rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
# **1 Introduction**

The gender disparity in commuting barriers is pervasive, affecting women in developing and developed nations. Recent OECD findings reveal a substantial gender commuting gap, with men averaging 33.4 minutes per day compared to women’s 21.9 minutes, indicating a 31.1% difference (OECD, 2016). Developing countries exhibit even more pronounced patterns; Indian women, on average, spend a mere 8 minutes daily on employment-related travel, compared to men’s 36 minutes.<sup>1</sup> ILO (2017) reports that lack of transportation decreases women’s probability of participating in the labor market by 16.5 percentage points among developing countries. Given the established inof barriers on women’s labor a natural arises: can fluence commuting supply, inquiry reducing these barriers influence women’s labor supply decisions? Whether policies directly addressing commuting costs would help increase female labor supply or not is far from obvious: social norms regarding household chores and traveling alone also significantly impact female labor supply, as evidenced by prior studies (Fanning Madden, 1981; Turner and Niemeier, 1997; Lee and McDonald, 2003; Abe, 2011; McQuaid and Chen, 2012).

Our study sheds light on the trade-offs women face when commuting cost is reduced by exploiting the rollout of a free busing scheme, the _Pink Slip Program_ , in two states of India. India is a pertinent setting for exploring this issue. There is an overwhelming gender gap in commuting time and modes used. The 2011 Census of India reveals that 30.2 % of women travel to work on foot, and only 24.6 % use any transportation, highlighting the limited access to transportation options for many women. In contrast, only 20 % of men travel on foot, and more than 50 % of men use some transportation. There is also evidence that women use slower modes of transportation to commute to work as faster modes are usually more expensive (Anand and Tiwari, 2006
biases due to sample truncation.

We check a plausible explanation for the evidence that IPW corrected estimates are not substantially dierent. If coresidency rates across districts are not signicantly correlated with Inpres treatment intensity, then we expect IPW corrected estimates of the causal eects to be similar to the unweighted estimates in Table 2 and Table 3. For this exercise, we estimate the eects of Inpres schools on coresidency rates across districts using the same DiD design adopted in our main empirical analysis. The estimates are reported in Table B.8 below. The coecient of Inpres treatment intensity is not signicant at the 10 percent level for both sons and daughters. This suggests that sample truncation from coresidency in the census data do not bias the estimated causal eects in any signicant manner. This is consistent with the evidence of Akresh et al. (2018) who nd that correction of coresidency bias does not have any substantial eect on their estimates of intergenerational eects of Inpres schools (eects on the children of mothers exposed to Inpres while school aged).

# References

- Akresh, R., Halim, D., and Kleemans, M. (2018). Long-term and Intergenerational Eects of Education: Evidence from School Construction in Indonesia. NBER Working Papers 25265, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.

- Azam, M. and Bhatt, V. (2015). Like Father, Like Son? Intergenerational Educational Mobility in India. Demography, 52(6):19291959.

- Emran, M. S., Greene, W., and Shilpi, F. (2018). When Measure Matters: Coresidency, Truncation Bias, and Intergenerational Mobility in Developing Countries. Journal of Human Resources, 53(3):589607.

- Emran, M. S. and Shilpi, F. (2011). Intergenerational Occupational Mobility in Rural Economy: Evidence from Nepal and Vietnam. Journal of Human
In addition, the significant results in columns (2) and (4) suggest that the project also had positive effects on radiance in areas around the cities (or subdivisions) in which the project components were located.

Various studies have shown that remote-sensing data can give rise to useful proxies of energy-related outcomes such as energy production, energy consumption, and carbon emissions (see Section I). The fact that our results from the spatial DiD analysis are consistent with the results obtained from national household survey data suggests that higher nighttime radiance might also serve as a proxy for higher electricity access and, to some extent, even the reliability of electricity (i.e., a reduction in the frequency of blackouts), at least in countries at a similar stage of development as Malawi.

