rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
estimates of premature adult mortality is a far easier task than that of morbidity. In a setting of three overlapping generations, each generation corresponds to about 20 years, the age at which full adulthood is attained. The rate _qt_ therefore corresponds to 20 _q_ 20, the probability that an individual will die before reaching 40, conditional on reaching 20. For India in 2005, WHO (2007) gives 20 _q_ 20 = 0 _._ 065 and 30<sup>_q_</sup> 20<sup>= 0</sup><sup>_._123.Somethingclosertothelatterissuitedtoourpresentpurposes,first,to</sup> allow for some mortality in the first part of old age, which the rigid time structure of the model rules out, and secondly, to reflect higher mortality among rural middle-aged adults than the all-India average. Hence, let _q_ 1 = 0 _._ 125. If history and international experience are any guides, this is sure to fall over the coming generation, PMGSY or no. It does not seem too much to hope that India will do as well then as China does now, so let _q_ 2 = 0 _._ 053. Where morbidity and disability are concerned, school-age children typically suffer less sickness than their parents, who, in turn, are in better health than their aged parents. The findings from the Orissa survey confirm as much, the average number of days of reported sickness being 5.6 a year, though the contribution of chronic ailments may not have been properly covered. It is also possible that sickness was interpreted as being too unwell to go about the usual daily business at all, as opposed to being in a state of diminished capacity to do so. Thus, the vector **d** 1 = (0 _._ 02 _,_ 0 _._ 04 _,_ 0 _._ 08) represents a rather speculative stab at an estimate for period 1. Since 14
(0.038)|
|Ganja-Gazakh|214910|216514|0.55|0.54|
||(2297)|(2766)|(0.015)|(0.027)|
|Sheki|227578|222539|0.44|0.56|
||(8695)|(4516)|(0.065)|(0.037)|
|Lanakaran|233407|232017|0.46|0.45|
||(4238)|(5217)|(0.020)|(0.038)|
|Shirvan|222600|209556|0.50|0.58|
||(4488)|(3843)|(0.027)|(0.041)|
|Karabah|228797|231541|0.48|0.45|
||(3676)|(4218)|(0.019)|(0.031)|
|Baku|261656|253530|0.39|0.42|
||(10782)|(2551)|(0.03)|(0.013)|

Note: Standard errors in parenthesis. Household survey figures are calculated using weights that are the product of household weights and household size. Census-based figures are calculated weighing by household size.

Figures A1-A8 in Appendix A illustrate to what extent the estimates of the three welfare indicators are to be considered reliable. Figure A1 for example ranks urban rayons by the coefficient of variation. Considering the coefficient of variation derived by the survey stratum estimate as a cut off point for the level of error we allow, we can see that for the estimates of the headcount in urban area at rayon level around two thirds of those estimates are above the coefficient of variation obtained from the survey, whereas for estimates of mean adult equivalent monthly consumption those estimates are below or around the coefficient of variation obtained from the survey (Figure A2 in Appendix A)
Policy Research Working Paper 7513

# **Abstract**

This paper discusses competitiveness-related issues surrounding the design and administration of corporate and value added/sales taxes in four South Asian countries—Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. The paper is based largely on analysis of tax legislation; in addition, data from the World Bank’s enterprise surveys, the Doing Business report, as well as industry studies are used for evidence on tax compliance costs for business. The review of tax regulations in the region shows several commonalities: (1) widespread use of tax incentives to support selected industries, types of firms, and industrial locations; (2) many exemptions from value-added taxes as well as the practice of levying multiple indirect taxes on the same base; and (3) high costs of tax compliance for businesses. The paper discusses the consequences of tax policies for the competitiveness of South Asian producers, describes the main problems in tax administration, and outlines key directions for reforms.

