rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
realistically for the case of developing countries, forcing banks to share some of the information may reduce the rents from private information and push the sector towards larger, less fragmented and more efficient institutions. In short, there is then a subtle relationship between information availability and credit market competition and this remains an area where further research on the implications of sharing credit information would be helpful.

The competitiveness of the credit market is also related to the competitiveness of the market in information itself and as we have argued above a PCR will normally, and should normally, coexist with private credit bureaus. This is most definitely **not** an issue of either/or. However, the private credit bureau market, in general, will have sharply increasing returns to scale, and is often dominated by a few large players - especially in smaller countries where there is a very real danger of only one significant private company that will then have severely diminished incentives for responsiveness to client demands and innovation and may charge high prices. The existence of a PCR can assist entry into the private credit bureau market by lowering entry costs in making a set of basic credit information available at low cost. A healthy, competitive private credit bureau industry should then be free to compete on adding additional information and developing other value-added services such as credit scoring products rather than surviving on information-rents alone.

The design features of public credit registries can also impact upon the role they will have in promoting competition in both financial and non-financial markets. For example, it is important to attempt to widen the access to PCR data beyond common rules regarding reciprocity for access to the data. This may impact considerably on competition in other sectors including insurance and even trade where trade credit is important.

The policy with respect to the assignment and distribution of borrower ratings by a PCR also may potentially impact competition in a financial market. For example, if ratings are tied in a one-to-one fashion to provisioning requirements, this could discourage lenders from undertaking more detailed analysis of marginal borrowers and
text --> Source: ASE data An important caveat to consider is that some of these sectors are not homogeneous. Thus the sector referred to as industry contains 48 firms, out of which 11 are in the chemical industry, 11 are in food processing, 7 are in the medical and pharmaceutical industry and a smaller number of firms are spread out in other industries. In the financial sector 27 firms are in real estate, while 24 are in diversified financial services. Different industries might be differentially affected by 10
# 3. Methodology and Data

## 3.1. Data

The UNHS survey is used by the GoU to monitor the well-being of the population. The Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS) has conducted the survey every three to four years since the 1990s, providing a series of comparable data stretching more than 20 years. The last UNHS survey was conducted between July 2016 and June 2017, collecting data from around 15,000 households in all 112 existing districts of Uganda at the time. The UNHS 2016/17 is representative at the national, rural-urban, regional and sub-regional level, and gathers information on the socio-economic characteristics of the household (including income and consumption) and its members (including educational attainment, health status and use of services, etc.). Thus, it is possible to allocate all fiscal interventions for each household in the survey, as explained in detail in the next sections.

## 3.2. Summary of CEQ Methodology<sup>14</sup>

The CEQ Assessment takes specific fiscal policy elements, programs, expenditures, or revenue collections and allocates them to individuals and households appearing in the UNHS 2016/17. Once the allocations are made, analysis is done to calculate different measures of poverty and impoverishment, inequality and progressiveness, and the amount of redistribution accomplished on measures of income that exclude (“pre-fiscal”) and include (“post-fiscal”) these fiscal policy elements. Figure 5 summarizes the construction of these income concepts.

In the case of Uganda, we start with the construction of Disposable Income, which we assume is equal to the total consumption expenditure – including the implied value of any auto-production/autoconsumption and the imputed value of rent for owner occupied housing. We then work “backwards” from Disposable Income to calculate Net Market Income, Market Income plus pensions, and Market Income, as follows:

- Net Market Income: direct transfers are subtracted from Disposable Income, in this specific case, SAGE, NUSAF, UWEP and YLP transfers.

