rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
# **1. Introduction**

The incentives and abilities of the personnel employed in government bureaucracies largely determine a state’s capability to effectively implement policies and efficiently achieve the desired outputs in regulation, infrastructure provision, and service delivery _._ Public sector wages strongly influence personnel quality and motivation, and impact the competitiveness of the overall labor market, and fiscal sustainability. Yet in developing country contexts, little is known about the characteristics of public sector workers, and of public sector wages relative to the private sector. This paper attempts to shed light on this topic, utilizing nationally representative survey data that include information on public sector employment and wages from 91 countries.

Governments face important choices regarding the size of the public sector and the compensation of its workers. If public sector workers are paid significantly less than similar workers in the private sector, the resulting difficulty in recruiting and retaining qualified workers will adversely affect the quality of publicly provided goods and services and could contribute to corruption. On the other hand, large wage premiums for public sector workers may encourage youth to queue for public sector jobs, leading to higher rates of youth unemployment. Spending more than necessary on public sector salaries may also crowd out pro‐poor spending, since spending on public sector wages is generally not well‐targeted to the poor. These choices are typically highly charged politically, as public sector workers are an influential, often unionized, group. Better understanding public employment and wages is therefore essential for informing policy choices and managing the likely political fallout.

This paper’s main contributions are to estimate public sector earnings premiums for a much larger set of countries than has been done before, to present evidence on the heterogeneity of premiums across countries and different types of workers, and to consider the robustness of the estimates to the choice of private sector comparators. We find that the public sector generally pays a premium compared to all private sector salaried employees, even after controlling for a small set of observed worker characteristics, but that the size
than for rents. We show that the difference between the two premiums directly reflects the risks on housing investment in the informal sector and thus, should be positive. Moreover, from this difference in premiums we can estimate the risk faced by informal investors, as in our case. Calculations indicate that physical risk on informal investment was four to five times higher in Davao than in Manilla at the beginning of the 1980s.

Lastly, we try to understand what factors may drive the rental premium for the formal

> 10In a typical survey, the selection problem would arise from the fact that only the rents are known for the rental units, and the prices or estimated values for the dwelling occupied by their owners. A similar technique is used by Lanjouw and Levy (2002). In their paper, they used a survey where households living in untitled houses were asked to assess the value of their dwellings if it were titled.

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of certain groups. This evidence is consistent with the results for Sub-Saharan Africa in Coniglio et al. (2022). The authors show that the establishment of a refugee camp increases the likelihood of an armed conflict and the frequency of protests in an area. Similar to our findings on anti-immigrant violence in Germany. the authors show that the effect on conflict wanes after two years. this suggests that the effect of refugee inflows on violence or conflict is rather short-lived. Another study on East Africa by Zhou et al. (2022) paints a more optimistic picture. Using data from Uganda – one of the major host countries in Africa – the authors show that the inflow of refugees from South Sudan led to a significant improvement in local economic development and the provision of public goods such as schools and health clinics. However, these positive effects did not translate into more favorable attitudes towards immigrants.

Finally, our paper relates to work by Muller ̈ et al. (2022) on Switzerland and Murard (2022) on Greece. Both papers highlight the importance of taking a long-run perspective. While our study can only analyse short-run effects, it is important to re-evaluate the consequences of the 2015 inflow in Germany in years if not decades to come. The study on Switzerland exploits the random assignment of refugees to cantons and documents a variety of effects over a 20-year period. The most important ones are that a high unemployment rate at arrival slows down the labor market integration of refugees, whereas more hostile attitudes among the host country population accelerate the integration. It remains to be seen whether similar effects emerge among recently arrived asylum seekers in Germany. Murard (2022) provides an optimistic picture on the long-run effects of forced 26
**_Core Indicators for Determinants and Performance of Electricity Sector Reform in Developing Countries_**

qualitative terms. But even when the relevant aspect of reform is defined, the properties of some issues make them inherently difficult to measure, e. g. the degree of a regulator’s independence. Proxy indicators such as regulator’s budgetary independence or the number of issues over which he or she has full discretion may be used to represent these aspects.

