praj-17/QA-MCQ-Open-ended huggingface dataset:
Title: Brain
Context: Another approach to brain function is to examine the consequences of damage to specific brain areas. Even though it is protected by the skull and meninges, surrounded by cerebrospinal fluid, and isolated from the bloodstream by the blood–brain barrier, the delicate nature of the brain makes it vulnerable to numerous diseases and several types of damage. In humans, the effects of strokes and other types of brain damage have been a key source of information about brain function. Because there is no ability to experimentally control the nature of the damage, however, this information is often difficult to interpret. In animal studies, most commonly involving rats, it is possible to use electrodes or locally injected chemicals to produce precise patterns of damage and then examine the consequences for behavior.

question: The brain is surrounded by what type of fluid? 

answer: cerebrospinal fluid

question: The brain is separated from the bloodstream by what feature? 

answer: the blood–brain barrier

question: The two main structures that protect the brain are what? 

answer: the skull and meninges

question: What type of disease if often studied to understand damage to the brain? 

answer: strokes

question: What type of animal is most commonly used to study brain damage? 

answer: rats
Title: Brain
Context: Computational neuroscience encompasses two approaches: first, the use of computers to study the brain; second, the study of how brains perform computation. On one hand, it is possible to write a computer program to simulate the operation of a group of neurons by making use of systems of equations that describe their electrochemical activity; such simulations are known as biologically realistic neural networks. On the other hand, it is possible to study algorithms for neural computation by simulating, or mathematically analyzing, the operations of simplified "units" that have some of the properties of neurons but abstract out much of their biological complexity. The computational functions of the brain are studied both by computer scientists and neuroscientists.

question: Computational neuroscience is concerned with what two studies? 

answer: the use of computers to study the brain; second, the study of how brains perform computation.
Title: Brain
Context: Recent years have seen increasing applications of genetic and genomic techniques to the study of the brain  and a focus on the roles of neurotrophic factors and physical activity in neuroplasticity. The most common subjects are mice, because of the availability of technical tools. It is now possible with relative ease to "knock out" or mutate a wide variety of genes, and then examine the effects on brain function. More sophisticated approaches are also being used: for example, using Cre-Lox recombination it is possible to activate or deactivate genes in specific parts of the brain, at specific times.

question: What is the most common test subjects for studying of the brain? 

answer: mice
Title: Brain
Context: The oldest brain to have been discovered was in Armenia in the Areni-1 cave complex. The brain, estimated to be over 5,000 years old, was found in the skull of a 12 to 14-year-old girl. Although the brains were shriveled, they were well preserved due to the climate found inside the cave.

question: Where was the oldest brain that was found? 

answer: Armenia

question: How old was the oldest brain discovered thought to be? 

answer: over 5,000 years old

question: The oldest known brain discovered was found in how old of a person? 

answer: 12 to 14-year-old

question: The oldest brain found in a cave was from what gender of human? 

answer: girl
Title: Brain
Context: Early philosophers were divided as to whether the seat of the soul lies in the brain or heart. Aristotle favored the heart, and thought that the function of the brain was merely to cool the blood. Democritus, the inventor of the atomic theory of matter, argued for a three-part soul, with intellect in the head, emotion in the heart, and lust near the liver. Hippocrates, the "father of medicine", came down unequivocally in favor of the brain. In his treatise on epilepsy he wrote:

question: The seal of the soul was debated to lie in what two organs of the body? 

answer: brain or heart.

question: Aristotle thought the soul lied in what organ? 

answer: the heart

question: Who invented the atomic theory of matter? 

answer: Democritus,

question: The "father of medicine" is a name given to whom in history? 

answer: Hippocrates

question: What philosopher in history argued for a three-part soul? 

answer: Democritus
Title: Brain
Context: The Roman physician Galen also argued for the importance of the brain, and theorized in some depth about how it might work. Galen traced out the anatomical relationships among brain, nerves, and muscles, demonstrating that all muscles in the body are connected to the brain through a branching network of nerves. He postulated that nerves activate muscles mechanically by carrying a mysterious substance he called pneumata psychikon, usually translated as "animal spirits". Galen's ideas were widely known during the Middle Ages, but not much further progress came until the Renaissance, when detailed anatomical study resumed, combined with the theoretical speculations of René Descartes and those who followed him. Descartes, like Galen, thought of the nervous system in hydraulic terms. He believed that the highest cognitive functions are carried out by a non-physical res cogitans, but that the majority of behaviors of humans, and all behaviors of animals, could be explained mechanistically.

question: The physician Galen was from which country in history? 

answer: Roman

question: What period in history was anatomical  studies of nerves greatly increased? 

answer: the Renaissance

question: Who coined the term pneumata psychikon? 

answer: The Roman physician Galen

question: Penumata psychikon is usually translated as what? 

