rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
common pot), and more difficult to recall. The interaction coefficients for the household diaries are also negative but not significant. These coefficients are also smaller in magnitude, suggesting again that performance with respect to household size differs dramatically by recall or diary format.

Urban households with recall modules do not perform appreciably worse than their rural counterparts vis-à-vis the benchmark. No interaction term for urban location is significant for any recall module except module 5, the “usual” month recall. For this module, the difference in total and food consumption from the benchmark is attenuated in urban areas, suggesting that the cognitive demands of the usual month construct present particular challenges for rural households. This may be because urban households rely more on the market for their consumption, with potentially smoother prices and availabilities over time so that rule-of-thumb extrapolations from daily consumption to a “usual” month are more accurate. Alternatively, this may reflect the higher education of urban respondents since in the results that control for the education of the household head, the only significant interaction term with years of education is again for module 5.

Education of the household head does not affect the performance of the household diaries relative to the individual diary but urbanity does, with household diaries performing significantly closer to the benchmark in rural areas. In fact the lower mean consumption of the infrequent household diary (module 7) summarized in panel A of Table 5 is entirely due to urban households – there is no significant consumption difference among rural households that were administered module 7 or module 8. However, urban households with module 7 report 29 percent lower total consumption, 26 percent lower food consumption, 45 percent lower frequent non-food, and 31 percent lower non-frequent non-food. The frequently supervised household diary (module 6) also reports significantly lower non-food consumption (of either category) when administered to urban households. These results are consistent with the supposition that urban settings provide more diverse personal consumption choices (such as outside meals and public transport) than rural areas, and much of this consumption out
private transfers, private pensions income and the value of imputed rent.<sup>17</sup> Under the CEQ approach, there are two options for treating pensions. Here we treat Pensions as Deferred Income (PDI), which uses _market income plus pensions_<sup>18</sup> (hereafter simply referred to as ‘ _market income_ ’) as the starting point of the assessment. This treats contributions to pensions made during working-years as mandatory savings that would be enjoyed later in life; during retirement the income from contributory pensions are considered part of the pre-fiscal income. An alternative is to treat the income from pensions as a government transfer (PGT) and the contributions as direct taxes.<sup>19</sup> The movement from one income concept to the next is done by iteratively assigning taxes and transfers as seen in Figure 1 until reaching ‘final’, or ‘post-fiscal income’. ‘Disposable income’ is that resulting from adding direct government cash and near-cash transfers and subtracting direct taxes and contributions to market income. ‘Consumable income’ then subtracts indirect taxes and adds indirect subsidies. ‘Final Income’ adds the public cost of providing in-kind transfers (services which are not received as cash benefits, namely health and education).

HEIS contains information on household income and consumption and the official poverty measurement uses consumption as the welfare aggregate. Following standard methodology (Lustig 2018), this means that in practical terms the calculation of the income concepts begins by equating household consumption to disposable income and then working backward (subtract direct transfers and add direct taxes) to construct market income.

To assess the impact of the fiscal instruments on poverty we use the national poverty line. Impacts across deciles of the consumption distribution and the Gini coefficient are used to capture the distributional impacts. We model the following fiscal instruments: Personal income tax (PIT), benefits from NAF, the bread subsidy compensation scheme and other cash transfers, sales taxes (GST and SST), water and electricity
no proper evaluation is done (Coburn, 2020); in interviews in August 2018 and March 2019, staff at the Rural Access Programme spoke of how municipal authorities keen to demonstrate progress but lacking planning capacity frequently plowed roads into hillsides with little regard for environmental outcomes, investment efficiency, or even basic engineering principles.

Some efforts are underway to equip local authorities with access-based planning tools that accommodate their limited data collection and analysis capacity. Over the last 15 years the Rural Access Programme has worked with local governments in Nepal to design and implement Transport Master Plans that provide a measurable, data-driven basis for prioritizing proposed roads. The most recent iteration is the Provincial Transport Master Plan, a standardized tool for provincial governments to prioritize roads based on a spreadsheet matrix of cost projections, one day traffic density studies, policy priority, and the population totals of administrative centers touched by roads (Rural Access Programme (RAP3), 2019). An extract of the prioritization tool within Karnali’s draft Provincial Transport Master Plan is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Ranking road building options in Karnali’s draft Provincial Transport Master Plan (Rural Access Programme (RAP3), 2019).

