pnugues/EB7 huggingface dataset:
CLARIFICATION, the act of cleaning or purifying any fluid from heterogeneous matter or feculencies.

The substances usually employed for clarifying liquor are the albumen of eggs, blood, and isinglass. The first two are used for such liquors as are clarified whilst boiling hot; the last for those which are clarified in the cold state, such as wines, and the like. The whites of eggs are beaten up into a froth, and mixed with the liquor, when they unite with and entangle the impure matters that float in it; and presently growing hard by the heat, carry these impurities up to the surface in the form of a scum, no longer dissoluble in the liquid. Blood operates in the same manner, and is chiefly used in purifying the brine from which salt is made. Great quantities of isinglass are consumed for fining turbid wines. For this purpose some throw an entire piece, about a quarter of an ounce, into a wine cask; by degrees the glue dissolves, and forms a skin upon the surface, which at length subsiding, carries down with it the feculent matter which floated in the wine. Others previously dissolve the isinglass, and having boiled it down to a slimy consistence, mix it with the liquor, roll the cask strongly about, and then suffer it to stand to settle. Neumann questions the wholesomeness of wines thus purified, and assures us that he himself, after drinking only a few ounces of sack thus clarified, but not settled quite fine, was seized with sickness and vomiting, followed by such a vertigo, that he could not stand upright for a minute together. The giddiness continued, with nausea and want of appetite, for several days.
CLARIGATIO, in Roman antiquity, a ceremony which always preceded a formal declaration of war. It was performed in this manner: Four heralds crowned with vervain were sent to demand satisfaction for the injuries which had been done the Roman state. These heralds having taken the gods to witness that their demands were just, one of them, with a clear voice, demanded restitution within a limited time, commonly thirty-three days; and if this [7:6:728]period expired without restitution being made, then the pater patratus, or prince of the heralds, proceeded to the enemy’s frontiers, and declared war.
CLARION, a kind of trumpet, the tube of which is narrower, and the tone acuter and shriller, than that of the common trumpet. It is said that the clarion now used among the Moors, and the Portuguese who borrowed it from the Moors, served anciently for a treble to several < trumpets, which sounded tenor and bass.
CLARISSES, an order of nuns so called from their: founder St Clara or St Clare. She was born in the town of As^isa in Italy; and having renounced the world to dedicate herself to religion, gave birth to this order in the year 1212; which comprehends not only those nuns who follow the rule of St Francis, according to the strict let-: ter, and without any mitigation, but likewise those who observe the same rule softened and mitigated by several popes. After Ferdinand Cortez had conquered Mexicofor the king of Spain, Isabella of Portugal, wife of the emperor Charles V. sent thither some nuns of the order of St Clara, w ho made several settlements there. Near their monasteries were founded communities of Indian young women, to be instructed by the clarisses in religion, and in such works as were suitable to persons of their sex. These communities were so considerable that they usually consisted of four or five hundred.
CLASMIUM, an old term in Natural History, applied to some fossils, of the class of gypsums, the characters of which are, that they are of a soft texture, and of a dull opaque look, being composed, as are all the other gypsums, of irregularly arranged flat particles. The word is derived from the Greek ×kα<sμοζ, a fragrant or small particle; from the flaky small particles of which these bodies are composed. Of this genus there is only one known species. This is of a tolerably regular and even structure; though very coarse and harsh to the touch. It is of a very lively and beautiful red colour; and is found in thick roundish masses, which, when broken, are to be seen composed of irregular arrangements of flat particles, and emulate a striated texture. It will neither give fire with steel nor ferment with acids; but calcines very freely and easily, and affords a very valuable plaster of Paris, as do all the purer gypsums. It is common in Italy, and is greatly esteemed there; it is also found in some parts of England, particularly Derbyshire; but there it is not much regarded.
CLASS, an appellation given to the most general subdivisions of any thing. Thus, animal is subdivided into the classes of quadrupeds, birds, fishes, and so forth, which are again subdivided into serieses or orders; and these last into genera. See Animal Kingdom and Botany.
CLASSIC, or Classical, an epithet applied chiefly to authors read in the classes at schools. This term seems to owe its origin to Tullius Servius, who, in order to make an estimate of every person’s estate, divided the Roman people into six portions, which he called classes. The estate of the first class was not to be under L.200, and these by way of eminence were called classici, classics; hence authors of the first rank came to be called classics, while all the rest were said to be infra classem. Thus Aristotle is a classic author in philosophy, and Aquinas in school divinity.
CLASSICUM was the alarm for battle, given by the Roman generals, and sounded by trumpets and other martial music throughout the army.
CLATHRI, in Antiquity, bars of wood or iron, used in securing doors and windows. There was a goddess called Clathra, who presided over the clathri.
CLAVARIUM, in Antiquity, an allowance made to the Roman soldiers for nails to secure their shoes withal. In later times they raised frequent mutinies, demanding largesses of the emperors under this pretence.
CLAUBERG, John, born at Salingen, in the duchy of Berg, in 1622, professed philosophy and theology, first at Herborn, and afterwards at Duisburg, where he died on the 3lst January 1665. He was one of the first who taught in Germany the doctrine of Descartes, which he had studied under John Ray at Leyden. His philosophical works ( Opera Omnia Philosophica), collected at Amsterdam by John Theodore Schalbrucb, in two volumes 4to, with a life of the author prefixed, by John Christian Hennius, show how well he was qualified to appreciate the merits of the French philosopher, and to follow in his footsteps. The most esteemed of Clauberg’s works is his Logica Vetus et Nova ; but he has not admitted in this collection a little work, entitled Ars Etymologica Teutonum e Philosophice foiitibus derivata, published by him at Duisburg in 1663, in 8vo, and which Morhof has highly commended in his Polyhistor, and Leibnitz included in his Collectanea Etymologica. This brochure was intended as the prelude to a large work, De Causis Linguce Germanicce, which, however, the projector did not find leisure or encouragement to execute. In a separate form we have collected .7. Clau-bergii et Martini Hundii Dissertationes selectoe, quibus controversae fidci adversus omnis generis adversarios explicantur, and J. Claubergii et Tobice Andrece Exercitationes et Epistolce varii argumenti.
CLAUDE, St, an arrondissement in the department of Jura, in France, extending over 398 square miles, and comprehending five cantons and 114 communes, with 48,667 inhabitants. The chief place, a city of the same name, is situated at the conflux of the rivers Ison and Bienne, in a plain inclosed by three mountains. It contains 3579 inhabitants, who are industrious in the making of various kinds of wood ware, and of domestic utensils of the several metals. There are some marble quarries near it. Long. 5. 50. E. Lat. 46. 20. N.
CLAUDIA, a vestal virgin at Rome, who having been suspected of unchastity, is said to have been cleared of that imputation in the following manner: The image of Cybele being brought out of Phrygia to Rome in a barge, and happening to stick so fast in the river Tiber, that it could not be moved, Claudia tied her girdle, the badge of chastity, to the barge, and drew it along to the city, which a thousand men were unable to do.

