rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
4.5 Environmental contamination In relation to the International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade WHO developed a 'Minimum Evaluation Procedure' (MEP) for water supply and sanitation projects (WHO 1983). A five page questionnaire was developed which focuses upon the evaluation of the functioning and use of water supply and sanitation facilities. Impact evaluations were explicitly avoided as they are generally more complex and costly to plan and carry out than function and use evaluations. The MEP can be shortened and culturally adapted and provides a useful starting point for an optional module on environmental contamination. Methods to measure personal hygiene (hand washing, food preparation etc), housing types and degree of crowding are also fairly well established now but the design of such measures needs anthropological input and careful pre-testing.

# 4.6 Explanatorv variables

Health depends upon a complex weave of socio-structural variables and processes including family relationships and power relationships within a community. However, we suggest that the WHS concentrates on explanatory variables which are subject to intervention or can be used to target interventions to improve health. Essentially this means restricting questions to indicators of social status and not exploring social processes. So, which explanatory variables should be included in a WHS?

Any health survey needs to obtain information on certain explanatorv, or independent, variables. Sex, age, and maternal education (measured by years of schooling) are essential, as are measures of socioeconomic status. The latter have generated much discussion. Although there is a need for information on household possessions, housing type, place of residence, access to food etc, it is all too easy to overload a household questionnaire with, for example, detailed questions on labour force participation.

Given the fact that current health depends very much on past health 33
global nature of the shock we are studying: due to network effects, BRI transport infrastructure investments are expected to change bilateral trade costs among many country pairs in the world and not only for countries that will participate to the initiative. A key advantage from solving the model in relative changes is that it minimizes the data requirements to calibrate the model.

We use the newly available database in GTAP 10 to calibrate our model and consider a total of 107 countries and “regions” and 31 sectors.<sup>12</sup> To compute the model and perform counterfactual analysis, the following aggregates are used for all the countries considered in the analysis and for a constructed rest of the world, based on GTAP 10 data.

- j

- • γn : share of value added in gross output by country and sector.

> 11 Transport projects are estimated to cover about one-quarter of total BRI investment (Bandiera and Tsiropoulos, 2019).

> 12 See Annex A for the full list of countries and regions used in this paper.

13
# **Early Childhood Development through an Integrated Program: Evidence from the Philippines**

# **ABSTRACT**

More attention and resources have been devoted in recent years to early childhood development (ECD) in low- and middle-income countries. Rigorous studies on the effectiveness of ECD-related programs for improving children’s development in various dimensions in the developing world are scant. We evaluate an important ECD initiative of the Philippine government using longitudinal data collected over three years on a cohort of 6,693 children age 0-4 years at baseline in two “treatment” regions and a “control” region that did not receive the intervention. The initiative includes a wide range of health, nutrition, early education, and social services programs. We estimate its impact by using “intent-to-treat” difference-in-difference propensity score matching estimators to control for a variety of observed characteristics measured at the municipality, barangay, household, and child level and unobserved fixed characteristics, with differential impacts by age of children and duration of exposure to the program. There has been a significant improvement in the cognitive, social, motor and language development and in short-term nutritional status of children who reside in ECD program areas compared to those in non-program areas, particularly for those under age four at the end of the evaluation period. The proportions of children below age four with worms and diarrhea also have been lowered significantly in program compared to non-program areas, but there are effects in the opposite direction for older children so the overall impact on these two indicators is mixed.

ii
). 2016 Africa Private Equity Confidence Survey. EAVCA; SAVCA.

Central Bank of Kenya (August 2016). The Kenya Financial Sector Stability Report, 2015. Issue No. 7. Nairobi, Kenya.

Central Bank of Kenya (August 2015). The Kenya Financial Sector Stability Report, 2014. Issue No. 6. Nairobi, Kenya.

Ernst & Young (2015). Private equity roundup - Africa.

Intellcap (2015). Closing The Gap Kenya: Update on Key Challenges for the "Missing Middle" in Kenya. ANDE; EAVCA.

