Information: - A famine is a widespread scarcity of food, caused by several factors including crop failure, population imbalance, or government policies. This phenomenon is usually accompanied or followed by regional malnutrition, starvation, epidemic, and increased mortality. Every inhabited continent in the world has experienced a period of famine throughout history. Some countries, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, continue to have extreme cases of famine. This region remains the most affected area in the world, and because of climate change, agricultural conditions fluctuate more and more. Most programmes direct their aid towards Africa.<ref name="http://www.poverties.org Famine in Africa"></ref> - Epidemic typhus (also called "camp fever", "jail fever", "hospital fever", "ship fever", "famine fever", "putrid fever", "petechial fever", "Epidemic louse-borne typhus," and "louse-borne typhus") is a form of typhus so named because the disease often causes epidemics following wars and natural disasters. The causative organism is "Rickettsia prowazekii", transmitted by the human body louse ("Pediculus humanus humanus"). - Ukraine (tr. ) is a sovereign state in Eastern Europe, bordered by Russia to the east and northeast, Belarus to the northwest, Poland and Slovakia to the west, Hungary, Romania, and Moldova to the southwest, and the Black Sea and Sea of Azov to the south and southeast, respectively. Ukraine is currently in territorial dispute with Russia over the Crimean Peninsula which Russia annexed in 2014 but which Ukraine and most of the international community recognise as Ukrainian. Including Crimea, Ukraine has an area of , making it the largest country entirely within Europe and the 46th largest country in the world. It has a population of about 44.5 million, making it the 32nd most populous country in the world. - Typhoid fever, also known simply as typhoid, is a bacterial infection due to "Salmonella" Typhi that causes symptoms which may vary from mild to severe and usually begin six to thirty days after exposure. Often there is a gradual onset of a high fever over several days. Weakness, abdominal pain, constipation, and headaches also commonly occur. Diarrhea is uncommon and vomiting is not usually severe. Some people develop a skin rash with rose colored spots. In severe cases there may be confusion. Without treatment symptoms may last weeks or months. Other people may carry the bacterium without being affected; however, they are still able to spread the disease to others. Typhoid fever is a type of enteric fever along with paratyphoid fever. The cause is the bacterium "Salmonella" Typhi, also known as "Salmonella enterica" serotype Typhi, growing in the intestines and blood. Typhoid is spread by eating or drinking food or water contaminated with the feces of an infected person. Risk factors include poor sanitation and poor hygiene. Those who travel to the developing world are also at risk and only humans can be infected. Diagnosis is by either culturing the bacteria or detecting the bacterium's DNA in the blood, stool, or bone marrow. Culturing the bacterium can be difficult. Bone marrow testing is the most accurate. Symptoms are similar to that of many other infectious diseases. Typhus is a different disease. A typhoid vaccine can prevent about 30% to 70% of cases during the first two years. The vaccine may have some effect for up to seven years. It is recommended for those at high risk or people traveling to areas where the disease is common. Other efforts to prevent the disease include providing clean drinking water, better sanitation, and better handwashing. Until it has been confirmed that an individual's infection is cleared, the individual should not prepare food for others. Treatment of disease is with antibiotics such as azithromycin, fluoroquinolones or third generation cephalosporins. Resistance to... - Rudolf Stefan Weigl (2 September 1883 11 August 1957, Zakopane, Poland) was a Polish biologist and inventor of the first effective vaccine against epidemic typhus. He founded the Weigl Institute in Lwow, Poland (now Lviv, Ukraine), where he conducted vaccine research. - Rickettsia is a genus of nonmotile, gram-negative, nonspore-forming, highly pleomorphic bacteria that can be present as cocci (0.1 m in diameter), rods (14 m long), or thread-like (10 m long). The term rickettsia, named after Howard Taylor Ricketts, is often used interchangeably for any member of the Rickettsiales. Being obligate intracellular parasites, the "Rickettsia" survival depends on entry, growth, and replication within the cytoplasm of eukaryotic host cells (typically endothelial cells). "Rickettsia" cannot live in artificial nutrient environments and is grown either in tissue or embryo cultures; typically, chicken embryos are used: a method developed by Ernest William Goodpasture and his colleagues at Vanderbilt University in the early 1930s. - A biologist, is a scientist who has specialized knowledge in the field of biology, the scientific study of life. Biologists involved in fundamental research attempt to explore and further explain the underlying mechanisms that govern the functioning of living matter. Biologists involved in applied research attempt to develop or improve more specific processes and understanding, in fields such as medicine, industry and agriculture. - Ludwik Fleck ( 11 July 1896 -- 5 June 1961 ) was a Polish and Israeli physician and biologist who did important work in epidemic typhus in Lwow , Poland , with Rudolf Weigl and in the 1930s developed the concept of the '' Denkkollektiv '' ( '' thought collective '' ) . The concept of the '' thought