praj-17/QA-MCQ-Open-ended huggingface dataset:
Title: Sahara
Context: The primary source of rain in the Sahara is the equatorial low a continuous belt of low-pressure systems near the equator which bring the brief, short and irregular rainy season to the Sahel and the southern Sahara. The Sahara doesn't lack precipitation because of a lack of moisture, but due to the lack of a precipitation-generating mechanism. Rainfall in this giant desert has to overcome the physical and atmospheric barriers that normally prevent the production of precipitation. The harsh climate of the Sahara is characterized by extremely low, unreliable, highly erratic rainfall; extremely high sunshine duration values; high temperatures year-round; negligible rates of relative humidity, a significant diurnal temperature variation and extremely high levels of potential evaporation which are the highest recorded worldwide.

question: What is the primary source of rain in the Sahara? 

answer: low-pressure systems

question: What is the reason the Sahara lacks moisture? 

answer: lack of a precipitation-generating mechanism

question: What does the desert have to overcome? 

answer: barriers that normally prevent the production of precipitation

question: What is the temperature like year around in the desert? 

answer: high temperatures year-round
Title: Sahara
Context: The average annual rainfall ranges from very low in the northern and southern fringes of the desert to nearly non-existent over the central and the eastern part. The thin northern fringe of the desert receives more winter cloudiness and rainfall due to the arrival of low pressure systems over the Mediterranean Sea along the polar front, although very attenuated by the rain shadow effects of the mountains and the annual average rainfall ranges from 100 mm (3,93 in) to 250 mm (9,84 in). For example, Biskra, Algeria and Ouarzazate, Morocco are found in this zone. The southern fringe of the desert along the border with the Sahel receives summer cloudiness and rainfall due to the arrival of the Intertropical Convergence Zone from the south and the annual average rainfall ranges from 100 mm (3,93 in) to 250 mm (9,84 in). For example, Timbuktu, Mali and Agadez, Niger are found in this zone. The vast central hyper-arid core of the desert is virtually never affected by northerly or southerly atmospheric disturbances and permanently remains under the influence of the strongest anticyclonic weather regime and the annual average rainfall can drop to less than 1 mm (0.04 in). In fact, most of the Sahara receives less than 20 mm (0.79 in). Of the 9,000,000 km2 of desert land in the Sahara, an area of about 2,800,000 km2 (about 31% of the total area) receives an annual average rainfall amount of 10 mm (0.39 in) or less, while some 1,500,000 km2 (about 17% of the total area) receive an average of 5 mm or less. The annual average rainfall is virtually zero over a wide area of some 1,000,000 km2 in the eastern Sahara comprising deserts of Libya, Egypt and Sudan (Tazirbu, Kufra, Dakhla, Kharga, Farafra, Siwa, Asyut, Sohag, Luxor, Aswan, Abu Simbel, Wadi Halfa) where the long-term mean approximates 0.5 mm per year. The rainfall is very unreliable and erratic in the Sahara as it may vary considerably year by year. In full contrast to the negligible annual rainfall amounts, the annual rates of potential evaporation are extraordinarily high, roughly ranging from 2,500 mm/year to more than 6,000 mm/year in the whole desert. Nowhere else on Earth has air been found as dry and evaporative as in the Sahara region. With such an evaporative power, the Sahara can only be desiccated and dried out further more and the moisture deficit is tremendous.

question: What is the reason the northern fringe receives more   cloudiness and rainfall? 

answer: low pressure systems

question: What is the average rainfall of the Sahara? 

answer: less than 1 mm

question: How much desert land is the Sahara? 

answer: 9,000,000 km2 of desert land

question: What causes the southern fringe to receive cloudiness and   rainfall? 

answer: Intertropical Convergence Zone
Title: Sahara
Context: The South Saharan steppe and woodlands ecoregion is a narrow band running east and west between the hyper-arid Sahara and the Sahel savannas to the south. Movements of the equatorial Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) bring summer rains during July and August which average 100 to 200 mm (3.9 to 7.9 in) but vary greatly from year to year. These rains sustain summer pastures of grasses and herbs, with dry woodlands and shrublands along seasonal watercourses. This ecoregion covers 1,101,700 km2 (425,400 mi2) in Algeria, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, and Sudan.