Claudia Aqua, water conveyed to Rome by a canal or aqueduct eleven miles in length, the contrivance of Appius Claudius the censor, and the first structure of the kind, in the year of Rome 441. Called also Aqua Appia. Claudia or Clodia Via, was that road which, beginning at the Pons Milvius, joined the Flaminia, passing through Etruria on the south side of the Lacus Sabatinus, and striking off from the Cassia, and leading to Luca.
CLAUDIANUS, Claudius, a Latin poet, who flourished in the fourth century, under the emperor Theodosius, and under his sons Arcadius and Honorius. It is not agreed of what country he was a native; but he came to Rome in the year of Christ 395, when he was about twenty years old, and there insinuated himself into the favour of Stilicho, who being a person of .great abilities both for civil and military affairs, though a Goth by birth, possessed so much influence under Honorius, that he may be said for many years to have governed the western empire. Stilicho afterwards fell into disgrace, and was put to death; and it is more than probable that the poet was involved in the misfortunes of his patron, and severely persecuted in his person and fortunes by Hadrian, an Egyptian by birth, who was captain of the guards to Honorius, and succeeded Stilicho. There is reason, however, to V think that he rose afterwards to great favour, and obtained several honours both civil and military. The Princess Serena having a great esteem for Claudian, recommended and married him to a lady of high quality and fortune in Libya. There are a few little poems on sacred subjects, which through mistake have been ascribed by some critics to Claudian, and so have made him be thought a Christian; but St Austin, who was contemporary with him, expressly says that he was a heathen. The time of Claudian’s death is uncertain, nor do we know any further particulars of∙his life than are to be collected from his works, and these we have related above. He is thought to have more of Virgil in his style than all the other imitators of the Mantuan. The best editions of Claudian are that of 1765, cum notis variorum, in 8vo; the Delphin edition of 1677, in 4to; that of Gesner, published at Leipsic in 1759, in two vols. 8vo; and that of Burman, published at Amsterdam in 1760, in 4to.
CLAVES Insulae, a term used in the Isle of Man, where all weighty and ambiguous causes are referred to a jury of twelve, who are called claves insulae, the keys of the island.
CLAVICHORD, and Clavicthľrium, two musical instruments used in the sixteenth century. They were of the nature of the spinet, but of an oblong figure. The first is still used by the nuns in convents; and that the practitioners may not disturb the sisters in the dormitory, the strings are muffled with small bits of fine woollen cloth.
CLAVICYMBALUM, in Antiquity, a musical instrument of thirty strings. Modern writers apply the name to our harpsichords.
CLAVI Vestium were flowers or studs of purple, interwoven with or sewed upon the garments of knights or senators; but, for distinction, the former used them narrow, and the latter broad.
CLAVIS properly signifies a key, and is sometimes used in English to denote an explanation of some obscure passages of any book in writing.
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CLAVIUS, Christopher, a German Jesuit, born at Bamberg, who excelled in the knowledge of the mathematics, and was one of the chief persons employed to rectify the calendar, the defence of which he also undertook against those who censured it, especially Sealiger. He died at Rome in 1612, aged seventy-five. His works have been printed in five volumes folio, the principal of which is his Commentary on Euclid’s Elements.
CLAUSE, in Grammar, denotes a member of a period or sentence.

