rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
Policy Research Working Paper 6143

# **Abstract**

This paper outlines and evaluates several intellectual property monetization strategies available to patent holders in developing countries that help generate domestic innovation and knowledge-driven growth by promoting more active technology markets. Based on a review of World Intellectual Property Report indicators, the patent ownership gap between a sample of developed and developing countries has narrowed gradually for more technologically-sophisticated developing countries. However, based on complementary International Monetary Fund Balance of Payments data, the patent commercialization divide (as indicated by licensing income) has been widening. The paper argues that patents, and all forms of intellectual property, are an enabling mechanism rather than a defensive right: an intangible asset class that can be proactively nurtured and managed for greater value extraction to stimulate knowledge-based entrepreneurship and growth in developing countries. The paper presents multiple case studies of alternative monetization strategies to address the commercialization divide. These strategies range from private, market-driven options to those requiring a greater amount of public policy support: from patent securitization and patent exchanges (focusing on the United States-initiated Intellectual Property Exchange International and the Shanghai Silicon Intellectual Property Exchange), to the strengthening of technology transfer and commercialization infrastructure (focusing on the experience of the Association of University Technology Managers and Taiwan, China’s Intellectual Property Rights Institute), to patent litigation support (including South Korea’s support of patent infringement lawsuit costs for small and medium enterprises). The paper also highlights areas where further policy research would be helpful.

This paper is a product of the Economic Policy and Debt Department, Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Network. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http:// econ.worldbank.org. The author may be contacted at roya.ghafele@oxfirst.com.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas
that can answer questions like is relative educational mobility higher or lower in the rural areas? To this end, we calculate weighted IGME (henceforth WIGME) and weighted ES (henceforth WES): where _πk_ is the proportion of children in our sample with father having _k_ years of schooling.

# **(4.2) Data and Variables**

We use panel data from the Indonesia Family Life Survey (IFLS) for our analysis of educational persistence across generations in rural and urban areas in Indonesia. The first wave of IFLS was fielded in 1993, and the second, third, fourth and fifth waves were fielded in 1997, 2000, 2007 and 2014, respectively. At the time of the first wave, 7,224 households were interviewed and it represented 83 % of the national population of Indonesia covering 13 of the 27 provinces (Frankenberg et al., 1995). In the subsequent waves, the sample size grew because others joined the sampled households either through marriage or births.

Our focus is on the children of 18-40 years age cohorts in IFLS 2014 wave. This is motivated by three factors. First, we are interested in intergenerational educational persistence in rural vs. urban Indonesia during the 1990s and 2000s, and most of the children in the 18-40 age cohorts went to school during this period. Second, we can use the earlier rounds of IFLS to estimate the investment equation (8) above for most of these age cohorts which allows us to understand the role played by economic forces such as returns to education and school quality in the observed rural-urban differences in intergenerational educational mobility. Third, only the 2014 wave contains data on Raven’s scores for all adults which is necessary for our analysis of the biases from unobserved ability heterogeneity.

Returns to education for parents determine the gradient of household permanent income with respect to educational differences across households. The existing literature on returns to education provides estimates of labor market returns, and may capture only a small part of household permanent income we are interested
controlling such effects using the value added in manufacturing as a proportion of GDP ( _Manufacturing VA_ ), and value added in agriculture as a proportion of GDP ( _Agriculture VA_ ). The data source for these variables is WDI, World Bank. As above, we use average values of the variable taken over the last five years prior to the year the ES was conducted in the country.

Cultural and institutional factors are important factors that determine women’s engagement in the labor market. Studies show that social and cultural attitudes towards women and their market activity are correlated with women’s participation in the labor market, although the evidence on the issue is rather mixed (see for example, World Bank 2011, Contreras and Plaza 2010, Hajj and Panizza 2009). For culture or social attitudes, we follow the literature and use two sets of proxy measures. First, the proportion of population that is Catholic, Protestant and Muslim (the residual category of other religions is the omitted category). Second, a dummy variable equal to 1 if the legal origin of the country is Socialist and 0 otherwise. The data source is La Porta et al. (1999).

