input with options: Answer the following question given this paragraph: The Nasal Septum and Nasal Conchae The nasal septum consists of both bone and cartilage components (Figure 7.17; see also Figure 7.11). The upper portion of the septum is formed by the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone. The lower and posterior parts of the septum are formed by the triangular-shaped vomer bone. In an anterior view of the skull, the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone is easily seen inside the nasal opening as the upper nasal septum, but only a small portion of the vomer is seen as the inferior septum. A better view of the vomer bone is seen when looking into the posterior nasal cavity with an inferior view of the skull, where the vomer forms the full height of the nasal septum. The anterior nasal septum is formed by the septal cartilage, a flexible plate that fills in the gap between the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid and vomer bones. This cartilage also extends outward into the nose where it separates the right and left nostrils. The septal cartilage is not found in the dry skull. Attached to the lateral wall on each side of the nasal cavity are the superior, middle, and inferior nasal conchae (singular = concha), which are named for their positions (see Figure 7.13). These are bony plates that curve downward as they project into the space of the nasal cavity. They serve to swirl the incoming air, which helps to warm and moisturize it before the air moves into the delicate air sacs of the lungs. This also allows mucus, secreted by the tissue lining the nasal cavity, to trap incoming dust, pollen, bacteria, and viruses. The largest of the conchae is the inferior nasal concha, which is an independent bone of the skull. The middle concha and the superior conchae, which is the smallest, are both formed by the ethmoid bone. When looking into the anterior nasal opening of the skull, only the inferior and middle conchae can be seen. The small superior nasal concha is well hidden above and behind the middle concha. Q: The upper portion of the septum is formed by the perpendicular plate of which bone? A:
OPTIONS:
- concomitant bone
- duodenum bone
- colossal bone
- ethmoid bone
output: ethmoid bone

Q: Answer the following question given this paragraph: Membrane boundaries and capturing energy In which we consider how the aqueous nature of biological systems drives the formation of lipidbased barrier membranes and how such membranes are used to capture and store energy from the environment and chemical reactions. We consider how coupled reactions are used to drive macromolecular synthesis and growth. Defining the cell's boundary A necessary step in the origin of life was the generation of a discrete barrier, a boundary layer, that serves to separate the living non-equilibrium reaction system from the rest of the universe. This boundary layer, the structural ancestor of the plasma membrane of modern cells, serves to maintain the integrity of the living system and mediates the movement of materials and energy into and out of the cell. Based on our current observations, the plasma membrane of all modern cells appears to be a homologous structure derived from a precursor present in the last common ancestor of life. So what is the structure of this barrier (plasma) membrane? How is it built and how does it work? When a new cell is formed its plasma membrane is derived from the plasma membrane of the progenitor cell. As the cell grows, new molecules must be added into the membrane to enable it to increase its surface area. Biological membranes are composed of two general classes of molecules, proteins (which we will discuss in much greater detail in the next section of the course) and lipids. It is worth noting explicitly here that, unlike a number of other types of molecules we will be considering, such as proteins, nucleic acids, and carbohydrates, lipids are not a structurally coherent group, that is they do not have one particular basic structure. Structurally diverse molecules, such as cholesterol and phospholipids, are both considered lipids. While there is a relatively small set of common lipid types, there are many different lipids found in biological systems and the characterization of their structure and function(s) has led to a new area of... Q: All lipids have two distinct domains, a hydrophobic and a what? A:

OPTIONS:
- hydroceptive
- covalent
- hydroaversive
- hydrophilic

A: hydrophilic

input: OPTIONS:
- oxygen
- brain
- System
- immune Now, answer this question: Answer the following question given this paragraph: Hypersensitivities Maladaptive immune responses toward harmless foreign substances or self antigens that occur after tissue sensitization are termed hypersensitivities. The types of hypersensitivities include immediate, delayed, and autoimmunity. A large proportion of the population is affected by one or more types of hypersensitivity. Allergies The immune reaction that results from immediate hypersensitivities in which an antibody-mediated immune response occurs within minutes of exposure to a harmless antigen is called an allergy. In the United States, 20 percent of the population exhibits symptoms of allergy or asthma, whereas 55 percent test positive against one or more allergens. Upon initial exposure to a potential allergen, an allergic individual synthesizes antibodies of the IgE class via the typical process of APCs presenting processed antigen to TH cells that stimulate B cells to produce IgE. This class of antibodies also mediates the immune response to parasitic worms. The constant domain of the IgE molecules interact with mast cells embedded in connective tissues. This process primes, or sensitizes, the tissue. Upon subsequent exposure to the same allergen, IgE molecules on mast cells bind the antigen via their variable domains and stimulate the mast cell to release the modified amino acids histamine and serotonin; these chemical mediators then recruit eosinophils which mediate allergic responses. Figure 42.26 shows an example of an allergic response to ragweed pollen. The effects of an allergic reaction range from mild. Q: Hypersensitivity may refer to a maladaptive response of what system toward a harmless foreign substance? A:
A:
output: immune

Answer the following question given this paragraph: Internal Energy U We can think about the internal energy of a system in two different but consistent ways. The first is the atomic and molecular view, which examines the system on the atomic and molecular scale. The internal energy U of a system is the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of its atoms and molecules. Recall that kinetic plus potential energy is called mechanical energy. Thus internal energy is the sum of atomic and molecular mechanical energy. Because it is impossible to keep track of all individual atoms and molecules, we must deal with averages and distributions. A second way to view the internal energy of a system is in terms of its macroscopic characteristics, which are very similar to atomic and molecular average values. Macroscopically, we define the change in internal energy. Q: What type of energy of a system is the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of its atoms and molecules? A:

OPTIONS:
- external energy u
- primary energy u
- deep energy u
- internal energy u

Answer:
internal energy u