rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
|0.20|0.25|0.36|0.41|0.25|

_Source:_ Elaboration based on data derived from the WELCOM Stata Tool and the 2015/16 HCES; see CSA 2018. _Note:_ Consumption values are in birr of 2015.

Despite the positive but unequalizing welfare effects of greater competition on new users, an accounting of only the welfare effects on new users shows that the relative welfare gain among households in the bottom decile of the consumption distribution is 6.9 percent, compared with an average of 4.9 percent among households in the richest decile (figure 3).

**Figure 3. Relative Welfare Gains of Greater Competition in Telecommunication, New Users**

<!-- Start of picture text --> 8.0%<br>7.0%<br>6.0%<br>5.0%<br>4.0%<br>3.0%<br>2.0%<br>1.0%<br>0.0%<br>1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10<br>Consumption decile<br>incidence (percent)<br>Relative welfare monetary<br><!-- End of picture text --> _Source:_ Elaboration based on data derived from the WELCOM Stata Tool and the 2015/16 HCES; see CSA 2018. _Note:_ Bars show relative welfare in percentage. Relative welfare is the per capita welfare incidence divided by per capita expenditure, only for new consumers. Expenditure estimates were carried out by running a quantile regression model and random imputation of residuals.

# **4.3. Aggregate welfare effects of greater competition in the ICT industry**

Next, the results obtained above among both current and new users, except for the Gini index, can be added linearly to calculate the aggregate welfare effects of the breakup of the monopoly power of Ethio Telecom
Estadística y Censo_ data (2008) and from World Bank (2010).

6 The Ngobe-Bugle are the largest group (175,000 people), living mainly in the Bocas del Toro (bordering Costa Rica) and Chiriqui provinces; the Kuna on the Caribbean coast are the second largest (92,000 people); and the Embera-Woonan (33,000) live mainly in the rainforest of the Darien (bordering Colombia) and Panama provinces. The Ngobe-Bugle have the least political leverage, and this group’s culture and livelihoods are under threat. The Embera-Woonan and some smaller indigenous groups also have a weak political voice, and this group’s livelihoods are under threat because of lawlessness and safety problems, resulting in strong out-migration. The Kuna have a strong political and administrative structure, thanks to strong local leadership.

> 7 Based on the detailed analysis in ―Panama Poverty Assessment: Toward Effective Poverty Reduction,‖ World Bank, 2007.

4
**Figure 4: Operational Stock of Robots per 1000 Employees in HICs, by sector, 2004-2015**

<!-- Start of picture text --> 5.00<br>4.50<br>Motor vehicles and other transport<br>equipment<br>4.00 Electrical/electronics<br>3.50 Rubber and plastics products, and other<br>non‐metallic mineral products<br>3.00 Metals and metal products<br>Industrial machinery<br>2.50<br>Food and beverages<br>2.00<br>All other manufacturing branches<br>1.50<br>Wood and furniture<br>1.00<br>Textiles, apparel, and leather products<br>0.50<br>0.00<br>2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015<br><!-- End of picture text --> Source: Calculations based on fDi Markets Database and International Federation of Robotics Database

**Figure 5: Ratio of Robot Stock per 1000 Employees in Electronics to apparel in HICs and Ratio of Cumulative FDI Flows in Electronics to apparel from HICs to LMICs, 2003-2015**

<!-- Start of picture text --> 10 1.6<br>9<br>1.4<br>8<br>1.2<br>7<br>1<br>6<br>5 0.8<br>4<br>0.6<br>3<br>0.4<br>2<br>0.2<br>1<br>0 0<br>2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015<br>Robots per 1000 employees in electronics relative to apparel<br>Cumulative FDI flows from HIC to LMICs in electronics relative to apparel<br><!-
a phone were excluded from our study. As such, our study results are only representative of the phone-owning households in Pakistan. Fourth, given the nature of the phone survey, all responses were caregiver-reported. Fifth, since the survey was cross-sectional, we could not draw any causal inferences from our regression analyses, and rather could only comment on associations between our exposures and outcomes of interest.

