rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
# **Figure 5: RDD plot of employment**

A. The probability of having farm work before 2009 B. The probability of having farm work since 2009 <!-- Start of picture text --> 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80<br>The 2006 poverty rate of districts (%) The 2006 poverty rate of districts (%)<br>Sample average within bin Polynomial fit of order 2 Sample average within bin Polynomial fit of order 2<br>C. The probability of having nonfarm work before 2009 D. The probability of having nonfarm work since 2009<br>20 30 40 50 60 70 80 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80<br>The 2006 poverty rate of districts (%) The 2006 poverty rate of districts (%)<br>Sample average within bin Polynomial fit of order 2 Sample average within bin Polynomial fit of order 2<br>E. The probability of having a wage job before 2009 F. The probability of having a wage job since 2009<br>20 30 40 50 60 70 80 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80<br>The 2006 poverty rate of districts (%) The 2006 poverty rate of districts (%)<br>Sample average within bin Polynomial fit of order 2 Sample average within bin Polynomial fit of order 2<br>1 1<br>.8<br>.8<br>.6<br>.6<br>.4<br>.4<br>.2<br>The probability of having farm work The probability of having farm work<br>.2 0<br>.3 .3<br>.2 .2<br>.1 .1<br>The probability of having nonfarm work The probability of having nonfarm work<br>0
explain the need for on-site and/or home-based workers. Given the requirements of face-to-face interaction, digital access, and the technology intensity of the production process,<sup>18</sup> firms can adopt telework if a minimum level of technological and organization provisions are met (Tokarchuk, Gabriele, & Neglia, 2021).

In general, firms with employees that are more skilled and with greater experience are more likely to use teleworking. According to Brussevich, Dabla-Norris, & Khalid (2020) Mexico has the lowest teleworkability scores making Mexican workers more economically vulnerable. For instance, a high share of workers with low levels of education,<sup>19</sup> part-time work, informal or casual working arrangements, and limited access to computers and the internet. In fact, in 2019 less than half the households in Mexico had a computer, and just about 56 percent had internet access.<sup>20</sup>

# 4. Data and Empirical Strategy

- i. Data

We use the National Survey on Availability and Use of Information Technologies in Households (ENDUTIH) which is representative nationwide. This survey is conducted by Mexico’s National Institute of Statistics and Geography (INEGI). It has information on communication technologies such as cellphones, computers, radio, and television and their use by individuals and households. For this paper, we largely use the 2020

> 16 Less teleworkable sectors are accommodation and food service, construction, transportation, and retail among others. Those sectors require face-to-face interactions and during the COVID-19 pandemic faced a higher risk of layoffs and furloughs.

> 17 Fewer teleworkable occupations are elementary, plant/machinery, crafts/trade, and service/shop/market among others.

> 18 (Brussevich, Dabla-Norris, & Khalid, 2020)

> 19 Only 23 percent of Mexican aged 23-25 have a college degree according to OECD data.

> 20 The percent of households which access to computers in 2019 was 44.3 and 44.2 in 2020. Access
the required information is included in the survey. To examine the VAT or excise taxes, household budget survey data can be used as these surveys typically provide a breakdown of total consumption across a large number of consumption categories, enabling differentiation between consumption subject to different VAT rates and different excise tax rates.

Before calculating progressivity or other metrics, some adjustments (in addition to basic data cleaning) may be made to the microdata to adjust for limitations associated with that data. For example, a common problem with income survey data is that incomes at the top end are often underreported, and various methods can be applied to adjust for this (see, e.g., Blanchet et al., 2022; Ruiz and Woloszko, 2016). Meanwhile, in the absence of income survey data, if consumption survey data is being used to model the PIT, adjustments based on savings patterns can be made to proxy better for income data. A parallel paper examines such techniques (including greater use of tax return microdata) in detail. Further discussion of these techniques is left to that paper.

Additional adjustments may also be made to specify the welfare metric and the unit of analysis. For PIT analysis, where income data is available it will be the preferred starting point in calculating a welfare 8
be noted that these subsidies can quickly become expensive. Early adopters tend to be individuals who are enthusiastic about new technologies and likely would have made the switch to EVs regardless of subsidies. In economics terms, their demand tends to be relatively inelastic with respect to price. Each $1,000 subsidy between 2010-15 has been estimated to increase EV uptake by 2.6% (Jenn et al., 2018) and 7.5% (Wee et al., 2018) in the US. In other words, each additional EV sale cost the federal government $38,462 and $13,333 by the two estimates, respectively. Beyond merely the cost, it is once again important to keep in mind the equity considerations. For example, a study of a suite of policies to encourage EV adoption in Colombia showed that is the interventions largely benefit high-income households, making them regressive (Callejas et al., 2022).

