rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
account, i.e. are weighted by the number of country pairs to which they apply. This means that plurilateral agreements, which involve a large number of bilateral pairs, play a role when gauging the frequency of policies, which we consider as the right approach.

2. Within each policy area, we combine the selected variables. The resultant pattern has itself an empirical frequency distribution across the estimation sample. Some of these policy configurations are fairly highly concentrated, meaning that in practice a few patterns cover nearly all observable cases, whereas other policy configurations also have frequent patterns but in addition have a longer tail across a great many other combinations that occur. For instance, the four most frequent patterns in

> 20Some of these variables are constructed from a combination of variables as they are published in the WB-DTA 2.0 dataset. For instance, a binary variable indicating the presence of a mandatory provision with respect to mutual recognition, which represents a meaningful covariate for estimation, is constructed from two raw variables, one that indicates the existence of a mutual recognition provision and a second one that indicates its strength (mandatory, as opposed to best endeavour).

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4 compare the marginal budget shares of remittance- and non-remittance receiving households to various categories of consumption and investment goods. This comparative, and much more nuanced, view of how remittances are spent or used will hopefully enable us to transcend those positions that merely proclaim that remittances are “not productive” to the overall economy.

This paper proceeds in six sections. Section 1 provides an overview of the data set. Section 2 discusses the choice of the functional form for the model, and Section 3 specifies and estimates the model. Section 4 presents the empirical results, which show that households receiving remittances spend less at the margin on food and more at the margin on housing and education than do non-remittance receiving households. Section 5 explores the ramifications of this finding by disaggregating marginal expenditures on housing and education by income quintile group and level of education. Section 6 summarizes the main findings.

# 1.  Data Set

Data for the study come from a national household survey done by the Instituto Nacional de Estadistica in Guatemala during the period July to December 2000.<sup>iii</sup> The survey included 7,276 urban and rural households and was designed to be statistically representative both at the national level and for urban and rural areas. The survey was comprehensive, collecting detailed information on a wide range of topics, including income, expenditure, education, financial assets, household enterprises and remittances.<sup>iv</sup> It should, however, be emphasized that this Guatemala survey was not designed as a migration or remittances survey. In fact, the survey collected very limited
The paper makes three contributions to the literature. First, the paper analyzes the cumulative impact of the fiscal system as a whole on poverty and inequality in Turkey; in contrast to existing studies which have focused on specific fiscal interventions of Turkey’s system. In fact, the empirical literature on the distributional impact of fiscal interventions in Turkey is relatively scarce. On the tax side, Albayrak (2010) finds that indirect taxes increase income inequality using data from 2003. Albayrak (2011) compares the distributional impacts of tax policies implemented before and after the 2008 financial crisis, and finds that the decrease in Value Added Tax (VAT) and Special Consumption Tax (SCT) rates introduced after the crisis made indirect taxes more regressive. Cross-country studies show that the social security system in Turkey is the least redistributive among all OECD countries since the coverage of the population is lower (OECD, 2008). In addition, while the share of VAT is uniform across income groups in Turkey, excise taxes are regressive (OECD/Korea Institute of Public Finance, 2014).

On the spending side, although public spending on education, health and employment constitutes an important and increasing share of the national budget in Turkey, the articles assessing the redistributive effects of social spending are very few. Koç and Sarisoy (2010) show that social spending decreased poverty in Turkey between 2002 and 2008. Caner and Okten (2012) find that publicly financed higher education in Turkey is progressive since students from rich families select themselves into private universities while students from poor families enroll in public universities. OECD cross-country studies find that the distributional impact of overall cash transfers is very limited in Turkey, and that while the contributory pension system is progressive, its performance is below the OECD average (Causa and Hermansen 2019, Joumard et al, 2012).

The second contribution of the paper, building on the fact that the CEQ methodology has been applied in over 50 countries, is to benchmark Turkey’s performance with peer upper-middleincome economies, such as Argentina
Policy Research Working Paper 9654

# **Abstract**

This paper studies how productivity and markups respond to non-tariff measures. The analysis uses a novel time-varying data set on all non-tariff measures applied to imported products by Indonesia. Price and quantity information is used to disentangle the impact of non-tariff measures on plants’ technical efficiency and markups. The findings show that on average, non-tariff measures generate fewer distortions than import tariffs do. However, while specific non-tariff measures increase the quality of the products on which they are applied, others act as barriers to trade similar to import tariffs. These results suggest that to gauge their impacts and guide policy making, non-tariff measures should not be bundled together in empirical analyses.

