praj-17/QA-MCQ-Open-ended huggingface dataset:
Title: Emotion
Context: For more than 40 years, Paul Ekman has supported the view that emotions are discrete, measurable, and physiologically distinct. Ekman's most influential work revolved around the finding that certain emotions appeared to be universally recognized, even in cultures that were preliterate and could not have learned associations for facial expressions through media. Another classic study found that when participants contorted their facial muscles into distinct facial expressions (e.g. disgust), they reported subjective and physiological experiences that matched the distinct facial expressions. His research findings led him to classify six emotions as basic: anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness and surprise.

question: Who has argued that emotions are discrete? 

answer: Paul Ekman

question: How many basic emotions did Ekman recognize? 

answer: six

question: Along with anger, disgust, happiness, sadness and fear, what is one of Ekman's basic emotions? 

answer: surprise
Title: Emotion
Context: Western philosophy regarded emotion in varying ways. In stoic theories it was seen as a hindrance to reason and therefore a hindrance to virtue. Aristotle believed that emotions were an essential component of virtue. In the Aristotelian view all emotions (called passions) corresponded to appetites or capacities. During the Middle Ages, the Aristotelian view was adopted and further developed by scholasticism and Thomas Aquinas in particular. There are also theories of emotions in the works of philosophers such as René Descartes, Niccolò Machiavelli, Baruch Spinoza and David Hume. In the 19th century emotions were considered adaptive and were studied more frequently from an empiricist psychiatric perspective.

question: What school of thought saw emotion as an impediment to virtue? 

answer: stoic

question: What thinker believed that emotions were necessary for virtue? 

answer: Aristotle

question: What did the Aristotelians call emotions? 

answer: passions

question: Who was a notable scholastic thinker? 

answer: Thomas Aquinas

question: Along with Descartes, Machiavelli and Hume, what notable philosopher developed a theory of emotions? 

answer: Baruch Spinoza
Title: Emotion
Context: In his 1884 article William James argued that feelings and emotions were secondary to physiological phenomena. In his theory, James proposed that the perception of what he called an "exciting fact" directly led to a physiological response, known as "emotion." To account for different types of emotional experiences, James proposed that stimuli trigger activity in the autonomic nervous system, which in turn produces an emotional experience in the brain. The Danish psychologist Carl Lange also proposed a similar theory at around the same time, and therefore this theory became known as the James–Lange theory. As James wrote, "the perception of bodily changes, as they occur, is the emotion." James further claims that "we feel sad because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble, and neither we cry, strike, nor tremble because we are sorry, angry, or fearful, as the case may be."

question: Who wrote that exciting facts lead to emotions? 

answer: William James

question: What did James believe a stimulus act upon to produce emotion? 

answer: the autonomic nervous system

question: What did James believe emotion was synonymous with? 

answer: the perception of bodily changes

question: Who developed a theory similar to that of James? 

answer: Carl Lange

question: What was the profession of Lange? 

answer: psychologist
Title: Emotion
Context: The history of emotions has become an increasingly popular topic recently, with some scholars arguing that it is an essential category of analysis, not unlike class, race, or gender. Historians, like other social scientists, assume that emotions, feelings and their expressions are regulated in different ways by both different cultures and different historical times, and constructivist school of history claims even that some sentiments and meta-emotions, for example Schadenfreude, are learnt and not only regulated by culture. Historians of emotion trace and analyse the changing norms and rules of feeling, while examining emotional regimes, codes, and lexicons from social, cultural or political history perspectives. Others focus on the history of medicine, science or psychology. What somebody can and may feel (and show) in a given situation, towards certain people or things, depends on social norms and rules. It is thus historically variable and open to change. Several research centers have opened in the past few years in Germany, England, Spain, Sweden and Australia.

question: What historical school claims that sentiments and meta-emotions can be learned? 

answer: constructivist

question: According to the constructivists, what is an example of a learned meta-emotion? 

answer: Schadenfreude

question: Along with Germany, England, Spain and Australia, where has a research center on the history of emotions recently opened? 

answer: Sweden

question: Along with class and race, what is regarded as an essential category of historical analysis? 

