rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
Unfortunately, it is not possible to directly compare our projected outcomes for PFPS workers with observations in the GHFPS, as this group is not distinguishable from other private sector wage workers in that survey.<sup>45</sup> One can find little indication from the GHFPS that, by December 2020, there was a recovery in private sector jobs overall. However, by the third quarter of 2021, Georgia’s labor force participation rate (52.8 percent) surpassed its level in Q3 of 2012 (51.8 percent) and unemployment fell from its pandemic era peak in Q2 2021 (22.1) to 19.5 percent.<sup>46</sup> As in Jordan, Georgia’s labor market impacts varied greatly by the type and sector of job. Relatively few public sector workers faced jobs losses (an estimated 3.9 percent). Moreover, private sector waged workers fared slightly better than the self-employed: 24.1 percent of them lost their jobs due to COVID and were no longer working, versus 27.2 percent of the previously self-employed (Table 5-7).<sup>47</sup> Only and 1.8 percent stopped working due to the risk of exposure to the virus. If the GHFPS is taken as reliable, these data may indicate either that the rebound in jobs for core productive sectors captured in the WBES drew in different workers than those originally losing their jobs (with a net effect similar to our projected level) or that job losses were much more persistent for informal and temporary work.

Based on aggregate rates of job loss due to COVID-19, our comparisons for Jordan broadly _Table 5-7 Georgia: Percentage of Jobs Lost due to COVID-19, by Employer Type, December 2020_

|**By employment category**|**Due to**|**To avoid**|**Other**|
|---|---|---|---|
|
-4-

,ew deal with none of them, while the attention given to item (i) and to a lesser extent item (ii) generally exceeds that afforded to items (iii) and (iv). It is clear that there is no consistent or systematic approach to these issues. Some staff question whether the Bank has the expertise necessary to make recommendations in this area and the credibility to follow them up with appropriate lending instruments. Such self questioning is to be expected and is characteristic of most new or rapidly evolving activities which the Bank.undertakes.

8. In addition to public expenditure reviews, the Bank sometimes uses its regular reports on the economies of borrowing countries, or similar vehicles, to discuss public expenditure management issues. Again, the coverage give'.i to institutional and procedural problems varies greatly and does not follow any consistent or systematic format.

9. Exceptionally, CESW is used as a tool for detailed Bank collaboration with Government in implementing improved investment programing and budgetary systems and procedures. A leading example is that of Zambia where the CESW approach had zhe great advantage of direct involvement by Bank staff who had been engaged for some time in an intense policy dialogue with the authorities. However, this is very expensive in use of staff time, 3 and does not, unlike a lending operation, involve the Government in implementation deadlines. Although it may be appropriate to commence with such a process rather than policy oriented approach, in order to build longterm sustainability of the reform effort, this does not, as Zambia's subsequent experience has shown, eliminate the necessity of deep-seated policy level commitment to change.

# The Planning Concept

10. The planning experience4 is immensely varied among developing countries, where more than 300 plans have been formulated during the past 30 years. At the risk of over-simplifying, countries may be divided into four broad categories: (i) those where e-omprehensive, central medium-term planning has been practiced with the full backing of the political authorities (Eastern Europe plus some
Policy Research Working Paper 5521

# **Abstract**

Using panel data from labor force surveys in Argentina, Brazil, and Mexico, the paper maps out young people’s paths from the classroom to the work place during the 1980s through the early 2000s. By decomposing transition matrices into propensity to move and rate of separation and estimating duration matrices, the authors follow young people’s movements between school and work and between employment sectors to better understand the dynamics of youth employment, including where youth go upon leaving school, how long they spend in each state, and where they go upon leaving various employment states. The main conclusion of the study is that young people across all three countries follow a similar trend over their life cycle: they leave school to spend a short time in the informal sector, move to a formal position for longer spells, and finally become self-employed. The authors find evidence of decreasing segmentation between formal and informal sectors as workers age, a lower propensity for formal sector employees to return to school than workers in the same age cohort who are not in the This paper is a product of the Children and Youth Unit, Human Development Network. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://econ.worldbank.org. The author may be contacted at Wcunningham@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its
). Columns 4-6 in Panel B show that the results are not significant for international reforms. Columns 8-9 in Panel show that domestic reforms are associated with reform chatter in democracies, though the result in Column 7 is not significant when using the democracy index.

The attitudes towards reform presented in Table A21 are associated with actual reform. In Panel B, columns 1-3 reveal that there is no heterogeneity alongside polity. These results suggest that reform attitudes are associated with actual reforms—when considering intensity of reform chatter the association with actual reform holds more in democracies.

