rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
15 data – particularly representative micro-level data – on FDP will be essential. Despite the growing need for such data, however, the supply of it may not be adequately catching up.

This study leveraged a rich catalogue of micro-level datasets from the UNHCR and WB MDLs to undertake a stocktaking of all available micro-level datasets on FDP, thereby also shedding light on existing data gaps. By geography, the study finds that FDP datasets are relatively rich in Sub-Saharan Africa compared to other regions given that more than half of the publicly available FDP datasets identified through this study come from Sub-Saharan Africa. By topic, FDP datasets are relatively scarcer in topics such as labor and employment, finance, agriculture/livestock/fishery, and education.

One of the surprising results revealed from this study is an overall lack of publicly available microdata on IDPs. Of the 375 FDP datasets identified through this exercise, only 31 of them have a representative sample of IDPs. Furthermore, some countries hosting at least 1 million IDPs have zero publicly available dataset from the UNHCR and WB MDLs, including Colombia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, the Syrian Arab Republic, Türkiye, and Yemen.

The study also reveals how a large majority of the existing datasets did not contain a core set of questions for proper identification of refugees and IDPs. Some of the essential identification questions are often missing, such as the place or country of birth as well as reasons for and history of displacement. The omission of these core questions makes it difficult to properly identify the displacement status of sampled households or individuals. Since the international recommendations by EGRISS were established in recent years, it still remains to be seen to what extent future surveys will adapt to these recommendations.

These findings come with some caveats. First, the metadata of the datasets was extracted in December 2022. This means that our data gap map may already be missing datasets that have been added since then, calling for periodic updates in the analysis of data gaps. Second, our datasets only capture publicly available
eviction remains a threat to some slum dwellers. As mentioned in Nakamura (2016), 9% of the surveyed 562 households had moved to their current residences as a result of eviction from previous residences; 8% of respondents had been asked to move out of their current residence; 8% of respondents recognized litigation filed by landowners against their occupation; and 4% of respondents had witnessed their neighbors being forcibly evicted during the last 10 years. However, although residents of non-declared slums have no legal basis for their occupancy in the slums, many of them enjoy _de facto_ tenure security to some degree. Despite a lack of legal eligibility, a number of residents in non-declared slums have access to basic services provided by the municipal government.

As with other cities in developing countries, functional informal housing markets have been established in Pune slums. Housing quality in Pune slums has been improving over the last decades. Given the limited outreach of government assistance for housing provisions, these improvements should be primarily attributed to slum residents’ own efforts. A key role of government has been instead slum declaration and the delivery of basic services. In the meantime, the trading of housing frequently takes place in informal housing markets. According to the survey of 562 slum households for this study, approximately 23% of households purchased their current housing from previous residents in Pune slums. Tenants who pay rent for housing constitute approximately 10% of slum households in the city. The next section discusses property rights and tenure security in informal settlements, which contribute to the establishment of such informal housing markets.

# **3 Theory and Hypotheses**

## **Property Rights and Tenure Security**

Previous studies have considered property rights an essential determinant of tenure security in informal settlements. Although it remains an ambiguous concept in academic literature (see a review by van Gelder, 2010), tenure security, in its minimum definition, is the risk of—or the protection from—forced eviction without due legal process and compensation. The assurance of
Population (logs)||-46.729|-57.415|
|||(40.569)|(40.654)|
|Urbanization (%)||-1.699|-1.623|
|||(1.360)|(1.355)|
|WBL Index||-5.633|-0.854|
|||(12.997)|(13.437)|
|Women can work||-26.481***|-24.642***|
|the same night<br>||||
|hours as men Y:1||||
|N:0||||
|||(6.178)|(6.282)|
|Women can work||4.173|3.185|
|in the same||||
|industries as men||||
|Y:1 N:0||||
|||(6.741)|(6.843)|
|Ratio of Female to||-1.399|-0.822|
|Male Population||||
|||(1.338)|(1.382)|
|Fertility Rate||-25.246***|-28.560***|
|||(8.963)|(9.345)|
|Starting a Business||0.025|0.038|
|(DTF)||||
|||(0.088)|(0.089)|
|Inflation (%)||<br>1.153**|<br>1.158**|
|||(0.525)|(0.531)|

