rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
perception is associated with a higher demand for the reserved space. We use rich data on ride conditions to rule out alternative demand mechanisms such as crowding and fear of property crime.

Second, we ask: How much of women riders’ valuation of the reserved space comes from a reduction in harassment vs. other amenity values women may place in the reserved space? We document the incidence of sexual harassment in the public space and the impact of

> 3The analysis dataset is available on the World Bank’s Microdata Catalogue under the reference code BRA ~~2~~ 015-2016 ~~D~~ SS ~~v~~ 01 ~~M~~ (Kondylis et al., 2020)

3
). In 2004 the maximum coverage dropped to 5 million UDIs (16,762,350 Mexican pesos) and was planned to go down to 400,000 UDIs (1,365,979 pesos) in 2005. The coverage amount is calculated per depositor per institution. Membership is compulsory for all banks and the premiums are assessed as minimum 0.4% of a proxy of total bank liabilities. In the 1999 system the rate was 0.3% with a 0.5% maximum plus 0.7% premium when necessary.

_Sources_ : Own survey of deposit insurers, IADI Survey: Mexico (2003).

**Micronesia.** ( _Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation-FDIC, Banking Act_ ) The scheme of Micronesia was established in 1963. It is administered officially. Membership to the system is voluntary. The coverage limit is set at US$ 100,000. The fund has borrowed from the Central Bank and the Ministry of Finance. _Sources_ : Garcia (1999), Kyei (1995).

**Netherlands.** ( _Collective Guarantee Scheme_ ) The scheme of Netherlands was established in 1978. There is no permanently maintained fund. The banks make ex-post contributions when needed. Ex-post assessments are made case-by-case based on several items of data reported to the central bank. Assessed bank’s portfolio is compared to the portfolio of the failed bank. The contribution amounts are determined after

70
. In Nicaragua, Ghana, Nepal, and Vietnam, only 1 percent, 4 percent, 7 percent, and 2 percent of households respectively used candles, flashlights, or something else other than electricity or gas, oil, or kerosene lamps for lighting.

In eight of the ten countries where data about households' cooking fuel are available, fewer than 2 percent of all households used electricity as cooking fuel.<sup>28</sup> Households that did not use

> 28 South Africa and Bulgaria are the only two countries in the sample where a significant number of households reported using electricity for cooking (43 percent in South Africa and 75 percent in Bulgaria). In South Africa, almost no households

14
Regarding patents, the agreement established certain TRIPS-Plus rules, including confidentiality for pharmaceutical clinical trials data and extensions in patent length to compensate for administrative delays in granting protection. These provisions, and others, were the foundation on which other TRIPS-Plus patent standards were erected in subsequent PTAs. NAFTA also mandated a minimum copyright length, expanded the types of literary and artistic works (including software) that must be protected, and recognized various neighboring rights. It further required automatic recognition of internationally well-known 3
contribution of women and the aggregate output in the economy. The variant set the fertility parameter to 2.35, a quantity necessary to ensure a net reproduction rate of 1.0 starting in the 2015-2020 period. The economy of Liberia was estimated to experience a 3.1 percent growth if fertility were equal to its instantreplacement rate (Figure 3). Per worker output was estimated to grow by 1.59 percent.

The growth due to lower fertility rates was driven through several channels. The average years of education was predicted to grow from 4.6 to 5.0 while we expected the entire supply of labor to increase by 28,600 workers. The variation in output due to lower fertility rates was further driven by an increased allocation of the workforce to the modern sector and more representation of women within it. The modern sector was estimated to expand its share from 29.5 percent to 32.5 percent which led to a modern sector output growth of 18.3 percent for women and 8.8 percent for men.

The dividend would be less, but still economically meaningful, if the fertility rate in Liberia were equal to the regional average (4.1 children per woman) in 2015-2020. A reduction of an average of 0.37 children per women in Liberia would lead to an economic expansion of 0.57 percent in GDP and women’s contribution would increase by 0.28 percent. Alternately, when using OECD fertility rates in the same years,<sup>24</sup> GDP would grow an additional 3.71 percent in comparison to our baseline, reaching USD 5 billion.

