rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
the cooking utensils, hired a local woman as a cook in every school and paid her a salary. ICS ...eld workers visited the schools at least once per term for monitoring purposes. The schools were responsible for providing a storage facility for the food and a proper cooking area, separate from the preschool classroom. Parents were responsible for supplying ...rewood for cooking the porridge and a cup for each child. In each school, a Feeding Committee was elected by the parents to oversee the daily implementation of the program and check the preschool teacher’s attendance register. All positions in the breakfast program except the cook’s were voluntary, though the cook, the parent representative and the teacher were allowed to eat porridge. ICS created a paid position for cooks to prevent the feeding from taking too much time from the teachers and to prevent girls from higher grades being called from their classes to prepare meals for the preschoolers.

> 19 Data in this paragraph are from the Welfare Monitoring Survey II (1994) and III (1997), both published by the Kenya Central Bureau of Statistics.

> 20 The hard-core poor are de...ned as those who would not meet the minimum food calorie requirements even if they concentrated all their spending on food. In this case the rural hard-core poor are those whose total expenditure is less than KShs 927 (approx. 11.5 USD) per equivalent adult per month.

> 21 Children are stunted (wasted) if their height (weight) Z-scores falll below two standard deviations from the median of the reference population.

7
WPS3771

# **Labor Market Distortions in Côte d’Ivoire: Analyses of Employer-Employee Data from the Manufacturing Sector**

Nicolai Kristensen* and Dorte Verner* World Bank 1818 H St, NW Washington, D.C. 20433 U.S.A. dverner@worldbank.org

## **Abstract**

This paper investigates the extent and nature of distortions in the labor market in the Republic of Côte d’Ivoire (RCI) by using quantile regression analysis on employer-employee data from the manufacturing sector. We found that the labor markets in Côte d’Ivoire do not seem to be much distorted. Unions may influence employment through tenure but do not seem to influence wages directly except for vulnerable minorities that seem protected by unions. Establishment-size wage effects are pronounced and highest for white-collar workers. This may be explained by the efficiency wage theory, so that, even in the absence of unions, segmentation and inefficiencies will still be present as long as firms seek to retain their employees by paying wages above the market clearing level. The inefficiency arising from establishment-size wage effects can be mitigated by education. Furthermore, the premium to education is found highly significantly positive only for higher education, and not for basic education, indicating that educational policies should also focus on higher education.

## World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 3771, November 2005

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the view of the World Bank, its Executive Directors, or the countries they represent. Policy Research Working Papers are available online at http://econ.worldbank.org._

## **______________________________**

*We
demean) Family Income -.4<br>-.6<br><!-- End of picture text --> _Source: Iranian Households Income and Expenditure Surveys (HIES)._ Note: The figure reports synthetic control method analyses as well as placebos at industry level in the 1995â2015 period. Panel (a) displays the average real family income for treated households in the oil and gas industry and energy supply (solid line) and the synthetic control (dashed line). Panel (b) shows the gap between actual treated and synthetic control. Panel (c) shows the post/pre-treatment ratios of root mean squared prediction errors (RMSPE) for placebo estimates. The black ones indicate the post/pre-RMSPE ratio using the actual treated industries. Panel (d) shows the gap between treated and synthetic control for placebo estimates, with actual treated industries shown with a black solid line. Treated: oil and gas, energy supply industries. Synthetic control: information (0.148), education (0.169), and health (0.683) industries. Synthetic control for placebo sanctions in the year 2000: education (0.483) and health (0.517) industries.

16
_−_|_−_|1,793|1,793|1,910|2000|
|R<sup>2</sup>|_−_|_−_|0.440|0.403|0.234|0.075|

_Source_ : World Bank calculations.

_Note_ : The table presents the estimates of equation (7) and extensions, weighted by municipal population at the initial year of each period under study. The dependent variable is the annualized growth rate in the mean per capita income of municipalities over the period. _ln yit−τ_ , _lnPit−τ_ , _lnGit−τ_ , and all public expenditure variables are for the initial year and are in log-scale. All monetary variables are in real per capita terms at August 2014 prices. The growth rate in CCT coverage is the annualized growth rate in the number of beneficiary families in each municipality over the period. The empty cells in panel c indicate that models conditional on CCT data were not estimated because the data are available only from 2000 onward. The intercepts are shown in tables 37–40 in the ancillary file. Robust standard errors are in parentheses. *** _p < ._ 01, ** _p < ._ 05, * _p < ._ 1 27
- Galal, Ahmed, Leroy Jones, Pankaj Tandon, and Ingo Vogelsang, _Welfare Consequences of Selling Public Enterprises._ Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994.

Greene, W. _Econometric Analysis 3rd ed._ New York: Macmillan, 1997.

