rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
appropriate to focus upon measures of morbidity. It is also timely to do so since a standardised methodology is now emerging which uses a 14 day recall period for general morbidity, allows for spontanecus and probed responses and links morbidity with illness sever .ty, functional disability, utilisation of services and attitudes towards services (WHO et al 1986 and Carlson 1985). A WHS core questionnaire might contain questions on general morbidity and associated use of services (including traditional healers and private practitioners) using a 14 day recall period. Optional modules could contain further questions on attitudes towards services, costs of services and the use of drugs etc. While household surveys in the 1970s and early 1980s produced levels of general morbidity which were not comparable (see reviews by Ross and Vaughan 1984, 1986 and Kroeser 1983, 1985) the standard methodology that is emerging enables us to make comparisons of general morbidity rates across countries. Many of the African countries participating in the UNHSCP are using aspects of the methodology described above in their national health surveys. It is important that any new international initiative in health surveys complements these existing surveys.

Although the use of general morbidity questions is becoming more common, the problems associated with them must not be forgotten. Extensive pre-testing is required to make questions culturallv appropriate; validation methods need to be developed; and, in order to present results in terms of standard epidemiological measures of frequencv, it is desirable to record and analyse the duration of completed and uncompleted episodes of illness separately. Ideally proxy-reporting should not be permitted, except for children under a defined age, when the mother should respond on their behalf. If any proxy-responding is allowed, results from proxy-interviews should be analysed separately from subject-interviews to allow comparisons to be made (Ross and Vaughan 1984).

Validation against facility-based or home-based health records is not very fruitful (Kroeger 1983, Ross and Vaughan 1986). A method of validation which has been little used but is probably the best of all, is the study of attenders at the various potential sources of
# **Using Administrative Data to Assess the Impact and Sustainability of Rwanda’s Land Tenure Regularization**<sup>**¶**</sup>

Daniel Ayalew Ali, Klaus Deininger, Marguerite Duponchel World Bank, Washington DC <u>dali1@worldbank.org, kdeininger@worldbank.org, mduponchel@worldbank.org</u> JEL Classification: O18, Q15, R52 Keywords: land tenure regularization, land administration, transaction registration, mortgages, registration fees, Rwanda

> ¶ We thank the Rwanda National Resource Authority in Kigali, especially Emmanuel Nkurunziza, Grace Nishimwe and Rhona Nyakurama for their support of the project helpful comments, and data access and Solomon Kyewalabye and Thierry Ngoga for helping us understand the LAIS data and the LTR process. Funding support from the UK’s Department for International Development is gratefully acknowledged.
<!-- Start of picture text --> Drought risk<br>Flood risk<br>30-year average rainfall o<br>Rain stress days<br>Std. prec index<br>Used CSA in 2019 ————_o—_<br>Accessed loan<br>Crop diversity<br>Asset index e@<br>Female, hh head<br>Age, hh head e@<br>Education, hh head e@<br>Credit residuals<br>CSA residuals 0. —————_<br>Crop div. residuals<br>-.4 -.2 0 2 4<br>Marginal effect (percentage points)<br>Figure shows marginal effect and 95% confidence interval<br><!-- End of picture text -->
within 0.5 percent of GDP in Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, and Niger. If benchmark performance is assumed in addition to the 2015 annual average fuel prices, the total number of countries with below zero QFD increases from 13 to 21.

Table 14 presents the impact on countries using oil products for generation of different oil prices, ranging from US$35 to US$70 per barrel. Diesel and HFO prices corresponding to different prices of Brent were estimated by regressing historical fuel prices on Brent crude oil prices.

