rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
Policy Research Working Paper 9083

# **Abstract**

Using World Bank Enterprise Survey data around the world, this paper examines how foreign direct investment is associated with female entrepreneurship (that is, a firm being managed and at least partly owned by women), along with other factors such as business environment and female empowerment, and their interactions with foreign direct investment. Female entrepreneurship rises with foreign direct investment inflow, lower entry barriers for women, women’s better access to finance, higher female labor force participation, and women’s better education. The positive association of foreign direct investment inflow and female entrepreneurship is stronger for firms in the service sectors and small firms. The horizontal competition effects of intra-industry foreign direct investment for female entrepreneurship are reduced when women face lower entry barriers for starting a business and have a higher labor force participation rate, and the effects do not depend on women’s access to finance or their level of education.

This paper is a product of the Development Research Group, Development Economics. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/prwp. The authors may be contacted at lxu1@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent._ Produced by the Research Support Team
A composite groundwater risk map (Figure 3) in red, green and blue (RGB) colors represents a combination of three hydrological indicators such groundwater arsenic concentration (Green), salinity or groundwater EC (blue) and depth to dry-season groundwater levels (Red) in Bangladesh. The composite map clearly shows that the northwestern and northcentral Bangladesh is featured by deep dry-season groundwater levels whereas arsenic problem in shallow groundwater is mainly concentrated in southcentral region, and the southern, coastal region of Bangladesh has the highest level of groundwater salinity. The composite map clearly highlights the areas where more than one hydrological indicator or risk variable (i.e. high arsenic and high salinity; or high arsenic and deep groundwater levels; or a combination of all three elements) exists to a varying degree.

# **3.2 Groundwater risks and population exposure**

Two groundwater risk maps for Bangladesh using two sets of combination criteria (model 1: groundwater arsenic, salinity and storage; model 2: groundwater arsenic and salinity) are shown in Figure 4. Each groundwater risk map has four classes: extremely high risk, high risk, medium risk and low risk that are based on a set of criteria (models) described in the method section. In addition, groundwater risks posed by arsenic and salinity alone are mapped considering various concentrations of arsenic and electrical conductivity in water (see risk maps in supplementary Figures S7 and S8).

In the groundwater risk map under model 1 (Figure 4a), the mapped area (208 km<sup>2</sup> ; Table 1) within the zone of extremely high risk is small and located mainly in central Comilla district of the southeastern part of Bangladesh (Figure 4a). There are some 219,193 (0.15% of total population) people exposed to the extremely high risk of groundwater (Table 2). The high risk zone covers a large area of 7,146 km<sup>2</sup> (5.3%
- In _Tajikistan_ , the government‘s 2005 health financing strategy aimed to improve equity, efficiency and cost-effectiveness of the health system by increasing public funding (in particular to primary health care) and introducing a basic-benefits-package (BBP). The BBP provides free services for vulnerable population groups and provides a legal framework for developing the policy for co-payments by patients for selected health services in hospitals.

- Finally, in _Turkey_ , the Turkish government launched a major reform program in 2003 to make the health system more effective by improving governance, efficiency, user- and provider-satisfaction and long-term sustainability. The main elements of the program were to establish a single purchaser in the health system, make the public sector health services delivery network autonomous and strengthen human resources management and information systems. The program has had important effects on access to care, especially for the poor. In addition to improved health insurance coverage for the poor, productivity of health personnel and availability of services have increased. There has also been a rise in the immunization of under-five-year-old children, the use of ante-natal services by pregnant women and the overall utilization of health services (Chakrabourty, 2009).

With respect to perceptions of the need for unofficial payments when interacting with public officials, the LiTS2 data give a mixed picture on their evolution (see Table 4). In Albania, Bulgaria, Macedonia and Russia, fewer respondents in 2010 felt that unofficial payments are usually, or always, needed compared to 2006, while the opposite was true in Azerbaijan, the Kyrgyz Republic, Moldova and Turkey.

