rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
summarize the empirical literature by concluding that ―the recent empirical evidence seems to

> 21 See Tarr and Volchkova (2007, table 1) for data on foreign direct investment flows into Russia on an annual basis from 2000-2008.

> 22 More systematically, Alessina et al. (2005) find, for a sample of a large number of OECD countries, that regulatory reform, especially liberalization of the barriers against entry, plays a strong role in increasing investment in the sector. 23 Trade or services liberalization may increase growth indirectly through its positive impact on the development of institutions (see Rodrik, Subramananian and Trebbi, 2004).  It may also induce firms to move down their average cost curves, or import higher quality products or shift production to more efficient firms within an industry.  Tybout and Westbrook (1995) find evidence of this latter type of rationalization for Mexican manufacturing firms.

37
They have higher cost ratios due essentially to higher wages. This implies that they recruit and maintain a more skilled workforce, required to develop more sophisticated and profitable business lines. Therefore, they have higher cost ratios but this is more than compensated by larger revenues and profits. They also tend to have lower ratios of loan loss provisions, which reflect better credit allocation policies and asset quality, and also contribute to their profitability. Listed banks are subject to stricter corporate governance and disclosure requirements, and these factors could be driving their better performance. These results are consistent with a recent survey of bank governance in MENA (OECD (2009)) that report the poor corporate governance of family-owned banks, especially non-listed banks, and stresses the extent of lending to close relatives and other connected parties that ultimately results in their poor financial performance.

# _Policy Implications_

As mentioned in the introductory sections of this paper, the arguments that have been put forward to justify the continuing presence of state banks include market failures resulting from asymmetric information and poor enforcement of contracts that restrict access to credit; the provision of essential financial services in remote areas (where supply may be restricted by large fixed costs); and the provision of counter-cyclical finance to prevent an excessive contraction of credit during a financial crisis.

These arguments may justify the presence of state banks in some MENA countries. In particular, the weak financial infrastructure in MENA (weak credit reporting systems, weak creditor rights) is a major factor hindering access to finance in the region and provides a rationale for policy interventions, including partial credit guarantees and the use of state banks. Ideally, these institutional and legal weaknesses should be addressed head on, and policy interventions should become more targeted and limited in volume, but in some countries it may take time to correct these deficiencies, due to technical limitations, political limitations, or both. During this period, state banks may make a contribution to access in areas such as SME finance, housing finance, infrastructure and agriculture.

At the same
br>55%<br>50%<br>45%<br>40%<br>1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009<br>First 5 First 10 First 15 First 20<br><!-- End of picture text --> Similarly, the standardized Herfindahl-Hirschman index yields a generally upward evolution, indicating declining diversification.<sup>16</sup> Figure 8 suggests an association between the evolution of the index and that concentration levels over time, where the number of products is not constant, it is necessary to standardize the index so it would be within the range of 0 to 1. Other indices used in the literature to measure the degree of export diversification include the Concentration Indices (CI), the Hall-Tideman Index (HTI), the Rosenbluth Index (RI), the Comprehensive Concentration Index (CCI), the Hannah-Kay Index (HKI), the Entropy Measure (EM) and the Diversification Index (DI). Bailey and Boyle (1971) provide a review of alternative indices and confirm that most yield comparable results.

14 A useful exercise to disaggregate the impact of prices from volumes in changes in diversification trends would have used trade date in constant values. However, this could not be attempted in this study as there are no deflators currently available in Peru by 4-digit SIC sectors.

15 The sections are aggregations of 4-digit tariff subheadings.

16 A similar exercise using the Hide-Tideman Index yields broadly similar results to those of the HerfindahlHirschman index, and is thus not reported in the body of the paper.

13
00983)|(0.0124)|
|Trade Openness|-0.175|-0.00423|-0.159**|-0.0114|-0.189|-0.0271|-0.173***|-0.00179|
|_(% of GDP, logs)_|(0.118)|(0.0493)|(0.0653)|(0.0811)|(0.118)|(0.0477)|(0.0663)|(0.0813)|
|Financial Openness|0.117***|-0.0107|0.0456***|0.0667***|0.110***|-0.0157**|0.0421***|0.0680***|
|_(Chinn‐Ito Index)_|(0.0195)|(0.00800)|(0.0106)|(0.0134)|(0.0195)|(0.00769)|(0.0107)|(0.0135)|
|_External Factors_|||||||||
|Foreign Growth|0.00450|0.00608**|0.00145|-0.000821|0.00116|0.00611**|0.000527|-0.00406|
||(0.00698)|(0.00290)|(0.00384)|(0.00479)|(0.00705)|(0.00284)|(0.00395)|(0.00487)|
|VIX Index|-0.101**|0.0108|-0.00396|-0.0941***|-0.121**|0.0102|-0.00899|-0.
sectors being distorted, the price responsiveness of supply and demand in different regions, the extent to which distortions vary across commodities and countries, and the fact that production subsidies distort only production responses while border measures distort both production and consumption.