Overall, the results are consistent with the view that the project contributed to improvements in EE on both the supply side and the demand side of electricity in Malawi. The literature has identified several ways in which higher electricity access and quality are linked to improvements in EE. On the supply side, a reduction in blackouts is generally associated with a reduction of electricity losses in the grid (the project’s ICR estimates that these losses were reduced from 25% at baseline to 17% at the end of the project). A similar mechanism applies to the demand side (e.g., a fridge or water boiler interrupted by a blackout must restart its cooling or boiling once electricity has been restored, so that part of the generated energy is lost). In addition, increased access to electricity can help to improve demand-side EE given that households without electricity in their dwelling must rely on alternative, less efficient sources of energy for things like lighting and heating, that could otherwise be performed by using electricity.

The results are also consistent with existing evidence of an (often overlooked) synergy between EE and energy access, according to which improvements in EE constitute a channel to also expand access to electricity (Can et al.
that input tariffs drop, the share

> 6Simultaneity arises because firms’ variable input demands and unobserved productivity are positively correlated: the firm-specific productivity is known by the firm but not by the econometrician and firms respond to productivity shocks by modifying their purchases of variable inputs.

> 7Levinsohn and Petrin (2003) build upon the idea of Olley and Pakes using primary input demand (electricity) instead of the investment decision to control for unobserved productivity shocks. Their rationale lies in the idea that investment data are often missing or lumpy, whereas data on raw inputs are of better quality thus guaranteeing strict monotonicity without efficiency loss. The Prowess dataset reports information on electricity inputs so we rely on the LP methodology.

> 8We thank an anonymous referee for suggesting this control variable.

> 9Note that this evidence gives just an empirical motivation of the model assumption of complementarity between imported capital goods and intermediate inputs. Although the production function is estimated pooling industries, the estimation includes 3-digit industry fixed effects.

> 10Input tariffs are computed as tariff on variable intermediate goods other than capital equipment goods at the 3-digit industry level as described in section 5.1.

10
The largest differences in educational attainuent are observed between rural and urban areas. Hales and females residing in Lima have the highest levels of education (about 9 years). In contrast, those living in rural areas have completed, on average, only 3 years of schooling. Moreover, 33 percent of all rural adults have never been to school; and only 14 and 3 percent have continued on to secondary and higher education, respectively, compared to 49 and 24 percent of adults in Lima. The relatively high proportion of Lima residents with some secondary and post-secondary education reflects both the greater availability of such schools in Lima as well as the movement of individuals to Lima in search of more advanced education or better employment opportunities.

# Changes in Educational Attainment Over Time

Figure 4 sketches birth cohort differences in the number of years of schooling completed by males and females. The patterns observed for the PLSS sample are comparable to the time trends described in Section II. Mean years of schooling of males and females have increased steadily over time. Females born in 1945-59 show the largest percentage increase in years of schooling completed relative to the cohorts that preceded them. As a result of rapidly rising female schooling levels, the gender gap in schooling has narrowed.

Trends for males follow a slightly different pattern than those for females. Hales increased their years of schooling earlier; but, their gains tapered off with the cohort born in 1955-59. Of the youngest group, however, 27
## **2.4 Aggregation over Items**

Our empirical analysis uses measurements computed by aggregating over a number of food items. The definitions above can be adjusted to allow for _I_ items: where _Yi_<sup>_∗_is usual consumption of item</sup><sup>_i_= 1</sup><sup>_, . . . , I_,</sup><sup>_Y∗≡_�</sup> _i_<sup>_Y_</sup> _i_<sup>_∗_is (total) food consumption, and</sup><sup>_b∗_</sup> _i_<sup>=</sup> _Y_<sup>_Y_</sup> _<u>i</u>_<sup>_<u>∗∗</u>_</sup> is the budget share allocated to the item.

