rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
The estimates for new architectural and engineering designs are calculated as half of the architectural and engineering services industry Net Operating Revenue; these are then distributed over purchasing industries using sector coefficients from the input-output matrix.

Finally, the expenditure on R&D in social sciences and humanities is estimated by the same method used for science and engineering R&D, except that we replace the number of scientific-technical personnel by the number of social sciences and humanities researchers employed by each industry.<sup>16</sup> _C. Economic competencies._ Three basic asset types are included in economic competencies: ̳brand equity‘, firm-specific human capital, and organizational structure.

Brand equity expenditures consist of advertising expenditures and market research. For industrial sectors, the information on advertising expenditures is obtained directly from the Annual Survey of Industry; as for other industries such as services, commerce and construction, the values are estimated by distributing the net operating revenue of the advertising industry using sector coefficients from the input-output matrix. Outlays on market research are estimated as twice the industry net operating revenue and also distributed using the input-output matrix.

Measuring firm-specific human capital in Brazil is a major challenge because unlike countries such as the US and UK, there is no regular official survey in Brazil collecting information on worker training expenditures or on the wage and salary costs of employee time in formal and informal training. To obtain estimates for this item, we used a survey conducted by the National Confederation of Industry (CNI) that estimates the percentage of gross revenue spent in training programs in 2007. We use another survey from CNI, the Brazilian Service of Support for Micro and Small Enterprises (SEBRAE), and the Unions Department of Statistics and Socioeconomic Studies (DIEESE) which estimate the percentage of workers that participated in training and the distribution of the hours spent in training in 2003 in manufacturing firms. We combine this estimate of hours in training with wage data to estimate the wage and salary cost of employee time in formal training. Because these surveys were conducted
Risk factors for LBW include maternal anemia. A meta-analysis that included 11 experimental trials identified a significant 20% reduction in the risk of LBW associated with antenatal iron supplementation.<sup>24</sup> Risk factors for preterm births include zinc deficiency, parity and maternal age.

# **_4.2 Postnatal risk factors_**

During infancy and childhood, epidemiological studies point to suboptimal complementary feeding, recurrent infections and micronutrient deficiencies as important proximal determinants of stunting. Findings from the Cebu longitudinal study, for example, show that the likelihood of stunting is increased by diarrhea, febrile respiratory infections and early supplemental feeding.<sup>25</sup> Notably, the study finds a clear risk of early weaning off of breastmilk, identifying protective effects of breastfeeding and negative effects of supplementary feeding that were strongest in the first year of life, suggesting that among breast-fed infants _“high quality nutrients from breast milk are replaced with lower quality nutrients from weaning diets based on corn or rice”_ .

The existing experimental evidence suggests that nutrient supplementation, counseling for maternal, infant and young child feeding and the promotion of complementary feeding have been marginally successful at boosting linear growth (none have been able to normalize early childhood growth) and reducing the incidence of stunting. Experimental studies on breastfeeding promotion that included nutritional status outcomes did not show any effect on the length of infants (though the beneficial impact of breastfeeding in reducing mortality risk underpins why it is strongly promoted).<sup>26</sup> In response to the underwhelming effect of nutrient supplementation and counseling interventions on linear growth, three recent randomized controlled trials in Kenya, Bangladesh and Zimbabwe tested whether reduced exposure to pathogens in the environment are a key constraint to early growth among children. More specifically, these studies tested the hypothesis that environmental enteric dysfunction – a condition of the gut caused by fecal contamination which impairs nutrient absorption- is a key bottleneck for childhood growth, thus constraining the impact of nutrition interventions in settings with poor environmental conditions
|16-64|16-64|16-64|16-58|
|% male||68.3|74.9|69.4|49.5|64.3|
|years of education||8.31|6.77|8.05|6.58|8.34|
|% reporting chronic<br>and disabilities|diseases|11.1|19.3|12.5|24.8|15.2|
|%<br>reporting<br>bad|general|6.3|11.9|7.2|12.9|8.8|
|health conditions|||||||
|% married||15.62|45.0|20.5|67.0|22.39|
|% employed||55.2|70.3|57.7|49.5|56.26|
|% informal sector||53.0|46.3|51.9|47.2|56.2|
|hours<br>of<br>work|supplied|<br>43.42|45.91|43.91|40.95|42.96|
|(among employed)|||||||
|hourly<br>wage|[pounds]|<br>1.45|1.28|1.41|1.79|1.35|
|(among employed)|||||||
|obs. per household||2.98|2.85|2.96|3.62||
|obs. per household||2-8|2-8|2-8|1-19||
|[min-max]|||||||

