rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
For students who remained with the same teacher, there is a large and signi fi cant effect of negative shocks to the teacher on learning. This result is robust across speci fi cations. It is also robust to a number of identi fi cation problems common to estimating the impact of school inputs on learning, which we discuss below. However, the results obtained on the sample of students who remained with the same teacher do not extend to those who switched teachers during the two years of the study. We suggest two reasons for this fi nding. The fi rst is selective matching of students and teachers, and the second is higher precautionary educational spending among households whose children switched teachers. Although we are able to show that the differential impact among the movers and non-movers did not arise from differences in the sample of students, we are unable to distinguish between these two suggested channels.

The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 reviews the literature. Section 3 outlines the theory. Section 4 presents the empirical speci fi cation and econometric concerns. Section 5 discusses the data used and section 6 presents the results and robustness tests for the sample of children who stayed with the same teacher. Section 7 focuses on the sample of children who switched teachers and section 8 concludes with some caveats and a discussion of the policy implications.

# 2 Literature Review

Interest in teacher attributes on student learning has recently emerged in the educational production function literature. Papers using analysis of variance techniques have shown that the variation in test scores explained by teachers is substantial. Hanushek, Kain and Rivkin (1998), using data from Tennessee schools, fi nd evidence of signi fi cant teacher effects. Park and Hannum (2002), using student-teacher matched data from China, fi nd that variation due to teacher effects explains about 25 percent of variation in test scores. More traditional regression-based studies also validate this fi nding. Rockoff (2004) using a 12-year panel of teacher-student data from two school districts in New Jersey fi nds signi
the educational opportunities of children born to college educated fathers, a failure to account for the eects of family background on conditional variance vastly overstates the educational opportunities of the most disadvantaged children with father having no schooling.

Ignoring the conditional variance can also lead to wrong conclusions in inter-group comparisons. For example, In India, the urban and rural daughters appear to enjoy similar relative mobility according to the standard IGRC estimates (0.60 (urban) and 0.59 (rural)), but the RIGRC estimates reveal a substantial disadvantage faced by the rural daughters (0.92 (rural) and 0.79 (urban)). The estimates of both RIGRC and IGRC for decade wise birth cohorts show that the evolution of intergenerational educational mobility has been very dierent in China compared to India and Indonesia. China has become less mobile from the 1950s to the 1980s while mobility has improved monotonically from the 1950s to the 1980s in India and Indonesia, and the magnitude is substantial. While both measures pick the trend correctly, the standard IGRC substantially underestimates the improvements over time in India.

The rest of the paper is organized as follows. The next section discusses the relevant conceptual issues with a focus on the economic mechanisms that can give rise to a negative or positive eect of father's education on the conditional variance of children's schooling, and lays out the estimating equations. Section (3) is devoted to a discussion of the surveys and data sets used for our analysis: CFPS 2014 (China), IHDS 2012 (India), and IFLS 2014 for Indonesia. These three surveys are dierent from many other household surveys available in developing countries as the samples do not suer from signicant truncation. This is important as truncation of a sample is expected to reduce the estimate variance. Section (4) reports the evidence on the conditional variance. In section (5), we develop a methodology for estimating relative mobility that takes into account both
Most of the above studies have focused on public firms, which tend to be large and perhaps unrepresentative of firms across countries. Thus, the definitions of external financing focus on debt and equity, and do not take into account the possibility that in some countries firms may substitute other forms of financing. However, some progress has been made over the last 10 years largely due to the firm surveys conducted by the World Bank that have greatly expanded the information available about financing patterns of especially small and medium firms across countries. These sources include the Regional Program on Enterprise Development (RPED) studies for Sub-Saharan Africa in the 1990s; Business Environment and Enterprise Performance Surveys (BEEPS) for the transition economies; the World Business Environment Survey (WBES), conducted across 80 countries in 1999–2000; and the Enterprise Surveys (ES), conducted since 2002 and available for almost 100 countries.

The Enterprise Surveys use standardized survey instruments and a uniform sampling methodology to benchmark the investment climate of countries across the world and to analyze firm performance. They sample from the universe of registered businesses and follow a stratified random sampling methodology. These surveys include micro-, small, and medium enterprises that are not captured in data sets based on published financial statements. In addition to specific firm information, these surveys contain an array of questions on the business environment in which the firm operates, the proportion of investment and working capital that is financed externally, and also the source of external financing comes (i.e., debt, equity, suppliers‟ credit, leasing, and other sources such as development banks, moneylenders, public sector or other informal sources). The more recent surveys also contain sampling weights that allow us to draw inferences about the population of firms in each country.