This paper is a product of the Macroeconomics, Trade and Investment Global Practice. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/prwp. The authors may be contacted at mcali@worldbank.org, marco.lemoglie@unicatt.it, and giopresidente@gmail.com.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent._ Produced by the Research Support Team
observations several times or, on the contrary, failing to represent in any way some subpopulations that may have a particular interest from the economic and social point of view, such as the movers or newborns or those who enter the population at a given moment.

Moving now to the estimation methodology, we have seen how the GWSME estimator offers a method that allows us to provide unbiased estimates and is simple to implement. The calibration of the estimates with the correction of the weights at the household level presents several theoretical and applicative advantages. The variance estimation has a well-established asymptotic behavior and is far more transparent and well-founded. Because the estimation is based on a small number of adjustment stages, the process flow is simpler. Lastly, the approach greatly improves the consistency between estimates created with household-level variables and those utilizing individual-level definitions of the variables.

Finally, the last aspect examined concerns data collection and the different strategies that can be implemented to mitigate the bias resulting from non-response and panel attrition.

In conclusion, we used data from the Uganda National Panel Survey (UNPS) to experimentally evaluate the suggested technique. In summary, we found that the calibrated GWSM base estimator yields individual-level statistics that appear to be more accurate than those produced by the current UNPS estimator. Additionally, the calibrated GWSM base cross-sectional estimates on the transition matrix show a generally higher degree of stability when the sample is changed compared to the current UNPS estimates.

We stress that the above results are obtained using less auxiliary information of the current UNPS estimator, both because some of this information is not clearly documented and because one of the objectives is to propose a simplified estimator with respect to the current one, using fewer computational steps and based on a robust sampling theory well known in the scientific literature.

# REFERENCES

Deville, J. C. and Särndal C.E. (1992). Calibration Estimator in Survey Sampling. Journal of American Statistical Association. Vol.87. N° 418.

FAO (2015). Integrated Survey Framework, Guidelines, Rome
be explained by the equally impressive decline in youth dependency burdens. Wherever the youth dependency burden has fallen dramatically, Asian countries have relinquished their reliance on foreign capital.‖ They found this effect to be stronger in East Asia than in South Asia, where the fertility transition has been less rapid.

Bloom and Williamson (1998) argued that rapid fertility decline in East Asia facilitated the rapid economic growth in this region by reducing the dependency ratio, ―thereby expanding the per capita productive capacity of East Asian economies‖. They noted that this is a temporary window of opportunity, because continuing fertility and mortality decline will result in high proportions of old people relative to working-age adults. They also pointed out that the East Asia region was able to capitalize heavily on this opportunity because they had built the policy and institutional settings needed to realize the growth potential created by this demographic dividend.

The gains from this demographic window of opportunity may be made permanent if they are invested in physical capital and human capital (Lee 2009). With good planning, this demographic dividend can be used to transform economies such that their growth potential remains high after the window has closed.

Moving to global macro-studies, Kelley and Schmidt (2005) conclude that higher dependency ratios (including both youth and old-age dependency ratios) have a significant impact on growth. They find that ―Worldwide, the combined impacts of demographic change have accounted for approximately 20% of per capita output growth impacts, with larger shares in Asia and Europe.‖ Earlier, they had found that dependency ratios impact on savings, from an examination of 65 less developed countries and 23 developed countries over time and cross-sectionally since 1960 (Kelley and Schmidt 1996).

Turning to the question of whether rapid population growth reduces growth in income per capita, Acemoglu and Johnson (2007) examine the data from 47 developed and developing countries over the period 1940-2000 and conclude that ―Overall, the increases in life expectancy (and the associated increases in population) appear to have reduced income per capita.
estimates around 44% in the 1984 census. Male literacy is higher than female literacy. Urban literacy is higher than rural literacy and by age-cohort, the literacy rates are higher for younger people.

# **4.2 Dropouts and repetition:**

The GLSS data sets do not provide much information on dropouts and repetition, therefore one has to rely on indirect sources to ascertain information on this aspect. One such way is to look at the educational level by age groups. Obviously, one would think that age 5-10 yr children would be predominantly in primary, 11 -15 yr olds in middle, 1620 yr olds in secondary and 21-25 yr olds in higher level education. As seen in Table 27, most of the 11-15 yr old are still in primary level, when one would expect them to be in middle level, and similarly in the age group 16-20 year olds, most of the students are still in middle, when they are supposed to be in secondary. These numbers would suggest that the dropouts/repetition are higher in the 11-20 year age category.

