Please answer the following question: Information: - Organic Reactions is a secondary reference which synthesizes the organic chemistry literature around particular chemical transformations. Each chapter of "Organic Reactions" is devoted to a particular organic chemical reaction, and chapters provide exhaustive coverage of literature work in the form of a tabular survey of known reactions. Mechanistic and experimental details, including the scope and limitations of each transformation, are also included. - Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams. The harder forms, such as anthracite coal, can be regarded as metamorphic rock because of later exposure to elevated temperature and pressure. Coal is composed primarily of carbon, along with variable quantities of other elements, chiefly hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen. A fossil fuel, coal forms when dead plant matter is converted into peat, which in turn is converted into lignite, then sub-bituminous coal, after that bituminous coal, and lastly anthracite. This involves biological and geological processes that take place over time. - Chemistry is a branch of physical science that studies the composition, structure, properties and change of matter. Chemistry includes topics such as the properties of individual atoms, how atoms form chemical bonds to create chemical compounds, the interactions of substances through intermolecular forces that give matter its general properties, and the interactions between substances through chemical reactions to form different substances. - Half-life (abbreviated t) is the time required for a quantity to reduce to half its initial value. The term is commonly used in nuclear physics to describe how quickly unstable atoms undergo, or how long stable atoms survive, radioactive decay. The term is also used more generally to characterize any type of exponential or non-exponential decay. For example, the medical sciences refer to the biological half-life of drugs and other chemicals in the body. The converse of half-life is doubling time. - Glass is a non-crystalline amorphous solid that is often transparent and has widespread practical, technological, and decorative usage in, for example, window panes, tableware, and optoelectronics. The most familiar, and historically the oldest, types of glass are "silicate glasses" based on the chemical compound silica (silicon dioxide, or quartz), the primary constituent of sand. The term "glass", in popular usage, is often used to refer only to this type of material, which is familiar from use as window glass and in glass bottles. Of the many silica-based glasses that exist, ordinary glazing and container glass is formed from a specific type called soda-lime glass, composed of approximately 75% silicon dioxide (SiO), sodium oxide (NaO) from sodium carbonate (NaCO), calcium oxide, also called lime (CaO), and several minor additives. - Loss of hydrogen (H). In most organic elimination reactions, at least one hydrogen is lost to form the double bond: the unsaturation of the molecule increases. It is also possible that a molecule undergoes reductive elimination, by which the valence of an atom in the molecule decreases by two, though this is more common in inorganic chemistry. An important class of elimination reactions is those involving alkyl halides, with good leaving groups, reacting with a Lewis base to form an alkene. Elimination may be considered the reverse of an addition reaction. When the substrate is asymmetric, regioselectivity is determined by Zaitsev's rule or through Hofmann elimination if the carbon with the most substituted hydrogen is inaccessible. - A polymer (Greek "poly-", "many" + "-mer", "parts") is a large molecule, or macromolecule, composed of many repeated subunits. Because of their broad range of properties, both synthetic and natural polymers play an essential and ubiquitous role in everyday life. Polymers range from familiar synthetic plastics such as polystyrene to natural biopolymers such as DNA and proteins that are fundamental to biological structure and function. Polymers, both natural and synthetic, are created via polymerization of many small molecules, known as monomers. Their consequently large molecular mass relative to small molecule compounds produces unique physical properties, including toughness, viscoelasticity, and a tendency to form glasses and semicrystalline structures rather than crystals. - In silico (literally Latin for "in silicon", alluding to the mass use of silicon for semiconductor computer chips) is an expression used to mean "performed on computer or via computer simulation." The phrase was coined in 1989 as an allusion to the Latin phrases "in vivo", "in vitro", and "in situ", which are commonly used in biology (see also systems biology) and refer to experiments done in living organisms, outside of living organisms, and where they are found in nature, respectively. - A chemical compound (or just compound if used in the context of chemistry) is an entity consisting of two or more atoms, at least two from different elements, which associate via chemical bonds. There are four types of compounds, depending on how the constituent atoms are held together: molecules held together by covalent bonds, ionic compounds held together by ionic bonds, intermetallic compounds held together by metallic bonds, and certain complexes held together by coordinate covalent bonds. Many chemical compounds have a unique numerical identifier assigned by the Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS): its CAS number. - A crystal or crystalline solid is a solid material whose constituents (such as atoms, molecules, or ions) are arranged in a highly ordered microscopic structure, forming a crystal lattice that extends in all directions. In addition, macroscopic single crystals are usually identifiable by their geometrical shape, consisting of flat faces with specific, characteristic orientations. The scientific study of crystals and crystal formation is known as crystallography. The process of crystal formation via mechanisms of crystal growth is called crystallization or solidification. - Intermolecular forces (IMFs) are the forces which mediate interaction between molecules. They also include forces of attraction or repulsion which act between molecules and other types of neighboring particles (e.g., atoms or ions). They are weak compared to the intramolecular forces the forces which keep a molecule together. For example, the covalent bond, involving the sharing of electron pairs between atoms, is much stronger than the forces present between neighboring molecules. Both sets of