-
0943**|0.276***|0.212***|0.209***|0.186***|
||(0.0468)|(0.0375)|(0.0180)|(0.0198)|(0.0212)|
|_FVADP_|0.249***|0.279***|0.233***|0.232***|0.231***|
|_DVAR*Investment freedom_|(0.0227)<br>0.0020***<br>(0.0007)|(0.0329)|(0.0259)|(0.0259)|(0.0259)|
|_DVAR*STRI WB_||-0.0022**<br>(0.0010)||||
|_DVAR*FDI inflows_|||0.0013<br>(0.0010)|||
|_DVAR*Services trade_||||0.0004<br>(0.0004)||
|_DVAR*Openness_|||||0.0003***<br>(0.0001)|
|_Constant_|4.905***|5.068***|5.008***|5.206***|5.085***|
||(0.162)|(0.264)|(0.184)|(0.190)|(0.180)|
|Observations|7,180|5,391|7,164|7,164|7,164|
|R-squared|0.876|0.891|0.872|0.872|0.872|

Source: OECD ICIO database. *** p<0.01, ** p<0
# **6.2 EMDE financial variables following NIRP announcements: An event study**

The same event study methodology used in section 4.4 is applied in an assessment of the immediate impact of NIRP announcements on financial market developments across EMDEs. Movements in high-frequency indicators on EMDE assets in response to policy changes by BoJ, ECB, and SNB are tracked over time. Isolating the specific effect of NIRP is particularly challenging in an international context, as many more factors come into play, requiring cautious interpretations of the results. Other caveats previously highlighted apply as well.

The approach is comparable to previous studies analyzing the spillover effects of unconventional monetary policies. For instance, Chen et al. (2011) study the spillover effects of QE policies by the U.S. Federal Reserve, BoJ, BoE, and ECB on some EMDEs in Asia and Latin America. They find that earlier asset purchase programs by the U.S. Federal Reserve had larger positive effects on EMDE equity prices and bond spreads, while similar policies by the BoE and ECB led to somewhat mixed results.

On average, the response of EMDE assets is broadly consistent with expectations and previous literature. Currencies appreciated, bond spreads declined, and equity prices increased on the day of the announcement (Figure 19, Table A.3). The average impact on EMDEs is directionally consistent with previous estimates for QE policies by major advanced economies. The reactions of bond spreads, nominal effective exchange rates and equity prices across major emerging markets are of particular interest. Bond spreads declined across the majority of large emerging markets. However, the responses of other emerging markets were rather muted. The positive stockmarket response was broad-based while the exchange rate response varied considerably across countries, both in terms of size and direction. The differences across countries likely reflect domestic developments or other changes in international financial markets on the day of the announcement. If the event window is extended from one day to one month, results show a considerable range of outcomes with no clear
hence would make identification of the effect of different TAs problematic.

We combine the 2018 and 2016 editions of the TiVA database to obtain data on 62 countries, for goods and services, between 1995 and 2015. The 2016 edition covers the 1995-2011 period, while the 2018 edition covers the 2005-2015 period. We employ data from the 2016 edition from 1995 to 2004, and data until 2015 from the latest edition. The sector classifications in the two editions are not fully compatible. The 2018 edition uses the ISIC Rev. 4 classification, whereas the 2016 edition is based on the ISIC Rev. 3 one. While harmonization of the two classifications at the sector-level can be problematic<sup>21</sup> , the definitions of the goods and services aggregate sectors, and of the ‘buying’ sectors composing government entities did not change. We therefore conduct our analysis with the aggregates of goods and services. Table A1 in the Appendix lists the goods and services sectors that are included in the data. As for the country composition, Kazakhstan is included in the 2018 edition only, whereas Thailand never reports imports in public procurement (no imports are reported also in the Government Expenditures column). Therefore, we exclude both countries from the analysis. For simplicity, we also exclude the Rest-of-the-World aggregate that is part of the dataset.

To measure government procurement flows, we have to define the perimeter of the public sector. The OECD defines public procurement as “intermediate consumption (goods and services purchased by governments for their own use, such as accounting or IT services), gross fixed capital formation (acquisition of capital excluding sales of fixed assets, such as building new roads) and social transfers in kind via market producers (goods and services produced by market producers, purchased by government and supplied to households)” (OECD, 2013a, p.130). We cannot measure gross fixed capital formation by the public sector because the TiVA database, like other ICIO data, does not provide a split between public and
32 of local governments. We asked whether the states or provinces had authority over taxing, spending, or legislating. The variable is coded as one if our sources report authority over any of these areas.

