Section Theorems.
(** Represents an arbitrary commutative ring.  Note: we use Variable rather than Parameter to ensure that the following theorems are generalized w.r.t r. *)
Variable f : Field.
(** Represents the set of group elements.  Note: We use Let to define E as a local abbreviation. *)
Let E := E f.
(** Accepts one ring element, x, and asserts that x is the left identity element. *)
Definition sum_is_id_l := Monoid.is_id_l E {+}.
(** Accepts one ring element, x, and asserts that x is the right identity element. *)
Definition sum_is_id_r := Monoid.is_id_r E {+}.
(** Accepts one ring element, x, and asserts that x is the identity element. *)
Definition sum_is_id := Monoid.is_id E {+}.
(** Accepts one ring element, x, and asserts that x is the left identity element. *)
Definition prod_is_id_l := Monoid.is_id_l E {#}.
(** Accepts one ring element, x, and asserts that x is the right identity element. *)
Definition prod_is_id_r := Monoid.is_id_r E {#}.
(** Accepts one ring element, x, and asserts that x is the identity element. *)
Definition prod_is_id := Monoid.is_id E {#}.
(** Represents the commutative ring that addition and multiplication form over E. *)
Definition commutative_ring
:= Commutative_Ring.commutative_ring E 0 1 {+} {#}
distinct_0_1 sum_is_assoc sum_is_comm sum_id_l sum_inv_l_ex
prod_is_assoc prod_is_comm prod_id_l prod_sum_distrib_l.
(** Represents the non-commutative ring formed by addition and multiplication over E. *)
Definition ring := Commutative_Ring.ring commutative_ring.
(** Represents the abelian group formed by addition over E. *)
Definition sum_abelian_group := Commutative_Ring.sum_abelian_group commutative_ring.
(** Represents the abelian group formed by addition over E. *)
Definition sum_group := Commutative_Ring.sum_group commutative_ring.
(** Represents the monoid formed by addition over E. *)
Definition sum_monoid := Commutative_Ring.sum_monoid commutative_ring.
(** Represents the monoid formed by multiplication over E. *)
Definition prod_monoid := Commutative_Ring.prod_monoid commutative_ring.
(** Proves that 1 <> 0. *)
Definition distinct_1_0
:  1 <> 0
:= Commutative_Ring.distinct_1_0 commutative_ring.
(** A predicate that accepts one element, x, and asserts that x is nonzero. *)
Definition nonzero
:  E -> Prop
:= Commutative_Ring.nonzero commutative_ring.
(** Proves that 0 is the right identity element. *)
Definition sum_id_r
:  sum_is_id_r 0
:= Commutative_Ring.sum_id_r commutative_ring.
(** Proves that 0 is the identity element. *)
Definition sum_id := Commutative_Ring.sum_id commutative_ring.
(** Accepts two elements, x and y, and asserts that y is x's left inverse. *)
Definition sum_is_inv_l := Monoid.is_inv_l E {+} 0 sum_id.
(** Accepts two elements, x and y, and asserts that y is x's right inverse. *)
Definition sum_is_inv_r := Monoid.is_inv_r E {+} 0 sum_id.
(** Accepts two elements, x and y, and asserts that y is x's inverse. *)
Definition sum_is_inv := Monoid.is_inv E {+} 0 sum_id.
(** Asserts that every element has a right inverse. *)
Definition sum_inv_r_ex
:  forall x : E, exists y : E, sum_is_inv_r x y
:= Commutative_Ring.sum_inv_r_ex commutative_ring.
(** Proves that the left identity element is unique. *)
Definition sum_id_l_uniq
:  forall x : E, Monoid.is_id_l E {+} x -> x = 0
:= Commutative_Ring.sum_id_l_uniq commutative_ring.
(** Proves that the right identity element is unique. *)
Definition sum_id_r_uniq
:  forall x : E, Monoid.is_id_r E {+} x -> x = 0
:= Commutative_Ring.sum_id_r_uniq commutative_ring.
(** Proves that the identity element is unique. *)
Definition sum_id_uniq
:  forall x : E, Monoid.is_id E {+} x -> x = 0
:= Commutative_Ring.sum_id_uniq commutative_ring.
(** Proves that for every group element, x, its left and right inverses are equal. *)
Definition sum_inv_l_r_eq
:  forall x y : E, sum_is_inv_l x y -> forall z : E, sum_is_inv_r x z -> y = z
:= Commutative_Ring.sum_inv_l_r_eq commutative_ring.