**Table 14: Fuel cost savings at different prices of Brent (US$/barrel), savings as percent of GDP**

||**$30**|**$35**|**$40**|**$45**|**$52**|**$55**|**$60**|**$65**|**$70**|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|São Tomé and Príncipe|3.2%|3.0%|2.7%|2.4%|2.0%|1.9%|1.6%|1.4%|1.1%|
|Seychelles|2.9%|2.7%|2.5%|2.3%|2.0%|1.9%|1.7%|1.5%|1.3%|
|Gambia, The|3.0%|2.8%|2.5%|2.3%|1.9%|1.8%|1.5%|1.3%|1.1%|
|Cape Verde
equals _H_ = β1 + β2 . Under perfect competition, an increase in input prices raises both marginal costs and total revenues by the same amount as the rise in costs. Under a monopoly, an increase in input prices will increase marginal costs, reduce equilibrium output, and (as a result) reduce total revenues.<sup>2</sup> The PR _H_ -statistic can thus be interpreted as follows: _H_ <0 indicates a monopoly; _H_ =1 indicates perfect competition; and 0< _H_ <1 indicates monopolistic competition.<sup>3</sup> A number of papers have applied the PR methodology to the issue of competition in the financial sector, although mostly to the banking system specifically.<sup>4</sup> Shaffer (1982) was one of the first to apply the PR model to banks. He estimated it for New York banks using data for 1979 and found monopolistic competition. Nathan and Neave (1989) study Canadian banks. Others have studied some non—North American and non-European banking systems. In Japan, for example, Molyneux et al. (1996) find evidence of a monopoly situation in 1986—1988. A number of papers have studied European banking systems.<sup>5</sup> Although the findings are somewhat varied, the papers generally reject both perfect collusion and perfect competition, finding mostly evidence of monopolistic competition (Bikker and Haaf (2001) summarize the results of ten such

> 2 This interpretation assumes that the test is undertaken on observations that are in long-run equilibrium.  Therefore, we also tested whether the observations were in long-run equilibrium and found the tests to be satisfied.  Given the short time period, we did not allow for any time variation in the _H_ -measure.  Arguably, however, liberalization and deregulation during this period has affected the degree of competition in many banking systems over time.  To the extent that these have been trends affecting banking systems globally in the same way and have preserved the
twelve countries.<sup>4</sup> They find that arrival of fast internet causes an overall increase in the probability of holding a job as well as an increase in the probability that an individual will hold a skilled job. The probability of holding an unskilled job does not decrease. Most important, an examination of the impact of faster internet arrival on workers by educational attainment rather than by job categories highlights that the estimated increase in the employment rate is of comparable magnitude for those with primary school, secondary school, and tertiary education in all samples studied. Three subsequent country case studies – on Nigeria, Senegal, and Tanzania – have also added to this rapidly growing evidence base by exploring the impact of mobile internet availability (3G or 4G coverage) – instead of fixed terrestrial broadband – on jobs and welfare. The studies take advantage of geospatial information on the roll-out of mobile internet towers over time combined with at least two rounds of household data over a six to seven-year period. The job estimates from Nigeria show that internet availability had positive impacts: labor force participation and wage employment increase by 3 and 1 percentage points respectively after three or more years of exposure in areas with internet availability relative to those with no coverage (Bahia et al., 2020). The job estimates for Tanzania are similarly significant, with richer jobs data allowing a more detailed exploration (Bahia et al., 2023). The job estimates for Senegal are also positive for some job categories: 3G availability is associated with 5 percent higher formal employment than non-covered areas, though availability does not have a significant impact on overall employment (Masaki et al, 2020).

The answers to the second question, namely drivers of adoption, generally emphasize two factors: first, the business environment, including policies affecting the degree of competition, and second, firm characteristics, and in particular firm capabilities. For example, using data for 25 industries in 25 European countries and a difference-in-difference methodology, Andrews, Nicoletti and Timilotis (2018
for the Sierra Leone rice sector in order to simulate the effects of policy interventions as well as the potential impact of technical progress in the sector. The model is largely based on survey information collected in 2016. Importantly, the model is disaggregated across the five rice ecologies, thereby providing a richer set of simulation results. Furthermore, since the model includes both household as well as hired-in or temporary labor, some sense of the distributional impact of different trade or labor policy can be gleaned from the simulations.

