rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
Recently, at the Pittsburgh G-20 summit, the G-20 has committed to identifying lessons learned from the innovative approaches to the provision of financial services to SMEs and to promoting successful regulatory and policy approaches.<sup>1</sup> SME development is high on the reform agenda of many governments. A broad range of policies and programs target improvements in SME business environments, as well as financial support to SMEs.

Despite the importance of SMEs for job creation and production, most of the SME literature points to the fact that small and medium firms face higher barriers to external financing than large firms, which limits their growth and development.<sup>2</sup> Numerous studies that use firm-level survey data demonstrate that access to finance and the cost of credit do not only pose barriers to SME financing, but also constrain SMEs more than large firms. Small firms find it difficult to obtain commercial bank financing, especially long-term loans, for a number of reasons, including lack of collateral, difficulties in proving creditworthiness, small cash flows, inadequate credit history, high risk premiums, underdeveloped bank-borrower relationships and high transaction costs (IFC, 2009). This is evidenced in the works of Scholtens (1999), Schiffer and Weder (2001), Galindo and Schiantarelli (2003), IADB (2004), Beck _et al._ (2006), and Beck and Demirgüç-Kunt (2006).<sup>3</sup> In particular, Beck _et al._ (2008a) conclude that smaller firms and firms in countries with underdeveloped financial and legal systems use less external finance, based on data from a firm-level survey in 48 countries.<sup>4</sup> A broad range of business environment factors are linked to SME performance. For example, Ayyagari _et al._ (2007) find that lower costs of entry and better credit information sharing are associated with a larger size of the SME sector, while higher exit costs are associated with a larger informal economy. The
0.162***|
|(constant 2010 IDR)|(0.604)|(0.111)|(0.007)|(0.021)|(0.023)|
|Growth in GRP per capita|0.015|-0.022**|0.001|0.003|0.004|
||(0.048)|(0.010)|(0.001)|(0.003)|(0.004)|
|Number of observations|238|238|238|238|238|
|R-squared|0.893|0.569|0.780|0.769|0.786|
|Year dummies|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|

Source: Author’s calculations using Sakernas data Notes: Robust standard errors in parentheses. ***p<0.01, **p<0.05, *p<0.1.

20
# VI – References

<mark>Bardasi, Elena, et al. "Do labor statistics depend on how and to whom the questions are asked? Results from a survey experiment in Tanzania."</mark> _<mark>The World Bank Economic Review</mark>_ <mark>25.3 (2011): 418-447.</mark> <mark>Beegle, Kathleen, et al. "Methods of household consumption measurement through surveys: Experimental results from Tanzania."</mark> _<mark>Journal of Development Economics</mark>_ <mark>98.1 (2012): 3-18.</mark> <mark>Beenstock, Michael, Ephraim Goldin, and Yoel Haitovsky. "Response bias in a conjoint analysis of power outages."</mark> _<mark>Energy Economics</mark>_ <mark>20.2 (1998): 135-156.</mark> <mark>Watson, N. R., A. Miller, and M. Campbell. "Smart meters to monitor power quality at consumer premises." (2015).</mark> <mark>Fricker, Scott, et al. "A Review of Measurement Error Assessment in a US Household Consumer Expenditure Survey."</mark> _<mark>Journal of Survey Statistics and Methodology</mark>_ <mark>(2015)</mark> <mark>Hartman, Raymond S., Michael J. Doane, and Chi-Keung Woo. "Consumer rationality and the status quo."</mark> _<mark>The Quarterly Journal of Economics</mark>_ <mark>(1991): 141-162.</mark> <mark>Heath, Rachel, et al. "Measuring Employment: Experimental Evidence from Urban Ghana."</mark> _<mark>The World Bank Economic Review</mark>_ <mark>35.3
<!-- Start of picture text --> 150 Health<br>Education<br>All direct transfers<br>Non-pension contributions<br>100 All indirect taxes<br>All direct taxes<br>Net cash position (excluding health and education spending)<br>Total<br>50<br>0<br>-50<br>Poorest 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Richest<br><!-- End of picture text --> Source: Own estimates based on Turkey 2016 HBS. Note: The figure shows each fiscal intervention as a share of Market income plus pensions, by decile of Market income plus pensions. The figure also shows the net cash position of each household as the difference between the cash transfers received and the taxes paid (excluding inkind transfers in health and education).