**Figure 3. Selected macro-economic changes due reduction of fertility rates to instantreplacement rates (in USD, growth in %)**

<!-- Start of picture text --> $4,500 23%<br>4,176<br> $4,000<br>18%<br> $3,500 18.
distribution companies and, with one exception, at least 80 percent for generation companies. In Uganda, Umeme has a concession on distribution, and Eskom has a concession on some hydropower assets in addition to IPPs. All four are included in the study.

**Data from utility financial statements** . This study takes revenues and opex from utility financial statements. The study assumes that accounting is performed on an accrual basis, in accordance with the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) and International Accounting Standards (IAS).

- **Revenues** captured in the analysis concern only those directly related to electricity sales that are retained by power utilities. As mentioned earlier, reported revenues therefore reflect the amounts billed and not amounts collected. Subsidies in the form of direct transfers from the government or international donors are excluded. Revenues not directly related to sale of electricity are excluded, such as those earned from sale of water for the utilities that provide both services.

- **Operational expenditures** captured include all fixed and variable O&M costs, and taxes that are not rebated such as corporate income tax. All costs deemed to be related to capital costs are excluded because they are replaced by calculated annualized capex for existing assets. All loan repayments—interest payments typically recorded on income statements and principal payments typically recorded on cash-flow statements—are considered to be for capex. Other exclusions include depreciation, losses on foreign denominated debt, costs not directly related to electricity sales (such as costs of providing water services), and costs from extraordinary activities.

- **Utility financial statements** differ in quality and availability, as described in annex 1.2. Of the 39 reference utilities, 23 had their statements audited, 13 by international accounting firms and the

15
and Godlonton, Munthali, and Thornton (2015) on safer sexual behaviors; Madajewicz, Pfaff, Van Geen, Graziano, Hussein, Momotaj, Sylvi, and Ahsan (2007) on choices of safe drinking water; and Shrestha and Yang (2015) on improving job satisfaction among migrant workers. This study shows another context where providing credible information can be a powerful policy tool to enable potential migrants to make informed decisions.<sup>7</sup> The rest of the paper is organized as follows: Section 2 describes the context and the study setting, Section 3 outlines the intervention design and empirical strategy, Section 4 discusses the effect of the interventions on perceptions, Section 5 describes the follow-up survey and presents the effect of the interventions on migration and other outcomes, Section 6 outlines the methodology for VSL estimation and presents the results, Section 7 uses the VSL and the elasticity estimates to understand the large extent of misinformation on mortality risks, and Section 8 concludes.

# **2 Context and study setting**

With remittances from abroad comprising almost a third of the national GDP, international migration for work is tremendously important for Nepal. In this section, I first describe the national context of migration to Malaysia and the Persian Gulf countries. I then describe the context specific to this study and compare the study sample with the population of migrants in the country along a few observable characteristics.

## **2.1 Context**

In recent years, Nepal has been one of the biggest suppliers of low-skill labor to Malaysia and the Persian Gulf countries. This phenomenon, however, is quite recent. As Appendix Table A.1 shows, historic migrant-to-population ratio hovered slightly above 3 percent and was driven mostly by migration to India, with which Nepal maintains an open border. However, between 2001 and 2011, the share of nonIndia migrants exploded six-fold with only a small change in the share of India migrants. The rising Maoist conflict in the early 2000s and the economic instability during the conflict
. _Journal of International Economics,_ **85** (1), pp. 102-113.

Nguyen-Hoang, P. and J. McPeak, 2010, Leaving or Staying: Inter-Provincial Migration in Vietnam. _Asian and Pacific Migration Journal_ , **19** (4), pp. 473-500.

Nguyen, T. P., N. T. M. T. Tran, T. N. Nguyen and R. Oostendorp, 2008, Determinants and Impacts of Migration in Vietnam. _<mark>Development and Policies Research Center (DEPOCEN)</mark> Working Paper,_ 2008/01.