- Hausman, J. "Specification Tests in Econometrics." _Econometrica,_ 1978, pp. 12511271.

- Kalbfleisch, J and Ross L. Prentice, _The Statistical Analysis of Failure Time Data._ New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1980.

- Kikeri, Sunita, John Nellis, and Mary Shirley, _Privatization: The Lessons of Experience._ Washington, DC: The World Bank, 1992.

- Laffont, Jean-Jacques and Jean Tirole, "Privatization and Incentives," _Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization,_ VII, September, 1991, pp. 84-105.

- La Porta, Rafael and Florencio L6pez-de-Silanes, "The Benefits of Privatization - Evidence from Mexico," The World Bank, _Viewpoint,_ note 117, 1997.

- Levine, Ross, "Financial Development and Economic Growth: Views and Agenda," _Journal of Economic Literature,_ forthcoming, 1997.

- L6pez-de-Silanes, Florencio, Andrei Shleifer, and Robert W. Vishny, "Privatization in the United States," _RAND Journal of Economics,_ Autumn, 1997, pp. 447-71.

- L6pez-de-Silanes, Florencio, "Determinants of Privatization Prices," _Quarterly Journal of Economics,_ forthcoming.

- Martinelli, Alberto, "The Italian Experience: A Historical Perspective," in Raymond Vernon and Yair Aharoni, eds., _State-Owned Enterprise in Western Economies,_ London: Croom Helm, 1981, pp. 85-98.

- Megginson, William L., Robert C. Nash, and Mathias van Randenborgh, "The Financial and Operating Performance of Newly Privatized Firms: An International Empirical Analysis," _Journal of Finance,_ XLIX, 1994, pp.<sup>4 03</sup> -<sup>5 2</sup>
>15 8000<br>6000<br>10<br>p<br>p<br>4000<br>5<br>2000<br>0 0<br><!-- End of picture text --> At the micro-level in MENA, there is inequity in access to finance by firm size. The financial sector is dominated by banks that primarily serve large firms and exclude small and medium firms. Firms in MENA use very little external financing for investment and working capital. In MENA, 5.9 percent of investments and 4.4 percent of working capital is externally financed by banks (Enterprise Surveys). This proportion is lower only in the Sub-Saharan Africa region. The percent of firms who have a checking or savings account, and who have a bank loan or line of credit is also low in the MENA region. Sixty percent of MENA firms have checking or savings accounts 7
pollution from the combustion of fossil fuel is a major concern at the national scale due to the wide use of coal as the source of energy (Greenstone et al. 2012). Therefore, if there is significant displacement of firms in these places, we expect a drop in the particle pollution level post 2003 for the bordering towns and villages in Uttar Pradesh. In contrast, we find that PM 2.5 level consistently increased between 2003 and 2013 for the places within the 100-kilometer buffer to the border.<sup>13</sup> This finding does not support that industrial activities on the Uttar Pradesh side declined after the New Industrial Policy.

Our findings are consistent with the literature as well. Using panel data of formal manufacturing industries, Chaurey (2017) shows that there is no evidence that more factories closed down in the neighboring states, including Uttar Pradesh, compared to Uttarakhand. The study also finds no evidence of differential closure of firms or relocation of industrial activity in the neighboring states, including Uttar Pradesh, and in other major states in India before and after the implementation of the New Industrial Policy. Independently, Shenoy (2018) shows that the New Industrial Policy did not dampen output in Uttar Pradesh as being measured by the panel data on nighttime light intensity. Instead, output grew rapidly over the time in places close to the border between Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand. While the evidence of Chaurey (2017) is at the state level and Shenoy’s (2018) results are based on aggregated output, the combination of the two studies and our own analysis suggest that the impact of New Industrial Policy is not simply a relocation and displacement story.

Could policies other than the place-based New Industrial Policy be influencing our results? As mentioned in the empirical strategy section, other major policy initiatives were effective in both states, such as the Electricity Act 2003 and the Special Economic Zones Act of 2005. These policies are likely to not affect our results. Another potentially confounding candidate is the overall doing
on HRD Appeals for the years 2005 to 2014 (average beneficiaries across the assessments for the main harvesting seasons _belg_ and _meher_ ).

8 FDRE Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Rural Job Opportunity Creation and Food Security Sector, Food Security Coordination Directorate (2016).

9 Under PSNP III, drought response was managed through the Risk Financing Mechanism (RFM). Under PSNP IV, from July 2015 onwards, the RFM has been replaced with the Federal Contingency Budget (FCB).

10 In this paper, the term scalability / scale-up designates the inclusion of additional beneficiaries and extension of payments to existing beneficiaries in response to drought. While the FCB can be disbursed also in non-PSNP districts ( _woredas_ ) within PSNP regions, the term scale-up does not refer to the geographic expansion of PSNP coverage beyond current PSNP regions.

