Problem: Please answer a question about the following article about Madrasa:
Madaris were largely centred on the study of fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence). The ijazat al-tadris wa-al-ifta' ("licence to teach and issue legal opinions") in the medieval Islamic legal education system had its origins in the 9th century after the formation of the madhahib (schools of jurisprudence). George Makdisi considers the ijazah to be the origin of the European doctorate. However, in an earlier article, he considered the ijazah to be of "fundamental difference" to the medieval doctorate, since the former was awarded by an individual teacher-scholar not obliged to follow any formal criteria, whereas the latter was conferred on the student by the collective authority of the faculty. To obtain an ijazah, a student "had to study in a guild school of law, usually four years for the basic undergraduate course" and ten or more years for a post-graduate course. The "doctorate was obtained after an oral examination to determine the originality of the candidate's theses", and to test the student's "ability to defend them against all objections, in disputations set up for the purpose." These were scholarly exercises practised throughout the student's "career as a graduate student of law." After students completed their post-graduate education, they were awarded ijazas giving them the status of faqih 'scholar of jurisprudence', mufti 'scholar competent in issuing fatwas', and mudarris 'teacher'.
What traditional schooling has been considered modeled after the traditional Islamic graduate schools?
A: European doctorate
Problem: Please answer a question about the following article about Alps:
The Alps are a habitat for 30,000 species of wildlife, ranging from the tiniest snow fleas to brown bears, many of which have made adaptations to the harsh cold conditions and high altitudes to the point that some only survive in specific micro-climates either directly above or below the snow line.
How many species of wildlife habitat the Alps?
A: 30,000 species
Problem: Please answer a question about the following article about Dialect:
There are various terms that linguists may use to avoid taking a position on whether the speech of a community is an independent language in its own right or a dialect of another language. Perhaps the most common is "variety"; "lect" is another. A more general term is "languoid", which does not distinguish between dialects, languages, and groups of languages, whether genealogically related or not.
What is the most common way of referring to a language without making the determination of whether it's a dialect or independent language?
A: variety
Problem: Please answer a question about the following article about Buckingham Palace:
Widowed in 1861, the grief-stricken Queen withdrew from public life and left Buckingham Palace to live at Windsor Castle, Balmoral Castle and Osborne House. For many years the palace was seldom used, even neglected. In 1864, a note was found pinned to the fence of Buckingham Palace, saying: "These commanding premises to be let or sold, in consequence of the late occupant's declining business." Eventually, public opinion forced the Queen to return to London, though even then she preferred to live elsewhere whenever possible. Court functions were still held at Windsor Castle, presided over by the sombre Queen habitually dressed in mourning black, while Buckingham Palace remained shuttered for most of the year.
What did Queen Victoria do in response to his death?
A:
left Buckingham Palace