paragraph_text: Norman Swartz (born 1939) is a professor emeritus (retired 1998) of philosophy, Simon Fraser University. He is the author or co-author of multiple books and multiple articles on the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. He earned a B.A. in physics from Harvard University in 1961, an M.A. in history and philosophy of science from Indiana University in 1965 and a Ph.D. in history of philosophy of science in 1971 also from Indiana University. He uses the term physical law to mean the laws of nature as they truly are and not as they are inferred and described in the practice of science.

paragraph_text: The Kurt Gödel Society was founded in Vienna, Austria in 1987. It is an international organization aimed at promoting research primarily on logic, philosophy and the history of mathematics, with special attention to connections with Kurt Gödel, in whose honour it was named.

paragraph_text: Louis Hirsch Kauffman (born February 3, 1945) is an American mathematician, topologist, and professor of Mathematics in the Department of Mathematics, Statistics, and Computer science at the University of Illinois at Chicago. He is known for the introduction and development of the bracket polynomial and the Kauffman polynomial.

paragraph_text: The Hollis Chair of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy is an endowed professorship established at Harvard College in 1727 by Thomas Hollis.

paragraph_text: Scripta Mathematica was a quarterly journal published by Yeshiva University devoted to the philosophy, history, and expository treatment of mathematics. It was said to be, at its time, "the only mathematical magazine in the world edited by specialists for laymen."

paragraph_text: Melvyn Bernard Nathanson (born October 10, 1944, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania) is an American mathematician, specializing in number theory, and a Professor of Mathematics at Lehman College and The Graduate Center (City University of New York). His principal work is in additive and combinatorial number theory. He is the author of over 150 research papers in mathematics, and author or editor of 20 books.

paragraph_text: The neopositivists subscribed to a notion of philosophy as the conceptual clarification of the methods, insights and discoveries of the sciences. They saw in the logical symbolism elaborated by Frege (1848–1925) and Bertrand Russell (1872–1970) a powerful instrument that could rationally reconstruct all scientific discourse into an ideal, logically perfect, language that would be free of the ambiguities and deformations of natural language. This gave rise to what they saw as metaphysical pseudoproblems and other conceptual confusions. By combining Frege's thesis that all mathematical truths are logical with the early Wittgenstein's idea that all logical truths are mere linguistic tautologies, they arrived at a twofold classification of all propositions: the analytic (a priori) and the synthetic (a posteriori). On this basis, they formulated a strong principle of demarcation between sentences that have sense and those that do not: the so-called verification principle. Any sentence that is not purely logical, or is unverifiable is devoid of meaning. As a result, most metaphysical, ethical, aesthetic and other traditional philosophical problems came to be considered pseudoproblems.

paragraph_text: Louis Bourguet (23 April 1678, Nîmes – 31 December 1742, Neuchâtel) was a polymath and correspondent of Leibniz who wrote on archaeology, geology, philosophy, Biblical scholarship and mathematics.

paragraph_text: Kenneth Allen Taylor (born 1954) is an American philosopher. He was the chair of the department of philosophy at Stanford University from 2001 to 2009. Professor Taylor specializes in philosophy of language and philosophy of mind. His interests include semantics, reference, naturalism, and relativism. He is the author of numerous articles, which have appeared in journals such as "Noûs", "Philosophical Studies", and "Philosophy and Phenomenological Research", and three books, "Truth and Meaning: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Language" (Blackwell Publishers), "Reference and the Rational Mind" (CSLI Publications) "Meaning Diminished: Toward Metaphysically Modest Semantics." (Oxford University Press)

paragraph_text: Philip Ehrlich is Professor at Department of Philosophy of Ohio University. His main areas of interest are Logic, History of Mathematics, and Philosophy of Science.

paragraph_text: John Samuel Forrest attended the famous Hamilton Academy school where he won the Dux Medal, Mathematics Medal and the Science Medal, and coming third in the University of Glasgow Bursary Examination of 1925 was awarded the John Clerk (Mile End) Bursary to study Mathematics and Natural Philosophy at the university. In 1929 while still an under-graduate Forrest was admitted as a research student in the Science Faculty and awarded the Thomson Experimental Scholarship followed by the Mackay-Smith Scholarship. He also won the Thomson Prize in Astronomy and graduated in 1930 with a double degree, B.Sc. in pure science, with a second class honours in Mathematics and Natural Philosophy.

paragraph_text: Jacques Rancière (; born 1940) is a French philosopher, Professor of Philosophy at European Graduate School in Saas-Fee and former Professor of Philosophy at the who came to prominence when he co-authored "Reading Capital" (1968), with the structuralist Marxist philosopher Louis Althusser.

