rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
For the 497 customers with EEU connections for the exclusive use of their household members, we asked the respondent whether their household was in one of three possible water supply situations: (1) private water connection from AAWSA for the exclusive use of its household members; (2) a shared connection from AAWSA, whereby the household either had primary responsibility for the collection or simply paid a share of the water bill received by the direct AAWSA customer; or (3) no AAWSA water connection. Among these customers, 76% (382 observations) said they had a private water connection for the exclusive use of their household members (and that they also had a private electricity connection). However, 16 of them did not provide ID numbers that we were able to match with AAWSA customer billing record numbers. So our final number of households with both a private electricity and a private water connection for the exclusive use of household members is 366. These 366 households constitute the subsample used for the analysis in this paper. (More details on other households in the full sample may be found in Cardenas and Whittington 2019.)

# **_Household questionnaire_**

The survey instrument had 12 sections: one on demographics, nine about households’ use of electricity and piped water services (and about alternative sources of each), and two on the household’s socioeconomic characteristics. During the survey design, special attention was paid to the collection of data on household income and wealth intended for use in the subsidy incidence analysis as well as to the matching of household data with the utilities’ customer billing records.

# **_Survey implementation_**

A total of 20 enumerators and four field supervisors were deployed for the pilot tests and survey implementation. Three pilot tests were conducted in April 2016, after which the final survey was implemented from April 26 to May 25 in that year. If a sample household could not be interviewed— 10
# **3 Poverty effects of trade policy reforms**

This section first presents the results of the general equilibrium model and then the poverty estimations obtained by linking changes in the macro variables to the household survey data.

# **_3.1 Policy scenarios_**

The Dominican Republic-Central America Free Trade Agreement (DR-CAFTA) is a recently negotiated free trade agreement (FTA) between Central American countries (Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua), the Dominican Republic and the U.S.<sup>12</sup> Central American countries have already been enjoying the preferential market access to US markets through the Caribbean Basin Initiative (CBI) program. DRCAFTA will not only consolidate and formalize these existing benefits, but also provide greater market access by eliminating remaining tariffs on goods that have been exempted from the CBI preferences. The agreement also incorporates a gradual opening of Central American markets for US agricultural commodities.<sup>13</sup> Other main achievements of DRCAFTA include the greater flexibility of rules of origin for textiles and apparel, commitments to help producers meet sanitary and phytosanitary standards required for the entry into the U.S., reciprocal commitments on access to service markets, and the institutional and legal framework to ease foreign direct investment (FDI) flows to the region.<sup>14</sup> Besides providing almost full free access to one of their major markets, the DRCAFTA agreement should assist the implementation of additional domestic market reforms, and produce significant efficiency gains due to resource reallocations toward more competitive sectors by requiring reciprocal opening. However, as brilliantly

> 12 DR-CAFTA was approved by the US Senate and House of Representatives in June-July 2005 and it has also been approved by the legislatures in El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras, while its approval is pending in Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic and Nicaragua as of writing this paper.

> 13 DR-CAFTA, however, exempts from further liberalization some sensitive agricultural products including sugar imports to the U.S.
sample of firms have fiscal year ends before Dec 31<sup>st</sup> ) suggesting that our results are not driven by timing issues related to the reporting of balance sheet information.<sup>16</sup> Second, our results are also robust to not restricting the sample to firms with all five years of data on sales or output suggesting that our results are not driven by sample selection issues associated with firms entering and leaving the database.

To explore whether our results are driven by discrepancies in official reported GDP statistics, we look at two other measures - value added in the manufacturing sector from World Development Indicators and electric power consumption. Several economists including Dobozi and Pohl (1995) have argued that electric power consumption data are a more reliable indicator

> 16 We prefer to use annual data instead of quarterly data since the coverage of firms is better in the annual Bloomberg file. However, our results are robust to using quarterly data rather than annual data.

12
The dataset is a four-round panel survey and the data collection covered the years from 1991 to 1994. The primary objective of this Kagera Health and Development Survey (KHDS) was to estimate the economic impact of the death of prime-age adults on surviving household members. Thus, the research focused on the collection of detailed socioeconomic information from individuals who resided in a household in which one or more adult family members indicated they were in poor health at the time of the baseline (Ainsworth and Semali, 2001).

The sample of households was selected from a stratified random sample of communities from the 1988 Tanzanian census (stratified on agroclimatic zone and adult mortality rate).<sup>1</sup> Within each community, the household sample was stratified according to the anticipated households’ risk of suffering a prime-age adult death. Households were divided in “high-risk” or “low-risk” categories, based on information obtained from a houseto-house enumeration of all selected communities.

