Answer the questions at the end based on the text.

In biology, adaptation has three related meanings. Firstly it is the dynamic evolutionary process that fits a population of organisms to their environment, enhancing their evolutionary fitness. Secondly, it is a state reached by the population during that process. Thirdly, it is a phenotypic or adaptive trait, with a functional role in each individual organism, that is maintained and has been evolved by natural selection.

Organisms face a succession of environmental challenges as they grow, and show adaptive plasticity as traits develop in response to the imposed conditions. This gives them resilience to varying environments.

Adaptation is an observable fact of life accepted by philosophers and natural historians from ancient times, independently of their views on evolution, but their explanations differed. Empedocles did not believe that adaptation required a final cause (~ purpose), but "came about naturally, since such things survived." Aristotle did believe in final causes, but assumed that species were fixed.

In natural theology, adaptation was interpreted as the work of a deity and as evidence for the existence of God. William Paley believed that organisms were perfectly adapted to the lives they led, an argument that shadowed Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, who had argued that God had brought about "the best of all possible worlds." Voltaire's Dr. Pangloss is a parody of this optimistic idea, and David Hume also argued against design. The "Bridgewater Treatises" are a product of natural theology, though some of the authors managed to present their work in a fairly neutral manner. The series was lampooned by Robert Knox, who held quasi-evolutionary views, as the "Bilgewater Treatises". Charles Darwin broke with the tradition by emphasising the flaws and limitations which occurred in the animal and plant worlds.

1. What was interpreted as the work of a god?
2. what did William Paley say?
3. who's idea did that shadow?
4. what exactly did he argue?
5. Who made fun of that idea?
6. what woirk?
7. how many meanings does adaption have in biology?
8. name one
9. what does that improve?
10. what's the 2nd meaning?
11. when?
12. lastly?
13. what type of role does that play
14. how is the trait developed?
15. what do living things face?
16. when?
17. what allows them to develop?
18. in response to what?
19. what does this do?
20. What did David Hulme write?

Numbered answers:

A: 1. adaptation
2. organisms were perfectly adapted to the lives they led
3. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
4. God had brought about the best of all possible worlds.
5. Voltaire
6. Dr. Pangloss
7. three
8. the dynamic evolutionary process
9. evolutionary fitness
10. a state reached by the population
11. during that process
12. a phenotypic or adaptive trait
13. a functional role
14. natural selection
15. a succession of environmental challenges
16. as they grow
17. adaptive plasticity
18. the imposed conditions.
19. gives them resilience
20. Bridgewater Treatises

Question: Asphalt/bitumen also occurs in unconsolidated sandstones known as "oil sands" in Alberta, Canada, and the similar "tar sands" in Utah, US. The Canadian province of Alberta has most of the world's reserves of natural bitumen, in three huge deposits covering 142,000 square kilometres (55,000 sq mi), an area larger than England or New York state. These bituminous sands contain 166 billion barrels (26.410^9 m3) of commercially established oil reserves, giving Canada the third largest oil reserves in the world. and produce over 2.3 million barrels per day (37010^3 m3/d) of heavy crude oil and synthetic crude oil. Although historically it was used without refining to pave roads, nearly all of the bitumen is now used as raw material for oil refineries in Canada and the United States.

The first use of asphalt/bitumen in the New World was by indigenous peoples. On the west coast, as early as the 13th century, the Tongva, Luiseno and Chumash peoples collected the naturally occurring asphalt/bitumen that seeped to the surface above underlying petroleum deposits. All three used the substance as an adhesive. It is found on many different artifacts of tools and ceremonial items. For example, it was used on rattles to adhere gourds or turtle shells to rattle handles. It was also used in decorations. Small round shell beads were often set in asphaltum to provide decorations. It was used as a sealant on baskets to make them watertight for carrying water. Asphaltum was used also to seal the planks on ocean-going canoes. 1. who first used asphalt?
2. was it used one boats?
3. was it used in decorations?
4. does it seal things?
5. can it be used in placed of glue?
6. where does it come from?
7. does it come from anywhere in the US?
8. is it refined in north america?
9. who has most of the bitumen?
10. how early was it used?
11. which country has the 3rd largest oil reserves?
12. how many indigenous peoples are mentioned? Provide a numbered list of answers.
****
A numbered of answers: 1. indigenous peoples
2. Yes
3. Yes
4. Yes
5. Yes
6. Alberta, Canada
7. the "tar sands" in Utah
8. Yes
9. Alberta does
10. as early as the 13th century
11. Canada
12. Three

Q: Comets are parts of our solar system. Like the planets, they go around the sun. But comets are not made of solid rocks like planets. A comet is a ball of dust, stones, and ice. Many people call comets dirty snowballs. The "snowball" may be only a few miles across. But when the sun heats the "snowball," much of it is changed to gases. The gases spread out and form the comet's head, which may be thousands of miles across. A comet moves fast in its trip around the sun. But when we see it, the comet does not seem to move. That's because it is so far away. The moon moves fast, but when you look at it, you can't see any motion . That's because the moon is far away. Each year astronomers discover new comets. Some of them are seen only once. They make one trip around the sun and then go away out into space. The sun's gravity cannot hold them. Other comets, like Halley, keep returning. They have been captured by the sun. Halley's earliest visit was probably 3,000 years ago. It may keep returning for another 3,000 years. But every time a comet goes around the sun, the comet loses part of itself. Gases and dust are pulled out of the comet. That's why Halley is now dimmer than it used to be. Next time it visits us, in 2062, it may be even dimmer. Each visit it may get dimmer and dimmer, until it finally disappears.

1. comets
2. dust, stones, and ice
3. around the su
4. planets
5. made of solid rocks
6. yes
7. They have been captured by the sun
8. comet
9. 3,000 years ago
10. another 3,000 years

Numbered questions:
1. What is a dirty snowball?
2. What is it composed of?
3. Where do they travel?
4. Does something else travel around the sun?
5. How are they different than comets?
6. Do all comets make just one trip around the sun?
7. Why do some comets only go around once?
8. What is Halley?
9. When was Halley first seen?
10. How long will it be around?