rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
urban areas alike. There was no structure, public or private, that could function as a 'bridge' between agriculture and industrial manufacturing and as a provider of inputs and markets for farmers. During the recession, the agricultural and industrial systems were in fact compartmentalized, a phenomenon that is clearly evident in the statistics on manufacturing and in input-output tables where the middle quadrant values (intermediate manufacturing) declined more than the values in the periphery (energy and raw materials on the one hand and households consumption on the other hand). The absence of agricultural policies in the post-land reforms scenario is partly responsible for the current incapacity of farmers to move beyond subsistence.

Government policies have also been very weak on the front of industrial policies. If one looks at the development plans developed in the post-war Western Europe and Japan, the development plans developed by South-Korea in the 1960s and 1970s and those developed in other parts of South-East and South Asia in the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s, it is evident that the greater emphasis was devoted to industrial policies, defining the role of the state in facilitating the growth and development of industry in the public and private sectors. Post-war industrial development in Italy for example was driven by IRI (Institute for Industrial Reconstruction) a state run conglomerate only recently dismantled. The reason for such a heavy state direct involvement in the economy is explained by the fact that no other national institution had the necessary financial resources and capacity to undertake a task such as post-war reconstruction. There was little debate about stateprivate division of responsibility because the private sector was too weak to take on the reconstruction task alone. In fact the state too was incapable of generating the necessary financial re-

> 30 It is worth noting that while Chinese reforms have been usually labelled as gradual and piecemeal, the implementation of the household responsibility system has in fact been faster than any other similar reforms implemented elsewhere in transition economies.

34
of uniform performance measured in terms of emissions per unit of product output) by using a second-order approximation of the costs around the baseline emissions. Their approach was based on variation in baseline emission rates, thus estimation of the cost function required data on baseline and project emissions. In contrast, Newell, Pizer, and Shih (2003) developed a quadratic abatement cost function in which the cost of pollution abatement per unit of output depends on abatement rather than emissions. Using project-level census data on compliance costs and emissions abatement in four industries, they estimated the parameters of the cost function and compute gains from emission trading.

5
Policy Research Working Paper 7576

# **Abstract**

Although the nature and magnitude of (positive or negative) spillovers from large farm establishment are hotly debated, most evidence relies on case studies. Ethiopia’s large farms census together with 11 years of nation-wide smallholder surveys allows examination and quantification of spillovers using intertemporal changes in smallholders’ proximity and exposure to large farms, generally or growing the same crop, for identification. The results suggest positive spillovers on fertilizer and improved seed use, yields, and risk coping, but not local job creation, for some crops, most notably maize. Most spillovers are crop-specific and limited to large farms’ immediate vicinity. The implications for policy and research are drawn out.

This paper is a product of the Agriculture and Rural Development Team, Development Research Group. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://econ.worldbank.org. The authors may be contacted at dali1@worldbank.org, kdeininger@worldbank.org, and aharris3@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent._ Produced by the Research Support Team
||-0.037||
|development; quartile 4|||||||[0.055]||
|Common intercept|14.418|13.779|14.825||17.958|16.586|17.378||
||[3.979]|*** [4.161]|***<br>[4.540]|***|<br>[6.663]|***<br>[4.831]|*** [5.259]|***|
|Number of observations|329|329|329||208|208|208||
|Number of countries|88|<br>88|88||59|59|<br>59||
|Number of instruments|37|46|46||37|46|<br>46||
|Hansen test for over-id. restrictions|0.305|0.567|0.269||0.511|0.598|0.720||
|Arellano-Bond AR(1) test (p-value)|0.000|0.000|0.000||0.002|0.001|0.002||
|Arellano-Bond AR(2)test(p-value)|0.741|0.836|0.976||0.315|0.268|0.290||

Notes: Other growth determinants included (but not reported) are population growth, educational attainment, trade openness, and the relative price of investment goods. Robust standard errors below each point estimate. ***, ** and * denote significance at the 1, 5 and 10 percent levels, respectively. All equations include time period and group-specific dummies. Data for the transition economies refer only from 1997 onwards. All equations include time period and group-specific
mills and to expansion investments in existing mills. The basic principle adopted was to subsidize new investment by, for a specified number of years, increasing the allowable free sale ratio of the sugar produced, and by giving rebates of excise taxes. The schemes to implement this policy have been frequently varied, but have remained "cost plus " in nature, in that they give higher subsidies in the form of higher plant-specific free sale ratios to mills in areas with lower sugar yields and higher production costs. The higher free sale ratios and reduced excise taxes of such mills mean that, if they were measured, their nominal protection and other incentive indicators would be higher than the averages we have calculated, and in addition would raise the averages themselves. However to do this would be a very large and complex empirical task, which we have not attempted.

# _Pricing Policies_

The Agricultural Price Commission (APC), later renamed Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP) was set up in 1965 to advise the government on the pricing policies for agricultural commodities, including sugar and sugarcane. As regards _sugarcane,_ based on surveys of farm production costs, the CACP each year recommends minimum prices for each region. Based on these recommendations, the Union government announces statutory minimum prices (SMPs) which are usually lower than or equal to the CACP recommended prices. However each state government also announce its own minimum price, known as the state advised prices (SAP). These prices are usually much higher than the SMPs, and therefore become the effective minimum prices which sugar mills are obliged to pay for sugarcane. The 13 As with other commodities distributed by fair price shops under the PDS, the quota for rationed sugar is based on the number of family members in a household. Ration cards are issued to all Indian households regardless of income.

22
in the home countries. Human subjects review boards are reluctant to authorize researchers from asking about documentation status for fear of this entailing an undue risk on the migrant, and all the major surveys of migrants in destination countries which we are aware of do not ask documentation status. The results in this paper, therefore, suggest that a list randomization approach may be a useful alternative in such cases, and it would be a valuable avenue for future research to explore the performance of this approach in destination country surveys.

13
From basic welfare economics it is known that per-unit taxes like VAT are more likely to introduce price distortions than lump-sum taxes. The question that often arises is “who pays the tax?” (McLure,1987:1). With consumption taxes consumers and producers share the burden, however, the producer often tries to shift the burden to the consumer. The extent to which a perunit tax can be shifted to the consumer is determined by the elasticity of supply and demand (Ebrill et al,2001:15).

A CGE model is very useful to analyze tax incidence because it captures the effect of each tax on prices. When we simulate the removal of the VAT (or any other indirect tax instrument), the model solves for market clearing prices and quantities that are consistent with the individual optimizing behavior of consumers and producers, a given set of world prices, and the policy environment.<sup>9</sup> The model also has data on consumption expenditures by households, and therefore indicates the effects of tax changes on real purchasing power for each income decile.

As seen in Table 4, poor households spend the majority (61 percent) of their income on food. In contrast, high-income households spend 15 percent of their income on food. The reverse pattern holds for services: high-income households spend over 45 percent of their income on service while low-income households spend less than 20 percent on services. Low-income households do not purchase motor vehicles, an example of a luxury good.

> 9 See Devarajan and Hossain (1995) for a more detailed discussion of mechanisms at work in a CGE model when one removes an indirect tax and replaces it with a direct tax.

10
conditions through hydrological regime changes (e.g., river training and other engineering work) will probably be futile (Potkin 2004). Hence, engineering attempts to control rising salinity in the Sundarbans do not seem likely to succeed.

The Sundarbans is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, internationally recognized under the Ramsar Convention, and effective conservation management will require establishment of location-specific baseline data for tree stand structures, tree abundance, species richness and diversity, the export of nutrients, hydrological patterns, rates of sedimentation and relative sealevel rise (see McLeod and Salm (2006) in the IUCN-Nature Conservancy Report on Managing Mangroves for Resilience to Climate Change). Such baseline data will permit monitoring of changes in the Sundarbans mangrove systems over time. Since mangroves depend on fluxes of both daily tides and fresher water, management protocols should include both connectivity between mangrove systems and nearby river sources, and maintenance of upland fresh water catchments. Areas that are likely to survive sea level rise in a changing climate should be identified (See Dasgupta et al. 2016b for a methodology.) Tidal fluctuations, varying pH and salinity should be monitored, to support additional planting of suitable mangrove species where necessary. Attempts to restore mangrove areas that are currently degraded should also be undertaken.

Since changes in mangrove stocks induced by rising aquatic salinity are likely to change the prospects for forest-based livelihoods, resources should also be directed to the development of alternative livelihoods for mangrove-dependent households.

Worldwide, low-lying coastal regions will be at increasing risk from inundation, salinization and other potential impacts because sea level rise will continue beyond 2100 even if greenhouse 27
<mark>As the year of survey may not align with the year the $1.90 international poverty line was estimated (2011), the international poverty line might need to be intertemporally deflated before it is applied to the national consumption aggregates of some countries. To do so, the international poverty line set in 2011 dollars is converted to local currency using the 2011 purchasing power parity (PPP) conversion factor. This number is then intertemporally deflated to the year the survey was undertaken, and this is usually done using the respective CPI of each country.</mark> <mark>Table 8 lists the country-level CPI and PPP that are used to intertemporally deflate the international poverty line to local currency units. For example, to calculate the international poverty line expressed in Bangladeshi local currency for the year 2010 so that it can be applied to the HIES (2010) we do the following. First, the 2011 PPP for Bangladesh (24.85) is multiplied by the international poverty line ($1.90), and this is then deflated using the intertemporal deflator (which it is 0.90). Thus, the daily international poverty line expressed in local currency comes out to be: 1.90 x 24.85 x 0.9 = 42.65 takas.</mark> All countries in South Asia except for Afghanistan and Bangladesh use the CPI to deflate the international poverty line. Bangladesh uses the Basic Need Price Index (BNPI) that is constructed based on Bangladesh's population weighted upper poverty lines, so it measures the changes in the cost of basic needs. This methodological approach was adopted for Bangladesh because Gimenez and Jolliffe (2014) argue that the weights used to construct the CPI are not representative of the consumption pattern of the poor. This view aligns with Recommendation #9 of the Monitoring Global Poverty report, which specifies that countries should consider using a price index for the poor. It is also consistent with the belief that price changes implied by the
>[0.688]<br>[0.744]<br>315,481<br>315,481<br>315,481<br>315,481<br>No<br>Yes<br>Yes<br>No<br>No<br>No<br>Yes<br>No<br>No<br>No<br>No<br>Yes<br>ed on NSS 2004 – 2008 (Rounds 61 and 64) and program expenditure data for SG<br>ural Development, Government of India.<br>e order 10_−_2. Each column presents results from a separate regression. All regre<br>es are in logs. The sample is composed of all adults aged 18 to 60 interviewed from<br> variable in panel A is the percentage of days in the past seven days that an indivi<br>entage of days in the past seven days that an individual spends in private works. All<br>sampling weights. The standard errors in square brackets are clustered at the distric<br>ral Employment Guarantee Act.<br>_<_0_._01|
|_NREGAd,t × Dry_<br>_NREGAd,t × Rainy_<br>Observations<br>Worker Controls<br>District Controls FEs<br>SGRY Controls<br>_NREGAd,t × Dry_<br>_NREGAd,t × Rainy_<br>Observations<br>Worker Controls<br>District Controls FEs<br>SGRY Controls<br>_Source_: Author’s analysis bas<br>data is from the Ministry of R<br>_Notes_: All estimates are of th<br>effects. All dependent variabl<br>to June 2008. The dependent <br>variable in panel B is the perc<br>estimates are computed using<br>Yojana. NREGA: National Ru<br>_∗p <_0_.
The above process generated raster data that provide information on crops grown in 2016, 2017 and 2018 for every 10*10 m pixel in Ukraine. Combining pixel-level data across years provides the basis for computing the area devoted to different types of crop rotations just by counting pixels. To keep the regressions manageable, we focus on maize, sunflower, cereals (wheat and barley) and soybean as the crops of interest.<sup>9</sup> For each crop cultivated in 2017 or 2018, we identify the immediate predecessor crop from this set plus an ‘other’ category and, for the 2018 data with mono-cropping (i.e., cultivation of the same crop in 2017) also whether the pixel was mono cropped in 2016 as well. Overlaying the resulting raster file with boundaries for some 7,600 rural village councils (VC) from the State Service of Geodesy and Cadaster (SGC) allows us to obtain the total area with different rotational practices at VC level which will be a key dependent variable in the regressions reported below.

We use statistical and remotely sensed information as our two outcome variables. Information on area cultivated and output by crop is collected annually by the State Statistics Service of Ukraine (SSSU). In contrast to more detailed information on input use and output prices that is only available for a subset of producers in a way that makes it impossible to infer the actual location where production took place,<sup>10</sup> these data are obtained from the universe of registered producers and reported by village councils where production took place. Aggregation and merging these data with rotational information from satellite imagery allows us to add information on village level yields for the crops of interest as key dependent variables in our regressions.

As statistical data may still be affected by biases or measurement error, we complement statistical yield data with field-level indices of vegetative health and soil water content for pixels with different crop rotations as alternative outcome variables. To do so, we consider the Normalized Difference Vegetation
restrictions on accessing asylum compared to other refugees (Morrison 2014). Ninety percent of those who remain in Syria are reliant on humanitarian assistance (Morrison 2014).

- (f) An unknown number of registered Palestinian refugees have acquired the nationality of countries outside the Middle East.

