rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
9 households with and without remittances differ systematically in their unobservable characteristics (e.g. skills, motivation, ability), because then the regression results will be biased. The approach followed in this paper is to estimate an equation for households receiving international remittances, taking into account in the estimation the selection bias. This kind of approach is based on a selection model developed by Dubin and McFadden (1984) and Bourguignon, Fournier and Gurgand (2004).<sup>8</sup> The estimation strategy of this paper is to use a three-stage model to estimate counterfactual expenditures for households receiving remittances taking into account selection bias. The first-stage uses a nested logit with instrumental variables to estimate the probability of households receiving remittances. The second-stage uses a generalization of the Dubin and McFadden model (1984) to estimate selection-corrected household expenditures with and without remittances. The third stage estimates the value of the fixed effects and undifferenced selection terms. More specifically, our estimation strategy can be developed as follows.

Our panel data from Indonesia is for two years (2000 and 2007) and this gives us certain advantages over simple cross-sectional data. For example, we know whether households have chosen to receive remittances in each of four states: (1) no remittances in either year; (2) remittances in 2000 but not in 2007; (3) remittances in both years, 2000 and 2007; and (4) remittances in 2007 but not in 2000. Moreover, some of the characteristics of our households are fixed, and thus do not change according to their remittance situation, while other unobservable characteristics change depending on how the households choose between the four states.

For example, assume that in time period 1, households can select between two states (r): (1) receive no remittances; (2) receive remittances. Once households have chosen their state, they decide their level of expenditure ytr, where ytr is the optimal expenditure for households that
the role of soft skills, and section 7 studies the role of competition. Finally, section 8 concludes.

# **2 Malaysia’s Labor Market**

Malaysia is a multi-ethnic country where Malays represent 57% of the population, Chinese represent 23%, non-Malay Bumiputera (which means ”sons of the soil”) represent 12%, Indians 7%, and other ethnic groups the remaining 1%.<sup>2</sup> This paper focuses on three of these ethnicities: Malays, Chinese, and Indians. Based on the 2020 census, 63.5% of Malaysians are Muslim, 18.7% are Buddhist, 9.1% are Christian, and 6.1% are Hindu, with the majority of Malays being Muslim.

Malaysia’s federal constitution expresses that there shall not be employment discrimination on the basis of race, gender, religion, descent, among others. Despite this constitutional decree, research has previously documented evidence of ethnic-based discrimination (Lee and Khalid (2016); Guan (2005)). Malays are also more likely to be employed in the public sector, as well as in governmentlinked corporations, while individuals of Chinese and Indian descent are more likely to be employed in the private sector (Lee, 2012). In 2022, Malays made up 77.5% of the public sector, while nonMalay Bumiputera, Chinese, and Indians made up 12.1%, 5.7%, and 3.8% respectively(Lee, 2023). In this way, the labor market in Malaysia seems to be segmented in two: a Malay-dominated public sector and a private sector that tends to be dominated by individuals of Chinese-ethnicity(Lee and Khalid, 2016).

Labor statistics also reveal a wide gender gap in employment . According to Malaysia’s 2022 Labour Force Survey (LFS, 2022), 54 percent of women are employed, compared to 79 percent for men. This gap persists across all ethnicities. The main
**_Capacity specifications can be a burden._** The Nepal Electricity Authority buys all the power produced by plants of less than 25MW, provided that they generate at full capacity at least 40 percent of time (i.e., Q40 plants). Firms expressed concern that during the wet season, unless the surplus power generated can be exported, it will be wasted, and producers will incur a loss.  Developers are also concerned that, in the absence of a larger market, the Q40 requirement means the plants cannot be designed to optimize costs.

**_Access to equipment and inputs_** for small hydro projects was perceived to be largely free of barriers. The zero VAT and one percent customs duty were considered attractive, as were the 7 to 10-year tax holidays. Only construction materials incur a duty, and the government could help small hydro firms by reducing or eliminating this as well.

# **4. Constructing a Climate Investment Readiness Index (CIRI)**

The study undertook a comparative assessment of the investment environment for grid-connected renewable energy and energy efficiency in a select group of South Asian and comparator countries. The objective was to determine whether these countries have policies, regulations, and incentives designed to attract investments in RE generation and EE, at least on paper, and how they rank when compared with each other.

