MADRAS, a city of Hindustan, in the province of the Carnatic, and the principal settlement and capital of the East India Company in the southern peninsula of India. It is situated close to the margin of the sea, and is a fortress of great strength. In appearance Madras differs widely from Calcutta, having no European town, except a few houses, which are chiefly used as warehouses in the fort. The European residents, mostly the servants of the Company, live entirely in their garden-houses as they call them, which are all so closely planted that the neighbouring dwelling is rarely visible. They repair to the fort in the morning for the transaction of business, and return thence in the afternoon. These garden-houses are very neat buildings, being mostly of one story, and having a handsome balcony supported by pillars in front, with green Venetian windows. The fort itself, called Fort St George, is handsome, strong, and not too large; and, although not of so regular a design as Fort William, yet, from the greater facility of relieving it by sea, and the natural advantages of the ground, which leaves to an enemy no choice in the manner of conducting his attacks, it may, on the whole, be deemed equal to it; besides that it may be defended by a less numerous garrison. In the middle of the present fortress stands the original one, a small square, now mostly converted into government offices, and the town residences of some of the civil servants. The nabob of the Carnatic has also a palace called Chepauk, situated on the Chaultry Plain, at a little distance from the esplanade. The Chaultry Plain, once the scene of Tippoo’s devastations, when he descended from the Ghauts, and, sweeping the low country with his cavalry, carried dismay to the walls of Fort St George, commences about a mile and a quarter south-west of this fort, from which it is separated by two small rivers; the one the river Triplicane, winding from the west, and gaining the sea about a thousand yards to the north of the glacis; the other coming from the north-west, and passing round the high ground of the western side of the Black Town, and continuing to the east within a hundred yards of the sea, where it washes the foot of the glacis, and, running for some time parallel with the beach, finally joins the Triplicane. at its mouth. This plain extends two miles to the westward of the enclosures which bound the St Thome road, and terminates on the other side at a large body of water called the Meliapoor tank. It is now covered with the garden-houses of the European settlers, who have converted a barren sand into a beautiful scene of vegetation. The government-house is situated in the Chaultry Plain, on the edge of the esplanade, and has the advantage of not being quite shut up, having a pleasing view of the sea, and of Fort St George. The house itself is large and handsome; the floors, the walls, and the pillars, are of the most beautiful chunam of different colours, almost equal in splendour to marble itself. The roads are a great ornament to the place, being broad, and shaded on each side by a noble avenue of trees. To the southward of the fort stands the church, at the back of which is the residence of the governor. To the northward of the old fort stands the Exchange, on which, in 1796, a light-house was erected, the height of which is ninety feet high, and it is visible from the sea at the distance of seventeen miles. The botanical garden, reared at a vast expense by Dr Anderson, was nearly destroyed by a violent hurricane on the 9th of December 1807, and is now in a state of decay. In November 1803, a navigable canal was opened from the Black Town to Ennore River, which communicates with Pullicat. It is 10,560 yards in length, and thirty-five feet wide by twelve feet deep. By this channel boats go to Pullicat, whence Madras is supplied with charcoal. The Black Town of Madras stands to the northward of the fort, from which it is separated by a spacious esplanade. It is nearly four miles in circuit, and was formerly surrounded with fortifications sufficient to resist a surprise from a body of horse; but, owing to the tranquillity that prevailed in the country, these have long been neglected. It has some good streets and bazars; but the streets are not regular, nor are the houses uniform: some of them are large brick buildings with flat roofs, but the greater part are built of mud, with tiled roofs. It makes a better appearance from a distance than when it is closely inspected. The Black Town is the residence of the native Armenian and Portuguese merchants, and also of many European settlers not the servants of the Company.

In Lord Valentia’s account of Madras, it is observed, that it would probably have been difficult to find a worse place for a capital than that chosen for Madras, on the extreme point of a coast where the current is most rapid, and where a tremendous surf breaks even in the finest weather. But the original error of fixing on this for the site of a great capital cannot now be recalled, the expense of removal to a more convenient spot would be so great. Owing to the exposed situation of Madras, it affords no secure anchorage ļ and there is always a great difficulty in landing from vessels, which generally moor in nine fathoms, with the flag-staff west-north-west, about two miles from the shore. Any ship’s boat that should attempt to cross the surf would inevitably perish; and, accordingly, the boats from ships anchor outside the brokch water, and wait for the country boats to carry the passengers safely to the shore. These boats are of a particular construction, being built of soft wood, with flat bottoms. They are sewed together, and have not a nail in their whole construction, so that they are very light and pliable, and are borne many yards through the surf without injury, as they yield to the waves like leather. These boats require to be guided by seamen of experience and tried skill, and it is an extremely critical operation to conduct them through the surf. When they come within its influence, the cockswain stands up, and, under great agitation, marks time with his voice and his foot, whilst the rowers work their oars backwards until overtaken by the swell, which, curling up in its approach to the shore, sweeps the boat along with fearful violence. The rowers now ply every oar forward with their utmost vigour, to prevent the wave from carrying back the boat with its receding swell; and by a few successive surfs the boat is at length dashed high and dry on the shore. A species of floating machine called a catamaran, formed of two or three light logs of wood, eight or ten feet in length, lashed together with a small piece of wood inserted between them to serve as a stem-piece, is employed by the fishermen and lower classes of natives to carry them through the breakers. On these they go out to fish, or to carry letters or small quantities of refreshments to ships when no boats can venture out. They secure the letters in a pointed cap, where they cannot be damaged; and when the men happen to be washed off by the surf, they regain the catamarans by swimming, unless when they [7:13:673]are attacked by a shark. The dexterous navigators of these frail vessels who distinguish themselves by saving persons in danger, or by their care in conveying papers through the surf in dangerous weather, are rewarded with medals.

