rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
11 Typically the experiments are performed in two stages. The first stage involves the imposition on the national CGE model of the policy shock (either unilateral liberalization or an exogenous shock to border prices and export demand provided by the LINKAGE model). This generates changes in domestic product and factor markets. The consequent changes in consumer and factor prices are then transmitted to the micro-simulation model to see how they alter the earnings of various household types (according to the shares of their income from the various factors) and their cost of living (according to the shares of their expenditure on the various consumer products). That in turn provides information on changes in the distribution of real household incomes and hence in inequality, and in the number of people below any chosen poverty line such as US$1 a day.

All country case studies ran a common set of simulations so as to make it possible to compare the inequality and poverty effects in each country of own-country versus rest-ofworld policies affecting markets for agricultural (including lightly processed food) goods versus other merchandise. The other global study referred to in the next section uses the same 2004 global protection dataset but implements global reform shocks using a slightly different global model for each of 15 developing countries but with national household survey data attached in order to undertake micro-simulations. In most cases additional simulations were also run, often to illustrate the sensitivity of the results to key assumptions pertinent to that particular country case study.

Even though the models surveyed here are all standard perfectly competitive, constant-returns-to-scale, comparative static, economywide CGE models, they nonetheless differ somewhat in order to capture important realities (such as labor market characteristics or data limitations) in their particular setting. However, to ensure their comparability, they all aimed to conform to a common set of factor market assumptions and closure rules in addition to using 2004 as their base and undertaking a common set of simulations using the same
Know Thy Foe: Information Provision and Air Pollution in Tbilisi<sup>∗</sup> Sandra Baqui ́e<sup>1</sup> , A. Patrick Behrer<sup>1</sup><sup>_†_</sup> , Xinming Du<sup>2</sup> , Alan Fuchs<sup>1</sup> , Natsuko K. Nozaki<sup>1</sup>

> 1The World Bank 2The National University of Singapore

JEL Codes: Q53, Q56, 018, 013, I12 Keywords: Air pollution, information provision, avoidance behavior, infiltration, indoor air

# pollution, PurpleAir, Tbilisi

> ∗We thank Marshall Burke, Sam Heft-Neal, Sefi Roth, Josh Graf-Zivin, Matt Neidell, Teevrat Garg, Jisung Park, and participants at the USC Indoor Air Pollution workshop for valuable feedback. Max Hammond provided excellent research assistance. CRRC was an invaluable partner in conducting the household surveys. Sweden provided generous funding to support this project. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent.

> _†_ Corresponding author, abehrer@worldbank.org.
Income distribution data, particularly when extrapolated from quintiles or from the Gini coefficients, are even noisier. Furthermore, due to the absence of income distribution data for many countries, some authors (e.g., Bhalla and Sala-i-Martin) resort to very dubious assumptions, taking for example that income distributions either do not change in time or change in a certain (linear) fashion or even that everyone in a country has the same income. This myriad of assumptions and measurement errors in most cases tend not to bias the results in one direction only, but probably to offset each other, producing relatively similar levels of inequality. But when one re-estimates global inequality for another year, while the level hardly changes, the result is (on the account of the measurement error if nothing else) likely to be slightly different. It is that slight difference that is then interpreted as the evidence of a change, or in some cases even of a trend.

How big is a Gini of around 65? It is larger than inequality found in any single country including South Africa and Brazil, two among most unequal countries in the world, whose Ginis are in the upper fifties or low sixties. The Gini coefficient however does not give an intuitive feeling of how large global inequalities are. A better way to look at it is to consider how the overall pie is distributed across different fractiles of the distribution, Thus, for example, the top 5 percent of individuals in the world receive about 1/3 of total world (PPP-valued) income, and the top 10 percent one-half. If we take the bottom 5 and 10 percent, they receive respectively 0.2 and 0.7 percent of world total income. This means that the ratio between the average income received by the richest 5 percent and the poorest 5 percent of people in the world is 165 to 1.<sup>28</sup> The richest people earn in about 48 hours as much as the poorest people earn in a year.

Another
For Vietnam our universe includes 179,725 establishments. We collected data on 1,499 establishments randomly selected from the GSO’s census. Table A.4 and Table A.5 provide the information on the distribution of firms in the population and the sample for Vietnam.

