praj-17/QA-MCQ-Open-ended huggingface dataset:
Title: History_of_science
Context: An ancient Indian treatise on statecraft, economic policy and military strategy by Kautilya and Viṣhṇugupta, who are traditionally identified with Chāṇakya (c. 350–-283 BCE). In this treatise, the behaviors and relationships of the people, the King, the State, the Government Superintendents, Courtiers, Enemies, Invaders, and Corporations are analysed and documented. Roger Boesche describes the Arthaśāstra as "a book of political realism, a book analysing how the political world does work and not very often stating how it ought to work, a book that frequently discloses to a king what calculating and sometimes brutal measures he must carry out to preserve the state and the common good."

question: Who are Kautilya and Vishnugupta usually grouped with? 

answer: Chāṇakya

question: What did the Arthasastra say a king must use? 

answer: brutal measures

question: When was Chanakya alive? 

answer: 350–-283 BCE
Title: History_of_science
Context: With the fall of the Western Roman Empire, there arose a more diffuse arena for political studies. The rise of monotheism and, particularly for the Western tradition, Christianity, brought to light a new space for politics and political action[citation needed]. During the Middle Ages, the study of politics was widespread in the churches and courts. Works such as Augustine of Hippo's The City of God synthesized current philosophies and political traditions with those of Christianity, redefining the borders between what was religious and what was political. Most of the political questions surrounding the relationship between Church and State were clarified and contested in this period.

question: What allowed political studies to spread? 

answer: the fall of the Western Roman Empire

question: What new idea caused politics to cover a larger spectrum? 

answer: monotheism

question: Where did politics touch in the Middle Ages? 

answer: churches and courts

question: Who wrote The City of God? 

answer: Augustine of Hippo

question: What did The City of God change? 

answer: the borders between what was religious and what was political
Title: History_of_science
Context: Historical linguistics emerged as an independent field of study at the end of the 18th century. Sir William Jones proposed that Sanskrit, Persian, Greek, Latin, Gothic, and Celtic languages all shared a common base. After Jones, an effort to catalog all languages of the world was made throughout the 19th century and into the 20th century. Publication of Ferdinand de Saussure's Cours de linguistique générale created the development of descriptive linguistics. Descriptive linguistics, and the related structuralism movement caused linguistics to focus on how language changes over time, instead of just describing the differences between languages. Noam Chomsky further diversified linguistics with the development of generative linguistics in the 1950s. His effort is based upon a mathematical model of language that allows for the description and prediction of valid syntax. Additional specialties such as sociolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, and computational linguistics have emerged from collaboration between linguistics and other disciplines.

question: What new subject surface at the end of the 18th century? 

answer: Historical linguistics

question: Who realized that languages like Sanskrit, Persian, and Greek share the same foundation? 

answer: Sir William Jones

question: What did Sir William Jones do to document his work? 

answer: catalog all languages of the world

question: What did Noam Chomsky add to the study of linguistics? 

answer: the development of generative linguistics

question: What method did Chomsky use to develop generative linguistics? 

answer: a mathematical model of language
Title: History_of_science
Context: The basis for classical economics forms Adam Smith's An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, published in 1776. Smith criticized mercantilism, advocating a system of free trade with division of labour. He postulated an "invisible hand" that regulated economic systems made up of actors guided only by self-interest. Karl Marx developed an alternative economic theory, called Marxian economics. Marxian economics is based on the labor theory of value and assumes the value of good to be based on the amount of labor required to produce it. Under this assumption, capitalism was based on employers not paying the full value of workers labor to create profit. The Austrian school responded to Marxian economics by viewing entrepreneurship as driving force of economic development. This replaced the labor theory of value by a system of supply and demand.

question: Who wrote An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations? 

answer: Adam Smith

question: What did Adam Smith's work cover? 

answer: The basis for classical economics

question: What idea did Adam Smith disagree with? 

answer: mercantilism

question: What idea did Adam Smith propose? 

answer: an "invisible hand"

question: Who is Marxian economics named after? 

answer: Karl Marx
Title: History_of_science
Context: In the 1920s, John Maynard Keynes prompted a division between microeconomics and macroeconomics. Under Keynesian economics macroeconomic trends can overwhelm economic choices made by individuals. Governments should promote aggregate demand for goods as a means to encourage economic expansion. Following World War II, Milton Friedman created the concept of monetarism. Monetarism focuses on using the supply and demand of money as a method for controlling economic activity. In the 1970s, monetarism has adapted into supply-side economics which advocates reducing taxes as a means to increase the amount of money available for economic expansion.

