rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
modifying the age threshold for the “old group” indicator we include in each separate regression. We can see that coefficients are increasing with the age threshold that defines the old-group indicator variable, suggesting that older respondents are more responsive to the treatment. For example, although we observe no difference when comparing respondents older and younger than 25 years old, respondents who are older than 40 years old are 41 percentage points more likely to answer the survey.

> 35Although existing evidence has shown differences in the quality of data that can be collected from women using different survey modes, further research is required to understand differences in the quality of data or response rate by gender. For example, Lamanna et al. (2019) find that the use of mobile phones to collect nutrition data from rural women in Africa may result in differences of between 0 and 25 percent in nutrition estimates, relative to collecting this information in face-to-face interviews.

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the expected learning outcomes used for accreditation by the National Board of Accreditation (NBA), previous employer surveys, and consultations with employers. The questionnaire is divided into three sections; (i) Overall satisfaction level, (ii) Importance and Satisfaction of 26 different skills, and (iii) Employer‘s characteristics.<sup>4</sup> Employers were asked to evaluate both the importance and satisfaction levels of each of the 26 skills on a five point scale.

The NBA, India‘s only official accreditation body for engineering education, has established 11 Program Outcomes. NBA is a provisional member of the Washington Accord—an international agreement between accreditation agencies for engineering education for 18 countries. Therefore, NBA‘s program outcomes (expected learning outcomes for graduates) are based upon the internationally agreed set of the skills and knowledge that graduates are expected to possess at the time of graduation.<sup>5</sup> The NBA criteria are:

> 4 The survey questionnaire is attached in Annex 3. The questionnaire asks about importance and satisfaction for 26 skills divided into two overall groups: General and Specific skills. The General skill referred mainly to personal characteristics while Specific skills mainly referred to those skills directly related to technical and engineering professions as well as communication and computer skills. The categorization of skills into General and Specific Skills was conducted in an a-priori manner following consultations with government officials, employers, and academia. Section 5 will go in detail more systematic and empirically-based categorization.  The survey questionnaire is attached in Annex 3.

> 5 The NBA learning outcomes and the ABET learning outcomes are very similar, but do have a few important differences. For example, the NBA criterion (e) asks for the graduates to ―demonstrate an ability to

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the much needed quality and rigor of the analysis produced, the advancement and availability of statistically valid methods with proper inference such as small area estimates are required.

Direct estimates of poverty and inequality from household surveys are only reliable up to a certain regional level. When estimates are needed at lower, more disaggregated levels, the reliability of these is questionable. Under a set of specific assumptions, data from outside sources along with household survey data may be combined in order to provide policy makers with a more complete picture of poverty and inequality along with the spatial heterogeneity of these indicators.

In this paper we introduce a new family of Stata functions, `sae` , which were designed in a modular and flexible way to manage the data, estimate models, conduct simulations, and compute indicators of interest. The estimation functions have been bench-marked against the World Bank’s PovMap software for full validation.

We hope that the flexibility of this new family of functions will encourage producers of SAE to document and report in a more systematic manner the robustness of their results to alternative methodological choices made, improving the replicability and increasing the transparency of this estimation process. Its modular nature creates a platform for the introduction of new estimation techniques, such as count and binary models. Additionally, the modular nature encourages collaboration from the broader Stata community.

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Lerma-Chapala Basin in Mexico (Reynoso, 2000; Merrey, 2000), the São Francisco Basin in Brazil (Ioris, 2001), the Bicol Basin in the Philippines (Koppel, 1987), the Olifants Basin in South Africa (Merrey, 2000), and the Cross Basin in Nigeria (Udofia, 1988). For a summary of major components of the decentralization reform in these basins, see Mody (2004). To address this issue in a more comprehensive manner, a research study was developed that would (i) carry out eight additional case study analyses and (ii) undertake a global survey of river basin organizations. The eight case studies were completed recently, employing a single analytical framework, as part of the study “Integrated River Basin Management and the Principle of Managing Water Resources at the Lowest Appropriate Level – When and Why Does It (Not) Work in Practice?” that was funded by the World Bank. The eight case studies are: the Guadalquivir Basin in Spain (Blomquist et al., 2004), the Warta Basin in Poland (Blomquist, et al., 2004), the Brantas Basin in Indonesia (Bhat ey al., 2004), the Tárcoles Basin in Costa Rica (Blomquist et al., 2004), the Murray Darling Basin in Australia (Blomquist et al., 2004), the Fraser Basin in Canada (Blomquist et al., 2004), and the Alto Tietê and Jaguaribe Basins in Brazil (Formiga and Kemper, 2005; and Formiga and Kemper, 2005).