# **Asylum-seekers**

The 1951 Convention does not establish an individual right to asylum, and the right to receive or to be granted asylum is left to the discretion of the host country, which has the primary responsibility for protecting refugees including determining whether or not people meet the definition of refugees in the 1951 Convention.<sup>25</sup> This requires that countries designate a central authority with the relevant knowledge and expertise to assess applications, ensure procedural safeguards and permit appeals and reviews. Consequently, statistics on asylum-seekers reflect differences between countries in the administrative rules governing the asylum process, in particular the criteria for individuals to be granted access the asylum procedure. The category of asylum-seekers excludes anyone immediately granted refugee status on a prima-facie basis, including Syrian refugees granted Temporary Protection visas in Turkey.

Not all asylum-seekers included in the global statistics would necessarily be persons of particular focus for development actors. Of the 3.2 million asylum-seekers at the end of 2015, 1.4 million are in high income (OECD and non-OECD) countries that do not qualify for development assistance or concessional financing from development organizations.

# **IDPs**

There is no international legal framework for the protection, assistance or solutions for IDPs and these remain first and foremost state responsibilities. Many national laws and regulations on internal displacement do not include a definition of IDPs, however those that do most often reflect the definition in the United Nation’s Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement (UN Guiding Principles) (Wyndham 2006).<sup>26</sup> The UN Guiding Principles define IDPs as “persons or groups of persons who have been forced or obliged to flee or to leave their homes or places of habitual residence, in
populated countries and generate synergies with financial stability by increasing the scale of the market and diversifying exposures of banks. Finally, the depth of the credit information index (the coverage and richness of credit reporting systems) is significant in generating or enhancing synergies between inclusion and stability at the 5 percent level.

The covariance between stability and financial inclusion of firms (Table 6, Column 3 and 4) is significantly influenced by financial openness and education in the smaller sample (column 3) consistently with the aggregate results and the results for the inclusion of individuals. In the larger sample, all country characteristics appear insignificant. This finding is not surprising given that the evidence we obtained from the empirical distributions and the aggregate correlations. Recall that the distribution of the covariances (correlations) between the indicators of stability and of the inclusion of firms is centered at zero and has a normal shape. One interpretation of this could be that the inclusion of firms and stability are uncorrelated and that the normal distribution is due to the white noise disturbances that cannot be explained by country characteristics. This is what we find in our multivariate regression when using the maximum number of countries. Perhaps when even better data on firm inclusion than those from the Enterprise Survey are gathered consistently across countries we will be able to probe the finding in more detail through further research.

The country characteristics explaining the covariance between stability and financial inclusion of individuals (Table 6, Column 5 and 6) show several similarities with the aggregate results but also some differences. As for the aggregate results, the covariance of stability with inclusion of firms is significantly influenced by financial openness fiscal freedom, population density, education, and the depth of credit 6, column 2, 4 and 6, which drops indicators for which coverage is insufficient). It was mostly high-income countries that dropped out in the smaller sample (Annex 4).

16
# **S.** Investuent in Vocational and **Technical** Education

To see the implications of the above findings for educational policy in Peru requires that the data on marginal costs and marginal returns be placed in juxtaposition. That the returns to a year of VTE and a year of general education are found to be essentially the same implies one thing if VTE is more expensive to provide than general education and quite another if the unit costs of the two are much the same. Table 12 summarizes the findings from earlier sections on the costs and returns to VTE and general education in Peru.

The comparison between costs and returns is clear-cut in the case of post-secondary education. Here, in the four locational/sectoral samples the return to a year of post-secondary nonuniversity education varies between 901 and 1101 of the return to a year of university education. Averaging across the four samples, one may conclude that the return to VTE in the country as a whole is just slightly below the return to university education. This is quite consistent with the information on costs, taken from table 11 in the previous section. On a year by year basis, unit costs in post-secondary nonuniversity education have varied as a percentage of unit costs in university education from a low of 601 to a high of 1201 and averaged about 80x. In comparing costs and benefits, one can say that the competition' between VTE and general education at the post-secondary level amounts to a virtual draw.

The situation with regard to secondary education is more complicated. In terms of averages, once again the picture suggests a high degree of equilibrium between the additional costs and additional returns of VTE relative to general education. Both costs and returns are approximately 10 higher on average. For secondary education, however, the data points are very dispersed. For the self-employed in Lima, though the difference is not statistically significant, each year of VTE is associated with a proportionate increase in earnings three and a half times greater than a corresponding year of general education. On