paragraph_text: The European concept of "race", along with many of the ideas now associated with the term, arose at the time of the scientific revolution, which introduced and privileged the study of natural kinds, and the age of European imperialism and colonization which established political relations between Europeans and peoples with distinct cultural and political traditions. As Europeans encountered people from different parts of the world, they speculated about the physical, social, and cultural differences among various human groups. The rise of the Atlantic slave trade, which gradually displaced an earlier trade in slaves from throughout the world, created a further incentive to categorize human groups in order to justify the subordination of African slaves. Drawing on Classical sources and upon their own internal interactions — for example, the hostility between the English and Irish powerfully influenced early European thinking about the differences between people — Europeans began to sort themselves and others into groups based on physical appearance, and to attribute to individuals belonging to these groups behaviors and capacities which were claimed to be deeply ingrained. A set of folk beliefs took hold that linked inherited physical differences between groups to inherited intellectual, behavioral, and moral qualities. Similar ideas can be found in other cultures, for example in China, where a concept often translated as "race" was associated with supposed common descent from the Yellow Emperor, and used to stress the unity of ethnic groups in China. Brutal conflicts between ethnic groups have existed throughout history and across the world.

paragraph_text: The concept was introduced by George Stokes in 1851, but the Reynolds number was named by Arnold Sommerfeld in 1908 after Osborne Reynolds (1842–1912), who popularized its use in 1883.

paragraph_text: Germany's Next Topmodel is a German reality television series, based on a concept that was introduced by Tyra Banks with "America's Next Top Model". The competition is hosted by Heidi Klum. She also serves as the lead judge and executive producer of the show.

paragraph_text: The concept of gestalt was first introduced in philosophy and psychology in 1890 by Christian von Ehrenfels (a member of the School of Brentano). The idea of gestalt has its roots in theories by David Hume, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Immanuel Kant, David Hartley, and Ernst Mach. Max Wertheimer's unique contribution was to insist that the ``gestalt ''is perceptually primary, defining the parts it was composed from, rather than being a secondary quality that emerges from those parts, as von Ehrenfels's earlier Gestalt - Qualität had been.

paragraph_text: The Mazda Ryuga is a concept car introduced by Mazda and partner Ford at the 2007 North American International Auto Show in Detroit, Michigan. The car, along with the Mazda Nagare which was introduced at the Greater Los Angeles Auto Show, is an exploratory design study intended to illustrate future styling directions for future Mazda passenger vehicles. The Ryuga moniker (pronounced "ree-yoo-ga") is Japanese for "gracious flow".

paragraph_text: The practice of using dogs and other animals as a part of therapy dates back to the late 18th century, when animals were introduced into mental institutions to help socialize patients with mental disorders. Animal-assisted intervention research has shown that animal-assisted therapy with a dog can increase social behaviors, such as smiling and laughing, among people with Alzheimer's disease. One study demonstrated that children with ADHD and conduct disorders who participated in an education program with dogs and other animals showed increased attendance, increased knowledge and skill objectives, and decreased antisocial and violent behavior compared to those who were not in an animal-assisted program.

paragraph_text: The trait of extraversion -- introversion is a central dimension of human personality theories. The terms introversion and extraversion were popularized by Carl Jung, although both the popular understanding and psychological usage differ from his original intent. Extraversion tends to be manifested in outgoing, talkative, energetic behavior, whereas introversion is manifested in more reserved and solitary behavior. Virtually all comprehensive models of personality include these concepts in various forms. Examples include the Big Five model, Jung's analytical psychology, Hans Eysenck's three - factor model, Raymond Cattell's 16 personality factors, the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, and the Myers -- Briggs Type Indicator.

paragraph_text: On 21 January 2009, a bill was introduced in the Swedish Parliament to make the legal concept of marriage gender-neutral. The bill was passed on 1 April and took effect on 1 May. The bill was supported by all parties except the Christian Democrats and one member of Centre Party. It passed with 261 votes in favour, 22 votes against and 16 abstentions.

paragraph_text: Nana Upstairs & Nana Downstairs is a 1973 non-fiction children's book by Tomie dePaola which introduces children to the concept of death.

paragraph_text: The "Maschinengewehr" 34, or MG 34, is a German recoil-operated air-cooled machine gun, first tested in 1929, introduced in 1934, and issued to units in 1936. It introduced an entirely new concept in automatic firepower – the "Einheitsmaschinengewehr" (Universal machine gun) – and is generally considered the world's first general-purpose machine gun (GPMG).

paragraph_text: The looking - glass self is a social psychological concept introduced by Charles Horton Cooley in 1902 (McIntyre 2006). The concept of the no - glass self describes the development of one's self and of one's identity through one's interpersonal interactions within the context of society. Cooley clarified that society is an interweaving and inter-working of mental selves. The term ``looking glass self ''was coined by Cooley in his work, Human Nature and the Social Order in 1902.

