rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
on Earnings.” Pp. 1801–1863 in _Handbook of labor economics_ . Vol. 3. Elsevier.

- Carnoy, Martin, Prashant Kumar Loyalka, Greg V. Androushchak, and Anna Proudnikova. 2012. “The Economic Returns to Higher Education in the BRIC Countries and Their Implications for Higher Education Expansion.” _Higher School of Economics Research Paper No. WP BRP_ 2.

- Cheidvasser, Sofia, and Hugo Benítez-Silva. 2007. “The Educated Russian’s Curse: Returns to Education in the Russian Federation during the 1990s.” _Labour_ 21(1): 1-41.

- Clark, Andrew. 2003. “Returns to Human Capital Investment in a Transition Economy: The Case of Russia, 1994‐1998.” _International Journal of Manpower_ 24(1): 11-30.

- Dearden, Lorraine. 1998. "Ability, Families, Education and Earnings in Britain." Institute for Fiscal Studies Working Paper no. W98/14.

- Fleisher, Belton M., Klara Sabirianova, and Xiaojun Wang. 2005. “Returns to Skills and the Speed of Reforms: Evidence from Central and Eastern Europe, China, and Russia.” _Journal of Comparative Economics_ 33(2): 351-70.

- Ganzeboom, Harry B.G. and Donald J. Treiman. 2019. "International Stratification and Mobility File: Conversion Tools." Amsterdam: Department of Social Research Methodology, <http://www.harryganzeboom.nl/ismf/index.htm>. [Date of last revision: 2019/10/05]

- Gimpelson, Vladimir. 2019. “The Labor Market in Russia, 2000-2017.” _IZA World of Labor_ 2019:466.

- Graeser, Paul. 1988. “Human Capital in a Centrally Planned Economy: Evidence.” _Kyklos_ 41(1):75–98.

- Harmon, Colm and Ian Walker. 2000. "Returns to the Quantity and Quality of Education: Evidence for Men in England and Wales." _Economica_ 67: 19-35
also significantly impact neighboring countries through severe episodes of “seasonal haze”, resulting in increased air-related diseases, including acute respiratory infections (ARI) in Singapore (Sheldon & Sankaran, 2017). Forest fires can also have global impacts. For example, reductions in deforestation rates and associated deforestation fires in the Amazon rainforests, known as “the lungs of the planet”, can significantly reduce PM, preventing thousands of excess deaths (Cobelo et al., 2023; Reddington et al., 2015).

However, fewer studies have investigated the causal links between the loss of forest cover and the hydrological services they provide and human health. Empirical studies in forest science and hydrology show that deforestation can impact access to clean water through changes in water yield and quality. Although forests— especially fast-growing young plantations—may use more water than older, mixed forests and therefore reduce freshwater availability, there is growing evidence that, with proper management, forests can help enhance the resilience of water supplies (Miller et al., 2020). Forest loss upstream can also decrease soil infiltration of water and the removal of pathogen, and increase soil erosion (Filoso et al., 2017; El Kateb et al., 2013; Zheng, 2006), which can result in lower stream water loads of Escherichia coli, higher pH of water and lower stream water turbidity (Cunha et al., 2016). Such water conditions can also render point-of-use chlorination less effective especially for households in low-income countries who cannot afford expensive water treatment (Amrose et al 2015).

Herrera et al. (2017) use a multi-country database to explore the connections between deforestation, watershed conditions, and childhood DD and find that higher upstream tree cover is associated with a lower probability of DD downstream. This effect is significant for rural households but not urban ones, suggesting differing dependence on watershed conditions. In rural areas, the effect of a 30 percent increase in upstream tree cover is similar in magnitude to the effect of improved sanitation but smaller
, with two main views prevailing: (1) EU accession may result in large upfront costs of structural reforms or in reduced incentives to reform, especially for small countries joining the monetary union, as they are unlikely to affect union-wide inflation bias. Duval and Elmeskov (2006) found that indeed countries that have little or no monetary autonomy because they have fixed exchange-rate regimes or participate in a monetary union apparently undertake fewer reforms. (2) EU accession may increase the incentives for structural reforms to facilitate a market-based adjustment to shocks. Moreover, reduced costs of trading, increased mobility of capital, and greater transparency may foster pro-competition regulatory changes. In line with this second view, Dias da Silva et al. (2017) found a positive and robust link between growth and being part of the EU single market. This is actually true for many countries pursuing EU accession (see the recent report on Poland, World Bank Group [2017a]). Aligning with the second view, this study found a positive and robust nexus between EU accession and output growth that mainly worked by boosting capital deepening and productivity as a result of accession to a single market.

