rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
ry i<br>Mother has high school or tertiary education ° oge<br>Mother is married re<br>Mom wasa teenager at time of birth —-<br>Mother hasa job or business +<br>0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0<br>Relative Risk (95% Cl)<br><!-- End of picture text -->

Source: Author's calculations based on 2015 National Nutrition Survey (NNS). Notes: Only the relative risk estimates for significant risk factors are labeled. Age, age squared and age cubed (in months) is also used as a control but is not shown in the chart. The unadjusted regression model does not control for socio-economic factors.
supply from portfolios accumulated on the secondary market by 2004 became large enough to put downward pressure on rents. Similarly, in Poland the professional landlord industry continued to grow. The relevance of access to pertinent financing is demonstrated by a result reported in Lowe (2003): in the Budapest-Sofia survey, 36 percent of landlords in Budapest— benefiting from the better developed and subsidized housing finance system of Hungary— bought units with the intent to let them, compared with only 22 percent in Sofia.

# _Public Rental Supply from the Secondary Market_

The secondary market has become an interesting source for new public rental housing supply, which traditionally was limited to new construction and (usually slow) tenant turnover. In Bucharest, owing to limited funding for new construction efforts, the local government has been actively buying inexpensive apartments on the secondary market as a low-cost way to replenish the social housing stock. In a similar effort, Moscow has tried to preserve public stock by halting privatization through inducing new tenants to sign “dwelling use contracts,” which do not legally qualify as tenancy and thus do not confer the option of almost free privatization. Some Polish cities have been buying cheaper cooperative and privately owned restituted dwellings, and are considering the repurchase of privatized units. Anecdotal evidence brings also some cases where privatized dwellings are being offered back to municipalities by privatized tenants to settle arrears and to skip payments due for upgrading and capital repairs. In Lithuania the secondary market mechanism has been enhanced by central government funds earmarked for municipalities to acquire housing for social rental purposes.

# **_New Rental Construction_**

_New Private Rental Construction_ Capital cities in transition countries typically feature a very small upscale private rental market served by corporate investors that caters to other corporations, foreigners, embassies, and other high-income clients. Stock conversions often do not produce sufficient quality levels for these clients, in dwelling type, standard, and location. New construction has been active in the largest and capital cities in the region (Moscow, Saint Petersburg, Warsaw, Vilnius, Bucharest
datasets to compute rates of childhood stunting and underweight. 26 Generally, construction of both the health equity and financial protection sides of the data set follows the methods summarized in O’Donnell et al. (2008).

> 27 We apply a different aggregation rule for our cancer screening variables – pap smear and mammography – when we have multiple data points for a given year that differ in terms of the age-range of the women for whom the surveys obtained screening rates. The rule we apply here is as follows: Our preferred age-ranges are 30-49 for pap smears and 50-69 for mammography. If for a given year, data are only available for another than the preferred age-range, we use the data point which minimizes the absolute difference between the number of years of the data point’s age-range which are outside the preferred age-range (inclusion errors) and the number of years of the preferred age-range which are not included in the data point’s age-range (exclusion errors). If, for instance, pap smear data for a given year are only available for women aged 25-44 and 35-59, we would choose the 25-44 data point (both age-ranges have an exclusion error of five years, but the inclusion error for the 35-59 age-range is ten years compared to five years for the 25-44 age-range).
. We take note of this and trust post-harvest reports for the purpose of loss calculation as these should constitute the most updated farmer estimates of damage.

26 Unless specified otherwise, the analysis excludes plots where the harvest was completely lost (the equivalent of an area loss of 100 percent on the plot). The main reasons for this is to avoid bias in our estimates stemming from a (by construction) perfect fit between the area loss measure and the realized harvest quantity. Furthermore, the distinction between area and plant productivity losses is not meaningful in this case and there is no way to infer the attainable yield according to Equation (2) in the lack of any realized harvest. To estimate total loss on fully destroyed plots, the attainable yield can, for instance, be inferred from the median attainable yield on similar or near plots with at most partial losses.

13
<br>100<br>0 0<br>Dec- Dec- Dec- Dec- Mar- Jun- Sep- Dec- Mar- Jun- Sep- Dec- Mar- Jun- Sep- Dec- Mar- Jun- Sep- Dec-<br>97 98 99 00 01 01 01 01 02 02 02 02 03 03 03 03 04 04 04 04<br>Assets (HUF bln) Contributions (HUF bln) Members (thousand)<br><!-- End of picture text --> Source: HFSA 17. In order to gain further insights into the causes of the slow growth of assets, the changes in the ratio of pension assets of GDP were tracked by estimating each of its four components: the flow of contributions, asset returns, fees charged, and the growth of GDP. The first two components increase the ratio by increasing the stock of assets, while the third and fourth components decrease the ratio by decreasing the stock of assets and increasing the denominator, respectively. Appendix A describes the methodology used for estimating these components in the absence of flow of funds data.