Niimi, Y., T. H. Pham and B. Reilly, 2009, Determinants of Remittances: Recent Evidence Using Data on Internal Migrants in Vietnam. _Asian Economic Journal,_ **23** (1), pp. 19-39.

Parker, S., J. Riedel and P. V. Quang, 2007, Assessment of the Five Year Impact of the U.S.Vietnam Bilateral Trade Agreement on Vietnam’s Trade, Investment, and Economic Structure. A report by STAR-Vietnam project. Available from: www.amchamvietnam.com/download/906.

<mark>Phan, D. N. and I. Coxhead, 2010, Interprovincial Migration and Inequality during Vietnam's Transition.</mark> _<mark>Journal of Development Economics</mark>_ <mark>,</mark> **<mark>91</mark>** <mark>(1), pp. 100-112.</mark> Sjaastad, L. A., 1962, The Costs and Returns of Human Migration. _Journal of Political Economy,_ **70** (Supplement), pp. 80-93.
|20|0|1966|-#32|
|-16|Nixon|USA|-1.34%|0.58%|1.83%|0.686|0|6|1|1969|-#34|
|-17|Eisenhower|USA|-1.34%|0.53%|1.23%|0.734|0|8|1|1953|-#36|
|-18|Chirac|FRA|-0.81%|0.34%|1.72%|0.891|0|12|1|1995|-#108|

Notes: list of leaders (tenure >=3yrs, with complete growth data) who have a significant LS leader effect at the 5% level. That is where (LS leader estimate)-1.96*(RMS Err)>0 or (LS leader estimate)+1.96*(RMS Err)<0. Sig at 99% is analogous. *PWT9 Growth data runs 1951-2014 so complete grwoth data excludes leaders with part of their tenure before 1951 or after 2014.

27
among less educated adults. Or it may suggest that less ability to understand complex loan terms and navigate the loan process could be a barrier to the use of formal credit.

# **What are the main purposes for loans?**

Why are people most likely to borrow? Data gathered in developing economies show that emergency or health purposes are the most common reason for having an outstanding loan (figure 3.2).<sup>3</sup> This is especially so in Cambodia, Guinea, Madagascar, Sudan, and the Republic of Yemen, where more than 30 percent of adults report having an outstanding loan for such purposes. Emergency and health loans are also more commonly reported among those in the poorest income quintile: on average in developing economies, 14 percent of adults in the poorest quintile had a loan for emergency or health purposes, compared with 8 percent of those in the richest.

Outstanding loans for school fees are most common in Sub-Saharan Africa, reported by 8 percent of adults in that region. Outstanding loans for funerals or weddings are reported by 3 percent of adults in the developing world as a whole. But they are significantly more common in fragile and conflict-affected states such as Afghanistan (29 percent), Iraq (13 percent), Somalia (11 percent), and West Bank and Gaza (11 percent).

**39**

MEASURING FINANCIAL INCLUSION
|
|2015|4,671,707|28,198|0.60|475,000|
|2016|4,814,880|38,834|0.80|425,000|
|2017|4,942,283|44,886|0.90|395,000|
|2018|5,199,944|52,520|1.00|365,000|
|2019|5,389,481|32,532|0.60|465,000|

_Note:_ This table summarizes the merging process between household survey microdata and administrative tax recordes. Column (1) presents the number of adults (20+) represented in the survey data, our underlying population of interest. Column (2) presents the number of individual observations from tax data that are used in the final microdataset, i.e. that replace high-income individuals from the survey, while column (3) presents the same number as a share of the reference population. Finally, Column (4) presents the merging point between the two surveys - below that income level the final datasets includes only survey information, while above it includes only tax records.

27
older children is again likely to increase in developing countries via intra-household substitution effects, even with demand-side implementations.