Simulation of the base year as a basic validation test showed that the sector model performed well with only minor deviations between the survey data and the simulated results, with the exception of employment, where the simulated level of employment was lower than for the survey. This finding suggests that the sector is not optimal in the use of labor and is entirely consistent with the narrative of high levels of unemployment and underemployment in Sierra Leone. Over the 10-year period between 2009 and 2018 the unemployment rate in Sierra Leone has averaged 8.25 percent per year.<sup>17</sup> The simulation of the base year also suggests that Sierra Leone’s rice sector is operating at a sub-optimal level in the use of one critical resource—land. The use of two of the most productive ecologies—Mangrove Swamp and Riverain are well below their availabilities. The sub-optimal use of these two ecologies is reflected in the shadow prices. The shadow prices for a hectare of Mangrove Swamp and Riverain are $615.76 and $107.89, respectively. This means that bringing an additional hectare of the former ecology into production would increase producer/consumer surplus by $615.76 and an additional hectare of

> 16 The ‘hunger season’ runs usually from May to December, when local production is unable to meet domestic demand and import of rice is needed to fill the gap.

> 17 World Bank, World Development Indicators.

26
the baby’s breathing, drying the baby, keeping the baby warm and initiating resuscitation with a bag/mask) and five actions for post-partum hemorrhage (determining the cause, providing bimanual uterine massage, placing a foley catheter, running an IV and providing oxytocin or similar drugs). Providers are scored on the number of actions that they propose. Further information on the clinical vignettes is available in **Appendix Table A2** and **Appendix Table A3.** Finally, the SDI survey also collects information on inappropriate antibiotic use, defined as providers that prescribe an antibiotic during the tuberculosis vignettes (aside from the antibiotics recommended as part of the tuberculosis regimen) or any antibiotics for the diarrhea vignettes (for which antibiotics are not indicated given the patient examination). Inappropriate antibiotic usage is calculated as the percentage of health care providers that inappropriately prescribe antibiotics among all health care providers to whom the clinical vignettes are administered.

# 3.3 Methods

Summary statistics and estimates are reported using facility-level weights, which are created based on the inverse probability of being sampled. Facility-level sample weights are unavailable for Mozambique so the unweighted results are reported. Provider-level weights are also incorporated for health care provider absence and all vignette-based variables. More details on the sampling and weights are provided in **Appendix Table A4** . The sample includes a mix of facilities in terms of location (urban/rural), ownership (public and private) and facility levels (hospitals, health clinics and health posts). In all figures, countries are ordered by increasing GDP per capita to demonstrate how performance on health service indicators may correlate with country income. The estimates of GDP per capita (based on purchasing power parity in current international dollars) are from World Bank Open Data and the GDP value corresponds to the year of the survey in each country.<sup>21</sup> While much can be gleaned already from cross tabulations, multivariate regressions are used to describe the relationship between each variable and the characteristics
*|_0.000_|880|5|-2|_0.485_|
|Male adult|944|11|8 **|_0.020_|880|11|-3|_0.515_|
|Other|944|14|10|_0.109_|880|12|3|_0.666_|

Notes: Coefficients are from an OLS regression of the left-hand side variable on a treatment dummy, controlling for strata dummies, survey- time dummies, and baseline traits (see Table 3 note). ***, **, * indicate significance at 1, 5 and 10 percent. Time use data were collected twice at midline and at endline, in weeks 1 and 3 of the weekly survey. The data refer to the previous day (unless it was Friday, in which case Thursday is the reference day). Activities for the main respondent and for the caregiver of the youngest child are collected for each hour of the day (with exception of the hours between midnight-5am which were grouped together).

