rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
Various different and specific items are also mentioned, such as financial interest in foundations and non‐profit organizations, assets of the public pension funds and SWF, derivatives, non‐ tangible assets, public sector pension assets, income contingent loans to tertiary students (see graph 4).

<!-- Start of picture text --> Graph 4 ‐ Assets included in the BS<br>30<br>25<br>23<br>25 22<br>20 20<br>20<br>15<br>10<br>10 7<br>5<br>1<br>0<br>Cash/deposits Receivables SOE Equity Onlending Other<br>income<br>Fixed and other assets International reserves Present value of future<br><!-- End of picture text --> Source: Responses to SALM survey With regards to liabilities, all respondents report sovereign debt liabilities on the government balance sheet. Beyond debt, there is a wide range of responses, with many countries including guarantees (64 percent), legal claims (56 percent), pension liabilities (44 percent), deposits of commercial banks (44 percent) and currency in circulation (32 percent). Other liabilities mentioned in the responses include public‐private partnerships (PPPs) and derivatives (see graph 5).

13
responses to the crisis were indeed important for reducing adverse effects on the health and nutritional status of young children, there may be important lessons to be drawn from Indonesia’s experience.

This study evaluates the effect of a supplemental feeding program, _Program Makanan Tambahan (PMT)_ , on child health and nutritional status in Indonesia from 1998 to 2000.<sup>3</sup> The “intent-to-treat” effect of the program is estimated using both the duration of program exposure within the community and child-age restrictions for participation.<sup>4</sup> The analysis takes advantage of rich information included in two rounds of panel data from the Indonesia Family Life Survey (IFLS-2 and IFLS-3) covering the pre- and postcrisis periods (1997 and 2000, respectively). Crucial to the identification of the PMT effect is detailed information on implementation of emergency social safety net programs, in the community questionnaire, which facilitates exploiting duration of program exposure.

Prior work evaluating public health programs in Indonesia, including the impact of placing midwives in communities (Frankenberg and Thomas, 2001; Frankenberg et al, 2005), recognizes the importance of controlling for program placement. Where these studies, and more generally, the vast majority of research in the program evaluation literature make use of a single binary indicator for program exposure in difference-indifference approaches, this strategy is not always practical or feasible. When nearly all communities receive some treatment, but exposure differs with individual age and the timing of implementation within a community, a binary exposure indicator may fail to

> 3The specific aim of the feeding program was to prevent children under five years of age from suffering deterioration in nutritional status as a result of the crisis.

> 4The use of an _intent-to-treat_ approach in evaluating the effect of a program has an important advantage relative to the use of a participation indicator: this approach avoids the complication raised by the fact that participation by individuals is not exogenous.

3
lagged rainfall levels - that is, cumulative rainfall in the agricultural year preceding the period of reference. The coefficient of the lagged rainfall variable is negative 66.2, which implies that households worked 6.6 more days for the NREGS if lagged rainfall levels were 10% below average. This supports the assumption that the NREGS helps households in coping with shocks, because households use the program to smooth income ex post - for instance, after harvest and after agricultural products have been sold.<sup>39</sup> Self-reported shocks also seem to increase the number of days worked for the NREGS, although the effect is not statistically significant.<sup>40</sup> To quantify the contribution of the NREGS to households’ risk coping, agricultural losses due to rainfall shortages can be compared with income gains through the NREGS. The agricultural production function estimated in Table 2 (col. 6) suggests that a deviation from average annual rainfall by negative 25%, would reduce agricultural output by 5.6% at the optimal level of the risk index. For the average household, this implies a nominal loss of about INR 1,654 (or US$ 35.7 in constant July 2006 values). The same deviation in lagged rainfall would lead households to work about 16.5 more days for the NREGS, which would generate an additional income of INR 1,067 (US$ 23) at mean wages observed in the sample. The NREGS thus allows households to compensate about 64% of agricultural production losses caused by rainfall shortages. Since rainfall fluctuations are among the most important sources of risk for rural households, these results suggest that the NREGS could indeed have an insurance effect in Andhra Pradesh.

