rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
high blood pressure (referred to hereafter as hypertension) and high blood glucose (referred to hereafter as diabetes) (World Cancer Research Fund International and The NCD Alliance 2014). In much of the literature found, high blood glucose and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) were used interchangeably. We did not include type 1 diabetes mellitus, an autoimmune condition that is not diet related. In the second literature search, articles were further limited to original systematic review articles that included a meta-analysis of observational study data (e.g. crosssectional and prospective or retrospective cohort studies). Systematic review articles were excluded if they reported only on intervention trials (RCTs) or did not report an estimate of the effect size or odds ratio for the risk of the outcome associated with the diet exposure. We did not include experimental studies because we were interested in estimates based on normal population dietary intake. Articles were excluded if they reported evidence specific to high-income countries only.

# **Information sources**

To identify relevant articles, we conducted the first search in April 2023 using the Web of Science Core Collection database and Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. We conducted the second search in January 2024 using the same two databases. The search strategies were developed by life stage group and health/nutrition outcome, with search terms for each of the three components (diet exposure, outcome and cost) combined to identify relevant studies. The list of search terms for each life stage group and health/nutrition outcome are shown in **Annex 1.** The electronic database search was supplemented by scanning the reference lists of selected articles and other relevant reviews.

A team of six reviewers assessed the eligibility of the search results, with two reviewers for each search list (by life stage group/outcome). In the first step, each reviewer independently screened the list of articles based on the title and abstract. In the second step, one reviewer scanned the full text of the article and noted the presence or absence of
that the only way in which households receiving no remittances differ from households receiving internal and international remittances is that the latter group of households receive remittances. Non-remittance receiving and remittance receiving households are not assumed to differ in any entrepreneurial or other way which might affect their expenditure in a manner apart from the relationships captured by the variables used in the predicted income equations.

9 Results are similar when equation (2) is estimated by a log-linear model.

10 The expenditure variable in this data set is quite comprehensive and includes household expenditures on the following categories of goods: food (purchased and home produced), consumer goods, household services (energy, water), housing (annual use value), durable goods, education, health, transport and communication.

11 For more information on this expenditure-based poverty line for Guatemala, see page 12 of text.

12 For more on the life-cycle effects of household expenditure, see Deaton (1992, 1997).

13 See, for example, Psacharopoulos (1985, 1994) and Glewwe and Jacoby (2004).
Philippines -7.3% Q4<br>-7.1%<br>-5.6% Q5<br>-1.8%<br>-3.9%<br>South Africa -7.4%<br>-9.1%<br>-6.5%<br>-11.9%<br>-13.0%<br>Brazil -11.6%<br>-10.0%<br>-8.8%<br><!-- End of picture text -->

Notes: Projections following the methodology detailed in section 3.1. Estimates based on reported employment data. Estimates do not include changes in non-labor income.

> 16 Table A3 in the Appendix presents the values of average per capita household income by quintiles.

17
|4.8|2.5|2.3|3.2|
|Tribal - TESCO|-|-|10.5|8.0|7.7|-|
|Islamabad - IESCO|5.6|5.6|5.0|4.0|4.0|3.3|
|Gujranwala- GEPCO|3.6|3.2|3.2|4.0|4.0|3.3|
|Lahore - LESCO|2.1|0.7|3.5|2.3|1.7|2.0|
|Faisalabad - FESCO|7.0|7.8|7.3|4.3|3.5|3.2|
|Multan- MEPCO|9.0|9.0|10.0|4.3|3.2|3.4|
|Hyderabad - HESCO|3.8|7.3|3.8|4.0|3.3|4.5|
|Sukkur - SEPCO|4.0|2.0|2.0|1.0|1.0|2.3|
|Quetta - QESCO|10.5|11.1|10.5|3.4|2.8|3.9|
|KE|2.0|2.4|2.3|1.1|1.3|2.5|

