rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
by selling to competing operators instead of selling directly to consumers.<sup>8</sup> Despite the specification of procedures, a fair amount of discretion was left to the regulator, so that ADC did not play a big role in practice. First of all, the DGT could decide which were the relevant overheads over which a "fair" return could be earned (incidentally, note how the process is reminiscent of cost-plus regulation). In second place, the DGT could also issue waivers (full or partial). The waiver criteria, valid until 1997, applied to market shares of at most 10% and as long as BT's share in the market in question did not fall below 85%. Full ADC had to be paid only if an interconnector's market share exceeded 25%. Additional discretion was added since ADC could be lowered if BT did not achieve benchmark efficiency (using US data from RBOC). In practical terms, ADC had to be paid in a few years only for international calls.

> 7 One can in principle distinguish between an _access deficit,_ due to unbalanced tariffs when rental and connection costs exceed the corresponding charges, and an _universal service deficit,_ due to geographically averaged tariffs and uneconomical subscribers. Without a proper accounting system, these two types of deficits are difficult to distinguish. In the initial phase, they were practically pooled together, giving rise to BT's deficit.

> 8 See Annex 3 for practical details. A discussion of ECPR can be found in Valletti and Estache (1998), section 3.2.

8
links between early education pathways and children’s primary school test scores. Our study contributes to the literature on early learning in developing countries by showing that even in rural settings various early education pathways exist and that these diverse early education experiences should be accounted for in understanding children’s test score performance in the early years of primary school. This has implications as policy makers consider how best to optimize the allocation of scarce public resources.

# **4. Data and Measures**

# _Data_

We use data collected in 2013 as part of an evaluation of a government initiative to increase access to ECED services in rural Indonesia. The sample consists of children, families, and ECED facilities in 310 poor villages in Indonesia. The sample is not meant to be nationally representative of the population as a whole; however households in the sample are comparable to the rural sub-sample of Indonesia’s nationally representative SUSENAS household survey (see Hasan, Hyson and Chang 2013). Our study focuses on 12,976 children between the ages of 6 and 9 who were enrolled in primary school in 2013 and took an early grade assessment covering language, mathematics, and general cognitive skills. Of these children, we have complete detailed retrospective information on their ECED enrollment histories from 2008 for 12,949 children.<sup>2</sup>

# _Measures_

# <u>Test scores</u>

Children in the sample were given an early grade assessment that consisted of three sections: language, mathematics, and general cognitive skills. This early grade assessment was designed specifically for this work and is not a standard early grade assessment used in schools. The language and mathematics items on the test were pooled from a battery of questions that align with the national curriculum for lower primary school grades. Thus, these two sections are meant

> 2 There are 27 children for whom we have missing data on early education pathways. They have been excluded from the analyses of this paper.

7
returns. Financial institutions can help eliminate the agency problem by monitoring investors and ensuring that credit is used in productive activities rather than on private consumption (Adu, Marbuah, and Mensah 2013).

The IMF has developed several indexes that can be used to measure financial development in an economy (see Svirydzenka 2016 and annex A for details). Its overall Financial Development (FD) Index is divided into financial institution indexes and financial market indexes. The financial institution indexes (the Financial Institutions Efficiency [FIE] Index, the Financial Institutions Depth [FID] Index, and the Financial Institutions Access [FIA] Index) measure the level and progress of development of financial institutions in terms of access, depth, and efficiency. The financial market indexes (the Financial Markets Efficiency [FMEI] Index, the Financial Markets Depth [FMDI] Index, and the Financial Markets Access Index [FMAI]) measure the level and progress of development in the financial markets along the same parameters.

Egypt’s FD Index rose over the last two decades, increasing from 0.18 in 1994 to 0.30 in 2016, with slight fluctuations between 2001 and 2010; it peaked at 0.37 in 2006 (figure 1). This trend seems to have depended more on financial market development than financial institution development. <mark>In contrast,</mark> the financial market development indexes closely followed the trend of the financial development index (figure 2). These findings suggest that financial markets in Egypt contributed more to financial development than financial institutions did.