Alternatively, policy makers can also opt to encourage EV adoption indirectly by subsidizing charging infrastructure. This has been shown to be an effective strategy (Li et al, 2022). For example, results of a survey conducted in China in 2017 showed consumers valued having a charging station every 5 km higher than a 50% discount off charging fees (Ma et al., 2019). Additionally, increasing the ubiquity of charging infrastructure lowers the demand on range. With batteries making up a considerable portion of the weight of EVs, lowering battery capacity can save non-negligible weight. All else equal, this lowers the severity of injuries in the event of road collisions, damage to road infrastructure, and importantly, the energy required to move the vehicle. Finally, there is a positive feedback effect between charging infrastructure investment and consumer EV adoption (Li et al., 2017). That is, more charging stations encourage more EVs, and vice versa. This feedback makes subsidizing the two sides of the market complementary. Governments can kickstart the feedback loop by upgrading the fleet of
Policy Research Working Paper 5543

# **Abstract**

A large body of research has attempted to explore the links between women’s autonomy and their uptake of reproductive health services in the South Asia region, but the evidence so far is inconclusive. This study uses the Pakistan Social and Living Standards Measurement Survey to examine the influence of household decision making on women’s uptake of reproductive health services. The analysis finds that women’s decisionmaking power has a significant positive correlation with reproductive health services uptake and that influential males’ decision-making power has the opposite effect, after controlling for socio-economic indicators and supply-side conditions. The findings suggest that empowering women and increasing their ability to make decisions may increase their uptake of reproductive health services. They also suggest that policies directed toward improving women’s utilization of maternity services must target men as well as women in Pakistan.

This paper is a product of the Human Development Unit, South Asia Region. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://econ.worldbank.org. The author may be contacted at xhou@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent._ Produced by the Research Support Team
|Observations|382560|382560|382560|382560|382560|382560|382524|382524|
|R-squared|0.962|0.962|0.962|0.963|0.963|0.963|0.963|0.963|
|Prob _>_ F|0.089|1.000|0.000|0.000|0.000|0.000|0.000|0.000|
|Number of units|7970|7970|7970|7970|7970|7970|7970|7970|
|Number of clusters|48|48|48|48|48|48|48|48|
|First stage F-stat||2.578|13.996|17.857|20.655|20.682||20.194|
|Energy controls|||||||X|X|

Notes: Robust standard errors are in parentheses, clustered by state. *** p _<_ 0.01, ** p _<_ 0.05, * p _<_ 0.1. Store and period fixed effects are included. Energy controls refer to annual state-level total energy, electricity, LPG, and natural gas quantities consumed and prices for the residential sector.

40
|p-value of Anderson-Rubin chi-sqared test of en|dogenous regre|ssors|2.19e-09|0.000952|

Source: Authors’ calculations based on World Economic Outlook database 2019.

Robust standard errors in brackets.*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1.Underidentification tests. Ho: matrix of reduced form coefficients has rank=K1-1 -underidentified. Ha: matrix has rank=K1-identified. Weak identification test. Ho: equation is weakly identified. Weak-instrument-robust inference. Tests of joint significance of endogenous regressors B1 in main equation. Ho: B1=0 and overidentifying restrictions are valid.
3.4. Industrial In order to analyze the exposure of industrial activity to natural hazards, a dataset of 372 industrial zones in Vietnam was obtained (World Bank, 2020). Of these industrial zones, 15 percent are within 10 kilometers of the coast, and 127 industrial zones are located within coastal provinces.

# 3.5. Hotels

In recent years, the importance of the tourism sector for the Vietnamese economy has increased steadily, with coastal tourism contributing an important share. However, reliable spatial data is sparse: regional breakdowns of visitor numbers are difficult to source and must be approximated (World Bank, 2019). For a detailed risk analysis, such data is insufficient.

This analysis circumvents the lack of available data sources by using data from the OpenStreetMap (OSM) project. OSM is an open and free initiative that aims to create and continuously update a map of the world that is created entirely from user-contributed data. Next to detailed street networks, the locations of various points of interests are published by community volunteers. From this source, a dataset of 5,658 hotels, hostels, guest houses, and motels was downloaded in early 2019 (OpenStreetMap, 2019). Each datapoint includes an exact point location. Of the hotels, 3,309 are located in coastal provinces and 1,531 are located within 5 kilometers of the coastline.

