praj-17/QA-MCQ-Open-ended huggingface dataset:
Title: Time
Context: Two contrasting viewpoints on time divide many prominent philosophers. One view is that time is part of the fundamental structure of the universe—a dimension independent of events, in which events occur in sequence. Sir Isaac Newton subscribed to this realist view, and hence it is sometimes referred to as Newtonian time. The opposing view is that time does not refer to any kind of "container" that events and objects "move through", nor to any entity that "flows", but that it is instead part of a fundamental intellectual structure (together with space and number) within which humans sequence and compare events. This second view, in the tradition of Gottfried Leibniz and Immanuel Kant, holds that time is neither an event nor a thing, and thus is not itself measurable nor can it be travelled.

question: According to one of the main viewpoints of time, time is part of the fundamental structure of what? 

answer: the universe

question: The realist view of time is sometimes referred to as what? 

answer: Newtonian time

question: What does the opposing view of time believe time is a part of? 

answer: a fundamental intellectual structure
Title: Time
Context: Time is one of the seven fundamental physical quantities in both the International System of Units and International System of Quantities. Time is used to define other quantities—such as velocity—so defining time in terms of such quantities would result in circularity of definition. An operational definition of time, wherein one says that observing a certain number of repetitions of one or another standard cyclical event (such as the passage of a free-swinging pendulum) constitutes one standard unit such as the second, is highly useful in the conduct of both advanced experiments and everyday affairs of life. The operational definition leaves aside the question whether there is something called time, apart from the counting activity just mentioned, that flows and that can be measured. Investigations of a single continuum called spacetime bring questions about space into questions about time, questions that have their roots in the works of early students of natural philosophy.

question: Time is one of how many fundamental physical quantities? 

answer: seven

question: Time is one of the fundamental physical quantities in which two systems? 

answer: the International System of Units and International System of Quantities

question: What is an example of a quantity that time is used to define, mentioned in the paragraph? 

answer: velocity

question: Investigations of what brought questions of space into questions about time? 

answer: a single continuum called spacetime
Title: Time
Context: Temporal measurement has occupied scientists and technologists, and was a prime motivation in navigation and astronomy. Periodic events and periodic motion have long served as standards for units of time. Examples include the apparent motion of the sun across the sky, the phases of the moon, the swing of a pendulum, and the beat of a heart. Currently, the international unit of time, the second, is defined by measuring the electronic transition frequency of caesium atoms (see below). Time is also of significant social importance, having economic value ("time is money") as well as personal value, due to an awareness of the limited time in each day and in human life spans.

question: What has been a prime motivation in astronomy and navigation? 

answer: Temporal measurement

question: Periodic events and periodic motion have served as standards for what? 

answer: Periodic events and periodic motion

question: What is the current international unit of time? 

answer: the second

question: The electronic transition frequency of which element defines the second? 

answer: caesium atoms

question: Time has personal value due to awareness of it's limited nature in what? 

answer: each day and in human life spans
Title: Time
Context: Temporal measurement, chronometry, takes two distinct period forms: the calendar, a mathematical tool for organizing intervals of time, and the clock, a physical mechanism that counts the passage of time. In day-to-day life, the clock is consulted for periods less than a day whereas the calendar is consulted for periods longer than a day. Increasingly, personal electronic devices display both calendars and clocks simultaneously. The number (as on a clock dial or calendar) that marks the occurrence of a specified event as to hour or date is obtained by counting from a fiducial epoch—a central reference point.

question: What is a mathematical tool used for organizing intervals of time? 

answer: the calendar

question: What is a physical tool that tracks the passage of time? 

answer: the clock

question: Which tool is used in day to day life? 

answer: the clock

question: Which tool is used in periods longer than a day? 

answer: the calendar

question: How is the number that marks the occurrence of an event obtained? 

answer: by counting from a fiducial epoch—a central reference point
Title: Time
Context: Artifacts from the Paleolithic suggest that the moon was used to reckon time as early as 6,000 years ago. Lunar calendars were among the first to appear, either 12 or 13 lunar months (either 354 or 384 days). Without intercalation to add days or months to some years, seasons quickly drift in a calendar based solely on twelve lunar months. Lunisolar calendars have a thirteenth month added to some years to make up for the difference between a full year (now known to be about 365.24 days) and a year of just twelve lunar months. The numbers twelve and thirteen came to feature prominently in many cultures, at least partly due to this relationship of months to years. Other early forms of calendars originated in Mesoamerica, particularly in ancient Mayan civilization. These calendars were religiously and astronomically based, with 18 months in a year and 20 days in a month.

question: Artifacts from which era suggest that the moon was used to reckon time around 6,000 years ago? 

answer: the Paleolithic

question: Which calendars were among the first to appear? 

