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European comics studies began with Topffer's theories of his own work in the 1840s, which emphasized panel transitions and the visualverbal combination. No further progress was made until the 1970s. Pierre Fresnault-Deruelle then took a semiotics approach to the study of comics, analyzing textimage relations, page-level image relations, and image discontinuities, or what Scott McCloud later dubbed "closure". In 1987, Henri Vanlier introduced the term multicadre, or "multiframe", to refer to the comics a page as a semantic unit. By the 1990s, theorists such as Benoit Peeters and Thierry Groensteen turned attention to artists' poietic creative choices. Thierry Smolderen and Harry Morgan have held relativistic views of the definition of comics, a medium that has taken various, equally valid forms over its history. Morgan sees comics as a subset of "les litteratures dessinees" (or "drawn literatures"). French theory has come to give special attention to the page, in distinction from American theories such as McCloud's which focus on panel-to-panel transitions. Since the mid-2000s, Neil Cohn has begun analyzing how comics are understood using tools from cognitive science, extending beyond theory by using actual psychological and neuroscience experiments. This work has argued that sequential images and page layouts both use separate rule-bound "grammars" to be understood that extend beyond panel-to-panel transitions and categorical distinctions of types of layouts, and that the brain's comprehension of comics is similar to comprehending other domains, such as language and music.

Who used cognitive science to learn how people understand comics?
Answer: Neil Cohn
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Education remained mostly focused on the training of future clergy. The basic learning of the letters and numbers remained the province of the family or a village priest, but the secondary subjects of the triviumgrammar, rhetoric, logicwere studied in cathedral schools or in schools provided by cities. Commercial secondary schools spread, and some Italian towns had more than one such enterprise. Universities also spread throughout Europe in the 14th and 15th centuries. Lay literacy rates rose, but were still low; one estimate gave a literacy rate of ten per cent of males and one per cent of females in 1500.

In 1500, approximately what percent of European women could read?
Answer: one
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The Bibliotheque nationale de France (BnF) operates public libraries in Paris, among them the Francois Mitterrand Library, Richelieu Library, Louvois, Opera Library, and Arsenal Library. There are three public libraries in the 4th arrondissement. The Forney Library, in the Marais district, is dedicated to the decorative arts; the Arsenal Library occupies a former military building, and has a large collection on French literature; and the Bibliotheque historique de la ville de Paris, also in Le Marais, contains the Paris historical research service. The Sainte-Genevieve Library is in 5th arrondissement; designed by Henri Labrouste and built in the mid-1800s, it contains a rare book and manuscript division. Bibliotheque Mazarine, in the 6th arrondissement, is the oldest public library in France. The Mediatheque Musicale Mahler in the 8th arrondissement opened in 1986 and contains collections related to music. The Francois Mitterrand Library (nicknamed Tres Grande Bibliotheque) in the 13th arrondissement was completed in 1994 to a design of Dominique Perrault and contains four glass towers.

When was the Sainte Genevieve Library built?
Answer:
mid-1800s