Table A.4: Population Distribution, Vietnam

|Region|Size|Agri-<br>culture|Food<br>Processing|Wearing<br>Apparel|Other<br>Manuf.|Wholesale<br>& Retail|Other<br>Services|Total<br>Region|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Region 1|Small|29|91|82|2074|4183|3155|13417|
||Medium|12|38|61|1225|491|923||
||Large|4|28|103|623|44|251||
|Region 2|Small|39|49|29|691|1270|897|4354|
||Medium|10|22|54|408|208|308||
||Large|0|5|60|222|18|64||
|Region 3|Small|85|95|46|1001|2330|2547|8572|
||Medium|24|31|50|452|327|1042||
||Large|7|27|81|167|31|229||
|Region 4|Small|117|78|14|164|539|716|2162|
||Medium|28|43|7|70|76|206||
||Large|12|13|7|12|10|50||
|Region 5|Small|89|145|127|3699|4278|2978|17942
the BRICS countries’ country-sector nodes are further disaggregated into: (i) activities carried out mostly by local firms, (ii) activities carried out by MNEs located abroad, and (iii) activities of MNE affiliates. This allows them to compare the GVC participation of MNEs with that of local firms. Their results suggest that MNEs are indeed more engaged in GVC trade, specifically in more complex GVC trade (as defined in Wang et al. 2017). In other words, most back-and-forth trade transactions are carried out between MNEs and their affiliates (although local firms still produce most value added within countries). In our paper, we are less concerned about whether the MNEs themselves are engaged in production sharing and GVC trade, and more focused on identifying the additional knock-on effects on productivity of firms in the host country- sector that receive foreign financing. In other words, we are more interested in the role of MNEs as financiers, rather than their direct participation in production.

# **FDI spillovers and GVC participation**

The recent emergence of the multinational input-output tables and indicators derived from them allow us to understand the production process more as a network or a long chain, which is very different from the typical production function of a firm that produces just one good. In this context, a firm in an emerging market can significantly increase its productivity if it can focus on the process it is best at, and there is some sort of ‘learning’ by inserting into the production process with foreign firms. The hypothesis is that those firms that export and import are learning more, but few papers clarify the channels.

The World Bank’s World Development Report (2020) and related background papers (see for example Fernandez et al., 2020) find that countries which have FDI, even at the broad (horizontal) level, also have greater GVC participation. But the concern tends to be on attracting FDI itself. The evidence seems to be country-specific, sector disaggregation is very broad, and
There are several evaluation strategies that assess the quality of epidemiological studies. In general, these methodologies are oriented towards determining the degree of evidence contributed by these studies, most of them clinical<sup>(5)</sup> . In this type of evaluation, clinical trials and cohort studies are considered to be the best methodological route to generate evidence—mostly because of causality issues, such as those that arise in the study of the efficiency and effectiveness of interventions and/or treatments. By contrast, crosssectional studies are considered exploratory and only capable of generating hypotheses. The particular situation under which research is done on the HIV epidemic (prevalence, determination of knowledge and behavior levels) limits the possibility of implementing experimental studies; HIV-related research is based mainly on the application of crosssectional studies or surveys. For this reason, the UNAIDS Triangulation Resource Guide states that priority, or the highest level of trust, must be given to the data obtained by large-scale, standardized, cross-sectional epidemiological studies, such as National Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS)<sup>(6)</sup> .

The literature notes several questionnaires and checklists that create a framework to assess the methodological quality of studies, but most of them are designed to be applied to randomized clinical trials and not to observational studies<sup>(7)</sup> . The methodology described in this paper was developed and implemented so that it is mostly applicable to cross-sectional studies. In a practical way, this new tool aims to determine which studies utilize strategies and designs that increase the reliability of the results. The ASAP questionnaire is based on an extensive analysis that includes the World Health Organization’s normative guidelines on the implementation of prevalence studies for sexually transmitted infections<sup>(8)</sup> , as well as several published materials—including books and scientific journals—which form the basis for evaluation of the methodological quality of epidemiological studies<sup>(9, 10, 11, 12, 13,
# **Figure 1 – Oil Prices and CDS Spreads of Energy Producers**

This figure displays the movements in oil prices—West Texas Intermediate—in dollars as well as the movements in the CDS spreads of energy firms in Mexico and in other emerging economies. The sample <u>period spans from January 2013 to June 2016.</u> <!-- Start of picture text --> 2013m1 2014m1 2015m1 2016m1<br>Time<br>Oil Price CDS - Mexico CDS - Emerging<br>100 400<br>80<br>300<br>60<br>Oil Prices<br>200<br>CDS Spreads - Percent<br>40<br>100<br>20<br><!-- End of picture text --> 24
an ex-ante elicitation of willingness-to-pay measures consumer surplus at some implicitly assumed and hence unknown marginal price, rather than at _any_ marginal price. However, the determination of optimal provision and two-part pricing requires, firstly, recovering the shortrun price elasticity of demand and, secondly, requires estimating the long-run price elasticity of demand when it differs from its short-run analog. Our approach does both of these things while highlighting a source of low elicited willingness-to-pay, complementary to but distinct from credit constraints (Devoto et al., 2012b; Berkouwer and Dean, 2021).

