rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
and quantitative dimensions. A considerable, although quite incomplete body of evidence suggests that the type, quantity and quality of transactions influences the success of programs as measured in terms of contraceptive prevalence. The NAS reviewers felt that the transaction dimension of programs was relatively neglected both in the day to day contact of programs and in research.

Both demand generation and service provision need to be organized and supported as any other programs. Thus an important component of any project is the set of organizing activities that facilitate the necessary transactions between the provider and the potential client. These organizing activities are themselves complex. In the NAS framework, a useful distinction is made between the family planning organization narrowly defined and the complex of other organizations that make up its environment. Internal management concerns include the organizational structure used for delivering services (e.g., the role of the private sector' patterns of staff recruitment, training and compene.tion; supervision; monitoring and evaluation; etc.. Management concerns relating to the environment i-nclude the generation of political and financial support for program activities, relationships with other agencies undertaking activities that impact on the population sector, etc.. There is considerable evidence that effective family planning programs are characterized both by good internal management and by effective relationships with and support from the environment.

In our analysis of Bank population activities we will use this framework to examine different aspects of sector work and projects and how they have contributed to making national population programs more effective. Bank projects are not designed to support all of the activities in the population sector, and it is to be expected that they will differ in the amount of attention they have given to different aspects of population program implementation. The HAS evidence suggests that national programs which take a systematic view of the factors influencing program effectiveness are better able to increase and sustain higher levels of contraceptive prevalence over time. While it is not always possible or desirable for a project to be comprehensive, selective interventions must be chosen after careful diagnosis of the nature of the client
new slots in which to fit and categorize people, _e.g._ the _perverted_ , the _suicidal_ , and the _heterosexual_ or _homosexual_ person, molds individuals’ sense of themselves and hence their behavior.

Of interest to us is here is how identity affects preferences over effort, the ability to learn, and the response to competitive environments. A standard view, which derives from Max Weber, is that culture—as a matter of self-conscious orientation or identity—imparts values that are consistent across situations. The values explain action. However, there is an alternative view, drawing on cognitive psychology, that culture is fragmented and contradictory: a given culture provides multiple frames, understandings, and worldviews, and they may not be consistent with one another. According to the sociologists Ann Swidler (1986, 2001) and Paul DiMaggio (1997), culture shapes behavior through frames that are _situationally_ evoked and that determine which actions seem possible and desirable _in that situation_ , given a person’s values. Background settings or contexts can alter motives and behavior by evoking a particular aspect of the self or a particular worldview and by altering the framework of meanings that help to constitute one’s social identity.

To test this hypothesis, we draw on our experiment in rural India that manipulates the salience and publicness of caste identity.<sup>1</sup> Under the traditional caste system, preeminence was assigned to birth rather than competition (Béteille, 2011, II[2003], p. 11): “For centuries it was believed that a man’s social capacities were known from the caste or the lineage into which he was born, and that _no further test was necessary to determine what these capacities were._ ” (p. 99, emphasis added) A body of work in anthropology supports the view that _individual_ mobility<sup>2</sup> was nearly impossible in the traditional caste system for someone who remained in or near his village,

> 1 Hoff and Pandey (2006
prices). Measured and actual impact multipliers are very similar in NK models (due to sticky prices), but in NC models with exible prices and persistent shocks, demand shocks increase

> 40Using my own constructed proxy of quarterly state-level prices, I nd little robust evidence that the transfers studied above increased local ination. Regressions of my quarterly state ination proxy on transfers are always insignicant in the 2000s, and over 19521974 transfers are always negative and insignicant once I control for the state-specic eects of oil price shocks. See Appendix 3.2 for further details. NS nd that there is very little movement in the local CPI in response to local military purchases and (consequently) get similar results when they deate by either national or state annual CPIs.

34
<!-- Start of picture text --> Figure 33. Change in formal employment, mean real wage, and total formal employment by ISIC 1-digit<br>subsector, 2014-2022<br>120<br>100 Mining and quarrying Financial and insurance activities<br>Electricity, gas, steam, air<br>80 conditioning supply<br>Information and communication Public administration and defence<br>Education<br>60 Human health and social work<br>Water supply, sewerage, waste Transportation and storage<br>management Administrative and support services Other service activities<br>40<br>Real estate activities Professional, scientific and Retail trade<br>technical services<br>Trade/repair of motor vehicles<br>20 Wholesale trade<br>Construction<br>Accommodation and food service<br>Arts, entertainment and recreation Manufacturing Agriculture, forestry and fishing<br>0<br>-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35<br>Change in employment (2014-2022; thousand workers)<br>Agriculture, forestry and fishing Mining and quarrying Rest of industry Non-industrial services<br>Note: Bubble size corresponds with 2022 formal employment.<br>Source : World Bank and ZRA staff analysis based on PAYE database<br>Mean real wage (2022; thousand 2010 ZMK)<br><!-- End of picture text -->

# 6. Discussion

That the within-firm component is the main drag on labor productivity and wage growth across various sectors suggests that economy-wide productivity constraints are a critical factor in Zambia. Cross-cutting factors such as poor infrastructure, burdensome regulations, and low technology adoption are more likely to affect firms and sectors similarly, thus impacting the within-firm component of productivity growth and leading to broad-based declines across sectors. By contrast, distortions to competition from entry barriers, policies that create an uneven playing field, and poor enforcement of anticompetitive behavior are more likely to impact allocative efficiency (the between-firm,
lower, or upper secondary education.

> 6All the descriptive statistics presented are relative to 2007 and based on the Brazilian Ministry of Education questionnaires that students, teachers, and principals fill out. Tables are available in the online appendix. The principal managerial skills is an index ranging from 0 to 1. It is calculated based on teachers’ answers of how frequently they believe that the principal pays attention to students’ learning, administrative norms, and school maintenance; motivates the teachers and encourages new ideas, and takes into consideration teachers’ inputs; and whether teachers trust the principal and can participate in decisions related to their work. All these variables have four possible answers: never (value 0), sometimes (0.33), often (0.66), and always (1). The principal managerial skills index at the teacher level is an average of these answers, and the index at the school level is an average of teachers’ answers. The student motivation index is similarly defined. It is calculated based on the teachers’ answers on whether students’ learning deficit is caused by low student motivation or bad behavior in the classroom. These variables have two possible answers: yes (0) and no (1). The index includes the variable ’students’ absenteeism’ which can take three possible values: a moderate/big issue (0), a small issue (0.5), and not a problem (1). The student motivation index is an average of these answers. Finally, the teacher motivation index also ranges from 0 to 1, and it is calculated based on students’ answers of how frequently the teacher corrects their reading and math homework. The variable has three possible answers: always (1), sometimes (0.5), and never (0). The teacher motivation at the school level averages students’ answers.

5
# **Introduction**

Since the advent of human capital theory in economic thought, estimating the returns to investment in education has been a very popular subject among researchers (see Psacharopoulos and Patrinos 2018 for a recent review on the subject).

Yet, most of the recent estimates in this proliferating literature have several limitations:

- Conceptually, the authors rarely make a distinction between private and social returns, typically estimating only private returns – often not even using the word _private_ in their papers.

- Methodologically, the estimates are done by what we describe as the easy-way; that is, by using the convenient Mincerian earnings function rather than the full-discounting method.

- Policy-wise, invalid recommendations are made based on private returns.

Anne Krueger (1972) estimated a very high return to education including higher education using data for Turkey from 1968. She used those estimates to explain the high demand for higher education at the time. The purpose of this paper is to estimate private and social returns to investment in education based on different methodologies using data from the Turkish 2017 Household Labor Force Survey (HLFS).

Turkey provides a useful ground for cost-benefit analysis of its education system. The education system in Turkey has shown remarkable improvement in the last 15 years in terms of better student performance and reduced inequality with a concurrent and sustained increase in enrollment. The expansion of primary and secondary schooling was accompanied by the development of a new curriculum in primary and secondary education. A recent independent assessment of the revised secondary school curriculum regarded it as an improvement over the curriculum used in the past. Curriculum reform was accompanied by initiatives to improve the teaching profession policies (World Bank 2013).

The paper is organized as follows: we start with a review of the different methodologies used to estimate returns to education, followed by a compilation of previous estimates for Turkey. Then we move on to estimate private returns based on the Mincerian earnings function for comparison with other studies that have used this methodology. Finally, we estimate private and social returns based
is that, by linking teacher pay to the number of hours teachers carry out face-to-face instruction, the certification program has incentivized teachers to turn up to work more often than before. Several of our informants noted that it was commonplace for school principals to manipulate teacher attendance data—specifically, that submitted through _Dapodik_ , MoEC’s education database, for the purposes of determining eligibility for the professional allowance.<sup>27</sup> But the methodology employed in the ACER/SMERU study accounted for this possibility through direct observation of teachers in the classroom and cross-checking teacher attendance against teacher rosters suggesting that the improvement in teacher absenteeism rates is real. The teacher certification program may also have had positive side effects with regards to teacher redistribution, as we will discuss below. However, in terms of its ostensible aim—improving teacher subject knowledge and pedagogical skills—the evidence so far suggests that it has failed.

In sum, then, in terms of our concern with the political and social conditions that are conducive to teacher management reform, the certification issue illustrates again the crucial role of central government commitment to reformist policy instruments that seek to precipitate change at the local level, albeit indicating in this case the problems when such commitment evaporates.

# **5.4 Periodization of School Principals**

> 25Suryahadi and Sanbodho (2012).

> 26 Interviews with local education agency officials in District A, Municipality A, District B, and Municipality B, May-August 2015.

> 27 The typical example given was of a _guru PNS_ being recorded as teaching a class when in fact it was taught by a _guru honor_ .

35
)|(0.003)|(0.00310)|
|Baseline: other<br>regions|||||
|SSA||0.0182|||
|||(0.0234)|||
|gr_change x|||||
|SSA||1.072*|||
|||(0.571)|||
|initial headcount gini|||5.111***||
||||(1.239)||
|Baseline: <2000|||||
|2000-2010||||-0.0402**<br>(0.0186)|
|2011 and above||||-0.0270*<br>(0.0159)|
|gr_change x|||||
|2000-2010||||-0.176|
|||||(0.369)|
|2011 and above||||-0.298|
|||||(0.386)|
|Baseline:|||||
|Consumption|||||
|Income|0.0170|0.0265|0.0163|0.00977|
||(0.0292)|(0.0301)|(0.0279)|(0.0287)|
|Constant|-0.0914***|-0.0515|-0.0383|-0.0585*|
||(0.0350)|(0.0387)|(0.0345)|(0.0349)|
|country fixed effect|No|No|No|No|
|Observations|574|574|574|574|
|R-squared|0.466|0.481|0.489|0.473|

Notes: Table shows results of a regression of the annualized log change in poverty headcount on
# **Table 2**

**EU imports from the least-developed countries, 2001**

|total EU15<br>imports<br>‘000$US|duty free<br>imports<br>‘000$US|sector<br>share<br>of LDC<br>total|duty-<br>free<br>share<br>of<br>sector<br>total|share<br>subject<br>to<br>specific<br>duties|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|Agriculture<br>905,722|611,791|7.6|67.5|14.0|
|Forestry, Fisheries<br>258,714|174,782|2.2|67.6|0.0|
|Mining<br>3,982,709|3,973,127|33.5|99.8|0.0|
|Processed foods<br>1,035,968|32,188|8.7|3.1|4.2|
|Other manufactures<br>5,720,632|394,087|48.1|6.9|1.4|
|TOTAL<br>11,903,744|5,185,974|100.0|43.6|2.1|
|Source: WTO integrated database|||||

# **Table 3**

**Composition of EU15 processed food imports from LDCs**

||total EU15<br>imports<br>‘000$US|<br>free imports<br>(no duty<br>applied)<br>‘000$US|free<br>import<br>share of<br>category<br>total<br>|share
**_<u>________________________________________________________</u>_**

railways from 1980-99. It compiles data from the annual reports of railway companies, available for free on the web. Railway Data Table contains selected size, scale and productivity data for all railways 1980-99. The Railways Concessions Database provides information on the performance of the railway concessions in Latin America and Africa, for the period beginning 1990 to the present.

# _<u>International Union of Railways (IUR)</u>_

The International Union of Railways offers various statistical publications. The annual volume “International Railway Statistics” provides data on lines, passenger and freight transport stock, staff, train movements, and freight traffic. “Railways time-series data” includes data on personnel, train performance, use of wagons, and industry revenues. “Supplementary Statistics” offers additional and more detailed data on the performance and structure of the railways industry. Extracts are available online (annual and quarterly statistics).

# _<u>OECD in Figures</u>_

This publication includes information on passenger transport, freight transport and road accidents for 30 countries.

Dutz, Mark (2005). Road freight logistics, competition, and innovation: downstream benefits and <u>policy implications, World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 3768.</u> This empirical paper sheds light on a significant element of the debate of whether infrastructure services have a strong impact on economic development by exploring the impact of innovative road freight services on downstream business users. The paper uses a new and purpose-specific survey of 165 logistics service providers and 493 user enterprises in food processing, food distribution, and the automotive industry in the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland. The main findings are that there are substantial downstream benefits from innovations in road freight services, both dampening cost increases and raising sales revenues of business users. The additional finding that increased intensity of competition in road freight services is significantly associated with the provision of innovative services suggests that easing any remaining
-119-

By using the differentiated pricing approach with augmented information we reduce 'unit value error", i.e. the overstatement of the dollar value of Brazil and Mexico output due to the fact that they produce relatively more small-engined passenger cars than the United States. The unit value error for passenger cars in the Brazil/US comparison was 18 per cent at Brazilian weights and 25 per cent at US weights, and for the Mexico/US comparison 14 per cent at Mexican weights and 20 per cent at US weights. The lower bias for Mexico compared to Brazil may well reflect the fact that in 1975 gasoline was substantially cheaper in Mexico. This influenced Mexicans to purchase (and produce) a relatively higher proportion of 6/8 cylinder vehicles.

