rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
has capped serious claims. It is also considering options to establish a central statistical underwriting and claims database.

- _Saudi Arabia_ is building a professional MTPL claims assessment firm jointly owned by the insurers to prevent claims fraud and mis-allocation. Such firms can limit the need for police involvement except in the most serious accidents.  An alternative is to remove liability and allow individual drivers to claims against their insurer.

- _Syria_ has centralized the pricing and allocation of MTPL renewals, capped claims and applied a no fault approach to maximum payouts.  It is about to introduce electronic renewals.  This has resulted in a significant jump in premiums which are now approaching sustainable levels.

_Reporting standards_

**Possibly one of the most serious regulatory flaws in the region is the lack of consistent, timely and high quality data available to supervisors and those sections of the general public and the industry who need such information.** This partly reflects the newness of some insurance markets and supervisory entities, but also is a manifestation of a desire by family and financial and industrial controlled groups to not reveal such information.  This attitude is not acceptable for financial institutions collecting funds from the public and taking on contractual liabilities and all insurers should be required to submit financial and statistical information to supervisors in electronic form according to agreed templates, timetables and definitions. If an insurer cannot accomplish this there are good reasons to question their ability to be in business.

_Supervisory structures and independence_

**As insurance markets develop they gain political power and supervisors eventually need to be given the resources and independence to act according to the public good rather than the requirements of special interests.** As noted, one solution is to place the insurance supervisor in the central bank and this may be a next step for a number of supervisors in small MENA countries.  An alternative is to establish an integrated supervisor with independent funding sources and transparent appointment and removal processes for senior personnel.

# _8.4. Improving the Tax Regime_

**Many countries at all levels of development see the insurance
-1.34|3.15|1.57|1.61|
|Northeast Rural|84.53|87.78|118.75|14.26|31.86|45.17|
|Northeast Urban|-2.39|-3.19|-3.07|-0.03|-1.43|-1.92|
|Central Rural|21.79|23.17|19.16|1.63|8.54|12.65|
|Central Urban|-7.92|-9.87|-11.84|-1.83|-2.67|-4.36|
|Southeast Rural|24.96|30.06|29.50|0.55|10.06|17.11|
|Southeast Urban|1.10|-0.36|-0.98|0.88|0.03|-0.03|
|Persian Gulf Rural|20.24|28.48|30.32|6.51|11.66|16.36|
|Persian Gulf Urban|-0.46|0.45|-0.85|0.30|0.41|0.82|
|Zagros Rural|54.26|21.21|0.00|11.50|18.78|23.91|
|Zagros Urban|2.62|2.61|3.90|0.35|1.41|1.76|

_Source_ : Authors calculation based on HEIS 2019 Overall, differences in terms of poverty estimates between the two deflation approaches are sensitive to the value of the poverty line – in line with theoretical predictions (Figure 1). Moreover, given that spatial price indexes are defined at the region/area level and that biases in urban/rural areas would go in opposite
. _UNDP’s Multidimensional Poverty Index: 2014 Specifications_ . New York: Human Development Report Office.

- UNHCR. (2020). Ethiopia country refugee response. Retrieved from https://reliefweb.int/report/ethiopia/ethiopia-country-refugee-response-plan2020-2021.

- Ura, K., Alkire, S., Zangmo, T. and Wangdi, K. (2012). _An Extensive Analysis of the Gross National Happiness Index_ . Thimphu: Centre of Bhutan Studies.

33
. Composition of investment growth<br>Percent<br>Private Public<br>10<br>5<br>0<br>-5<br>-10<br>-15<br>2017 2018 2019 2020<br>F. Political stability<br>Index, 0-12, 12 = best<br>11 EMDEs<br>11 Oil importers<br>10 Oil exporters<br>10<br>9<br>9<br>8<br>8<br>7<br>7<br>6<br>2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022<br><!-- End of picture text --> Note: EMDEs = emerging market and developing economies; MNA = Middle East and North Africa. A. Averages weighted by investment levels. Sample includes 98 EMDEs and 11 from MNA. B. Economy coverage is the same as for panel A. Share of countries in MNA region with investment growth below the long-term (2000-21) average or negative investment growth (“contracting”). C. Investment level based on data and projections in the January 2020 and January 2023 Global Economic Prospects reports. 2023 indicates forecast. D. Based on data from Bahrain, the Arab Republic of Egypt, the Islamic Republic of Iran, and Saudi Arabia. In Egypt, nominal investment is deflated using the gross capital formation deflator.