(** Proves that the inverse relation is symmetrical. *)
Definition sum_inv_sym
:  forall x y : E, sum_is_inv x y <-> sum_is_inv y x
:= Commutative_Ring.sum_inv_sym commutative_ring.
(** Proves that an element's inverse is unique. *)
Definition sum_inv_uniq
:  forall x y z :  E, sum_is_inv x y -> sum_is_inv x z -> z = y
:= Commutative_Ring.sum_inv_uniq commutative_ring.
(** Proves that every element has an inverse. *)
Definition sum_inv_ex
:  forall x : E, exists y : E, sum_is_inv x y
:= Commutative_Ring.sum_inv_ex commutative_ring.
(** Proves explicitly that every element has a unique inverse. *)
Definition sum_inv_uniq_ex
:  forall x : E, exists! y : E, sum_is_inv x y
:= Commutative_Ring.sum_inv_uniq_ex commutative_ring.
(** Proves the left introduction rule. *)
Definition sum_intro_l
:  forall x y z : E, x = y -> z + x = z + y
:= Commutative_Ring.sum_intro_l commutative_ring.
(** Proves the right introduction rule. *)
Definition sum_intro_r
:  forall x y z : E, x = y -> x + z = y + z
:= Commutative_Ring.sum_intro_r commutative_ring.
(** Proves the left cancellation rule. *)
Definition sum_cancel_l
:   forall x y z : E, z + x = z + y -> x = y
:= Commutative_Ring.sum_cancel_l commutative_ring.
(** Proves the right cancellation rule. *)
Definition sum_cancel_r
:   forall x y z : E, x + z = y + z -> x = y
:= Commutative_Ring.sum_cancel_r commutative_ring.
(** Proves that an element's left inverse is unique. *)
Definition sum_inv_l_uniq
:  forall x y z : E, sum_is_inv_l x y -> sum_is_inv_l x z -> z = y
:= Commutative_Ring.sum_inv_l_uniq commutative_ring.
(** Proves that an element's right inverse is unique. *)
Definition sum_inv_r_uniq
:  forall x y z : E, sum_is_inv_r x y -> sum_is_inv_r x z -> z = y
:= Commutative_Ring.sum_inv_r_uniq commutative_ring.
(** Represents strongly-specified negation. *)
Definition sum_neg_strong
:  forall x : E, { y | sum_is_inv x y }
:= Commutative_Ring.sum_neg_strong commutative_ring.
(** Represents negation. *)
Definition sum_neg
:  E -> E
:= Commutative_Ring.sum_neg commutative_ring.
Notation "{-}" := (sum_neg) : field_scope.
Notation "- x" := (sum_neg x) : field_scope.
(** Asserts that the negation returns the inverse of its argument. *)
Definition sum_neg_def
:  forall x : E, sum_is_inv x (- x)
:= Commutative_Ring.sum_neg_def commutative_ring.
(** Proves that negation is one-to-one *)
Definition sum_neg_inj
:  is_injective E E {-}
:= Commutative_Ring.sum_neg_inj commutative_ring.
(** Proves the cancellation property for negation. *)
Definition sum_cancel_neg
:  forall x : E, {-} (- x) = x
:= Commutative_Ring.sum_cancel_neg commutative_ring.
(** Proves that negation is onto *)
Definition sum_neg_onto
:  is_onto E E {-}
:= Commutative_Ring.sum_neg_onto commutative_ring.
(** Proves that negation is surjective *)
Definition sum_neg_bijective
:  is_bijective E E {-}
:= Commutative_Ring.sum_neg_bijective commutative_ring.
(** Proves that 1 is the right identity element. *)
Definition prod_id_r
:  prod_is_id_r 1
:= Commutative_Ring.prod_id_r commutative_ring.
(** Accepts one element, x, and asserts that x is the identity element. *)
Definition prod_id
:  prod_is_id 1
:= Commutative_Ring.prod_id commutative_ring.
(** Proves that the left identity element is unique. *)
Definition prod_id_l_uniq
:  forall x : E, (Monoid.is_id_l E {#} x) -> x = 1
:= Commutative_Ring.prod_id_l_uniq commutative_ring.
(** Proves that the right identity element is unique. *)
Definition prod_id_r_uniq
:  forall x : E, (Monoid.is_id_r E {#} x) -> x = 1
:= Commutative_Ring.prod_id_r_uniq commutative_ring.