# **3.3. Perceptions of overall government performance**

Average perceptions of improvements or worsening in overall government performance appear to have been strongly colored by the severity of impact of the recent global economic crisis (Figure 9). When asked to assess the overall performance of the government, respondents in Tajikistan, Georgia, and Azerbaijan rated the performance of their respective national governments much more highly than did respondents in Romania, Croatia, and Lithuania. At the individual level
13 Direct cost estimates are especially problematic in a developing country context: lack of availability of services or serious under-funding of services means that direct costs associated with GBV will be low—perhaps giving the mistaken impression that that the problem is not important when in fact prevalence rates may be quite high. If estimates of direct costs of GBV are not particularly useful in a developing country context, what options are left to document the socioeconomic costs of GBV? One option is to concentrate on estimating indirect costs.

Indirect cost estimates have focused on: (i) foregone earnings due to death and lost productivity (CDC, 2003); (ii) job loss, lost productivity of the women, lost productivity of the abuser due to incarceration, and mortality (Laurence and Spalter-Roth, 1995); (iii) loss of tax revenues due to death and incarceration (Greaves et al., 1995); and (iv) reduced earnings of women (Morrison and Orlando, 1999; Sánchez et al. 2004). By estimating earnings equations of the determinants of women ́s earnings, Morrison and Orlando (1999) find that lost wages due to family violence amounted to 1.6 and 2.0% of GDP in Nicaragua and Chile, respectively. Using a non-parametric matching methodology on DHS data from 1995, Sánchez et al. (2004), find that Colombian women who suffer physical violence have 14% lower earnings than women who do not suffer violence; using more recent data from 2003, they estimate that the wage loss due to family violence was equivalent to 0.85% of 2003 GDP.<sup>16</sup> While the indirect costing approach offers more methodological rigor and perhaps better precision in the estimation of the labor market impacts of violence, it is subject to one of the same criticisms leveled at the accounting approach: important categories of costs are not examined—although in this case the methodology makes no claim of producing a comprehensive estimate of the costs of GBV.

Another option
testinal distress that could impede nutrient absorption and potentially raise TEE. Column 9 of Table 4 reports the level of infant mortality (per 1,000 live births), which declined from 106 to 42 over this period. This can be interpreted as a mid-level estimate of the total caloric burden of disease using the slope coefficient of 1 and linear specification reported in (Duh and Spears 2017), and low (column 8) and high (column 10) end estimates are also reported based on coefficients reported in their paper. Quantitatively, the decline in infant mortality mirrors the fall in caloric intake between 1983 and 2005, although the timing of the decline does not fit as well with the between-round variation (e.g. the huge drop in caloric intake between 2000 and 2005). If these estimates capture the true caloric burden of disease, they also imply that caloric intake measures (official, or the independent estimates presented here) using the 30-day recall period must almost surely be too low, particularly in recent years, but the estimated caloric burden of disease is of the correct magnitude to reconcile the TEE estimates with the official 7-day recall period estimates.

A final piece of evidence on net nutrition comes from anthropometric data. (Deaton and Dr`eze 2009) recognize that there has been some increase in average height in India during the 1983-2005 period, a trend that has continued since although the level of height and the rate of increase remain low compared to other countries with similar GDP per capita and economic growth trajectories. (Smith 2015) cites additional evidence of improving nutritional outcomes for children. A rise in average body mass for individuals of a given age and sex is one of the factors contributing to the increase in population REE estimated in this paper.<sup>9</sup> Although changes in height undoubtedly reflect nutrition, the quantitative relationship between net caloric surplus (intake minus TEE and any caloric cost of disease) and height is not well known. Changes in population height may be more reflective
Policy Research Working Paper 10260

# **Abstract**

Child workers constitute a significant share of the Myanmar labor force, which has translated into an unprotected child labor market. Given the prevalence of issues surrounding school enrollment and dropout rates, this paper investigates the relationship between child work and education. Using data from the 2015 Labor Force survey, it studies what factors explain child work and how this can in turn affect schooling outcomes. The study differentiates between children’s household chores and wage work. To understand if these two types of activities affect schooling differently, the paper explores if and how work intensity (number of hours worked) plays a role. The findings show that child work has a negative correlation with school enrollment and attendance, to differing degrees depending on the type of work and work intensity, regardless of gender. Overall, wage work is negatively correlated with enrollment and attendance disproportionately more than household chores. Work intensity seems to play a smaller role, but it still matters when looking at girls’ participation in household chores. Working long hours does not seem to have a link with the likelihood of being enrolled and attending school, although it could affect learning outcomes as it reduces the amount of time dedicated to homework and study. However, the data source being some years old, the analysis may not fully reflect the most recent economic and social developments and conditions in Myanmar.