question: Which directions does the South Saharan run? 

answer: east and west

question: What months do the summer rains happen? 

answer: July and August

question: What is the average rainfall between the months of July and   August? 

answer: 100 to 200 mm

question: How much land does the ecoregion cover? 

answer: 1,101,700 km2 (425,400 mi2)
Title: Sahara
Context: The central Sahara is estimated to include five hundred species of plants, which is extremely low considering the huge extent of the area. Plants such as acacia trees, palms, succulents, spiny shrubs, and grasses have adapted to the arid conditions, by growing lower to avoid water loss by strong winds, by storing water in their thick stems to use it in dry periods, by having long roots that travel horizontally to reach the maximum area of water and to find any surface moisture and by having small thick leaves or needles to prevent water loss by evapo-transpiration. Plant leaves may dry out totally and then recover.

question: What is the number of plants in the Central Sahara? 

answer: five hundred species

question: What do plants do in order to avoid water loss? 

answer: growing lower

question: Where do plants store their water to avoid the conditions? 

answer: thick stems

question: What helps plants in order to get as much water as   possible? 

answer: long roots that travel horizontally
Title: Sahara
Context: The Saharan cheetah (northwest African cheetah) lives in Algeria, Togo, Niger, Mali, Benin, and Burkina Faso. There remain fewer than 250 mature cheetahs, which are very cautious, fleeing any human presence. The cheetah avoids the sun from April to October, seeking the shelter of shrubs such as balanites and acacias. They are unusually pale. The other cheetah subspecies (northeast African cheetah) lives in Chad, Sudan and the eastern region of Niger. However, it is currently extinct in the wild of Egypt and Libya. They are approximately 2,000 mature individuals left in the wild.

question: How many cheetahs remain in the Northwest Africa area? 

answer: 250

question: What months do the cheetah's avoid the sun? 

answer: April to October

question: How many many cheetah's are left in the wild? 

answer: 2,000
Title: Sahara
Context: human activities are more likely to affect the habitat in areas of permanent water (oases) or where water comes close to the surface. Here, the local pressure on natural resources can be intense. The remaining populations of large mammals have been greatly reduced by hunting for food and recreation. In recent years development projects have started in the deserts of Algeria and Tunisia using irrigated water pumped from underground aquifers. These schemes often lead to soil degradation and salinization.

question: What activities from these mammals will likely affect   habitat areas? 

answer: human activities

question: What underground items have lead to soil degradation? 

answer: irrigated water pumped

question: What kind of pressure can be intense in the Sahara? 

answer: natural resources
Title: Sahara
Context: People lived on the edge of the desert thousands of years ago since the last ice age. The Sahara was then a much wetter place than it is today. Over 30,000 petroglyphs of river animals such as crocodiles survive, with half found in the Tassili n'Ajjer in southeast Algeria. Fossils of dinosaurs, including Afrovenator, Jobaria and Ouranosaurus, have also been found here. The modern Sahara, though, is not lush in vegetation, except in the Nile Valley, at a few oases, and in the northern highlands, where Mediterranean plants such as the olive tree are found to grow. It was long believed that the region had been this way since about 1600 BCE, after shifts in the Earth's axis increased temperatures and decreased precipitation. However, this theory has recently been called into dispute, when samples taken from several 7 million year old sand deposits led scientists to reconsider the timeline for desertification.

question: When did people start living on the edge of the desert? 

answer: ice age

question: How many river animals were thought to be found during   the ice age era? 

answer: Over 30,000 petroglyphs

question: What area of the Sahara is full of vegetation? 

answer: the Nile Valley

question: What is believed to have increased temperatures in the   Sahara? 