65
Over the past four decades, China sustained remarkable average annual growth of 10 percent, while transforming from a rural agricultural society to an urban industrial one, and from a planned to a market-based economy. GDP per capita adjusted for inflation increased 24 times, average life expectancy rose by 10 years to 76.5 years in 2017, and more than 700 million people were lifted out of poverty, according to World Bank data.

Moreover, a significant proportion of this expansion was the result of increases in productivity. Productivity improvements within sectors as well as gains from the reallocation of resources between sectors—from agriculture to more productive modern industry and services—and between ownership groups—from inefficient state-owned enterprises (SOEs) to dynamic private firms—were especially important.

However, China has experienced a marked slowdown in growth in output per worker since the global financial crisis. In 2015–18, average GDP growth fell below 7 percent for the first time since 1991, to a large extent due to slowing growth in total factor productivity (TFP). Aggregate TFP growth slowed from 2.8 percent in the 10 years before the global financial crisis to 0.7 percent in 2009–18. In 2017, signs of improving labor productivity and TFP growth emerged but both remain significantly lower than their pre-crisis levels.

Although weaker productivity growth in China has coincided with—and likely been affected by—the recent decline in world productivity growth, the deceleration in China has been sharper. The main contribution of this paper is to examine the characteristics of the productivity growth slowdown using both macro- and micro-level data. We conclude that domestic factors and policy choices have contributed to the slowdown.

We update previous firm-level studies of manufacturing sector productivity and find that, while within-firm TFP growth has remained resilient, limited market entry and exit and lack of resource allocation to more productive firms have contributed to a slowdown in manufacturing TFP growth since 2008. The evidence points to considerable convergence in productivity between SOEs and private companies in manufacturing after market reforms
**<u>Table 3:</u>** <u>GDP per capita growth – the Doing Business ranking (2)</u>

|<br>Model|<br>(9)|<br>(10)|<br>(11)|<br>(12)|<br>(13)|(14)|(15)|(16)|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Dep. Variable|Average|GDPper ca|pitagrowth||||||
|# Years|5|10|5|10|5|10|5|10|
|Sample|All<br>|All<br>|All|All<br>|Rich|Poor<br>|Rich|Poor<br>|
|DBI|3.833**<br>(1.812)|4.753**<br>(1.951)|1.680<br>(1.702)|2.936*<br>(1.743)|-2.769<br>(2.048)|8.029***<br>(2.790)|0.852<br>(2.136)|6.798***<br>(1.835)|
|initial log<br>GDP/cap|-0.424<br>(0.265)|-0.562**<br>(0.249)|-0.642**<br>(0.311)|-0.683**<br>(0.305)|-0.603<br>(0.450
survey is even greater, 93 percent behind Croatia (0.61+0.32=0.93). The TFP gaps with other leading East European countries are as big or bigger.

In column 2 of Table 1 we show an estimation of the production function which uses the same PICS-BEEPS dataset as the country-averages estimation but with dummy variables included for each country. The coefficients of the country dummies capture countryaverage TFP. This approach is known in econometrics as the “within approach”:<sup>8</sup> while the dummy variables are estimates of average firm TFP in a country, the coefficients of labor, capital, ownership and the investment climate variables explain the variation of productivity “within” the countries. The estimated difference in TFP levels between Serbian manufacturing firms in the BEEPS 2002 survey and Croatian firms is 80 percent<sup>9</sup> , and 108 percent using the 2003 Serbia PICS survey. These differences are statistically highly significant.<sup>10</sup> These cross-country differences in TFP partly reflect the differences in GDP per capita between the countries, as is apparent in the figure. But lower TFP cannot be blamed on having too little capital: holding capital and labor constant, Serbia is generating much lower output than Croatia, Slovenia, or the other East European countries that have joined the EU. Serbia will need to invest in new fixed capital. However, to catch up with these countries, it will also need to invest in improving the investment climate, and in changing incentives for firms—including privatizing those that are still socially- or state-owned.<sup>11</sup>

