rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
households are among the key beneficiaries. The system also allows for some smoothing of spatial inequalities, as the main beneficiaries are concentrated in rural areas and small towns, while those living in big cities are net payers on average.

The overall redistributive effect of the tax-benefit system is significant. The Gini index falls from 0.48 for market income to 0.30 percent for final income, a 38 percent reduction. The main redistributive effect is on account of pensions – just comparing the level of inequality in the space of market incomes with that associated with market income plus pensions reveals a 14 percentage points reduction in the Gini index of inequality. Indirect taxes are dis-equalizing, but given the relatively more uniform distribution of indirect taxes across the population, the effect is only a 2 percentage points increase in the Gini index when going from disposable income to consumable income.

In addition to its equalizing effect, the fiscal system also contributes to a notable reduction in poverty. Depending on which poverty threshold is used, the poverty headcount falls by some 20-60 percent from the level associated with market income alone, before fiscal interventions, to consumable income, inclusive of direct and indirect taxes and transfers. Notably, the poverty reduction effect is stronger for lower poverty lines, suggesting that the protective effect of the safety net gets stronger as we move towards the lower end of the income distribution. Like in the case of inequality, pensions are the transfers that contribute to poverty reduction the most, but direct transfers also contribute a notable reduction in poverty incidence.

In terms of overall progressivity, pensions and direct transfers are the most progressive components of the taxbenefit system in Moldova, followed by in-kind health and education benefits. Direct taxes and pension contributions are also marginally progressive, while indirect taxes (primarily VAT) are the only regressive component of the tax-benefit system in Moldova.

What is of greatest interest to policy makers, however, is the efficiency of various programs, or the magnitude of their impact (on poverty and inequality, in our case)
(for example, socioeconomic, demographic, and attitudinal) might be influencing citizen participation. A large body of literature has identified socioeconomic status as the primary factor determining citizen participation. In this literature, the higher an individual’s socioeconomic level, the greater their ability to participate (Lee and Schachter, 2019; Dalton, Burklin and Drummond, 2001; Gastil et al., 2008; Newman, Johnson, and Lown, 2014; Verba and Nie, 1987).

The Latinobarómetro Survey offers a range of questions that allow us to address the aforementioned queries on the relationship between trust and participation, as detailed below in section 3. In particular, we make use of the following indicators contained in the survey: i) trust in governmental institutions (national government, police, the judiciary, electoral body, congress); and ii) citizen participation indicators (signing a petition, taking part in authorized demonstrations, working on an issue that affects you or

> 4 Regularized regression, such as Lasso, can also serve as a model selection technique. As Ahrens, Hansen and Schaffer (2020) point out, regularized regressions tend to select the true model as the sample size increases. In this way, Lasso provides a method for choosing the model when the sample size is large and there are many potential regressors, facilitating model interpretation. In this work, the Lasso method is used for regularization rather than prediction purposes.

> 5 Logit models can still analyze simple nonlinear relationships by, for example, allowing for quadratic specifications among independent variables. While those will also be analyzed in the empirical section of this paper, our primary interest is on complex nonlinear links.

5
# 5. Conclusions and policy lessons

Based on the analysis, a set of data-driven policy recommendations can be put forward. Some of the recommendations provided in this section aim at improving the data infrastructure underpinning any future analysis, while others point at ways to improve public procurement policy and practice.

## 5.1. Improve the data publication framework

Data publication is generally of high quality, and a wide range of variables is available on the procurement notices. The share of missing data, including tender and organization identifiers, is low compared to many European countries. Yet, further steps are needed in the following directions:

1. Improve the access to and usability of the detailed public procurement data by introducing a bulk download option for structured data covering tenders published on both the old and the new national portals with clear distinction between tenders published according to the national threshold regulation versus those above the EU threshold regulation.

2. Limit the number of different publication templates. The use of 20+ different publication templates increases the chance of data errors.<sup>23</sup> Despite the many notice types, unawarded/cancelled contracts are only revealed indirectly in award notices.