_Source: NEPRA, State of Industry Report 2016_ In addition to these announced and unannounced cuts in supply, information was collected by the NEPRA to calculate the System Average Interruption Frequency Index (SAIFI), and the System Average Interruption Duration Index (SAIDI) for each of the DISCOs. Only the Islamabad (IESCO) utility was able to meet the allowed limits set by the regulator (SAIFI = 13 per annum; SAIDI = 14 minutes).
a) keep the system as simple as possible; (b) all the key players, in both core and line agencies, must understand the system and have an effective input in designing and improving it; (c) identify at an early stage what can be done given the short term staffing constraints and order the equipment accordingly; (d) apply the system as flexibly as possible since it is difficult, if not impossible, to be precise in advance concerning where new systems are likely to be most useful (elaborate feasibility studies are thus

- 24/ See B. Nunberg: "Public Sector Pay and Employment Policy Issues in Bank Lending: An Interim Review of Experience." PPR Working Paper (forthcoming) for an analysis of the difficulties involved in public sector manpower planning

- 25/ In Kenya it was found recently that nearly all statistical surveys processed by the Government's Computing Center could have been done faster manually. The root cause of this was unfilled vacancies for programmers and systems analysts because of better job prospects in the private sector. (See Clay G. Wescott: "Building Information Management Systems for Developing Countries," paper presented at a conference on Policy Aspects of Microcomputers in Developing Countries, National Research Council, Washington DC, January, 1988.

- 26/ Wescott: op. cit.
<!-- Start of picture text --> Immig. rate of inventors Immig. rate from developing countries<br>Switzerland Ireland Belgium USNew ZealandNetherlands Austria UK Australia Canada Denmark Norway Finland Sweden Spain France Germany Italy JapanR. of Korea<br>40<br>30<br>20<br>Immigration rate<br>10<br>0<br><!-- End of picture text --> Source: Authors’ analysis based on Miguélez and Fink (2013).

# **Dependent Variable**

International co-patent data are retrieved from PCT applications (WIPO IPSTATS databases). The first focus is on co-patenting at inventor level—co-inventorship. All the co-inventions between inventors residing in country i and inventors residing in country j are added up by year. To be precise, it includes 67 developing/emerging/transition countries, on the one hand, that co-invent with 20 developed countries, on the other, where diasporas from the former countries reside. If inventors from more than two countries participate in the patent, an international co-inventor for each country-pair is counted, irrespective of the total number of countries involved in that particular invention.<sup>12</sup> 12. Results with alternative ways of computing the dependent variable, where the number of inventors per patent is taken into account, are presented in appendix S5, with no remarkable differences with respect to the results presented in the main text. In contrast, the ranking of inventors listed in patents is not taken on board, due to the difficulties of determining whether the ordering of names bears any similarity with sorting of authors in scientific publications. However, understanding the relationship between immigrant status 16
and other efforts to remove obstacles facing private business. For example, in Chapter 2 McCaig and Pavcnik note that Vietnam was ranked 99th out of 185 countries in 2013 in the World Bank’s “Doing Business” indicators, “slightly behind China, ranked 91st, and ahead of such countries as Indonesia and Bangladesh.” Yet Ghana ranks 27 countries ahead of Vietnam, in 64th place. According to the indicators, it was considerably easier to get credit in Ghana than in Vietnam, paying taxes was less of a hassle, insolvency was much more quickly resolved, and access to electricity was less problematic. In terms of how well investors are protected, there is a whop- ping 40-point difference between the two countries, in favor of Ghana.

