rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
and private capital, and municipal-level electricity availability. In particular, taking logs, we derive from equation (7) the following regression: where _Yjt_ , _Kjt_ and _Lit_ represent the levels of production, private capital and labor in agriculture, industry or services in municipality _j_ at time _t_ ; and _ηj_ is a municipality fixed effect.

The proxy that we employ for _Gjt_ is a combination of the electricity access and generation capacity indices described previously. In particular, we consider the fraction of electrified grid points (i.e., electricity access) multiplied by generation capacity. We call _grid capacity_ to this compounded measure. The reason behind its choice is that electricity access has an upper bound equal to 1, which is somehow inconsistent with our definition of _Gt_ , whereas generation capacity is not bounded above. A combination of the two then seems desirable.

We estimate (42) for each sector separately using the panel of Brazilian municipalities. The panel is shorter in the time dimension than in the previous regressions, because values for the stock of capital at the sectoral and municipal levels can be obtained from IPEA only for the years 1970, 1975 and 1980 for the manufacturing and services sectors, and for 1970, 1975, 1980 and 1985 for the agricultural sector. In addition, for agriculture, we use investment information for the years 1985 and 1996 also from IPEA to impute the capital stock in 1996.<sup>19</sup> As described previously, employment numbers were collected by IBGE and published by IPEA for the years 1970, 1975, 1980, 1985 and 1995. For the purpose of matching up the employment data with the data on capital stock, the agricultural employment in 1995 was used as a proxy for the agricultural employment in 1996.<sup>20</sup> In the IV regression, there

> 19In particular, we created annual investment numbers between 1985 and 1996 by using linear interpolation, and then employed these interpolated investments, together with a depreciation rate of 7%, to
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4 to the importance of the structure of regional budget revenues -- government revenues coming from the mineral resource sector and from federal transfers (i.e., “windfall” revenues) tend to be much less shared with municipal governments than more conventional regional revenues. Thus, the degree of regional fiscal decentralization is decreasing in the share of “windfall” revenues in regional budgets. These results also shed some light on the origins of the flypaper effect supporting the hypothesis that it can be explained by general behavioral principles as suggested by Hines and Thaler (1995). Lower decentralization was also found to be associated with a higher proportion of university students in the regional population and unfavorable attitude of regional governments to reforms in general. When controlling for these additional factors, ethnolinguistic fractionalization loses its explanatory power, but regional size, urbanization and income variables retain their significance and sign. That is, higher regional income is still associated with less decentralization of regional fiscal systems.

The paper is structured as follows. Section II presents a brief overview of the conventional theory of the determinants of decentralization and tests it on the Russian data. Section III discusses and tests the alternative hypotheses about the determinants of decentralization. Section IV concludes.

# **II. The Russian Paradox**

# **2.1. The determinants of decentralization** . The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991

constituted a major decentralization shock: the share of subnational government in general government expenditure increased from about 15 percent in the late 1980s to over 50 percent in the mid 1990s (Freinkman and Haney, 1997). Moreover, against the general background of downsizing of the general government in Russia, consolidated subnational budget expenditure increased in absolute terms: municipal and regional government expenditure grew by 3.1 percent of GDP and 2.4 percent of GDP respectively over 1992-97, while the federal budget contracted by 21.6 percent of GDP over the same period. Faced with such rapid decentralization, different
# **6 Mechanisms**

The next sections explore four potential channels for our findings: ( _i_ ) the selection and training of school principals, ( _ii_ ) the provision of training to teachers, and ( _iii_ ) the distribution of pedagogical materials. For these, we use detailed questionnaires from _SAEB_ applied to school principals, teachers, and students. The last mechanism, ( _iv_ ), is the changes in different domains of public spending and school facilities. The following sections discuss these points individually.

## **6.1 Selection and Training of School Principals**

The results so far suggest that combining education incentives for mayors with technical assistance produces sharp improvements in test scores. Interestingly, these effects reduce by half when RBF was implemented without any technical support. Because the selection and training of school principals in Brazil is generally provided by municipal authorities, even when the selection occurs by community voting, we now turn our attention to how RBF reform has altered the selection and training of school principals in _Ceará_ .