8
as high as theoretical models predict. The high proportion of failures in trade relationships, past the ...rst two years of exporting, can be explained by the high costs of sustaining in the export market (Besedes 2007). This calls for a role of access to ...nance along the life of trade relationships. Long lasting trade relations depend on a well-functioning ...nancial system both in the origin and destination country. In 2006, the average ratio of private credit to GDP was 110 percent in the OECD, 31 percent in Latin America–notoriously under-banked–and only 20 percent in Africa. The latter is most certainly biased upwards since a large number of African countries do not report any data. Additionally, the majority of ...rms located in these ...ve countries are small and medium sized ...rms, for which the lack of technical quali...cations and necessary capital investments constrain their ability to remain and expand on foreign export markets.

We use ...rm-level survey data to further show the relevance of access to ...nance for ...rms export survival.<sup>1</sup> We use answers from surveyed exporters in Ghana, Mali, Malawi,

> 1The survey data –100 responding companies–serves as anecdotal evidence. It highlights the importance of access to ...nance for exporting activity. It is by no means a representative sample of all

4
comprise a relatively small part of Mexico's rural workforce; only 27.0 percent are women (calculations based on ENE 2003 survey). However, this estimation is likely to under-represent the female share of the work force. The way the question is phrased may lead some women to say that they are not part of the work force when they actually are.

Mexico’s seven regions each followed their own individual rural labor force development path (see Figure 2.1 and Appendix A). The Pacific and Center-North regions experienced a rapid increased in job creation since 1995. During 1995-2003, the labor force decreased in the Center, Gulf, North, and South regions and in the latter by far the most (around 400,000 workers). The Center-North and Pacific regions experienced their work forces increase by around 200,000 and 400,000 workers, respectively. The increase in the production of export crops in these regions has increased the demand for labor and workers from other parts of Mexico and workers have migrated to grasp the increased opportunity to improve their livelihood.

> 3 The rural Mexican labor force is defined as people above 12 years of age and living in areas with less than 2,500 inhabitants.

4
# Figure 4: EAP: Investment growth

# A. Investment growth

B. Investment growth from four quarters earlier <!-- Start of picture text --> Percent 2000-2021 average Percent, year-on-year EAP EMDEs<br>15 45<br>10<br>30<br>5<br>0 15<br>-5<br>0<br>-10<br>-15<br>EAP EAP excl. China EMDE -30<br>China 2018Q3 2019Q3 2020Q3 2021Q3 2022Q3<br>C. Foreign direct investment inflows D. Monetary policy interest rates<br>US$ billion China US$ Percent 2011-15 2016-19 2020<br> 350 EAP excl. China (RHS) billion120 12 2021 2022<br> 300 100 8<br> 250 80 4<br> 200 60 0<br> 150 40<br> 100 20<br> 50 0 Commodity Commodity<br>exporters importers<br> 2007Q1 2014Q4 2022Q3<br>2019 2021 2023 2019 2021 2023 2019 2021 2023 2019 2021 2023<br>Mongolia Indonesia Malaysia China Vietnam Philippines Thailand<br><!-- End of picture text --> Sources: Haver Analytics; International Monetary Fund; United Nations Conference on Trade and Development; World Bank, World Development Indicators database; World Bank.

Note: EMDEs = emerging market and developing economies.

A. GDP-weighted averages. 2023 indicates forecast.

B. Includes 68 EMDEs, of which 7 are EAP.

C. EAP excl. China includes Indonesia, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Mongolia, the Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam.

D. Policy rates are the average of end-of-period data. Last observation is September 2022.
women). Data includes all surveyed individuals. Source: Postintervention survey.

