rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
TEE rose during the 1983-2005 period of falling caloric intake considered by (Deaton and Dr`eze 2009), it is worth considering the best estimates of the potential effect of the disease environment on caloric intake from (Duh and Spears 2017). They use a district panel to show that within-district decreases in infant mortality between 1988 and 2005 are associated with within-district decreases in NSS caloric intake, with a slope coefficient of about 1.7. They find smaller but still highly significant cross-sectional associations between village/block infant mortality and caloric intake using a different survey, with slope coefficients ranging from 0.426 (when including household and demographic controls) to 1. They also report results based on open defecation and latrine ownership, but infant mortality has data available for the entire period and plausibly capture changes in the disease environment related to diarrhea, parasites, and in-

> 8See Appendix Table S.6 for these results.

15
in less financially developed countries than are large firms. Laeven (2003) finds that small firms‟ financing constraints decrease following financial liberalization episodes such as interest rate liberalization, elimination of credit controls, privatization and bank entry where as those of large firms actually increases, reflecting the loss of political patronage and erosion of entrenched interests.

To illustrate differences in access to finance across countries, we use latest set of Enterprise Surveys, led by the World Bank, consisting of 47,745 firms in 99 developing 49
2001 to June 2002, the NSSO surveyed unorganized enterprises belonging to the services sector. This survey was repeated in the 63<sup>rd</sup> round (2006-2007) and 67<sup>th</sup> round (2010-2011). The survey covered the whole of the Indian Union except (i) the Leh (Ladakh), Kargil, Punch and Rajauri districts of Jammu & Kashmir, (ii) interior villages situated beyond five km of a bus route in Nagaland, and (iii) villages of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, which remain inaccessible throughout the year. Thus the corresponding State/UT level estimates and the all-India results presented in this report relate to the areas covered under survey.

Unfortunately, the NSSO coverage for services across subindustries is less consistent over time. The 57th round surveyed, broadly, all unorganized service sector enterprises engaged in the activities of hotels and restaurants; transport, storage and communication; real estate, renting and business activities; education; health and social work and other community, social and personal service activities. The 63<sup>rd</sup> and 67<sup>th</sup> rounds additionally covered financial intermediation services, which were not covered in the 57<sup>th</sup> round, while specific sectors such as non-mechanized transport activities related to transport via railways and activities of business, employers and professional organizations were excluded after the 57<sup>th</sup> round. The 67<sup>th</sup> round also extended coverage to include

> 32 The ASI sampling frame is based on business registers rather than the Economic Census.

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# **Appendix B Variable Definitions**

Project level variables:

- Distress: Equals 1 if project is canceled, 0 otherwise. A project is canceled if the private party has exited by selling or turning over its shares back to the government, or by ceasing operations, from the PPI database and authors’ collection.

- Contract period: Percentage of contract period elapsed until distress as defined in previous bullet, otherwise until the end of 2018, from the PPI database and authors’ collection.

- Type: _Greenfield_ if the special purpose vehicle (SPV) builds and operates a new facility, _brownfield_ if the SPV takes over an existing asset and either rehabilitates or expands it, _management and lease_ if the SPV takes over the management of the public asset while the ownership and investment decisions stay with the government, from the PPI database.

- Sector: _Electricity_ , _natural gas_ , _telecom_ , _airports_ , _railroads_ , _toll roads_ , _seaports_ , _treatment plants_ , _water utility_ , from the PPI database.

- Direct government support: Equals 1 if capital, revenue or in-kind subsidies exist, 0 otherwise, from the PPI database.

- Indirect government support: Equals 1 if payment, debt, revenue, etc. guarantee exist, 0 otherwise, from the PPI database.

- Multilateral support: Equals 1 if a multilateral bank provides financial support, 0 otherwise, from the PPI database.

- Subnational government contract: Equals 1 if local or provincial/state government grants the contract, 0 otherwise, from the PPI database and authors’ collection.