> 5 Reform reversals also affected the PAYG component of the pension system.  The rate of contribution to the PAYG is 4.5 percentage points lower than the levels envisaged by the reform and may be lowered further by 2 percentage points in 2007 and 2009.  The government also granted a 13<sup>th</sup> monthly pension to retirees to compensate for the Swiss indexation introduced with the reform (Orbán and Palotai, 2005).
*||0.580***|0.310***|0.326***||0.274***|
||(0.0864)|(0.0860)||(0.0297)|(0.115)|(0.114)||(0.0460)|
|Observations|886|882|901|901|445|445|464|464|
|R-squared|0.055|0.082|0.129|0.405|0.038|0.063|0.214|0.279|
|Number of<br>countries|60|60|60|60|60|60|60|60|

Standard errors in parentheses *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 All estimations include period fixed effects and country fixed effects (demeaning approach). Source: Author’s calculations based on data from the IMF. See text for details.
**Figure 1:** The graph shows variables with probability of inclusion greater than 0. 100 simulations are run on a training sample made of 80 percent of the ERIVaS sample. Labor, plot area and quantity of seeds are in log form. * indicates that the variable is interacted with enumerator fixed effect.

<!-- Start of picture text -->
*Respondent v1<br>age<br>Pre−harvest loss<br># of cotton plots<br>Rain fall<br>December<br>Rain fall<br>July<br>espondent literate<br>x # plots of Hh<br>Dammage<br> crop−cut<br>*Respondent v2<br>Manager<br>*Respondent v2<br>gender<br>*Respondent v2<br>age<br>*Respondent v1<br>Manager<br>*Respondent v1<br>gender<br>Unit SR harvest<br>Seeds<br>Plot area<br>Household labor<br>0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8<br><!-- End of picture text -->

9
# **Table 7: Estimation of trade gravity regression: IV Results**

IV: Crude oil price*VAT rate in the next potential destination

||Control 1|Control 2|Control 3|
|---|---|---|---|
|**Ln (value of trade)**|(1)|(2)|(3)|
|Ln (Freight rate)|-2.790**|-3.656***|-2.836**|
||(1.277)|(0.880)|(1.269)|
|**Ln (Volume of trade)**||||
|Ln (Freight rate)|-3.410***|-4.275***|-3.459***|
||(1.229)|(0.877)|(1.221)|
|Kleibergen-Paap F statistic|14.54|28.67|14.59|
|Origin Fixed Effects|Yes|Yes|Yes|
|Destination Fixed Effects|Yes|Yes|Yes|
|No. Absorbed FEs|1080|1003|1080|
|No. OD pairs|23288|13678|23288|

Note: Dependent variables are in bold. Each cell represents a coefficient estimate from separate regressions. The column heading corresponds to the set of controls for regressions results reported in that column. Control 1: ln (distance between origin and destination (OD)) and ln (average VAT in potential next destinations*crude price). Control 2: Control 1 plus ln (diesel price/litre along OD route). Control 3: Control 1 plus ln (average nightlight luminosity along OD route). The sample for column 2 is smaller because diesel price data is available only for 2019. Standard errors are clustered at the destination level. Robust standard errors
. Thus, to ensure that our sample was representative in 2010, and at the same time amenable to panel data analysis relative to 2003, we constructed the panel at the village level, with a new representative sample of schools drawn in the sampled villages.<sup>13</sup> All the results reported in this paper are population weighted and are thus representative of the relevant geographic unit (state or all-India).

# **3 Summary Statistics**

# **3.1 Changes in Inputs**

The data show considerable improvements in school inputs between 2003 and 2010 along three broad categories - teacher qualifications and working conditions, school facilities, and

> 12Field teams obtained lists of state and national school holidays in advance of creating the field plans and ensured that no visits were conducted on these days.

> 13Even in the absence of school construction, the survey firm did not retain school and teacher level identifiers from the 2003 survey (complying with data protection norms), which would have made it difficult to construct a school-level panel (especially for villages with multiple schools).

7
Drilling down deeper, strong associations are found between OGD and certain aspects of education service delivery. As mentioned, when education service delivery is regressed on the OGD education index, a positive and significant association is found in terms of provision. Importantly, the positive and significant correlation between education provision and OGD is strongly driven by indicators linked to quality and management of education provision. In terms of outcomes, when education service delivery outcomes are regressed on the OGD education index, a positive and significant association is found in terms of certain outcomes as well. For instance, the association between OGD and education completion is only significant for primary levels of education, whereas it is insignificant for secondary and tertiary completion.