# **5.3 The effects of the NREGS on households’ crop choices**

Table 4 reports estimates of the effect of the NREGS on households’ input allocation decisions. As described in Section 4, all equations are estimated in the first-differenced sample, and controls for initial
# **Acknowledgments**

The team for this study was led by Emmanuel Skoufias (Lead Economist, GPVDR) and was comprised of Jose Antonio Cuesta, (Senior Economist, GPVDR), Nkosinathi Vusizihlobo Mbuya (Senior Nutrition Specialist, GHNDR), Sailesh Tiwari (Senior Economist, GPVDR), Eko Setyo Pambudi and Indira Maulani Hapsari from the Jakarta World Bank Office, Katja Vinha (Consultant), Laura Maratou‐Kolias (Consultant, GWASP), Sushenjit Bandyopadhyay (Consultant, GENDR), Christine J. Foreman (Consultant), and Leonardo Tornarolli (Consultant).

The peer reviewers were Leslie Elder (Senior Nutrition Specialist, GHNDR), Patrick Hoang‐Vu Eozenou (Economist, GHNDR), Craig Kullmann (Senior Water Supply and Sanitation Specialist, GWASP), John Newman (Lead Statistician, GPVDR), and Harold Alderman (Senior Research Fellow at IFPRI). The team is especially thankful to the National Institute of Health Research and Development (NIHRD) of the Ministry of Health of Indonesia for making available the relevant data from the 2010 RISKESDAS survey. Additional comments and suggestions were received from Meera Shekar (Lead Health Specialist, GHNDR), Claire Chase (Economist GWASP) and team (Dean Spears, , and Maria Quattri) , Raja B. Kattan (Sector Leader, AFTHD, on behalf of Vera Songwe and AFCF1 HD team), Martin Rama (Chief Economist, SARCE), and Gladys Lopez‐Acevedo (Lead Economist, SARCE). The team has also benefitted from comments received from participants in seminars at the World Bank, IFPRI, and at the UNICEF Headquarters in New York.
is the highly-cited paper by Denizer, Kaufmann, and Kraay (2013), which uses data from the performance of Task Team Leaders (TTLs) to assess the success rates of Bank projects. Denizer et al.’s paper presents the closest analogue to our study, in that it compares project performance across a variety of theorized delivery challenges, including both micro- and macro- determinants of aid project outcomes. One of the earliest works examining the effects of project supervision is Kilby’s (2000) insightful analysis of the marginal rate of return from added supervision, particularly when applied early-on the project life cycle, and particularly so when applied to smaller projects.<sup>5</sup> Ika’s (2015) survey analysis of World Bank task team leaders similarly engages the effect of supervision, showing that a principal cause of failure in World Bank projects can be traced to a lack of timely supervision. This echoes Kilby’s findings, particularly with respect to the cost-benefit analysis of added supervision relative to project performance.

Several insights from literature outside the immediate scope of World Bank project effectiveness may be deemed useful to this analysis. First, a focus on the often-ignored political realities of international aid practices can offer insights into one of the most significant exogenous factors that may affect the ultimate success of disbursements. It is informally understood that aid projects are beholden to political considerations and maneuvering by both grantees and recipients. The extent of this focus has been explored by several works in recent literature, which have looked at both the general effects of political dynamics as well as more focused effects (Laws, 2016). For example, Shin et al.’s (2017) examination of implementing partnerships provides a more nuanced view of how different coalitions of implementing partners can lead to variation in project success. However, in following with the general theme of the literature explored above, such works also exist in a degree of isolation relative to a more comprehensive catalog of delivery challenges that may affect project outcomes
Logistics Performance Index is based on a worldwide survey of operators on the ground (global freight forwarders and express carriers), providing feedback on the logistics ―friendliness‖ of the countries in which they operate and those with which they trade. Such operators combine in-depth knowledge of the countries in which they operate with informed qualitative assessments of other countries with which they trade, and experience of a global logistics environment.