- Physical investment: Total investment in physical assets, in 2019 billion USD, from the PPI database and authors’ collection.

## Macroeconomic variables:

- Annual GDP per capita growth rate (detrended, previous year): Annual GDP per capita growth rate of the country detrended and demeaned using the filter suggested by Hamilton (2018). Previous year’s value. Calculated using the “GDP per capita growth (annual %)” from the WDI.

- Annual Depreciation
improvement. After harsh debates and tough negotiations, agreements were reached finally: 1) the two restaurants shall be shut down or moved to somewhere else; 2) the lenders return the deposits of the restaurant owners. After the roundtable on May 26, the community workers and some residents in the community started looking for ways to help the two families. With help from the community workers, Mr. Ma started a spa, managed by his son, and Mr. Sun opened an iron shop, and they can earn enough income to survive. On June 24, 2008, the community workers organized the second dialogue meeting where some minor remaining issues were solved.

# **V. Survey of Dialogue Participants**

# **5.1. The Survey**

In order to evaluate the impacts and to improve the design and implementation of the dialogue programs, a survey was conducted in December 2007 of 192 individuals who had participated in the roundtable dialogues. The survey questionnaire included six sections: background information of individual’s participation in the dialogues, dialogue design and operation, information exchange, impact evaluation, program expansion, and personal information. The survey was developed in consultation with a number of dialogue participants and was conducted with assistance of an independent research institute in China and community workers of four municipalities (Chongqing, Tianjin, Chifeng and Shenyang) where the roundtable dialogues have been tested. About 200 questionnaires were distributed to all individuals who participated in the dialogues before through the community workers, and the completed questionnaires were returned to the research institute anonymously in postage paid envelopes. Simple multiple choice questions are used, in order to avoid potential difficulties for the respondents to complete the questionnaires.

# **5.2. Background of the Survey Participants**

Before the survey, about 82% of the respondents participated in the dialogue only once, 12% participated twice, and the remaining 6% participated in more than twice. 10% of the respondents were dialogue organizers, 15% were government representatives
|0.00|0.00|
|Manager M3 - _Q_2|5,928|0.10|0.31|0.00|0.00|0.00|
|Number Exporters region*|5,928|12.89|23.91|3.00|0.00|42.00|
|(A) Number NO by State|5,928|5.07|2.42|6.00|1.00|8.00|
|(B) lag(dummy sector Apex - state)<br>|5,928|0.68|0.47|1.00|0.00|1.00|
|(A)*(B) Interaction term|5,928|3.62|3.15|3.00|0.00|8.00|
|Exporting Firms (share)|5,928|0.09|0.29|0.00|0.00|0.00|

Table 3: Descriptive statistics (2007-2010) Note: The descriptive is based in a pooling data from 2007 to 2010. Treatment status is defined as firms that did not receive any support from Peix’s programs at year _t_ (Untreated) and firms that did receive Peiex at year _t_ (Treated Peiex). Firms that received assistance from other Apex’s programs were excluded from the descriptive.

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# **1. Private Capital Mobilization, Catalyzation, and Growth**

At the simplest level, private capital mobilization is about leveraging development finance (from governments and MDBs) to attract much larger pools of private capital for investments that help achieve the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). A key issue – particularly for environmentally-related SDGs – is uninternalized externalities, which imply that private entities lack sufficient incentive to invest in such activities. This makes it very challenging, and perhaps inefficient, for financial support instruments to overcome both environmental externalities as well as conventional financial market failures.

With respect to MDBs, mobilization refers specifically to private financing that is associated with a specific project or activity and can be either direct or indirect (Box 1). Direct mobilization occurs when the active and direct involvement of an MDB leads to the commitment of private financing on commercial terms. Examples include World Bank Group guarantees and political risk insurance extended through MIGA or the short-term private capital mobilized by IFC to provide liquidity support for trade finance, distressed assets recovery, microfinance, and commodity financing (World Bank, 2020). Indirect mobilization occurs when private finance is extended in connection with an activity where an MDB is providing financing, but where no MDB has actively sought the commitment of finance from private entities. World Bank investment lending is an example.

