rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
district|Clustered<br>by PSU|HAC|
|Observations|180|180|180|180|

Source: Authors’ calculations based on the SHFS and ACLED. Note: Estimated coefficients from an OLS regression. Characteristics of household refer to size and receiving remittances, while those from household head refer to age, gender and literacy. Dwelling characteristics include tenure, roof and floor material, water source and sanitation type. Drought affected status and humanitarian assistance are not included due to the lack of variation in the data within Mogadishu. Standard errors in parenthesis; *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1.

We estimate a linear regression model using ordinary least squares (OLS). The coefficient of interest corresponds to the exposed or control dummy variable capturing the effect of terrorist incidents. Our specification includes district fixed effects to account for time-invariant unobservable factors. Also, there is a small risk that time-varying unobservables could affect the estimates as all interviews were conducted within a 6-week period. This alternative strategy produces similar results for Mogadishu, which are also robust to the inclusion of clustered standard errors and HAC standard errors (Table 6). The OLS estimate suggests a decline in core consumption of 22% attributable to attacks that occurred during data collection of Wave 2. Our main DiD estimate from the preferred specification (-33%) lies within the 95% confidence interval of this OLS point estimate.

22
<mark>Autor, David H., Alan Manning, and Christopher L. Smith. "The contribution of the minimum wage to US wage inequality over three decades: a reassessment." American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 8.1 (2016): 58-99.</mark> <mark>Avellan, L., & Ferro, E (2017). Productividad Sectorial en Ecuador: 2009 – 2015. Mimeo.</mark>

- <mark>Banerjee, A. V., & Duflo, E. (2005). Growth theory through the lens of development economics.</mark> _<mark>Handbook of Economic Growth</mark>_ <mark>, 1, 473-552.</mark>

<mark>Banerjee, A, & Duflo, E. (2011).</mark> _<mark>Poor economics</mark>_ <mark>(Vol. 619). Public Affairs.</mark>

- <mark>Bartelsman, E., and Mark Doms. 2000. “Understanding Productivity: Lessons from Longitudinal Microdata.”</mark> _<mark>Journal of Economic Literature</mark>_ <mark>, 38 (3): 569-594.</mark>

- <mark>Bartelsman, E., Haltiwanger, J., & Scarpetta, S. (2013). Cross-country differences in productivity: The role of allocation and selection. American Economic Review, 103(1), 305-34.</mark>

- <mark>Barth, E., Bryson, A., Davis, J. C., & Freeman, R. (2016). It’s where you work: Increases in the dispersion of earnings across establishments and individuals in the United States. Journal of Labor Economics, 34(S2), S67-S97.</mark>

- <mark>Becker, R. A., Haltiwanger, J., Jarmin
percent as the economy has diversified somewhat. Although from a very low base, output of other minerals, such as copper/nickel, soda ash and gold, has grown considerably over the past 5 years, but their contribution to total exports vary significantly year by year (10-20 percent), owning to the swings in international commodity prices.

Despite the government’s efforts to diversify the economy away from diamonds, development of nonmining sectors, in particular, agriculture, construction and manufacturing, has not been very encouraging, constrained by, among other factors, high labor costs, a shortage of skills and the small domestic market. However, the service sector, especially banking and insurance, has shown relatively robust growth for some time.<sup>5</sup> Unemployment remains persistently high.

While diamond mining has immensely contributed to Botswana’s economic growth, the large revenue stream from the mining sector has also allowed a rapid expansion of the government. Today the government sector accounts for 15 percent of GDP (over 25 percent of non-mining GDP) and hires 40 percent of the formally employed labor force in Botswana. The economy is directly and indirectly dependent on government spending; fiscal operation has a significant bearing on Botswana’s domestic demand.<sup>6</sup>

# **2.2 Diamonds and Botswana’s Fiscal Policy**

# **2.2.1 Revenue**

Revenue from the mining sector makes up about 45-50 percent of total government revenue (Figure 2). The agreement governing the revenue sharing between Debswana and the government is confidential. Using diamond exports data as a rough approximation of Debswana’s profit, one can find that diamond revenue accruing to the government’s coffer has been about 6065 percent of diamond exports since 2000. Revenue collection from other minerals is negligible, with nearly 99 percent of mineral revenue coming from the diamond sector. As such, throughout the paper mineral revenue refers to the government’s share of diamond profits.
the village head to accomplish change, or did he or she levy pressure indirectly by informing higher leaders or mobilizing villagers?

