Q: By-elections also spelled bye-election (known as special elections in the United States, and bypolls in India) are used to fill elected offices that have become vacant between general elections.

In most cases these elections occur after the incumbent dies or resigns, but they also occur when the incumbent becomes ineligible to continue in office (because of a recall, ennoblement, criminal conviction, or failure to maintain a minimum attendance). Less commonly, these elections have been called when a constituency election is invalidated by voting irregularities.

In the United States, these contests have been called "special elections" because they do not always occur on Election Day like regular congressional elections. A 2016 study of special elections to the United States House of Representatives found "that while candidate characteristics affect special election outcomes, presidential approval is predictive of special election outcomes as well. Furthermore, we find that the effect of presidential approval on special election outcomes has increased in magnitude from 1995 to 2014, with the 2002 midterm representing an important juncture in the nationalization of special elections."

The procedure for filling a vacant seat in the House of Commons of England was developed during the Reformation Parliament of the 16th century by Thomas Cromwell; previously a seat had remained empty upon the death of a member. Cromwell devised a new election that would be called by the king at a time of the king's choosing. This made it a simple matter to ensure the seat rewarded an ally of the crown.

Answer the following questions:
1. What is the term used for special elections?
2. Why are they special?
3. What sways these elections?
4. What is the main thing?
5. How do you know? What was done?
6. When was the study done?
7. On all elections or specific ones?
8. On what offices?
9. Is it having more of an impact over time?
10. What year was the turning point?
A: 1. By-elections
2. do not always occur on Election Day
3. candidate characteristics
4. presidential approval
5. increased in magnitude
6. 2016
7. specific
8. United States House of Representatives
9. Yes
10. 2002
Q: The density, or more precisely, the volumetric mass density, of a substance is its mass per unit volume. The symbol most often used for density is "" (the lower case Greek letter rho), although the Latin letter "D" can also be used. Mathematically, density is defined as mass divided by volume:

where "" is the density, "m" is the mass, and "V" is the volume. In some cases (for instance, in the United States oil and gas industry), density is loosely defined as its weight per unit volume, although this is scientifically inaccurate this quantity is more specifically called specific weight.

For a pure substance the density has the same numerical value as its mass concentration. Different materials usually have different densities, and density may be relevant to buoyancy, purity and packaging. Osmium and iridium are the densest known elements at standard conditions for temperature and pressure but certain chemical compounds may be denser.

To simplify comparisons of density across different systems of units, it is sometimes replaced by the dimensionless quantity "relative density" or "specific gravity", i.e. the ratio of the density of the material to that of a standard material, usually water. Thus a relative density less than one means that the substance floats in water.

Answer the following questions:
1. Are they densities of everything the same?
2. What is the densest elements at regular conditions?
3. What is density of a substance?
4. How is defined mathematically?
5. What does V stand for?
6. What about P?
7. And m?
8. Is the p used actually the English one?
9. What language is it?
10. Which letter?
11. What is another symbol for density?
12. Who gives weight per unit volume as the definition?
13. Is this a good definition?
14. Would you use it in science?
15. What would be a better term for that definition?
16. Where is density the same value as it's mass concentration?
17. To make comparisons easier what stands in for density?
18. What's an example of that?
19. What's another one?
20. What is the relative density of something that floats?
A: 1. no
2. Osmium and iridium
3. its mass per unit volume
4. mass divided by volume
5. volume
6. density
7. mass,
8. no
9. Greek
10. rho
11. D
12. the United States oil and gas industry
13. no
14. no
15. specific weight
16. For a pure substance
17. A dimensionless quantity
18. relative density
19. specific gravity
20. less than one
Q: Chapter 4: Among The Islands.

"Now, let us go through our calculations again," the captain said when they entered his cabin.

"How long will you be, Captain?" the first mate asked.

"Half an hour, Standing."

"Then I will come again or, if you want me before that, send for me," and the first mate went out on deck again, for though well skilled to handle a ship in all weathers, and as brave and hardy a seaman as sailed out of Plymouth, James Standing could neither read nor write; and though in a rough sort of way he could reckon the course a ship should lie, and make allowance for leeway and currents and baffling winds, and could bring a ship into any port in England or the Low Countries, he was of no use in a matter of this kind.

Pengarvan was a good scholar, and Reuben had taught him what he knew of navigation, and always made him keep a log from the time when he first became a mate; at first comparing their calculations every day, and then but once a week; arguing over the allowances each had made for tide and leeway; and sometimes finding to his surprise, on arriving in port, that Pengarvan's calculations were even nearer to the truth than his own.

This was a great satisfaction to him, for he felt that, if aught should happen to himself when on a voyage, Pengarvan could be trusted to bring the Swan home, as safely and surely as he could himself. Roger had, for the last two years, been going through the same schooling; but as yet he was very far from attaining accuracy, being unwilling to make sufficient allowance for the great leeway that a vessel, in those days, made with the wind abeam.

Answer the following questions:
1. Who begins the dialogue in the cabin?
2. Who is he talking to?
3. What does the captain want to double-check?
4. Does the first mate ask him the time something will take?
5. How much time will elapse?
6. Will it involve sitting?
7. Does someone offer to return?
8. Where did the first officer depart to?
9. Was he an inept sailor?
10. Was he courageous?
11. Did he possess good endurance?
12. What skills was he lacking?
13. What was his name?
14. Who had good scholastic ability?
15. Did he know anything about navigating?
16. Who had instructed him?
17. What did he record?
18. Did Reuben feel his work was inaccurate?
19. How did he feel about this?
20. What did he trust Pengarvan to do as well as he could?
A:
1. the captain
2. the first mate
3. calculations
4. Yes.
5. Half an hour.
6. No.
7. Yes.
8. out on deck
9. No.
10. Yes.
11. Yes.
12. He could neither read nor write.
13. James Standing
14. Pengarvan
15. Yes.
16. Reuben
17. a log
18. No.
19. great satisfaction
20. bring the Swan home