rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
given that during the time they were in operation they sometimes failed to report their records, each interpolation is based on a different number of data points—and indeed different weather stations. These problems as well as the accuracy of the data get worse as one looks at earlier years, which has a corresponding effect on our interpolations. Thus, interpolations for the year 1950 are less reliable than those for 2007.

From these weather data, we calculate the total rainfall and growing degree days (GDD) for each agricultural year (October to September), for each wet season (April to September) and for each pre- _canícula_ period (April, May, June), or the months leading to the _canícula_ , from 1951 to 2002.<sup>15</sup> Instead of maximum of minimum temperatures we use GDD, a cumulative measure of temperature based on the minimum and maximum daily temperatures. GDD measures the contribution of each day to the maturation of the crop. Each crop, depending on the specific seed type and other environmental factors, has its own heat requirements for maturity.

Different corn varieties, for example require between 2,450 and 3,000 GDDs to mature, whereas different wheat varieties only require between 1,800 and 2,000 GDDs.<sup>16</sup> Each crop has specific base and ceiling temperatures, and , respectively, which contribute to growth. The base bound sets the minimum temperature required for growth and the ceiling temperature sets the temperature above which the growth rate does not increase any further. Thus, the contribution of each day, _j_ , to the cumulative GDD is given by where<sup>andare the minimum and maximum daily temperature truncated at the base</sup> and ceiling values. In other words, any daily temperature (minimum or maximum) below the base temperature is assigned the base temperature value and any daily temperature above the ceiling temperature is assigned the ceiling temperature value.<sup>17</sup>
that monitor fetal development will also have contributed to better fetal health. Bio-medical studies show that fetal health improvements tend to favor boys (Trivers and Willard (1973), Almond and Edlund (2007)) and thus the underlying tendency, if any, would be for male child survival to increase over time. Our hypothesis, on the other hand, is that the availability of ultrasound scanners has improved female child survival relative to male children.

# **3 Data and Descriptive Statistics**

To examine mortality and fertility, we use three pooled rounds of the National Family Health Survey (NFHS) conducted in 1992-93, 1998-99, and 2005-06. These nationwide, repeated, cross-sectional surveys are representative at the state level and report complete birth histories for all interviewed women, including children’s month, year, and order of birth, mother’s age at birth, and age at death of deceased children.<sup>18</sup> The sample comprises 503,316 births of 232,259 mothers that occurred in 1973-2005.<sup>19</sup>

> 16Feminist and socialist groups in the United States and other richer countries have hotly defended a prochoice stance against a pro-life stance on abortion. The focus of public discussion is on benefits for women rather than on benefits for children. For instance, `http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/ oct/14/abortion-right-to-privacy-women-right-to-equality` and `https://socialistworker.org/ 2013/11/01/abortion-every-womans-right` . Indian feminists, on the other hand, have been divided by the seeming contradiction of supporting a woman’s right to abortion while opposing sex-selective abortion (Kumar (1983), Gangoli (1998)).

> 17More details on the PNDT Act are available in Retherford and Roy (2003) and Visaria (2005).

18Since the state of Sikkim changed its border during the period of analysis, we exclude it from our sample.

19Women who do not survive to the date
In participatory research, if the information being generated belongs to the community and can be provided in an unbiased way by key informants, there is no need to select these key informants randomly (Barahona and Levy 2002, 23). Given that this institutional mapping is generating largely interpretive qualitative and quantitative data, however, it will be important to try to reduce bias by selecting (socially stratified) participants from the household survey sample using probability-based (random) methods. It should be noted that within each social stratum there is an ethical trade-off between employing probability-based (random) sampling to offset biases introduced by participant self-selection and adhering to participatory research principles of including those who wish to be included.<sup>36</sup> A less objective but more voluntaristic and democratic alternative is to record key social information (e.g. sex, age, educational level, religion, and reading ability) about each participant in order to assess the profile of each socially stratified focus group (Barahona and Levy 2002, 26).

Each group should have a moderator and two observers. The moderator facilitates the discussion, probes on key issues, elicits comments from all participants, and focuses the discussion on the issues of interest. This should be done without interrupting or ignoring extraneous comments from participants, but also ensuring that the discussion remains focused as far as possible. The observers take notes on the content of the discussion and process of group dynamics, noting, for instance, who talks the most or the least, who does not participate at all or defers to others in the group, who tries to dominate the discussion, and so on. The observers will record the discussion on tape, and photograph and sketch any visual diagrams from the tools. The facilitators will explain the purpose of the discussion and research, and prior consent will be asked from the group for the use of tape-recorders.

The facilitation and observation of participatory group discussions using some of the tools suggested is not an easy task. Researchers should be well
# SUIKARY

This paper discusses the objectives and design of a proposed World Health Survey (WHS). Particular attention is given to two objectives which the World Bank identified for a WHS, namely, to ascertain patterns and determinants of disease and to develop a methodology for impact assessment.