**Figure 1: GDP per capita and TFP, country-survey-averages regression**

<!-- Start of picture text --> 1<br>Bulgaria2002Latvia2002Peru2002 Lithuania2002Estonia2002 Slovenia2002<br>Poland2003<br>5 Moldova2002 Indonesia2003 Morocco2000Turkey2002 Brazil2003Slovakia2002Hungary2002<br>Ecuador2003<br>Croatia2002<br>0 Kyrgyzstan2002 Zambia2002 Uzbekistan2002 Bangladesh2002 India2000 Azerbaijan2002 India2002Pakistan2002Armenia2002Georgia2002 Bolivia2000 Philippines2003Belarus2002Algeria2002Romania2002Poland2002 Czech2002
. The increasing values for the Shannon index and the Simpson index confirm the added value of using the 4-digit occupational information index compared to the 1-digit or 2-digit indices. For example, the extension of the occupational categories from 2 digits (49 categories) to 4 digits (572 categories) represents a 55 percent increase in the information gain as measured by the Shannon index. The information gain more than doubles when deepening the ISCO categories from a 1-digit to a 4-digit level as per the Shannon Index ( Table 1 ).

_Table 1: Entropy information gain measures_

||**1 digit ISCO**<br>**code**|**2 digit ISCO**<br>**code**|**4 digit ISCO**<br>**code**|
|---|---|---|---|
|**Number of categories**|9|49|572|
|**Shannon index**|2.01|3.16|4.90|
|**Simpson index (1/n sum of squared probabilities)**|6.54|14.92|55.32|

To get a better picture, we further explore potential concerns about the transferability of the O*NET-based AI Occupational Exposure Index by comparing occupations in the agriculture sector in the United States with occupations in the agriculture sector in low-income countries. The AIOE different between the two groups with a value of 27 for LICs and 41 for the United States. This suggests that although workers are employed in the same sector, they are actually employed in distinctly different occupations within agriculture in LIC compared to the United States. This is 9
.073|-0.098**|-0.182***|
|Number benefts|925|6.121<br>[0.172]|1.914<br>[0.126]|7.374<br>[0.426]|10.547<br>[0.170]|-5.459***|-3.173***|-8.802***|
|F-test (F-stat)||||||18_._504|8_._132|278_._972|
|F-test (p-value)||||||0_._000|0_._000|0_._000|

_Notes:_ Data collected from endline survey for study participants in employment. The last column reports differences in the means across the groups. *, **, *** indicate t-test significance at the 10, 5, and 1 percent critical level. Standard errors are robust. Household vulnerability score is based on the national Mexican AMAI measure which considers the number of bathrooms, bedrooms, cars, and employed persons in the household, as well as internet access and head of household education level.

13
type of geophysical event (earthquakes), two types of climatological events (cold waves and droughts) and three types of hydrological events (floods, landslides, and high sea-swells).

# **2.3 Methods**

We take a straightforward approach in analyzing the survey data. For each of the outcome domains (preparedness to deal with disasters, possession of emergency supplies,

> 7 See https://www.emdat.be/ (last accessed on April 13, 2024).

5
the Balance Sheet adjustment. Note that this expansion effect from the Balance Sheet adjustment (23.9%) was substantially weakened by the privatization's contractionary effect (-18.5%). As we have already discussed, none of these items constitutes exactly the public - deficit. According to the definition of the federal deficit, neither of the other items related to states and municipalities (6.2% of item #1's growth) and the state owned - enterprises (19.3%) should be included, since this item (#1) refers only to the federal level.<sup>23</sup> The federal govemment and Central Bank's primary deficit had a contractionist impact during this period (-5.8%).