15
city (Berdegué & Soloaga, 2018; Ganning, Baylis, & Lee, 2013). In this case, we would move towards a “system of systems” approach. However, there is no clear agreement about how to define polycentric systems and the existing empirical evidence is at best fragmented and disjointed (Hoyler, Kloosterman, & Sokol, 2008), suggesting an area ripe for further investigation. There is an array of methods and indicators to capture polycentric city–regions, including city size, commuter data, retail trade patterns, firm dynamics, and changes in economic profiles and ICT. Such approaches can be augmented by expanding the standard URCA approach to help identify polycentric systems and to provide comparable global data. Capturing the polycentricity of urban systems would require changing the prioritization algorithm in the URCA approach to identify a primary and a secondary urban center of reference. The hierarchy of urban places can be differentiated not only by their size but by the number and order of the functions offered by them, or the price of services and goods.

Designing more realistic polycentric regions at global scale can simulate the evolution of urban systems for government investments such as in infrastructure (e.g., building a road from a city to a rural area may change the “city of reference” for that rural area). In turn, applying the rural–urban continuum can better target which rural areas will benefit the most and promote efficient infrastructure placement.

_Food systems along the rural-urban continuum_ One spin-off of city–regions is city–region food systems (Blay-Palmer et al., 2018; Forster et al., 2015), which generally describe how urbanization affects food systems (Seto & Ramankutty, 2016).

> 6 See Parr (1973) for a review of the growth poles literature.

15
ECCAS’S INFRASTRUCTURE: A REGIONAL PERSPECTIVE Corridor performance varies across Africa (table 2.1). Teravaninthorn and Raballand (2009) found that transport corridors in Central Africa perform significantly worse than the rest of Africa and are well below global standards. Only half of the regional road corridors are in good condition—significantly less than other parts of Africa—and trade density is lower. The implicit velocity of freight (when stops and delays are factored in) is only 6.1 kmph, similar to what is found in West Africa. Road freight tariffs, at $0.13 per tonne-km, are among the highest in the world. For example, transport prices on the Douala to Ndjamena route are three times higher than in Brazil and almost two times the cost of moving from Lusaka to Durban.

The Logistics Performance Index (LPI) from 2010<sup>1</sup> indicated that West and Central Africa performed slightly better than East Africa, which as of 2010 had amongst the worst trade logistics record in the world.<sup>2</sup> The LPI results revealed that transporters on trade corridors in Central (and West) Africa operated under regulatory systems that negatively impacted productivity and imposed additional burdens on landlocked countries.

Similar to West Africa, high road freight charges and very poor transport quality are in large part due to the cartelization of a trucking industry that operates in a highly restrictive regulatory environment. The strong presence of freight bureaus and transport associations influences the market and prevents truck operators from contracting with customers directly. Analysis of cost information provided by trucking firms indicates that the high road freight charges in the region are not attributable to higher costs but rather to larger profit margins made possible by limited competition within industry cartels. In the United States, freight transport prices average around $0.04 per tonne-km, compared with $0.11 per tonne-km along the Douala- Ndjamena corridor (USITC 2009).

The regulatory framework is based on market sharing and the centralized allocation
recreation index covers visits to restaurants, cafes, shopping centers, theme parks, museums, libraries, and movie theaters. For example, during wave I of the Future of Business survey, on May 23rd 2020, globally, retail and recreation has a mean of -38, suggesting a 38 percentage point drop relative to pre-pandemic baseline levels for the 50 countries in the sample. In wave 6 of the FoB survey, on October 28th 2020, retail and recreation has a mean of -21, suggesting a 21 percentage points drop relative to pre-pandemic baseline levels.

> 20The analysis for this paper includes countries with at least 100 male and female observations.

12
(2002) find that female college students have been shown to have less knowledge and willingness to learn about personal finance topics than do male college students.

Although FinScope only surveys adults, financial literacy among youth in developing countries may be a potential area of concern, based on InterMedia (2010) and similar studies in other regions. InterMedia (2010) reports the results of nationally representative surveys of youths aged 15-24 in Ghana and Kenya on their access to financial information. It predictably finds that older youths (aged 20-24) have more access to financial information than younger youths (aged 15-19), make greater use of financial services, and are more likely to be the sole financial decision makers in their household. Female and low income youth are also less likely to have access to banking services.

