rafmacalaba/data-use-mentions-extended huggingface dataset:
Figure 36 and Figure 37 for retail, and in Figure 42 and Figure 43 for wholesale.

Wireless phone penetration proxies for information frictions. Information frictions may also lead to failure of the law of one price. When pricing information is not shared across markets or is only available to a few agents in the market, agents might miss out on arbitrage opportunities. In recent years, both the private and public sectors have introduced several initiatives to increase access to information for different players in the market. Many of these initiatives consist of provision of information through, for example, mobile phones or online platforms. Therefore, state‐level data on the penetration of wireless cellular networks act as a good proxy for how well information flows. Lower cellular coverage is expected to be associated with larger deviations from the law of one price. Figure 38 and Figure 44 plot the correlation between the measure of information frictions and deviation from the law of one price for retail and wholesale, respectively.

A key feature of the India’s agricultural market is the APMC act. A dummy variable was constructed that takes the value of 1 if the act has been repealed or reformed and 0 otherwise (See Data Appendix for sources of information to construct this variable). On average, we do not observe that the presence of the APMC act is correlated with larger departures from the law of one price (Table 24 and Table 25 in the Appendix). One possible explanation is that the variable may be capturing state‐specific characteristics that cannot be fully controlled for in a cross‐sectional setting. States reformed the APMC act at different times – for example, some may have reformed toward the end of the period considered, but deviations from the law of one price are calculated on average for a relatively long period of time.<sup>19</sup>

> 18 World Bank (2016), for example, reports a study commissioned by the Ministry of Transport and Highways in the context of the Logistics Efficiency Enhancement Program (LEEP
|Transport|Lesotho|saneeinail<br>ow<br>mene|SSA|Middle<br> adi <br>“<br>Africa|__<br>"Pa|East<br>Asia <br>cific|Latin<br>America <br> = &<br> Caribhea<br>hn|Europe &<br>Central <br>Asia||.<br> Ihe<br>ome|Lower<br>Middle<br>Income|‘Upper<br>Middle <br>Income|+World|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|RoadDensityinTerme ofPopulationfroad-km/1000 people)|34|3.0|33|48|24|42|a7|$4|Td|49|92|67|
|RoadDensityinTerms ofLand(road-dew/1000 sq keer’)|195.7|181|155.7|6089|54460|276A|FBT|580.3|702|3277|10764|=840.8|
|TravelTime toWorkinMainCities (minutes/one-wayworktrip)|15|33|34|23|2|36|23|23|23|40|23|31|
|Paved Roads(%oftotalroads)|18|30|25|56|38|32|36|76|5a|Ei|it|50|

Note: Data used isfrow the latest observation available between 1997 and 2663, Source: A "Research" Database of Infrastructure Economic Performance, Anionio Estache and Ana Goicoechea, World Bank Infrasiructure Network, Office of the Vice President, June 2005.
% of the observations, there is an ongoing conflict; of those, 56.6% are coded as localized.

Although fDi Markets records FDI data on the project level, it does not include any information on the investing firm other than the name of the company and its parent company. We collected firmlevel data from Bureau van Dijk’s Orbis database, containing annual report data of over 79,000 companies worldwide, and manually matched these data to companies in the fDi Markets data set. Nevertheless, 32.9 % of all investment projects in fDi Markets could not be linked to companies in the Orbis data set. We code geographically diversified firms using a dummy variable which is 1 if the firm has subsidiaries in at least 10 countries and zero otherwise.<sup>6</sup> To facilitate the comparison of different 19
levels, inflation, public sector and external balances) and other control variables (levels of GDP per capita) and World Bank Income Classification categories to identify countries that are low-, middle- or high income. It is important to note that although the data do not have right or left censoring issues as is typically the case with most duration analysis, the data sample does suffer from “right truncation”. In other words, the observation of a mine in the sample is conditional upon it having being developed to production during the sample period (which ends in 2014). Mines which have yet to be developed are not part of the sample.

Most copper and gold mines in our data set tend to get developed within the first 10 years following discovery (Figure 4). However, the lead time to production is shorter for gold discoveries (10 years, versus. 17 years, on average, for copper). Only 4.5 percent of gold mines in the sample remain in production for 30 or more years, compared to almost a third of copper mines in the sample. On average, there does not appear to be any discernible difference across gold mines of different sizes or quality.<sup>8</sup> In contrast, copper deposits with shorter lead times to production are more often those of higher quality (Tier 1) deposits. By region, the largest number of discoveries in our data set is located in the Americas, Africa, Australia, and among Former

> 8 This is also borne out in mean comparison tests, with t-statistics indicating that statistically significant difference in the average delay (or number of years to production) from discovery to production across gold and copper mines. Mean comparison tests, however, show no statistically significant difference across mines of different sizes.