answer: gender
Title: Emotion
Context: Stanley Schachter formulated his theory on the earlier work of a Spanish physician, Gregorio Marañón, who injected patients with epinephrine and subsequently asked them how they felt. Interestingly, Marañón found that most of these patients felt something but in the absence of an actual emotion-evoking stimulus, the patients were unable to interpret their physiological arousal as an experienced emotion. Schachter did agree that physiological reactions played a big role in emotions. He suggested that physiological reactions contributed to emotional experience by facilitating a focused cognitive appraisal of a given physiologically arousing event and that this appraisal was what defined the subjective emotional experience. Emotions were thus a result of two-stage process: general physiological arousal, and experience of emotion. For example, the physiological arousal, heart pounding, in a response to an evoking stimulus, the sight of a bear in the kitchen. The brain then quickly scans the area, to explain the pounding, and notices the bear. Consequently, the brain interprets the pounding heart as being the result of fearing the bear. With his student, Jerome Singer, Schachter demonstrated that subjects can have different emotional reactions despite being placed into the same physiological state with an injection of epinephrine. Subjects were observed to express either anger or amusement depending on whether another person in the situation (a confederate) displayed that emotion. Hence, the combination of the appraisal of the situation (cognitive) and the participants' reception of adrenaline or a placebo together determined the response. This experiment has been criticized in Jesse Prinz's (2004) Gut Reactions.

question: Whose work did the theory of Stanley Schachter build on? 

answer: Gregorio Marañón

question: What did Gregorio Marañón inject his patients with? 

answer: epinephrine

question: What was the nationality of Gregorio Marañón? 

answer: Spanish

question: Who was a notable student of  Stanley Schachter? 

answer: Jerome Singer

question: In what year was the book Gut Reactions by Jesse Prinz published? 

answer: 2004
Title: Emotion
Context: In the 1990s, sociologists focused on different aspects of specific emotions and how these emotions were socially relevant. For Cooley (1992), pride and shame were the most important emotions that drive people to take various social actions. During every encounter, he proposed that we monitor ourselves through the "looking glass" that the gestures and reactions of others provide. Depending on these reactions, we either experience pride or shame and this results in particular paths of action. Retzinger (1991) conducted studies of married couples who experienced cycles of rage and shame. Drawing predominantly on Goffman and Cooley's work, Scheff (1990) developed a micro sociological theory of the social bond. The formation or disruption of social bonds is dependent on the emotions that people experience during interactions.

question: In what decade did sociologists focus on the social relevance of emotion? 

answer: 1990s

question: What emotions did Cooley regard as of paramount social importance? 

answer: pride and shame

question: Who studied rage and shame cycles in married couples? 

answer: Retzinger

question: Who developed the social bond theory? 

answer: Scheff

question: Along with Cooley, from whose work did Scheff derive social bond theory? 

answer: Goffman
Title: Emotion
Context: Emotion regulation refers to the cognitive and behavioral strategies people use to influence their own emotional experience. For example, a behavioral strategy in which one avoids a situation to avoid unwanted emotions (e.g., trying not to think about the situation, doing distracting activities, etc.). Depending on the particular school's general emphasis on either cognitive components of emotion, physical energy discharging, or on symbolic movement and facial expression components of emotion, different schools of psychotherapy approach the regulation of emotion differently. Cognitively oriented schools approach them via their cognitive components, such as rational emotive behavior therapy. Yet others approach emotions via symbolic movement and facial expression components (like in contemporary Gestalt therapy).

question: What is the term for the strategies used by people to influence their emotional experiences? 

answer: Emotion regulation

question: What type of strategy involves avoiding a situation where unwanted emotions might be experienced? 

answer: behavioral

question: Rational emotive behavior therapy is an approach used by what psychotherapy schools? 

answer: Cognitively oriented schools

question: What sort of therapy might examine emotions based on components of facial expressions? 

answer: Gestalt therapy
Title: Emotion
Context: Based on discoveries made through neural mapping of the limbic system, the neurobiological explanation of human emotion is that emotion is a pleasant or unpleasant mental state organized in the limbic system of the mammalian brain. If distinguished from reactive responses of reptiles, emotions would then be mammalian elaborations of general vertebrate arousal patterns, in which neurochemicals (for example, dopamine, noradrenaline, and serotonin) step-up or step-down the brain's activity level, as visible in body movements, gestures and postures. Emotions can likely be mediated by pheromones (see fear).

question: What system was examined to develop the neurobiological explanation of human emotion? 

answer: limbic

question: What classification of chemicals do dopamine, serotonin and noradrenaline belong to? 

answer: neurochemicals

question: What chemicals may mediate emotions? 

answer: pheromones

question: Reactive responses are present in the brains of what animals? 

answer: reptiles

question: The neurobiological explanation is specific to what types of brains? 

