praj-17/QA-MCQ-Open-ended huggingface dataset:
Title: History_of_science
Context: Astronomy: The first textual mention of astronomical concepts comes from the Vedas, religious literature of India. According to Sarma (2008): "One finds in the Rigveda intelligent speculations about the genesis of the universe from nonexistence, the configuration of the universe, the spherical self-supporting earth, and the year of 360 days divided into 12 equal parts of 30 days each with a periodical intercalary month.". The first 12 chapters of the Siddhanta Shiromani, written by Bhāskara in the 12th century, cover topics such as: mean longitudes of the planets; true longitudes of the planets; the three problems of diurnal rotation; syzygies; lunar eclipses; solar eclipses; latitudes of the planets; risings and settings; the moon's crescent; conjunctions of the planets with each other; conjunctions of the planets with the fixed stars; and the patas of the sun and moon. The 13 chapters of the second part cover the nature of the sphere, as well as significant astronomical and trigonometric calculations based on it.

question: Which text was the first to have concepts of astronomy in it? 

answer: the Vedas

question: Who wrote the first 12 chapters of the Siddhanta Shiromani? 

answer: Bhāskara

question: In what time period was the Siddhanta Shiromani written? 

answer: 12th century

question: The second section of the Siddhanta Shiromani has how many chapters? 

answer: 13

question: What topic does the second part of the Siddhanta Shiromani contain? 

answer: the nature of the sphere
Title: History_of_science
Context: Medicine: Findings from Neolithic graveyards in what is now Pakistan show evidence of proto-dentistry among an early farming culture. Ayurveda is a system of traditional medicine that originated in ancient India before 2500 BC, and is now practiced as a form of alternative medicine in other parts of the world. Its most famous text is the Suśrutasamhitā of Suśruta, which is notable for describing procedures on various forms of surgery, including rhinoplasty, the repair of torn ear lobes, perineal lithotomy, cataract surgery, and several other excisions and other surgical procedures.

question: Where are the Neolithic graveyards? 

answer: Pakistan

question: What do the findings in the graveyards show evidence of? 

answer: proto-dentistry

question: What kind of medicine was practiced in India before 2500 BC? 

answer: Ayurveda

question: What is the name of the text that has information regarding Ayurveda? 

answer: Suśrutasamhitā of Suśruta

question: What information is in the Susrutasamhita of Susruta? 

answer: surgical procedures
Title: History_of_science
Context: Mathematics: From the earliest the Chinese used a positional decimal system on counting boards in order to calculate. To express 10, a single rod is placed in the second box from the right. The spoken language uses a similar system to English: e.g. four thousand two hundred seven. No symbol was used for zero. By the 1st century BC, negative numbers and decimal fractions were in use and The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art included methods for extracting higher order roots by Horner's method and solving linear equations and by Pythagoras' theorem. Cubic equations were solved in the Tang dynasty and solutions of equations of order higher than 3 appeared in print in 1245 AD by Ch'in Chiu-shao. Pascal's triangle for binomial coefficients was described around 1100 by Jia Xian.

question: What method did early Chinese mathematicians use to calculate? 

answer: a positional decimal system on counting boards

question: One rod in the second box from the right is what number? 

answer: 10

question: When did negative numbers and decimals start being used? 

answer: 1st century BC

question: What text includes Horner's method? 

answer: The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art

question: What advanced mathematical methods did the Tang dynasty have? 

answer: Cubic equations
Title: History_of_science
Context: Astronomy: Astronomical observations from China constitute the longest continuous sequence from any civilisation and include records of sunspots (112 records from 364 BC), supernovas (1054), lunar and solar eclipses. By the 12th century, they could reasonably accurately make predictions of eclipses, but the knowledge of this was lost during the Ming dynasty, so that the Jesuit Matteo Ricci gained much favour in 1601 by his predictions. By 635 Chinese astronomers had observed that the tails of comets always point away from the sun.

question: What observations in astronomy did China record? 