> 1 See, for example, Anderson and Martin (2005), drawing on the chapter in their subsequent edited volume by Hertel and Keeney (2006), as well as the earlier partial equilibrium study by Hoekman, Ng and Olarreaga (2004). Hertel and Keeney’s finding that 93 percent of the global welfare cost of agricultural support programs is due to import tariff barriers to market access (using a 2001 protection database) is very close also to the 89 percent finding of Diao, Somwaru and Roe (2001) who used a 1995 protection database.
# **Table 10. Liquidity Distribution**

|Value||(In millio|ns of LE)|||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Traded|<1|1–10|10–100|100–1,|000>1,000|
|percent o|f total num|berof firms||||
|1997|57.9|13.8|16.4|11.9|0.0|
|1998|64.7|10.9|16.3|7.9|0.2|
|1999|66.0|13.4|14.8|5.0|0.8|
|2000|67.2|16.3|12.8|3.0|0.7|
|2001|69.2|15.3|12.2|2.6|0.7|
|percent o|f totalvalu|e traded||||
|1997|0.2|1.0|14.8|84.3|0.0|
|1998|0.3|1.7|25.8|64.8|7.5|
|1999|0.1|0.8|8.7|18.9|71.5|
|2000|0.3|1.6|12.3|25.4|60.7|
|2001|0.5|3.0|23.0|26.7|47.0|

Note: Source CMA (own calculations). This table includes all firms that have been traded in each year (i.e., have non-zero price in the CMA database).

25
The results from the survey conducted in Panama, as reported above, indicate a willingness to pay equal to 4% of household income.

Using a simulation model, the willingness to pay for different income groups was compared with the corresponding water bill under alternative tariff levels. The results are reported in Table 5.1.

- The first half of the table shows that, using the reference willingness to pay of 4% of household income estimated from the survey, no subsidy is required under current tariff levels, even for the poorest households. However, as tariffs begin to rise beyond current
28 _Social capital and effective public services._ Unfortunately, we do not have the clean natural experiment as in the Italian case studied by Putnam with creation of new regional governments with clearly assigned responsibilities. Tanzania since independence has been controlled by the same party which, although government is organized along provincial and district lines, has exercised centralized control over nearly all government and party activities. While there has been large emphasis on "cooperative' and 'village" level organizations these were not autonomous locally controlled organizations, but a monopoly of the party<sup>26</sup> . This means that we cannot match data on social capital to the level of government jurisdiction formally responsible for the provision of public services. Therefore any effect of social capital on the effectiveness of publicly provided services must work indirectly, perhaps through greater cooperation of villagers in monitoring the performance of government, rather than directly through the formal political apparatus.

The HRDS has data on the quality of two government provided public services, schools and health clinics. While the objective "quality' of a school or clinic is difficult to measure, the HRDS measured the subjectively perceived quality using an innovative two step procedure. Households were first asked to rank the importance to them of each of five characteristics of their local school and health clinic, by allocating 20 stones across five pictures that represented facility characteristics. Each respondent was then asked to assess the quality of their local facility on those same characteristics on a scale of one to five. From these sets of questions an social outcomes but modeling it convincingly is very difficult.

**26** In particular during the 1970s the government pursued a policy of forced "villagization" which was neither particularly well received by those affected, nor successful.
its road rehabilitation backlog**

<!-- Start of picture text --> maintenance rehabilitation<br>spending as % of requirements<br><!-- End of picture text --> Source: Gwillliam and others 2009.

<mark>The lack of road rehabilitation and maintenance has particularly damaging implications on the main north-south artery of the country linking Abidjan to Ouagadougou, which is a sea corridor of great strategic significance supporting international trade for land-locked Burkina Faso. Maintenance of the corridor has been neglected since the beginning of the crisis, and it is now in poor condition and needs rehabilitation (figure 3a). This portion of Côte d’Ivoire’s national road network is essentially a regional public good essential to support the trade of the landlocked hinterland countries , and its condition therefore has serious implicationseven beyond national borders.</mark> <mark>Rural access to roads is also a concern. According to the rural accessibility index, about 32 percent of Côte d’Ivoire’s rural population live within two kilometers of an all-season road. This percentage is</mark> 10
Bangladesh and India data). But the IGC estimates from coresident samples provide a reliable measure of the gender gap. For example, consider the estimates of father-son and mother-daughter persistence in Bangladesh (Tables 3 and 5).<sup>21</sup> Averaging over estimates for four age ranges in Tables 3 and 5, the IGRC estimates from coresident

> 21We focus on father-son and mother-daughter links as the persistence runs along gender lines with cross much smaller.