answer: Lunar calendars

question: How long were the original lunar calendars? 

answer: either 12 or 13 lunar months (either 354 or 384 days)

question: Where did some of the other early forms of calendars originate? 

answer: Mesoamerica

question: How many months were in a year in the original Mayan calendars? 

answer: 18
Title: Time
Context: The most precise timekeeping device of the ancient world was the water clock, or clepsydra, one of which was found in the tomb of Egyptian pharaoh Amenhotep I (1525–1504 BC). They could be used to measure the hours even at night, but required manual upkeep to replenish the flow of water. The Ancient Greeks and the people from Chaldea (southeastern Mesopotamia) regularly maintained timekeeping records as an essential part of their astronomical observations. Arab inventors and engineers in particular made improvements on the use of water clocks up to the Middle Ages. In the 11th century, Chinese inventors and engineers invented the first mechanical clocks driven by an escapement mechanism.

question: What was the most accurate clock-like device in the ancient world? 

answer: the water clock, or clepsydra

question: A clepsyrda was found in the tomb of which Pharaoh? 

answer: Egyptian pharaoh Amenhotep

question: Which inventors made significant improvements on the water clock up until the Middle Ages? 

answer: Arab inventors

question: Which engineers came up with the first mechanical clocks? 

answer: Chinese

question: When were the first mechanical clocks created? 

answer: the 11th century
Title: Time
Context: The hourglass uses the flow of sand to measure the flow of time. They were used in navigation. Ferdinand Magellan used 18 glasses on each ship for his circumnavigation of the globe (1522). Incense sticks and candles were, and are, commonly used to measure time in temples and churches across the globe. Waterclocks, and later, mechanical clocks, were used to mark the events of the abbeys and monasteries of the Middle Ages. Richard of Wallingford (1292–1336), abbot of St. Alban's abbey, famously built a mechanical clock as an astronomical orrery about 1330. Great advances in accurate time-keeping were made by Galileo Galilei and especially Christiaan Huygens with the invention of pendulum driven clocks along with the invention of the minute hand by Jost Burgi.

question: Which device uses the flow of sand to measure time? 

answer: The hourglass

question: How many hourglasses did Magellan use on each ship during his famous voyage across the globe? 

answer: 18

question: What method did temples and churches use to measure time? 

answer: Incense sticks and candles

question: Which abbot of St. Alban's abbey built a mechanical clock around 1330? 

answer: Richard of Wallingford

question: Who is credited with the invention of the minute hand? 

answer: Jost Burgi.
Title: Time
Context: The most accurate timekeeping devices are atomic clocks, which are accurate to seconds in many millions of years, and are used to calibrate other clocks and timekeeping instruments. Atomic clocks use the frequency of electronic transitions in certain atoms to measure the second. One of the most common atoms used is caesium, most modern atomic clocks probe caesium with microwaves to determine the frequency of these electron vibrations. Since 1967, the International System of Measurements bases its unit of time, the second, on the properties of caesium atoms. SI defines the second as 9,192,631,770 cycles of the radiation that corresponds to the transition between two electron spin energy levels of the ground state of the 133Cs atom.

question: Which timekeeping devices are the most accurate? 

answer: atomic clocks

question: What method do atomic clocks use to measure seconds? 

answer: the frequency of electronic transitions in certain atoms

question: Which system bases its unit of time on the properties of caesium? 

answer: the International System of Measurements

question: How long has the International System of Measurements based the second on caesium? 

answer: Since 1967
Title: Time
Context: Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) is an older standard, adopted starting with British railways in 1847. Using telescopes instead of atomic clocks, GMT was calibrated to the mean solar time at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich in the UK. Universal Time (UT) is the modern term for the international telescope-based system, adopted to replace "Greenwich Mean Time" in 1928 by the International Astronomical Union. Observations at the Greenwich Observatory itself ceased in 1954, though the location is still used as the basis for the coordinate system. Because the rotational period of Earth is not perfectly constant, the duration of a second would vary if calibrated to a telescope-based standard like GMT or UT—in which a second was defined as a fraction of a day or year. The terms "GMT" and "Greenwich Mean Time" are sometimes used informally to refer to UT or UTC.

question: Which standard of time started with British Railways? 

answer: Greenwich Mean Time

question: When was GMT adopted by British Railways? 

answer: 1847

question: GMT used what instead of atomic clocks? 

answer: telescopes

question: When did observations at the Greenwich Observatory cease? 

answer: 1954

question: The terms GMT and Greenwich Mean Time are also used informally to refer to what? 