# Conclusion

This work sheds light on a major gap in the ECD literature as, prior to this study, no nationally representative data existed that quantified ECD among 0–3-year-olds in Pakistan. Moreover, it highlights the need to expand the reach of parenting education programs that explicitly teach 33
Among unbanked individuals cashing checks, 21 percent mainly use banks, 68 percent use CCOs and 5 percent use grocery stores. Undoubtedly, one of the explanations for the heavy reliance on CCOs is that many banks will not cash paychecks for non-depositors. In addition, an individual cashing his or her check at a CCO can buy money orders, stamps, envelopes, and pay utility bills at that same location.

# **Table 5 Means of Paying Bills**

||**Percentage**<br>**among the**<br>**banked**|**Percentage**<br>**among the**<br>**unbanked**|
|---|---|---|
|**Most common method of paying bills**|||
|Check|63.3|0.0|
|Money order|12.6|28.6|
|Cash|10.4|36.4|
|Billpayment service|1.9|6.5|
|Automated paymentfroma bankaccount|0.8|0.0|
|**Location for purchase of most money orders**|||
|Checkcashing outlet|38.4|60.1|
|Post office|34.7|19.8|
|Supermarket|12.7|8.7|
|Bank|8.4|2.6|
|**Location for accessing bill payment service**|||
|CCO|83.0|84.9|
|Bank|3.0|0.0|
|Other|14.0|15.1|

As indicated in Table 6, another payment that many lower-income urban households make is to transfer funds to family members living outside the U.S. In the OCC survey, 20 percent of the respondents indicated that they had made at least one such remittance over the past year. Of
level of inequality in the latter countries is often lower to begin with and their post-fiscal level of inequality is significantly and uniformly lower than other countries (Fuchs et al 2021).

Figure 2. Change in inequality (Gini index) from market income to final income Figure 3. Change in inequality from market to final income across countries (Gini index) <!-- Start of picture text --> 40.0<br>Tajikistan (2015)<br>Guatemala (2011)<br>35.0<br>Honduras (2011)<br>Indonesia (2012)<br>30.0<br>Burkina Faso (2014)<br>Peru (2011)<br>25.0<br>Moldova (2017)<br>Armenia (2011)<br>20.0<br>Nicaragua (2009)<br>Dominican Republic (200<br>15.0<br>Russia (2014)<br>Bolivia (2009)<br>10.0<br>El Salvador (2011)<br>Jordan (2017)<br>5.0<br>Belarus (2015)<br>Turkey (2016)<br>0.0<br>Bhutan (2017)<br>Market Disposable Consumable Final income<br>Ecuador (2011)<br>income income income<br>Tunisia (2010)<br>Mexico (2014)<br>Brazil (2008)<br>Colombia (2017)<br>Costa Rica (2010)<br>Argentina (2012)<br>-20.0 -15.0 -10.0 -5.0 0.0<br><!-- End of picture text --> _Source_ : World Bank staff calculation using BLSS 2017.

Source: World Bank staff calculation using BLSS 2017 for Bhutan. See references section for estimates for other countries. Pensions are treated
Policy Research Working Paper 6114

# **Abstract**

Relative deprivation, shame and social exclusion can matter to the welfare of people everywhere. The authors argue that such social effects on welfare call for a reconsideration of how we assess global poverty, but they do not support standard measures of relative poverty. The paper argues instead for using a weaklyrelative measure as the upper-bound complement to the lower-bound provided by a standard absolute measure. New estimates of global poverty are presented, drawing on 850 household surveys spanning 125 countries over 1981–2008. The absolute line is $1.25 a day at 2005 prices, while the relative line rises with the mean, at a gradient of 1:2 above $1.25 a day. The authors show that these parameter choices are consistent with cross-country data on national poverty lines. The results indicate that the incidence of both absolute and weakly-relative poverty in the developing world has been falling since the 1990s, but more slowly for the relative measure. While the number of absolutely poor has fallen, the number of relatively poor has changed little since the 1990s, and is higher in 2008 than 1981.