To empirically study this question we bring to bear harmonized income survey microdata from 170 countries covering response years between 1960 and 2020. The data include over 1,700 unique nationally representative survey years covering over 180 million respondents. We combine these surveys with detailed data on trade agreements reported to the WTO that include non-trade characteristics such as whether an agreement includes provisions banning the use of child labor and how said provisions are enforced. Because child labor is less of a concern in developed countries, we focus our analysis on a sub-sample of 101 developing countries. We estimate a variety of difference-indifferences (DiD) and triple DiD models on this developing country sample to assess within-country changes in child labor market outcomes before and after a given trade agreement enters into force, and whether these effects differ for trade agreements with the child labor provisions compared to those without.

We find that, consistent with our model predictions, child labor—especially employment of 14 to 17 year olds—declines following entry into force of RTAs that do not include child labor protections with corresponding increases in school enrollment rates. However, in trade agreements that include provisions banning child labor, those provisions perversely _increase_ child employment for both young (under 14 years of age) and, especially, 14 to 17 year olds. Consistently with this finding, we also observe a decrease in school enrollment rates for both young and older children. Finally, we find evidence that these provisions decrease inter-household income inequality for households with children, presumably through increases in child labor income.

This is the first paper to establish systematic evidence on the impacts of child labor protections in RTAs on child labor and related outcomes. In doing so, we also make significant contributions to the literature on the impacts of free trade on child labor more broadly. Our empirical setting offers credibly exogenous variation in trade openness applied to a broad panel of developing countries and improves upon existing identification strategies in the literature
- 22 -

**Figure 2. Total Private Capital Flows (net)**

<!-- Start of picture text --> 25000 14%<br>20000 12%<br>15000 k0<br>8%<br>10000 6%<br>5000 4<br>2%<br>0 0<br>-5000 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-2%<br>o 0)0) Co -N CO CD 0) C a7 0 CO co ) In CO 00) ) co CO co 0)0 XO co co CO co CO 0) 0 0) m) C) o N ) 0) C 0) 0) 0) L Q) O a) CD 0)<br>-.--+$ Million -% of GDP<br>Source: Bank of Thailand.<br><!-- End of picture text --> Private capital flows were already significant in the early 1980s, but declined in 1985 and 1986 as a result of the uncertainties surrounding the macro adjustment. Again, the data seem to suggest a structural break in 1988, when flows increased rapidly until 1990 to about 13 percent of GDP, a local maxima. After stabilizing at about 8 percent of GDP in 1992-94, there was a second local maxima in 1995 when flows again surpassed 12 percent of GDP.

_Main Components of Capital Inflows._ The Bank of Thailand classifies capital flows into nonbank and bank flows. The latter are resident banks borrowing from overseas sources (either from financial institutions or by issuing debt instruments), and, starting in 1993, a separate category for borrowing by BIBF banks (see Box 1). The nonbank categories are the following:

- Foreign Direct Investment: including both net FDI inflows and outflows (Thai direct investment overseas);

- Portfolio Capital: distinguishing between fixed income and equity flows, and including
the Penn World Tables (Feenstra et al., 2015).

**These results underline the need for effective investments making schools in poor countries well-equipped to deliver learning against the backdrop of a rapidly growing student population** . The existing literature highlights a number of promising margins. Based on a comprehensive review of the evidence, the Global Education Evidence Advisory Panel (2023) concludes that improving classroom instruction through structured pedagogy and targeted support for students falling behind, and the provision of information on education quality are particularly cost-effective interventions. In many developing countries, it has been documented that teachers perform poorly in terms of both subject knowledge and exerted effort (Bold et al., 2017); in light of this, the returns to policies that train teachers and provide them with appropriate incentives are likely to be high (Kremer et al., 2013; Evans and Popova, 2016). New technologies could help by both complementing teachers’ efforts and accommodating a growing and increasingly diverse student population; for example, Muralidharan et al. (2019) reports large performance gains associated with an instruction program that dynamically adapts the proposed content to the learning level of each student. More broadly, systemic reforms are

> 2Indirect evidence on the crucial role of school quality for human capital formation comes from the learning losses experienced by several countries during the pandemic, which were large and highly heterogeneous across countries (Hanushek and Strauss, 2024).