answer: UT or UTC
Title: Time
Context: Two distinct viewpoints on time divide many prominent philosophers. One view is that time is part of the fundamental structure of the universe, a dimension in which events occur in sequence. Sir Isaac Newton subscribed to this realist view, and hence it is sometimes referred to as Newtonian time. An opposing view is that time does not refer to any kind of actually existing dimension that events and objects "move through", nor to any entity that "flows", but that it is instead an intellectual concept (together with space and number) that enables humans to sequence and compare events. This second view, in the tradition of Gottfried Leibniz and Immanuel Kant, holds that space and time "do not exist in and of themselves, but ... are the product of the way we represent things", because we can know objects only as they appear to us.

question: How many main viewpoints divide many philosophers? 

answer: Two

question: The realist view states that time is part of the fundamental structure of what? 

answer: the universe

question: The realist view is sometimes referred to as what? 

answer: Newtonian time

question: The opposing view states that time is an intellectual concept that allows people to what? 

answer: to sequence and compare events
Title: Time
Context: The Vedas, the earliest texts on Indian philosophy and Hindu philosophy dating back to the late 2nd millennium BC, describe ancient Hindu cosmology, in which the universe goes through repeated cycles of creation, destruction and rebirth, with each cycle lasting 4,320 million years. Ancient Greek philosophers, including Parmenides and Heraclitus, wrote essays on the nature of time. Plato, in the Timaeus, identified time with the period of motion of the heavenly bodies. Aristotle, in Book IV of his Physica defined time as 'number of movement in respect of the before and after'.

question: What are the earliest texts of Indian/Hindu philosophy? 

answer: The Vedas

question: How long ago are the earliest texts of Indian/Hindu philosophy dated? 

answer: back to the late 2nd millennium BC

question: How long does each cycle of birth and destruction of the universe last according to Ancient Hindu texts? 

answer: 4,320 million years

question: Which ancient Greek philosophers wrote essays on the concept of time? 

answer: Parmenides and Heraclitus

question: Aristotle defined time as "number of movement in respect of the before and after" in which book? 

answer: Book IV of his Physica
Title: Time
Context: In Book 11 of his Confessions, St. Augustine of Hippo ruminates on the nature of time, asking, "What then is time? If no one asks me, I know: if I wish to explain it to one that asketh, I know not." He begins to define time by what it is not rather than what it is, an approach similar to that taken in other negative definitions. However, Augustine ends up calling time a “distention” of the mind (Confessions 11.26) by which we simultaneously grasp the past in memory, the present by attention, and the future by expectation.

question: Who commented on the nature of time in Book 11 of his confessions? 

answer: St. Augustine of Hippo

question: By what does St. Augustine of Hippo begin to define time? 

answer: by what it is not rather than what it is

question: What does Augustine call time in Confessions 11.26? 

answer: a “distention” of the mind
Title: Time
Context: Immanuel Kant, in the Critique of Pure Reason, described time as an a priori intuition that allows us (together with the other a priori intuition, space) to comprehend sense experience. With Kant, neither space nor time are conceived as substances, but rather both are elements of a systematic mental framework that necessarily structures the experiences of any rational agent, or observing subject. Kant thought of time as a fundamental part of an abstract conceptual framework, together with space and number, within which we sequence events, quantify their duration, and compare the motions of objects. In this view, time does not refer to any kind of entity that "flows," that objects "move through," or that is a "container" for events. Spatial measurements are used to quantify the extent of and distances between objects, and temporal measurements are used to quantify the durations of and between events. Time was designated by Kant as the purest possible schema of a pure concept or category.

question: In what did Immanuel Kant describe time as a priori intuition that allows humankind to understand sense experience? 

answer: the Critique of Pure Reason

question: What did Kant portray space and time to be? 

answer: both are elements of a systematic mental framework

question: Kant thought of time as a fundamental part of what? 

answer: an abstract conceptual framework

question: What type of measurements are used to quantify the duration of events? 

answer: temporal measurements

question: What type of measurements are used to quantify the distances between objects? 

answer: Spatial measurements
Title: Time
Context: According to Martin Heidegger we do not exist inside time, we are time. Hence, the relationship to the past is a present awareness of having been, which allows the past to exist in the present. The relationship to the future is the state of anticipating a potential possibility, task, or engagement. It is related to the human propensity for caring and being concerned, which causes "being ahead of oneself" when thinking of a pending occurrence. Therefore, this concern for a potential occurrence also allows the future to exist in the present. The present becomes an experience, which is qualitative instead of quantitative. Heidegger seems to think this is the way that a linear relationship with time, or temporal existence, is broken or transcended. We are not stuck in sequential time. We are able to remember the past and project into the future—we have a kind of random access to our representation of temporal existence; we can, in our thoughts, step out of (ecstasis) sequential time.

question: Who suggested that humankind does not exist inside time, but is time? 

answer: Martin Heidegger

question: The relationship to the future is the state of anticipating what? 