Two additional challenges emerge from using the questionnaire of principals from SAEB. Primarily, a large proportion of principals manage schools with either primary or lower secondary students. Therefore, it is not possible to perform separate regressions for each school type and identify when the technical assistance was introduced; if it was in 2011 or 2015. Secondly, the questionnaire for principals and teachers only became comprehensive after 2005, giving us only 2007 as a baseline difference. Because of these limitations, we had to adapt our empirical strategy in Eq. (1) to a dynamics model as in the following regression: 28
of each of the five columns. In columns 1–4 it is an indicator that equals 1 if true, and in column 5 it is the ideal number of children. Skilled/Professional jobs include professional, clerical, and skilled manual job groups; the other categories exactly describe the occupation groups included. Ideal number of children is censored at 20; no women in the Demographic and Health Survey report having more than 18 children, and non-numerical responses � are assigned the maximum value. Years of Schooling _izy_ is the predicted level of schooling, instrumented with the free primary education (FPE) intensity measure _Izy_<sup>FPE</sup> , two mother tongue instruction (MTI) intensity measures _Izy_<sup>MTI-T</sup> and _Izy_<sup>MTI</sup> , which denote the measures for MTI regions without and with script change, respectively, and the interactions for regions in which two interventions occurred. All samples include women in birth cohorts from 1970 to 1988. All regressions include birth year and zone fixed effects, zone-specific linear trends, and a cubic for age. Each estimate is from a unique regression, and the second-stage estimate in column 5 is generated using a tobit model. Standard errors are clustered at the zone level and shown in parentheses; _p_ -values are shown in square brackets.

A.27
# **3. The Data**

We examine the linkages between poverty, MPA activities, and household choice of fishing gear using household survey data collected at six sites along the coast of mainland Tanzania and Zanzibar: five with existing MPAs (Tanga, Mafia Island, Menai Bay, JozaniChwaka Bay, and Misali Island) and one where a new MPA has been proposed (Kilwa). Each site has ecologically important and diverse marine and coastal habitats which coastal communities depend on for their livelihoods, including coral reefs, mangrove forests, and seagrass beds. Four of the MPAs are legally designated protected areas and one MPA is protected by community based management and locally approved resource management plans. These MPAs were established to protect resources and halt resource overexploitation and destructive fishing practices and all are involved in a number of management actions such as community-based planning, environmental monitoring, enforcement of fisheries regulations, and coral and mangrove conservation activities. These MPAs are also involved in various community development activities such as environmental education, alternative livelihood development, ecotourism, micro loans, and receive external financial and technical assistance.<sup>5</sup> Four villages in each site of the six study sites were selected in consultation with local and national level authorities, and MPA project staff. Criteria in the selection of villages included the proximity to the protected area, community involvement in conservation, and importance of coastal and marine resources. One village outside the MPA was selected at each site for comparison purposes. A total of 749 households were surveyed in 24 villages. Random sampling at the village level was used to pick households for the survey, to ensure a diversity of households in the sample and avoid systematic bias.

The primary instruments for data collection were household and focus group surveys. Both surveys were developed following a review of guidelines on socioeconomic assessment of MPAs and coral reef management. Prior to the field work, the survey questionnaires were tested to improve or eliminate questions that were confusing or difficult for respondents to answer. The household questionnaires
|1.77|8.26|1|111|
|Finance & Insurance<br>7.20%|1.85|8.87|15|654|
|Agriculture and Forestry<br>7.75%|1.78|7.75|5|84|
|Food & Beverages<br>8.60%|1.97|8.22|2|102|
|Oil, Gas and Mining<br>13.39%|2.80|8.18|6|162|
|Wholesale and Retail Trade<br>16.56%|2.11|4.89|1|32|
|Information<br>21.29%|3.12|5.90|13|72|

The results suggest that private equity returns are superior in sectors characterized by high growth potential or resource availability, partially confirming the findings by Bai et al. (2012).<sup>14</sup> Sectors like mining and information technology benefit from structural growth drivers in EMDEs, such as urbanization, digitalization, and resource exploitation. These factors create opportunities for private equity investors to generate outsized returns by capitalizing on inefficiencies or unmet 14The authors use data on 1,537 individual firms from selected emerging markets, consisting of monthly adjusted prices of ordinary shares for the period from August 1984 to July 2004, which includes the 1997 Asian financial crisis. They find superior returns in listed companies in sectors such as Technology and Financials.

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Ghana to 9.6 percentage points in Senegal. Their analysis indicates that the impact is mediated by the share of the food commodities undergoing price changes in the consumption expenditure of households as well as the degree of dietary diversity in food consumption. As expected, they also find significant differences in urban and rural areas, with poverty impacts being higher in urban areas in general. Perhaps surprisingly, in three of the countries in their sample – Ghana, Senegal and Liberia – they find that the impact on poverty is higher in rural areas (Wodon & Zaman, 2008).

Another study utilizing data from multiple developing countries is by Ivanic & Martin (2014) who examine the impact of the 2010-11 food price surge. Their sample includes 28 low and middleincome countries, but the sample is not limited to African countries and considers price changes 8
valuations of alternative work characteristics. The online survey took about 15 minutes to complete on average, and could be done on a mobile phone or a laptop/ desktop computer. The full survey questionnaire including the experimental module are appended in Annex 1.