3. Identifiers can be missing and not well structured, which makes it hard to connect tenders and contracts related to the same organizations. While the IDs for contracting authorities are mostly complete, unique identifiers are often missing for contractors.<sup>24</sup> 4. Missing values: certain fields are missing from the publications, such as information on subcontracting, consortia, or estimated prices. These should be stated explicitly in the source of each tender/lot.<sup>25</sup> 5. Additional data improvements: introduce clear correspondence between lots and resulting contracts. Multi-lot tenders often result in fewer contracts and it is not always possible to track such cases.<sup>26</sup>

## 5.2. Introduce continuous monitoring of corruption risks and use data-driven insights in day-to-day policy making
sector of value-added content. Moreover, for export flows at any level of disaggregation, `icio` computes the component related to GVC trade, i.e., the one entailing more than a single border crossing. This measure - and its backward and forward GVC participation sub-components, is featured in the World Bank World Development Report 2020 (WDR, 2020).<sup>3</sup> In addition, the `icio` command can be used to retrieve, from the ICIO tables,

> 1See, among others, Johnson and Noguera (2012), Wang et al. (2013), Koopman et al. (2014), Borin and Mancini (2015), Los et al. (2016), Nagengast and Stehrer (2016), Johnson (2018), Miroudot and Ye (2018), Los and Timmer (2018).

> 2The essential features and the algebraic derivation of the conceptual framework are reported in Appendices A to F.

> 3 GVC measures are based on Borin and Mancini (2015, 2019), which consistently refine the vertical specialization index proposed by Hummels et al. (2001).

2
# **Figure 12. Net Cash Position (in Percent of Own Market Income Plus Pensions) through Consumable Income (by Market Income Plus Pensions Decile)**

<!-- Start of picture text --> 30%<br>25%<br>20%<br>15%<br>10%<br>5%<br>0%<br>Poorest 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Richest<br>‐5%<br>‐10%<br>Takaful, Karama, Food credit Gas subsidy LPG subsidy<br>Kerosene subsidy Electricity subsidy Energy subsidies (indirect)<br>Sales Tax Sales Tax (indirect) Tobacco, tea and sugar excise<br>Gas excise Kerosene excise Social Contributions<br>Personal Income Tax<br><!-- End of picture text --> _Source:_ Based on HIECS 2015 and budget figures. _Note:_ LPG = liquefied petroleum gas.

**Figure 13. Fiscal Impoverishment (at Consumable Income) in 11 African Countries and Egypt**

<!-- Start of picture text --> 100%<br>80%<br>60%<br>40%<br>20%<br>0%<br>Headcount ratio Consumable income poor headcount ratio<br><!-- End of picture text --> _Sources:_ Egypt: based on HIECS (2015) and budget figures from FY14/15 and FY15/16. All other countries: de la Fuente, Jellema, and Lustig 2018. _Notes:_ For a description of fiscal impoverishment see Higgins and Lustig (2016).

31
1,321|
|Respondent Hunger Last Week (Days)|0.59**|(0.28)|[0.12]|1.30|(1.72)|1,277|
|Adult Hunger Last Week (Days)|0.56**|(0.26)|[0.12]|1.06|(1.61)|1,233|
|Food Diversity|-0.03|(0.26)|[1.00]|5.35|(1.82)|1,313|
|Reduced Coping Strategy Index|0.04|(0.14)|[1.00]|-0.00|(0.99)|1,283|

**_Notes_** :

- The table shows the regression results on pre-specified main outcomes using the 2022-2023 phone survey data. Each row is its own dependent variable.