E. Net barter terms of trade indexes. Investment-weighted averages. Oil exporters include Algeria, Kuwait, Oman, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates. Oil importers include Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, and Tunisia.
market|Small market|Small<br>market|Significant<br>market|None|
|Institutional|No<br>institutional<br>construction|Some new<br>construction in<br>major cities|Active new<br>construction<br>in major<br>cities|Active new<br>construction<br>in<br>Bucharest|Some new<br>construction<br>in major<br>cities|Some new<br>construction<br>in major<br>cities|
|Non-profit<br>rental|None|None|Very active<br>(TBS)|None|None|None|
|Public rental|Inactive (small<br>sector size)|New<br>construction<br>program|Almost<br>inactive|Small<br>sector|Active|Inactive|
|Debt investors|No lending|Lending to<br>small private<br>landlords|Lending to<br>small private<br>landlords,<br>PPPs, and<br>institutions|Lending to<br>small<br>private<br>landlords<br>starting|Lending to<br>small<br>private<br>landlords<br>starting|No lending|

_Source_ : Authors’ assessment based on literature review, information from market participants, and household surveys (Table 1) results.

> 63  Through communalization state housing was typically transferred to municipalities, which then decided on the extent of privatization (if allowed by law) or which carried out state-mandated privatization (if imposed by law).

> 64  Especially natural resource companies in Russia.

44
institutional capacity. It requires establishing a credible competition agency, for which the institutional requirements are quite high. Furthermore, even in well-developed countries, questions arise on how to deal with the many network properties in financial services (access to the payments system, credit bureau, distribution networks, etc). Answers here are not obvious. One does not want to undermine the incentives for accurate information provision, for example, by opening up a credit bureau to any new party as that can undermine the incentive structure for entities to provide accurate information. Nor does one want to have financial institutions disclose all type of information as that can undermine their willingness to enter relationships with their clients out of fear that competitors take away the business.

In addition to the general view that competition can help with access, there is specific evidence that allowing greater entry by foreign banks can further enhance access. (General evidence on the effects of foreign bank entry is reviewed in Clarke et al. 2003). A study on borrowers’ perceptions across 36 countries found that reported financing obstacles were lower in countries with high levels of foreign bank penetration (Clarke et al. 2004). The same study found strong evidence that even small enterprises benefited and no evidence that they were harmed by the presence of foreign banks. The channels appear to be both competitive pressures of foreign banks on the domestic banking system, forcing local banks to go downscale, as well as direct provision of financial services by foreign banks. A specific Latin America study found that foreign banks with small local presence do not appear to lend much to small businesses, but that large foreign banks in many cases surpass large domestic banks (Sanchez et al. 2002).

There are also plenty of case examples on the effects of foreign banks’ entry. In Mongolia, a country with an income per capita of less than $500 and a very rural based economy, after many years of operating deficits, loan losses, and a failed attempt at privatization, the government-owned Agricultural Bank of
width—increases.