answer: sunspots

question: What kind of predictions were made during the 12th century? 

answer: eclipses

question: Who made predictions in 1601? 

answer: Jesuit Matteo Ricci

question: What year did Chinese astronomers start to observe comets? 

answer: 635

question: How many records of sunspots are there? 

answer: 112
Title: History_of_science
Context: Seismology: To better prepare for calamities, Zhang Heng invented a seismometer in 132 CE which provided instant alert to authorities in the capital Luoyang that an earthquake had occurred in a location indicated by a specific cardinal or ordinal direction. Although no tremors could be felt in the capital when Zhang told the court that an earthquake had just occurred in the northwest, a message came soon afterwards that an earthquake had indeed struck 400 km (248 mi) to 500 km (310 mi) northwest of Luoyang (in what is now modern Gansu). Zhang called his device the 'instrument for measuring the seasonal winds and the movements of the Earth' (Houfeng didong yi 候风地动仪), so-named because he and others thought that earthquakes were most likely caused by the enormous compression of trapped air. See Zhang's seismometer for further details.

question: What was invented in 132 CE? 

answer: a seismometer

question: What occurrence is measured by a seismometer? 

answer: an earthquake

question: What is the Chinese name for a seismometer? 

answer: Houfeng didong yi

question: What did the Chinese caused earthquakes? 

answer: enormous compression of trapped air

question: What was Luoyang renamed to? 

answer: Gansu
Title: History_of_science
Context: There are many notable contributors to the field of Chinese science throughout the ages. One of the best examples would be Shen Kuo (1031–1095), a polymath scientist and statesman who was the first to describe the magnetic-needle compass used for navigation, discovered the concept of true north, improved the design of the astronomical gnomon, armillary sphere, sight tube, and clepsydra, and described the use of drydocks to repair boats. After observing the natural process of the inundation of silt and the find of marine fossils in the Taihang Mountains (hundreds of miles from the Pacific Ocean), Shen Kuo devised a theory of land formation, or geomorphology. He also adopted a theory of gradual climate change in regions over time, after observing petrified bamboo found underground at Yan'an, Shaanxi province. If not for Shen Kuo's writing, the architectural works of Yu Hao would be little known, along with the inventor of movable type printing, Bi Sheng (990-1051). Shen's contemporary Su Song (1020–1101) was also a brilliant polymath, an astronomer who created a celestial atlas of star maps, wrote a pharmaceutical treatise with related subjects of botany, zoology, mineralogy, and metallurgy, and had erected a large astronomical clocktower in Kaifeng city in 1088. To operate the crowning armillary sphere, his clocktower featured an escapement mechanism and the world's oldest known use of an endless power-transmitting chain drive.

question: Who discovered the idea of true north? 

answer: Shen Kuo

question: When was Shen Kuo alive? 

answer: 1031–1095

question: What are drydocks used for? 

answer: to repair boats

question: What did silt and marine fossils teach Shen Kuo? 

answer: geomorphology

question: What did Shen Kuo study to discover climate change? 

answer: petrified bamboo
Title: History_of_science
Context: The Jesuit China missions of the 16th and 17th centuries "learned to appreciate the scientific achievements of this ancient culture and made them known in Europe. Through their correspondence European scientists first learned about the Chinese science and culture." Western academic thought on the history of Chinese technology and science was galvanized by the work of Joseph Needham and the Needham Research Institute. Among the technological accomplishments of China were, according to the British scholar Needham, early seismological detectors (Zhang Heng in the 2nd century), the water-powered celestial globe (Zhang Heng), matches, the independent invention of the decimal system, dry docks, sliding calipers, the double-action piston pump, cast iron, the blast furnace, the iron plough, the multi-tube seed drill, the wheelbarrow, the suspension bridge, the winnowing machine, the rotary fan, the parachute, natural gas as fuel, the raised-relief map, the propeller, the crossbow, and a solid fuel rocket, the multistage rocket, the horse collar, along with contributions in logic, astronomy, medicine, and other fields.

