rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
,480.7)|100.0|639.5<br>(5,988.6)|100.0|

- Sources: Egypt: Egypt Integrated Household Survey, 1997. Jordan: Jordan Household Income and Expenditure Survey, 1997.

- Notes: Numbers in parentheses are standard deviations. Mean income figures include negative source incomes recorded for some households. N = 1,301 households (Egypt) and 1,451 households (Jordan).

(a) In 1997, 1 Egyptian pound (LE) = US$ 0.295.

- (b) In 1997, 1 Jordanian dinar (JD) = US$ 1.410.
58 actions with Special Economic Zones, but this cannot be systematically assessed). Data quality is assessed, as in Fernandes et al. (2016), by a comparison of total exports and total imports obtained from aggregating the transaction-level data at year level with total yearly exports and imports for Sri Lanka from World Integrated Trade Solution (WITS) and from the Central Bank of Sri Lanka. The ratios to WITS in 2017-2021 are in the 97%-100% range for exports and the 83%-94% range for imports. To obtain our final datasets, we drop exports and imports of oil (HS Chapter 27), which are generally not well captured in customs datasets. To focus on true commercial export and import transactions by firms, we also drop transactions of currency paper notes (HS 490700) conducted only by the Central Bank of Sri Lanka, of large machinery entering and exiting Sri Lanka temporarily for construction projects such as dredgers (vessels) (HS 890510, HS 890190), and of arms and ammunition (HS Chapter 93).

We aggregate transaction-level values (in USD) and net weights (in kg) up to the HS8 productmonth-year level for our import analysis by summing across firms and source countries. We aggregate transaction-level values (in USD) up to the firm-HS8 product-year level for our export analysis by summing across destination countries. For our export analysis, we focus on agricultural products, which are listed in HS Chapters 06-24.

# **A.B.1 Cleaning Firm Names**

The names of Sri Lankan firms engaged in export or import transactions are noisy. Names appear with multiple spellings or with spelling errors, and some entries are a number or an address instead of a proper names. In brief, the steps for the cleaning of names are as follows:

1. Eliminate from the list of firm names those entries that are not proper names (numbers, addresses, and the expressions ‘NIL’, ‘N/A’, or ‘To the order
||
|Average|91.8|93.0|92.4|92.5|93.5|
|Excess over village average|-0.8|-0.1|0.1|0.9|0.2|
|Memo:||||||
|VF loansper adult|0.48|0.47|0.38|0.28|0.13|

Source: Socio-economic Survey 2010.

# **7. Assessing Village Fund Performance**

We now turn to the estimation of the determinants of the various measures of VF performance, starting with profit, and then moving on to the loan recovery rate, and the amount of funds available for lending.

# **Profit**

The “profit rate” measures VF income (mainly interest) less actual outgoings (interest costs on loans, dividends paid on shares, honoraria to VF committee members, administrative expenses), the imputed cost of unpaid time donated by VF committee members, and the interest that the VF would have had to pay on its 27
.<sup>13</sup> The second panel reports a correlation matrix for a number of control variables. The correlation is high among some of these variables. Our approach is therefore to check the robustness of our results to the inclusion of alternative sets of control variables.

We go on to investigate the determinants of the trend in ...nancial intermediation by estimating equation (2). The main results are reported in Table 2. The speci...cations shown include control variables lagged by two periods<sup>14</sup> (i.e. half a year), in addition to the full set of country ...xed e¤ects, country-speci...c trends, year e¤ects and seasonal e¤ects.

9We also experimented with a broader measure of in‡ows including foreign direct investment, portfolio ‡ows and debt liabilities. This variable tended not to be signi...cant.

> 10Banking crises are identi...ed using the Caprio-Klingebiel World Bank dataset (2003) at www1.worldbank.org/...nance/html/database_sfd.html. According to this source, banking crises ocourred in the following countries (with crisis inception years in brackets): Bulgaria (1996), Latvia (1995), Poland (1993), Lithuania (1994).

