rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
sector work, increase private sector wages (Bahal 2022; Berg et al. 2018; Imbert and Papp 2015), and increase output, although unevenly across districts (Cook and Shah 2022). However, with regard to overall effects, Muralidharan, Niehaus, and Sukhtankar (2023) find that the program raised private employment, increased workers’ reservation wages (the lowest wage that a worker will accept for a job), and boosted local demand.

Our proxies for product and labor market regulations are the product market policies index and the labor market regulation index from the Fraser Institute’s _Economic Freedom of the World_ . A higher product market policies score suggests greater flexibility in the product market, such as low costs of bureaucracy, low regulatory burdens, and low cost of tax compliance. A higher labor market score indicates more flexible labor market regulations, such as more flexible minimum wage regulations. The sub-indexes of the overall labor market score capture labor regulations and minimum wage policies, hiring and firing practices, flexibility in wage determination, regulation of working hours, costs associated with worker dismissal, and conscription. In our exercise here, we focus on the total labor market score and the labor regulation and minimum wage index.

# **Tax regimes**

Higher taxes have been associated with lower EWAPs. Corporate tax increases have reduced employment in U.S. counties and tax cuts have raised employment if implemented during recessions (Ljungqvist and Smolyansky 2016). Labor taxes, including payroll taxes, have been associated with slower employment growth in the European Union (Dolenc and Laporšek 2010).

Many studies identify employment effects of tax changes on a wide range of affected groups, especially in advanced economies. In France, following the introduction of a differential payroll tax regime, payroll tax increases were associated with significantly lower employment among affected workers, whereas decreases had no significant effects (Kramarz and Philippon 2001). In the United Kingdom, a tax regime that favored self-employment in the construction industry was associated with significantly higher self-employment
# **7.  Income, Education and Exposure**

Households’ PM10 concentrations and individuals’ location patterns combine to produce pollution exposures for family members. As we have shown in Dasgupta, et al. (2004), household pollution levels are highly sensitive to fuel choices, cooking locations and construction materials that affect ventilation. Each of these factors may, in turn, be affected by household income and adult education levels. If such effects are significant, they may be partly related to pollution-related problems, and partly to other factors (e.g., status issues related to choice of building materials and cooking locations). The positive income elasticity of clean fuel choice should also have a significant effect, at least in urban areas where clean fuel is a feasible option. Education may affect adults’ awareness of the relationship between pollution exposures and health risks for infants and young children. If this is the case, then we might expect children to spend more time outside in more highlyeducated families. We are agnostic about whether income could also have an effect in this context.

We test the effects of income and education on pollution exposure factors, using our full sample of households in seven regions of Bangladesh. We use the econometric results in our previous paper to estimate PM10 in each household, incorporating the combined effects of fuel choices and structural characteristics (cooking locations and construction materials). We regress estimated PM10 on household income (in $US per day) and the average education levels of men and women in the household. For infants and young children, we regress time spent outside on the same variables. We present the regression results for both exposure components in Table 5.

16
Policy Research Working Paper 9213

# **Abstract**

Embedding management and operational practices survey in a broader firm capabilities survey, this report finds that: (i) relative to the rest of Croatia, an average firm in the lagging region of the country (Eastern Croatia) is only slightly behind in the adoption of structured management practices. Nevertheless, overall, Croatia is farther from a frontier economy such as the United States. (ii) There is wide heterogeneity in adoption of management practices in the country, such that a large share of firms in the lagging region are badly managed relative to those in the rest of the country. (iii) Better managed firms in all regions, including Eastern Croatia, show superior firm performance. What drives better management? Global linkages matter for firms in other countries and in all regions of Croatia except the lagging region. Unlike other countries, firms in Croatia do not upgrade management quality as they age, perhaps due to lack of pro-competitive forces. This report recommends focusing on policies that improve allocative efficiency in the region and help firms establish global linkages, and more direct intervention for improving the management quality of firms.