# **Box 1. Private Capital Mobilization: World Bank Group Definitions**

**Private Capital Mobilized** : Financing that is explicitly associated with a project or activity which can be documented from project/activity records (MDB Task Force on Private Finance Catalyzation, 2016).<sup>3</sup>

> 3 See “Mobilization of Private Finance by Multilateral Development Banks: 2016 Joint Report,” MDB Task Force on Private Finance Catalyzation. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/860721492635844277/pdf/114433REVISED-11p-MDB-Joint-ReportMobilization-Jul-21.pdf

5
columns. In columns 1–4 it is an indicator that equals 1 if true, and in column 5 it is the ideal number of children. Skilled/Professional jobs include professional, clerical, and skilled manual job groups; the other categories exactly describe the occupation groups included. Ideal number of children is censored at 20; no women in the Demographic and Health Survey report having more than 18 children, and non-numerical � responses are assigned the maximum value. Years of Schooling _izy_ is the predicted level of schooling, instrumented with the free primary education (FPE) intensity measure, _Izy_<sup>FPE</sup> . All samples include women in birth cohorts from 1970 to 1988. All regressions include birth year and zone fixed effects, zone-specific linear trends, and a cubic for age. Each estimate is from a unique regression, and the second-stage estimate in column 5 is generated using a tobit model. Standard errors are clustered at the zone level and shown in parentheses; _p_ -values are shown in square brackets.

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exclusively to men from 73% to 29% with a somewhat higher mean loan size of US$ 54,000 in the postimplementation period. While the share of mortgages issued to companies remained more or less constant at 7%-8% of the total, the value of such loans was well above US$ 100,000.

To assess the impact of policy reform, we use annual data for the 20-year period (2000-2019 inclusive) that covers 10 years each before and after the intervention and present graphical evidence using nonparametric regressions on key outcomes as well as program characteristics. Figures 3 and 4 display results for the number of days required to register a mortgage or transfer, suggesting that the 2010 reform coincides with a clear break. The number of days to process the average mortgage declined from some 250 a decade before the reform (including 98 days on average to obtain consent, a requirement that was eliminated by the reform) to less than 50 days in the immediate post-reform period. With a reduction from 500 to some 250 days, reductions in the time required to register land transfers were less pronounced, though still significant.

To create spatial units that can serve as the basis for impact evaluation with block fixed effects, we define a total of 1,932 blocks each 250*250m in size and aggregate annual values of relevant variables as basis for panel econometric analysis. The principle is illustrated in figure 5 where grid cells indicate block boundaries and registered plots are colored depending on whether they were registered sporadically before (purple) or after (brown) the 2010 reform or systematically through LARP after 2010 (blue). Plots not registered in the name of a private individual including public spaces are white. This is overlaid with 2016 building footprints extracted from high resolution satellite imagery using machine learning.<sup>10</sup> Non-parametric regressions using plot and block level data on the share of newly registered parcels by gender support the notion of a discrete break in the reform year 2010, that is often followed
corruption. The first is the degree to which culture impacts expectations of achievement (what Hofstede terms the masculinity dimension), and secondly, amoral familialism (which Hofstede terms as power distance), and finds empirical support from the World Values Survey and the CPI. Additionally, Swamy et al. (2001) find that female representation in the labor force and in political institutions has a negative effect on corruption.

Fisman and Miguel (2007) exploit a unique dataset on parking tickets issued to diplomats in New York to find a positive relationship between CPI and corrupt behavior. They observe the number of unpaid parking tickets for diplomats under two enforcement regimes, with zero enforcement (1997 – 2002), and with legal enforcement (2002 – 2005). In the zero-enforcement period, vehicles with a diplomatic status could be ticketed (and indeed, were ticketed quite frequently), but were not punished for non-compliance and non-payment. By the end of 2002, however, the “State Department gave permission to New York City to revoke the diplomatic plates of vehicles with three or more parking tickets” (Fisman and Miguel 2007). Exploiting this natural experiment, the authors show that the number of unpaid tickets by diplomats is strongly correlated with the CPI in their home countries. The authors argued that cultural norms are persistent, and that individuals carry their norms to new environments. This provides the first unambiguous evidence for the persistence of corruption norms.