This paper is a product of the Equitable Growth, Finance and Institutions Global Practice Group. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://econ.worldbank.org. The author may be contacted at areva@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they
fathers of adolescent girls from elite/rich backgrounds. The questions were on changes in the community, changes in the lives of girls due to education, marriage practices, access to justice, participation in political processes, aspirations of young men and women and select gender norms. The qualitative field study also asked for shalish ―stories‖ – descriptions of shalish the respondents had attended or knew about and their level of satisfaction with the outcome and process. In all, there are twenty usable ―stories‖ whose content was analyzed for this paper.

Finally, we administered a telephone survey to 40 UP chairpersons (a little less than 1 percent of the total UPs) to inquire about whether and how they operated village courts, their knowledge of the Village Courts Act, their understanding of the difference between village courts and other kinds of dispute resolution and their thoughts about improving local justice.

# **I.  NATURE OF CONFLICT AND DISPUTES**

The WBGNS 2006 has questions on level of perceived conflict in the community and knowledge of criminal acts that have occurred in the last year. It has more detailed questions on spousal violence. This section lays out the results from those questions and despite the fact that measuring level of conflict is difficult as we point out later, we do believe that the data give us insight into regional variations and types of conflict that local justice providers have to deal with.

O _verall the WBGNS 2006 finds a very high perception of harmony in the community._ Less than 10 percent of any category of respondents believed that people ―fight a lot‖ in their village or

> 3 See annex 1 for details

3
the highest SGA burden.<sup>18</sup> Recent global and national estimates<sup>19</sup> suggest preterm birth prevalence in the Philippines was in the range of 13.3 percent in 2014 and more than doubled since 2000.<sup>20</sup> Among SGA live births, 7 percent (or 1.8 percent among all live births) were also delivered preterm. The Philippines ranks 9th globally for the share of live births that are preterm and 3rd for the share of live births that are both SGA and preterm.

Using data from 19 birth cohorts and longitudinal studies representing countries in 3 LMIC regions (including the Cebu, Philippines cohort), Christian et al. explore the relationship between SGA and preterm birth with stunting between the ages of 12 and 60 months.<sup>21</sup> The study finds that the risk of stunting associated with LBW, SGA and preterm – even when adjusting for characteristics of the mother - is significantly elevated compared to appropriate for gestational age (AGA) and term births, with the risks being compounded for births that are both SGA and preterm. For example, for birth cohorts in the Southern/Eastern Asia region, the odds ratios (ORs) for stunting associated with LBW, SGA and preterm were 2.64, 2.13 and 1.34. Babies born both SGA and preterm had even higher odds of stunting (OR 3.63) compared to babies born AGA and term. Given that the study did not find significant variation in these associations by region, the authors consider highly plausible that the associations are biological. The combined population attributable risk for stunting from SGA was 0.16, suggesting that close to one-fifth of childhood stunting could have its origins in the fetal period.

Available evidence suggests that SGA (both term and pre-term) is strongly associated with maternal height and low BMI which are in turn associated with adolescent health and pregnancy. A pooled analysis of DHS data from
the surveys differ somewhat in terms of sample size and questionnaires. The NFHS 2006 used three separate questionnaires to interview 109,041 households, 124,385 unmarried and ever married women between 15 to 49 years of age and 74,369 unmarried and ever married men in the age group 15-54 years. The NFHS 1992/93 on the other hand collected information from 88,562 households and 89,777 ever-married women in the age group 1349 years. Data for our analysis are drawn from the household and women‘s questionnaires which are common to both surveys.

While sample sizes of the NFHS are comparable to that of National Sample Surveys (NSS) in India, the data from NFHS offer two distinct advantages for our analysis. First, all children up to 17 years of age in the NFHS are matched to their co-resident parents (not just to the household head). This is particularly important in the Indian context where joint families are still common. This

> 22 For details of the estimation method, please see Rabe-Hesketh et al (2002).

> 23 The NFHS 1992/93 covered 24 states and Delhi (the Capital city) whereas 2006 survey covered all of the 29 states. The sample sizes in the NFHS are comparable to more widely used National Sample Surveys.