53
economies can take advantage of external economies of scale, increasing their productivity and providing better jobs to their populations. For instance, recent statistics, such as the road infrastructure index and the export market penetration index, suggest that the region is behind similar regions in other parts of the world. Then, it is critical to have a complete assessment of the aggregate and distributional impacts of these market integration policies.

To do that, we match the model to the data by recovering economic fundamentals such as total factor productivity measures and amenities. Then, we simulated in the model three different interventions:

1. Implementation of trade facilitation reforms

2. Accession to the EU 3. New infrastructure The results suggest that coordination among economies is imperative for some of these policies to be successful. For example, if there is coordination, the trade facilitation reform can generate 8% additional gains relative to a counterfactual in which each economy does it independently. Similarly, if these economies are part of the EU, the gains are amplified by an additional 6%. Both results indicate the importance of synergies from combining different interventions. Moreover, accession of the Western Balkans to the EU can positively impact some neighboring countries due to trade linkages. Countries such as Romania, Hungary, or Bulgaria can experience gains of around 0.2% because they will benefit more from trade with the Western Balkans. Thus, Governments from these countries need to coordinate with the Western Balkans to take advantage of these potential opportunities.

Finally, regarding the impact of infrastructure, we find that roads have a substantial effect on trade linkages and on welfare. However, roads seem to have a more significant impact when these economies are already part of the EU, suggesting that there are synergies in implementing the two interventions together and that governments can spur economic growth by combining the two policies.

In conclusion, as the world navigates an increasingly uncertain trade landscape, it is more important than ever to preserve and nurture international integration as a key driver of economic growth, job creation
the relative strength of each predictor variable in predicting achievement (i.e., to find the most robust predictors of achievement) in each model. Also, although fit indices are not intrinsically interpretable (i.e., their values cannot be interpreted as being large or small in themselves), they can be compared across different steps of each model to check whether changes in the model lead to better fit; for all three indices presented in the tables, smaller values indicate better model fit regardless of the absolute number.

# 4. Results

## 4.1 Descriptive statistics

### _4.1.1 Descriptive statistics of outcome variables_

Table 2 shows the mean scores in mathematics and science by student gender in the TIMSS 2019 and NALO 2018 assessments. Results from both data sets show that boys consistently underperform compared to girls in both subject domains and at both grade levels in Saudi Arabia. The differences are larger for science than for mathematics at both grade levels, in both TIMSS and NALO.

**Table 2. Mean mathematics and science achievement in Saudi Arabia, by grade level and student gender, TIMSS**

||||**2019 and NALO**|**2018**||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||||**TIMSS 2019**|||**NALO 2018**||
|||Male<br>_Mean(SD)_|Female<br>_Mean(SD)_|_M-F_|Male<br>_Mean(SD)_|Female<br>_Mean(SD)_|_M-F_|
|**Gd 4**|Mathematics|385 (108)|412 (91)|_-26_|496 (103)|504 (97)|_-8_|
|**rae**|Science|373 (
Diversity Score (HDDS) is available in two data sets only, and in Chad, no household consumption is available (Table 1). CBT selection thresholds vary from 21% to 68%, reflecting the wide variation in coverage rates within program areas. As discussed, this calls for considering the selection threshold when comparing targeting outcomes, and for harmonizing selection thresholds within and (when possible) across countries when conducting targeting analyses.

Our data also include information on household characteristics, although the variables collected vary across data sets. We use a limited number of household demographic and housing characteristics (e.g., household size, roof material) when exploring the determinants of beneficiary selection across methods.

_4.2 Methodology: Measures and metrics_

> 19 There are two data sets each for Burkina Faso, Niger and Senegal, which we differentiate by a number (1 or 2). There is only one data set each for Cameroon, Chad and Mali.