This dataset is not a complete dataset of all hotels in the country. Considering that there were about 25,600 accommodations in Vietnam in 2017, the OSM dataset used here contains between a fifth and a quarter of the complete set of hotels in the country (Vietnam National Administration of Tourism, 2019). This incompleteness is not a problem per se for the validity of the hazard analysis, as the OSM set could be a randomly drawn subsample of the total population of hotels. Unfortunately, in the absence of a “true” dataset of all hotels, it is impossible to know which hotels are present in the OSM subset and which are not
# **Table 2:  Non-Autonomous Regulators:  Existence of Law**

||||**1998**||**2001**|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||**Total**|**Law**|**No Law**|**Law**|**No Law**|
|**Africa**|5|0|5|3|0|
|**Asia**|4|1|2|2|1|
|**Carrib**|6|1|2|1|1|
|**Latin America**|13|3|1|4|0|
|**Total**|28|5|9|10|2|

Source: Domah 2001 survey, supplemented and updated by authors

# **4.3 Age Distribution of Autonomous Regulatory Agencies**

Figure 2 shows the age distribution of energy regulatory agencies.

**Figure 2:  Age Distribution of Autonomous Electricity Regulators**

<!-- Start of picture text --> Age distribution in 2001<br>10<br>9<br>8<br>7<br>6<br>5<br>4<br>3<br>2<br>1<br>0<br>0 1-3 4-6 7-9 10-12 13+<br>Age of law<br>Frequency<br><!-- End of picture text --> Source: Domah 2001 survey, supplemented and updated by authors Figure 2 shows clearly how many of the DTE regulatory agencies in our sample were very recently established. 8 (47%) were under 3-years old in 2001, including all the 20
2 then and also to include the effects of the strong multilateral liberalizations that Mercosur countries initiated around that period.

Mercosur is a good case study for this investigation since it is perhaps the most important recent arrangement involving developing countries, its tariffs on third country suppliers are well above the postUruguay Round average for industrial countries (about 3.9 percent), and at least some of the required information on its trade and trade barriers is available. However, data permitting, the procedures developed for this paper can easily be generalized to examine the influence of other discriminatory trade arrangements.

The study proceeds as follows. First, Mercosur countries' trade statistics are analyzed to determine if the direction and composition of members trade has changed significantly during the period when the agreement was being implemented. Unless sizeable changes occurred concerns that trade has actually been diverted from more "efficient" producers would appear to be groundless. Next, the characteristics of a new index which measures the changing regional "orientation" of exports of specific goods is examined and then used to analyze recent shifts in the direction of trade . This index is compared with a measure of "revealed" comparative advantage to show how the two can be employed jointly for analyzing potential inefficiencies in trade patterns. Data drawn from United Nations sources are analyzed to determine whether the changing regional orientation of Mercosur's trade during the period when the agreement was being implemented was consistent with member countries' comparative advantage. Supplemental information on Mercosur countries' tariffs and nontariff barriers are analyzed to determine how they might have influenced trade patterns. The study closes with an overall assessment of the findings and their implications for further research on issues relating to regionalism.

Two other qualifying points should be noted right at the outset. The analysis in this paper focusses on only one aspect of Mercosur -- its static trade effects. Many commentators see other benefits stemming
in the FGT indicators. On the basis of the arguments above we might have expected them to increase. Turning to Table 3, where the "austere" poverty line is set, the incidence of poverty falls as predicted: from 50% when only food expenditures are used to as low as 35% when the full consumption aggregate for Ecuador is applied. Even between measures of consumption which both include food and non-food spending the decline in the incidence of poverty is as large as ten percentage points. It is important to note that the consumption aggregate defined in the second row of both tables is one which would probably find acceptance as a comprehensive measure of consumption by most observers. Poverty measured by the two FGT indicators also declines sharply.

Tables 4 and 5, based on data from Pakistan. provide a similar picture of how measured poverty changes with the definition of consumption. Once again poverty measured with respect to the "traditional" poverty line does not vary markedly as the definition of consumption changes, and this is true over all poverty indicators. And once again, poverty measured with reference to the "austere" poverty line declines sharply. The estimated incidence of poverty with the full definition of consumption is 24 percentage points lower than the incidence when only food expenditures are utilized, and still 15 percentage points lower than when a simple consumption aggregate including both food and non-food items is applied.

The patterns observed for both Ecuador and Pakistan accord broadly with those predicted. The single exception, in both cases, is failure of the FGT indicators to increase with aggregation under the "traditional" poverty line. An explanation is suggested in Section V when we consider measurement error.

8
sector, including crop insurance. Entry into the insurance market by private sector providers finally began in 2002 when twelve private sector insurers entered the market.

All subsectors of _transport services_ were operated primarily by public sector companies prior to liberalization. Air transport was run by two publicly owned carriers, states controlled the ports for maritime industries, and a large segment of the shipping sector was heavily regulated and dominated by publicly owned companies. In 1997, foreign direct investment up to 40 percent was allowed in airlines, 74 percent foreign direct investment was allowed in port construction, and private sector companies were allowed to contract for infrastructure maintenance and construction. In air transport, for example, the remarkable increases in passenger traffic can be attributed almost entirely to private entrants (OECD, 2011). Yet transportation sectors remain subject to state level regulations which vary significantly across states, with trucking particularly susceptible to local political pressures.

_Professional services_ including accounting, legal, and other services sectors such as _retail distribution, postal_ and _rail transport_ services are formally closed to foreign participation.<sup>8</sup> FDI is not allowed in the accounting and legal sectors. Within distribution services, FDI is not allowed in the retail segment (with some narrow exceptions, such as single-brand retail) but there are no limits in other areas, except the requirement of approval for commission agents, franchising services and wholesale trade. The closed sectors are characterized by domestic firms that are sub-optimal in size and handicapped by an inhibiting and weak regulatory environment. Many Indian services in closed sectors are highly fragmented by international standards.<sup>9</sup> Here adjustment and employment concerns are the dominant factors impeding liberalization.

A more detailed survey of the liberalization reforms is provided in on-line Appendix A (attached at the end of the paper).

> 8 As an exception to this general rule, single-brand retailers are allowed.

> 9 For example, there are 100,000 chartered accountants in India and 43,000 audit firms, with an average
in China in the form of joint ventures (JVs) partnered with domestic automakers.<sup>5</sup> JVs take up about two-thirds of the market and dominate the luxury segment while imports account for only about 5 percent of the market. The size of the EV market could benefit the global trend of transportation electrification by offering a fertile trial ground of new technologies and reducing the cost of batteries, the cost component critical to the transition from ICEVs to EVs.

To quantify the impacts and cost-effectiveness of different driving forces on consumer EV demand, we have compiled to our knowledge the most comprehensive data on China’s EV market including quarterly EV sales by vehicle trim by city from 2015 to 2018, vehicle attributes by trim, information on battery suppliers, detailed information on public charging stations, consumer subsidies and other policies aimed at promoting consumer adoption of EVs from central and local governments, and social and economic variables at the city level. We use a linear regression framework to estimate EV demand among individual/household buyers with a focus on consumer price response, non-financial policies, and charging infrastructure availability.<sup>6</sup> There are three key identification challenges. First, the price variable, crucial to estimating consumer response to subsidies, could be endogenous due to unobserved product attributes, i.e., attributes that consumers value but are unobserved in the data (e.g., product quality and safety performance). As documented in previous studies, unobserved product attributes tend to bias the price coefficient estimates toward zero in demand estimation (Berry et al., 1995), leading to under-estimation of consumer response to consumer subsidies. The second challenge is unobserved demand shocks that could be correlated with government policies (subsidies and other policies) and at the same time affect consumer EV demand. For example, if central and local governments design policies as a response to negative demand shocks, we would under-estimate the effectiveness of the policies. The third challenge is due to the simultaneity between
the data, such as the Overview of State-Owned Companies made available by the Secretariat for Coordination and Governance of State-owned Companies (SEST).<sup>6</sup> In the case of indirect ownership by the government, through multiple entities or other state-owned firms, it is less straightforward to obtain a reliable measure of the ownership fraction. In those cases, we provide a conservative estimate of the government ownership share by considering the minimum share observed in the multiple layers of ownership.

We test the reliability of the ownership share estimates by plotting a distribution of the firms’ government shares in Orbis for each BOS type according to the classification in RAIS. Figure 1 illustrates that the government ownership shares are mostly consistent with the information on ownership type in RAIS, concentrated in 100% for fully public firms, with values ranging from 50% and 99% for mixed firms, and with a more scattered distribution in values lower than 50% for participated firms. We use available ownership information in RAIS to correct the shares of government ownership shares when possible: we input ownership of 100% for all public firms, and we input ownership of 51% for mixed-capital firms whenever the estimated share is below that level or when an estimate for that firm is not available.

Lastly, we use the sector taxonomy industry classification proposed by Dall’Olio et al. (2022), which defines three groups based on the rationale for industry state participation. According to this classification, competitive industries are those with no issues of economic efficiency or market failures that would justify the presence of state-owned enterprises. By contrast, industries described as natural monopolies or partially contestable would have some grounds for justifying the presence of state-owned firms. While in natural monopolies this justification is based on a market structure characterized by economies of scale and subadditivity costs, partially contestable industries are defined by the presence of market failures that could be addressed with direct state participation, such as market power or externalities (Dall’Olio et al., 2022). Table