rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
straightforward way and therefore shift cooperatively-bargained household utility along the utility-possibility frontier away from _Uh_ to _Uw_ , leading to greater bargaining power for women within households.

# **III. Data**

The study is based on the second-round of a two-period panel of data collected in the India Human Development Surveys (IHDS), which were jointly carried out by researchers from the University of Maryland and the National Council of Applied Economic Research (NCAER) in New Delhi, India. The nationally representative survey covers all of India’s key states and union territories except for Andaman and the Nicobar Islands, and Lakshadweep.

The first round of the survey was carried out in 2004/05 (mostly in 2005). It collected information on 41,554 households in 33 states and union territories, 383 districts, 1,503 villages, and 971 urban blocks. The second survey, conducted in 2011/12 (mostly in 2012), reinterviewed 83 percent of the original households and split households (if located within the same village or town), and also interviewed 2,134 new households, for a total of 42,152 households.<sup>3</sup> Eligible women from each household (defined as women of age 18–49 who had been married at least once) were interviewed in both rounds. The second-round survey covers substantially more sets of topics on gender relations regarding women’s decision-making ability, mobility, financial autonomy, reproductive freedom, and social participation. Analysis of the effects of electrification on women’s empowerment is therefore based on the cross-sectional data of 2011/12.

The survey also covered detailed information on households’ electrification status, energy use, income, expenditure, education, health, and employment. In addition, the survey included key features of surveyed households’ villages. It is important to control for village-level

> 3 Some households surveyed during the first round split into multiple households by the time the second round survey was carried out. This is mostly because children became adults
.521|0.526|0.508|0.532|0.538|
|No. of Observations|4,587|4,587|4,587|2,925|2,925|2,925|
|No contract treated price efect|-1.557**|-1.547**|-1.601***|0.308|0.279|0.335|
||[0.013]|[0.012]|[0.010]|[0.402]|[0.421]|[0.337]|
|No contract treatment efect|||||||
|At median premium|0.029*|0.027*|0.028*|0.031|0.033|0.034|
||[0.077]|[0.084]|[0.072]|[0.173]|[0.143]|[0.123]|
|At 25th percentile premium|0.067**|0.066**|0.068**|0.022|0.025|0.025|
||[0.002]|[0.002]|[0.002]|[0.409]|[0.350]|[0.349]|
|At 10th percentile premium|0.112***|0.110***|0.114***|0.014|0.017|0.015|
||[0.002]|[0.002]|[0.002]|[0.684]|[0.607]|[0.642]|

Source: RUMiC Migrant Survey 2015 and 2016, RUMiC Information Intervention Field Experiment, 2016. Notes: The additional variables included
176|0.167|0.200|0.300|1.000***|0.455|0.333|0.400|0.383|
|Blog posts1|0.019*|0.000|0.000|0.000|0.000|0.100|0.020**|0.133|0.067|0.000***|
|Online data sources, such as<br>for instance the World<br>Development Indicators,<br>World Bank microdata<br>catalogue, Penn World<br>Tables1|0.057|0.118|0.000|0.000|0.100|0.200|0.079|0.067|0.267|0.033|
|# countries|16|14|5|4|9|3|52|1|1|33|
|# courses|59|30|9|9|12|14|136|16|17|80|

*,**,*** indicate statistically different from non-top 20 U.S. economics departments at the 10, 5 and 1 percent level respectively.

1 Data only from syllabi, not from survey responses.

30
- 45 -

# VI. CONCLUSION

We have constructed an n - period, perfect foresight, intertemporal general equilibrium model that is designed to analyze the impact on the economy of reductions in public spending. The model incorporates certain features that are important in analyzing public policy in Mexico, the country to which the model is applied. Among these features are public infrastructure that enters private production and a reservebased government exchange rate policy. The parameters of the model are estimated using Mexican data and a 3-year benchmark equilibrium is computed for 1983-85. Counterfactual simulations are then carried out, with one of the conclusions being that, depending upon the elasticity of private output pith respect to government infrastructure, it is possible for a reduction in public spending to be inflationary.