answer: animal spirits
Title: Brain
Context: The first real progress toward a modern understanding of nervous function, though, came from the investigations of Luigi Galvani, who discovered that a shock of static electricity applied to an exposed nerve of a dead frog could cause its leg to contract. Since that time, each major advance in understanding has followed more or less directly from the development of a new technique of investigation. Until the early years of the 20th century, the most important advances were derived from new methods for staining cells. Particularly critical was the invention of the Golgi stain, which (when correctly used) stains only a small fraction of neurons, but stains them in their entirety, including cell body, dendrites, and axon. Without such a stain, brain tissue under a microscope appears as an impenetrable tangle of protoplasmic fibers, in which it is impossible to determine any structure. In the hands of Camillo Golgi, and especially of the Spanish neuroanatomist Santiago Ramón y Cajal, the new stain revealed hundreds of distinct types of neurons, each with its own unique dendritic structure and pattern of connectivity.

question: Who found out that a shock of electricity to an exposed nerve of a dead frog caused contractions? 

answer: Luigi Galvani

question: The tool that was invented to stain only a small fractions of neurons was called what? 

answer: the Golgi stain

question: What nationality was santiago Ramon y Cajal? 

answer: Spanish
Title: Brain
Context: In the first half of the 20th century, advances in electronics enabled investigation of the electrical properties of nerve cells, culminating in work by Alan Hodgkin, Andrew Huxley, and others on the biophysics of the action potential, and the work of Bernard Katz and others on the electrochemistry of the synapse. These studies complemented the anatomical picture with a conception of the brain as a dynamic entity. Reflecting the new understanding, in 1942 Charles Sherrington visualized the workings of the brain waking from sleep:

question: Work in the first half the 20th century in electrical properties of nerve cells were by what two main scientists? 

answer: Alan Hodgkin, Andrew Huxley
Title: Brain
Context: In the second half of the 20th century, developments in chemistry, electron microscopy, genetics, computer science, functional brain imaging, and other fields progressively opened new windows into brain structure and function. In the United States, the 1990s were officially designated as the "Decade of the Brain" to commemorate advances made in brain research, and to promote funding for such research.

question: Which decade in history was officially called the "Decade of the Brain"? 

answer: the 1990s
Title: Brain
Context: In the 21st century, these trends have continued, and several new approaches have come into prominence, including multielectrode recording, which allows the activity of many brain cells to be recorded all at the same time; genetic engineering, which allows molecular components of the brain to be altered experimentally; genomics, which allows variations in brain structure to be correlated with variations in DNA properties and neuroimaging.

question: Multielectrode recording allows what? 

answer: the activity of many brain cells to be recorded all at the same time;

question: Genetic engineering allows what? 

answer: molecular components of the brain to be altered experimentally;

question: What does genomics allow the study of? 

answer: variations in brain structure to be correlated with variations in DNA properties and neuroimaging.

question: During what century was multielectrode recording invented? 

answer: the 21st century,

question: Genetic engineering was first discovered in what century? 

answer: the 21st century,
Title: Near_East
Context: Near East (French: Proche-Orient) is a geographical term that roughly encompasses Western Asia. Despite having varying definitions within different academic circles, the term was originally applied to the maximum extent of the Ottoman Empire. The term has fallen into disuse in English, and has been replaced by the term Middle East.

question: What is a geographical term that roughly encompasses Western Asia? 

answer: Near East (French: Proche-Orient)

question: The term near east was originally applies to the maximum extent of what empire? 

answer: Ottoman Empire

question: The term Near East has fallen into disuses in what language? 

answer: English

question: What has replaced the term Near East? 

answer: Middle East
Title: Near_East
Context: The Encyclopædia Britannica defines the Near East as including Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Cyprus, Egypt, Georgia, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria, Turkey, the United Arab Emirates, the West Bank, and Yemen. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations defines the region similarly, but also includes Afghanistan while excluding the countries of North Africa and the Palestinian territories. According to the National Geographic Society, the terms Near East and Middle East denote the same territories and are 'generally accepted as comprising the countries of the Arabian Peninsula, Cyprus, Egypt, Iraq, Iran, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestinian territories, Syria, and Turkey'.

question: Who defines the Near East as including Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Cyprus, Egypt. Georgia, Iran, Iraq, Isreal, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria, Turkey, the United Arab Emirates, the West Bank, and Yemen? 

answer: The Encyclopædia Britannica

question: The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations also includes what Country in the definition of Near East? 

answer: Afghanistan

question: What group believes the terms Near East and Middle East denote the same territories? 

