rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
gravity model and provides various robustness checks. Section 5 shows the results of the regressions, and the last section concludes by discussing the policy implications.

# **2 Literature Review**

The existing literature on the relationship between data regulation and international trade is still very limited, especially when focussing on personal data. In part, this lack may be explained by the difficulty in collecting extensive policy information on the regulatory rules in different countries. In the case of data regulations, this difficulty is further amplified by the novelty of the topic. However, in the past years, some significant efforts have been made to categorize data-related regulatory policies, upon which this papers elaborates.

Earlier undertakings to collect regulatory data policies can be found in Ferracane _et al_ . (2018), in which the authors created the Digital Trade Estimates Database and the Digital Trade Restrictiveness Index (DTRI). The database lists a wide range of policy restrictions in digital trade for 67 countries, including data-related policy measures. The analysis on data policies has been further refined with the development of the Data Restrictiveness Index presented in Ferracane _et al._ (2020), which looks at data restrictions that apply on cross-border data flows and on domestic data processing. Meanwhile, other databases have now also picked up data-related measures that affect digital trade, particularly with respect to digital services. Examples include the OECD’s Digital Services Trade Restrictiveness Index (DSTRI) as shown by Ferencz (2019) and the newly updated Services Trade Restrictiveness Index (STRI) developed by the World Bank-WTO (i.e. Borchert _et al_ ., 2019). These two 3
be more, less, or similar to inequalities in home environment quality in LMICs. The relative degree of inequality in home and pre-primary environments has important implications for the potential of pre-primary to reduce, maintain, or exacerbate school readiness gaps for disadvantaged children.

This study uses data from kindergartens (KGs) and KG students in the Arab Republic of Egypt to investigate quality and inequality in both pre-primary and home environments – the two central drivers of ECD for pre-primary students. It is particularly unusual to have data on both pre-primary quality and home environments in LMICs, to be able to examine inequality as well as potential complementarities or substitutions between these important inputs. Egypt is a valuable setting to be able to assess this inequality; the country has relatively low pre-primary enrollments compared to other countries at similar levels of development (El-Kogali & Krafft, 2015). Pre-primary is also the phase of education in Egypt with the largest socio-economic inequality (Krafft & El-Kogali, 2021).

Based on existing literature, we hypothesized that disparities in the quality of learning environments (at home and in pre-primary settings) and disparities in children’s developmental outcomes would be evident in Egypt, as they are in other countries. We specifically examine, for Egyptian pre-primary students, how pre-primary quality, stimulation at home, and early childhood development outcomes vary by socio-economic status (SES). We further explore which aspects of pre-primary quality (such as the physical environment or pedagogy) are more equitable. Due to lack of research on young children in Egypt, we had no specific hypotheses on whether disparities would be larger in home or pre-primary learning environment, nor did we hypothesize on the 2
|3030 F|U.N. 1988 revision (prelim.)|Celade printout<br>2/87|Celade printout<br>2/87|
|Peru|Jul 81|17005 F|Bank projection from census,|1980-85, Bank assessment;|1980-85. Bank assessment;|
||||adjusted for 4.1X undercount|1985-90, Bank projection|1985-90, Bank projection|
|.ilippines|May 80|48098 J|Bank projection from census,|Based on 1986 Contraceptive|Based on 1983 National|
||||adjusted for 1.9X undercount|Prevalence Survey|Demographic Survey|
|Pitcairn<br>Island|<br>Dec 85|b F|UNPVSR<br>4/87|||
|Poland|Dec 78|35061 J|Official<br>est.. StatisticaL<br>Year Book|Based on INED 10/87|Based on UNPVSR<br>4/87|
|Portugal|Mar 81|9833 F|Eurostat 1987|Eurostat 1987|Eurostat 1987|
|Puerto Rico|Apr 80|3197 F|UNPVSR<br>1/88 (official<br>est.)|1980-85, UNPVSR<br>1984<br>Special Supplement;<br>|1980-85, UNPVSR<br>1984<br>Special Supptement;<br>|
|||||1985-90, Bank projection|1985-90, Bank projection|
|Qatar|Mar 86|369 F|U.N. 1988 revision (prelim.)|U.N. 1988 revision (prelim.)|Based an U.N. 1988 revision<br>(prelim.)|
|Reunion|Mar 82|516 J|U.N. 1988 revision (prelim.)|U.N. 1988 revision (preLim.)|U.N. 1988 revision (pretim.)|
|Romania|Jan 77|21560 F|Bank projection from
expenses and/or save. The online survey is most unrepresentative in its over-inclusion of urban residents (92%, versus 65% in the F2F sample) and those with at least some higher education (43%, versus only 13% in the F2F sample). It is thus important to interpret the results of this survey as reflecting the attitudes and beliefs of a primarily urban, relatively educated sample. Most analyses (unless otherwise indicated) nonetheless adjust the data to better approximate a national probability sample using the weighting criteria followed by the Arab Barometer to adjust their surveys conducted in 2020-2021 via telephone, based on demographics in the 2014 Moroccan Census and the (face to face) 2018 Arab Barometer survey. Details of the weighting procedure are in the Appendix.