It should be noted that we did try to differentiate car prices in the USA by using producer price information instead of retail prices from trade sources. The highly sophisticated US producer price index collects monthly price quotes for 75,000 items and constructs price indices for 3,100 products (see US Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1982). However, for passenger cars the BLS collected only 15 prices for 1977, and for reason of confidentiality could supply us with only one average price for passenger cars. Hence we had no alternative but to use the sales price relatives we derived from trade sources, and we have no real reason to doubt that the percentage price differential at the retail level was much different from that at the producer level.
<br>International Finance<br>Statistics|||CIF/FOB|
|UNCTAD Review of<br>MaritimeTransport|World|Since 1968|Freight Costs as a percentage of Import<br>Value|
|Clark, Micco, Dollar<br>(2001) World Bank<br>WorkingPaper|35||Container Handling Charges|
|Fink, Mattoo, Neagu<br>(2001) World Bank<br>Working Paper|37<br>developin<br>g and 22<br>developed<br>countries||Cargo handling restrictions index,<br>Mandatory port restrictions index.|
|Global Economic<br>Prospects 2004 database<br>(Chapter 5) : Based on<br>Wilson, Mann, Otsuki<br>(2003)|75|For year 2000|Port efficiency|

64 __________________________________________________________________________________________________________
multidimensional poverty (AROPE) indicates that about half of the population in Bulgaria, Croatia, and Romania are AROPE +, mainly because of the large percentage of individuals who are educationally deprived.** This analysis shed light on the interrelationships across multiple core dimensions of well-being and on the degree of overlaps. The fact that nearly half of the individuals who are AROPE + are deprived in more than one dimension in Bulgaria and Romania may help us better understand how multidimensional poverty can be tackled with multiple different interventions.

**When analyzing official data disaggregated by ethnicity in Bulgaria shows multidimensional poverty is notably prevalent within the Roma population in Bulgaria, starkly contrasting with national averages.** A staggering 78.7 percent of the Roma face poverty or social exclusion, far exceeding the national rate of 31.7 percent. This disparity extends across various dimensions, with Roma individuals experiencing material deprivation and low work intensity at rates several times higher than the national average. Furthermore, a significant portion—17.9 percent—of the Roma population suffers from deprivation across multiple dimensions, a stark contrast to the mere 2.9 percent observed in Bulgaria's general population. The Roma community, as a vulnerable and marginalized group, could benefit from social services policies such as social support, targeted inclusion activities, employability, lifelong learning, and food security in order

38
Steckel (2009) suggests that this impact of mortality on the height of survivors can be tested through simulations. The current paper is in keeping with this strategy. Although it does not simulate the effect of sample truncation on nutritional status across countries, it does employ simulations at the individual level that can indicate whether selective mortality might mask improvements in nutritional status over time in a country where mortality rates have been declining rapidly or whether truncation might bias comparisons across genders. Three rounds of nationally representative health survey data from India are used to simulate the nutritional status of the child population under the polar counterfactual that all children who died in the first three years of life are alive at the time of measurement.

The objective of this study is similar to that of studies by Boerma et al (1992), Pitt (1997) and Dancer, Rammohan, and Smith (2008), although the approach differs. Boerma et al. use data from longitudinal studies and retrospective data from crosssectional studies in 17 countries to analyze the effect of selective survival on children‘s anthropometric measures. Their study concludes that selective survival has only a marginal effect on the comparisons of anthropometric outcomes across geographic areas, subpopulation and time. Pitt recognizes that children who fail to survive through childhood are not a random draw from a population and furthermore that fertility itself is a choice. He addresses this by simultaneously estimating the probability of these two events along with nutritional status and finds that although fertility and mortality are statistically significant determinates of nutrition there is no behaviorally significant bias in the parameters if this selection is ignored. Dancer, Rammohan, and Smith use a selection correction to estimate models of nutritional status and find that survival is positively associated with nutritional status. That is, they find that scarring, to use Deaton‘s terminology, is more prevalent in the sample than is selection.

Similarly, a paper by Gorgens et al. (2007) finds evidence that extremely high mortality rates during the 1959-196 famine in China impacts trends in adult height in rural