# 2. Methodology

We attempt to understand better the reasons underlying heterogeneity in workers’ preferences for flexibility and draw lessons for management practices and wider employment policies. We deploy a vignette-based discrete choice experiment to ascertain whether workers in non-standard employment are willing to forgo defined percentages of their current incomes to have greater flexibility in the choice of the location of work (home v/s office) and the hours of work (fixed v/s determined by the worker/ employer). We describe this vignette experiment in Figure 1 and Figure 2 below, that describe the characteristics of Job A, and four versions of Job B, each of which vary only in terms of flexibility (of the location of work in Figure 1 and hours of work in Figure 2), shown in row 3, and the associated income from such a job, shown in row 7. While each respondent sees the same description of Job A, s/he is shown one randomly assigned job description from B1-B4, and is asked to choose their preferred job between the two.

Figure 1: Range of Hypothetical Jobs offered to respondent to choose from: Location of Work (Job A versus one out of Jobs B1 – B4)

||**Standard**|**Most F**|**lexible**|**More Flexible**|**than standard**|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||**Job A**|**Job B1**|**Job B2**|**Job B3**|**Job B4**|
|**Hours worked**<br>
Rating Company Limited and currently has loans from both commercial financial institutions and the Government of Pakistan. LESCO does not have a credit rating. A summary of financial indicators is shown in Table 15.

**Table 15: Summary of financial indicators for LESCO and KE, 2015**

||**LESCO**|**KE**|**Global**<br>**comparator ***|
|---|---|---|---|
|Net profit (loss) margin|-5<br>percent|17<br>percent|-12 percent|
|EBITDA margin|-9<br>percent|23<br>percent|6 percent|
|Current ratio|3.16|0.98|0.79|
|Debt service coverage ratio|-9.96|1.25|-4.56|
|External Financing Index Ratio<sup>43</sup>|-2.79|-0.26|6.92|
|Investment as a percent of revenues|-8<br>percent|15<br>percent|18 percent|
|Government transfers as a percent of utility<br>revenue|10<br>percent|21<br>percent|6 percent|
|Net capital cost recovery ratio<sup>44</sup>|68 pe|rcent|16 percent|

* Note: Sample average is derived from the Rethinking Power Sector Reform Project data observatory and includes data from Tanzania, Senegal, Peru, Colombia, Pakistan, the Philippines, Vietnam, Kenya, Uganda, Tajikistan, the Indian states of Rajasthan, Odisha, and Andhra Pradesh, and Egypt

# _3.4.2 Institutions_

The regulator, **National Electric Power Regulatory Authority (NEPRA)** , was created in 1997 through Act N°40 and its main responsibilities are to issue licenses for generation, transmission and
or rail). Public transport is not an issue in the pilot provinces in Cambodia as it is rarely present and only serves for long-distance trips (for example, to the capital); however, if this method is to be applied in other regions (especially in the urban setting), this limitation may be important. At the same time, inland waterways are relevant in the pilot areas as there is evidence that villages depend on that mode of transport especially during rainy and flooding season. As data on inland waterways were not available, it was not possible to include it in the model at this point.

2. **Accessibility is estimated based on the shortest paths to the point of interest.** The model considers accessibility as the availability to reach the closest point of interest. For example, for agricultural production, it uses the provincial market as its destination regardless of the type of crops. This may not be always true as some products are sold locally, and some may be transported to the capital for international exports. This is a simplification as there are no available data on actual origin and destination or household surveys that would allow for that level of detail. Similarly, the model used assumptions of travel speeds rather than actual travel speeds (in the exception of the additional use case study in Section 3.4). This would require an intense data collection campaign that is beyond the scope of this study.

3. **Agricultural data have low resolution and have no distinction between seasons.** The values of agricultural production are taken from an open-source global model developed by IFPRI.<sup>16</sup> Its resolution is 10 km by 10 km, and it provides an indication of high-productivity areas. The values used in our model are the estimated annual value of production. As such, we did not differentiate between crops that are grown during dry or rainy seasons nor if they are perishable or not. Therefore, the estimation for climate impacts may be over-
The phone survey asked a series of questions about the potential drivers of COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy along with questions about the level of hesitancy (see Appendix B). High levels of vaccine hesitancy were anticipated because a prior phone survey had captured preliminary data about willingness to be vaccinated in the event that an approved vaccine became available at no cost. As such the focus of the phone survey drawn on in this paper was more on understanding what was driving the high levels of hesitancy as opposed to examining the prevalence of vaccine hesitancy in PNG. To achieve this aim, an array of questions were included allowing for a detailed examination of the extent to which different factors influence vaccine hesitancy. These questions were sourced directly from a combination of COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy surveys that the World Bank, UNICEF and WHO had undertaken in PNG or in other low- and middle-income countries. The phone survey went to the field as the national rollout of the vaccine was beginning and as a result the vaccine questions were asked assuming respondents could potentially have already received their first dose.