# **_Comparability and consistency_**

Some indicators refer to an absolute or relative benchmark, e. g. privatisation may be expressed as a percentage of total assets. When measured over a period of time, the same indicator reveals information about the progress of the program. For this reason, comparability of the indicator measured over time is an important criterion; an indicator should be consistent in definition, measurement method and data assembly.

A similar argument applies to cross-sectoral comparisons, but here other issues such as technical standards and institutional characteristics, are also important. Comparison of monetary indicators can also be difficult because of differences in accounting rules and economic conditions such as inflation. In addition, the problems of conversion into a single monetary unit (e.g. Year 2000 US dollars) using currency exchange rates (or purchasing power parity rates) and suitable price deflators are non-trivial and familiar.

# **_Data_ and** **_aggregation level_**

Data should be available at realistic and reasonable levels of cost and effort, and sources should be reliable and, ideally, cross-checked. Care should be taken to ensure that consistency and continuity of data is maintained.

The appropriate level of disaggregation will depend on the question being asked. For example, investment or energy loss data concerning different segments are useful for different purposes. In addition, data on price, consumption and income levels for different customer groups are often necessary to investigate the distributional effect of reforms. Firm-level analysis can shed light on aspects of electricity reform. In the absence of comprehensive or specific type
|Table1.Munic<br>|ipality-levelsc|hool restricti|onsfromwar|ningindex|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|Color|2018|2019|2020|2021|
|Red|n.a.|n.a.|Virtual|Virtual|
|Orange|n.a.|n.a.|Virtual|Hybrid|
|Yellow|n.a.|n.a.|Virtual|Hybrid|
|Green|n.a.|n.a.|Virtual|Inperson|

_Source_ : Authors’ elaboration from Guatemalan legislation _Notes_ : n.a.-Not applicable.

Districts classified in green could resume in-person instruction without any distancing restrictions; those in yellow and orange were obliged to use hybrid instruction, with the main difference being the social distancing requirements between yellow (2.5 square meters between individuals) and orange (4 square meters between persons); and municipalities classified in red were only allowed to conduct virtual schooling activities. Table 1 summarizes these measures and how they have changed over time.

Figure 2 maps the average warning index by municipality for pre-COVID-19 years (2018 and 2019) and post-COVID-19 years for which we have available data (2020 and 2021). Given that the index was unavailable before the pandemic, we assign a value of zero for pre-COVID-19 years. We observe that infection rates varied across the country, with some districts more exposed than others to infections from the virus. Mean warning levels increased across the entire country from 2020 to 2021. While 86 municipalities had a low warning index in 2020 (below 5), this number was only 4 in 2021. On the opposite end, 2 municipalities had a warning index above 8 in 2020, which increased to 31 in 2021. We leverage this district-level variation over time to estimate whether students in districts with greater warning indices have different outcomes than students in municipalities with lower indices, estimating the differential effects of
17, VLSS data shows that such a minimum wage represents roughly one fourth of Vietnam's average wage and one third of rural wages. This is modest by international standards. Table 17 also shows that Vietnam's minimum wage is far below average wages in all types of employmnent, including small household enterprises. The only exception is for cooperatives, where the average wage is only about 25% above the minimum wage.

**Table 17: the minimum wage is low compared to average wages**

||Monthly<br>Average|Ratio minimum<br>wage<br>|
|---|---|---|
||wage<br>(in Dongs)|To average wage|
|Total|522,610|0.276|
|Total urban|625,420|0.230|
|Total rural|445,090|0.324|
|Total males|570,760|0.252|
|Total females|447,150|0.322|
|Government|395,650|0.364|
|State enterprises|629,690|0.229|
|Cooperatives|182,820|0.788|
|Private enterprises|623,430|0.231|
|Small household enterprises|518,390|0.278|
|Mix economic sector|846,540|0.170|
|Other|495,380|0.291|
|_Source:_VLSS 2 (GSO, 1999)|||

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estimating consumption poverty and inequality in that we also combine survey data with unit record census data in order to obtain estimates at a lower level of aggregation than the survey permits. Their small area estimation approach was first applied to Ecuador (Hentschel et al., 2000) and has subsequently been applied to poverty and inequality measures in many countries, including Cambodia (Alderman et al., 2002; Demombynes et al., 2002; Fujii, 2004)). We first provide a general overview of the methodology, and then describe it more formally.