**Figure 1 Financial institution indexes in Egypt, 1980–2016**

<!-- Start of picture text --> 0.9<br>0.8<br>0.7<br>0.6<br>0.5 FD<br>FIA<br>0.4<br>FID<br>0.3<br>FIE<br>0.2<br>FII
-115-

available from Automotive News which shows that car production by Volkswagen accounted for 63.5% of total car production. The entire output of Volkswagen consisted of 4 cylinder cars, and as the other major car manufacturers in Brazil - Ford and General Motors - produced at least some 4 cylinder models - it seems reasonable to put 4 cylinder car output at about 70% of the total for Brazil. our estimated "census" quantities of 4 cylinder and 6/8 cylinder passenger car outrat are presented in the first column of table A.4.

TABLE A.2

|Production<br>ofPassenger Cars in the United States in 1975|
|---|
|Classified by Engine Size|

|-----------------------------------------------------------------<br>__--------<br>Model<br>Units<br>produced|
|---|
|(thousands)|
|Vega<br>194|
|Pinto<br>164|
|Bobcat<br>61|
|Astre<br>56|
|Monza<br>83|
|Mustang<br>94|
|<br>Total 4 cylinder vehicles<br>652|
|Total 4, 6, and 8 cylinder|
|vehicles<br>6,741|

- a) In 1975 Mustangs were produced with 4, 6 and 8 cylinder engines. For the purpose of the table it is assumed that 50% of Mustangs were produced with 4 cylinder engines.

- b) This compares with 9,192,000 units given in the US Annual Survey of Manufacturers for 1975. The reasons for the understatement of total output by Automotive News are
Table 5.1—Sample student distribution

|Grade 6 SY|Antique|Iloilo|Ifugao|Neuva<br>Viscaya|Leyte|West<br>Samar|Negros<br>Oriental|Cebu|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|1999/2000|244|143|188|139|217|148|230|144|
|2004/05|159|97|137|92|160|98|163|107|
|2005/06|177|111|145|101|139|99|148|95|
|Total|580|351|470|332|516|345|541|346|

Source: TEEP Tracking Survey. Note: Antique, Ifugao, Leyte, and Negros Oriental are TEEP divisions.

Table 5.2—Summary statistics of the dependent variables, separated by gender and cohort

||Fem<br>Mean|Non-TEE<br>ale<br>S.D.|P Cohort<br>Ma<br>Mean|le<br>S.D.|Fem<br>Mean|TEEP<br>ale<br>S.D.|Cohort<br>M<br>Mean|ale<br>S.D.|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Years of schooling|10.866|2.279|10.310|2.450|9.604|1.370|8.935|1.654|
|High school repetitions|0.026|0.170|0.217|0.567|0.060|0.255|0.279|
greater than remittances received by migrant households (which are net of expenditures in the city). According to the China Family Panel Surveys (CFPS) for 2014, 2016, and 2018 survey, remittances received by rural households decreased over the five years, with about 16,000 yuan on average in 2014, and 15,000 in 2018 and the remittance share of household income also declined from 38% in 2014 to 33% in 2018 (Figure 10). This difference reflects the rising costs of living in cities, and a reduction in earnings available for family members in rural areas.

Finally, the share of migrants who return to the village is stable over time. Table 1 presents the share of return migrants in the village population and among total migrants, respectively. Return migrants as a share of the village population were 7.73% during the 1991-2000 period and 7.41% during 2013-2018. About one in five migrants (20%) return to the village and this share decreased slightly from 20.3% during the 1991-2000 period to 19.3% during the 2013-2018 period. Overall, Table 1 shows that the share of return migrants is stable over time, indicating urban off-farm work is a robust and stable source of employment for rural labor. This is consistent with what we know about the very limited impact of the global financial crisis on off-farm employment in China: many of the long-term laid-off migrant workers were rehired within a year after the crisis, even though two-thirds returned to family farms in the immediate wake of the 2008-2009 crisis (Huang et al., 2011). As return migrants are thought to be more entrepreneurial than non-migrants (Zhao 2002; Démurger and Xu 2011) and also more politically active (Lu et al. 2017), some have posited that return migrants may revitalize economies and contribute to social change in rural China. Given that there is no sign of a significant share of migrants returning, such expectations may not be fulfilled in the short and medium term.
Colombia, and Costa Rica. Both reach a similar lower bound estimate of $10 per person per day in 2005 PPPs.

