praj-17/QA-MCQ-Open-ended huggingface dataset:
Title: History_of_science
Context: The Age of Enlightenment was a European affair. The 17th century "Age of Reason" opened the avenues to the decisive steps towards modern science, which took place during the 18th century "Age of Enlightenment". Directly based on the works of Newton, Descartes, Pascal and Leibniz, the way was now clear to the development of modern mathematics, physics and technology by the generation of Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790), Leonhard Euler (1707–1783), Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765) and Jean le Rond d'Alembert (1717–1783), epitomized in the appearance of Denis Diderot's Encyclopédie between 1751 and 1772. The impact of this process was not limited to science and technology, but affected philosophy (Immanuel Kant, David Hume), religion (the increasingly significant impact of science upon religion), and society and politics in general (Adam Smith, Voltaire), the French Revolution of 1789 setting a bloody cesura indicating the beginning of political modernity[citation needed]. The early modern period is seen as a flowering of the European Renaissance, in what is often known as the Scientific Revolution, viewed as a foundation of modern science.

question: The Age of Reason made way for which movement? 

answer: Age of Enlightenment

question: What event is considered to be the start of political modernity? 

answer: the French Revolution of 1789

question: What book did Denis Diderot write? 

answer: Encyclopédie
Title: History_of_science
Context: The Romantic Movement of the early 19th century reshaped science by opening up new pursuits unexpected in the classical approaches of the Enlightenment. Major breakthroughs came in biology, especially in Darwin's theory of evolution, as well as physics (electromagnetism), mathematics (non-Euclidean geometry, group theory) and chemistry (organic chemistry). The decline of Romanticism occurred because a new movement, Positivism, began to take hold of the ideals of the intellectuals after 1840 and lasted until about 1880.

question: Which movement took place during the 19th century? 

answer: The Romantic Movement

question: What theory did Darwin introduce? 

answer: theory of evolution

question: Which physics subject was affected by The Romantic Movement? 

answer: electromagnetism

question: What caused Romanticism to end? 

answer: Positivism

question: What year did Positivism end? 

answer: 1880
Title: History_of_science
Context: The scientific revolution is a convenient boundary between ancient thought and classical physics. Nicolaus Copernicus revived the heliocentric model of the solar system described by Aristarchus of Samos. This was followed by the first known model of planetary motion given by Johannes Kepler in the early 17th century, which proposed that the planets follow elliptical orbits, with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse. Galileo ("Father of Modern Physics") also made use of experiments to validate physical theories, a key element of the scientific method.

question: Which movement is considered to be a dividing line between ancient thought and classical physics? 

answer: The scientific revolution

question: Who made the heliocentric model popular? 

answer: Nicolaus Copernicus

question: Johannes Kepler created a model of what? 

answer: planetary motion

question: What did Johannes Kepler's model suggest about the planets? 

answer: the planets follow elliptical orbits

question: What was Galileo's nickname? 

answer: Father of Modern Physics
Title: History_of_science
Context: In 1687, Isaac Newton published the Principia Mathematica, detailing two comprehensive and successful physical theories: Newton's laws of motion, which led to classical mechanics; and Newton's Law of Gravitation, which describes the fundamental force of gravity. The behavior of electricity and magnetism was studied by Faraday, Ohm, and others during the early 19th century. These studies led to the unification of the two phenomena into a single theory of electromagnetism, by James Clerk Maxwell (known as Maxwell's equations).

question: What work was printed by Isaac Newton in 1687? 

answer: the Principia Mathematica

question: How many theories were included within the Principia Mathematica? 

answer: two

question: What concept did the Law of Gravitation deal with? 

answer: the fundamental force of gravity

question: What are Maxwell's equations about? 

answer: electromagnetism
Title: History_of_science
Context: The beginning of the 20th century brought the start of a revolution in physics. The long-held theories of Newton were shown not to be correct in all circumstances. Beginning in 1900, Max Planck, Albert Einstein, Niels Bohr and others developed quantum theories to explain various anomalous experimental results, by introducing discrete energy levels. Not only did quantum mechanics show that the laws of motion did not hold on small scales, but even more disturbingly, the theory of general relativity, proposed by Einstein in 1915, showed that the fixed background of spacetime, on which both Newtonian mechanics and special relativity depended, could not exist. In 1925, Werner Heisenberg and Erwin Schrödinger formulated quantum mechanics, which explained the preceding quantum theories. The observation by Edwin Hubble in 1929 that the speed at which galaxies recede positively correlates with their distance, led to the understanding that the universe is expanding, and the formulation of the Big Bang theory by Georges Lemaître.

question: What science subject explains anomalous results? 

answer: quantum theories

question: What year did Einstein discover the theory of general relativity? 

answer: 1915

question: Quantum theories became which subject in 1925? 

