rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
<mark>Public perceptions of climate change are the major determinants of countries’ climate and energy response. Understanding the drivers of concerns about climate change is essential to designing effective communication strategies, democratic policies, and socially robust technologies</mark> <u><mark>(Whitmarsh and Capstick 2018).</mark></u> <mark>This paper investigates recent trends in attitudes toward climate change in Eastern and Central Europe and Central Asia based on data from the 2016 and 2023 rounds of the Life in Transition Survey (LiTS). It shows that despite increasing attention from policy makers, scientists, and the media, the proportion of respondents willing to pay to combat climate change declined significantly between the two rounds. We propose and test several hypotheses that could explain the deterioration of public support for climate change policies in the region.</mark> <mark>This paper contributes to the literature on perceptions of climate change in several meaningful ways. I</mark> t is among the first to quantitatively demonstrate the growing influence of right-wing populism on support for climate policies across countries in Europe and Central Asia. It systematically tests several hypotheses to explain the decline in climate policy support, including competing priorities, personal experiences with extreme weather, and political polarization. The paper contributes to a better understanding of factors influencing public opinion on climate change. The paper is also one of the first to draw on data covering the period of profound transformations of the political and economic landscape in Europe and Central Asia, including as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, the sharp increase in the cost of living, and the Russian Federation’s invasion of Ukraine.

<mark>The paper is organized as follows. Section 2 reviews the literature. Section 3 outlines our hypotheses. Section 4 describes the data and presents some descriptive results. Section 5 presents the main results of our multivariate analysis. Section 6 summarizes the paper’s main findings and proposes policy implications.</mark>

#
**Table 1. UNESCO and PISA measures of school closures (in weeks)**

||UN|ESCO|PISA coun|try average|
|---|---|---|---|---|
||Full closures|Full and partial|Student-provided|Principal-provided|
|||closures|length of closures|length of closures|
|Shortest (p10)|5|15|10.6|8.0|
|Very short (p25)|9|29|16.1|13.7|
|Average (p50)|14|38|21.5|17.9|
|Long (p75)|20|54|29.5|29.0|
|Longest (p90)|33|77|38.8|40.4|

# **3. Empirical Strategy**

We model the effect of the pandemic on student achievement by predicting the deviation of the most recent 2022 results from an estimated linear trend in mathematics, reading, and science achievement using comparable data from all PISA rounds, using the model estimated in Jakubowski et al. (2023). We estimate each country’s linear trend separately and include country-level fixed effects to control for unobserved time-invariant country characteristics. The linear regression model is: where _i_ denotes students _, j_ schools, and _k_ countries with _n_ equal to the number of countries. In this case, _D_ equals 1 for 2022 data collected after the pandemic and zero for previous years; captures the impact of the pandemic on student achievement and is a vector of socio-ββ ii demographic variables at a student and country level (gender, socioeconomic status, immigrant XX background). In this case, is our estimate of interest capturing the average departure of achievement in 2022 from the long-term trends in different countries. ττ Identification of the impact of the pandemic on achievement depends on the estimation 8
**Table 2. Comparison of data on labor income in the national accounts, tax data, and EU-SILC.**

||**2020 National accounts**|**2020 Tax admin data**|**2021**<br>**EU-SILC**<br>**income year)**<sup>**5**</sup>|**(2020**|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|**Coverage**|Covers both employees<br>and<br>self-employed,<br>includes social security<br>contributions paid by the<br>employer|Covers only employees|Covers both emp<br>and self-employe|loyees<br>d|
|**Aggregate**<br>**compensation**<br>**of**<br>**group (employees and**<br>**or self-employees)**|87.0 B. € (annual)|67.0 B. € (annual)<br>(only employees, lack of<br>self-employed<sup>6</sup>)|75.8<br>B.<br>€<br>employees<br>and<br>employed)<br>74.5 B € (employe|(both<br> <br>self-<br>es)|

_Source: Own based on Eurostat,_<sup>_7_</sup> _tax data, and the EU-SILC._

**Since this method of estimating tax compliance requires merging multiple data sources, proper methods for statistical matching must also be assessed, given the data availability and the country context; data fusion techniques receive increasing interest from researchers and statistical agencies (Donatiello et al., 2016a; Lamarche et al., 2020
forces, i.e. the Police (174,000 people), the Kamra (people's security - part-time police auxiliary).