11
~~~~~~2<br>t XMME 2 Al W<br>10%<br><!-- End of picture text --> Source: 1998 OECD Institutional Investors Statistical Yearbook and WB institutional investors database.

4 See, for example, Feldstein (1978), Munnell (1976), Loayza, Schmidt-Hebbel and Serven (2000), Samwick (2000), Smith (1990), Bailliu and Reisen (1997), Schmidt-Hebbel and Serv6n, eds. (1999). 5 See Davis (1995).

6 See, for example, Bodie (1990b), Davis (1995), Vittas and Skully (1991), Vittas (1998a, 1998b, 1999).
redistribution value of the transfer or ignores the benefits outside the sector being considered. Unfortunately, even though most societies place a value on redistribution, at least in their public statements, this value is not directly observable. However, excluding it from estimates of returns implicitly assumes this to have no value whatsoever.

There is another measurement problem that bedevils impact evaluation of SN: many assessments are designed to track the flow of services (such as enrollment or clinic visits) when the outcomes of interest for growth, such as learning or physical growth of children, is a measure of stock that is best assessed in the long term. While there are many possible explanations for increases in school attendance that do not translate into learning or in participation rates in child growth promotion that leaves malnutrition rates unchanged, one reason may be that the question is posed too soon (King and Behrman, 2009). Fortunately, there is increased interest in collecting data on panels of households or individuals and improved means for reducing attrition and for addressing it econometrically.

An additional gap in assessing the contribution of safety nets for growth as well as for equity is the challenge of assembling cost data and comparisons of modality of delivery. If, as implied above, one needs to consider the long run process of asset creation, then one needs both the costs of targeting and delivery as well as the continuing costs of the public investment to calculate a benefit cost ratio. This not only requires understanding delivery costs and assessing how to assign shares of fixed costs such as targeting to any cohort (Caldes, Cody, and Maluccio, 2006), it also requires understanding the marginal costs of, say, additional schooling induced by the increased investment in human capital.

Costs also include any labor disincentives. While these may be a substantial concern in programs that have an effective clawback that decreases transfers proportional to increases in 19
in temperature. This means that floods of a certain size (or expected damages to the capital stock) will have shorter return periods as temperatures rise (Figure 9). These short return periods and higher probabilities of flooding can be translated to expected damages from increased inland flooding due to climate change (Figure 10).

**Figure 9: Flood return periods and damages for Uruguay under different warming scenarios**

<!-- Start of picture text --> 3000<br>2500<br>2000<br>1500<br>Historical<br>1000 RCP 2.6<br>RCP 4.5<br>500<br>RCP 8.5<br>0<br>0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600<br>Return period (years)<br>Source: UNDRR 2015 dataset and World Bank calculations.<br>Value of capital stock damaged (US$mil)<br><!-- End of picture text --> Source: UNDRR 2015 dataset and World Bank calculations. Note: 2023 US$ millions.

**Figure 10: Uruguay historical flood damages and expected flood damages under climate change**

<!-- Start of picture text --> Historical damages by flood return Annual expected damages (US$mil)<br>period 400<br>3.5% 3.5%<br>350<br>% of GDP<br>3.0% 3.0%<br>% of capital stock 300<br>2.5% 2.5%<br>250<br>2.0% 2.0%<br>200<br>1.5% 1.5%<br>150<br>1.0% 1.0%<br>100<br>0.5% 0.5%<br>50<br>0.0% 0
_Statistik_ ). The survey contains detailed information on industry, employment, production, trade participation and other firm characteristics. It covers all formal manufacturing establishments with more than 20 employees, which account for about 80 percent of all manufacturing output in Indonesia.<sup>4</sup> For each year, we have approximately 20,000 plant-level observations.<sup>5</sup> Our sample spans 1993–2009, which enables us to study competition during the last years of Suharto’s reign and the decade following his departure. Following Blalock et al. (2008), we exclude the crisis years and the first year of the recovery, i.e. 1997–99, because they are characterized by high turmoil and volatility.