Laws on maternity leave are not the only laws that impact women’s employment. Other gender-specific laws could also impact female relative to male employment (see for example, Amin et al. 2016, Gonzales et al. 2015, Branisa et al. 2013, Islam et al. 2018). Thus, our main results concerning maternity leave could suffer from omitted variable bias if the other laws happen to vary systematically with the length of maternity leave across countries. To guard against such possibility, we control for various gender-specific laws all taken from the WBL data and for the year 2016. Specifically, we control for an overall measure of gender disparity in the laws ( _WBL disparity_ ).<sup>6</sup> Additionally, following Amin et al. (2016), we control for a dummy variable equal to

> 6
br>Income<br>Structure<br>Exports<br>Exchange rate<br>Regulation<br>-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0<br><!-- End of picture text --> Note: See notes from figure 10. All data are from household surveys. Unemployment regressions contain 36 or 37 observations, while activity **Figure 10** regressions contain 29 observations.

**Figure 10**

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The high rates of tobacco consumption in Bangladesh impose an increasing health and economic burden on the country. A 2004 epidemiological study found that 1.2 million tobacco-related illnesses and nearly 57,000 deaths attributable to smoking were reported each year (WHO 2007). More current information shows that approximately a quarter of all deaths among men ages 25–69 in Bangladesh are attributable to smoking (Alam et al. 2013). The overall economic cost of tobacco use has been estimated at Tk 110 billion (US$1.85 billion) or over 3 percent of gross domestic product (GDP) (WHO 2007).

The government has undertaken efforts to tackle tobacco consumption. It was among the first to sign (June 2003) and ratify (June 2004) the World Health Organization’s Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, the world’s first public health treaty, which urged governments to adopt comprehensive policies to limit tobacco use. The country’s participation in the framework convention has led to advances in tobacco control policy, in particular through the 2005 Smoking and Tobacco Usage Act. The new law restricted smoking in certain locations, though health care facilities, educational facilities, sport venues, and taxis were the only 100 percent smoke-free environments in Bangladesh at the time.<sup>5</sup> Warning labels on cigarette packages and the limited advertising of tobacco products were also mandated as part of the 2005 law. According to the 2009 Global Adult Tobacco Survey and the International Tobacco Control Bangladesh Survey, tobacco consumption rose between 2009 and 2012, despite the government’s actions to restrain it. Among the negatives of the Smoking and Tobacco Usage Act were the low levels of enforcement of non-tax measures, including the advertising ban and smoke-free public places, and relatively low levels of implementation of the warning labels. In April 2013, the National Assembly passed the Tobacco Control Law Amendment Bill and Rules to close many of these loopholes. A major contribution of the amendment was the requirement that packages contain pictorial warnings.
|El Salvador|National Development<br>Plan 2010-2014<br>|X||
|---|---|---|---|
|Mexico|Vision 2030<br>|X|X|
|Panama|National Concertation|X||
|Peru|National<br>Competitiveness Plan<br>2003-2010<br>National<br>Competitiveness<br>Agenda<br> <br>|X<br>X||
|Uruguay|Industrial<br>Development<br>Strategy (2008)<br>|X|X|
||Sectoral<br>Industrial<br>Plans(2011)<br>|X|X|

*Discontinued by the current government

Source: The authors based on Official Data Table 2 also shows that some of the strategies combine with promotion of new activities, which would fall into the Hausmann, Rodrik and Sabel industrial policies “in the large”. However, many of these more ambitious initiatives are “in the large ‘ _light_ ’ ”, i.e., they are not grand bets distant from existing comparative advantages or learning capabilities. As an illustration, Table 3 lists the initiatives in Colombia for productive transformation that aim to build capacities leading to new world class sectors/activities in that country. In Chile, the 2007 innovation strategy’s push for new activities was focused on cluster development of eight carefully selected sectors, but most are based on activities close to country’s abundant natural resources<sup>14</sup> .

