praj-17/QA-MCQ-Open-ended huggingface dataset:
Title: 2008_Summer_Olympics_torch_relay
Context: Two additional teams of 40 attendants each will accompany the flame on its Mainland China route. This arrangement has however sparked several controversies.

question: How many additional teams will help with the Mainland China route? 

answer: Two

question: How many members are on each of these two teams? 

answer: 40
Title: Alfred_North_Whitehead
Context: The ultimate substantive legacy of Principia Mathematica is mixed. It is generally accepted that Kurt Gödel's incompleteness theorem of 1931 definitively demonstrated that for any set of axioms and inference rules proposed to encapsulate mathematics, there would in fact be some truths of mathematics which could not be deduced from them, and hence that Principia Mathematica could never achieve its aims. However, Gödel could not have come to this conclusion without Whitehead and Russell's book. In this way, Principia Mathematica's legacy might be described as its key role in disproving the possibility of achieving its own stated goals. But beyond this somewhat ironic legacy, the book popularized modern mathematical logic and drew important connections between logic, epistemology, and metaphysics.

question: Despite its imperfection, what are now considered valuable achievements of Principia Mathematica? 

answer: the book popularized modern mathematical logic and drew important connections between logic, epistemology, and metaphysics

question: What is the general consensus of the axioms and inference rules declared in Principia Mathematica?  

answer: mixed

question: Who discovered the incompleteness theorem of 1931? 

answer: Kurt Gödel

question: What did the incompleteness theorem of 1931 indicate regarding Principia Mathematica? 

answer: for any set of axioms and inference rules proposed to encapsulate mathematics, there would in fact be some truths of mathematics which could not be deduced

question: Why was Gödels finding ironic? 

answer: Gödel could not have come to this conclusion without Whitehead and Russell's book

question: When was Kurt Godel's incompleteness theorem? 

answer: 1931

question: What did Kurt Godel's theorem demonstrate about axioms and the inference rules? 

answer: some truths of mathematics which could not be deduced from them

question: Godel couldn't have come to his conclusion without what book? 

answer: Principia Mathematica

question: Besides logic and epistemology, what else did Principia Mathematica connect? 

answer: metaphysics
Title: Alfred_North_Whitehead
Context: Whitehead's most complete work on education is the 1929 book The Aims of Education and Other Essays, which collected numerous essays and addresses by Whitehead on the subject published between 1912 and 1927. The essay from which Aims of Education derived its name was delivered as an address in 1916 when Whitehead was president of the London Branch of the Mathematical Association. In it, he cautioned against the teaching of what he called "inert ideas" – ideas that are disconnected scraps of information, with no application to real life or culture. He opined that "education with inert ideas is not only useless: it is, above all things, harmful."

question: What is the origin of the title of the book? 

answer: The essay from which Aims of Education derived its name was delivered as an address in 1916

question: How did Whitehead define "inert ideas"? 

answer: ideas that are disconnected scraps of information, with no application to real life or culture

question: What was Whitehead's criticism of the use of inert ideas in education? 

answer: "education with inert ideas is not only useless: it is, above all things, harmful."

question: When was "The Aims of Education and Other Essays" published? 

answer: 1929

question: During what periods of time were the essays and address contained in "The Aims of Education and Other Essays" composed? 

answer: between 1912 and 1927

question: What year was The Aims of Education and Other Essays published? 

answer: 1929

question: What was the Aims of Education and Other Essays comprised of? 

answer: numerous essays and addresses

question: What teaching did Whitehead caution against teaching? 

answer: inert ideas
Title: Alfred_North_Whitehead
Context: Rather than teach small parts of a large number of subjects, Whitehead advocated teaching a relatively few important concepts that the student could organically link to many different areas of knowledge, discovering their application in actual life. For Whitehead, education should be the exact opposite of the multidisciplinary, value-free school model – it should be transdisciplinary, and laden with values and general principles that provide students with a bedrock of wisdom and help them to make connections between areas of knowledge that are usually regarded as separate.

question: What did Whitehead believe regarding the variety of subjects in education? 

answer: Whitehead advocated teaching a relatively few important concepts

question: How did Whitehead propose that students would expand their knowledge beyond the subjects taught in school? 

answer: important concepts that the student could organically link to many different areas of knowledge, discovering their application in actual life

question: What was Whitehead's general opinion of what the school model should be? 

answer: For Whitehead, education should be the exact opposite of the multidisciplinary, value-free school model

question: What was Whitehead's opinion on the inclusion of values and general principles in education? 