The basic idea is straightforward. We first construct a prediction model of anthropometric indicators using only the variables that are common between the census and the survey, along with geographic indicators available for the entire country at the village or commune level. The geographic indicators include the remotely-sensed data as well as village-level statistics derived from the census data. Common geographic codes in all data sets allow these to be linked to both the survey and the census data.

The parameters of the model are estimated with the survey dataset. An important feature of our study and of the ELL approach is the explicit treatment of the error terms. We estimate regression coefficients and the associated variance-covariance matrix, and also scrutinize the distribution of the disturbance terms in order to carry out simulation. In each round of simulation, we randomly draw regression coefficients and disturbance terms in accordance with their estimated distribution and we impute the anthropometric indicators to each census record. By geographically aggregating the imputed anthropometric indicators, we can estimate the prevalence of malnutrition.

There are four major differences between this study and earlier work by ELL. The first and most obvious difference concerns the type of the survey dataset used for estimation. ELL have focused on consumption or income taken from a socio-economic survey, while we have anthropometric measures taken from a Demographic and Health Survey (DHS). A second difference stems from different units of analysis. Consumption data are usually produced at the household level, whereas anthropometric measures are at the individual level. In
Policy Research Working Paper 5743

# **Abstract**

This paper examines the effect of parental disability on school enrollment and educational performance for children in the 2006 Vietnam Household Living Standards Survey. Results from instrumental-variables regressions indicate that children of parents with a disability have a lower enrollment rate in primary and secondary school of about 8 percentage points: 73 percent compared with 81 percent. However, the association of parental disability with educational performance is small and not statistically significant. The conclusion of the paper is that to achieve the Millennium Development Goal of universal primary school as well as increased coverage of secondary education, the government should have policies and programs that either directly support the education of children with disabled parents and/or have policies that support disabled adults, thus lessening the incentive for their children not to attend school.

This paper is a product of the Poverty Reduction & Economic Management Sector Department, East Asia and Pacific Region. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http:// econ.worldbank.org. The author may be contacted at dmont@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent._ Produced by the Research Support Team
labor supply in order to smooth consumption. Survey respondents

> 16 Table O1 in the online appendix (http://faculty.washington.edu/rmheath/onlineappendix_HMR.pdf) shows that these results are robust to alternate measures of hours and earnings, namely, to a dummy variable for above median hours/earnings within the household, and to the ratio of the respondent’s hours/earnings to the household average. 17 When considering only the sample of households with two or more employed workers at baseline (within which the sole employed worker is not automatically the highest earner or has the highest usual hours of work at baseline), the percentages naturally drop, but are still non-trivial: 37 percent of women have the highest regular hours of work and 30 percent of women are the highest earners.

25
of results, using the same-period (top panel) and two week lagged (bottom panel) values of world crude price as the relevant costs. The choice of two weeks lag is motivated by the fact that it takes about two weeks to transport crude oil from Malaysia and Indonesia to Bangladesh.

We report estimates from three different samples: the “full sample”, a “restricted sample”,

> 21Crude palm oil was listed in the TCB in January 2009. We compared TCB data with MPB data on daily palm oil prices, there are again nearly identical.

> 22We focus on the wholesale margin because the DOTs were located in between the refiner and wholesale traders in the marketing chain. The results on the world-retail margin are similar, and are reported in the online appendix Table A.2.