# **6. Individual Contributions of Taxes and Spending to Poverty and Inequality Reduction**

The section unpacks the aggregate results presented in the previous section, and analyzes the separate contribution of each fiscal intervention to poverty and inequality. Interventions are analyzed in terms of their progressivity and marginal contribution to poverty and inequality.

To measure progressivity we follow the standard practice and use the Kakwani index (Kakwani 1977). A tax (benefit) is progressive whenever its burden (entitlement) rises (decreases) with income. In the case of transfers, the index is defined as the difference between the Gini coefficient of Market income plus pensions (when pensions are treated as deferred income) and the concentration coefficient of the transfers. While for each tax the Kakwani index is calculated as the difference between the concentration coefficient of the tax and the Gini coefficient of Market income plus pensions. A Kakwani index for taxes will be positive (negative) if a tax is globally progressive (regressive), while a Kakwani index for transfers is positive if a transfer is progressive in relative terms.

23
the endogeneity of the equivalence scales complicates the comparison of poverty trends across household types. Indeed, the real values of poverty lines do not grow at the same rate for all households, because the equivalence scale evolves over time.

# **Section 3: Poverty figures over the period 2015 - 2017/18**

# **3.1 Poverty figures in 2015**

We start with some descriptive poverty statistics in 2015.

As shown in Table 1, the national poverty rate estimated in 2015 is 24.8 percent. Table 1 shows that, in 2015, the poor lived more than proportionally in rural areas and in Upper Egypt, where per capita total expenditures are lower.

_Table 1: Spatial distribution of poverty in Egypt in 2015 (total expenditures)._

|Statistic|National|Metropol.|Lower<br>Urban|Lower<br>Rural|Upper<br>Urban|Upper<br>Rural|Borders|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|% of population*|100.0%|6.4%|7.7%|29.8%|14.3%|38.6%|3.2%|
|Per capita total<br>expenditures*|8599|12088|9884|8075|8479|5745|9177|
|Poverty rate (total<br>exp.)*|24.8%|11.0%|9.6%|17.1%|23.9%|54.8%|15.5%|

**Source** : *Authors’ calculations based on HIECS 2015. **CAPMAS (2019).

Table 2 complements these insights by providing a more complete picture of Egypt’s poor in 2015. Poverty affects 29 percent of children, 25 percent of adults, and 17
6 6

# III. Data and descriptive evidence

## A. Protectionism in national law on government procurement

To explore the relationship between trade openness and protectionism in domestic law, we compile a unique dataset that combines a text analysis of procurement laws from over 150 countries, with trade data from the ITPD-E database. The legal analysis involves the interpretation and coding of national procurement laws, with a focus on identifying provisions that discriminate against foreign firms, goods and services or give preferential treatment to domestic suppliers. With this approach we develop indicators that provide a comprehensive snapshot of protectionism in government procurement around the world as of 2021-2022.

For our analysis, we focus on aspects that relate to discrimination and barriers to participation in procurement auctions against foreign firms, goods, and services. We identify three main ways the law can allow for discrimination against foreign firms, goods, and services in procurement auctions. For each area, a dummy variable is assigned with a value of one if the law is discriminatory and zero otherwise.

The first feature of protectionism is the absence of a general provision for non _discrimination_ between domestic and foreign firms (or goods and services) in government procurement. An indicator for _preferential treatment_ further identifies laws that allow for discriminating against foreign bids, for instance by inflating them. This policy is equivalent to the application of an import tariffs on foreign goods (Cole, Davies, and Kaplan 2017).<sup>5</sup> In addition to preference margins, governments may favor domestic goods and services in procurement auctions by imposing _domestic sourcing_ , for instance through “made in the country” provisions.