Madras, when seen from the sea, presents a striking appearance, the fortifications of Fort St George being within a few yards of the shore; and, at a distance, minarets and pagodas are seen mixed with trees and gardens. The public offices and storehouses are fine buildings, with colonnades to the upper stories, supported on arched bases, covered with beautiful shell-mortar from Madras, which is hard, smooth, and polished. These being near the beach, which is always crowded, form interesting objects. At a distance, the low, flat, sandy shores extending to the north and south, and the small hills that are seen inland, give an appearance of barrenness, which, however, improves on a closer inspection. Madras is surrounded by a level country, which in general exhibits a naked, brown, dusty plain, with few villages to enliven the scene, or any other objects to relieve the eye, except a range of abrupt detached hills to the south. The huts of the natives are covered with tiles, and are fully superior in their appearance to those in Bengal; and in the inns and chaultries, also, which are common on the roads, travellers experience greater attention. The soil in the vicinity of Madras is very poor, and formerly provisions were scarce and dear; but since the great accession of territory that has accrued to the Madras presidency, they are brought from the Barramahal and other parts of the country in great abundance. The soil, however, when it is cultivated, and where there is abundance of water, produces a good crop of rice; and artificial irrigation often makes up for natural disadvantages. The cattle that are found in the neighbourhood of Madras are a small breed, such as are commonly seen in the Deccan; but they are larger than those in the southern parts of Bengal. Buffaloes of a small size arc generally used in carts.

The manners of the Europeans at Madras, the state of society, and style of living, are nearly the same as in other parts of India, except that provisions are more expensive. Within doors, dinner parties, and, during the cold season, monthly assemblies and balls, constitute the routine of amusements. Amongst the public places of resort is the Mount Road, leading from the fort to St Thomas’s Mount, which is quite smooth, and embellished on each side with banyan and yellow tulip trees. Here it is customary for the fashionable parties in Madras to repair, in their gayest equipages, during the cool of the evening, where they drive slowly about the cenotaph which is here erected to the memory of Marquis Cornwallis, and converse together. During the hottest part of the day, namely, after two o’clock, which is the time when tiffin or the real dinner is eaten, many retire to rest until five o’clock, when the master of the family returns from the fort, and an excursion to the Mount Road, and dinner, then occupies the remainder of the day, unless it be prolonged by a ball and supper in the evening. The morning, from nine to eleven, is the time for visiting, when the European residents call on each other, retail the news, and offer their services to their friends in the city, to which they must repair for purposes of business. Another tribe of visitors succeeds, and thus the forenoon passes away.

European passengers, when they land at Madras, being ignorant of the language, manners, and customs of the country, necessarily rely on the natives for help; and, accordingly, passengers landing at Madras are immediately surrounded by numerous servants of all kinds, called dobashies, eager for employment They undertake to transact for the Europeans all their necessary business, I to buy all that is wanted, and to procure servants, tradesmen, palanquins, and the like. They are of different castes, according to the nature of the duties which they undertake to perform.