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# **1. Introduction**

Over the last six decades, Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) has been the world’s fastest urbanizing region. Between 1960 and 2021, the share of its population living in officially classified urban areas increased almost 15-fold from around 33.3 million to just over 494 million, while the share of its population living in such areas climbed from 14.6 to 41.8 percent.<sup>1</sup> This rapid urbanization is, moreover, set to continue in the decades ahead. By 2050, more than 1.26 billion people will be living in SSA’s towns and cities, more than 2.5 times the number today. Such rapid urbanization carries with it important economic, social, and environmental implications for the development of a region in which more than one-third of the population lived in extreme poverty in 2019.<sup>2</sup> Despite its rapidity and importance, however, remarkably little is known about the detailed anatomy of patterns of urbanization across SSA countries. This neglect reflects both a lack of detailed official data on urban settlements and populations, and, partly also related to this, a relative lack, with some notable exceptions, of research interest among urban economists in the region’s urbanization.<sup>3</sup> Against this backdrop, this paper aims to provide a detailed descriptive analysis, for the year _circa_ 2015, of patterns of urbanization across SSA countries. In doing so, the paper distinguishes between two types of urban area – cities and towns. To identify these areas, the paper applies a modified version of an algorithm first developed by de Bellefon et al. (2021) to high-resolution gridded population data for the region, which is itself derived from digitized maps of the footprints of _all_ buildings in the region from very high-resolution satellite imagery. This allows for a consistent definition of urban areas across all countries in the region, thereby overcoming the measurement problems that arise from relying on
to analyze trends and socioeconomic differences in adult mortality. We calculate mortality based on the sibling mortality reports collected from about 850,000 female respondents aged 15-49. In total, the estimates are based on mortality histories of almost 5 million individuals. In the analysis, we use age and gender of each individual, and proxy for urban residence and education attainment with that of the respondent.

The analysis yields four main findings. First, adult mortality is different from child mortality. This is perhaps obvious to most readers, but bears stating since under-5 mortality is often used—perhaps implicitly—as a measure of “population health”. Several key features of 22
there are still (relatively skilled) labor requirements at the local level in organizing projects and workers.<sup>7</sup> This burden may well be higher in poor areas, making it harder to afford and implement such a complex scheme.

This paper examines the performance thus far of MGNREGS in meeting the demand for work across states. We examine the evidence for India as a whole using the household-level data from the National Sample Survey for 2009/10. We also use these data to understand who gets rationed and how this affects the scheme‘s ability to reach India‘s rural poor and other identitybased groups, notably backward castes, tribes and women. We also discuss the role played by wage setting on the scheme, and how rationing might be influencing labor market responses. Finally, we take a closer look at women‘s participation and how this is influenced by the rationing of work under MGNREGS.

# **2. Performance in meeting the demand for work across states**

The participation rate ( _P_ ) in MGNREGS can be defined as the proportion of rural households who obtain work on the scheme. This can be thought of as the product of the ―demand rate‖ ( _D_ )—defined as the proportion of rural households who want work on the scheme—and one minus the ―rationing rate‖ ( _R_ )—defined as the proportion amongst those who wanted work who did not get it. Thus for state _i_ we have the following identity: Notice that the share of households who are rationed is the product of the rationing rate and the demand rate. We shall call this the excess demand ( _EDi_  _Ri Di_  _Di_  _Pi_ ).

As noted, if MGNREGS worked in practice the way it is designed there would be no unmet demand for work. This is, of course, an exacting standard. In practice there may be frictions in implementation leading to some unmet demand, such that those wanting work do not

> unemployment allowances from their own
Policy Research Working Paper 5906

# **Abstract**

The purpose of this paper is to stress test the resilience of Croatian households with debt to economic shocks. The shocks not only impact a household’s welfare, but also increase the probability of loan default. As a result, there is a direct link between these stress-testing exercises and financial stability risks. The authors find that very few households are at risk as a result of the shocks experienced over the past few years; new vulnerable households represent about 2 percent of all households, 6 percent of households with debt, and 2–3 percent of aggregate banking system assets. This suggests that household over-indebtedness in Croatia is unlikely to become a drag on aggregate economic activity and that financial stability risks remain manageable. One caveat should be noted. Some 27–31 percent of households with debt, representing 8–9 of banking system assets, are vulnerable even before being subjected to an economic shock. Since NPLs were low before the global financial crisis, it can be argued that banks knew something about some of these households that is not captured by household budget surveys. It follows that the calculations in this paper should primarily focus on the increased vulnerability of households as a result of shocks and are likely to represent an upper bound to the financial stability risks faced by Croatia on account of household indebtedness.

This paper is a product of the Office of the Chief Economist, Europe and Central Asia Region. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://econ.worldbank.org. The authors may be contacted at nsugawara@worldbank.org and jzalduendo@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if