This paper is a product of the Finance, Competitiveness and Innovation Global Practice. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/prwp. The authors may be contacted at agrover1@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent
In Table 7, we present robustness checks in which we vary the Raven’s score cut-offs used to categorize children as low or high ability.<sup>27</sup> Raven’s scores ranges from 0 to 18. In Table 5, we use the sample mean of 6.05 as the threshold, with lower ability children defined as those with scores between 0 to 6 and higher ability children those with scores between 7 to 18. We reproduce those results in column 3. In the other Table 7 columns, we decrease and increase the ability cut-off to verify that our results do not depend on the chosen cut-off. We find that for low ability children, CCTs consistently outperform UCTs irrespective of the ability threshold used. _5.3 Impacts on Attendance_ In Table 8, we analyze the impact of cash transfers on school attendance rates of all children ages 7-15, unconditional on their enrollment. This is a broad measure of school participation with direct policy relevance that accounts for enrollment and attendance effects and is not confounded by changes in the share of the sample enrolled. We rely on attendance taken from school ledgers collected at each school.<sup>28</sup> For each child, we compute the percentage of school days attended for the entire academic year. Children who are not enrolled receive an attendance rate of zero. The attendance results are consistent with the marginal child hypothesis described for enrollment.<sup>29</sup> CCTs increase school attendance at round 3 for all children and in all subgroups. UCTs increase attendance for non-marginal children (those enrolled at baseline, boys, older children, and higher ability children). For marginal children (those not enrolled at baseline, girls, young children, and low ability children), CCTs significantly outperform UCTs as we can reject the equality of the coefficients, while we cannot reject that equality non-marginal children.

> 27 Results (not shown) using the two alternative empirical specifications lead to similar conclusions. 28 We also collected
- 95 -

issue is being addressed in some Latin American countries (Ducci, 1987). While this ro.te may not be integrated into the se_;vices previded by national systems, it should be addressed in broader analysis and planning for training development.

# Middle Income Countries In Earlier Stakes of Development

6.62 Experience suggests that these countries, as well as larger low income countries (such as India and Pakistan), can use the experiences of countries further along in the development of VET systems as a guide to i .vestment.

6.03 Given the complexity of the task, and the importance of employment demand, strong enterprise management and good implementation capacity, careful sector analysis will be essential to effective investment. These analyses should give close attention to the nature of effective employment demand. More reliance should be placed on labor market surveys, vacancy unemployment rates, and other indicators of short term demand, rather than on global manpower forecasting. The development of labor market monitoring mechanisms should be of high priority.

6.64 Management capacity is of crucial importance, and should receive considerable emphasis in sector analysis. This should extend beyond management in the VET system to include enterprise management capacity. The latter is crucially important tc linkage development and, over the longer term, to enterprise provision of training. Decentralization policies in larger countries must be based on through assessment of the needs for management development at lower levels of the system.

6.65 In addressing system quality, emphasis should be given to the balanced development of key elements -- testing, curricula, staffing, and students. Sector analysis should address the extent to wllich these elements are in place, and are functioning well together.

6.66 On the policy level, a major issue is the structural separation of vocational training from vocational education. Implementation of this policy has encountered resistance from the education sector in the past, and is likely to continue to do so. Important to the resolution of the issue will be a reconsideration of the
# **Women in Paid Employment:**

# **A Role for Public Policies and Social Norms in Guatemala**

Rita K. Almeida The World Bank and IZA Mariana Viollaz<sup>∗</sup> CEDLAS-FCE-UNLP and IZA Keywords: female labor force participation, gender, Guatemala JEL: J16, J21, J22, O12

> ∗ Corresponding author: mviollaz@cedlas.org. Our special thanks to INE Guatemala for invaluable support in access to the census data and to the Public Sector survey data. Fernando Paredes and Alejandro de la Fuente (World Bank) offered valuable support in data access. We thank Eliana Rubiano Matulevich for several comments.
, as in BHM.

Robustness checks are presented in the Supplementary Material. In Tables Sup 2, 3 and 4, we test different specification models at the cell, administrative 1 and country levels: first, we exclude the 10 major oil producing countries for which economic production is expected to be significantly less affected by weather; second, we exclude China and the United States; third, we include region by year fixed effects instead of year fixed effects; fourth, we control for region fixed effects but exclude country-year trends; fifth, we eliminate year fixed effects; sixth, we include linear instead of quadratic country time trends; and seventh, we account for one lag and three lags of GDP growth. Results are robust to a large number of alternate specifications. In Table Sup 5, we estimate our main equation 1 on trimmed outliers. We consecutively exclude the top/bottom 1% and the top/bottom 5% of the observations with the highest levels of precipitation. Results are unchanged, with an increasing concave relationship between rainfall and GDP growth, implying that the results are not driven by extremes.

In Table Sup 6, we check that our findings are not driven by the use of interpolated GDP values. We estimate equation 1 with the sub-national GDP per capita data used as inputs by Kummu, Guillaume and Taka (2018b) 6
. Constructing the production linkage measure using the U.S. input-output accounts data is motivated by three considerations. First, compared to ...rm-level input-output information which is typically unavailable, industry-level input-output relationships re‡ect standardized production technologies and are relatively stable over time, limiting the potential for the production linkage measure to endogenously respond to idiosyncratic shocks. Second, using the U.S. as the reference country further mitigates the possibility of endogenous production linkage measures. Third, the U.S. inputoutput accounts are more disaggregated than most other countries, enabling us to dissect vertical production linkages between detailed product categories.