> 11Bulgaria and Romania joined the European Union in 2007. All other sample countries joined in 2004. Slovenia has – in 2007 – also joined the euro.

12The series used are not available for a su¢ciently long period prior to reform in Poland and the Czech Republic (notably quarterly GDP).

> 13Credit to the private sector includes credit in both domestic and foreign currency. Payments technology may a¤ect the use of domestic currency transactions accounts by residents. The monitoring of these accounts can in‡uence the decision to grant credit, independent of the denomination of the debt. Moreover, while changes in domestic currency payments technology
Policy Research Working Paper 10617

# **Abstract**

The environment has long been the foundation of human flourishing, but its continued degradation is threatening to reverse recent development gains, especially in human health. This paper analyzes the possible complementarity between natural and human capital by linking high-resolution deforestation data with health outcomes for 0.7 million children across 46 countries. Forest loss is often a consequence of economic activities that may confer market and other benefits. At the same time, it can adversely affect the provision of forest ecosystem services and reduce the associated socioeconomic and environmental benefits for rural communities. The net effect is thus ambiguous.

The paper focuses on the hydrological services provided by forests and exploits quasi-random variation in deforestation upstream to assess the impacts on waterborne disease outcomes for rural households downstream. The results not only indicate increases in diarrheal disease incidence among children under 5 years old, but also offer new evidence of early-life exposure to deforestation on childhood stunting, a well-known indicator of later-life productivity. A case study for Peru shows similar results for diarrheal disease, but a weaker effect of forest loss on stunting. The paper concludes that maintaining natural capital has the potential to generate meaningful improvements in long-run human capital.

This paper is a product of the Environment, Natural Resources and Blue Economy Global Practice and the Office of the Chief Economist, Sustainable Development Practice Group. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/prwp. The authors may be contacted at rdamania@worldbank.org, lherreragarcia@worldbank.org, hkim32@worldbank.org, leonardoviotti@gmail.com, ezaveri@worldbank.org, sonder@worldbank.org, and chrissiepantoja@gmail.com.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective
br>60 42 44 44 45<br>45 44 38<br>42 42 41 40<br>40<br>7<br>27 25 23 23 15 14 11 10 8 8<br>20<br>30<br>19 21 21 22 25 26<br>14 15 15 15<br>0<br>2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016<br>Non-Paris Club Bilateral Paris Club Bilateral Multilateral Bonds Commercial<br><!-- End of picture text --> _Source: World Bank International Debt Statistics and staff calculations. Published in: World Bank (2018) Africa’s Pulse, Volume 17. Washington, DC: The World Bank, October_ The change in the composition of public debt in Sub-Saharan Africa summarized above implies that the region is gradually moving away from traditional concessional sources of financing. Over the past 15 years we have observed a gradual and protracted change in the composition of debt portfolios in Sub-Saharan Africa away from traditional concessional sources of financing ( **Figure 12** ). The share of multilateral and concessional debt (from multilateral and bilateral sources) in the region’s public external debt has steadily declined over time. The average share of concessional 12
Normal times in periods of five years to show the years that pull the beta convergence coefficient down to a negative value.

Figure A.4. The Golden Decade was strong but short-lived: the beta convergence was statistically significant and negative between the financial crisis and the oil price crash.

Source: based on Penn World Table version 10.0 data and Patel et al (2021) methodology. Note: The horizontal axis shows the natural log of real per capita GDP, and the vertical axis shows average annual real growth over the period listed. Shaded area represents a 95% confidence interval around the regression line. The sample excludes oil exporters and countries with populations under 1 million.