Beck, Demirguc-Kunt, and Maksimovic (2008) use the World Business Environment Survey (WBES) and find that while the external financing of firm investment is not a function of institutions, the form of external financing is. Firms in countries with
at 50,000 kWh)|**10.7**<br>**9.3**|14.2||

* Based on Enterprise Survey 2009 ** Based on DHS 1999 Survey and benchmarks for nonfragile low-income countries. Source: Eberhard and others 2009, derived from AICD electricity database downloadable from http://www.infrastructureafrica.org/aicd/tools/data **.**

# **Challenges**

The power supply in Côte d’Ivoire has become unreliable in recent years. As the Ivorian economy recovers from crisis and economic growth rates are picking up again, demand for power has grown. At the same time, power sector investments were neglected during the crisis. This has led to an overall shortage of supply. Transmission and distribution networks become overloaded, and there is no capacity margin to serve growing demand, both domestically and in neighboring countries. As a result, load shedding increased from 16.6 gigawatt-hours in 2007 to 30.0 gigawatt-hours in 2009. This is still a relatively small proportion of the total load served of around 5,500 gigawatt-hours during this period. Quality of service has deteriorated, with more than 20 percent losses, 36 hours of average outage duration in 2008, and 52 hours in 2009. No country-specific information on the value of lost load was available for Côte d’Ivoire, but based on an average value for other African countries of around $2.50 per kilowatthour of lost load, the total cost of outages in 2009 was $75 million, or around 0.3 percent of GDP. While worrisome in absolute terms, these losses are still towards the lower end of what has been observed in 22
12 The total share of household expenditures spent on energy averaged across all households (whether or not they used different forms of energy for which data were collected) varied from less than 4 percent in Angola, Gabon, and Sudan to almost 16 percent in The Gambia. In no country did LPG comprise the largest share. The surveys in 10 countries found the largest share had been spent on electricity and in another 10 countries on “others,” which were mostly wood, charcoal, coal, and kerosene. The largest share spent on LPG was 2.1 percent in Lesotho (Figure 4).

**Figure 4  Percentage of total household expenditures spent on different forms of energy**

<!-- Start of picture text --> Electricity<br><!-- End of picture text --> <!-- Start of picture text --> Gasoline and diesel<br><!-- End of picture text --> _Source_ : World Bank staff calculations using household survey data. _Note_ : The expenditure shares are averaged across all households, including those reporting zero expenditures. Others = solid biomass and other fuels.

The urban and rural results on the energy expenditure shares can be found in Figure A2.5 and Figure A2.6, respectively, in annex 2. In urban areas, the energy expenditure share varied from less than 4 percent in Angola, Gabon, and Sudan to 16 percent in The Gambia. Electricity comprised the largest share in 11 countries, followed by “others” in nine and gasoline and diesel in three. By contrast, the share in rural areas varied from less than 2 percent in Angola (1.4 percent), Ethiopia (1.0 percent), and Liberia (1.9 percent) to 12 percent in Malawi. “Others” led the largest share in 14 countries, followed by gasoline and diesel in four countries, and finally by kerosene in two countries and electricity also in two countries. The expenditures
restaurant survey in the Lima Metropolitan Area. The objective of the survey was to determine the nutritional composition of the meals most frequently consumed away from home and offered to the public in commercial facilities. Following a stratified random sampling design by socioeconomic strata, ENCONUT collected data on 1,738 restaurants offering menus at lunch time.<sup>7</sup> Each menu included at least two courses, a main dish and a starter, and might also include a dessert or a drink. During the first stage of the survey, the owner, manager, or chef reported on the number of servings of the three most highly consumed meals per day during the work week (Monday to Friday), the preparation and serving times, the price and the ingredients used. The net response rate was 97.6 percent (1,696 restaurants). During the second stage of the survey, restaurants were visited again by nutritional specialists, who observed the preparation of the menu, and weighed, in raw and cooked form, all the ingredients in the menu, including starter, main dish, dessert and drink. On a subset of restaurants, the ingredients of the most highly consumed menus were subsequently taken to the laboratory for further analysis. As a result, detailed information on the calories, proteins, fat, carbohydrates, fiber, zinc, iron, beta carotene, vitamin A1, vitamin A, vitamin C, and sodium are available on each menu. An important advantage of the data is that nutrition professionals observed the preparation of the menus and weighed the ingredients as meals were prepared, minimizing potential measurement errors. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, there is no comparable restaurant study in the developing world.

ENAHO, a continuous multi-topic household survey, is the main source of information on the measurement and the monitoring of the living standards of the Peruvian population. Among the wealth of individual information, the survey also collects detailed information on the food consumed away from home by each adult household member.
, the TFP ratio between mining and WRT services in the south (–1.785) is much smaller than that in the north (21.434).