answer: the National Geographic Society
Title: Near_East
Context: At the beginning of the 19th century the Ottoman Empire included all of the Balkan Peninsula north to the southern edge of the Hungarian Plain, but by 1914 had lost all of it except Constantinople and Eastern Thrace to the rise of Balkan nationalism, which saw the independence of Greece, Serbia, the Danubian Principalities and Bulgaria. Up until 1912 the Ottomans retained a band of territory including Albania, Macedonia and Thrace, which were lost in the two Balkan Wars of 1912–13.

question: What empire included all of the Balkan Peninsula north to the southern edge of the Hungarian Plain at the beginning of the 19th century? 

answer: the Ottoman Empire

question: When did the Ottoman Empire lose all of it's empire except Constantinople and Eastern Thrace? 

answer: 1914

question: The rise of what saw the independence of Greece, Serbia, the Danubian Principalities and Bulgaria? 

answer: the rise of Balkan nationalism

question: Until what year did the Ottomans retain a band of territory including Albania, Macedonia and Thrace? 

answer: 1912

question: When did the Ottomans lose the territory of Albania, Macedonia and Thrace? 

answer: the two Balkan Wars of 1912–13
Title: Near_East
Context: The Ottoman Empire, believed to be about to collapse, was portrayed in the press as the sick man of Europe". The Balkan states, with the partial exception of Bosnia and Albania, were primarily Christian. Starting in 1894 the Ottomans struck at the Armenians on the explicit grounds that they were a non-Muslim people and as such were a potential threat to the Muslim empire within which they resided. The Hamidian Massacres aroused the indignation of the entire Christian world. In the United States the now aging Julia Ward Howe, author of the Battle Hymn of the Republic, leaped into the war of words and joined the Red Cross. Relations of minorities within the Ottoman Empire and the disposition of former Ottoman lands became known as the "Eastern Question," as the Ottomans were on the east of Europe.

question: How was the Ottoman Empire portrayed in the press? 

answer: as the sick man of Europe

question: The Balkan states were primarily what religion?  

answer: Christian

question: When did the Ottomans strike at the Armenians? 

answer: 1894

question: What are the grounds on which the Ottomans struck at the Armenians? 

answer: the explicit grounds that they were a non-Muslim people

question: What aroused the indignation of the entire Christian world? 

answer: The Hamidian Massacres
Title: Near_East
Context: It now became relevant to define the east of the eastern question. In about the middle of the 19th century "Near East" came into use to describe that part of the east closest to Europe. The term "Far East" appeared contemporaneously meaning Japan, China, Korea, Indonesia and Viet Nam; in short, the East Indies. "Near East" applied to what had been mainly known as the Levant, which was in the jurisdiction of the Ottoman Porte, or government. Those who used the term had little choice about its meaning. They could not set foot on most of the shores of the southern and central Mediterranean from the Gulf of Sidra to Albania without permits from the Ottoman Empire.

question: When did "Near East" come into use to describe the part of the east closest to Europe? 

answer: middle of the 19th century

question: In short, the term Far East appeared to name this area 

answer: the East Indies

question: "Near East" applied to this mainly known area 

answer: the Levant

question: What was the jurisdiction of the Levant in?  

answer: the Ottoman Porte

question: What was needed to set foot on most of the shores of the southern and central Mediterranean?  

answer: permits from the Ottoman Empire
Title: Near_East
Context: Some regions beyond the Ottoman Porte were included. One was North Africa west of Egypt. It was occupied by piratical kingdoms of the Barbary Coast, de facto independent since the 18th century. Formerly part of the empire at its apogee. Iran was included because it could not easily be reached except through the Ottoman Empire or neighboring Russia. In the 1890s the term tended to focus on the conflicts in the Balkan states and Armenia. The demise of the sick man of Europe left considerable confusion as to what was to be meant by "Near East". It is now generally used only in historical contexts, to describe the countries of Western Asia from the Mediterranean to (or including) Iran. There is, in short, no universally understood fixed inventory of nations, languages or historical assets defined to be in it.

question: What was one region included that was occupied by piratical kingdoms? 

answer: North Africa west of Egypt

question: Where were the piratical kingdoms from?  

answer: Barbary Coast

question: Why was Iran included in the collection of regions?  

answer: because it could not easily be reached except through the Ottoman Empire or neighboring Russia

question: What did the term Near East focus on in the 1890s? 

answer: the conflicts in the Balkan states and Armenia

question: The demise of what left considerable confusion as to what was to be meant by "Near East"  

answer: of the sick man of Europe
Title: Near_East
Context: The geographical terms "Near East" and "Far East" referring to areas of the globe in or contiguous to the former British Empire and the neighboring colonies of the Dutch, Portuguese, Spanish and Germans, fit together as a pair based on the opposites of far and near, suggesting that they were innovated together. They appear together in the journals of the mid-19th century. Both terms were used before then with local British and American meanings: the near or far east of a field, village or shire.

question: The terms "Near East" and "Far East" referring to areas of the globe in or contiguous to the former British Empire and the neighboring colonies fit together as a pair based on what?  

