pnugues/EB7 huggingface dataset:
GUSTAVUS I. king of Sweden, was son of Eric de Vasa, duke of Gripsholm. Christian II. king of Denmark, having made himself master of the kingdom of Sweden, confined Gustavus at Copenhagen; but the latter making his escape, wandered for a long time in the forests, till the cruelties of the tyrant having occasioned a revolution, he was first declared governor of Sweden, and then in 1513 elected king. This prince introduced Lutheranism into his dominions, which in a little time spread itself all over the kingdom. He died in 1560; having made his kingdom hereditary, which was before elective. See Sweden. Gustavus Adolphus, surnamed the Great, king of Sweden, was born at Stockholm in 1594, and succeeded his father Charles in 1611. He espoused the cause of the Protestants in Germany, who were oppressed and almost entirely ruined by the Emperor Ferdinand. He was a great warrior, and gained many victories, but fell at last in the battle of Lutzen. See Sweden.
GUSTROW, a duchy of the dominion of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, which came to that dukedom in 1695. It is an extensive district, containing 140,000 inhabitants. The city of Gustrow is a large old town, and its walls have been converted into pleasant walks and gardens. It contains 823 houses, with 8264 inhabitants. There is a large palace, said to have been built by the Austrian general Wallenstein, but now used as a prison. The chief trade is brewing and distilling.
GUTPURBA, a small river of Hindustan, which takes its rise in the Western Ghauts, and, after a short course, falls into the river Kistnah, near the village of Almady. Long. 76. 5. E. Lat. 16. 37. N.
GUTTA, a Latin term for what in English we call drop. Gutta Serena, a disease in which the patient, without any apparent fault in the eye, is deprived of sight.

Gutta, in Architecture, an ornament in the form of a little cone, used in the Doric corniche, or on the architrave underneath the triglyphs, representing a sort of drop or bell.
GUTTURAL, a term applied to letters or sounds pronounced or formed as it were in the throat.
GUTTY, in Heraldry, a term used when any thing is charged or sprinkled with drops. In blazoning, the colour of the drops is to be named; as gutty of sable, of gules, and so forth.
GUYON, Jeanne Bouviers de la Motte, a French lady, memorable for her writings, and for her sufferings in the cause of quietism, was descended from a noble family, and born at Montargis in 1648. She was daughter of Claude Bouvier, seigneur of La Motte-Vergonville, and master of requests. At a very early age she exhibited extraordinary symptoms of illumination, and tried to take the veil before she was of age to dispose of herself; but her parents obliged her to marry a gentleman to whom she had been betrothed in nonage. She was a widow at the age of twenty-eight; when, distinguishing herself in the way of contemplation and prayer, and making many converts to quietism, complaints were made of her spiritualism, and she was by order of the king confined for eight months. At the end of this period she was discharged; but being afterwards involved in the persecution of the Archbishop of Cambrai, she was thrown into the Bastille, where she underwent many examinations; but nothing being made out against her, she once more obtained her liberty, and lived in private till her death, which happened in 1717. Madame Guyon spent her latter years in mystical reveries; covering her tables, ceilings, and every part of her residence, with the sallies of a visionary imagination.