Table 3 summarizes the main findings on regional differences in intersectoral linkages between 2004 and 2013 using the I-O tables for the north and the south. Simple difference-indifferences calculations (between 2004 and 2013, between the north and the south) for valueadded share, Domar weights, and the TFP, suggest a larger mining output and productivity shock in the south than in the north. Correspondingly, the TFP in “other industry” is also larger in the south than in the north. In addition, the difference-in-differences outcomes on the intermediate use share, and input downstreamness index point to the prominence of mining in supply chain growing at a faster rate in the south than in the north, which in turn produces differences in intersectoral linkages with mining between the south and the north. To recapitulate, we find support for the link between the mining productivity shock and differences in intersectoral linkages between the south and the north. Several factors could explain this result, including a weak productivity shock in mining and limited intermediate use by other sectors in the north.

12
the political processes occurred in the 12 countries during the historical period from 1970 to 1995.

6. Barro & Lee

- Barro, Robert and J.W. Lee, "International Measures of Schooling Years and Schooling Quality," AER, Papers and Proceedings, 86(2), pp. 218-223. Data file "School4.raw" contains the data on educational attainment at various levels for the population over the age 15.

29
8%|33.3%|71.3%|
|final assembly<br>enterprises||||||
|Vertically integrated<br>intermediary goods<br>producingenterprises|1,033|12.38|21.9%|20.7%|21.2%|

Source: Authors estimates based on the NBRB dataset.

Table 1.5: Vertically integrated enterprises <u>of Minsk Motor Plant (key characteristics)</u>

|**_Name of the enterprise_**|**_Role_**|**_Employment_**<br>**_at the_**<br>**_enterprise_**|**_Km from_**<br>**_Minsk_**|**_Employment_**<br>**_as a share_**<br>**_of total_**<br>**_population_**|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|Minsk Motor Plant|Final Assembly line|5800|0|0.3%|
|Gomel enterprise of engine starters|Subsidiary|530|302|0.1%|
|Zhitkovichsk motor works|Subsidiary|530|122|3.3%|
|Lida mechanical enterprise|Subsidiary|480|160|0.4%|
|Radiovolna factory|Subsidiary|2000|386|0.6%|
|Subsidiary in Stolbtsi|Subsidiary|1480|79|9.6%|
|Enterprise BZA|Subsidiary|1500|100|1.0%|

Source: Authors estimates based on information provided by the Ministry of Industry.

**The economic rationale underlying vertical integration of production is to ensure governance.** How would otherwise the producer of final products guarantee that intermediate parts would be available on time and quality?<sup>9</sup> Vertical integration has contributed to improve reliability of
lower scores mean better performance (observed scores go from 8 to 72), and divisions are broader categories of performance. In 2013, almost 300,000 students sat for the UCE exams.

_District League Table (DLT)_ : The District League Tables (DLT) are published in the Annual Health Sector Performance Report by the Ministry of Health and comprise both quality of care and management indicators. Data from local facilities is compiled using the Health Management Information System (HMIS) and aggregated at the District level. We use the 14 indicators for performance and the total score for the FY 2014/2015 (See below for details).

|||**Weight**|<br>**Explanation**|
|---|---|---|---|
||||Dihthi-tt-ti (DTP3)|
||DPT3 Coverage (%)|15|peraeanusperusss<br>immunization coverage|
||||Share of infants delivered in|
||Deliveries in gov’t and PNFP facilities (%)|15|government or Private Non for Profit|
|**re**|||facilities|
|**ality ca**|OPD Per Capita|10|Number of outpatients department<br>(OPD) visits per capita|
|**qu**|HIV testing in children born to HIV+ women (%)|10|-|
|**and**|Latrine coverage in households (%)|10|-|
|**ge**|||Share of pregnant women who|
|**era**|IPT2 (%)|5|completed Intermittent preventive|
|**Cov**|||therapy (IPT) against Malaria<br>Proportion of pregnant women|
||ANC 4 (%)|5|receiving 4 or more antenatal care<br>visits|
||TB TSR (%)|5
# 3. Methodology of the sea dike system assessment

Using the information presented in the previous section, a methodology — outlined below — was set out to preliminarily define potential investment levels for Vietnam’s sea dike system. The focus of this assessment is to define the difference between the actual and required crest height of each coastal stretch, and to translate this into an investment level using a common practice unit cost for upgrading dikes (per meter of crest height and per kilometer of dike length). This approach is used only for policy analysis, to assess investment needs and define priorities, and has been used globally in other countries, such as the Netherlands. The approach has several limitations, since it does not include any geotechnical or structural assessment of the dike system, inter alia. Nevertheless, this level of analysis is considered sufficiently accurate for gaining a better understanding of the order of magnitude and geographical distribution of investment needs in Vietnam’s coastal protection system.