Madras carries on a very considerable trade, not only with Europe, but with China, Ceylon, Pegu, the Isle of France, New Holland, and different parts of India. But, owing to the want of a navigable river, and the difficulty of landing goods, it labours under great disadvantages, and its commerce is inferior to that of the other two presidencies. From America the imports are some inferior sorts of wines, spirits, and provisions. Rice is imported from Bengal, also raw silk, canvass, piece goods, muslins, and shawls of a coarse description, silk piece goods of an inferior kind, long pepper, sugar, borax, saltpetre, precious stones, &c. From Bombay are imported, through the Persian and Arabian Gulfs, dried fruit or drugs, cotton and other goods; from Ceylon, biche de mer, shark fins, ebony, &c. also pearls; from China, tea, sugar, nankeen, China ware, with alum, camphor, drugs, piece goods, stationery, &c.; from Manilla, indigo; from the Isle of France, brandy, copper, iron, lead, &c.; from Pegu, the staple article is timber; from the Malabar coast, pepper, timber, coir, cordage, &c.; from London, different articles of European manufacture, in glass, iron, copper, tin, and other manufactures, also supplies of wine and other necessaries; from Madeira, wine. The exports of Madras consist of piece goods to America; to Batavia, piece goods of a coarse coloured sort, handkerchiefs, and a proportion of southern blue cloths; to Bengal, some red wood, coloured piece goods, and salt; to Bombay, chintz and coloured turbans to an inconsiderable amount; to Ceylon, principally European and China articles; to China, principally cotton; to Manilla, piece goods, namely, cambays, handkerchiefs, &c.; to the Isle of France, chiefly long cloths, handkerchiefs, muslins, ginghams, &c.; to Pegu, coarse handkerchiefs, and copper, arrack, brandy, mace, cloves, iron, glass ware, naval stores, &c. which are re-exported. It does not appear that the trade of Madras, which is really the trade of the coast of Coromandel, is increasing. For this several causes are assigned. Amongst these are various oppressive inland taxes, which obstruct the progress of improvement. Owing to the former monopoly of the East India Company, the raw silks and nankeens of China, which could not be exported directly to Europe, were brought to Madras, and thence re-exported. They are now directly exported from Canton, and the trade is consequently lost to Madras. The value of the exports and imports of Madras, in bullion and merchandise, was in 1813-14 L.695,373, and in 1828-29 L.788,959, thus exhibiting during this interval only the trifling increase of L.93,586.

Considerable variety of coin circulates in Madras and its vicinity. Of the gold coins, the principal are, star or current pagodas, value 7s. 5∣d. or 8s. The gold rupee, new coinage, is worth L.l. 9s. 2d. The Arcot rupee, and the new silver rupee, are worth Is. 11∣d., and Is. 11⅜d. The accounts are kept in star pagodas, fanams, and cash; eighty cash make one fanam, twelve fanamsone rupee, and forty-two fanaitis a star pagoda. The natives keep their accounts at twelve fanams sixty cash to a rupee, and forty-four fanams sixty cash to a pagoda. The current coins consist of various sorts of pagodas, Arcot rupees, single and double fanams, and copper coins of twenty, ten, five, and one cash each, called dodees and half dodees.

The English possessed no fixed establishment here until A. D. 1639, when they received a grant from the Hindu dynasty of Bijanagur, then reigning at Chandergherry, permitting the erection of a fort. In consequence of this permission, Mr Day proceeded with great alacrity to the construction of a fortress, which in India is soon surrounded by a town; and this town he allowed to retain its Indian appellation, but the fort he named Fort George. The territory granted along with it extended five miles along [7:13:674]shore, and one mile inland. For about a century, Madras, with the small portion of territory adjoining, continued to be held by the Europeans, but rather under, or at least with the consent of, the native powers, than as an independent colony. On the 12th of December 1687, the population of the city of Madras, Fort George, and the villages within the Company’s bounds, was estimated to amount to 300,000 persons. In 1744 Madras was besieged by the French from the Mauritius under Μ. de la Bourdonnais, at which period the native inhabitants within the Company’s territory amounted to 250,000. The English in the colony did not exceed 300, and of these 200 only were soldiers of the garrison. The town was taken on the 10th of September, and was ransomed for L.440,000, besides plunder to the amount of L.200,000 more. All the British inhabitants were afterwards compelled to abandon the place. Madras was restored at the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, and evacuated by the French in August 1749, when it was found in a very improved condition, the bastions and batteries having been greatly enlarged and strengthened. The defences of the town were still, however, inferior to those of Fort St David, where the East India Company ordered the presidency to continue. Madras was again besieged in 1758, by the French under Μ. Lally. The siege commenced on the 17th of December 1758, and was prosecuted with vigour till the 17th of February, when the French were obliged precipitately to raise it. This was the last and most memorable siege which Madras ever sustained. The garrison consisted of 1758 European troops, 2200 sepoys, and 150 European inhabitants. The besieging force consisted of 3500 Europeans, 2000 sepoys, and 2000 native and European cavalry. Since this period Madras has never been assailed by an enemy, though nearly approached by Hyder’s cavalry in 1781, when they descended from the mountains to ravage the plains of the Carnatic. The population of the city of Madras, Fort George, and the villages within the Company’s bounds, is 300,000. Long. 80. 25. E. Lat. 13. 5. N. (Lord Valentia’s Travels ; Rennell’s Memoir ; Hamilton, &c.)

The presidency of Fort George, or of Madras, comprehends nearly the whole of India south of the Krishna River, and also that large portion of the Deccan, the Northern Circars. Within these boundaries there are three independent princes, namely, the rajahs of Mysore, Travancore, and Cochin, who, though subject to the Company in external politics, are left free to manage their own internal concerns. The rest of the country is under the immediate jurisdiction of the governor and council of Madras, and, for the collection of the revenue and the administration of justice, is divided into the following districts, namely,—∙
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A full account of these provinces, of the land revenue, the administration of justice, and other details of the same nature, is given under the article Hindustan ; also under the articles Canara, Malabar, Circars Northern, and the names of the districts into which the presidency is divided. (f.)