(** Proves that the right identity element is unique. *)
Definition prod_id_uniq
:  forall x : E, (Monoid.is_id E {#} x) -> x = 1
:= Commutative_Ring.prod_id_uniq commutative_ring.
(** Proves the left introduction rule. *)
Definition prod_intro_l
:  forall x y z : E, x = y -> z # x = z # y
:= Commutative_Ring.prod_intro_l commutative_ring.
(** Proves the right introduction rule. *)
Definition prod_intro_r
:  forall x y z : E, x = y -> x # z = y # z
:= Commutative_Ring.prod_intro_r commutative_ring.
(** Accepts two elements, x and y, and asserts that y is x's left inverse. *)
Definition prod_is_inv_l := Commutative_Ring.prod_is_inv_l commutative_ring.
(** Accepts two elements, x and y, and asserts that y is x's right inverse. *)
Definition prod_is_inv_r := Commutative_Ring.prod_is_inv_r commutative_ring.
(** Accepts two elements, x and y, and asserts that y is x's inverse. *)
Definition prod_is_inv := Commutative_Ring.prod_is_inv commutative_ring.
(** Accepts one argument, x, and asserts that x has a left inverse. *)
Definition prod_has_inv_l := Commutative_Ring.prod_has_inv_l commutative_ring.
(** Accepts one argument, x, and asserts that x has a right inverse. *)
Definition prod_has_inv_r := Commutative_Ring.prod_has_inv_r commutative_ring.
(** Accepts one argument, x, and asserts that x has an inverse. *)
Definition prod_has_inv := Commutative_Ring.prod_has_inv commutative_ring.
(** Proves that every left inverse must also be a right inverse. *)
Definition prod_is_inv_lr := Commutative_Ring.prod_is_inv_lr commutative_ring.
(** Proves that every non-zero element has a right multiplicative inverse. *)
Definition prod_inv_r_ex
:  forall x : E, x <> 0 -> prod_has_inv_r x
:= fun x H
=> ex_ind
(fun y H0
=> ex_intro (prod_is_inv_r x) y
(prod_is_inv_lr x y H0))
(prod_inv_l_ex x H).
(** Proves that every non-zero element has a multiplicative inverse. *)
Definition prod_inv_ex
:  forall x : E, nonzero x -> prod_has_inv x
:= fun x H
=> ex_ind
(fun y H0
=> ex_intro (prod_is_inv x) y
(conj H0
(prod_is_inv_lr x y H0)))
(prod_inv_l_ex x H).
(** Proves that the left and right inverses of an element must be equal. *)
Definition prod_inv_l_r_eq
:  forall x y : E, prod_is_inv_l x y -> forall z : E, prod_is_inv_r x z -> y = z
:= Commutative_Ring.prod_inv_l_r_eq commutative_ring.
(** Proves that the inverse relationship is symmetric. *)
Definition prod_inv_sym
:  forall x y : E, prod_is_inv x y <-> prod_is_inv y x
:= Commutative_Ring.prod_inv_sym commutative_ring.
(** Proves the left cancellation law for elements possessing a left inverse. *)
Definition prod_cancel_l
:   forall x y z : E, nonzero z -> z # x = z # y -> x = y
:= fun x y z H
=> Commutative_Ring.prod_cancel_l commutative_ring x y z (prod_inv_l_ex z H).
(** Proves the right cancellation law for elements possessing a right inverse. *)
Definition prod_cancel_r
:   forall x y z : E, nonzero z -> x # z = y # z -> x = y
:= fun x y z H
=> Commutative_Ring.prod_cancel_r commutative_ring x y z (prod_inv_r_ex z H).
(** Proves that an element's left inverse is unique. *)
Definition prod_inv_l_uniq
:  forall x : E, nonzero x -> forall y z : E, prod_is_inv_l x y -> prod_is_inv_l x z -> z = y
:= fun x H
=> Commutative_Ring.prod_inv_l_uniq commutative_ring x (prod_inv_r_ex x H).
(** Proves that an element's right inverse is unique. *)
Definition prod_inv_r_uniq
:  forall x : E, nonzero x -> forall y z : E, prod_is_inv_r x y -> prod_is_inv_r x z -> z = y
:= fun x H
=> Commutative_Ring.prod_inv_r_uniq commutative_ring x (prod_inv_l_ex x H).
(** Proves that an element's inverse is unique. *)
Definition prod_inv_uniq
:  forall x y z : E, prod_is_inv x y -> prod_is_inv x z -> z = y
:= Commutative_Ring.prod_inv_uniq commutative_ring.
