rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
depth was constructed by fitting a curve to video analysis supplemented by a range of quantitative data that has been extracted from 36 experimental, observational, and modeling studies around the world spanning four continents, making it the best available model for understanding flood impact on travel speed at the global scale. The calculated speed is the maximum acceptable velocity that ensures safe control of the vehicle given the depth of flood water.

# **Results**

## Indirect impacts on mobility far exceed direct infrastructure exposure

We measure the direct impact of floods on the road network in terms of total road network length inundated across all settlement clusters and percent inundation per cluster. Our results show that more than 1 million kilometers of roads are exposed to greater than 1-meter floodwater inundation under the 100-year return period scenario. The exposure profile for all settlement clusters considered in this study, with respect to the length of road network inundation, consistently increases with flood return periods regardless of the inundation depth threshold (Fig. 6a). On average, 14.73% of road network is inundated under the 30 cm inundation threshold, 100-year return period scenario. In some extreme corner cases, almost all of the road network (99.04%) is inundated by flood water (1000-year return period, 15 cm inundation threshold).

In addition, we measure indirect disruptions on mobility: failed routes (unable to find viable paths between OD pairs), travel delay, and travel distance increase due to road closures and speed reduction under multiple flood return periods and floodwater inundation thresholds. Our results highlight the differences between direct and indirect flood impacts on roads. The interconnected nature of road networks allows local flood disruptions to propagate through the network extending far beyond the exposure areas and inducing regional travel delays and failures. In general, the percentage of roads that are directly exposed to floodwater measured as share of road length inundated by floodwater is relatively low compared with the percentage of route failure (Fig. 6b), especially for smaller flood return periods. The average
This paper provides targets and estimates of the resource requirements for ECE in the next 12 years (See Table 9). Notwithstanding the budgetary implications, good planning, political prioritization, and consistency can facilitate reaching such targets. A robust ECE system will improve school readiness, student retention in primary and secondary education, transition to higher educational levels, and education outcomes.

Given the benefits of ECE, considering the current state of ECE financing in Pakistan, and because of the resource requirements outlined above, this paper provides decisionmakers with a framework to invest additional resources in ECE and ensure they are used effectively and efficiently. Different policy options should be considered to develop a long-term ECE service delivery and financing strategy. The example scenarios described in this paper all call for a substantial increase in ECE financing over the next decade. However, the analysis considers modalities that could help lessen this burden and facilitate a sequenced approach.

There is also an opportunity for federal and provincial governments to invest in tracking expenditures on pre-primary education at aggregate, functional, and operational levels. Doing so would allow Pakistan to report ECE spending to international databases, such as the UIS – something it does not currently do. Such tracking is crucial for understanding the state of ECE financing, gaps, and compliance status with international and national benchmarks. The government, civil society organizations, and development partners might also consider focusing on implementing community-based approaches and public-private partnership modalities for ECE. This could lower the burden on the public education system and reduce the funding requirements for achieving SDG 4.2 targets. Policy makers can use simulation exercises such as those used in this paper to better plan service delivery for children in the early years.

# **Limitations**

This exercise is not without constraints and limitations. First, pre-primary budgets are grouped with primary education in Pakistan; therefore, the ECE budgetary allocations and expenditures are unknown. To address this, we used a part of the primary education budget proportionate to the number of grades at the primary level as the pre-primary
: teacher<br>dhl ldhi||**Written literacy exam**|**0.02**|l|
|Kenya|prepareness,scoo eaersp,<br>classroom learning environments|RCT|Oral literacy exam|0.05|Lucas et a. , 2014|
||||Kiswahili letter sound fluency|0.76||
|Kenya|The Primary Math and Reading (PRIMR)<br>Rural Expansion Programme|RCT|Kiswahili syllable fluency|0.31|RTI International, 2015|
||||Kiswahili decoding fluency|0.19||

29
|0.895|0.899|0.888|0.963|0.883|0.931|0.901|0.899|0.900|0.900|
|Prob _>_ F|0.000|0.000|0.000|0.000|0.000|0.000|0.000|0.000|0.000|0.000|0.000|
|Number of units|7970|7970|7970|7970|48|6429|7153|7970|7970|7369|7369|
|Number of clusters|48|48|48|48|48|1050|48|48|48|42|42|
|First stage F-stat|17.328|15.502|19.798|43.623|19.874|21.093|21.529|20.753|33.105|12.518|12.518|
|No population controls||X||||||||||
|Store revenue weights|||X|||||||||
|Population weights||||X||||||||
|State population weights|||||X|||||||
|County-level benefts||||||X||||||
|Full sample|||||||X|||||
|Remove disaster payments||||||||X||||
|Policy controls|||||||||X|||
|Recalculate SUA||||||||||X||
|Update SUA|||||||||||X|

Notes: Robust standard errors are in parentheses, clustered by state. *** p _<_ 0.01, *
collect and analyze data there is the capacity to overcome such challenges. Addressing these will be essential to ensuring that the promise of technological innovations and data-driven decision-making reach those who need it the most.