The qualitative evidence suggests that the civil society leader who was trained alongside the village head often took on new responsibilities and powers after the training session, but these responsibilities were through existing traditional institutions, not independent of them. In particular, the trained community leaders often became advisers to the village head. Although we did not observe an increase in the status of civil society leaders as a whole vis-a-vis village heads on the cruder measures included in the quantitative survey, the qualitative evidence suggests there were important changes in how the village head viewed the 26We focused on understanding the differences in the effects of training both the village head and a civil society leader versus only training the village head both because these are the effects of greatest theoretical interest and because the program had been rolled out in the year 2 villages by the time of the qualitative research, making a comparison to the year 1 control villages impossible.

36
Policy Research Working Paper 7562

# **Abstract**

In Latin America, labor markets have been the main channel through which growth has reduced poverty, with higher labor income accounting for 49 percent of the reduction in poverty in 2008–13. Understanding labor markets is critical to designing policies and programs aimed at reducing poverty. With close to 70 percent of the population under age 30 years, labor markets are bound to be central to defining Haiti’s future. Yet, labor analysis in Haiti has been constrained by the dearth of data and the focus on - measuring the impact of the 2010 earthquake. This pres ent paper contributes to filling this gap by providing an overview of Haiti’s labor markets and the determinants of labor income over a decade, focusing on growing urban areas. The paper also contributes to the research on Haiti in general, as well as labor markets in fragile countries such as Haiti, in particular through an unprecedented effort to harmonize three household surveys conducted between 2001 and 2012. Building on this exercise, the study provides new insights into the development of labor markets in a particularly turbulent decade for Haiti, one that was marked by the political crisis of 2004 and the earthquake of 2010. In spite of the earthquake, the analysis shows that Haiti’s labor markets are characterized by continuity over the period. Somewhat surprisingly, the defining features remain overall unchanged in spite of the shock, pointing to heavy forces shaping economic and labor dynamics.

This paper is a product of the Poverty and Equity Global Practice Group. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://econ.worldbank.org. The authors may be contacted at arodella@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the
housing is least affordable for the highest quintile, with close to 60 percent of households spending more than 30 percent of their household income on housing. The REM approach highlights the need for a much more accurate methodology to facilitate nuanced understanding of affordability in the housing sector in Pakistan.

The RIM measures housing affordability by accounting for a household’s ability to meet its non-housing basic needs after paying for housing. By establishing a minimum threshold of non-housing expenditure, the RIM method classifies households as facing unaffordable housing conditions if they do not have enough resources to meet these residual basic needs. However, the RIM approach is often limited in its ability to measure housing affordability in low income and developing country contexts due to the lack of income data as well as limited information on the most appropriate budget standards (i.e., the minimum food and non-food expenditure that is necessary to maintain an adequate standard of living). In most developing countries, including Pakistan, consumption expenditure is used as a proxy for household welfare. This is because income is difficult to measure and may not be an informative indicator of welfare. The large size of the informal economy and the high prevalence of smallholder agricultural production makes it difficult to capture income levels.

> 18 Urban Unit. “Punjab Spatial Strategy 2047 Technical Paper – Housing”.

> 19 This engagement includes Additional Financing to the Pakistan Housing Finance Project (P172581) which will support the scaleup of the credit Risk Sharing Facility that was developed in 2018 under the parent project to promote access to mortgage loans for low- and informal-income households; and the Punjab Affordable Housing Program (P173663) which will help strengthen housing institutions and systems and enhance housing supply, including affordable housing for lower-income households in Punjab.

