rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
All ethno-religious groups except for Sunnis show declining confidence in national institutions (figure 6). Shias and Kurds, who reported higher averages before ISIS-control, reported the largest decline in national institutions over the decade. This is also consistent with the gradual deterioration in governance indicators for Iraq, especially those related to corruption and service delivery.<sup>2</sup> Such deterioration culminated in October 2019 with popular protests led by Iraqi youth and which were strongest in Baghdad and the southern governorates.

**Figure 6: National Institutions Index by ethno-religious groups and time (% of adults)**

<!-- Start of picture text --> 57<br>52 51<br>45 44<br>42<br>38 40 39<br>33<br>29<br>13<br>Baghdad Sunni Shia Kurds<br>2010-2012 2014-2016 2018-2019<br><!-- End of picture text --> Source: Gallup World Poll.

Next, we unpack this measure of perceptions of national institutions. In 2019, more than a third of adults in Iraq list financial and administrative corruption as Iraq’s biggest challenge (figure 7). Twice as many adults reported this as the main challenge than the economic situation. In addition, 14 percent of adults reported security as Iraq's most important challenge, while fewer than 5 percent of adults reported religious extremism.

> 2 According to the Worldwide Governance Indicators https://info.worldbank.org/governance/wgi/, Iraq deteriorated in most indices, especially Control of Corruption, Rule of Law, and Government Effectiveness. See also _Breaking Out of Fragility, a Country Economic Memorandum for Diversification and Growth in Iraq, World Bank, 2020_ for a more detailed discussion.

10
Type|
|---|---|---|
|Indicator|Primary|Secondary|
|Green|45|24|
|Orange|23|16|
|Red|11|7|
|Purple|7|4|
|Source: Goog|le Traffic||

Figure 2 provides a composite summary of traffic data for the metro region. Since the database is formatted at grid scale, it could also produce the same display for each grid cell. Figure 2 displays regional hourly median and 1st-quartile traffic speeds on primary roads. Several features of the display are particularly evident. First, driving on primary roads is much faster on Sunday, the least congested day, and somewhat faster on Saturday Second, on weekdays traffic speed declines steadily from its midnight peak to around 8 AM; remains roughly in the same range until midafternoon; declines rapidly through 6-7 PM; and then increases rapidly until midnight. Third, the path of Q1 shows that the worst traffic conditions display more volatility than median conditions. On weekdays, Q1 speed falls twice daily from about 43 km/hr near midnight to 25-30 km/hr during the morning and evening peak traffic hours.

7
36 advanced economies and 122 EMDEs. Trade facilitation index is an unweighted average of 11 subindexes, all scored on a scale of 0-2. A higher index indicates greater trade facilitation. The indexes score countries on information availability, trade consultations, advance rulings, appeals procedures for administrative decisions by border agencies, fees and charges on imports and exports, simplicity of trade document requirements, automation of border procedures and documentation, simplicity of border procedures, cooperation between domestic agencies, cooperation with neighboring agencies, and governance and impartiality. The data is collected from publicly available sources, country submissions, and private sector feedback. Orange whiskers indicate minimum and maximum range
controversy will have strong implications for policies as well as for the collection of data on cross-border mobility.</mark>

> 9 <mark>For a detailed description of the most common sources of migration data, their limitations and prospects, see Bilsborrow (2016).</mark>

> 10 <mark>Longitudinal household surveys track movers to minimize the attrition rate and address potential selectivity biases in non-random attrition (Witoelar, 2011). This type of tracking, however, is generally done within domestic boundaries. There is a dearth of studies</mark>

6
,r, and (iii) with school pair dummies and gender, fi,s,r. We add fixed effects for state r in month t, mrt, to all specifications to account for regional trends in dependent variables.

We also estimate a specification with time-varying treatment effects. Here, we split the postintervention years into two separate time periods: (i) 2012 to 2018,<sup>11</sup> which corresponds to the years when students may still be in university, and (ii) 2019 to 2020, when most students would have entered the labor market.

# **_4.a. Financial Inclusion and Behavior_**

Table 3 presents the effect of the financial education program on holding accounts at financial institutions. Since account ownership is the only variable for which we have comprehensive preintervention data, we also include a regression using only pre-intervention years to test for baseline balance in the administrative data (column 1). Only 6.9 percent of students had an account at a

> 11For credit use estimations (Tables 4 and 5), we use data since June 2016, when the reporting threshold of credit contracts fell significantly.  For formal employment estimations (Table 6), this period starts in 2013 due to data availability.

