Q: Materialism is a form of philosophical monism which holds that matter is the fundamental substance in nature, and that all phenomena, including mental phenomena and consciousness, are identical with material interactions.

Materialism is closely related to physicalism, the view that all that exists is ultimately physical. Philosophical physicalism has evolved from materialism with the discoveries of the physical sciences to incorporate more sophisticated notions of physicality than mere ordinary matter, such as: spacetime, physical energies and forces, dark matter, and so on. Thus the term "physicalism" is preferred over "materialism" by some, while others use the terms as if they are synonymous.

Materialism belongs to the class of monist ontology. As such, it is different from ontological theories based on dualism or pluralism. For singular explanations of the phenomenal reality, materialism would be in contrast to idealism, neutral monism, and spiritualism.

Despite the large number of philosophical schools and subtle nuances between many, all philosophies are said to fall into one of two primary categories, which are defined in contrast to each other: Idealism, and materialism.[a] The basic proposition of these two categories pertains to the nature of reality, and the primary distinction between them is the way they answer two fundamental questions: "what does reality consist of?" and "how does it originate?" To idealists, spirit or mind or the objects of mind (ideas) are primary, and matter secondary. To materialists, matter is primary, and mind or spirit or ideas are secondary, the product of matter acting upon matter.

Answer the following questions:
1. what is materialism closely related to?
2. do some people prefer that term?
3. what is matter to materialists in terms of priority?
A: 1. physicalism
2. Yes
3. secondary
Q: The Korean language (, see below) is the official and national language of both Koreas: the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea) and the Republic of Korea (South Korea), with different standardized official forms used in each territory. It is also one of the two official languages in the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture and Changbai Korean Autonomous County of the People's Republic of China. Approximately 80 million people worldwide speak Korean.

Historical and modern linguists classify Korean as a language isolate; however, it does have a few extinct relatives, which together with Korean itself and the Jeju language (spoken in the Jeju Province and considered somewhat distinct) form the Koreanic language family. This implies that Korean is not an isolate, but a member of a small family. The idea that Korean belongs to the controversial Altaic language family is discredited in academic research. There is still debate about a relation to Dravidian languages and on whether Korean and Japanese are related to each other. The Korean language is agglutinative in its morphology and SOV in its syntax.

Modern Korean descends from Middle Korean, which in turn descends from Old Korean, which descends from the language spoken in Prehistoric Korea (labeled Proto-Korean), whose nature is debated, in part because Korean genetic origins are controversial. A relation of Korean (together with its extinct relatives which form the Koreanic family) with Japonic languages has been proposed by linguists such as William George Aston and Samuel Martin. Roy Andrew Miller and others suggested or supported the inclusion of Koreanic and Japonic languages in the purported Altaic family (a macro-family that would comprise Tungusic, Mongolian and Turkic families); the Altaic hypothesis has since been largely rejected by most linguistic specialists.

Answer the following questions:
1. Where does modern Korean descend from?
2. And where does that descend from?
3. What do linguists classify Korean as?
4. What is the official and national language of both Koreas?
5. What is another name for The Democratic People's Republic of Korea?
6. And what is South Korea?
7. About how many people speak Korean worldwide?
8. What is William George Aston?
9. And Samuel Martin?
10. Do we know whether Korean and Japanese are related?
11. What is Korean in its morphology?
12. Where is it one of the two official languages?
13. Where is the Jeju language spoken?
14. What is discredited in academic research?
15. And what is there still debate about?
16. What is another name for the language spoken in Prehistoric Korea?
17. Why is its nature debated?
18. What form the Koreanic family?
19. What did Roy Andrew Miller suggest?
20. Was he alone in suggesting that?
A: 1. Middle Korean
2. Old Korean
3. a language isolate
4. Korean
5. North Korea
6. the Republic of Korea
7. 80 million
8. a linguist
9. a linguist
10. no
11. agglutinative
12. the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture
13. the Jeju Province
14. The idea that Korean belongs to the controversial Altaic language family
15. a relation to Dravidian languages
16. Proto-Korean
17. Korean genetic origins are controversial
18. Korean and its extinct relatives
19. the inclusion of Koreanic and Japonic languages in the purported Altaic family
20. no
Q: CHAPTER THIRTY ONE.

RETRIBUTION.

Owing to the success of the buffalo runners, the winter passed away in comparative comfort. But, as we have said, some of the settlers who had been ruined by the failure of the fisheries and the depredations of the mice, and who did not share much in the profits of the autumn hunt, were obliged once again to seek their old port of refuge at Pembina.

Among these was the Swiss family Morel. Andre went, because he did not wish to remain comparatively idle in the colony during the long months of winter. Elise went for the purpose of keeping house--perhaps we should say keeping hut--for Andre. Fred Jenkins went because he wanted to learn more about Indian ways and customs, as well as to perfect himself in the art of hunting the buffalo--that was all!

There were some who did not believe what the bold seaman said. Elise Morel was one of these--perhaps the most unbelieving amongst them.

Indeed, she laughed quite hilariously when his motive was reported to her by Billie Sinclair the day before they started.

"Why do you laugh so?" inquired Little Bill, who was always more or less in a state of surprise when he got upon this subject with Elise.

"It is not easy to say, Billie," answered the girl, with another pleasant little laugh, "but it is so funny that a sailor should take such a fancy to come out here, so far away from his native element, and find so much interest in snow-shoe walking and Indian customs."

Answer the following questions:
1. Where was Andre'?
2. Why was Elise there?
3. Why did Andre want to get out of there?
4. Who else was there?
5. Why did he come along?
6. Was something funy?
7. Who answered Billy?
8. What was humorous?
9. Was someone surprised?
10. Was something reported to her?
A:
1. Swiss family Morel
2. purpose of keeping house
3. because he did not wish to remain comparatively idle in the colony during the long months of winter
4. Fred Jenkins
5. he wanted to learn more about Indian ways and customs, as well as to perfect himself in the art of hunting the buffalo
6. it is so funny that a sailor should take such a fancy to come out here, so far away from his native element, and find so much interest in snow-shoe walking and Indian customs."
7. the girl
8. a sailor should take such a fancy to come out here, so far away from his native element, and find so much interest in snow-shoe walking and Indian customs."
9. Elise Morel
10. his motive