answer: mammalian
Title: Emotion
Context: Many different disciplines have produced work on the emotions. Human sciences study the role of emotions in mental processes, disorders, and neural mechanisms. In psychiatry, emotions are examined as part of the discipline's study and treatment of mental disorders in humans. Nursing studies emotions as part of its approach to the provision of holistic health care to humans. Psychology examines emotions from a scientific perspective by treating them as mental processes and behavior and they explore the underlying physiological and neurological processes. In neuroscience sub-fields such as social neuroscience and affective neuroscience, scientists study the neural mechanisms of emotion by combining neuroscience with the psychological study of personality, emotion, and mood. In linguistics, the expression of emotion may change to the meaning of sounds. In education, the role of emotions in relation to learning is examined.

question: What discipline studies the role of emotions in neural mechanisms? 

answer: Human sciences

question: What fields studies the role of emotions in the treatment of human mental disorders? 

answer: psychiatry

question: What profession studies the role of emotions in providing holistic health care? 

answer: Nursing

question: What is affective neuroscience a sub-field of? 

answer: neuroscience

question: What field studies the relationship between emotion and learning? 

answer: education
Title: Emotion
Context: Subsequent to these developments, Randall Collins (2004) formulated his interaction ritual theory by drawing on Durkheim's work on totemic rituals that was extended by Goffman (1964/2013; 1967) into everyday focused encounters. Based on interaction ritual theory, we experience different levels or intensities of emotional energy during face-to-face interactions. Emotional energy is considered to be a feeling of confidence to take action and a boldness that one experiences when they are charged up from the collective effervescence generated during group gatherings that reach high levels of intensity.

question: Who came up with the interaction ritual theory? 

answer: Randall Collins

question: From what work of Durkheim's was interaction ritual theory derived? 

answer: totemic rituals

question: In addition to Durkheim, whose work influenced the development of interaction ritual theory? 

answer: Goffman

question: What is the term for a feeling of confidence to take action? 

answer: Emotional energy

question: What is the term for the energy generated during group gatherings, such as totemic rituals? 

answer: collective effervescence
Title: Emotion
Context: In the 2000s, research in computer science, engineering, psychology and neuroscience has been aimed at developing devices that recognize human affect display and model emotions. In computer science, affective computing is a branch of the study and development of artificial intelligence that deals with the design of systems and devices that can recognize, interpret, and process human emotions. It is an interdisciplinary field spanning computer sciences, psychology, and cognitive science. While the origins of the field may be traced as far back as to early philosophical enquiries into emotion, the more modern branch of computer science originated with Rosalind Picard's 1995 paper on affective computing. Detecting emotional information begins with passive sensors which capture data about the user's physical state or behavior without interpreting the input. The data gathered is analogous to the cues humans use to perceive emotions in others. Another area within affective computing is the design of computational devices proposed to exhibit either innate emotional capabilities or that are capable of convincingly simulating emotions. Emotional speech processing recognizes the user's emotional state by analyzing speech patterns. The detection and processing of facial expression or body gestures is achieved through detectors and sensors.

question: Of what discipline is affective computing a branch? 

answer: computer science

question: What is the foundational document of affective computing? 

answer: Rosalind Picard's 1995 paper

question: In affective computing, what devices are used to collect data about the physical state of a user? 

answer: passive sensors

question: How does emotional speech processing determine a user's emotional state? 

answer: analyzing speech patterns
Title: Emotion
Context: Emotions involve different components, such as subjective experience, cognitive processes, expressive behavior, psychophysiological changes, and instrumental behavior. At one time, academics attempted to identify the emotion with one of the components: William James with a subjective experience, behaviorists with instrumental behavior, psychophysiologists with physiological changes, and so on. More recently, emotion is said to consist of all the components. The different components of emotion are categorized somewhat differently depending on the academic discipline. In psychology and philosophy, emotion typically includes a subjective, conscious experience characterized primarily by psychophysiological expressions, biological reactions, and mental states. A similar multicomponential description of emotion is found in sociology. For example, Peggy Thoits described emotions as involving physiological components, cultural or emotional labels (e.g., anger, surprise etc.), expressive body actions, and the appraisal of situations and contexts.

question: Along with subjective experience, cognitive processes, expressive behavior and psychophysiological changes, what is another notable emotional component? 

answer: instrumental behavior

question: With what emotional component did William James identify emotion? 

answer: subjective experience

question: What emotional component did behaviorists identify emotion with? 

answer: instrumental behavior

question: What academics identified emotions with physiological changes? 

answer: psychophysiologists

question: Who discussed emotions in the context of expressive body actions and cultural labels? 