These data are used to construct measures of competition. We use entry and exit rates,<sup>6</sup> price costs margins (PCM), the profit elasticity of demand (PE), the Herfindahl-Hirschman Index of concentration (HHI), the aggregate market share of the biggest 4 firms (MS4), the number of firms in an industry and prices.<sup>7</sup> To draw general conclusions about the evolution of competition, we create a summary index of competition following Kling et al. (2007). Specifically, our competition index Z is simply the sum of equally weighted average z-scores of each of these 8 indicators, with the sign of each measures oriented so that higher values signal more intense competition (e.g. more competition is associated with _more_ entry, exit, and market participants but a _lower_ price-cost margin, profit elasticity, market share of the 4 largest firms, concentration, and prices).

To identify which firms are politically connected, we use data from Mobarak and Purbasari (2006a). They identify firms with family connections to Suharto, i.e. firms that are directly owned or managed by a Suharto family member (either directly or being owned by firms held by
** p<0.001, ** p<0.01, * p<0.05,<sup>+</sup> p<0.10 In the last column of Table 7 (Column 7) we include all domain specific variables and our overall subjective well-being indicators. _Suffering_ remains significant at the 5% level and s _truggling_ at the 10% level, whereas _standard of living_ , _freedom of life_ , and _get ahead_ cease to be significant, suggesting that our overall subjective well-being variables capture the variation in satisfaction in the individual capabilities and perceived standard of living, which in turn affects nonviolent uprisings. Interestingly, the FS index turns significant in the model, indicating that, when overall subjective well-being is controlled for, the percentage having food and shelter actually has a positive effect on nonviolent uprisings, supporting the idea that a certain subsistence level needs to be reached before citizens are willing to take to the streets.

34
||||(0.011)|(0.008)|(0.006)|
|**1997-98**|||||-0.009|0.001|
||||||(0.018)|(0.010)|
|**1999-00**||||||0.008|
|||||||(0.008)|

_Notes:_ 1) All specifications use the village-panel data set, cross-section specification 2) The reported numbers are the coefficients (and standard errors) of the effect of inequality on growth from a regression of growth between period "t" and "t-1" as a function of village characteristics in period "t-1"
China Statistical Yearbook. This source provides information on value added and fixed assets, disaggregated by forms of ownership. Consistent with the top panel of this figure, we identify the private sector as all non-state and non-collective firms, and we again report the ratio of the average product of capital in the private sector relative to the total. Over the past several years the average product of capital in the private sector has been 50 percent higher than average, which is suggestive of non-trivial differences in marginal products across ownership forms. And as with labour, although the share of the private sector has increased sharply, it is still quite modest at about 30 percent.

27
POL.IcY RElSEARCH WORKING PAPER 2526

# Summary findings

The year 1999 was important for poverty-related research and policy development in Vietnam. The General Statistics Office had collected household data **in** the second Vietnam Living Standards Survey in 1998 and made it available for analysis in 1999. And four participatory poverty assessments (PPAs) were implenmented during 1999.

Turk's case study describes how government agencies, donors, and nongovernmental organizations collaborated in implementing the PPAs. The considerable amount of qualitative information about poverty produced in Vietnam over the past 8 to 10 years has rarely grabbed the attention of policymakers, who tend to view such information as "unscientific" and lacking in credibility. By contrast, the PPAs implemented in 1999 have been widely circulated, used, and quoted.

What was different about those PPAs that led their findings to be brought into local and national policy debates, as previous findings had not been?

Working partnerships among doniors and nongovernmental organizations were important and helped build consensus on the research findinlgs, but more crucial was the active engagement of F,overnment partners from the very early stages. Establis iing a Poverty Working Group provided a structu re for implementing the PPAs, for feeding analysi. through to the poverty assessment, and for keeping government fully involved. The Poverty Working Group now supports the government in drafting its po-erty reduction strategy.