- Log total consumption is the log of the sum of the following weekly variables: total food consumption from purchases, total food consumption from home production, and total food consumption from assistance. The individual components are listed in the 3 rows below. Meat consumption reports the number of JD spent on meat, fish and other seafood in the last 7 days. Meal consumption reports the number of meals FR ate yesterday. Respondent hunger (days) reports the number of days in the past 7 days that the FR went to bed hungry because there wasn’t enough food to eat. Adult hunger (days) reports the number of days in the past 7 days that other adults in the household went to bed hungry because there wasn’t enough food to eat. Food diversity is the total number of food categories (out of 7) that the household spent any money on in the past 7 days. Reduced coping strategies index is the world food programme’s reduced coping strategies index, defined as follows: 1
capita. This was later matched by Japan in the middle of the twentieth century. The world economy was driven by several large Western European countries (Germany, France, Italy, the United Kingdom) and Anglophone ―offshoots‖ (Australia, New Zealand, the United States, and Canada), plus Japan. Many other countries, including the former Soviet Union, were able to rise to middle-income status and experience levels of average economic welfare that far surpassed prior centuries; however, these standards of living still lagged badly behind the leading countries. In brief, the global economy was dominated by the so-called ―G7.‖

**Figure 3:  Development since the Industrial Revolution**

(Per capita GDP measured in 1990 Geary-Khamis PPP adjusted dollars) <!-- Start of picture text --> 35,000<br>30,000<br>W. Offshoots<br>25,000 Japan<br>130 years<br>W. Europe<br>20,000<br>E. Europe<br>15,000 Ex USSR<br>Latin America<br>10,000<br>China<br>5,000 India<br>Africa<br>0<br>1820 1950 1954 1958 1962 1966 1970 1974 1978 1982 1986 1990 1994 1998 2002 2006<br><!-- End of picture text --> Source: Maddison database One can see the significance of these few large economies both in terms of their shares of global economic output and in terms of their contribution to economic growth. During the twentieth century, the G7 maintained a large and fairly stable share of world gross domestic product (Figure 4) that started and ended the century at about 45 percent. There was a slight rise to 51 percent during the first half the century that was reversed during the second half of the century.

6
# **Descriptive Statistics**

# **_Consumption and Investment Choices by Reintegration Amount_**

We start by examining the relationship between the reintegration amounts and the consumption bundle that the population of returning refugees spent the assistance on. Households in the treatment group were more likely to use the reintegration assistance to purchase long-term assets, and households in the control group were more likely to purchase consumption goods (table 2). Almost half of returnees in the control group spent more than half of their reintegration assistance on food, compared with only 17 percent in the treatment group. Households in the treatment group were more likely to purchase land (21 percent) than households in the control group (7 percent). Returnees in the treatment group were also more likely to use it to pay for transportation and rent.

**Table 2 Items on which returnees spent their assistance (percent of total)**

|Item|$350per returnee|$150per returnee|
|---|---|---|
|Land|21.0|6.2|
|Rent|20.1|7.8|
|Transportation|20.0|7.4|
|Food|16.9|46.2|
|Shelter|9.9|7.1|
|Health|6.7|5.4|
|Debt|5.3|5.2|
|None|0.2|14.6|

The 2020 follow-up survey asked returnees to rank the usefulness of UNHCR reintegration cash assistance for multiple spending items related to reintegration. The largest difference between the $350 and $150 per returnee recipients was their assessment of the usefulness of the assistance for purchasing land and building a house (table 3).

**Table 3 Returnees’ assessment of usefulness of UNHCR reintegration assistance for different purposes**

||_Recipients of $350 per returnee_<br>|_Recipients of $150 per retur_<br>|_nee_<br
models indicate that despite stringent suppression measures, the spread of COVID-19 will overwhelm most health care systems. Careful planning involving systematic assessment of the capacity of available facilities, and their utilization for treating and supporting patients based on the severity of the case, is crucial for ensuring effective delivery of routine care and for serving the additional demand for care, including timely referral and hospitalization. The SDI survey offers useful insight for this planning by providing data that are not reliably available through administrative sources. The sections below describe findings from three SDI surveys on pandemic preparedness, as defined by the WHO guidelines described above.