While the case study analyses cited in Mody (2004) and the recent eight case studies mentioned above shed light on the direction of development in river basin decentralization, these do not yet permit the identification of generic reasons and forces behind decentralization, of process characterization and of success levels, just because the focus was on individual case study description. A more analytical approach would allow finding general relationships and patterns. For that one needs to have a framework that incorporates
are significantly different from zero. Reaching Completion Point is however significantly related to an increase in infant mortality among urban mothers and an insignificant decrease among rural mothers.

The Decision Point results indicate that the positive effects from debt relief come when countries enter the program and receives interim debt relief (usually in the form of partly or fully canceled debtservice payments). At Decision Point, the country’s commitment to reform and pro-development policies in exchange for promised assistance out of a heavy debt burden from the IMF, the World Bank, and other multi- and bilateral creditors is finalized. However, there are no positive effects from reaching Completion Point where creditors agree to deliver full, irrevocable debt relief. This may suggest that the external scrutiny and focus on pro-development reforms play an important role for child health in HIPCs.

These heterogeneous effects indicate that policies introduced in relation to Decision Point are effective in improving infant health among poor and rural mothers. The results are in accordance with intentions of the health and rural development policies introduced in the country-specific PRSPs which to various degrees emphasize these groups as beneficiaries of pro-development policies in connection with debt relief under the HIPC Initiative.

My findings are in line with the few earlier results on debt relief at Decision Point under the HIPC Initiative and infant mortality (see Schmid, 2009). The negative relationship between debt relief at Decision Point and infant mortality from the within-mother estimations (and to some extent also the within-country with mother-specific characteristics) suggests that problems with confounding factors, demographic composition, and unobservables are less likely to be driving the results in this analysis in contrast to earlier findings. I look further into problems with potential confounding factors in the sensitivity analyses in the next section (Section 4.2).

# **4.2 Sensitivity Analyses**

The DHS data and the information on HIPC status (which month debt relief at Decision Point and Completion Point is granted, see Table 1) allow for a more detailed analysis of the relationship between debt relief and infant mortality. In
addition, the role of non-bank intermediaries such as microfinance institutions and credit cooperatives in the provision of basic financial services deserves a closer analysis.

61. Follow-up work can also be conducted on the state of microcredit in Colombia, as existing work and World Bank operations have mainly focused on housing microfinance.

62. Finally, the role of financial infrastructure can be further explored, including in this context the collection of information on low-income clients through credit information and registry systems. An investigation of this in the context of Colombia and other Latin American countries is already underway, financed by a FIRST initiative under the auspices of the World Bank. This could be expanded to include other aspects of financial infrastructure, such as secured credit transactions, and registries for collateral. Finally, small value payment systems could also be explored. Remittances are important for the Colombian economy. Their costs to the sender and recipients and alternative remittance models are an important topic for further analysis.

63. On the demand side, a second survey would provide the opportunity to obtain additional information on vital areas which were not covered by the first survey, including preferred banking services by the unbanked, additional questions on the use of savings, the role of public versus private banks etc.

64. Lastly, a study which would quantify the benefits of improved financial access for low-income people or, to the same extend, identify the costs of limited financial access could make a significant contribution to the political case for improving access to financial services for the unbanked in Colombia.

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and Rodrigues 2021) and China (Cheng, Loo, and Vickerman 2015). Public transit in the United States was accompanied by greater hiring in general or of minority workers (Holzer, Quigley, and Raphael 2003; Tyndall 2017).

A boost to public, private or foreign direct investment could also unlock the technological progress and productivity gains needed to fuel aggregate demand and create jobs. Similar to trade openness or liberalization, technological change has been associated with localized employment losses, yet it had mixed aggregate effects and effects in EMDEs.

Automation or robotization provides an example. In the United States, increased use of robots has been accompanied by employment declines in specific commuting zones and industries, but aggregate effects have been found to be mixed (Acemoglu and Restrepo 2018; 2020; D. Autor and Salomons 2018). A classification of the occupations at risk from new technologies yielded net employment gains in the United States (Vermeulen et al. 2018). The introduction of robots has not been associated with aggregate changes in hours worked in a broader group of countries in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, or with net employment losses in Germany (Dauth et al. 2017; Graetz and Michaels 2018). Few studies have examined the employment impact of new technologies in EMDEs, but those that have found either net employment losses (Carbonero, Ernst, and Weber 2020) or no strong evidence of employment changes (Maloney and Molina 2016).