Wages bill of Consolidated Central Govemment and GDP estimates are from IMF Government Finance Statistics Yearbook, 1995 and are for 1993. Data on wages in manufacturing (monthly basis) are taken from the Statistical Yearbook of Indonesia 1993 and refer to 1991.

Kiribati
- 8 -

of metering. High system losses, whether technical or nontechnical, would incur large implicit fiscal deficits along with underpricing and nonpayment. This is often a significant problem in the electricity sector of developing countries. The quasi-fiscal deficits can amount to as much as 1 to 2 percent of GDP.<sup>5</sup>

**Figure 2. Electricity Transmission and distribution losses (percent of total)**

<!-- Start of picture text --> 0 10 20 30 40 50 60<br>Moldova 50.4<br>Albania 2003 41.4<br>2005 40.9<br>2007 36.5<br>2009 35.4<br>Kyrgyz Republic 28.2<br>Macedonia, FYR 22.4<br>Bosnia & Herzegovina 18.8<br>Tajikistan 16.9<br>Latvia 16.7<br>Serbia 15.8<br>Azerbaijan 14.2<br>Turkmenistan 14.0<br>Turkey 13.9<br>Armenia 13.1<br>Georgia 12.8<br>Ukraine 11.7<br>Belarus 11.7<br>Romania 10.9<br>Bulgaria 10.9<br>Russian Federation 10.3<br>Kazakhstan 9.6<br>Poland 9.1<br>Uzbekistan 8.8<br>Lithuania 8.2<br><!-- End of picture text --> Sources: KESH data for Albania; World Development Indicators for other countries.

In Albania, the electricity system losses have been a long controversial issue, because they are extremely high by both global and regional standards (Figure 2). The losses, though gradually declining, were estimated at 35 percent in 2009. Despite some recent improvements, the Albania’s system is still losing about one-third of total energy produced (and imported).

On paper, the meter
They also withhold tax at a rm-specic rate between 0% and 6%.<sup>17</sup> The withheld amount is remitted to the tax authority as advance payment on the sales tax. Card companies are also considered to be highly compliant with their reporting obligation, so that a rm can be relatively certain that its card-machine sales will be reported to the tax authority.

The ling deadline for third-party reports by rms and state institutions is the same as the ling deadline for the income tax, December 15. Credit and debit card reports are led monthly. The tax authority uses all informative declarations, combined with customs declarations on imports and exports, to automatically cross-check all income tax returns. Taxpayers with strong discrepancies between third-party information and the self-assessed tax declaration, and/or meeting other criteria<sup>18</sup> , are selected for partial audits or full audits.

Third-party reports, combined with the list of tax registered rms, are also used to identify nonlers, i.e. rms that have not complied with their ling obligations, for the income tax, the sales tax or third-party reports (reporting transactions with suppliers or clients). The tax authority uses dierent communication interventions, variably relying on emails, phone calls, or personal visits, to follow up with non-lers. However, given human resource constraints, the non-ler campaigns do not systematically cover all non-lers and all ling obligations each year.

# 2.3 Data

The data set used in this paper includes the anonymized income and sales tax returns for 2013-2015 for rms ling in Costa Rica, both corporations and self-employed. This amounts to about 360,000 income tax returns per year and 68,000 sales tax returns per month. The data allows us to measure compliance prior to the experiment (2013), estimate the eect of the experiment on ling for the scal year 2014, and estimate the medium term impact on ling in 2015. The data includes all
(5.6). An activity factor for travel of 3 lies between these extremes, and it is in the same range as “walking slowly” and “driving a motorcycle.” Based on NSS data, the car ownership rate in rural areas as late as 2005 was only 1%, and in urban areas was only 3%. Motorcycle and bicycle ownership rates are higher in 2005 (8% and 48% respectively in rural areas, 25% and 44% in urban areas). The approach used here still allows better-off households (proxied by per capita expenditure) to economize on travel time by using faster modes of transport, which leads to lower activity levels since travel is fairly energy-intensive compared to most other activities, but does not allow for potentially higher or lower activity factors associated with different modes of transport for a given amount of travel time measured in the TUS.