# _3.6. Empirical strategy_

To investigate the effects of providing information through a text message campaign, we estimate the following equation separately for men and women: where yig is the outcome of interest for individual _i_ of gender _g_ . Tig is a set of treatment dummies that varies among experiments. For experiment 1 (formal workers of reproductive age), βt when _t=1_ identifies the effects of receiving the message with information on the parental leave program. The omitted group is in this case the control group. For Experiment 2 (recent parents), we have no pure control and will have three relevant coefficients βt for _t_ =1, 2, 3, identifying the effects of (1) having received the role model text message compared to the information one, (2) the planning message compared to the information one, (3) and the role model message compared to the planning one. Xig is a vector of individual control variables, including age, nationality, geographic region, cohabiting status, maximum educational level, previous childbirths, and pregnancy status (these two last variables only for experiment 1’s sample). ∂s are sample g strata fixed effects and ε robust standard errors. i 13
Policy Research Working Paper 5781

# **Abstract**

The institutional landscape of local dispute resolution in Bangladesh is rich: it includes the traditional process of shalish, longstanding and impressive civil society efforts to improve on shalish, and a somewhat lessexplored provision for gram adalat or village courts. Based on a nationally representative survey, qualitative evidence from focus groups, and a telephone survey of 40 Union Parishad chairpersons (a little less than 1 percent of the total Union Parishads), it provides both an empirical mapping of local conflict and justice and pointers to possible policy reforms. It suggests a number of opportunities for strengthening local justice and argues that the village courts may pose a useful bridge between Bangladesh’s informal and formal justice institutions.

This paper is a product of the Social Development Department. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://econ.worldbank.org. The author may be contacted at mdas@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent._ Produced by the Research Support Team
is especially likely to be affected. Second, IDPs may have cultural and gender norms that differ from host-community members’ norms, and, in doing so, potentially influence the evolution of the latter norms and discrimination against women (Bredtmann _et al._ , 2020). Third, when host-community members make contact with IDPs and learn from them about the nature of the attacks and the underlying ideology, they may change their beliefs (e.g., about the role of women in society) and behaviors to distance themselves from the ideology of the aggressors.<sup>2</sup> In contrast, the other prominent theoretical channel of worsening economic conditions as a result of interrupted trade and mobility restrictions (e.g., Blomberg and Hess, 2006) arguably applies to the two forms of attacks (by the jihadist group and by pastoralist militias) in a similar way. Hence, this channel is unlikely to lead to pronounced differential spatial effects on women across attack type. Also, the direction of the effect on women’s economic conditions is arguably ambiguous. On the one hand, economic disruptions may affect men more than women given their greater economic integration as observed in survey data. On the other hand, households may diversify sources of income as a risk-mitigation strategy by adjusting women’s labor supply (Attanasio _et al._ , 2005).

Our primary contribution to the literature is to provide the first estimates of the impact of conflict on relatively safe, geographically proximate areas within the same country on a range of measures relevant for economic development. The thin body of available empirical research examines the spillover effects of conflict from one country to another (Murdoch and Todd, 2002, 2004; Blomberg and Hess, 2006) but not within countries. Yet, most forcibly displaced people stay within their home country (UNHCR, 2022). Further, to the best of our knowledge, empirical evidence on the gender dimension of the spillover effects of conflict is currently missing altogether. By adding
of DFS users through consumer protection initiatives and, especially, protection of their personal data.

The Findex survey continues to be an indispensable source of data on usage of financial services throughout the world. Ensuring that future Findex rounds are fielded should be a priority for development practitioners and donors with interest in promoting financial inclusion. By asking the same questions in future rounds, for example on digital merchant payments, Findex data can provide valuable information on trends in DFS usage over time and whether gains in DFS usage during COVID-19 were permanent or transitory. Developing new questions that can better summarize the digital borrowing and saving activities of respondents can offer a more complete picture of the benefits (and risks) of DFS for households. And perhaps the largest value added from additional data work would be to expand the country coverage for all the datasets used in this analysis. While the data sources exploited in this paper have yielded useful insights, our sense is that this is the tip of the iceberg in terms of what researchers will learn about the importance and drivers of DFS for households across the globe.