The middle-class upper threshold does not follow a thorough definition or computation as the lower bound. Birdsall et al. (2011) show that varying the upper threshold from $50 to $100 a day would move the percentile of the LAC’s elite from the top 2.2 percent to the top 0.5 percent. Thus, both define the upper threshold as $50 per person per day in 2005 PPP which is equivalent to the top 2.2 percent of the population.

More recently, when 2011 PPPs were published, a very simple approach was implemented without applying previous methodologies.<sup>8</sup> Firstly, using each country's 2005 PPP conversion factor, the vulnerable and middle-class lines were converted to local currency units at 2005 prices. Secondly, these values were deflated to 2011 prices using each country's Consumer Price Index (CPI) and converted back to US dollars using their corresponding 2011 PPP conversion factors. Finally, a simple average of the resulting lines was estimated to obtain a regional value. By rounding to the closest unit, the lower and upper middle-class lines in 2011 PPP for LAC were then set at $13 and $70 a day, respectively.

The proposed approach estimates the LAC lower middle-class bound (vulnerability line) in two steps. First, it builds a two-year synthetic panel for each country using every pair of available cross-section years between 2010 and 2019. Then, the vulnerability line is defined as the median per capita household income over households who were not poor in the initial year and became poor in the final year, i.e., a household in moves into poverty if and , where is the international poverty line of 6.85 a day in purchasing power parities (PPP) 2017. ii2 ii1 ii jj = 2 yy < zz yy� > zz zz There are a few reasons why it
>12</sup> Global city‐level per capita GDP data allow us to start exploring if there is evidence of an EKC at the city level and try filling this gap in the literature.<sup>13</sup> We test if the EKC found at the country level also holds at the city level. Following the standard approach, we regress a measure of pollution, in our case, the city annual mean concentration level of PM 2.5, against the natural logarithm of the per capita city GDP. Since we have a panel data set, between 2006 and 2015, we include fixed effects by year to account for unobserved time shocks. We use a cubic specification (as

> 10 For example, some studies have focused on Asian countries (Apergis & Ozturk, 2015) or OECD countries (Jebli, Youssef, & Ozturk, 2016).

> 11 For example, China (Hu, Hernandez del Valle, & Martinez‐Garcia, 2017), Vietnam (Al‐Mulali, Saboori, & Ozturk, 2015), Cambodia (Ozturk & Al‐Mulali, 2015).

> 12 Some studies have used pollution and city‐level GDP data for Chinese cities. See for example Brajer et al. (2011). 13 Our goal with this approach is to contribute to the discussion on the relationship between pollution and development at the city level and quickly test the existence of an EKC. We do not intend to thoroughly analyze this topic.

16
Policy Research Working Paper 10871

# **Abstract**

Consumption data from household surveys continue to be the main source for poverty and inequality statistics in lowand middle-income countries. Although recent research has demonstrated that the choice of diary- versus recall-based methods for consumption data collection can directly impact poverty measurement, the available evidence stems from small-scale, subnational survey experiments. This study uses data from a nationally representative randomized survey experiment in Tanzania to provide a comparative assessment of how household consumption and poverty measures may be impacted by relying on a 14-day food consumption diary versus two different variants of 7-day-recall-based food consumption data collection. The analysis reveals significant differences in food consumption expenditures across the diary and recall arms, and these differences result in differences in total consumption expenditures as well. The results further show that the diary method captures more diverse food consumption items, but the overall consumption expenditure appears significantly lower than in the recall arms, even at different percentiles. Despite these disparities, the paper finds little statistically significant difference in poverty rates between the diary and recall arms, even at different thresholds.

This paper is a product of the Development Data Group, Development Economics. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/prwp. The authors may be contacted at aamankwah@worldbank.org. A verified reproducibility package for this paper is available at http:// reproducibility.worldbank.org, click **here** for direct access.