To impute activity levels to individuals in the NSS-E, individual activity levels in the TUS are regressed on a set of common variables to generate predictive equations. Separate equations are used for each combination of rural/urban, male/female, under 15 and over. Appendix Table S.3 presents the set of variables and regression coefficients for these regressions, which include detailed age and household demographics, education levels, land, per capita expenditure, household and individual two-digit NIC (1987 National Industry Classification) and NCO (1968 National Classification of Occupations), and work status variables (e.g. self-employed, casual worker, salaried worker, student, domestic duties, etc.). Dummy variables are also constructed for the TUS to match the detailed agricultural task variables (based on the previous week) and domestic chores (for women with primary status as domestic), based on whether households report any time spent during the last week on activities like weeding, harvesting, caring for animals, collecting firewood or water, food collection and preparation, etc. As with REE, values outside of the 1% of the tails
MONGOLIA'S INFORMAL SECTOR Contents

**iii**

# Table of Contents

|**Abstract.**<br>**............**<br>**i**|
|---|
|**Preface .............**<br>**ii**|
|**Table of Contents...........**<br>iii|
|**Tables ..............**<br>**v**|
|**Figures.**<br>**v**|
|Boxes**.............**<br>**v**|
|**1.**Overview**.1**<br>What Does It Mean to be "Informal" in Mongolia?<sup>.</sup><br>2|
|Sources of Information.<br>6|
|Outline of the Report.<br>6|
|**2. Observations**on**the Size of the Informal Sector.**<br>**8**|
|Employment in the Informal Sector.<br>8|
|Background on Employment Statistics in Mongolia.<br>8|
|<br>Trends in Employment in Ulaanbaatar's Informal Sector.<br>9|
|The Current Situation: Employment in Ulaanbaatar's Informal Sector .12|
|Aggregate Household Income in the Informal Sector .........<br>13|
|Trends in Informal Income .13|
|The Current Situation: Aggregate Informal Income in Ulaanbaatar .14|
|<br>Trends and Current Size of the
- (a) has there been a major change in the importance of these restrictions as reflected in measures such as the share of trade subject to NTBs;

- (b) have there been major differences in the longer-term spread of nontariff measures in different industries or product sectors;

- (c) have there been different patterns of resort to NTB use

- at the national level in developed countries?

The paper also attempts to asses; the implications of its findings for both GATT and the multilateral trade negotiations.

# II. The Data and Methodology

In recognition of the major problems posed by nontariff barriers and the difficulties connected with the lack of information on their application and incidence, initiatives were made in the early 1980s to establish comprehensive NTB inventories for developed and developing countries. The most extensive project produced the Data Base on Trade Measures UNCTAD maintains for most developed market economy countries (full information is not available for Australia, Spain, and Portugal) and about 80 developing courtries. The Data Base, generally available at the national tariff line level, identifies each NTB and briefly describes its nature, identifies the countr7 imposing the restriction, indicates the official source of information
of children's growth. In Section 6, we describe the variables that were selected to be included in regression analyses of child anthropometry on the basis of theory, previous results and data availability. In Sections 7 and 8 we present and comment on the results of our modeling of child growth in rural Guatemala. Finally, in the conclusions section we summarize the main findings and discuss their policy implications.

# **II. CHILD ANTHROPOMETRY**

# **2.1 Measurement of Child Health Status with Anthropometric Data**

Among anthropometric measures, weight-for-height, height-for-age and weight-for-age indicators have been utilized extensively. Height-for-age, weight-for-height and weight-for-age deficits are commonly interpreted as indicative of chronic, acute and total malnutrition respectively. It is very important, however, to recognize that height and weight are measures of growth attainment rather than nutritional status _per se_ (Martorell 1982; WHO Working Group 1986).

The focus of this research is on children's height-for-age outcomes. We use the term malnutrition to refer to the cumulative consequences of inadequate intake of protein energy and micronutrients and frequent infection, as reflected in children's reduced skeletal growth. Given the cumulative nature of the human height process, other information beyond that obtained in a one-time measurement is needed to separate the effects of nutrition from those of genetic factors, past infections and other factors which affect the growth attainment of an individual child. Nevertheless, from a large sample of cross-sectional measurements it is possible to draw meaningful conclusions at the population level about the prevalence and the determinants of children's stunting.