17
firm growth) to the BE but in their static response (firm productivity). We conducted an F test that all the interaction terms of the BE indicators with the foreign dummy are jointly zero.The interaction terms are jointly significant only in the regressions of productivity on Enterprise Survey indicators and Global Competitiveness indicators (the F statistic in the _Doing Business_ regression is close to being statistically significant).

_Government Protection_ . Foreign-owned firms benefit more from physical safety. This is shown in the more pronounced negative effect on productivity of the Security Costs indicator from the Enterprise Survey, and the more pronounced and positive effect on productivity of the 18
practices, and quality of materials.

# **3 Data and Descriptive Statistics**

Our main source of information is the _Sistema de Avaliação da Educação Básica_ (SAEB) provided by the Brazilian Ministry of Education between 2005 and 2017. SAEB is a learning quality assessment implemented biannually in Brazil that provides standard test scores in Mathematics and Portuguese, and collects detailed information about students, teachers, and school principals. The SAEB assessment is undertaken at the end of each educational cycle: 5<sup>_th_</sup> grade of primary education, 9<sup>_th_</sup> grade of lower secondary education, and 3<sup>_rd_</sup> grade of upper secondary education. Because virtually only primary and lower secondary education are managed by municipalities in Ceará, and are therefore part of the _RBF_ mechanism, our regression analysis is restricted to 5<sup>_th_</sup> and 9<sup>_th_</sup> grades. Importantly, to reduce the influence of gaming in our findings, note that SAEB is _not_ part of _RBF_ indicators in _Ceará_ . Instead, the RBF uses an independent state-level assessment called SPAECE. An additional advantage of SAEB is to provide unique city identifiers that allow us to explore geographic properties of schools in our identification strategy and control for city fixed effects. In 2005, only a representative sample of schools participated in the assessment; from 2007 on-wards it included all public schools with at least 30 students enrolled in the 5<sup>_th_</sup> or 9<sup>_th_</sup> grade.

The rich information in SAEB allows investigating a comprehensive set of outcomes. At the student level, it provides general characteristics such as gender, age, and race and specific household characteristics as single parenting, household size, number of bathrooms, and parental education. The teacher questionnaire asks about their level of qualification and experience in education, recent participation in training programs, basic contract characteristics, and pedagogical practices in the classroom
# 1. Introduction

The global economy has suffered two major adverse shocks to start the 2020s—the COVID-19 pandemic and Russia’s invasion of Ukraine.<sup>2</sup> After a strong rebound in 2021 from the pandemic-induced recession of 2020, global growth in 2022 slowed precipitously (figure 1). The war in Ukraine has disrupted activity and trade, pent-up demand in the wake of COVID-19 lockdowns has faded, and macroeconomic policy support for demand is being withdrawn amid high inflation.

While the growth slowdown in EMDEs in 2022 was partly cyclical, it also reflected underlying, structural weakness. Potential growth—the rate of increase of potential output, or the level of output an economy would sustain at full capacity utilization and full employment—slowed in the past decade (2011-21) relative to the preceding one in a wide swath of EMDEs and in almost all EMDE regions (Kilic Celik, Kose, Ohnsorge, and Ruch, 2023). If the drivers of current trends do not undergo major reversals, potential growth is expected to continue slowing down over the remainder of this decade.

Yet, there have been wide differences in these trends, as well as in prospects for long-term growth, across EMDE regions and these have implications for regional policy priorities. This paper examines differences across the World Bank's six EMDE regions by addressing the following questions for each region.

- How have potential growth and its drivers evolved since the turn of the century?

- What are the prospects for potential growth?

- Which policies would lift potential growth?

Contributions. Drawing on a rich body of region-specific studies and using the comprehensive new database introduced in Kilic Celik, Kose, Ohnsorge, and Ruch (2023), this paper is the first study to systematically analyze potential growth in all six EMDE regions in a consistent manner. Other major cross-country studies of potential growth have largely focused on advanced economies (Dabla-Norris et al. 2015; IMF 2015; OECD 2014) or Asian economies (ADB 2016). This paper
compute emigration stocks by educational attainment from all countries of the world. Then, we evaluate these numbers as a proportion of the labor force born in the sending country. This gives emigration rates per educational attainment.