TABLE 111.8. MAKING THE FEDERAL NET DEBT STATISTICS AND THE FEDERAL NOMINAL DEFICIT COMPATIBLE: 1995-1998

||R$ (millions)|Percentage Share|
|---|---|---|
|=Federal Net Debt Variation (+ CB)|_165,422_||
|+Nominal Interest (Federal Government + CB)|117,430|71.0%|
|+Primary Deficit (Federal Government + CB)|-9,589|-5.8%|
|+Nominal Deficit minus Net Debt Variation of the<br>States and Municipalities|10,196|6.2%|
|+ Nominal Deficit minus Net Debt Variation of the<br>State Owned Enterprises|31,894|19.3%|
|+ Patrimonial Adjustrnent Variation|39,516|23.9%|
|- Privatization Adjustment Variation|-30,656|-18.5%|
|+ Adjustment not Computed by the Central Bank|6,646|4.0%|
|=TOTAL|165,437|100.0%|

**_1112_** _Accumulation of assets_

Table 111.9 decomposes the accumulation of
survey also characterize a plant’s environment over the preceding two years. This enables us to use the longitudinal observations in productivity

> 7 Dollar et al (2002) also provide some evidence that differences in power shortages help to explain some of the observed regional gaps in manufacturing productivity across states.

> 8 They find that states that used their labor legislative prerogatives to introduce pro-employer amendments to India’s federal Industrial Disputes Act of 1947, had better economic performance over the period in terms of growth as well as productivity. In contrast, states that reformed the act in a “pro-worker “ direction registered lower growth and lower productivity. Aghion et al (2004) also use the Besley –Burgess index in their analysis of inter-state gaps in industrial productivity and growth at the three-digit Standards of Industrial Classification Code level, basically to confirm the Besley-Burgess finding on the role of labor regulation.

5
indicating flows' ability to predict returns. Using high-frequency data aggregated across types of market participant, Froot et al. **(1998)** find evidence of all three, with the firstpositive feedback trading--being the most important for explaining quarterly correlation. Choe et al. **(1999)** and Kim and Wei **(1999)** use high-frequency data from Korea to examine positive feedback trading around the **1997** currency crisis. Choe et al. find that foreign investors as a group engage in positive feedback trading before the crisis, but during the crisis feedback trading mostly disappears. Kim and Wei examine foreign institutional investors separately and find that they engage in positive feedback trading at all times-before, during, and after the crisis.

Our analysis is related to, and borrows from, both the intemational-finance and asset-pricing lines of the literature. Like the work in intemational finance, we are more concerned about international flows and crisis transmission than portfolio performance. Like work in asset pricing, however, we maintain a direct link to investment strategy and its measurement. In particular, we focus on a specific class of international investormutual funds. **A** benefit of focusing on a specific investor class is that we can characterize the evolution of actual portfolios, and how that evolution relates to returns in various countries. Another benefit is that our data allow us to analyze jointly the behavior of fund managers and their underlying investors. On the cost side, focusing on funds as a specific investor class means that we lose resolution in terms of data frequency: our data are quarterly.

> which requires the buyer to pay compensation in the form of a higher price (so-called "inventory

> effects"). The third is imperfect substitutability-the buyer's purchase may be a large enough portfolio shift relative to the market as a whole that permanently higher price is required to clear the market (even if it is common knowledge that the buyer does not have superior information about the
household and neighborhood level on children’s nutritional status, controlling for the effects of important determinants of nutritional status identified in the literature. Data from the 2000 Ethiopia Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) are used for the analysis, which estimates the probability of children being stunted and underweight.

The paper is structured as follows. Section 2 describes the Ethiopia DHS dataset used for the analysis. Section 3 focuses on the problem of malnutrition in Ethiopia and provides some statistics on the demographic and geographical characteristics of the surveyed population. Section 4 introduces the theoretical framework adopted for the analysis, which follows Alderman, Hentschel, and Sabates (2002), and the empirical strategy employed. Section 5 discusses the econometric specification of the model and the econometric issues that arise in the estimation of the specified model. Section 6 presents the results of the analysis. Section 7 concludes.