(** Proves that every nonzero element has a unique inverse. *)
Definition prod_uniq_inv_ex
:  forall x : E, nonzero x -> exists! y : E, prod_is_inv x y
:= fun x H
=> ex_ind
(fun y (H0 : prod_is_inv x y)
=> ex_intro
(unique (prod_is_inv x))
y
(conj H0 (fun z H1 => eq_sym (prod_inv_uniq x y z H0 H1))))
(prod_inv_ex x H).
(** Proves that 1 is its own left multiplicative inverse. *)
Definition recipr_1_l
:  prod_is_inv_l 1 1
:= Commutative_Ring.recipr_1_l commutative_ring.
(** Proves that 1 is its own right multiplicative inverse. *)
Definition recipr_1_r
:  prod_is_inv_r 1 1
:= Commutative_Ring.recipr_1_r commutative_ring.
(** Proves that 1 is its own recriprical. *)
Definition recipr_1
:  prod_is_inv 1 1
:= Commutative_Ring.recipr_1 commutative_ring.
(** Proves that 1 has a left multiplicative inverse. *)
Definition prod_has_inv_l_1
:  prod_has_inv_l 1
:= Commutative_Ring.prod_has_inv_l_1 commutative_ring.
(** Proves that 1 has a right multiplicative inverse. *)
Definition prod_has_inv_r_1
:  prod_has_inv_r 1
:= Commutative_Ring.prod_has_inv_r_1 commutative_ring.
(** Proves that 1 has a reciprical *)
Definition prod_has_inv_1
:  prod_has_inv 1
:= Commutative_Ring.prod_has_inv_1 commutative_ring.
(** Proves that multiplication is right distributive over addition. *)
Definition prod_sum_distrib_r
:  Ring.is_distrib_r E {#} {+}
:= Commutative_Ring.prod_sum_distrib_r commutative_ring.
(** Asserts that multiplication is distributive over addition. *)
Definition prod_sum_distrib
:  Ring.is_distrib E {#} {+}
:= Commutative_Ring.prod_sum_distrib commutative_ring.
(** Proves that 0 times every number equals 0.  0 x = 0 x (0 + 0) x = 0 x 0 x + 0 x = 0 x 0 x = 0 *)
Definition prod_0_l
:  forall x : E, 0 # x = 0
:= Commutative_Ring.prod_0_l commutative_ring.
(** Proves that 0 times every number equals 0. *)
Definition prod_0_r
:  forall x : E, x # 0 = 0
:= Commutative_Ring.prod_0_r commutative_ring.
(** Proves that 0 does not have a left multiplicative inverse. *)
Definition prod_0_inv_l
:  ~ prod_has_inv_l 0
:= Commutative_Ring.prod_0_inv_l commutative_ring.
(** Proves that 0 does not have a right multiplicative inverse. *)
Definition prod_0_inv_r
:  ~ prod_has_inv_r 0
:= Commutative_Ring.prod_0_inv_r commutative_ring.
(** Proves that 0 does not have a multiplicative inverse - I.E. 0 does not have a reciprocal. *)
Definition prod_0_inv
:  ~ prod_has_inv 0
:= Commutative_Ring.prod_0_inv commutative_ring.
(** Proves that multiplicative inverses, when they exist are always nonzero. *)
Definition prod_inv_0
:  forall x y : E, prod_is_inv x y -> nonzero y
:= Commutative_Ring.prod_inv_0 commutative_ring.
(** Proves that the product of two non-zero values is non-zero.  x * y <> 0 x * y = 0 -> False  assume x * y = 0 1/x * x * y = 1/x * 0 y = 0 which is a contradiction. *)
Definition prod_nonzero_closed
:  forall x : E, nonzero x -> forall y : E, nonzero y -> nonzero (x # y)
:= fun x H y H0 (H1 : x # y = 0)
=> ex_ind
(fun z (H2 : prod_is_inv_l x z)
=> H0 (prod_intro_l (x # y) 0 z H1
|| z # (x # y) = a @a by <- prod_0_r z
|| a           = 0 @a by <- prod_is_assoc z x y
|| a # y       = 0 @a by <- H2
|| a           = 0 @a by <- prod_id_l y))
(prod_inv_l_ex x H).
(** Represents -1 and proves that it exists. *)
Definition E_n1_strong
:  { x : E | sum_is_inv 1 x }
:= Commutative_Ring.E_n1_strong commutative_ring.
(** Represents -1. *)
Definition E_n1 : E := Commutative_Ring.E_n1 commutative_ring.
