rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
much higher in shock-prone environments. Shocks induce unforeseen turnover and

> 6 One of the consequences of the difficult environment for sustaining cooperation in the SSA region is a very low level of subcontracting.  A comparison of data from firm-level surveys conducted under the World Bank’s Investment Climate Assessment program in China versus countries in the SSA region shows that, in China, 22% of manufacturing output is produced for other firms. In contrast, only 3% of manufacturing output is subcontracted in Africa.  When we look at the percentage of firms that work as subcontractors, with 10% or more of their output being subcontracting work, 35% of firms in China are subcontractors, compared with only about 6% in the SSA region.  China certainly cannot be held up as the best contracting environment in the world, but its relative economic and political stability does provide a superior platform for relation-based governance of cooperative business transactions.

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the Syrian export basket has indeed become less concentrated although Syria does not appear to have diversified into higher value production. In this section, we seek to better understand why diversification has occurred in some sectors, while not in others. More specifically, we try to offer insight into the the question of how sectoral characteristics and government policy aimed at trade liberalization may affect the process of export diversification in the economy.

The analysis presents inference from simple linear regressions of export diversification measures on trade policy and outcome variables. It is important to notice that, in the absence of an obvious instrument, we are unable to fully control for potential endogeneity in the relationships examined. Indeed, as mentioned in previous sections, one may also be reasonably skeptical of the claim that trade liberalization as a political decision was entirely independent of structural change in the Syrian economy; the long term decline of the oil sector could also speak in favor of this argument. A word of caution is therefore in order when interpreting the results. Our preference is to interpret the estimated coefficients as partial (conditional) correlations, rather than causal relationships.

The regressions results are reported in Table 8.<sup>20</sup> We focus on diversification in a given 2-digit HS sector, using the corresponding 6-digit lines. We construct the dependent variable in the regressions as the percentage change, between 2002 and 2007, of one of three diversification measures: (a) the number of 6-digit products exported; (b) the Herfindahl index based on 6-digit lines; and (c) the share of the largest 6-digit line between 2002 and 2007.<sup>21</sup> These measures are analogous to change in product, Herfindahl, and product share indices commonly employed in cross-country analyses of export diversification.

It is important to note that a factor associated positively with export diversification would be expected to carry a positive sign in regressions with the first measure (specifi– – cations _D1 D3_ ) and a negative sign in the latter two measures (
br>16<br>13<br>5 4 10<br>8 8<br>2 1 6 6 6 5<br>0 Malaysia ECA Poland China Turkey RussiaTurkey_micro0 0 Malaysia Poland ECA China Russia TurkeyTurkey_micro 2 1 1<br>Importing and Exporting Foreign ownership Importing inputs<br>Percentage of firms<br>Percentage of firms importing AND exporting<br><!-- End of picture text --> Source: World Bank Enterprise Surveys; World Bank (2017). Turkey_micro consists of firms with five or fewer full‐ time employees. All other data points include firms with five employees or more. In the left‐hand panel, firms are considered to export if they export directly at least 10% of sales. Firms that import have at least 10% foreign inputs and directly imported some of those inputs.

**Turkey’s trade in services appears relatively small and declining, with falling sophistication.** Trade in services has gone from over 10 percent of GDP in 2000 to only 7 percent in 2016, with a small uptick seen after the global financial crisis (left‐hand panel of Figure 2.6). Trade in manufacturing, on the other hand, increased from about 30 percent in 2000 to 45 percent in 2011, followed by a decline to 40 percent in 2016. Services trade as a percentage of GDP is also lower in Turkey than in many comparator countries

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model effect of female politicians.<sup>18</sup>

# _Education and employment opportunities_

See Table 4 for an overview of the studies described below.

An expansion of educational opportunities (Pande & Astone 2007; Murthi et al. 1995; Ren 1995), and employment opportunities/financial resources for women (Duflo 2000; Luke & Munshi 2011; Qian 2008) is documented to improve outcomes for girls. This positive change can happen through various channels. Providing women with education can allow them to be active participants in the labor force, and this can go to improve their bargaining position within the household, and lower their financial dependence on male kin. The presence of women actively engaged in the formal

> 18 Latu et al. (2013) conduct an experiment with ~ 150 students from a Swiss university to study how random exposure to high-ranking female politicians versus male politicians (and exposure to female politicians versus no exposure) impact women’s behavior. They find that extended exposure to female politicians had a positive effect on women’s behavior during leadership tasks, and their self-assessments when performing those tasks. Campbell and Wolbrecht (2006) find similar results in the United States. Using longitudinal and cross-sectional data for high school seniors in the US, they conduct correlation/associative studies to highlight that – over time, and during a single period – an increase in the visibility of female politicians is associated with an increase in adolescent girls’ aspirations to be politically involved.

