praj-17/QA-MCQ-Open-ended huggingface dataset:
Title: Adolescence
Context: The first areas of the brain to be pruned are those involving primary functions, such as motor and sensory areas. The areas of the brain involved in more complex processes lose matter later in development. These include the lateral and prefrontal cortices, among other regions. Some of the most developmentally significant changes in the brain occur in the prefrontal cortex, which is involved in decision making and cognitive control, as well as other higher cognitive functions. During adolescence, myelination and synaptic pruning in the prefrontal cortex increases, improving the efficiency of information processing, and neural connections between the prefrontal cortex and other regions of the brain are strengthened. This leads to better evaluation of risks and rewards, as well as improved control over impulses. Specifically, developments in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex are important for controlling impulses and planning ahead, while development in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex is important for decision making. Changes in the orbitofrontal cortex are important for evaluating rewards and risks.

question: Which part of the brain is involved in decision making and cognitive control? 

answer: prefrontal cortex

question: Which area of the brain is important for controlling impulses and planning ahead? 

answer: dorsolateral prefrontal cortex

question: Which part of the brain is important for evaluating rewards and risks? 

answer: orbitofrontal cortex

question: Which are the first areas to be pruned during puberty? 

answer: those involving primary functions

question: Motor and sensory skills are examples of what kind of brain function? 

answer: primary
Title: Adolescence
Context: Communication within peer groups allows adolescents to explore their feelings and identity as well as develop and evaluate their social skills. Peer groups offer members the opportunity to develop social skills such as empathy, sharing, and leadership. Adolescents choose peer groups based on characteristics similarly found in themselves. By utilizing these relationships, adolescents become more accepting of who they are becoming. Group norms and values are incorporated into an adolescent’s own self-concept. Through developing new communication skills and reflecting upon those of their peers, as well as self-opinions and values, an adolescent can share and express emotions and other concerns without fear of rejection or judgment. Peer groups can have positive influences on an individual, such as on academic motivation and performance. However, while peers may facilitate social development for one another they may also hinder it. Peers can have negative influences, such as encouraging experimentation with drugs, drinking, vandalism, and stealing through peer pressure. Susceptibility to peer pressure increases during early adolescence, peaks around age 14, and declines thereafter. Further evidence of peers hindering social development has been found in Spanish teenagers, where emotional (rather than solution-based) reactions to problems and emotional instability have been linked with physical aggression against peers. Both physical and relational aggression are linked to a vast number of enduring psychological difficulties, especially depression, as is social rejection. Because of this, bullied adolescents often develop problems that lead to further victimization. Bullied adolescents are both more likely to continued to be bullied and to bully others in the future. However, this relationship is less stable in cases of cyberbullying, a relatively new issue among adolescents.

question: What is one area in which peer groups can have positive influences on an individual? 

answer: academic motivation and performance

question: What are some of the negative experiences that peer pressure can influence during adolescence? 

answer: experimentation with drugs, drinking, vandalism, and stealing

question: At what age does succeptability to peer pressure peak? 

answer: 14

question: What are some social skills that peer groups offer members the opportunity to develop? 

answer: empathy, sharing, and leadership
Title: Adolescence
Context: There are at least two major approaches to understanding cognitive change during adolescence. One is the constructivist view of cognitive development. Based on the work of Piaget, it takes a quantitative, state-theory approach, hypothesizing that adolescents' cognitive improvement is relatively sudden and drastic. The second is the information-processing perspective, which derives from the study of artificial intelligence and attempts to explain cognitive development in terms of the growth of specific components of the thinking process.

question: What view towards cognitive development during adolescence did Piaget take? 

answer: constructivist

question: Did Piaget believe that cognitive improvement was sudden and drastic or slow and steadied? 

answer: sudden and drastic

question: Besides the information-processing perspective, what is the other major approach to understanding cognitive change during adolescence? 

answer: quantitative, state-theory

question: The information-processing perspective towards cognitive development derives from the study of what? 