question: Who was the Needham Research Institute named after? 

answer: Joseph Needham

question: What type of bridge originated in China? 

answer: suspension

question: What type of map originated in China? 

answer: raised-relief

question: What type of fan originated in China? 

answer: rotary

question: What type of globe did Zhang Heng invent? 

answer: water-powered celestial
Title: History_of_science
Context: With the division of the Roman Empire, the Western Roman Empire lost contact with much of its past. In the Middle East, Greek philosophy was able to find some support under the newly created Arab Empire. With the spread of Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries, a period of Muslim scholarship, known as the Islamic Golden Age, lasted until the 13th century. This scholarship was aided by several factors. The use of a single language, Arabic, allowed communication without need of a translator. Access to Greek texts from the Byzantine Empire, along with Indian sources of learning, provided Muslim scholars a knowledge base to build upon.

question: What was a consequence of the Roman Empire being divided? 

answer: the Western Roman Empire lost contact with much of its past

question: Where was support found for Greek philosophy? 

answer: Arab Empire

question: What time period was marked by the spreading of Islam? 

answer: the 7th and 8th centuries

question: How long did the Islamic Golden Age last? 

answer: until the 13th century

question: What language did Muslim philosophers speak? 

answer: Arabic
Title: History_of_science
Context: Muslim scientists placed far greater emphasis on experiment than had the Greeks. This led to an early scientific method being developed in the Muslim world, where significant progress in methodology was made, beginning with the experiments of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) on optics from c. 1000, in his Book of Optics. The law of refraction of light was known to the Persians. The most important development of the scientific method was the use of experiments to distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation, which began among Muslim scientists. Ibn al-Haytham is also regarded as the father of optics, especially for his empirical proof of the intromission theory of light. Some have also described Ibn al-Haytham as the "first scientist" for his development of the modern scientific method.

question: What method did Muslim scientists use more than the Greeks? 

answer: experiment

question: What book did Ibn al-Haytham write? 

answer: Book of Optics

question: What law did the Persians know of? 

answer: The law of refraction of light

question: What was Ibn al-Haytham's nickname? 

answer: the father of optics

question: What theory did Ibn al-Haytham have proof for? 

answer: the intromission theory of light
Title: History_of_science
Context: In mathematics, the Persian mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi gave his name to the concept of the algorithm, while the term algebra is derived from al-jabr, the beginning of the title of one of his publications. What is now known as Arabic numerals originally came from India, but Muslim mathematicians did make several refinements to the number system, such as the introduction of decimal point notation. Sabian mathematician Al-Battani (850-929) contributed to astronomy and mathematics, while Persian scholar Al-Razi contributed to chemistry and medicine.

question: What was Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi's profession? 

answer: mathematician

question: Where does the word "algebra" come from? 

answer: al-jabr

question: Where did Arabic numerals originate? 

answer: India

question: What did Muslim mathematicians add to Arabic numerals? 

answer: decimal point notation

question: What area of science did Al-Razi contribute to? 

answer: chemistry and medicine
Title: History_of_science
Context: In astronomy, Al-Battani improved the measurements of Hipparchus, preserved in the translation of Ptolemy's Hè Megalè Syntaxis (The great treatise) translated as Almagest. Al-Battani also improved the precision of the measurement of the precession of the Earth's axis. The corrections made to the geocentric model by al-Battani, Ibn al-Haytham, Averroes and the Maragha astronomers such as Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi and Ibn al-Shatir are similar to Copernican heliocentric model. Heliocentric theories may have also been discussed by several other Muslim astronomers such as Ja'far ibn Muhammad Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi, Abu-Rayhan Biruni, Abu Said al-Sijzi, Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi, and Najm al-Dīn al-Qazwīnī al-Kātibī.

question: Whose work did Al-Battani improve? 

answer: Hipparchus

question: What does He Megale Syntaxis mean? 