Our conclusions are highly sensitive to the elasticity of private output to public infrastructure. Since we have not estimated these elasticities, our results must be viewed as being subject to considerable doubt. If, for example, the elasticity was zero, then we would have the expected results that any increase in government spending would be welfare deteriorating. It is quite striking, however, that even with the low assumed elasticity of private output with respect to public infrastructure of 0.05, it is possible to construct examples where reducing government spending is both inflationary and welfare improving. Accordingly, we should be cautious about dogmatically suggesting reductions in public spending, and should carefully consider the coordination of the spending cuts with appropriate monetary and exchange rate policies.
17 Figure 6: The extent of government interventions during the 2010-11 food price spike

- (A) Decline in protection rates, 2010-11 (B) Increase in protection rates, 2010-11

<!-- Start of picture text --> Percent Rice Wheat Maize Percent Rice Wheat Maize<br>0 90<br>60<br>-20<br>30<br>-40<br>0<br>-60 -30<br>-80 -60<br>Tanzania Bangladesh Ecuador Nigeria Nepal Pakistan India Uganda Ethiopia Yemen, Rep.<br><!-- End of picture text -->

- (C) Change in EMDE protection rates, 2010-2011

- (D) Change in LIC protection rates, 2010-11

<!-- Start of picture text --> Percent<br>Percent 10<br>0<br>0<br>-5<br>-10<br>-10<br>-20<br>-15<br>-30<br>-20<br>-40<br>-25<br>-50<br>-30<br>-60<br>Rice Wheat Maize<br>-35<br>Rice Wheat Maize<br><!-- End of picture text --> Source: Ag-Incentives Database.

Note: Estimates based on the methodology described in Annex 6.2. Changes in the rates of protection are presented in the form: _Ti_ = ∆ t/(1 + _t_ 0), where t is the initial rate of protection (positive if an import tariff or export subsidy) and ∆ t is the change in this rate of protection. If the change in the rate of protection is negative during a period of rising world prices, countries are seeking to insulate their markets from the increase in prices. If it is positive, policymakers are compounding the increase in world prices with an increase in protection
- 9 -

customers still did not have functioning electricity meters on March, 2008.<sup>6</sup> This national figure may not appear so critical. But in some northern districts, the vast majority of households remain to be equipped with electricity meters. The progress of meter installation is significantly different across regions (Figure 3). In addition, improper metering practices, such as malfunctioning meters, falsification of meter readings and illegal connections, have been real concern.

Who do not yet have electricity meters? As discussed, the northern districts are lagging behind in this regard. By rural-urban classification, rural residents are less likely to have meters (Table 1). Based on household characteristics, it is also found that unmetered households are relatively poor; their average monthly income is significantly lower than metered households in a statistical sense. In addition, unmetered households have fewer home appliances. It seems that there is certain correlation among household income, meter installation, home appliance holding, and remoteness of their residences. Where metering is less prevalent, residents seem to have used relatively more electricity per month (see Figure 3).

> 6 There are some discrepancies in the data on the share of unmetered customers. While the ERE data come from the electricity operator and are considered comprehensive, the LSMS data are partial and can be reported wrongly by sample households. The metering share may have been improving in recent years. According to the latest 2008 LSMS data, the share of unmetered households is about 3 percent.
# Table A.6: Social integration of Albanian immigrants arrived in Greece at different age

|Albania-born arrived in Greece when|Young (_<_24)|Older(_≥_24)|Difference|
|---|---|---|---|
||(1)|(2)|(1)-(2)|
|Greek citizen|0.149|0.111|0.038|
||(0.044)|(0.033)|(0.054)|
|Ever feel discriminated against|0.522|0.489|0.033|
||(0.061)|(0.053)|(0.081)|
|Greek as language most often spoken at home|0.507|0.567|-0.059|
||(0.062)|(0.053)|(0.081)|
|Political activism (petition, boycott, demonstration...)|0.045|0.056|-0.011|
||(0.026)|(0.025)|(0.036)|
|Participate in civic organisation|0.077|0.080|-0.003|
||(0.077)|(0.055)|(0.095)|
|N|67|90|157|

This table shows average attitudes and behaviors of Albanian immigrants arrived in Greece at different age. Standard errors in parentheses. *** _p <_ 0.01, ** _p <_ 0.05, * _p <_ 0.1; Source: Author’s elaboration on the European Social Survey (ESS).