Clause signifies also an article or particular stipulation in a contract, a charge or condition in a testament, &c.
CLAUSENBURG, a city of the Austrian province of Siebenbergen, the capital of the circle of Kolos, as well as of the province. It stands on the river Szamos, and is surrounded with walls. It is divided into the old and new city, and contains five Catholic and two Reformed churches, one Lutheran, and one Unitarian, with 1800 houses, and 20,000 inhabitants. It is the residence of the governor, and the place for the assembling of the states, as well as the consistories of the Reformed and Unitarian religions. There is a Catholic lyceum, which confers degrees in law, physic, and philosophy, with sixteen professors and about 250 students. There is also a college for the Reformed, with six professors and 630 students; and another for the Unitarians, with four professors, six tutors, and 300 students. There are some manufactories of cloth and porcelain, and several printing and bookselling establishments. Long. 23. 29. 23. E. Lat. 46. 44. 8. N.
CLAUSTHAL, a city in the province Grubenhagen, in the kingdom of Hanover. It is situated in the centre of the Hartz forest, 1710 feet above the level of the sea; is well built, but chiefly ’ of wood; and contains 7192 inhabitants, who subsist by labour in the mines of lead and silver in the vicinity of the place, and by spinning, lace-making, and forming various common articles of metal. The country around it is highly picturesque, and the roads recently made are good.
CLAVUS, in Antiquity, an ornament upon the robes of the Roman senators and knights, which was more or less broad, according to the dignity of the person; hence the distinction of tunica angusti-clavia and lali-clavia.

Clavus Annalis, in Antiquity. So rude and ignorant were the Romans at the rise of their state, that the driving or fixing a nail was the only method they had of keeping a register of time; for which reason it was called clavus annalis. There was an ancient law, ordaining the chief praetor to fix a nail every' year on the ides of September; it was driven into the right side of the temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, towards Minerva’s temple. This custom of keeping an account of time by means of fixing nails was not peculiar to the Romans; for, with the same view, the Etrurians used likewise to drive nails into the temple of their goddess Nortia.
CLAYTON, Robert, D. D., a prelate distinguished for learning, worth, and probity, and a respectable member of the Royal and Antiquarian Societies of London, was advanced to the bishopric of Killala in January 1729; translated to the see of Cork in December 1735; to that of Clogher in August 1745; and died, much lamented, in February 1758. His publications are, 1. A Letter in the Philosophical Transactions, No. 461, p. 813, giving an account of a Frenchman seventy years old (at Inishanan, in his diocese of Cork), who said he gave suck to a child; 2. The Chronology of the Hebrew Bible vindicated, 1751, 4to; 3. An impartial Inquiry into the time of the coming of the Messiah, 1751, 8vo; 4. An Essay on Spirit, 1751, 8vo; 5. A Vindication of the Histories of the Old and New Testament, in answer to the Objections of Lord Bolingbroke, in two Letters to a young Nobleman, 1752,

