rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
POLICY RESEARCH WORKING PAPER 2124

# Summary findings

Mearns and Sinha report on the first empirical study of its kind to examine - from the perspective of transaction costs - factors that constrain access to land for the rural poor and other socially excluded groups in India. They find that:

* Land reform has reduced large landholdings since the 195Os. Medium-size farms have gained most. Formidable obstacles still prevent the poor from gaining access to land.

* The complexity of land revenue administration in Orissa is partly the legacy of distinctly different systems, which produced more or less complete and accurate land records. These not-so-distant historical records can be important in resolving contemporary land disputes.

* Orissa tried legally to abolish land-leasing. Concealed tenancy persisted, with tenants having little protection under the law.

* Women's access to and control over land, and their bargaining power with their husbands about land, may be enhanced through joint land titling, a principle yet to be realized in Orissa.

- Land administration is viewed as a burden on the state rather than a service, and land records and registration systems are not coordinated. Doing so will

improve rights for the poor and reduce transaction costs - but only if the system is transparent and the powerful do not retain the leverage over settlement officers that has allowed land grabs.

Land in Orissa may be purchased, inherited, rented - (leased), or in the case of public land and the commons - encroached upon. Each type of transaction

- and the state's response, through land law and administration - has implications for poor people's access to land. Mearns and Sinha find that: * Land markets are thin and transaction costs are high, limiting the amount of agricultural land that changes hands.

* The fragmentation of landholdings into tiny, scattered plots is a brake on agricultural productivity, but efforts to consolidate land may discriminate against the rural poor. Reducing transaction costs in land markets will help.

* Protecting the rural poor's rights of access to common land requires raising public
MDP is relatively more suitable to identify the poorest households, whereas monetary measures are more suitable to measure economic progress more broadly.

# **2.4 Cyclone risk in coastal Bangladesh**

The coastal zone of Bangladesh is the case study area in our analysis. The coastal zone of Bangladesh is comprised of 19 districts (second administrative units in Bangladesh) covering 47,200 km<sup>2</sup> , which was home to approximately 37.3 million people in 2011 (Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, 2012), which has increased to almost 43.8 million people in 2021 (preliminary 2021 Census data). While significant progress has been made to improve wellbeing in the coastal zone, as illustrated by the decreasing (infant) mortality rate, poverty reduction, education enrollment, and access to water and sanitation (Hossain et al., 2016), the coastal population is lacking in terms of development compared to the country as a whole. For instance, 60 percent of the coastal Upazilas (third administrative units in Bangladesh) have an above average poverty incidence (which was 24.3 percent in 2016) (Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, 2016).

The coastal zone is low-lying, with almost two-thirds of the coastal land being located less than three meters above mean sea level (MSL). The large amount of low-lying land, combined with the high population density (~1000 people per km<sup>2</sup> ) and the Bay of Bengal being prone to frequent tropical cyclones, make the coastal regions (in particular exterior coastal upazilas) vulnerable to the impacts of cyclone-induced wind and storm surges, as well as monsoon flooding (interior coastal upazilas). On average, a tropical storm (winds >63 km per hour) hits Bangladesh every year, while a Category I cyclone or higher (winds >118 km per hour) hits the coast every three years (Islam and Peterson, 2009; Dasgupta et al., 2014). Storm surges generated
quantifying externalities of DDT on human health based on area and population exposed to DDT, and the risks posed by the use of DDT. In order to gain a better understanding of the costs and benefits of DDT use to combat malaria, a separate countrywide analysis of all countries with high incidence of malaria has been carried out. The analysis includes not only countries where DDT is currently being used, but also countries where the introduction of DDT may help in lowering the incidence of malaria. The externalities are quantified in economic terms, wherever feasible, with estimates of direct treatment costs and indirect costs imposed by morbidity and mortality as captured by Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALY) to arrive at an overall estimate of the impacts. It is expected that the estimates presented in this paper would strengthen the understanding of net health benefits of reintroducing DDT in malaria control programs throughout the globe. The remainder of the paper is organized as follows: Section 2 summarizes the health effects of DDT and the risks posed by DDT-as cited in the literature. Section 3 provides estimates of population exposure to DDT. Direct and indirect estimates of health externalities of DDT are presented in Section 4. Direct and indirect costs of malaria are presented in Section 5, while Section 6 concludes the paper.

# **2.** **_Health Effects and Risks Posed by DDT_**

DDT, a white tasteless and almost odorless crystalline solid, is an organochlorine contact insecticide that kills by acting as a nerve poison. DDT is categorized by the WHO as Class II "moderately hazardous". “Acute effects in humans who are exposed to low to moderate levels may include nausea, diarrhea, increased liver enzyme activity, irritation of the eyes, nose and/or throat. At higher doses, tremors and convulsions are also possible” (Pesticide Action Network-UK, 2011).

Health externalities from DDT exposure that are reported in various studies include: a poisoning hazard to children following acute ingestion, temporary damage to nervous system, possible carcinogenic effects (can cause
empowerment through education and has been in place in the study area since 1995. The program was rapidly scaled up between 2004 and 2008; data from the Indian Census, District-level Household and Facility Survey, and National Family Health Survey suggest that this scale-up was not systematically targeted at particular areas. As a result, we only sampled treated villages that received the program in the expansionary stage along with control villages that had not yet received the program.

# **2 Study Context**

Following decades of local demand for a separate state, Uttarakhand was carved out of the state of Uttar Pradesh in November 2000. Small, scattered villages, comprising several clusters of houses isolated from others by the hilly terrain, pose challenges to the state’s development. Many lack access to basic infrastructure including roads and schools, severely limiting contact with others. Households generally engage in subsistence-type agriculture, although the state also supplies migrant labor to Delhi and other urban centers. Caste hierarchy is strictly maintained in the villages, and most interactions are limited to members of the same caste.

Alcoholism and domestic violence are common problems in Uttarakhand. Almost 40 percent of Uttarakhandi men consume alcohol, compared with the national average of 32 percent, and 26 percent of all Uttarakhandi women have experienced physical violence [IIPS and ORC Macro, 2007]. Only 18 percent of these women— 5 percent of the overall population— have sought help to control or end the violence. Uttarakhandi women tend to have few social interactions outside the immediate fambelow), yielding a final sample of 404 women and 942 friends.

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from the Freedom House "Freedom in the World Countries" database<sup>15</sup> . "Freedom in the World Countries" is a database containing an annual comparative assessment of the state of political rights and civil liberties in 192 countries and 18 related and disputed territories . The lower is the index the more economic freedom the country has. We expect that countries with greater economic freedom are more open and more likely to trade.

To capture _historical linkages_ between trading partners two zero-one type dummy variables were included in the regression. FrenchExcolonyij and NonFrenchExcolonyij take the value of 1 if the exporting country (i) was a colony of France or other partner country(j). Colonial links often reflect not only historical ties but also that the traders of the two partner countries can speak the same language. If a country was an ex-colony of its trading partner trade between the two countries would probably necessitate lower transaction costs thus more trade. A separate dummy is included for non French ex-colonies and French ex-colonies, because we expect that there might be differences in the intensities of the trade links for French ex-colonies.<sup>16</sup> A variable measuring the hypothetical value of preferences (PREF), which is the difference between the third country duty and the preferential duty multiplied by eligible imports, was included in equation (7). This variable allows us to take into account the importance of the EU’s preferential treatment on its bilateral trade with ACP countries. This variable captures the potential value of the preferential scheme if all eligible trade would have requested and obtained preferential treatment. Given that the preferences were not usually fully utilized in most of the cases, the real value of the preferences is almost always lower than the ‘hypothetical’ value of the preferences. To construct the variable the difference between the third country duty and the preferential duty payable was calculated and multiplied by all eligible trade. The data on preferential and MFN tariffs was obtained from the European Commission.

In many aspects, such
error. In addition, since landholding documents sometimes report distinct plots of land, we allow for either total-land or partial-land matches: if any combination of listed plots adds up to the size reported by the bank, within _±_ 5%, we consider this a match. This match protocol retains considerable power, and both excluding partial-land matches and using a _±_ 1% margin of error has only negligible effects on the overall match rate.

With landholding documents for 71% of surveyed households, manipulation of the forcing variable can be ruled out for 96.1% of audited households. Note that a potential case of manipulation would be one in which the land reported by the bank is _smaller_ than the land reported in official documents. We find that this is the case for only 82 households or 3.9% of the audited sample. The rate of exact matches is 41.4%. Of the cases that fail to match, 83.5% fail to match because the total official landholding is too small to match with the bank report. These appear to be cases where multiple landholdings were pooled, or cases where land was misreported on the high side in order to qualify for a larger loan. In either case, note that this works _against_ debt relief qualification: given that qualification depended on landholding being below a certain cutoff, over-reporting land makes qualification for debt relief _less_ likely, thus identifying these accounts as cases where we can rule out manipulation of land records in order to qualify for debt relief. The robustness sample used in the analysis excludes all accounts for 52
the atmosphere with water vapor (Jean, 1985). In recent years, climatic droughts seem almost endemic in Mali. Figure 5 reports the spatial and temporal frequency of drought occurrences in Mali EA based on the SPEI. With the exception of the year 2016, at least 15% of the EA have experienced drought episodes between 2013 and 2017. In 2017, nearly half of the EA experienced drought episodes. In 2016, cumulative rainfall was normal or above normal throughout Mali. However, some localized areas in northeastern Mali experienced erratic rainfall.

# **4 Drought, Polygyny, and Crop Yields**

In this section, we discuss our empirical model. To provide evidence that polygyny enhances resilience to the adverse effects of agricultural droughts, we use a linear regression model. The unit of observation for crop yields is the household. We define the following model: The dependent variable _Qhijt_ is the natural logarithm of crop yields for household _h_ living in EA _i_ (located in commune _j_ ) at time _t_ . _Xhijt_ is a vector of household head and farm characteristics, including household wealth; _Drougthit_ or _Drougthit_ ́1 are timevarying variables measuring the occurrence of drought at EA _i_ in year _t_ or _t_ ́ 1; _Polyj_ measures polygyny in commune _j_ . We include EA fixed effects _λj_ , to account for the potential correlation between unobserved time invariant at the EA level and polygyny, and year _ηt_ fixed effects to account for year effect. _εhijt_ is a zero-mean error, which captures the effect of unobserved factors that influence crop yields. Robust standard errors are clustered at the EA level to account for potential serial correlation between drought episodes.

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# _Indirect Costs_

The _indirect_ costs of health externalities of DDT, on the other hand, depend on the valuation of the burden of the disease; and can be assessed using a number of epidemiological parameters such as incidence, prevalence, disease specific mortality, and disability caused by the disease. In this analysis, the burden of disease was estimated based on disability adjusted life years (DALY) approach.<sup>19</sup> DALY is a widely used approach to estimate the consequences of a disease over the lifetime of the patient and combines the effects of both increased morbidity (years of life lived with disease) and mortality (years of life lost due to premature mortality from the disease) into one composite index in terms of years of useful life lost. The DALYs for various disease categories by gender and age categories are published periodically by the WHO in different regions of the world as a measure of global burden of the disease.

The identification of the population facing exposure to DDT and the estimation of increased incidence of disease resulting from such exposure for the indirect cost estimation were done in the same way as discussed in the section on direct cost estimations. Since the DALY measures for various disease categories are available by age categories and gender, the increased incidence of the disease was also developed using the population ratios in each age and gender category. The extra DALY due to the increased incidence of a specific disease resulting from DDT was then determined using the DALY rates in each of the age and gender groups. This process of computation was repeated for each disease category separately as the DALY rates vary across each disease. The increased DALYs from each disease category for a country were then added to calculate the total probable DALY loss due to the exposure to DDT in that country. The DALY estimates for each disease category, which are reported in the WHO global

> 19 In the literature, a number of alternative approaches have been used to assess burden of disease ranging from the Cost of incidence (COI), Human
sages were sent to households with children in different age groups. Very often, opinion leaders therefore received a different text than other households message living nearby. For instance, on a given day, an opinion leader may have received a text message about nutrition of her 12 month old child, while a household in her proximity received a message on stimulation of her 4 year old child. To the extent that opinion leaders engage with households in their villages based on the messages they receive, this could have caused confusion, possibly especially among the least educated parents.

We investigate this hypothesis by analyzing whether ECD outcomes are better in cases when parents and the closest leader received the same message (compared to those who received a different message). The point estimate of the difference between those two groups is very small, -0.00 (s.e. 0.09), hence providing no evidence in support of the confusion hypothesis. Note, however, that given the large number of potential combinations of text messages between leader and non-leader households, there are relatively few pairs of leader and non-leader households who received the same text message (80 of a total 1,004 pairs), so that the comparison may be underpowered. Even so, the precisely estimated zero suggests that confusion is unlikely to be a major driver of the negative leader results.<sup>25</sup>

# **5.2 Boycott**

Another potential explanation for the negative leader effect could be that opinion leaders have strong prior beliefs about parenting practices, and may tell people not to believe messages if they go against their own beliefs. Qualitative evidence does suggest that some text messages promoted practices diverging from traditional beliefs.<sup>26</sup> The baseline survey includes a set of five questions about caregivers’ beliefs regarding early childhood development, in particular on stimulation and the home environment. The baseline questions about beliefs are similar to those used at follow-up to capture attitudes toward early

> 25Also recall that the
information about skill demand and supply. For example, included in the data are the job’s title, description, and qualification requirements and jobseeker’s education, skills, professional experience.<sup>6</sup> Third, the data include information about actual labor market transactions and the job matching process, which are invisible in traditional labor force and enterprise surveys. With this information, it becomes possible to analyze what affects, and can improve, job matching. Lastly, the data provide information linked between employers and jobseekers. The availability of this linked information allows labor market diagnosis to be well connected between the demand and supply sides, which is not easy with labor force survey and enterprise survey data that are separately conducted.