## **2. Database and Methodology**

# Database

This paper builds on the database developed by Lusinyan (2018), a large collection of macroeconomic variables and structural indicators for many advanced and emerging economies for the period 1980‒ 2016. The sample varies, however, depending on data availability for countries and variables.

The analysis here, in particular the baseline model (see Section 3), uses a sample of about 50 countries in ECA. The extended model builds instead on a larger set of advanced and emerging economies.

Working with a focused sample of countries ensures greater precision when applying the stochastic frontier approach (SFA) to obtain a proxy for productivity. The SFA in fact, given a sample of 5
Policy Research Working Paper 9331

# **Abstract**

Malaysia has been grappling with understanding how many foreign workers reside in the country and thus faces challenges in formulating evidence-based foreign worker policies. This paper uses micro-level remittance transaction data collected from money transfer service providers to estimate the number of foreign workers. Most foreign workers remit a large portion of their earnings to support family members back home. They are low-income earners, sensitive to remittance costs, and opt for money transfer service providers to remit money rather than regular banks, where transfer services are more expensive. Therefore, the remittance data provide a useful source to conduct the investigation. Existing estimates range from two million to five million foreign workers; our results narrow that range to between 2.99 million and 3.16 million foreign workers in Malaysia as of 2017–18. The estimated state and nationality distributions of foreign workers are consistent with the Ministry of Home Affairs data, lending support to the validity of the estimates. Nevertheless, the Bank Negara Malaysia remittance data could potentially underestimate the number of workers in states with low access to money service providers and nationalities that have access to alternative money transfer mechanisms such as commercial banking and informal transfer channels.

This paper is a product of the Poverty and Equity Global Practice and the Social Protection and Jobs Global Practice. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank. org/prwp. The authors may be contacted at syi@worldbank.org or ksimler@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings,
2015 to March 2016, whereas data collection for NPHC 2014 was pursued in August/September and the UNHS 2016/17 data collection was implemented between June 2016 and June 2017.

Table 6.2 presents the comparison estimate indicators on individual and household characteristics at the national level. The first three columns show the indicators from the UNPS 2015/16 without using sampling weights (unweighted estimator), using the original UNPS weights (current UNPS estimator), and using the calibrated GWSM base weights (calibrated GWSM base estimator). The column of unweighted estimates is helpful because it indicates the different effects by which various weighting strategies act on the final estimates, thus changing the unweighted estimates.

In the last two columns, the table presents the official statistics and their source. In general terms, estimates are more accurate using the calibrated GWSM base estimator rather than the current UNPS estimator for indicators at the individual level. The share of female population and the share of children below 18 years old weighted using the calibrated base GWSM weights closely approximate the official statistics. This result is expected as the weights are calibrated using the population totals projection based on the 2014 census that we are using as a benchmark.

Regardless of the weight we apply, the UNPS 2015/16 overestimates the official “true” value of the literate population above 10 years. Although the three estimates are consistent with each other, the differences reported in the table are statistically significant because they are based on a sample of about 16,000 individuals. For such a sample size, considering a deft value(Kish, 1966) ranging from 2 to 3 (implying the deff value ranges from 4 to 9), the sampling standard deviation of a proportion varies around values between 0.007 and 0.010.

The unweighted statistic, which has a much higher value (80.7%) than the official statistics (72.2%), suggests that the non-response affects the non-literate population. For such reason, this subpopulation is under-represented in the
monotonically with economic growth, nor should they decline as rapidly with per capita income as pedestrian fatalities per VKT.

Table 2 bears this out. The table presents fixed-effects models of ln(Pedestrian Fatalities/VKT) and ln(Occupant Fatalities/VKT) estimated using data for 1963-2002 for the countries in Table 3.<sup>11</sup> Model 1 contains only the log of per capita income (measured in 1996 International $) and a time trend. The log of income enters model 2 in a piecewise-linear fashion, with each spline segment containing an equal number of observations, while in model 3 ln(Pedestrian Fatalities/VKT) is a quadratic function of the log of per capita income.<sup>12</sup> The models for pedestrian fatalities per VKT suggest that fatality risk to pedestrians declines with per capita income, at least until a per capita income of $20,700 (1996 Intl $).<sup>13</sup> In contrast, the table suggests that there is no monotonic relationship between per capita income and occupant fatality risk, at least over the range of incomes in the data. For pedestrians, fatality risk declines with income for per capita incomes between $4,552 and $20,700 (1996 Intl $), with the elasticity of pedestrian fatality risk with respect to income ranging from -0.71 to -1.1. The only income range in which occupant fatality risk declines with income is $13,165 to $16,565 (1996 Intl $), and the

> 11 Data sources are described in Appendix A.

