praj-17/QA-MCQ-Open-ended huggingface dataset:
Title: Karl_Popper
Context: Popper is known for his rejection of the classical inductivist views on the scientific method, in favour of empirical falsification: A theory in the empirical sciences can never be proven, but it can be falsified, meaning that it can and should be scrutinized by decisive experiments. He used the black swan fallacy to discuss falsification. If the outcome of an experiment contradicts the theory, one should refrain from ad hoc manoeuvres that evade the contradiction merely by making it less falsifiable. Popper is also known for his opposition to the classical justificationist account of knowledge, which he replaced with critical rationalism, "the first non-justificational philosophy of criticism in the history of philosophy."

question: Which classical views about the method of science did Popper reject? 

answer: inductivist

question: Who proposed empirical falsification as the central principle of the scientific method? 

answer: Popper

question: What is necessary for a scientific theory to be falsified? 

answer: decisive experiments

question: Which account of knowledge did Popper contest? 

answer: classical justificationist

question: What is the term for Popper's non-justificational theory of criticism? 

answer: critical rationalism
Title: Karl_Popper
Context: Karl Popper was born in Vienna (then in Austria-Hungary) in 1902, to upper middle-class parents. All of Karl Popper's grandparents were Jewish, but the Popper family converted to Lutheranism before Karl was born, and so he received Lutheran baptism. They understood this as part of their cultural assimilation, not as an expression of devout belief. Karl's father Simon Siegmund Carl Popper was a lawyer from Bohemia and a doctor of law at the Vienna University, and mother Jenny Schiff was of Silesian and Hungarian descent. After establishing themselves in Vienna, the Poppers made a rapid social climb in Viennese society: Simon Siegmund Carl became a partner in the law firm of Vienna's liberal Burgomaster Herr Grübl and, after Grübl's death in 1898, Simon took over the business. (Malachi Hacohen records that Herr Grübl's first name was Raimund, after which Karl received his middle name. Popper himself, in his autobiography, erroneously recalls that Herr Grübl's first name was Carl.) His father was a bibliophile who had 12,000–14,000 volumes in his personal library. Popper inherited both the library and the disposition from him.

question: In which city was Karl Popper born? 

answer: Vienna

question: What religion did Popper's family observe during his youth? 

answer: Lutheranism

question: Whose law firm did Popper's father join in Vienna? 

answer: Burgomaster Herr Grübl

question: What numerical range of volumes did Popper's father keep in his library? 

answer: 12,000–14,000

question: What disposition regarding books did Popper inherit from his father? 

answer: bibliophile
Title: Karl_Popper
Context: Popper left school at the age of 16 and attended lectures in mathematics, physics, philosophy, psychology and the history of music as a guest student at the University of Vienna. In 1919, Popper became attracted by Marxism and subsequently joined the Association of Socialist School Students. He also became a member of the Social Democratic Workers' Party of Austria, which was at that time a party that fully adopted the Marxist ideology. After the street battle in the Hörlgasse on 15 June 1919, when police shot eight of his unarmed party comrades, he became disillusioned by what he saw to be the "pseudo-scientific" historical materialism of Marx, abandoned the ideology, and remained a supporter of social liberalism throughout his life.

question: At which age did Popper first attend university? 

answer: 16

question: What political doctrine interested Popper in 1919? 

answer: Marxism

question: Which Austrian political party did Popper join as a youth? 

answer: Social Democratic Workers' Party of Austria

question: What incident killed several of Poppers Marxist political comrades? 

answer: street battle in the Hörlgasse

question: To which political philosophy did Popper continue to adhere after moving away from Marxism? 