# **3.B Data for Better Judiciaries**

To exploit the potential of the data revolution, countries should start by creating a data ecosystem that relates different sources of data to each other, thereby improving the universe of analyses that becomes possible. This requires planning ahead and making an up-front investment in data infrastructure whose benefits may not be realized until the long term. Realizing the promise of data requires another essential asset: human capital. In the legal field, engineers generally lack domain knowledge whereas lawyers tend to lack the technical skills to wrangle and analyze data. Thus, staff training and hiring may be essential to ensuring that data is used responsibly to develop effective innovations. It is through investment in human capital that countries may leverage the promise of data in justice systems for the greater good.

Once the appropriate data ecosystem and the human capital is established, we propose the following paths for the use of data, each of which are explored in greater detail below: 1) access to e-justice for citizens; 2) data for better court performance; and 3) data for better knowledge.

First, the data revolution can bring better access to e-justice for citizens and companies. Given the global justice gap in access to justice, making justice more accessible for vulnerable populations is particularly relevant in developing countries. Data may be used to identify gaps in access to justice, for example, by comparing legal need surveys to the actual disputes that are brought to courts. This may help policy makers better understand if there are specific disputes that elude the justice system, where better access to legal means of resolving disputes might be the main gap. For instance, if surveys indicate that a territory is deeply affected by domestic violence, but few cases of domestic violence are resolved in courts, this will provide evidence of a gap
microcredit lending was the highest for Grameen Bank (89 percent) and the lowest for BRAC (38 percent). In earlier years, women’s share of BRAC microloans was much higher (e.g., 95 percent in 1998/99); but nowadays, most of the BRAC loans extended for small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) target men more than women.

Another feature of microfinance operations in Bangladesh is mandatory savings of members/borrowers, in the form of weekly savings and deposits of a certain percentage of the loan amounts when disbursed. The more savings MFI members accumulate over the years, the better both they and the MFIs perform. MFIs consider member savings as part of their portfolio for financial transaction; aggregate program-level data shows that, in recent years, member savings have accounted for as much as 60 percent of MFI loans outstanding. However, for members, these savings should be compared to cumulative borrowing. Member savings represented about 8 percent of cumulative borrowing in 1991/92, increasing slightly to 10 percent for both 1998/99 and 2010/11 survey years (Table 2), perhaps suggesting that less than 10 percent of borrowing consists of MFI mandatory deposits, which nonetheless accounts for some 60 percent of MFI loans outstanding in Bangladesh.<sup>7</sup>

# **3. Correlation of Changing Participation Status with Poverty and Other Welfare Measures**

In this study, the outcome of particular interest is poverty dynamics over a long period of time. It is conceivable that, as a result of a higher level of micro-borrowing and savings mobilized over this period, households enjoyed a higher level of income (assuming it was augmented through activities financed under microcredit programs), a higher level of consumption (since the participating households were poor to begin with), and thus a reduced level of poverty. For purposes of

> 7 Unlike other MFIs, Grameen Bank also mobilizes voluntary savings from its members and non-members; thus, Grameen’s savings account for more
- 2 -

# **I. INTRODUCTION**

In recent years it has become increasingly important to understand the demand for electricity, because of highly volatile international energy prices and global warming expected in the future. How to manage the consumer demand for electricity remains a challenge for many developing and transition economies. To this end, metering is essential, because it is generally difficult to design an effective tariff structure without sufficient meters installed. Lack of metering also complicates other governance issues, such as electricity theft, and generates a significant adverse effect on the sector’s financial viability and the country’s energy security and growth.

This paper examines the residential electricity demand in Albania, using micro data from the country’s household surveys. Particularly, it casts light on the potential impacts of metering and climatic conditions. To estimate the unbiased demand function, several important econometric issues need to be addressed, such as simultaneity between price and quantity, self-selection of metering, and partially observable electricity consumption. By using a twostage method, the paper will show that metering is an important determinant of the residential demand for electricity. It will also show that higher-than-usual temperature and increasing ownership of air conditioners would likely push up the electricity demand in Albania.

