rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
approximately 600 industry verticals, and for each, we calculate the share of disruptive firms listed in these verticals. Then, we match these industry vertical shares to all African firms in the sample. Firms could be linked to one or many verticals. The strategy exploits the fact that most firms are associated with more than one vertical and thus the final exposure of a firm is the combination of all the shares depending on the number of verticals the firm has. The idea is that the exposure to the adoption of disruptive technologies will depend on the industry vertical mix of every firm.

The second component of the instrument, the country characteristic that predicts the adoption of technologies, is the degree of skill mismatch in the country. Bloom et al. (2021) show that the emergence of disruptive technologies is more likely in geographies with a high concentration of skilled labor. Porzio (2023) finds that countries where skill mismatch in the labor force is high, settle in a low equilibrium of low technology adoption. We use skill mismatch data produced by ILO prior to 2010.<sup>11</sup> Mismatch occurs when the level of education of the person in employment does not correspond to the level of education required to perform their job. ILO uses a normative approach to identify mismatched workers. It is based on the educational requirements set out in the International Standard Classification of Occupations (ISCO) for each one-digit ISCO occupational group, and on the level of education of each person in employment. Three categories are possible; the first, are matched individuals whose education level corresponds to the education requirements described in the occupation; the second category is over-educated workers, while the third corresponds to workers with an education below the one required by the occupation. These three groups are computed for employees and self-employed workers. Our instrument uses the share of matched or over-educated workers among employed individuals. The idea is that countries where workers are adequately or over-skilled are more likely to have the conditions for disruptive technology adoption. Being as this
Table 11: Elasticities of trade flows with respect to distance

||_−t_<sup>_j_</sup>_θ_<sup>_j_</sup>|
|---|---|
|_j_ =_ICT_|-3.971**<br>(1.782)|
|_j_ = Manufacturing|-0.995***<br>(0.317)|
|_j_ = Retail|-1.354***<br>(0.354)|
|_j_ = Other activities|-1.189***<br>(0.178)|
|Observations|10,493|
|Firms|392|
|Survey weights|Yes|
|Origin FEs|Yes|
|Destination FEs|Yes|

Standard errors clustered at the firm level reported in parenthesis. *** p _<_ 0.01, ** p _<_ 0.05, * p _<_ 0.1 _Sources:_ Authors’ survey, Fratto (2019) for travel time.

in which travel times are included and one in which they are excluded. The increase in the pseudo- _R_<sup>2</sup> when including travel times suggests the variable has explanatory power. The resulting elasticity of trade flows to distance for manufacturing is about 1, consistent with estimates from other studies (for instance Monte et al. (2015)).

We estimate a high elasticity of trade flows to distance for the ICT sector. As a matter of fact, the answers from the survey indicate a strong geographic concentration of suppliers and buyers of ICT firms.

We use data on wages from the Labor Force Survey for the years 2000-2007. We regress the observed hourly wages on year fixed effects and individual characteristics. Finally, we include a fixed effect for each workplace location.

where _whit_ are the wages of person _h_ in workplace location _i_ in year _t_ , _Xht_ are a set
attention in the literature.<sup>4</sup> Herander (1986) was among the first to study the implications of duty drawbacks for the structure of protection.<sup>5</sup> Using the standard framework for the analysis of effective protection<sup>6</sup> and assuming that foreign and domestic goods are perfect substitutes, he identifies the conditions determining whether domestic component producers or domestic final good consumers will bear the costs of export expansion following the introduction of duty drawbacks. He finds that when domestic final good consumption is low relative to domestic component production, domestic component producers are worse off, while domestic consumers are better off with duty drawbacks. When domestic final good consumption is high relative to domestic component production, domestic component producers retain their protection while consumers face a higher price if duty drawbacks are coupled with a large final good import tariff. This results in a protection structure of escalating tariffs, which is typical for many countries.<sup>7</sup> Conversely, domestic component producers lose, while domestic final good consumers benefit if final good tariffs are lowered or completely eliminated. This results in a protection structure of de-escalating tariffs and the emergence of two-way trade.

Panagariya (1992) analyzed the welfare implications of trade reform in the presence of duty drawbacks in a small open economy with perfectly competitive markets.

> economies have used duty drawback schemes effectively, whereas in many African countries poor execution of such schemes has led to very few benefits for exporters (Hinkle et al. 2003).