12
Policy Research Working Paper 10975

# **Abstract**

This paper reports on the prevalence of three facets of mental health—depression, anxiety, and parenting stress—among mothers of children ages 0–6 years in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Data from mother-child dyads were analyzed to examine differences in maternal mental health and early childhood development outcomes by maternal educational attainment, urban versus rural setting, and refugee versus non-refugee status. The analysis finds a higher prevalence of self-reported mental health concerns among refugee, less-educated, and rural mothers relative to non-refugee, more-educated, and urban mothers. Maternal mental health concerns are significantly associated with lower levels of early childhood development. This paper also analyzes how exposure to stressors such as food insecurity, financial insecurity, being impacted by flooding, community crime, discrimination, and domestic violence exacerbate both maternal mental health and child outcomes. The regression analyses indicate a significant and negative compounding interaction of maternal depression, anxiety, and parenting stress on early childhood development for younger (0–3 years) and older (3–6 years) children, even after controlling for stressors and other covariates. Policy improvements are needed that focus on at-risk communities, providing mental health services and reducing exposure to stressors within communities and households.

This paper is a product of the Education Global Practice. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/prwp. The authors may be contacted at ahasan1@worldbank.org. A verified reproducibility package for this paper is available at http://reproducibility.worldbank.org, click **here** for direct access.

<!-- Start of picture text --> TRANSPARENT<br>ANALYSIS<br>G<br>R E<br>N<br>S<br>I P<br>
Gonzalez, M. C., Hidalgo, C. A., & Barabasi, A.-L. (2008). Understanding individual human mobility patterns. _Nature_ , _453_ (7196), 779–782. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature06958 Hand, D. J. (2009). Measuring classifier performance: a coherent alternative to the area under the ROC curve. _Machine Learning_ , _77_ (1), 103–123.

Isaacman, S., Becker, R., Caceres, R., Kobourov, S., Martonosi, M., Rowland, J., & Varshavsky, A. (2011). Identifying Important Places in People’s Lives from Cellular Network Data. In K. Lyons, J. Hightower, & E. Huang (Eds.), _Pervasive_ _Computing_ (Vol. 6696, pp. 133–151). Springer. Retrieved from http://www.springerlink.com/content/r14x8r7573738143/abstract/ ITU. (2011). _World telecommunication/ICT indicators database_ . International Telecommunication Union.

Lazer, D., Kennedy, R., King, G., & Vespignani, A. (2014). The Parable of Google Flu: Traps in Big Data Analysis. _Science_ , _343_ (6176), 1203–1205. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1248506 Lu, X., Wetter, E., Bharti, N., Tatem, A. J., & Bengtsson, L. (2013). Approaching the Limit of Predictability in Human Mobility. _Scientific Reports_ , _3_ . https://doi.org/10.1038/srep02923 Ng, A. (2011). Machine Learning and AI via Brain simulations.

NPR. (2015). How Cellphone Use Can Help Determine A Person’s Creditworthiness. _Morning Edition_ . Retrieved from https://www.npr.org/2015
all else constant, increases time to work outside the house. There is a negative association with having a working spouse and a positive relation with proxies of household income stability. The former likely captures an income effect, as it is robust to controlling for the role of social norms. Access and use of labor-saving technology are positively associated to FLFP.

The paper is organized as follows. Section 2 describes the data used in the paper and shows descriptive statistics. Section 3 presents the empirical model, while Sections 4 and 5 set out our main findings. Section 6 concludes.