This paper is a product of the Director’s office, Development Research Group. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://econ.worldbank.org. The authors may be contacted at schen@worldbank.org and mravallion@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily
**Table A5. Validation of Outcomes Reported by Principals Using Administrative Data and Household Surveys**

||Outcome data source|Survey Data<br>(WBSCPS)|Survey Data,<br>employment<br>rate|Administrative<br>Data|HH Survey<br>(21-25 years old)|HH Survey<br>(25-29 years old)|HH Survey<br>(21-29 years old)|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|||(1)|(2)|(3)|(4)|(5)|(6)|
||Graduation rate (%)|62.19||30.30||||
||Dropout rate (%)|14.90||||||
|Brazil|Extra time to graduate (%)|11.99||||||
||Employment rate (%)|73.52|69.65|65.6|76.00|82.00|80.00|
||Wages (USD,PPP 2019)|10,730.00||10,006.40*|10,155.00|13,440.00|12,472.00|
||Graduation rate (%)|58.41||61.00||||
||Dropout rate (%)|14.25||23.00||||
|Colombia|Extra time to graduate (%)|24.04||25.00||||
||Employment rate (%)|57.25|65.42|63.00|75.00|78.00|77.00|
||Wages (USD,PPP 2019)|10,313
# **5. Conclusions**

**This paper aims to provide new information to support the Malaysian government in formulating evidence-based policies on foreign workers.** Anecdotal evidence suggests that the COVID-19 pandemic has had large negative effects on foreign workers in Malaysia. For example, foreign workers who are laid off because of contractions in business activities related to the MCO or the pandemic more broadly are not legally allowed to be employed by other companies while remaining in Malaysia. At the same time, many cannot go back to their home countries because of travel restrictions as a COVID-19 mitigation measure. Furthermore, irregular foreign workers have limited access to public medical facilities and treatment, posing health risks. Foreign worker estimates by nationality and by state thus could help formulate policies on how to reallocate existing foreign workers in the country and on how to adjust foreign worker levies and new inflows of foreign workers during the MCO phase and thereafter. Such policies would help the government to strengthen the economy in the recovery phase of the COVID-19 crisis.

**We demonstrate that the BNM remittance data set is a useful source to estimate the number of foreign workers on a monthly basis, using a 12-month moving average.** Our experience suggests that simple monthly data are too volatile for these purposes, as some foreign workers remit on an irregular basis. To smooth out fluctuations in monthly data and to capture an annual net stock of foreign workers, a 12month moving average would be an appropriate method. The initial work to try to identify individuals who transfer money on behalf of others is time-intensive, but once this model is set up, big hurdles would be lifted and thus it would be relatively straightforward to produce monthly estimates and future projections on a timely basis. In that context, our work contributes to making progress in the initial settingup stage. During this exercise, it is important to ensure data privacy of individual remitters. Bearing this in mind, we used MSP system-generated personal unique identification numbers as a variable for remitters.

**Our estimates
95|0.4|0.3|0|1|
|<br>**Composition of reserve portfolio - Co**|**ntinuous v**|**ariables**||||
|Number of eligible currencies|100|7.9|4.3|1|20|
|Number of eligible assets|97|6.8|2.8|1|14|
|Allocation to nontraditional assets (%)|71|10.1|17.0|0|72|
|Estimated risk of the portfolio|71|1.0|0.3|0.8|2.9|
|Investment horizon – Total tranched and untranched portfolio (months)|57|35.3|30.7|1|126|
|Duration – Total tranched portfolio (months)|52|22.4|18.9|1|84|
|Duration – Liquidity tranche (months)|64|7.8|12.6|1|76|
|Duration – Investment tranche (months)|62|32.1|31.5|3|180|

With respect to governance arrangements, we consider as independent variables those indicated in the RAMP survey results as differing across central banks and which could therefore influence central bank investment policies and risk taking. We use dummy variables for the following governance arrangements:

- (1) We consider an investment committee independent if it approves the investment management guidelines, that is, the specific investment rules for managing the portfolio.

- (2) We explore whether the middle office reports directly to the board.

(3) We also consider whether the middle office reports performance and risk metrics to the investment committee.

14. The survey question specifically asked whether the middle office reports to the board on performance and risk metrics and compliance with the investment management guidelines.

10
. (1999), suggest that solving the puzzle of the low level of investment and the weak link between investment and growth in Africa may require exploring more closely other determinants of investment, such as the degree of reversibility or risk.

Micro panel data on characteristics of capital stock and firm productivity could improve our understanding of the link between investment and growth. Unfortunately, this type of data is not readily available. Bank coverage has improved recently with the implementation of the three

> 1 l This result is derived by looking directly at the productivity of the firms, and indirectly at the degree of tolerance of the markets toward inefficient investment.