> 4 In January  2004 the ‘ECONLIT’ database contained 5 articles on duty drawbacks, 1 on export drawbacks and 1 on export linkages. Considerably more attention has been given to exploring the implications of different kinds of protectionism including voluntary export restraints (VERs), ‘strategic’ trade interventions, and more recently to EPZs. The ECONLIT database contained 133 references to ‘voluntary export restraints’,  324 to ‘strategic trade’ and 48 to ‘export processing zones
7 Egypt data come from a single-round, nationally-representative household budget survey that was conducted in 1997 on 2,500 households in 20 different urban and rural governorates in Egypt. This survey - the Egypt Integrated Household Survey - was quite broad, collecting data on such diverse topics as: income, expenditures, education, employment, food consumption, health and nutrition, landownings, migration and rural credit." The sample frame used for selecting households in the survey was supplied by the Egyptian Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics (CAPMAS).'<sup>2</sup> The rural portion of this Egypt Integrated Household survey included 1,327 rural households drawn from 17 rural governorates. Of this total, 26 households were excluded because of missing or incomplete data. The analysis is therefore based on data from 1,301 rural households.

Jordan data come from a four-round, nationally-representative household budget survey that was conducted in 1997 on 5,970 households in urban and rural Jordan. This survey -- the Household Income and Expenditure Survey (HIES) -- was done by the Jordan Department of Statistics, and was not nearly as broad as the Egypt survey. For example, the Jordan HIES focused on income and expenditure data, and did not collect any data on health and nutrition, migration and (most importantly for this study) landholding. Two of the rounds -- rounds 2 and 4 -- gathered data on income.

The rural portion of the Jordan HIES included 1,451 households, and the analysis is based on all of these households.

# II b. Sources of Income

The concept of income used in this study is as comprehensive as possible, subject to the limitations of the data collected in each survey.
8 Prat and Strömberg (2005) use household surveys in Sweden undertaken during a period in which commercial television broadcasts reached progressively more areas of the country. New recipients of the broadcasts not only participated more in elections but also had more political and policy knowledge. Data limitations do not allow them to assess effects on public policies, however.<sup>3</sup> Snyder and Strömberg (forthcoming) shed light on effects on both knowledge and government effort by exploiting the incomplete correspondence between electoral districts and newspaper markets in the United States. Where the correspondence is low, the incentives of newspapers to report on legislator actions are attenuated, voters know less about their legislators and the legislators appear to work less diligently on behalf of their districts. Districts with low correspondence receive less federal funding, on average. The analysis here contributes to this work by looking at outcomes of public services rather than the distribution of welfare benefits and program funding; at media content; and at both behavioral and accountability channels of media effects.

Keefer and Khemani (2011) examine the effects of community radio access in northern Benin on the household acquisition of government bed nets and find that media access increases the number of bed nets that households report having purchased (as opposed to received for free), just as it increases household investments in education. Two significant differences distinguish that work from this analysis. First, while bed net distribution is a social service, it is more closely related to the monetary transfers that have been previously analyzed in the literature, with a significantly less complex production function than the provision of student learning. Second, the bed net analysis focuses on the effect of media access on the pricing strategies of government officials: while 3 There is a large literature, not directly relevant for our work in Benin, on the influence of political news and campaign advertisements in the US on political behavior—on voting and party affiliation in particular. Della Vigna and Gentzkow (2009) provide a recent review.
Policy Research Working Paper 8849

# **Abstract**

In many low-income countries, teachers do not master the subject they are teaching, and children learn little while - attending school. Using unique data from nationally rep resentative surveys of schools in seven Sub-Saharan African countries, this paper proposes a methodology to assess the effect of teacher subject content knowledge on student learning when panel data on students are not available. The paper shows that data on test scores of the student’s current and the previous year’s teachers, and knowledge of the correlation structure of teacher knowledge across time and grades, allow estimating two structural parameters of interest: the contemporaneous effect of teacher content knowledge, and the extent of fade out of teacher impacts in earlier grades. The paper uses these structural estimates to understand the magnitude of teacher effects and simulate the impacts of various policy reforms. Shortfalls in teachers’ content knowledge account for 30 percent of the shortfall in learning relative to the curriculum, and about 20 percent of the cross-country difference in learning in the sample. Assigning more students to better teachers would potentially lead to substantial cost-savings, even if there are negative class-size effects. Ensuring that all incoming teachers have the officially mandated effective years of education, along with increasing the time spent on teaching to the officially mandated schedule, could almost double student learning within the next 30 years.

This paper is a product of the Development Research Group, Development Economics and the Education Global Practice. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank. org/prwp. The authors may be contacted at dfilmer@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less
functional domains (seeing, hearing, walking, cognition, communication, and self-care), or a lot of difficulty in (or unable to do) one or more of the domains.<sup>1</sup> The 2006 VHLSS shows that the fraction of pupils aged from 6 to 17 who have at least a mother or a father with disabilities is around 5.8 percent (Table 1). Older children are more likely to have parents with disabilities. This is because older children tend to have older parents and people are more likely to become disabled as they get older. Table 1 also shows there is a negative correlation between disability and household welfare. People who have higher education and consumption are less likely to have disabilities.