answer: social liberalism
Title: Karl_Popper
Context: He worked in street construction for a short amount of time, but was unable to cope with the heavy labour. Continuing to attend university as a guest student, he started an apprenticeship as cabinetmaker, which he completed as a journeyman. He was dreaming at that time of starting a daycare facility for children, for which he assumed the ability to make furniture might be useful. After that he did voluntary service in one of psychoanalyst Alfred Adler's clinics for children. In 1922, he did his matura by way of a second chance education and finally joined the University as an ordinary student. He completed his examination as an elementary teacher in 1924 and started working at an after-school care club for socially endangered children. In 1925, he went to the newly founded Pädagogisches Institut and continued studying philosophy and psychology. Around that time he started courting Josefine Anna Henninger, who later became his wife.

question: What trade did Popper enter as an apprentice? 

answer: cabinetmaker

question: What type of facility did Popper plan to open that would benefit from his furniture-making skills? 

answer: daycare

question: In which psychoanalysts clinics did Popper volunteer? 

answer: Alfred Adler

question: When did Popper become an ordinary student rather than a guest at university? 

answer: 1922

question: For which vocation did Popper complete his university examinations? 

answer: elementary teacher
Title: Karl_Popper
Context: In 1928, he earned a doctorate in psychology, under the supervision of Karl Bühler. His dissertation was entitled "Die Methodenfrage der Denkpsychologie" (The question of method in cognitive psychology). In 1929, he obtained the authorisation to teach mathematics and physics in secondary school, which he started doing. He married his colleague Josefine Anna Henninger (1906–1985) in 1930. Fearing the rise of Nazism and the threat of the Anschluss, he started to use the evenings and the nights to write his first book Die beiden Grundprobleme der Erkenntnistheorie (The Two Fundamental Problems of the Theory of Knowledge). He needed to publish one to get some academic position in a country that was safe for people of Jewish descent. However, he ended up not publishing the two-volume work, but a condensed version of it with some new material, Logik der Forschung (The Logic of Scientific Discovery), in 1934. Here, he criticised psychologism, naturalism, inductionism, and logical positivism, and put forth his theory of potential falsifiability as the criterion demarcating science from non-science. In 1935 and 1936, he took unpaid leave to go to the United Kingdom for a study visit.

question: Who supervised Popper's doctorate? 

answer: Karl Bühler

question: What is an English translation of the title of Popper's doctoral thesis? 

answer: The question of method in cognitive psychology

question: What subjects was Popper authorized to teach in secondary school in 1929? 

answer: mathematics and physics

question: Whose rise to power motivated Popper to publish his work in hopes of obtaining an academic position abroad? 

answer: Nazism

question: In which work published in 1934 did Popper introduce his theories centered around falsifiability? 

answer: The Logic of Scientific Discovery
Title: Karl_Popper
Context: In 1937, Popper finally managed to get a position that allowed him to emigrate to New Zealand, where he became lecturer in philosophy at Canterbury University College of the University of New Zealand in Christchurch. It was here that he wrote his influential work The Open Society and its Enemies. In Dunedin he met the Professor of Physiology John Carew Eccles and formed a lifelong friendship with him. In 1946, after the Second World War, he moved to the United Kingdom to become reader in logic and scientific method at the London School of Economics. Three years later, in 1949, he was appointed professor of logic and scientific method at the University of London. Popper was president of the Aristotelian Society from 1958 to 1959. He retired from academic life in 1969, though he remained intellectually active for the rest of his life. In 1985, he returned to Austria so that his wife could have her relatives around her during the last months of her life; she died in November that year. After the Ludwig Boltzmann Gesellschaft failed to establish him as the director of a newly founded branch researching the philosophy of science, he went back again to the United Kingdom in 1986, settling in Kenley, Surrey.

question: Where did Popper move in 1937? 

answer: New Zealand

question: Where was Popper's academic appointment in New Zealand? 

answer: Canterbury University College of the University of New Zealand

question: Which lifelong friend did Popper make in Dunedin? 

answer: John Carew Eccles

question: What philosophical fields did Popper teach at the London School of Economics? 

answer: logic and scientific method

question: Which Austrian school's failure to give Popper a directorship prompted him to return to the United Kingdom at the end of his life? 