question: What did John Maynard Keynes want to separate? 

answer: microeconomics and macroeconomics

question: What concept did Milton Friedman propose after World War II? 

answer: monetarism

question: How did monaterism aim to control the economy? 

answer: using the supply and demand of money

question: In the 1970s, what did monaterism turn into? 

answer: supply-side economics

question: How did supply-side economics try to increase the amount of money in the market? 

answer: reducing taxes
Title: History_of_science
Context: The above "history of economics" reflects modern economic textbooks and this means that the last stage of a science is represented as the culmination of its history (Kuhn, 1962). The "invisible hand" mentioned in a lost page in the middle of a chapter in the middle of the to "Wealth of Nations", 1776, advances as Smith's central message.[clarification needed] It is played down that this "invisible hand" acts only "frequently" and that it is "no part of his [the individual's] intentions" because competition leads to lower prices by imitating "his" invention. That this "invisible hand" prefers "the support of domestic to foreign industry" is cleansed—often without indication that part of the citation is truncated. The opening passage of the "Wealth" containing Smith's message is never mentioned as it cannot be integrated into modern theory: "Wealth" depends on the division of labour which changes with market volume and on the proportion of productive to Unproductive labor.

question: When was Wealth of Nations written? 

answer: 1776

question: How present was Smith's invisible hand intended to be? 

answer: frequently

question: What happens in a market when there is competition? 

answer: lower prices

question: What is the most important part of "Wealth"? 

answer: the division of labour
Title: History_of_science
Context: The end of the 19th century marks the start of psychology as a scientific enterprise. The year 1879 is commonly seen as the start of psychology as an independent field of study. In that year Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological research (in Leipzig). Other important early contributors to the field include Hermann Ebbinghaus (a pioneer in memory studies), Ivan Pavlov (who discovered classical conditioning), William James, and Sigmund Freud. Freud's influence has been enormous, though more as cultural icon than a force in scientific psychology.

question: What was the beginning of psychology classified as? 

answer: a scientific enterprise

question: What year is most commonly referred to as the beginning of psychology? 

answer: 1879

question: Who has the first lab completely dedicated to psychology? 

answer: Wilhelm Wundt

question: What did Hermann Ebbinghaus study? 

answer: memory studies

question: What was Ivan Pavlov known for? 

answer: classical conditioning
Title: History_of_science
Context: The final decades of the 20th century have seen the rise of a new interdisciplinary approach to studying human psychology, known collectively as cognitive science. Cognitive science again considers the mind as a subject for investigation, using the tools of psychology, linguistics, computer science, philosophy, and neurobiology. New methods of visualizing the activity of the brain, such as PET scans and CAT scans, began to exert their influence as well, leading some researchers to investigate the mind by investigating the brain, rather than cognition. These new forms of investigation assume that a wide understanding of the human mind is possible, and that such an understanding may be applied to other research domains, such as artificial intelligence.

question: What is the group that human psychology belongs to? 

answer: cognitive science

question: What is investigated in cognitive science? 

answer: the mind

question: What inventions advanced the study of cognitive science? 

answer: PET scans and CAT scans

question: What new technology could be created as a result of studying cognitive science? 

answer: artificial intelligence
Title: History_of_science
Context: Ibn Khaldun can be regarded as the earliest scientific systematic sociologist. The modern sociology, emerged in the early 19th century as the academic response to the modernization of the world. Among many early sociologists (e.g., Émile Durkheim), the aim of sociology was in structuralism, understanding the cohesion of social groups, and developing an "antidote" to social disintegration. Max Weber was concerned with the modernization of society through the concept of rationalization, which he believed would trap individuals in an "iron cage" of rational thought. Some sociologists, including Georg Simmel and W. E. B. Du Bois, utilized more microsociological, qualitative analyses. This microlevel approach played an important role in American sociology, with the theories of George Herbert Mead and his student Herbert Blumer resulting in the creation of the symbolic interactionism approach to sociology.

question: What was Ibn Khaldun's profession? 

answer: scientific systematic sociologist

question: When did modern sociology surface? 

answer: early 19th century

question: What is the main goal of sociology? 

answer: understanding the cohesion of social groups

question: How did Max Weber view rationalization? 

answer: he believed would trap individuals in an "iron cage"
Title: History_of_science
Context: American sociology in the 1940s and 1950s was dominated largely by Talcott Parsons, who argued that aspects of society that promoted structural integration were therefore "functional". This structural functionalism approach was questioned in the 1960s, when sociologists came to see this approach as merely a justification for inequalities present in the status quo. In reaction, conflict theory was developed, which was based in part on the philosophies of Karl Marx. Conflict theorists saw society as an arena in which different groups compete for control over resources. Symbolic interactionism also came to be regarded as central to sociological thinking. Erving Goffman saw social interactions as a stage performance, with individuals preparing "backstage" and attempting to control their audience through impression management. While these theories are currently prominent in sociological thought, other approaches exist, including feminist theory, post-structuralism, rational choice theory, and postmodernism.