To summarize the information from these indicators, we construct a composite indicator that equals one if the law is categorized as protectionist for all the three areas – lack of an equal treatment provision, preferential treatment and domestic sourcing. Table A.1 in the Appendix reports the indicators on the three policy areas (two instruments – preferential treatment and domestic sourcing – and a general provision) that governments often use
There is no national database for time-series monitoring of groundwater salinity in Bangladesh. Over the years, a few studies have generated some contour maps of groundwater EC at the national scale but there is little detail in the data sets used for mapping. One of these earlier maps on groundwater EC at the national scale was generated by the Master Plan Organization (MPO) under the Bangladesh National Water Plan Phase-I.<sup>9</sup> Later on, Rahman and Ravenscroft<sup>10</sup> presented a groundwater EC map of shallow (<150 m bgl) groundwater in Bangladesh based on collated data on EC from various sources. Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB) has a monitoring network of some 118 stations where a set of chemical constituents of groundwater including chloride (Cl) concertation is monitored approximately once a year. Here, we have generated a groundwater EC map at the national scale using data primarily from two sources. First, we collated groundwater EC data from 461 boreholes that were installed recently under a regional-scale hydrogeological study conducted in 19 coastal districts by the Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB) between 2011 and 2013 funded by the Bangladesh Climate Change Trust.<sup>11</sup> Secondly, we have digitized and georeferenced the contoured map of groundwater EC<sup>10</sup> and extracted point data of EC at 102 locations throughout the country, predominantly in the northern part where there is limited groundwater EC measurements. Finally, we interpolated the point data ( _n_ =563) at the national-scale using the Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) algorithm in ArcGIS environment. The interpolation error was 50 μS/cm compared to the data range of 27 to 43,950 μS/cm with a mean of 5,251 μS/cm. We then rasterized, using the ‘R’ programming language, the interpolated EC data at a grid resolution of 2.5-km × 2.5-km (Figure 2b).

# **Depth to dry-season groundwater levels**
- Pritchett, Lant and Lawrence Summers, 1996. "Wealthier is Healthier," Journal of Human ResQurce, 31(4):841-868.

- Rutstein, Shea Oscar, 1984. "Infant and Child Mortality: Levels, Trends, and Demographic Differentials," World Fertility Surveys Comparative Studies No. 43. Voorburg, Netherlands: International Statistical Institute.

- Srinivasan, T. N., 1994. "Data base for development analysis: an overview," Joumal of Development Economics, 44:3-27.

- Stansfield, Sally K., and Donald S. Shepard, 1993. "Acute Respiratory Infection," in ease Control Priorities in Developing Countries, Jamison et al eds.

- Strauss, John, and Duncan Thomas, 1995. "Human Resources: Empirical Modeling of Household and Family Decisions," in J. Behrnan and T.N. Srinivasan,, eds., Handbook of Development Economics, Vol 3.: Amsterdam: North Holland Press: 1883-2023.

- Subbarao, K.Y. and Laura Raney, 1995. "Social Gains from Female Education: A CrossNational Study," Economic Development and Cultural Change 44:105-128.

UNICEF, 1992. The State of the World's Children: 1992 New York: Oxford University Press.

- United Nations, 1992. Child Mortality since the 1960s: A Database for Developing Countries New York: United Nations.

- Vicusi, Kip, 1993. "The Value of Risks to Life and Death," Journal of Economic Literature, 3 1(4): 1912-46.

- Walsh, Judith A., Chris N. Feifer, Anthony R. Measham, and Paul J. Gertler, 1993. "Maternal and Perinatal Health," in Disease Control Priorities in Developing Countries Jamison et al eds.

- Wolfe, Barbara, 1986, "Health Status and Medical Expenditures: Is there a Link?" Social Science and Medicine 22(10), pp 993-999.

- World Bank, 1993. World Development Report 1993:
0.1<br>comprises Bu<br>capita. Individ<br>and education<br>household ro<br>access to imp<br>Bank estimate|0.6208<br>0, ** p<0.0<br>rkina Faso,<br>ual-level sa<br>level of th<br>of material,<br>roved sanit<br>s.|0.0187<br>5, *** p<0.01.<br>Niger, and Sen<br>mpling weigh<br>e household h<br>household flo<br>ation as well a|0.3612<br>Standard er<br>egal. Depen<br>ts applied. ‘F<br>ead, househ<br>or material,<br>s an urban-r|0.0184<br>rors clustered a<br>dent variable is<br>ull controls’ sp<br>old size, the de<br>access to electr<br>ural dummy an|0.5938<br>t the ‘grappe’<br>the log of tot<br>ecifications inc<br>pendency rati<br>icity, access to<br>d region fixed|0.0043<br>level in pare<br>al monetary<br>lude contro<br>o, househol<br>improved<br>effects. Sou|0.6019<br>ntheses. Sa<br>consumptio<br>ls for the ge<br>d walls mate<br>drinking wa<br>rce: EHCVM|0.0030<br>mple<br>n per<br>nder, age,<br>rial,<br>ter, and<br>and World|0.5724<br>|

# Section 6. Conclusion and policy discussion
.0<br>5.0<br>0.0<br>EstoniaHungaryCroatiaCzech R.LatviaSloveniaSlovakia _CEEPolandBulgariaLithuaniaKazahstanRussiaUkraineAzerbaijan _BRUGeorgia_CIS-7 + KRomaniaMoldovaBelarusKyrgyzstanUzbekistanTajikistan<br>percent<br><!-- End of picture text --> Source: ILO LABORSTA database (LFS data) The employment share of market services is the highest in fast reforming and most advanced transition economies, such as Estonia, Hungary, and the Czech Republic (above 30 percent), and is the lowest in slow reforming and less advanced economies, such as Belarus and most of the low-income CIS countries (below 20 percent).