answer: shifts in the Earth's axis
Title: Sahara
Context: During the Neolithic Era, before the onset of desertification, around 9500 BCE the central Sudan had been a rich environment supporting a large population ranging across what is now barren desert, like the Wadi el-Qa'ab. By the 5th millennium BCE, the people who inhabited what is now called Nubia, were full participants in the "agricultural revolution", living a settled lifestyle with domesticated plants and animals. Saharan rock art of cattle and herdsmen suggests the presence of a cattle cult like those found in Sudan and other pastoral societies in Africa today. Megaliths found at Nabta Playa are overt examples of probably the world's first known archaeoastronomy devices, predating Stonehenge by some 2,000 years. This complexity, as observed at Nabta Playa, and as expressed by different levels of authority within the society there, likely formed the basis for the structure of both the Neolithic society at Nabta and the Old Kingdom of Egypt.

question: During what era was the central Sudan rich in environment? 

answer: Neolithic Era

question: What kind of rock art was found in the Sudan? 

answer: cattle and herdsmen

question: What are examples of the first known archaeoastronomy   found in Nabta Playa? 

answer: Megaliths
Title: Sahara
Context: By 6000 BCE predynastic Egyptians in the southwestern corner of Egypt were herding cattle and constructing large buildings. Subsistence in organized and permanent settlements in predynastic Egypt by the middle of the 6th millennium BCE centered predominantly on cereal and animal agriculture: cattle, goats, pigs and sheep. Metal objects replaced prior ones of stone. Tanning of animal skins, pottery and weaving were commonplace in this era also. There are indications of seasonal or only temporary occupation of the Al Fayyum in the 6th millennium BCE, with food activities centering on fishing, hunting and food-gathering. Stone arrowheads, knives and scrapers from the era are commonly found. Burial items included pottery, jewelry, farming and hunting equipment, and assorted foods including dried meat and fruit. Burial in desert environments appears to enhance Egyptian preservation rites, and dead were buried facing due west.

question: What were Egyptians herding in the early BCE period? 

answer: cattle

question: By what time period were the Egyptians constructing  large buildings? 

answer: 6000 BCE

question: What items replaced previously items made of stone? 

answer: Metal objects

question: In which direction were the dead facing when they were   buried? 

answer: due west
Title: Sahara
Context: By 3400 BCE, the Sahara was as dry as it is today, due to reduced precipitation and higher temperatures resulting from a shift in the Earth's orbit. As a result of this aridification, it became a largely impenetrable barrier to humans, with the remaining settlements mainly being concentrated around the numerous oases that dot the landscape. Little trade or commerce is known to have passed through the interior in subsequent periods, the only major exception being the Nile Valley. The Nile, however, was impassable at several cataracts, making trade and contact by boat difficult.

question: By What time period was the Sahara dry like it is today? 

answer: 3400 BCE

question: What was the main reason that the Sahara became so   dry? 

answer: reduced precipitation and higher temperatures

question: What area is known for having the majority of the trade? 

answer: the Nile Valley
Title: Sahara
Context: By 500 BCE, Greeks arrived in the desert. Greek traders spread along the eastern coast of the desert, establishing trading colonies along the Red Sea. The Carthaginians explored the Atlantic coast of the desert, but the turbulence of the waters and the lack of markets caused a lack of presence further south than modern Morocco. Centralized states thus surrounded the desert on the north and east; it remained outside the control of these states. Raids from the nomadic Berber people of the desert were a constant concern of those living on the edge of the desert.

question: Where did the Greeks established their trading colonies? 

answer: Red Sea

question: Which coast did the Carthaginians explore for trade? 

answer: the Atlantic coast

question: Who would raid the desert leaving the people in constant   fear? 

answer: nomadic Berber
Title: Sahara
Context: An urban civilization, the Garamantes, arose around 500 BCE in the heart of the Sahara, in a valley that is now called the Wadi al-Ajal in Fezzan, Libya. The Garamantes achieved this development by digging tunnels far into the mountains flanking the valley to tap fossil water and bring it to their fields. The Garamantes grew populous and strong, conquering their neighbors and capturing many slaves (which were put to work extending the tunnels). The ancient Greeks and the Romans knew of the Garamantes and regarded them as uncivilized nomads. However, they traded with the Garamantes, and a Roman bath has been found in the Garamantes capital of Garama. Archaeologists have found eight major towns and many other important settlements in the Garamantes territory. The Garamantes civilization eventually collapsed after they had depleted available water in the aquifers and could no longer sustain the effort to extend the tunnels further into the mountains.