Many developing countries are trying to improve existing health information systems. Vital registration systems are being strensthened and censuses and surveys used to improve knowledge about mortality. Routine health services reporting is being complemented by population based primary health care reporting networks. An international programme of health surveys must complement and not threaten these existing statistical systems. It should also take into account other international programes such as the Demographic and Health Surveys and the U.N. Household Survey Capability Programme health surveys.

The main attractions of survey-based investigations of health are that they could provide population-based and person-based estimates of the extent of ill-health. The variety of health problems and priorities in developing countries suggests that there is little scope for a standardised questionnaire to be used across countries. Instead the emphasis should be on providing a pool of expertise on the conduct and analysis of studies of health. The design of each country health study should be based on a review of existing data and statistical systems. However, a single-round, retrospective health survey would in many cases form an appropriate focus for the study. It could consist of a few core questions complemented by country-specific modules. The core questionnaire might include questions about mortality, general morbidity during the previous two weeks and action taken as a result, chronic ill-heaith among adults and anthropometry of pre-school children. This would be irn addition to questions on explanatory variables and the collection of community-level data. The 3
- Chen, J., Hoek, G. (2020). Long-term exposure to PM and all-cause and cause-specific mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Environment International. Vol. 143(105974)

- Cohen, A.J., Brauer, M., Burnett, R., Anderson, H.R., Frostad, J., Estep, K., Balakrishnan, K., Brunekreef, B.,

- Dandona, L., Dandona, R., Feigin, V., Freedman, G., Hubbell, B., Jobling, A., Kan, H., Knibbs, L., Liu, Y., Martin, R., Morawska, L., Pope III, A., Shin, H., Straif, K., Shaddick, G., Thomas, M., van Dingenen, R., van Donkelaar, A., Vos, T., Murray, C., Forouzanfar, M. (2017). Estimates and 25-year trends of the global burden of disease attributable to ambient air pollution: an analysis of data from the Global Burden of Diseases Study 2015. _Lancet._ 389(10082):1907-18.

- Colmer, J., Hardman, I., Shimshack, J., Voorheis, J. (2020). Disparities in PM2.5 air pollution in the United States. _Science_ . Vol. 369: 575–578.

- Facebook Connectivity Lab and Center for International Earth Science Information Network - CIESIN. (2018). Available at: http://ciesin.columbia.edu/data/hrsl/#acknowledgements. (Accessed: 15th September 2021).

- Fann, N., Coffman, E., Timin, B., Kelly, J. T. (2018). The estimated change in the level and distribution of PM2.5attributable health impacts in the United States: 2005–2014. Environmental Research. Vol. 167:
Martins, P. S. (2004), ‘Do Foreign Firms Really Pay Higher Wages? Evidence from Different Estimators,’ _The Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA) Discussion paper_ , **1388** .

Martins, P. S. (2011), ‘Paying More to Hire the Best? Foreign Firms, Wages and Worker Mobility,’ _Economic Inquiry_ , **49,** 2, 349-363.

McCaig B. and N. Pavcnik. (2012), ‘Export Markets and Labor Allocation in a Poor Country,’ Mimeo.

McCaig, B. (2009), ‘The Reliability of Matches in the 2002-2004 Vietnam Household Living Standards Survey Panel,’ _Discussion Paper_ , **622** , The Australian National University, Centre for Economic Policy Research.

Nguyen N. A. and T. Nguyen. (2007), ‘Foreign Direct Investment in Vietnam: An Overview and - Analysis the Determinants of Spatial Distribution across Provinces,’ <u>(http://mpra.ub.uni muenchen.de/1921/01/MPRA_paper_1921.pdf).</u> Ozler, S. (2000), ‘Export Orientation and Female Share of Employment: Evidence from Turkey,’ _World Development_ , **28** , 7, 1239-1248.

Parker, S., J. Riedel and P. V. Quang. (2007), ‘Assessment of the Five-Year Impact of the U.S.Vietnam Bilateral Trade Agreement on Vietnam’s Trade, Investment, and Economic Structure,’ a report by STAR-Vietnam project. (www.amchamvietnam.com/download/906) Rama, M. (2003), ‘Globalization and Workers in Developing Countries,’ _World Bank Policy Research Working Paper_ , **2958** .

Ramstetter, E. D. and P. M. Ngoc. (2007a), ‘Employee Compensation, Ownership, and Producer Concentration in Vietnam’s Manufacturing Industries,’ _Working
in prices from the very low end in the spectrum, are becoming a popular purchase online, in particular, among young female online buyers.

> 26 We do not have information on whether dining out refers to sit-down dining only or includes fast food consumed outside or home delivery. One possible explanation for the large coefficient of dining out is the rapid increase of the availability of online food delivery.

