AFGHANISTAN, An extensive and powerful kingdom of Asia, which formed at one time a considerable portion of the Mogul empire. On the decline of that power, it rose to the rank of an independent state; and from its population and extent, and still more from the character of the people, who are brave, hardy, and enterprising, as well as from its commanding position in the heart of Asia, it soon acquired political importance, and has since acted a principal part in all the revolutions which have occurred either in Hindostan or in Persia.

It is only of late years that Europeans have obtained any authentic account of this interesting country. In [7:2:211]1793, Mr Foster, in the course of an overland journey from India, in which he was exposed to the greatest danger from the predatory habits and religious prejudices of the people, succeeded in penetrating into those mountainous regions. He visited the cities of Cashmere, Cabul, and Candahar, respecting which his information is equally curious and instructive. But the most complete and satisfactory account of Afghanistan is derived from the work of Mr Elphinstone, by whom it was visited in 1808. It was supposed that about this time the French were meditating an invasion of British India; and Afghanistan being in a manner one of the outworks of Hindostan through which an invading army must make its approaches on the north, it was judged necessary to apprize the sovereign of his danger, in order to secure his co-operation against the common enemy. With this view a mission was sent to him by the British government, at the head of which was Mr Elphinstone, who, along with the other members of the embassy, determined, with a laudable and enlightened zeal, to profit by so favourable an opportunity for collecting information respecting the geography and productions of the country, the manners of the people, and their condition, character, and habits; on all which subjects they have accordingly furnished the most satisfactory and ample details. From the valuable materials furnished by those travellers, the following account has been chiefly composed.

It is extremely difficult to fix the boundaries of this country, which frequently extend into wild mountainous tracts, or into deserts, where no definite line of demarcation is to be found, either political or natural. Its boundaries are also apt to fluctuate, from the constant warfare of the frontier tribes, who own but a very imperfect allegiance to their monarch, whoever he may be, and who by their lawless inroads continually encroach on his dominions. Afghanistan, in the era of its greatest prosperity, extended to 16 degrees of longitude from Sirhind, about 150 miles from Delhi to Meshed, and about the same distance from the Caspian Sea. In breadth it extended from the Oxus to the Persian Gulf, a space of 910 miles. But its territories have been greatly reduced by war; and the authority of the sovereign, even in many of those countries which are included within his dominions, is but feebly acknowledged. In defining the irregular limits of this diminished kingdom, we may premise, that from the east of Bengal, in long. 90°, to Herat, in long. 62°, a vast chain of mountains, which tower above the level of perpetual snow, extends under the names of the Himalaya, Hindoo Coosh, and Paropamisus. The country of the Afghans is bounded on the north by this great mountain wall, which from Cashmere, the eastern limit of Afghanistan, takes a south-west direction as far as the snowy peak of Hindoo Coosh, nearly north of Cabul, from which the whole range derives its name. From this peak the same chain, with a lower declination, extends westward, under the name of the Paropamisan Mountains, 350 miles to Herat, and thus completes the northern boundary of Afghanistan. On the east the Indus is the boundary so long as the river continues near the hills, which is as far as lat. 32. 20. The plain on the western bank of the river to the south of this is inhabited, not by the Afghans, but by the Beloches, an independent tribe, and intervenes between the Afghan territory and the river. The Soliman Mountains, therefore, which are a branch from the Hindoo Coosh, running south-south-east along the course of the Indus, with their subordinate ranges, and the plain immediately at their base, are included in the country of the Afghans, and form here its eastern boundary. In lat. 29° north, where the Soliman Mountains terminate, this plain extends westward, and has new boundaries. On the north it has hills which stretch east and west at right angles to the Soliman range; and those hills form the southern boundary of Afghanistan, separating it from the low and hot plain of Cutch Gundawa or Seweestan on the south. The southern frontier of the Afghan country is extremely irregular. Before reaching the table-land of Kelat, in long. 66° E., it recedes towards the north, and extends west as far as the desert, which separates it on the north-west from Persia. The Afghans have no general name for their country but that of Afghanistan, which, Mr Elphinstone thinks, was probably first employed in Persia. It is frequently used in books, and is not unknown to the inhabitants. It is sometimes known under the appellation of the kingdom of Cabul.

