rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
|0.40|
|<br>Tunisia|0.00|0.00|0.00|0.20|0.20|0.20|
|Uganda|40.50|39.30|-1.20|40.40|-0.10|1.10|
|<br>Uzbekistan|30.10|28.00|-2.10|30.20|0.10|2.20|
|Zambia|61.10|61.20|0.10|61.70|0.60|0.50|
|Zimbabwe|39.70|39.40|-0.30|42.50|2.80|3.10|

_Note_ : This table reports the poverty rates (%) for each country using the high frequency phone surveys. For 2020, poverty rates and the percentage points change in poverty from 2019 is reported for both the observed distribution (with COVID) and the counterfactual distribution (no COVID). The last column captures the percentage points difference between the 2020 distribution with COVID-19 and counterfactual distribution. pp - percentage points.

49
55 who worked at least 20 hours in the enterprise each week. Few firms of this size are owned by women, and so we chose to restrict the sample to male owners and to businesses jointly owned by a husband and wife. A sixth DS Division was added in Kandy due to difficulty finding enough informal firms which satisfied these criteria – there are lots of informal firms without paid workers, but fewer with paid workers.

An obvious concern in attempting to construct a sample of the unregistered is whether firms will reveal that they are not registered (and hence that they are breaking the law). We used university students to carry out the surveying, and they presented firm owners with a letter on University of Peradeniya letterhead emphasizing that this was a research study. In an environment where informality is commonplace among smaller firms we believe that most unregistered firms did tell the truth. Indeed, as we will discuss in more detail, our sample contains a non-trivial fraction of firms which were ―quasi-

> 5 We decided against using the sample from our previous survey, the SLLSE, since logistically it was infeasible for us to implement the experiment island-wide, and there were too few firms in the SLLSE that were in Kandy and Colombo and which were not part of a separate experiment.

7
_7_ firm, since that is not directly affected by the dilution of minority shareholders' rights through, for example, higher lending spreads.

The situation in the Czech Republic is similar to that in Germany where commercial banks, through proxy votes, effectively control large equity stakes in firms and in general have a large influence on firms. It has often been argued that German banks' interests may conflict with those of other equity holders, especially those whose shares are voted by the banks in proxy. This has been researched by several authors. Cable (1985) concludes that there is a positive impact of bank ownership and involvement on firms' performance in Germany. Edwards and Fisher (1994) discuss Cable's results and conclude that it is concentrated ownership, rather than any special relationships between banks and firms, which leads to improved performance. In their study of the performance of a sample of large German firms in 1975 and 1985, Gorton and Schmid (1996) reach a conclusion closer to that of Cable. They do not find evidence that there were conflicts of interest in either year. They find for 1975 that banks are special: they affect firm performance in a way which cannot be attributed to their role as blockholders. For 1985, they find no significant effects of banks on performance, but blockholders did affect performance significantly. To investigate the possibility of conflicts of interest in the Czech Republic, we separately analyze the effect of ownership by an investment fund sponsored by a firm's main bank, controlling for the relative size of the fund ownership.

# m. **Data: Resulting Ownership and Prices**

We have data on Czech firms compiled from the Aspekt Stock Market Database. The database contains financial and ownership information of 1191 firms listed on the Prague Stock Exchange (PSE). It is compiled on the basis of a questionnaire sent to firms by Aspekt a.s.. Starting from the first year of the survey (1992) the financial variables were defined using international accounting standards.
comprehensive baseline and endline survey, as well as five rounds of shorter midline surveys, administered over a period of approximately two years. Before being assigned to one of the experimental treatments, each worker completed a baseline survey that included modules on demographics, savings, consumption, household finances, financial literacy, and planning. In total 3,136 study participants completed the baseline survey, of which 2,749 were successfully assigned to one of the treatment groups. Workers then completed periodic followup surveys that were much shorter than the baseline survey and focused primarily on questions relating to ongoing expenditures and financial decisions. We administered a comprehensive endline

> potential benefits of payroll technologies under a best-case scenario and are likely an upper bound, relative to adoption in a less controlled setting.

> 27Both financial partners required all workers to pass a “know your client” (KYC) document review, mandated by the regulator, before opening an account. The most common reason for rejection at this step were inconsistencies in the worker’s national ID card. For example, some workers’ ID cards had their photograph, but an incorrect first or middle name, or different spelling than in other documents. The lack of unique identification and straightforward procedures for proof of identity is an important barrier to financial inclusion facing many developing countries.

> 28See Appendix B for a timeline of our intervention, survey rounds, and additional data collection.