Table A.1 BB countries and FCV classification

|**COUNTRY NAME**<br>|**REGION NAME**<br>|**INCOME LEVEL**<br>|**POPULATION**<br>**(MILLIONS)**<br>|**SHARE IN**<br>**WORLD'S**<br>**POP**<br>|**BB?**<br>|**FCV?**<br>|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|**MYANMAR**|East Asia and Pacific|Lower middle income|54.2|0.683|BB|FCV|
|**KOREA, DEM**<br>**PEOPLE'S REP**|East Asia and Pacific|Low income|26.1|0.329|BB|Non FCV|
|**CAMBODIA**|East Asia and Pacific|Lower middle income|16.8|0.212|BB|Non FCV|
|**LAO PDR**|East Asia and Pacific|Lower middle income|7.5
We employed standard principal factor analysis using the seven variables listed in the table after the aggregate index. Six of these variables capture on-farm adaptive capacity, whereas the non-farm enterprise dummy is an indicator of whether the household is totally dependent on farming or can also count on diversification of livelihoods. Clearly, the choice of the variables employed – as well as of the method used to generate the score – is subjective and purely illustrative.<sup>38</sup> In order to ease interpretability, the adaptation index has been rescaled to have a range between 0 and 100. First, note the drastic loss in sample size compared to the household-level data reported in Table 1: this is due to the fact that the agricultural questionnaire is only administered to households that are engaged in agriculture. This reduction in sample size is thus the first element to consider when investigating household _in situ_ adaptation. Second, there is a trade-off between the number of raw variables that enter the estimation model and the final number of observations for which the score will be available. Considering the observations in this sample, 11,564 farming households, only the non-farm enterprise dummy has no missing values. Limiting the index to just seven variables still results in more than 300 missing values in the final adaptation score. Keeping these caveats in mind, once the index has been built, it can be employed either as an alternative outcome variable or as a conditional variable in a mediation analysis or causal machine learning approach in order to investigate issues related to substitution _vs_ . complementarity of adaptation and migration, immobility, and the investigation of transmission channels illustrated in the conceptual framework of Figure 1.

# **4.2 Empirical checklist**

Finally, we provide some simple empirical guidelines for researchers interested in leveraging existing household survey data to shed light on the climate-migration nexus. These can serve as a starting point to evaluate the preliminary feasibility of a research study as well as to orient identification strategy and sort out issues related to variable definition and construction. This
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commuting flow data – with the economist’s “first best” approach based on the identification of a city’s functional area using data on origin – destination (O-D) commuting flows. At the same time, while international organizations have developed global maps of consistently defined cities, there has been no effort to explore how the use of these maps to define cities affects key empirical results that are crucial to a proper understanding of the working of urban economies, such as, for example, the estimated strength of agglomeration economies.

Given the above, the aims of this paper are two-fold. First, we compare the results of different algorithms and approaches for delineating metropolitan areas in terms of the basic descriptions they provide of the urban landscape (notably, the number of metro areas, the sub-national administrative units that these areas cover, and their population sizes). And, second, we assess whether the choice of approach to defining metro areas matters when it comes to estimating the strength of agglomeration economies.

More specifically, we compare four different approaches. The first of these requires _O-D commuting flow_ data and adheres to the economist’s preferred approach of defining metro areas as functional local labor markets. Specifically, for this first approach, we make use of an algorithm recently developed by Duranton (2015b). The other three approaches are “second best” approaches which instead rely on global data sets derived, wholly or in part, from satellite imagery. These three approaches are the _Agglomeration Index_ (AI), which was originally developed by Uchida and Nelson (2009) for the World Bank’s 2009 World Development Report on “Reshaping Economic Geography” (World Bank, 2008); a “ _Cluster Algorithm_ ” developed by Dijkstra and Poelman (2014) which associates cities with dense clusters of population; and, finally, the identification and delineation of metro areas based on the “thresholding of _Night-Time Lights_ data _”_ (NTL), similar to, for example, Ellis and Roberts (2016) and
additional information on ability and hence indirect taxes cannot be used to relax the incentive compatibility constraint.

