praj-17/QA-MCQ-Open-ended huggingface dataset:
Title: Seattle
Context: Seattle is home to the University of Washington, as well as the institution's professional and continuing education unit, the University of Washington Educational Outreach. A study by Newsweek International in 2006 cited the University of Washington as the twenty-second best university in the world. Seattle also has a number of smaller private universities including Seattle University and Seattle Pacific University, the former a Jesuit Catholic institution, the latter Free Methodist; universities aimed at the working adult, like City University and Antioch University; colleges within the Seattle Colleges District system, comprising North, Central, and South; seminaries, including Western Seminary and a number of arts colleges, such as Cornish College of the Arts, Pratt Fine Arts Center, and The Art Institute of Seattle. In 2001, Time magazine selected Seattle Central Community College as community college of the year, stating the school "pushes diverse students to work together in small teams".

question: What educational institution is at home in Seattle? 

answer: University of Washington

question: Where can a student find to study art in Seattle? 

answer: arts colleges

question: What is the purpose of the University of Washington Outreach? 

answer: continuing education

question: In what year did Time magazine choose Seattle Central Community College as community college of the year? 

answer: 2001

question: Beside the public universities, what other type of institutions provide education in Seattle? 

answer: private universities
Title: Seattle
Context: The city has started moving away from the automobile and towards mass transit. From 2004 to 2009, the annual number of unlinked public transportation trips increased by approximately 21%. In 2006, voters in King County passed proposition 2 (Transit Now) which increased bus service hours on high ridership routes and paid for five bus rapid transit lines called RapidRide. After rejecting a roads and transit measure in 2007, Seattle-area voters passed a transit only measure in 2008 to increase ST Express bus service, extend the Link Light Rail system, and expand and improve Sounder commuter rail service. A light rail line from downtown heading south to Sea-Tac Airport began service on December 19, 2009, giving the city its first rapid transit line with intermediate stations within the city limits. An extension north to the University of Washington is scheduled to open in 2016; and further extensions are planned to reach Lynnwood to the north, Des Moines to the south, and Bellevue and Redmond to the east by 2023. Former mayor Michael McGinn has supported building light rail from downtown to Ballard and West Seattle.

question: On what type of transportation system has Seattle begun to focus? 

answer: mass transit

question: From what kind of transportation has Seattle been moving away? 

answer: automobile

question: What measure was passed by Seattle voters in 2006? 

answer: RapidRide

question: By what year do plans call for the completion of a rail line to Bellevue? 

answer: 2023

question: Which former mayor backed the expansion of rail lines from downtown to Ballard? 

answer: Michael McGinn
Title: Memory
Context: In psychology, memory is the process in which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved. Encoding allows information from the outside world to be sensed in the form of chemical and physical stimuli. In the first stage the information must be changed so that it may be put into the encoding process. Storage is the second memory stage or process. This entails that information is maintained over short periods of time. Finally the third process is the retrieval of information that has been stored. Such information must be located and returned to the consciousness. Some retrieval attempts may be effortless due to the type of information, and other attempts to remember stored information may be more demanding for various reasons.

question: Which three processes does phychology recognize as memory? 

answer: process in which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved.

question: Why may some memory retrieval processes fail? 

answer: the type of information, and other attempts to remember stored information may be more demanding for various reasons.

question: What happens to information during the encoding process? 

answer: g allows information from the outside world to be sensed in the form of chemical and physical stimuli.

question: What is the second memory stage? 

answer: Storage

question: What is the third process that happens during the memory process? 

answer: retrieval of information that has been stored
Title: Memory
Context: Short-term memory is believed to rely mostly on an acoustic code for storing information, and to a lesser extent a visual code. Conrad (1964) found that test subjects had more difficulty recalling collections of letters that were acoustically similar (e.g. E, P, D). Confusion with recalling acoustically similar letters rather than visually similar letters implies that the letters were encoded acoustically. Conrad's (1964) study, however, deals with the encoding of written text; thus, while memory of written language may rely on acoustic components, generalisations to all forms of memory cannot be made.

question: What does short-term memory depend on? 

answer: an acoustic code for storing information, and to a lesser extent a visual code.

question: What did conrad find about test subjects? 

answer: subjects had more difficulty recalling collections of letters that were acoustically similar

question: What does Conrads finding seem to mean? 

answer: . Confusion with recalling acoustically similar letters rather than visually similar letters implies that the letters were encoded acoustically.

question: What was Conrads deal with? 

