praj-17/QA-MCQ-Open-ended huggingface dataset:
Title: Brain
Context: From an evolutionary-biological perspective, the function of the brain is to provide coherent control over the actions of an animal. A centralized brain allows groups of muscles to be co-activated in complex patterns; it also allows stimuli impinging on one part of the body to evoke responses in other parts, and it can prevent different parts of the body from acting at cross-purposes to each other.

question: The function of the brain from an evolutionary-biological thought is what? 

answer: provide coherent control over the actions of an animal
Title: Brain
Context: The invention of electronic computers in the 1940s, along with the development of mathematical information theory, led to a realization that brains can potentially be understood as information processing systems. This concept formed the basis of the field of cybernetics, and eventually gave rise to the field now known as computational neuroscience. The earliest attempts at cybernetics were somewhat crude in that they treated the brain as essentially a digital computer in disguise, as for example in John von Neumann's 1958 book, The Computer and the Brain. Over the years, though, accumulating information about the electrical responses of brain cells recorded from behaving animals has steadily moved theoretical concepts in the direction of increasing realism.

question: Computers were invented in what decade in history? 

answer: 1940s

question: Neuroscience spawned from what field of science in history? 

answer: cybernetics

question: Who wrote the book, The Computer and the Brain? 

answer: John von Neumann's

question: When was John von Neumann's book, The Computer and the Brain published? 

answer: 1958
Title: Brain
Context: The essence of the information processing approach is to try to understand brain function in terms of information flow and implementation of algorithms. One of the most influential early contributions was a 1959 paper titled What the frog's eye tells the frog's brain: the paper examined the visual responses of neurons in the retina and optic tectum of frogs, and came to the conclusion that some neurons in the tectum of the frog are wired to combine elementary responses in a way that makes them function as "bug perceivers". A few years later David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel discovered cells in the primary visual cortex of monkeys that become active when sharp edges move across specific points in the field of view—a discovery for which they won a Nobel Prize. Follow-up studies in higher-order visual areas found cells that detect binocular disparity, color, movement, and aspects of shape, with areas located at increasing distances from the primary visual cortex showing increasingly complex responses. Other investigations of brain areas unrelated to vision have revealed cells with a wide variety of response correlates, some related to memory, some to abstract types of cognition such as space.

question: The scientific paper, What the frog's eye tells the frog's brain was released in what year? 

answer: 1959

question: Who won a Nobel Prize for the discovery that cells in the visual cortex of monkeys become active when sharp edges move? 

answer: David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel
Title: Brain
Context: Furthermore, even single neurons appear to be complex and capable of performing computations. So, brain models that don't reflect this are arguably too abstractive to be representative of brain operation; models that do try to capture this are very computationally expensive and arguably intractable with present computational resources. However, having said this, the Human Brain Project is trying to build a realistic, detailed computational model of the entire human brain. It remains to be seen what level of success they can achieve in the time frame of the project and the wisdom of it has been publicly contested, with high-profile scientists on both sides of the argument.

question: What is the project called that is trying to build a realistic, detailed computer model of the human brain? 

answer: the Human Brain Project
Title: Brain
Context: One of the primary functions of a brain is to extract biologically relevant information from sensory inputs. The human brain is provided with information about light, sound, the chemical composition of the atmosphere, temperature, head orientation, limb position, the chemical composition of the bloodstream, and more. In other animals additional senses may be present, such as the infrared heat-sense of snakes, the magnetic field sense of some birds, or the electric field sense of some types of fish. Moreover, other animals may develop existing sensory systems in new ways, such as the adaptation by bats of the auditory sense into a form of sonar. One way or another, all of these sensory modalities are initially detected by specialized sensors that project signals into the brain.

question: What type of animal has a sense that adapted into sonar? 

answer: bats

question: What type of animal uses infrared heat to sense? 

answer: snakes

question: The group of animals that can detect magnetic fields is what? 

answer: birds

question: The group of creatures that can sense electric fields is what? 

answer: fish
Title: Brain
Context: Each sensory system begins with specialized receptor cells, such as light-receptive neurons in the retina of the eye, vibration-sensitive neurons in the cochlea of the ear, or pressure-sensitive neurons in the skin. The axons of sensory receptor cells travel into the spinal cord or brain, where they transmit their signals to a first-order sensory nucleus dedicated to one specific sensory modality. This primary sensory nucleus sends information to higher-order sensory areas that are dedicated to the same modality. Eventually, via a way-station in the thalamus, the signals are sent to the cerebral cortex, where they are processed to extract biologically relevant features, and integrated with signals coming from other sensory systems.

question: Light-receptive neurons are located in what part of the eye? 