In the health sector, OGD displays associations which are heterogeneous. First, OGD is found to be positively associated with health outcomes, but there is not such statistical evidence of an association with health provision. Second, with respect to health provision, Public Management capacity appears to be a more important determining factor than OGD (see column 5). Likewise, when controlling for the public management condition, the OGD coefficient linked to health outcomes remains significant, but slightly declines, suggesting that the impact of OGD on health outcomes (see column 6) is partly driven by changes in the index of Public Management, although both are independently significant. Finally, when controlling for the client power condition, this relationship remains unaltered, suggesting that this condition has little impact on the relationship between OGD and health service delivery in the countries included. In summary, it can be shown that overall, public management plays a role in health provision and outcomes, while OGD seems to further contribute to the outcome channel but not provision.

||**(1)**<br>**Health**<br>**Provision**|**(2)**<br>**Health**<br>**Outcomes**|**(3)**<
- 34 -

Where these legal definitions are used. the mechanics of billing consist either of posting the list of assessments in a public place (a common practice in small towns) or attaching a bill to the physical premises of each property (without concern for whether the bill has been received by an owner).

Collection improvement is complicated, as it involves a mix of administrative, legal, and political constraints. As a general rule, successful collection depends on making compliance convenient, and noncompliance subject to swift, certain, and costly penalties.

Collection can be made more convenient by decentralizing it. Many LDC local governments still require property tax payments to be made in person at city hall. This entails long travel and lengthy waiting. Collection can instead be decentralized to neighborhood collection points (as now done in Calcutta, India) or to branches of commercial banks (as in Karachi, Pakistan). Collection can also be made more convenient by permitting tax payments to be made in quarterly or semi-annual installments.

Penalties can be made more certain by improving the system for recording payment. In many municipalities, tax payments are simply recorded on individual taxpayer records, and filed. Given the thousands of property records in a medium sized city, this system makes it difficult to identify and track major delinquents. In the Philippines, the gowernment proposes to address this problem by encouraging local governments to create a specific delinquent accounts unit. The unit would identify major delinquent accounts and monitor the execution of the sequence of administrative and legal enforcement measures provided for by law.
# 5.3.4 Conditionality of OSF and THR

In order for OSF and THR program to positively affect school participation, the transfers should be conditional on student attendance. There is some evidence that the OSF snack was provided to non-enrolled children (results not shown). In Phongsaly, 10/35 (29%) of takeup schools reported providing the snack to non-enrolled children. In Khua, the figure was 20/43 (47%). At the child level, 11% of non-enrolled school-aged children and preschoolers in Phongsaly and 19% of the same population of children in Khua were reported by a parent to have consumed a WFP school snack in the past 24 hours. Given that 7% of children in Ngoi were reported to have had a WFP snack as well (even though there is no WFP school feeding scheme there), these are likely somewhat noisy overestimates, but again may point to program implementation issues, particularly in Khua.

It is difficult with these survey data to calculate a comparable figure for take home rations. Households did report sources of food transfers, but only for months in the past year in which they also report a rice insufficiency. Among households with no enrolled children in the two THR districts, only five reported receiving WFP rations specifically through the SFP. These data cannot identify households with some enrolled and some non-enrolled children who may receive rations for each child regardless of enrollment.

# 5.3.5 Other supply side determinants of enrollment

The introduction of several other development and education programs in both the intervention and control districts during the study period presents additional challenges to making causal inferences about school feeding impact. Specifically, other programs that improved the availability or quality of schooling and therefore increased enrollment may have been 24
. We build an alternative variable that measures if a village is within a 10 km radius of such a conflict event. Making use of the event typology, actors involved, and original news source, we are also able to code a battery of different conflict variables, such as whether the event involved foreign or terrorist groups (i.e., events in which one of the actors was an insurgent, militant, or extremist group, such as Boko Haram, Al-Qaeda, or the Islamic State).<sup>14</sup> Disposing of such a range of different measures helps us narrow down the mechanisms at work.<sup>15</sup>

# **2.2 Descriptive Statistics**

Figure 1 maps the program communes and indicates the year when villages in each commune were registered to start receiving cash transfers (top panel), as well as the location of conflict events and treated and control villages (bottom panel). To complete the full picture, Table A1 provides a further overview of the structure of our data set. The study considers 3,891 villages, of which 1,190 participated in the cash transfer program at some point in time. Recall that the program lasted two households). This is consistent with the exact program eligibility rules varying by commune. Six percent of localities are trimmed using this procedure. We show in the appendix that results are robust when we include all small localities in the sample or instead trim all localities with fewer than 250 individuals (approximately 25 households). The appendix also shows that the results are robust when we identify treatment villages in the locality registry based on names only, rather than based on their geo-coordinates.

> 13In studies covering whole continents or very populous countries facing major civil wars, such as the Democratic Republic of Congo during the Second Congo War, other datasets with more restrictive inclusion criteria can be suitable, yet for our context in Niger—a country of roughly 24 million people—it is crucial to
the number uses the most. However, the radius of cell phone towers is up to 40km, implying that it covers multiple clusters in our study.