answer: encoding of written text;
Title: Memory
Context: Short-term memory is also known as working memory. Short-term memory allows recall for a period of several seconds to a minute without rehearsal. Its capacity is also very limited: George A. Miller (1956), when working at Bell Laboratories, conducted experiments showing that the store of short-term memory was 7±2 items (the title of his famous paper, "The magical number 7±2"). Modern estimates of the capacity of short-term memory are lower, typically of the order of 4–5 items; however, memory capacity can be increased through a process called chunking. For example, in recalling a ten-digit telephone number, a person could chunk the digits into three groups: first, the area code (such as 123), then a three-digit chunk (456) and lastly a four-digit chunk (7890). This method of remembering telephone numbers is far more effective than attempting to remember a string of 10 digits; this is because we are able to chunk the information into meaningful groups of numbers. This may be reflected in some countries in the tendency to display telephone numbers as several chunks of two to four numbers.

question: What is another name for short-term memory? 

answer: working memory.

question: What exactly does short-term memory allow a person to do? 

answer: recall for a period of several seconds to a minute without rehearsal

question: How much information can one store and recall in short-term memory? 

answer: capacity is also very limited

question: How can one higher their memory capacity? 

answer: chunking.

question: Why do some countries display numbers in chunks of two to four numbers? 

answer: because we are able to chunk the information into meaningful groups of numbers
Title: Memory
Context: The storage in sensory memory and short-term memory generally has a strictly limited capacity and duration, which means that information is not retained indefinitely. By contrast, long-term memory can store much larger quantities of information for potentially unlimited duration (sometimes a whole life span). Its capacity is immeasurable. For example, given a random seven-digit number we may remember it for only a few seconds before forgetting, suggesting it was stored in our short-term memory. On the other hand, we can remember telephone numbers for many years through repetition; this information is said to be stored in long-term memory.

question: Why can't some memories be held onto forever? 

answer: The storage in sensory memory and short-term memory generally has a strictly limited capacity and duration

question: If a memory that is stored in with long term-memories, how long can you possibly rememeber it? 

answer: sometimes a whole life span)

question: What is the capacity of long term memory? 

answer: capacity is immeasurable

question: If you knew a telephone number one week ago, but have forgotten it now, where was this memory stored? 

answer: in our short-term memory
Title: Memory
Context: The model also shows all the memory stores as being a single unit whereas research into this shows differently. For example, short-term memory can be broken up into different units such as visual information and acoustic information. In a study by Zlonoga and Gerber (1986), patient 'KF' demonstrated certain deviations from the Atkinson–Shiffrin model. Patient KF was brain damaged, displaying difficulties regarding short-term memory. Recognition of sounds such as spoken numbers, letters, words and easily identifiable noises (such as doorbells and cats meowing) were all impacted. Interestingly, visual short-term memory was unaffected, suggesting a dichotomy between visual and audial memory.

question: What are some examples of units that short-term memory can be categorized in to? 

answer: visual information and acoustic information

question: Who performed a study in 1986 invovling a participant known as KF? 

answer: Zlonoga and Gerber

question: What did KF disprove during this study? 

answer: Atkinson–Shiffrin model.

question: What did KF have trouble doing? 

answer: difficulties regarding short-term memory.

question: What did this study seem to conclude? 

answer: a dichotomy between visual and audial memory.
Title: Memory
Context: Short-term memory is supported by transient patterns of neuronal communication, dependent on regions of the frontal lobe (especially dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) and the parietal lobe. Long-term memory, on the other hand, is maintained by more stable and permanent changes in neural connections widely spread throughout the brain. The hippocampus is essential (for learning new information) to the consolidation of information from short-term to long-term memory, although it does not seem to store information itself. Without the hippocampus, new memories are unable to be stored into long-term memory, as learned from patient Henry Molaison after removal of both his hippocampi, and there will be a very short attention span. Furthermore, it may be involved in changing neural connections for a period of three months or more after the initial learning.

question: Which part of the brain does short-term memory seem to rely on? 

answer: frontal lobe (especially dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) and the parietal lobe

question: Which part of the brain does long-term memory rely on? 

answer: hippocampus

question: How much information can the hippocampus store? 

answer: does not

question: If the hippocampus doesn't store information what does it do? 

answer: may be involved in changing neural connections for a period of three months or more after the initial learning.
Title: Memory
Context: Sensory memory holds sensory information less than one second after an item is perceived. The ability to look at an item and remember what it looked like with just a split second of observation, or memorization, is the example of sensory memory. It is out of cognitive control and is an automatic response. With very short presentations, participants often report that they seem to "see" more than they can actually report. The first experiments exploring this form of sensory memory were conducted by George Sperling (1963) using the "partial report paradigm". Subjects were presented with a grid of 12 letters, arranged into three rows of four. After a brief presentation, subjects were then played either a high, medium or low tone, cuing them which of the rows to report. Based on these partial report experiments,Sperling was able to show that the capacity of sensory memory was approximately 12 items, but that it degraded very quickly (within a few hundred milliseconds). Because this form of memory degrades so quickly, participants would see the display but be unable to report all of the items (12 in the "whole report" procedure) before they decayed. This type of memory cannot be prolonged via rehearsal.