Other cross-national indexes tell a similar story. The Cato Institute’s Index of Economic Freedom, which attempts to quantify the extent to which economies are free of government encumbrance, ranks Vietnam in 96th place, compared with 71st place for Ghana (Gwartney, Lawson, and Hall 2012). (This is for 2010, which is the latest year for which data are available.) A reasonable objection to these comparisons would be that what matters is more the change than the level of an index. Economic progress may be more a function of how much policies have “improved” than where they stand at the end of the relevant period. But here too, it is hard to make the case that Vietnam looks better than Ghana. Both countries have undertaken significant reforms since the 1980s, opening up their economies to trade, reducing the role of the government, and deregulating. Ghana’s summary rating on the Cato Index steadily rose (on a scale from 0 to 10) from 3.05 in 1980, to 5.53 in 1995, to 7.09 in 2010. Unfortunately, Cato does not provide a comparable series for Vietnam over the full period, so a direct comparison is not possible. But in light of the scale of improvement in
countries. We interpret these findings as suggesting that - while there is substitution across destinations that are similar - a worsening news sentiment in European countries does not induce migrants to return to their origin country.

Our findings have important policy implications. Attempts to discourage migrants from reaching their preferred destination countries based on the use of negative, aggressive, and discriminatory tone in the public discourse on migration are unlikely to be successful. While a more negative tone of the news makes some migrants stay longer in Libya, delaying their journey to their final destination, this happens _only_ for migrants located in specific areas of the country or traveling using a specific route, and only when there are specific conditions in destination countries. Moreover, the strategy employed by populist governments to reduce migration to their country by creating an unwelcoming environment for migrants is politically unsustainable due to spillover effect of the tone of the news across destination countries. Given that a more negative tone of the news in one country increases migration flows to similar destinations (but not the willingness of migrants in Libya to return to their country of origin), the use of this populist strategy undermines the basis for the cooperation between European governments in the management of migration flows from Africa.

The paper is organized as follows. Section 2 discusses the related literature. Section 3 provides background information on migration in Libya. Section 4 describes the data. Section 5 presents the empirical strategy, and Section 6 discusses the results. Section 7 concludes.

# **2 Literature**

Our paper is related to the small - but rapidly growing - literature looking at the effects of media exposure on migration choices. A few studies document a positive association between Internet access and migration intentions and aspirations (Pesando et al., 2021; Grubanov-Boskovic et al., 2021). B ̈ohme et al. (2020) show how geo-referenced online search data on migration-related terms can be used to measure migration intentions in origin countries and to predict bilateral migration flows. Adema et al. (2022) uses
taken from the WBES, namely (i) the share of annual sales spent in informal payments or gifts to public officials to “get things done” regarding Customs, taxes, licenses, regulations and services; and (ii) the proportion of firms identifying business licensing and permits as a major or very severe obstacle. The latter variable is a broad indicator of the quality of firms’ interaction with public officials, and reflects firms’ perception of the difficulty to obtain operating and import licenses. Columns 21-30 of Table 9 show that our core results remain robust after the sequential introduction of these two variables, apart from Column 25 where uncertainty no longer seems to affect the third-year export survival rate once bribery is accounted for. The proportion of sales revenue forgone because of rent-seeking practices is positively associated with firm exit rates, while the share of firms reporting the incidence of hurdles faced in connection with business and import licenses reduces the survival rate of entrants.

While the robustness checks reported in this section show that our core results do not seem to be influenced by omitted variables bias, one may still argue about the presence of endogeneity due to reverse causality. We rule out this concern for the following reasons. First, even though one could claim that higher firm entry or survival rates in foreign markets may translate into more intense export activity leading to Customs and other border agencies overflow, and ultimately delays in the time required to export, it is difficult to see how this would also directly affect import times. Indeed, extensive data verifications and physical inspections carried out by border agencies for imports are usually not relevant for most exports. Unless the country applies Customs export duties, which few countries do nowadays and only for a limited set of products, Customs agents seldom check export value or classification (McLinden, Fanta, Widdowson, and Doyle, 2011).<sup>36</sup> This also explains why WCO guidelines to measure release times focus on import transactions (World Customs Organization, 2011). Second, another
# **4. Data**

We use the VHLSS conducted by the Vietnamese GSO in 2016 (VHLSS 2016). This survey has national coverage and a sample size of 9,399 households from a multi-stage stratified random sampling design. The sample is representative at national, regional, urban, rural and provincial levels. Information was collected in four quarters of 2016 through face-to-face interviews with household heads and using an household questionnaire divided into the following sections: household members characteristics; education; health care; income (employment, salaries, wages, agro-forestry and aquaculture activities); expenditure and consumption of food and non-food goods and services; participation in aid schemes.