9
# **Figure 8. Foreign Equity Inflows and Ownership**

This figure shows the evolution of foreign equity inflows and ownership in China. Panel A shows annual foreign equity portfolio inflows into China and annual procceds from domestic equity issuances (excluding initial public offerings). Values are expressed in billions of 2011 U.S. dollars (USD). Foreign inflows correspond to net changes in foreign portfolio equity positions in China (stocks, participations, depositary receipts, private equity of unlisted firms, mutual funds, and investment trusts). Panel B shows the average foreign ownership ratio across domestic listed firms each year. The foreign ownership ratio is the value of shares held by investors outside mainland China over the total value of shares outstanding per firm. Sources: Balance of Payments data from the IMF and Refinitiv.

## **A.  Foreign Equity Inflows versus Domestic Equity Issuance**

<!-- Start of picture text --> Foreign Equity Inflows to China<br><!-- End of picture text -->
particularly for African cities. Although different alternatives to measure city competitiveness have been explored by the literature (see for example Porter (1990), Faberberg (1996), Boltho (1996), World Bankl (2016)), we choose to look at firm productivity. Our decision is motivated by two arguments. First, firms that are more productive tend to locate in an environment where they can reach their maximum profit. They want to hire the best, most productive workers. They also want to have access to a good set of amenities and services. More productive firms will then cluster in more competitive cities. Second, cities that offer a good quality of life will be better positioned to attract firms and qualified workers. Since good quality of life and the standard of living are determined by the productivity of an economy, then productivity defines competitiveness (Porter, 2000, p.19). Moreover, he also points out that cities cannot become more productive and competitive unless firms become more productive. High city GDP, employment, and productivity (the three measures of competitiveness highlighted by the World Bank Report, 2016) are actually a consequence of how well firms do. This close relationship between city performance and firm performance hints that looking at firm productivity is a good proxy for measuring city competitiveness.

3 Based on national GDP growth from the Oxford Economics Dataset.

4 Even though there is some heterogeneity across the continent, the growth in total factor productivity ranges between 0.5% for the East Region and 2% for the Southern Region (with the exception of the North Region that shows a negative total factor productivity growth rate of -0.5%).

2
. More than half (52%) of the individuals have been in contact with their teachers during the school closure period. Individuals were more affected by drought in 2019 than in 2020. Specifically, 56% of respondents were affected by the drought in 2019, compared to 41% in 2020. About half of the respondents (47%) for whom

> 15Given that the COVID-19 NLPS phone survey does not provide the updated GPS coordinates of EAs where interviewed households’ reside, we hypothesize that households interviewed in October 2020 reside in the same locality as in 2018/19. To test this assumption, we assess the households’ mobility for the previous rounds of the GHS survey. Of households surveyed, 93.7% in both the GHS - Panel 2015/16 and the GHS Panel 2018/19 have not changed location a 3-year interval, while 6.97% of households have moved within the same locality, close to the original location. This evidence, along with the context of COVID-19, which led the government to impose certain restrictions, reinforces the assumption that it is unlikely that households have moved from their original location in 2020.

16
# **1. Introduction**

In an influential article in 1990, Amartya Sen noted that over 100 million women were missing.<sup>1</sup> Sen emphasized the role of economic and legal protection as critical to saving women and improving their well-being. Domestic violence – also known as intimate partner violence – is the most direct and aggressive method of lowering the status of women in every regard. The costs to society are considerable. Data from nine countries (the United States, Australia, the United Kingdom, Nicaragua, Chile, Uganda, Morocco, Bangladesh, and Vietnam) indicate that the economic cost of intimate partner violence is typically between 1 to 2 percent of GDP. Similarly, the economic cost of domestic violence in the EU25 has been estimated at about €16 billion in 2006 (Duvvury et al. 2013). It is worth noting that these cost estimates are on the conservative side, given the severe underreporting of domestic violence. For instance, Palermo et al. (2013), using data from 24 countries, find that gender-based violence is 14 times higher than the number of incidents estimated from combined formal sources, 25 times higher than estimates from police reports, 67 times higher than estimates from medical facilities, and 33 times higher than estimates from social services sources.