answer: it should be transdisciplinary, and laden with values and general principles that provide students with a bedrock of wisdom

question: Whitehead's education style was to teach what? 

answer: a relatively few important concepts

question: What should Whitehead's students organically link due to his teaching methods? 

answer: different areas of knowledge, discovering their application in actual life.

question: Whitehead believed education should be the opposite of what? 

answer: value-free school model
Title: Alfred_North_Whitehead
Context: Whitehead did not begin his career as a philosopher. In fact, he never had any formal training in philosophy beyond his undergraduate education. Early in his life he showed great interest in and respect for philosophy and metaphysics, but it is evident that he considered himself a rank amateur. In one letter to his friend and former student Bertrand Russell, after discussing whether science aimed to be explanatory or merely descriptive, he wrote: "This further question lands us in the ocean of metaphysic, onto which my profound ignorance of that science forbids me to enter." Ironically, in later life Whitehead would become one of the 20th century's foremost metaphysicians.

question: What was the extent of Whitehead's education in philosophy? 

answer: he never had any formal training in philosophy beyond his undergraduate education

question: What was Whitehead's opinion of his own knowledge of metaphysics in that correspondence? 

answer: "This further question lands us in the ocean of metaphysic, onto which my profound ignorance of that science forbids me to enter."

question: How did Whitehead eventually become regarded in the field of metaphysics? 

answer: in later life Whitehead would become one of the 20th century's foremost metaphysicians

question: With what friend and former student did Whitehead correspond regarding the goals of science? 

answer: Bertrand Russell

question: What is the highest Whitehead was trained in philosophy?  

answer: undergraduate

question: What is the relationship between Whitehead and Russell? 

answer: friend and former student

question: What did Whitehead consider himself as a philosopher?  

answer: rank amateur

question: What was Whitehead considered as a metaphysician? 

answer: one of the 20th century's foremost metaphysicians.
Title: Alfred_North_Whitehead
Context: Whitehead was unimpressed by this objection. In the notes of one his students for a 1927 class, Whitehead was quoted as saying: "Every scientific man in order to preserve his reputation has to say he dislikes metaphysics. What he means is he dislikes having his metaphysics criticized." In Whitehead's view, scientists and philosophers make metaphysical assumptions about how the universe works all the time, but such assumptions are not easily seen precisely because they remain unexamined and unquestioned. While Whitehead acknowledged that "philosophers can never hope finally to formulate these metaphysical first principles," he argued that people need to continually re-imagine their basic assumptions about how the universe works if philosophy and science are to make any real progress, even if that progress remains permanently asymptotic. For this reason Whitehead regarded metaphysical investigations as essential to both good science and good philosophy.

question: What quotation of Whitehead's was noted by a student in 1927? 

answer: "Every scientific man in order to preserve his reputation has to say he dislikes metaphysics. What he means is he dislikes having his metaphysics criticized."

question: What was Whitehead's opinion of basic assumptions in metaphysics? 

answer: such assumptions are not easily seen precisely because they remain unexamined and unquestioned

question: What did Whitehead feel was necessary regarding basic assumptions in metaphysics? 

answer: people need to continually re-imagine their basic assumptions about how the universe works if philosophy and science are to make any real progress

question: What was Whitehead's opinion of metaphysical investigations? 

answer: Whitehead regarded metaphysical investigations as essential to both good science and good philosophy

question: What do philosophers do, in Whitehead's view? 

answer: make metaphysical assumptions about how the universe works

question: Assumptions of how the universe works are difficult to see precisely because of what? 

answer: they remain unexamined and unquestioned

question: What did Whitehead ask people to reimagine in order for philosophy to make progress? 

answer: basic assumptions about how the universe works

question: What did Whitehead regard as essential to good science and good philosophy? 

answer: metaphysical investigations
Title: Alfred_North_Whitehead
Context: Perhaps foremost among what Whitehead considered faulty metaphysical assumptions was the Cartesian idea that reality is fundamentally constructed of bits of matter that exist totally independently of one another, which he rejected in favor of an event-based or "process" ontology in which events are primary and are fundamentally interrelated and dependent on one another. He also argued that the most basic elements of reality can all be regarded as experiential, indeed that everything is constituted by its experience. He used the term "experience" very broadly, so that even inanimate processes such as electron collisions are said to manifest some degree of experience. In this, he went against Descartes' separation of two different kinds of real existence, either exclusively material or else exclusively mental. Whitehead referred to his metaphysical system as "philosophy of organism", but it would become known more widely as "process philosophy."