The latter case emphasizes the importance of the assumption of homogeneous tastes. In contrast, if individuals have heterogeneous tastes then a higher and lower ability individual earning the same income would no longer consume the exact same bundle of goods, and so consumption patterns may once again provide information about ability. Mirrlees (1976), Saez (2002) and Gauthier and Henriet (2018) consider models with heterogeneous tastes. They show that if tastes depend on ability, then a higher indirect tax should, in general, be imposed on a good if higher ability individuals have a relatively strong taste for that good.<sup>19</sup> Another strand of literature has considered the impact of home production on optimal tax rates. Kleven et al. (2000) develop a single representative consumer model incorporating home production. This effectively produces a modified Corlett and Hague (1953) rule where the tax distortion favoring (untaxed) home production pushes down the optimal tax rate on consumer services that are substitutes for home production (e.g. house repairs, cleaning services). Where goods and services are equally complementary with leisure (so that uniform taxation would otherwise be optimal), they show that substitutes for home production should unequivocally face a relatively low tax rate. Piggott and Whalley (2001) develop a very similar model incorporating home production. They simulate their model based on Canadian data and find that Canada’s 1990 VAT reform that brought consumer services into the indirect tax net was welfare reducing.<sup>20</sup> Kleven (2004) and Boadway and Gahvari (2006) consider models where both goods and time must be allocated. Kleven (2004) finds that market goods that take more time to be consumed should be taxed more heavily than those that take less time, or those that save time. Boadway and Gahvari (2006) find that goods that are less pleasurable to consume should be taxed
to the theory of purchasing power parity, which equates price levels across countries and implies that the real effective exchange rate–measured as the nominal effective exchange rate adjusted for relative consumer price indices–should be constant. If the real exchange rate is below (above) its equilibrium value, it is expected to rise (fall) back towards its fundamental value. This provides a simple tool to back out the misalignment of the peso.

If LOP holds for all commodities then PPP must also hold apart from under certain conditions: when nontradables exist, consumers’ preferences differ, or countries specialize in different goods. We measure the percentage deviation of the real effective exchange rate from its value at a year in which it is considered to be at equilibrium. The adjusted measure of the REER that uses private sector inflation figures yields an alternative measurement of the peso’s misalignment implied by the PPP condition.

In this analysis, we normalize the constant equilibrium value of the real effective exchange rate (REER) to 100 in 2005, considered to be a year of

> government is cooking the books... the gap between its average annual rate of burger inflation (19%) and its official rate (10%) is far bigger than in any other country”. To the extent that Big Mac inflation tracks CPI closely, a big gap is a sign that prices are being managed/misreported due to government intervention. In fact, in 2010, Big Mac inflation was closer to unofficial statistics (25% according to PriceStats) than to official CPI.

> 47 This is supported by _The New York Times_ among many other press releases.

> 48 Portes and Atal (2014) find that Big Mac prices tend to lag overall inflation rates (revealing high price stickiness), using data spanning 1986–2012 for 54 countries.

> 49 Unfortunately, figures are not available for Argentina.

26
3 during the initial phases of trade liberalization can often be exaggerated. This occurs when a country’s exports are heavily dependent on GVCs while forming only a minor portion of its total domestic output. Such a scenario was seen in early liberalizing China, for example. Measuring GVC participation against domestic output, in addition to trade, reveals that economies at such junctures are more shielded from international disturbances than previously thought. Moreover, the measures also allow to empirically show that GVC integration mediates the impact of demand shocks on domestic output in opposing directions, leading both to higher exposure and greater stabilizing potential for the domestic economy.

The rest of the paper is structured as follows: Section 2 provides a short literature review. Section 3 describes the tri-partite decomposition of GVC trade and it applies these concepts to GVC-related output. Section 4 applies these measures to multiple ICIO databases, highlighting how different countries and sectors participate in GVCs and comparing trade- and output-based metrics. Section 5 provides an empirical application of the new measures by examining how different types of GVC participation mediate the transmission of external demand shocks to domestic output. Section 6 concludes by summarizing key insights and outlining implications for research and policy. The full methodology describing the accounting framework and additional results are available in the supplementary online appendix, while the full set of new measures, provisioned from all major ICIO databases is available on the World Bank’s WITS Platform and described in Section S1 of the supplementary online appendix.