Altogether, 915 households were effectively interviewed at least once over the 4 waves of the survey, and up to a maximum of four times.<sup>2</sup> Individuals belonging to the same household were defined as a group of people living and sharing meals together for at least 3 months in the last year (Ainsworth and Semali 2001). This survey collects information that makes it particularly appropriate for the purpose of our research, in particular the extensive information on household income and consumption and on individual’s health status and anthropometrics. For the present analysis, which focuses on the children’s nutritional status, we focus on the height, weight and demographic information of children aged 5 years or below and the characteristics of the households and community to which the children belong. Overall, the total sample of children surveyed amounts to 1140 different children, visited between one and four times and making up an unbalanced panel of 2871 personwave observations.

> 1Both the prevalence of HIV and adult mortality rates in Kagera were geographically concentrated, and, therefore are
accountability.<sup>15</sup> However, the MoES has recently been promoting community engagement in school governance structures through parent committees and school boards. Parent committees are composed of elected parent class representatives, and school boards are composed of two or more (depending on the size of the school) parent representatives, one teacher representative, a student representative, a community representative and a RED representative. Parent class representatives are elected by the parents of pupils in their respective classes at the beginning of the school year. They, then, elect representatives from amongst themselves to the school boards.

While school boards have always existed, they have recently been given greater responsibilities for school governance. The main functions of the School Board are to examine and approve (by voting) the school‟s mid-term and annual plans and the school‟s annual financial report. The board also has decisional power for the adoption of curricula and textbooks, as well as the school‟s budget relating to contributions from the community or other donors, or revenues from school activities. School Board

> 14 See http://www.portugal.gov.pt/pt/GC18/Documentos/ME/PISA_2009_1.pdf

> 15 The existing top-down system seems poor in terms of accountability is functioning poorly. According to our school survey, it is very common for teachers to believe that there are no negative repercussions to bad performance: about 50% indicated that they would not receive a penalty if they underperformed. Moreover, those who thought they would be penalized were unclear with respect to what kind of penalty they would receive.

7
20

|Country,<br>L<br>econowy, or<br>territory|ast olishe<br>P<br>Date|d<br>censu<br>opulation<br>(1000)*|s<br> Sourceforpopulation<br>(mid-1985)|Source for fertility<br>(1985-90, unless indicated)|Source for mortality<br>(1985-90, unless indicated)|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Guam|Apr 80|106 J|Bank projection from official<br>1984 est., UNWPVSR<br>4/87|Bank est.|Based on USBOC<br>1985|
|Guatemala|Mar 81|6054 J|U.N. 1988 revision (prelim.)|U.N. 1988 revision (prelim.)|1980-85, U.N. 1988 revision<br>(prelim.);<br>1985-90, Bank<br>projections|
|Guinea|Feb 83|5781 F|Bank projection from census|U.N. 1988 revision (prelim.)|U.N. 1988 revision (prelim.)|
|Guinea-Bissau|Apr 79|768 F|Bank projection frorm census|Bank est.|Bank eat.|
|Guyana|may 80|759 F|UIPVSR 7/86 (official<br>est.)|U.N. 1988 revision(prelim.)|U.N. 1988 revision (preli'i.)|
|Haiti|Aug 82|5054 J|U.N. 1988 revision (prelim.)|Celade printout<br>2/87|Celade printout 2/87|
|Hoty See|Apr 48|1 F|UNPVSR<br>4/87 (official<br>est.)|--|-|
|Noncdras|Mar 74|
Sergio Firpo and Alysson Portella. Decline in Wage Inequality in Brazil: A Survey skilled workers in this groups being around 20-30% larger than for the unskilled.

However, there is evidence of differential impacts across regions based on their initial basket of industries. Costa et al. (2016) uses these differences to investigate the impact of the surge in China’s import penetration and expanded demand for some Brazilian products. Using data from the Brazilian Census representative of the whole economy, they show that local labor markets<sup>12</sup> at the 80th percentile of exposure to increased demand experienced a 0.93 p.p. higher increase in average wages than regions in the 20th percentile. Similarly, labor markets in the 80th percentile of exposure to imports from China experienced a 0.82 p.p. drop in average wages of manufacturing workers. Labor markets more exposed to export shocks also increased the share of formal jobs. Therefore, if there were different impacts of the boom according to industry composition, we expect that differences in the intensive use of skilled vs. unskilled labor across these industries may result in changes in skill premium and wage inequality. In fact, as documented by Benguria et al. (2018), the industries in the commodity sector of the Brazilian economy are more unskilled-intensive<sup>13</sup> than in the tradable manufacturing sector, followed by the industries in the non-tradable sector. Moreover, the distribution of skill intensity of industries in the commodity and tradable sectors is more homogeneous than in the nontradable sector.

Ad ̃ao (2015) and Benguria et al. (2018) use differences in industry composition across local labor markets to assess the impact of the commodity boom on skill premium and wage inequality in Brazil. The first develops a Roy model in which heterogeneous workers self-select into a commodity and a non-commodity sector based on their productivity in each of these sectors. An increase in commodity prices increases the wages of both skilled and unskilled workers, benefiting more
http://gfdrr.org/docs/AssessmentReport_Cyclone Sidr_Bangladesh_2008.pdf.

