rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
capita) from 99 country regulators for the first time in 2004.<sup>12</sup> These data were updated and expanded by the Consultative Group to Assist the Poor (CGAP) in 2008 and 2009 and by the International Monetary Fund in 2010. These data sets are important sources of basic cross-country indicators developed at a relatively low cost. Yet indicators based on data collected from financial service providers have several important limitations. First, data are collected only from regulated financial institutions and thus provide a fragmented view of financial access. Second, aggregation can be misleading because of multiple accounts or dormant accounts. Most important, this approach does not allow disaggregation of financial service users by income or other characteristics. That leaves policy makers unable to identify segments of the population with the lowest use of financial services, such as the poor, women, or youth.

The Global Findex database can serve as an important tool for benchmarking and for motivating policy makers to embrace the financial inclusion agenda. By making it possible to identify segments of the population excluded from the formal financial sector, the data can help policy makers prioritize reforms accordingly and, as future rounds of the data set become available, track the success of those reforms. The questionnaire, translated into and executed in 142 languages to ensure national representation in 148 economies, can be used by local policy makers to collect additional data. Adding its questions to country-owned efforts to collect data on financial inclusion can help build local statistical capacity and increase the comparability of financial inclusion indicators across economies

**6**

MEASURING FINANCIAL INCLUSION
local scale externalities which decay sharply with distance so that from that perspective firms in one neighborhood do not interact with firms in another (Arzaghi and Henderson,

> 13In terms of horseraces for ln PD vs ln AD the ln PD term is positive at 0.74 (but with an s.e. of 0.44), while the ln AD term is small (-0.145) and insignificant. For ln PD vs ln PPD, as column 3 already tells us, the ln PD coefficient is large (0.51) and significant, while that for ln PPD is small (0.090) and insignificant. Finally for ln PD, against ln RPA, ln PD has a coefficient of 0.489 (but with an s.e. of 0.283) while ln RPA has a small (0.077) insignificant coefficient.

> 14We do this by ordering each cell by its density and noting the cumulative share of the population in each cell. The cumulative distribution of the population ordered by density represents the Lorenz curve. We then sum up the area under the Lorenz curve (by adding up the “height” and the “width” of each bar of the cumulative population histogram, where the “height” is the cumulative population and the “width” is 1/(number of total cells in the city)). We call this integral I, and, according to the Gini formula, calculate Gini=1-2I for each city.

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We collect the daily aggregate mean of temperature for the first 19 levels of the atmosphere. This roughly corresponds to the levels beginning at the surface and extending 5km into the atmosphere.<sup>9</sup> Because MERRA indexes layers based on pressure levels, rather than consistent elevation thresholds we calculate surface temperature individually for each grid-point _×_ day based on the temperature reported at the lowest level for that grid-point _×_ day. We set this layer as the surface and calculate temperatures in the layers counting up from the surface layer.

We aggregate our grid-point _×_ day temperatures to the district level by taking the weighted average across grid-points for each day with weights defined as the total population in each grid-point’s unique catchment area.<sup>10</sup> We assign grid-points to the districts that contain them. For districts that do not contain any grid-points we use the nearest grid-point to the center of the district. We then calculate whether a district experiences an inversion on a given day based on the district _×_ day temperature at each atmospheric level.

We use two different measures of inversions. The first considers the difference between

> 8Data available here: `https://disc.gsfc.nasa.gov/datasets/M2I3NPASM_5.12.4/summary? keywords=M2I3NPASM`

> 9The actual height varies with surface elevation and day-to-day changes in surface pressure.

> 10 Catchment areas are the area around each grid-point that is closer to that grid-point than any other grid-point.

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_Figure 6:_ UK value added of final and intermediate goods and services <!-- Start of picture text --> $600,000<br>$500,000<br>$400,000<br>$300,000<br>$200,000<br>$100,000<br>$0<br>1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011<br>Final goods and services exports to EU Final goods and services exports to non‐EU<br>Intermediate DVA to EU Intermediate DVA to non‐EU<br>Intermediate<br>Final<br><!-- End of picture text --> A deeper look at the decomposition of value added sheds more light on the structure of GVCs in which the UK is involved. While intermediate value added of UK exports to the EU is similar to that of exports to non‐EU countries, the re‐exported value added content of exports, a measure of how much intermediates value added are used as inputs to produce exports in other countries, is much higher. This suggests that UK exports to the EU are an important element of EU exports, whereas they are important for domestic consumption in non‐EU countries.

# 3. Depth of trade agreements and UK‐EU trade

This section empirically investigates the extent to which the depth of the EU and of the PTAs the EU has with other countries had an impact on UK trade. The empirical estimation of the trade effect of PTAs is based on a gravity model similar to Mattoo et al. (2016) and Osnago et al. (2016). Different from the large body of literature on trade agreements (see Head and Mayer, 2014; Limão, 2016), we explicitly account for the depth of PTAs, exploiting the novel information on the content of trade agreements presented in Section 2. Moreover, we include an interaction term to accommodate heterogeneous effects
Along these lines we approach our definition of social cohesion as an aptitude. One encounters in the literature a great number of different measures, both direct and indirect. Among the direct measures are: Measures on memberships rates of organizations and participation in organizations: Social relations have been measured in developing countries by Deepa Narayan and her collaborators (e.g., Narayan and Pritchett, 1999), but mostly on a micro (community) scale. At that level they are shown to be significant predictors of an aptitude for cooperation. Robert Putnam's (1993) important work uses membership of organizations as a measure of social cohesion (or more accurately, what he calls "social capital.") There are sharp differences, however, between his assessment of the US and that of many European countries, where indeed social cohesion went up as measured in this way. Is this variance in "social cohesion"-as measured by a richness of participatory processes in organizations-related to strong variance in social and economic policy reform? I do not think so. Hence I question whether Putnam's measure is that relevant for social cohesion as I have defined it. The results presented by Steve Knack (2000) seem to support this. He finds that the trust variable does contribute to the explanation of economic growth, but the membership of organization variable is not influencing growth in a statistical significant way. For reasons and because of the relative small available sample, we will not use the membership variable.

# - Measures on trust

A typical measure on trust (from the World Value Survey) is the aggregate of the answers to the question "do you think people can be trusted?" for a random sample of respondents.

There are cross-country measures of "trust" (see Knack and Keefer 1997). The new surveys being conducted around the world, including OECD countries such as Australia and members of the European Union, promise to yield significant new insights, and will allow us to address these issues with much greater
individuals’ labor force participation and employment probability, while controlling for timevarying individual characteristics. This allows accounting for unobserved time-invariant heterogeneity at the individual level through fixed effects estimation. Additionally, it accounts for geographical heterogeneity and for aggregate factors that likely affect the labor market and employment by controlling for region and year fixed effects.

<mark>The results of this paper suggest that Internet job search is associated with an increase in the probability of employment for unemployed men. Indeed, controlling for home Internet access, I find that unemployed men who reported that job search is one of the purposes of Internet use are significantly more likely to find a job following an unemployment spell, relatively to unemployed men who do not use the Internet or those who use the Internet but not for job search. As for women, Internet job search is found to be associated with an increase in their labor force participation but not in employment. As for employed job seekers—be they men or women—Internet job search does not have an impact on wage growth. To make sure confounding factors related to both Internet adoption and local labor market outcomes do not drive these results, I rely on two sets of placebo regressions.</mark> <mark>Firstly, I rely on the 2006 round of the ELMPS and follow the same individuals interviewed in 2012 and 2018 in the 2006 round. This allows me to examine the impact of future use of Internet job search on past labor market outcomes. I examine the effect of the change in Internet job search between 2018 and 2012 on changes in labor force participation and employment between 2012 and 2006. Indeed, I do not find any effect of the future use of Internet for job search on past employment, which suggests that pre-existing trends in labor market outcomes do not drive my results.</mark> <mark>Secondly, I examine the impact of the percentage of Internet job searchers at the sub-district level in 2018 on labor force participation, employment, and unemployment, by gender, in
<!-- Start of picture text --> Registration for Marks, Patents, Utility Models, and Industrial Designs Firms Participated in Training Programs<br>Proportion of Croatian Manufacturing Firms, 2017 Croatian Manufacturing Firms, 2017<br>1 2 3 4<br>1 2 3 4<br>Quartiles of Management Score<br>All Regions Except Slavonia Slavonia All Regions Except Slavonia Slavonia<br>.3 .8<br>.6<br>.2<br>.4<br>Proportion of Firms (%)<br>.1<br>.2<br>0<br>0<br><!-- End of picture text --> How do these results inform firm interventions designed for enhancing aggregate productivity? A simple answer to this question is that management can be improved with concerted effort. For example, an experiment with 17 textile firms in India provides a proof-of-concept that intensive individualized consulting can deliver lasting improvements in the practices of badly managed firms, resulting in productivity improvements by 17 percent (Bloom et al., 2013). Although this intervention improved management and firm performance, it came at a huge cost of approximately $75,000 per treated firm. This high cost is likely to be prohibitive for many small and medium enterprises (SMEs) to finance themselves, and for governments seeking to scale this up for assisting a large number of firms. To counter this, Iacovone et al. (2019) tested two alternative approaches to improving management among firms producing auto parts in Colombia. The first uses intensive and expensive one-on-one consulting, while the second draws on agricultural extension approaches to provide consulting to small groups of firms at approximately one-third of the cost of the individual consulting services. Their results show that both approaches lead to improvements in management practices of a similar magnitude (8-10 percentage points), so that the new group-based approach dominates on a cost-benefit basis.<sup>7</sup> This points
”, which refer to the full-time employees but exclude the re-hired retirees.

2. In the Chinese statistics, the “total urban employed” also includes the laid-off or _Xiagang_ workers from state-owned and collectives. These workers have been laid off while still nominally holding an employment relationship (or contract) with their enterprises or units. However, many of them do not receive any living expenses from their units or have any other source of income, and they should be categorized as “unemployed”. This is one of the reasons that, in the Chinese statistic books, there is a discrepancy between the total employed and the total number of employees in all formal and informal sectors adding together.

Source: _China Labor Statistical Yearbook_ 2002, _China Statistics Yearbook_ , various years, and Hu, Angang (2001).

preliminary estimation, by 2005, about 33 percent of China's labor force will be working in the service sector, which is expected to recruit about another 30 million new employees in the coming years. 46 Service industries are knowledge and labor-intensive, and therefore are particularly necessary for the transition to a knowledge based society. Their businesses are also crosscutting all other sectors, thus, productivity gains made in service sector industries not only benefit the service industries themselves, but benefits also trickle down through

> 45 See Meng, Xin’s study (2001) based on a survey of 1504 rural-urban migrants in Jinan city, Shandong Province in 1995. “The Informal Sector and Rural-Urban Migration – A Chinese Case Study”, _Asian Economic Journal_ , V15, No.1, 2001.

> 46 “Call for More Jobs in China's Service Sector”, _Asia Times_ , April 27, 2002: h _ttp://www.atimes.com._

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year) series. An adverse temperature event is similarly defined. The long series covers the available years 1971-2001 for the 2002 year and the years 1981-2011 for the 2012 year.

Next, we define a measure of weather adversity. Let _ai,τ_ takes the value of 1 if an adverse event happened at time _τ_ in district location _i_ . _Ni,t_ counts the total number of events within district boundary _i_ during the five years under consideration (this is usually 5, unless there are missing data). Then, the percentage of adverse events (for either temperature or rainfall) is defined as:

# **Agro-climatic zones, roads and yields: ICRISAT**

We obtained information on the agro-climatic zone from the ICRISAT mesolevel database.<sup>30</sup> We use a standardized measure of crop water requirements, the yearly evapotranspiration (measured in mm), and the length of the growing period (defined as the period when normal precipitation exceeds 0.5 ETo).<sup>31</sup> These time-invariant data are presented using the 2011 district census boundaries. We imputed missing values in these ICRISAT data using information on the nearest neighbour using 2011 district census boundaries.<sup>32</sup> In addition, we obtained the 2001 and 2011 ICRISAT time-variant data on the total road length and the number of markets in the district (in km). For both years, we also obtained measures of crop (output) price (Rs/100 kg), crop

> 30See: http://data.icrisat.org/dld/

> 31ICRISAT records what it terms the normal monthly and annual potential evapotranspiration. Most documents refer to this concept as the ”reference crop evapotransporation” denoted ETo. This refers to a hypothetical crop and relies on climatic inputs only, not taking into account the specific crop or soil conditions. See Allen et al. 1998. We use the monthly values and compute an annual value from this.

> 32There are 421 districts
microfinance loans were disbursed by default into digital savings accounts earmarked for women’s business, there were noticeable improvements in business performance (Riley 2024).<sup>24</sup> Mobile banking can significantly reduce transaction costs (de Mel et al. 2022). Moreover, combining access to savings instruments with additional interventions, such as incentives to register or training, has proven to be effective.<sup>25</sup> Further research is required to understand the impact of savings products on larger firms.

# 4.6 Insurance

In various contexts, research has found that women tend to be more risk-averse than men, which may lead to less risky investments in their businesses and a tendency to diversify their entrepreneurial activities. Additionally, there is evidence that women generally have lower confidence than men in financial decision-making and investments, potentially deterring them from seeking formal financing

> 23 Based on the author’s own calculations using the World Bank Gender Data Portal and the 2017 Global Findex Database. The 2021 Global Findex data indicate that the gender gap in account ownership across developing economies decreased to 6 percent from 9 percent, where it had remained stable for several years.

> 24 Default effects can serve as a catalyst for encouraging savings. The RCTs by Somville and Vandewalle (2018) and Field et al. (2021) demonstrate that savings tend to increase more when funds are directly transferred into accounts rather than when participants are given the option to deposit the funds themselves.