8vo, reprinted in 1753; 6. A Defence of the Essay on Spirit, with Remarks on the several pretended Answers; and which may serve as an antidote against all that shall ever appear against it, 1753, 8vo; 7. A Journal from Grand Cairo to Mount Sinai, and back again, translated from a manuscript, written by the prefetto of Egypt, in company with some Missionaries de propaganda fide at Grand Cairo; to which are added, Remarks on the Origin of Hieroglyphics, and the Mythology of the ancient Heathens, 1753, 8vo, two editions, 4to and 8vo; 8. Some Thoughts on Self-love, Innate Ideas, Free-will, Taste, Sentiments, Liberty, and Necessity, occasioned by reading Mr Hume’s Works, and the short Treatise written in French by Lord Bolingbroke on Compassion, 1754, 8vo; 9. A Vindication of the Histories of the Old and New Testament, Part IL, adorned with several Explanatory Cuts, 1754, 8vo; 10. Letters between the Bishop of Clogherand Mr William Penn, concerning Baptism, 1755, 8vo; 11. A speech delivered in the House of Lords in Ireland, on Monday, 2d February 1756, for omitting the Nicene and Athanasian Creeds out of the Liturgy, 1756,8vo; 12. A Vindication, Part III. 1758, 8vo. The three parts of the Essay on Spirit were reprinted by Mr Bowyer, in one volume 8vo, 1759; with some additional notes, and an index of Texts of Scripture illustrated or explained.
CLEANTHES, a Stoic philosopher, and disciple of Zeno, flourished 240 years before Christ. He maintained himself in the day by working in the night; for, being questioned by the magistrates how he subsisted, he brought a woman for whom he kneaded bread, and a gardener for whom he drew water, and refused a present from them. He composed several works, of which there are now only a few fragments remaining.
CLEARCHUS, a tyrant of Heraclea in Pontus, who was killed by Chion and Leonidas, Plato’s pupils, during the celebration of the festivals of Bacchus. He had enjoyed the sovereign power during twelve years. Clearcbus was also the name of a Lacedaemonian who was sent to quiet the Byzantines, and being recalled, refused to obey, and fled to Cyrus the Younger, who made him captain of 13,000 Greek soldiers. He obtained a victory over Artaxerxes, who was so enraged at the defeat, that when Clearchus fell into his hands by the treachery of Tissaphernes, the king immediately put him to death.
CLEATS, in naval affairs, pieces of wood having one or two projecting ends by which to fasten the ropes. Some of them are fastened to the shrouds below for this purpose, and others nailed to different parts of the ship’s deck or sides.
CLECHE, in Heraldry, a kind of cross, charged with another cross of the same figure, but of the colour of the field.
CLEDGE, among miners, denotes the upper stratum of fullers’ earth.
CLEDONISM, Cledonismus, a kind of divination, in use among the ancients. The word is formed from κλ)jow>, which signifies two things, rumor, a report, and avis, a bird. In the first sense, cledonism should denote a kind of divination drawn from words occasionally uttered. Cicero observes, that the Pythagoreans observed not only the words of the gods, but those of men; and accordingly believed the pronouncing of certain words, for instance incendium, at a meal, very unlucky. Thus, instead of prison, they used the word domicilium ; and to avoid erinnys, furies, they said eumenides. In the second sense, cledοnisrn should indicate a divination drawn from birds, and mean the same thing with ornithomantia.
CLEEVES, a circle in the Prussian province of Westphalia, containing the ancient sovereign principality of that name. It is bounded on the north by the Netherlands, on [7:6:735]the east by the Rhine and the Rees, on the south-east by Rheinburg, on the south by Guelders, and on the west by the Netherlands. It is 199 square miles, or 126,720 English acres, in extent, and comprehends seven cities or towns, and forty-four villages, with 36,452 inhabitants. The Rhine flows on one side, and the Nierse through the south-west part, of the circle. The country is a level plain, in some parts sandy, but as a whole fruitful, especially in green crops, and it yields a large quantity of clover seed. The dairy is one of the chief agricultural pursuits, and the best of butter is produced, while many cattle are fattened in the natural meadows. There are, however, some spots of little value, being either covered with heath or with stunted woods. Tobacco is grown in some parts, and the fishery on the Rhine affords employment to many of the inhabitants.