question: What time period did the Garamantes arrive in? 

answer: 500 BCE

question: What did the Garamantes do in order to bring water to   their crops? 

answer: digging tunnels

question: How many towns are believed to be found by   Archaeologists? 

answer: eight major towns

question: What was the reason for the collapse of the Garamantes   civilization? 

answer: depleted available water
Title: Sahara
Context: The Byzantine Empire ruled the northern shores of the Sahara from the 5th to the 7th centuries. After the Muslim conquest of Arabia (Arabian peninsula) the Muslim conquest of North Africa began in the mid-7th to early 8th centuries, Islamic influence expanded rapidly on the Sahara. By the end of 641 all of Egypt was in Muslim hands. The trade across the desert intensified. A significant slave trade crossed the desert. It has been estimated that from the 10th to 19th centuries some 6,000 to 7,000 slaves were transported north each year.

question: What group of people ruled the northern shoes of the   Sahara? 

answer: Byzantine Empire

question: What time period did the Muslim conquest of North Africa   take place? 

answer: mid-7th to early 8th centuries

question: What is the estimated number of slaves that were   transported each year? 

answer: 6,000 to 7,000 slaves
Title: Sahara
Context: In the 16th century the northern fringe of the Sahara, such as coastal regencies in present-day Algeria and Tunisia, as well as some parts of present-day Libya, together with the semi-autonomous kingdom of Egypt, were occupied by the Ottoman Empire. From 1517 Egypt was a valued part of the Ottoman Empire, ownership of which provided the Ottomans with control over the Nile Valley, the east Mediterranean and North Africa. The benefit of the Ottoman Empire was the freedom of movement for citizens and goods. Trade exploited the Ottoman land routes to handle the spices, gold and silk from the East, manufactures from Europe, and the slave and gold traffic from Africa. Arabic continued as the local language and Islamic culture was much reinforced. The Sahel and southern Sahara regions were home to several independent states or to roaming Tuareg clans.

question: During the 1500 who was a valued part of the Ottoman   Empire? 

answer: Egypt

question: What did the Ottoman Empire provide to its people? 

answer: freedom of movement for citizens and goods

question: What was the local language during this time in Egypt? 

answer: Arabic
Title: Sahara
Context: European colonialism in the Sahara began in the 19th century. France conquered the regency of Algiers from the Ottomans in 1830, and French rule spread south from Algeria and eastwards from Senegal into the upper Niger to include present-day Algeria, Chad, Mali then French Sudan including Timbuktu, Mauritania, Morocco (1912), Niger, and Tunisia (1881). By the beginning of the 20th century, the trans-Saharan trade had clearly declined because goods were moved through more modern and efficient means, such as airplanes, rather than across the desert.

question: What time period did the colonialism of the Sahara begin? 

answer: 19th century

question: What country conquered the Algiers from the Ottomans in   1830? 

answer: France

question: During what time were good moved through more modern   means? 

answer: 20th century
Title: Sahara
Context: Arabic dialects are the most widely spoken languages in the Sahara. The live in the Red Sea Hills of southeastern Egypt and eastern Sudan. Arabic, Berber and its variants now regrouped under the term Amazigh (which includes the Guanche language spoken by the original Berber inhabitants of the Canary Islands) and Beja languages are part of the Afro-Asiatic or Hamito-Semitic family.[citation needed] Unlike neighboring West Africa and the central governments of the states that comprise the Sahara, the French language bears little relevance to inter-personal discourse and commerce within the region, its people retaining staunch ethnic and political affiliations with Tuareg and Berber leaders and culture. The legacy of the French colonial era administration is primarily manifested in the territorial reorganization enacted by the Third and Fourth republics, which engendered artificial political divisions within a hitherto isolated and porous region. Diplomacy with local clients was primarily conducted in Arabic, which was the traditional language of bureaucratic affairs. Mediation of disputes and inter-agency communication was served by interpreters contracted by the French government, who, according to Keenan, "documented a space of intercultural mediation," contributing much to preserving indigenous cultural identities in the region.

question: What is the most common dialect spoken in the Sahara? 

answer: Arabic

question: What language is mainly spoken in West Africa? 