> 25 Campos et al. (2023) found that combining monetary incentives for business registration with access to banking services significantly improved business performance for both male and female entrepreneurs in Malawi. Buvinic et al. (2020) showed that an intervention that combined financial training, business training, mentorship, and incentives to promote agent banking savings accounts had significant effects on women-led business in Indonesia. Additionally, Batista et al. (2022) observed significant effects in Mozambique from combining a short rule-of-thumb training with mobile saving accounts.

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than for unadjusted consumption when using the median as the poverty line. This reverses when we switch to PG and SPG. In the all-India NSS sample, and using the median as the poverty line, the PG index rises from 13.7% to 17.4%, while the SPG index rises from 5.2% to 9.9%. Using a poverty line at the 40<sup>th</sup> percentile, the SPG index more than doubles from 3.6% to 8.4%. The changes were similar for the other datasets.

Inequality is unambiguously higher after our adjustment for the disutility of work (Figure 4). In order to quantify this increase in inequality, we report in Table 5 the corresponding Gini

> 14 The standard deviation is higher for the Bihar Survey sample as a whole and the sub-sample for un-rationed households only, which can be explained by the fact that we include more heterogeneous types of casual work in the definition of  Li , suggesting a higher variance in wages.

> 15 Recall that we can only measure the net gains due to the program using the specially-designed World Bank Bihar survey. Thus we can only derive pre-NREGS consumptions for that dataset.

> 16 Here and elsewhere we use household weights (expansion factors) to assure that the sample-based calculations are representative of the population in the base year.

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<!-- Start of picture text --> 3.5 The Global Distribution of Vascular Plants<br>Borgelt et al. (2022 — henceforth Borgelt) have recently developed spatial density maps for vascular plants<br>they identify “native regions” from a web-scraping exercise using the Plants of the World Online (POWO)<br>database, with regional identification standardized from the World Geographical Scheme for Recording<br>Plant Distributions (WGSRPD). Typically, the resulting “native regions” are the boundaries of small<br>countries or provinces (GADM level-1 administrative units) in large countries.<br>Borgelt estimates the models using GBIF occurrence data with restrictive prior conditions. The data are<br>confined to the period 2000-2020 to preserve compatibility with the environmental variables used for<br>Maxent estimation. For each species, georeferenced occurrence reports are pruned to exclude all<br>observations outside of pre-identified “native regions”. Maxent-estimated species distributions are also<br>confined to native regions. This approach has the advantage of guaranteeing the exclusion of spurious<br>observations from entities like botanical gardens and private collections in other regions. However, it also<br>incurs the cost of excluding potentially-large numbers of occurrence observations that lie outside pre-<br>identified native regions that are arbitrarily defined by national or provincial boundaries.<br>Our exercise draws on a longer time period (1970-2023) because we are not constrained by the need for<br>compatibility with environmental modeling variables. In addition, we impose no prior geographic<br>restrictions on the data. As we explained previously, our methodologies estimate occurrence map<br>boundaries after removing spurious single outliers and small isolated occurrence clusters.<br>We have identified 32,339 vascular plant species that are in both databases. As before, we rasterize our<br>occurrence maps and compute cell counts at 5 km resolution. Borgelt provides species maps in a raster<br>
Croke et al. (2016)

# **1 Introduction**

Soil transmitted helminths (STH; including hookworm, whipworm, and roundworm) are estimated to affect 1 in 4 people in endemic countries (Pullan et al., 2014) and at least 1.3 billion people worldwide (Global Atlas of Helminth Infections, 2016). The intensity of infection is correlated with prevalence, and highly skewed, so while many infected individuals have light infections, only a minority have the moderate to severe intensity infections believed to account for the bulk of morbidity (Anderson, Truscott and Hollingsworth, 2014).

Because of the damage worms can cause, there is consensus that those known to be infected should be treated. There is also consensus that deworming drugs are safe and effective; indeed, they are the standard of care for those known to be infected. Because individual collection and testing of stool samples prior to treatment is prohibitively expensive and logistically impractical in many low-income contexts, the World Health Organization (WHO) has long recommended mass drug administration (MDA) in endemic areas. In particular, the WHO recommends annual MDA in areas with more than 20% prevalence of soil-transmitted helminths, and multiple annual MDA where prevalence is above 50% (World Health Organization, 2012).

Studies of the long-term impact of deworming in multiple environments suggest that even under conservative assumptions and allowing for uncertainty, the expected benefits of MDA exceed the $0.30 per treatment costs (Ahuja et al., 2015; Baird et al., 2
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