# 2.2 **The International Reference Population**

The evaluation of growth attainment requires the use of a reference population that allows for normal variation at any age. Although there are obvious ethnic differences between adults, children of different ethnicity have the potential to achieve similar levels of growth attainment in the first few years of life. Many comparative empirical studies have demonstrated the greater importance of socioeconomic factors as opposed to race and ethnicity in determining children's
Figure 10: Projected deaths from drought-induced PM2 _._ 5 <!-- Start of picture text --> 2000 2020 2040 2060<br>Year<br>Observed SSP1−2.6−APS SSP2−4.5−STEPS SSP3−7.0−RES<br>30000<br>20000<br>Premature deaths<br>10000<br><!-- End of picture text --> _Notes:_ The figure plots the evolution of premature deaths in LAC. Between 2000 and 2020, it plots the average number of premature deaths. Details of this calculation are presented in Section 4.1. Between 2016 and 2059, it plots 66 projections of premature deaths (22 models _×_ 3 SSP-electricity scenarios). These calculations follow the same methodology but use runoff projections from the climate models, demographic projections from the SSPs, and electricity scenarios from the IEA. To better visualize the overall trends, we also plot a LOESS curve for the observed premature deaths and for the projections under each SSP-electricity scenario.

compass more ambitious reductions in power generation from combustion power plants, including bioenergy, technological advancement that permits the reduction of emissions from power plants, or other forms of private and public adaptation that can reduce the exposure and vulnerability of the population to PM2 _._ 5.

27
indicates the importance of conditional cooperation focusing on all single countries individually summarizing the results of 30 regressions reporting only the coefficient for conditional cooperation. In 27 of the 30 countries, the coefficients are highly statistically significant and have a negative sign. This is strong evidence of conditional cooperation in most Eastern and Western European countries. The more individuals expect others members of society to cooperate, the higher the individual‘s intrinsic motivation to pay taxes.

# **V. EVIDENCE FROM A EUROPEAN COUNTRY: A CASE STUDY ON SPAIN**

To better understand potential developments of tax morale in transition countries, one may focus on a European country that has a history of being part of the European Union and that has experienced substantial changes over time. It is therefore valuable to focus on Spain; the country has undergone fundamental changes in the public sector since its transition to a democratic system after the death of General Francisco Franco in 1975. The previous two sections of this report would suggest that such changes should affect tax morale in Spain. These very significant changes in Spanish society during the last 30 years offer an opportunity to examine citizens‘ attitudes toward paying taxes and the ways in which these attitudes are affected by changes in government policies and institutions. Martinez-Vazquez and Torgler (2009) use survey data from the World Values Survey (WVS) and the European Values Survey (EVS) to observe the evolution of tax morale in Spain at four benchmark years: 1981, 1990, 1995, and 1999/2000. Although these years do not coincide with any particular key event in the recent history of Spain, they cover a period long enough to incorporate many of the important reforms of the Spanish public sector. The study of the evolution of tax morale in modern Spain is particularly interesting because of the constitutional and political changes after Franco died in 1975. The advent of a fully democratic state, deep tax policy and tax administration reforms, a significant push for decentralization, joining the European Community and so on provide excellent benchmarks for institutional changes
i as 2 oe<br>seeBESLoa5 5) bs BioynTtponguria-navesnuvaun naw eeo=DoO oedx}PT tpeiLLELLE Temy Oey<br>aT OF “ine, SOR ay, sage 10 Wek oH Wat nan Wah WSL Ai eae coe ya 5<br>oO Pin se ° Pate Die a a o j = tg f kt<br>soe . 50 “Pe bbere, Sof 0 roghgr gGaria RE rng aire rea garage mire tk<br>ar 5 : ga :<br>a. : co ao. : ARE<br>(0) -10 = (0) 5 Fo<br>0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50<br>Total natural resource rent, Total natural resource rent,<br>1990-1999 median 2000-2015 median<br>(percent of GDP) (percent of GDP)<br>+<br>co) Oo<br>A e<br>EEG i<br>EEE<br><!-- End of picture text -->
With respect to the content of work and work opportunities, having work autonomy and learning opportunities, such as on-the-job training, are crucial in a job. They provide a sense of self-worth and are conducive to personal accomplishment. Jobs that lack a sense of responsibility or self-worth may become a psychological burden, and mental health is closely linked to job quality (Cottini and Lucifora 2013).