answer: the opposites of far and near

question: When do the terms "Near East" and "Far East" appear together in journals?  

answer: the mid-19th century

question: The term Near East and Far East were used in British and American meanings when referring to what?  

answer: the near or far east of a field, village or shire.
Title: Near_East
Context: There was a linguistic predisposition to use such terms. The Romans had used them in near Gaul / far Gaul, near Spain / far Spain and others. Before them the Greeks had the habit, which appears in Linear B, the oldest known script of Europe, referring to the near province and the far province of the kingdom of Pylos. Usually these terms were given with reference to a geographic feature, such as a mountain range or a river.

question: Who used the terms near Gaul? 

answer: The Romans

question: The appearance of what culture using the terms appears in Linear B? 

answer: the Greeks

question: Usually the terms were given when referencing what?   

answer: a geographic feature
Title: Near_East
Context: Ptolemy's Geography divided Asia on a similar basis. In the north is "Scythia this side of the Himalayas" and "Scythia beyond the Himalayas." To the south is "India on this side of the Ganges" and "India beyond the Ganges." Asia began on the coast of Anatolia ("land of the rising sun"). Beyond the Ganges and Himalayas (including the Tien Shan) were Serica and Serae (sections of China) and some other identifiable far eastern locations known to the voyagers and geographers but not to the general European public.

question: What divided Asia on a similar basis?  

answer: Ptolemy's Geography

question: "Scythia this side of the Himalayas" is located where?  

answer: In the north

question: "India on this side of the Ganges" is located where?  

answer: To the south

question: "Scythia beyond the Himalayas" is located where?  

answer: In the north

question: Where did Asia begin?  

answer: on the coast of Anatolia
Title: Near_East
Context: By the time of John Seller's Atlas Maritima of 1670, "India Beyond the Ganges" had become "the East Indies" including China, Korea, southeast Asia and the islands of the Pacific in a map that was every bit as distorted as Ptolemy's, despite the lapse of approximately 1500 years. That "east" in turn was only an English translation of Latin Oriens and Orientalis, "the land of the rising sun," used since Roman times for "east." The world map of Jodocus Hondius of 1590 labels all of Asia from the Caspian to the Pacific as India Orientalis, shortly to appear in translation as the East Indies.

question: When was John Seller's Atlas Maritima? 

answer: 1670

question: What had "India Beyond the Ganges" become?  

answer: the East Indies

question: China, Korea, southeast Asia and the islands of the Pacific were included in what?  

answer: "the East Indies"

question: What was only an English translation of Latin Oriens and Orientalis, "the land of the rising sun"? 

answer: "east"

question: What year did Jodocus Hondius make his world map?  

answer: 1590
Title: Near_East
Context: Elizabeth I of England, primarily interested in trade with the east, collaborated with English merchants to form the first trading companies to the far-flung regions, using their own jargon. Their goals were to obtain trading concessions by treaty. The queen chartered the Company of Merchants of the Levant, shortened to Levant Company, and soon known also as The Turkey Company, in 1581. In 1582, the ship The Great Susan transported the first ambassador, William Harebone, to the Ottoman Porte (government of the Ottoman Empire) at Constantinople. Compared to Anatolia, Levant also means "land of the rising sun," but where Anatolia always only meant the projection of land currently occupied by the Republic of Turkey, Levant meant anywhere in the domain ruled by the Ottoman Porte. The East India Company (short for a much longer formal name) was chartered in 1600 for trade to the East Indies.

question: Where was Elizabeth I from? 

answer: England

question: What was Elizabeth primarily interested in?  

answer: trade with the east

question: Who did Elizabeth I collaborate with? 

answer: English merchants

question: What was the goal of the first trading companies? 

answer: obtain trading concessions by treaty

question: What company was charted in 1600 for trade to the East Indies? 

answer: The East India Company
Title: Near_East
Context: It has pleased western historians to write of a decline of the Ottoman Empire as though a stable and uncontested polity of that name once existed. The borders did expand and contract but they were always dynamic and always in "question" right from the beginning. The Ottoman Empire was created from the lands of the former eastern Roman Empire on the occasion of the latter's violent demise. The last Roman emperor died fighting hand-to-hand in the streets of his capital, Constantinople, overwhelmed by the Ottoman military, in May, 1453. The victors inherited his remaining territory in the Balkans.

question: What has pleased western historians? 

answer: to write of a decline of the Ottoman Empire

question: What was always in question from the beginning of the Ottoman Empire?  

answer: The borders

question: What was the Ottoman Empire created from? 

answer: the lands of the former eastern Roman Empire

question: How did the last Roman emperor die? 

answer: fighting hand-to-hand in the streets

question: Where was the Roman emperor's capital? 

answer: Constantinople