answer: The great treatise

question: Which measurement did Al-Battani improve upon? 

answer: the Earth's axis

question: The geocentric model is similar to what other model? 

answer: Copernican heliocentric model
Title: History_of_science
Context: Ibn Sina (Avicenna) is regarded as the most influential philosopher of Islam. He pioneered the science of experimental medicine and was the first physician to conduct clinical trials. His two most notable works in medicine are the Kitāb al-shifāʾ ("Book of Healing") and The Canon of Medicine, both of which were used as standard medicinal texts in both the Muslim world and in Europe well into the 17th century. Amongst his many contributions are the discovery of the contagious nature of infectious diseases, and the introduction of clinical pharmacology.

question: Who was most influential in Islamic philosophy? 

answer: Ibn Sina

question: What method did Ibn Sina introduce? 

answer: clinical trials

question: What does Kitab al-shifa mean? 

answer: Book of Healing

question: The Kitab al-shifa and The Canon of Medicine are considered what? 

answer: standard medicinal texts

question: What characteristic did Ibn Sina find out about infectious diseases? 

answer: contagious
Title: History_of_science
Context: An intellectual revitalization of Europe started with the birth of medieval universities in the 12th century. The contact with the Islamic world in Spain and Sicily, and during the Reconquista and the Crusades, allowed Europeans access to scientific Greek and Arabic texts, including the works of Aristotle, Ptolemy, Jābir ibn Hayyān, al-Khwarizmi, Alhazen, Avicenna, and Averroes. European scholars had access to the translation programs of Raymond of Toledo, who sponsored the 12th century Toledo School of Translators from Arabic to Latin. Later translators like Michael Scotus would learn Arabic in order to study these texts directly. The European universities aided materially in the translation and propagation of these texts and started a new infrastructure which was needed for scientific communities. In fact, European university put many works about the natural world and the study of nature at the center of its curriculum, with the result that the "medieval university laid far greater emphasis on science than does its modern counterpart and descendent."

question: When were medieval universities created? 

answer: the 12th century

question: Who sponsored the Toledo School of Translators? 

answer: Raymond of Toledo

question: At the Toledo School of Translators, what language was Arabic text translated into? 

answer: Latin

question: Which translator learned Arabic to be able to study the Arabic texts directly? 

answer: Michael Scotus
Title: History_of_science
Context: At the beginning of the 13th century, there were reasonably accurate Latin translations of the main works of almost all the intellectually crucial ancient authors, allowing a sound transfer of scientific ideas via both the universities and the monasteries. By then, the natural philosophy contained in these texts began to be extended by notable scholastics such as Robert Grosseteste, Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus and Duns Scotus. Precursors of the modern scientific method, influenced by earlier contributions of the Islamic world, can be seen already in Grosseteste's emphasis on mathematics as a way to understand nature, and in the empirical approach admired by Bacon, particularly in his Opus Majus. Pierre Duhem's provocative thesis of the Catholic Church's Condemnation of 1277 led to the study of medieval science as a serious discipline, "but no one in the field any longer endorses his view that modern science started in 1277". However, many scholars agree with Duhem's view that the Middle Ages were a period of important scientific developments.

question: What language did the important scientific works get translated into for universities and monasteries? 

answer: Latin

question: Who favored empirical methods? 

answer: Bacon

question: Who favored mathematics? 

answer: Grosseteste

question: Who wrote the Catholic Church's Condemnation of 1277? 

answer: Pierre Duhem

question: What era was important for scientific advancements? 

answer: the Middle Ages
Title: History_of_science
Context: The first half of the 14th century saw much important scientific work being done, largely within the framework of scholastic commentaries on Aristotle's scientific writings. William of Ockham introduced the principle of parsimony: natural philosophers should not postulate unnecessary entities, so that motion is not a distinct thing but is only the moving object and an intermediary "sensible species" is not needed to transmit an image of an object to the eye. Scholars such as Jean Buridan and Nicole Oresme started to reinterpret elements of Aristotle's mechanics. In particular, Buridan developed the theory that impetus was the cause of the motion of projectiles, which was a first step towards the modern concept of inertia. The Oxford Calculators began to mathematically analyze the kinematics of motion, making this analysis without considering the causes of motion.