Before estimations, the VHLSS 2016 data set was cleaned. We considered outliers those households with variables value five times the sample’s standard deviation. After removing outliers and missing values, the remaining sub-sample counts 1,461 households. From the VHLSS 2016 we derive prices and expenditure for 10 groups of goods and services. Table 3 reports the groups and the goods of which they are composed. The households’ expenditure of the first seven groups – i.e. food, foodstuff, beverages and tobacco, household equipment, clothing and accessories, transport, and post and communication; was calculated summing up the individual values in Vietnamese dongs (VND) of each item in the group. The survey did not collect items prices, therefore for each group we calculated a unit value dividing expenditure by the number of items. Unit values are then used in the demand system as proxies for prices. As expenditure for education we used the total expenditure on education over the past 12 months for compulsory subjects in school, and the unit value was calculated dividing this for the number of household members attending school in last 12 months. For medical and health expenditure we used the total expenditure for medical check and treatment provided in the VHLSS 2016, calculating the unit value dividing by the total number of resident and non-resident medical visits in the household. For electricity, we used
camp that opened after Rohingyas arrived in 2017, and the pixel’s geodesic distance to the nearest main road.

# **4.3 Image Processing**

For the image preprocessing, we use some of the in-build <mark>radiometric enhancement techniques in ArcGIS pro to improve the quality of data visualization during image processing. These techniques enhance our ability to interpret the image correctly. For instance, we use the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), a s</mark> pectral enhancement technique, to

> 7 Elvidge, Baugh, Zhizhin, & Hsu (2013) argue that VIIRS better captures nighttime lights as compared to the DMSP maps. Hence, we opt for VIIRS over DMSP for this study.

> 8 <mark>A geodesic distance measures the shortest path between two points on a curved surface, like the Earth (ESRI, 2021).</mark>

12
3737|0.6697|
|2006|0.1964|0.4987|0.3581|0.3897|0.7044|
|2007|0.2162|0.5176|0.3637|0.3903|0.6996|
|2008|0.1807|0.5068|0.3784|0.3995|0.7012|
|2009|0.1536|0.5159|0.3608|0.3873|0.6859|
|2010|0.1561|0.4735|0.3508|0.3784|0.7048|
|2011|0.1796|0.4666|0.3493|0.3579|0.7180|
|2012|0.1748|0.4671|0.3514|0.3716|0.7316|
|2013|0.1695|0.4613|0.3298|0.3570|0.7058|
|2014|0.1575|0.4479|0.3196|0.3388|0.6884|
|2015|0.1444|0.4588|0.3378|0.3546|0.7290|
|average|0.1774|0.4757|0.3463|0.3729|0.7033|

# Source: GHBS data

The value of the index is 0.1774 when using the public and private sector categories, indicating that 17.74 percent of workers have to be moved in order to obtain an equal gender distribution of employment (Table 2). There is a strong correlation between public ownership and 10
also find that 21 percent of firms in the industrial parks report paying a base wage below the local poverty line. Based on the information in the report, it is not clear how far below the poverty line these wages fall and what happens to total compensation for these workers when non-wage benefits are included.

A unique feature of many of the foreign firms in Vietnam is their sheer size. For example, in 2017, there were 756 foreign-owned firms with more than 1,000 employees while in Ethiopia, this number is only 21. Moreover, there were 125 foreign firms with more than 5,000 employees in Vietnam while there are no firms of this size in Ethiopia’s manufacturing sector. This difference does not apply only to foreign firms, although the “huge” firms are more prevalent among foreign-owned enterprises and in the labor-intensive sectors of apparel and footwear. We call this the case of the missing huge firms.

