Q: First recognized in 1900 by Max Planck, it was originally the proportionality constant between the minimal increment of energy, E, of a hypothetical electrically charged oscillator in a cavity that contained black body radiation, and the frequency, f, of its associated electromagnetic wave. In 1905 the value E, the minimal energy increment of a hypothetical oscillator, was theoretically associated by Einstein with a "quantum" or minimal element of the energy of the electromagnetic wave itself. The light quantum behaved in some respects as an electrically neutral particle, as opposed to an electromagnetic wave. It was eventually called the photon.

Classical statistical mechanics requires the existence of h (but does not define its value). Eventually, following upon Planck's discovery, it was recognized that physical action cannot take on an arbitrary value. Instead, it must be some multiple of a very small quantity, the "quantum of action", now called the Planck constant. Classical physics cannot explain this fact. In many cases, such as for monochromatic light or for atoms, this quantum of action also implies that only certain energy levels are allowed, and values in between are forbidden.

Answer the following questions:
1. Who originally associated the minimal energy increment of a hypothetical oscillator with a "quantum" or minimal element of the energy of the electromagnetic wave itself?
2. When did he do this?
3. What letter is the value called?
4. How did the light value behave?
5. As opposed to what?
6. What was it later called?
7. Who was energy E originally recognized by?
8. What type of action can't take an arbitrary value?
9. What must it be instead?
10. What is that also known as?
11. Is there another name for it?
12. What is it?
13. Is this fact widely understood in physics?
14. What does this imply about energy levels?
15. What about values in between?
A: 1. Einstein
2. In 1905
3. E
4. as an electrically neutral particle
5. an electromagnetic wave
6. the photon
7. Max Planck
8. a physical one
9. some multiple of a very small quantity
10. the "quantum of action"
11. yes
12. the Planck constant
13. no
14. only certain ones are allowed
15. they're forbidden

Answer the questions at the end based on the text.

John Ronald Reuel Tolkien, (; 3 January 1892 2 September 1973) was an English writer, poet, philologist, and university professor who is best known as the author of the classic high-fantasy works "The Hobbit", "The Lord of the Rings", and "The Silmarillion".

He served as the Rawlinson and Bosworth Professor of Anglo-Saxon and Fellow of Pembroke College, Oxford, from 1925 to 1945 and Merton Professor of English Language and Literature and Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, from 1945 to 1959. He was at one time a close friend of C.S.Lewisthey were both members of the informal literary discussion group known as the Inklings. Tolkien was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire by Queen Elizabeth II on 28 March 1972.

After Tolkien's death, his son Christopher published a series of works based on his father's extensive notes and unpublished manuscripts, including "The Silmarillion". These, together with "The Hobbit" and "The Lord of the Rings", form a connected body of tales, poems, fictional histories, invented languages, and literary essays about a fantasy world called Arda and Middle-earth within it. Between 1951 and 1955, Tolkien applied the term "legendarium" to the larger part of these writings.

While many other authors had published works of fantasy before Tolkien, the great success of "The Hobbit" and "The Lord of the Rings" led directly to a popular resurgence of the genre. This has caused Tolkien to be popularly identified as the "father" of modern fantasy literatureor, more precisely, of high fantasy. In 2008, "The Times" ranked him sixth on a list of "The 50 greatest British writers since 1945". "Forbes" ranked him the 5th top-earning "dead celebrity" in 2009.

1. Who is featured in this article?
2. What work is he famous for?
3. Can you name one?
4. Were there others?
5. They were?
6. Isn't there another?
7. Where is he from?
8. What famous writer is he friends with?
9. What organization did they belong to?
10. How is he popularly known these days?
11. When was he born?
12. Is he still living?
13. When did he die?
14. What year?
15. Besides writing, what else did he do?
16. What was his profession?
17. What was the name of the place his writings were about?
18. What was another name associated with this world?
19. How was he ranked by the Times?
20. Sixth what?

Numbered answers:

A: 1. ohn Ronald Reuel Tolkien
2. classic high-fantasy works
3. The Hobbit
4. yes
5. The Lord of the Rings
6. yes
7. england
8. C.S.Lewis
9. Inklings
10. father" of modern fantasy literature
11. 3 January 1892
12. no
13. 2 September
14. 1973
15. tales, poems
16. English writer, poet, philologist, and university professor
17. Arda
18. Middle-earth
19. sixth
20. he 50 greatest British writers

Answer the questions at the end based on the text.

Orkney (), also known as the Orkney Islands, is an archipelago in the Northern Isles of Scotland, situated off the north coast of Great Britain. Orkney is 16 kilometres (10mi) north of the coast of Caithness and comprises approximately 70 islands, of which 20 are inhabited. The largest island Mainland is often referred to as "the Mainland". It has an area of , making it the sixth-largest Scottish island and the tenth-largest island in the British Isles. The largest settlement and administrative centre is Kirkwall.

A form of the name dates to the pre-Roman era and the islands have been inhabited for at least 8500 years, originally occupied by Mesolithic and Neolithic tribes and then by the Picts. Orkney was invaded and forcibly annexed by Norway in 875 and settled by the Norse. The Scottish Parliament then re-annexed the earldom to the Scottish Crown in 1472, following the failed payment of a dowry for James III's bride Margaret of Denmark. Orkney contains some of the oldest and best-preserved Neolithic sites in Europe, and the "Heart of Neolithic Orkney" is a designated UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Orkney is one of the 32 council areas of Scotland, a constituency of the Scottish Parliament, a lieutenancy area, and a historic county. The local council is Orkney Islands Council, one of only three Councils in Scotland with a majority of elected members who are independents.

1. What is the largest island also called?
2. What island group is it part of?
3. Where are they located?
4. Were the islands ever invaded?
5. By whom?
6. And what was the outcome of that?
7. Are they 16 miles north of Cathiness?
8. How many islands make up the group?
9. How many of them have people living there?
10. How long have they been inhabited?
11. Who first lived there?
12. What about after that?
13. Who re-annexed it?
14. How many council areas does scotland have?
15. What is the name of the local council?
16. What sets it apart from most other councils?
17. What place of significance can be found on the islands?
18. WHat was it designated as?
19. What year did the Norse settle there?
20. When was it annexed by the Scottish?

Numbered answers:

A:
1. "the Mainland"
2. the Orkney Islands
3. the Northern Isles of Scotland
4. yes
5. Norway
6. it was settled by the Norse
7. yes
8. approximately 70 islands
9. 20 are inhabited
10. for at least 8500 years
11. Mesolithic and Neolithic tribes
12. the Picts
13. The Scottish Parliament
14. 32
15. Orkney Islands Council
16. a majority of elected members are independents
17. the "Heart of Neolithic Orkney"
18. a UNESCO World Heritage Site
19. in 875
20. in 1472