answer: French

question: What was the traditional language of Bureaucratic affairs? 

answer: Arabic
Title: Rule_of_law
Context: The rule of law is the legal principle that law should govern a nation, as opposed to being governed by arbitrary decisions of individual government officials. It primarily refers to the influence and authority of law within society, particularly as a constraint upon behaviour, including behaviour of government officials. The phrase can be traced back to 16th century Britain, and in the following century the Scottish theologian Samuel Rutherford used the phrase in his argument against the divine right of kings. The rule of law was further popularized in the 19th century by British jurist A. V. Dicey. The concept, if not the phrase, was familiar to ancient philosophers such as Aristotle, who wrote "Law should govern".

question: Which Scottish theologian is first credited with using the phrase "rule of law"? 

answer: Samuel Rutherford

question: Which British jurist later made the phrase "rule of law" popular in the 1800s? 

answer: A. V. Dicey

question: What phrase Ariostle also use which is closely related to "the rule of law"? 

answer: Law should govern

question: Samuel Rutherford used the principle of the rule of law to argue what point? 

answer: against the divine right of kings

question: According to the rule of law, what should hold the determination for rules in a land?  

answer: law
Title: Rule_of_law
Context: Rule of law implies that every citizen is subject to the law, including law makers themselves. In this sense, it stands in contrast to an autocracy, dictatorship, or oligarchy where the rulers are held above the law. Lack of the rule of law can be found in both democracies and dictatorships, for example because of neglect or ignorance of the law, and the rule of law is more apt to decay if a government has insufficient corrective mechanisms for restoring it. Government based upon the rule of law is called nomocracy.

question: In what forms of government are leaders not held to the same laws as ordinary citizens? 

answer: autocracy, dictatorship, or oligarchy

question: According to the rule of law, who must obey the laws? 

answer: every citizen

question: What are governments called that are created with the rule of law in mind? 

answer: nomocracy

question: What happens to the rule of law if a government does not have an effective system for maintenance and restoration? 

answer: decay

question: For what reasons might democratic societies not follow the rule of law? 

answer: neglect or ignorance of the law
Title: Rule_of_law
Context: In the West, the ancient Greeks initially regarded the best form of government as rule by the best men. Plato advocated a benevolent monarchy ruled by an idealized philosopher king, who was above the law. Plato nevertheless hoped that the best men would be good at respecting established laws, explaining that "Where the law is subject to some other authority and has none of its own, the collapse of the state, in my view, is not far off; but if law is the master of the government and the government is its slave, then the situation is full of promise and men enjoy all the blessings that the gods shower on a state." More than Plato attempted to do, Aristotle flatly opposed letting the highest officials wield power beyond guarding and serving the laws. In other words, Aristotle advocated the rule of law:

question: On what principle did the Ancient Greeks first think was best for governance?  

answer: rule by the best men

question: According to Plato, who was above the law? 

answer: king

question: What type of kingdom was purported by Plato? 

answer: benevolent monarchy

question: Under what rule did Aristotle believe a nation should be led? 

answer: rule of law

question: To what did Plato compare a government that follows laws? 

answer: slave
Title: Rule_of_law
Context: There has recently been an effort to reevaluate the influence of the Bible on Western constitutional law. In the Old Testament, there was some language in Deuteronomy imposing restrictions on the Jewish king, regarding such things as how many wives he could have, and how many horses he could own for his personal use. According to Professor Bernard M. Levinson, "This legislation was so utopian in its own time that it seems never to have been implemented...." The Deuteronomic social vision may have influenced opponents of the divine right of kings, including Bishop John Ponet in sixteenth-century England.

question: In which book of the Bible are limitations on Jewish monarchs outlined? 

answer: Deuteronomy

question: Who was against the divine rights of kings in England during the 1500s? 

answer: Bishop John Ponet

question: What principle did the restrictions on the right of kings, as detailed in Deuteronomy, influence later opposition? 

answer: divine right of kings

question: What historical book may have a significant impact on contemporary law making practices? 

answer: Bible

question: According to the restrictions placed on Jewish kings in Deuteronomy, ownership over what was regulated? 

answer: horses