SSA = Sub-Saharan Africa.

Niger’s _costs_ and _time_ to trade across borders are among the highest in the region in spite of its relatively high efficiency in moving goods across borders. The cost of exporting from and importing to Niger is the highest among West African countries and more than 70 percent higher than the average of Sub-Saharan Africa (table 2). Around 40 percent of the firms identified transport in Niger as a major business constraint, a level higher that the average in LICs (32 percent) and MICs (18 percent).<sup>4</sup> The time needed to comply with all procedures required to export goods from Niger is 59 days, versus 34 days in the average West African country. It takes 64 days to import goods to Niger, which is above the regional average of 39 days.

The _costs_ of trading to and from Niger are driven up by inefficiencies in the Port of Cotonou. High costs in this port account for the bulk of the cost (55 percent) of importing goods using the CotonouNiamey corridor (the highest share among the various gateways in West Africa), and surface transport accounts for 35 percent of the cost. Surface transport and port costs each account for about 40 percent of the cost of moving imports to Niger using the Lomé-Niamey corridor (figure 6a). The handling charges in the Port of Cotonou and Lomé are among the highest in West Africa (table 3), where services cost twice as much as those in other global ports.

> 4 World Bank–International Finance Corporation (IFC) Enterprise Surveys on 32 Sub-Saharan African countries.
2022). Measures to improve market functioning such as issuance of transferable certificates (Bu and Liao 2022; Chen _et al._ 2022) or removal of restrictions on land (Chari _et al._ 2021; Chen _et al._ 2023; de Janvry _et al._ 2015) or labor (Giles and Mu 2018; Zhao 2020) have been shown to reduce mis-allocation.

Yet, although digital and remotely sensed data would allow to assess market functioning and put in place regulations to limit exercise of market power (Balmann _et al._ 2021) in near real time, rigid restrictions on land market operation remain in place in many countries (Shifa and Xiao 2023; Vranken _et al._ 2021). Use of geo-coded price data to study impacts of how land was acquired (Allen and Leonard 2021), surveyed (Libecap and Lueck 2011), assigned (Smith 2024), or can be transferred (Dippel _et al._ 2024) has largely been limited to historical cases in the US.

This paper uses more than 1 million transactions in lease and sales markets from Ukraine, a country that adopted far-reaching reforms including opening of land sales markets and land price reporting in 2020/21, to explore the scope for using land price data to make inferences on land market functioning that could inform policy in a more contemporary setting. It shows that linking administrative data to remotely sensed ones to identify fields as basic units of agricultural production within a farm can provide insights on (i) impacts of market liberalization on prices and structure of land markets at the local level; (ii) effects of 2
on the IV estimates, higher exports per worker resulted in higher total manufacturing labor incomes, but not average manufacturing labor incomes (Appendix 10, Panel A). A 10 percent increase in exports per worker thus expanded total labor incomes in the manufacturing sector in Mexico by 2.3 percent. However, the results find no labor market effects through the employment channel, which again could be partially explained by the diluting effect of the migration channel increasing labor supply. Expanding exports per worker also reduces the informality rate in the manufacturing sector. In particular, a 10 percent increase in exports lowers the informality rate by 0.55 percentage points on average. In contrast, increased imports per worker had no significant labor market outcomes in manufacturing via any channel.

Interestingly, there is a positive effect of trade expansion at the municipality level for labor market outcomes in services through the income channel (Appendix 11). Higher exports and imports per worker both increase total labor incomes in services, although the effect is more pronounced for exports than for imports. A 10 percent rise in exports per worker expanded total labor incomes in the service sector by 3.2 percent, while a 10 percent increase in imports per worker affected total labor incomes in services by almost 0.5 percent. Overall, our findings suggest that export expansion in Mexico benefitted total labor incomes of both manufacturing and service sectors. Since trade data in our dataset consist mainly of goods, this finding points to an indirect linkage effect, i.e., goods exports may rely on domestic services such as business services or utilities, thereby increasing total labor income also in service sectors.