The manufacturing industry pairs with the strongest vertical production linkages include, for example, (i) motor vehicles and passenger car bodies, and motor vehicle parts and accessories, (ii) plastics materials, synthetic resins, and nonvulcanizable elastomers, and plastics products, (iii) air-conditioning and warm air heating equipment and commercial and industrial refrigeration equipment, and motor vehicles and passenger car bodies.

# 3.3 Financial Linkages

The ...nancial linkages between parent ...rms and subsidiaries are also typically not observed for most ...rms. We thus construct a variable to represent the degree of intra-...rm ...nancial linkages

> 10 We also considered di¤erent threshold values and found the results relatively similar.

> 11 This type of subsidiaries accounts for 6 percent of foreign owned subsidiaries.

10
index for this case will be 4(01 ' 2 ) = 1 ° **_+_** z **2),** where a 0 superscript denotes the initial tariff rate. Note in particular that for given initial tariff rates this index depends only on the import-weighted average value of the new tariffs (denoted X ), and not on the variance of the rates.

The average tariff rate will be t(Tl,T 2 ) = 01 ) +. Since r/ _(l+r)_ is a concave function of **_T7,_** it follows from Jensen's inequality that **_t(T 1_** , **_r)_** _<_ t(s,r) . This shows that the value calculated using the actual tariff data will be lower than that calculated using the trade-weighted average tariff when the tariff cut is not uniform, which means that the measure t depends on the variance of tariff rates even when the elasticity of substitution is 0. For cases in which a > 0 this comparison becomes more complicated, because 0 is no longer linear in **_T._** However, the calculations above suggests that the direction of the bias continues to hold for Chile in this case as well. This highlights the fact that calculation of the price index for imports is not sufficient for calculating the average tariff rate when tariffs are not uniform. It also suggests that the failure to use the tariff line data could result of overestimates of average tariff rates, if these average tariffs are estimated using the average price reduction on imported goods resulting from a tariff cut.

Two general conclusions emerge from the values of the O, and ti calculated for Chile. First, the effect of eliminating tariffs on imports from NAFTA countries is more significant than the effect of eliminating tariffs on MERCOSUR countries. Second, the effect of these reductions was more 12
affect child health linearly, then any increase in the variance of rainfall (for example, induced by climate change) might not have any additional impact on the expected health outcome. In contrast, if a quadratic relationship exists between shocks and health then, any change in its variance will also affect the mean health outcome. Results presented in column (6) show that all the square coefficients are not statistically significant implying that rainfall affects health linearly. Further, their inclusion does not change the significance and magnitude of either the rainfall or the temperature shocks.

So far we have shown that past weather shocks impact child health, but we have not been able to say anything about whether these shocks have a permanent effect or not. In other words, saying that

> 25 Controls include fixed effects by age, month of birth, month*year of interview, season*year of interview, and state.

> 26 Unfortunately, the quality of the temperature records for 2008, the year of the last and larger DHS survey, are not reliable enough, and hence we decided to exclude temperature in the weight-for-height regressions. In the case of height-for-age, the last completed growing season for the vast majority of the sample is 2007.

25
.19|Pakistan (1990)|1.05|

Notes: A higher ratio indicates that females are LESS likely to get treatment than men.

_Health treatment beiavior._ While mortality outcomes are clearly different between sexes, can we also see differences in the underlying gender discriminating behaviors that produce those outcomes? lVhile it is relatively straightforward to document gender _disparity_ in mortality ratios, it has been quite difficult to create comparable indicators of differential health treatment. In the DIIS, the women surveyed were asked both whether their children (under a certain age, usually five years) had experienced fever, acute respiratory infection (ARI)," and diarrhea. If a mother reported her child had suffered from one of these conditions, she was then asked about various types of treatment the child had received. We The actual survey question refers to a cough with rapid breathing.

10
Polac,Pnning, and Romrwh

# Trade Policy

"Measured income elasticities in developing countries are generaUy higher than I -- and relative prices, although mostly inelastic, significantly affect demand for imports. When a lack of foreign exchange or, more generally, a restrictive trade regime effectively constrains import flows, the measured impact of price and activity variables becomes less pronounced. To recover structural elasticities in such a case, one can develop a direct modeling of quantitative restrictions (which is arduous) or use the experience of a structurally similar country (which is quicker). In gencrai, a less restrictive trade regime is associated with greater responsiveness to economic incentives.