18
Allen et al. (2005) are based largely on anecdotal evidence and on the analysis of the 17 largest, and perhaps unrepresentative, firms in the two most developed regions in the country. Finally, their definition of informal financing channels includes retained earnings, informal financing, equity issuance and all other sources of funds except bank loans, state funding and foreign investment.

Ayyagari, Demirguc-Kunt, and Maksimovic (2010a) use data on 2400 firms (including 1720 non-publicly traded and non-state companies) from China and confirm the wide use of financing channels other than bank finance. They find that only 20% of firm financing in their sample is sourced from banks, which is comparable to the use of bank financing in other developing countries, such as India, Indonesia, Brazil, Bangladesh, Nigeria, and Russia (see Table 8 below). However, they also find China has the smallest ratio of Internal Financing/Retained Earnings (only 15.24%) compared to all the other emerging markets. Further, while the use of funds from Family and Friends and Informal lending sources such as money lender or informal banks seems to be comparable with its use in other countries, China also has the highest average amount of Other Financing (42.70%) compared to the other developing countries.

When they look at the association between financing patterns and growth, they find that it is the formal financing channel, specifically bank finance that is positively associated with higher growth and reinvestment. They find no evidence that alternative financing channels such as informal sources have a positive impact on growth and reinvestment or that they substitute for the formal sector.

Their results are consistent with other studies emphasizing the role of institutions and formal finance in China. Cull and Xu (2005) find that profit reinvestment rates are affected by enterprise managers' perceptions about the security of property rights, the risk of expropriation by government officials, the efficiency and reliability of courts, and access to credit. In a more recent paper, Cull, Xu,
Policy Research Working Paper 10934

# **Abstract**

Minimum wages are an essential component of a country’s social protection system, aiming to protect vulnerable workers and reduce poverty and wage inequality. Yet, there are risks associated with poor minimum wage design. Higher minimum wages may result in higher earnings for affected workers but fewer job opportunities for others, including the demographic groups they are intended to help, such as those with very low wages and skills and youth, so ex-ante evaluation of potential employment, wage, and distributional impacts is needed. Over the past decade, Romania experienced significant real growth in the minimum wage and a rising minimum-to-median wage ratio. However, when looking at minimum living standards, the analysis shows that the statutory minimum wage is higher than the living wage needed to cover a consumption food basket estimated by the European Commission under the European Reference budget network, but not enough to include non-food components. The microsimulation results using administrative tax data show that tying minimum wage to inflation or the living wage could lead to a slight short-term wage increase for some workers but may cause job loss in the long run, especially for younger workers. The minimum wage increase could have varying impacts across regions and sectors, with the accommodation and food services sector and those living in the Suceava region, which has the highest proportion of affected employees. Moreover, male employees tend to be more affected than their female counterparts.

This paper is a product of the Poverty and Equity Global Practice. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/prwp. The authors may be contacted at mrobayo@worldbank.org. A verified reproducibility package for this paper is available at http://reproducibility.worldbank. org, click **here** for direct access.

_The Policy Research Working Paper
assessment summarizes national regulatory frameworks and procurement practices at the beginning of June 2017. Most BRI countries would benefit from improved PPP regulatory frameworks. Project preparation and implementation are the areas that have the most room for improvement across both groups. In these areas, LIDCs are below 50 percent of internationally recognized best practice, while EMs have higher average scores across all PPP project cycle stages. There are also significant variations within the country groups, with countries with highest vulnerability levels faring worse across all dimensions of the assessment (Figure 20).

<!-- Start of picture text --> Figure 20. Quality of PPP Regulatory Framework<br>(Median level of groups of countries with the same level of debt vulnerability)<br>LIDCs EMs<br>80 100<br>64 64<br>60 80 68 73<br>45 49 46 48 60 58<br>60 52 50<br>40 35 33<br>24 40<br>20<br>20<br>0 0<br>High Medium Low High scrutiny Low<br>Preparation stage Procurement stage Preparation stage Procurement stage<br>Implementation stage MIN Implementation stage MIN<br>MAX<br>Strength of Regulatory Framework Strength of Regulatory Framework<br><!-- End of picture text --> Source: The World Bank Procuring Infrastructure PPPs 2018 scores; staff estimates for LICs/MACs Many important elements remain unknown and require a country-specific approach. Pre-existing debt vulnerabilities and recipient countries’ exposure to shocks need to be carefully accounted for in designing financing strategies. Important elements of the analysis also include the countries’ available type of financing, the level of public investment efficiency, the absorptive capacity, revenue mobilization and access to international and domestic borrowing.