Because of data limitations, the paper includes only a subset of the desired characteristics of working conditions: working excessive hours, holding a second paid job, and possessing a desire to work more. The number of hours of work is readily available across surveys. Excessive work hours are defined by the ILO as work of more than 48 hours a week. This variable may be considered a good proxy for mental health and work-life balance. The justification for using the second paid job indicator is that, because of better physical and mental health, workers with one job are, overall, more highly satisfied than workers with multiple jobs (Smith et al. 2008). If respondents would like to work more, this is indicative of a poor employment situation and dissatisfaction with the current job. Indicators on health and safety issues at work, the content of work, and work opportunities are typically not available in labor force or household surveys and, therefore, cannot be included.<sup>15</sup> Unlike the three previous dimensions whereby only one indicator needed to be satisfied to achieve success, _the working conditions dimension requires all indicators to be satisfied to achieve success_ . This union approach means a job is considered satisfactory to the individual if the individual does not work excessive hours, does not work a second paid job, and would not like to work more.<sup>16</sup> Collective interest representation is sometimes considered a key determinant of basic rights at work and an important source of subjective job satisfaction, and it has been included in some JQMs (ILO 2008; Leschke and Watt 2014). Another view
before Scale: Survival and Performance of Young Plants in the Age of Cloud Computing.” Rotman School of Management Working Paper 3112901, University of Toronto, Toronto.

Johnston, Jamie and Christopher Ksoll. 2022. “Effectiveness of Interactive Satellite-Transmitted Instruction: Experimental Evidence from Ghanaian Primary Schools.” _Economics of Education Review_ 91(C).

Jouste, Maria, Milly I. Nalukwago, and Ronald Waiswa. 2021. “Do Tax Administrative Interventions Targeted at Small Businesses Improve Tax Compliance and Revenue Collection? Evidence from Ugandan Administrative Tax Data.” UNU-WIDER Working Paper 2021/17, United Nations University World Institute for Development Economics Research, Helsinki.

Jorgenson, Dale W., Mun S. Ho, and Kevin J. Stiroh. 2002. “Projecting Productivity Growth: Lessons from the U.S. Growth Resurgence.” _Economic Review_ 87 (3).

Jorgenson, Dale W., Mun S. Ho, Jon D. Samuels, and Kevin J. Stiroh. 2007. “Industry Origins of the American Productivity Resurgence.” _Economic Systems Research_ 19 (3): 229–52.

34
Policy Research Working Paper 8610

# **Abstract**

Bureaucratic complexity in citizen-government interactions can be an obstacle to accessing basic services and exercising civil rights. This paper presents a methodology to collect contributor-based data on the regulatory framework and compliance burden of six key citizen-government interactions: (i) civil registration and identification, (ii) voting, (iii) paying taxes, (iv) access to health care, (v) access to education, and (vi) access to utilities. The methodology was tested in Chile, Ghana, India, and Vietnam, and it provided an overview of the legal and regulatory frameworks. In addition, the study offers some interesting observations: (i) two of the four economies moved toward including digital components to civil registration and identification systems, making it easier to register births/deaths and obtain an identification document; (ii) three of the four economies require a specific voter ID to cast a ballot, which can discourage citizens from engaging in elections; (iii) patients accessing certain services at primary health care facilities may experience longer waits for treatment than those seeking access to the same services in hospitals; and (iv) a student’s ability to access quality education can be limited by school placement based on residential address in two of the four economies. The lessons learned suggest that future studies should use survey data collection to investigate the practical experience of citizens beyond procedures and legal requirements. In addition, focusing on fewer areas and including a larger set of countries could generate greater variability and more robust conclusions.

This paper is a product of the Global Indicators Group, Development Economics. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/research. The authors may be contacted at vperotti@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the