# **3.1.Modeling the windstorm model**

We use the wind speed data to obtain a damage index using the transformation and parameters proposed by Emanuel (2011) in the following expression: Where i represents the wind speed in cell at year , is the threshold below which damage is unlikely to occur, which is set at 50 knots or roughly equal to 92.6 kph, and is the wind speed at which half of TT all structures are expected to be destroyed set as 150 knots or roughly equivalent to 277.8 kph. VV ii tt VV HH VV **Storm surge-prone area** : As we mentioned at the beginning of this section, the i represents the damage index that provides an informative measure of wind damages from excess rainfall and storm surge. But, as storm surge is often considered one of the most harmful aspects of hurricanes, we further investigate ff whether coastal lowlands are disproportionately affected by hurricanes. Specifically, we create a coastal lowland indicator variable identifying continuous areas along the coast that are less than 10 meters above

> 17 For this exercise, we used the _f_ damage index with . However, the impact was also estimated with , with similar results. HH VV = 203 kkpph 13 HH VV = 278 kkpph

13
- 4 -

Unfortunately, the RAI has not been updated since the initial work, for various reasons. For instance, the original work used household surveys, which are normally costly to carry out. In Roberts, Shyam, and Rastogi (2006), RAIs based on household surveys were reported only for a handful of countries. In addition, household surveys normally do not have sufficient spatial representativeness. In reality, rural accessibility differs significantly from one location to another even within a country. Thus, it is difficult to have spatial representativeness when the data are sourced from household surveys. Finally, because of the differences in spatial representativeness and method, the measured RAIs are not necessarily comparable across countries. As a result, there was little sustainability of regular data updates with the previous method.

Given the renewed interest in the RAI in the context of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), a more sustainable and consistent method for measuring rural access has been proposed using new spatial data and techniques.<sup>2</sup> The SDGs aim to develop quality, reliable, sustainable, and resilient infrastructure to support economic development and human wellbeing, with a focus on affordable and equitable access for all (Target 9.1).

The new RAI method is conceptually the same as the previous work—that is, “share of the population who live within 2 km of the nearest road in good condition in rural areas”—but it uses newly emerging global data and advanced techniques. For instance, high-resolution population distribution data, such as WorldPop, developed by the international research community, can provide detailed information on where people live. Digitized road network data, including road conditions, are also often available at national road agencies. By virtually combining these data, the new method computes the RAI without counting households on the ground (figure 1).

The new method is expected to ensure the index’s sustainability as well as consistency across countries. Importantly, the new method allows the assessment of rural accessibility
applied for which job postings on what date and time, and whose applications were viewed by employers. Information about application results, such as who was shortlisted, is also available, although this information is incomplete since application results are voluntarily updated by employers. This paper mainly uses the data period from 2012 to 2019 for the analyses, unless otherwise specified.

## 2.1 Description of the labor market domain represented by the data

One of the limitations of using online job portal data is that the data may not be representative of the entire labor market.<sup>10</sup> Geographically, the jobseekers, employers, and job postings on Rozee.pk are concentrated in megacities, as illustrated in Figure 1. We categorize Lahore, Karachi, and Islamabad/Rawalpindi as first-tier cities; and Faisalabad, Gujranwala, Hyderabad, Multan, Peshawar, and Quetta as second-tier cities. Concentrations are observed in first-tier cities—Lahore, Karachi, and Islamabad/Rawalpindi—where 48% of the jobseekers, 79% of the employers, and 87% of the job postings are found. The second-tier cities—Faisalabad, Gujranwala, Hyderabad, Multan, Peshawar, and Quetta—constitute only 12% of the jobseekers, 8% of the employers, and 11% of the job postings. Many jobseekers in small cities also use the portal, as the proportion of jobseekers in the other domestic areas is 24%, whereas the proportion of job postings there is only 9%. This off-balanced ratio between jobseekers and job postings in the other domestic areas may mean that there are not enough job opportunities in these areas and

> 8 Only one in four women participate in the labor force while 82% of men do so (Amir et al.; 2018).

> 9 The data shared by Rozee.pk for this research were completely anonymized for the protection of the user privacy. 10 See Carnevale et al. (2014), Kureková et al. (2015) and Nomura et al. (
# **References**

Thomas Glaessner, Valerie McNevin, and Tom Kellermann. October, 2003. _“Electronic Safety and Soundness: Securing Finance in a New Age: Public Policy Issues.”_ World Bank, Washington, D.C.