answer: Ludwig Boltzmann Gesellschaft
Title: Karl_Popper
Context: Popper died of "complications of cancer, pneumonia and kidney failure" in Kenley at the age of 92 on 17 September 1994. He had been working continuously on his philosophy until two weeks before, when he suddenly fell terminally ill. After cremation, his ashes were taken to Vienna and buried at Lainzer cemetery adjacent to the ORF Centre, where his wife Josefine Anna Popper (called ‘Hennie’) had already been buried. Popper's estate is managed by his secretary and personal assistant Melitta Mew and her husband Raymond. Popper's manuscripts went to the Hoover Institution at Stanford University, partly during his lifetime and partly as supplementary material after his death. Klagenfurt University possesses Popper's library, including his precious bibliophilia, as well as hard copies of the original Hoover material and microfilms of the supplementary material. The remaining parts of the estate were mostly transferred to The Karl Popper Charitable Trust. In October 2008 Klagenfurt University acquired the copyrights from the estate.

question: How old was Popper when he died? 

answer: 92

question: Which cemetery in Vienna received Popper's ashes? 

answer: Lainzer

question: Where are Popper's manuscripts kept now? 

answer: Hoover Institution at Stanford University

question: Which university has the contents of Popper's library? 

answer: Klagenfurt University

question: What was Popper's wife's name? 

answer: Josefine Anna Popper
Title: Karl_Popper
Context: Popper won many awards and honours in his field, including the Lippincott Award of the American Political Science Association, the Sonning Prize, the Otto Hahn Peace Medal of the United Nations Association of Germany in Berlin and fellowships in the Royal Society, British Academy, London School of Economics, King's College London, Darwin College, Cambridge, and Charles University, Prague. Austria awarded him the Grand Decoration of Honour in Gold for Services to the Republic of Austria in 1986, and the Federal Republic of Germany its Grand Cross with Star and Sash of the Order of Merit, and the peace class of the Order Pour le Mérite. He received the Humanist Laureate Award from the International Academy of Humanism. He was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II in 1965, and was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1976. He was invested with the Insignia of a Companion of Honour in 1982.

question: Which award did Popper receive from the American Political Science Association? 

answer: Lippincott Award

question: What recognition did Austria bestow on Popper in 1986? 

answer: Grand Decoration of Honour in Gold for Services to the Republic of Austria

question: Who gave Popper its Humanist Laureate Award? 

answer: International Academy of Humanism

question: Which English monarch knighted Popper? 

answer: Queen Elizabeth II

question: Which central European university made Popper a fellow? 

answer: Charles University, Prague
Title: Karl_Popper
Context: Other awards and recognition for Popper included the City of Vienna Prize for the Humanities (1965), Karl Renner Prize (1978), Austrian Decoration for Science and Art (1980), Dr. Leopold Lucas Prize (1981), Ring of Honour of the City of Vienna (1983) and the Premio Internazionale of the Italian Federico Nietzsche Society (1988). In 1992, he was awarded the Kyoto Prize in Arts and Philosophy for "symbolising the open spirit of the 20th century" and for his "enormous influence on the formation of the modern intellectual climate".

question: In which year did Popper win the Karl Renner Prize? 

answer: 1978

question: Which city made Popper part of its Ring of Honour in 1983? 

answer: Vienna

question: What award given by a Japanese foundation did Popper win in 1992? 

answer: Kyoto Prize in Arts and Philosophy

question: Popper won the Dr. Leopold Lucas Prize in which year? 

answer: 1981
Title: Karl_Popper
Context: Karl Popper's rejection of Marxism during his teenage years left a profound mark on his thought. He had at one point joined a socialist association, and for a few months in 1919 considered himself a communist. During this time he became familiar with the Marxist view of economics, class-war, and history. Although he quickly became disillusioned with the views expounded by Marxism, his flirtation with the ideology led him to distance himself from those who believed that spilling blood for the sake of a revolution was necessary. He came to realise that when it came to sacrificing human lives, one was to think and act with extreme prudence.

question: What political philosophy that attracted Popper as a teenager had a profound influence on his thinking going forward? 