<!-- Start of picture text --> TRANSPARENT<br>ANALYSIS<br>G<br>R E<br>N<br>S<br>I P<br>Y E<br>K A<br>C A<br>R P<br>LI R<br>O E<br>O
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|(7)|-0.576_∗∗∗_<br>(0.1032)|-0.140_∗∗∗_<br>(0.0085)|0.117_∗∗∗_<br>(0.0209)|X|Emp|133|0.17|105120|1|pulation that|ulgaria, Bosn|h frms betwe|cludes all re|oyees. Speci|eus database|
|(6)|-0.158_∗∗∗_<br>(0.0653)|-0.028_∗∗_<br>(0.0022)||X|K|122|0.14|92058|6|a, share of po|e consists of B|cifcation wit|ecifcation 2 in|and 250 empl|d in the Amad|
|(5)|-0.127_∗∗∗_<br>(0.0455)|-0
with over 10 staff on the roster, we did not have a true sample of provider availability from the vignette survey. In these cases, we estimated the number of providers present. To do so, we calculated the average share of providers present across all facilities with 2–10 providers (60%), and multiplied that by the total number of providers listed on the roster. To have the providers observed in the vignettes represent the present providers not observed in the vignettes, we weighted those observations by the factor appropriate to each facility’s staff roster count. The **Supplemental Appendix** describes these computations and the robustness of our results to the exclusion of those large facilities where we estimated the true number of present staff.

Following Daniels _et al._ (2024),<sup>9</sup> we used item response theory (IRT) to estimate a continuously-distributed provider competence index based on adherence to the predetermined diagnostic checklists in the clinical vignettes. We used a regression model to predict the share of vignette cases each provider would have correctly managed, which increases from 14% at the 10th percentile to 55% at the 90th percentile. We report either the predicted or actual correct management shares as our measure of quality as statistically appropriate.

# **2.3 Simulation: Potential Gains from Provider Reallocation**

We characterize the potential quality gains from improving the allocation of providers across facilities in the following way. We define a “posting” as the number of daily outpatients seen by each provider as calculated above. We then define an “optimal

**6/30**
wage and wage growth trajectory show that ICT is one of the most attactive sectors for postsecondary education graduates. Programmingrelated skills are demanded not only in the ICT sector, but also in all other industries as well. In sum, matching skills in terms of skill levels (or educational qualifications) and industry specialization is one of the imporant findings of this analysis. On the contrary, many overqualified applicants tend to apply for jobs that require lower educational requirements than their educational backgrounds due to low tightness of the job market for the highly educated segments.

Skills mismatch is a prevalent phenomenon in many countries, and such mismatches can be in forms of educational levels, industry specialization, and quality of skills. In this regard, job matching processes and methods have considerable room for improvement. While the higher skills segment of the job market seems to have opportunities to learn about job availabilities through Rozee.pk, the service does not cater to the middle- to low-skilled population. Recent technological advancement, with the spread of mobile phones or smartphones, and accessibility of middle-income and lower-income households have drastically improved worldwide. In Pakistan mobile phone subscriptions per 100 people increased from 8.3 in 2005 to 73.4 in 2017.<sup>27</sup> As seen in the case of India, analyzed by Nomura et al. (2017), the service catered to middle- to lower-skilled population can be a possible opportunity for Pakistan to improve the overall skills matching for the economy. The analysis in this paper indicates that the costs are high for many jobseekers, so they cannot afford sufficient job searches. Female jobseekers may

> 27 World Bank Open Data, October 18, 2018.

33
**_<u>________________________________________________________</u>_**

- Regulatory environment: designed to measure the economy’s approach to regulations `o` Transparency of government policy is satisfactory (WCY); `o` Control of Corruption (KKZ);

- Service sector infrastructure: designed to measure the extent to which an economy has the necessary domestic infrastructure (such as telecommunications, financial intermediaries, and logistics firms) and is using networked information to improve efficiency and to transform activities to enhance economic activity.<sup>3</sup> `o` Speed and cost of internet access (GCR);

- Effect of internet on business (GCR).

**(** <u>Annex E</u> provides the ranking of countries in each trade facilitation measure.)

# _<u>Trade Agreements Database and Archive, Tuck School of Business at Dartmouth</u>_

The Tuck Trade Agreements Database contains the most comprehensive collection of texts of bilateral and regional free trade agreements available on a single online site as well as the only database of free trade and customs union agreements text-searchable by provision or keyword. The database contains searchable versions of all bilateral and regional free trade agreements and customs union agreements notified to the WTO as of June 1, 2003, and are in force, plus many that have not been notified to the WTO. The agreements in the database have been indexed in a format developed by CIB that is a greatly expanded version of the "standard format" for notification to the WTO. The archive contains the full texts of all of the agreements in the database, which can be downloaded in PDF format.

# _<u>European Union (EU) Market Access database</u>_

The Market Access Database is an important operational tool of the European Union's Market Access Strategy, supporting a continuous three-way exchange of information between: the EU institutions, Member States and European business. The Market Access Strategy is part of
4.81|3.10|1.43|3.12|
|Mean total per capita<br>expenditures per week (on all<br>food and nonfood items)|20.94|29.78|40.78|56.19|112.00|57.38|

# Source: IFPRI Egypt Integrated Household Survey, 1997.

- Notes: N = 1,078. Urban population is divided into quintile groups on the basis of total per capita fitted expenditures.

a In 1997,1 Egyptian pound (LE) = US$0.295. All expenditure figures are in nominal terms.

- b Includes expenditures on fully and partially subsidized sugar.

Difference between lowest and highest quintile groups is significant at the 0.05 level.
<!-- Start of picture text --> PEP Holders (% Pop. in 2018)<br>0.00<br>0.01 - 0.10<br>0.11 - 0.80<br>0.81 - 6.00<br>6.01 - 12.40<br><!-- End of picture text --> Figure 1. Share of PEP holders (% of population)

**_Elections_** . We use data from six mayoral municipal elections (2000, 2003, 2007, 2011, 2015, and 2019). Each municipal election corresponds to an independent race where the elected official was chosen based on plurality rule. We also use data for the six most recent presidential elections (2002, 2006, 2010, 2014, 2018, and 2022). We only employ data for the first-round elections to maintain consistency across election years. The election data comes from the Colombian electoral agency. We use the information to examine the effects of the PEP program on (i) election turnout (measured by the individuals who voted as a share of the electoral roll); (ii) support for left-wing, center, or right-wing political

16
|Bay, Bakool and Lower Shabelle (Urban)|0.931|
|Bari, Mudug and Nugaal (Rural)|0.960|
|Awdal, Togdheer and Woqooyi (Rural)|0.887|
|Hiraan, Middle Shabelle and Galgaduud (Rural)|0.925|
|Bay,Bakool and Lower Shabelle(Rural)|0.945|

Source: Authors' calculations.

To obtain the US$1.90 PPP (2011) poverty line and correct for price differences over time, a price index was created –in the absence of a national CPI– using consumption shares from the survey and prices collected by the Market Price Survey (MPS) and by the Food Security and Nutrition Analysis Unit, Somalia (FSNAU).<sup>15</sup> Inflation between 2011 and December 2017 was obtained from the growth in the price index, which was estimated in two steps. First, the price index was calculated from 2011 to February 2016 using data from Wave 1 of the SHFS and prices from FSNAU, and then from February 2016 to December 2017 with data from Wave 2 of the SHFS and prices from the MPS.<sup>16</sup> In the first step, consumption shares of 109 food and 68 nonfood items were aggregated according to their Classification of Individual Consumption by Purpose (COICOP) code, and then combined with monthly prices from FSNAU for 51 products. As a result, 32 matched COICOP codes were used to calculate

> 15 FSNAU collects monthly prices of commodities in 50 markets across all regions. The MPS collects weekly prices of a broad range of products and services as well as exchange rates from 14 key markets across all Somali regions. 16 The products and services in the MPS are a close match with the food and nonfood items that form part of the consumption module of the Somali High Frequency household survey component. The price survey is implemented using a stringent set of quality standards.

21