A useful benchmark against which to compare “sons” is the sample “only sons”. Their composition in terms of age and gender is similar
Many of the surveys contain a direct question eliciting years of schooling completed. For the surveys where no such variable is available, UNESCO sources containing country- and yearspecific mappings on the duration of educational programs are relied upon to construct a measure of years of education based on the answers to the categorical question.<sup>13</sup> The length of the various ISCED categories varies across countries, and changes over time within countries. Individuals are assigned to an educational regime based on their birth year and the school entry age. When reforms occur at an education level, it is assumed they apply to individuals who have not yet entered that education level. For example, it is assumed that an extension of lower secondary from 3 to 4 years does not affect children who are already enrolled in lower secondary.<sup>14</sup> Years of schooling do not account for differences in the quality of education. A year of schooling in, say, Singapore may be of very different quality than a year of schooling in Malawi. Due to a lack of global data on educational quality, especially for the cohorts considered in this paper, years of schooling is relied upon here. To the extent that quality of schooling is relatively stable over time (i.e. varies primarily between countries and comparatively less within country and over time), comparisons of individual educational attainment relative to that of their parents would be approximately independent of school quality. In that case, the implication of not observing educational quality for the estimation of intergenerational mobility is conceivably modest.

# **4. Intergenerational mobility around the world**

## **4.1. Absolute mobility is highest in the developed world**

Absolute mobility in education is found to vary considerably across the 153 economies (for those born in the 1980s), with a clear geographic pattern (Figure 1). Sub-Saharan Africa stands out as the region with some of the lowest rates of absolute mobility. In some of the poorest or
insightful analyses that are not possible with traditional economic reform data or surveys.<sup>3</sup> For example, the paper measures engagement in economic reforms by constructing the share of news articles that discuss economic reforms. Sections III and IV discuss this in detail.

The remainder of the paper is organized as follows: Section II takes stock of the GCC's past and current economic reforms. It constructs a novel data set of passed laws and decrees by web-scraping national legislative archives from 1980 to 2019. Section III uses tweets in Arabic and text analysis techniques to understand the population's engagement and support for economic reforms. Section IV provides a similar analysis using a large data set of newspaper articles on economic reforms in English and Arabic. Finally, Section V concludes.

Section II reveals that reform efforts have intensified in recent years. The number of laws and decrees passed in the GCC has been quickly rising, driven partly by GCC countries’ efforts to diversify their economies. However, these nations tend to pass more laws and decrees in stronger than weaker policy areas, indicating that reforms do not address lagging policy areas.

Section III documents increasing engagement but declining support for economic reforms from the population in recent years. The number of engaged users who tweet about economic reforms has increased in recent years. In addition, the number of economic reform tweets per engaged user has been rising dramatically. However, the sentiment of economic reform tweets is worsening, suggesting either growing discontent about the current economic situation or shrinking support for the current direction of economic reforms.

Section IV shows that international media is more engaged in economic reform discussions in the GCC countries than local media (and potentially domestic participants, more broadly). In addition, international media is more critical of the GCC’s current economic situation or the directions of current economic reforms compared with local media. Sentiment from international media matters because it is correlated with FDI inflows into the GCC.

# II. Taking Stock of Economic Reforms in the GCC
# **Trade Integration, Export Patterns, and Growth in Sub-Saharan Africa**

## **César Calderón, Catalina Cantú, Albert G. Zeufack**<sup>1</sup>

_The World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington DC 20433, USA_

**Keywords:** Trade integration, Herfindahl-Hirschman index, intraregional trade, sources of growth **JEL Codes:** F36, F41, F43

> 1 E-mail: Calderón: <u>ccalderon@worldbank.org; Cantú: ccantu@worldbank.org; Zeufack: azeufack@worldbank.org. The views</u> expressed in this paper are those of the authors, and do not necessarily reflect those of the World Bank or its Boards of Directors.
# **Table A1: Summary Statistics on Industry-Year Cells**

|Variables|Number of<br>Observations|Mean|Std. Dev.|Min|Max|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
||(1)|(2)|(3)|(4)|(5)|
|Log US Manufacturing Sector Employment|6,675|10.09|1.48|4.63|13.34|
|Log of low income affiliate employment|6,615|9.52|1.39|4.97|12.80|
|Log of high income affiliate employment|6,635|10.47|1.06|6.07|13.14|
|Log of price of investment using 1979 weights|6,437|4.68|0.13|3.60|4.86|
|Total factor productivity level using 1979 weights|6,583|1.01|0.32|0|5.31|
|Export share using 1979 weights|6,583|0.11|0.09|0|0.58|
|Import penetration using 1979 weights|6,583|0.13|0.13|0|0.83|
|Log of real price of shipments using 1979 weights|6,437|8.94|1.13|5.70|13.14|
|Education level|6,675|2.97|1.40|1|5|