- Hansen, M. C. _et al._ (2013) ‘High-resolution global maps of 21st-century forest cover change’, _Science_ , 342(6160).

Hodges, K. _et al._ (2017) ‘How Well Are Tropical Cyclones Represented in Reanalysis Datasets?’, _Journal of Climate_ , 30(14), pp. 5243–5264. doi: 10.1175/JCLI-D-16-0557.1.

IEA (2014) ‘Energy Technology Systems Analysis Programme: Electricity Transmission and Distribution’.

- Islam, S. and Khan, M. Z. R. (2017) ‘A Review of Energy Sector of Bangladesh’, in _Energy Procedia_ . doi: 10.1016/j.egypro.2017.03.193.

- Ramachandran, V., Shah, M. K. and Moss, T. (2018) _How Do African Firms Respond to Unreliable Power? Exploring Firm Heterogeneity Using K-Means Clustering_ . Working Paper 493. London. Available at: https://www.cgdev.org/publication/how-do-african-firms-respond-unreliable-power-exploringfirm-heterogeneity-using-k-means.

Rhodium Group (2018) _The World’s Second Largest Blackout_ . Available at:

- https://rhg.com/research/puerto-rico-hurricane-maria-worlds-second-largest-blackout/ (Accessed: 29 November 2018).

Taylor, C. W. (1992) ‘Concepts of Undervoltage Load Shedding for Voltage Stability’, _IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery_ . doi: 10.1109/61.127040.

US Department of Energy (2018) ‘OE-417 Electric Emergency and Disturbance Report’, pp. 1–7.

WEF (2018) _The Global Competitiveness Report 2017-2018_ . Cologny: World Economic Forum. World Bank (2016) _Access to electricity_ . Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.ELC.ACCS.ZS?locations=BD.

World Bank (2018) _Enterprise Surveys_ .

World Development Indicators (2018) _World Development Indicators_ ,
# **1. Introduction**

One of the main roles of the financial sector is allocation of financial resources to their most productive uses. Financial intermediaries play a crucial role in providing funds to the enterprise sector and stimulating its growth. To date, Egypt’s success in penetrating international markets for manufactures has been disappointing as has its low growth in total factor productivity.<sup>2</sup> Government policies distorting the allocation of resources (including the export-harming structure of tariffs and non-tariff barriers to trade as well as inefficiencies and misallocations through the public sector banks) are thought to be primarily responsible for this disappointing record; however, deficient financial infrastructure also points clearly to the need for examining the arrangements for financing the enterprise sector. Facilitating access to finance by the enterprise sector and especially small and medium enterprises should improve productivity and growth in Egypt.

This paper presents an analysis of the finances of Egyptian listed companies evaluating recent trends in growth and profitability and the effects of the economic slowdown of recent years. The data from financial statements (available up to year 2000) reveal the effect of the economic slowing of the past few years, especially in the construction and real estate sectors and especially in smaller companies. Smaller firms appear to be less profitable and enjoy lower growth, likely because of being particularly adversely affected by many of the sources of the high costs of doing business in Egypt. Egyptian firms are not very highly leveraged, on average. While this may reduce their vulnerability, it raises questions about the adequacy of access to credit. Importantly, smaller firms rely much less on bank finance than do larger ones, financing 40 percent less of their assets in this way. It is likely that these differences are even more pronounced for non-listed small and micro enterprises. This confirms the widely held view that there is a need to improve the availability of credit for small enterprises.

> 2 Non-resource based manufacturing exports account for barely 1 percent of GDP. A standard growth decomposition attributes two-thirds of Egypt’
.

For the sample countries in this review, Mauritius and Uganda designed an organized standalone transport section in their survey instruments, which can add some insights into our guidelines for questionnaire design. Annex 10 contains the transport section in Mauritius’s 2014 Continuous Multi-purpose Household Survey, which collects some detailed information on household ownership of vehicles and usage of school vans. It also includes the section of transport services and road infrastructure in the household questionnaire and community questionnaire of Uganda’s 2011/12 National Panel Survey.

This section presents two prototype modules: one includes the transport questions that are suggested to be integrated into the existing modules of education, health, and employment in the household questionnaire, the other includes the structured questions on road infrastructure

> 8 At the World Bank, this harmonized data collection can be accessed through Datalibweb by using the “datalibweb” command in Stata. Datalibweb is a data system enabling users to access the most up-todate harmonized and non-harmonized datasets of different collections across Global Practices.

19
user firms), almost all have been privatized with only 1 to 4 firms per country remaining with significant (+50%) state ownership.