Econometric evidence that does not allow for the impact of import controls cannot be used reliably to assess the effect of a devaluation on the trade balance. Indeed, devaluation combined with trade liberalizadon (a common feature of many adjustment programs) will have a more pronounced effect on import demand than available evidence would suggest.

The authors compare three approaches to modeling and estimating import demand--which is arduous when trade controls are pervasive: _Option 1:_ Trade import equations work well when import controls are relatively stable over time, but it is difficult to determine if this is the case. Without _a priori_ information, and short of using aU misspecification tests, ont: could perhaps rely on a comparison between estimated elasticity and the "norm" computed in this study. If the difference between the two values is deemed too high, consider.

_Option 2:_ This takes into account the impact of foreign exchange availability. If it seems clear that the country has foreign exchange constraints, the traditional specifications should be bypassed, but incorporating this constraint into the import demand equation is difficult for several reasons. At a minimum, the authors recommend using the broadest possible instrument list, including indicators of world demand, competitors' prices in export markets, exogenous capital flows, and international reserves.

Option 3: The direct incorporation of quantitative restrictions is the main method of recovering structural (
PUB were unbundled and corporatized. In 2001, a new statutory board, the Energy Market Authority was established to regulate the electricity and gas industries as well as operate the electricity system. Its subsidiary company Energy Market Company Pte Ltd operates the wholesale electricity market. There are at present seven generation licensees and seven retail licensees.

Singapore relies on Malaysia for supply of more than half of its water consumption each day. The two water treaties with Malaysia date back to the early 1960s and were part of the dissolution terms agreed at the separation of the two countries in 1965. The terms of the agreement, in particular the price of raw water (3 Malaysia sen per 1,000 gallons or 4,550 liters), have been a key irritation in the bilateral relations for years. In a bid to demonstrate that it can be self-sufficient in water, the PUB has embarked on water recycling on a limited scale (`newater’ has been introduced into reservoirs since early 2003), a desalination plant project, as well as building an elaborate drainage system to capture rain water.

# **Education and labor**

Education is highly subsidized and constitutes the second largest item of government expenditure (after defense). The percentage of students enrolled in a local university has increased markedly from 7.7 percent of each cohort in 1985 to 21% percent in 2002. The government’s plans are for 25 percent of each cohort to be able to enjoy the benefits of university education. Manpower planning is effected through detailed quotas on the number of students to be admitted to specific programs (law, medicine, architecture, civil engineering, computer engineering, etc) at the tertiary institutions. A new agency, the Singapore Workforce Development Agency was established in 2003 with the specific purpose of enhancing workforce skills through `developing a comprehensive, market-driven and performance-based adult continuing education and training framework’ (Ministry of Manpower website).

While there are no official statistics for the foreign component of the workforce, the population data reveals that
The PSM method creates a statistical comparison group of individuals without microfinance loans that has similar observable characteristics to the individuals with microfinance loans. While controlling on observables will reduce many of the significant differences between participants and nonparticipants, it cannot address the differences in unobservable characteristics such as the entrepreneurial spirit or “spunk” of the borrower. It is likely that such latent factors will affect the selection of people to obtain an MFI loan and the outcomes of interest such as poverty status, which will bias the results. Nevertheless, multiple studies that compared performance of PSM estimators relative to experimental results have argued that PSM can produce accurate estimates under certain conditions (see Heckman et al. 1997, 1998a, 1998b; Diaz and Handa 2006). As we discuss in the next section, our data satisfies all of these conditions. Moreover, the same authors argued that the bias due to unobservables is small relative to the bias due to observables. In addition, the PSM method has been used successfully to evaluate impact of different programs in a wide variety of settings (see Ravallion, 2008 for a survey). Most importantly, we argue that the unique set-up of our study that uses two different comparison groups (i.e., comparing MFI borrowers to those without any other loans and to those with other types of loans) allows us to evaluate the magnitude of the bias due to unobservable entrepreneurial spirit. We believe that, in this setting, PSM is an appropriate method to apply in an effort to evaluate microfinance effectiveness and has an important advantage of allowing a direct comparison of borrowers to nonborrowers.

Specifically, we apply the PSM method on the data collected by a recent randomized experiment by Banerjee et al. (2015b). Our study addresses three main questions. First, what are the main characteristics of microfinance borrowers relative to nonborrowers versus those borrowing from other sources (such as family and friends or moneylenders)? The knowledge of the borrowers’ characteristics is important for microfinance program targeting, especially in light of low microfinance