In each of the studies above, culture is used to refer to multiple underlying elements (such as paternalism, familialism, uncertainty avoidance, etc.), which tend to overlap. These elements influence, and are influenced by both norms and institutions. Due to the superior control of lab experiments, institutions can be held constant, while norms are allowed to vary so as to capture behavior independent of the institutional channel. Alternatively, institutions can be created in the lab to test out the influence of differing social norms on behavior when reacting to the institutional arrangements.

# _Experimental Studies on Culture
employers and on the direct training costs at the firm level. Other variables available at the firm level include the firm’s location, ISIC 5-digit sector of activity, value added, number of workers and a measure of the capital, given by the book value of capital depreciation<sup>8</sup> , average age of the workforce and share of males in the workforce. It also collects several measures of the firm’s employment practices such as the number of hires and fires within a year (which will be important to determine average worker turnover within the firm). We use information for manufacturing firms between 1995-1999. This gives us a panel of 1, 500 firms (corresponding to 5, 501 firm-year observations). On average, 53% of the firms in the sample provide some training.

Relative to other datasets that are used in the literature, the one we use has several advantages for computing the internal rates of return of investments in training. First, information is reported by the employer. This may be better than having employee reported information about past training if the employee recalls less and more imprecisely the information about on-the-job training. Second, training is reported for all employees in the firm, not just new hires. Third, the survey is mandatory for firms with more than 100 employees (34% of the total workforce in 1995). This is an advantage since a lot of the empirical work in the literature uses small sample sizes and the response rates on employer surveys tend to be low.<sup>9</sup> Fourth, it collects longitudinal information for training hours, firm productivity and direct training costs at the firm level. More than 50% of the firms are observed at least

> 8We assume that depreciation is a linear function of the book value of the firm’s capital stock : Dept = π ∗ Kt.

> 9Bartel (1991) uses a survey conducted by the Columbia Business School with a 6% response rate. Black and Lynch
Hottman (2016). A demand elasticity of -0.709 is obtained using panel variation as described in Section 5.4 and falls within the typical range reported in the literature as surveyed by Andreyeva et al. (2010). Proportion of SNAP sales of 0.168 is obtained from USDA data. Pass-through elasticity is obtained from Section 4.1 and the shift magnitude is the predicted pass-through elasticity obtained using equation (8) assuming a unit-subsidy pass-through rate of 1. Surplus calculations are changes in surplus per marginal dollar of SNAP disbursed. PS refers to producer surplus and CS refers to consumer surplus, CS (SNAP) and CS (non-SNAP) refers to consumer surplus for SNAP consumers and consumer surplus for non-SNAP consumers, respectively. See Section 5.4 for a detailed explanation.

43
The remainder of this paper is structured as follows. Section 2 presents background information on trade and investment integration in Pakistan. Sections 3 and 4 describe the data used and the empirical strategy. Section 5 presents the results and discusses the underlying channel, and Section 6 concludes.

# **2. Productivity, Trade, and Investment Integration Trends in Pakistan**

Long-term trends of macro indicators on productivity for Pakistan – both total factor productivity (TFP) and labor productivity – show relatively low rates of growth when compared with other countries in the region.<sup>5</sup> While labor productivity has been increasing since the turn of the century, its rate of growth has fallen with respect to that of the previous decades, and lower than that observed in India or Bangladesh.

Figure 1– TFP and Labor Productivity (19812017, Pakistan and Comparators) <!-- Start of picture text --> 7<br>6<br>5<br>4<br>3<br>2<br>1<br>0<br>TFP LP LP India LP<br>Pakistan Pakistan Bangladesh<br>Average growth rate<br>81-90 91-00 01-17 81-90 91-00 01-17 81-90 91-00 01-17 81-90 91-00 01-17<br><!-- End of picture text --> Note: Authors’ calculation based on the APO Productivity Database 2019.

