rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
market, but has been widely used to measure political competition . The Herfindahl Index is obtained, at the electoral area level, by the sum of the squares of candidates’ votes. Higher values are associated with a less competitive environment (the index ranges from 1/N to 1, where N is the number of candidates).

_Poverty Rates_ : Poverty rates are estimates for 2013, using the national poverty line (which ranges from US 0.88 to US 1.04 2005 PPP per capita depending on the region) (World Bank, 2016b). These are small areas estimates produced by the World Bank, using data from the 2013 UNHS and 2014 Census data. For details on methodology see for example Ebers, Lanjow and Lanjow (2002).

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move to sell off a controlling stake in National Microfinance Bank (NMB) to a foreign strategic investor with strong experience in rural credit appears to have paid off through an introduction of innovative new products and approaches to agricultural finance and microfinance. Besides crop finance, banks and microfinance institutions have made limited headway in finding secure and cost-effective ways of lending for agricultural finance.

The banking sector, however, performs only a very limited role in the economy, even by Sub-Saharan African standards. Private sector credit remains limited, short-term interest rate spreads are high, banks continue to invest approximately half their deposits in government securities (although loan to deposit ratios have improved in recent years), and banks maintain significant offshore foreign currency deposits (about 39% of total deposits as of October 2007). Housing finance is negligible as residential mortgages represent less than 1% of all bank loans.

In order to develop new business models and lending technologies, the key task for government will be to ensure the legal and information infrastructures for banks and other financial institutions are in place. The general credit culture and institutional framework for contract enforcement remains underdeveloped and this has inhibited the growth of financial markets. The almost total absence of a mortgage market is a reflection of both the uncertainty concerning land title and the inability to enforce a contract.

Foreign banks, particularly the new entrants, have been challenged in mobilizing local currency for lending to match both their capital and institutional capacity. A better-developed interbank market would serve to extend the provision of credit within the domestic financial system. In 2008, shilling deposits were held largely by the three large domestic banks.

The efficient operation of the financial markets can be much assisted through the effective use of registries such as a land registry, company registry and a movable collateral registry. In addition, banks in particular are supported in their lending activities through the use of credit information bureaus. While these registries exist in Tanzania, their usefulness has been impeded by relatively weak implementation (and, in the case of the credit
39 Consideration should be given to modifying regulations if there is a reasonable chance that their costs outweigh benefits.

# **_Price disclosure_**

In markets with price competition, including those with price ceilings, price disclosure could aid price competition. The government can play an important role by collecting information on prices and making the information easily accessible. Among the most detailed, timely, and accessible is the online price database in Chile—mandated by a resolution issued in January 2012—which is also available on iPhone, BlackBerry, and Android. The database gives viewers the choice of displaying data in order of increasing or decreasing price and the address of each filling station, prices, and the date and time of the last price change (CNE 2013).

The government of Guatemala highlights on its Web site the filling stations with the lowest prices in the Guatemala City Metropolitan Area with their addresses and street maps every week (Guatemala MEM 2013). The Nicaraguan Institute of Energy surveys about 75 filling stations in Managua every week and provides details on the three highest-priced and three lowest-priced filling stations (INE 2013). The Authority for Consumer Protection and Competition in Panama, proclaiming “an informed consumer has power,” collects and posts gasoline and diesel prices at filling stations every four weeks, highlighting those with low prices (Panama ACPC 2013).

If only city-average or country-average prices are disclosed, if prices by filling station are published but one month later, or if prices are averaged by company across the country, the scope for promoting price competition is reduced. Aside from disclosing current prices by company and location, it is important to promulgate and enforce a rule that requires prices to be posted on display boards at readable heights that are clearly visible to drivers. For price competition to benefit consumers, there needs to be effective monitoring and enforcement of technical standards, or else a competitive fuel market could lead to partial or total product degradation, with a low-quality product (adulterated, mislabeled, or short-weighted) driving out a high-quality
<br>camfed, financial support, TZA<br>providing information on earnings, MDG<br>community-based preschool, MOZ<br>bcc, NER<br>bcc+cash transfer, NER<br>psl, LBR<br>0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14<br>Current LAYS<br>Current LAYS Years of Schooling + LAYS Gained from IE<br><!-- End of picture text --> _Notes: This calibration assumes no loss of effectiveness once an intervention operates at national scale, which often is not the case. Alternative calibrations could apply a discount factor to account for weaker effects at scale. For the purposes of this exercise, which are designed only as a calibration of effect sizes, we provide a single estimate. We include years of schooling and learning-adjusted years of schooling (LAYS) from publicly available data used in the World Bank’s Human Capital Index for each country. The LAYS gained from the impact evaluation (IE) indicates how much a given intervention or policy helps a country close its country-specific LAYS gap as well as bridge the global LAYS gap. The dashed red line at 14 years of schooling indicates the “distance to the frontier” as defined by the HCI as 14 years of high-quality schooling. Where the LAYS gained from the IE result in a LAYS estimate that exceeds the global benchmark of 14 of high quality schooling, we set the LAYS gained from IE estimate to the value needed to close the global LAYS gap fully._ Figure 8: LAYS Gained per $100 per Intervention, Calibrated to Country-Level LAYS Gaps 31
– <u>Figure 8 Demand for redistribution and perceptions of equality, 2009</u> Source: own elaboration based on ISSP Social Inequality data set.