Afghanistan to the west of the Soliman Mountains, which form an eastern barrier, may be described generally as a table-land, lying higher than most of the neighbouring countries. The Hindoo Coosh Mountains, its northern bulwark, overlook the low country of Balk, the ancient Bactria, formerly a province of Persia, and inhabited by the Usbeck Tartars. On the east it is equally elevated above the lower plains of the Indus. On the south it overlooks Seweestan; and on the south-west a deep valley runs between it and Belochistan. It slopes gradually to the west, and loses the appearance of elevation as it approaches the Paropamisan Mountains. The mountainous chain of Hindoo Coosh is a continuation of the great Himalaya ridge, which it rivals in grandeur and elevation. From the elevated plains of Afghanistan these mountains are seen on the north in four distinct ranges. The first and lowest had no snow in February, when it was observed by Mr Elphinstone from the plain of Peshawer; but the tops of the second still had their winter covering, and the third had snow half-way down. The fourth and highest range is covered with snow at all seasons. It is of great elevation, some of its peaks rising, according to measurement, to the height of 20,493 feet, and is conspicuous from Bactria, from the borders of India, and from places in Tartary at the amazing distance of 250 miles. “The stupendous heights of these mountains,” says Elphinstone, “the magnificence and variety of their lofty summits, the various nations by whom they are seen, and who seem to be brought together by this common object, and the awful and undisturbed solitude which reigns amid their eternal snows, fill the mind with an admiration and astonishment which no language can express.” The inferior ranges of the Hindoo Coosh Mountains decrease in height according to their distance from the principal chain. The title of table-land, which has been applied to Afghanistan, if it is understood to imply any thing more than that it is raised above the level of the surrounding regions, will convey a very inaccurate idea of the nature of the country, which, so far from being a plain, is of the most diversified surface, being intersected everywhere with chains of mountains, which diverge in various directions from the main ridge of Hindoo Coosh. We will not enter into any detailed description of this complicated mass of mountains, which, however accurate, would fail to present any very clear view of the topography of the country. It may be generally stated, that the ridges branch off southward, not exactly at right angles from the main ridge, but in irregular lines, to the distance of 60 or 70 miles, when they decline to a lower level; and that those ridges are separated by intervening valleys, each of which is watered by a river flowing down the southern declivity of the Hindoo Coosh Mountains into the Cabul, which, after an easterly course along [7:2:212]the base of the mountains of about 350 miles, joins the great Indus. These valleys or glens all open from the south into the great valley of Cabul; and the country is described as being fertile, and of a pleasing appearance. On the lower hills by which the valleys are closed in, the snow generally lies for four months in the year; there are few trees on the tops, but their sides are covered with forests of pine, oak, and wild olive. Lower down, the country improves, and is interspersed with many little valleys, watered by clear and beautiful streams, and enjoying a delicious climate, under which European fruits and flowers grow wild in the utmost variety and perfection; and even the rocks add to the beauty of the scenery, from the rich verdure of mosses with which they are covered. The narrow and alluvial plain at the bottom, through which the river runs, is in general highly productive. The valley of the river Swaut, which may be taken as a sample of all the others, yields two harvests, and produces most sorts of grain; and on the plains are numerous mulberry trees and planes, besides other fruit-trees improved by culture.

Westward from the Indus about 150 miles, an immense curve or angle projects southward from the mountain barrier of the country into the interior to the distance of 70 miles, when the snowy mountain abruptly descends into the low and hot plain of Jellalabad. The range then resumes its westerly course, when lower hills assume their former appearance and character, and form the Co-histan or high lands of Cabul, a country watered by the river of this name and its tributary streams, and described as fruitful and of a delightful aspect. The Paropainisan chain bounds this country on the west, and forms a maze of mountains, of which the most intimate knowledge would scarcely be able to trace the plan. They afford a habitation to some wandering and predatory tribes. This general description applies to that portion of the country from east to west which extends southward about 100 or 150 miles from the Hindoo Coosh Mountains. Beyond this the aspect of the country is varied by the range of the Soliman Mountains, which, commencing with Suffaid Coh, or the White Mountain, so called from the snow with which it is covered at all seasons, extend south-south-west almost parallel to the course of the Indus. These mountains decline towards the west by lower ridges, which run nearly in the same direction as the main ridge; while other ridges branch off eastward toward the Indus. The height of these mountains is greatly inferior to that of the Hindoo Coosh; but it is still great, as they are covered with snow to the end of spring, which, in the latitude of 31 degrees, gives a considerable altitude. Beyond the Soliman ridges on the west, the country consists for the most part of high and bleak downs, interspersed with moderate hills; in some places desert and ill cultivated, bare and open, better fitted for pasturage than for the plough, and inhabited by migratory tribes of shepherds. There are exceptions, however, to this general description. In the country which is watered by the Helmund and its tributary streams are found many fertile and delightful spots, which afford pleasant retreats to the shepherds, and pasturage to their flocks. The country round Candahar is fertile and highly cultivated; but to the south, and especially as it recedes west from the Helmund, it is a complete desert.