answer: a potential possibility, task, or engagement

question: What is considered a qualitative experience rather than a quantitative one? 

answer: The present

question: According to Heidegger, what can we do, in our thoughts? 

answer: step out of (ecstasis) sequential time.
Title: Time
Context: The theory of special relativity finds a convenient formulation in Minkowski spacetime, a mathematical structure that combines three dimensions of space with a single dimension of time. In this formalism, distances in space can be measured by how long light takes to travel that distance, e.g., a light-year is a measure of distance, and a meter is now defined in terms of how far light travels in a certain amount of time. Two events in Minkowski spacetime are separated by an invariant interval, which can be either space-like, light-like, or time-like. Events that have a time-like separation cannot be simultaneous in any frame of reference, there must be a temporal component (and possibly a spatial one) to their separation. Events that have a space-like separation will be simultaneous in some frame of reference, and there is no frame of reference in which they do not have a spatial separation. Different observers may calculate different distances and different time intervals between two events, but the invariant interval between the events is independent of the observer (and his velocity).

question: Minkowski spacetime combines the three dimensions of space with what? 

answer: a single dimension of time

question: In Minkowski spacetime, how can distances in space be measured? 

answer: by how long light takes to travel that distance

question: What are two events in Minkowski spacetime separated by? 

answer: by an invariant interval

question: The invariant interval between events is independent of what? 

answer: of the observer (and his velocity)

question: The invariant interval that separates two events in Minkowski spacetime can either be what? 

answer: space-like, light-like, or time-like
Title: Time
Context: In non-relativistic classical mechanics, Newton's concept of "relative, apparent, and common time" can be used in the formulation of a prescription for the synchronization of clocks. Events seen by two different observers in motion relative to each other produce a mathematical concept of time that works sufficiently well for describing the everyday phenomena of most people's experience. In the late nineteenth century, physicists encountered problems with the classical understanding of time, in connection with the behavior of electricity and magnetism. Einstein resolved these problems by invoking a method of synchronizing clocks using the constant, finite speed of light as the maximum signal velocity. This led directly to the result that observers in motion relative to one another measure different elapsed times for the same event.

question: What Newtonian concept can be used in the formulation of an idea for the synchronization of clocks? 

answer: concept of "relative, apparent, and common time"

question: In which century did physicists encounter problems with the understanding of time? 

answer: the late nineteenth century

question: The behavior of which two phenomena caused physicists to encounter problems with their understanding of time in the late 19th century? 

answer: the behavior of electricity and magnetism

question: Which famous scientist resolved these issues? 

answer: Einstein
Title: Time
Context: Time has historically been closely related with space, the two together merging into spacetime in Einstein's special relativity and general relativity. According to these theories, the concept of time depends on the spatial reference frame of the observer, and the human perception as well as the measurement by instruments such as clocks are different for observers in relative motion. For example, if a spaceship carrying a clock flies through space at (very nearly) the speed of light, its crew does not notice a change in the speed of time on board their vessel because everything traveling at the same speed slows down at the same rate (including the clock, the crew's thought processes, and the functions of their bodies). However, to a stationary observer watching the spaceship fly by, the spaceship appears flattened in the direction it is traveling and the clock on board the spaceship appears to move very slowly.

question: Historically, time has been closely related with what? 

answer: space

question: In which of Einstein's two theories do time and space merge into spacetime? 

answer: special relativity and general relativity

question: According to Einsteins two relativity theories, the concept of time depends on what? 

answer: the spatial reference frame of the observer, and the human perception

question: A crew in a spaceship travelling nearly the speed of light will not notice the change in what? 

answer: in the speed of time on board their vessel

question: How will the above mentioned spaceship appear to a stationary observer? 

answer: the spaceship appears flattened in the direction it is traveling
Title: Time
Context: On the other hand, the crew on board the spaceship also perceives the observer as slowed down and flattened along the spaceship's direction of travel, because both are moving at very nearly the speed of light relative to each other. Because the outside universe appears flattened to the spaceship, the crew perceives themselves as quickly traveling between regions of space that (to the stationary observer) are many light years apart. This is reconciled by the fact that the crew's perception of time is different from the stationary observer's; what seems like seconds to the crew might be hundreds of years to the stationary observer. In either case, however, causality remains unchanged: the past is the set of events that can send light signals to an entity and the future is the set of events to which an entity can send light signals.

question: How does the crew on board the spaceship perceive the stationary observer? 

answer: slowed down and flattened along the spaceship's direction of travel

question: The crew's perception of what is different from a stationary observer? 

answer: time

question: What the crew perceives as seconds might be seen as how long to a stationary observer? 

answer: hundreds of years

question: What remains unchanged in both the cases of the spaceship crew and of the stationary observer? 

answer: causality