rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
or final product costs, are excluded. For instance, in Figure 1, the cost estimation in this study is associated with only mechanization and baking technology.

<!-- Start of picture text --> Mechanization<br>Coal, lignite, sawdust,<br>Animal, diesel, Electricity firewood, ricke husk,<br>electricity<br>bagasse, briquette, LPG<br>Raw material 1<br>Raw material 2 Clay mining/Preparation Molding/Drying Baking/Firing Final product<br>Raw material 3 Clay Water Baking Technology<br>Preparation<br><!-- End of picture text -->

**Figure 1: The brick-making processes**

Economic analyses are conducted from multiple perspectives. First, the current production costs are compared by technologies and by provinces from a private (financial) perspective. This is followed by the comparison of costs from a social perspective. From the private perspective, the production costs include capital expenditures (e.g., costs of a kiln, land rental, and regulatory and compliance equipment costs), energy costs (e.g., coal, biomass, and electricity), labor costs, and the cost of materials (e.g., clay, water, and additives). The social production costs include environmental and health damage costs associated with brick production in addition to the private costs. The study also includes the economics of the substitution of coal with advanced biomass fuels for commonly used brick production technology (ZZK) and the production of alternative bricks. All these economic analyses use the information from the techno-economic assessment and the rapid survey conducted.

First, we estimated the private cost of producing clay-fired bricks in Nepal. The private cost of brick production ( ) for each province ( _i_ ) and each technology type ( _j_ ) in Nepal PP includes operational expenditures (ii,jj _OpEx_ ) and capital expenditures ( _CapEx_ ) for a particular year CC (tt) ( _t_ )
||
||(0.573)||||
|Praying|||||
|treatment x post|-0.078|-0.810*|4.273|2,314|
||(0.477)|(0.424)|||
|treatment x post x Goal|0.252||||
||(0.580)||||
|With girlfriend|||||
|treatment x post|0.017|0.135|0.343|2,314|
||(0.083)|(0.102)|||
|treatment x post x Goal|-0.127||||
||(0.143)||||

_Notes._ This table presents estimates of _β_ 1, _β_ 2, and _γ_ 1 from equation 2. See notes for Table 3 on table structure and control variables. The outcomes are the hours the male reports spending in each category on the day prior to survey. Standard errors, clustered at the club level, are presented in parentheses below coefficient estimates in columns 1–2. .01 ***, .05 **, .10 *. _Source._ Male baseline and endline data, balanced panel.

67
|6.1|127|3.6|181|2.7|693|4.5|
|Sub-Saharan Africa|66|3.3|58|1.6|82|1.2|307|2.0|
|**Memo:**|||||||||
|BRICS 5 countries|79|3.9|168|4.7|410|6.2|2,280|14.9|
|OPEC 12 members|122|6.1|100|2.8|148|2.2|595|3.9|

Source: Based on UN COMTRADE database.
teacher training are typically not correlated with improved student learning.<sup>25</sup>

> 25Duflo, Hanna and Ryan (2012) show experimentally that lower teacher absence raises test scores, while Muralidharan (2012) shows this in value-added estimates with five years of annual panel data on test scores in the state of Andhra Pradesh matched with the absence rate of the teacher of each student that year. (Das et al., 2007) show that high teacher absences in Zambia (mainly due to teachers falling sick) lead to significantly lower student test score gains. Muralidharan (2012) also shows that school infrastructure and teacher qualifications are not correlated with improvements in learning outcomes in the control schools (which represent the ‘business as usual’ scenario). See (Muralidharan, 2013) for a review of this evidence with a focus on India.

17
more equitable provision of such services, quotas to bring women into positions of power could help to address and eventually overcome such bias.

In 1992, India‟s 73<sup>rd</sup> Constitutional Amendment mandated far-reaching decentralization by establishing a three-tier system of district, block and village-level councils. The _gram panchayat_ (GP) is the lowest tier of local government at village level. It comprises a president ( _pradhan_ or _sarpanch_ ) and council members who are elected from the panchayat‟s wards. Its responsibilities include (i) provision of major public services such as health, education, drinking water, and roads; (ii) setting rates and administering local taxes; (iii) administration, formulation and implementation of local development plans; and (iv) selection of beneficiaries and implementation of social and economic programs established and paid for by the central government. Regular assemblies ( _gram sabhas_ ) by all voters in the GP are meant to monitor performance and increase democratic accountability. To prevent decentralization from reinforcing rather than reducing the power wielded by traditional elites and to counter what was perceived as a legacy of

> 3 Females are found to have higher levels of unobserved political skill, possibly because they had to overcome gender bias to move up in politics. 4 UNDP‟s gender inequality index, based on 2008 data, ranks India 122 out of 138 countries, below Rwanda (83), Lao PDR (88), Egypt (108), Moldova (38), and China (40).

