question: In chemistry, the standard state of a material (pure substance, mixture or solution) is a reference point used to calculate its properties under different conditions. In principle, the choice of standard state is arbitrary, although the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) recommends a conventional set of standard states for general use. IUPAC recommends using a standard pressure "p"= 10Pa. Strictly speaking, temperature is not part of the definition of a standard state. For example, as discussed below, the standard state of a gas is conventionally chosen to be unit pressure (usually in bar) ideal gas, regardless of the temperature. However, most tables of thermodynamic quantities are compiled at specific temperatures, most commonly or, somewhat less commonly, .

The standard state should not be confused with standard temperature and pressure (STP) for gases, nor with the standard solutions used in analytical chemistry.

For a given material or substance, the standard state is the reference state for the material's thermodynamic state properties such as enthalpy, entropy, Gibbs free energy, and for many other material standards. The standard enthalpy change of formation for an element in its standard state is zero, and this convention allows a wide range of other thermodynamic quantities to be calculated and tabulated. The standard state of a substance does not have to exist in nature: for example, it is possible to calculate values for steam at 298.15K and 10Pa, although steam does not exist (as a gas) under these conditions. The advantage of this practice is that tables of thermodynamic properties prepared in this way are self-consistent.
1. What is a standard state?
2. Used for what?
3. In what field is this used?
4. Is its use interchangeable with STP?
5. Does the standard state of a thing need to actually be possible?
6. Why not?
7. What's an example of something that standard state measures?
8. What is most data about thermodynamic quantities gathered at?
9. What tends to be more important than temperature in standard state?
10. What pressure is defined as normal?
****
answer: 1. a reference point
2. to calculate its properties
3. chemistry
4. no
5. no
6. so tables of thermodynamic properties are self-consistent.
7. unit pressure ideal gas
8. the standard state
9. pressure
10. 10Pa

It is a novel that is probably more talked about than read. People think: "It's such a big book! It has such a serious theme!" The feeling that they are going to be taught a long, hard lesson often puts readers off. But really, War and Peace (1869), which tells the stories of five upper-class families in Russia at the time of the 1812 French invasion, is not to be missed. Reading this novel is one of those once-in-a-lifetime experiences, like climbing the Great Wall: You will regret it if you do not try.

Earlier this month, USA Today reported that a six-episode War and Peace miniseries produced by the BBC would air next year.

With a complex plot and so many characters, readers unfamiliar with the work might be most interested in the characters from the financially-troubled Rostov family of Moscow. Count Rostov has four teenage children. Natasha is in love with Boris Drubetskoy, who is about to become an army officer. Nikolai Ilyich loves the poor Sonya, a ward of the family, but his family is not happy with their relationship. The proud Vera is about to start a happy marriage with a German-Russian officer. The youngest Rostov is the 9-year-old Petya, who, like his brother Nikolai, has his heart set on fighting for his country.

The lives of all are about to be changed by the upcoming great war that involves many other major characters of War and Peace, such as Prince Andrei, who goes into a military career partly in order to get away from his unhappy marriage to the socialite Lise.

The novel has a great reputation among many kinds of writers and millions of readers. US writer Ernest Hemingway wrote: "I don't know anybody who could write about war better than Tolstoy did." A comment by the great 20th-century Russian short-story writer Isaak Babel shows the rich sense of history that Tolstoy's work conveys. "If the world itself could write, it would write like Tolstoy," Babel commented. What are the answers to this following set of questions: 1. What is the name of the book?
2. Which year it was published?
3. How many families in the storyline?
4. What social class they belonged to?
5. Of which country?
6. Is there any tv miniseries about it?
7. Which new outlet made that?
8. When it will be aired?
9. Did Hemingway have a high opinion about the novel?
10. Anyone else commented about the novel?
11. Who?
12. Going back to the story - how many kid Rostov had?
13. Where they young?
14. Did Rostov do well financially?
15. What was one of the kid's name?
16. How old was he?
17. Who was the older brother?
18. Who did he love?
19. Is Vera getting married?
20. Whom?
Answer: 1. War and Peace
2. 1869
3. five
4. upper
5. Russia
6. Yes
7. BBC
8. next year
9. Yes
10. Yes
11. Babel
12. four
13. teenagers
14. unknown
15. Petya
16. Nine
17. Nikolai
18. his country
19. Yes
20. a German-Russian officer.

input: Make use of the article to answer the questions. Gamma rays (also called gamma radiation), denoted by the lower-case Greek letter gamma ( or formula_1 ), are penetrating electromagnetic radiation of a kind arising from the radioactive decay of atomic nuclei. It consists of photons in the highest observed range of photon energy. Paul Villard, a French chemist and physicist, discovered gamma radiation in 1900 while studying radiation emitted by radium. In 1903, Ernest Rutherford named this radiation "gamma rays". Rutherford had previously discovered two other types of radioactive decay, which he named alpha and beta rays.

Gamma rays are able to ionize atoms (ionizing radiation), and are thus biologically hazardous. The decay of an atomic nucleus from a high energy state to a lower energy state, a process called "gamma decay", produces gamma radiation.

Natural sources of gamma rays on Earth are observed in the gamma decay of radionuclides and secondary radiation from atmospheric interactions with cosmic ray particles. There are rare terrestrial natural sources, such as lightning strikes and terrestrial gamma-ray flashes, that produce gamma rays not of a nuclear origin. Additionally, gamma rays are produced by a number of astronomical processes in which very high-energy electrons are produced, that in turn cause secondary gamma rays via bremsstrahlung, inverse Compton scattering, and synchrotron radiation. However, a large fraction of such astronomical gamma rays are screened by Earth's atmosphere and can only be detected by spacecraft. Gamma rays are produced by nuclear fusion in stars including the Sun (such as the CNO cycle), but are absorbed or inelastically scattered by the stellar material, reducing their energy, before escaping and are not observable from Earth as gamma rays. 1. What is our main topic?
2. A.k.a?
3. What can they do to atoms?
4. A.k.a.?
5. Are they safe?
6. Name on place where can natural spots of gamma decay be found?
7. Name another.
8. What is those rays' origin?
9. What are Gamma rays?
10. Where is there a radioactive decay?
11. When did they get their name?
12. Who named them?
13. What else did he discover?
numbered_answers:
1. Gamma rays
2. gamma radiation
3. ionize them
4. ionizing radiation
5. no
6. lightning strikes
7. terrestrial gamma-ray flashes
8. natural, not nuclear
9. penetrating electromagnetic radiation
10. atomic nuclei
11. In 1903
12. Ernest Rutherford
13. alpha and beta rays