33
6 remittances, and consistent definitions of remittance variables could not be developed for all four waves of the IFLS survey, the focus here is on the last two waves of the survey, IFLS 3 (2000) and IFLS 4 (2007). These two waves include a total of 5,301 urban and rural households. While the IFLS Survey was never designed to be nationally representative, the last two waves of the survey do include households from 19 of Indonesia’s 33 provinces. In terms of data collected, the IFLS Survey was comprehensive, collecting detailed information on a wide range of topics, including expenditure, education, health, nutrition, financial assets, household enterprises and remittances.

It should, however, be emphasized that the IFLS Survey was not designed as a migration or remittances survey. In fact, it collected very limited information on these topics. With respect to international migration, the survey collected only limited information on migrants who have been gone from the household for more than one year: their age, education or income earned away from home.<sup>2</sup> This means that limited data are available on the characteristics of most international migrants who are currently living outside of the household. With respect to international remittances, the IFLS Survey only contains information from three types of questions: (1) Does your household receive remittances from spouse, parents or children? (2) Where do these people sending remittances live? and (3) How much (remittance) money did your household receive in the past 12 months? The lack of data on individual migrant characteristics in the IFLS survey is unfortunate, but the presence of detailed information on remittances and household expenditures makes it possible to use responses in the survey to examine the impact of remittances on poverty, inequality and household expenditure behavior. Since the focus here is on remittances, it is important to clarify how these income transfers are measured and defined. Each household that is recorded as receiving international
in 2015-16. Analysis of these labor force surveys highlights three acute challenges faced by the Bangladeshi labor market _—informal employment, gender differences, and spatial disparities in key labor market characteristics._ While there has been a modest 3 percentage point decline in informal employment in Bangladesh between 2005 and 2015, it continues to stand at a staggering 86 percent in 2015. A larger share of women are employed as informal workers as compared to men. In 2015, for example, 82 percent of males are employed as informal workers in contrast to 95 percent for females (Artuc et al., 2019). This gender bias is not surprising as women in Bangladesh tend to work more in subsistence agriculture and unpaid sectors which are predominantly informal in nature (Artuc et al., 2019).

Such gender discrimination can also be observed in other key labor market outcomes _—earnings and employment._ In terms of earnings, men tend to do better than women in Bangladesh in 2005 but this gap in the level of average weekly wages has narrowed down overtime. For example, average real weekly earnings for women workers were 758 _takas_ in 2005 in comparison to 1080 _takas_ for men. Overtime, this gap reduced, and average real weekly earnings stood at 1485 _takas_ for females while 1558 _takas_ for males in 2016. This pattern in average real weekly wages is consistent across most industries in Bangladesh. In addition, female labor force participation remains low in comparison to lower-middle income country average and the middle-income country average and low share of women engage in nonagricultural employment (Farole et al. 2017).

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average female LFP of 21.5 percent during 2015-2019, these decreases are larger at around 18-40 percent decreases.

The results are shown more clearly when we look at female LFP for each quarter. Starting from quarter 1 of 2020 up to quarter 3 of 2022, the declines with female LFP were steady and strongly statistically significant. However, these decreases become not statistically significant from quarter 4 of 2022.

Consistent with the descriptive analysis discussed above (Section 3), Tables 3 and 4 also show that individuals with more education were more likely to participate in the labor market. Compared to married individuals, divorcees were more likely to work while those that were widowed or never married were less likely to work.

However, it is also puzzling and requires more investigation that female LFP started declining from 2019.

# **6. Concluding remarks**

The pandemic was a large shock to the economies of the MENA region, especially for its labor markets. Even before the pandemic, women’s LFP in the region, and the Islamic Republic of Iran is no exception, appeared far too low given their education and fertility. In this paper we ask how the shocks of the pandemic affected this already fragile type of employment. We employ extensive survey data to show that women’s employment was indeed harder hit than that of men.

The Iranian case is complicated by the fact that its labor markets have been negatively affected by U.S. sanctions before and during COVID-19 (Fardoust, 2020; Salehi-Isfahani, 2023). This necessitates adding more identifying variation than the timing of COVID-19. Lacking reliable data on lockdowns as a well-known mechanism for the transmission of the pandemic’s shock to labor 18
# _The PISA 2006 data sets_

The third round of the Program of International Student Assessment surveys was conducted in 57 countries between March and November, 2006. Two earlier rounds were collected in 2000/2002 (in 43 countries), and in 2003 (in 41 countries). A fourth round has since been collected in 2009. Most OECD countries were surveyed, as were a number of developing countries in Asia, Latin America, North Africa and the Middle East. Sample sizes range from 339 in Liechtenstein to 30,971 in Mexico. Table 1 lists all participating countries in the 2006 round, as well as their sample sizes.