11
then, the government has abandoned the idea of setting up a public‐private partnership in these two areas. This paper is part of a series of investigations to determine how pilot private sector transactions (forming part of the overall water sector reform strategy) could be designed in such a manner that they would benefit the poor.

What is the best way to estimate demand for a good or a service? The analyst usually will rely on people’s revealed preferences (RP) for the commodity or service, using behavioral data to 2
data for 2019 indicate that institutional weakness hindered private sector activity: firms highlighted obstacles related to meeting with tax officials in Bulgaria and Romania and competition from informal firms in Bulgaria and Poland (figures 9.E and 9.F).

Another important driver of TFP growth is R&D spending, which promotes technological innovation (Hallward-Driemeier et al. 2020).<sup>12</sup> Average R&D spending in the region remained under 1 percent of GDP throughout the 2010s, whereas in the EU it rose from about 2 percent in 2010 to 2.2 percent by 2018. Thus, a deteriorating business environment, weakening governance, and sluggish R&D investment have likely all tended to slow or constrain TFP growth in the past decade, with the average contribution of TFP growth to potential output growth estimated to have declined from 1.7 percentage points in 2000-10 to less than 1 percentage point in 2011-21.

The COVID-19 pandemic and the Russian invasion of Ukraine are likely to have weakened ECA’s potential growth through several channels. Fixed investment is likely to have been dampened by increased uncertainty, including about the longer-term international economic landscape and risks of deglobalization, and by reduced investor confidence.

The pandemic has also set back human capital formation. Schools in ECA were closed completely for nearly 65 days and partially for over 75 days, on average, between March 2020 and September 2021 (Donnelly and Patrinos 2021; Patrinos 2022). Survey data point to a year’s worth of learning losses among students in at least 11 ECA countries (Patrinos 2022). The adverse economic effects will become more pronounced as the cohort of current children enters the labor market. Education losses from the pandemic have likely been larger in poor and vulnerable populations and underserved regions, partly owing to preexisting challenges that include uneven digital connectivity, low public expenditure on education, and inequitable learning opportunities and outcomes. On top of that, Russia’s invasion of Ukraine has triggered an influx of displaced people from Ukraine—
|
||**Health data**|Demographic and Health<br>Survey (DHS),<br>Multiple Indicator Cluster<br>Survey (MICS) or<br>equivalent.||
|**Census data**|**Population**|Population census||
||**Economic**|Economic / Business/<br>Establishment census|0 if up to date representative microdata accessibility is<br>classified as “No coverage” or “No openness”.<br>**If available for one or more sectors**<br>25 if up to date representative microdata accessibility is<br>classified as “Satisfactory openness”.<br>50 if up to date representative microdata accessibility is<br>classified as “Excellent openness”.<br>**If available for all sectors**<br>50 if up to date representative microdata accessibility is<br>classified as “Satisfactory openness”.<br>100 if up to date representative microdata accessibility is<br>classified as “Excellent openness”.|

24
non-performing loans could be problematic, due to deterioration in loan quality during intense credit booms. Finally, with the important exception of Hungary, public debt levels remain relatively low in Emerging Europe. So long as the debts of other sectors are not socialized, the risk of sovereign debt crises in these countries seems low compared to many advanced economies.

At the microeconomic level, we first examine whether **debt overhang in the enterprise sector** may constrain future activity in the region. Using data from the EBRD 2009 Business Environment and Enterprise Performance Survey (BEEPS) we identify the share and type of firms which are highly leveraged in each country and assess what this may imply for corporate investment going forward out of the crisis. Comparing the share of highly leveraged firms by country to GDP contraction during the crisis we find that debt overhang is likely to pose a general threat to firm activity in only a limited number of the more advanced countries: Latvia,

> 1 Brown would like to thank Ralph De Haas and Franklin Steves (both EBRD) for sharing data and Karolin Kirschenmann for valuable research assistance; Lane thanks Peter McQuade for research assistance; we thank Juan Zalduendo for helpful feedback on an earlier draft. This paper was prepared as background to a forthcoming World Bank report titled “Golden Growth: Restoring the Lustre of the European Economic Model.” The views expressed in this paper are exclusively those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of the World Bank and its affiliated organizations or the Executive Directors of the World Bank and the governments they represent. All errors and omissions remain entirely the responsibility of the authors. The authors may be contacted by electronic email to <u>martin.brown@unisg.ch</u> (University of St. Gallen) and plane@tcd.ie (IIIS, Trinity College Dublin and CEPR).

2
performs better and this gives a projected PG index of 3.9% for 2017 and 2.3% for 2022.<sup>25</sup> Notice that these projections (allowing for non-linearity) imply only a modest decline in the income gap ratio under the optimistic trajectory, from 0.31 in 2010 to 0.27 in 2022; the main driving force for the lower PG index is the decline in the headcount index.