answer: quantum mechanics

question: Which scientist noticed the relationship between the speed and distance of galaxies? 

answer: Edwin Hubble

question: Edwin Hubble's discovery about galaxies allowed for which theory by Georges Lemaitre? 

answer: the Big Bang theory
Title: History_of_science
Context: In 1938 Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann discovered nuclear fission with radiochemical methods, and in 1939 Lise Meitner and Otto Robert Frisch wrote the first theoretical interpretation of the fission process, which was later improved by Niels Bohr and John A. Wheeler. Further developments took place during World War II, which led to the practical application of radar and the development and use of the atomic bomb. Though the process had begun with the invention of the cyclotron by Ernest O. Lawrence in the 1930s, physics in the postwar period entered into a phase of what historians have called "Big Science", requiring massive machines, budgets, and laboratories in order to test their theories and move into new frontiers. The primary patron of physics became state governments, who recognized that the support of "basic" research could often lead to technologies useful to both military and industrial applications. Currently, general relativity and quantum mechanics are inconsistent with each other, and efforts are underway to unify the two.

question: Who discovered nuclear fission? 

answer: Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann

question: Who edited the first paper about nuclear fission? 

answer: Niels Bohr and John A. Wheeler

question: What event was going on during the creation of the atomic bomb? 

answer: World War II

question: The atomic bomb was a part of which movement? 

answer: Big Science

question: What is the problem with general relativity and quantum mechanics? 

answer: inconsistent with each other
Title: History_of_science
Context: Modern chemistry emerged from the sixteenth through the eighteenth centuries through the material practices and theories promoted by alchemy, medicine, manufacturing and mining. A decisive moment came when 'chymistry' was distinguished from alchemy by Robert Boyle in his work The Sceptical Chymist, in 1661; although the alchemical tradition continued for some time after his work. Other important steps included the gravimetric experimental practices of medical chemists like William Cullen, Joseph Black, Torbern Bergman and Pierre Macquer and through the work of Antoine Lavoisier (Father of Modern Chemistry) on oxygen and the law of conservation of mass, which refuted phlogiston theory. The theory that all matter is made of atoms, which are the smallest constituents of matter that cannot be broken down without losing the basic chemical and physical properties of that matter, was provided by John Dalton in 1803, although the question took a hundred years to settle as proven. Dalton also formulated the law of mass relationships. In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev composed his periodic table of elements on the basis of Dalton's discoveries.

question: When did modern chemistry come into existence? 

answer: the sixteenth through the eighteenth centuries

question: Who decided that chemistry and alchemy were different? 

answer: Robert Boyle

question: What book was written by Robert Boyle in 1661? 

answer: The Sceptical Chymist

question: What was Antoine Lavoisier's nickname? 

answer: Father of Modern Chemistry

question: Which theory did the law of conservation of mass disagree with? 

answer: phlogiston theory
Title: History_of_science
Context: The synthesis of urea by Friedrich Wöhler opened a new research field, organic chemistry, and by the end of the 19th century, scientists were able to synthesize hundreds of organic compounds. The later part of the 19th century saw the exploitation of the Earth's petrochemicals, after the exhaustion of the oil supply from whaling. By the 20th century, systematic production of refined materials provided a ready supply of products which provided not only energy, but also synthetic materials for clothing, medicine, and everyday disposable resources. Application of the techniques of organic chemistry to living organisms resulted in physiological chemistry, the precursor to biochemistry. The 20th century also saw the integration of physics and chemistry, with chemical properties explained as the result of the electronic structure of the atom. Linus Pauling's book on The Nature of the Chemical Bond used the principles of quantum mechanics to deduce bond angles in ever-more complicated molecules. Pauling's work culminated in the physical modelling of DNA, the secret of life (in the words of Francis Crick, 1953). In the same year, the Miller–Urey experiment demonstrated in a simulation of primordial processes, that basic constituents of proteins, simple amino acids, could themselves be built up from simpler molecules.

question: What scientific act is Friedrich Wohler known for? 

answer: The synthesis of urea

question: What scientific field did Wohler discover? 

answer: organic chemistry

question: Late 19th century is marked by what event? 

answer: the exploitation of the Earth's petrochemicals

question: Mixing organic chemistry with living organisms created what early form of biochemistry? 

answer: physiological chemistry

question: Who wrote The Nature of the Chemical Bond? 

answer: Linus Pauling
Title: History_of_science
Context: Geology existed as a cloud of isolated, disconnected ideas about rocks, minerals, and landforms long before it became a coherent science. Theophrastus' work on rocks, Peri lithōn, remained authoritative for millennia: its interpretation of fossils was not overturned until after the Scientific Revolution. Chinese polymath Shen Kua (1031–1095) first formulated hypotheses for the process of land formation. Based on his observation of fossils in a geological stratum in a mountain hundreds of miles from the ocean, he deduced that the land was formed by erosion of the mountains and by deposition of silt.