# **2 Related Literature**

Rigorous measures of GVC participation are needed to inform questions relevant to economic growth and development. Among these questions, there are two of primary importance: firstly, the extent of GVC involvement by different countries and industries; and secondly, the nature of their participation. In essence, good measures of GVC participation are needed to discern the importance of a given country’s involvement for the domestic economy, and whether it primarily manifests itself as input supply to downstream nations and industries, as utilization of foreign inputs, or
- National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) (2012). Nigeria General Household Survey (GHS), panel 2010, wave 1. Public Use Dataset. Ref: NGA ~~2~~ 010 ~~G~~ HSP-W1 ~~v~~ 04 ~~M~~ . Downloaded from `https: //microdata.worldbank.org/index.php/catalog/1002` on 6 September 2019.

- National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) (2014). Nigeria General Household Survey, panel 2012-2013, wave 2. Public Use Dataset. Ref: NGA ~~2~~ 012 ~~G~~ HSP-W2 ~~v~~ 02 ~~M~~ . Downloaded from `https:// microdata.worldbank.org/index.php/catalog/1952` on 6 September 2019.

- National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) (2019). Nigeria General Household Survey, panel (ghs-panel) 2015-2016. Public Use Dataset. Ref: NGA ~~2~~ 015 ~~G~~ HSP-W3 ~~v~~ 02 ~~M~~ . Downloaded from `https: //microdata.worldbank.org/index.php/catalog/2734` on 6 September 2019.

- National Statistical Office (NSO) (2012). Third Malawi Integrated Household Survey 2010-2011. Public Use Dataset. Ref: MWI ~~2~~ 010 ~~I~~ HS-III ~~v~~ 01 ~~M~~ . Downloaded from `https://microdata. worldbank.org/index.php/catalog/1003` on 6 September 2019.

- National Statistical Office (NSO) (2015). Malawi Integrated Household Panel Survey 2010-2013 (short-term panel, 204 EAs). Public Use Dataset. Ref: MWI ~~2~~ 010-2013 ~~I~~ HPS ~~v~~ 01 ~~M~~ . Downloaded from `https://microdata.worldbank
BTA came into effect on December 10, 2001, the U.S. granted MFN status to Vietnam lowering the tariff rates across the board. As a result, Vietnam’s exports to the U.S., in particular, those of labor-intensive manufacturing goods, expanded dramatically. Starting from a very low level, the U.S. absorbed 38.3 percent of Vietnam’s textiles exports, 56.9 percent of apparel, 16.6 percent of footwear/leather, and 26.2 percent of furniture and miscellaneous manufacturing exports by the year 2004 (the U.N. Comtrade System). Finally, unlike most of the cases in the literature, labor reallocation toward more labor-intensive manufacturing appears to have occurred in the aftermath of the BTA.

Since _doi moi_ , Vietnam has undertaken a number of reforms which introduced market forces in determining wages, including labor market reforms, privatization and rationalization of state owned enterprises (SOEs) and a variety of legal, regulatory and institutional reforms <mark>(Van Arkadie & Mallon, 2003). T</mark> his paper undertakes a strategy of isolating the effects of the U.S. tariff cut on wages from the impacts of the domestic reforms, following recent literature to explore regional variation in exposure to trade in analyzing consequences of trade reforms (see, for instance, Castilho, Menéndez, & Sztulman, 2011; Chiquiar, 2008; Coello, 2009; Hanson, 2005; McCaig, 2011; Topalova, 2010; and Wei & Wu, 2001). A contribution of this paper is to model explicitly the change in labor demand induced by exports as a mechanism through which exports would influence wages. I construct an Export Index at the province level, taking account of Vietnam’s provincial industrial composition and its export- and labor-intensities. In order to overcome potential endogeneity, the U.S. tariff cut measure inspired by Topalova (2010) is used as an instrument. Then, using the panel individuals from the