44
**Table 5: Antidumping Initiations by Economy Taking Action**

||Number of aniun|i4g<br>initiations|Index of~nfidamiping<br>intain<br>"5~99|
|---|---|---|---|
||1991-94<br>Developed|1995-98<br>Economies|per dolar of mpofts,|
|Australia|213|77|1096|
|Canada|84|39|199|
|EU|135|122|210|
|US|226|94|100|
|All developed economies|678|353|74|
||Developing|Economies||
|Argentina|59|72|2627|
|Brazil|59|54|871|
|India|15|78|187|
|Korea|14|34|204|
|Mexico|127|31|275|
|South Africa|16|72b/|2324|
|All developing economies|394|509|313|

Notes: _a-/_ Based on numbers of antidumping initiations 1995-98 and values of merchandise imports for 1996. bl 1995-97 figure.

_Source:_ WTO Secretariat, Rules Division; Antidumping Measures Database 35
A divergence in the cost-of-living across households has consequences for the measurement of income inequality. Muellbauer (1974) examines the different impacts on UK households of price changes between 1964 and 1970 and finds that the COL of low-income households grew faster than the CPI captured. Ignoring this kind of error overstates the reduction in inequality from 1964 to 1970 by 13-15 percent.

# **3 Methodology**

Consumption patterns vary across households at different income levels for various reasons. Engel’s law postulates that the share of the household budget spent on food declines with income <u>(Chai and Moneta 2010). Shares of the household budget spent on housing are also typically higher</u> for poor households than for rich ones. Wealthier households tend to spend proportionally more on transportation, education, insurance, and pensions than poorer households and allocate their assets differently (Erosa and Ventura 2010). These differences in consumption patterns and heterogeneous changes in consumer prices lead to different levels of inflation faced by different households. Increases in the COL varying by household income could have significant implications for poverty and inequality, potentially affecting a range of government policies (Gürer <u>and Weichenrieder 2020).</u> The standard CPI measures the costs of the basket of goods and services purchased by the “typical” household. But because the consumption basket purchased by a household is likely to differ from the CPI basket, the inflation rate it faces will likely differ from the CPI inflation rate. Such differences can be especially large in periods of high inflation.

A large body of economic research analyzes other factors affecting differences in the rates of inflation measured by the CPI and the COL approaches. Among the most important drivers are substitution bias, incomplete quality adjustment, and the treatment of housing expenses. The overall conclusion of these studies is that CPI inflation is likely to overstate COL inflation (Jacobs, <u>et al. 2014).</u> Formally, the CPI inflation is calculated based on the Lowe index
the outcome of the pregnancy (terminated or live birth) is examined are in Table 7 (columns 1-5). Overall, there is not a significant effect of a shock in the first trimester on the likelihood of a terminated pregnancy, neither in the base specifications (columns 1 and 2), the mother fixed-effects (column 3), nor the alternative trimester determination method (columns 4 and 5). Exposure to violence later in the pregnancy, especially in the second trimester, may reduce the likelihood of a termination, but this result is statistically weak and not always significant.

Since only boys’ birthweights were negatively affected by violence shocks in early-pregnancy, it is possible that fetal mortality is also gender selective. This cannot be directly verified because the gender of the fetus is not specified in the data, but I use instead the gender ratio at birth in the sample of live births as a signal for changes in gender specific terminations (Table 7 columns 6 and 7 ) (as in Sanders and Stoecker (2015) and Valente (2015)). Although the 1 coefficient is negative, it is not significant enough to support the hypothesis of a boy-specific mortality rise. δδ

# [Table 7 here]

A second source of selection bias can occur if violence triggers fertility changes. For example, if more educated people reacted differently to the shock, the sample of births could have worse health because of this compositional change on who becomes a parent and not because of exposure to

> 49 A full pregnancy history distinguishing miscarriage from stillbirths, abortions and ectopic pregnancies is only available in the latest round of the survey.

> 50 Since the day of the pregnancy end is not known in the calendar data, the date of conception is not adjusted for the time of the month and thus can be subject to greater measurement error than the date of conception of the live births sample.