It is by no means proved that the Vie de Madame Guyon, écrite par elle-meme, which was printed after her death, is entirely of her composition. It seems indeed to have been composed from different memoirs furnished by herself, first, to the official or judge of the bishop’s court, Cheron, and then to the Bishop of Meaux at the time of the conferences of Issy. These materials, collected by a rédacteur still more mystical than herself, appeared at Cologne, 1720, in three vols. 12mo. The verses of Madame Guyon, or at least those which are attributed to her, were collected and published at Amsterdam, 1689, in five vols. 8vo, under the title of Recueil de Poésics Spirituelles; a collection which was freely translated into English by William Cowper. This lady is also believed to have been the author of Cantiques Spirituels, ou Emblèmes sur l’Amour divin, in five volumes; and La Bible traduite en Français, avec des Explications et des Réflexions qui regarde la Vie intérieure, Cologne, 1715, in twenty vols. 8vo. Her treatise on Spiritual Torrents, after having been long circulated in manuscript, was printed, for the first time, in her Opuscules Spirituels, Cologne, 1704, in 12mo, with a preface describing her person. Besides these, her Lettres Spirituelles form four vols. in 8vo; so that her works extend in all to thirty-nine volumes, which, however,.are scarcely read now-a-days, except from curiosity. (See the article Fenelon.)
GUZELHISAR, a city of Asia Minor, built upon the site of the ancient Magnesia. It is situated on a hill about three miles in compass, level at the top, and having a steep declivity around. The modern city is at least four miles in circumference, and surrounded by very slight walls: the streets are broader and better laid out than is usual in Turkish cities. It is one of the most considerable towns in Asia Minor, being the residence of the pasha; and carries on a great trade, especially in cotton and cotton yarn. It has also manufactures of coarse calicoes; and considerable quantities of European goods ire imported into the country. It is the residence of ή any rich merchants, and of opulent families, particularly beys. It has a beautiful appearance, being full of courts and gardens, planted with cypress and orange trees; and the view is beautiful over the plain of the Meander, a finely-enclosed country planted with fig and almond trees. Long. 27. 50. E. Lat. 37. 45. N.
GUZNOGUR, an Afghan district, in the province of Cabul, situated between the thirty-fourth and thirtyfifth degrees of north latitude. Its interior is but imperfectly known. It is bounded on the north by Caffaristan, and on the west by the Chuganserai river.
GYBING, the act of shifting a boom-sail from one side af the mast to the other.

In order to understand this operation more clearly, it is accessary to remark, that by a boom-sail is meant any sail, the lowest part of which is extended by a boom, and the fore-end hooked to its respective mast, so as to swing occasionally on either side of the vessel, describing an arch, af which the mast is the centre. As the wind or the course changes, it also becomes frequently necessary to change the position of the boom, together with its sail, which is accordingly shifted to the other side of the vessel, as a door turns upon its hinges. The boom is pushed out by the effort of the wind upon the sail, and is restrained in a proper situation by a strong tackle communicating with the vessel’s stern.
GYGES, in fabulous history, a Lydian, to whom Candaules, king of the country, showed his wife naked. The queen was so incensed at this instance ofimprudence and infirmity in her husband, that she ordered Gyges either to prepare for death himself, or to put Candaules to death. He chose the latter; and having married the queen, ascended the vacant throne about 718 years before the Christian era. He was the first of the Mermnadae who reigned in Lydia. He reigned thirty-eight years, and distinguished himself by the immense presents which he made to the oracle of Delphi. (Herod, i. c. 8.) According to Plato, Gyges descended into a chasm of the earth, where he found a brazen horse, the sides of which he opened, and saw within the body the carcass of a man of uncommon size, from whose finger he took a brazen ring. This ring, when he put it on his finger, rendered him invisible; and by means of its virtue he introduced himself to the queen, murdered her husband, married her, and usurped the crown of Lydia.
GYMNASIARCH, in Antiquity, the director of the gymnasium. This functionary had two deputies; the one called xystarch, who presided over the athletae, and had the charge of wrestling; and the other gymnastes, who had the direction of all other exercises.
GYMNOSOPHISTS, a set of Indian philosophers, famous in antiquity. The word is formed from the Greek, γ>μvο6οφusrrις, a sophist or philosopher who goes naked.

This name was applied to the Indian philosophers, whom the excessive heat of the country obliged to go naked; as that of Peripatetics was given to those who philosophised walking. The Gymnosophists, however, did not go absolutely naked, but only clothed themselves no further than modesty required. There were some of these sages in Africa; but the most celebrated were those of India. The African Gymnosophists dwelt upon a mountain in Ethiopia, near the Nile, and did not form themselves into societies, like those of India; but each had his private recess, where he studied and performed his devotions by himself. If any person had by chance killed another, he applied to these sages for absolution, and submitted to whatever penances they enjoined. They observed an extraordinary frugality, and lived only upon the fruits of the earth. Lucan ascribes to these Gymnosophists several new discoveries in astronomy.