(** Defines a symbolic representation for -1  Note: here we represent the inverse of 1 rather than the negation of 1. Letter we prove that the negation equals the inverse.  Note: brackets are needed to ensure Coq parses the symbol as a single token instead of a prefixed function call. *)
Notation "{-1}" := E_n1 : field_scope.
(** Asserts that -1 is the additive inverse of 1. *)
Definition E_n1_def
:  sum_is_inv 1 {-1}
:= Commutative_Ring.E_n1_def commutative_ring.
(** Asserts that -1 is the left inverse of 1. *)
Definition E_n1_inv_l
:  sum_is_inv_l 1 {-1}
:= Commutative_Ring.E_n1_inv_l commutative_ring.
(** Asserts that -1 is the right inverse of 1. *)
Definition E_n1_inv_r
:  sum_is_inv_r 1 {-1}
:= Commutative_Ring.E_n1_inv_r commutative_ring.
(** Asserts that every additive inverse of 1 must be equal to -1. *)
Definition E_n1_uniq
:  forall x : E, sum_is_inv 1 x -> x = {-1}
:= Commutative_Ring.E_n1_uniq commutative_ring.
(** Proves that -1 * x equals the multiplicative inverse of x.  -1 x + x = 0 -1 x + 1 x = 0 (-1 + 1) x = 0 0 x = 0 0 = 0 *)
Definition prod_n1_x_inv_l
:  forall x : E, sum_is_inv_l x ({-1} # x)
:= Commutative_Ring.prod_n1_x_inv_l commutative_ring.
(** Proves that x * -1 equals the multiplicative inverse of x.  x -1 + x = 0 *)
Definition prod_x_n1_inv_l
:  forall x : E, sum_is_inv_l x (x # {-1})
:= Commutative_Ring.prod_x_n1_inv_l commutative_ring.
(** Proves that x + -1 x = 0. *)
Definition prod_n1_x_inv_r
:  forall x : E, sum_is_inv_r x ({-1} # x)
:= Commutative_Ring.prod_n1_x_inv_r commutative_ring.
(** Proves that x + x -1 = 0. *)
Definition prod_x_n1_inv_r
:  forall x : E, sum_is_inv_r x (x # {-1})
:= Commutative_Ring.prod_x_n1_inv_r commutative_ring.
(** Proves that -1 x is the additive inverse of x. *)
Definition prod_n1_x_inv
:  forall x : E, sum_is_inv x ({-1} # x)
:= Commutative_Ring.prod_n1_x_inv commutative_ring.
(** Proves that x -1 is the additive inverse of x. *)
Definition prod_x_n1_inv
:  forall x : E, sum_is_inv x (x # {-1})
:= Commutative_Ring.prod_x_n1_inv commutative_ring.
(** Proves that multiplying by -1 is equivalent to negation. *)
Definition prod_n1_neg
:  {#} {-1} = {-}
:= Commutative_Ring.prod_n1_neg commutative_ring.
(** Accepts one element, x, and proves that x -1 equals the additive negation of x. *)
Definition prod_x_n1_neg
:  forall x : E, x # {-1} = - x
:= Commutative_Ring.prod_x_n1_neg commutative_ring.
(** Accepts one element, x, and proves that -1 x equals the additive negation of x. *)
Definition prod_n1_x_neg
:  forall x : E, {-1} # x = - x
:= Commutative_Ring.prod_n1_x_neg commutative_ring.
(** Proves that -1 x = x -1. *)
Definition prod_n1_eq
:  forall x : E, {-1} # x = x # {-1}
:= Commutative_Ring.prod_n1_eq commutative_ring.
(** Proves that the additive negation of 1 equals -1. *)
Definition neg_1
:  {-} 1 = {-1}
:= Commutative_Ring.neg_1 commutative_ring.
(** Proves that the additive negation of -1 equals 1. *)
Definition neg_n1
:  - {-1} = 1
:= Commutative_Ring.neg_n1 commutative_ring.
(** Proves that -1 * -1 = 1.  -1 * -1 = -1 * -1 -1 * -1 = prod -1 -1 -1 * -1 = {-} -1 -1 * -1 = 1 *)
Definition prod_n1_n1
:  {-1} # {-1} = 1
:= Commutative_Ring.prod_n1_n1 commutative_ring.
(** Proves that -1 is its own multiplicative inverse. *)
Definition E_n1_inv
:  prod_is_inv {-1} {-1}
:= Commutative_Ring.E_n1_inv commutative_ring.