20
") the product themselves”. This suggests it may have not just been an economic consideration as to whether to use and continue using the service or not.

# **3.4 Data for Measuring Impacts**

IPA Colombia conducted five rounds of high-frequency short-term follow-up surveys at 2, 4, 6, 10, and 14 weeks after the launch of Agruppa in a block. We would survey a treatment block and its corresponding control block in the same week, staggering the timing to match the staggered timing of the baseline surveys and introduction of Agruppa (see timeline in Appendix 2). These high-frequency surveys were short in length and intended to capture the immediate responses in terms of the key mechanisms through which the service was designed to affect firms: travel to Corabastos, purchase and sales prices for the core Agruppa products, and sales and profits for the

> 12 Agruppa staff also note that despite their best efforts, service quality may not have remained stable over time, so that this increase in product variety may have been accompanied by offsetting service issues.

13
-0.0119|-0.0158|
|[VI] - [II]|0.00669|-0.00153|-0.0506|
|[III] - [II]|0.338***|0.0941|0.0273|
|[IV] - [III]|0.0609|0.156***|0.0271|
|[VII] - [IV]|-0.0452|-0.071|-0.0381|

Note: Robust standard errors clustered at the village level in parentheses. All regressions include child characteristics (age, grade, gender, and stunting), family characteristics (household wealth, mother’s education, parenting practices), ECED characteristics (average quality, average fees), and district fixed effects.

*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1

32
investment for long-term benefits in this region, what actionable lessons can be learned from an analysis of the variation in citizen experiences within the health care system?

# 2. The Service Delivery Indicators initiative

The SDI surveys were developed to directly respond to the need for accountability in social sector service delivery. The SDI initiative began in 2008 when researchers and practitioners at the World Bank Group, in partnership with the African Economic Research Consortium (AERC), the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation and the African Development Bank, developed novel survey tools and methodology to comprehensively measure primary health care and primary education service delivery.

The SDI initiative is premised on the concept of making services work for the poor, as outlined in the World Development Report 2004.<sup>10</sup> The report emphasizes the idea of accountability and of enabling clients to give feedback directly to providers of services. By creating measures of service provision through the SDI, health care providers can be held accountable for providing quality services and individuals in the community can use the results to demand improvements. Through this “short route to accountability”, health systems can be improved not just through government decisions but by an active process involving citizen engagement. This focus is echoed in the recent Lancet Commission on High Quality Health Systems, which noted that “governments and civil society should ignite demand for quality in the population to empower people to hold systems accountable and actively seek high-quality care.”<sup>11</sup> The SDI health facility survey offers a set of indicators for benchmarking of health system performance. These indicators focus on potential determinants of the quality of services provided: the knowledge of medical providers; their effort towards patient care; and the availability of necessary equipment, supplies, and medicines. The survey adopts the perspective of an average patient, meaning that the focus is on indicators of provider knowledge of common conditions, and physical inputs required for commonly-used services. This information is collected through enumerator visits to a representative sample of health facilities in each
<sup>31</sup> The LTO, for example, reported a lack of basic infrastructure and key items such as laptop computers.

Thus the cases show that these reforms have not generated high recurrent cost obligations in comparative terms. In the best cases increases in salaries were offset by staff reductions. The case studies do suggest, however, that capital expenditure is limited to the point of creating inefficiencies for several of the agencies. The cases also show that the start up costs of the reform—including for retrenchment and purchase of new

> 30 Calculations based on SARS data. Using 2001 budget data ( _Estimates of National Expenditure_ ), the average collection costs ratio rises to 1.10% over the same period and does not show a steady increase. 31 These figures do not include special capital investment projects, financed separately by the MOF, in the IT area.

23
_Services PTAs_ a strong positive effect on services trade, with no evidence of trade diversion from nonmembers (Park and Park, 2011). Guillin (2013) confirms that _only_ services PTAs matter for services trade, and goes one step further analysing the heterogeneous impact of the agreements. Guillin introduces a ‘depth’ measure which clusters services PTA in three groups of low, medium and high liberalization depending on common features, and finds that deeper agreements tend to result in greater services trade.