In Kenya, they find a correlation between use of financial services (such as having a bank account) and exposure to financial information. Radio, followed by word of mouth from friends and family members, is the most common source of financial information, although urban youth also have greater access to television and other media. A higher proportion receives information on money transfers and mobile financial transactions than on borrowing, saving, or bank accounts. In Ghana, youth apparently have greater difficulty accessing financial information. Awareness of mobile financial transactions is particularly low compared to Kenya, though this is unsurprising as mobile banking was only introduced in Ghana after the survey period. The collection of similar information in other countries could help to improve the design of financial education programs targeted towards youth, some of which are discussed in the Section III.

# **_Financial literacy is associated with higher educational attainment and income_**

Lusardi and Mitchell (2011b) find that those with lower educational attainment (e.g. lacking a high school degree) in the U.S. are less likely to answer questions correctly, and also more likely to say they don’t know the answer. This pattern is found in all countries. At the
the Indian government has made a strong commitment to eliminating open defecation through its SBM scheme. Despite a staggering program cost of US$9.3 billion, the largest share of which - 97 per cent in Financial Year 2015-2016 - has been used to cover the programme’s subsidy component (Kapur and Deshpande, 2018), the subsidy is not universal. It is targeted at the most vulnerable of the approximately 600 million people who defecate in the open in India in 2015 (WHO/UNICEF), which in turn makes up 60% of the world population that open defecates.

Micro-credit on the other hand, has experienced phenomenal growth in terms of geographical spread and number of households reached across the developing world and particularly in India. The National Bank for Agriculture and Development alone reported linking over 11 million families to credit through their micro-finance program in 2018. At the same time, micro-credit has been shown to yield positive impacts on health investments (Devoto et al., 2012; Tarozzi et al., 2014; Yishay et al., 2017; ACGMS 2019) leading to international agencies such as the World Bank and USAID calling it a promising solution to (help) tackle the ‘sanitation challenge’. However, despite growing policy interest in such models, at present there is no evidence available on how and to what extent micro-credit can supplement standard health subsidy programs.

In addition to the exogenous variation in access to sanitation loans and their simultaneously introduction with the SBM subsidy scheme, we have access to a combination of unique data sources, allowing us to address this policy relevant question. In particular, we make use of (i) official household level government administrative data on subsidy eligibility, receipts and toilet uptake, (ii) independently collected survey data which include detailed information on households’ sanitation infrastructure and behaviour as well as information on borrowing, (iii) administrative MFI data on sanitation loan uptake from the micro-finance institution providing the newly introduced sanitation loan product as well as official administrative credit bureau data on
to the verbal MBDC data or by directly asking individuals of their numerical likelihood information as did with the SPC approach, equation (2) can be estimated for each individual.

The estimation model can be constructed as follows: Pij = 1-F(tij) + λi (3) where λi is an error term with a mean of 0 and a standard variance of <sup>2</sup> .  can be constant for a respondent i, but different for different respondents. Pij is a dependent variable, which is the uncertainty answer given by a respondent i at price j. Pij takes values between 0 and 1, and can be viewed as a continuous variable. tij is an independent variable, which corresponds to the bid price proposed in the questionnaire, and tij is also a continuous variable.

10
|||
|Household Size|7.25|7.|39|7.59|7.52|
|**Asset Ownership**||||||
|Refrigerator|16.7%|22.|7%|25.9%|20.1%|
|TV|40.5%|49.|2%|52.2%|48.0%|
|Bicycle|12.4%|13.|7%|13.6%|12.3%|
|Motorcycle|21.3%|20.|7%|18.2%|20.7%|
|Car|9.4%|10.|8%|11.9%|10.7%|
|WashingMachine|13.0%|17.|7%|19.1%|15.4%|
|Vacuum Cleaner|7.1%|9.2|%|9.6%|7.7%|
|Small livestock|33.6%|31.|4%|30.5%|34.3%|
|Large livestock|44.2%|39.|4%|38.7%|42.8%|
|**Dwelling Characteristics**||||||
|Roof material: Concrete|22.5%|27.|7%|29.1%|25.1%|
|Wall material: Concrete|20.3%|25.|6%|27.2%|22.1%|
|No Toilet|10.5%|6.3|%|5.2%|7.8%|

_Source: World Bank estimations using IE-LFS households surveys and AMWS rounds. Note: *Includes households that participated in both the IE-LFS 2019 and the AWMS R3. Shows characteristics at baseline using the
a stock to spawn at least once in their life (Wallace and Fletcher, 1997; Paredes, 2014).