These two steps rely on various assumptions. We distinguish the general assumptions required when all existing data are collected and the speci...c assumptions inherent to this particular release of the database (some information is estimated on the basis of survey data). These speci...c assumptions will be progressively relaxed as new o¢cial statistics become available.

## 2.1 Step 1 - Emigration stocks

International emigration data are usually not available or of bad quality. Hence, brain drain can only be captured by aggregating consistent immigration data collected in receiving countries. Information about the origin and skill of natives and immigrants is available from national population Censuses. More speci...cally, country i’s Census usually identi...es individuals on the basis of age, country of birth j, and skill level s.

6
_Ingo Borchert and Mattia Di Ubaldo_ Table 1: Construction of Policy Configurations within Policy Areas

|No Policy Area|Policy Confguration: variables<br>Share|Top-4 (%)|
|---|---|---|
|1 Structure|Liberalization approach +<br>Agreement structure +<br>Standstill clause +<br>Ratchet clause.|80.4|
|2 Scope (I)|Existence of sector-specifc chapters +<br>Existence of sector-specifc provisions +<br>Subsidies not excluded +<br>Govt procurement not excluded.|74.8|
|3 Scope (II)|Market access disc +<br>Prov on licensing, prof qual, tech std +<br>Prud carveout fn services +<br>National treatment obligation +<br>MFN provision.|54.5|
|4 Domestic Regulation|Limited dom reg discipline +<br>Mandat information requirement +<br>Mandat provision on MR +<br>Mandat reasonable admin of provisions.|72.7|
|5 Other Disciplines|Disc monopolies +<br>Prov covering new issues +<br>Disc national/resid managers or BOD +<br>Disc local presence requirement +<br>Disc tech transfer requirement.|51.7|
|6 Modes of Supply|ROO Mode3 +<br>ROO Mode4 +<br>Prov presence nat persons +<br>Prov perm employ beyond Mode4.|58.7|
|7 Accountability|Mandat publication laws +<br>Mandat appeals authority +<br>ISDS and state-to-state.|89.5|

_Source_ : Authors’ elaboration using the WB-DTA 2.0 dataset.

_Notes_ : ‘Share Top-4’ denotes the share of observations, in percent, covered by the four most frequent policy configuration.

27
average age of the student (and possibly gender). It is unclear the direction of the bias that these imbalances can induce for our estimators. On one hand, repeating and older students may perform better in test because either they already took the test or have learned the material before. On the other hand, these students already signal weaker academic performance. As a result, we control for these baseline characteristics in all of the analysis.

Another important test of the validity of the experiment pertains to differential attrition. Recall that, at check 3, the number of schools that we were able to visit was 94 (down from 101 schools included in the lottery). We use the school panel structure to test baseline characteristics differ from attritors and nonattritors and, more importantly, if there are differences between attritors across treatment status. Appendix 1 presents the analysis. The first three columns show means of key schools characteristics at baseline of non-attritors and attritors (at check 3) and the differences between treatment and control schools. Only one difference is statistically significant. Columns (4)-(6) present, for non-attritors, the differences between treatment and control status. Again, only one attribute difference is statistically significant. Finally, Columns (7) and (8) present the coefficient results from models that run each baseline characteristic against attrition status, treatment status and the interaction. We show only the coefficient of the attrition status and the interactions. None of the interactions are significant. This analysis suggests that it is unlikely that attrition at the school level can explain the results.

In summary, we see this analysis as a validation of the experiment design, despite lack of balance at the student level. The variables at the school level (the level of randomization) and teacher level seem similar across treatment and control group. In any case, we control all the specifications for a rich set of variables at the school and at the student level. Furthermore, attrition is balanced across treatment status.

# **
Policy Research Working Paper 11024

# **Abstract**

This paper empirically examines how standards and technical regulations affect export margins in three African countries at the firm level. The approach involves combining detailed customs transaction data at the firm-product level with bilateral information on non-tariff measures within a gravity model of trade framework. The findings show standards and technical regulations have no impact on the extensive margin of firm-level trade. However, they do diminish trade at the intensive margin in both the agriculture and manufacturing sectors. Small firms are more affected at the intensive margin compared to medium and large firms, and similarly, final goods are more affected compared to inter-mediate goods. Moreover, in the manufacturing sector, firms with initially higher product quality experience a reversal of the trade-reducing effect of standards and technical regulations, whereas in the agriculture sector, this effect is less pronounced for their counterparts. The results also suggest that African exporting firms face equivalent impacts in both regional and global markets.

This paper is a product of the Office of the Chief Economist, Africa Region. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/prwp. The authors may be contacted at wkassa1@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent._ Produced by the