> 14 The current government, which entered power in 2010, suspended the strategy  launched by the  opposition. The National Innovation Council for Competitiveness announced a review of the strategy of innovation in April 2011: http://www.cnic.cl/

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put country-level statistics in context if concepts and procedures used are comparable. Comparing descriptive statistics from Prindex to those obtained using the LFS is, however, difficult without a description of the sampling procedure and information on non-response neither of which was available. To nevertheless capitalize on availability of these data which, for example, provide information on a larger set of transfer rights, we focus on regressions to explore links between access to either formal or informal documentation and transferability.

Results as reported in table 8 suggest that there is no association between access to a formal or informal documentation and the ability to transfer land _intra vivos_ , bequeath, rent, or sell it, or use it as collateral. While this suggests that a careful methodological discussion of Prindex data and approach could be useful, empirical examination of data for the 32 countries (in addition to Zambia) for which data have been gathered thus far is well beyond the scope of this paper. Two issues that may explain some of the surprising findings reported above and their potentially broader implications are worth mentioning. First, the Prindex focuses on property rather than land that goes together with potentially very high levels of under-reporting of nonresidential agricultural properties: in the case of Zambia, just about 4% of respondents, compared to 75% in 16
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|||La|Table 5<br>bor**Regulations**|||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|_Country_|_Payroll_<br>_Taxesa_|_Severance_<br>_Payments'_|_Employment_<br>_Growth_<br>_(1992-1995)'_|_Unemployment_<br>_Rate (1996)_|_Collective_<br>_Bargaining_|
|**Australia**|27.8|Low|1.0|9.0|Centralized|
|**Chile**|20.9|Low|2.3|6.3|Firm Level|
|**Japan**|22.9|None|0.6|2.5|Firm Level|
|**Malaysia**|24.3|Low|3.3|2.8|Firm Level|
|**New Zealand**|11.5|None|1.4|8.0|Firm Level|
|**United States**|20.1|None|1.8|5.5|Firm Level|
|**Argentina**|50<br>_<br>0d|High|-0.7|17.2|Centralized|
|**France**|54.7|High|-0.4|11.6|Centralized|
|**Italy**|52.8|High|-1.7|10.2|Centralized|
|**Spain**|38.2|High|-1.6|22.4|Centralized|

**a** Payroll taxes are firm donations plus obligatory personal contributions. The values for France, Spain, Italy and Japan correspond to 1994, those for Malaysia to 1995, and those for Argentina and
the percentage of the value of equipment can be recouped if the firm is to quit), and the existence of exclusive patents.<sup>9</sup>

**The scope of the firm.** The scope of the firm is characterized by its mix of activities (Viscusi, et al., 1990). Several issues of interest to the Bank and to development more generally may be related to fimn scope. For example, firms may be more likely to be vertically integrated in countries with weak contract enforcement. Whether this is true is, again, an empirical question requiring much data to answer. Few World Bank surveys have paid much attention to

> 8 Weaker because one has to average profitability and price-costs ratios with those of the competitors, for which the profitability and price-cost ratios are lower

> **9** This measurement has some problems. It is hard to measure costs, especially because it is subject to accounting methods and may be easily manipulated.

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UNICEF, (2010) WASH Technology Information Packages for UNICEF WASH Programme and Supply Personnel. UNICEF and Skat - Swiss Resource Centre and Consultancies for Development, Copenhagen.

- van Geen, A., Ahmed, K.M., Ahmed, E.B., Choudhury, I., Mozumder, M.R., Bostick, B.C., Mailloux, B.J. (2016) Inequitable allocation of deep community wells for reducing arsenic exposure in Bangladesh. J Water Sanit. Hyg. Dev. 6, 142-150.

- WHO, (2011) Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, p. 564.