The rest of the paper is organized as follows: We describe the experiment, data and demand persistence results in section 2. In section 3, we set up a generic model of consumer demand with intertemporally dependent preferences and, in section 4, present the structural estimation of this model. With these results in hand, in Section 5, we assess optimal pricing schemes for new utility services, and specifically for piped water in our setting. We conclude the paper in Section 6.

# **2 Experiment and data**

Working with the Government of Vietnam, the overall objective of the experiment was to assess willingness-to-pay for piped water in a rural area where the service had recently been introduced and had begun supplanting the traditional mode of water supply, rainwater collection.

## **2.1 Experimental design**

The price experiment took place between January 2016-May 2018 in three villages of My Huong commune in the Red River Delta region of northern Vietnam. My Huong is relatively prosperous, with average per capita expenditures at about the 80th percentile for rural Vietnam. Since the arrival of piped water in 2012, My Huong has been served by a single provider, An Thinh utility, with whom we partnered over the course of the 3-year project. Among other things, An Thinh shared their customer billing records, which include monthly water usage (in m<sup>3</sup> ) and payment, from the month of connection onward, including throughout the
third of their cases. In addition, they report that more than half of the managers of a sample of British firms believed that they had introduced some products and processes earlier as a consequence of transfers of technology to U.S. affiliates operating in the United Kingdom. More evidence will be presented later, in the survey of empirical studies of spillovers.

_5_ For theoretical studies, see e.g. Findlay, (1978), Koizumi and Kopecky (1977), Das (1987), and Wang and Blomstrom (1992). Some other early empirical studies are Balasubramanyam (1973), Brash (1966), Deane (1970), Dunning (1958), Forsyth (1972), Gabriel (1967), Rosenbluth (1970), and Safarian (1966).

34
33 Table 4. Rates of subsidy for subsidized food in Egypt, 1991/92 to 1996/9,7

|Subsidized food|1991/92|1992/93|<br>1993/94<br>(in percent)|1994/95|1995/96|1996/97|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|Baladi bread (loaf)|55|52|51|55|63|59|
|Baladi wheat|||||||
|flour (100 kg)|40|36|34|40|53|47|
|Edible oil (0.5 kg)|50|48|51|50|61|56|
|Sugar (1kg)|59|58|56|53|64|62|

Notes; Rate of subsidy-:Amount of income transfer/"Free Market", nonsubsidized price Subsidized baladi bread is sold by the loaf; subsidized baladi wheat flour is sold by 100 kilogram sacks; subsidized edible oil is sold on a ration basis at 0.5 kilograms per month; and subsidized sugar is sold on a ration basis at 1.0 kilograms per month.

Source: Calculated froim unpublished data, Ministry of Trade and SJpply
newly constructed units. In Russia, because of the lack of private urban land, local governments “participate” in the majority of new construction projects, extracting an unknown share of public rental units from developers.<sup>46</sup> The new construction programs in Romania and Lithuania are small and targeted to certain groups (low income, students). Recently, associations of banks and developers in Poland have been discussing a new PPP scheme, which would produce new rental housing by private sector partners, which would be made available to municipalities on longterm lease basis and used by them for social rental housing policy objectives. Municipalities would help mostly in terms of providing access to serviced building lots dedicated to such construction.

# **Rental Housing Demand**

In the tenure choice literature discussed earlier, rental housing demand is seen primarily as a function of income and life-cycle circumstances of the household involved. In the analysis of the studied countries that follows, the focus is on exploring those empirical relations. Other important demand determinants, such as deeper household type differentiations, income risk factors (proxied by professional status), and wealth and access to finance, are referred to future research. A brief review is made of available evidence concerning the impact of intra-country migration and the mismatch of available dwelling attributes and demand. These are the two factors expected to show high empirical significance for the housing sectors in transition; unfortunately, data problems are encountered here, calling again for better census information or in-depth rental housing surveys in the future.