6
transport services. To measure these prices, we used newly published data on US waterborne transport from the United States Department of Transportation. A major advantage with this data was that it is broken down by type of service-liner, bulk and

> ' This has been demonstrated in several studies over the years. See Waters (1970), Finger and Yeats (1976), Sampson and Yeats (1977), Conlon (1982), and Amjadi and Yeats (1995).

> **2** See, for instance, Venables and Limao (1999).

3 See Obstfeld and Rogoff (2000).

4 Bennathan (1989), Amjadi and Yeats (1995), Francois et al. (1996), and Hummel (1999).

5 Francois and Wooton (1999), Hummel (1999).

**6** White (1988), Franck and Bunel (1992), WTO (1998).

4
The survey defines shocks as adverse events that lead to a loss of household income and/or loss of productive assets. The “shock” module asks households to go through a list of adverse events and select those that affected them in the last year. We grouped this long list into a number of broad categories: economic, climatic, health and asset. Economic shocks include problems in terms of employment, reduced remittances, loss of business, and difficulty with selling agricultural products and buying inputs. Climatic shocks include crop damage and destruction of homes and assets due to floods as well as loss of land due to river erosion. Health shocks include death and/or ailment of an earning member, and severe disease of a household member. Asset shocks include theft and dowry related expenses.

The data show that more than half of the sample households experienced one or more shocks over a one year recall period. Conditional on experiencing a shock, the average number of shocks across all households was 1.6 (see Table 3). Rural households were more likely to experience shocks (and also faced a higher number of shocks on average) and were more vulnerable: thirty percent of rural households who experienced one or more shocks report that income from their main source fell in 2009 compared to 21 percent of urban households who reported the same.

# Insert Table 3

Households experienced numerous types of shocks but the most common type of shock is idiosyncratic (Tables 4 and 5). Health-related shocks (severe disease or death of a household member) are the most common (24.1% of all respondents) followed by climatic and environmental shocks (15%), economic shocks (14.2%), and finally asset shocks (7.5%).

# Insert Table 4

To the extent that data from September 2009 can point to the impacts of the 2009 global financial crisis, the results suggest that this shock appears to have had limited impact in Bangladesh. The two main channels which were of concern
While the asset managers with the highest average returns have consistently had an equity component higher than the average of pension funds (Figure 8), those with the lowest returns have random strategies regarding equity allocation over time (Figure 9). These are probably funds that have tried to time the market or have deficient risk management skills.

Figure 8 Equity Holdings of PFR-AM Best Performers (2005-2009) (as a percentage of the Assets) <!-- Start of picture text --> 70%<br>60%<br>50%<br>40%<br>30%<br>20%<br>10%<br>0%<br>2005 2006 2007 2008 2009<br>-10%<br><!-- End of picture text --> Market average is represented by the line with black squares Source FFMS Figure 9 Equity Holdings of PFR-AM Worst Performers (2005-2009) (as a percentage of the Assets) <!-- Start of picture text --> 70%<br>60%<br>50%<br>40%<br>30%<br>20%<br>10%<br>0%<br>2005 2006 2007 2008 2009<br>Market average is represented by the line with black squares<br>Source:FFMS<br><!-- End of picture text --> 28
, each bidder chooses the yearly minimum income guarantee (within the band set by MOP), _MIC,,_ subject to where p = the discount rate (set in the bidding documents).

_(I + OC + MC) =_ the official net present value of the concession. This corresponds to the initial estimate by MOP of the investment, operating expenditure and maintenance cost over the life of the concession.

If in a given year income levels fall below the minimum income set for that year, the government pays the concessionaire the shortfall in revenues.

> 27 If the contract guarantees a minimum total traffic level, then changes in the composition of traffic will affect income flows but would be irrelevan **t** o the guarantee scheme.

29
the average relative quality of entering goods generated by quantile regressions of entering goods on the OECD regional dummy, with the non-OECD countries captured together by the constant term. To the extent that we expect newly entering goods to be higher quality goods, the median values for both OECD and non-OECD groups are surprisingly low; the median value for the non-OECD countries is 0.35 and for OECD countries is 0.55. This is consistent with our earlier discussion concerning the high levels of heterogeneity in relative product quality in goods in both OECD and non-OECD baskets. However, it does not appear to be the case that the low quality goods in the OECD basket are merely reflecting inertial persistence of products fundamentally now out of their cone of specialization. Even at entry, there appears to be a very high level of heterogeneity. As Table 3 also indicates, the distribution of relative quality of entering goods in the OECD dominates that of the non-OECD countries at all levels, that is to say that at every quantile, the quality levels of entering goods in the OECD is higher than in the non-OECD countries.