12
This study also finds that large-scale expansion of biofuels leads to a slight increase in the number of poor people if the poverty line used is $1.25 PPP per day. The increase largely comes from South Asia (India) and Sub-Saharan Africa. A large number of countries in SubSaharan Africa would realize an increase in poverty due to the large-scale expansion of biofuels. If the poverty line is drawn at $2.50 PPP per day, the number of people below the poverty line would increase significantly. The GINI coefficient in Sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America would drop, whereas it would increase in the rest of the regions. At the global level, the GINI coefficient would drop, although the magnitude is small.

While the effects of higher biofuel mandates on rural unskilled workers are positive in terms of higher relative wages and labor movement from urban to rural, the increase in food prices especially in developing countries is a major concern. Thus, since the increase in food prices is largely due to dependence of the current biofuel technology on food crops as raw materials in biofuel production, from the perspective of global poverty the development of a biofuel technology that uses less food crops is critical.

# **References**

- Al-Riffai, P., B. Dimaranan, and D. Laborde, 2010. "Global Trade and Environmental Impact Study of the EU Biofuels Mandate", Report for the European Commission, DG TRADE, ATLASS Consortium.

- Ackah, C., Bussolo, R. de Hoyos, and D. Medvedev. 2008. “A New Dataset on Global Income Distribution”. Washington, DC: World Bank.

- Arndt, C., R. Benfica, F. Tarp, J. Thurlow, and R. Uaiene. 2008. “Biofuels, Poverty and Growth: A Computable General Equilibrium Analysis of Mozambique”. IFPRI Discussion Paper 803. Washington, D.C. International Food Policy Research Institute.

- Beghin, J., Timilsina, G, van der Mensbrugghe,
project studies, G.D. Kalra (1992) analysed gur production in UP and made separate estimates of the nominal protection of the cane used to produce it for the period 1981 to 1991. His estimates worked back from estimated reference prices for gur, which in turn were derived from fob export prices at Bombay and from UP to Nepal. However world trade in gur (i.e. non-centrifugal sugars -see previous discussion) and the quantities periodically exported from India (of the order of 15,000 tons ) were negligible in relation to UP gur production (over 4 million tons in the 1990s). We therefore decided that it would be more meaningful to compare the domestic prices of sugarcane used in gur production, with the reference prices of mill sugarcane, since the latter are derived from world prices of sugar and molasses, in which there is substantial international trade. The counterfactual scenario for these NPC estimates is therefore a situation in which there is free trade in mill sugar and molasses, and in addition the abolition of the controls (including minimum cane prices imposed on the mills) which prevent free competition for cane between the gur and khandsari units on the one hand and the mills on the other.

Figure 19: **UP: Comparisons of the NPCs of cane used in mill sugar production and cane used in gur production.** <!-- Start of picture text --> .1o N - -+CANE FROM GUR<br>* ........- CANE FROM SUGAR<br><!-- End of picture text --> Sources and notes: See Annex 17.

The details of these estimates are shown in Annex .and the resulting NPC series for sugarcane is compared with the NPC series for mill sugarcane in Fig 17. The prices paid for cane by gur producers are not reported, but consistent annual series of wholesale gur prices are available for the entire period from 1965 to 1995. As gur has always been exempt
454|0.546|0.301|0.419|0.433|

_Source:_ Authors’ estimates based on data from the 2003 National Industrial Census and the 2014 Integrated Business Establishment Survey.

_Note:_ This table reports estimates for equation 4. Dependent variable = log employment in firm _i_ at time _t_ . All regressions control for the informality status of a firm, the type of ownership, the type of legal organization, and region. Standard errors are reported in parentheses. Significance level: * = 10 percent, ** = 5 percent, *** = 1 percent.