answer: retina

question: Vibration-sensitive neurons are found in what part of the ear? 

answer: cochlea

question: Signals are sent from the thalamus to what part of the brain? 

answer: cerebral cortex
Title: Brain
Context: Motor systems are areas of the brain that are directly or indirectly involved in producing body movements, that is, in activating muscles. Except for the muscles that control the eye, which are driven by nuclei in the midbrain, all the voluntary muscles in the body are directly innervated by motor neurons in the spinal cord and hindbrain. Spinal motor neurons are controlled both by neural circuits intrinsic to the spinal cord, and by inputs that descend from the brain. The intrinsic spinal circuits implement many reflex responses, and contain pattern generators for rhythmic movements such as walking or swimming. The descending connections from the brain allow for more sophisticated control.

question: What part of the body is controlled by nuclei in the midbrain? 

answer: the eye,

question: All the muscles controlled by motor neurons in the body are controlled by what? 

answer: spinal cord and hindbrain
Title: Brain
Context: The brain contains several motor areas that project directly to the spinal cord. At the lowest level are motor areas in the medulla and pons, which control stereotyped movements such as walking, breathing, or swallowing. At a higher level are areas in the midbrain, such as the red nucleus, which is responsible for coordinating movements of the arms and legs. At a higher level yet is the primary motor cortex, a strip of tissue located at the posterior edge of the frontal lobe. The primary motor cortex sends projections to the subcortical motor areas, but also sends a massive projection directly to the spinal cord, through the pyramidal tract. This direct corticospinal projection allows for precise voluntary control of the fine details of movements. Other motor-related brain areas exert secondary effects by projecting to the primary motor areas. Among the most important secondary areas are the premotor cortex, basal ganglia, and cerebellum.

question: Which motor areas of the brain control breathing and swallowing? 

answer: the medulla and pons,

question: At the lowest level of the brain and spinal cord, are what areas? 

answer: the medulla and pons

question: The red nucleus controls what part(s) of the body? 

answer: coordinating movements of the arms and legs

question: A strip of tissue found at the edge of the frontal lobe is called what? 

answer: primary motor cortex

question: The primary motor cortex sends signals to the spinal cord through what? 

answer: pyramidal tract.
Title: Brain
Context: In addition to all of the above, the brain and spinal cord contain extensive circuitry to control the autonomic nervous system, which works by secreting hormones and by modulating the "smooth" muscles of the gut. The autonomic nervous system affects heart rate, digestion, respiration rate, salivation, perspiration, urination, and sexual arousal, and several other processes. Most of its functions are not under direct voluntary control.

question: The brain and spinal cord work together to control what system of the body? 

answer: autonomic nervous system

question: What system in the body controls heart rate? 

answer: autonomic nervous system

question: What system in the body controls salivation? 

answer: autonomic nervous system

question: Most of the processes of the autonomic nervous system are called what? 

answer: not under direct voluntary control

question: Which system in the body controls urination? 

answer: The autonomic nervous system
Title: Brain
Context: A key component of the arousal system is the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), a tiny part of the hypothalamus located directly above the point at which the optic nerves from the two eyes cross. The SCN contains the body's central biological clock. Neurons there show activity levels that rise and fall with a period of about 24 hours, circadian rhythms: these activity fluctuations are driven by rhythmic changes in expression of a set of "clock genes". The SCN continues to keep time even if it is excised from the brain and placed in a dish of warm nutrient solution, but it ordinarily receives input from the optic nerves, through the retinohypothalamic tract (RHT), that allows daily light-dark cycles to calibrate the clock.

question: The SCN of the nervous system is an abbreviation for what? 

answer: suprachiasmatic nucleus

question: The suprachiasmatic nucleus is a small part of what part of the brain? 

answer: the hypothalamus

question: Which part of the arousal system controls the body's biological clock? 

answer: the suprachiasmatic nucleus

question: The RHT is an abbreviation for what? 

answer: retinohypothalamic tract

question: THE SCN receives information from the optic nerves through what? 

answer: the retinohypothalamic tract (RHT
Title: Brain
Context: The SCN projects to a set of areas in the hypothalamus, brainstem, and midbrain that are involved in implementing sleep-wake cycles. An important component of the system is the reticular formation, a group of neuron-clusters scattered diffusely through the core of the lower brain. Reticular neurons send signals to the thalamus, which in turn sends activity-level-controlling signals to every part of the cortex. Damage to the reticular formation can produce a permanent state of coma.

question: A group of neuron-clusters scattered in the core of the lower brain is called what? 

answer: the reticular formation

question: Reticular neurons transfer signals to what part of the brain? 