# Sources and Data Collection

There were two main sources of data for this project, each used for a different time period. For the period 1975-1984, Europa Year Book was consulted For the period 1985-1995, the Political Handbook ofthe World, edited by Arthur Banks, was used. However, Europa was also used in this second time period to plug topical gaps in coverage, mostly for electoral rule and constitutional framework variables.

|

There were several reasons for dividing our study between two sources. First, prior to 1985, the Political Handbook ofthe World was published every 2-4 years and lacked detailed, year-by-year observations. This factor recommended Europa for the first time period. In the period 1985-1995, the two books provided complementary information. Europa has better data on the number of seats held by parties, the constitutional framework and electoral rules over this period, while the Handbook offers more detailed information on the ideological orientation of the parties and recent political history. Therefore, both sources were used, with an emphasis on the Handbook.

The consistency of data between these two time periods was extensively checked. The collection system helped ensure that discrepancies would be identified and discussed, since different people were responsible for coding different time periods. In the event of discontinuities in the 1984 - 85 period, the coders’ approaches were discussed among a wider group, including most of the authors of this paper, to determine which was more appropriate, and the country-variable was re-coded accordingly. Most of these discontinuities involved
.00|100.00|6.50|8.61|
|Gini coefficient before tax|es||0.5768|0.5768|
|Gini coefficient after taxes|||0.5864|0.5909|
|Effect of VAT exemptions|/exclusions on Gini|coefficient|0.0045||

Source: World Bank (2012) using _Encuesta Nacional de Ingresos y Gastos, 2006-07._ 27. **A policy to reduce the price of food may also seem sensible given that the cost of food is relatively high in Colombia.** Food prices in Colombia are higher than the regional average in 23 out of 29 categories, according to the International Comparison Program. Prices of basic commodities, such as rice or flour, are relatively high in Colombia (FAO, 2010). This may be related to the high cost of logistics (Colombia ranks 82 in the WDI Logistic Cost Index). For instance, in some remote areas in Colombia the transport cost represents half of the price of food. Protectionism in the agricultural sector also contributes to higher food prices (Anderson and Valdes, 2008). An important justification for VAT exemptions is to exclude the poorest segments of the population from paying this tax in their consumption of basic commodities. The problem is that VAT exemptions benefit all consumers, and not only the poor, making it an unsuitable targeting mechanism to reach the poor.

28. **The VAT policy of exemptions and exclusions has unintended consequences, as the rich benefit disproportionally.**<sup>17</sup> Because they account for such a large proportion of total consumption, the rich also account for the largest proportion of total VAT excluded/ exempted consumption. In fact, half of the value of excluded/exempted goods is consumed by the richest quintile of the population while the poorest quintile consumes approximately 5 percent (Table 3). While the poor benefit more in relative terms compared to their low incomes, this does not
# **Technical Appendix:  Detailed Methodology for The Human Capital Index**

**A1:  Basic Framework**

# **A2:  Education**

**A2.1  Data on Expected Years of School**

**A2.2 Harmonizing Test Scores**

**A2.3  Adjusting Expected Years of School for Quality**

**A2.4  Returns to Education**

# **A3:  Health**

**A3.1  Basic Methodology**

**A3.2  Estimates of the Return to Height**

**A3.3  The Relationship Between Adult Height and Adult Survival**

**A3.4  The Relationship Between Adult Height and Stunting**

# **A4:  The Human Capital Index**

**A4.1  Putting the Pieces Together**

**A4.2  Robustness to Alternative Weights**

**A4.3  Disaggregation by Gender**

**A4.4  Uncertainty Intervals for the HCI and Its Components**

**A5:  Linking the Human Capital Index to Future Growth Scenarios**

20
post-earthquake participation. This casts some doubt on the efficiency of targeting of C/FfW programs, particularly in areas where people were severely hit by the earthquake.