# 4.3 Type of imports: Final versus intermediates

This section assesses whether the type of imports matters differently for the labor market effects from trade expansion. The absence of significant effects of imports through the employment and income channels in section 3 could point to a more nuanced role of imports. The latter include not only final imports that can compete with domestic production, but also
datasets, and therefore the countries, for this analysis were selected on the basis of data availability. The countries were not selected to be representative of developing countries in general.

This is clearly a heterogeneous group of countries. Population living on less than a dollar a day ranges from 55 percent in Burundi to two percent in Jamaica and Romania; under-5 mortality—an indicator of basic health status—ranges from 206 per thousand live births in Mozambique to 15 in Romania (Table 1). There are three countries from Africa, four countries from Asia, one country from the Caribbean, and one country from Eastern Europe. While country variety is good since the results will reflect on a range of underlying conditions, little draws these countries together besides having the data available for this analysis.

> 3 LSMS data are available online at <u>http://www.worldbank.org/lsms; national socio-economic surveys are</u> available from the countries’ national statistics offices; DHS data are available online at <u>http://www.measuredhs.com; MICS2 data are available online at http://www.childinfo.org.</u>

2
The ICDS program aims to provide child growth monitoring, supplementary feeding, and pre-school education to young children, along with some basic health services to young children, pregnant women and lactating mothers. With support from UNICEF and other donors, it has emerged from small beginnings in 1975 to become India’s flagship program in these areas. The program has expanded rapidly: the number of blocks covered rose from 33 in 1975, to 4,200 around 2000, and over 5,500 in 2003<sup>6</sup> . During the 1990s,

> 1 IIPS 2000: Table 7.17 and Figure 7.3. The Government of India (1999) estimated that 33% of newborns were of low birthweight, constituting 35% of the total low birthweight children in the developing world (Department of Women and Child Development, cited in Greiner and Pyle, 2000.) 2 See for example Esrey et al.1990, and Scrimshaw and SanGiovanni 1997.

> 3 There is a large literature on this, but see the review and analysis in Behrman et al. 2004.

4 Initiated under wartime rationing during the Second World War, this has expanded greatly thereafter (Nawani 1994).

5 Over the years, these programs have been variously re-named and re-structured, including into the National Rural Employment Program and the Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Program, which were merged in 1989 into the Jawahar Rozgar Yojana and as of 2001 re-formulated into the Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana. Sources: Government of India, Planning Commission (no date), and Government of India, Ministry of Rural Development (no date).

> 6 Greiner and Pyle 2000:5, Government of India 2000, and Parliament of India 2003.

1
country and along the Indo-Gangetic Plain. However, it is clear that burning occurs on cropland throughout India. Both of these facts are confirmed by Figure 2 showing the distribution of states by mean monthly fires in subdistricts. While fires are used in most states in India, their use in Punjab and Haryana is far more widespread than in other states (see notes on Figure 2).

**Weather Controls:** I collect weather re-analysis data from ERA5. ERA5 is a weather re-analysis product produced by the European Commission’s Copernicus Climate Change Service.<sup>19</sup> When working with weather data, there is a trade-off between using re-analysis data, which combines observed data with a physics model to provide data at a fine resolution over long

> 18Copernicus data is available here:https://land.copernicus.eu/imagery-in-situ

> 19Data available here: https://cds.climate.copernicus.eu/cdsapp!/dataset/reanalysis-era5-land?tab=overview

11
this effect is not significant. A decrease in concentration after closed cases are economically meaningful. Nocke and Whinston (2022) for example find that harms to consumers may outweigh potential efficiency gains from mergers when the HHI increases by 200, among industries that already have a low HHI of 1500-2500.