answer: Marxism

question: For a time during which year did Popper consider himself a communist? 

answer: 1919

question: At which stage of life was Popper most strongly influenced by Marxist thinking? 

answer: teenage years

question: How did Popper feel about Marxism after only a short time associating with other Marxists? 

answer: disillusioned
Title: Karl_Popper
Context: The failure of democratic parties to prevent fascism from taking over Austrian politics in the 1920s and 1930s traumatised Popper. He suffered from the direct consequences of this failure, since events after the Anschluss, the annexation of Austria by the German Reich in 1938, forced him into permanent exile. His most important works in the field of social science—The Poverty of Historicism (1944) and The Open Society and Its Enemies (1945)—were inspired by his reflection on the events of his time and represented, in a sense, a reaction to the prevalent totalitarian ideologies that then dominated Central European politics. His books defended democratic liberalism as a social and political philosophy. They also represented extensive critiques of the philosophical presuppositions underpinning all forms of totalitarianism.

question: What political ideology dominated Austrian politics in the decades before the second world war? 

answer: fascism

question: What key event in 1938 pushed Popper into exile from Austria? 

answer: the Anschluss

question: What political ideology do Popper's major works defend? 

answer: democratic liberalism

question: What form of political organization do Popper's works mainly critique? 

answer: totalitarianism

question: What was the Anschluss? 

answer: the annexation of Austria by the German Reich
Title: Karl_Popper
Context: Popper puzzled over the stark contrast between the non-scientific character of Freud and Adler's theories in the field of psychology and the revolution set off by Einstein's theory of relativity in physics in the early 20th century. Popper thought that Einstein's theory, as a theory properly grounded in scientific thought and method, was highly "risky", in the sense that it was possible to deduce consequences from it which were, in the light of the then-dominant Newtonian physics, highly improbable (e.g., that light is deflected towards solid bodies—confirmed by Eddington's experiments in 1919), and which would, if they turned out to be false, falsify the whole theory. In contrast, nothing could, even in principle, falsify psychoanalytic theories. He thus came to the conclusion that psychoanalytic theories had more in common with primitive myths than with genuine science.

question: Which two important psychologists did Popper view as advancing non-scientific theories? 

answer: Freud and Adler

question: Whose recent breakthrough in physics did Popper view as paradigmatic science? 

answer: Einstein

question: What quality of the theory of relativity did Popper believe made it proper science? 

answer: risky

question: What did Popper think psychoanalytic theory shared more feature with than real science ? 

answer: primitive myths

question: What could you not do to psychoanalytic theory that Popper believed crucial in genuine science? 

answer: falsify
Title: Karl_Popper
Context: This led Popper to conclude that what were regarded[by whom?] as the remarkable strengths of psychoanalytical theories were actually their weaknesses. Psychoanalytical theories were crafted in a way that made them able to refute any criticism and to give an explanation for every possible form of human behaviour. The nature of such theories made it impossible for any criticism or experiment - even in principle - to show them to be false. This realisation had an important consequence when Popper later tackled the problem of demarcation in the philosophy of science, as it led him to posit that the strength of a scientific theory lies in its both being susceptible to falsification, and not actually being falsified by criticism made of it. He considered that if a theory cannot, in principle, be falsified by criticism, it is not a scientific theory.

question: According to Popper, a theory is scientific only is it is susceptible to what? 

answer: falsification

question: What key components of science are ineffective when brought to bear on non-scientific theories? 

answer: criticism or experiment

question: How did Popper characterize the wide applicability and immunity to criticism of psychoanalytic theory? 

answer: weaknesses
Title: Karl_Popper
Context: Popper coined the term "critical rationalism" to describe his philosophy. Concerning the method of science, the term indicates his rejection of classical empiricism, and the classical observationalist-inductivist account of science that had grown out of it. Popper argued strongly against the latter, holding that scientific theories are abstract in nature, and can be tested only indirectly, by reference to their implications. He also held that scientific theory, and human knowledge generally, is irreducibly conjectural or hypothetical, and is generated by the creative imagination to solve problems that have arisen in specific historico-cultural settings.