The barrage of statistics above mask the actual nature of what these events entail. Consider the case study of Maria de Penha Fernandes in Women, Business, and the Law 2016: Getting to Equal report (World Bank 2015). Maria was shot by her husband in 1983, and two weeks after she returned from the hospital, he attempted to electrocute her. These two consecutive murder attempts left her paraplegic. When a law on domestic violence was finally approved in Brazil in 2006, it was named the Maria de Penha Law. The emotional and psychological consequences this entails is easily lost in the numbers. A good portion of female

> 1 <u>http://www.nybooks.com
We contribute to the literature by being the first to examine the extent to which selective attention shapes the impact of public information campaigns and to compare the effects of addressing information access (La Ferrara, 2016) versus psychological distortions in information- gathering, attention, and processing (Handel and Schwartzstein, 2018). In doing so, we combine two strands of the literature. We find that the latter is crucial for the success of information campaigns. Our results are also of interest for a larger literature on the determinants of learning and information diffusion (e.g., Banerjee et al., forthcoming; Liverpool-Tasie et al., 2019; Paul and Dillon, 2019). They are of particular relevance for studies concerned with improving our understanding of the process of technology adoption and diffusion (e.g., Nelson and Phelps, 1966; Foster and Rosenzweig, 1995; Jovanovic and Nyarko 1996). This is an important area of research because heterogeneity in technology levels can explain significant differences in the performance between economies and among economic agents within the same country (e.g., Caselli and Coleman 2001, Syverson 2011).

In terms of methodological contribution, our study presents a low-cost experimental approach to estimate the effects of two components of a nationwide mass-media information campaign. We conducted a symmetric randomized encouragement design together with automated voice telephone surveys. This approach has two important features. First, it generates exogeneous variation in campaign exposure without randomizing the broadcasting itself (e.g., radio airwaves). This makes the approach relatively straightforward to reproduce. We arguably improve upon Berg and Zia (2011) by delinking monetary rewards from remembering of broadcasting content with the objective of mitigating the concern that people are artificially induced to pay more attention to the information than they would normally do. Second, inexpensive mobile phone surveys compensate for the fact that encouragement designs usually require a relatively large sample size which are difficult to achieve within a standard personal interviewing-based data collection budget. We hope that this low-cost evaluation design
has led to fewer wedding bells than often argued or assumed. PPPI has worked for the higher income groups across sectors but even there, many governments have been reluctant to tie the knot. More troublesome is the fact that PPPI has been much less effective than often believed in the poorest LDCs. Only one in three or four countries of the poorest countries have been successful in getting the private sector interested in participating in the financing of the developments of their infrastructure needs. This means that for the vast majority of the countries the government has continued to be the main actor in the sector. Moreover, the unmet hope for more PPI has probably left a bigger financing gap than often appreciated.

# **4. The promises of PPPI**

Many very diverse, often inconsistent, promises have been made in the context of reforms leading to PPPI. The most common ones can be summarized as follows:

- Contribution to fiscal stabilization

- Increased investments

- Improved efficiency from a more competitive environment

- Contribution to growth

- Better access and affordability for residential users

- Improved governance

> 4 Based on country specific descriptions  from Jane’ World Railways  Yearbook (2003-2004), available (for a fee!) at <u>http://catalog.janes.com/catalog/public/index.cfm?fuseaction=home.ProductInfoBrief&product_id=115</u> 5 For a recent overview of progress in the transport sector,  see Estache and Serebrisky (2004)

> 6 Collignon and Vezina (2000)

5
tall buildings.

Technically, the improvement of the BH layer is based on a correction factor (fxy) calculated using the relative differences between spatially overlapping BH values derived from WSF3Dv1 (BHv1), and EM building height values (BHEM) provided for the exact geographical coordinates of all buildings as defined in eq. (1) and (2): The application of a 90% adjustment factor f _xy_ (instead of directly using the EM-provided height at the xy location) is dictated by the need to prevent the original, license-protected EM information from being reconstructed from the resulting BHv2 layer.

In a second processing step, EM is also used for BH outlier detection and removal. As EM is supposed to be globally complete for all buildings _>_ 100 m (see Appx. Section B), BHv1 pixels showing a BH _>_ 100 m and not having any EM point in a 3x3 neighborhood (BHv1xy _∈/_ EM), are considered as outliers. However, as the WSF2019 settlement mask indicates the presence of buildings at this location, the actual BH value is not completely removed, but drastically reduced by applying an adaptation factor of 0.01 to the current BH value as shown in eq. (3):
1984 for the case of tariffs). The data indeed support the second hypothesis: standard political economy measures such as the level of lobbying activity, decreases in US employment, and anti-dumping actions are significantly associated with a higher number of refusals. However, the authors find that the data do not support their first hypothesis: more recent exporters actually face fewer refusals than established ones, even after controlling for export volumes. They speculate that this result may be due to a direct reputation effect, namely that enforcement resources tend to be concentrated on past violators. They do not pursue the point, but it is one that we take up here, using a different empirical specification that can better identify the effect, which we find to be highly significant. This paper therefore develops the intuition in Baylis et al. (2009) in relation to individual reputation effects, but also extends it to include the possibility of reputational spillovers from related products and sectors.

The paper proceeds as follows. In the next section, we provide an outline of the US import refusals regime. Based on that description, Section 3 presents our dataset, focusing on the new import refusals data. We present some preliminary analysis that supports our hypotheses using descriptive statistical techniques, then proceed to develop a fully-specified econometric model of import refusals. Section 4 presents and discusses the results from our model, and conducts robustness checks. Section 5 concludes with a discussion of policy implications, and avenues for further research.

# **2 The US Import Refusals Regime**

To gain admission to the US market, imported foods must meet SPS requirements applying to the product and country of origin. Broadly speaking, SPS measures are aimed at safeguarding the US market from both sanitary risks (the cause of food-borne human illnesses and animal diseases) and phytosanitary risks (vectors of transmission of plant pests and diseases).

5
34

**Fig.** 2.15. Search methods in Moscow (by quintiles based on per capita income; % of mover households in 1993 - 1995)

<!-- Start of picture text --> 25<br>20<br>0 waiting fit<br>15 0 exchange<br>10 3 0 purchase<br>5 -:^<br>-0 27-l i2.i<br>1 2 3 4 5<br><!-- End of picture text --> Note: 1 - lowest quintile, 5 - highest quintile Source: The Moscow Longitudinal Household Survey, January 1996 On the whole, in Moscow the ratio of non-market to market search methods (including exchange) was 36.2 to 63.8%, that is, about two-thirds of the volume of residential movement were determined by the advancement of the housing market. A comparison of this ratio with households' non-market vs. market preferences (47.6% to 52.4%) shows that the hopes of many for free housing are unrealistic; the market is a more effective provider.

# 2.3.3. **Changes in the housing conditions produced by residential movement**

As was shown above, at present the orientation of households' potential is towards improving their housing conditions; very few families said they would agree to move to worse housing (see Fig. 2.2). The evaluation of households who changed their place of residence in 1993-1995 shows that in most cases (82.7%) their housing conditions improved, and in 8.5% of the cases they remained unchanged. However, 8.9% of the households said that their housing situation became worse.

The actual situation depended on the year of the move (Fig. 2.16). In 1993, when the secondary market still did not have a large place in the overall housing market, only 3% of the households noted
and transfer baggage, are usually the main matters under discussion. Performance measures, services standards and compensation payments in case of non-fulfillment, are included in the final service level agreement.

# **4.2.- Monitoring quality: the case of BAA self-regulation**

In order to evaluate quality performance at airports it is necessary to distinguish between the different recipients of airport services and also between the various ways of assessing quality. The main airport customers are the airlines, which in turn depend upon paying passengers. For this reason, any performance measure standards should distinguish between services directly provided to passengers and those intended for airlines. At the same time, there are two main approaches for the assessment of quality. First, there is a subjective approach that bases its analysis on quality surveys that capture the quality perceptions of passengers and airlines. On the other hand, there are also more objective approaches involving the measurement of performance against measurable standards (see Table 4.1).

28 Price-caps might induce quality costs cutting, as operators choose to reduce quality and hence costs, rather than increase efficiency.

37
. Concerns about consistency in such cross-country databases focus on whether the source surveys are income or consumption surveys (such as Atkinson and Brandolini, 2001, and Pinkovskiy and Sala-i-Martin, 2009), and the comprehensiveness of the consumption measure (Chen and Ravallion, 2008), but not on the implications of variation in consumption survey design. Although we do not attempt a complete inventory of the consumption surveys in this database, for the data of six African countries (chosen on the basis of our past experience or access to survey materials: Côte d`Ivoire, Ghana, Malawi, South Africa, Tanzania, and Zambia)

> 1 Conceptual and practical reasons favoring consumption expenditures over income as a welfare measure are discussed in Deaton (1997). Empirically, statistics offices in a majority of the developing countries, with metadata in the United Nations Handbook of Poverty Statistics (UN 2005), use either consumption expenditures solely or in combination with income as their welfare measure. The only region with a high reliance on income surveys is Latin America, although even there increased use is made of expenditure surveys for poverty measurement.

> 2 In addition, the large and growing gaps between micro and aggregate estimates of household consumption hinder assessments of global progress in poverty reduction and the effect of economic growth on that process (Ravallion, 2003; Deaton, 2005). The extent to which possible measurement flaws in survey design format may contribute to this gap is unknown.

2
S37-S64 Institute of Medicine (2010). Promoting Cardiovascular Health in the Developing World: A Critical Challenge to Achieve Global Health. Committee on Preventing the Global Epidemic of Cardiovascular Disease: Meeting the Challenges in Developing Countries; Institute of Medicine.

Jones, M.K. (2007), “How accurate are estimates of the impact of disability on labor market participation? Evidence from the Health Survey for England,” Swansea University, School of Business, Working Paper.

Kan, K. (2007) “Cigarette smoking and self-control”, Journal of Health Economics 26:61–81 Kapteyn A., Smith J.P., van Soest A. (2009), Work Disability, Work, and Justification Bias in Europe and the U.S., NBER Working paper 15245 22