answer: artificial intelligence
Title: Adolescence
Context: Adolescence marks a time of sexual maturation, which manifests in social interactions as well. While adolescents may engage in casual sexual encounters (often referred to as hookups), most sexual experience during this period of development takes place within romantic relationships. Adolescents can use technologies and social media to seek out romantic relationships as they feel it is a safe place to try out dating and identity exploration. From these social media encounters, a further relationship may begin. Kissing, hand holding, and hugging signify satisfaction and commitment. Among young adolescents, "heavy" sexual activity, marked by genital stimulation, is often associated with violence, depression, and poor relationship quality. This effect does not hold true for sexual activity in late adolescence that takes place within a romantic relationship. Some research suggest that there are genetic causes of early sexual activity that are also risk factors for delinquency, suggesting that there is a group who are at risk for both early sexual activity and emotional distress. For old adolescents, though, sexual activity in the context of romantic relationships was actually correlated with lower levels of deviant behavior after controlling for genetic risks, as opposed to sex outside of a relationship (hook-ups)

question: Casual sexual encounters are often referred to as what? 

answer: hookups

question: Do most sexual experiences during adolescence take place within or seperate from romantic relationships? 

answer: within

question: Where do some adolescents feel is a safe place to seek out romantic relationships, try out dating and indentity exploration? 

answer: social media

question: What seperates "heavy" sexual activity from other forms of affection? 

answer: genital stimulation

question: For older adolescents, is sexual activity in a romantic relationship associated with lower or higher levels of deviant behavior? 

answer: lower
Title: Adolescence
Context: A third gain in cognitive ability involves thinking about thinking itself, a process referred to as metacognition. It often involves monitoring one's own cognitive activity during the thinking process. Adolescents' improvements in knowledge of their own thinking patterns lead to better self-control and more effective studying. It is also relevant in social cognition, resulting in increased introspection, self-consciousness, and intellectualization (in the sense of thought about one's own thoughts, rather than the Freudian definition as a defense mechanism). Adolescents are much better able than children to understand that people do not have complete control over their mental activity. Being able to introspect may lead to two forms of adolescent egocentrism, which results in two distinct problems in thinking: the imaginary audience and the personal fable. These likely peak at age fifteen, along with self-consciousness in general.

question: What is the term used to describe thinking about thinking itself? 

answer: metacognition

question: Are adolescents or children better able to understand that people do not have complete control over their thoughts? 

answer: Adolescents

question: The imaginary audience and personal fable peak at what age? 

answer: fifteen

question: At what age does self-consciousness in general peak? 

answer: fifteen
Title: Adolescence
Context: A questionnaire called the teen timetable has been used to measure the age at which individuals believe adolescents should be able to engage in behaviors associated with autonomy. This questionnaire has been used to gauge differences in cultural perceptions of adolescent autonomy, finding, for instance, that White parents and adolescents tend to expect autonomy earlier than those of Asian descent. It is, therefore, clear that cultural differences exist in perceptions of adolescent autonomy, and such differences have implications for the lifestyles and development of adolescents. In sub-Saharan African youth, the notions of individuality and freedom may not be useful in understanding adolescent development. Rather, African notions of childhood and adolescent development are relational and interdependent.

question: What questionaire has been used to measure the age in which adolescents should be able to engage in autonomous behaviors? 

answer: teen timetable

question: Do White or Asian parents tend to expect autonomy earlier than the other? 

answer: White

question: What has the teen timetable questionnaire been used to guage? 

answer: differences in cultural perceptions of adolescent autonomy
Title: Adolescence
Context: Given the potential consequences, engaging in sexual behavior is somewhat risky, particularly for adolescents. Having unprotected sex, using poor birth control methods (e.g. withdrawal), having multiple sexual partners, and poor communication are some aspects of sexual behavior that increase individual and/or social risk. Some qualities of adolescents' lives that are often correlated with risky sexual behavior include higher rates of experienced abuse, lower rates of parental support and monitoring. Adolescence is also commonly a time of questioning sexuality and gender. This may involve intimate experimentation with people identifying as the same gender as well as with people of differing genders. Such exploratory sexual behavior can be seen as similar to other aspects of identity, including the exploration of vocational, social, and leisure identity, all of which involve some risk.

question: What is an example of a poor birth control method? 

answer: withdrawal

question: Are higher or lower levels of parental support associated with risky sexual behavior? 

answer: lower

question: Is exploratory sexual behavior seen as similar or seperate to other aspects of identity? 

answer: similar

question: Does having unprotected sex, multiple sexual partners, and poor communication increase or decrease individual and social risk? 

answer: increase
Title: Adolescence
Context: Research seems to favor the hypothesis that adolescents and adults think about risk in similar ways, but hold different values and thus come to different conclusions. Some have argued that there may be evolutionary benefits to an increased propensity for risk-taking in adolescence. For example, without a willingness to take risks, teenagers would not have the motivation or confidence necessary to leave their family of origin. In addition, from a population perspective, there is an advantage to having a group of individuals willing to take more risks and try new methods, counterbalancing the more conservative elements more typical of the received knowledge held by older adults. Risktaking may also have reproductive advantages: adolescents have a newfound priority in sexual attraction and dating, and risk-taking is required to impress potential mates. Research also indicates that baseline sensation seeking may affect risk-taking behavior throughout the lifespan.

question: Does research favor or reject the hypothesis that adolescents and adults think about risk similarly but hold different values and therefore come to different conclusions? 

answer: favor

question: A priority in sexual attraction and dating can prove helpful in order to complete what reproductive advantage? 

answer: impress potential mates

question: What does research indicate may affect risk-taking behavior throughout the lifespan? 

answer: baseline sensation seeking
Title: Adolescence
Context: Identity development is a stage in the adolescent life cycle. For most, the search for identity begins in the adolescent years. During these years, adolescents are more open to 'trying on' different behaviours and appearances to discover who they are. In other words, in an attempt to find their identity and discover who they are adolescents are liking to cycle through a number of identities to find one that suits them best. But, developing and maintaining identity (in adolescent years) is a difficult task due to multiple factors such as family life, environment, and social status. Empirical studies suggest that this process might be more accurately described as identity development, rather than formation, but confirms a normative process of change in both content and structure of one's thoughts about the self. The two main aspects of identity development are self-clarity and self-esteem. Since choices made during adolescent years can influence later life, high levels of self-awareness and self-control during mid-adolescence will lead to better decisions during the transition to adulthood.[citation needed] Researchers have used three general approaches to understanding identity development: self-concept, sense of identity, and self-esteem. The years of adolescence create a more conscientious group of young adults. Adolescents pay close attention and give more time and effort to their appearance as their body goes through changes. Unlike children, teens put forth an effort to look presentable (1991). The environment in which an adolescent grows up also plays an important role in their identity development. Studies done by the American Psychological Association have shown that adolescents with a less privileged upbringing have a more difficult time developing their identity.

question: When does the search for identity begin for most individuals? 

answer: adolescent years

question: What are some factors that make developing and maintaining an identity during the adolescent years a difficult task? 

answer: family life, environment, and social status

question: What are two main aspects of identity development? 

answer: self-clarity and self-esteem

question: What are the three general approaches to understanding identity development? 

answer: self-concept, sense of identity, and self-esteem

question: Do adolescents with a less privileged upbringing have a more or less difficult time developing their identity? 

answer: more difficult
Title: Adolescence
Context: Research since reveals self-examination beginning early in adolescence, but identity achievement rarely occurring before age 18. The freshman year of college influences identity development significantly, but may actually prolong psychosocial moratorium by encouraging reexamination of previous commitments and further exploration of alternate possibilities without encouraging resolution. For the most part, evidence has supported Erikson's stages: each correlates with the personality traits he originally predicted. Studies also confirm the impermanence of the stages; there is no final endpoint in identity development.

question: Identity achievement rarely occurs before what age? 

answer: 18

question: Is there a final endpoint in identity development? 

answer: no

question: Evidence has supported which theorist's idea concerning stages of development? 

answer: Erikson

question: Does self-examination begin early or late in adolescence? 

answer: early
Title: Adolescence
Context: Egocentrism in adolescents forms a self-conscious desire to feel important in their peer groups and enjoy social acceptance. Unlike the conflicting aspects of self-concept, identity represents a coherent sense of self stable across circumstances and including past experiences and future goals. Everyone has a self-concept, whereas Erik Erikson argued that not everyone fully achieves identity. Erikson's theory of stages of development includes the identity crisis in which adolescents must explore different possibilities and integrate different parts of themselves before committing to their beliefs. He described the resolution of this process as a stage of "identity achievement" but also stressed that the identity challenge "is never fully resolved once and for all at one point in time". Adolescents begin by defining themselves based on their crowd membership. "Clothes help teens explore new identities, separate from parents, and bond with peers." Fashion has played a major role when it comes to teenagers "finding their selves"; Fashion is always evolving, which corresponds with the evolution of change in the personality of teenagers. Adolescents attempt to define their identity by consciously styling themselves in different manners to find what best suits them. Trial and error in matching both their perceived image and the image others respond to and see, allows for the adolescent to grasp an understanding of who they are Just as fashion is evolving to influence adolescents so is the media. "Modern life takes place amidst a never-ending barrage of flesh on screens, pages, and billboards." This barrage consciously or subconsciously registers into the mind causing issues with self-image a factor that contributes to an adolescence sense of identity. Researcher James Marcia developed the current method for testing an individual's progress along these stages. His questions are divided into three categories: occupation, ideology, and interpersonal relationships. Answers are scored based on extent to which the individual has explored and the degree to which he has made commitments. The result is classification of the individual into a) identity diffusion in which all children begin, b) Identity Foreclosure in which commitments are made without the exploration of alternatives, c) Moratorium, or the process of exploration, or d) Identity Achievement in which Moratorium has occurred and resulted in commitments.