As to the Indian Gymnosophists, they dwelt in die woods, where they lived upon the wild products of the earth, and never either drank wine or married. Some of them practised [7:11:97]physic, travelled from one place to another, and were particularly famous for their remedies against barrenness. Others pretended to practise magic, and to foretell future events.

In general, however, the Gymnosophists were wise and learned men; for their maxims and discourses, recorded by historians, do not in the least savour of a barbarous education, but are plainly the result of great sense and deep thought. They kept up the dignity of their character to such a degree, that they never waited upon any one, not even upon princes. They believed the immortality and transmigration of the soul; they placed the chief happiness of man in a contempt of the goods of fortune and of the pleasures of sense; and they gloried in having given faithful and disinterested counsels to princes and magistrates. It is said, that when they became old and infirm, they threw themselves into a pile of burning wood, in order to prevent the miseries of advanced age. One of them, named Calanus, burned himself in the presence of Alexander the Great.

Apuleius thus describes the Gymnosophists: “They are all devoted to the study of wisdom, both the older masters and the younger pupils; and what to me appears the most amiable thing in their character is, that they have an aversion to idleness and indolence. Accordingly, as soon as the table is spread, before a bit of victuals be brought, the youths are called together from their several places and offices, and the masters examine them what good they have Ione since the sunrise. Here one relates something he has iiscovered by meditation; another has learned something ay demonstration; and as for those who have nothing to fliege why they should dine, they are turned out to work Pasting.”
GYNAECEUM, amongst the ancients, the apartment of the women, a separate room in the inner part of the house, where they employed themselves in spinning, weaving, and needle-work.
GYNAECOCRACY denotes the government of women, ar that state where women are capable of the supreme command.
GYNAECOCRATUMENI, an ancient people of Sarmatia Europaea, inhabiting the eastern banks of the river Tanais, near its opening into the Palus Maeotis, and so called, because they had no women among them, or rather, perhaps, because they were under the dominion of women. The word is formed from γυvη, woman, and κgαrouμs∣∕of, the participle of ×ξοοτeω, I overcome.
GYONGIOS, a large market-town of Hungary, in the circle of the Hither Theis, with a Catholic university, and 800 inhabitants, who trade largely in wine, fruit, corn, and the other internal products. Long. 20. 17. E. Lat. 47. 47. N.
H the eighth letter and sixth consonant in our alphabet; though some grammarians conceive it to be only an aspiration, or breathing. But nothing can be more ridiculous than to dispute its being a distinct sound, and formed in a particular manner by the organs of speech, at least in our language: witness the words eat and heat, arm and harm, ear and hear, at and hat, as pronounced with or without the h. This letter is pronounced by a strong expiration of the breath between the lips, closing as it were by a gentle motion of the lower jaw to the upper, and the tongue nearly approaching the palate. There seems to be no doubt that our h, which is the same with that of the Romans, derived its figure from that of the Hebrew it. And, indeed, the Phoenicians, and the ancient Greeks and Romans, used the same figure with our H, which in the series of all these alphabets keeps its primitive place, being the eighth letter. H, used as a numeral, denotes 200, and with a dash over it, H 200,000. As an abbreviation, H was used by the ancients to denote homo, haeres, hora, &c. Thus H. B. stood for hoeres honorum ; H. S. corruptly for L L S. sesterce; and H. A. for Hadrianus.
HAARLEM, or Haerlem, a city of the Netherlands, the capital of the province, and of a circle of the same name. It lies about four miles from the sea-shore, on an extensive lake of fresh water, which it is now under consideration to drain and convert into meadows. It is a well-built town, with a fine market-place; but some of the streets, though well built and paved, are narrow. It is the seat of a Catholic bishop, who officiates in a cathedral; but the largest church, called the Dome Church, is occupied by the Protestants. It has one of the most powerful and best-toned organs in Europe, with 8000 pipes, some thirty-two feet in length. It contains, besides these, seven Catholic, five Calvinist, and one Lutheran church, and chapels for some smaller sects. The houses are about 8000, and the inhabitants amounted in 1831 to 21,667.