> 5The GLSS3 is not fully compatible to the GLSSI & 2, in terms of literacy measures since the survey questions are slightly different. In the GLSS I&2 the question asked is: Can you read a newspaper or can you write a letter, while in GLSS3 the asked question is: "Can you read a newspaper in your langauage or in English"; and "can you write in your native language or in English".

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is low, with over 70% of households having no women in the workforce. Before 2017, only around 25% of children aged 3-6 were enrolled in preschool, well below averages in other Central Asian countries. Following the childcare expansion reform, the number of preschools has increased by over 3.5 times, and by 2022, preschool capacity reached 63% (Sankar, 2021). Despite this growth, preschool remains costly, with fees ranging from 25% to 200% of an average woman’s monthly earnings.<sup>1</sup> We use the Listening to Citizens of Uzbekistan (L2CU) survey conducted by the World Bank and Development Strategy Center, which includes a 2018 nationally representative baseline of 4,000 households and a monthly panel of 1,500 households through 2023. This data captures quarterly female labor supply and household outcomes. We measure preschool availability annually by district using data from the Uzbekistan Statistics Agency. We focus on households with children aged 1-6 who are most likely affected by the policy expansion.

In Section 4, we outline our empirical methodology. We adopt a quasi-experimental approach similar to Müller and Wrohlich (2020) and Nollenberger and Rodríguez-Planas (2015) to assess the impact of childcare availability on female labor supply. The gradual expansion of childcare facilities varied significantly across districts, providing both temporal and spatial variation that allows us to estimate the policy’s causal effect. Households in districts with above-median growth in childcare coverage since 2019 serve as our treatment group, while households in districts with later or minimal expansion form the control group. The key underlying assumption of our approach is that, in the absence of the policy, female labor supply would have followed a similar trend in both treated and control districts. To address potential confounding factors arising from unobserved regional differences, we include time and district-fixed effects in our analysis.

We present our findings in Section 5. Our primary empirical analysis shows that the childcare expansion policy increased women’s labor supply by 2.4 percentage
the coefficients of Chinese standards variables with, a priori, a larger impact of mandatory standards compared to voluntary standards as compliance with the latter is optional.

Internationally harmonized standards applied by Chinese producers are expected to have a positive impact on exports for two reasons. First, compliance with international standards can be a strong signal that Chinese producers meet safety and quality criteria that are widely recognized. Second, compared to national standards, the informational and signaling benefits of complying with internationally harmonized standards are expected to be larger than complying with national standards.

The coefficient of tariffs is expected to be negative. As a proxy of demand for each product group in each importing country, we include the importing countries‟ total domestic consumption and its sign is expected to be positive as higher domestic demand is expected to increase the demand for imports from China. To control for unobserved characteristics specific to an importer, such as distance with China or historical linkages, and specific to a product, we include fixed effects for importers and products.

# **5. Results**

The estimation is carried out in a panel covering Chinese agricultural exports to 132 countries over the period 1992-2008. Table 3 summarizes descriptive statistics. Notice that there are fewer observations for consumption and tariff, as data for these variables are sometimes not reported for some goods in an importing country. Yet, coefficient estimates for standards do not change significantly when these variables are excluded from regressions, as shown below.

## [Insert Table 3 here]

Table 4 reports OLS estimates for our specification. Column 1 reports the results using the total number of standards as explanatory variable. The coefficient has the expected positive sign and is statistically significant. Column 2 reports estimates from the baseline model (equation 1). Standard errors are clustered by product groups. All coefficients have the expected signs. Regarding the relative impact of standards, internationally harmonized mandatory standards seem to have the largest impact on Chinese exports. As consumption and tariff data have missing observations for some sectors in some countries,
gap after controlling for both log of GDP and year fixed effects. Sanitation initially appears to explain much of the Africa-South Asia gap in child height. Section 4.4 considers the decomposition of this difference in more detail, using child-level height data.

# **3 Evidence from within Indian districts**

How much of the change over time in Indian children’s height is accounted for by the increase over time in sanitation coverage? One challenge to answering this question well is that, unfortunately, improvements in sanitation in India have been slow. As an illustration, in its 2005-6 DHS, 55.3 percent of Indian households reported open defecation, and the mean child was 1.9 standard deviations below the reference mean; this combination is almost identical to neighboring Pakistan’s in its 1990-1 DHS 15 years earlier, when 53.1 percent of households did not use a toilet or latrine and the mean height for age was 2 standard deviations below the mean. This section studies change over time within India by constructing a panel of districts out of India’s 1992-3 and 1998-9 DHS surveys.