question: Who pioneered parsimony? 

answer: William of Ockham

question: What theory is based off of projectiles' motion? 

answer: impetus

question: What theory did impetus pave the way for? 

answer: inertia

question: What did the Oxford Calculators measure? 

answer: the kinematics of motion
Title: History_of_science
Context: In 1348, the Black Death and other disasters sealed a sudden end to the previous period of massive philosophic and scientific development. Yet, the rediscovery of ancient texts was improved after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, when many Byzantine scholars had to seek refuge in the West. Meanwhile, the introduction of printing was to have great effect on European society. The facilitated dissemination of the printed word democratized learning and allowed a faster propagation of new ideas. New ideas also helped to influence the development of European science at this point: not least the introduction of Algebra. These developments paved the way for the Scientific Revolution, which may also be understood as a resumption of the process of scientific inquiry, halted at the start of the Black Death.

question: What year did the Black Death occur? 

answer: 1348

question: What caused ancient texts to be rediscovered by Byzantine scholars? 

answer: the Fall of Constantinople in 1453

question: The invention of printing improved which society? 

answer: European

question: Printed word enabled what? 

answer: a faster propagation of new ideas

question: What type of mathematics aided in developing European science? 

answer: Algebra
Title: History_of_science
Context: The renewal of learning in Europe, that began with 12th century Scholasticism, came to an end about the time of the Black Death, and the initial period of the subsequent Italian Renaissance is sometimes seen as a lull in scientific activity. The Northern Renaissance, on the other hand, showed a decisive shift in focus from Aristoteleian natural philosophy to chemistry and the biological sciences (botany, anatomy, and medicine). Thus modern science in Europe was resumed in a period of great upheaval: the Protestant Reformation and Catholic Counter-Reformation; the discovery of the Americas by Christopher Columbus; the Fall of Constantinople; but also the re-discovery of Aristotle during the Scholastic period presaged large social and political changes. Thus, a suitable environment was created in which it became possible to question scientific doctrine, in much the same way that Martin Luther and John Calvin questioned religious doctrine. The works of Ptolemy (astronomy) and Galen (medicine) were found not always to match everyday observations. Work by Vesalius on human cadavers found problems with the Galenic view of anatomy.

question: The focus on learning in the 12th century is referred to as what? 

answer: Scholasticism

question: What began at the same time Scholasticism ended? 

answer: the Black Death

question: Which era came after Scholasticism? 

answer: Italian Renaissance

question: What was the focus of the Northern Renaissance? 

answer: chemistry and the biological sciences

question: Which scientist was known for working on human cadavers? 

answer: Vesalius
Title: History_of_science
Context: The willingness to question previously held truths and search for new answers resulted in a period of major scientific advancements, now known as the Scientific Revolution. The Scientific Revolution is traditionally held by most historians to have begun in 1543, when the books De humani corporis fabrica (On the Workings of the Human Body) by Andreas Vesalius, and also De Revolutionibus, by the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus, were first printed. The thesis of Copernicus' book was that the Earth moved around the Sun. The period culminated with the publication of the Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica in 1687 by Isaac Newton, representative of the unprecedented growth of scientific publications throughout Europe.

question: What was the Scientific Revolution? 

answer: a period of major scientific advancements

question: What year is considered to be the beginning of the Scientific Revolution? 

answer: 1543

question: What book by Andreas Vesalius was published in 1543? 

answer: De humani corporis fabrica (On the Workings of the Human Body)

question: What was the focus of De Revolutionibus by Nicolaus Copernicus? 

answer: the Earth moved around the Sun

question: What book was printed by Isaac Newton in 1687? 

answer: Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica