rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
# **A NO** 2 **: Context and Characteristics**

## **A.1 OMI Details and Alternative Sources**

This paper uses OMI NO2 VCDs from NASA. Like night lights, NO2 is not measurable in certain circumstances, such as if there is too much cloud cover. In all results, we use data that are not flagged for misreadings from other aerosols, misleading snow-covered backgrounds, or if clouds exceed 30% of the field of view. These choices are consistent with standards in scientific studies to avoid spurious conclusions. Averaging over days and using data quality flags correctly are critical to drawing proper conclusions from VCDs.

NASA currently expects OMI to operate at least until 2022, and likely beyond. However, it is not the only available satellite data resource for NO2. For example, the earlier European Space Agency (ESA) instrument GOME, with lower spatial resolution than OMI, was in service from 1995 to 2011 (Geddes et al., 2016). More recent is the ESA’s TROPOMI instrument, which was launched in 2017, and has a higher resolution than OMI (7 km _×_ 7 km) (Veefkind et al., 2012). We opt for OMI data in this study not only because the time sample is longer, but because the NO2 product uses the same algorithm for the entire, uninterrupted time period, which is not the case for all satellites. Other data products are available for inferring higher-resolution data from OMI in subsamples (Laughner et al., 2018) and exciting near-future technologies including NASA’s TEMPO instrument promise to have a sharper spatial resolution, about 2 km _×_ 4.5 km.

## **A.2 US Downward Trend and Cycles**

Figure S1 presents both the 365 day rolling average of NO2 VCDs for the US, along with the cyclical component. There are two points worth emphasizing. First, the US is one of the developed nations in the sample with a
at whether predicting poverty rates directly could be better for either poor or non-poor countries. Predicting poverty rates directly appears to be worse for all poverty levels except for countries with poverty rates around 30%. Particularly for very poor countries and countries with low extreme poverty, modeling changes through GDP is preferred to predicting poverty rates directly.

Deaton and Schreyer (forthcoming) argue that GDP is increasingly becoming detached from national material well-being. This could imply that using growth rates in GDP per capita has become less attractive, relative to predicting poverty rates directly, in recent years. Panel (c) shows that we do not find this to be the case. A possible reconciliation between these two findings is that, while GDP has become increasingly detached from household surveys, household surveys have become more comparable across rounds within the same country, allowing predictions from one survey to the next not to deteriorate.

19
Lundberg, S., Pollak, R. A., Wales, T. J., 1997. Do Husband and Wives Pool Their Resources? Evidence From the U.K. Child Benefits. Journal of Human Resources 32 (3), 463–480.

- McLean, E., Cogswell, M., Egli, I., Wojdyla, D., de Benoist, B., May 2008. Worldwide Prevalence of Anaemia, WHO Vitamin and Mineral Nutrition Information System, 1993-2005. Public Health Nutrition 23, 1–11.

- Morris, J., 1997. The Changing Face of Women in Bangladesh. Slant.

29
3 percent a year—more than three times the rate indicated in international data sets. Using a new methodology to estimate income distribution, poverty rates, and inequality and welfare indexes for African countries in 1970–2006, Pinkovskiy and Sala-i-Martin (2010) conclude that African poverty is falling—and is falling rapidly. Moreover, they find that the growth spurt that began in 1995 appears to have reduced African income inequality rather than increased it. Radelet has identified 17 African countries that achieved annual per capita growth rates of 2 percent or more in 1996–2008 by putting behind them the conflict, stagnation, and dictatorships of the past and replacing them with steady economic growth, deepening democracy, improved governance, and decreased poverty (see Radelet 2010). Five fundamental changes are seen to be at work: more democratic and accountable governments, more sensible economic policies, the end of the debt crisis and

> 25 The creation of manufacturing jobs, especially through foreign direct investment, generally leads to the creation of jobs in other sectors through backward and forward linkages (see UNCTAD, _World Investment Report 2006_ ) and through multiplier effects as additional employment raises income levels. Backward linkages tend to be weaker in developing countries because it is often difficult to source local products. But forward linkages can have a substantial effect on employment. In Lesotho, for example, computable general equilibrium model simulations indicate that the employment of 56,000 workers in the garment sector, sustained by foreign direct investment flows, could have led to the creation of 77,000 additional nonmanufacturing jobs (see World Bank 2005b). In India it is estimated that creating 2.5 million jobs in the information technology sector could lead to 8.3 million additional jobs (NASSCOM 2011).
<!-- Start of picture text --> (c) Net FDI Inflows to Developing Countries, % of GDP<br>4<br>3.5<br>3<br>2.5<br>2<br>1.5<br>1<br>0.5<br>0<br>1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009<br>Source: WDI<br><!-- End of picture text --> While large emerging markets grab the headlines of multi-polar growth, smaller and poorer economies have also experienced important changes in their position in the global economy. For example, in terms of accelerating growth and expanding trade and capital flows, the Sub-Saharan Africa region has also participated in the recent multi-polar growth decade. GDP growth in the region as a whole has accelerated sharply. There were 11 countries in the region--among 29 countries in the world--that averaged economic growth of 6.5 percent or more prior to the global financial crisis.<sup>16</sup> Overall, the region‘s aggregate GDP has grown faster than the world economy, its export share of total world exports has increased, its share of exports going to fast growing emerging Asia destinations has increased, and FDI has been higher than most developing countries (as a share of GDP) (Figures 13(a)-(d)). As the earlier figures on Brazil showed (Figure 10(b)), Sub-Saharan Africa has increased its trade links with that country. In brief, Sub-Saharan Africa has become a beneficiary and contributor to the new multi-polar global economy – even if on a smaller scale than other developing regions.

> 16 This is based on a simple average GDP growth rate over the 2000-2008 period using data from the World Development Indicators.

21
competition (Borjas 2014). On the other hand, cultural similarity and shared history between the two groups (such as by being part of the same country in the early 19<sup>th</sup> century) could lead to greater solidarity—and less restrictive preferences—in light of the serious humanitarian situation experienced by Venezuela.

Using a pre-registered conjoint survey experiment fielded online during March 2021 (N=2,508 adult Colombian nationals), we first address how Colombians perceive different packages of policy options towards Venezuelan migrants, and which dimensions they are more willing to support in the aggregate. Conjoint designs, as they have been generally used across political and economic settings, involve asking respondents to evaluate a profile or object that contains randomly varied features (Bansak et al. 2021). In our experiment, we presented respondents with sets of hypothetical policy packages (the ‘treatments’) comprising six dimensions available to policymakers and which are relevant to public debate in both Colombia and in many host countries globally: (1) labour market access, (2) location restrictions, (3) public service access, (4) family reunification, (5) numerical limits, and (6) length of residency.

This design reflects how people may encounter policy proposals as several options bundled together by legislators or parties, while also reduces social desirability bias by allowing respondents to justify their choices to themselves along any of the given dimensions. It is also resource efficient because it enables researchers to simultaneously test many more dimensions than would typically be possible using conventional designs that only vary a few elements in each treatment without resorting to unfeasibly large sample sizes.

Next, we look for heterogeneous effects involving three factors: the role of economic and humanitarian priorities, perceptions on the Venezuelan crisis, and personal contact with Venezuelans. The political economy literature on preference formation indicates that economic priorities more strongly relate to policies that are more likely to be perceived as protecting the labour market from foreign worker competition. Meanwhile, humanitarian priorities
SYS-REVIEW/HI-LMIC study) Nicaragua (one study), Colombia (two studies), Mexico (three studies), Vietnam (four studies), and China (four studies). Three studies, from Burkina Faso, China, and India, reported on community-based health insurance with government support.

Not all studies reported enrollment. Studies on impact evaluations obtained results through (1) a randomized trial (three studies); (2) propensity score matching (nine studies); (3) instrumental variable estimation, to consider either endogeneity at the individual level or regional program placement (four studies); (4) the use of a regression discontinuity design on eligibility to obtain intention to treat (two studies); and (5) double difference-in-differences from three periods with regression (one study).

The data used in these studies ranged from program-designated data sets to routinely collected available data at the national level gathered to measure a range of indicators of wellbeing.

# **<mark><<Table 1 about here>></mark>**

# **<<A>>Findings**

We first report enrollment, and then, we report intention to treat or average treatment on the treated estimations of whether insurance is likely to have resulted in welfare improvement.

Table 2 summarizes the outcomes.

# **<<B>>** _Enrollment and Its Determinants_

The enrollment rate partially reflects whether a health insurance program can be implemented. Our review did not conduct a systematic search to identify studies that report enrollment. For 14
Quintile consumption growth estimates in IHDS-3 show higher consumption growth in the bottom parts of the distribution** . Figure 27 compares quintile consumption growth rates from the IHDS-3 to our estimates. Average consumption growth in the bottom quintile of the distribution is higher than the growth rates observed for households at the top end of the distribution in both sources. These patterns are consistent with the observed moderation in consumption inequality. Desai (2020) finds that the Gini measure of inequality has fallen by 0.023 points between 2011-12 and 2017. Over the same period, inequality based on our estimates fell by 0.07 Gini points.

**NSS’ All-India Debt and Investment Surveys (AIDIS) show that wealth inequality too has fallen** . Using past rounds of NSS’ All-India Debt and Investment Surveys (AIDIS), Himanshu (2019) shows that gross wealth inequality increased by 0.01 and 0.08 Gini points between 1991-2002 and 2002-2012. The direction of changes

57
regulations than non-exporters are (see Table 5). This makes intuitive since excessive trade regulations will impose greater constraints for enterprises involved in exporting than for enterprises that only operate in domestic markets.

We attempt to control for this in two ways. First, rather than using the enterprises’ own assessment of the obstacle, we substitute this with the average assessment of enterprises involved in exporting in the same sector and region as the enterprise. In addition to reducing concerns about endogeneity, using average perceptions should also clean out white noise associated with the perceptions of the individual manager. Second, we implement a Generalized Least Squares procedure for Tobit models allowing these variables to be determined endogenously.<sup>15</sup> Two sets of instruments are used in this part of the analysis: (i) the average assessment of trade and customs regulation for enterprises in the same sector and region that are involved in exporting and (ii) the average and maximum times for imports and exports to clear customs for firms in the same sector and region. The second set of instruments is particularly interesting. Since it is not perceptions based (i.e., it is based upon actual experience with customs administration), it is not subject to the same concerns as perception-based data.

In addition to the variables representing trade and customs regulations, the regressions also include a series of additional control variables. First, all regressions include a set of sector dummies (γj) to control for differences between manufacturing sub-sectors with respect to export behavior. For example, some products might be more difficult to transport than other products, limiting export potential. Second, the regressions include a series of enterprise-level controls (Xijk) including enterprise size (proxied by number of employees), age of the enterprise, dummies indicating whether the enterprise in state or foreign-owned and a dummy variable indicating whether the enterprise manager has a university education. Finally, the regressions also include a series of country dummies to control for differences between countries that might

> 15 The procedure
I; 1(Y RESFARCH WORKING PAPER 2089

# Summary findings

Using data for more than 2,000 companies from nine East Asian economies, Claessens, Djankov, Fan, and Lang examine the interactions between ultimate ownership, group affiliation, and corporate diversification.

They find evidence that allocating resources within business groups is associated with higher market valuation when external markets are less developed.

They also find that group affiliation and firm-level diversification are used complementarily to exploit the relative cost-effectiveness of internal markets.

They reject the hypothesis that diversification patterns can be explained by large blockholders' incentive to reduce risk. But they find support for the hypothesis that controlling owners use diversification to expropriate other shareholders.

Group affiliation is widespread among publicly traded corporations in East Asia. Group-affiliated firms are on average associated with diversification discounts. Further analysis reveals that the discounts are attributable to diversified firms in the more developed East Asian economies. By contrast, group affiliation positively contributes to diversification performance in less developed economies.

The authors find that group-affiliated firms are more likely to diversify in developing economies but are equally likely to diversify in developed economies.<sup>When</sup> diversifying in more developed economies, groupaffiliated firms destroy more value than do independent firms. In developilng economies, group-affiliated firms are more likely than independent firms to benefit<sup>from</sup> diversification in developing economies.

This paper - a product of the Financial Economics Unit, Financial<sup>Operations Vice Presidency-</sup> is part of a larger effort in the vice presidency to study corporate performance patterns<sup>in East Asia. Copies of the paper are available free from the</sup> World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433.<sup>Please contact Rose Vo, room MCI0-628,</sup> telephone 202-4733722, fax 202-522-2031, Internet address hvolCiworldbank.org. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/html/dec/Publications/
, Panama, Philippines, Rwanda, South Africa, Tanzania, Vanuatu, Vietnam), five Living Standards Measurement Studies (LSMS) (Ethiopia, Malawi, Nigeria, Tanzania, Uganda), four Household Income and Expenditure Surveys (HIES) (Bangladesh, Liberia, Namibia, Papua New Guinea), two Labor Force Surveys (LFS) (The Gambia and Rwanda), and two general surveys (Afghanistan and South Africa). Most data sets are publicly available and are accessible through websites such as those of LSMS or IPUMS International. Some data sets such as Kiribati and Vanuatu’s censuses are not publicly available and were obtained from the respective national statistics offices.

The data sets are described in Table 2.1. The data sets have three possible sample designs. Most follow a complex survey design in which case all estimates presented below are weighted. Kiribati and Vanuatu’s censuses have the entire population, while several population censuses have a random 10 percent sample, in which case no weighting was needed. Descriptive statistics are shown in Appendix 1 for the samples of individuals and households. Standard errors are not shown to keep the results legible but are available from the authors upon request.

4
<!-- Start of picture text --> No antitrust investigation ever<br>At least one antitrust investigation<br>Commerce and transport<br>Manufacturing<br>Construction, mining, and utilities<br>Professional services<br>Recreation<br>Social services<br>Agriculture<br>0 5 10 15<br>Total sales (Trillions Mex$, 2018)<br><!-- End of picture text -->

**Figure 1: About 40 percent of economic activities have been subject to at least one antitrust investigation** . Sales are coded as being derived from an activity that has had at least one antitrust investigation if the six digit activity corresponding to those sales has been investigated by the Federal Competition Commission. The source is the Economic Census (INEGI, 2020).
Data on local demographic and geospatial variables

_Demographic variables:_ For population density and instruments used in IV strategy we construct geospatial variables and population characteristics for spatial units chosen in each country. Population and population density (population/land (km sq.) variables were sourced from Population: WorldPop - Unconstrained Topdown estimation modelling (100m).<sup>20</sup> Sociodemographic characteristics (the share of literate population over 15 years old) for Colombia and Indonesia are obtained at the relevant spatial level from the National Population Census (2005 for Colombia and 2000 and 2010 census for Indonesia).

_Geospatial variables:_ For Colombia, precipitation (millimeters, total recorded in the year, average across 19712000) and temperature (Celsius, annual, average across 1971-2000) was obtained from the Institute of Hydrology, Meteorology and Environmental Studies from Colombia (IDEAM).<sup>21</sup> For other countries, spatial variation in temperature was obtained from Willmott and K. Matsuura (2001) datasets and averaged over appropriate spatial units, while the data on precipitation is obtained from Harris et al. (2020).

Information about slope and terrain ruggedness in Colombia is obtained from Nunn and Puga (2012). The raw data calculates the average ruggedness and slope for grid cells around the globe. This paper uses the average slope and ruggedness for the grid cells within each municipality in Colombia.

Elevation and slope for all countries is obtained from the ASTER Global Digital Elevation Model (GDEM) Version 3 (ASTGTM),<sup>22</sup> while for Colombia it is obtained from the Universidad de los Andes Center for Studies on Economic Development (CEDE) Panel.<sup>23</sup>

> 20 See https://www.worldpop.org/project/categories?id=3

> 21 See http://www.ideam.gov.co/documents/21021/553571/Promedios+Climatol%C3%B3gicos+1971+-+2000
-1.62|0.167|
|_Panel C.Household characteristics_||||
|Wealth index|0.49|0.49|0.934|
|Housing quality index|0.41|0.42|0.769|
|Consumption of durable goods index|0.37|0.35|0.582|
|Live in urban area|0.58|0.62|0.073|
|Household size|5.52|5.60|0.382|
|School aged children in the household (n)|1.33|1.32|0.923|
|_Panel D. Community characteristics_||||
|Violent crime in community|0.33|0.35|0.634|
|Social assistance (education) available|0.95|0.97|0.913|

Table A1 presents mean of the variables used in the analysis from the included sample (children with available information on maternal mental health in 2002 and PPVT scores in 2006 and 2009) and excluded one (the rest of the sample).

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|[0.010]|
|**Annual per Cap. food**<br>**expenditure (/1000)***|257.194|116.877|346.691|176.281|507.085|
||[1.437]|[0.657]|[3.199]|[1.001]|[6.060]|
|Observations|21,239|6,766|4,785|5,743|3,945|

*prices - Franc Congolais; food expenditure in 1000 FC per year standard errors in brackets, 100 bootstrap replications Source: 2012 1-2-3 Survey, DRC

Table 2 shows summary statistics of budget shares, aggregate prices for food commodities, and per capita food expenditure by area of residence and poverty status. Tubers and plantain are the main staple crop in the Congolese diet, representing the most important food commodities in terms of food budget. Households devote between 27.2 (urban non-poor) and 39.6 (rural non-poor) percent of their food budget to these food commodities. Meat and fish represent the second most important food commodities of both poor and non-poor households in urban as well as in rural areas. They account for relative budget share ranging from 24.2 (rural poor) to 30.3 (urban nonpoor) percent. Cereals represent an important budget share of the household food budget. Together, cereals, tubers and plantain, and meat and fish represent 78.2 percent of food expenditure of the households in the sample. Among the poor, this share is even higher, representing 79. 4 and 79.8 percent of the budget share of the rural and urban poor, respectively. It is important to point out that these food commodities constitute the bulk of the exempted food products. Other exempted foodstuffs are grouped in the “other foods” category; but the structure of the data set does provide us a means to further investigate the
- 13 -

**_Enforcement through Supervision/Regulatory Forbearance._** The Banlk of Thailand had inadequate powers to intervene and close weak and insolvent institutions. This severely curtailed enforcement of the prudential regulatory framework as the ultimate sanction for non-compliance-intervention and closure of an institution--was not a credible threat. Enforcement actions were also hampered by the fact that the authority to license banks lay with the Ministry of Finance while the BoT was the supervisory authority. Any action related to the withdrawal of a license thus needed to be approved and coordinated with the Ministry of Finance. And finally, banks closure had been a very rare occurrence in Thailand. The last time supervisors forced a bank to close its door was in 1965.

# **c. Performance and Condition of Financial Institutions**

Table 3 summarizes selected performance indicators for cormmercial banks and finance companies prior to financial sector liberalization and the opening of the capital account. As the table shows, the financial sector was still recovering from the 1983-87 crisis as reflected in relatively weak returns on assets and equity. Since financial institutions were subject to lenient interest accrual norms-they were allowed to accrue interest for up to 12 month (6 months) for secured (unsecured) loans-these performance indicators most probably overstate profits. Moreover, the financial sector continued to experience portfolio problems as mirrored in a relatively high ratio of nonperforming loans to total loans which amounted to 7 percent for commercial. Similarly, a number of finance companies and several banks were still supported by the BoT via various measures.<sup>2 2</sup>

**Table 3. Performance Indicators of Commercial Banks and Finance Companies** (%)

||**Commerc**|**ial Banks**|**Fin**|**cos**|
|---|---|---|---|---|
||**1987**|**1988**|**1987**