forces are essential parts of force fields frequently used in molecular mechanics. - Systems biology is the computational and mathematical modeling of complex biological systems. An emerging engineering approach applied to biological scientific research, systems biology is a biology-based inter-disciplinary field of study that focuses on complex interactions within biological systems, using a holistic approach (holism instead of the more traditional reductionism) to biological research. Particularly from year 2000 onwards, the concept has been used widely in the biosciences in a variety of contexts. For example, the Human Genome Project is an example of applied systems thinking in biology which has led to new, collaborative ways of working on problems in the biological field of genetics. One of the outreaching aims of systems biology is to model and discover emergent properties, properties of cells, tissues and organisms functioning as a system whose theoretical description is only possible using techniques which fall under the remit of systems biology. These typically involve metabolic networks or cell signaling networks. - Proteins (or ) are large biomolecules, or macromolecules, consisting of one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including catalysing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, responding to stimuli, and transporting molecules from one location to another. Proteins differ from one another primarily in their sequence of amino acids, which is dictated by the nucleotide sequence of their genes, and which usually results in protein folding into a specific three-dimensional structure that determines its activity. - Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a molecule that carries the genetic instructions used in the growth, development, functioning and reproduction of all known living organisms and many viruses. DNA and RNA are nucleic acids; alongside proteins, lipids and complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides), they are one of the four major types of macromolecules that are essential for all known forms of life. Most DNA molecules consist of two biopolymer strands coiled around each other to form a double helix. - In molecular biology and pharmacology, a small molecule is a low molecular weight (<900 daltons) organic compound that may help regulate a biological process, with a size on the order of 1nm. Most drugs are small molecules. - In Vitroes are a fictional genetically engineered subspecies of humans in the science fiction television series "". The name is etymologically derived from the Latin phrase ""in vitro"", which is used in science to refer to state of being in an artificial environment outside the living organism. Thus, In Vitro refers to the race not only being conceived in a laboratory, but also artificially gestated in glass and metal cylinders, to be "born" as young adults. - Carbon (from "coal") is a chemical element with symbol C and atomic number 6. It is nonmetallic and tetravalentmaking four electrons available to form covalent chemical bonds. Three isotopes occur naturally, C and C being stable, while C is a radioactive isotope, decaying with a half-life of about 5,730years. Carbon is one of the few elements known since antiquity. - A molecule is an electrically neutral group of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds. Molecules are distinguished from ions by their lack of electrical charge. However, in quantum physics, organic chemistry, and biochemistry, the term "molecule" is often used less strictly, also being applied to polyatomic ions. - Organic reactions are chemical reactions involving organic compounds. The basic organic chemistry reaction types are addition reactions, elimination reactions, substitution reactions, pericyclic reactions, rearrangement reactions, photochemical reactions and redox reactions. In organic synthesis, organic reactions are used in the construction of new organic molecules. The production of many man-made chemicals such as drugs, plastics, food additives, fabrics depend on organic reactions. - In the classical physics observed in everyday life, if something has mass and takes up space, it is said to be composed of matter; this includes atoms (and thus molecules) and anything made up of these, but not other energy phenomena or waves such as light or sound. More generally, however, in (modern) physics, matter is not a fundamental concept because a universal definition of it is elusive: elementary constituents of atoms may not take up space individually, and massless particles may be composed to form objects that have mass (even when at rest). - A metal (from Greek "metallon", "mine, quarry, metal") is a material (an element, compound, or alloy) that is typically hard, opaque, shiny, and has good electrical and thermal conductivity. Metals are generally malleable that is, they can be hammered or pressed permanently out of shape without breaking or cracking as well as fusible (able to be fused or melted) and ductile (able to be drawn out into a thin wire). About 91 of the 118 elements in the periodic table are metals, the others are nonmetals or metalloids. Some elements appear in both metallic and non-metallic forms. - Studies that are in vivo (Latin for "within the living"; often not italicized in English) are those in which the effects of various biological entities are tested on whole, living organisms, usually animals, including humans, and plants as opposed to a partial or dead organism. This is not to be confused with experiments done "in vitro" ("within the glass"), i.e., in a laboratory environment using test tubes, petri dishes, etc. Examples of investigations "in vivo" include: the pathogenesis of disease by comparing the effects of bacterial infection with the effects of purified bacterial toxins; the development of antibiotics, antiviral drugs, and new drugs generally; and new surgical procedures. Consequently, animal testing and clinical trials are major elements of "in vivo" research. "In vivo" testing is often employed over "in vitro" because it is better suited for observing the overall effects of an experiment on a living subject. In drug discovery, for example, verification of efficacy "in vivo" is crucial, because "in vitro" assays can sometimes yield misleading results with drug candidate molecules that are irrelevant "in vivo" (e.g., because such molecules cannot reach their site of "in vivo" action, for example as a result of rapid catabolism in the liver). - Organic chemistry is a chemistry subdiscipline involving the scientific study of the structure , properties , and reactions of organic compounds