Strong World Bank leadership, financial .upport from the U.K. Department for International Devc1opment, the technical expertise and commitment of the PPA partner agencies, and the availability of recent high quality household survey data played an important part in ensuring the PPAs' credibility.

This paper-a product of the Hanoi Country Office, East Asia and Pacific Region-is part of a larger effort in the region to encourage greater participation by poor households in policymaking and programming for poverty red iction. Copies of the paper are available free from the World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433. Please contact Herawaty S:utrisna, room MC9-242, telephone 202-458-8032, fax 202-522-1556,
average for developing countries excluding India—and we ask adults with inactive accounts why they do not use them. We also examine whether adults in Sub-Saharan Africa can use their mobile money account without help from an agent, friend, or family member. These data point to an opportunity for financial education to build stronger financial capability in order to improve efficient and effective use of accounts.

This paper is organized as follows. In section 2, we review the literature on the importance of financial inclusion for development and the link between financial literacy and education and the use of financial services. In section 3, we describe the Global Findex 2021 database. In section 4, we explore what the Global Findex 2021 data reveal about where and who the unbanked are. In section 5, we investigate the self-reported barriers to account ownership. In section 6, we explore the reasons why account owners do not use their accounts using a country case study on the barriers behind the inactivity rates in India. We further explore whether mobile money account owners in Sub-Saharan Africa are able to use their mobile money accounts without help. Section 7 concludes.

# **2. Literature review**

# **_2.1 Why financial inclusion matters for development_**

The use of financial services is associated with numerous positive outcomes, including greater savings (Breza et al. 2020; Blumenstock et al. 2018); crime reduction (Wright et al. 2017); more efficient wage payments (Dusza 2016); decreased fraud and administrative inefficiencies (Muralidharan et al. 2016); greater female workforce participation (Field et al. 2021); and increased crop yields for farmers (Lasse et al. 2016). Additionally, the use of formal financial services has important implications for the ability of account holders to weather negative 4
||2017|–0.093|–0.085|||||
|||[0.241]|[0.277]|Apr|2015|0.005<br>|0.005<br>|
||2018|0.162|0.127|||[0.540]<br>|[0.834]<br>|
|||[0202]|[0139]||2016|0.002<br>|0.002<br>|
||2019|.<br>–0143|.<br>–0121|||[0.707]|[0.238]|
|||.<br>|.<br>||2017|–0.001|–0.001|
|||[0.384]|[0.370]|||||
|||||||[0.864]|[0.838]|
||||||2018|–0.001<br>|–0.001<br>|
|||||||[0.586]|[0.254]|
||||||2019|0.015|0.015|
|||||||[0.159]|[0.497]|

_Note:_ This table presents the average decrease in the number of days a forest grid cell is on fire, as a result of the FIP program. The effects of the program are estimated separately for each month on an annual-panel of forest level fire occurrence in the given month. We dropped two project forests in the estimation of December effects and one project forest in the estimation of April effects because pre-treatment fire occurrence in these forests fell outside the convex hull. Variables in the SCM process include past fire occurrences from 2006
and Mukono, and the mostly rural region around Iganga and Jinja. The research design delivered 100 treatment and 50 control communities. Each treatment community hosted an ELA club. A baseline survey was administered just before the establishment of the clubs to about 6,000 adolescent girls, 4,000 (2,000) of whom resided in treatment (control) communities. A first follow‐up survey took place in 2010. Bandiera _et al._ [2015] show that within two years the ELA program successfully empowered girls along several economic and social dimensions.<sup>2</sup> We list these impacts below in more detail in order to understand how they could translate into increased competitiveness for girls. We then discuss how these impacts could interact with sibling sex composition in shaping boys’ competitiveness.

## **2.1. Women’s Empowerment and Competitiveness**

There are at least two possible channels through which the program could foster competitiveness for girls. The first channel operates through the program’s impact on economic empowerment. Bandiera _et_

> 2 As club participation is voluntary, both Bandiera _et al._ [2015] and our analysis focus on intent‐to‐treat impacts.

3