(** Proves that -1 is nonzero. *)
Definition nonzero_n1
:  nonzero {-1}
:= fun H : {-1} = 0
=> distinct_1_0
(prod_intro_l {-1} 0 {-1} H
|| a = {-1} # 0 @a by <- prod_n1_n1
|| 1 = a        @a by <- prod_0_r {-1}).
(** Represents the reciprical operation. *)
Definition recipr_strong
:  forall x : E, nonzero x -> {y | prod_is_inv x y}
:= fun x H
=> constructive_definite_description (prod_is_inv x)
(prod_uniq_inv_ex x H).
(** Represents the reciprical operation. *)
Definition recipr
:  forall x : E, nonzero x -> E
:= fun x H
=> proj1_sig (recipr_strong x H).
Notation "{1/ x }" := (recipr x) : field_scope.
(** Proves that the reciprical operation correctly returns the inverse of the given element. *)
Definition recipr_def
:  forall (x : E) (H : nonzero x), prod_is_inv x ({1/x} H)
:= fun x H
=> proj2_sig (recipr_strong x H).
(** Proves that (1/-1) = -1. *)
Definition recipr_n1
:  ({1/{-1}} nonzero_n1) = {-1}
:= prod_inv_uniq {-1} {-1} ({1/{-1}} nonzero_n1)
E_n1_inv
(recipr_def {-1} nonzero_n1).
(** Proves that recipricals are nonzero. *)
Definition recipr_nonzero
:  forall (x : E) (H : nonzero x), nonzero ({1/x} H)
:= fun x H
=> prod_inv_0 x ({1/x} H) (recipr_def x H).
(** Proves that 1/(1/x) = x *)
Definition recipr_cancel
:  forall (x : E) (H : nonzero x), ({1/({1/x} H)} (recipr_nonzero x H)) = x
:= fun x H
=> Monoid.op_cancel_neg_gen prod_monoid x
(prod_inv_ex x H)
(prod_inv_ex ({1/x} H) (recipr_nonzero x H)).
(** Represents division. *)
Definition div
:  E -> forall x : E, nonzero x -> E
:= fun x y H
=> x # ({1/y} H).
Notation "x / y" := (div x y) : field_scope.
(** Proves that x y/x = y. *)
Definition div_cancel_l
:  forall (x : E) (H : nonzero x) (y : E), x # ((y/x) H) = y
:= fun x H y
=> eq_refl (x # ((y/x) H))
|| x # ((y/x) H) = x # a @a by <- prod_is_comm y ({1/x} H)
|| x # ((y/x) H) = a     @a by <- prod_is_assoc x ({1/x} H) y
|| x # ((y/x) H) = a # y @a by <- proj2 (recipr_def x H)
|| x # ((y/x) H) = a     @a by <- prod_id_l y.
(** Proves that x/y y = x. *)
Definition div_cancel_r
:  forall (x : E) (H : nonzero x) (y : E), ((y/x) H) # x = y
:= fun x H y
=> div_cancel_l x H y
|| a = y @a by <- prod_is_comm x ((y/x) H).
(** The following section proves that the set of nonzero elements forms an algebraic group over multiplication with 1 as the identity.  To show this, we map every nonzero field element, x, onto a dependent product, (x, H), where H represents a proof that x is nonzero.  We then define equality over these products such that two pair, (x, H) and (y, H0), are equal whenever x and y are.  Continuing, we define multiplication reasonably so that (x, H) # (y, H0) = (x * y, H1) where # denotes multiplication over pairs.  With these definitions in hand, we show that the resulting elements form a group and that this group is isomorphic with the set of nonzero field elements. *)
(** Represents those field elements that are nonzero.  Note: each value can be seen intuitively as a pair, (x, H), where x is a monoid element and H is a proof that x is invertable. *)
Definition D : Set := {x : E | nonzero x}.
(** Accepts a field element and a proof that it is nonzero and returns its projection in D. *)
Definition D_cons
:  forall x : E, nonzero x -> D
:= exist nonzero.

(** Asserts that any two equal non-zero elements, x and y, are equivalent (using dependent equality).  Note: to compare sig elements that differ only in their proof terms, such as (x, H) and (x, H0), we must introduce a new notion of equality called "dependent equality". This relationship is defined in the Eqdep module. *)
Axiom D_eq_dep
: forall (x : E) (H : nonzero x) (y : E) (H0 : nonzero y), y = x -> eq_dep E nonzero y H0 x H.