# **_References_**

- Abbasi, Tariq and Hans Weigand. 2017. "The Impact of Digital Financial Services on Firm's Performance: A Literature Review," Papers 1705.10294, arXiv.org

- Agur, Itai, Soledad Martinez Peria, and Celine Rochon. 2020. “Digital Financial Services and the Pandemic: Opportunities and Risks for Emerging and Developing Economies.” IMF Research Special Series on COVID-19. July. IMF: Washington, DC.

- Aker, Jenny, Rachid Boumnijel, Amanda McClelland, and Niall Tierney. 2016. “Payment Mechanisms and Antipoverty Programs: Evidence from a Mobile money Cash Transfer Transfer Experiment in Niger.” _Economic Development and Cultural Change_ 65(1): 1-7.

- Alber, Nader, and Mohamed Dabour. 2020. “The Dynamic Relationship between FinTech and Social Distancing under COVID-19 Pandemic: Digital Payments Evidence.” _International Journal of Economics and Finance_ 12(11):
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4The main source of the data is the WTO Integrated Data Base (IDB) which is based on country notifications. In a few cases where the TPRs contain more up to date information on country applied rates than those notified, these later estiniates have been used and are noted with an asterisk in Tables 4 and 5. TPR applied tariff information is sometimes availabl: at the 2- digit HS classification.

> 5 This average needs to be used with caution as it refers to applied rates in different countries in different years, and some countries have subsequently reduced their tariff schedules. Unfortunately the data do not permit a calculation of an applied tariff average for the grodp of countries as of a given recent year post URA.

10
Policy Research Working Paper 10216

# **Abstract**

No-till approaches to agricultural soil management have been encouraged as a means of reducing soil erosion, reducing water pollution, and increasing carbon sequestration. An understudied additional benefit of no-till approaches may be improvements in local air quality due to reductions in both machinery use and dust emissions. This paper leverages recent advances in remote sensing and air pollution modeling to examine this question at a landscape scale. Combining data on daily fine particulate matter levels with satellite measures of no-till uptake since 2005, the paper shows a strong association between increasing adoption of no-till agricultural practices and reductions in county average fine particulate matter pollution over more than 28 million hectares of cropland in the U.S. Corn Belt. The reduction in local pollution implies substantial monetary benefits from reductions in mortality that are roughly one-fourth as large as the carbon benefits. The benefits of mortality reductions are also, by themselves, nearly equal to the current monetary costs of subsidizing no-till practices.

This paper is a product of the Development Research Group, Development Economics. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/prwp. The authors may be contacted at abehrer@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent._ Produced
household work. For instance, the average Mexican woman spends six hours a day doing unpaid housework, compared to an average of two hours per day for men (World Bank, 2019).

Finally, as a proxy for unearned income, we use the socioeconomic status provided by INEGI as part of the survey. The relationship between the reservation wage and non-labor income is positive only if leisure is a normal<sup>29</sup> good. Under this condition, there is a disincentive effect on entry into the labor market with an increase in unearned income.

Each independent variable takes the form of a dichotomic variable. The same set of proxy variables is considered for each state. In other words, there will be an identical group of exogenous factors for people who do not participate in the labor market, salaried or self-employed work on-site, and salaried or selfemployed telework.

# 5. Results and Discussion

The results are divided into three sections. First, we present the multinomial results for women and explore how the probability changes for the different independent variables. Next, we analyze male teleworkers to see which factors determine their propensity to choose to work from home and test whether those factors differ from female teleworkers. Finally, we run the multinomial for several rounds of the same survey and analyze how the marginal effects have changed over time for male and female teleworkers.

## i. Women

The first two columns in Table 2 in the Appendix show the multinomial coefficients for women in the sample. This table provides us with an idea of women’s characteristics associated with a higher probability of being in a specific state. Each column presents the odds of the outcome category of the dependent variable for working on-site and teleworking, as self-employed or salaried, respectively, compared with the reference category of being out of the labor force.

The level of education is positively associated with teleworking and working on-site regardless of choosing self-employment or not. However, being self-employed is less likely for the youngest cohort between 2224 years old.