Information: - A crystal or crystalline solid is a solid material whose constituents (such as atoms, molecules, or ions) are arranged in a highly ordered microscopic structure, forming a crystal lattice that extends in all directions. In addition, macroscopic single crystals are usually identifiable by their geometrical shape, consisting of flat faces with specific, characteristic orientations. The scientific study of crystals and crystal formation is known as crystallography. The process of crystal formation via mechanisms of crystal growth is called crystallization or solidification. - Mechanics (Greek ) is an area of science concerned with the behaviour of physical bodies when subjected to forces or displacements, and the subsequent effects of the bodies on their environment. The scientific discipline has its origins in Ancient Greece with the writings of Aristotle and Archimedes (see History of classical mechanics and Timeline of classical mechanics). During the early modern period, scientists such as Khayaam, Galileo, Kepler, and Newton, laid the foundation for what is now known as classical mechanics. It is a branch of classical physics that deals with particles that are either at rest or are moving with velocities significantly less than the speed of light. It can also be defined as a branch of science which deals with the motion of and forces on objects. - X-radiation (composed of X-rays) is a form of electromagnetic radiation. Most X-rays have a wavelength ranging from 0.01 to 10 nanometers, corresponding to frequencies in the range 30 petahertz to 30 exahertz (310 Hz to 310 Hz) and energies in the range 100 eV to 100 keV. X-ray wavelengths are shorter than those of UV rays and typically longer than those of gamma rays. In many languages, X-radiation is referred to with terms meaning Rontgen radiation, after the German (German-Dutch to be precise) scientist Wilhelm Rontgen, who usually is credited as its discoverer, and who had named it "X-radiation" to signify an unknown type of radiation. Spelling of "X-ray(s)" in the English language includes the variants "x-ray(s)", "xray(s)", and "X ray(s)". - Thermodynamics is a branch of science concerned with heat and temperature and their relation to energy and work. The behavior of these quantities is governed by the four laws of thermodynamics, irrespective of the composition or specific properties of the material or system in question. The laws of thermodynamics are explained in terms of microscopic constituents by statistical mechanics. Thermodynamics applies to a wide variety of topics in science and engineering, especially physical chemistry, chemical engineering and mechanical engineering. - Jan or Johann Josef Loschmidt ( 15 March 1821 -- 8 July 1895 ) , who referred to himself mostly as Josef Loschmidt ( omitting his first name ) , was a notable Austrian scientist who performed ground - breaking work in chemistry , physics ( thermodynamics , optics , electrodynamics ) , and crystal forms . Born in Carlsbad , a town located in the Austrian Empire ( now Karlovy Vary , Czech Republic ) , Loschmidt became professor of physical chemistry at the University of Vienna in 1868 . He had two early mentors . The first was a Bohemian priest , Adalbert Czech , who persuaded Loschmidt 's parents to send young Josef to high school in the Piarist monastery in Schlackenwerth and , in 1837 , to advanced high - school classes in Prague . This was followed by two years of philosophy and mathematics at Prague 's Charles University , where Loschmidt met his second important mentor . This was the philosophy professor Franz S. Exner , whose eyesight was failing , and who asked Loschmidt to be his personal reader . Exner was known for his innovative school reforms , which included promoting mathematics and science as important subjects . He suggested to Loschmidt , who became a close personal friend , that he apply mathematics to psychological phenomena . In the process of doing this , he became a very able mathematician . His 1861 booklet , Chemische Studien ( '' chemical studies '' ) , proposed two - dimensional representations for over 300 molecules in a style remarkably similar to that used by modern chemists . Among these were aromatic molecules such as benzene ( C6H6 ) , and related triazines . Loschmidt symbolized the benzene nucleus by a large circle , which he said was to indicate the yet - undetermined structure of the compound . Some have argued , however , that he intended this as the suggestion of a cyclical structure , four years before that of Kekule , who is better known and is generally credited with the discovery of benzene 's cyclic structure . In 1865 , Loschmidt was the first to estimate the size of... - Crystallography is the experimental science of determining the arrangement of atoms in the crystalline solids (see crystal structure). The word "crystallography" derives from the Greek words "crystallon" "cold drop, frozen drop", with its meaning extending to all solids with some degree of transparency, and "grapho" "I write". In July 2012, the United Nations recognised the importance of the science of crystallography by proclaiming that 2014 would be the International Year of Crystallography. X-ray crystallography is used to determine the structure of large biomolecules such as proteins. Before the development of X-ray diffraction crystallography (see below), the study of crystals was based on physical measurements of their geometry. This involved measuring the angles of crystal faces relative to each other and to theoretical reference axes (crystallographic axes), and establishing the symmetry of the crystal in question. This physical measurement is carried out using a goniometer. The position in 3D space of each crystal face is plotted on a stereographic net such as a Wulff net or Lambert net. The pole to each face is plotted on the net. Each point is labelled with its Miller index. The final plot allows the symmetry of the crystal to be established. - Optics is the branch of physics which involves the behaviour and properties of light, including its interactions with matter and the construction of instruments that use or detect it. Optics usually describes the behaviour of visible, ultraviolet, and infrared light. Because light is an electromagnetic wave, other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as X-rays, microwaves, and radio waves exhibit similar properties. What is the relationship between 'johann josef loschmidt' and 'german'?
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