19
356.64|432.03|
|<br>Sold rapeseed (y/n)|0.88|0.82|1.00|0.95|0.86|0.95||0.89|0.97|0.84|
|if yes, share of harvest sold|0.93|0.95||0.88|0.92|0.92||0.96|0.94|0.90|
|Input cost|275.45|232.79|143.52|253.93|310.66|313.38||262.90|331.12|245.09|
|Netrevenue|723.33|641.72|1,942.96|775.82|390.07|934.77||759.87|507.48|854.81|

_Source:_ Own computation from MAPF/WB/EU small producer survey 34
# **Table 5. Three-stage Logistics Index Estimation**

Dep. variable first and third stages: Log of bilateral exports - <u>Dep. variable second stage: First stage residuals</u>

|Variable|First stage|Second stage|Third stage|
|---|---|---|---|
|Log of exporter's GDP|1.200<br>(61.67)||1.285<br>(76.1)|
|Log of importer's GDP|0.888||0.925|
||(46.04)||(55.55)|
|Exporter's Corruption Perception Index|0.298||0.253|
||(24.09)||(22.86)|
|Importer's Corruption Perception Index|0.252||0.164|
||(17.85)||(12.5)|
|Regional trade agreement<br>dummy variable|1.005<br>(11.5)||0.346<br>(4.87)|
|Log of distance||-1.307<br>(-34.61)||
|Total time (freight plus ports)||-0.007<br>(-3.74)||
|Coefficient of variation for total time||-0.947<br>(-4.56)||
|Log of total processing cost||-0.232<br>(-6.02)||
|Logistics index|||1.083<br>(41.13)|
|_K_|6|5|7|
|_R_-squared|0.620|0.226|0.713|
|Adjusted_R_-squared|0.620|0.225|0.713|
--|---|---|---|
|2011|630|630|630|630|
|2012|701|644|643|643|
|2013|773|660|658|658|
|2014|846|664|660|661|
|2015|949|692|683|686|
|2016|1301|880|870|873|
|2017|1404|854|846|848|
|2018|1603|838|832|835|
|2019|2021|918|904|910|
|2020|2325|940|923|931|

_Source_ : World Bank calculations using data from TUIK and Ministry of Family, Labour and Social Services<sup>**16**</sup>

# **6. Conclusions**

This paper documents the differences in spending across households and the distributional impacts of heterogeneity in inflation rates at the household level. This is often an aspect overlooked

> 15 Data from Social Security Institution. The share of formal workers with minimum wage among all formal workers was 44.0 in 2011; 41.6 in 2012; 38.3 in 2013; 38.1 in 2014; 38.6 in 2015; 40.9 in 2016; 35.0 in 2017; 36.2 in 2018; 36.8 in 2019 and 42.0 in 2020.

> 16 Numbers from the Ministry of Family and Social Services and author calculations using HBS.

21
to receive if teachers are held to account and any intrinsic benefit associated with believing that holding teachers to account is “the right thing to do”. This section of the report discusses the use of experimental techniques to help measure these less tangible intrinsic costs and benefits to parents involvement in structures designed to help them hold service providers to account.

106. The experimental techniques that were deployed in parallel with the survey of school stakeholders in Albania, do not overcome the limitations of retrospective evaluations. Nor are they a substitute for the power of RCTs conducted with an ex-ante and ex-post evaluation strategy. However, they can provide valuable insights that help policymakers avoid what can be costly mistakes in the design and piloting of innovative interventions, particularly in country contexts where there is little or no prior information to guide their efforts.