An array of investment-related variables is used to capture the dynamism of investment and technology improvements. Gross capital formation and credit to the private sector—in percent of GDP—are used to proxy for total and private investment. Data is drawn from the WDI. Variables capturing access to finance are included to proxy for potential investment, including the number of commercial bank branches per 100,000 adults, log per capita outstanding loans and outstanding deposits in commercial banks, all from the International Monetary Fund’s _Financial Access Survey_ . Implicitly, this assumes that private credit and banking
the score between 2008-11 and 2016, we checked the available documentation and adjusted the data as appropriate. In cases where we had not been able to identify the relevant measure for 2008-11, and with a view to ensuring that we included only documented changes in restrictiveness between the two periods, we neutralized that measure by imputing the 2016 value into the 2008-11 data set. We recognize that this approach may lead to an underestimation of the extent of change in policies.

# **Relationship to other databases**

The Services Trade Policy Database (STPD) builds on a number of prior initiatives by international and regional agencies. The first precedent is the GATS services database of WTO Members’ specific commitments and list of exemptions, which was established in the late 1990s.<sup>12</sup> This database is

> 11 Our team went through 672 questionnaires (23 subsectors questionnaires* 28 economies + 28

> general questionnaires).

> 12 See GATS module in ITIP Services, http://i-tip.wto.org/services/default.aspx.

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for higher micronutrient intake. The FCS has been used in food security assessments throughout the world. In Afghanistan, the national average is 61. The WFP uses a cutoff of 48 for an acceptable diet in countries where most households consume staples and oil every day. Under this categorization approximately 80 percent of the

> 5 We use a Laspeyres price index estimated by quarter for each region using the district price data. Real consumption is relative to the chosen base: urban areas in the Central region in quarter one. The capital, Kabul, is located in the Central region.

> 6 Spices, water, and  ̳other‘ foods do not contribute to total calories. USDA sources were used for a few items that were not available in the FAO tables.

> 7 Some studies use household size to calculate per capita amounts.  In Afghanistan the custom of sharing meals with guests makes it important to account for guests eating meals from the household cooking pot.  The effective household size also incorporates information on household members eating outside the home.  Some studies use equivalency scales to account for differences in consumption of adults and children when calculating measures of wellbeing.  We opt to include variables for household composition directly into the regression model to control for such differences.

> 8 Weights for the food groups range from 0.5 to 4 based on nutrient density. Condiments receive zero nutritional weight.  Frequencies are truncated at 7 for each food group.  The measure ranges from 0 to 112.

7
these pseudo panels allows us to compare relevant outcomes for generations born more than 50 years apart.

Consider, for example, Table 2, which presents data on women’s employment rate for the pseudo panel created using eight cross-section surveys for Bangladesh. The first cross-section is from the DHS of 1993, and then seven more surveys provide data every three or four years, covering the period up to 2017.<sup>9</sup> Each cell of Table 2 contains two pieces of information: a) the size of a group, i.e., how many people were born in a certain period and observed at a certain age range, and b) the share of women employed in that group. Reading from top to bottom along the columns, the table shows how the employment rate for a specific cohort changes as that cohort ages, thus providing an estimate of the age effect for each cohort. Reading from left to right along the rows, the table shows the employment rates for different cohorts observed at the same age, thus revealing the cohort effect. The bottom row of the table is the weighted average of the ‘lifetime’ employment rate for all the cohorts of Bangladeshi women that we observe in the pseudo-panel. And the rightmost column illustrates the weighted average employment rate at each age across all cohorts.

There are two important issues to be noted. The first is that the size ‘N’ for some cells in the table is relatively small. This means that the employment shares (or any other relevant outcome variable) for these cells are estimated on a restricted number of observations, and they will be less precise (Verbeek and Nijman, 1992). The second issue is that the full lifecycle – or at least the period from age 15 to 49 – is observed only for some cohorts, those born between the 1960s and 1980s, in the middle of the table. This means that the lifetime employment rate (the bottom row of the table) is biased at the extreme
prioritize expansion of public services to reach marginalized neighborhoods, so that basic services, such as waste collection, water supply, and electricity grids, reach even the most poor.

Accurate spatial data and city maps are a crucial ingredient to smart land use and city planning. Historically, shanty areas have often been omitted from city planning maps, making it difficult to address the improvements these neighborhoods need. When the master plans for many African cities were drafted, the current rates of growth and poverty were unforeseen.<sup>7</sup> By accurately identifying and including slums in city land maps, policy makers will be better equipped to properly guide the planning of inclusive urban development. Furthermore, precise and up‐to‐date maps of a city can help facilitate better coordination between transportation projects and current land use, and prioritize areas in need of housing upgrades.