This paper is a product of the Poverty and Equity Global Practice. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/prwp. The authors may be contacted at emilie.perge@unsdsn.org, cdallaglio91@gmail.com, and ctsimponkengne@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of
We demonstrate how to apply our model to predict poverty rates in a given country, and apply our preferred model to global poverty measurement, comparing it to the World Bank’s poverty estimates. We show that the model in general tracks the official poverty estimates well, but with notable exceptions. Where there are exceptions, these may in part be explained by the deficiencies in the survey methodology of a particular country, and not just because our model comes up short.

# References

- Alkema, Leontine, and Jin Rou New. 2014. "Global Estimation of Child Mortality Using a Bayesian B-spline Bias-Reduction Model." _The Annals of Applied Statistics_ : 2122-2149.

- Angrist, Noam, Pinelopi Koujianou Goldberg, and Dean Jolliffe. 2021. “Why Is Growth in Developing Countries So Hard to Measure?” _Journal of Economic Perspectives_ 35 (3): 215–42.

- Bergstrom, Katy. 2022. "The Role of Income Inequality for Poverty Reduction _." World Bank Economic Review_ 36 (3): 583-604.

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- Bolt, Jutta, and Jan Luiten Van Zanden. 2024. "Maddison Style Estimates of the Evolution of the World Economy: A New 2023 Update." _Journal of Economic Surveys_ .

- Bresson, Florent. 2009. "On the Estimation of Growth and Inequality Elasticities of Poverty with Grouped Data." _Review of Income and Wealth_ 55(2): 266-302.

- Castaneda Aguilar, R. Andres. 2022. “Pip: Stata Module to Access World Bank’s Global Poverty and Inequality Data (Version 0.3.8).” _STATA_ . https://worldbank.github.io/pip/.

- Chen, Yi-Ting. 2018. “A Unified Approach to Estimating and Testing Income Distributions with Grouped Data.” _Journal of Business & Economic Statistics_ 36(3): 438–55.

- Chotikapanich, Duangkamon, William E. Griffiths, D. S. Prasada Rao, and Vicar Valencia. 2012. “Global Income Distributions and
, we were able to reach only 16.1 percent of the database of returnee phone numbers and only 6 percent of the returnee population eligible for the study (per their return date). Given this high rate of attrition and the small size of the second-round sample, we use the 2020 data to complement findings from the UNHCR post-return monitoring data.

# **Limitations of the Study**

There are limitations in analyzing results from three data sources, related to differences in questions or levels of aggregation. For example, the sources measure income differently, with the ODR data measuring household income with a categorical variable (five categories) ranging from AFA 3,000 to more than AFA 10,000 and the private firm data measuring the exact household income. The exact measurement of income led to a nonresponse of 35 percent. The minimum possible household income collected by ODR was AFA 3,000 (about $30 using current exchange rates).

Another limitation is the number of months between the sample of $350 recipients and the sample of returnees who received $150. Although the cash assistance was reduced in April 2017, the last surveyed refugees to return before the policy change returned in November 2016 and the first surveyed returnees

> 3 Strict discontinuity refers to a design in which there is a single binary treatment, the assignment variable perfectly predicts the receipt of the treatment, and the probability of treatment jumps from 0 to 1 when the variable crosses a certain threshold. Fuzzy discontinuity refers to a design in which there is imperfect compliance of the rule, meaning that the variable partly crosses a cutoff point, allowing for a smaller jump in the probability of assignment to the treatment at the threshold (not necessarily a sharp 0 to 1 jump).