## Hospitalization capacity

In the current pandemic, evidence from high-income and high-capacity countries indicates that the demand for hospitalization due to severe cases far outpaces health system capacity. Once a surge in infection is noted, low- and middle-income countries are likely to face a similar, if not a worse, mismatch of supply with demand. In such a scenario, it may be helpful for health authorities and planners to assess and identify health facilities, particularly non-hospitals, that could temporarily be used for inpatient care. The SDI survey indicates that many non-hospitals have hospitalization capacity, including 14% of nonhospitals in Kenya, 11% in Sierra Leone and 17% in Tanzania. However, it is worth noting here that the survey in Kenya indicates that only slightly over 50% of facilities have the capacity to diagnose and treat chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), a proxy for overall capacity to manage respiratory diseases (Appendix Table 2). As expected, this is higher in hospitals than in non-hospitals (Appendix Table 3) and is worse in rural areas where the percentage of facilities that can diagnose and treat COPD is 14 percentage points lower than in urban areas (Appendix Table 4). Relatedly, these data also indicate that only about 5
refugees) results in a 1.8 percent reduction in the nighttime lights index. For the sample of villages with a population of 5,000 or more in 1989, a one percent increase in the distance to Kakuma at the mean level of refugee inflows is associated with a 2.3 percent reduction in the nighttime lights index. Using a Tobit specification, the authors find that a 10% increase in distance from Kakuma (12 km) at the average population of refugees corresponds to a 3.3 to 4.2 percentage point reduction in the probability of observing any nighttime lights.

In essence, the closer a village is to the refugee camp, the higher is the nighttime luminosity. The authors are also able to transform these estimates into the impact on household consumption. If a 10% increase in 60
This paper analyses 2,169 power outage events recorded by the US Department of Energy (2018), 463 outages recorded by the European Network of Transmission System Operators for Electricity<sup>4</sup> (European Commission, 2018), and 562 outage events recorded by the Bangladesh Rural Electrification Board<sup>5</sup> .The US outages are recorded for all federal states of the USA and Puerto Rico, and they cover the years 2000 to 2017. In Europe, reports are issued in 26 countries and cover the period 2010 to 2016. In Bangladesh, the recorded outages are limited to those that were caused by storms in the period from 2000 to 2017, since no complete index of all outages exists.

The rest of this study is structured as follows. Section 2 provides an overview of power outage data in the US, in Europe and in Bangladesh as well as details on climate data. Section 3 describes power outage patterns in the three considered regions, with a focus on their frequency, regional distribution, and type of causes (Section 3.1), as well as the duration of different types of outages (Section 3.2). Section 4 provides an analysis of the drivers of outages and compares the vulnerability of the US and Bangladeshi networks to climatic events (Section 4.3).

# 2. Data

## 2.1. Power outages

## 2.1.1. USA

Detailed data on power outage events in the US are provided by the Office of Cyber-security, Energy Security, and Emergency Response at the US Department of Energy (2018). These electric emergency incidents and disturbances are recorded since the years 2000 and cover all federal states of the US, in addition to Puerto Rico and cross-border outages affecting Canada. Furthermore, the dataset details the location, the start and end date and time, as well as the cause of the power outage. In addition, the number of affected customers is reported, though unknown in
A formal description of the model is presented in <u>Annex 4.</u> To the knowledge of the authors, this will be the first empirical estimation of tobacco price elasticities by income-group in Georgia. The following sections describe the data sources used to estimate each parameter and component of the ECBA in the case of Georgia.

# V. Price-elasticity of demand for cigarettes

Price-elasticities of demand for cigarettes in Georgia are estimated at the decile level, using data from the Household Integrated Survey (HIS) 2012-2016 and from the Household Income and Expenditure Survey (HIES) in 2017. Several empirical models were tested. The preferred results are plotted in Figure 2. <u>Annex 5</u> contains the econometric specification, methodological details and relevant robustness checks.