In directly affected areas, regressions are estimated separately for cash-for-work, foodfor-work and both considered jointly. It is shown in Tables 15a to 15c that both the preearthquake asset index and asset losses have no significant effects on participation in either CfW or FfW programs. Agricultural asset losses have a negative and significant impact on CfW participation (but not on FfW participation). This may be an indication that the most agrarian households participated less in CfW programs. Being married and living in a female-headed household have negative and significant impacts on CfW participation. Living in private housing and having savings before the earthquake both have positive and significant effects on CfW participation. In non-directly affected areas, none of these variables are significant. In these areas, participation in Tontine/Sol/Sabotay and the presence of breast-feeding women in the household have positive and significant impacts on CfW participation.

Determinants of FfW are different from CfW ones. In directly affected areas: other social associations, the number of adults between 18-60 and having a bank account have positive and significant effects on FfW participation. The number of workers has a negative and significant effect on FfW participation. In non-directly affected areas: the number of children displaced and hosted in the household, participation in unions or in agricultural associations have positive and significant impacts on FfW program participation.

Finally, even when considering CfW and FfW jointly, there is no significant impact of both the pre-earthquake assets index and assets losses. Therefore, it is clear that these programs are not specifically targeted at people who need it the most, because of their low level of subsistence or losses due to the earthquake.

# **7. Discussion**

The survey used in this paper made an attempt to be representative of the population in the directly affected areas, and of certain non-directly affected areas. The 2003 census was _de facto_ made obsolete in the wake of
of interest in the first three columns is a dummy equaling 1 if the individual participates in the labor force; in columns (4)-(6), a dummy equaling 1 if the rural worker is unemployed; and in columns (6)-(9), a dummy equaling 1 if the rural worker is engaged in some non-farm activity. For each outcome of interest, we first estimate a specification where we only include individual and household covariates, in addition to a survey month fixed effect. Subsequently, we saturate the specification with district (town/village) effect to flexibly account for local factors affecting labor market choices.

The results are remarkably consistent with those obtained from the historical NSS data. First, we note that the coefficients are stable to the inclusion of district or town fixed effects, indicating that after controling for individual and household predictors, district-level factors have limited predictive power. Nonetheless, we focus on the most restrictive specification

> 12 The CP provides identifiers for the level of sampling – the city or town for urban households, and villages for rural households – enabling us to use town/village fixed effects.

> 13 The sample weights become particularly important for the CP as it over-samples urban households.

27
years later paints a rather optimistic picture. The government invested heavily in language training, which allowed many refugees to acquire language skills that are critical for the integration in the labor market. Survey data shows that in 2018 around 50% of all refugees were in employment, and another 20 percent in education (Br ̈ucker et al., 2020).

**Assignment of Asylum Seekers in 2015** The assignment of asylum seekers in Germany is organized through a centralized system, although certain responsibilities are delegated to states, counties and municipalities. Asylum seekers who arrive in Germany have to report to the border authorities, the police or a regional office of the Federal Office for Migration and Refugees and apply for asylum. Upon doing so, they are registered on an asylum seeker database called EASY and received a certificate ( _B ̈uma_ ) that confims their status as asylum seeker and entitles them to social benefits (BAMF, 2019b).

The assignment of asylum seekers is carried out in mutliple steps. In a first step, they are assigned to reception centers that are run by the 16 federal states. The assignment of asylum seekers across states is goverend by a quota system called _K ̈onigsteiner Schl ̈ussel_ , whereby quotas are set annually based on states’ tax revenues (weight 2/3) and population (weight 1/3) two years prior. Federal law requires asylum seekers to stay in the initial reception centers for six months, after which they are assigned onward by the state administration to local reception centers run by counties or municipalities. Asylum seekers have no say in their assignment prodecure; the assignment is done by the state administration according to the law, but also taking into account the availability of suitable accommodation. Asylum seekers have to stay in these centers until a decision is reached

> 1The actual number of asylum seekers coming to Germany dropped almost immediately after the inflow. One reason why the number of asylum applications increased until early 2017 was the time lag in processing asylum applications by the BAMF
**cost.** The fact that several redistributive policies could lead to substantial fiscal savings opens important potential to maximize the inequality reducing impact through effective use of these resources.  That said, it is important to emphasize that improving the progressivity of public transfers can also go far in reducing income inequality.