Urban developers can leverage spatial data to not only improve planning, but also to better understand the interactions between firm locations, residential growth, and unplanned expansion. Advances in geographic information systems (GIS) and satellite imagery provide policy makers with new tools to analyze the changing morphology of cities. A better understanding of the composition of cities, and how land (residential, commercial, green space) changes throughout a city, can provide helpful insights for city planning. For example, In London city planners have relied upon GIS to plan and create more “livable streets” that encourage walking, cycling, and transit trips. Planners depend upon land use data and transport layers to target arterial roads and intersections that could be redesigned without significantly impacting the movement of motorized vehicles, but at the same time benefiting the greatest number of pedestrians.<sup>_8_</sup> In Madrid developers consult a GIS application before breaking ground on new construction. Following the national guidelines and regulations, the system identifies buildable land, ensures compliance with historical preservation rules, and informs users of land use restrictions.<sup>9</sup> These are
Policy Research Working Paper 10723

# **Abstract**

Unequal access to economic opportunity for individuals with different innate characteristics, such as ethnicity or parents’ socioeconomic status, is often seen as both morally undesirable and bad for economic growth. This paper estimates inequality of opportunity, or the share of inequality explained by birth characteristics, across 18 countries in Sub-Saharan Africa. For many countries, this is the first time inequality of opportunity is measured. The paper uses nationally representative household survey data harmonized to allow for cross-country comparisons. Using consumption per capita as the outcome, the findings show that inequality of opportunity in Sub-Saharan Africa is stark and more pronounced than previously estimated. On average, inherited circumstances explain more than half of inequality in the region. Estimates range from 40 to 60 percent in most countries and reach 74 percent in South Africa. The findings show that birthplace, parents’ education, and ethnicity tend to be the most significant contributors, but there is large variation in the importance of circumstances across countries. This represents the most comprehensive estimate of inequality of opportunity to date in the poorest and one of the most unequal regions in the world, and it underscores the pressing need for policy makers to intensify their efforts to address inequality of opportunity to foster societies that are more equitable and unlock the full potential for growth in the region.

This paper is a product of the Poverty and Equity Global Practice. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/prwp. The authors may be contacted at jlebow@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of
>**2**</sup>

The heterogeneity of activities developed at ports and the diversity of commodities handled suggests narrowing the study to a limited number of ports and a specific type of cargo. Following the foregoing recommendation, this study centers its analysis on Spanish ports particularly relevant from the point of view of container traffic.

Statistical information has been gathered from the data published annually by port authorities in their Annual Reports. Furthermore, information from the Statistical Yearbooks released by State Ports –the central agency entrusted with the coordination of the Spanish port system- has been used. Whenever anomalies or discrepancies were encountered, we resorted directly to the source and asked for additional clarifications - whether in person or on the phone- from the people responsible of each field.

The ports included in the sample coincide with the major commercial ports of the country and capture a broad typology of ports: insular ports (with high level of captive traffic), hub ports (relevant at the international level for their importance as merchandise distribution centers, such as the Port of Algeciras), and different specializations (for instance, Santa Cruz de Tenerife and Bilbao in liquid bulks, Alicante in dry bulks, etc). Furthermore, all waterfronts of the Spanish coastline are represented by the ports selected.

> 2 For more details about the data and variables see González, M. (2004).

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Chart 4 **Brazil: Ratio of Domestic Debt to Foreign Debt** <!-- Start of picture text -->
1.6<br>1.4<br>1.2<br>1.0<br>0.8<br>0.6<br>0.4<br>85  86  87  88  89  90  91  92  93  94  95<br>1 - BRDDF<br><!-- End of picture text -->

Sources: Foreign Debt, World Bank debt Tables Domestic Debt, Central Bank of Brazil Chart 4 shows a significant shift in Brazil's debt management strategy. The average ratio of domestic to foreign debt for 1985-1992 was about 0.4, and by 1995 climbed to 1.5, signaling an impressive change in the debt mix.

# **Chile**

As a contrast to Brazil's strikingly low demand for real base money and its subsequent effect on the sustainable debt figure, we consider Chile. Applying the "reasonable" values for this nation to equation (11) results in a completely different picture. While base velocity in Brazil is about 17 per year, in Chile it is roughly 3.3 per year (k=.3).

For Chile we will assume that velocity will remain the same as its current level, and that its long-term income growth will be reduced from its likely unsustainable current level to about 5 percent per year.

k = .30; gP =.07; r = .08; gy = .05; d = - 0.01 (primary surplus), with these parameter values we obtain b = **1.33** The following chart demonstrates the evolution of k for Chile.

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