The indicators selected were based on an extensive survey of literature on some of the main policies, regulations and incentives introduced by countries to attract private sector investment in RE, as well as enable greater diffusion of EE products and techniques as indicated in Section 3. The selected indicators are illustrated in Boxes 2 and 3. The lists are by no means exhaustive, but they do provide a fair indication of some of the key elements that a country needs to have in place to give a clear signal to private investors. For both RE and EE, two types of indicators were selected. The first comprised cross-cutting policies, regulations and incentives that would broadly affect the investment
the PIAAC data to estimate the returns to skills in 22 countries. Their findings indicate that higher cognitive skills (proxied using the numeracy and literacy skills components of the PIAAC assessment) lead to higher wages across all countries, with prime-age workers (ages 35 to 54) showing higher returns than recent entrants to the labor market. When they added years of schooling to the model, along with numeracy skills, their results showed that the estimated effect of cognitive skills went down by about 43 percent, but coefficients remained positive and significant.

In contrast to the literature on returns to cognitive skills, which demonstrates strong links between cognitive skills and labor market options, similar evidence on _noncognitive_ skill payoffs is relatively sparse—and it is more difficult to consolidate findings. This is largely due to the variety of ways in which noncognitive skills are defined, measured, and interpreted. In general, however, available evidence shows that noncognitive skills have small positive effects on earnings, and the

> 6 See Hanushek et al. (2013) for a brief discussion of these issues.

5
.0510***|
||(0.012)|(0.024)|(0.018)|(0.008)|(0.008)|(0.00784)|
|Firm size|0.043***|0.043***|0.044***|0.024***|0.024***|0.0190***|
||(0.002)|(0.001)|(0.001)|(0.0006)|(0.0006)|(0.000740)|
|Year||Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|
|Sector||Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|
|Occupation|||Yes||||
|Region|||Yes||||
|Worker||||Yes|Yes|Yes|
|Observations|147943807|147943807|147943807|137063393|137063385|109720650|
|R-squared|0.410|0.489|0.562|0.910|0.910|0.916|

_Note:_ This table reports worker-level regressions where the dependent variable is the logarithm of the hourly wage. Firm size is measured as employment. The inclusion of fixed effects for year, sector (4-digit CNAE code), occupation (2-digit CBO code), region, and worker is indicated at the bottom of the Table. Data from RAIS, 2016-2020. Robust standard errors clustered at the firm level in parentheses. Significance levels: * 10%, ** 5%, *** 1%.

24
husbands (see</mark> table A <mark>2 in the appendix).</mark>

**Figure 5: Observed and simulated labor market status proportions**

<!-- Start of picture text --> Males without children Males with children<br>100% 100%<br>90% 90%<br>80% 80%<br>70% 70%<br>60% 60%<br>FT FT<br>50% 50%<br>40% PT 40% PT<br>30% UE 30% UE<br>20% NP 20% NP<br>10% 10%<br>0% 0%<br>Females without children Females with children<br>100% 100%<br>90% 90%<br>80% 80%<br>70% 70%<br>60% 60%<br>FT FT<br>50% 50%<br>40% PT 40% PT<br>30% UE 30% UE<br>20% NP 20% NP<br>10% 10%<br>0% 0%<br><!-- End of picture text --> _Source:_ Author’s calculations based on 2017 UNDP-WB-EC Roma Regional Survey.

_Note:_ Abbreviations: FT= employed full-time; PT= employed part-time; U= unemployed; NP= non-participant. Each bar represents the proportion of husbands and wives on each labor market state.

# **<mark>The policy that induces more wives to participate at higher rates in the labor market is increasing</mark>**

**<mark>Roma husbands’ and wives’ wages.</mark>** <mark>The nonparticipation rates of wives are magnitudes lower than</mark>

27
The Government of Chad subscribes to this logic as evidenced by the application decree of Chad’s Asylum Law signed in 2023,<sup>1</sup> and the National Response Plan to the Impact of the Sudanese Crisis which is under preparation. The Law and the Plan promote the local integration of refugees, aim to avoid settling refugees in permanent camps and promote self-sufficiency. They offer refugees the right to own land, to engage in formal employment and commercial activities, to move freely, and to access to banking services. While participation is the stated policy objective, the reality is that previous arrivals are almost exclusively living in camps, and that the new arrivals live in <mark>“organized sites” (as humanitarians now call them), presumably to cope with massive arrivals but with little concrete evidence for the onward movement of refugees.</mark> This note explores the size of this four-way benefit (for refugees, hosts, the Chadian state and the international community) by estimating how much could be saved on aid for basic needs consumption by enabling refugees from Sudan to realize their economic potential.

For its empirical work the note draws primary on data from the ECOSIT4 survey.<sup>2</sup> In 2018–19, Chad became one of the first countries in Africa to capture refugees and host communities in its national household survey. The Refugees and Host Communities Household Survey expanded the national Household Consumption and Informal Sector Survey to include a representative sample of refugees and host communities, including Sudanese and host communities located in the east of the country.

The remainder of this note is organized as follows. Section 2 presents a short discussion of the literature on the economic participation of refugees. Section 3 compares the characteristics of newly arrived refugees from Sudan with previous arrivals for whom survey data is available, to find that both groups are highly comparable. Section 4 uses the existing data to explore how the basic needs refugees are covered from own-income. Sections 5 and 6 dig deeper by
households allows La Positiva to utilize local microcredit institutions (known as _cajas_ ) to offer the insurance tied to loans, particularly focusing on multi-year loans.

This program has led to a change in thinking regarding potential opportunities for “forecast index insurance.” In terms of El Niño events, there are opportunities to expand coverage to parts of Africa, Asia/Pacific, and the Americas where it affects seasonal patterns of rainfall and temperature. However, concerns still remain as to how this initiative will address issues related to moral hazard and potential adverse selection, as there is little information about what form the payments are to be made in and little explicit regulation of how the insured will be monitored in the use of their payouts. Either way, this program offers a unique solution to disaster mitigation (Cavanaugh, Collier and Skees, 2010).

_Initiative on protecting against flooding in Vietnam._ Flooding is clearly a major agricultural concern in developing countries. However, flooding does not uniformly affect agricultural productivity in a region (some farms may be flooded while others unaffected). Crops are also impacted at different levels of severity based on when the flood occurs in relation to the crop’s lifecycle, with crops being more vulnerable during certain stages, such as flowering. This leads to challenges when constructing index based flood insurance programs for developing countries.

In Vietnam, GlobalAgRisk has developed rice production insurance that has been structured similarly to business interruption insurance. The contract is intended to be purchased by the Vietnam Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (VBARD). This bank lends to rice - farmers against a pre-defined early season flooding event. This contract would help VBARD protect its portfolio from different business interruption costs such as when client farmers seek loan restructuring after early flooding. The contract would be underwritten against recorded water levels at a main river gauge station, using this data as a proxy for flood damage. This assumes the existence of a reliable and consistent river gauge system in the different regions, a potential issue moving forward. This project
of education on climate outcomes and propose approaches.

<mark>The broader relationships between economic development and environmental outcomes have been a topic of enquiry for researchers for a long time. The seminal paper by Grossman and Krueger (1995) was among the first to study this relationship using a global dataset. Using panel data (19771990) on four environmental indicators (urban air pollution, the state of the oxygen regime in river basins, fecal contamination of river basins, and contamination of river basins by heavy metals), the authors find that environmental outcomes initially worsen with increasing per capita GDP but eventually witness a U-shaped recovery as incomes increase above a critical threshold. The authors suggest that as countries prosper economically, their citizens demand better environmental conditions, thus improving environmental standards. The study validated the presence of the Environmental Kuznets Curve and was followed by further research to replicate and extend the</mark> initial findings (see Goklany 1999; Panayotou 1995).

<mark>A later cross-sectional study by Jha and Murthy (2003) also highlights a similar relationship. The authors construct a composite environmental degradation index (EDI) for 174 countries using six indicators of environmental degradation or pollution and identify its relationship with the Human Development Index (HDI). The study suggests an inverted N-curve that indicates that countries with high levels of development and lower values of HDI rank contribute more to environmental degradation while mid-ranking countries have the least levels of environmental degradation. Similarly, the paper by Dogan and Inglesi-Lotz (2020) considers how changes in economic</mark> <mark>2</mark>
>65<br>60 50<br>55<br>40<br>50<br>45<br>30<br>40<br>35 20<br>10<br>GLOBAL AFME LATAM<br>0<br>EUROPE ASIA GLOBAL AFME LATAM EUROPE ASIA<br>Source: IIF Lending Survey 2013Q1 Source: IIF Lending Survey 2011Q4<br><!-- End of picture text --> 21
renewable<br>energy systems do not result in a reduction of<br>electricity use, rather it increases electricity use.|
|Inoue and<br>Matsumoto (2019)|<br>A conditional demand analysis is<br>used based on micro-level data from<br>the National Survey of Family<br>Income and Expenditure in Japan.|<br>Although EE of home appliances significantly<br>improved after the implementation EE program<br>(Top Runner), households began spending more<br>electricity on space cooling and food preservation.|
|Opoku et al.<br>(2019)|<br>Technical data from a national<br>survey is analyzed to study EE of<br>ACs used in the offices of public and<br>commercial buildings in Ghana.|<br>The estimated annual electricity savings potential is<br>260 GWh in 2020 and 1,770 GWh in 2030; and<br>savings of US$1.96 billion during 2018-2030 using<br>more efficient inverter ACs instead of ACs<br>currently in use.|
|Roberts et al.<br>(2019)|Financial analysis is used for PV<br>solar and battery storage system in 5<br>Australian apartments.|<br>There is a financial benefit to deployment of<br>embedded networks with combined solar and<br>battery storage systems for apartment buildings.<br>The cost of these measures ranges from 400 – 750<br>AUD per kWh for embedded networks as compared<br>to 750–1000 AUD per kWh for individual<br>household system.|
|Papadopoulos et<br>al. (2019)|Simulation-based multi-objective<br>optimization is used to fine-tune<br>HVAC setpoints of office buildings<br>in7 climatezones across the US.|<br>Locations with mild climates, such as San<br>
3 suppliers, constituting the type of spillovers that is economically more important in most developing and emerging host economies than spillovers within a single industry.