We thus mapped the transaction data to our study locations by using the phone numbers households reported in our baseline and follow-up surveys. That is, we compiled a list of all Airtel phone numbers reported by the households in our follow-up survey. We verified that these numbers are correct by checking that they are present in Airtel’s call records. This process yielded 476 correct phone numbers (249 in treatment clusters and 227 in control clusters), which we then merged with the transaction data.

Table 2 displays the average number of monthly transactions for these 476 phone numbers in 2016, before the agent rollout. The average phone number in a treatment cluster performed only 0.7 transactions per month, most of which were airtime or data top ups, followed by cash out and cash in. The average number of transactions in the control group was 2.4. This higher number is driven by outliers performing many more airtime or data top ups in the control than in the treatment group (1.7 vs. 0.3 on average, respectively), although this difference is not statistically significant. The average number of monthly P2P transfers sent was 0.03 in the treatment group and 0.04 in the control group. Average P2P transfer receipts were 0.03 and 0.06, respectively.

The number of monthly transactions looks low, but it is comparable to mobile money usage in rural Mozambique. Batista and Vicente (2022) find that treatment group individuals who received information on and assistance with using mobile money made between 2.5 and 6.5 transactions per year on average (depending on the year), with at least half of these being airtime purchases.

# **5. Results**

We estimate the impact of Airtel Money agents with the following intention-totreat (ITT) equation 12
facilitate migration (de Janvry et al. 2015) in the context of economic transformation. Active land markets can furthermore permit the use of land as collateral for credit (Deininger and Goyal 2012).

In many cases, efforts to document individuals’ land rights proved particularly advantageous for women. This is largely because, contrary to in traditional settings where women’s land rights are defined through their informal connections (Goldstein and Udry 2008) and relationships (Jayachandran 2015), formal documents make it easier to formally enforce claims. Consistent with the evidence on the impact of changes in female asset ownership,<sup>2</sup> registering women as land owners has been shown to reduce the need for female guarding labor (Field 2007; Goldstein _et al._ 2018); increase investment especially by female-headed households (Ali _et al._ 2014) and women’s labor force participation (Newman _et al._ 2015); and welfare of future generations (Menon _et al._ 2014). Such impacts were found even if certificates are not transferrable, as in Madagascar (Widman 2014) or if land sales are legally prohibited, as in Ethiopia (Deininger _et al._ 2008; Kumar and Quisumbing 2015; Melesse _et al._ 2018; Muchomba 2017) where investment and empowerment effects have been amplified by family law reform (Kumar and Quisumbing 2015).

Yet, although recent technological developments reduced the costs of formalization by orders of magnitude, running national land registries requires resources, organizational capabilities, and a suitable regulatory framework. The widespread absence of these factors in Africa implies that most land rights in rural areas are administered informally by traditional leaders under customary arrangements (Boone 2019). Such systems prohibit land transfers to unrelated outsiders and guarantee land access for lineage members (Baland and Francois 2005) to prevent destitution (Andolfatto 2002). Appreciation of their risk-sharing benefits and cost advantages has traditionally led experts to view customary systems as the most viable option in many settings (Bruce and Migot-Adholla
for further details).

The focus comes both from the perspective of supporting future well-being and skills for children and youth to thrive in an ever-changing world, and from the perspective of lost years of schooling and the need for teachers to have the tools to manage classrooms and impart students with a valuable learning experience.

**Determinants of School Safety and Classroom Disciplinary Climate in MENA**

School safety and classroom disciplinary climate tend to be much lower in the MENA region. The level of school safety varies across MENA countries. However, on average, school safety tends to be more problematic in the MENA region compared to other regions by approximately 0.4 of a standard deviation. For instance, vandalism affects one in three schools in MENA, compared to 12 percent in other regions.<sup>3</sup> In the Syrian Arab Republic, Morocco, the Republic of Yemen, Tunisia, and the Arab Republic of Egypt, more than half the schools report vandalism as a moderate or serious issue (Figure 1). Additionally, approximately 30 percent of the schools report fights between students as a serious concern and half the schools report that fights and intimidation are a moderate or serious issue in school. In comparison, fights between students and staff intimidation by students are rarely reported by school principals as moderate or serious issues outside the region, affecting on average only 8 and 6 percent of schools across all non-MENA regions, respectively. Moreover, data on the classroom disciplinary climate reveal that, on average, approximately a third of students in the PISA participating countries from the MENA region report frequent classroom disturbances, compared to 20 percent in other countries excluding MENA (Figure 2).

> 1 <mark>Transformational leadership is a concept created by Burns (1978 and Bass 1985) in which a leader works in cooperation with their subordinates to identify the changes needed, to create a vision to guide the change through inspiration, and to execute the change in cooperation with the team. T</mark> he