In each country, fifteen year-olds enrolled in any educational institution, and attending grade 7 or higher, were sampled. All children surveyed took three tests: in reading, mathematics, and science.<sup>5</sup> Their performance in these tests forms the basis for the assessment of their learning or cognitive achievement. Yet, educationalists seem agreed that raw, unadjusted test scores are of little value. Test questions (or ‘items’) vary in their degree of difficulty, and simply adding up correct answers, or weighing them arbitrarily, does not correctly measure the latent variable of interest – cognitive achievement. Instead, the educational community in charge of international tests such as PISA, TIMSS, PIRLS and IALS processes raw scores through statistical techniques known as Item Response Theory (IRT). See Baker (2001) for a general introduction, and OECD (2006) for a description of how the method is applied to PISA surveys. In essence, an item response model consists of an equation of the form: Equation (1) gives the probability of scoring _s_ in a given test, conditional on individual latent cognitive ability and test item parameters (such as their difficulty). Given an additional assumption about the distribution of latent ability in the population (usually a normal law such as ) and an observed distribution of raw scores, _F(s),_
<!-- Start of picture text --> 01/20 04/20 07/20 10/20 01/21 01/20 04/20 07/20 10/20 01/21 01/20 04/20 07/20 10/20 01/21<br>BPS Average mobility around transit stationsthe 30 days prior BPS Average mobility around transit stationsthe 30 days prior BPS Average mobility around transit stationsthe 30 days prior<br>(a) Brazil. (b) Senegal. (c) Vietnam.<br>0 0<br>0<br>-20 -20 -20<br>-40 -40 -40<br>Mobility around transit stations (baseline=0) Mobility around transit stations (baseline=0) Mobility around transit stations (baseline=0)<br>-60 -60 -60<br><!-- End of picture text --> Figure A2: Timing of the COV-BPS in the context of the COVID-19 mobility shock in each country. We first compute the average for the daily mobility trends around transit stations across locations in each country from Google’s COVID-19 Community Mobility Reports ( _19_ ), and then smooth the time series using 7-day moving averages. The red line shows for each date the average of the past 30 days of this smoothed out time series.

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- 19

-

Table 2.2: Annual late of Growth in Agricultural Production and Population and Per Capita Availability of Cereals from Domestic Sources

|Country|Average Annual<br>1971<br>(per|Rate of<br>-1981<br>cent)|Growth|Average Annual<br>Population Growth<br>1972-1981|Averag<br>Capita Ava<br>of Ce<br>(to|e per<br>ilability<br>reals<br>ns)|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||Agricultural|<br>Pro|duction||||
||Productiona|Food|Cereals|<br>(percent)|1970-72|1979-81|
|Southeast Asia|||||||
|Indonesia|3.7|3.8|5.2|2.5|0.18|0.23|
|Malaysia|4.7|5.9|2.6|2.6|0.17|0.16|
|Philippines|4.9|4.9|4.6|2.6|0.18|0.22|
|Thailand|6.0|6.4|4.6|2.2|0.40|0.45|
|South**Asia**|||||||
|Bangladesh|2.9|3.0|3.4|2.9|0.22|0.24|
|Burma|3.4|3.4|6.0|2.3|0.29|0.39|
|India|2.9|3.1|2.8|2.1|0.20|0.21|
|Nepal|1.2|1
expectations around education, marriage, employment, and occupation. Moreover, when it comes to actively participating in community-level decision making, women enjoy very limited agency and they are also less likely to hold positions of leadership. This can be mainly connected to the widespread belief that men’s opinions matter more than women’s, the overwhelming weight of household work and family duties, the strength of the status quo and the fear of transgressing gender norms. In addition, there is evidence that elected women officials continue to face discrimination in access to training, information, day-to-day interactions and how they are treated by male colleagues (World Bank, 2020).

**Ensuring that women entrepreneurs and employees gain from the opportunities presented by economic development must be a priority.** Development of gender-related support interventions necessitates an understanding of the differences between male and female entrepreneurs. This should include the sectors in which they operate, location, the experience of social and physical barriers, flexible workplace policies, and whether performance gaps exist between male and female entrepreneurial firms, including the drivers behind these gaps.

The aim of the note is to gain a better understanding of the barriers to gender-inclusive Private Sector Development (PSD) in Myanmar, explore the differential experience female-owned enterprises have in comparison to their maleowned counterparts, and finally, to provide recommendations for inclusive PSD based on the findings. To achieve this, the note uses data from the 2019 Myanmar Gender and Entrepreneurship Survey (MGES) to explore the differential experiences of female-owned micro, small and medium sized enterprises in comparison to their male counterparts.

Taking the above into account, this note covers and highlights the following issues:

- Characteristics of female and male owned enterprises

- Barriers faced by women entrepreneurs

- Determinants of Human Resource Management (HRM) policies

- Impact of HRM policies on business development

- Impact of HRM policies on workplace attitude/employee satisfaction and other areas.