28
**Table 1.2: Distribution of Income by Socio-Economic Groups**

||Size of<br>Groups|percent|Mean pey|Median<br>pcy|S.D. pcy|Poor<br>percent|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Govt.|1,536|10.9|84,906|41,885|443,527|18.3|
|NTG|2,064|14.6|44,977|34,237|44,030|26.6|
|Manu.|575|4.2|43,751|36,598|37,255|25.2|
|Traders|5,241|37.1|43,705|35,554|35,465|26.2|
|Cocoa|2,227|15.8|52,210|39,460|64,605|21.0|
|Food|9,166|54.9|45,122|31,916|1,182,188|32.7|
|TOTAL|14,130|||46,404|34,289|151,202|

pcy = per capita income in cedis for Ghana A Household is described as poor if it falls into the poorest 3 per cent capita income deciles.

_50urce: Table derived by Appleton and Collier(l990) from the SDA Survey of 1988, p.83._ The figures are of interest in giving an indication of broad differences between the income per capita of households in different groups after the Economic Recovery Program had gone some way. They will be referred to again at appropriate points in the paper when we focus on the changing relative position of specific groups at different points in the country's changing economic regimes.

One point of general importance
ity growth. Using US Bureau of Labor Statistics data from 1992-2000, they ...nd that service o¤shoring has a signi...cant positive e¤ect on labor productivity growth, accounting for approximately 10 percent of average growth in this factor. While material o¤shoring also has a positive e¤ect, it is smaller in magnitude— accounting for 5 percent of average growth in labor productivity— and not signi...cant across all speci...cations. They conclude that service o¤shoring does have a positive impact on labor productivity growth in the US and speculate that the smaller and less signi...cant values for material o¤shoring may be due to possible decreasing returns from scale and over time from this sector.

Liu and Tre‡er (2008) analyze the impact of not only o¤shoring but also inshoring— the sale of service produced in the US to una¢ liated buyers in China and India— across several indicators: workers’change of occupation and industry; weeks spent unemployed as a share of total weeks in the labor force; and earnings. They ...nd that the total net e¤ect of inshoring and o¤shoring is positive. However, for those workers in industries exposed to o¤shoring and those workers who are less educated the e¤ect is either less positive or negative.

A di¤erent approach is explored by Ebenstein, Harrison, McMillan, and Phillips (2009), who focus on the e¤ects of trade across di¤erent types of task, as measured by the routineness of di¤erent occupations. Typically, highly routine occupations are associated with workers who have lower educational attainment, while less routine occupations are associated with higher skills and educational attainment.

Why should routineness matter? Grossman and Rossi-Hansberg (2008) posit that improvements in technology make o¤shoring less costly. Cost reductions are much more likely for routine tasks, which are more easily codi..
tariffs, which are often thought to be especially distortionary and detrimental to growth.

These considerations lead to the empirical question of what kinds of motivations generate tax morale, and how they can best be promoted. A growing literature has sought to address this question, and found some experimental evidence linking different types of interventions to tax morale in a variety of settings. However, since much of this literature has focused on a small set of developed countries, it is very unclear how broadly applicable these findings are, and how universally the suggested mechanisms apply.

In this paper, we use a new type of survey experiment implemented with a uniquely broad sample of 65,000 respondents from 50 countries to investigate this question. Specifically, we estimate the effects of two interventions on tax morale: a “bottom up participation” intervention asking respondents to state their expenditure preferences, and a “top down accountability” intervention giving respondents information about anti-corruption agencies and the punishments they help inflict on corrupt officials. The design was pre-registered with EGAP prior to data collection.

Overall, we find large and statistically significant positive effects of both interventions on two measures of tax morale. These results are basically unaffected by a series of demanding robustness checks. We are also able to demonstrate that subjects actually absorb the information given to them in the interventions, and that women respond less strongly to them than men.

2
||

Source: Village Fund Survey, 2010. Totals do not always add up exactly, because the samples vary somewhat from item to item. Includes only those VFs that reported the amount of lending.