question: What was the work of Theophrastus on rocks called? 

answer: Peri lithōn

question: When were Theophrastus' ideas about fossils proven false? 

answer: the Scientific Revolution

question: When did Shen Kua live? 

answer: 1031–1095

question: What science did Shen Kua observe? 

answer: land formation
Title: History_of_science
Context: Geology did not undergo systematic restructuring during the Scientific Revolution, but individual theorists made important contributions. Robert Hooke, for example, formulated a theory of earthquakes, and Nicholas Steno developed the theory of superposition and argued that fossils were the remains of once-living creatures. Beginning with Thomas Burnet's Sacred Theory of the Earth in 1681, natural philosophers began to explore the idea that the Earth had changed over time. Burnet and his contemporaries interpreted Earth's past in terms of events described in the Bible, but their work laid the intellectual foundations for secular interpretations of Earth history.

question: What happened to geology during the Scientific Revolution? 

answer: individual theorists made important contributions

question: What did Robert Hooke study? 

answer: earthquakes

question: What theory did Nicholas Steno discover? 

answer: the theory of superposition

question: What book did Thomas Burnet right in 1681? 

answer: Sacred Theory of the Earth

question: What text did Burnet base his work off of? 

answer: the Bible
Title: History_of_science
Context: Modern geology, like modern chemistry, gradually evolved during the 18th and early 19th centuries. Benoît de Maillet and the Comte de Buffon saw the Earth as much older than the 6,000 years envisioned by biblical scholars. Jean-Étienne Guettard and Nicolas Desmarest hiked central France and recorded their observations on some of the first geological maps. Aided by chemical experimentation, naturalists such as Scotland's John Walker, Sweden's Torbern Bergman, and Germany's Abraham Werner created comprehensive classification systems for rocks and minerals—a collective achievement that transformed geology into a cutting edge field by the end of the eighteenth century. These early geologists also proposed a generalized interpretations of Earth history that led James Hutton, Georges Cuvier and Alexandre Brongniart, following in the steps of Steno, to argue that layers of rock could be dated by the fossils they contained: a principle first applied to the geology of the Paris Basin. The use of index fossils became a powerful tool for making geological maps, because it allowed geologists to correlate the rocks in one locality with those of similar age in other, distant localities. Over the first half of the 19th century, geologists such as Charles Lyell, Adam Sedgwick, and Roderick Murchison applied the new technique to rocks throughout Europe and eastern North America, setting the stage for more detailed, government-funded mapping projects in later decades.

question: How old did biblical scholars think the Earth was? 

answer: 6,000 years

question: Jean-Etienne Guettard and NIcolas Desmarest went to France and recorded what? 

answer: the first geological maps

question: In the 18th century, what changed geology drastically? 

answer: comprehensive classification systems for rocks and minerals

question: What are used to create geological maps? 

answer: index fossils

question: What geological theory was applied to the Paris Basin? 

answer: layers of rock could be dated by the fossils they contained
Title: History_of_science
Context: Midway through the 19th century, the focus of geology shifted from description and classification to attempts to understand how the surface of the Earth had changed. The first comprehensive theories of mountain building were proposed during this period, as were the first modern theories of earthquakes and volcanoes. Louis Agassiz and others established the reality of continent-covering ice ages, and "fluvialists" like Andrew Crombie Ramsay argued that river valleys were formed, over millions of years by the rivers that flow through them. After the discovery of radioactivity, radiometric dating methods were developed, starting in the 20th century. Alfred Wegener's theory of "continental drift" was widely dismissed when he proposed it in the 1910s, but new data gathered in the 1950s and 1960s led to the theory of plate tectonics, which provided a plausible mechanism for it. Plate tectonics also provided a unified explanation for a wide range of seemingly unrelated geological phenomena. Since 1970 it has served as the unifying principle in geology.

question: What changed about the way geology was implemented during the 19th century? 

answer: shifted from description and classification to attempts to understand how the surface of the Earth had changed

question: The idea of an ice-age that completely covered a continent was suggested by whom? 

answer: Louis Agassiz

question: What group did Andrew Crombie Ramsay belong to? 

answer: fluvialists

question: What did Ramsay believe about river valleys? 

answer: were formed, over millions of years by the rivers that flow through them

question: What happened after radioactivity was realized? 

answer: radiometric dating methods were developed
Title: History_of_science
Context: In 1847, Hungarian physician Ignác Fülöp Semmelweis dramatically reduced the occurrency of puerperal fever by simply requiring physicians to wash their hands before attending to women in childbirth. This discovery predated the germ theory of disease. However, Semmelweis' findings were not appreciated by his contemporaries and came into use only with discoveries by British surgeon Joseph Lister, who in 1865 proved the principles of antisepsis. Lister's work was based on the important findings by French biologist Louis Pasteur. Pasteur was able to link microorganisms with disease, revolutionizing medicine. He also devised one of the most important methods in preventive medicine, when in 1880 he produced a vaccine against rabies. Pasteur invented the process of pasteurization, to help prevent the spread of disease through milk and other foods.