# **An ambitious trajectory**

An ambitious trajectory has to do better than that in Figure 3. This would clearly require that the developing world is successful along all relevant dimensions, notably in assuring continued, reasonably rapid, pro-poor growth and in avoiding major crises (whether financial and agro-climatic)—in short, pro-poor policies (including protection from shocks) plus a measure of good luck in avoiding further crises. And, as is plain from Table 1, success in fighting poverty in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa will be crucial; 80% of the projected extreme poverty count for 2015, consistent with the optimistic scenario, is in these two regions (about equally).

Faster progress against poverty with the growth rates currently expected will, of course, require that poor people share more in that growth. Suppose that the mean consumption of all households grows in line with the overall GDP growth rates at the country level (i.e., no decrease in the household share) and there is no increase in inequality within any developing country (though still increasing between countries). This combination would entail a significant change in how the benefits of macroeconomic growth are distributed. As already noted, past growth, as measured in the national accounts, has not been fully reflected in average household living standards as measured in surveys, and inequality has been increasing on average (populationweighted). Of course, we could also get to any given target poverty rate without these conditions, as long as we achieve sufficiently higher growth rates in average household consumption.

Applying the
|Housing<br>finance<br>access<br>(proportion of population who<br>can access mortgage rate in<br>SSA)|French<br>speaking<br>English<br>speaking|10.38<br>10.96|16.45<br>17.58|High|English speaking countries<br>perform better than French<br>speaking countries|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Cheapest housing price (price<br>of the cheapest, newly built<br>house by a formal developer or<br>contractor)|French<br>speaking<br>English<br>speaking|42560<br>43520|58330<br>26039|Low|Both tend to have the same<br>performance|
|Housing input price (cost of<br>standard 50kg bag of cement in<br>US$)|French<br>speaking<br>English<br>speaking|12.29<br>10.49|5.3<br>3.94|Low|Both tend to have the same<br>performance|

_Source_ : Authors’ calculation based on a collection of data from a survey, the World Bank and Housing Finance in Africa yearbooks 2010, 2011 and 2013. Available at: www.housingfinanceafrica.org (accessed: 08/09/2014). _Notes_ : All measures are in US$. The countries included in each group are: (1) French speaking countries: Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Central African Rep., Chad, Comoros, Congo, Ivory Coast, Dem. Rep. of Congo, Djibouti, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Madagascar, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Sao Tome & Principe, Senegal and Togo; (
# 4. Issues of measurement

## 4.1. Questionnaire design, seasonality, and survey implementation

Agricultural data collection often requires complex instruments reflecting the nature of agricultural production, with seasonality and a high prevalence of shocks as well as different input decisions taken with varying frequencies and at different times. Integrated agricultural surveys, like the LSMS-ISA, 50x2030 Initiative, and FAO’s AGRISurvey, collect data ranging from livestock production and asset ownership to agricultural inputs and labor use, and crop harvest quantity and value, among other issues. In some cases, input and output data are collected at the plot-level and multiple crops and seasons are covered in a single questionnaire (Dillon et al., 2021). The basic principles of questionnaire design apply as much to phone surveys as to other modes of agricultural data collection. However, phone surveys are considered more constrained than in-person surveys in terms of questionnaire length and complexity.

As we argue in this section, it is not realistic to administer such complex and extensive survey questionnaires over the phone in full. These operations will continue to require in-person interviewing. However, shorter special purpose survey questionnaires can be (and have been) administered in full by phone. Under certain conditions, phone surveys can complement in-person interviewing even for extensive agricultural surveys: some survey modules can benefit from the flexibility in timing that phone interviews offer, and some survey modules lend themselves more readily to data collection over the phone. Phone surveys can also provide an opportunity to collect additional information of interest.

### _Questionnaire length and complexity_

There is consensus that phone interviews should not be too long and recent research documents how response fatigue decreases data quality as the duration of phone surveys gets longer (Abay et al., 2021; Ballivian et al., 2015; Ceballos et al., 2020). Acceptable survey length varies depending on the topic, the country context, whether there is a previous relationship with the respondents, and on the respondents themselves. Glazerman et al. (2020) recommend
entering separately as well as together in columns (6), (12) and (18). Throughout all three performance measures, this differential negative impact in institutionally weak countries is quite substantial as the coefficient sizes are large.