Note: Net demand for redistribution is equal to the percentage of people strongly agreeing with the statement “it is the responsibility of the government to reduce income differences between people with high incomes and those with low incomes” minus the percentage strongly disagreeing with that statement. Net equality perception is equal to the percentage of people believing theirs is an equal society (type D) minus the percentage believing theirs is an unequal one (type A). National weights used. Gini index estimated on per capita household income.

The fact that demand for redistribution – which eventually feeds into each country’s political process – appears to be closely associated to perceptions of equality underlines the relevance that a theory on the formation of perceptions has. As a prior, we analyze in the four panels of Figure 9 the correlation between perceptions of equality and a set of variables that make up the economic context in which individuals form their opinion about inequality: unemployment rate, poverty headcount rate, and government expenditure on education and social protection. The latter two understood as broad proxies of the equalization of opportunities and mitigation of inequalities through government, respectively.

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of the social cohesion index (i.e. “willingness to interact with outgroups”), participants were asked to imagine that they need to become part of a committee to decide what type of amenities should be provided in the park that they saw in the VR experience. They were then told that in this committee they would be working with one other person, who was always shown to be a member of the opposite sex and of a randomly assigned ethnic group. The selection of the social cohesion indicators was informed by Naef and Schupp (2009), Wilson (2017), and Glaeser, et. al. (2000) for the measures of trust; Strangor (2012) on stereotypes and prejudice; and UNICEF’s Compilation of Tools for Measuring Social Cohesion, Resilience, and Peacebuilding on inclusion and tolerance. They were relevant for the study context, where other data sources had shown that perceptions and trust toward other groups were low—according to the 2018 World Values Survey, nearly 70 percent of the Pakistanis mistrust people of another religion and 74 percent believe that most people cannot be trusted.

The variable definitions are provided in Table 1.<sup>14</sup> Because the survey included a wide set of questions, four indices were constructed to reduce the dimensionality of the data and the number of statistical tests performed: where refers to the index score for each individual , defined as the sum of the z-scores of the variable DD included in the index. The control mean and standard deviation were used to construct the z- DDii II DD zz scores. Additionally, was standardized for ease of interpretation. Cronbach’s Alpha, which shows the ii strength of the consistency of the components included in each index, indicates that three of the indices DD II (“use of public spaces”, “trust toward outgroups” and “perceptions toward outgroups”) have a coefficient higher than 0.6, while one index (“willingness to interact with outgroups”) has a
we have Informal Competition, which is measured by the share of firms in a city that self-report as competing with informal firms.<sup>18</sup> We in addition control for other key measures of business environment such as _Capacity Agglomeration,_ which captures the concentration of firms within a city that possess high capacity either in terms of technology, management or their ability to adapt to a changing competitive environment.<sup>19</sup> For cultural/institutional environment at the country, we have several groups of variables. First, on female empowerment, we have indicators from the OECD Development

> 17 See Table 2 for definitions and sources of all key variables.

> 18 We do not have other variables capturing competition intensity with formal firms due to the lack of data.

> 19 Following, for example, Clarke _et al_ . (2015), we proxy Capacity Agglomeration by the share of firms in a city that employ more than 50 workers. The use of this proxy is consistent with evidence from many studies which have shown that (reasonably) large firms have stronger capacity than other firms in developing countries.

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Brazil) in each sample period.<sup>25</sup> If a partner has a larger comparative advantage in a certain good then that may affect the preferential tariff that Argentina gives to that partner, given that the partner stands to benefit more from a preference in that good. We thus calculate an index of RCA that is based on Balassa (1965) for each 4-digit ISIC sector and country. The index is given by RCA= (Xij⁄Xtj)⁄(Xiw⁄Xtw) , where _Xij_ and _Xtj_ denote exports of product _i_ by country _j_ and total exports by country _j_ , respectively, and _Xiw_ and _Xtw_ are exports of product _i_ and total exports by the world, respectively. A value greater than one indicates that the country has a revealed comparative advantage in that product relative to the world. We obtain the bilateral export data needed to construct the indexes of revealed comparative advantage from UN Comtrade.

The fourth issue involves the other potential contribution of our paper, which is to search for explanations of the potential causes of the variation in relative trade liberalization outcomes that we observe for Argentina and Brazil. In particular, since MERCOSUR eventually became a customs union during this period, we explore whether its members may be able to exploit their joint market power via the common external tariff. This is illustrated by a number of theoretical papers that have shown how customs unions may create new incentives for members to increase external levels of import protection, relative to when the agreement was “only” a free trade area.<sup>26</sup> To capture this potential effect, we introduce measures of market power that rely on estimates of the inverse of the export supply elasticity that the policy-imposing country faces in an industry. For this we use the newly available foreign export supply elasticities provided by Nicita, Olarreaga and Silva (2015). Since there are no estimates of the export supply elasticities faced by MERCOSUR as a block, we proxy for the change in market power due to the
different from the other. Inferential test statistics were based on a confidence level threshold (α) of 0.05, and the acceptance or rejection of the null hypotheses was based on final _p_ -values.

# **Data Availability**

Generally, the datasets for the analyses were previously published and accessible through two (2) major public repositories. The overall crowdsourced price data was published on the data portal of the European Commission Joint Research Center (EC-JRC, 2022; SolanoHermosilla, et al., 2021), while the AI-estimated prices data is available through World Bank’s microdata library.<sup>2</sup> The initial correlative analysis between crowdsourced and ground truth

> 2 The search tags are, respectively, RTFP, RTEP and RTFX for Real-Time Food Prices, Real-Time Energy Prices, and Real-Time foreign eXchange Rates. Links to the dedicated data sets have been provided in

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Income and Subjective Well-Being. _Journal of Happiness Studies_ , 1-28.

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Pochmann, M. (2012), Nova classe média? O trabalho na base da pirâmide social. Boitempo, São Paulo.

Randell, H. (2016). The short-term impacts of development-induced displacement on wealth and subjective well-being in the Brazilian Amazon. _World Development_ , 87, 385-400.

Ravallion, M. (2012). Poor, or just feeling poor? On using subjective data in measuring poverty. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No.5968, Washington DC.

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Rojas, M. (2016). The relevance of happiness: Choosing between development paths in Latin America. In _Handbook of happiness research in Latin America_ (pp. 51-62). Springer, Dordrecht.

Sampaio, A. (2014). Brazil's angry middle class. _Survival_ , 56(4), 107-118.

Sarracino, F., & O’Connor, K. J. (2021). Economic growth and well-being beyond the Easterlin paradox. In _A Modern Guide to the Economics of Happiness_ . Edward Elgar Publishing.

Schroeder, C., & Yitzhaki, S. (2017). Revisiting the evidence for cardinal treatment of ordinal variables. _European Economic Review_ , 92, 337-358.

Schütz, F. F., Bedin, L. M., & Sarriera, J. C. (2019). Subjective well-being of Brazilian children from different family settings. _Applied Research in Quality of Life_ , 14(3), 737-750.

Senik, C. (2011). Is happiness different from flourishing? Cross-country evidence from the ESS. _Revue
Mechanism**|**Per**|**centage break**|**downper mechan**|**ism**|||
||**Condu**|**cted**|**No duty or mea**|**sures imposed**|||
||**Agricultural**|**Industrial**|**Agricultural**|**Industrial**|||
|Dumping|8.1|91.9|21.4|78.6|||
|Safeguard|26.5|73.5|0.0|100.0|||
|WTO|9.1|90.9|0.0|100.0|||
|_Special_|0.0|100.0|0.0|100.0|||
|Andean|58.3|41.7|0.0|100.0|||
|AEC 24|100.0|0.0|||||
|**TOTAL**|16.9|83.1|13.0|87.0|||

Source: Calculations by the authors based on data from the Ministry of Trade.

Another interesting result is that all the investigations for dumping of agricultural products have ended with no duties being imposed, while in the case of industrial products, duties were denied in 32% of the cases. In the case of safeguards, it may be noted that all the investigations conducted for agricultural products have ended with the levying of measures, while 36% of the investigations for industrial products have resulted in no measures being imposed.

A more detailed breakdown of the sectors that have requested the application of anti-dumping duties shows that chemicals, iron and steel products and petrochemicals represent almost 70% of the investigations (Chart III.3).<sup>19</sup>

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monotonous trend. This suggests reliance on population statistics or use of interpolation techniques.

_(2) Omission of the civil strife._ Most importantly, these estimates do not take into account migration flows and the consequences of the civil war on the economically active population. Especially the last point devalues official estimates. According to the Commission for Historical Clarification (1999), the internal military conflict left an estimated 200,000 civilians dead and another 1 million displaced, for a total population of about 10 million. Such an immense impact of the civil strife should be reflected somewhere in the statistics? but it is not.

# **Figure 3. Guatemala: Labor Force, 1950-2002** (millions of workers)

<!-- Start of picture text --> 5<br>4<br>3<br>2<br>1<br>0<br>50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 00<br>Estimate ILO INE<br><!-- End of picture text --> _Source:_ Author’s calculations based on Banco de Guatemala (2003), INE and ILO data.

In the absence of reliable information about the economically active population from these sources, labor is here proxied by the number of private contributors to the Guatemalan Social Security System (IGSS). The reliance on the number of private contributors to the Social Security System in order to account adequately for the economically active population is also adopted in an IMF study for the case of El Salvador by Morales (1998), and for Guatemala by Prera (1999). The numbers representing the labor force are calculated by assuming that the social security

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production and export means that reforms cannot be envisioned without contemplating their short to medium term effect on output. This probably explains why, surprisingly, there is very little evidence of reform impacts on productivity, with the great majority of studies focusing on production (Akiyama _et al._ , 2003).

Data for production (000 Tons), area (000 Ha) and yields (Kg/Ha) is available from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) as well as from the International Cotton Advisory Committee (ICAC) for the years 1961-2008. The FAO data are reported in seed cotton terms whereas the ICAC data is reported in cotton lint terms. As the impact of weather conditions is likely to be more directly perceivable in seed cotton terms, we primarily use the FAO data.<sup>12</sup> The ICAC data is however used to perform data quality robustness checks. Our panel thus comprises the 16 SSA countries for which both the FAO and the ICAC provide data.<sup>13</sup> These countries correspond to the 13 biggest producers of rain-fed cotton in SSA between 1998 and 2008 (Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Chad, Côte d‟Ivoire, Mali, Mozambique, Nigeria, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe), plus Malawi, Kenya, and Senegal. Cameroon, Chad, Mali and Senegal retained monopolistic cotton markets until 2008 and therefore constitute the control group in the most recent years when all other countries introduced reforms.

# _3.2.2 Market structure_

The institutional variables are taken from a database constructed in a companion paper (Delpeuch and Leblois, 2011), which provides precise and consistent market organization indices for 25 African cotton markets from 1961 to 2008. The first variable used, _Post Reform_ , is simply a dummy variable that takes on the value one when the traditional monopolistic market organization is abandoned for any other market organization system. The default category, pre-reform, is thus always a monopolistic market in
subcomponents of any one of these clusters, say for example, food security alone, cannot substitute for inadequate levels of access to the other clusters or individual components of these clusters.

For an accelerated progress towards reducing child malnutrition what is required is a more complete and detailed knowledge of the extent to which there are gaps in access to adequate levels in each of the clusters of underlying determinants. In contexts where child malnutrition is prevalent, a detailed profile of communities or districts or even countries in terms of whether there is adequate or inadequate access to each of the subcomponents of food security, environment, health and child care, can provide a solid basis for the identification of potential binding constraints impeding progress towards reducing child malnutrition. This exercise may also facilitate the prioritization among interventions in the event that limited financial resources or capacity on the ground, do not permit simultaneous improvements in all of the critical factors of child malnutrition.

In spite of the fundamental role of interactions among the three pillars of (i) food security, (ii) environment and health, and (iii) child care, there is a paucity of evidence on the extent to which there is adequate or inadequate access to one or more of these three pillars.<sup>**2**</sup> To a large extent the lacuna of such evidence, may be attributed to the relative scarcity of nationally representative data sets with all the necessary detailed information (in the same survey) on child nutrition, and all the variables that could capture in a satisfactory manner the different dimensions of food security, environment and health and care practices. Until now, there has been no systematic effort at documenting the gaps in the necessary data. The most commonly used sources of data such as the Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) or the Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS), for historic or budgetary reasons collect data for some key variables such as child care and environment and health without much useful information collected on food security. These surveys are