answer: the thalamus

question: Damage to the reticular formation can cause what? 

answer: state of coma

question: The SCN transfers signals to a set of areas that implement what? 

answer: sleep-wake cycles.
Title: Brain
Context: Sleep involves great changes in brain activity. Until the 1950s it was generally believed that the brain essentially shuts off during sleep, but this is now known to be far from true; activity continues, but patterns become very different. There are two types of sleep: REM sleep (with dreaming) and NREM (non-REM, usually without dreaming) sleep, which repeat in slightly varying patterns throughout a sleep episode. Three broad types of distinct brain activity patterns can be measured: REM, light NREM and deep NREM. During deep NREM sleep, also called slow wave sleep, activity in the cortex takes the form of large synchronized waves, whereas in the waking state it is noisy and desynchronized. Levels of the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and serotonin drop during slow wave sleep, and fall almost to zero during REM sleep; levels of acetylcholine show the reverse pattern.

question: There are two types of sleep called what? 

answer: REM sleep (with dreaming) and NREM

question: What type of sleep involves dreaming? 

answer: REM sleep

question: The three types of brain activity that can be measured are what? 

answer: REM, light NREM and deep NREM

question: Slow wave sleep is also known as what? 

answer: deep NREM sleep

question: During what stage of sleep do serotonin and norepinephrine levels drop? 

answer: slow wave sleep
Title: Brain
Context: For any animal, survival requires maintaining a variety of parameters of bodily state within a limited range of variation: these include temperature, water content, salt concentration in the bloodstream, blood glucose levels, blood oxygen level, and others. The ability of an animal to regulate the internal environment of its body—the milieu intérieur, as pioneering physiologist Claude Bernard called it—is known as homeostasis (Greek for "standing still"). Maintaining homeostasis is a crucial function of the brain. The basic principle that underlies homeostasis is negative feedback: any time a parameter diverges from its set-point, sensors generate an error signal that evokes a response that causes the parameter to shift back toward its optimum value. (This principle is widely used in engineering, for example in the control of temperature using a thermostat.)

question: Homeostasis is defined as what? 

answer: The ability of an animal to regulate the internal environment of its body

question: Homeostasis is Greek for what phrase? 

answer: "standing still"

question: The milieu interieur term was used by what physiologist? 

answer: Claude Bernard

question: Homeostasis is like what household tool? 

answer: a thermostat.
Title: Brain
Context: In vertebrates, the part of the brain that plays the greatest role is the hypothalamus, a small region at the base of the forebrain whose size does not reflect its complexity or the importance of its function. The hypothalamus is a collection of small nuclei, most of which are involved in basic biological functions. Some of these functions relate to arousal or to social interactions such as sexuality, aggression, or maternal behaviors; but many of them relate to homeostasis. Several hypothalamic nuclei receive input from sensors located in the lining of blood vessels, conveying information about temperature, sodium level, glucose level, blood oxygen level, and other parameters. These hypothalamic nuclei send output signals to motor areas that can generate actions to rectify deficiencies. Some of the outputs also go to the pituitary gland, a tiny gland attached to the brain directly underneath the hypothalamus. The pituitary gland secretes hormones into the bloodstream, where they circulate throughout the body and induce changes in cellular activity.

question: The hypothalamus is located at the base of what? 

answer: the forebrain

question: In vertebrates, the most important part of the brain is what? 

answer: the hypothalamus,

question: A collection of small nuclei at the base of the forebrain is called what? 

answer: the hypothalamus,

question: The gland directly underneath the hypothalamus is which gland? 

answer: the pituitary gland

question: The pituitary gland sends hormones through what in the body? 

answer: the bloodstream
Title: Brain
Context: Most organisms studied to date utilize a reward–punishment mechanism: for instance, worms and insects can alter their behavior to seek food sources or to avoid dangers. In vertebrates, the reward-punishment system is implemented by a specific set of brain structures, at the heart of which lie the basal ganglia, a set of interconnected areas at the base of the forebrain. There is substantial evidence that the basal ganglia are the central site at which decisions are made: the basal ganglia exert a sustained inhibitory control over most of the motor systems in the brain; when this inhibition is released, a motor system is permitted to execute the action it is programmed to carry out. Rewards and punishments function by altering the relationship between the inputs that the basal ganglia receive and the decision-signals that are emitted. The reward mechanism is better understood than the punishment mechanism, because its role in drug abuse has caused it to be studied very intensively. Research has shown that the neurotransmitter dopamine plays a central role: addictive drugs such as cocaine, amphetamine, and nicotine either cause dopamine levels to rise or cause the effects of dopamine inside the brain to be enhanced.

question: A set of interconnected areas at the base of the forebrain is called what? 