_Source_ : Affiliate (or offshore) employment data are taken from the Bureau of Economic Analysis annual survey of US firms with multinational affiliates for 1983-2002. Low income countries are defined according to the World Bank income categories. Employment data are taken from all workers in the Current Population Surveys Merged Outgoing Rotation Groups for the same period.
Policy Research Working Paper 8750

# **Abstract**

This paper proposes a framework that examines three levels of access to infrastructure—nominal, effective, and quality-adjusted access. Most conventional indicators measure nominal access—whether a household has physical access to a service in or near the house. By contrast, effective access incorporates functionality and use of service, and quality-adjusted access raises the bar by incorporating quality metrics. The paper illustrates the analytical utility of this conceptual framework by deploying data from a survey of 14,200 households in 15 Kenyan cities in 2012–13.

First, the analysis finds that these cities fall far short of delivering universal access to basic infrastructure. Second, for most services there a large gap—3 to 41 percentage points—between nominal and effective access. When the bar is raised to include quality of service, the drop-off in the proportion of those with access is even more dramatic. These findings suggest that conventional nominal measures overreport the level of service in urban communities, and that current approaches to infrastructure delivery might be enhancing availability of a service without ensuring that the service is usable—that is, functional, reliable and affordable. Third, there is an infrastructure access gap between nonpoor and poor households, as well as formal and informal settlements. Fourth, hedonic regression analysis reveals that four services—electricity, water, toilets, and garbage collection— are associated with higher rents. The analysis has broader implications for understanding and measuring service access. It raises important questions as global discussions turn to indicators for the Sustainable Development Goals.

This paper is a product of the Social, Urban, Rural and Resilience Global Practice. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/research. The authors may be contacted at sgulyani@worldbank.org.

_The Policy Research Working Paper
may be confounded by other demographic and geographical factors (Table 5). 3G coverage does not have a significant impact on overall employment. These findings are consistent with other studies (e.g., Bahia et al. 2020; Hjort and Poulsen 2019) showing similar results: that access to the Internet translates into increased employment in wage or higher-skilled jobs. Our finding draws attention to the potential role that digital technologies can play in improving labor outcomes – and particularly, employment in “better” jobs.

# **5. Conclusion**

Despite the potential for development, evidence on the effects of Internet access on household welfare remains scarce. Most studies on digital technologies focus on cellphone (2G) access, while the studies that look at broadband tend to focus on fixed rather than mobile broadband. Yet, it is through mobile broadband that most people in African countries use the Internet (ITU 2019).

This paper provides new evidence on the positive impacts of mobile broadband coverage on household welfare in Senegal. It uses rich data available from household consumption surveys to analyze the implications of different types of technologies for welfare in 2011–18. To accomplish this, the analysis integrates household locations with data from maps of the terrestrial backbone networks and 2G, 3G, and 4G coverage maps. This allows an examination of the impact of both fixed and

> 20 For this analysis, an employed individual is an individual of working age (15–64) who had worked at least one hour during the seven days previous to the interview. Wage and salaried employment includes those workers who work in a place that is not their own farm or in a business not run by their own household. Formal employment is defined as those workers whose employers or company holds a national identification number and accounting. Wage is derived based on the question in the 2017–18 ELEPS which asked how much a person earned in the last 12 months.

9
age, international activity - exporters and FDI - and technology and innovation.

One of the first analyses of wage premium goes back to Moore (1911), who finds that the mean rate of wages in the textile industries increases with the establishments’ size. Over the decades, the large-firm wage premium (LFWP) passed the test of many empirical exercises (see Oi and Idson (1999) for a literature review and Bloom et al. (2018) for a recent description of the LFWP).<sup>2</sup> A more recent empirical strand has focused on the wage premium by age group, especially the young-firm pay premium. Initial findings argued that older firms pay more, even when controlling for size and industry (Dunne and Roberts, 1990). Heyman (2007), using matched employer-employee data for Sweden, also finds a positive premium

> 2Berlingieri et al. (2018) argue that, in the service sector, the stylized fact is a “productivity-wage premium” rather than “size-wage premium”.

4
countries and globally and might substantially undermine the effectiveness of environmental policies. In this regard, studying the relationship between informality and both CO2 and non-CO2 emissions can be critical for understanding whether informal sectors in developing countries are, indeed, a major obstacle in pursuing the climate agenda from the perspectives of international finance institutions and governments in developing countries, as well as for informing environmental policies and their design. In fact, this study directly relates to the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities and SDG 13 on Climate Action. At the same time, it is important to take into account, that in addition to large informal sectors, developing countries also have poor environmental regulations and enforcement compared to more advanced economies, which could further augment these effects.