Figure 2– Capital Deepening (1981-2017, Pakistan and Comparators) <!-- Start of picture text --> 5<br>1980s<br>1990s<br>4 2000s<br>2010s<br>3<br>2<br>1<br>0<br>Pakistan India Bangladesh<br>Capital deepening<br><!-- End of picture text --> Note: Authors’ calculation based on the APO Productivity Database 2019. Capital deepening indicates the rate of change in capital stock per labor hour.

A similar pattern is observed for TFP (
equal. It is possible that price differences exist between integrated markets, as long as these differences are stable over time and explained by transport and distribution costs. Indeed, when these costs are substantial, high price differences between markets can exist without implying a failure in how price signals flow to guide consumers’ and producers’ decisions. This section starts exploring the patterns of these price differences, and then, it formally tests for market integration within India, and between India and world markets.<sup>3</sup>

# Patterns of price dispersion

## Overall dispersion across states and products

Retail and wholesale prices vary substantially across cities and districts in India.

For bananas, in retail markets in the northeast city of Shillong, consumers could pay prices up to three times higher than those paid by Delhi consumers. While this is an extreme example, on average, retail price differences for bananas are at 49.6 percent across Indian cities, high among the products analyzed, likely related to its perishability. This is affected by some atypical differences such as that reported for Shillong. Indeed, pooling all products, in 90 percent of the cases, the price difference paid in any given city with respect to Delhi for a given product ranges from ‐28 percent to +28.6 percent (the area delimited by red bars in Figure 1). In absolute terms, the median price difference with respect to Delhi is 13.3 percent, with 90 percent of differences between 1.3 percent and 40 percent (the area delimited by red bars in Figure 2). And these differences are not randomly distributed. For 55 percent of the state‐city/product combinations in retail, prices tend to be higher in Delhi.

Figure 1: Distribution of retail price differences (with respect to Delhi) across cities Figure 2: Distribution of retail absolute price differences (with respect to Delhi) across districts <!-- Start of picture text -->
-2 0 2 4 6 0 1
concentration patterns hold in Europe (Christen and Francois, 2009). As such, an oligopoly approach to trade and FDI in services is likely to offer a better mapping than the large group, monopolistic competition approach now followed in the literature. Given the importance of large firms, there ought to be substantial payoff from more explicit modeling of services firm behavior in CGE models. While the recent body of theory on firms and trade focuses on goods producing firms, the same basic theoretical framework also promises valuable insights for service firms, once we reinterpret physical transport costs as the costs that are associated with overcoming the proximity burden (see Helpman, 2006). The first insight relates to ”natural” elements of firm costs (those that are independent of policy). Where the most efficient firms engage in internal trade and FDI, since in heterogeneous firm models market share primarily goes to the more efficient firms, we should see most cross-border services trade taking place within multinational firms rather than through unaffiliated (arms-length) sales. Going further, such ‘establishment transactions’ should be more important than unaffiliated sales for the same reasons. Another insight relates to the impact of policy. In the theoretical literature, internalization hinges on a mix of costs affecting internal and arms-length delivery, as well as multi-plant versus single plant costs and distance costs. If we map these to the different modes of supplying services, concessions made in trade agreements or unilateral changes in national policies that affect these different costs should affect the choice of modes, the relative importance of establishment sales and arms-length versus internal cross-border sales in predictable ways. This suggests potentially fruitful application of the recent theory on goods-producing multinational enterprises and internalization of transactions costs to formulate questions that map to observed patterns in the services trade and policy data.

Yet another area where further research is a priority concerns explicit modeling of regulation that affects all firms in a sector or industry in addition to analysis of the impacts of discriminatory trade and FDI entry barriers. As noted previously and has been stressed in the