The data collected from the phone survey were analyzed by identifying correlations and conducting regression analysis. The descriptive findings were calculated using household weights derived from the 2016-18 DHS to ensure the overall findings were broadly nationally representative, and throughout the paper household-weighted findings are reported on unless otherwise stated. The regression analysis involved using ordinary least squares (OLS) to estimate the effect on willingness to be vaccinated (the dependent variable) from a dummy variable for a given potential driver of vaccine hesitancy (the independent variable) after controlling for demographic characteristics of respondents.

# <u>4.2 Online randomized survey experiment methodology</u>

The online randomized survey experiment was conducted via Facebook from June 24 to July 26, 2021. Participants were recruited using Facebook advertisements and taken to a chatbot in Facebook messenger to complete the survey. The sample was drawn from all Facebook accounts in PNG and was stratified by demographic groups (based on age, gender and regions) to ensure adequate representation in
with opposition parties are also regularly accused of partisanship.<sup>9</sup> An interview with the local church leader in one of our study villages clearly demonstrates the perils of village heads having unchecked power: “[The village head’s] way of dispute management was frightening offenders and people were afraid to bring issues to the dare [village head’s court]. He had advisers at the dare but he hardly consulted them or the villagers when resolving cases. He had the ultimate decision-making powers and used political statements to intimidate people on the dare. The disadvantage of this process was that it was only the village head with all the unregulated power to pass resolutions without the people’s contributions. There were biased resolutions done on political lines.”<sup>10</sup> This anecdote describes how village heads can fail to follow procedures that could potentially check their power, and how – in the Zimbabwean context – this is associated with favoritism along partisan lines. To assess how broadly village heads fail to follow regulations intended to increase consultation and curb bias, we consider village heads’ adherence to five regulated procedures in our study control villages. According to Zimbabwean regulations, village heads are supposed to consult other village institutions prior to making certain decisions, including the local resource management council and the local women’s council, they are supposed to include women in decision-making, they are supposed to make their court’s decisions available to the public, and they are not allowed to accept payments from citizens when hearing cases. However, as table 1 indicates, most village heads reported that they did not follow regulated procedures prior to exposure to the intervention at the center of this study. In particular, we observe low levels of consultation with other village institutions and women in particular, and a high tendency to take illegal payments for hearing disputes. Village heads did well only in the area of making court decisions publicly available.

We also draw on household survey data from our control villages
of world production. However its share in the total usage ("drawal rate") of sugar cane has been declining, from around 70 percent in the mid 1960s to around 40 percent in the early 1990s ( Data S4). Correspondingly, the share of non-centrifugal sugar in total world production has declined from about 1 5 percent in the mid 1960s to about 10 percent in the 1990s. As discussed later, the quality of the sugar produced by the unregulated khandsari units in India has been improving to the point that much is barely distinguishable from mill sugar, so that with khandsari included, by the 1990s the share of crystallized sugar in total sugar cane usage would have been well above above 60 percent. Correspondingly, with khandsari included ,the _defacto_ share of India in world sugar production would have been considerably higher than reported in FAO and other statistics. Indian trade statistics make no attempt to distinguish khandsari from mill sugar however, and are therefore not distorted by the omission of khandsari.

Raw sugar is less expensive to transport than refined sugar, and in the past most international trade (and also domestic trade in large countries) was in raw sugar, which was shipped to major consumption centers for refining. However, exporters of raw sugar are now shifting towards refined sugar in order to take advantage of the price premium for refined sugar in world markets. Whereas in the mid- 1 960s the share of refined sugar in total international trade in sugar was about a quarter, by the 1990s this had increased to approximately half (Data S5). Most of the white sugar traded is fully refined, but a number of developing countries import partly refined plantation white sugar. There is practically no international trade in non-centrifugal sugar (see Data S5 and Data S8).

4
of states in the top decile is 225 percent.<sup>25</sup> Furthermore, the average maturity of debt to states is of 14.6 years, with bottom and top deciles having a maturity of 8.3 and 19.3 years, respectively. Still in Panel A, we also present statistics on state-level GDP and employment growth rates, as well as poverty and inequality ratios. The average quarterly growth rate is 0.8 percent, while the employment quarterly growth rate is on average 0.6 percent, with growth rates at the bottom and top deciles of -2.1 and 3.3 percent, respectively. Regarding poverty rates, 43 percent of the population of the average state is considered poor. More concretely, 34 percent of the population is considered to be in moderate

> 23 To guarantee the comparability of our results across banks, and given our focus on commercial lending, we exclude from our analysis banks that specialize in consumer lending as well as niche banking.

> 24 Of the 32 Mexican states, we only have local public debt data on 30. Both Distrito Federal (i.e. Mexico City) and Tlaxcala do not report this information.

> 25 We also present data on the debt of municipalities, which corresponds to less than 10 percent of local debt.

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