# **2. Data and Descriptive Statistics**

We combine different sources of data. For the decomposition of the change in FLFP between 2002 and 2018, we exploit data from the 2002 and 2018 National Censuses. The censuses were collected by INE and are representative at the municipality level. This allows the measurement of withincountry variation in FLFP, and several of its drivers at the municipal level.<sup>6</sup> FLFP is defined as the number of women ages 25 to 49 who report working or seeking work during the previous week divided by the total number of women in the same age range. We do not consider women of younger ages to avoid selection problems due to educational decisions. We consider all women below 50 years old as we are interested in analyzing the association between FLFP and motherhood, among other factors.<sup>7</sup> We restrict the sample to woman living in households where they or their partner is the household head.<sup>8</sup> We align with ILO definition and include work across all sectors of activity (primary, construction, manufacturing, white collar services and other services), and the informal economy. We explore information on individual characteristics (age, level of education, race, marital status), household structure (number of children younger than 13 years old, number of household members 12 years old or more, presence of mother or mother-inlaw
Number of Tajikistan friends|5,589|2.26|3.89|0.00|50.00|
|_Panel C. Outcomesfor Educational Attainment_||||||
|Education index|5,592|0.60|0.23|0.00|0.75|
|Literate [=1]|5,592|0.91|0.29|0.00|1.00|
|Some education [=1]|5,592|0.85|0.36|0.00|1.00|
|Primary [=1]|5,592|0.14|0.35|0.00|1.00|
|<br>Secondary [=1]|5,592|0.49|0.50|0.00|1.00|
|_Panel D. Outcomesfor Mental Health_||||||
|Mental health issues index|5,590|0.16|0.19|0.00|1.00|
|Felt little interest in doing things [=1]|5,554|0.30|0.46|0.00|1.00|
|Had sleeping troubles [=1]|5,570|0.14|0.35|0.00|1.00|
|Had poor appetite or overeating [=1]|5,573|0.11|0.31|0.00|1.00|
|Suicidal thoughts [=1]|5,568|0.01|0.10|0.00|1.00|
|<br>Mental health assistance[=1]|259|0.77|0.42|0.00|1.00|
|_Panel E. Outcomesfor Labor Market Access_||||||
|Labor index (SD)|
Total benefits are compared to an independent estimate of cost by De Soyres, Mulabdic and Ruta (2019), who estimate the cost of transportation projects as a function of mode and length, using our GIS database and country-specific cost information collected from World Bank country offices, which finance transportation infrastructure in the region and so has references for such projects. For all countries in Eurasia, these authors estimate the cost of all projects built in complement to be approximately $321 billion.<sup>11</sup> Table 6 reports the value of market access from each of the six Eurasian corridors when each corridor is built separately, and the value when all six corridors are built in complement. The columns of the table report these values under a variety of specifications, beginning with the baseline specification described in Section 3. The three panels of Table 6 show how the present value of benefits is built up using Equation (5). They are shown separately to illustrate the sensitivity of the estimates to the discount rate and growth rate, a standard issue in financial analysis. Panel A reports the annual value of market access (ΔV) implied by Equation (4). Panel B reports the present value of these benefits assuming a discount rate ρ= 0.06 and g= 0, indicating zero GDP growth. This discount rate is generously low (leading to an optimistic estimate of project benefits) for two reasons. First it is only in the lower range of the central bank policy rate in Belt and Road countries (e.g., Pakistan, Laos). Many other countries face a higher opportunity cost of funds. Second, since loans to finance infrastructure have longer tenure than short government loans, the discount rate applied to evaluating infrastructure investments is likely to be higher than even the central bank

> 11 Actual project costs are not available because, as described in the Introduction, governments in general have not been transparent about the financing of Belt and Road projects.

27
<sup>_∗∗∗_</sup>|
||(0_._000)|(0_._000)|(0_._000)|(0_._000)|
|Country-pair FE|✓|✓|✓|✓|
|Industry-pair FE|✓|✓|✓|✓|
|Shareholdert-country-industry-year FE|✓|✓|✓|✓|
|Subsidiary-country-industry-year FE|✓|✓|✓|✓|
|Domestic-year FE|✓|✓|✓|✓|
|Obs.|111,505,680|111,505,680|111,505,680|111,505,680|
|R<sup>2</sup>|0.194|0.195|0.195|0.195|

Standard errors are clustered at country-industry pairs level and reported in parentheses. * _p <_ 0 _._ 1, ** _p <_ 0 _._ 05, *** _p <_ 0 _._ 01 the value chain.

Overall, we find a positive effect of PTAs (and their depth) on firm foreign ownership both for the frequency as well as the propensity of any ownership. Moreover, for the downstream, ownership frequency is increased by more than the upstream one. On the other hand, the propensity of there being any upstream ownership at all increases by more with PTAs than the propensity of any downstream ownership does.

A second set of results is related to the direction of integration within GVCs. More concretely, after combining our ownership data with input-output coefficients from input-output tables, we are able to differentiate between horizontal and vertical and, for the latter, between forward versus backward investment. Regarding positive ownership links, we only find a mild positive effect of PTAs on horizontal and vertical forward integration. The strongest effects materialize for the propensity of any ownership. At this margin, we find a clear negative impact of PTAs on horizontal integration and a positive effect on vertical
The Global Consumption and Income Project (GCIP) database<sup>3</sup> also uses per capita measures of wellbeing, and Lahoti et al. (2016, p.7) similarly argue that “...per capita surveys are easier to understand” and assert that “...limiting our focus to per capita surveys greatly aids comparability...” Both papers make the case for per capita allocation based on arguments of simplicity, transparency, and enhanced comparability.

The assertions of simplicity and transparency are difficult to argue against. In contrast though, the claim of improved comparability is problematic. Under the very restrictive assumption that all goods consumed by people in the household are private (i.e., none is shared), and strictly in the money metric, per capita allocation may indeed be comparable across countries and people. But once we acknowledge that there may be economies of scale in household consumption, emanating for several reasons including the existence of within-household public consumption goods (such as shelter and other shareable goods like light, radios, televisions, and many durable goods), a per capita allocation of household consumption or income will neither be comparable across households nor countries. Similarly, if we consider measuring wellbeing in the metric of meeting needs (i.e., proportion of basic needs met with the money allocated), and acknowledge that men, women, and children have differing biological needs, the per capita metric will not be comparable across households or countries if household demographic composition differs. These issues are noted by Lahoti et al. (2016, p.7) in discussing the per capita allocation in the context of the GCIP, “...differences in the real value of resources arising from variations in household size and composition are not taken [into account].” Both of these issues – economies of scale in household consumption and adjusting for differences in needs based upon age – will matter for cross-country comparisons if there is

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we find no positive effect of Minas Fácil Expresso may be that some firms do not want to register with all three levels of government. Before the new system unified municipal, state, and federal procedures, firms had the option of registering with only one or two of these authorities, thereby evading fees and taxes associated with the others. Taking away this flexibility may make some firms less likely to register.