> 51 In the sample, terminated pregnancies last 2.4 months on average, 91.3% of pregnancies that reach the seventh
YES|YES|YES|
|_Joint significance of geographical areas (p-value)_|_0.112_|_0.164_|_0.049_|_0.080_|
|Observations|36|36|36|36|

P values in parentheses: *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1. In all OLS regressions, we control for the geographical areas dummy variables: coastal, center and mountain areas; Tirana is the excluded geographical area.

Table 8 indicates that more “cooperative” districts are characterized by a higher parental participation in the school accountability system, although, as expected given the restricted degrees of freedom, the level of significance of the correlation is lower than in the individual-level regressions.

# _The long route to accountability_

In Table 9 we employ district-level official records of turnout in the 2009 parliamentary elections as our dependent variable. We use the same empirical specifications as in Table 8.

24
|Science and engineering associate professionals; Health associate<br>professionals; Business and administration associate professionals<br>etc.|
|Clerks (CLR)|General and keyboard clerks; Customer services clerks; Numerical and<br>material recording clerks etc.|
|Sales and personal services workers (SSR)<br>Skilled agricultural workers (AGR)|Personal services workers; Sales workers; Personal care workers etc.<br>Market-oriented skilled agricultural workers; Market-oriented skilled<br>forestry, fishery and hunting workers; Subsistence farmers, fishers,<br>hunters and gatherers|
|Craft workers (CRF)|Building and related trade workers; Metal, machinery and related<br>trade workers; Handicraft and printing workers etc.|
|Machine operators (MOP)|Stationary plant and machine operators; Assemblers; Drivers and<br>mobile plant operators etc.|
|Elementary workers (ELM)|Cleaners and helpers; Agricultural, forestry and fishery laborers;<br>Laborers in mining, construction, manufacturing and transport etc.|
|Home sector workers (HSW)|_Not in labor force_<sup>1</sup>|

1Individuals not in any occupation and not looking for work. For more information on the ISCO-88, see ILO (2012).

> 11 The 1-digit occupations (major groups) in ISCO-88 are comparable to those in ISCO-88. New occupations are introduced in the latter, together with some merging and splitting of older categories. Yet, the changes are restricted at the sub-group or finer levels (ILO, 2012).

13
uncertainty, may be even more important than average delivery time to a firm’s ability to compete in just-in-time regimes.

The paper first analyzes comprehensive data for global logistics indicators from the 80 economies. These data show interesting differences across economies, varying by level of development, extent of liberalization, access to coastal ports, and the like. The global logistics indicators most critical for supply chain management are then selected for inclusion in an augmented gravity model. The model incorporates the effects of direct shipping costs as well as time, variability in time, and complexity of procedures, all of which lead to significant indirect costs that harm the export competitiveness of countries. This model incorporates much more detailed and specific information on the components of logistics time and cost than has been used in earlier studies. Incorporating such detailed time and cost information makes it possible to identify the specific policy, institutional, and infrastructural components of international trade— such as inland transport or customs clearance—that are the most serious impediments to trade competitiveness. The analysis finds strong empirical evidence that transaction costs associated with policy and institutional constraints are critical in explaining much of the variation in bilateral trade. The global logistics indicators are generally statistically significant and with the expected sign, indicating that poor logistics performance has a significant adverse effect on bilateral trade.

Next, the paper uses a three-stage estimation process to develop a single logistics index comprising several of the global logistics indicators and shows that this index captures essentially all the explanatory power of the indicators used separately. The final model explains about 71 percent of the variability in bilateral trade in the 80-economy data set. Finally, the paper performs sensitivity analysis on the model with the logistics index to estimate the potential benefits from different improvements in logistics.

# **Literature Review**

The basic framework for the analysis is the gravity model that has been used extensively in the trade literature.<sup>1</sup> The standard gravity model describes bilateral trade as directly related to the size of the two countries involved