World Bank, (2016) Bangladesh Interactive Poverty Maps. The World Bank Group, Washington D.C.

Zahid, A., Jahan, K., Ali, M.H., Ahmed, N., Islam, M.K., Rahman, A., (2013) Distribution of Groundwater Salinity and Its Seasonal Variability in the Coastal Aquifers of Bengal Delta, in: Zahid, A., Hassan, M.Q., Islam, R., Samad, Q.A., Khan, M.S., Haque, R. (Eds.), Impact of Climate Change on Socio-economic Conditions of Bangladesh. Alumni Association of German Universities in Bangladesh, German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD), Dhaka, pp. 170-193.

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institutions. This work is also being carried out through organizing global events such as the G20 Investor Forum in Buenos Aires in 2018 and the APEC Investor Forum in November 2019.

# **V. Conclusion**

WBG operations are centered on achieving development goals aligned with the SDGs. In its operations and lending, the WBG routinely finances investment and spending to improve SDGrelated outcomes. The depth of this involvement goes well beyond costing exercises, with heavy emphasis on spending efficiency and alternative financing models.

That said, the WBG has also made significant contributions to global efforts to estimate the cost of achieving the SDGs in recent years. These efforts have been undertaken alongside those of other international organizations, national authorities, and private entities. In recent years, the WBG has made efforts to improve how SDG costing estimates are produced—for example, by incorporating spending efficiency and policy reform scenarios into cost estimates—and to record the existing spending patterns to better understand how to use the available financing resources efficiently.

The WBG also plays an important role in advancing the agenda related to the cost of the SDGs, including by working with client countries to make public spending more efficient and implement better spending policies. Involving the private sector in the financing of the SDGs is especially important given that public finances are constrained and investment is subdued in many EMDEs. The WBG is also contributing to monitoring data related to the SDG targets—a vital prerequisite for estimating the cost of achieving the SDGs—and engages with key SDG stakeholders through thought leadership, country partnership, and advocacy.

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# IV. **Econometric Results**

# **4.1 Data**

The data used for this study are from a database collected by SEPA on the industrial firms which were listed as top water polluters in 1993 in China. These firms are located in 28 provinces (except for Hainan and Tibet) and are under close monitoring of both central and local environmental agencies. They belong to a wide range of industries: coal mining; sugar; dye; paper; electricity; petroleum refinery; fertilizer; chemical pharmaceutical; cement, and steel. The data contain the value of each firm's wastewater treatment equipment, levy paid on wastewater discharge, wastewater treated by each abatement facility, and TSS and COD removed. The data contain additional information such as output, ownership, and number of workers. Regional data were obtained from the China Yearbooks covered provinces' social-economic development, which include disposable income, education level (percentage of employees with secondary schooling or higher) and industrial densities (industrial GDP as a percentage of total GDP).

# 4.2 **Model and Variables**

The econometric model estimated has the following format: _log (total investment in wastewater treatment (or operation cost) / value of output) = aO +al * log(wastewater generated / output) + a2 *log (total water levy paid /_ 16
respectively 35.7% and 36.3% in Indonesia, 100.0% and 35.9% in Korea, 100.0% and 100.0% in Malaysia, 44.9% and 40.8% in the Philippines, and 86% in Thailand.<sup>7</sup> In terms of total assets, the coverage of the total commercial banking systemL by our sample varies between 80% and 100%. In terms of number of nonbank financial institutions, our coverage is 4.0% in Indonesia, 81% in Korea, 54.9% in Malaysia, 27.5% in Thailand and 5.3% in the Philippines. In terms of total assets, the coverage of the total nonbank financial system is between 47.0% ancl 90%.