Even after aggregation, acquisition from diaries remains an unbiased estimate of usual consumption _Y_<sup>_∗_</sup> . Specifically, a generalization of the frequency of purchase model to the case of a vector of items still yields equation (2) for total food acquisition _Y_<sup>_d_</sup> , as we show in the Online Appendix. We also show there that, despite the aggregation across items, severely misleading conclusions about inequality from diary data are still possible. For example, assuming that acquisitions are independent across goods and occur at the same rates _Ni_<sup>_∗_’sforallhouseholdsyields:</sup> The lower bound can be significantly larger than one depending on assumptions about the correlation of consumption across items. For example, if consumption is independent across items and goods are acquired once a week ( _Ni_<sup>_∗_= 1),thevarianceof</sup><sup>_Yd_mustbeatleasttwiceaslargeasthevarianceof</sup><sup>_Y∗_.</sup> Equation (
. However, with new data sources emerging, this situation should improve.<sup>37</sup> International trade in services is dominated by a small number of large firms, and much of global trade takes place within these firms. For example, trade within multinational companies (affiliate trade) accounted for 25.9 percent of U.S. exports of private services in 2005 and for 22 percent of U.S. imports of private services. Affiliated trade in business, professional and technical services accounted for 50.1 percent of total exports and for 69.6 percent of total imports in 2005. In the United States, the top 8 consumer lenders accounted for 75 percent of receipts, the top 4 international trade financing companies accounted for 70 percent of receipts, the top 8 securities firms accounted for 50 percent of receipts, and the top four direct life insurance carriers accounted for 81 percent of receipts. Similar

> 35In a parallel paper, Bradford and Gohin (2006) calculate that a 10% reduction in Japan’s final goods distribution margins would benefit it as much as worldwide free trade would. In a finding similar to that of Konan and Maskus (2006), they also find that, compared to trade opening, reducing margins leads to smaller inter-sectoral production shifts and thus may engender less political opposition.

> 36A related issue is restrictions on trade in cabotage services – see e.g., Arce et al. (1996).

> 37For example, the OECD (2011) has recently organized a dataset on precisely these values, and indications are that this will be updated over time.

35
that rains had been less than in some years, resulting in a decline in agricultural productivity, income, and food security.

One respondent who was selling petroleum products said: _“These days, most people do not even buy kerosene; they use grass to light their houses. This is because they do not get good harvests for selling and boosting their household income.”_ That famine was looming was made evident by a concurrent open meeting while the focus group discussion was being held, to discuss how to distribute maize about to be received by the village as part of the food relief operation of the government.

_Narrated by a male participant, FGD, Masasi District_ 20. In sum, the primary drive behind the growth of HEs in both rural and urban Tanzania is income diversification in an economy with limited option in the non-farm sector, rather than a latent wellspring of entrepreneurship which spots a great business opportunity. This, combined with evidence showing that very few graduate beyond HE status into a small business employing people outside the family, has led some authors to dismiss them as “survivalist” (see Kinda and Loening, 2009, for Tanzania; and Mead and Lindholm, 1998, for a survey of experiences in Africa in the 1990s). However, their importance in absorbing labor in the economy, and therefore helping people to work more hours and earn more cash, cannot be understated. Previous studies have found that overall economic growth brings more HE and microbusiness activities, which are especially important for women as the flexibility of these activities allows them to produce household goods and earn income at the same time. It is expected that when more panel data become available (like those collected for Kagera as cited above), stronger evidence on the role of HEs in poverty reduction and economic development will emerge.

11
’s cognitive achievement. In addition, it clari fi es the identi fi cation assumptions required to estimate the impact of teacher-level shocks on student learning. In particular, one contribution is to show that the impact of teacher-level shocks on learning is identi fi ed only if non-time varying heterogeneity for both students and teachers is adequately dealt with through the estimation procedure.

The empirical results are based on a rich teacher-student matched data set from Zambia that we collected in 2002. In addition to school, teacher, and student characteristics, the data include test scores for a sample of pupils over two years. This panel of test scores allows us to deal with omitted variable bias associated with student tracking, but does not account for unobserved changes in teacher characteristics. To do so, we exploit a tradition in which some teachers stay with the same student cohort throughout primary school. By restricting attention to the sample of pupils with the same teacher in both years, and this is the basis of our identi fi cation strategy, we address concerns that arise from unobserved child and teacher heterogeneity.

3
developing countries: Brazil and India. Their results suggest that firms which have undertaken complementary organizational investments have a higher elasticity between ICT investments and productivity. Moreover, poorer infrastructure quality and pro-worker labor regulation are both associated with lower levels of ICT capital intensity and with lower returns to ICT capital investment.