To be able to explain the estimation results, first, it is important to understand the characteristics of informal sectors in developing countries. This paper uses informal employment as a measure of informality and defines it as the share of self-employed and non-paid workers in total employment in each sector and country. While informal employment includes all those (i) who work for the formal sector but are informal as they do not pay taxes and do not receive employment benefits and (ii) who work for informal unregistered firms; the self-employed and non-paid workers account for a large share of total informal workers in many developing countries. The informal workers use no or very low capital in producing goods or providing services especially when compared to formal firms that use capital-intensive production technologies with high levels of CO2 emissions. Hence, the relationship between informality and emissions could be expected to be either positive, if the effects from non-compliance with environmental regulations in countries with large informal sectors prevail, or negative, if the effect of low emissions from using very low capital exceeds the non-compliance effects. Other effects come into play when non-CO2 emissions are considered.

Overall, the findings using informal employment shares in developing countries illustrate that emissions per value added in the informal sector are higher than in the
for larger and more efficient firms, or are they efficient as a reflection of the problems of information flow and control span that prohibit larger firms from entering? If artificial barriers exist, what exactly does it take to encourage the emergence of large investors or “servicers” in the rental market that could drive down rents or enhance service quality?

**Figure 2. Building Structure and Rental Tenure in Some Market Economies**

<!-- Start of picture text --> 70<br>Apartment & hostel buildings Non ow ner-occupied tenure<br>60<br>50<br>40<br>30<br>20<br>10<br>0<br>IrelandUnited Kingdom Netherlands United States Denmark France Germany Spain<br><!-- End of picture text --> _Source_ : Authors’ calculations using National Agency for Enterprise and Housing (Denmark): Housing Statistics in the European Union (2003), UN-ECE (2004a), Joint Centre of Housing Studies (2004).

Social choice theories may also help in understanding the supply side of renting. Why do some mature market countries maintain extensive social rental housing programs (as in The Netherlands), while the programs of their immediate and culturally close neighbors are much more modest (as in Belgium)? This situation may arise from preferences of the median voter, who in The Netherlands is a renter and in Belgium is an owner. Social choice could help explain the preponderance of social renting in transition countries before 1989. The dismal housing situation of the working class was a major issue in the revolutions of the early twentieth century that produced Soviet socialism. But it may also explain the inertia in dealing with many of the current housing policy problems in the region. For example, the median voter in ECA transition countries is a former renter turned owner (tenant-owner) in a M-F building privatized almost for free (give-away privatization). The median voter in the United Kingdom or United States is an owner who
vast majority of products enter developed countries free of non-tariff controls, such controls are pervasive in a few sectors. These sectors include apparel and clothing in the US, EU and Canada, and silk and man made staple fibers in Japan (OECD, 1997, p.61). This reflects to a large extent

> **22** As with the developing country data, the information assumes that measures apply across the board to imports from all countries, and is not based on transaction by transaction information.

51
Annex 1 includes full details of the methodology and scenarios.

# **Assumptions for reductions in tariffs and NTMs**

Changes in tariff and NTMs assumptions for each scenario are outlined below:

- **Baseline scenario:** key macro indicators such as GDP and current account follow projections from the World Bank (2016a) until 2018, then the productivity growth remains fixed to be consistent with historical trends. The baseline includes the future reduction of tariffs as a result of existing FTA commitments up to 2030. For TPP members, tariff cuts follow the database of the International Trade Centre (2015). The rest of the FTA commitments for the baseline (e.g., NAFTA, AFTA, the ASEAN-Japan FTA, the ASEAN-Australia-New Zealand FTA and the P4 Agreement among Brunei Darussalam, Chile, Singapore and New Zealand) come from Petri and Plummer (2016).

- **CPTPP and TPP12:** implementation of the TPP agreement among its members with and without the United States begins in 2017.<sup>6</sup> Tariff reductions in CPTPP and TPP12 are based on the actual TPP tariff commitment schedules compiled by ITC  (2015) and NTMs reductions in goods and services follow estimates from Petri et al., (2016). As such, the CPTPP scenario assumes the same level of ambition as the original TPP12, simply excluding the United States.

> 6 2017 is not a realistic date for the start of implementation of commitments of FTAs, but the results would not be much affected if we selected date 2-3 years in the future due to long period of implementation, backloading of commitments and assuming that the economy would not undergo dramatic changes over the next few years. As such the results in 2030 should be interpreted as the impacts 12 years after the beginning of the implementation period.