> 12 In all specifications shown in Table 2, Durbin-Watson statistics (calculated using a STATA program (xtdw) written for calculating DW statistics in fixed effects panel data models (Nunziata (2002), following Baltagi (1995), page 94) indicate the presence of positive within-panel serial correlation in the disturbances.  Therefore, the standard errors shown in parentheses under each coefficient have been
3.5 were implemented for each of the above four variants. The results are summarized in Figure 3.6. For the central variant, reported above, an average aid level of close to US$22 per capita or close to 5 percent of health service efficiency growth is required to bring about rural-urban U5MR equality. For the variants with a large or small urbanrural service gap, the requirements are roughly US$27 or US$15 per capita in aid or efficiency growth rates of 6 or 4 percent, respectively. The figures for the variant with a large rural-urban cost gap are similar to those of a large urban-rural service gap. The important implication of these is that requirements in individual country settings would vary quite widely depending on their initial conditions. Initial country data for the rural and urban U5MR and the degree of equalizing that is targeted would also influence the magnitude of the policy and financing challenge. Better data on household use of health services and the health sector (including its cost structure) would be needed to generate reliable assessments in a country setting.

> 15 The rural-urban cost ratio was not varied downwards since it did not seem likely that it would be less than unity (as this would indicate that it is cheaper to provide health services in rural than in urban areas).

> 16 The ranking gaps were due to outcome result differences smaller than 0.1 (using the same units as in Tables A3.1 and A3.5). For the largest deviation, the gap between rankings was due to that, for the central case, the 2030 unemployment rate was 0.03 percent higher for _mdg-eq+tx_ than for _ser-eq+db_ whereas, for the case with a large urban-rural service gap, this unemployment rate was 0.1 percent higher for _ser-eq+db_ than for _mdg-eq+tx_ .

18
The scoring for Kenya is described below. It is based on the results of the World Bank Regulatory Survey in East Africa<sup>42</sup> and the World Bank Survey on Applied Policies in Services<sup>43</sup> .

# **Barriers to establishment Form of establishment Score 0.5**

Foreign service providers are required to incorporate or establish the businesses locally. There are no restrictions on forms of incorporation. **Foreign partnership/joint venture/association Score 0** No restrictions. **Investment and ownership by foreign professionals Score 0** No restrictions. **Investment and ownership by non-professional investors Score 0.5** An engineering/ consulting firm must have at least one Partner/Director registered as Consulting Engineer who has in force an Annual Practicing Licence in the specified disciplines. **Nationality/citizenship requirements Score 0** No restrictions. **Residency and local presence Score 0** No restrictions. **Quotas/economic tests on the number of foreign professionals and firms Score 1** Entry permits are issued to non-citizens with skills not available at present in the Kenya (class A entry permits for management and technical staff - horizontal measure in Immigration Act Cap 172).

# **Licensing and accreditation of domestic professionals Score 1**

Membership in association is compulsory. Professional examination, practical experience and proof of higher education are required. **Licensing and accreditation of foreign professionals Score 0.75** Foreign professionals must be registered members of the Engineers Association. Foreign professionals must be holder of a diploma, degree or other qualification recognized by the Association of Engineers of Kenya.

**Movement of people - permanent Score 0.5**

There are limits on the duration of stay; in general, duration of stay is determined on a case by case basis. **On-going operations Activities reserved by law to the profession Score 1** 42 The regulatory surveys were conducted by local consultants who interviewed the
6<br>110 6<br>100<br>4<br>100<br>2<br>90 0<br>2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018<br>1st Decile Overall CPI<br>Real Income<br>Annual CPI Change (%)<br><!-- End of picture text --> _Source_ : World Bank calculations using data from TUIK and the SILC Given the importance of labor income for the bottom half of the distribution –represents 60% of total income in 2019, we look at cash earnings among full-time only workers. Decile specific inflation adjustments are again used to account for distributional differences in changes of cost of living across income groups. Figure 9 displays changes in the real labor income of the

> 13 As mentioned in the methodology section, the deciles used in the income analysis are constructed using income information from the SILC which are different from the expenditure based deciles used in the previous sections. However, the distributional inflation rates are still calculated using the HBS.

19
possibility by examining whether transfers respond to the sexual activities performed that day or to other measures of participation in the sex market. As we discuss further in the discussion of the results, we find no evidence for this alternative.