1
/www.armbanks.am/en/banks/?org=4&lang=en, http://www.ameriabank.am/23</u>

1. **Araratbank OJSC** : ARARATBANK was established as a result of the reorganization of Haykap Bank, operating on Armenian financial market since 1991. ARARATBANK has been functioning as an open joint stock company since August 2007. The bank is a shareholder and a full member of "Armenian Card" company since 2006. The shareholders are Flesh Ltd - 74.1%, EBRD - 25%, Resident

> 23 Apart from on-line information the www.armbanks.am portal offers also analytical research, exclusive stories and information about banks, insurance and credit organizations, their comparative financial indices as well as statistical data.

75
<!-- Start of picture text --> 8000<br>6000<br>g<br>= 4000<br>=<br>fa)8<br>—)<br>2000<br>0<br>1995 2000 2005 2010 2015<br>— AGOA Other Duty-Free Dutiable US Total<br><!-- End of picture text --> <!-- Start of picture text --> 2000<br>1500<br>o<br><<br>2<br>=<br>=<br>1000<br>a<br>i)<br>500<br>tt)<br>1995 2000 2005 2010 2015<br>— AGOA Other Duty-Free Dutiable US Total<br><!-- End of picture text -->
, or phased retirement, we show average hours of work per week across the age distribution in Figure 3 below. The first panel shows average work hours unconditional on work status, with the labor hours of respondents who are not working equal to zero. In panel B, average hours are reported only for those respondents who

> 18Gustman and Steinmeier (1984) found that self-reports of partial retirement among US men aged 58 to 69 was quite common, particularly partial retirement into a job different than the one held at age 55. Blau (1994) emphasizes that older workers transition in and out the labor force (“retirement”) with considerable frequency and that these transitions are often not picked up in annual data.

11
Although there is no definitive answer as to which hypothesis better explains the higher productivity of exporters, recent enterprise-level studies have found evidence consistent with the learning-by-exporting hypothesis in Africa.<sup>3</sup> Using enterprise-level data from the mid-1990s for Cameroon, Ghana, Kenya, and Zimbabwe, Bigsten _et al_ . (2004), who use simultaneous equations estimation to control for reverse causation, find that exporting results in efficiency gains.<sup>4</sup> In addition, Mengistae and Pattillo (2004) find that direct exporters and firms that export outside of Africa are more productive than other exporters, which they interpret as consistent with the learning-by-exporting hypothesis. If exporting resulted in productivity improvements, policies that promote exports—or at least remove biases that discourage exports—might improve productivity and ultimately result in higher wages and income.

Although manufacturing enterprises in many African countries have been relatively unsuccessful in export markets, there are significant differences between countries. For example, both macroeconomic data and the firm-level data used in this project suggest that manufacturing enterprises in Senegal and Kenya are more successful than enterprises in Ethiopia, Mali and Mozambique. This paper uses enterprise-level data from eight countries— Ethiopia, Kenya, Mali, Mozambique, Senegal, Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia—to explore different factors that affect export performance. In particular, the paper looks at enterprise characteristics, trade policy and the quality of transportation infrastructure.

The paper finds that despite significant reductions in tariff and non-tariff barriers, government policies, including restrictive trade and customs regulations and poor customs administration, continue to discourage exporting. Improving policy in these areas could have a large impact—reducing trade and customs regulations from the level observed in the second

> 3 Results from other countries are inconclusive.  Using data from Columbia, Mexico and Morocco from the 1980s and early 1990s, Clerides (1998) conclude that the evidence supports the self-selection hypothesis, while providing little support for the learning by exporting hypothesis.  Bernard and Jensen (1999) and Liu _et al.
|
||Middle East and North<br>Africa|14|21|71.4|6|12|68.8|
||North America|2|3|100.0|N/A|N/A|N/A|
||South Asia|5|8|98.1|5|8|98.1|
|Region|Sub-Saharan Africa|17|48|46.1|17|48|46.1|
||High|44|79|97.7|6|10|99.7|
||Upper middle|27|60|91.8|27|58|92.2|
|level|Lower middle|16|47|75.8|16|46|76.0|
|Income|Low|13|31|63.3|13|30|64.8|
||Part 1|38|73|93.0|N/A|N/A|N/A|
|typeb|IBRD|39|68|91.4|39|68|91.4|
|Lending|IDA / Blend|23|76|56.0|23|76|56.0|

a Low- and middle-Income countries are Part 2 countries eligible to borrow from the World Bank Group and include high-income IBRD clients. b Lending types: Part 1 countries do not borrow from the World Bank Group; International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD); International Development Association (IDA); and IDA-eligible based on per capita income levels and are also creditworthy for some IBRD borrowing (Blend). Notes: Data include only assessments since 2011. Source: Author’s calculation using the Global Learning Assessment Database, UIS enrollment data, and UN population numbers.