# Table A.7: Robustness check: Sport clubs and share of refugees in 1923

|Dep. var:||Presence o|f at least o|ne
security. In many island nations, climate change also poses threats to water supply and overall socio-economic stability and health risks, which may arise as climate change influences the spread of diseases. Many island economies feature large tourism sectors, and services’ contribution to GDP, therefore, disproportionately affects the economy’s development.

# 4.1. Natural disaster shock scenarios

We devise natural disaster shocks to explore the potential effects of climate risks on such a model economy. In particular, we are interested to know:

- how the severity of climate risks in the form of a natural disaster can have non-linear impacts on macroeconomic performance,

- how the presence of other economic risks (for example, shocks to trading partners, internal business cycle fluctuations, or shocks in currency markets) compounds the risks posed by climate change, and

- how fiscal policy can ameliorate the impacts of climate shocks and threshold and compound risks, in particular.

To do so, we adapt one of the World Bank’s macroeconomic models. MFMod is a structural econometric model that captures the macroeconomic income and product accounts and is capable of representing an economy’s flow of funds across sectors and for major income types (Burns et al. 2019). Similarly, the economy’s interactions with its trading partners and specific sectors (for example, the labor market or the energy sector) are modeled in detail. MFMod’s long-run behavioral relationships are derived from economic theory, while short-run adjustment to these long-run relationships is estimated empirically from economic data.<sup>3</sup> MFMod permits the forecasting of its main economic variables (like economic growth, consumer inflation, and balance of the current account) and policy implications (for example, debt sustainability). We also draw on the World Bank’s Climate Change and Development Reports (CCDR) framework. CCDRs introduce climate change via changes in hazard rates, exposure, and impacts in MFMod and analyze how these changes impact a country’s development path.<sup>
Policy Research Working Paper 9912

# **Abstract**

After the 1919–1922 Greco-Turkish conflict, 1.2 million Greek Orthodox were forcibly displaced from Turkey to Greece, increasing the host population by 20 percent within a few months. Refugees were pro-vided with farmland, new houses and schools, and were granted the Greek citizenship. This paper analyses the long-term social integration of refugees and the effect of their resettlement on social cohesion. Combining historical and modern population censuses and surveys, this paper finds that, by the 2000s, refugees display a high rate of intermarriage with Greek natives, report levels of trust in others and in institutions similar to natives, and exhibit higher political and civic participation. At the community level, places with a higher share of refugees in 1928 are more likely to have at least one sport association 80 years later. There is no impact on political fragmentation nor on crime. The historical refugees’ integration starkly contrasts with the social marginalization of recent Albanian immigrants who, unlike the former, neither spoke Greek nor had the same religion as locals upon arrival. These results suggest that early investments in inclusion policies can be effective at fostering refugees’ assimilation, at least when newcomers and locals have similar cultural profiles.

This paper is a product of the Social Sustainability and Inclusion Global Practice. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/prwp. The author may be contacted at elie.murard@ua.es.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in
sample choice. The Enterprise Surveys classify firms based on the International Standard Industrial Classification of All Economic Activities (ISIC), Revision 3.1.

> 17Recycling (code 37) is excluded from the analysis due to poor data coverage in the World Bank Enterprise Surveys and unavailability in the Exporter Dynamics Database (see Section 2.2).

> 18This figure was arrived at by restricting the sample to those firms that reported positive direct exports as a share of total sales and that also provided an indication on whether they import material inputs or supplies. Only manufacturing firms located in the 48 developing countries retained in the econometric analysis are considered (see Section 2.2 and Table A1 in the Appendix).

