Q: Federalism refers to the mixed or compound mode of government, combining a general government (the central or 'federal' government) with regional governments (provincial, state, Land, cantonal, territorial or other sub-unit governments) in a single political system. Its distinctive feature, exemplified in the founding example of modern federalism of the United States of America under the Constitution of 1789, is a relationship of parity between the two levels of government established. It can thus be defined as a form of government in which there is a division of powers between two levels of government of equal status.

Until recently, in the absence of prior agreement on a clear and precise definition, the concept was thought to mean (as a shorthand) 'a division of sovereignty between two levels of government'. New research, however, argues that this cannot be correct, as dividing sovereignty - when this concept is properly understood in its core meaning of the final and absolute source of political authority in a political community - is not possible. The descent of the United States into Civil War in the mid-nineteenth century, over disputes about unallocated competences concerning slavery and ultimately the right of secession, showed this. One or other level of government could be sovereign to decide such matters, but not both simultaneously. Therefore, it is now suggested that federalism is more appropriately conceived as 'a division of the powers flowing from sovereignty between two levels of government'. What differentiates the concept from other multi-level political forms is the characteristic of equality of standing between the two levels of government established. This clarified definition opens the way to identifying two distinct federal forms, where before only one was known, based upon whether sovereignty resides in the whole (in one people) or in the parts (in many peoples): the federal state (or federation) and the federal union of states (or federal union), respectively. Leading examples of the federal state include the United States, Germany, Canada, Switzerland, Australia and India. The leading example of the federal union of states is the European Union.

Answer the following questions:
1. Is Federalism a straight-forward form of government?
2. What is it?
3. What type of government is a provincial one?
4. How many political systems does it combine regional governments into?
5. When was the Constitution done up?
6. How many levels of government have equal status?
7. What is divided between them?
8. Do those include psychic, alien, or supernatural ones?
9. What is the best example of a federal union?
10. What is united in it?
11. What's an example of an actual federal state?
12. Which else?
13. Any others?
14. What differentiates the concept from other multi-level political forms?
15. Who is it between?
16. When did the United States descend into Civil War?
17. Why?
18. Over what?
19. What was the civil war ultimately about?
A: 1. No
2. A mixed or compound mode of government
3. Regional
4. A single one
5. 1789
6. Two
7. Powers
8. unknown
9. The European Union
10. States
11. India
12. Australia
13. United States, Germany, Canada, and Switzerland
14. characteristic of equality
15. Two levels of government
16. In the mid-nineteenth century
17. over disputes
18. about unallocated competences concerning slavery
19. the right of secession
Q: In South America, the rich soil of the Amazon River basin in Brazil is known as "black gold". Scientists found that the secret of this rich soil was charcoal . Local people made it from animal bones and tree branches. They mixed the charcoal with the soil about 1.500 years ago.

Now, scientists in the United States have done a modern demonstration. They say charcoal fertilization offers a revolutionary way to improve soil quality for hundreds or even thousands of years.

Mingxin Guo and his team at Delavare State University heated tree leaves, corn stalks , small pieces of wood and poultry waste into "biochar" . They reported their findings at a recent meeting of the American Chemical Society in New Orleans.

Biochar could be good news for farmers with poor soil and hungry populations to feed. Professor Guo says it could even help against global warming. Intensive farming and overuse of chemical fertilizer give out carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Biochar does the opposite, he says. It traps carbon in the ground.

The researchers planted winter wheat in containers of soil in a greenhouse -- some with biochar, some without. Professor Guo says the wheat grows much better in the pots with biochar. The soil was added two percent charcoal to. But he says even a one percent treatment will increase productivity.

The results demonstrated that biochar can increase organic matter in soil. Loss of nutrients in soil is an increasing problem worldwide as farmers try to grow more food for growing populations.

Next, the team will carry out a five-year study of biochar with spinach , green peppers and tomatoes.

Mingxin Guo says he learns about the "black gold" in Brazil from a magazine story. He explains that it was discovered in the jungle, in the area where waters flow to the Amazon, in the 1960's. But it was not until recent years that scientists began to bring public attention to it.

Answer the following questions:
1. Where is the Amazon River basin located?
2. What kind of soil if found there?
3. What is the rich soil also known as?
4. Who made the soil the way it is?
5. Using what?
6. When did they do this?
7. What country is doing modern demonstrations of this method?
8. Who is the scientist that is heading this project?
9. Does he work alone?
10. What school does he work for?
11. How did he learn about black gold?
12. Where was black gold discovered?
13. When?
A: 1. Brazil
2. the secret of this rich soil was charcoal
3. black gold
4. Local people
5. animal bones and tree branches
6. 1.500 years ago
7. United States
8. Mingxin Guo
9. Mingxin Guo and his team at Delavare State University
10. Delavare State University
11. heated tree leaves, corn stalks , small pieces of wood and poultry waste into "biochar"
12. Amazon River basin in Brazil
13. in the 1960's
Q: Peter Fern was mad on mountains. Climbing was the love of his life. Church towers, seaside cliffs, rock faces, ice mountains, anything --- "If it's there," he used to say, "then I want to climb it." so the news of his marriage gave me surprise. I'd never known him to take much interest in girls. Well, well, Peter Fern, a married man! I couldn't get over it. I wondered whether his wife would try to stop some of his risky adventures.

She was French perhaps --- from that place where he usually spent his holidays. Chamonix, wasn't it? From Chamonix he's climbed Mont. Blanc on his seventeenth birthday, and one of the Aifuilles the day after! That was it, then; she was French, from a family, most of whom liked climbing. No doubt --- No other explanation.

A month later I met them both in town. Anna surprised me because she was English. She was a dancer in the theatre. "never climbed more than sixty steps in my life." she told me. "Peter has his interests, and I've got mine. No problem." "None at all, " Peter said, smiling. "Where did you spend your honeymoon?" I asked. "Somewhere far from theater and mountains, was it?" "We had a week's holiday," Anna said, "I flew toprefix = st1 /New Yorkto see the drake Dancers on Broadway. a wonderful show!" Peter said, "Didn't want to miss the good weather. So I went toSwitzerlandand climbed the north face of the Eiger with Allen Dunlop. Great fun, the Eiger. Grand place for a honeymoon! I'll show you the photographs we took one day."

Answer the following questions:
1. What was his love?
2. What was a surpirse?
3. Where was she from?
4. Where did he think she was from?
5. What town?
6. What is her name?
7. What age did he take a big climb?
8. What is her interest?
9. Where did she do that?
10. What did they do after the wedding?
A:
1. Climbing
2. news of his marriage
3. she was English.
4. France
5. Chamonix
6. Anna
7. 17
8. dance
9. in the theatre.
10. had a week's holiday