Table 1 also presents the schooling rate of children with parents having a disability and children with parents not having disability. There is a large difference in the schooling rate between these two groups of children. Children with disabled parents have a lower school enrollment rate (73.1 percent) than other children (85.6 percent).

Interestingly, girls have a higher proportion of education enrollment than boys. Among children whose parents have disabilities, the schooling proportion for girl was 77.5 percent, which is much higher than the proportion of 68.4 percent for boys.

The gap in education between children with and without a disabled parent is largest for children aged from 15 to 17, which is the age for upper-secondary school. This gap in education tends to be larger for disadvantaged groups such as rural children, ethnic minority children, children living with a household head of low education degree, and poor children. For example, in the lowest expenditure quintiles, children whose parents have disabilities have an enrollment rate 14 percentage points lower than children whose parents do not have disabilities.

Among children in school, those with disabled parents also have worse educational performance. However, this difference is not very large. Table 2 shows that the fraction of pupils achieving excellent academic
Table 1. Indicators Quantifying Supply Chain Disruptions

|Surveys of supply chain<br>professionals|Purchasing Managers’ Index and components (IHS Markit, S&P), see section 5|
|---|---|
|Tracking, Schedule Data|**Global Supply Chain Stress Index (GSCSI)**<br>Schedule reliability (Sea Intelligence), see section 5<br>Ocean TimelinessIndicator<sup>1</sup> (Flexport)|
|Meta indicators|Global Supply Chain Pressure Index (FED New York), see section 5<br>SupplyChain StabilityIndex,<sup>2</sup>KPMG|

Source: Authors.

The current working paper informs the underlying methodology and use cases for the GSCSI, which belongs to the second category of indicators. The rest of the working paper is organized as follows: The next section (2) expands the stress index's conceptual framework. Section 3 explains how the index is derived from AIS tracking data, while Section 4 describes real use cases. Section 5 compares the proposed stress index with other indicators developed by the private sector or governmental institutions. Section 6 proposes a rate model in accordance with observed patterns of rate hikes in times of disruptions, and Section 7 concludes.

# **2. Conceptual Framework and Data Sources**

A stress index attempts to quantify deviations from a norm, which is the typical steady state in which a system operates. The greater the deviation, the more likely the system is to experience stress. However, some level of deviation is expected due to unforeseen events such as a storm or a break in equipment, so only large deviations are considered indicative of stress. Others are a variability in regular operations. A specific threshold for the standard deviation needs to be defined to determine when a deviation is significant enough to indicate stress. Global demand for container shipping has seasonal patterns, with a marked low in February. While disruptions typically have no seasonal patterns, the
Temporary spatial closures are a type of “dynamic ocean management” in that they vary over space and time and are updated by the regulator in response to real-time data (Lewison et al., 2015; Maxwell et al., 2015). Dynamic ocean management is different from more traditional management approaches, like marine protected areas, which are time-invariant, and seasonal closures of an entire fishery, which are space-invariant. Dynamic ocean management is designed to reduce fishing in the areas and times where fishing is likely to cause ecologically undesirable outcomes. But it does not need to cover as much space-time as more traditional management approaches because it only targets relevant areas and times. For these reasons, simulations of dynamic ocean management find it can achieve the same ecological objectives as more traditional management approaches at a lower economic cost (Dunn et al., 2016; Hazen et al., 2018; Pons et al., 2022).

The same win-win idea motivates temporary spatial closures. By allowing fishing to continue in most places, temporary spatial closures could reduce juvenile catch while minimizing the cost of the policy to fishers. If temporary spatial closures cause fishers to search for new fishing grounds, they could reduce juvenile catch because there is substantial variation in relative juvenile abundance across space. This variation occurs because schools of fish tend to be age-segregated (i.e., each school of anchoveta contains mostly juveniles or mostly adults). The regulator believes the closures policy reduces total juvenile catch. They calculated that the 174 closures during the first and second season of 2017 and the first season of 2018 protected 1,049,411 tons of juvenile anchoveta (PRODUCE, 2017 _a_ , 2018 _c_ , _b_ ).<sup>13</sup>

# **II Data**

The recent emergence of vessel-level GPS data has enabled researchers to predict when and where vessels are fishing at a global scale (Kroodsma et al., 2018). These new data, made publicly available by the organization Global Fishing Watch, have
we use the inflation adjusted historical oil prices (in US dollars). For identification of equation (2), we use the diplomatic exchange, which is the diplomatic representation of each country of destination of Egyptian migrants in Egypt at time of migration. It is a dummy variable equal zero if there is no evidence of diplomatic exchange and is equal one if there is evidence of diplomatic exchange at the level of charg ́e d’affaires, minister, ambassador or other. For identification of equation (3), we use the number of active armed conflicts that is both country and year specific from the Uppsala Conflict Data Project (UCDP). Equation (4) estimates the effect of illegality on the logarithm of hourly wages, conditional on return migration. The predicted logarithm of hourly wages for illegal and legal migrants are reported in the last row.