7
and correctly mention the nutrition component, only 60 percent correctly identified both the health and education components. Knowledge of the program components was thus incomplete in treatment villages at that time.

In such a context of sparse and coarse knowledge about the benefits of the intervention, information-sharing among potential beneficiaries is likely to have played a role, notably among the women who are the primary recipients of the transfers and regularly encounter each other during program operations. When asked, in the same operational follow-up survey, to mention the most significant changes within their communities, half of the beneficiaries reported that the program had increased the degree of cooperation among women.

For further evidence on this, we estimate the effects of spatial spillovers on those measures of eligible households’ knowledge of the different program components. Table 8 reports the estimates, which are obtained using the model in equation (1) estimated at the household-level using the October 1998 data. Having one additional neighboring program village increases by 4.5 and 8.2 percent, respectively, the share of eligible households that are aware of the education and health components (columns 1 and 2), and has a smaller and no significant effect on the share of households aware of the nutritional component (column 3).

Given the evidence of program externalities on school participation decisions presented in section 3, the observed variations of the knowledge of the education component could reflect increases in school attendance rather than the presence of peer effect among potential beneficiaries. Yet, the take-up patterns of the program discussed in section 2.2 make it difficult to interpret the evidence of the knowledge indicators of other program components (such as health benefits) as purely stemming from corresponding variations in school enrollment among program-eligible children.

# _Supply-Side Effects_

Areas with higher densities of program participants may have benefited from more efficient program operations or from improvements in the supply of education or health services, thereby helping some eligible households to comply with the schooling requirements of 26
Policy Research Working Paper 10909

# **Abstract**

This paper provides novel evidence of the trade-offs policy makers face when designing simplified tax regimes for small businesses. First, it provides a comprehensive stocktaking of the main features of these regimes across Sub-Saharan Africa: they are adopted by two-thirds of countries, but their design varies greatly. Second, it draws on administrative and survey data for a thorough examination of a specific simplified tax regime. This analysis shows most small businesses lack knowledge about design features, such as the existence of a minimum exemption threshold, but they react strongly to increases in tax rates by lowering their declared turnover. Finally, the paper presents the results of an experiment that encourages taxpayers to pay fixed amounts—a potential alternative design of a simplified tax regime that aims for a better balance of the trade-offs facing policy makers. The findings show that providing simple guidance about how much small businesses with similar characteristics typically pay in taxes can increase revenue, but this reduces equity among taxpayers.

This paper is a product of the Macroeconomics, Trade and Investment Global Practice. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/prwp. The authors may be contacted at choy@worldbank.org. A verified reproducibility package for this paper is available at http://reproducibility. worldbank.org, click **here** for direct access.

<!-- Start of picture text --> TRANSPARENT<br>ANALYSIS<br>G<br>R E<br>N<br>S<br>I P<br>Y E<br>K A<br>C A<br>R P<br>LI R<br>O E<br>O C<br>W R<br>H<br
# **3. Methodology and Data**

_This section discusses the methodology and data we use in producing estimates of the equilibrium peso exchange rate using the BEER approach._ We employ a model-based approach known as the behavioral equilibrium exchange rate to compute estimates of the equilibrium exchange rate for Argentina. This methodology (MacDonald, 1997) identifies the main determinants of the equilibrium real exchange rate and assesses exchange rate misalignment taking into account Argentina’s fundamentals. A reduced-form vector error correction model is estimated using Johansen’s (1995) cointegration procedure, from which the equilibrium real exchange rate is inferred as a function of macroeconomic fundamentals.