## **3.1 Data and empirical strategy**

The National Family and Health Surveys (NFHS) are India’s implementation of DHS surveys. This section analyzes a district-level panel constructed out of the NFHS-1 and NFHS-2.<sup>11</sup> Districts are political subdivisions of states. Some districts merged or split between survey rounds, so households in the survey are matched to a constructed “district” that may be a coarser partition than actual district boundaries. In particular, a primary sampling unit (PSU) is assigned to a constructed district such that all splits and merges are assigned to the coarser partition, creating the finest partition such that each PSU is in the same constructed district as all PSUs which would have shared a district with it in either period. Thus if there were two districts _A_ and _B_ in the first round, which split before the second round into _A_<
Land-related transaction costs are onerous for all, but are often prohibitive for the poor. They are a serious obstacle to better access to land for the rural poor and socially excluded. The companion study in Orissa includes an empirical assessment of the formal and informal transaction costs involved in the land market (Mearns and Sinha 1998). While formal transaction costs (e.g. registration fees and stamp duties) amount to around 17 percent of the value of the land transacted, it is estimated that informal transaction costs (e.g. making repeated visits to tehsildar's and registrar's offices, side-payments to expedite issuance of relevant documents, etc) amount to at least as much again, without taking into account the time and other opportunity costs involved. The process of effecting a mutation in land records frequently takes a decade or longer.

The case for improving the system of land administration and records management so as to reduce land transaction costs appears strong. It is strengthened yet further by the trends discussed in this paper: demographic pressure; rising activity in land markets owing to social and economic mobility; latent pressure for further growth in market activity; and increasing demand from landless, marginal and small operators to lease-in land. The potential advantages to both buyers and sellers of land include simpler, cheaper and more secure conveyancing procedures; better access to affordable, institutional credit (Brandao and Feder 1996); and less litigation. State governments also stand to gain from reduced litigation and from more accurate records of rights in land as a basis for planning, for the implementation of land reforms legislation where appropriate, and to help in preventing encroachment on public land.

Several types of improvement in land records management and land administration are possible, including the computerization of land records and land registration (and the integration of the two), and institutional reforms in land settlement and adjudication. Some of these are considered in greater detail in the Orissa study (Mearns and Sinha 1998). A One-Man Committee on Records of Rights in
market trading started as a bilateral telephone market in 1989-90 between producers and suppliers (Roeber 1996). The nature of the trading has not changed substantially except for the entry of traders and the higher volumes of trading. Producers, shippers, and traders "shop around," arranging for terms that best suit their needs.

Five types of natural gas contracts are traded in the U.K. spot markets:

-

- * Day-ahead gas for delivery on the next day.

-

- * Balance gas for delivery on a daily or weekly basis.

-

- * Monthly gas for delivery during a specified calendar month.

> ' There are six entry terminals in the U.K., but only two of them, Bacton and St. Fergus, have developed into major spot markets.

> **6** The data in this section are drawn from Royle 1996.
AMOA (2016) in the country-level estimates, we check the impact of a potential structural break on the Zivot & Andrews (1992) unit root decision to confirm the stationarity of a time series.

For both country and regional level analyses, the methodology consists of estimating regressions for different values of _k_ . The optimal value _k_ is the one maximizing the R-squared (R<sup>2</sup> ) from the respective regressions or minimizing the residual sum of squares (RSS). The maximum inflation threshold level is 12 percent. Sensitivity analyses are performed to check for the robustness of the results. These are thoroughly described in the results section. In addition to minimizing the RSS, a Wald test of significance is performed to confirm the importance of this level.

# **5. Data Sources**

The study uses annual data from the following data sources: World Development Indicators (WDI), the IMF World Economic Outlook (WEO) database, the ECOWAS database, and the statistical database of the United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD). GDP, international trade openness and total investment series come from the UNSD database. Consumer Price Indices (CPI) and terms of trade are from the WEO database, and some series have been estimated using data from the ECOWAS database; particularly for the period 1970-1979 for WAMU countries. Population data and natural resource rent data series come from the WDI database. The study covers the periods 1970-2018 for all WAMU countries, and 1980-2018 for all CAMU countries.

The growth rate of GDP, total population and CPI are transformed by using log transformation as in (1) while investment, international trade openness and natural resource rent are measured in percentage to GDP. Investment and international trade data are valued in constant prices. The log transformation is meant to eliminates, at least partially, the strong asymmetry in inflation distribution and to some to smooth time trend in the data set.

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