answer: Peggy Thoits
Title: Emotion
Context: In Scherer's components processing model of emotion, five crucial elements of emotion are said to exist. From the component processing perspective, emotion experience is said to require that all of these processes become coordinated and synchronized for a short period of time, driven by appraisal processes. Although the inclusion of cognitive appraisal as one of the elements is slightly controversial, since some theorists make the assumption that emotion and cognition are separate but interacting systems, the component processing model provides a sequence of events that effectively describes the coordination involved during an emotional episode.

question: What model of emotion was developed by Scherer? 

answer: components processing model

question: How many important emotional elements are present in the components processing model? 

answer: five

question: What processes drive the other components processing model processes? 

answer: appraisal
Title: Emotion
Context: Through the use of multidimensional scaling, psychologists can map out similar emotional experiences, which allows a visual depiction of the "emotional distance" between experiences. A further step can be taken by looking at the map's dimensions of the emotional experiences. The emotional experiences are divided into two dimensions known as valence (how negative or positive the experience feels) and arousal (how energized or enervated the experience feels). These two dimensions can be depicted on a 2D coordinate map. This two-dimensional map was theorized to capture one important component of emotion called core affect. Core affect is not the only component to emotion, but gives the emotion its hedonic and felt energy.

question: What do psychologists use to visually map emotional experiences? 

answer: multidimensional scaling

question: Along with valence, what is the other of the two dimensions used to map emotional experiences? 

answer: arousal

question: What is the term for the feeling of energy or enervation created by an emotional experience? 

answer: arousal

question: What is the term for the degree to which an emotional experience feels positive or negative? 

answer: valence

question: What component of emotion provides its perceived energy? 

answer: core affect
Title: Emotion
Context: More contemporary views along the evolutionary psychology spectrum posit that both basic emotions and social emotions evolved to motivate (social) behaviors that were adaptive in the ancestral environment. Current research[citation needed] suggests that emotion is an essential part of any human decision-making and planning, and the famous distinction made between reason and emotion is not as clear as it seems. Paul D. MacLean claims that emotion competes with even more instinctive responses, on one hand, and the more abstract reasoning, on the other hand. The increased potential in neuroimaging has also allowed investigation into evolutionarily ancient parts of the brain. Important neurological advances were derived from these perspectives in the 1990s by Joseph E. LeDoux and António Damásio.

question: What technology has allowed for research into the earlier-evolved parts of the brain? 

answer: neuroimaging

question: Along with LeDoux, who was a notable neurological brain researcher? 

answer: António Damásio

question: Who argued that emotional responses compete with instinct and reason? 

answer: Paul D. MacLean

question: In what decade did Damásio and LeDoux do notable work? 

answer: 1990s
Title: Emotion
Context: This is a communication-based theory developed by Howard M. Weiss and Russell Cropanzano (1996), that looks at the causes, structures, and consequences of emotional experience (especially in work contexts). This theory suggests that emotions are influenced and caused by events which in turn influence attitudes and behaviors. This theoretical frame also emphasizes time in that human beings experience what they call emotion episodes— a "series of emotional states extended over time and organized around an underlying theme." This theory has been utilized by numerous researchers to better understand emotion from a communicative lens, and was reviewed further by Howard M. Weiss and Daniel J. Beal in their article, "Reflections on Affective Events Theory", published in Research on Emotion in Organizations in 2005.

question: Along with Cropanzano, who developed a communication-based theory of emotional experience? 

answer: Howard M. Weiss

question: When did Weiss and Cropanzano publish their work? 

answer: 1996

question: What context did the theory of Weiss and Cropanzano pay particular attention to? 

answer: work

question: Who did Beal write "Reflections on Affective Events Theory" with? 

answer: Howard M. Weiss

question: Where was "Reflections on Affective Events Theory" published? 

answer: Research on Emotion in Organizations
Title: Emotion
Context: The motor centers of reptiles react to sensory cues of vision, sound, touch, chemical, gravity, and motion with pre-set body movements and programmed postures. With the arrival of night-active mammals, smell replaced vision as the dominant sense, and a different way of responding arose from the olfactory sense, which is proposed to have developed into mammalian emotion and emotional memory. The mammalian brain invested heavily in olfaction to succeed at night as reptiles slept—one explanation for why olfactory lobes in mammalian brains are proportionally larger than in the reptiles. These odor pathways gradually formed the neural blueprint for what was later to become our limbic brain.

question: What parts of reptiles respond to sensory cues? 

answer: motor centers

question: What is the principal sense of night-active mammals? 

answer: smell

question: Why were early mammals active at night? 

answer: reptiles slept

question: What developed from the mammalian odor pathways? 

answer: limbic brain

question: How do the olfactory lobes of mammals compare in size to those of reptiles? 

answer: larger