The equilibrium real exchange rate depends on a vector of fundamental variables, ��, as follows: Changes in the actual real exchange rate can be expressed in the following form, where θ denotes the adjustment coefficient: Combining these two equations we obtain: The equilibrium exchange rate can therefore be measured as a function of macroeconomic fundamentals via reduced form model estimation of a vector error correction model. Predicted values of the real exchange rate (smoothed using an HP filter) constitute the so-called behavioral equilibrium exchange rate, which can be expressed compactly as: ����� ������ We explore the long-run relationship between the real exchange rate and fundamentals found to be important in the literature (see Table 2). We consider a large selection of fundamental indicators representing terms of trade, productivity differentials, net foreign assets, trade openness, government consumption, active foreign exchange interventions, and money supply. Real interest rate differentials are not used because they are found to be stationary I(0). We use monthly data for the period 1980:m1 to 2015:m5 and all variables are expressed in natural logarithms. A detailed description of the data is provided in Appendix Table A.1.

We employ Johansen’s (1995) cointegration approach to estimate the BEER as follows. First, we test for stationarity and confirm I(1) processes for all
valuation accuracy, and the coverage of the potential tax base.<sup>65</sup> None of these steps is easy, but countries that want to have local governments that are both responsive and responsible must follow this hard road.

Although experience around the world suggests that there are no short cuts to successful property taxation, some countries have tried to find some. For example, area-based systems that tax at a fixed rate per square meter of land area or building size seem to be becoming increasingly popular in a number of countries around the world (Slack 2006). Others – for example, Bogotá, Colombia – have had some success with ‘self-assessment’ systems (Acosta and Bird 2005). In India, Delhi recently changed its property tax system to one relying primarily on self-assessment and unit value. Such systems may be criticized both for being less related than value-based

> 62 These conclusions are supported for earlier years by Bird and Slack (1991). This analysis is currently being updated, but even with the recent expansion of the OECD to include a number of developing countries preliminary examination of data in various recent OECD publications (e.g. Bach, Blochliger and Wallau 2009, Blochinger and Petzold 2009a, Blochinger and Rabesona 2009) suggests it is still largely valid, whether one considers only local governments or local and regional governments together.

> 63 As noted earlier, at least with respect to business property a maximum rate may be needed to prevent tax exporting and a minimum rate to discourage tax base shifting.

> 64 In countries where inflation is a concern, some form of index adjustment of assessments may be advisable. Colombia is an example (World Bank 1989).  In addition, if as may be sensible, assessment is carried out by regional or national agencies, it may be important to ensure that these agencies have sufficient incentives to keep local tax bases up to date.  Again, Colombian experience illustrates the point.

> 65 An additional important point in some countries relates to property transfer
WPS3747 This chapter is organized as follows. First, we present some features of the Indonesian economy, in particular with regards to trade. Second, we present the analytical framework developed to analyze the impact of further trade liberalization on poverty and income distribution. Third, we present and comment on the simulation results. In the fourth section, we examine some of the key assumptions made in the reference scenario and explore the impact of trade reform on poverty when these are relaxed. The last section concludes.

# **1. Economic and Policy Environment**

Table 1 shows that Indonesia’s overall openness to foreign trade is relatively high, with exports (imports) amounting to more than 37 percent (28 percent) of GDP. Not surprisingly, Table 1 also shows that trade “exposure” is heterogeneous across sectors. Indonesia’s trade appears to be concentrated in petroleum and manufactured products. On the other hand, agricultural sectors appear to be weakly “exposed” to trade, contributing very little to total exports and imports, a result of Indonesia’s export diversification towards manufacturing products. The textile and wearing apparel industry contribution to exports is significant (12.7 percent) and that sector’s exposure to trade is important, with an export ratio of 41.4 percent and an import ratio of 20.0 percent. Overall, the most exposed non-oil sectors appear to be the wood and wood products industry; the paper printing, transport equipment & metal products industries; and the chemical fertilization, clay products, cement and basic metal manufacturing industries.

Official data from the WTO Secretariat indicate that average applied MFN tariffs declined between 1998 and 2002, reflecting mainly unilateral cuts over this period (WTO, 2003). While more than 90 percent of Indonesia’s tariffs are bound, there remains a large gap between bound and applied rates (35 percentage points, on average). Almost all applied rates are _ad_ 2