39
*<br>(0.001)|-0.004**<br>(0.001)|
|Policy Variable|-0.013<br>(0.022)|0.003<br>(0.010)|0.005***<br>(0.001)|0.069<br>(0.295)|0.014**<br>(0.007)|0.005<br>(0.004)|
|Exits|61|61|45|61|61|61|
|Spells|74|74|54|74|74|74|

_Notes_ : All models include region FEs, the US real interest rate, the log of initial GDP, and a constant. The standard errors are clustered at the country level to account for repeated spells.<sup>_∗_</sup> _p <_ 0 _._ 1,<sup>_∗∗_</sup> _p <_ 0 _._ 05,<sup>_∗∗∗_</sup> _p <_ 0 _._ 01 _Source_ : Authors’ analysis based on data from the Penn World Tables version 9.0 (series _rgdpna/pop_ ). The policy variables are computed using data from the PWT version 9.0, the World Development Indicators and the International Financial Statistics. Additional data come from the Polity IV project, Desmet et al. (2012), and the Federal Reserve Economic Data (FRED) database.

The relationships reported here survive many other sensible tests. They are robust to ( _i_ ) using different bootstrap techniques, ( _ii_ ) varying the interbreak period, ( _iii_ ) using longer time series, ( _iv_ ) adding other controls individually or in groups, ( _v_ ) changing the functional form, and ( _vi_ ) dropping individual countries one-by-one. Using different institutional indicators shows that
captured by two indicators. The first concerns intellectual property (IP) rights protection, which is proxied by the proportion of IP infringement cases won by the plaintiff in the local courts. Given the substantial monetary costs to initiate lawsuits in China, the probability of winning an IP infringement case by the IP owner is a reasonable proxy for the enforcement quality of IP rights (Ang et al., 2014). The second measure is on how well a firm’s property rights and legal contracts can be protected by the local legal system, based on firms’ responses to the following question from the World Bank Enterprise Survey (WBES): “Regarding commercial or other legal disputes, in what percent of cases were your company’s legal contracts or properties protected when a verdict was given and enforced?” The court supports the plaintiffs in most of the IP infringement cases, with over 80% of plaintiffs winning in the local court (see Panel A in Table 1). This percentage has risen from 81% in 2006 to 92% by 2013, signaling steady improvement in IP protection. Regional variations are only feasible from the WBES, which indicates that firms in coastal provinces report better protection for property rights and legal contracts than those in inland provinces (see Panel B).

Infrastructure quality is measured as follows. The first focuses on roads. By utilizing data from statistical yearbooks of China, we construct measures such as the lengths of highways and expressways for each province. Second, by using the WBES data, we construct measures of energy provision capacities (i.e., frequency of power outages) and the efficiency of telecommunication services (i.e., days needed to install a new telephone and days needed to gain access to internet services). Finally, we collect data on internet access, since internet access is found to significantly affect firms’ sales growth and productivity level around the world and is a general-purpose technology (Clarke et al. 2015).

Panel C in Table 1 indicates
proxies for the degree of monopoly power. Empirically, Harrison (1994) and Levinsohn (1993) argued that observed falls in price-cost margins following liberalization imply more elastic product demand.

In the estimations, these variables are included free standing and as interactive variables on the relevant elasticity. This provides for a more direct testing procedure than that used by Slaughter who collected the elasticities in a panel and then regressed them on various openness measures leaving unclear what the standard errors would be.

# VI. **Results**

Following Arellano and Bond, tables 1-6 present the results of the difference dynamic GMM estimations. Preliminary exploration using the Blundell and Bond (1998) systems estimator generated countertuitive results, in particular very high adjustment lags, so we remain with the difference specification (See Fajnzylber and Maloney, 2000). The variables are listed across the top of each table: lagged employment, contemporaneous and lagged blue collar wages, contemporaneous and lagged white collar wage and, for Colombia and Mexico, the industry value added. Since the Chilean data does not include industry identification in the entire sample, we exclude the industry value added term. The diagnostics reported are those of Arellano and Bond: the Sargan test for overidentifying restrictions, implicitly a test of specification, and tests for second order serial correlation.

To begin, we include yearly dummies and interactive terms on all variables, reported in the column below each variable. This is the most straightforward way of testing for structural break in the labor demand equations across time. Wald tests, both on 17