Cleeves, a city, the capital of the Prussian circle of that name. It is about two miles from the Rhine, which is connected with it by a canal. It is fortified, and contains a royal palace and pleasure grounds. The houses are built in the style of Holland, and are in number 932. The inhabitants amount to 6850, and are employed in the manufacture of cotton goods, hats, hosiery, caps, leather articles, looking glasses, watches, and especially iι. the breweries. It is in long. 6. 1. 46. E. and lat. 51. 47. 40. N.
CLEF, or Cliff, in Music, derived from the Latin word clavis, a key; because by it is expressed the fundamental sound in the diatonic scale, which requires a determined succession of tones or semitones, whether major or minor, peculiar to the note whence we set out, and resulting from its position in the scale. Hence, as it opens a way to this succession, and discovers it, the technical term hey is used with great propriety. But clefs rather point out the position of different musical parts in the general system, and the relations which they bear one to another.

A clef, says Rousseau, is a character in music placed at the beginning of a stave, to determine the degree of elevation occupied by that stave in the general claviary or system, and to point out the names of all the notes which it contains in the line of that clef.

Anciently the letters by which the notes of the gamut were signified were called clefs. Thus the letter A was the clef of the note la, C the clcf of zz∕, E the clef of mi, &c. But in proportion as the system was extended, the embarrassment and superfluity of this multitude of clefs were felt, and a better system was in time adopted.

Gui d’Arezzo, who had invented them, marked a letter o-clef at the beginning of each line in the stave; for as yet he had placed no notes in the spaces. In process of time they rgprked no more than one of the seven clefs at the beginning of one of the lines only; and this was sufficient to fix the position of all the rest, according to their natural order. At last, of these seven lines or clefs they selected four, which were called claves signatoe, or discriminating clefs, because they satisfied themselves with marking one of them upon one of the lines, from which the powers of all the others might be recognized. Presently afterwards they even retrenched one of these four, namely, the gamma, of which they made use to mark the sol below, that is to say, the hypoproslambanome added to the system of the Greeks. (See Rousseau’s Musical Dictionary, Malcolm on Music, and’the article Music.)
CLEMENS Romanus, bishop of Rome, where he is said to have been born, and to have been fellow-labourer with St Peter and St Paul. We have nothing remaining of his works that is clearly genuine, excepting one epistle, written to quiet some disturbances in the church of Corinth; which, next to holy writ, is esteemed as one of the most valuable remains of ecclesiastical antiquity.

Clemens Alexandrimis, so called to distinguish him from the former, was an eminent father of the church, who flourished at the end of the second and beginning of the third centuries. He was the scholar of Pantaenus, and the instructor of Origen. A passage in the Stromates of this author, if it did not furnish the key to the modern discoveries connected with the deciphering of Egyptian hieroglyphics, at all events showed how that key should be used. The best edition of his works is that in two volumes folio, published in 1715, by ArchbHwp Potter.
CLEMENTE di Casauri, a town of Italy, in the Neapolitan province of Abruzzo Ulteriore, containing 6680 inhabitants, and including some villages, which form a part of the parish.
CLEMENTI, Muzio, a celebrated musical composer and piano-forte player, was born in Rome in the year 1747. His genius for music being early developed, his studies were pursued with such successful assiduity, that he speedily acquired great proficiency in his profession. He enjoyed, during his life, the highest reputation as an artist and composer, and died,' ripe in age and honour, in England, on the 10th March 1832. His remains were interred in Westminster Abbey. “Clementi,” says Dr Crotch, “may be considered as the father of piano-forte music; for he long ago introduced all the beauty of Italian melody into pieces calculated by their ornamental varieties to elicit the power of the instrument, and display the taste as well as the execution of the performer.” His compositions, moreover, possess those sterling qualities which will secure their permanent popularity throughout all the capricious changes of fashion and taste.