# **5.3 Impact on Municipal Tax Collections from Firms**

One motivation for governments to attempt to bring firms into the formal sector is to broaden its tax base. We are unaware of any study which has looked empirically at this issue, and the administrative data available in Brazil offers the opportunity. Given that the flow of newly registered firms is likely to result in only a small change in the total stock of registered firms in a municipality, we should not expect to see large changes in tax revenues unless a reform leads to a dramatic change in the number of firms registering, which the above analysis shows was not the case. Nevertheless, estimating the treatment impact offers a check on this, as well as illustrating how the choice of a control group matters a lot more when there are pre-treatment trends.

Figure 4 plots the time path of tax revenues received over time. Unlike registrations which show no visible trend, we see business tax revenues have been trending upwards since January 2010 in the municipalities which later received the Minas Fácil Expresso offices. In contrast, average tax revenues in the full sample of untreated municipalities have not been growing as fast in level terms. We again use propensity score matching to obtain a more similar control group, this time matching on the time path of pre-reform business tax receipts instead of registration rates. Figure 4 also plots the time path of the nearest neighbor-matched municipalities, which are lower in levels, but exhibit a similar time path to the treated municipalities.

Table 4 reports our treatment estimates for the impact of introducing the Minas Fácil Expresso offices on municipal tax revenues.
improve the perception of security of tenure and the real property market financing and to attract foreign investors, including a change of the urban land concept provided by the current Constitution.

# **Conclusion**

In the international context, the econometric analysis in this article shows that, although ownership has recently received less attention in global policy debates, according to our econometric analysis of productivity in 55 countries, half of which are transition economies, private ownership is an equally or more important determinant of productivity than other components of the investment climate. We thus consider privatization, bankruptcy, competition and restructuring polices to be complementary to investment climate reform and therefore policy makers need to be advised to consider them in tandem. Unfortunately, the investment climate literature has focused almost exclusively on regulatory burden, access to finance, corruption and taxation. The latter may be due to the fact that surveys usually point out to managers’ complaints about “what hurts,” rather than “what to do”.

Evidence based on surveys of firms in PICS-BEEPS countries and in Serbia itself shows that private ownership, FDI and export-orientation are all strongly associated with firm productivity, investment and growth. The surveys also show that firms with the characteristics associated with strong firm performance are the firms that complain the most about investment climate constraints on the operation of their businesses. Reducing investment climate constraints will benefit primarily the firms that can generate growth. Although we find that the new private firms are better performers, their scope for growth, and the possibility of entry by new entrepreneurs, are both severely limited by the investment climate and crowded-out by the unrestructured enterprises.

In view of these findings, it is important that Serbia accelerate its enterprise reform program. The development of the private sector still has a long way to go. The share of the private sector in GDP, circa 50 percent, compares unfavorably to other countries in the area<sup>25</sup> . FDI per capita in Serbia was also lower than in the neighboring countries<sup>
for economies that still rely largely on agriculture.

Besides these aggregate results, some research examines how trade openness and FDI affects labor market outcomes at the firm level. Using firm-level data, Bloom et al. (2016) exploit the increased import competition in 12 European countries following China’s entry into the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2001 to examine the impact on local firms. Relying on instrumental variable designs, they find that import competition led to increased innovation, R&D investment, and higher management quality within surviving firms. At the same time, it reduced employment and survival probabilities in low-tech firms and triggered a reallocation of labor toward more technologically advanced firms.

In LMICs, Brambilla et al. (2017) document the prevalence of wage premia when working for exporting firms. The average premium of working for an exporting firm in their sample of 61 lowand middle-income countries is 25 percent. When controlling for the foreign versus domestic ownership status, this decreases by up to 17 percent. They identify four major drivers of the wage premia: compared to non-exporting firms, exporting ones hire more skilled workers, utilize more sophisticated machines, buy higher quality inputs, and are more productive.

Entry of large multinational firms in LMICs has, in a few historical cases, translated to these firms exerting monopsony power and dominating local labor markets. Mendez and Van Patten (2022) study the case of the monopsonistic power of the United Fruit Company (UFC) in Costa Rica between 1899 and 1984. Contrary to the assumption that foreign multinationals can hurt workers, 23