The survey data were analyzed from a gender perspective to create an overview of the SME environment in Myanmar, assess the
ing. A large network of CHWs typically performs routine home visits in their area of residence for various services unrelated to contraception, thus avoiding the need for extra appointments and reducing the ability of the social environment to infer about the provision of injectable shots.<sup>2</sup> We take advantage of a unique setting in Burundi, where Sayana Press, a new generation of non-intramuscular contraceptive injections, had been deployed across the country in recent years. Their operational advancement consists of simplified injections by using a pre-filled syringe for subcutaneous administration, making it easier for lower-skilled professionals to administer while offering the same three-month protection as the traditional injectable method (Keith et al., 2014; Askew and Wells, 2018). However, their key attribute for rural areas—safe administration by CHWs (Burke et al., 2014)—was not yet leveraged. In coordination with health authorities willing to allow administration upon proper theoretical and practical training more broadly and with a large World Bank operation providing financing, we implemented an intervention at the health-center level to make CHWs eligible for administering non-intramuscular injections.<sup>3</sup> It comprised a theoretical training that would help CHWs encourage rural women to visit health centers for medical assessment and receive their initial non-intramuscular injection. After completing a practical phase, CHWs became eligible to administer injection renewals during their routine home visits in the communities. Rather than the overall effect of introducing the new generation of injectables, the randomized intervention allows us to evaluate their novel feature of a substantively easier but still equally safe administration, which makes it feasible to entrust CHWs with the deployment of contraceptive injections in remote areas.

Using detailed administrative data from health centers, we find that the average number of non-intramuscular injections administered was approximately 13 units higher per month within health centers’ catchment areas due to the intervention, representing roughly a 70% increase over the mean of the control group. This statistically significant increase was observed during both the theoretical and practical phases of the CHW training. After
. As of 2019, total loans, including credit to the public sector, represented 55 percent of the median bank assets in LAC, ranging from 45 percent in Argentina to 66 percent in Chile (Figure 1). Securities, especially government securities, also account for a significant share of banks’ assets, with 19 percent for the median bank in the region. Mexican and Chilean banks hold the largest proportion of their assets in securities, at a median of 34 and 21 percent, respectively.

## **Natural catastrophes and climate change**

Natural disasters have become increasingly more frequent and destructive in LAC, leading to a sharp rise in economic damages. Moreover, empirical evidence points to increased economic damage of natural disasters, substantially driven by large-scale events (Coronese et al. 2019). The most economically damaging natural disaster events in LAC – the second most disaster-prone region in the world – have been earthquakes, floods, and storms.<sup>3</sup> The region suffers from geophysical, hydrological, meteorological, and climatological disasters, which have historically led to significant economic damages.<sup>4</sup> Overall, the economic losses directly or indirectly related

> 2 IMF, Financial Soundness Indicators.

> 3 See OCHA 2020.

> 4 Based on EM-DAT database. The disaster events recorded fulfill at least one of the following criteria: 10 or more deaths of people, 100 or more people affected/injured/homeless, and declaration by the country of a state of emergency and/or an appeal for international assistance. For more details: https://public.emdat.be/about.

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their behaviors in light of trade shocks. Some contributions do so. For example, Artuc et al. (2010) presented a structural empirical model of labor mobility costs, which focuses on workers’ choices of employment opportunities across industries and utilizes data from the United States to estimate those costs. A subsequent extension by Artuc and McClaren (2010) provided similar estimates for Turkey. With a different empirical modeling approach, Ebenstein et al. (2009) argue that labor mobility across industries but within occupations is significant in U.S. data, and ignoring such mobility can bias econometric estimates of the effect of trade reforms on wages within industries. Hence it seems that any modern framework to help understand how trade affects IG should at least consider worker mobility and employment choices.

Similarly, just like the literature on trade and employment is concerned about workers’ mobility, the well established literature on rural household behavior has for a long time considered household consumption and income-source decisions as fundamental for understanding the effects of agricultural prices on household welfare (see, e.g., Barnum and Squire 1979; Deaton 1989; Ravallion 1990, among others). Consequently, this note proposes the household and firm choice models as the basic analytical frameworks to be applied for clarifying the links between trade and IG. This dual approach, with emphases on workers and firms is consistent with the IG definition proposed by Ianchovichina and Lundstrom (2009).

In a nutshell, international integration can promote IG when workers and firms are able to self-select into growing economic activities and when firms can adopt superior foreign technologies and knowhow. That is, international trade offers opportunities for workers and firms, but their existing capabilities and the policy environment help determine the extent and distribution of such benefits.

The rest of this note is organized as follows. Section II covers the analytical framework from the viewpoint of households and individual workers. It covers direct, first-order impacts of trade shocks on household welfare, second order or behavioral impacts, and finishes with a discussion of important