We use various sources to obtain information on financial institutions' ownership structure, their corporate and family connections, and their fate in the aftermath of the crisis. Information on ownership is obtained from BANKSTAT, BANKSCOPE and Claessens, Djankov and Lang (1999). A financial intermediary is defined as state-owned if at least the government or a state-owned institution holds 50% of the equity. The BANKSTAT database includes the ownership structure of private financial intermediaries (top 10 shareholders), which allows us to discriminate between widely held institutions and institutions belonging to either a family or an industrial conglomerate. Following Claessens et al. (1999), we define an intermediary as "connected" when the largest owner has a stake of more than 20% and it is either a family or an industrial conglomerate.<sup>8</sup> Table II shows the distribution of our sample with respect to ownership structure and connections with industrial groups or influential families.

We consider distress and closu:re during the two years following the onset of the East Asian financial crisis, i.e., from July 1997 up to July 1999, and treat financial distress and closure separately. To identify distressed
accommodates order randomization as well as a set of other features identified as good practice for MPL design from the authors’ own research and the literature. These features include practice MPL rounds, constant maximal values in each binary choice within MPL, focusing WTP intervals on points of interest for hypotheses tests, and others. Many of these can also be implemented in pen and paper or verbally elicited MPL.

Our paper contributes to the methodological literature on WTP elicitation in field applications (e.g., Berry et al. (2020); Burchardi et al. (2021)). We focus on multiple price lists, an increasingly common elicitation approach in development economics. MPL are popular because they hold the promise of both straightforward implementation for researchers and ease of comprehension for subjects. However, we show that choice error is an important feature of MPL data, and likely any WTP data. When combined with specific features of data collection or analysis, this error has the potential to introduce bias in measured WTP. While others have discussed framing effects in MPL data (e.g., Andersen et al. (2007)), order effects have been largely overlooked to date. We draw three main conclusions: first, in populations where choice error is frequent, we caution against the use of some of the most common methods used in the design and analysis of MPL. Second, researchers using MPL or interpreting MPL data should pay special attention to the potential for order bias. Third, with the right MPL design and estimation approach, we believe that MPL continue to be a valuable tool. Our proposed two-pronged method of order randomization and latent utility estimation provides researchers and practitioners with a unified approach to diagnosing and mitigating bias while correctly accounting for choice error. Our Stata and SurveyCTO templates facilitate the measurement of WTP using MPL.

The next section describes WTP elicitation via MPL. It discusses common patterns in MPL data, presents a framework to think about error in such data, and summarizes how the existing literature has addressed
|Grid GDP Sum|1.0002***<br>(0.0001)|
|||500m Elevation|0.9977***|
||||(0.0006)|
|Constant|2.8220***|Constant|9,759***|
||(0.1133)||(5755)|
|Observations|331|Observations|331|
|R-squared|0.4902|R-squared|0.5593|

*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1; selected country/region dummy variables not shown

*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1; selected country/region dummy variables not shown

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5.2. Labor supply response**

Table 4 presents the impact that the public works offer has on employment outcomes for three demographic groups within the household: (a) the female beneficiary (self-reported); (b) all remaining adult household members, including the husband (reported by the female beneficiary); and (c) the husband (self-reported). Figure 2 shows graphically a subset of the employment measures. Employment status at midline and at endline was computed based on data collected via the weekly surveys described above.

We find that the contemporaneous labor supply effect on women’s employment is substantial and corresponds with the high take-up discussed earlier. Female participation in public works results in a 54.5 percentage-point increase in female employment, which subsequently increases general employment from 21.3 to 75.8 percent.<sup>19</sup> There is evidence that public works has a crowding-out effect among a small share of the self-employed women who appear to cease self-employment activities and, thereby, reduce their self-employment from 16 to 6 percent. This same effect has been found in other studies on public works, which

> 18 We collected the beneficiaries’ reasons for delegating the offer only in rounds 3 and 4. Consequently, the distribution of the reported reasons is based on only half of the treatment sample. 19 The public works reported in Table 4 at midline and endline are almost entirely part of the government’s emergency social assistance program as almost no other public works programs were being implemented in Djibouti during this period.

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