Metering is a fundamental step for successful utilities to promote energy efficiency and financial sustainability. This may be intuitively obvious, but it is not as simple as it looks. For instance, the U.K. experience indicates that metering per se may not always be required for the utility service provision. In the United Kingdom, historically, only about one-third of domestic water users are metered. Hence, if the capacity of supply is sufficient and the demand is well predicted even in the absence of meters, utilities may not have to install meters. But this is very difficult in practice.<sup>1</sup>

> 1 In the United Kingdom, water services have not been charged based on metering until recently. Given the 2005 drought and severe water shortage,
0.10|7.08|
||Pooled|Pooled|Pooled|Pooled|Pooled|Pooled|Wave 7|Wave 7|
|Wave<br>Notes: * significant at 10% level, ** significant at 5% level, *** si|2020<br>gnificant at 1% le|2020<br>vel.|2020|2020|2020|2020|2021|2021|

<mark>[1] Female is a dummy variable where 1 = female-led business and 0 if male-led business</mark> <mark>[2] Regression adds controls for Business Sector (Panel B); and controls for Business Sector + Firm Size, Firm Age and Role in Business (Panel C).</mark>

[3] OLS regressions in Columns (1) to (6) Panels A-C using 2020 data include Region of the world Fixed Effects and controls for the 6 waves in 2020-time dummy variables.

- [4] OLS regressions in Columns (7) to (8) Panels A-C are for 2021 data and includes Region of the world Fixed Effects.

37
so-called _restos a pagar_ . In most states we are unable to assert whether payments in a given year were committed and/or verified in the previous year; furthermore, annulments of verifications and cancellations of payments can be common, and are not always precisely measured in our dataset. We believe both of these factors might drive the systematic overestimation of aggregate amounts in our dataset compared to SICONFI. Finally, we also highlight that results in both our dataset and SICONFI are self-reported by municipalities, meaning there could be systematic discrepancies not due to errors in one source, but due to inconsistent reporting by subnational agents.

While we document that in some states we systematically overestimate total amounts verified and paid, these deviations Dmt are only weakly correlated with municipal characteristics. We perform a predictive OLS exercise regressing Dmt on a list of observables including each municipality’s log population and log GDP per capita. In Table 4 we report results from regressions with only year fixed effects in odd columns and with year and state fixed effects in even columns. In odd columns we find that deviations are negatively correlated with ln(Population) and positively correlated with ln(GDP). For both deviations in commitment and verification amounts, these correlations become much smaller in magnitude and mostly not statistically different from zero once we include state fixed-effects. For deviations in payment amounts, we still observer marginally significant correlations (at 10% significance level) for both population and GDP – in column (6), a one log point increase in GDP correlates with 0.5 p.p. smaller deviation in payments, or about 12% of the mean. A one log point increase in GDP per capita roughly corresponds to going from p25 to p75 of the distribution, so this is a small magnitude.

In sum these results suggest that our data’s aggregate deviations from SICONFI totals are partially correlated with municipalities’ characteristics, although only weakly. Researchers using our data may want to control for such characteristics depending on the research question at hand.

# *
||_Num_|_ber of cou_|_ntry-pairs with non miss_|_ing data_|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|**Year**|**GDP defator**|**CPI**|**Gross Trade data**|**Value Added data**|
|1970|139|103|215|-|
|1980|171|126|215|-|
|1990|206|166|215|189|
|2000|239|205|215|189|
|2010|248|230|215|189|
|2015|247|227|215|189|

- **_gvcb = Foreign Value Added + Foreign Double Counting Terms_** . This is the foreign content of exports and is sometimes referred to as the backward index of GVC participation.

- **_gvce = gvcb + DVARF_**

- This first index of GVC participation accounts for both backward and forward GVC participation and is the sun of foreign content in export as well as the domestic content of export that are re-exported further.

- **_gvc_broad_** = gross exports - _davax_fin_ .

- This second index of GVC participation is broader than the previous one as it also includes **_davax_int_** . This index measures all exports that are either intermediate inputs or foreign content. It only excludes from gross trade flows the share of domestic value added that is exported as final good and directly consumed by the destination consumers.

# **4 Methodology/Empirical Strategy**

While for the descriptive statistics in the first section the degree of global inflation synchronization was measured by the correlation of each country inflation and the World inflation, here we focus on the bilateral linkages and compute the correlation of country-pair inflation series.

