Article: The more you know about something, the easier it will be to conjure up specific images and facts. If you're not knowledgeable about your topic, do some research so you can talk or write about it with more detail. If you are trying to be specific for an assignment, you'll probably need to do research. If you're still not feeling confident in your abilities, look for ways that you can connect the topic to something you are more familiar with, or try to think of a sub-topic that you are more comfortable with. For example, if you have been assigned to talk about climate change, you could choose to talk about a particular aspect that you can connect with on a personal level, such as your love of polar bears and the danger that climate change will threaten their habitats. This may sound complicated, but all it means is narrowing the focus of your argument and clearly stating what action you want people to take -- in other words, the purpose for your writing or speech. Whether you're telling a fictional story or making a philosophical argument, think about how you want people to feel and react. Don't lose sight of this objective as you continue to write or speak. "Call to action" is a term typically used in marketing, but it can be used to apply to any kind of speaking or writing. No matter what the topic, think about your essay or speech as a marketing tool meant to convey a specific message and get people to react in a specific way. Common purposes include: informing, persuading, recommending, arguing, advocating, explaining, instructing, and defending. For example, if you have chosen to write about polar bears and climate change, your call to action might be related to the actions your audience can take to reduce the effects of climate change. If you are responding to a question, rebutting someone else's argument, or completing an assignment, think carefully about the specifics of the question you need to answer. It's okay to add some additional information on top of what was asked of you, but first you need to make sure your response thoroughly answers the specific question. Think about which question word or words were used in the question. For example, if you were asked to describe what you do at work, it can be very easy to get sidetracked by talking about related topics, such as how you perform your job or why you chose your career path. This information might be interesting or important to your audience, but don't forget to answer the question first. If you have to write a certain number of words or speak for a certain amount of time, make sure you are able to fit all of the most important information into your argument. If length is not dictated, think carefully about your message, your topic, and your audience to determine the appropriate length. You should aim to provide all the information your audience needs without challenging their attention spans. Consider using the inverted pyramid style, which prioritizes the most essential information, and leaves less important details for the end, if you are concerned about your audience's attention span. This is not appropriate for every style of writing or speaking, but if you need to communicate a few key points, it can be a helpful tool. If you have extra time or space that you need to fill, don't just add in extra words that don't provide any additional detail or insight. Instead, look for places where your audience would benefit from more detail, or try thinking of another connection you can make or another example you can cite. Provide background information only if it's relevant. Irrelevant details will make your whole argument seem less directed. Whether you are speaking or writing, your purpose will usually be to make an argument, and you will need examples to support that argument in order to make your audience believe it. Evidence is crucial to being specific. Examples are explicitly stated in some formats, like political debates and research papers, and can be introduced directly by saying something such as, "For example." In other genres, such as creative writing, examples are more implicit. You may, for example, need to describe what a character is wearing and where she likes to shop for clothing, in order to communicate to your audience that she is fashionable. While examples are essential, be careful not to overwhelm your audience. If you provide too many unrelated examples, your audience might lose track of your main point. You can avoid this by carefully evaluating all of the details you plan on using for each example and making sure there is always a direct connection back to your main argument. Unless the topic of your message is very narrow, you will usually want to answer who, what, when, and where. This is especially important in business communications. If you need something from someone, you will need to communicate what you need, who needs to do it, when it needs to be done, and where it needs to be done. How and why may or may not be important, depending on your message. Think carefully about how your audience will interpret your message, and never assume that they will know what you mean unless you tell them. Generalizations often end up in writing when you aren't sure what else to say. Common examples include "Since the beginning of time" or "People think..." These statements are usually too abstract and general to be helpful, and because they make such sweeping statements, they're also likely to be untrue. For example, instead of beginning an essay by saying "Modern life has deteriorated because of technology," you might say "According to some experts, technology has caused communication problems between people and increased loneliness."

What is a summary?
Choose a topic that you're knowledgeable about. Decide on a call to action. Make sure you answer the question. Think about length. Give examples. Consider all the question words. Avoid generalizations.