question: What term did Popper use for his philosophy? 

answer: critical rationalism

question: Which account of scientific method did Popper's repudiate? 

answer: the classical observationalist-inductivist account

question: What was Popper's position on classical empiricism? 

answer: rejection

question: According to Popper, what is the only way one can test scientific theories because they are necessarily abstract? 

answer: indirectly
Title: Karl_Popper
Context: Logically, no number of positive outcomes at the level of experimental testing can confirm a scientific theory, but a single counterexample is logically decisive: it shows the theory, from which the implication is derived, to be false. To say that a given statement (e.g., the statement of a law of some scientific theory) -- [call it "T"] -- is "falsifiable" does not mean that "T" is false. Rather, it means that, if "T" is false, then (in principle), "T" could be shown to be false, by observation or by experiment. Popper's account of the logical asymmetry between verification and falsifiability lies at the heart of his philosophy of science. It also inspired him to take falsifiability as his criterion of demarcation between what is, and is not, genuinely scientific: a theory should be considered scientific if, and only if, it is falsifiable. This led him to attack the claims of both psychoanalysis and contemporary Marxism to scientific status, on the basis that their theories are not falsifiable.

question: Popper pointed out an important logical asymmetry between what two concepts? 

answer: verification and falsifiability

question: What does Popper say demarcates scientific theory from non-science? 

answer: falsifiability

question: What political theory did Popper say did not meet his falsifiability criterion? 

answer: Marxism

question: What branch of psychology was Popper critical of for not producing falsifiable theory? 

answer: psychoanalysis
Title: Karl_Popper
Context: In All Life is Problem Solving, Popper sought to explain the apparent progress of scientific knowledge – that is, how it is that our understanding of the universe seems to improve over time. This problem arises from his position that the truth content of our theories, even the best of them, cannot be verified by scientific testing, but can only be falsified. Again, in this context the word "falsified" does not refer to something being "fake"; rather, that something can be (i.e., is capable of being) shown to be false by observation or experiment. Some things simply do not lend themselves to being shown to be false, and therefore, are not falsifiable. If so, then how is it that the growth of science appears to result in a growth in knowledge? In Popper's view, the advance of scientific knowledge is an evolutionary process characterised by his formula:

question: Which of Popper's works addresses the improvement of scientific understanding of the world over time? 

answer: All Life is Problem Solving

question: Popper described the growth of scientific understanding as what kind of process? 

answer: evolutionary

question: What aspect of a scientific theory can never be fully verified, according to Popper? 

answer: truth content
Title: Karl_Popper
Context: In response to a given problem situation (), a number of competing conjectures, or tentative theories (), are systematically subjected to the most rigorous attempts at falsification possible. This process, error elimination (), performs a similar function for science that natural selection performs for biological evolution. Theories that better survive the process of refutation are not more true, but rather, more "fit"—in other words, more applicable to the problem situation at hand (). Consequently, just as a species' biological fitness does not ensure continued survival, neither does rigorous testing protect a scientific theory from refutation in the future. Yet, as it appears that the engine of biological evolution has, over many generations, produced adaptive traits equipped to deal with more and more complex problems of survival, likewise, the evolution of theories through the scientific method may, in Popper's view, reflect a certain type of progress: toward more and more interesting problems (). For Popper, it is in the interplay between the tentative theories (conjectures) and error elimination (refutation) that scientific knowledge advances toward greater and greater problems; in a process very much akin to the interplay between genetic variation and natural selection.

question: What process in science is like the process of natural selection in nature? 

answer: error elimination

question: What is a better description for theories that survive scientific scrutiny than "more true?" 

answer: more "fit"

question: What is another term for the tentative theories enter the process of error elimination in science?  

answer: conjectures

question: Toward what does Popper believe scientific understandings progress? 

answer: more and more interesting problems