The trade and manufactures are extensive. The water is deemed peculiarly adapted for bleaching, and many fine linens made in Germany and Holland are sent here to receive the desired whiteness. There are printed cottons well executed; and vast quantities of small wares, such as thread, tapes, bobbins, and Dutch lace, still made, though the rivalry of England has diminished the sale for them. One great trade of Haarlem is in flower seeds, flowers, and bulbs, which are sent on a large scale from beautifully arranged and ornamented gardens around the city. Near it are some magnificent country houses, especially that of the Hopes, occupied by Louis Buonaparte whilst king of Holland. In the market is a statue of Coster, who in Haerlem is contended to have been the inventor of printing. Long. 4. 29. 25. E. Lat. 52. 22. 16. N.
HABAKKUK, one of the twelve lesser prophets, whose prophecies are admitted into the canon of the Old Testament. The name is written in the Hebrew with π, heth, and signifies a wrestler. There is no precise time mentioned in Scripture when this Habakkuk lived; but from his predicting the ruin of the Jews by the Chaldaeans, it may be concluded that he prophesied before Zedekiah, or about the time of Manassch. He is reported to have been the author of several prophecies which are not extant; but those which are indisputably his are contained in three chapters. In these the prophet complains very pathetically of the disorders which he observed in the kingdom of Judaea. God reveals to him that he would shortly punish the Jews in a very terrible manner by the arms of the Chaldaeans. He foretells the conquests of Nebuchadnezzar, his metamorphosis, and death; and also predicts, that the vast designs of Jehoiakim would be frustrated. He speaks against a prince, probably the king of Tyre, who built with blood and iniquity; and he accuses another king, perhaps the king of Egypt, of having intoxicated his friend in order to discover his nakedness. The third chapter is a song or prayer to God, whose majesty he describes with the utmost grandeur and sublimity of expression.
HABDALA, a ceremony of the Jews, observed on the evening of the Sabbath when every one of the family has returned home. Then they light a taper or lamp, with at least two wicks; upon which the master of the family takes a cup, with some wine, mixed with fragrant spices, and having repeated a passage or two of Scripture, he blesses the wine and spices. He afterwards blesses the light of the fire; and then casts his eyes on his hands and nails, as if remembering that he is going to work. The whole is intended to signify that the Sabbath is over, and is from that moment divided from the day of labour which follows. For this reason the ceremony is called Hahdala, which signifies distinction. After the ceremony is concluded, and the company breaks up, they wish one another, not a good night, but a good week.
HABELSCHWERT, a city of the Prussian province of Silesia, in the district of the same name, situated on the river Neisse. It is fortified, and stands in a very defensible situation. It contains 324 houses, and 3124 inhabitants, mostly manufacturers of linens and woollens. Long. 16. 36. 10. E. Lat. 50. 14. 45. N.
HABERDASHER, in commerce, a seller of hats and other wares.
HABERGION, or Haubergeon, Habergetum, a [7:11:101]coat of mail, or ancient piece of defensive armour, in form of a coat, descending from the neck to the middle, and formed of little iron rings, or meshes, linked into each other. It is also written haberge, hauberge, haubere, haubert, hautber, hautbert, and hauberk. Spelman derives it from the ancient French hault, high, and berg, armour or covering; as serving to defend the upper part of the body. Du Cange and Skinner derive it from the Belgic hals, or Teutonic hnltz, neck, and bergen, to cover; that is, a defence for the neck. Others conceive that it is formed of al, alia, meaning all, and bergen, to cover; as importing a cover for the whole body. In Scripture it seems to signify an offensive weapon. “The sword of him that layeth at him cannot hold; the spear, the dart, nor the habergeon.” (Job, xli. 26.)
HABIT, an aptitude or disposition either of mind or body, acquired by frequent repetition of the same act.

Habit is also employed to signify a dress or garb, or the composition of garments, with which a person is covered. The principal part of the dress worn by the Jews and Greeks was the ∕ l ½αnov and the The 'ιμarιοv was an upper garment, consisting of a loose square piece of cloth wrapped round the body; the χwωv was an under garment, or tunic, which was fastened round the body and embraced it closely, falling down to the mid thigh. It is proper to observe, however, that a person divested of this upper garment or iματιοv is, in the language of the east, styled naked ; and in this sense David danced naked before the ark.

Habit is particularly used to signify the uniform garments of the religious orders, conformably to the rule of which they make profession; as the habit of St Benedict, of St Augustin, St Francis, St Dominic, and the like. In this sense we say absolutely, such a person has taken the habit, meaning he has entered upon a noviciate in a certain order. So he is said to quit the habit when he renounces the order. The habits of the several religious orders are not supposed to have been calculated for singularity or novelty. The founders of the orders, who were at first chiefly inhabitants of deserts and solitudes, gave their monks the habit usual amongst the country people. The primitive habits of St Anthony, St Hilarion, St Benedict, and others, are described by the ancient writers as consisting chiefly of sheep skins, the common dress of the peasants, shepherds, and mountaineers of that time; and the same they gave to their disciples. The orders established in and about cities and inhabited places took the habit worn by other ecclesiastics at the time of their institution. Thus, St Dominic gave his disciples the habit of regular canons, which he himself bad always worn to that time. The same thing may be said of the Jesuits,. Barnabites, Theatins, Oratorians, and others, who took the common habit of the ecclesiastics at the time of their foundation. And what makes them differ so much from each other, as well as from the ecclesiastical habit of the present times, is, that they have always kept invariably to the same costume; whereas the ecclesiastics and laics have been changing their mode on every occasion.
HABSAL, a circle of the Russian province of Esthonia, in the Gulf of Finland, extending over 1536 square miles, partly on the continent, but comprehending the islands Dagoe and Worms. It contains two towns, thirteen parishes, and 113 noble estates, with 41,500 inhabitants. The capital, of the same name, is situated in a bay protected by the island of Worms. It contains only 148 houses, but the security of the harbour brings some ships to it. Long. 23. 30. 55. E. Lat. 58. 56. 30. N.
HABSBURG, a small district of Switzerland, in the canton of Lucerne, on the lake of that name. It is only remarkable as the barony, once the family seat, of that house which has long given emperors to Germany, and now fills the throne of Austria. The chateau is a venerable heap of ruins, but of no great extent.
HABUR, a small island in the Red Sea, six miles from the Arabian shore. Lat. 16. 45. N.
HACKET, John, bishop of Litchfield and Coventry, was born in the year 1592. In 1623 he was made chaplain to James I. and prebendary of Lincoln; and soon afterwards he obtained the rectory of St Andrew’s, Holborn, with that of Cheam in Surrey, his patron observing, that he intended Holborn for wealth, and Cheam for health. In 1642 he was presented to a prebendary and residentiary; but he was deprived of the enjoyment of them, as well as of St Andrew’s, by the ensuing troubles. He then lived retired at Cheam, until he recovered his preferments at the restoration of Charles II. by whom he was preferred to the see of Litchfield and Coventry in 1661. Finding the beautiful cathedral of Litchfield almost battered to the ground, he in eight years finished a complete church superior to the former one, at an expense of L.20,000, excepting L.1000 which he received from the dean and chapter, with what he could procure from private benefactors. He laid out L.1000 on a prebendal house, his palaces at Litchfield and Eccleshall having been demolished during the civil wars; and, besides these acts of munificence, he left several other benefactions at his death, which took place in 1670. He published, before he entered into orders, a comedy· entitled Loyola, which was twice acted before King James I. After his death there appeared a Century of his Sermons on several Remarkable Subjects, in folio; and The Life of Archbishop Williams, also in folio, which was abridged by Ambrose Philips in 1700.