collective '' is important in the philosophy of science and in logology ( the '' science of science '' ) , helping to explain how scientific ideas change over time , much as in Thomas Kuhn 's later notion of the '' paradigm shift '' and in Michel Foucault 's concept of the '' episteme '' . - Zakopane (pronounced ) is a town in the extreme south of Poland. It lies in the southern part of the Podhale region at the foot of the Tatra Mountains. From 1975 to 1998 it was in Nowy Scz Province, but since 1999 it has been in Lesser Poland Province. It had a population of about 28,000 . Zakopane is a center of "Goral" culture and is known informally as "the winter capital of Poland". It is a popular destination for mountaineering, skiing, and qualified tourism. - A vaccine is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity to a particular disease. A vaccine typically contains an agent that resembles a disease-causing microorganism and is often made from weakened or killed forms of the microbe, its toxins or one of its surface proteins. The agent stimulates the body's immune system to recognize the agent as a threat, destroy it, and keep a record of it so that the immune system can more easily recognize and destroy any of these microorganisms that it later encounters. Vaccines can be prophylactic (example: to prevent or ameliorate the effects of a future infection by any natural or "wild" pathogen), or therapeutic (e.g., vaccines against cancer are being investigated). - Lviv (', ', ; Yiddish: ; Latin: "Leopolis"), the largest city in western Ukraine and the seventh largest city in the country overall, is one of the main cultural centres of Ukraine. Named in honor of the Leo, the eldest son of Rus' King Daniel of Galicia. It was the capital of the Kingdom of GaliciaVolhynia (also called Kingdom of Rus') from 1272 to 1349, when it was conquered by King Casimir III the Great who then became known as the King of Poland and Rus'. From 1434, it was the regional capital of the Ruthenian Voivodeship in the Kingdom of Poland and was known as Lwow. In 1772, after the First partition of Poland, the city became the capital of the Habsburg Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria and was renamed to Lemberg. In 1918 in a short time was the capital of the West Ukrainian People's Republic. Between the wars, the city was known again as Lwow and was the centre of the Lwow Voivodeship in the Second Polish Republic. After World War II, it became part of the Soviet Union (Ukrainian SSR) and in 1991 of independent Ukraine. Administratively, Lviv serves as the administrative center of Lviv Oblast and has the status of city of oblast significance. Its population is . - Typhus is any of several similar diseases caused by "Rickettsia" bacteria. The name comes from the Greek "typhus" () meaning smoky or hazy, describing the state of mind of those affected with typhus. The causative organism "Rickettsia" is an obligate intracellular parasitic bacterium that cannot survive for long outside living cells. It is transmitted to humans via external parasites such as lice, fleas, and ticks. While "typhoid" means "typhus-like", typhus and typhoid fever are distinct diseases caused by different genera of bacteria. - Ticks are small arachnids, part of the order Parasitiformes. Along with mites, they constitute the subclass Acari. Ticks are ectoparasites (external parasites), living by feeding on the blood of mammals, birds, and sometimes reptiles and amphibians. Ticks had evolved by the Cretaceous period, the most common form of fossilisation being immersed in amber. Ticks are widely distributed around the world, especially in warm, humid climates. - Rickettsia prowazekii is a species of gram-negative, alphaproteobacteria, obligate intracellular parasitic, aerobic bacteria that is the etiologic agent of epidemic typhus, transmitted in the feces of lice. In North America, the main reservoir for "R. prowazekii" is the flying squirrel. "R. prowazekii" is often surrounded by a protein microcapsular layer and slime layer; the natural life cycle of the bacterium generally involves a vertebrate and an invertebrate host, usually an arthropod, typically the human body louse. A form of "R. prowazekii" that exists in the feces of arthropods remains stably infective for months. "R. prowazekii" also appears to be the closest free-living relative of mitochondria, based on genome sequencing. - Fleas are small flightless insects that form the order Siphonaptera. They are external parasites of warm-blooded animals, living by hematophagy off the blood of mammals and birds. The adults are up to about long and usually brown. They are flattened sideways to enable them to move through their host's fur or feathers, and have strong claws to prevent themselves from being dislodged. They are wingless insects, with mouthparts adapted for piercing skin and sucking blood and hind legs adapted for jumping. They can leap a distance of some 50 times their body length, a feat second only to jumps made by froghoppers. The larvae are worm-like with no limbs; they have chewing mouthparts and feed on organic debris. After reading the paragraphs above, we are interested in knowing the entity with which 'ludwik fleck' exhibits the relationship of 'place of birth'. Find the answer from the choices below. Choices: - africa - amber - azov - borne - center - galicia - hospital - howard - hungary - india - industry - kingdom of galicia and lodomeria - lemberg - lesser poland - lice - lviv - made - moldova - nowy sacz - of - peninsula - poland - rates - rose - russia - slovakia - southeast - strong - taylor - time - ukraine - weakness - zakopane
A:
lviv