Another set of papers assume computers are direct inputs into the production function as a specific form of capital; see for example Atrostic et al (2004). The authors investigate this issue using firm-level data from three countries (US, Japan and Denmark). Their main finding is that computers are used to organize or streamline the underlying business processes.

Among all types of ICT investments impacting productivity, internet adoption is the main application investigated by the literature. Sánchez et al. (2006) assess the internet impact on productivity using Spanish firm-level data. According to the authors, there are three channels through which internet may impact productivity: (i) by significantly reducing the cost of many transactions necessary to produce and distribute goods and services; (ii) by increasing management efficiency, especially by enabling firms to manage their supply chains more effectively and to communicate more easily both within the firm and with customers and partners, and; (iii) by increasing competition, making prices more transparent, and broadening markets for buyers and sellers, which puts pressure on suppliers to adopt techniques that translate into cost savings. Their main conclusion of the paper suggests a positive impact of internet adoption on productivity yet at a decreasing rate after a certain level of usage has been reached.<sup>6</sup> Closer to the spirit of this paper, Polder et al. (2010) investigate the impact of ICT on productivity using data for more than 5,000 Dutch firms from 2002 to 2006. The authors include ICT investments as innovation inputs similar to the treatment of R&D investments in the framework proposed by Crepon et al (1998). The authors’ main hypothesis is that the channel through which ICT impacts productivity
Policy Research Working Paper 8787

# **Abstract**

This paper assesses the international comovement of gross capital flows in a setting simultaneously encompassing aggregate inflows and outflows. It uses as empirical framework a multilevel latent factor model, implemented on flow data for a large sample of countries over more than three decades. On average, common shocks account for over 40 percent of the variance of both inflows and outflows, although with major differences between advanced countries and the rest. Among the former, global and group shocks dominate capital flows, and the same shocks drive gross inflows and outflows. Among the latter countries, idiosyncratic shocks tend to play the leading role, and gross inflows exhibit less commonality with outflows. The latent factors configure an international financial cycle that closely tracks the trends in a handful of global “push” variables. Recursive estimation of the factor model reveals a rising trend in the exposure of countries’ flows to the international cycle—especially for advanced economies—up to the global financial crisis. Exposure to the cycle is robustly related to countries’ external financial openness and the (lack of) flexibility of their exchange rate regime.

This paper is a product of the Development Research Group, Development Economics. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/research. The authors may be contacted at lserven@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank
chronic or the family suffers other social risks. Our study, which focuses on Peru, provides much needed empirical evidence of the deleterious impact of maternal depression on child cognition in a region where the causal nexus between maternal depression and child cognition has not been studied before despite maternal depression prevalence rates that range between 35% and 50% (Wolf et al 2002).<sup>5</sup> Second, the paper focuses on an important marker of early cognition, the accumulation of vocabulary, which has been extensively shown to predict reading comprehension throughout school and into early adulthood (Powell and Diamond 2012). To capture vocabulary competence, we use performance in the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT), a test of receptive vocabulary, which has been widely used and translated to Spanish and Quechua, the two most widely spoken languages in Peru.<sup>6</sup> Finally, this paper contributes to the literature on the protective effect that other household members can have on the development of children exposed to maternal depression. Our results suggest that, in and of itself, the presence of other household members does not attenuate the effect of maternal depression on child vocabulary development. In fact, the presence of heavydrinking partners appears to worsen the effect of maternal depression. This latter result may be explained by the increased risk of Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) associated high alcohol consumption. Evidence from Psychology suggests IPV constitutes a major predictor of posttraumatic stress disorder in abused women (Pico-Alfonso, 2005) and can lead to negative interactions between mothers and children (Taylor et al, 2009), directly affecting child development (Bedoya et al, 2020). Using YL data, Bedoya et al (2020) find that IPV is one of the

> 5 In Peru, official statistics show a challenging scenario in terms of mental health in general. Data indicate that Mental, Neurological and Substance Abuse Disorders (MNS) are the leading cause of disease burden in the country, accounting for 17.5 percent
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