> 3 A list of Ethiopia’s industrial parks, with some basic data on when they started, number of firms and workers, and share of workers who are female and/or in the garment industry, is available in the Appendix. Our evidence is consistent with that of Meyer et al. (2021).

13
|Coope-<br>ratives|SSFIs|MFIs|Coope-<br>ratives|SSFIs|MFIs|Coope-<br>ratives|SSFIs|MFIs|
|**Malaysia**|√|√|2.78|1,146.06|n.a.|0.04|13.71|n.a.|87.26|113.07|19.03|0.63|12.09|0.22|
|**OIC countries**<br>**average**|68%|57%|30.86|224.11|68.14|3.98|5.33|0.61|24.94|31.00|34.68|2.59|3.62|0.79|
|**Developing**<br>**countries average**|47%|36%|100.53|216.71|48.93|1.99|4.27|0.78|27.54|25.01|30.14|1.71|3.35|0.97|
|**Low-income**<br>**countries average**|79%|62%|32.65|18.17|62.44|0.68|1.74|0.92|16.42|8.46|43.87|0.69|1.70|1.19|

Source: CGAP financial access report data 2010 Note: The CGAP Financial Access Database covers questionnaires sent to 151 economies: 13 in East Asia and the Pacific, 27 in Europe and Central Asia, 20 in Latin America and the Caribbean, 14 in the Middle East and North Africa, 6 in South Asia, 40 in Sub- Saharan Africa, and 23 in the high-income OECD countries. Among them,
# 1 Introduction

This research examines the education policy priorities of senior government officials in ministries of education and ministries of finance in East Asia Pacific (EAP) countries and compares them with the priorities of international development partners. A 2020 survey conducted by the Center for Global Development (CGD) found “(m)isalignment with donor agendas” in three dimensions: (i) objectives for education; (ii) beliefs about the state of the world; and (iii) beliefs about the effectiveness of specific education interventions (Crawfurd et al., 2021). Using new survey data based on 188 interviews with senior government officials in five middle-income EAP countries and 601 interviews with officials in seven additional countries globally in 2022, this paper explores policy makers’ perceptions on a range of technical topics in education, including foundational literacy and barriers to learning.<sup>1</sup> ￼ In our 2022 survey, conducted jointly with CGD, officials were interviewed about their education sector knowledge, beliefs, and values. This work is built on the assumption that education policy is shaped by senior officials and that their opinion influences policy (Smets, 2020; Baekgaard et al., 2015; see discussion in Crawfurd et al., 2021).<sup>2</sup> We focus on EAP officials’ perceptions of learning poverty, barriers to improving learning, levels of education spending, and expected returns to education, as well as opinions about gender, violence and inclusion of students with disabilities. We then compare the stated perspectives with those of officials outside the region, as well as with actual and official data, when available.

We present data from seven low- and middle-income countries in the EAP region, two which were surveyed in 2020 (Solomon Islands and Vanuatu) and five surveyed in 2022 (Indonesia, the Philippines, the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Vietnam, and Mongolia). These countries were chosen to provide a range of middle-income education systems in EAP and for which the
living conditions and log income. The calculations<br>assume log normal income and expenditure distributions and assume that measurement error in income, expenditure and subjective<br>living conditions are independent. To the extend measurement error is correlated, the instrumented Ginis are biased upwards.<br>Standard errors are less than 0.02 for both measured and instrumented Ginis. Differences between measured and instrumented Ginis<br>are highly statistically significant in all cases.<br><!-- End of picture text -->

# 5. **Economic Security**

Following families over time also allows us to examine the stability, or security, of their economic situation. Figure 4 shows for Russia and for Poland the distribution of income and expenditure shocks, measured as percentage changes between the reference month and the same month one year later.<sup>9</sup> These percentage changes are reported in deviation of the national mean. The figure shows that families experience huge 9 The reference month is the month in which the household was observed in wave 2 of the survey. In Russia, wave 2 was fielded in November and December of 1995 while in Poland wave 2 was fielded between January and December of 1994.

20