Thomas Glaessner, Valerie McNevin, and Tom Kellermann. (2002) _“Electronic Security: Risk Mitigation in Financial Transactions.”_ World Bank, Washington, D.C.

Saarinen, Markku-Juhani (2001) “Attacks Against The WAP WTLS Protocol” University of Jyv. askyl., Finland Stijn Claessens, Thomas Glaessner, and Daniela Klingebiel (2001). _“E-Finance in Emerging Markets: Is Leapfrogging Possible?”_ , World Bank, Washington D.C.

Stijn Claessens, Thomas Glaessner, and Daniela Klingebiel (2000). _“Electronic Finance: Reshaping the Financial Landscape Around the World”_ , World Bank, Washington D.C.

Setsuya Sato and John Hawkins (2001). _“Electronic finance: a new perspective and challenges”_ , BIS Papers No. 7: Electronic finance: a new perspective and challenges, BIS, Switzerland.

Helen Allen, John Hawkins and Setsuya Sato (2001). _“Electronic trading and its implications for financial systems”_ , BIS Papers No. 7: Electronic finance: a new perspective and challenges, BIS, Switzerland.

Rouben Indjikian (2002). _“E-Finance for SMEs: Global Trends and National Experience”_ , Electronic Commerce Branch, SITE, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) Goldstein, Andrea, and David O’Connor. (2000). “E-Commerce for Development: Prospects and Policy Issues”, OECD Development Centre, Paris.

KPMG, (2002). _“Global Information Security Survey”_ , KPMG, UK.

E&Y, (2002). _“Global Information Security Survey”_ , Ernst & Young, UK.

3i, (2002). _“E-security – 2002 and Beyond
household get a large share of their staple foods from the market. In 1992, coffee was king among Ugandan commercial crops and exports – by value, it accounted for about 90% of exports. By 2008, even with high prices of that season, Ugandan coffee accounted for about less than one-third of Ugandan merchandise exports by value. On-farm production of livestock and related products has been growing as well – milk, eggs, chickens, pigs, etc. for both domestic and regional consumption. While use of modern seeds remains low, suggesting that Uganda has a way to go in transforming agriculture, this important within-sector transformation is on its way.

Rather than happening independently, our analysis indicates that the trends are related. The diversification increased household incomes, and contributed to the structural transformation within the agricultural sector by providing extra liquidity, thus compensating for the failure of rural credit markets. Evidence from the UNHS 2005/06 shows that agricultural households with other sources of income report higher income from agriculture on average. They are also more likely to buy other fertilizers, seeds and other marketed inputs. This implies that instead of substituting agricultural income, households with a diversified livelihood portfolio use their various income sources to compliment farm incomes by providing working capital for their farms. This raises yields on their farms thus increasing their incomes further. This is not a surprising result, as other studies have found similar relationships between NFE and modernization of farming practices in Asia (Haggblade et al, 2010). Likewise, qualitative evidence shows that increases in farm cash incomes support the growth of the non-farm enterprise sector by increasing demand for these products (Bakeine, 2010).

20
**_<u>________________________________________________________</u>_**

maritime transport. The national maritime profiles of 33 LAC countries have basic statistics and cover the main harbor maritime sectors. The source of the statistics is the Foreign Trade Data Bank for Latin America and the Caribbean (BADECEL), managed by the Statistics and Economic Projections Division of ECLAC. Country data are processed by national customs services. Due to the large quantity of data, it is possible to formulate more detailed queries, combining the different fields of information covered by the database. It is available on the web.

# _<u>Statistical Office of The European Communities (EUROSTAT) Transportation Statistics</u>_

EUROSTAT maintains several databases on transportation (air, rail, road, oil pipeline, internal waterways and multimodal). These databases provide detailed information on cargo and passenger traffic, including the results of Community questionnaires.

Long term indicators include: Volume of freight, passenger transport, Transport growth, and Goods transport. Sustainable Development indicators include: Energy consumption of transport, Car share, Road share, Emissions of air pollutants from transport activities.