# **III.b. Controlled Lab Type Experiments: Just Playing Games?**

107. Alongside the Albania School Stakeholder Survey presented in the part two of this report, parents and teachers were invited to participate in the specifically designed controlled, lab-type experiments (LTEs). The retrospective survey was designed to quantify the institutions for increasing accountability (including both external “top down” and participatory “bottom up” structures); to measure the awareness of stakeholders (especially parents), of the school institutional framework in general, and participatory institutions in particular; and to measure actual parental involvement with the school. To complement this valuable data, the LTE was designed to yield insights into parents‟ preferences for participation, i.e. their willingness to forgo personal payoffs in order to hold teachers to account.<sup>35</sup>

> 34 Gunnarsson et al. (2009), in their survey-based ex post evaluation of participatory institutions in eight Latin American countries, found that controlling for the possible endogeneity of school resources and parents‟ participation, substantially increases the estimated impact of parental participation on students‟ test scores.

> 35 It also provided a measure of teachers‟ levels of
Policy Research Working Paper 10980

# **Abstract**

Can skills-based programs promote women’s economic - inclusion? This study randomizes access to a program teach ing entrepreneurship skills in rural Uganda. The program covers record-keeping, identifying business opportunities, raising capital, and soft skills like perseverance and confidence, but it provides no access to cash or capital. Treated women are 17 percent more likely to generate income from their own businesses 18 months post-program. They heavily re-invest in their businesses. High-frequency data show that treated women also fare significantly better during the COVID-19 lockdown than women in the control group. Exploiting social network data, this paper detects positive network-based spillovers to the control group and provides novel tools to adjust estimates accordingly. Although the program is not transformative, the results indicate an important role for skills-based programming in efforts for economic inclusion among rural, low-income women.

This paper is a product of the Development Research Group, Development Economics. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/prwp. The authors may be contacted at mlang@worldbank.org. A verified reproducibility package for this paper is available at http://reproducibility. worldbank.org, click **here** for direct access.

<!-- Start of picture text --> TRANSPARENT<br>ANALYSIS<br>G<br>R E<br>N<br>S<br>I P<br>Y E<br>K A<br>C A<br>R P<br>LI R<br>O E<br>O C<br>W R<br>H<br>S<br>P<br><!-- End of picture text --> _The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates
Policy Research Working Paper 10689

# **Abstract**

Air pollution is a major threat to health, and the dangers are particularly acute in low- and middle-income countries. However, little is known about how the burden of pollution is spread across the wealth distribution in these countries. This paper uses new data providing high-resolution wealth estimates for more than 100 low- and middle-income countries, combined with equally high-resolution estimates of air pollution, to estimate how wealth is correlated with ambient air pollution around the world. The findings show that on average air pollution is positively correlated with wealth, but the relationship is highly heterogeneous across countries. The fact that air pollution and wealth are both disproportionately high in urban areas, where economic activity is largely concentrated, appears to drive this relationship. When the analysis is limited to anthropogenic sources of pollution, the relationship becomes less heterogeneous and more systematically positive. The paper also examines the relationship between pollution exposure and wealth within large cities around the world. Again, the findings show substantial heterogeneity across cities. The paper explores several hypotheses for this heterogeneity but does not find a single explanation. Economic concentration within cities appears to explain some of the relationship. Cities with more concentrated economic opportunity tend to have more positive correlations between pollution and wealth.

This paper is a product of the Development Research Group, Development Economics. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/prwp. The authors may be contacted at abehrer@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations
(starting 02-16-2020) against the last 5-8 school months (which depends on the country’s school year schedule). We think of the last 5-8 school months as being representative of the second year of disruption. This provides estimates of _s_ .<sup>38</sup> **Reach and Effectiveness** To obtain estimates of the reach ( _c_ ) _×_ effectiveness ( _e_ ) rate of school not in-person in each group, we first discuss data on the reach and effectiveness rates of different remote learning modalities in each group. However, as these rates are likely misestimated, we also rely on direct estimates of the reach _×_ effectiveness rate.