> 27 From the CFPS data, less than 50 percent of the households reported such consumption expenditures.

·· 16
|
|Approaches that<br>use big data|Measures that use big<br>data, such as satellite,<br>mobile phones, social<br>media, etc.|Innovative, real-time,<br>and granular analysis|Abstracts from quality,<br>affordability,<br>and<br>reliability;<br>require<br>advanced<br>data<br>science<br>skills and tools; may raise<br>ethical and data privacy<br>concerns|

_Source: Own compilation based on literature (2023)._

# 3. Energy Poverty Measures in Bulgaria

**We next explore several energy poverty measures in Bulgaria.** We start by looking at purely expenditure-based measures. We then explore consensual and outcome-based approaches and the potential of big data sources. We mainly rely on data from the household budget survey (2021) and the EU-SILC (2020), the most recent data for this study.

## 3.1. Expenditure-based measures

**We start by exploring expenditure-based measures of energy poverty using survey data from 2021.** We explore the three expenditure-based approaches detailed previously and also analyze the sensitivity of these measures to varying some of the underlying parameters.

**For the relative measure, we start by defining energy spending shares as follows:** ES = EE II

, where E is the total energy spending category reported in the household budget survey (electricity, natural gas, town gas, liquified energy sources, liquid fuels, coal, other solid fuels, and heat energy). We divide it by total household expenditure and alternatively disposable household income and then compare both measures. Importantly, we rely on net income, the total income from all sources, 21
59|65.19|2.33|
|**uga**|**Price Diff**|191|173|0|720|5.89|
|**S**|**Price**|3,369|179|3,161|3,880|1.07|
|**il**|**Trace Stat**|13.74|8.54|3.71|74.19|2.26|
|**C. O**|**Price Diff**|565|422|2|1,929|4.54|
||**Price**|4,192|489|2,958|4,887|1.16|

**Notes:** (1) Population and PCI are expressed in thousands. **Source:** Own Elaboration, based on data from BPS and Bulog

25
# **1 Introduction**

Masks are an important non-pharmaceutical intervention to slow the spread of COVID19 (Abaluck et al., 2020; Howard et al., 2021), but constrained supply of high-quality masks may have generated inequities in access and accelerated the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic. Sharp increases in global demand for masks following the rapid onset of the pandemic generated fear that available supply was insufficient, motivating widespread export restrictions on masks. Countries with limited domestic mask supply, and particularly developing countries, may have faced particularly stark constraints. Concerns over limited availability of masks even shaped public health recommendations on a global scale, with the World Health Organization avoiding recommending healthy individuals wear masks during early stages of the pandemic due to limited supply (World Health Organization, 2020). Yet, there is little evidence that mask supply affected either the availability of masks or the spread of COVID-19.

In this paper, we show increases in the supply of certifiably high-quality masks decreased mask prices and slowed the spread of COVID-19 in the early stages of the pandemic in Rwanda. We estimate these impacts within an event study design using receipt-level tax data, leveraging spatial variation in exposure to domestic mask manufacturing before and after a national policy licensing domestic textile manufacturers to produce masks. We find exposure to licensed mask manufacturing decreased mask prices, increased quantities purchased of domestically manufactured masks, and reduced COVID-19 infections; we provide evidence that increased mask quality likely explains impacts of mask manufacturing exposure on the spread of COVID-19.

To produce causal estimates of the impacts of mask supply, we leverage exogenous variation in exposure through domestic textile trade networks following the licensing of domestic mask manufacturers in Rwanda. On April 17, 2020, the Rwanda Food 1
Policy Research Working Paper 6001

# **Abstract**

Using the World Bank Enterprise Surveys, we investigate the prevalence and correlates of collateralized borrowing in 131 countries between 2005–2017. Overall, 77 percent of loans require collateral, and the median loan-to-collateral value is 60 percent. Small firms and loans from non-bank financial institutions are less often associated with collateral. When collateral is pledged, the type of collateral assets is strongly correlated with the loan-to-value ratio.

This paper is a product of the Macroeconomics and Growth Team, Development Research Group. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://econ.worldbank.org. The authors may be contacted at yfan3@worldbank.org, rqian@worldbank.org, and hanguyen@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent._ Produced by the Research Support Team
)|-|+|-|-***|-|
|(J7) = (J1) + (J4)|+***|+|+|-|-|
|(J8)=(J1)+(J2)+(J4)+(J5)|+|+|-|-|+|
|Observations|12,027|7,686|1,633|6,409|6,255|
|R-squared|0.171|0.093|0.245|0.195|0.163|

Notes: Summary of regression results from regressions estimating the probability of attending school as a function of individual and household determinants, and their interactions with a post-COVID round indicator and a female indicator. Positive signs (+) indicate an associated increase, negative signs (-) a decrease in school attendance probabilities. Statistical significance: *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1. Pre-COVID round from LSMS, post-COVID data from HFPS respectively for all countries. The sample consists of 16-18 years old adolescents for Malawi, and 10-18 years old adolescents for all other countries.