# **Demand Structure – Life Cycle and Income**

# **_Rental Housing Demand and Life Cycle_**

# _Private Rental Sector_

In the urban economies of transition countries,<sup>47</sup> the private rental sector is a pivotal source of supply for “housing starters” (Figure 5). These are young single households or couples between the ages of 16 and 29 - and young families between the ages of 30 and 44 with at least one
) of sales per worker for informal businesses and formal micro-enterprises. The thick horizontal line along the horizontal axis highlights the values of sales per worker where the two distributions are statistically significantly different from each other (using the familywise error rate, FWER, at 5%). In Zimbabwe, the equality of the two distributions is rejected across almost all values of sales per worker, confirming what we alluded to based on the kernel density plot given on Figure 12. Similarly, the two distributions are significantly different across considerable ranges of values of sales per worker in India, Mozambique and

> 19 Male-female differences in sales per worker, though large, are statistically insignificant.

> 20 A large body of research seeks to explain these differences. One of the potential explanations is that businesses owned by women in developing countries are more likely to be credit-constrained (Rose, 2000; Fletcher, 2009). Though we are unable to directly addresses this hypothesis with the descriptive statistics presented here, female owned businesses are just as likely to have an existing loan for the business as male owned businesses (9.95% compared to 8.05%).

> 21 We use the _distcomp_ command in Stata which provides a test that allows to check for equality of two distributions, thus enabling to test for a restricted form of the first order stochastic dominance (see Kaplan 2019).

26
|Yes|
|**Adjusted R-squared**|0.0024|0.0033|0.0035|-0.00049|-0.00099|0.018|0.082|0.14|0.14|
|**Observations[clusters]**|3963[135]|3963[135]|3963[135]|3963[135]|3963[135]|3963[135]|3963[135]|3963[135]|3963[135]|

**Notes** : Clustered standard errors are in parentheses.  Standard errors clustered at the district government-sector interacted level.  All columns report OLS estimates.  The unit of analysis in all columns is the claim of the district government-level official.   The sample used for the analysis is the set of respondents making claims for which there is also evaluaton data for the civil servant.  The dependent variable is the within-organization z-score of the civil servant's evaluation outcome as per their annual appraisal. Tier fixed effects control for whether the respondent works in a federal, regional, or district government office.  Sector fixed effects are indicators for whether the claim is within an agriculture, education, health, revenue, or trade organization.  Indicator fixed effects control for the specific variable being claimed over.   Individual characteristics includes: years in position; years in the organization; years in the civil service; an indicator for whether the respondent has an undergraduate degree; and an indicator for whether the respondent has a masters degree; an indicator for whether the respondent is female; and an indicator for whether the respondent is a manager.  Marginal costs include the proportion of managers in the organization that state that a management information system is in place; the organization average response to "In what proportion of projects would you say information flows effectively between individuals in the same organization?"; the organization average response to "In what proportion of projects would you say Information flows effectively between organizations?"; the organization
**Figure 2: Number of ninis aged 15-24 and their share of**

# **age group in LAC, 1992-2010**

<!-- Start of picture text --> 100.0 20.0<br>18.0 18.2 18.2<br>16.4 17.1<br>80.0<br>15.0<br>60.0<br>10.0<br>40.0<br>23.4 23.2 22.6 20.5 19.3 5.0<br>20.0<br>0.0 0.0<br>1990 1995 2000 2005 2010<br>Year<br>Number of ninis (right axis)<br>Percentage of ninis<br>in relevant age group (left axis)<br>Ninis (millions)<br>Ninis (% relevant age group)<br><!-- End of picture text --> Source: authors’ own computation with data from CEDLAS and The World Bank (2015) A 14 percent increase in the number of ninis over a 20 year period may seem small, but disaggregating by gender reveals that the increase for young men was much more dramatic. The number of male ninis jumped 46 percent between 1992 and 2010, with the additional males accounting for the entire increase in ninis throughout the period (1.8 million individuals). This is an important distinction, since the number of male ninis is correlated with crime and violence in contexts where violence is already a serious problem (de Hoyos, Gutiérrez, and Vargas 2015). The combination of this surge in male ninis, the link with crime and violence, and the very emergence of the term “ _ninis_ ” may explain the increased media attention to the phenomenon in recent years.<sup>7</sup> Not all countries show the same trend, of course. The
- Maccini, Sharon and Dean Yang (2009) “Under the weather: Health, schooling, and economic consequences of early-life rainfall,” _American Economic Review_ , 99 (3), 1006– 26.

- Morikawa, Robert (2014) “Remote Sensing Tools for Evaluating Poverty Alleviation Projects: A Case Study in Tanzania,” _Procedia Engineering_ , 78, 178–187, https: //doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2014.07.055, Humanitarian Technology: Science, Systems and Global Impact 2014, HumTech2014.

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