For this reason, the paper outlines also the macroeconomic implications that would guide the assessment of the impact of large BRI project on debt sustainability and fiscal risks. Debt sustainability is a major anchor of fiscal policy, underpinning the
.0|47.2|52.9|55.6|5.6|26.7|35.4<br>|39,1<br>|76.3<br>|773,8<br>|1,735.6<br>|2,484.4<br>|
|Italy|48.7|55.4|63.9|64.3|27.0|21.4<br>|21.2<br>|21.7<br>|2,516.6<br>|12,874.3<br>|34,781.2<br>|47,179.5<br>|
|Portugal|66.1|63.1|66.7|69.0|16.5|35.6<br>|43.9<br>|44.6<br>|145.4<br>|650.5<br>|1,826.1<br>|2,205.7<br>|
|Spain|23,4|41.9|38.7|39.2|8.5|7.9|6.2|6.5|229.4|2,360.9|6,438.8|8,318.3|

of products In the labor exports of labor Intensive<sup>products</sup> Source: All statistics were<sup>compiled from United Nations Series D Commodity Trade Tapes. Appendix Table I provides a tabulation</sup> intensive group in terms of the<sup>SITC system. Appendix2analyzes changes In Taiwan, Korea, Hong Kong and Singapore's</sup> over 1965-1986.
17 evidence showing that immigration has no effect on violent crime and no, or only a small effect, on crime (Adelman 2017; Bell, Fasani, and Machin, 2013; Bianchi, Buonanno, and Pinotti, 2012; Spenkuch, 2013). The instances where immigration contributes to crime tend to be linked to cases where migrants are not able to work. For instance, an increase in the number of asylum seekers who are generally prevented from seeking employment can result in a slight increase in property crime (Bell, Fasini, and Machin, 2013).

Probably issues related to national security and loss of national identity pose the more powerful, but also the more intractable reasons against a liberal migration policy (Collier, 2013).<sup>36</sup> Indeed, the literature indicates that non-economic factors such as racial prejudice and concerns about crime and cultural impacts are correlated with attitudes towards migration.<sup>37</sup> Direct surveys of attitudes in the United States and Europe show that both low- and high-skilled locals have a preference for high- over low-skilled immigrants, which runs contrary to the predictions of the labor competition model. Rich and poor locals are also found to be opposed to low-skilled immigration (Hainmueller and Hiscox, 2010). Mindful of backlashes against free trade, the concerns and voices against labor mobility in the host countries cannot be ignored. The political economy and real reasons behind them must be properly understood and addressed, and winners and losers duly identified, acknowledged and compensated. This is a recurrent theme in the history of migration (UNDP, 2009; ch2.2).

In terms of domestic migration, the types of concerns are similar. Fast urban population growth challenges cities to keep up their capital base. While Africa’s fast urban population growth (4.9 percent during 1960-2010) follows mainly from its rapid urban natural increase (2.9 percent), it is compounded by rural-urban migration.<sup>38</sup>
19 Table 1. Surveys used in under-5 malnutrition<sup>inequalities analysis</sup>

|**Country**|<br>**Survey name**|**Survey R**<br>**year**|**epresen-**<br>**tation**|<br>**No.**<br>**Households C**<br>|**No.**<br>**hildren**<br>|**No.**<br>**children**<br>|**No.**<br>**Age**<br>**children interval**<br>|**Age**<br>**range**|**Comments on data**|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|||||**(S**<br>|**tunting) (**<br>|**Underweight) (**<br>1543|**Wasting)**<br>1504 Mth|0499|Th surve onl covers a rural reion of Matlab<sup>which is</sup>|
|Banglades|h Matlab Health and Socieconomic<br>Survey<br>|1996<br>|Regional<br>|4364<br> <br>|1512<br>|<br>|on<br>|-.<br>|e y y g , <br>located just in the south of Dakha<br>|
|Brazil<br>China|Presquisa<br>sobre Padr6es de Vida<br>China Health and Nutrition Survey|1995-96<br