question: Which theorist argued that not everyone fully achieves identity? 

answer: Erik Erikson

question: How do adolescents initially define themselves? 

answer: crowd membership

question: How is Moratorium defined? 

answer: process of exploration

question: Which researcher developed the current method for testing an individual's process along the stages of identity? 

answer: James Marcia

question: James Marcia divides questions into how many categories? 

answer: three
Title: Adolescence
Context: The final major aspect of identity formation is self-esteem. Self-esteem is defined as one's thoughts and feelings about one's self-concept and identity. Most theories on self-esteem state that there is a grand desire, across all genders and ages, to maintain, protect and enhance their self-esteem. Contrary to popular belief, there is no empirical evidence for a significant drop in self-esteem over the course of adolescence. "Barometric self-esteem" fluctuates rapidly and can cause severe distress and anxiety, but baseline self-esteem remains highly stable across adolescence. The validity of global self-esteem scales has been questioned, and many suggest that more specific scales might reveal more about the adolescent experience. Girls are most likely to enjoy high self-esteem when engaged in supportive relationships with friends, the most important function of friendship to them is having someone who can provide social and moral support. When they fail to win friends' approval or couldn't find someone with whom to share common activities and common interests, in these cases, girls suffer from low self-esteem. In contrast, boys are more concerned with establishing and asserting their independence and defining their relation to authority. As such, they are more likely to derive high self-esteem from their ability to successfully influence their friends; on the other hand, the lack of romantic competence, for example, failure to win or maintain the affection of the opposite or same-sex (depending on sexual orientation), is the major contributor to low self-esteem in adolescent boys. Due to the fact that both men and women happen to have a low self-esteem after ending a romantic relationship, they are prone to other symptoms that is caused by this state. Depression and hopelessness are only two of the various symptoms and it is said that women are twice as likely to experience depression and men are three to four times more likely to commit suicide (Mearns, 1991; Ustun & Sartorius, 1995).

question: Which term is defined as one's thoughts and feelings about one's self-concept and identity? 

answer: Self-esteem

question: Is there evidence to support a drop in self-esteem during adolescence? 

answer: no

question: Which type of self-esteem fluctuates rapidly and can cause severe distress and anxiety? 

answer: Barometric self-esteem

question: Which type of self-esteem remains stable throughout adolescence? 

answer: baseline self-esteem

question: What is the most important function of friendship? 

answer: having someone who can provide social and moral support
Title: Adolescence
Context: In terms of sexual identity, adolescence is when most gay/lesbian and transgender adolescents begin to recognize and make sense of their feelings. Many adolescents may choose to come out during this period of their life once an identity has been formed; many others may go through a period of questioning or denial, which can include experimentation with both homosexual and heterosexual experiences. A study of 194 lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths under the age of 21 found that having an awareness of one's sexual orientation occurred, on average, around age 10, but the process of coming out to peers and adults occurred around age 16 and 17, respectively. Coming to terms with and creating a positive LGBT identity can be difficult for some youth for a variety of reasons. Peer pressure is a large factor when youth who are questioning their sexuality or gender identity are surrounded by heteronormative peers and can cause great distress due to a feeling of being different from everyone else. While coming out can also foster better psychological adjustment, the risks associated are real. Indeed, coming out in the midst of a heteronormative peer environment often comes with the risk of ostracism, hurtful jokes, and even violence. Because of this, statistically the suicide rate amongst LGBT adolescents is up to four times higher than that of their heterosexual peers due to bullying and rejection from peers or family members.

question: At what age does awareness of one's sexual orientation occur on average? 

answer: 10

question: At what age does coming out to one's peers occur on average? 

answer: 16

question: At what age does coming out to adults occur on average? 

answer: 17

question: How many times higher is the suicide rate amongst LGBT adolescents than their heterosexual peers? 

answer: four

question: What are factors causing a hightened suicide rate amongst LGBT adolescents? 

answer: bullying and rejection from peers or family members