question: Who was the major proponent of American sociology? 

answer: Talcott Parsons

question: What did Parsons believe made a functional society? 

answer: structural integration

question: What was the problem with the views of Parsons? 

answer: inequalities present in the status quo

question: What idea from Karl Marx was used to combat the problems with structural integration? 

answer: conflict theory

question: What is the main belief of conflict theory? 

answer: different groups compete for control over resources
Title: History_of_science
Context: Computer science, built upon a foundation of theoretical linguistics, discrete mathematics, and electrical engineering, studies the nature and limits of computation. Subfields include computability, computational complexity, database design, computer networking, artificial intelligence, and the design of computer hardware. One area in which advances in computing have contributed to more general scientific development is by facilitating large-scale archiving of scientific data. Contemporary computer science typically distinguishes itself by emphasising mathematical 'theory' in contrast to the practical emphasis of software engineering.

question: What science is based on linguistics, mathematics, and engineering? 

answer: Computer science

question: How has computer science helped science as a whole? 

answer: by facilitating large-scale archiving of scientific data

question: What is the differing characteristic of contemporary computer science? 

answer: emphasising mathematical 'theory'
Title: History_of_science
Context: As an academic field, history of science began with the publication of William Whewell's History of the Inductive Sciences (first published in 1837). A more formal study of the history of science as an independent discipline was launched by George Sarton's publications, Introduction to the History of Science (1927) and the Isis journal (founded in 1912). Sarton exemplified the early 20th-century view of the history of science as the history of great men and great ideas. He shared with many of his contemporaries a Whiggish belief in history as a record of the advances and delays in the march of progress. The history of science was not a recognized subfield of American history in this period, and most of the work was carried out by interested scientists and physicians rather than professional historians. With the work of I. Bernard Cohen at Harvard, the history of science became an established subdiscipline of history after 1945.

question: What text is the foundation of the study of the history of science? 

answer: History of the Inductive Sciences

question: Who wrote a more professional version of History of the Inductive Sciences? 

answer: George Sarton's

question: What was the history of science during the 20th century? 

answer: the history of great men and great ideas

question: How could Sarton's ideas be described? 

answer: Whiggish

question: Who studied the history of science? 

answer: interested scientists and physicians
Title: History_of_science
Context: Much of the study of the history of science has been devoted to answering questions about what science is, how it functions, and whether it exhibits large-scale patterns and trends. The sociology of science in particular has focused on the ways in which scientists work, looking closely at the ways in which they "produce" and "construct" scientific knowledge. Since the 1960s, a common trend in science studies (the study of the sociology and history of science) has been to emphasize the "human component" of scientific knowledge, and to de-emphasize the view that scientific data are self-evident, value-free, and context-free. The field of Science and Technology Studies, an area that overlaps and often informs historical studies of science, focuses on the social context of science in both contemporary and historical periods.

question: What is the large question that the history of science answers? 

answer: what science is

question: What did sociology in science explain? 

answer: the ways in which scientists work

question: What was the most popular method in the 1960s regarding science studies? 

answer: to emphasize the "human component" of scientific knowledge
Title: History_of_science
Context: Humboldtian science refers to the early 19th century approach of combining scientific field work with the age of Romanticism sensitivity, ethics and aesthetic ideals. It helped to install natural history as a separate field, gave base for ecology and was based on the role model of scientist, naturalist and explorer Alexander von Humboldt. The later 19th century positivism asserted that all authentic knowledge allows verification and that all authentic knowledge assumes that the only valid knowledge is scientific.

question: What did Humboldtian science aim to do? 

answer: combining scientific field work with the age of Romanticism sensitivity, ethics and aesthetic ideals

question: Who was the model for Humboldtian science? 

answer: Alexander von Humboldt

question: What idea did positivism provide? 

answer: the only valid knowledge is scientific
Title: History_of_science
Context: The mid 20th century saw a series of studies relying to the role of science in a social context, starting from Thomas Kuhn's The Structure of Scientific Revolutions in 1962. It opened the study of science to new disciplines by suggesting that the evolution of science was in part sociologically determined and that positivism did not explain the actual interactions and strategies of the human participants in science. As Thomas Kuhn put it, the history of science may be seen in more nuanced terms, such as that of competing paradigms or conceptual systems in a wider matrix that includes intellectual, cultural, economic and political themes outside of science. "Partly by selection and partly by distortion, the scientists of earlier ages are implicitly presented as having worked upon the same set of fixed problems and in accordance with the same set of fixed canons that the most recent revolution in scientific theory and method made seem scientific."

