above the previous 10-year median, with coefficients that are statistically significant for both the IMF and the Consensus/Focus Economics samples. This is consistent with the finding that forecasters have a harder time predicting recessions (Eicher et al., 2019). The level of development has no statistically significant bearing on the accuracy of forecasts. A persistent finding is that small countries (proxied by population size) have larger absolute growth forecast errors. However, this might reflect the tendency of small countries to be more open and thus vulnerable to shocks that cause volatility. When growth volatility is accounted for, the relationship between country size (population) and absolute forecast errors is no longer statistically significant (see Table 3 columns 4 through 6).

As previously established, the MENA region tends to have the largest forecast errors. In the base regressions (Table 3 columns 1 through 3), where several factors are accounted for, the coefficient of the MENA
Komives, Whittington, and Wu "Infrastructure Coverage and the Poor: A Global Perspective" percent of the households in Cote d'Ivoire used vendors, more than in any of the other three countries. Vendors were the primary source for 1 percent of households in Ghana and less than I percent in Pakistan and Nicaragua. In all four countries, a greater percentage of rich households than poor households used vendors. Less than 1 percent of households using vendors were in the poorest decile of their countries, whereas 20 percent were in the richest decile.

In three of the four countries, households using water vendors spent on average more per month than households with in-house water taps or those using other improved sources (Table 6). But only in Pakistan (where households with in-house service were spending very little per month on water) were the median expenditures of those using vendors significantly higher than those with inhouse taps. It is striking that average monthly expenditures on vended water are not higher than the likely full cost of in-house piped water service. Although the per-unit price of vended water is certainly higher than the per-unit price of water from in-house service, total household expenditures on water were smaller than what one might expect from the water vending literature (e.g., Crane, 1994; Fass, 1988; Whittington et al., 1989, 1990, 1991; Zaroff and Okun, 1984).34 6.3. Sanitation Some of the LSMS country data sets have information on two aspects of a household's sanitation situation: (1) whether a household had a toilet or latrine, and (2) whether a household had a means of removing wastewater from the house -- either a sewer connection or a septic tank. Information on septic tank usage is available in six of the fifteen countries (Bulgaria, Ecuador, Kazakhstan, Nepal, Nicaragua, and Pakistan). In these six countries more households had sewer connections than septic tanks, but septic tanks nonetheless made a significant contribution to sanitation infrastructure.
and under USD 500 per container in Malaysia and Singapore.<sup>7</sup> Uncertainty over delivery times is a significant cost burden on manufactured exports. The port at Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, is regarded as more efficient and container throughput has been growing much faster there.

Due to a lack of investment, Kenya’s railways have significantly declined and are considered rather poor providers of freight transportation services since the 1980s.<sup>8</sup> Road transportation is the primary means of overland transport. But some sections of the key ―Northern Corridor‖ are in very poor condition.

Kenya’s problems with its ports, rail and road transportation facilities were highlighted by Kenya’s ranking on the international Logistics Perception Index of 2004.<sup>9</sup> Of the 70 countries in the 2004 survey, Kenya was ranked as the least logistically friendly (World Bank, 2007). In Africa, the survey included South Africa, Zambia, Ghana and Nigeria. For 2006, the survey expanded to include 150 countries, and Kenya ranks at number 75--below several African countries, but above average for the region.

# **Telecommunications**

As of 2007, Kenya’s telecommunications services were expensive compared with other SubSaharan African countries and even more when compared with those of East and South Asia. Relative to countries with comparable income, Kenya had fewer fixed lines per capita, less than half the level of international calls per subscriber and higher Internet charges. Perhaps more important is the low efficiency of service provision (see World Bank, 2007, pp.45-47). Kenya currently requires that telephone companies must be at least 30 percent owned by Kenyan nationals. Problems related to the licensing of the third mobile telephone provider<sup>10</sup> and the ―Second National Operator‖ were primarily due to this 7 World Bank staff estimates.

8 In the hope of improved performance, Kenya’s railways were turned over to Rift
.357|0.270|0.829|0.592|0.487|0.431|
|Rural Daughters|0.519|0.375|0.921|0.580|0.571|0.500|

_Notes_ : (1) The data are from children who were born between 1950 and 1989 using the CFPS 2010 round for China, the IHDS 2012 round for India, and the IFLS 2014 round for Indonesia. (2) The weights are the proportion of children at each level of father’s education.

**Table 8: Evolution of Risk Adjusted IGRC by Birth Cohorts**

||**CH**|**INA**|**IND**|**IA**|**INDO**|**NESIA**|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||Weighted<br>RIGRC|Canonical<br>IGRC|Weighted<br>RIGRC|Canonical<br>IGRC|Weighted<br>RIGRC|Canonical<br>IGRC|
|1980-1989|0.507|0.420|0.705|0.551|0.468|0.424|
|1970-1979|0.493|0.398|0.822|0.582|0.540|0.492|
|1960-1969|0.369|0.292|0.993|0.650|0.704|0.586|
|1950-1959|0.399|0.292|1.054|0.681|0.597|0.521|

_Notes_ : (1) The data are from children who were born between 1950 and 1989 using the CFPS 2010 round for China, the IHDS 2012 round for India, and the IFLS 2014 round for Indonesia. (2) Each row uses