# **6. Measuring Village Fund Performance**

Our main interest in this paper is in examining why some Village Funds perform better than others. For this we need a measure of performance (Yaron 1992). One approach is to measure the impact of VF borrowing on income or expenditure per capita, but this issue has already been examined elsewhere (Kaboski and Townsend 2005, 2009; Boonperm et al.. 2011; Chandoevwit and Ashakul 2008; Sukantha 2008; Laohong 2005). An alternative approach, and the one we take here, is to measure the performance of a Village Fund in more immediate ways, by looking at the profit rate, the loan recovery rate, the credit rating earned by a VF, or the proportion of people (or poor people) who borrow from the fund. Summary statistics for these measures are shown in the top panel of Table 11, and we discuss each in more detail below, where we estimate their determinants with a series of regression models.

18
improvements make it unlikely that 1994 expenditures affected 1994 education outcomes. Similarly, we exclude 1997 expenditures because these expenditures should not have affected educational outcomes in 1997. A potential problem is that expenditures made in 1992 and 1993 affected outcomes in both 1994 and 1997, possibly in different ways. If this is the case, and if expenditures in 1992 and 1993 are correlated with _Fd,_ our results could be biased. We do liot think this is a large problem. We experimented with defining _Fd_ as expenditures from 1992' to 1996, and it made little difference to the results that follow. Separately, we also used the 1991 Peru LSMS to estimate the effect of FONCODES expenditures in 1992 and 1993 on changes in educational outcomes between 1991 and 1994. The results (not reported) are quite similar to those for the 1994-1997 period, although they tend to be more noisy because of the smaller sample size of the 1991 LSMS.

In all of our results, we do not control for expenditures on other school-based inputs We therefore estimate the "gross" effect of FONCODES expenditures on educational outcomes, inclusive of any "crowding in" or "crowding out" which may occur. For example, if the M:inistry of Education were more likely to supply teachers to a school renovated by FONCODES, the effect of these additional teachers would be included in our measure of the impact of FONCODES investments. Conversely, if INFES were less likely to invest in school facilities in a district in which FON CODES were working, the "net" effect of FONCODES investments may be larger than the "gross" effect that we estimate. We believe that this "gross" effect is the appropriate parameter to estimate for policy purposes: presumably, if FONCODES were to b. abolished, the resulting effect would be approximated by our results. Nonetheless, we do riot think that there are very large differences between the "gross" and "net" estimates of FONCODES investments. The Ministry of Education does not have a policy whereby schc
customer side, only Argentina and Ecuador exhibit significant variation. On the supplier side, all countries but Bolivia exhibit significant cross-regional variation. This is another observation suggesting that Bolivia is rather anomalous, in this case by indicating that national institutions produce more regional homogeneity than in other countries.

Figures 2a and 2b show inter-regional variation in governance structures for those countries where we find statistically significant variation. The importance of bilateralism varies enormously. For example, an average firm in Rosario (Argentina) is 22 percentage points more likely to rate pure bilateralism as effective in its relations with suppliers than an average firm in its neighboring region of Cordoba. The difference on the customer side is even starker—44 percentage points. Regions even appear very different from their countries: Piura (in Peru) has the lowest level of pure bilateralism amongst any of the 17 regions in Figure 2a, even though Peru has the highest level of pure bilateralism of the six countries in Figure 1a.

The conclusion is inescapable that inter-regional variation is even more important than crosscountry variation. For example, the within-country, cross-regional standard deviation of the percentage of bilateralism in supplier relations is greater for each of Argentina, Ecuador, Peru, and Uruguay than the corresponding cross-country standard deviation. Even though legal systems are country-level institutions in the six nations we study, regions, rather than countries, might be the best unit of analysis for understanding patterns of governance structures.<sup>69</sup>

# **V.3 Other Associations with Governance Structures**

The exercises laid out in subsections V.1 and V.2 can be undertaken for as many firm characteristics as data are available: Appendix D reports many more results on the associations between governance structures and firm characteristics. There, we show a significant association

> 69 Inter-regional variations in both GDP and GDP per capita are less than cross-country variation in these six countries using the regional data in Gennaioli et al. (2013) and the corresponding country-level data from the World Development Indicators.

40