Regarding road freight providers, there are 165 enterprises, with Czech Republic and Hungary accounting for 50 and 52 enterprises, respectively, and Poland 63 enterprises. A few large firms are included for each country (2, 4 and 3 in the Czech, Hungarian and Polish samples respectively) though given the overwhelming number of small, owner-driver enterprises in the population, a larger number of smaller enterprises are represented, with micro enterprises accounting for 54% of the Czech sample, 50% of the Hungarian sample and 41% of the Polish sample. The median age of providers ranges between 7.5 and 9 years. There are proportionately fewer start-ups in the provider sample: 24% of the Czech sample but 17% of the Polish sample and 13% of the Hungarian sample. With respect to foreign ownership, 6% of both the Czech and Polish sample are 100% foreign-owned (3 and 4 firms, respectively), while no Hungarian road freight provider is fully foreign-owned. Finally, with respect to persistence of state ownership, Poland is the only country where there are still stateowned providers in the sample, corresponding to population statistics. Hungary, as previously mentioned, has no state-owned enterprises remaining in the road freight sector since 1998.

**Performance of downstream enterprises and use of innovative logistics services.**

As reported in Table 2, increases in annual total operating costs (including labor, materials, transport and IT-related costs, among others) between 1997 and 1999 range between 10 and 20% for the median firm across the three countries. Hungary had the enterprise with the largest fall in costs (97%) but also the enterprise with the largest increase in costs (447%), resulting in the largest mean increase in costs (31.8%). Transport and logistics-related operating costs (including both own-account and third-party expenditures on transport, warehousing,
poverty. In contrast, the World Bank tracks the evolution of poverty following an absolute poverty measurement approach. Two main elements are part of this exercise: the welfare indicator and the poverty line. Household welfare is measured using consumption per capita obtained annually from the HBS surveys, whereas the poverty threshold of reference for Turkey is the upper-middleincome poverty line of $5.50 per capita per day expressed in 2011 PPP. The standard practice to convert this line into real Turkish lira values is to update it with the annual inflation rate derived from the overall national CPI. However, as evidenced above, the overall CPI likely underestimates the inflation experience of lower-income households, above all in cases where inflation is driven by fast growth of food prices. Indeed, this was the case in the rapid price hikes that occurred in 2013, 2015 and 2019.

In order to check the sensitivity of the “standard” poverty calculations to price adjustments to the poverty line that take into account the actual prices changes borne by the poor and vulnerable, we recalculated the real Turkish lira value of the $5.50 (2011 PPP) poverty threshold in 2019 using the CPI for the 1st decile as opposed to the overall CPI. The result shows that 209,000 additional individuals would have fallen under the poverty line relative to the poverty incidence computed based on the “standard” price adjustment (8,229,895 people were in poverty with the standard approach). The magnitude of this increase in the poverty rate is 2.5% or 0.3 percentage points (rising from 10.2% to 10.5%). Similarly, calculations using decile-specific inflation for 2015 translate into 342,000 extra poor, namely an increase of 4.2% or 0.4 additional percentage points (reaching 11.1%, up from 10.7%).

These differences are not trivial. On average, the measurement gap is equivalent to between one-fourth and one-third of the average annual reduction in poverty achieved in
Predicted Inflows _mt_ is the instrumental variable, defined as where _Forced Migration Outflowskt_ measures the number of individuals who were displaced by violence in municipality _k_ and year _t_ ; _K_ represents the total group of municipalities; _Total Migrantsm_ is the total number of individuals who live in municipality _m_ , but who were not born there in 1993; and _Migrantsmk_ are the total number of individuals born in municipality _k_ who are living in municipality _m_ in 1993. We use the year 1993 to construct the instrument because in that year the Colombian statistics agency collected the last population census before the large wave of forced displacement took place in Colombia (see Figure I). _Predicted Inflowsmt_ , therefore, is constructed following the original idea by Card (2001) and Altonji and Card (1991) (see Lewis and Peri, 2015 for a literature review), which exploits the fact that individuals tend to migrate disproportionately into regions in which they have relatives, friends, or family (commonly known in the migration literature as early settlements of migrants) because these people provide the migrants with support networks. In this specification, _γ_ 1 will identify the percentage change in firm outcomes when the inflows of displaced individuals increases by 1 percentage point.

# **IV.1 Validity of the identification strategy**

The first condition that must be met to guarantee the validity of our estimates is the relevance assumption. It requires that our instrument ( _Predicted Inflowmt_ ) should be strongly correlated with the inflows of internally displaced populations ( _IDPmt_ ). Figure V shows the geographic distribution of inflows of forcefully displaced individuals and the predicted inflows constructed using equation (3) for the years 1995, 2000, 2005, and 2010. The figure suggests that there is a positive and strong correlation between both variables. A formal test is presented in Tables I, II, III, VII, and IV which show the estimates of the first stage equation confirming a positive and 14