rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
092)|
|Engagement|-0.026|-0.017|-0.018|-0.026|0.144|-0.018|
||(0.036)|(0.037)|(0.037)|(0.036)|(0.120)|(0.041)|
|Discipline|0.437***|0.436***|0.416***|0.423***|0.516***|0.414***|
||(0.063)|(0.065)|(0.062)|(0.062)|(0.103)|(0.066)|
|Child FE|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes|
|Age|3+|3+|3+|3+|3-6|6+|
|R2|0.32|0.30|0.32|0.33|0.49|0.35|
|N|4715|4715|4715|4715|857|3858|

_Significance levels:_ * p<0.1, ** p<0.05, *** p<0.01. Standard errors (svy) in parentheses. Child fixed effects. Data from waves 4 and 5. Control variables: public, poor, childhunger, urban, powergrid, internet, no. children (log), anxious due to outbreak.

# 6. Conclusion

The past couple of years brought unprecedented difficulties to billions of people across the world. Children – particularly in developing countries – have had to deal with a heavy load. In Kenya, home to over 20 million children aged 14 and younger, the virus outbreak and the nine-month-long period of school closures have led to disruptions in education and child development that have potentially longlasting implications. When
(1995) points out that the initial transformation conditions in Bulgaria were more similar to FSU countries than to CEE countries. Bulgaria had a strong decline in revenues in the first years after the collapse of traditional tax bases, similar to the countries Albania, Moldova, Lithuania, Armenia, Georgia. However, at the end of 1994 considerable efforts have been made to liberalize the economy enabling output to commence growing anew. But Bogetić and Hassan (1997) criticize the income tax development in Bulgaria. The 1993 amendments have complicated the tax system and increased the marginal tax rates from 40 to 52 %. On the other hand, Martinez-Vazquez (1995) states that in 1994 Bulgaria has already established good revenue assignment systems as, e.g., local ownsource revenues. Looking at the 1999-2000 data for CEE countries we observe low values from Romania. Uslaner (2007, p. 36) stresses that it ―may not make much sense to have much faith in the legal system where the courts and the police cannot – or will not – control corruption or where citizens cannot see that their contribution to the public weal actually makes the public more wealthy. In this sense, Romania is not exceptional: There may be less reason for Romanians to have faith in their leaders, who have been unable to control corruption or to bring its citizens prosperity.‖ Frey and Torgler (2007) use a multivariate approach to explore country differences working with the EVS 1999-2000. The estimated coefficient for the Western Europe dummy, suggests that the institutional crisis in many transition countries in Eastern Europe after the collapse of communism, tended to affect negatively the tax morale of citizens. The marginal effects indicate that being a citizen of a Western European country, rather than an Eastern European country, increases the probability of responding that tax evasion is never justified by more than 3 percentage points. Frey and Torgler (2007) also explored single country differences with _Table A7_ in the Appendix presenting the results. Country dummies are included in the estimation equation, using
<mark>servants inside government. We are thus confident that the GSPS contributes to the growing set of micro datasets available to study governments around the world (cf. Baig et al. 2021; Charron, Lapuente, and Bauhr 2021; Fazekas and Czibik 2021), and offers a sea change in micro data availability to study comparative civil service management and organizational behavior in particular.</mark> <mark>While this paper presented the current state of play of the GSPS, the GSPS cofounders (the co-authors of this piece) will continue to conduct surveys of public servants with governments around the world and work with governments which already implement surveys to align their measures with the GSPS core questionnaire module. As such, we hope that the GSPS dataset – and its utility to scholars – will further grow over time in coverage and comparability. We hope other scholars may join the effort, and we are keen to</mark> <mark>collaborate with colleagues seeking to conduct government-wide surveys of public servants in countries not currently covered by the GSPS. We also highlight the need for undertaking further methodological validation work on the GSPS indicators and on the measurement of public administration more generally (</mark> cf. Rogger and Schuster, forthcoming).

Understanding the functioning of public administration is complicated by the lack of objective benchmarks in much government activity. Micro-data on the experience of public servants of their work contributes to a more granular approach to understanding the state despite this, and coherence in that data across organizations and countries facilitates more precise comparative work. Our hope is that the Global Survey of Public Servants is a step towards each of these aims, and towards a stronger study of the public service.