answer: basal ganglia

question: The basal ganglia is thought to be the central location at which what are made? 

answer: decisions

question: Which neurotransmitter plays a large role in drug abuse? 

answer: dopamine

question: Which of the two systems, reward or punishment is better understood? 

answer: The reward mechanism
Title: Brain
Context: Almost all animals are capable of modifying their behavior as a result of experience—even the most primitive types of worms. Because behavior is driven by brain activity, changes in behavior must somehow correspond to changes inside the brain. Theorists dating back to Santiago Ramón y Cajal argued that the most plausible explanation is that learning and memory are expressed as changes in the synaptic connections between neurons. Until 1970, however, experimental evidence to support the synaptic plasticity hypothesis was lacking. In 1971 Tim Bliss and Terje Lømo published a paper on a phenomenon now called long-term potentiation: the paper showed clear evidence of activity-induced synaptic changes that lasted for at least several days. Since then technical advances have made these sorts of experiments much easier to carry out, and thousands of studies have been made that have clarified the mechanism of synaptic change, and uncovered other types of activity-driven synaptic change in a variety of brain areas, including the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, basal ganglia, and cerebellum. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and physical activity appear to play a beneficial role in the process.

question: In what year did Tim Bliss and Terje Lomo publish a paper about long-term potentiation? 

answer: 1971

question: BDNF is an abbreviation for what term? 

answer: Brain-derived neurotrophic factor

question: Learning and memory expressed as changes in the synaptic connections was first theorized by whom? 

answer: Santiago Ramón y Cajal
Title: Brain
Context: The field of neuroscience encompasses all approaches that seek to understand the brain and the rest of the nervous system. Psychology seeks to understand mind and behavior, and neurology is the medical discipline that diagnoses and treats diseases of the nervous system. The brain is also the most important organ studied in psychiatry, the branch of medicine that works to study, prevent, and treat mental disorders. Cognitive science seeks to unify neuroscience and psychology with other fields that concern themselves with the brain, such as computer science (artificial intelligence and similar fields) and philosophy.

question: What field of science studies the brain and the central nervous system? 

answer: neuroscience

question: What scientific field tries to understand the mind and behavior? 

answer: Psychology

question: What field of science strives to diagnose and treat diseases of the nervous system? 

answer: neurology

question: Psychiatry is the branch of science that does what? 

answer: study, prevent, and treat mental disorders

question: Cognitive science seeks to join what two branches of science with other fields? 

answer: neuroscience and psychology
Title: Brain
Context: The oldest method of studying the brain is anatomical, and until the middle of the 20th century, much of the progress in neuroscience came from the development of better cell stains and better microscopes. Neuroanatomists study the large-scale structure of the brain as well as the microscopic structure of neurons and their components, especially synapses. Among other tools, they employ a plethora of stains that reveal neural structure, chemistry, and connectivity. In recent years, the development of immunostaining techniques has allowed investigation of neurons that express specific sets of genes. Also, functional neuroanatomy uses medical imaging techniques to correlate variations in human brain structure with differences in cognition or behavior.

question: The oldest known method of studying the brain is what? 

answer: anatomical,

question: What do neuroanatomists study? 

answer: the large-scale structure of the brain

question: What type of study uses medical imaging techniques to correlate changes in brain structure? 

answer: neuroanatomy

question: Until what century was brain studying mostly anatomical? 

answer: the middle of the 20th century,
Title: Brain
Context: Neurophysiologists study the chemical, pharmacological, and electrical properties of the brain: their primary tools are drugs and recording devices. Thousands of experimentally developed drugs affect the nervous system, some in highly specific ways. Recordings of brain activity can be made using electrodes, either glued to the scalp as in EEG studies, or implanted inside the brains of animals for extracellular recordings, which can detect action potentials generated by individual neurons. Because the brain does not contain pain receptors, it is possible using these techniques to record brain activity from animals that are awake and behaving without causing distress. The same techniques have occasionally been used to study brain activity in human patients suffering from intractable epilepsy, in cases where there was a medical necessity to implant electrodes to localize the brain area responsible for epileptic seizures. Functional imaging techniques such as functional magnetic resonance imaging are also used to study brain activity; these techniques have mainly been used with human subjects, because they require a conscious subject to remain motionless for long periods of time, but they have the great advantage of being noninvasive.

question: What do neurophysiologists study? 

answer: the chemical, pharmacological, and electrical properties of the brain

question: The most common tools that neurophysiologists use are what? 

answer: drugs and recording devices

question: What type of receptors does the brain lack? 

answer: pain receptors

question: Electrodes are often glued to what like in EEG studies? 

answer: the scalp