Another important feature of the survey is that, by focusing on backward linkages, it provides an opportunity to examine empirical evidence from different research strands that are normally not covered in the same survey (Jordaan 2016). In particular, empirical research in the fields of development studies and economic geography, usually based on case studies or small-scale purposebuilt surveys, often provides detailed information on the scale and nature of linkages between MNC affiliates and local suppliers (see, for example, Ivarsson and Alvstam 2010; Jordaan 2017). Research in the fields of economic development and international economics is characterized by the use of large firm-level data sets to identify the scale and nature of productivity spillovers, in the form of statistical associations between the presence of MNC affiliates and productivity of domestic firms in industries that supply inputs (see, for example, Javorcik 2004; Blalock and Gertler 2008). In combination, these research strands provide a particularly rich set of empirical findings that allow us to study drivers of the extent and nature of backward linkages and their spillover impacts.

The findings of the survey provide new insights and recommendations for the public policy choices that host economy governments are facing. This is important, as they often dedicate considerable resources to attract MNC investments, facilitate the operations of MNC affiliates, and help domestic firms create supply linkages with foreign firms. Host economy governments are searching for new policy measures, in line with the growing acceptance of the notion that restrictive and interventionist policies aimed at influencing the behavior and impact of MNC affiliates are ineffective and often create detrimental economic effects (Battat, Frank, and Shen, 1996; Stone, Messen and Flaig, 2015). Instead, governments need to design and implement a variety of “soft” (Harrison and Rodriguez-Clare 2010) or “light-handed” (Taglioni and Winkler 2016) industrial policies, within the context of creating and facilitating open and liberalized
_Experience of Investing Coalition._ We construct an investor experience measure by (1) calculating for each individual investor<sup>15</sup> the cumulative number of years that it has been involved in each of its projects for each period, (2) summing each investor’s cumulative experience across all projects in a given country for each period, (3) multiplying the resulting figure for each investor by its equity stake in a given project, and (4) summing the resulting figure for all investors in a given investor coalition. Our investor experience variable is thus an equity-weighted measure of the country-specific experience of each investing coalition.

_Other Independent Variables_ . We also include the _per capita_ income of the country to measure a country’s level of economic development. We expect that, independent of our arguments about legitimacy, the material interests of consumers and private investors in poorer countries are more divergent, leading to a greater incidence of policy changes and disputes. We also include a variable measuring the size of a generating facility (in megawatts) to capture its visibility or political salience. Both of these variables are logarithmically transformed to take into account their extreme skewness. Table 5 provides descriptive statistics and a correlation matrix.

# **_4.5 Modeling Procedure_**

We estimate the effects of independent variables on the occurrence of a dispute or wholesale policy change using an event history analysis, a technique that assesses the influence of a set of covariates on the incidence of an event using a longitudinal record of events in a sample from a population. In our model, each investor coalition is at risk of an adverse event in each country in which it has a stake in a power plant in each time period or until an adverse event occurs. This technique models the rate of a transition from an origin state to a destination state

> 15 Investor names were carefully screened to eliminate multiple names for the same firm as well as to take into account mergers, acquisitions and divestitures. In the latter cases,
While grant and to a certain extent linkage help explain school committee interactions, election interventions improve perceptions of school committee effectiveness, especially by teachers, indicating that the democratic election improves legitimacy (Table 11). The school committee effectiveness summary index is significantly positive for election, linkage+election and training+election, as it is for teachers‟ perceptions of school committee effectiveness. Training in combination with elections makes the effect stronger than the effect of just election alone. However, while perceptions by teachers improve, they are not echoed by principals and school committee representatives. Across all interventions, principals don't report any expansion of school

> 33 We were not able to use the variable on parents‟ perceptions of school committee effectiveness due to high numbers of don't know responses. We added the percent of parents being able to answer this question to the composite parents' awareness of school committee, and  saw no change from any intervention.

> 34 Midterm spending data indicate that on average 43 percent of the grant is used for meetings, which is the plurality of the spending. The second largest category is “other” at 28 percent, followed by 7 percent for extracurricular activities, and four percent for improving school buildings.

18