This does not imply that the quality of incoming goods is not higher, on average than incumbent goods. Table 4 repeats the previous analysis, but using the ratio of the relative quality of entering goods to the median relative quality of the incumbent goods. The median ratio for the non-OECD regions is 1.03 and the median ratio for the OECD is equal to 1.05. This implies that new goods enter at only slightly higher level as existing goods for both the OECD and the non OECD regions. Given that OECD goods are of higher relative quality to begin with, this also tells us that new goods enter at higher quality levels in the OECD than in the poorer regions. However, at the upper end of the distribution, the quality ratio of entering to incumbent goods is larger for the non-OECD region suggesting a degree of convergence at the top end of the quality distribution between OECD and non-OECD countries.<sup
for individuals outside the formal employment system and hence not covered by the government's social security benefits. Naturally, much of the focus is on rural households and individuals.

The paper draws on the author's numerous field visits to Vietnam, meetings with various Government ministries in Hanoi, and extensive discussions with provincial, district, and commune level peoples' committees and local government representatives. Additional insights come from the results of the 1992-1993 Vietnam Living Standards Survey (VNLSS)-a nationally representative, integrated household survey-and from other studies of living standards in Vietnam. Because rigorous evaluations have not been undertaken, little is known with certainty about the actual performance of existing programs. Hence, analysts can only speculate (informed by experience elsewhere) on their strengths and weaknesses in protecting the poor. The virtues and weaknesses of the government's flagship program-the "Hunger Eradication and Poverty Reduction" Program (HEPR)-are highlighted and an agenda for strengthening the design and implementation of the main safety net and transfer programs is proposed.

# SOURCES OF VULNERABILITY **AND COPING STRATEGIES**

The key to designing effective policies for social protection lies in first understanding the characteristics of the poor. As in many developing countries, poverty in Vietnam is a predominantly rural phenomenon. Close to 80 percent of Vietnam's population and 90 percent of the poor live in rural areas. The incidence of rural income poverty is 57 percent based on _5_
that the “superiority of the diary data may not be as obvious as the literature suggests.” In Tanzania, the mean number of transactions in the official Household Budget Survey diary declined by 10 percent from the 1<sup>st</sup> to 3<sup>rd</sup> survey month, and by 27 percent from the 1<sup>st</sup> to 13<sup>th</sup> (last) survey month (NBS, 2002), suggestive of inconsistent supervision of interviewers and/or diary fatigue on the part of respondents. In Malawi, nearly 40 percent of 10,698 households in the 1997/98 national household survey were judged to have incomplete or unreliable expenditure data due to poor maintenance of the diary (National Economic Council, 2000); this drastic waste of survey resources prompted the switch to recall consumption methods in the subsequent national household surveys in 2004 and 2010. In the case of the Russian Household Budget Survey, the pattern of non-response to the household diary, especially among wealthier households, generates extreme sample weights which Gibson and Poduzov (2003) conclude are inefficient from both a statistical and a budget perspective.

# _Level of Detail in Consumption Questionnaires_

The number of items about which data are collected is one of the central issues in designing a consumption module. National consumer price index baskets may have in excess of 300 items. To reduce the burden on respondents and survey activities in general, shorter lists of items are created by focusing on those items that represent the greatest share of consumption and aggregating other, less important, items into categories. At present, the number of consumption items (or categories) for which data are collected from households in LSMS surveys ranges from 37 to 305, with the mean being 137 and the median 130: the mean number of food items alone is 75.<sup>7</sup> This level of detail on consumption is thought to be important as it prompts respondents to remember
|34%|
|**Pvt sectorparticipation**|**49%**|**61%**|**62%**|**10%**|**24%**|
|PSP in Generation|63%|78%|84%|31%|41%|
|PSP in Distribution|35%|19%|39%|0%|16%|
|PSP in Transmission|50%|88%|66%|0%|14%|

_Source_ : Data collected for the Rethinking Power Sector reform Project

> 6 The privatization (PSP) scores are based on the World Bank’s PPI database. Each economy is scored on the basis on the number of projects that have been privatized (divested) in the sector. Full divestiture receives a higher score as compared to partial divestiture. The tabulated scores for generation, transmission and distribution are then multiplied by the respective share of the private sector in each of the operational areas. This gives individual scores for PSP in generation, distribution and transmission. The scores are averaged to get to the PSP score.

> 7 Utilities where unbundling involves ownership separation receive the highest scores while utilities where unbundling involves just functional separation receive the lowest. Both horizontal and vertical unbundling are scored separately for each area of operation- generation, distribution and transmission. The restructuring score is the average of vertical and horizontal unbundling.

> 8 Cooperatives are private companies owned by consumers and highly supervised by the government. In this sense the distribution sector is 100 percent private, but the table gives a value equating privatized to investor owned.

25
iitt ) or fixed iitt FFAATT FFAATT ≡1 −MMPPGG SS jj= F FFAATT 41 A similar argument applies to measures of cyclicality over the business cycle based on correlations between expenditure and GDP. 42 The variables in levels used to calculate , , and are denominated in current yy yy yy local currency. Nominal series are deflated using the national CPI, from the IMF World Economic iitt iitt iitt Outlook Database. ΔGG ΔCCRRC ΔNNCCRRC 30
reflecting their different economic structures, stages of development, and business environments. For example, in Côte d’Ivoire, Croatia, Ecuador, and Türkiye, studies find rising misallocation of resources— that is, less productive firms not being outcompeted by more productive ones—to be the main drag on productivity growth (World Bank 2021a, World Bank 2022a, Patiño Peña and Ferro Forthcoming, World Bank 2019a). By contrast, in Kosovo, the data suggest that falling productivity of incumbent firms is the main driver of overall productivity declines (World Bank 2021b).

# 3. Data

The empirical analyses in this paper leverage two databases from the Zambia Revenue Authority. One draws information from Corporate Income Tax (CIT) returns, while the other draws information from Pay As You Earn (PAYE) Tax returns. The CIT database covers over 5,000 firms that paid corporate income tax in Zambia for the 2014-2021 period. In Zambia, firms that have annual turnover (sales) exceeding ZMK 800,000 or engage in specified business activities are liable for CIT.<sup>4</sup> The standard income tax rate is 30 percent. However, certain industries have special rates that apply to them. For firms with annual profits below K250,000, the tax rate is 30 percent. For industries with annual profits exceeding K250,000, the rate is 40 percent. For those in farming and agro-processing, the rate is 10 percent, while certain manufacturing industries have a rate of 15 percent. If a firm’s turnover is below the CIT filing threshold, the firm is liable for the Turnover Tax at 4 percent monthly across all sectors.<sup>5</sup> With variables drawn from firms’ returns, the CIT database contains panel data on firms’ registration location, sales, cost of sales, and wage bills. It is thus the primary source of firm-level variables for output, capital, labor, and inputs used for productivity estimation (see below discussion on specific
of one form or another through private international networks and business-cooperation agreements; information sharing by central banks and supervisory and regulatory authorities; official channels, committees, and working groups; and less directly through IMF multilateral surveillance of global markets. Parts of these markets are linked to national clearance, settlement, and payments infrastructures, so they are also subject to surveillance through these channels. The risks they potentially pose are less of a concern to the extent that the major players in them—the large internationally active banks—are supervised and market disciplined by financial stakeholders. Nevertheless, if there is poor oversight of the major institutions, then these global markets are subject to considerable risks, including a greater likelihood of systemic risk. One obvious example is the global over-the-counter derivatives markets, which are unregulated and which were prior to the crisis (and still now are) subject to little formal oversight except through the regulation and supervision of the institutions that engage in the bulk of these markets‘ activities. European financial institutions play a major role in these global markets. For example, according to the BIS latest triennial survey of global OTC derivatives markets, the Euro was the currency of denomination in 40 percent of the daily transactions (turnover) in the global OTC interest-rate derivatives markets.<sup>21</sup> The fourth and final source of systemic risks identified in Table 1 is the policy framework itself, which includes both macroeconomic policies as well as the financial-stability architecture. As will be discussed later, there were mistakes made in many policy areas which either encouraged the behavior that led to systemic risks or directly posed systemic risks as with some aspects of the financial-stability architecture itself.

> 21 See Table 8 in Bank for International Settlements (2010).

14
20

# **Table 4. Bank Performance, Regulation, and Government Owned Banks in 2011, Survey IV**

|`------------------------------------`<br>`------------------------------------`|`---------------`<br>`Bank`<br>`Development`<br>`---------------`|`------------`<br>`Interest`<br>`Margin`<br>`------------`|`---------------`<br>`Overhead`<br>`Costs`<br>`-------------`|`--------------------`<br>`Nonperforming`<br>`Loans`<br>`--------------------`|
|---|---|---|---|---|
|<br>`Capital Regulatory Index`|<br>`-0.160*`<br>`(0.0860)`|<br>`0.00443`<br>`(0.00382)`|<br>`0.00668
the effects of rising temperatures depending on firm-level and location-specific characteristics, emphasizing the importance of using granular data to assess the economic impact of climate change.

To isolate the effect of high temperatures, we estimate the impact of extremely hot days on firm performance. This also serves as a robustness check for our baseline results, using an alternative measure of heat. We re-estimate Equation 1 using an alternative climate shock reflecting the impact of hot days, i.e., the difference in the total number of days in a fiscal year with temperatures reaching at least 35<sup>_◦_</sup> C for at least 1 hour in the fiscal year in the WBES compared to the historical mean. As with average temperatures, there is a significant 17