10-year windows are used as benchmark due to the need to use no overlapping windows in the regressions. The use of 10, 15 and 20-year shows similar patterns in
SSIPEX is a very interesting experiment that aims to facilitate technology transfer and commercialization in China. It may be a valuable means of communicating to Chinese entrepreneurs that monetizing external IP can be more efficient than developing their own technologies in isolation. Yet, the attempt to establish the center has encountered many challenges. It is difficult to judge their exact origins but these challenges may stem from inadequate data protection and insufficient participation. With only 2752 patents focusing on integrated circuit technologies from 87 vendors and manufacturers in its core database<sup>8</sup> , the SSIPEX has not achieved the critical mass needed to make an exchange platform particularly efficient. While it is certainly an important center for technology transfer, its IP database may not be sufficiently developed to stimulate participation. There is a typical chicken/egg problem in this aspect of any exchange. An efficient market will stimulate participation, but an efficient market relies on adequate levels of participation. Another important challenge is the need for anonymity. The publication of patent details and the desire to exchange them can be used as competitive intelligence in many industries. Anonymity is required to maintain competitive strategies and avoid risks of litigation (Arora, Fosfuri, and Gambardella 2001). Companies may be seeking patents to protect product lines from infringement lawsuits. An unsuccessful bid for a patent license could turn a firm into a litigation target. Participants must be assured that the exchange intermediary adequately protects sensitive data while making enough information accessible to attract potential buyers. These are difficult tradeoffs, since any exchange of patent rights relies on effective and comprehensive due diligence procedures and compliance monitoring mechanisms. SSIPEX unfortunately does not possess the resources necessary to monitor the compliance of its small Chinese members with relevant IP laws. A member could gain access to a valuable technology and then transfer it to others without proper authorization, thus inhibiting the development of SSIPEX as uncertainty about enforcement stops IP owners from making their technologies available (Chesbrough 2011). The lack of transparency in the Chinese IP system and insufficient evidence of past performance
Eighth, we employ as a proxy for mental distress an indicator of PTSD available from the BNLA, which is an eight-item self-reported screening measure derived from the Harvard Trauma Questionnaire. We also address potential self-selection into LFP and subsequent employment status by employing the alternative two-part fractional response model (Roodman, 2011). To help alleviate potential reverse causality (i.e., mental health and labor market outcomes are measured in the same survey wave), we regress labor market outcomes on mental illness measured in the previous wave (i.e., wave _t-1_ ). These checks provide qualitatively similarly results (albeit weaker statistical significance for labor incomes for the last check).

Ninth, we investigate whether the main effects of mental illness on refugee labor outcomes are shaped by their employment experience before arrival. For example, those used to be in paid employment may find easier to get a job in the host country, and such experience may also affect their mental health status. In our model specification, this has been taken into account by controlling for individual characteristics and individual fixed effects. We implement a further check by splitting our sample into two groups based on whether they did any paid work before arrival and find qualitatively similar results.

Finally, we conduct various checks on the IV. Firstly, we add up the total number of traumatic events experienced by refugees as an alternative instrument for mental health. Secondly, we test the robustness of our results to deviations from the assumption of perfect exogeneity, using Conley et al _._ ’s (2012) bounding method. These tests produce similar results.

# **4.3. Heterogeneity analysis**

An important policy question is whether some sub-groups of refugees are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of mental illness. We examine several characteristics of refugees in this section. First, we examine the differential impacts of mental health based on visa types, which are classified into onshore and offshore visas. The offshore resettlement program applies 17
. Indeed, if fiscal pressures are already acute, the rules may struggle to mitigate the fiscal strain effectively; for example, not all rules have been effective in high-debt environments (Combes et al., 2017).

To assess the fiscal position at the time of rule adoption, we use the lagged government debt-to-revenues ratio, sourced from the World Economic Outlook (WEO), October 2024.<sup>23</sup> <u>Figure 7</u> shows the distribution of fiscal rule adoptions across different debt regimes. The sample median corresponds to a government debt-to-revenue ratio of 178%, with adoptions evenly split: 47% of adoptions occurring in high-debt regimes and 53% in low-debt regimes. Two cases of fiscal rule adoption under exceptionally high debt stand

> 23 We obtain similar results when we use the debt-to-GDP ratio (available on request).

22
- J. Villar, H. Ba’aqeel, G. Piaggio, P. Lumbiganon, J. M. Beliz ́an, U. Farnot, Y. Al-Mazrou, G. Carroli, A. Pinol, A. Donner, et al. Who antenatal care randomised trial for the evaluation of a new model of routine antenatal care. _The Lancet_ , 357(9268):1551–1564, 2001.

- W. K. Viscusi and C. J. Masterman. Income elasticities and global values of a statistical life. _Journal of Benefit-Cost Analysis_ , 8(2):226–250, 2017.

- White Ribbon Alliance. Respectful maternity care: A Nigeria-focused health workers’ training guide. Technical report, Futures Group, Health Policy Project, 2015.

- WHO. WHO recommendations for augmentation of labour. Technical report, World Health Organization, 2014.

- World Bank. Life expectancy, 2019. data retrieved from World Development Indicators, https: //data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.IN?locations=NG.

- W. Zeng, E. Pradhan, and M. Khanna. Cost-effectiveness analysis of the decentralized facility financing and performance-based financing program in nigeria. Technical report, Mimeo, 2021.

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