This paper contributes primarily to the strand of literature on the heterogeneous impact of PTAs characterized by different depth. Studies on PTAs’ depth have multiplied in recent years (e.g. Baier et al. (2014); Orefice and Rocha (2014); Kohl and Trojanowska (2015); Kohl et al. (2016); Mattoo et al. (2017); Mulabdic et al. (2017); Dhingra et al. (2018); Baier et al. (2018); Dhingra et al. (2021)), thanks to various PTA classifications and depth measures constructed on the basis of data on the content of PTAs produced by Horn et al. (2010), Hofmann et al. (2017), and the DESTA project (D ̈ur et al., 2014). The common finding of this literature is that deeper agreements generate more trade, due to the growing importance of PTAs that go beyond reducing tariffs on goods, but also concern aspects relating to foreign investment, dispute settlement, competition between domestic and foreign firms, intellectual property rights, and market access for services providers. Despite the wealth of studies examining the depth of trade agreements, works that have explored its impact specifically on trade in services are few, and are those more directly related to our work. Mulabdic et al. (2017) and Dhingra et al. (2021) exploit the World Bank Deep Trade Agreements 1.0 ( _horizontal depth_ ) Database<sup>5</sup> (
considered the post-treaty period. Since country dyads may sign more than one treaty, we also recorded the number of treaties signed until 2008 (end year of our study) or any other appropriate end year (e.g. if the country ceases to exist at a certain year prior to 2008). While it may be true that one successful agreement may preclude the negotiation of additional agreements, we contend that increased variability across time may require additional agreements between the protagonists to solve lingering environmental change. On a whole, we expect those country dyads governed by more treaties to exhibit additional resilience. Treaty data are retrieved from the Transboundary Freshwater Dispute Database (TFDD) international treaty database. In terms of variables, we used a dummy variable indicating the presence or absence of a treaty between dyad partners ( **_Treaty_** ), as well as a continuous variable indicating the number of treaties ( **_Number of Treaties_** ) signed between them.

# _<u>Basin Events of Conflict and Cooperation</u>_

To identify whether a river basin governed by a treaty tends to be more resilient to the impacts of water variability, we utilize a combined measure of conflict and cooperation. We use this proxy because river riparians most often exhibit both types of relations throughout time (Zeitoun and Mirumachi, 2008).<sup>4</sup> We develop our combined conflict-cooperation indicator based on the water events data stored in the International Water Events Database at Oregon State University (OSU), created under the framework of the Basins at Risk project (BAR) and covering the period 1948-2008 (Yoffe et al., 2003; De Stefano et al., 2010).<sup>5</sup> Each event includes a brief summary and source of information coded by date, country pair (dyad), basin, and issue area. Each event is also coded according to

> 4 Such a measure provides a comprehensive assessment of hydropolitical relations in the basin which could potentially
Gender and Education: Insights from Vietnam Household Surveys, forthcoming in _The World Economy_ .

Fukase, E., & Martin, W. (2000). The Effects of the United States Granting MFN Status to Vietnam. _Weltwirtschaftliches Archiv_ , 136(3), 539-559.

Galiani, S., & Sanguinetti, P. (2003). The Impact of Trade Liberalization on Wage Inequality: Evidence from Argentina. _Journal of Development Economics_ , 72, 497-513.

Goldberg, P. K., & Pavcnik, N. (2007). Distributional Effects of Globalization in Developing Countries. _Journal of Economic Literature_ , 45(1), 39-82.

Gonzaga, G., Filho, N. M., & Terra, C. (2006). Trade Liberalization and the Evolution of Skill Earnings Differentials in Brazil. _Journal of International Economics_ , 68, 345-367.

GSO. (2000). _Analyzing the Results of the Industrial Survey of Vietnam_ 1999. Hanoi: Statistical Publishing House.

35
<!-- Start of picture text --> i<br>-1<br>1<br>I<br>g<br>1<br>1<br>1<br>2s H<br>2 1<br>6i<br>3 1<br>1<br>1<br>1<br>4<br>1<br>1<br>1<br>o<br>10 20 30 40 50<br>Percent Nitrogen (%N)<br><!-- End of picture text --> The bars present the percentage of the 369 fertilizer samples with nitrogen content equal to the values shown on the X-axis. The dashed vertical line indicates the amount of nitrogen in authentic fertilizer. Data from the covert shopper survey, with percent Nitrogen (%N) tested in the lab.

<!-- Start of picture text --> =@=—<br>=@—<br>=——<br><!-- End of picture text -->