24
audits or local registration requirements.<sup>3</sup> Unfortunately, it is not possible to directly measure such barriers. As it is illegal to impose trade restrictions, the measures adopted to protect local industries from competition are usually more subtle than a direct border tax. Thus the only way to assess the signi fi cance of such barriers is indirectly, as is the case in our study.<sup>4</sup> Our analysis is based on a comprehensive data set provided by the China National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) covering nearly all manufacturing industries, at a highly disaggregated level (515 industries) in 29 Chinese provinces, during the period 1998-2001.<sup>5</sup> Using the information on the value of output by industry and province, the national input/output table and inter-provincial distances we construct measures of market access and supplier access. We also create industry-speci fi c measures of tariff rates on imported inputs. We then relate these measures to the change in the number of foreign fi rms in each province and industry. We also control for a variety of provincial characteristics. Proxies for trade costs at the provincial level include transport infrastructure and openness to international trade. Production costs are proxied by provincial wages and electricity prices. We consider separately market access and supplier access within and outside the province of foreign

> 3Interviews with fi rms and government officials were conducted by Amiti in fi ve different provinces in October 2001.

> 4A number of researchers have tried to estimate the size of these provincial trade barriers using indirect measures (see Poncet 2003, Young 2000, Naughton 1999, Huang and Wei 2003, and Bai et al. 2004), but none of them has considered the consequences of such barriers. None of the studies has ruled out the existence of provincial border barriers and some have found evidence that such barriers have increased over time.

> 5Other studies on the determinants of FDI in China rely either on information on provincial FDI stocks (Cheng and Kwan,
comprehensive data set covering 149 countries and ranging from 1970 to 2019, although the demographic variables that we include in our preferred specification limit the sample to 128 countries. Tables A.1 to A.3 in the appendix summarize all the variables and data sources as well as descriptive statistics. The summary statistics highlight that Bangladesh has an average per capita income level that is about one-fourth of the sample mean, with much lower FDI, infrastructure, and credit/GDP levels than the sample mean.

For GDP per capita, _y_ , we take _rgdpna_ divided by _pop_ from the Penn World Tables (PWT 10.0; see Feenstra, Inklaar, and Timmer 2015), which measures income per capita in constant 2017 US$. Purchasing power parity (PPP) adjustments are not necessary since we only explore variation over time within countries and could even induce unwanted short-term, country-specific fluctuations in the PPP income variable (Inklaar et al. 2021).

> 6 This can easily be seen from rewriting equation (1) as: Δln _yct_ = γln _yc,t-1_ + β _1_ Δ _x1,ct_ +...+β _k_ Δ _xk,ct_ + Δδ _t_ + _uct_ , with γ = (θ-1). For θ < 1, it follows that γ < 0 and a country with a lower income level _y_ in period _t_ will have a higher growth rate in the subsequent period _t + 1_ , ceteris paribus.

-7-
Policy Research Working Paper 5809

# **Abstract**

This paper examines the key aspects of the practices of school-based management in Indonesia, and its effect on education quality. Using a conceptual framework of an accountability system of public service delivery, the paper explores the relations among Indonesian parents, school committees, schools, and government education supervisory bodies from three tenets: participation and voice; autonomy; and accountability.

Using the data from a nationally representative survey of about 400 public primary schools in Indonesia, the paper finds that the level of parental participation and voice in school management is extremely low in Indonesia. While the role of school committees is still limited to community relations, school facilities, and other administrative areas of school management, school principals, together with teachers, are much more empowered to assert professional control of the schools. The accountability system has remained weak in Indonesia’s school system, which is reflected by inadequate information flow to parents, as well as seemingly low parental awareness of the need to hold schools accountable. The accountability arrangement of the Indonesian school system currently puts more emphasis on top-down supervision and monitoring by government supervisory bodies.

The findings show that although the scope of schoolbased management in Indonesia is limited, it has begun to help schools make the right decisions on allocation of resources and hiring additional (non-civil servant) teachers, and to create an enabling environment of learning, including increasing teacher attendance rates. These aspects are found to have significantly positive effects on student learning outcomes.

This paper is a product of the Education Sector Unit, East Asia and Pacific Region. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://econ.worldbank.org. The author may be contacted at dchen1@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas
This is achieved through a binary variable that attaints a value of 1 if the response to the question is 100 percent, and 0 otherwise. Using both variables allows the analysis to make a distinction between firms that are entirely managed by family, and those that are partially managed by family. The average share of family managers is about 40.7 percent. Around 32 percent of medium and large businesses in the sample are entirely managed by family (Table 1). Figure 2 provides the country averages for the percentage of firms that are entirely family managed. The share of family management for each country is presented in figure 3.

Data for the control variables are also obtained from the Enterprise Surveys. These encompass standard firm-level characteristics and the operating environment including firm size, age, outward orientation, quality certification, access to finance, manager experience in the sector, and perceptions of labor regulations as a constraint. Whether the firm is owned by the same family, and the presence of political connections are also included as control variables and are not collected in the standard ES but were part of the extended questions in this round of the surveys. The specific information on family ownership is obtained from the survey question: “ _What percentage of the firm is owned by the same family? (If more than one family, refer to the one with largest ownership_ ).” The information on political connections is obtained from the following survey question: “ _Has the owner, CEO, top manager, or any of the board members of this firm ever been elected or appointed to a political position in this country?_ ” The rationale for the control variables is detailed in the empirical strategy section. Summary statistics are provided in table 1.

Table A1 provides some description of the nature of family-managed firms. Entirely family-managed firms have lower management scores than other firms. About 81 percent of fully family-managed firms are of medium size, compared to 72 percent for other firms. Around 12 percent of fully family-managed firms are large, compared to
rational expectation. We explicitly test if the dowry data follows a random walk by performing the modified Dickey-Fuller _t_ test for a unit root in which the series has been transformed by a generalized least-squares regression. The results (in Table A.2) show that the null hypothesis of a unit root or random walk is not rejected for all lags in the model.

Our expected dowry variable does not take into account any expectations about inflation that the parents may have. However, previous research (Maertens and Chari (2012)) suggests that households are likely not factoring inflation into their dowry forecasts as their average willingness-to-pay does not increase as they reach closer to the wedding date.

Although, _jati_ is the relevant caste variable for the Indian marriage market, we use 4 broader caste categories: upper castes, SCs, Scheduled tribes (STs), and Other Backward Classes (OBCs). This is because our estimation sample is small relative to the number of jatis, resulting in very 16Using responses to matrimonial advertisements in a Bengali newspaper, Banerjee et al. (2013) find evidence in favor of a strong preference for in-caste marriage – e.g., the bride’s family is willing to trade-off the difference between no education and a master’s degree in the prospective husband to avoid marrying outside their caste. Also see Borker et al. (2017).

> 17For instance, in the 2009 National Sample Survey, 31 percent of Sikh households identified themselves as belonging to a Scheduled Caste (SC).

> 18Similarly, among individuals aged 25 years or older surveyed in the 2008 National Sample Survey, 89 percent of women and 93 percent of men lived in the same state where they were born.

> 19We trim off the top 1 percent of dowry payments before constructing the expected dowry variable. Later, as robustness checks, we use two alternate definitions of dowry by changing the years over which the average is calculated and by using both caste and religion to define the marriage market.

6
To more closely examine whether camps attract in-migration and the expansion of economic productivity, we examine population and nightlights as outcome variables in the regression: yit t t i (2) ii ii ii ii = ωω+ κκ(t dd ∗ttaat tt ) + μμ + δδ + εε Regression 2 is identical to Regression 1, but the outcome variable is continuous. We examine two dependent variables: the natural log of the population in the 100m tile the pixel falls in<sup>12</sup> (using annual data 2010-2020), and the nighttime lights score for the pixel (using annual data 2014-2020). Like with Regression 1, we adjust Regression 2 so that we can test for parallel trends. After dropping observations from 2017 or later, we test two treatment year placebos in separate regressions: one assigning 2015 as the placebo treatment year, and one treating 2016 as the placebo treatment year.

# **5.3 Robustness Check**

It is plausible that changes outside the camp’s official boundaries may be due to unofficial camp expansion. Prior to the construction of fencing, camp residents may have expanded their settlement areas beyond the demarcated border of the camp in order to alleviate population pressure. To ensure that any changes in the treatment area are not due to unofficial camp expansion, we conduct a robustness test in which we repeat Equation 1, omitting all pixels 0-1 km from the camp boundary.

# **5.4 Heterogeneity Analysis**

Some of the camps sit alongside the Teknaf Wildlife Preserve. Given the importance of protecting this area’s forest cover and biodiversity, we conduct a heterogeneity analysis to see if pixels in protected areas are deforesting more or less than pixels in non-protected areas. To do so, we repeat Equation 1 for the sub-sample of treatment and control pixels in protected areas and additionally repeat the regression using only treatment and control pixels outside protected areas.

> 12 None of the sample pixels has an estimated population of zero. Hence, a natural log
, FDI came primarily from Hong Kong, China; Macau, China; Singapore; and Taipei,China. After 1990, FDI increasingly flew in from Japan, the US, and other developed countries. FDI inflows fell in the mid-1990s, but resumed following the commencement of WTO accession talks. What explains the PRC’s FDI level? Analyzing cross-country panel data of FDI inflows, Fan et al. (2009) find that the main factors that attracted FDI to the PRC were the PRC’s high expected growth rate, low volatility of growth, and low ratio of dependent population.<sup>7</sup> What are the macroeconomic implications of the PRC’s growing openness before the WTO accession? Branstetter and Lardy (2008) find that net exports contributed modestly to GDP growth compared to capital investment or private consumption, and thus FDI did not drive aggregate

> 7Once controlling for the PRC’s good economic record, there is no evidence that the PRC is an exception.

17
Policy Research Working Paper 6416

# **Abstract**

This paper documents and analyzes gender differences in the use of financial services using individual-level data from 98 developing countries. The data, drawn from the Global Financial Inclusion (Global Findex) database, highlight the existence of significant gender gaps in ownership of accounts and usage of savings and credit products. Even after controlling for a host of individual characteristics including income, education, employment status, rural residency and age, gender remains significantly related to usage of financial services. This study also finds that legal discrimination against women and gender norms may explain some of the crosscountry variation in access to finance for women. The analysis finds that in countries where women face legal restrictions in their ability to work, head a household, choose where to live, and receive inheritance, women are less likely to own an account, relative to men, as well as to save and borrow. The results also confirm that manifestations of gender norms, such as the level of violence against women and the incidence of early marriage for women, contribute to explaining the variation in the use of financial services between men and women, after controlling for other individual and country characteristics.

This paper is a product of the Finance and Private Sector Development Team, Development Research Group. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://econ.worldbank.org. The authors may be contacted at lklapper@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the
cutoff, the difference in the mean outcomes between marginal passers and marginal failers identifies

This object is interpreted as the ATT at the cutoff (Hahn et al. 2001; Todd 2007).

A sharp RD design neatly fits the phase-4 SLQAT taker data, as the school’s pass (eligibility) versus fail (ineligibility) status remains fixed given that phase 4 was the last entry phase before the follow-up data collection. A variant of the above framework will however be required for phase-3 SLQAT takers given that some phase-3 failers reapplied to the program in phase 4 and passed the SLQAT at that time. As a result, our set of phase-3 SLQAT takers can be 18
Strikingly, when construction is excluded from the Industry sector, the record is worse. Although non-construction output growth was more than 13% a year, annual employment growth was as low as 2.6%. Thus, given a growth elasticity of employment below 0.2, the share of this segment of the industrial sector in total employment has remained virtually unchanged'.

Table **2: Industrial employment growth has been moderate**

||1992/93|1997/98|Absolute<br>increase<br>92/93<br>-<br>97/98|% increase<br>per year<br> 92/93 -<br>97/98|Incremental<br>Employment<br>Distribution<br>92/93-97/98|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Total employment|36,792,448|40,313,856|3,521,408|1.8|100|
|Agriculture|26,182,850|26,770,068|587,218|0.4|16.7|
|Industry|4,343,946|5,296,240|952,294|4.0|27.0|
|Industry less construction|3,804,677|4,325,204|520,527|2.6|14.8|
|Services|6,265,650|8,247,549|1,891,899|5.6|56.3|

_Source:_ VLSS 1 and 2. Employment data is for people between 15 and 65.

**Table 3: The share of industry in total employment is increasing slowly**

||Share in total labor<br>force in 92/93 (%)|Share in total labor<br>force in 97/
a rich country. The context is the migration of Tongans to New Zealand through a migrant lottery program. This involves at least three major changes in life circumstances. The first is a massive, and permanent increase in income for those who migrate. In earlier work (McKenzie et al, 2010), we show this migration results in a 263 percent gain in income within the first year, while in recent work (Gibson et al, 2015), we show this income gain appears approximately stable over time, with migrants continuing to earn almost 300 percent more than non‐migrants 10 years later, for an approximate life‐time net present value income gain of US$250,000. Second, this gain is accompanied by a major change in the institutions, values, and culture individuals are exposed to, with migrants experiencing a more individualistic and market‐oriented economy. Third, it involves a prolonged separation between extended family members, with migrants moving with their spouse and children, but leaving their parents and siblings behind in Tonga. Such large, comprehensive, and permanent changes in life circumstances provide a stringent test of the malleability of economic preferences and beliefs.

We use a long‐term follow‐up survey of individuals who applied to the migration lottery ten years earlier, with comparison of the winners and losers in this lottery enabling us to obtain causal estimates of the migration impact. We measure risk aversion using both survey questions and incentivized experimental games, and time preferences through survey questions. We examine the extent to which individuals have changed their economic beliefs using the pro‐market beliefs questions of di Tella et al. (2007). Each applicant is then linked to a partner household in Tonga that contains either their parent or sibling. Migrants are therefore in a different country from this partner, while the control group of non‐migrants are typically living in the same village, and in some cases, even the same dwelling. Principal applicants and their partners then play three variants of an incentivized trust