The previous section established the main properties and axioms for the learning poverty headcount measure and discussed how some advantages and weaknesses of different choices of aggregations
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# _4.2 What is the purpose of the GGIT Index?_

The index aims to assess the environmentally responsible use of computers and other ICT resources (Green Computing) by the IT departments of government institutions and other organizations. The index can facilitate comparisons between different organizations in their pursuit of environmental ITS sustainability, identify areas for potential improvement, set up the baselines and help interpret the trends within an organization over time and across organizations or sectors.

# _4.3 What are the desired characteristics of the index?_

Constructing a measure of Green Government ITC entails many choices that can appear to be subjective and unrelated to one another.<sup>3</sup> A set of desired characteristics for such an index provides the guiding principles that help make these choices explicit and organize them to obtain a relevant and practical measurement tool. Literature on measurement offers the standard set of such characteristics that we modify for the purposes of GGIT (e.g., Alkire et al. 2015).

_Simplicity_ : this characteristic speaks to the simplicity of a measurement approach and the ease with which it might be communicated. Unclear or overly complicated measures discourage IT management and staff participation in constructive policy discussions. Barriers to understanding an index can lead stakeholders to question its usefulness as a policy-relevant tool. On the other hand, a well-understood index allows stakeholders to evaluate for themselves its qualities. This index property also requires a clear link between the indicators used in an index and the underlying data. Transparency of the Green Government IT index and its components will facilitate its takeup by organizations, promote independent confirmation of its findings, and support the index’s credibility.

_Coherence_ : speaks to the authenticity of the index in capturing the phenomenon it aims to measure. One should be able to describe in plain language the underlying concept of what is being measured by the index and articulate why this concept is a credible version of what needs to be measured. In our case, we measure the capability of government IT departments to use
impacts of innovation that are positive for aggregate social welfare without additional benefits of providing uplift for those in greatest need. In a market environment where enterprise expansion is stultified and repressed by the absence or distortions of needed business inputs, by limitations on access to pertinent output market opportunities, or by regulatory limitations on business flexibility and returns, a firm can profit from lower costs or higher value products, but not nearly as much as it could in a more competitive business environment. Without the practical ability to expand, a firm that has attained lower costs or higher value products through innovation and heightened TFP can gain by maintaining output and (quality-adjusted) price and adapting its production technology to its cost-saving or value-enhancing opportunities. The result is likely more and

> 14 The approach taken in this paper falls within the ambit of inclusive growth analysis as it explicitly analyzes growth through firm-level data and the overall statistical distribution of innovation, TFP and employment growth outcomes rather than only economy-wide aggregates and the statistical mean of outcome variables. It also explicitly explores whether growth has the potential to raise the living standards of broad segments of the population and the reasons why this is so. See Ianchovichina and Lundstrom (2009) for a variety of definitions for inclusive or more shared growth.

> 15 For an overview of the conceptual and empirical literature, the econometric challenges, and supportive evidence, see among others Gruen, Mahringer and Rhein (2011) and Knabe and Plum (2010) _._

11
African countries, including all those that the data will permit, but we also attempt to include a few countries from other parts of the developing world. The resulting countries for analysis are: Bangladesh, Brazil, Burundi, China, Ethiopia, India, Kenya, Malawi, Nigeria, Paraguay, Senegal, South Africa, Tanzania, and Uganda.<sup>7</sup> We also carry out the estimates for the United States, United Kingdom, Norway, and Sweden to allow for developed country comparisons.

To allow for cross-country comparisons in the estimates, we use secondary data from sources that use a common methodology to generate their numbers based on each country’s primary data. The country-specific data essential for the cost estimation is drawn from official sources including the International Labor Organization’s (ILO) Key Indicators of the Labor Market (KILM); the World Bank statistics from the World Development Indicators (WDI), HNPStats and EDStats; and the World Health Organization’s Global Health Observatory database. In some cases, we used statistics that were generated differently by country; these are indicated in the methodology discussion below.

# **a. Methodology for computing the cost of leaving school early**

Measuring the loss in potential earnings due to lower educational attainment is done in two steps, in a methodology similar to World Bank (2003) and Chaaban (2007). First, an age earnings profile is created by gender and education level. To calculate the wage for each cell, we adjust the mean national wage for a given country using coefficient estimates from latest national Mincer regressions to evaluate the variation of wages according to education, age and gender.

Second, we sum the total lifetime earnings of having a certain level of educational attainment and subtract from it the total lifetime earnings of having a lower level of education. This gives us the net gain that a country would theoretically enjoy if that girl finished the next level of education. This is done for all children and also disaggregated for