UNESCO, UNICEF and the World Bank recently conducted a survey of ministries of education on national responses to COVID-19 (UNESCO, 2020b). Four remote learning modalities have been provided: _online platform_ (mostly in HICs and MICs), _take-home packages_ (HICs, MICs), _television_ (MICs, LICs), and _radio_ (LICs) (Web Appx. Table A.1). While take-home packages are accessible to all, we find lower reach rates of online platforms (as proxied by internet access) and television and radio programs (television and radio ownership) in LICs and MICs than in HICs (Web Appx. Table A.2).

38Web Appx. Fig. A.3 shows for each school year and each income group the share of schools that are _fully open_ , _partially open_ or _closed_ (using the child population of each country c. 2018 as weights).
often in low-skilled jobs, to receive transfers. Transfers from PWPs may induce different effects compared with those of unearned income from cash-transfers, since women take on a new role outside the household, which could challenge social and gender norms. When these programs place women in employment traditionally reserved for men, the participants may be more at risk of assault or harassment.

This evaluation of a PWP contributes to the existing literature on GBV and women’s economic opportunities in two ways. First, to our knowledge, this is the only study exploring the causal relationship between a workfare program and gender-based violence through a Randomized Controlled Trial. Second, the inclusion of domestic violence (physical or sexual) by a non-partner and violence (physical or sexual) outside the home along with the study of IPV (emotional, physical, sexual violence and controlling behavior) provides a broader analysis of GBV than is typically explored in economic empowerment studies. This consideration is important for women’s safety, particularly when employment programs may violate traditional gender norms in the public sphere. Our results of neither a positive nor negative impact on gender-based violence inside and outside the home have at least two policy implications. First, they suggest that PWPs can be used as a mechanism for increasing household income without imposing safety risks on participating women. Second, while some social protection instruments, such as cash transfers, can also serve as a policy tool for lowering IPV, we cannot make a similar case for PWPs. As complementary programming, such as behavioral change communication, increases the potential of cash transfers to reduce GBV (Roy et al. 2019), complimentary interventions may be needed for the PWPs to work as GBVreducing interventions.

2. Context: Gender-Based Violence in Lao PDR Lao PDR ranks at 113 of 162 countries on gender equality, according to the Gender Inequality Index (GII), produced by UNDP.<sup>3</sup> This rank is far behind some countries in Southeast Asia: Singapore (12), Malaysia (59)
taxonomy of the type of contract (permanent vs. full time vs. internship), therefore not allowing us to disentangle these different dimensions.

Finally, the analysis rests on a few assumptions regarding the informativeness of the data. Most importantly, we highlight that by analyzing skills via mined keywords, it is assumed that information on skills in job descriptions is somewhat perfectly specified and hence extractable. However, in the case of imperfect specification along any dimension (e.g., along different sectors or different skill sets), the analysis is biased towards skills that are better specified than others. For example, while the socio-emotional skill requirements of a manager may be specified explicitly and in detail (e.g., “leadership” or “communication skills”), a posting for a worker on a construction site may not explicitly specify the physical skills required to successfully perform the job.

# **V. What type of job opportunities are available on job platforms?**

In this section, we present our key findings on the characteristics of the 5,272 postings in 2018 job portal data, which is equivalent to 12,321 vacancies.<sup>25</sup> Most vacancies posted online are for “white collar” jobs. As such, the majority of vacancies posted online are for Sales (14.38 percent), Management (7.95 percent), and Administration (7.55 percent), followed by the public sector<sup>26</sup> (6.75 percent) and IT (6.61 percent) as shown in Figure 6. Across job portals, some specialization is visible. For example, while the incidence of vacancies in Administration, Banking & Insurance, and Management is relatively high on _KosovaJob_ , manual jobs are posted relatively more frequently on _Ofertapune_ . Compared to global employment trends in the labor market, the manufacturing and construction sectors are likely underrepresented in job portal ads (Figure 7). Given that informal channels prevail