The pre-registered analysis plan for the survey<sup>3</sup> and the Appendix include details about the survey questionnaire and the questions used to construct the variables used in the analysis below. The following sections briefly introduce the relevant items’ wording, scales, and modification.

# **3.2 Time Use Survey Items**

A battery of questions on the survey asked respondents to indicate who in their household usually did each of the following tasks (in parentheses are the short names for each of these variables used in subsequent analyses and visualizations). Following recent work that has highlighted the importance of cognitive labor or the “mental load” as both distinct from physical labor and, in other settings, more likely to be undertaken predominantly by women (Catalano Weeks 2022; Daminger 2019), I included both physical and mental or managerial tasks: _Physical tasks_

- Minor home repairs (fixing appliances, broken doors or windows, etc.) ( _repairs_ )

- Buying groceries and other daily necessities ( _groceries_ )

- Cleaning the house ( _cleaning_ )

- Cooking ( _cooking_ )

> 3. Available at https://osf.io/b6ntz/?view_only=1ac20cd71c714ea4bc7e8f43db6a5dd2.

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br>.2 .2<br>0 0<br>45-46 49-50 53/54 57/58 61/62 65/66 69/70 45-46 49-50 53/54 57/58 61/62 65/66 69/70<br>age age<br>Pension Eligible Working/Total Pension Eligible Working/Total<br>rate rate<br>rate rate<br>rate rate<br>rate rate<br><!-- End of picture text --> Notes: Calculated using the 2008 CHARLS pilot (China), 2007 IFLS (Indonesia) and the 2006 KLoSA (Korea).

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13 the time, the money could be used to set one up. According to the socio-economic survey collected by the Thai national statistical office in 2004, 50 percent of VF borrowers used the loan to fund agricultural activities, 30 percent used the loan to fund daily expenses, while 14 percent used the loan to fund non-farm business (Boonperm _et al._ 2012). Given this, we expect that the VF may have had a positive impact on the number of informal and – to a lesser extent –formal jobs. We discuss below how we try to capture the effects of the VF in our estimations so that our UC impact estimates are not biased.

Let _yipt_ be our outcome of interest for individual _i_ in province _p_ at quarter _t_ . Our estimating equation takes the form: where _Xipt_ is a vector of covariates at the household- and individual-level, the _UC_  _pt_ and _VF pt_  are a series of dummies capturing the UC and VF policies defined in a way that we explain below,  _p_ and  _t_ are province- and period-specific effects (each quarter is allowed its own fixed effect), and _eit_ is an error capturing unobservable variables and noise. Our interest is in the  which capture the effect of UC (we discuss their interpretation below). In our estimation of eqn (1), we heed Angrist and Pishcke’s (2009 p.94 ff) advice and use OLS rather than a limited dependent variable model to estimate the marginal effects of interest. We adjust standard errors for clustering at the province level, since this is the level of variation in the UC program.
Figure 5. Payments of Taxes and Benefits of Public Spending by Household, by Fiscal and Care Categories (Percentage of Market Income) _Source:_ Rodriguez, Wai-Poi, and Woodham (2022).

For households in the _single adult, dependents_ care category, fiscal policy through consumable income reduces the poverty headcount by over 50 percent. For most other care and fiscal groups, poverty falls only slightly from market income to disposable income and then plateaus when moving to consumable income, accounting for indirect taxes and subsidies (see Figure 6).<sup>38</sup>

> 37. Official poverty is measured using the household per capita consumption aggregate and results in a poverty rate for Jordanians of 15.7 percent. As a standard in the CEQ approach, we do not report the poverty impact of in-kind transfers, since these benefits are neither cash (as all the taxes and other spending benefits are), nor are considered when constructing the poverty line.

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|Food and beverage services|na|16.6|na|54.4||112||61|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Retail trade|**44.8**|**22.8**|**60.7**|**35.6**|355|392|305|392|
|Transit services|59.1|na|67.6|na|81||108||
|**% of firms with sales <50,000 birr**|||||||||
|Manufacturing beverages|na|99.1|na|99.5||113||94|
|Food and beverage services|na|92.2|na|62.1||112||61|
|Retail trade|**74.0**|**88.7**|**60.1**|**85.6**|355|392|305|392|
|Transit services|50.4|na|56.5|na|81||108||

Source: Author’s calculations using ESS 2018/2019 and ESS2021/2022. Note: Significant differences at p _<_ 0.05 are shown in bold.

# **_3.3 Sector composition and implications for the presumptive tax_**

Male-owned businesses are more likely to pay taxes on incomes (17% versus 7% of female enterprises as shown in Table 3) and larger businesses are more likely to pay taxes than smaller businesses (see Appendix 7). By imputing how much presumptive tax would be paid using the tax code, the results show that a lower share of female enterprises (16.8%
variables are the same as in the base specification (column 2) of Table 3.  With isolated exceptions, none are significant.  Only village population and community radio stations are reported here.

In fact, in Table 6, no determinants of school inputs seem to matter, consistent with the government‘s claim to allocate resources on a strict per capita basis, or with the possibility that allocation is purely random. The only correlate that is significant in even two of the specifications is village population. Both significant results, however, are intuitive: larger villages with larger student populations have higher student-teacher ratios (classroom size is approximately two pupils larger). On the other hand, they are also more attractive to teachers: teacher absenteeism is somewhat lower in larger villages.

A further test of the accountability channel is to ask whether households with greater access to community radio have greater knowledge of government policies relevant to literacy. Prior research emphasizes the impact of media on government responsiveness through its effects on citizen knowledge (e.g., Besley and Burgess 2002; Strömberg 2004), but data limitations have prevented researchers from examining whether this is indeed the case.<sup>13</sup> The Benin household 13 Snyder and Stromberg (forthcoming) is an exception; they estimate effect of newspaper access on
how likely they are to “Calculate the effect of each solution on your profits” or “Decide which of these solutions to do, based on your gut feeling”. The former is considered a “good” action associated with the use of _problem solving and decision-making_ skills, while the latter

> 4The sources for these items can be found in Das et al. (2024), but include influential papers such as Schutte et al. (1998), Schwarzer and Jerusalem (1995), Duckworth and Quinn (2009), and Frese et al. (1997). 5Scenarios and responses were developed using critical incident sourcing and surveys of possible responses as recommended by Cabrera and Nguyen (2001). The list of actions following each scenario mirrors the content of the self-reported scales, such that the included definitions are as similar as possible. Measures utilize an adapted format that allows them to be administered verbally while minimizing cognitive load for respondents.

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We first confirm the literature’s findings of high elasticities of wages and revenue total factor productivity (TFPR) in the poorer countries: Our wage elasticity estimates using plant-level data for Ethiopia of .052, and for Indonesia of .057 are not as high as those for China, India and Africa estimated using the labor surveys mentioned above, but they are three times our estimate for the richest country in our sample, Chile (.017) which is close to the estimates for more advanced countries. However, we then show that these measured benefits largely disappear once the concomitant rise in prices is accounted for – efficiency gains measured as the elasticity of physical total factor productivity (TFPQ) with respect to density show negative point estimates for the three lower income countries and significantly so in some specifications for Ethiopia and Colombia. Rather, we find that the elasticity of marginal cost is strongly positive for these countries, suggesting that the costs of operating in developing country cities increase sharply with population, and this pushes up prices and hence wages. Our estimates suggest that the TFPQ elasticity, in fact, increases with development, while the marginal cost elasticity decreases. The net benefit to firms of operating in a city rises steeply with development, with the elasticity of gains in productivity exceeding that of increasing costs likely occurring only at middle income.

These findings raise the question about why firms and workers would move to the city in the first place if they are not getting productivity enhancing benefits. It first bears noticing that the equation of urbanization with industrialization and even increased productivity is historically a recent one. Bairoch (1988) reminds that urbanization began with the emergence of surplus arising from sedentary agriculture and cities served as a provider of services and distribution of rents long before the arrival of industrialization. In his most negative account, he sees Rome, the largest city in the ancient world, as an exactor of tribute, a “parasitic” city that had little in the way of industry, and sees many developing country cities as “
Policy Research Working Paper 10607

# **Abstract**

Violent conflict between nomadic herders and settled— mostly agricultural—communities in Nigeria occurs as both groups clash over the use of land and resources, in part, due to a changing climate. This paper uses panel data from 2010 through 2019 to study the labor responses of individuals to exposure to herder-related violence during the post-planting and post-harvest seasons. Specifically, it considers a “shadow of violence” channel, where recent exposure to a violent event alters labor-related responses to a subsequent event. Results find that in the post-planting season, exposure to a herder-related violent event leads to an increase in informal work for both men and women, a decrease in agricultural work for men, and an increase in total hours worked for women among households that have previously been exposed to herder-related violence in the preceding six months. The paper also considers two other specific forms for a “shadow of violence” channel—namely, raised tensions over open-grazing bans enacted in 2016 and 2017 within three states and a drastic peak in violence in the first half of 2018—and find similar results. Lastly, findings show how household exposure to violence can have so-called knock-on effects. Households exposed to herder-related violence in the previous post-planting season shift consumption and crop selling patterns in the post-harvest season. These findings highlight the gender-specific labor response to violence and document the role of the informal sector as a partial safety net for individuals in the presence of adverse shocks.

This paper is a product of the Global Indicators Group, Development Economics. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/prwp. The authors may be contacted at dfrancis@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of
the estimated income per capita was less than 1/3 of minimum wage (net of taxes), then the household members were deemed eligible for the Green Card.

Step 3: The local committee decided whether or not qualifying applicants (according to steps one and two above) were indeed to be admitted to the Green Card program. Even if the household was formally eligible, the committee was able to use its discretion not to provide the card if evaluated the person/s not as poor. The household members who qualified each obtained an individual green booklet which registered all interactions with the health system.

This hybrid targeting mechanism, combining central criteria with local knowledge and assessment, resulted in a progressive roll-out of the program during expansion.

# **3. Data and Variables Used**

We use two main data sources in our Green Card assessment: the Turkey Household Budget Surveys (HBS) from six consequent years (2003-2008) and the Turkey Welfare Monitoring Survey Baseline dataset (collected in May 2009).

HBS data sets are cross-sectional household surveys collected annually by the Turkish Statistical Institution (TURKSTAT). Their main purpose is to provide estimations of household expenditure levels for various categories and to monitor poverty developments in the country. The samples are nationally representative, varying in size but large throughout (25,764 households in 2003, about 8,600 from 2004-2008). The data provide consistent information over time, capture households‘ access to health insurance as well as health expenditures in various sub-categories.