question: What was Ignac Fulop Semmelweis' profession? 

answer: physician

question: How did Semmelweis reduce puerperal fever? 

answer: requiring physicians to wash their hands

question: What came after the realization that physicians should was their hands before childbirth? 

answer: the germ theory of disease

question: What did Joseph Lister prove? 

answer: antisepsis

question: Who did Joseph Lister base his work off of? 

answer: Louis Pasteur
Title: History_of_science
Context: Perhaps the most prominent, controversial and far-reaching theory in all of science has been the theory of evolution by natural selection put forward by the British naturalist Charles Darwin in his book On the Origin of Species in 1859. Darwin proposed that the features of all living things, including humans, were shaped by natural processes over long periods of time. The theory of evolution in its current form affects almost all areas of biology. Implications of evolution on fields outside of pure science have led to both opposition and support from different parts of society, and profoundly influenced the popular understanding of "man's place in the universe". In the early 20th century, the study of heredity became a major investigation after the rediscovery in 1900 of the laws of inheritance developed by the Moravian monk Gregor Mendel in 1866. Mendel's laws provided the beginnings of the study of genetics, which became a major field of research for both scientific and industrial research. By 1953, James D. Watson, Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins clarified the basic structure of DNA, the genetic material for expressing life in all its forms. In the late 20th century, the possibilities of genetic engineering became practical for the first time, and a massive international effort began in 1990 to map out an entire human genome (the Human Genome Project).

question: Which scientist championed the idea of evolution? 

answer: Charles Darwin

question: What was the name of the book that Darwin wrote about evolution? 

answer: On the Origin of Species

question: What was the reception of Darwin's ideas about evolution? 

answer: both opposition and support from different parts of society

question: Who rediscovered the laws of inheritance? 

answer: Moravian monk Gregor Mendel

question: What was the major break through for the study of genetics? 

answer: the basic structure of DNA
Title: History_of_science
Context: The discipline of ecology typically traces its origin to the synthesis of Darwinian evolution and Humboldtian biogeography, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Equally important in the rise of ecology, however, were microbiology and soil science—particularly the cycle of life concept, prominent in the work Louis Pasteur and Ferdinand Cohn. The word ecology was coined by Ernst Haeckel, whose particularly holistic view of nature in general (and Darwin's theory in particular) was important in the spread of ecological thinking. In the 1930s, Arthur Tansley and others began developing the field of ecosystem ecology, which combined experimental soil science with physiological concepts of energy and the techniques of field biology. The history of ecology in the 20th century is closely tied to that of environmentalism; the Gaia hypothesis, first formulated in the 1960s, and spreading in the 1970s, and more recently the scientific-religious movement of Deep Ecology have brought the two closer together.

question: The discipline of ecology is a combination of what two subjects? 

answer: Darwinian evolution and Humboldtian biogeography

question: What did the work of Louis Pasteur and Ferdinand Cohn focus on? 

answer: the cycle of life concept

question: Who came up with the word "ecology"? 

answer: Ernst Haeckel

question: When was the Gaia hypothesis discovered? 

answer: in the 1960s

question: What movement occurred during the 1970s? 

answer: Deep Ecology
Title: History_of_science
Context: Political science is a late arrival in terms of social sciences[citation needed]. However, the discipline has a clear set of antecedents such as moral philosophy, political philosophy, political economy, history, and other fields concerned with normative determinations of what ought to be and with deducing the characteristics and functions of the ideal form of government. The roots of politics are in prehistory. In each historic period and in almost every geographic area, we can find someone studying politics and increasing political understanding.

question: What larger group does political science belong to? 

answer: social sciences

question: Where did the ideas of political science begin? 

answer: prehistory

question: In history, where could you find someone studying politics? 

answer: in almost every geographic area
Title: History_of_science
Context: In Western culture, the study of politics is first found in Ancient Greece. The antecedents of European politics trace their roots back even earlier than Plato and Aristotle, particularly in the works of Homer, Hesiod, Thucydides, Xenophon, and Euripides. Later, Plato analyzed political systems, abstracted their analysis from more literary- and history- oriented studies and applied an approach we would understand as closer to philosophy. Similarly, Aristotle built upon Plato's analysis to include historical empirical evidence in his analysis.

question: Where did studying politics originate? 

answer: Ancient Greece

question: What did Plato study? 

answer: political systems

question: What method did Plato use to understand political systems? 

answer: philosophy

question: What did Aristotle add to Plato's work? 

answer: historical empirical evidence