The regulator began implementing temporary spatial closures, called Suspensi ́ones Preventivas, in 2014. The regulator can temporarily close an area of ocean when the percentage of individuals caught in that area that are juvenile exceeds 10% (PRODUCE, 2012). The regulator exercises discretion; many instances of percentage juvenile greater than 10% do not lead to closures.<sup>9</sup> The regulator defines juvenile anchoveta as anchoveta smaller than 12 cm. Percentage juvenile therefore refers to the percentage of individual anchoveta that are less than 12 cm long.

Between 2014 and 2016, the regulator determined closures with data measured at the point of landing. I analyze the effects of the policy between 2017 and 2019, when the use of “electronic logbooks” enhanced the regulator’s ability to target high-juvenile areas. Electronic logbooks refer to software vessels use to record (“log”) their catch at sea. Beginning in 2017, the regulator required vessels to report to the regulator the location, estimated tons caught, and estimated percentage juvenile caught immediately after each fishing operation, called a “set”. Since estimating percentage juvenile at point of landing typically measures anchoveta from several sets, hours after they were caught at sea, electronic logbook data are both higher-resolution and timelier than landings data.

During my study period there are no penalties for catching juveniles or for reporting inaccurate percentage juvenile values (PRODUCE, 2016 _a_ ). The price fishers receive for their catch is exogenous and does not depend on percentage juvenile (Section V).

The regulator determines closures as follows.<sup>10</sup> An official monitors the electronic logbook data in real-time, which appear as points on a digital map. Each point is a set and the color of each point is the set’s percentage juvenile. When the official decides that the percentage juvenile values for a group of sets are too high,
Gibson, John, David McKenzie, Halahingano Rohorua and Steven Stillman (2018) “The long-term impacts of international migration: Evidence from a lottery”, _World Bank Economic Review_ 32(1): 127-147.

Gibson, John, David McKenzie, Halahingano Rohorua and Steven Stillman (2019) “The long-term impact of international migration on economic decision-making: Evidence from a migration lottery and lab-in-the-field experiments”, _Journal of Development Economics_ 138: 99-115.

Gollin, Douglas, Martina Kirchberger and David Lagakos (2021) “Do urban wage premia reflect lower amenities? Evidence from Africa”, _Journal of Urban Economics_ 121: article 103301.

Gollin, Douglas, David Lagakos and Michael Waugh (2014) “The Agricultural Productivity Gap”, _Quarterly Journal of Economics_ 129(2): 939-993.

Hamory, Joan, Marieke Kleemans, Nicholas Y Li, and Edward Miguel (2021) “Reevaluating agricultural productivity gaps with longitudinal microdata”, _Journal of the European Economics Association_ 19(3): 1522-55.

Harris, John and Michael Todaro (1970) “Migration, Unemployment and Development: A Two Sector Analysis”, _American Economic Review_ 60 (1): 126–42.

Huber, Peter and Klaus Nowotny (2020) “Risk aversion and the willingness to migrate in 30 transition countries”, _Journal of Population Economics_ 33: 1463-1498.

Imbert, Clément and John Papp (2020) “Costs and benefits of rural-urban migration: Evidence from India”, _Journal of Development Economics_ 146: article 102473.

Jasso, Guillermina and Mark Rosenzweig (2008) “Selection Criteria and the Skill Composition of Immigrants: A Comparative Analysis of Australian and U.S. Employment Immigration”, _IZA Discussion Paper no. 3564._ John, Anett and Kate Orkin (2021) “Can simple psychological interventions increase preventative health investment?”, Mimeo.

Kahanec, Martin (2012) “Labor mobility in an enlarged European Union”, _IZA Discussion Paper_ , No. 6485 Lagakos, David (2020) "Urban-Rural Gaps in the Developing
Policy Research Working Paper 6178

# **Abstract**

This paper evaluates the equity and financial protection implications of the expansion of the Green Card (Yeşil Kart) non-contributory health insurance program in Turkey during the growth years from 2003 to 2008. It also considers the program’s protective impact during the economic crisis in 2009. The authors find that the rapid expansion of the program between 2003 and 2008 was highly progressive. It led to significant gains in coverage of the poor but offered limited financial protection as out-of-pocket expenditures even before the introduction of the program had been limited. Using a specialized welfare monitoring survey, fielded in 2009, the authors estimate the impact of the program on household level health care utilization during the first phase of the economic slowdown in Turkey. Using three different estimation techniques, they find that the Green Card program had a significantly positive impact on protecting health care utilization during the crisis.

This paper is a product of the Human Development Department, Europe and Central Asia Region. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://econ.worldbank.org. The corresponding author may be contacted at meltem.aran@sant.ox.ac.uk.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent._ Produced by the Research Support Team