In addition to the novel features of the data, there are other reasons for analyzing online job portals. First, online job portals are increasingly common. A considerable amount of job postings in developed countries have been shifting from print media to websites (Kroft and Pope, 2014; Mang, 2012). Despite the fact that the internet access in developing countries is still limited (Shahiri and Osman, 2014), many people already use them.<sup>7</sup> Second, online job portals can improve the efficiency of the job search and matching process. The literature finds that online

> 2 A primary reason for the low unemployment rate is that most people in the country cannot afford to be not employed so engage in informal and self-employed jobs even though they are not necessarily satisfied with work conditions and compensations (Pakistan Bureau of Statistics, 2015).

> 3 The youth are defined as people aged 15 to 24 years.

> 4 Bossavie et al. (2018) find that the unemployment rate is 16% among those with postsecondary education but virtually zero among those with no and primary education.

> 5 For reviews of advantages and disadvantages of using online labor market data, see Einav and Levin (2014) and Kureková et al. (2015
As the stunting risk associated with the nutritional status of the mother and child during pregnancy diminishes for older children, the stunting risk associated with the family’s ability to adequately supply nutrition to the child postnatally increases. Children in households that consume eggs, meat and milk or have tools that improve their capability to safely consume them are less likely to be stunted. The presence of a refrigerator and use of improved cooking fuels are both associated with lower stunting risk. Several possibilities might explain this. Both tools protect against illness (by lowering the degree of indoor air pollution and by preventing food spoilage and food borne illness) and facilitate care and feeding at home (a refrigerator enables households to purchase nutrient-rich perishable foods, cookstoves that use cleaner fuel can ease meal preparation and reduce cooking times).

Nearly 85 percent of children under-5 years of age in the Philippines reside in moderately or severely food insecure households that do not regularly consume protein-rich foods (as measured by consumption of ASFs at least once in the past week) (Tables 9 and 10). These children have 1.35 times the risk of stunting compared to children with a more favorable food security and diversity profile, controlling for socio-economic factors and other prenatal and postnatal stunting determinants (Tables 9 and 10). Around 23 percent of cases of stunting among children under-5 are attributable to inadequate household food security and diversity (Tables 9 and 10). Without measures of the actual frequency, quantity and quality of children’s diets in the NNS data it is unclear to what degree food security and diversity at the household level translates to child-level food consumption, but it is plausible that this relationship in part reflects the benefits of a higher quality diet enabled by food security and access to ASFs high in protein content. More research would help shed light on both the supply-side (such as the availability and price of ASFs in markets) and demand-side (such as knowledge, traditions and preferences) constraints to diversity in children’s diets.

Energy intake from milk -
% for access to water, and 60% for access to electricity.  The quality indicators generally show lower degrees of completeness than those of access.

> 2 The numbers of indicators in each sector are as follows: 7 in energy, 4 in water & sanitation, 12 in ICT, and 12 in transport. 3 For example, the database reports the latest information available between 1997 and 2002, corresponding to arithmetic averages of available data.  In some cases, more recent within country information may be available that is not yet reflected

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<!-- Start of picture text --> % of children under-2 years of age<br>All ee wae Mother's Urban/rural HH<br>individuals Income quintile education residence<br>Mother ;is married-. 55° 53co64 60fos)65 46co61<br>24 16 40 16 41 21 29<br>Mother has a job or business- ° oo o—o co<br>Mother gets assistance; with. childcare; - 88° 87co95 84co91 88é /89<br>Mother seeks advice. on child; feeding. - 60° 53ae)67 47oo67 57co65<br>Current or previousi participantici iin CCT/_ 27oO o_o8 38 ps10 46S 15oo35<br>4Ps program<br>Agriculture (Owner/admin.livestock, fishpen)of farm,| 3 8 3 ae MH 4<br>Mother has highi school or tertiaryi _ 81° 64° 970 100° 76oo89<br>education<br>Mother states childi should be_ 51° 50/52ra 46oO55 49©52<br>exclusively breastfed for 6 mos 33<br>Mother states child should be fed other_ 8 84y84 80 85 89/<br>foods btw 6-9 mos<br>0% 25 50 75 100 0% 25 50 75 100 0% 25 50 75 100 0% 25 50 75 100<br>© Poorest 20% © Some or complete college © Urban<br>© Richest 20% © Some or complete elementary; or no schooling © Rural<br>Source: Author's calculations using 2015 NNS.<br><!-- End of picture text -->