7
00135|0.000964|-0.00219|0.0118***|
||(0.00451)|(0.00423)|(0.00136)|(0.00261)|(0.000997)|(0.000869)|(0.00425)|(0.00299)|
|Trade Openness|0.0702|-0.0831**|-0.00770|-0.0186|0.00598|-0.0110|0.0720|-0.0526*|
|_(% of GDP, logs)_|(0.0755)|(0.0388)|(0.0228)|(0.0237)|(0.0167)|(0.00793)|(0.0711)|(0.0274)|
|Financial Openness|0.0105|0.0104|0.00642*|0.00792*|-0.00212|0.000868|0.00624|0.00151|
|_(Chinn‐Ito Index)_|(0.0109)|(0.00730)|(0.00329)|(0.00449)|(0.00241)|(0.00149)|(0.0103)|(0.00515)|
|_External Factors_|||||||||
|Foreign Growth|0.000395|0.00202|9.77e-05|-6.42e-05|-0.00153|-0.000697**|0.00183|0.00285**|
||(0.00750)|(0.00173)|(0.00226)|(0.00107)|(0.00166)|(0.000353)|(0.00706)|(0.00122)|
|VIX Index|0.00733|0.0889
areas, the magnitudes of the coverage gaps show a confounded differentiation in access to opportunities. Countries like Peru, Colombia, Bolivia, Chile, and Panama are clear examples of such gaps.

Individuals’ income, however, does not present the same gaps as access to water supply. Some of the subgroups that started with low access to water supply in rural areas in the 1980s ended up having similar household incomes in 2015 as subgroups with higher levels of access to water in urban areas. Nevertheless, the relationship in the tails of the distribution prevails, as in the case of primary completion. On average, subgroups in the bottom of the distribution of access to water belong to the poorer households in 2015. Though the household survey of Argentina does not provide information for rural zones, there is a clear gap in the access to water. The subnational regions with lower access to water supply are in fact the most marginalized subregions in the country and, consequently, the poorest.

# **4. Research agenda**

After analyzing the relationship between access to basic education and public services early in life and income level in adulthood during the last 50 years in Latin America, we were able to identify some common elements. First, at the regional level, we observe an important improvement in human opportunities during the 50 years of analysis. There are specific demographic and geographic characteristics that explain the process of increasing access to basic services, as well as elements associated with the technology underlying the provision of the different services under analysis.

25
- Guiteras, R., J. Levinsohn, and A. M. Mobarak (2015). Encouraging sanitation investment in the developing world: a cluster-randomized trial. _Science 348_ (6237), 903–906.

- Hernandez, D. and J. Laird (2019). Disconnected: Estimating the national prevalence of utility disconnections and related coping strategies. _Philadelphia, PA: American Public Health Association_ .

- Heymans, C., K. Eales, and R. Franceys (2014). The limits and possibilities of prepaid water in urban Africa.

- Hutton, G. and M. Varughese (2016). _The Costs of Meeting the 2030 Sustainable Development Goal Targets on Drinking Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene_ . The World Bank.

- Jack, K. and G. Smith (2020, April). Charging ahead: Prepaid metering, electricity use, and utility revenue. _American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 12_ (2), 134–68.

- Jiménez, A. and A. Pérez-Foguet (2011). The relationship between technology and functionality of rural water points: evidence from Tanzania. _Water science and technology 63_ (5), 948–955.

- Kennedy-Walker, R., N. Mehta, S. Thomas, and M. Gambrill (2020). Connecting the unconnected.

- Kenya National Bureau of Statistics, Ministry of Health/Kenya, National AIDS Control Council/Kenya, Kenya Medical Research Institute, and National Council for Population and Development/Kenya. (2015). Kenya demographic and health survey 2014. Technical report.

- Kleven, H. J., M. B. Knudsen, C. T. Kreiner, S. Pedersen, and E. Saez (2011). Unwilling or unable to cheat? evidence from a tax audit experiment in denmark. _Econometrica 79_ (3), 651–692.

- Lee, K., E. Miguel, and C. Wolfram (2020). Experimental evidence on the economics of rural