paragraph_text: The context principle is one of Gottlob Frege's ``three fundamental principles ''for philosophical analysis, first discussed in his Introduction to The Foundations of Arithmetic (Grundlagen der Arithmetik, 1884). Frege argued that many philosophical errors, especially those related to psychologism in the philosophy of logic and philosophy of mathematics, could be avoided by adhering carefully to the context principle. The view of meaning expressed by the context principle is sometimes called contextualism, but should not be confused with the common contemporary use of the term contextualism in epistemology or ethics. This view need not be contrasted with the view that the meanings of words or expressions can (or must) be determined prior to, and independently of, the meanings of the propositions in which they occur, which is often referred to as compositionalism.

paragraph_text: Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy is a book by Bertrand Russell, published in 1919, written in part to exposit in a less technical way the main ideas of his and Whitehead's "Principia Mathematica" (1910–13), including the theory of descriptions.

paragraph_text: Arabic Sciences and Philosophy, subtitled "A Historical Journal", is a peer-reviewed academic journal published by Cambridge University Press. The journal deals with the history of Arabic science, mathematics and philosophy between the 8th and the 18th centuries in a cross-cultural context. It publishes original papers on the history of these disciplines as well as studies of the relations between Arabic sciences and philosophy, with Greek, Indian, Chinese, Latin, Byzantine, Syriac, and Hebrew sciences and philosophy. The journal was established in 1991 and is published twice a year.

paragraph_text: Jean-Claude Falmagne (born February 4, 1934, in Brussels, Belgium) is a mathematical psychologist whose scientific contributions deal with problems in reaction time theory, psychophysics, philosophy of science, measurement theory, decision theory, and educational technology. Together with Jean-Paul Doignon, he developed knowledge space theory, which is the mathematical foundation for the ALEKS software for the assessment of knowledge in various academic subjects, including K-12 mathematics, chemistry, and accounting.

paragraph_text: William Craig (November 13, 1918 – January 13, 2016) was an American academic and philosopher, who taught at the University of California, Berkeley, in Berkeley, California. His research interests included mathematical logic, and the philosophy of science, and he is best known for the Craig interpolation theorem.

paragraph_text: Margaret Heafield was born on August 17, 1936, in Paoli, Indiana, to Kenneth Heafield and Ruth Esther Heafield (née Partington). After graduating from Hancock High School in 1954, she studied mathematics at the University of Michigan in 1955. She earned a BA in mathematics with a minor in philosophy from Earlham College in 1958.She briefly taught high school mathematics and French upon graduation to support her husband while he worked on his undergraduate degree at Harvard University. She moved to Boston, Massachusetts, with the intention of doing graduate study in abstract mathematics at Brandeis University. She cites Florence Long, the head of the math department at Earlham College, as helping with her desire to pursue abstract mathematics and become a mathematics professor. She had other inspirations outside the world of technology including her father (a philosopher and poet), and her grandfather (a school headmaster and Quaker minister). She says these men inspired her to include a minor in philosophy in her studies.

paragraph_text: The French mathematical physicist Alexis Clairaut assessed it in 1747: "The famous book of Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy marked the epoch of a great revolution in physics. The method followed by its illustrious author Sir Newton ... spread the light of mathematics on a science which up to then had remained in the darkness of conjectures and hypotheses."A more recent assessment has been that while acceptance of Newton's theories was not immediate, by the end of a century after publication in 1687, "no one could deny that" (out of the Principia) "a science had emerged that, at least in certain respects, so far exceeded anything that had ever gone before that it stood alone as the ultimate exemplar of science generally."In formulating his physical theories, Newton developed and used mathematical methods now included in the field of calculus. But the language of calculus as we know it was largely absent from the Principia; Newton gave many of his proofs in a geometric form of infinitesimal calculus, based on limits of ratios of vanishing small geometric quantities. In a revised conclusion to the Principia (see General Scholium), Newton used his expression that became famous, Hypotheses non fingo ("I feign no hypotheses").

paragraph_text: Stephen Menn (born 1964) is Professor of Philosophy at McGill University and, between 2011 and 2015, was Professor of Ancient and Contemporary Philosophy at Humboldt University of Berlin and the author of "Descartes and Augustine" about the origin of Descartes' "cogito". His specialties include ancient philosophy (Plato, Aristotle, Stoicism and neo-Platonism), medieval philosophy (Western and Islamic). He is also a mathematician, holding a doctorate in Mathematics from Johns Hopkins University in 1985 and one in Philosophy from University of Chicago in 1989.

Question: When did the author of Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy die?
Answer: 1970