6
J.C. Duque, N. Lozano-Gracia, J.E. Patino, P. Restrepo / LCR Flagship Report on Cities and Productivity 5 Regarding the measure of institutional fragmentation and metropolitan coordination, Table 1 and Table 2 present a summary of the variables commonly used in empirical studies. In Table 1 we classify the variables using the five categories proposed by Hendrick and Shi (2015). Based on the conceptualization of fragmentation as those urban extents that spread out over several, and independent, administrative units, the most common variables are those that measure the number of local governments included in the urban extent (sometimes standardized by population or land area). Other measures focus on the degree of concentration, the dominance relationship between the central city and the periphery. As considered by the centralist view, the potential drawbacks of having institutional fragmentation can be mitigated through proper channels of metropolitan coordination. This coordination can be reached via institutions (governance), coordinated planning and infrastructure (land use planning and mobility), the presence of overlapping governments with special of general purpose (provision of public utilities), or can be the result of tight linkages between the administrative units, which intensifies human interactions, generates spatial dependence, and facilitates coordination (functional region). Table 2 classifies the potential variables according to those proposed channels of coordination.

The scarcity of empirical studies, in addition to the differences found when taking different approaches and using different economic performance indicators, suggests that there is a need to further test the empirical links between the institutional fragmentation of cities and their productivity/economic growth. This paper makes multiple contributions to the literature. First, and foremost, it will allow for testing of whether existing findings for the US and other selected OECD countries also carry-over to countries in LAC. Second, the paper will allow for the testing of the robustness of results to different institutional fragmentation and institutional coordination measures. Third, it will allow for an assessment of whether existing metropolitan coordination measures are effective in helping to produce better economic
Policy Research Working Paper 6343

# **Abstract**

This paper studies the effect of subjective beliefs about HIV infection on fertility decisions in a context of high HIV prevalence and simulates the impact of different policy interventions, such as HIV testing programs and prevention of mother-to-child transmission, on fertility and child mortality. It develops a model of women’s life-cycle, in which women make sequential fertility decisions. Expectations about the life horizon and child survival depend on women’s perceived exposure to HIV infection, which is allowed to differ from the actual exposure. In the model, women form beliefs about their HIV status and about their own and their children’s survival in future periods. Women update their beliefs with survival to each additional period as well as when their HIV status is revealed by an HIV test.

Model parameters are estimated by maximum likelihood with longitudinal data from the Malawi Diffusion and Ideational Change Project, which contain family rosters, information on HIV testing, and measures of subjective beliefs about own HIV status. The model successfully fits the fertility patterns in the data, as well as the distribution of reported beliefs about own HIV status. The analysis uses the model to assess the effect of HIV on fertility by simulating behavior in an environment without HIV. The results show that the presence of HIV reduces the average number of births a woman has during her life-cycle by 0.15. The paper also finds that HIV testing can reduce the fertility of infected women, leading to a reduction of child mortality and orphan-hood.

This paper is a product of the Human Development and Public Services Team, Development Research Group. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://econ.worldbank.org. The author may be contacted at gshapira@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to
_HOTTER PLANET, HOTTER FACTORIES_ _11_ ious climate variables at high resolution and global scale. The data have global coverage that is gridded to a regular latitude-longitude grid of 0 _._ 25<sup>0</sup> _×_ 0 _._ 25<sup>0</sup> or _≈_ 27 _._ 5 _×_ 27 _._ 5km grid spacing, covering 1980 to the present. We use the ERA5Land data set of monthly temperatures and relative humidity measured within a range of 289 centimeters of soil depth to 2 meters above the surface level.

Using these sets of climate data, we perform two computations. First, we compute the WBT<sup>11</sup> in degrees Celsius to account for the effects of humidity on the human body when combined with high temperatures. It is a common practice in the literature to use WBT rather than dry-bulb or air temperature since the effect of changes in temperature varies at different levels of humidity (Kjellstrom et al., 2009c,a; Lemke and Kjellstrom, 2012; Adhvaryu et al., 2020; LoPalo, 2023). WBT provides a better measure for assessing the risks to the human body and health of both temperature and humidity, compared with using only air temperature. WBT is a nonlinear function of temperature and relative humidity, and it is often lower than (dry-bulb) temperature measures. We follow Chen and Chen (2022) and use the following formula to calculate the WBT: where _WBT_ is the wet-bulb temperature (degree Celsius), _T_ is the near-surface dry-bulb temperature (degree Celsius), and _rh_ is relative humidity (percent).

Second, for each geographic area _j_ within a radius of 30km around the establishment, we calculate the WBT deviations from the long-term average for each month of the year as follows: where ∆ _WBTj,t_ denotes the average deviation in WBT in location _<u>j</u>_ and year _t_ , _WBTj,mt_ is