68. **An illustrative policy package combining three policy options could be sufficient to achieve levels of inequality similar to Chile and Costa Rica.** The proposal includes: (1) reductions of personal income tax exemptions, (2) reductions in most exemptions/exclusions of the value added tax, and (3) taxation of pension income. The initial impact of this proposal would yield a substantial fiscal saving (2.4 percent of GDP), which could be used to finance the introduction of a tax declaration of independent workers (0.5 percent of GDP) and an expansion of the conditional cash transfer program (1.9 percent of GDP), yielding an estimated reduction in the Gini coefficient of 4.6 points. In that case, Colombia‟s Gini coefficient would be lower than Chile and close to that of Costa Rica.

69. **The proposed reform package is illustrative of the substantial unexploited potential of fiscal redistribution in Colombia, but should not be interpreted as a specific policy recommendation.** Further analytical work would be necessary to identify all available policy options, including new programs and improved progressivity of existing ones, and select the most optimal ones. Additional household survey simulations would be needed to confirm the accuracy of the estimates presented here.

70. **Further analytical work is recommended to derive specific policy recommendations.** On the taxation side, the most obvious missing information relates to the redistributive impact of payroll taxation, including the effects of a social security financing reform. A better understanding of the behavioral responses to changes in taxation or spending is also warranted. The World Bank has previously worked with the UK Institute of Fiscal Studies (IFS) to
|-0.00512|-0.00348|-0.00490*|
|||||||(0.00369)|(0.00269)|(0.00291)|
|Observations|382560|382560|382560|382560|382560|382560|382524|382524|
|R-squared|0.884|0.771|0.868|0.874|0.884|0.884|0.904|0.899|
|Prob _>_ F|0.824|0.010|0.000|0.000|0.000|0.000|0.000|0.000|
|Number of units|7970|7970|7970|7970|7970|7970|7970|7970|
|Number of clusters|48|48|48|48|48|48|48|48|
|First stage F-stat||2.578|13.996|17.857|20.655|20.682||20.194|
|Energy controls|||||||X|X|

Notes: Robust standard errors are in parentheses, clustered by state. *** p _<_ 0.01, ** p _<_ 0.05, * p _<_ 0.1. Store and period fixed effects are included. Energy controls refer to annual state-level total energy, electricity, LPG, and natural gas quantities consumed and prices for the residential sector.

39
2013. The rebirth of education: Schooling ain’t learning. _CGD Books._

- Schultz, T. W., 1975. The value of the ability to deal with disequilibria. _Journal of Economic Literature_ , _13_ (3), 827-846.

- Shah, D., Khatoon, S., Bhatti, M.A., Tatla, A., 2018. Public financing in education sector (Report No. 282), _AEPAM Publications. Academy of Educational Planning and Management, Islamabad, Islamabad, Pakistan._

- Singh, R., Kesarwani, R., Mukherjee, P., 2018. ‘I will achieve everything on my own’: the association between early psychosocial skills and educational progression through adolescence in India. _Young Lives Working Paper 175._

- Subramanian, N., 2020. Workplace attributes and women’s labor supply decisions: Evidence from a randomized experiment in Pakistan. _Presented at the 2020 IZA/University of Luxembourg Workshop: Matching Workers and Jobs Online - New Developments and Opportunities for Social Science and Practice, IZA - Institute of Labor Economics, Online._

- Valerio, A., Sanchez Puerta, M.L., Tognatta, N., Monroy-Taborda, S., 2016. Are there skills payoffs in low- and middle-income countries? Empirical evidence using STEP data (Working Paper No. 7879), _Policy Research Working Paper. World Bank, Washington, DC_ .

- World Bank, 2018. World Development Report 2018: Learning to realize education’s promise. _World Bank, Washington, DC._

34