question: How long does sensory  memory to to store information? 

answer: less than one second

question: Can we control what is stored in our sensory memory? 

answer: It is out of cognitive control

question: Who did the first studies on exploring a new idea of sensory memory? 

answer: George Sperling

question: What did Spellings' findings reveal? 

answer: this form of memory degrades so quickly, participants would see the display but be unable to report all of the items
Title: Memory
Context: While short-term memory encodes information acoustically, long-term memory encodes it semantically: Baddeley (1966) discovered that, after 20 minutes, test subjects had the most difficulty recalling a collection of words that had similar meanings (e.g. big, large, great, huge) long-term. Another part of long-term memory is episodic memory, "which attempts to capture information such as 'what', 'when' and 'where'". With episodic memory, individuals are able to recall specific events such as birthday parties and weddings.

question: How does short term memory encode information? 

answer: acoustically

question: What did Baddeleys test subjects have touble doing? 

answer: recalling a collection of words that had similar meanings

question: How does long term memory encode information? 

answer: semantically

question: What is episodic memory? 

answer: "which attempts to capture information such as 'what', 'when' and 'where'

question: If someone where to recall a wedding they had went to a year before, which type of memory would be used? 

answer: episodic memory,
Title: Memory
Context: Infants do not have the language ability to report on their memories and so verbal reports cannot be used to assess very young children’s memory. Throughout the years, however, researchers have adapted and developed a number of measures for assessing both infants’ recognition memory and their recall memory. Habituation and operant conditioning techniques have been used to assess infants’ recognition memory and the deferred and elicited imitation techniques have been used to assess infants’ recall memory.

question: Why do infants and young childrens memories need to be assesed differently? 

answer: do not have the language ability to report on their memories

question: Can researchers study an infants or young childs memories? 

answer: , researchers have adapted and developed a number of measures for assessing both infants’ recognition memory and their recall memory.

question: How can a researcher study a childs memory? 

answer: elicited imitation techniques
Title: Memory
Context: Another major way to distinguish different memory functions is whether the content to be remembered is in the past, retrospective memory, or in the future, prospective memory. Thus, retrospective memory as a category includes semantic, episodic and autobiographical memory. In contrast, prospective memory is memory for future intentions, or remembering to remember (Winograd, 1988). Prospective memory can be further broken down into event- and time-based prospective remembering. Time-based prospective memories are triggered by a time-cue, such as going to the doctor (action) at 4pm (cue). Event-based prospective memories are intentions triggered by cues, such as remembering to post a letter (action) after seeing a mailbox (cue). Cues do not need to be related to the action (as the mailbox/letter example), and lists, sticky-notes, knotted handkerchiefs, or string around the finger all exemplify cues that people use as strategies to enhance prospective memory.

question: What are some catgories of retrospective memory? 

answer: semantic, episodic and autobiographical memory

question: If a memory is triggered by a time, which kind of memory is this? 

answer: Time-based prospective memories

question: What is something somebody can use to remember something? 

answer: Cues

question: If Bob realized he needed to mail his mother a letter after seeing the postal office, which kind of memory did he trigger? 

answer: Event-based prospective memories
Title: Memory
Context: Hebb distinguished between short-term and long-term memory. He postulated that any memory that stayed in short-term storage for a long enough time would be consolidated into a long-term memory. Later research showed this to be false. Research has shown that direct injections of cortisol or epinephrine help the storage of recent experiences. This is also true for stimulation of the amygdala. This proves that excitement enhances memory by the stimulation of hormones that affect the amygdala. Excessive or prolonged stress (with prolonged cortisol) may hurt memory storage. Patients with amygdalar damage are no more likely to remember emotionally charged words than nonemotionally charged ones. The hippocampus is important for explicit memory. The hippocampus is also important for memory consolidation. The hippocampus receives input from different parts of the cortex and sends its output out to different parts of the brain also. The input comes from secondary and tertiary sensory areas that have processed the information a lot already. Hippocampal damage may also cause memory loss and problems with memory storage. This memory loss includes, retrograde amnesia which is the loss of memory for events that occurred shortly before the time of brain damage.

question: Was Hebb's thought of the relationship between short and long term memory true? 