question: What Cartesian concept did Whitehead believe to be erroneous? 

answer: reality is fundamentally constructed of bits of matter that exist totally independently of one another

question: What theory did Whitehead prefer to the Cartesian concept? 

answer: event-based or "process" ontology in which events are primary and are fundamentally interrelated and dependent on one another

question: How did whitehead define "experience"? 

answer: He used the term "experience" very broadly, so that even inanimate processes such as electron collisions are said to manifest some degree of experience

question: How did Descartes' distinguish types of existence? 

answer: two different kinds of real existence, either exclusively material or else exclusively mental

question: How did Whitehead identify his system of metaphysics? 

answer: "philosophy of organism"

question: What idea states that reality is fundamentally constructed of bits of matter? 

answer: Cartesian idea

question: Whitehead rejected the Cartesian idea in favor of what? 

answer: an event-based or "process" ontology

question: Whitehead believed instead of matter existing independently of each other, it did what? 

answer: interrelated and dependent

question: Whitehead believed that reality should be regarded as what? 

answer: experiential

question: Whitehead's system as "philosophy of organism" became widely known as what term? 

answer: process philosophy
Title: Alfred_North_Whitehead
Context: In Whitehead's view, then, concepts such as "quality", "matter", and "form" are problematic. These "classical" concepts fail to adequately account for change, and overlook the active and experiential nature of the most basic elements of the world. They are useful abstractions, but are not the world's basic building blocks. What is ordinarily conceived of as a single person, for instance, is philosophically described as a continuum of overlapping events. After all, people change all the time, if only because they have aged by another second and had some further experience. These occasions of experience are logically distinct, but are progressively connected in what Whitehead calls a "society" of events. By assuming that enduring objects are the most real and fundamental things in the universe, materialists have mistaken the abstract for the concrete (what Whitehead calls the "fallacy of misplaced concreteness").

question: How did Whitehead define the "fallacy of misplaced concreteness"? 

answer: By assuming that enduring objects are the most real and fundamental things in the universe, materialists have mistaken the abstract for the concrete

question: What basic concepts did Whitehead believe were questionable? 

answer: "quality", "matter", and "form"

question: Why did he believe those concepts were inaccurate? 

answer: These "classical" concepts fail to adequately account for change, and overlook the active and experiential nature of the most basic elements of the world.

question: How did Whitehead classify what is usually seen as an individual person? 

answer: a continuum of overlapping events

question: How did Whitehead refer to the combination of a person's separate experiences? 

answer: a "society" of events

question: What are the concepts quality, matter, and form considered? 

answer: "classical" concepts

question: Concepts such as quality, matter, and form fail to account for what? 

answer: change

question: What concepts overlook the experiential nature of basic elements? 

answer: quality", "matter", and "form"

question: What does Whitehead call experiences that are progressively connected? 

answer: society

question: Instead of being a single person, what does Whitehead view a person as? 

answer: continuum of overlapping events
Title: Alfred_North_Whitehead
Context: To put it another way, a thing or person is often seen as having a "defining essence" or a "core identity" that is unchanging, and describes what the thing or person really is. In this way of thinking, things and people are seen as fundamentally the same through time, with any changes being qualitative and secondary to their core identity (e.g. "Mark's hair has turned gray as he has gotten older, but he is still the same person"). But in Whitehead's cosmology, the only fundamentally existent things are discrete "occasions of experience" that overlap one another in time and space, and jointly make up the enduring person or thing. On the other hand, what ordinary thinking often regards as "the essence of a thing" or "the identity/core of a person" is an abstract generalization of what is regarded as that person or thing's most important or salient features across time. Identities do not define people, people define identities. Everything changes from moment to moment, and to think of anything as having an "enduring essence" misses the fact that "all things flow", though it is often a useful way of speaking.

question: What did Whitehead believe were essentially the only things that truly exist? 

answer: discrete "occasions of experience" that overlap one another in time and space, and jointly make up the enduring person or thing

question: Regarding the idea that individuals or objects don't fundamentally change, what terms can be used to describe what an object or individual actually is? 

answer: "defining essence" or a "core identity"

question: In that line of thinking, how are changes described? 

answer: qualitative and secondary to their core identity

question: The idea that people are unchanging and stay the same even through changes is considered what? 

answer: defining essence

question: In Whitehead's cosmology, what are the only things that fundamentally exist? 

answer: occasions of experience

question: Where do occasions of experience overlap? 

answer: time and space

question: Instead of having an enduring essence, what does Whitehead believe? 