Changes in informality can explain this unexpected result. Columns (3) and (4) show specifications where the left-hand side variable is the SDID change in the concentration ratios, respectively CR4, the sales share of the four largest firms, and CR1, the sales share of the largest firm, each expressed as a percentage ranging from 0-100. The terms _τ_ 0<sup>_CR_4</sup> and _τ_ 0<sup>_CR_1</sup> are quantitatively small and statistically insignificant, suggesting the decrease in the HHI in closed cases is not coming from changes in the market shares of the largest four firms or the largest firm declining by a large amount and must be due to decreased concentration of sales among smaller (informal) firms. Columns (5) and (6) report specifications where the outcome change is in measures of legal and illegal informal employment proposed by Levy Algazi (2010) that can be measured in the Economic Census. Legal informal employment is unremunerated labor,<sup>16</sup> illegal informal employment is remunerated labor without employer contributions to social security. In Column (5) the left-hand side variable is the change in the percentage of workers in establishments with workers but no recorded remuneration. This indicates that workers are compensated out of profits, as in the case of a family business. Here we see _τ_ 0 _legalinformal_ = 1.445 (0.643), suggesting closed cases see a 1.445 percentage point increase in the share of workers operating in firms that record no remuneration. In Column (6) the left-hand side variable is employer contributions to social security as a percentage of the wage bill. The term _τ_ 0 _illegalinformal_ = -1.504 (
<!-- Start of picture text --> = Outgrowths 33.9 33.4 33.2<br>31.4 31.8<br>: 29.5<br><a 30 Census 28.9<br>xX towns 27.0<br>(a)<br>% «25<br>a<br>c<br>s<br>oa) 20 Statut<br>g townsatutory|<br>§<br>a 15<br>_—<br>|<br>10<br><!-- End of picture text -->

<!-- Start of picture text --> 5<br>0<br>Census of Benchmark = Population Population Population size Built-up share —Lit-up share Built-up share + Random<br>India specification size density + population lit-up share forests<br>density method<br><!-- End of picture text -->
(0.039)|
|Colonycj|-0.086|-0.086|-0.093|-0.094|-0.086|
||(0.084)|(0.084)|(0.085)|(0.085)|(0.084)|
|Distancecj|0.090*|0.089*|0.092*|0.090*|0.089*|
||(0.048)|(0.048)|(0.048)|(0.048)|(0.048)|
|FDc x alt_sanitary_riskk||-0.202**<br>(0.088)||||
|TCc x sanitary_riskk|||-0.118*<br>(0.062)|||
|ICc x sanitary_riskk||||-0.138<br>(0.120)||
|EGCc x sanitary_riskk|||||-0.0003**<br>(0.0001)|
|Observations|14870|14870<br>~~20~~|14870|14870|14870|
Policy Research Working Paper 10880

# **Abstract**

Advances in the scale and sophistication of individual income data compiled across high-income countries have enabled researchers to measure inequality and intergenerational mobility at a highly granular level and over long periods of time. The edited volume _Measuring Distribution and Mobility of Income and Wealth_ (Chetty et al (2022), comprising 23 empirically rich studies, provides a comprehensive stocktaking of the recent empirical evidence. This paper reviews the volume’s key findings obtained for high-income countries and raises several questions that extend to low-income countries. What stands out is that income and wealth inequality are increasing, while intergenerational mobility is declining, across most high-income countries. This begs the following questions. Is the Kuznets curve due for a revision? How can countries achieve (and maintain) higher levels of socioeconomic mobility as they develop? To what extent do inequality and mobility trajectories unfold in different ways for countries at varying levels of economic development? How and why do certain subgroups within societies consistently remain at the bottom of the income distribution? Finally, what policy measures that redress inequality and enhance mobility are likely to be both more effective and politically supportable?

This paper is a product of the Development Research Group, Development Economics. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/prwp. The authors may be contacted at rvanderweide@worldbank.org and mwoolcock@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They