The results suggest that the insurance provided by clients may (on the margin) induce women to enter or remain in the transactional sex market (at least in this part of Kenya). In Kenya, the alternative for young women is typically to marry (or cohabitate). To motivate our empirical approach, we lay out a simple conceptual framework in which women may either get married and earn a relatively low income but receive relatively full insurance from their spouses, or enter transactional sex to receive a higher income and rely upon regular clients for insurance. At the margin, the decision will depend on: i) the level and risk associated with each type of income; ii) the stigma, reputation, and other costs of engaging in sex work; and iii) the insurance that each choice provides against unexpected income shocks. As the amount of insurance provided by clients increases, transactional sex will become relatively more attractive and the number of women who choose to enter the market will rise.

To test this directly, we would like to have a dataset on a broad cross-section of women, and examine whether those facing the most risk (or those who are least able to cope with shocks) are most likely to enter the market. We cannot do this, however, as our dataset includes only sex workers. To provide some descriptive evidence on this issue, we conducted a survey with a separate sample of 99 sex workers in which we asked women to list their reasons for entering or staying in the transactional market and for seeing regular clients. Though only suggestive, a substantial fraction of women report that access to client transfers are an important reason for continuing sex work, and between 87 and 98 percent of women report that they see regular clients in part to access transfers. In addition
agriculture and welfare outcomes in the region|yes|5 years old and<br>above|panel|±|public|
|LFS|(a) Implementing policies for decent work, employment creation<br>and poverty reduction, income support as well as other social<br>programs, (b) Monitoring the SDGs and the living condition<br>dynamics of rural and urban households|no|10/15 years old an<br>above|d<br>cross‐sectional|yes|on country<br>base|
|DHS|(a) Monitoring changes in population, health, and nutrition, (b)<br>Providing an international database that can be used by<br>researchers investigating topics related to population, health,<br>nutrition|yes|15‐49 years old|cross‐sectional|yes|public|

Source: Based on LSMS‐ISA, LFS and DHS surveys. Table C in Appendix gives an overview of the reviewed surveys. Note:<sup>1</sup> The 2016 South Africa General Household Survey (GHS) and the 2010 Indonesia National Social Economic Survey (Susenas) are LSMS‐type surveys: they have similar objectives, cover similar topics and follow a similar approach as LSMS surveys.

LSMS‐ISA and LSMS surveys monitor most SDG labor market indicators, with time spent on unpaid domestic and care work being a notable exception (see Table 2 below and Table D in the Appendix). LFS also capture most of the SDGs but they cannot be used to monitor indicators that link employment to (household) income or poverty such as monitoring the working poor (SDG indicator 1.1.1.) or income of small‐scale food producers (SDG indicator 2.3.2). DHS, instead, only collect data on employment and occupation and can be used to monitor a few SDG indicators. All surveys allow disaggregation by age and sex.

A starting point of
application _Rosyama_ (rosyama.ru) as a means to address the problem of potholes in the city and the mechanism of keeping the local government accountable.<sup>6</sup> This mobile application allows its users to geolocate a road problem (besides potholes, it included broken rails, snow accumulation, open manholes, and persistent puddles), take a picture, and place it on the map. The application then generates a text complaint forwarded to the local Road Inspectorate (Ermoshina 2014). Ermoshina (2014) observes that between May 2011 and May 2014, 56,919 potholes were reported using _Rosyama_ digital application, and 15,966 of those were repaired. Researchers referred to _Rosyama_ and other related web applications, as ‘civic applications’ and as instruments of citizens’ legal empowerment. They were conceived as instruments for keeping the local administrators accountable for their responsibilities. Navalny’s team intended these applications as a means for generating collective action in a wider fight against corruption in Russia. Not all of these opposition plans achieved their desired ends. Some of these initiatives in the digital sphere were ‘highjacked’ by the city government.

The Russian government invested heavily in digital tools of government since Dmitry Medvedev’s presidency, during 2008-2012. The Moscow city authorities also actively developed digital instruments of governance and have invested massive resources into promoting a ‘smart city’ agenda. Its most recent strategy document, “the Smart City – 2030,” outlined the main goals and objectives of a continuing urban transformation (City of Moscow 2018). The 2018 United Nations e-government survey of 40 cities across the world ranked Moscow as a leading city (along with Cape Town and Tallinn) in using information and communication technologies to deliver public services (United Nations 2018). The major city redevelopment plans included a new system of feedback from the city residents – “Active Citizen” – an electronic voting platform deploying blockchain technology to ensure transparency and non-interference with the results.<sup>7</sup>