# **2. The Ethiopia Survey**

The 2000 Ethiopia DHS is a comprehensive, nationally representative population and health survey conducted in Ethiopia.<sup>2</sup> The survey interviewed 15,367 women between 15 and 49 years of age to collect information regarding fertility and family planning behavior, child mortality, children’s nutritional status, the utilization of maternal and child health services, and knowledge of HIV/AIDS and STDs. The survey was carried by the Central Statistical Authority (CSA), with technical assistance provided by ORC Macro as a part of its MEASURE DHS+ project. The survey took place between February and May 2000, following the harvesting season of the main Meher crops, maize and sorghum, which account for 90 to 95 percent of total cereal production.

A two-stage sampling procedure was adopted, using the 1994 Population and Housing Census as the sampling frame. In the first stage, 540 enumeration areas (EA)—139 in urban areas and 401 in rural areas—were selected using systematic sampling with probabilities proportional to the population size. A listing of all households in each of the selected EA was produced
These administrative data on taxes and transfers are complemented with information of the Cambodian tax code and laws to understand the design of each fiscal intervention.

Additional information on public education and health care services was collected to allow for a more precise assignment of in-kind education and heath transfers to households by the type of service received. The Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport provides enrollment and spending for each level of public education, allowing for an estimation of the spending per student by level of education. For health care, the costing of various health care interventions from Flessa et al. (2018) and Jacobs et al. (2019) is used to assign the monetarized value of health care per person by intervention. We apply this valuation, adjusted by inflation, to health care interventions reported in the 2019/20 CSES data (see Technical Appendix for more details).

# **Empirical Approach and Allocation Overview**

There are broadly five steps involved in the empirical approach of a CEQ.

**Step 1:** Identify the fiscal interventions that can plausibly be studied using the household survey.

**Step 2:** Allocate the gains and losses from fiscal interventions to individuals and households. In the case of taxes on income, allocations are made to individuals and then aggregated at the household level. In the case of taxes or subsidies on consumption, allocations are made to the household. This process involves (a) identifying who pays taxes and social security contributions, based on the source of income and imputed formality of employment; (b) estimating how much each household paid in taxes and received in transfers using laws, codes, program rules, plausible assumptions, and household survey responses. Step 2 is the most complex and laborintensive component of the exercise.

**Step 3:** Test the quality of the model by validating the simulated fiscal policy elements against administrative statistics.

**Step 4:** Build the income aggregates according to CEQ concepts.

**Step 5:
WPS3676

# **TRADE AND EMPLOYMENT: STYLIZED FACTS AND RESEARCH FINDINGS***

## Bernard Hoekman and L. Alan Winters<sup>**</sup>

**Abstract:** The substantial literature investigating the links between trade, trade policy, and labor market outcomes—both returns to labor and employment—has generated a number of stylized facts, but many open questions remain. This paper surveys the subset of the literature focusing on trade policy and integration into the world economy. Although in the longer run trade opportunities can have a major impact in creating more productive and higher paying jobs, this literature tends to take employment as given. A common finding is that much of the shorter run impacts of trade and reforms involve reallocation of labor or wage impacts _within_ sectors. This reflects a pattern of expansion of more productive firms—especially export-oriented or suppliers to exporters—and contraction/adjustment of less productive enterprises in sectors that become subject to greater import competition. Wage responses to trade and trade reforms are generally greater than employment impacts, but trade can only explain a small fraction of the general increase in wage inequality observed in both developed and developing countries in recent decades. A feature of the literature survey is that the focus is almost exclusively on industries producing goods. Given the importance of service industries as a source of employment and determinants of competitiveness, we argue that one priority area for future research is to study the employment effects of services trade and investment reforms.

## World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 3676, August 2005

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the view of the World