question: Where did the social aspect of science originate? 

answer: Thomas Kuhn's The Structure of Scientific Revolutions in 1962

question: What idea did social science add to science as a whole? 

answer: positivism did not explain the actual interactions and strategies of the human participants in science

question: How did Kuhn view the history of science? 

answer: competing paradigms or conceptual systems
Title: History_of_science
Context: Further studies, e.g. Jerome Ravetz 1971 Scientific Knowledge and its Social Problems referred to the role of the scientific community, as a social construct, in accepting or rejecting (objective) scientific knowledge. The Science wars of the 1990 were about the influence of especially French philosophers, which denied the objectivity of science in general or seemed to do so. They described as well differences between the idealized model of a pure science and the actual scientific practice; while scientism, a revival of the positivism approach, saw in precise measurement and rigorous calculation the basis for finally settling enduring metaphysical and moral controversies. However, more recently some of the leading critical theorists have recognized that their postmodern deconstructions have at times been counter-productive, and are providing intellectual ammunition for reactionary interests. Bruno Latour noted that "dangerous extremists are using the very same argument of social construction to destroy hard-won evidence that could save our lives. Was I wrong to participate in the invention of this field known as science studies? Is it enough to say that we did not really mean what we meant?"

question: What did Scientific Knowledge and its Social Problems describe the scientific community as? 

answer: a social construct

question: What was the era called when scientists were rejecting the notion of objectivity of science? 

answer: The Science wars

question: What was positivism called after it was revived? 

answer: scientism

question: What did scientism aim to do? 

answer: settling enduring metaphysical and moral controversies
Title: Czech_language
Context: Czech (/ˈtʃɛk/; čeština Czech pronunciation: [ˈt͡ʃɛʃcɪna]), formerly known as Bohemian (/boʊˈhiːmiən, bə-/; lingua Bohemica in Latin), is a West Slavic language strongly influenced by Latin and German language, spoken by over 10 million people and it is the official language of the Czech Republic. Czech's closest relative is Slovak, with which it is mutually intelligible. It is closely related to other West Slavic languages, such as Silesian and Polish. Although most Czech vocabulary is based on shared roots with Slavic, Romance, and Germanic languages, many loanwords (most associated with high culture) have been adopted in recent years.

question: How many people speak Czech? 

answer: 10 million

question: Which two languages strongly influenced Czech? 

answer: Latin and German

question: In which country is Czech the official language? 

answer: Czech Republic

question: Which language is closest to Czech? 

answer: Slovak

question: What name was the Czech language formerly known as? 

answer: Bohemian

question: What was Czech formerly known as? 

answer: Bohemian

question: What languages strongly influenced Czech? 

answer: Latin and German

question: Over how many million people speak Czech? 

answer: 10

question: What vocabulary associated with higher classed culture have been adopted over the years? 

answer: loanwords

question: What is the official language of the Czech republic? 

answer: Czech
Title: Czech_language
Context: The languages have not undergone the deliberate highlighting of minor linguistic differences in the name of nationalism as has occurred in the Bosnian, Serbian and Croatian standards of Serbo-Croatian. However, most Slavic languages (including Czech) have been distanced in this way from Russian influences because of widespread public resentment against the former Soviet Union (which occupied Czechoslovakia in 1968). Czech and Slovak form a dialect continuum, with great similarity between neighboring Czech and Slovak dialects. (See "Dialects" below.)

question: When did the Soviet Union occupy Czechoslovakia? 

answer: 1968

question: What language forms a dialect continuum with Czech? 

answer: Slovak

question: Name three Serbo-Croatian languages that have made a point of establishing their own unique linguistic identities. 

answer: Bosnian, Serbian and Croatian

question: Why have many Slavic languages sought to separate themselves from Russian influence? 

answer: widespread public resentment against the former Soviet Union

question: What deliberate action has been done to some languages in the name of nationalism? 

answer: highlighting of minor linguistic differences

question: What language family is Czech? 

answer: Slavic

question: Why did many Slavic languages distance themselves from Russian influences? 

answer: resentment against the former Soviet Union

question: When did the Soviet Union occupy Czechoslovakia? 

answer: 1968

question: What language does Czech form a dialect continuum with? 

answer: Slovak