answer: research showed this to be false

question: Which drugs seemed to help someone remember earlier events? 

answer: cortisol or epinephrine

question: What relationship does excitement and memory share? 

answer: excitement enhances memory

question: Bob was in a car accident and couldn't remember his wifes name, what part of his brain could have been damaged? 

answer: hippocampus
Title: Memory
Context: One question that is crucial in cognitive neuroscience is how information and mental experiences are coded and represented in the brain. Scientists have gained much knowledge about the neuronal codes from the studies of plasticity, but most of such research has been focused on simple learning in simple neuronal circuits; it is considerably less clear about the neuronal changes involved in more complex examples of memory, particularly declarative memory that requires the storage of facts and events (Byrne 2007). Convergence-divergence zones might be the neural networks where memories are stored and retrieved.

question: Is it important to know how information is coded in the brain? 

answer: that is crucial

question: Have researchers learned anything studying plasticity? 

answer: have gained much knowledge

question: What are the roles of Covergence-divergence zones? 

answer: might be the neural networks where memories are stored and retrieved.

question: What has most of the research on memories revolved around? 

answer: simple learning in simple neuronal circuits;
Title: Memory
Context: Cognitive neuroscientists consider memory as the retention, reactivation, and reconstruction of the experience-independent internal representation. The term of internal representation implies that such definition of memory contains two components: the expression of memory at the behavioral or conscious level, and the underpinning physical neural changes (Dudai 2007). The latter component is also called engram or memory traces (Semon 1904). Some neuroscientists and psychologists mistakenly equate the concept of engram and memory, broadly conceiving all persisting after-effects of experiences as memory; others argue against this notion that memory does not exist until it is revealed in behavior or thought (Moscovitch 2007).

question: What do cognitive neuroscientists believe memory is? 

answer: the retention, reactivation, and reconstruction of the experience-independent internal representation

question: What suggests that memory has two different components? 

answer: term of internal representation

question: What showed that memory exists even before that memory is known to the person? 

answer: Moscovitch 2007

question: What is an engram trace? 

answer: the underpinning physical neural changes
Title: Memory
Context: In contrast, procedural memory (or implicit memory) is not based on the conscious recall of information, but on implicit learning. It can best be summarized as remember how to do something. Procedural memory is primarily employed in learning motor skills and should be considered a subset of implicit memory. It is revealed when one does better in a given task due only to repetition - no new explicit memories have been formed, but one is unconsciously accessing aspects of those previous experiences. Procedural memory involved in motor learning depends on the cerebellum and basal ganglia.

question: What is another term for procedural memory? 

answer: implicit memory

question: If bob remembered how to bake a cake after seeing this on television what memory is he using? 

answer: procedural memory

question: What set of skills is reliant on procedural memory? 

answer: motor skills

question: If Bob does throws 15 more free throws than he did last week, how many more explicit memories has he gained? 

answer: no new explicit memories have been formed,
Title: Memory
Context: The working memory model explains many practical observations, such as why it is easier to do two different tasks (one verbal and one visual) than two similar tasks (e.g., two visual), and the aforementioned word-length effect. However, the concept of a central executive as noted here has been criticised as inadequate and vague.[citation needed] Working memory is also the premise for what allows us to do everyday activities involving thought. It is the section of memory where we carry out thought processes and use them to learn and reason about topics.

question: Which model explains why bob has an easier time reading a book, and then discussing it rather than reading two books? 

answer: working memory model

question: Which concept is criticised for being unworthy and too broad? 

answer: concept of a central executive

question: Which part of memory allows us to go about our daily lives? 

answer: Working memory
Title: Memory
Context: One of the key concerns of older adults is the experience of memory loss, especially as it is one of the hallmark symptoms of Alzheimer's disease. However, memory loss is qualitatively different in normal aging from the kind of memory loss associated with a diagnosis of Alzheimer's (Budson & Price, 2005). Research has revealed that individuals’ performance on memory tasks that rely on frontal regions declines with age. Older adults tend to exhibit deficits on tasks that involve knowing the temporal order in which they learned information; source memory tasks that require them to remember the specific circumstances or context in which they learned information; and prospective memory tasks that involve remembering to perform an act at a future time. Older adults can manage their problems with prospective memory by using appointment books, for example.

question: What do most elderly people worry about? 

answer: memory loss,

question: Is an eldery person with alzheimers having the same problem as a similar aged person experiencing memory loss? 

answer: memory loss is qualitatively different

question: Which part of the brain is associated with the memory loss an elderly person suffers? 

answer: frontal regions

question: Which memory is an elderly person helping by using appointment books? 

answer: prospective memory