# _<u>Glossary for Transport Statistics</u>_

Document prepared by the Inter-secretariat Working Group on Transport Statistics. EU, UNECE, ECMT, 2003. A helpful resource of terms used in transport statistics. The Glossary for Transport Statistics was published for the first time in 1994 with the purpose of assisting member countries during the collection of data on transport made by the UNECE, ECMT and Eurostat through the Common Questionnaire. The Glossary now comprises 533 definitions and represents a point of reference for all those involved in transport statistics. It covers railway transport, road transport, inland waterway transport, oil pipeline transport, maritime transport, and intermodal transport.

# _<u>International Road Federation (IRF) World Road Statistics</u>_

The International Road Federation (IRF) publishes _World Road Statistics_ , available online for its members. Data 1997 to 2001 covering
Unfortunately, publicly available data on Covid-related deaths are not distributed by age-categories for most countries in the world, which prevents us from directly computing the number of lost-years. In order to overcome this problem, we assume that countryspecic infection probabilities are independent of age. Then, using estimates of Covid's age-specic infection-to-fatality ratios (IFR), we can infer the infection rate necessary to yield the number of deaths observed in the country, given its population pyramid. For developing countries, we use the age-specic IFR ratios estimated for China by Verity et al. (2020). For developed countries, we use analogous ratios estimated for France by Salje et al. (2020).

Formally, let _Naj_ denote the size of the population of age _a_ in country _j_ , _daj_ the number of Covid-related deaths at age _a_ in country _j_ , _dj_ the total number of Covid-19 deaths in country _j_ , and _μaj_ the _IFR_ at age _a_ in country _j_ . The proportion of people who are or have already been infected by Covid-19 in country _j_ is estimated as: The number of Covid-related deaths at age _a_ in country _j_ is given by Our global estimates of the poverty impacts of Covid-19 come from Lakner et al. (2020). There are two methodological dierences between these estimates and those reported in Section 3.1. First, rather than using growth data from Central Banks, GDP estimates now come exclusively from the January and June 2020 editions of the World Bank's Global Economic Prospects (GEP) (The World Bank, 2020), supplemented with the April 2020 and October 2019 editions of the IMF's World Economic Outlook (WEO) when countries are not in the GEP (which mostly applies to high-income countries). As before, the extrapolation assumes distribution-neutral (negative) growth. Figure 2 below plots this dierence in forecasts  the GDP shock due to Covid  against GDP per capita for the 150 countries in our sample. We continue to assume that this additional
methods. However, its implementation is time-consuming and burdensome, and is often unfeasible in the context of national household surveys and censuses.

As in the GPS measurement, this method requires that the enumerator and respondent travel to the plot, and clear its boundaries from obstacles to the extent possible. Before the measurement can begin the farmer must pace the perimeter of the plot with the enumerator in tow to ensure the measurement captures the proper area. The enumerator will note the corners of the plot, where clearly available. When plots are irregularly shaped enumerators use their best judgment in declaring the corner points. The boundary of bushy plots will need to be cleared (with the permission of the farmer) prior to commencing measurement in order for the ranging poles to be visible. Only then can the enumerator start the task of measuring the plot. An example of instructions for completing the compass and rope measurement can be found in FAO (1982), while an example questionnaire format can be found in Carletto et al. (2016).

To some degree, the measurement error associated with traversing is observable. The closure (or closing) error is an important element of quality control in the compass and rope method. It is a measure of the gap between the reported start and end points of the constructed polygon, and gives an indication of the accuracy of the measurement. If the closing error is calculated while in the field, the measurement can be conducted again when found to be above a pre-determined threshold. The closing error will not confirm that the plot corners have been accurately assessed, however, only that the bearings and distances recorded form a full closed figure. The precision of the measurement is still subject to human error as identifying the plot corners can be a burdensome task on its own, particularly for irregularly shaped plots.

When corners are not clearly defined (as is the case in many irregularly shaped plots) enumerators must plot the “best” corner they can, and take the compass bearings. With each additional corner