Additionally, lower- and upper-bound elasticity scenarios are simulated with distance of 0.2 from the estimated (base or medium-bound) elasticity in each decile.<sup>12</sup> Following the literature, those scenarios are assumed to represent a shorter- and longer-term outcome, respectively.

Figure 2. Estimation of price-elasticities of demand for filtered cigarettes <!-- Start of picture text --> Decile<br>0.00<br>1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10<br>-0.20<br>-0.40<br>-0.60<br>-0.80<br>-1.00<br>-1.20<br>Medium-bound Upper-bound Lower-bound<br><!-- End of picture text --> Table 3. Estimation of price-elasticities of demand for filtered cigarettes

|Decile|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9|10|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|-
Furthermore, the new Water Resources Law provides for a collection of a basin Water Resources Management Fee [article 77(3)] to pay for the planning, O&M and management administration costs of basin water resources management. However, Article 80(2) of the law exempts smallholder agriculture (with land holdings less than 2 ha) in public irrigation schemes from this fee. For other water users, the fee is determined by the volume of use and their economic capacity (i.e. affordability). The application of this new fee is still to be regulated by the issue of a Government Regulation. In principle, this would become an additional source of revenue from nonsmallholder irrigation and other customers of PJT I and enable it to meet more of its O&M expenses. This, however, depends on whether: (a) the various levels of government agree that this fee may be added to the existing tariffs; (b) a portion thereof is not claimed by provincial and local governments in the form of `retribusi’; and (c) proceeds thereof are not to be included in the balance sheet surplus to be transferred to MoF.

# **_6.7 Water Monitoring._**

PJT I monitors hydro-meteorological data, water use, water quality, and financial data. During the dry season, it monitors the operation rule issued through the PTPA every 10 days to verify that the pattern follows predictions. PJT I does not manage all intakes; intakes for hydropower plants, municipal water supply, and some irrigation areas are managed and flows monitored by the water users themselves or by other provincial/district agencies. Some industrial intakes use water meters. Water use is estimated for those industries that do not use meters. Those users that pay do so on a volumetric basis after they have received the water.

During the rainy season, PJT I focuses on flood management, monitoring rainfall intensity and discharge along the Brantas River through the Flood Forecasting and Warning system. For basin
of firms improved as a result of these reformns even though the extent of productivity growth is under much debate.

The second phase (1987-1991) focused on the reconstruction of state enterprises' managerial mechanism. The government introduced various forms of managerial responsibility systems, including management contract system for the large and medium-sized enterprises, the leasing system for small enterprises and experiments on the stockholding system. By 1987, about 33,000 state enterprises adopted "asset management responsibility system" accounting- for 90 percent of SOEs in the same category. At the same time, enterprise tax burdens were reduced and '*profit-remittance" system was replaced by corporate income taxes. After 1992, the dominant view shifted to clarifying the property rights by way of adopting the shareholding system. SOE reform entered its third phase and "corporatization" became the fashion (1992-present). Along with the development of stock market, more and more SOEs are allowed to issue stocks and over 500 firms are listed on China's two stock exchanges (Xu and Wang, 1996)

**Table A2.2**

**Increased Autonomy for State Enterprises during the 1980s**

|(percent)||||
|---|---|---|---|
|Control rights|1980|1985|1989|
|Base profit retention rate\a|7|37|39|
|Marginal profit retention rate\b|11|17|27|
|Autonomy in production decisions\c|7|35|67|
|Wage discretion\c|1|9|_35_|
|Management responsibility system\c|0|4|88|
|New management appointed after 1980\c|9|40|94|

Note: based on a 1991 retrospective sample survey of SOEs by Chinese Academy of social Sciences a: Portion of profits that could be retained if profits did not exceed a specified base level.

b: Portion of profits that could be retained if profits exceeded the base