and organic materials , i.e. , matter in its various forms that contain carbon atoms . Study of structure includes many physical and chemical methods to determine the chemical composition and the chemical constitution of organic compounds and materials . Study of properties includes both physical properties and chemical properties , and uses similar methods as well as methods to evaluate chemical reactivity , with the aim to understand the behavior of the organic matter in its pure form ( when possible ) , but also in solutions , mixtures , and fabricated forms . The study of organic reactions includes probing their scope through use in preparation of target compounds ( e.g. , natural products , drugs , polymers , etc. ) by chemical synthesis , as well as the focused study of the reactivities of individual organic molecules , both in the laboratory and via theoretical ( in silico ) study . The range of chemicals studied in organic chemistry include hydrocarbons ( compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen ) , as well as myriad compositions based always on carbon , but also containing other elements , especially oxygen , nitrogen , sulfur , phosphorus ( these , included in many organic chemicals in biology ) and the radiostable elements of the halogens . In the modern era , the range extends further into the periodic table , with main group elements , including : Group 1 and 2 organometallic compounds , i.e. , involving alkali ( e.g. , lithium , sodium , and potassium ) or alkaline earth metals ( e.g. , magnesium ) Metalloids ( e.g. , boron and silicon ) or other metals ( e.g. , aluminium and tin ) In addition , much modern research focuses on organic chemistry involving further organometallics , including the lanthanides , but especially the transition metals ; ( e.g. , zinc , copper , palladium , nickel , cobalt , titanium and chromium ) Finally , organic... - The electron is a subatomic particle, symbol or , with a negative elementary electric charge. Electrons belong to the first generation of the lepton particle family, and are generally thought to be elementary particles because they have no known components or substructure. The electron has a mass that is approximately 1/1836 that of the proton. Quantum mechanical properties of the electron include an intrinsic angular momentum (spin) of a half-integer value, expressed in units of the reduced Planck constant, "". As it is a fermion, no two electrons can occupy the same quantum state, in accordance with the Pauli exclusion principle. Like all matter, electrons have properties of both particles and waves: they can collide with other particles and can be diffracted like light. The wave properties of electrons are easier to observe with experiments than those of other particles like neutrons and protons because electrons have a lower mass and hence a larger De Broglie wavelength for a given energy. - In chemistry, a nonmetal (or non-metal) is a chemical element that mostly lacks metallic attributes. Physically, nonmetals tend to be highly volatile (easily vaporized), have low elasticity, and are good insulators of heat and electricity; chemically, they tend to have high ionization energy and electronegativity values, and gain or share electrons when they react with other elements or compounds. Seventeen elements are generally classified as nonmetals; most are gases (hydrogen, helium, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, neon, chlorine, argon, krypton, xenon and radon); one is a liquid (bromine), and a few are solids (carbon, phosphorus, sulfur, selenium, and iodine). - Semiconductors are crystalline or amorphous solids with distinct electrical characteristics. They are of high electrical resistance higher than typical resistance materials, but still of much lower resistance than insulators. Their resistance decreases as their temperature increases, which is behavior opposite to that of a metal. Finally, their conducting properties may be altered in useful ways by the deliberate, controlled introduction of impurities ("doping") into the crystal structure, which lowers its resistance but also permits the creation of semiconductor junctions between differently-doped regions of the extrinsic semiconductor crystal. The behavior of charge carriers which include electrons, ions and electron holes at these junctions is the basis of diodes, transistors and all modern electronics. - Structure is an arrangement and organization of interrelated elements in a material object or system, or the object or system so organized. Material structures include man-made objects such as buildings and machines and natural objects such as biological organisms, minerals and chemicals. Abstract structures include data structures in computer science and musical form. Types of structure include a hierarchy (a cascade of one-to-many relationships), a network featuring many-to-many links, or a lattice featuring connections between components that are neighbors in space. - Molecular mass or molecular weight is the mass of a molecule. It is calculated as the sum of the atomic mass of each constituent atom multiplied by the number of atoms of that element in the molecular formula. The molecular mass of small to medium size molecules, measured by mass spectrometry, determines stoichiometry. For large molecules such as proteins, methods based on viscosity and light-scattering can be used to determine molecular mass when crystallographic data are not available. - Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, evolution, distribution, identification and taxonomy. Modern biology is a vast and eclectic field, composed of many branches and subdisciplines. However, despite the broad scope of biology, there are certain general and unifying concepts within it that govern all study and research, consolidating it into single, coherent field. In general, biology recognizes the cell as the basic unit of life, genes as the basic unit of heredity, and evolution as the engine that propels the synthesis and creation of new species. It is also understood today that all the organisms survive by consuming and transforming energy and by regulating their internal environment to maintain a stable and vital condition known as homeostasis. After reading the paragraphs above, we are interested in knowing the entity with which 'organic chemistry' exhibits the relationship of 'opposite of'. Find the answer from the choices below. Choices: - 1 - acid - black - chemical compound - disease - electron - fiction - field - flat - good - inorganic chemistry - life - light - man - metal - organic chemistry - service
Answer:
inorganic chemistry