The HBS contains a number of variables which allow for an assessment of the Green Card program. First, it records, for each individual household member, access to various forms of health insurance such as the formal social security health insurance, private plans, or the Green Card program. We can then use nominal household per capita expenditures to assess the targeting and coverage outcome of the Green card program.<sup>3</sup> Health expenditures are recorded in line with the international COICOP standards.

> 3
areas (e.g., productivity losses and declining export demand), which results in a significant decline in the intermediate demand for the cash crops. On the other hand, food crop and livestock production increase in response to plummeting imports.

Female-owned livestock, fishing, and forestry activity expand by almost 13 percent during the crises, resulting in an increase in the total production of livestock, fishing, and forestry activity and the total production of female-owned agricultural activities. In other words, female-owned agriculture shifts to livestock production as their capital productivity is affected less by COVID-19 impacts. This may allow female farmers to expand production since they are less affected by the higher input prices and shortage of capital.

However, the higher labor intensity in female-owned food crop production leads to a decline in their food crop production, while aggregate food crop production increases driven primarily by male-owned farms. Female-owned food crop farms are more labor-intensive and less capital-intensive than male-owned crop farms. According to the phone survey data, 4.7 percent of rural households reported an increase in the price of farming inputs, and 3.7 percent reported lack of labor as the shock that has most negatively impacted them during the pandemic.

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example, the level of net total assets is quite stable over time (in contrast to the gross figure for total assets which grows at about 5 percent a year, on average).

# **3. International Comparison of Key Financial Ratios**

Table 1 reports the main corporate financial ratios for Egypt and for listed firms in a sample of developing and developed countries (obtained from the Worldscope database). Since year 1999 is the most represented in both datasets, it is chosen as a benchmark for comparison.

Profitability of Egyptian firms in 1999 was broadly in line with international experience. The profitability ratios (both operating income and net income) are the same or slightly lower than the average for other countries shown.

Leverage in Egypt is lower than in most other countries in the sample. The ratio of total liabilities to total assets has a median of 0.51 for Egypt while the world median is 0.57. The lower leverage ratio in Egypt suggests that Egyptian firms may face some difficulties in raising debt finance. Furthermore, the interest coverage ratio (the ratio of earnings before interest and taxes, EBIT, over the interest payments) is 2.79, which is much higher than the world median of 1.77. This suggests that the firms in Egypt could service more debt than they have.

The most striking difference is in the comparison of the ratio of current liabilities over total liabilities. The ratio of 0.99 suggests that the median firm in Egypt in 1999 has almost no long-term debt, while the median ratio over all other countries is 0.74, representing a much smaller portion of the total liabilities. This suggests that firms in Egypt are constrained in their access to long-term debt (i.e., with maturity of over one year). The limited availability of long-term financing is one of the frequently mentioned constraint in informal surveys of the private sector.

The ratio of retained earnings to total assets is much lower in Egypt than in other countries. This result
to the survey, and is not in formal education at the time of the survey. According to this definition and using the sample described above, during the period from 2005 to 2013 approximately 21 percent of young people aged 15 to 24 years were Ninis. Of this 21 percent, 15.6 percentage points are accounted for by women and 5.4 percentage points by men. In other words, the majority of Ninis, 76.3 percent, are women and only 23.7 percent are men. These results are in line with those found by Arceo-Gómez and Campos-Vázquez (2012), De Hoyos et al. (2014), Tuirán and Ávila (2012), Negrete-Prieto and Leyva-Parra (2013), and Águila et al. (2013).

> 8 Panel data in the Latin American Region are still rare. In addition to the data for Mexico, there are also panel data for Argentina and Brazil (i.e. rotating panels similar to the one in Mexico, but with different frequencies of data collection). In the results section, we use these other datasets to verify the robustness of our main findings.

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