answer: all things flow"

question: In Whitehead's view, identities do not define people, but what? 

answer: people define identities
Title: Alfred_North_Whitehead
Context: Whitehead pointed to the limitations of language as one of the main culprits in maintaining a materialistic way of thinking, and acknowledged that it may be difficult to ever wholly move past such ideas in everyday speech. After all, each moment of each person's life can hardly be given a different proper name, and it is easy and convenient to think of people and objects as remaining fundamentally the same things, rather than constantly keeping in mind that each thing is a different thing from what it was a moment ago. Yet the limitations of everyday living and everyday speech should not prevent people from realizing that "material substances" or "essences" are a convenient generalized description of a continuum of particular, concrete processes. No one questions that a ten-year-old person is quite different by the time he or she turns thirty years old, and in many ways is not the same person at all; Whitehead points out that it is not philosophically or ontologically sound to think that a person is the same from one second to the next.

question: Why did Whitehead think people continued to subscribe to materialistic thinking? 

answer: it is easy and convenient to think of people and objects as remaining fundamentally the same things

question: What did Whitehead believe regarding factors that limit people's understanding of his concepts? 

answer: should not prevent people from realizing that "material substances" or "essences" are a convenient generalized description of a continuum

question: What did Whitehead believe was one of the biggest reasons materialistic thinking endured? 

answer: limitations of language

question: What did Whitehead state about the belief that a person is exactly the same from moment to moment? 

answer: it is not philosophically or ontologically sound

question: Why couldn't each moment of each person's life be given a different proper name? 

answer: limitations of language

question: What did Whitehead believe was a culprit in maintaining a materialistic way of thinking? 

answer: limitations of language

question: Whitehead's main philosophy on humans changing is what? 

answer: each thing is a different thing from what it was a moment ago
Title: Alfred_North_Whitehead
Context: A second problem with materialism is that it obscures the importance of relations. It sees every object as distinct and discrete from all other objects. Each object is simply an inert clump of matter that is only externally related to other things. The idea of matter as primary makes people think of objects as being fundamentally separate in time and space, and not necessarily related to anything. But in Whitehead's view, relations take a primary role, perhaps even more important than the relata themselves. A student taking notes in one of Whitehead's fall 1924 classes wrote that:

question: What is the general materialistic view of an object? 

answer: Each object is simply an inert clump of matter that is only externally related to other things

question: How the fundamental concept of matter influence people to view objects? 

answer: The idea of matter as primary makes people think of objects as being fundamentally separate in time and space, and not necessarily related to anything

question: What is Whitehead's belief regarding the importance of relations? 

answer: in Whitehead's view, relations take a primary role, perhaps even more important than the relata themselves

question: What is the materialistic view of matter in relation to other objects? 

answer: It sees every object as distinct and discrete from all other objects.

question: What is another issue that Whitehead had with materialism? 

answer: it obscures the importance of relations

question: What obscures the importance of relations according to Whitehead? 

answer: materialism

question: What does Materialism see each object as? 

answer: distinct and discrete

question: How is each object related to other things? 

answer: externally
Title: Alfred_North_Whitehead
Context: In fact, Whitehead describes any entity as in some sense nothing more and nothing less than the sum of its relations to other entities – its synthesis of and reaction to the world around it. A real thing is just that which forces the rest of the universe to in some way conform to it; that is to say, if theoretically a thing made strictly no difference to any other entity (i.e. it was not related to any other entity), it could not be said to really exist. Relations are not secondary to what a thing is, they are what the thing is.

question: How does Whitehead characterize anything that exists? 

answer: in some sense nothing more and nothing less than the sum of its relations to other entities – its synthesis of and reaction to the world around it

question: How does he describe what makes something real? 

answer: A real thing is just that which forces the rest of the universe to in some way conform to it

question: In Whitehead's thinking, what could be said about something that has no effect on any other person or object? 

answer: if theoretically a thing made strictly no difference to any other entity (i.e. it was not related to any other entity), it could not be said to really exist

question: What did Whitehead believe about the concept of relations in the context of defining an entity? 

answer: Relations are not secondary to what a thing is, they are what the thing is.

question: Whitehead believes any entity is in some sense what? 

answer: nothing more and nothing less than the sum of its relations to other entities

question: If an object made no difference to any other entity, what could be said about it? 

answer: not be said to really exist.

question: If relations are not secondary to what a thing is, what is it? 

answer: they are what the thing is

question: What makes up the sum of relations to an entity? 

answer: rld around it

question: A real object forces the universe to do what? 

answer: in some way conform to it