The methodology consists of three steps. First, the hydraulic boundary conditions of the coastal stretch are defined. Second, the required crest height for each stretch is determined. Finally, based on the obtained information, the investment needs per dike stretch are determined. These steps are explained in detail below.

## Step 1: Defining the hydraulic boundary conditions for each coastal stretch

The design water levels for each stretch of the coastal protection system have been directly adopted from the MARD’s dike design standards. These numbers represent the best possible information available in Vietnam. Frequency curves are available for more than 120 coastal locations, providing water levels for return periods ranging from 1–100 years. In this assessment, each stretch of the coastal protection system has been assigned a design water level from the frequency curve of the nearest point. If necessary, the design water level has been interpolated or extrapolated from the frequency curve.

Apart from design water levels, wave information is also necessary to define required crest heights. The MARD’s dike design guidelines also
This approach, used to evaluate the adequacy of social benefits and the living wages, defines a minimum consumption basket encompassing goods and services necessary for minimum living standards. A comprehensive basket accounts for various factors beyond basic sustenance. Although the EU relies on relative poverty measures, the absolute concept of the poverty line based on a minimum cost of living is valuable for establishing appropriate social benefits or minimum wages. A food basket reflecting an adequate diet for various reference households is a valuable tool for benchmarking. Estimates based on a Romanian food basket estimated by the EC under the European Reference budget network indicate that in 2020 euros, the food basket's average monthly per capita cost is around 126 EUR, and approximately 180 EUR when factoring in non-food components and other functions.

**Given these EC estimates of the food basket, our results show that the net monthly statutory minimum wage in Romania (276 EUR) exceeds the living wage required for food expenses (245 EUR) yet falls short of covering both food and non-food components (351 EUR), holding economic implications.** An adequate minimum wage encompassing basic consumption costs could diminish reliance on social assistance, enhance labor market participation, elevate incomes, reduce income inequality, and promote job stability. However, striking a balance between worker income and job market stability is vital, warranting an assessment of its impact on labor dynamics. Periodic adjustments to maintain purchasing power over time is also important.

**Drawing from a rich administrative tax database, we show that the minimum wage seems binding in Romania.** According to administrative tax data, the proportion of individuals earning the minimum wage slightly surpasses 25%. Yet, a related study (Robayo-Abril, Balaban, Wronski, 2024) demonstrates that this estimate is inflated compared to survey data, including survey data supplemented with estimated tax income. Tax evasion and off-the-books wages could account for the overstated prevalence of minimum wage earners in tax records.

**The prevalence of minimum wage recipients exhibits noteworthy variation across several employee categories
still hugely underdeveloped. Individually, there is not a single country in the region that has introduced reforms in its secured transactions system, which is illustrated by the position of individual countries in the ranking (see Table 2). The first group of countries in the ranking (Jordan, UEA, Saudi Arabia, Oman, Bahrain, Kuwait) are 106 in the overall ranking, while West Bank & Gaza is the last country with a score of 0 in Legal Rights. The infrastructure for modern secured transactions regimes is largely missing in the MENA countries.

> 19 The strength of legal rights index measures the degree to which collateral and bankruptcy laws protect the rights of borrowers and lenders and thus facilitate lending.

10
# 3.1.2. Power outages in Bangladesh

Load shedding volumes have decreased recently, thus suggesting improved network stability.

The Bangladesh Power Development Board (BPDB) is responsible for the planning, construction, and operation of power generation and transmission in the country. A key challenge for the BPDB is to meet energy demand during peak hours, and frequently resorts to load shedding (Islam and Khan, 2017). Load shedding is a common measure applied to avoid overloading the electricity network, employed by utilities when electricity demand exceeds supply to maintain voltage stability (Taylor, 1992). According to the _Sustainable Energy for All_ initiative, 79 % of connected consumers in Bangladesh suffer power outages caused by regular load shedding.<sup>15</sup> However, the WEF (2018) observes a considerable improvement in Bangladesh’ electricity reliability index in the period between 2011 and 2017 (Figure 1.2). The information derived from daily BREB reports for the divisions Chittagong, Rajshahi, Rangpur, Khulna and Sylhet<sup>16</sup> suggest that load shedding is an almost daily occurrence in Bangladesh. But indeed, the data also show that over the period 2012-2016, the number of days with load shedding decreased continuously in all divisions, where data could be extracted (Figure 3.6). This can be interpreted as a sign of a more efficient power system, as power generation is aligned more accurately with electricity demand.

**Figure 3.6: Decrease of the number of load shedding events and increase of the number of days of power outages caused by storms**

<!-- Start of picture text --> 100 2.5<br>90<br>80 2<br>70<br>60 1.5<br>50<br>40 1<br>30<br>20 0.5<br>10<br>0 0<br>2011 2012 2013 2014 2015<br>Source