# **6. Conclusion**

The COVID-19 pandemic has been an unprecedented global shock that has highlighted the vulnerability of systems and people to interconnected shocks and raised important questions about countries' readiness to face future pandemics. In this paper, we investigate how the pandemic has affected the school attendance of adolescent girls and boys in Sub-Saharan Africa. Our aim is to deepen the understanding of the impact of global shocks and draw lessons that can inform efforts to prevent or mitigate the negative effects of future pandemics.

Our study provides important insights into the gendered impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on adolescents' school attendance in Sub-Saharan Africa. While we did not find evidence of increased education gender gaps during the pandemic, the erosion of traditionally protective factors, such as descent from household head
.655***|0.269***|0.265***|0.0794***|0.0799***|
||(0.0235)|(0.0235)|(0.00533)|(0.00571)|(0.00523)|(0.00544)|(0.00449)|(0.00460)|
|Obs.|5,020|5,020|5,020|5,020|5,020|5,020|5,020|5,020|
|R<sup>2</sup>|0.597|0.598|0.370|0.372|0.387|0.389|0.169|0.169|
|_δpv −βpv_||0.497||0.218***||-0.158***||-0.0597|
|S.E.||0.324||0.0655||0.0592||0.0628|

_Notes_ : * p _<_ .1, ** p _<_ .05, *** p _<_ .01. Household-level data. S.E.s allow for clustering at the level of enumeration area (EA). All columns include a co-variate adjustment for the number of household members, as well as fixed effects for if a household was located within 10 km. of a population center with at least 20,000 inhabitants, the state-level administrative center, and a market. Additionally EA-level, state-level, month, and river sub-basin fixed effects are included, as is a dummy for whether the household was engaged in agriculture. Borno state is excluded.

31
and production are taken in log-di¤erences. Stocks are normalized as a fraction of same-year consumption. Sign restrictions follow Kilian and Murphy’s (2014) assumptions when applied to the same shocks: a positive supply shock increases consumption and production, while reducing prices; a positive demand shock increase prices as well as consumption and production; a positive speculative shock increases inventories, prices, and production, while decreasing consumption. The estimation uses annual data due to the extreme seasonality of corn production (three quarters of the year will always produce literally zero), and therefore add only one lag to model.

Results can be seen in ...gure I. The ...gure shows the historical decomposition of price changes by shock. The ...gure is quite indicative of the role of demand shocks: they clearly seem to play the biggest role, explaining 34 percent of price variation between 1981 and 2015. Speculative shocks explain 28 percent while supply explains 19 percent. This result holds some similarites to Kilian and Murphy’s (2014) model for oil, where they ...nd that demand shocks are the biggest player in the long run, though in their case it is much more absolute almost 87 percent of the long-run real price ‡uctuations are due to demand. There are certain limitation though to this result. As the Kilian and Murphy mention in their 2014 paper: "Impact sign restrictions alone are typically too weak to be informative about the e¤ects of oil demand and oil supply shocks". Therefore, the next sections proceed to use theoretical approaches so to better identify the actual sources of corn price changes.

8
J.C. Duque, N. Lozano-Gracia, J.E. Patino, P. Restrepo / LCR Flagship Report on Cities and Productivity 7

**Table 2.** Measures of metropolitan coordination.

|**Representation**|**Fragmentation Index (metro level)**|**Authors**|
|---|---|---|
|I. Governance|Governance Body<br>Age of the metropolitan area<br>Number of municipalities with the same political party|Ahrend et al. (2014)<br>Nelson and Foster (1999)<br>Pradenas (2006)|
|II. Land use plan<br>and mobility|Percent of municipalities covered by integrated transport<br>systems between municipalities and central city|Kim et al. (2014)|
|III. Coordination<br>for special<br>purpose|Percent of special purpose to general purpose<br>governments<br>Number of general purpose units<br>Number of special purpose units|Hendrick and Shi (2015)<br>Goodman (1980)<br>Goodman (1980)|
|IV. Functional<br>|Percent of people working in the central city|Feria and Susino (2005)|
|region|Number of commuting from the municipalities to the<br>central city|De Esteban (2009).|
||Percent of student population that go to the central city<br>Percent resident-job in central city|Pradenas (2006)<br>Pradenas (2006)|
||Number of telephone calls per month from the<br>municipality to the central city must be four times<br>greater.|Pradenas (2006)|

# **3 The Model**

To estimate the relationship between institutional fragmentation and economic performance of cities, measured through city productivity, we follow the two-step empirical approach devised by Ahrend et al. (2014).