Again, we repeat our results by using common input‐output coefficients from the EU‐wide input‐output matrix (see Tables 5 and A15). The interaction effects obtain a lot of explanatory power in the sense that entry regulations come out strongly significant for all TFP specifications, this time also for our preferred Ackerberg measure. However, this significance drops when entered with the entire range of institutional interactions. In Table 5, columns (4) and (6) also show that the FDI restrictions remains a robust indicator for negative performance in countries that exhibit a lower level of domestic institutions. In all other TFP methods presented in Table A15, the differential effect of having weak institutions repeats the outcomes as obtained in Tables 4 and A14. Throughout these results, therefore, entry regulation in combination with the role of institutions have strong predictions for explaining the performance of TFP in downstream industries. Note again that the coefficient sizes are particularly large so that this negative interaction effect is very harmful in countries which institutionally are lagging behind.

Summarizing our results, it turns out that on the whole institutions matter for benefitting from lowering regulatory restrictions in services. Countries that are institutionally weak appear to have significantly lower levels of economic performance in the process of deregulation.

> 22 The original indicators from rule of law, level of corruption and regulatory quality vary from ‐2.5 to + 2.5 with increasing levels signifying stronger institutions. In our case, we first rescale this index with +2.5 so that our measure varies from 0‐5 and then reverse all indicators. Next, we perform a factor component analysis so as to retrieve the main variation among these three variable indicators since they are all highly correlated with each other. The reason for doing so is that the recent
poll asked a representative sample of 1000 adults in the Philippines the question “Ideally, if you had the opportunity, would you like to go to another country for temporary work, or not?” Overall, 51.1 percent of adults aged 15 and over said they would like to work abroad in temporary work (and 18.6 percent said they would like to migrate permanently abroad). Desire to migrate temporarily abroad is highest for individuals in the 15-34 age range, for individuals in urban areas, and for more educated individuals. The voting age population (18+) in the Philippines is approximately 52 million, so taking 51 percent of this gives approximately 26 million people who say they would like to migrate temporarily. This is ten times the magnitude of the 2.0 million who

> 2 Authors’ calculation from the Survey of Overseas Filipinos (SOF), an offshoot of the Labor Force Survey in the Philippines.

5
how the employers were interpreting the question. Since broad attitudes about education are not directly related to how employers actually behave, it is likely that some of the egalitarian responses were the socially desirable ones. We may have received different responses if we had asked whether the employers would allow their own wives, daughters or female wards to work after marriage, for instance.

The three questions that may reflect prevailing gender norms in the labor market more directly were, whether men have more right to jobs in times of job scarcity, whether men make better employees than women do and whether some jobs are better suited to men or to women. We saw greater variation in responses to these questions. A little over half the employers (53 percent) agreed that men should have more right to a job than women, when jobs are scarce, while another 34 percent did not answer the question. So, only about 13 percent actively disagreed that men have pre-eminence in rights to jobs, with little variation in the share of respondents who disagreed by firm size, sector or city. This is in keeping with findings from global surveys. In 2012, when asked a similar question about who has more right to a job, for the World Values Survey, nearly 52 percent of the respondents interviewed in India agreed, while 25 percent either refrained from giving an opinion or said they did not know. Another survey conducted by Pew Research finds that 84 percent of Indians agree with the statement, ‘when jobs are scarce, men should have more right to a job than women’.<sup>13</sup> Further, over two-fifths of the respondents believe that men make better employees and another 30 percent did not answer the question; only about 28 percent believe that men and women are equally capable in the labor market.

Employers in our sample were even less egalitarian when it came to attitudes about the kind of work women can or cannot do. Most employers interviewed for the survey considered men as being better suited for jobs
**|0.01|
|Muslim|0.08|0.06|0.08|0.06|0.05|0.06|0.02**|0.02*|0.02|-0.02*|
|Sikh|0.03|0.03|0.04|0.03|0.04|0.02|0.008*|0.004|0.008|0.02|
|Christian|0.01|0.01|0.01|0.01|0.01|0.02|-0.005|0.007|-0.0003|-0.01**|
|Mother’s age at birth|20.59|20.61|20.74|20.84|21.40|21.63|-0.13|-0.03|-0.10|-0.23|
|Mother’s years of education|2.74|3.06|3.84|3.73|5.37|5.52|-0.18*|-0.32*|0.11|-0.15|
|Father’s years of education|5.54|6.11|6.54|6.44|7.79|8.01|-0.27**|-0.57***|0.10|-0.22|
|N (1st births)|1,374|899|1,599|1,216|758|646|6,492|2,273|2,815|1,404|

NOTES: This table compares the socioeconomic characteristics of firstborn-boy (FB) and firstborn-girl (FG) families during the pre-ultrasound period and during the two post-ultrasound periods in the REDS sample. SC