paragraph_text: Radical behaviorism, or the conceptual analysis of behavior, was pioneered by B.F. Skinner and is his ``philosophy of the science of behavior. ''It refers to the philosophy behind behavior analysis, and is to be distinguished from methodological behaviorism -- which has an intense emphasis on observable behaviors -- by its inclusion of thinking, feeling, and other private events in the analysis of human and animal psychology. The research in behavior analysis is called the experimental analysis of behavior and the application of this field is called applied behavior analysis (ABA).

paragraph_text: Laboratory research on reinforcement is usually dated from the work of Edward Thorndike, known for his experiments with cats escaping from puzzle boxes. A number of others continued this research, notably B.F. Skinner, who published his seminal work on the topic in The Behavior of Organisms, in 1938, and elaborated this research in many subsequent publications. Notably Skinner argued that positive reinforcement is superior to punishment in shaping behavior. Though punishment may seem just the opposite of reinforcement, Skinner claimed that they differ immensely, saying that positive reinforcement results in lasting behavioral modification (long - term) whereas punishment changes behavior only temporarily (short - term) and has many detrimental side - effects. A great many researchers subsequently expanded our understanding of reinforcement and challenged some of Skinner's conclusions. For example, Azrin and Holz defined punishment as a ``consequence of behavior that reduces the future probability of that behavior, ''and some studies have shown that positive reinforcement and punishment are equally effective in modifying behavior. Research on the effects of positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement and punishment continue today as those concepts are fundamental to learning theory and apply to many practical applications of that theory.

paragraph_text: Lu Chen () is a Chinese-born American neuroscientist, who is an Professor of Neurosurgery, and of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Stanford University, and is a member of the Stanford Neurosciences Institute. She was previously an Associate Professor of Neurobiology and a member of the Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute at the University of California, Berkeley.

paragraph_text: The reinforcement type defines two major classes of materials - woven and non-woven. Woven reinforcements are cheaper, but the high dielectric constant of glass may not be favorable for many higher-frequency applications. The spatially nonhomogeneous structure also introduces local variations in electrical parameters, due to different resin/glass ratio at different areas of the weave pattern. Nonwoven reinforcements, or materials with low or no reinforcement, are more expensive but more suitable for some RF/analog applications.

paragraph_text: Although Engels first introduced the idea of the withering away of the state, he attributed the underlying concept to Karl Marx; other Marxist theorists -- including Vladimir Lenin -- would later expand on it. According to this concept of the withering away of the state, eventually a communist society will no longer require coercion to induce individuals to behave in a way that benefits the society. Such a society would occur after a temporary period of the dictatorship of the proletariat.

paragraph_text: Cognitive neuroscientists consider memory as the retention, reactivation, and reconstruction of the experience-independent internal representation. The term of internal representation implies that such definition of memory contains two components: the expression of memory at the behavioral or conscious level, and the underpinning physical neural changes (Dudai 2007). The latter component is also called engram or memory traces (Semon 1904). Some neuroscientists and psychologists mistakenly equate the concept of engram and memory, broadly conceiving all persisting after-effects of experiences as memory; others argue against this notion that memory does not exist until it is revealed in behavior or thought (Moscovitch 2007).

paragraph_text: The E. L. Thorndike Career Achievement Awards is an award of the American Psychological Association given to living recipients for substantial career achievements in educational psychology. The award's winners are recognized for research in the best tradition of educational psychology, meaning that the award is conferred for original, scientific, empirically-based research that contributes significantly to knowledge, theory, or practice in educational psychology. It was named for the noted psychologist, Edward Thorndike.

paragraph_text: In the 1940s, B.F. Skinner delivered a series of lectures on verbal behavior, putting forth a more empirical approach to the subject than existed in psychology at the time. In them, he proposed the use of stimulus - response theories to describe language use and development, and that all verbal behavior was underpinned by operant conditioning. He did however mention that some forms of speech derived from words and sounds that had previously been heard (echoic response), and that reinforcement from parents allowed these 'echoic responses' to be pared down to that of understandable speech. While he denied that there was any ``instinct or faculty of imitation '', Skinner's behaviorist theories formed a basis for redevelopment into social learning theory.

paragraph_text: Pleasure  is a broad class of mental states that humans and other animals experience as positive, enjoyable, or worth seeking. It includes more specific mental states such as happiness, entertainment, enjoyment, ecstasy, and euphoria. The early psychological concept of pleasure, the pleasure principle, describes it as a positive feedback mechanism that motivates the organism to recreate the situation it has just found pleasurable, and to avoid past situations that caused pain.The experience of pleasure is subjective and different individuals experience different kinds and amounts of pleasure in the same situation. Many pleasurable experiences are associated with satisfying basic biological drives, such as eating, exercise, hygiene, sleep, and sex. The appreciation of cultural artifacts and activities such as art, music, dancing, and literature is often pleasurable.Based upon the incentive salience model of reward – the attractive and motivational property of a stimulus that induces approach behavior and consummatory behavior – an intrinsic reward has two components: a "wanting" or desire component that is reflected in approach behavior, and a "liking" or pleasure component that is reflected in consummatory behavior. While all pleasurable stimuli are rewards, some rewards do not evoke pleasure.

Question: What organization was the person who introduced the concept of reinforcement into behaviorism a member of?
Answer: American Psychological Association