Afghanistan has few large rivers for a country of such extent, and so interspersed with mountains. With the exception of the Indus, there is not one which is not fordable throughout its course for the greater part of the year. They partake generally of the character of mountain torrents, swelling rapidly, and running off; or they are sometimes all drained away for the irrigation of the fields. The Indus, the eastern boundary of the country, from its volume of water, and the length of its course, which has been traced 1350 miles from its mouth, and which has its source much higher, may be reckoned one of the greatest rivers in the world. Of the rivers of Afghanistan it alone is navigable, though little use is made of it for this purpose. All the rivers of this country which take their rise in the Hindoo Coosh Mountains are tributary to this great stream. The Cabul is the drain of all the waters which fall on the southern declivity of the Hindoo Coosh Mountains. The most important river which it receives is the Kaushkhaur, which has its rise beyond the Hindoo Coosh range, in the same snowy peak which contains the sources of the Oxus. It rushes with surprising violence into the valley of the Cabul river, which it joins about 100 miles west of the Indus. Lower down, the Indus is joined by the Koorum from the west. The only river south of this which runs into the Indus is the Gomul, which, however, unless when it is swollen by the rains, never reaches its destination, being generally consumed in the irrigation of the country. The greatest of the rivers which run through the rest of Afghanistan is the Helmund or Etymander. This river is the drain of that extensive slope which lies between the Soliman and the Paropamisan Mountains. It has its rise in the latter, and running a south-west course of 400 miles, terminates in the Lake Seestan. The Urghundaub rises 88 miles north-east of Candahar, and after passing within a few miles of that city, joins the Helmund. It is never more than 150 yards broad. The Kashrood, which is a larger river, joins the Helmund after a course of 150 miles. The Furrahrood is a still larger stream; it has a course of 200 miles, and it is uncertain whether it reaches the Lake of Seestan, or is lost in the sands. The Turnuk is a tributary of the Urghundaub, which it joins about 75 miles west of Candahar. It is a rapid torrent, and receives the Urghessaun and other smaller rivers. Notwithstanding these additions, its stream rather decreases, being consumed in the irrigation of the country, or in the parched and barren sands through which it passes. The Lera, which rises in the south of Afghanistan, has a western course from the Soliman Mountains of 200 miles, where it disappears before it reaches the Helmund.

The climate of Afghanistan is extremely various, owing to the height and inequality of its surface. According to its latitude, which is between the 29th and 35th degrees, it should have a decidedly hot temperature; but the general law of climate is here modified by the elevation of the ground, and great diversities of heat and cold are accordingly experienced within a very limited space. The mountainous nature of the country also occasions peculiarities in its climate, and distinguishes it in some degree from that of the adjacent regions. In almost all the countries of Asia within the same latitude as Afghanistan, one important circumstance in their climate is the season and quantity of the periodical rains. Throughout the greater part of India the rainy season is ushered in by the south-west monsoon, which drives the rolling clouds from the ocean on the land, where they descend in rains. The monsoon is earlier in the south of India, and in the vicinity of the ocean, than in the north, and the rains are heavier. In many cases the opposition of mountains in the interior either arrests entirely the progress of the clouds, or it varies their direction; and hence large tracts of country are exempted from, or only partially experience, the influence of the monsoons. Before they make their way from the Indian Ocean to Afghanistan, these periodical tempests are greatly moderated, having to traverse [7:2:213]the whole extent of Bengal in their progress to the Himalaya Mountains, when they are forced by this impassable barrier out of their original course towards the southeast, and afterwards towards the east by the range of Hindoo Coosh; and it is from that quarter that such parts of Afghanistan as are exposed to the monsoon receive the periodical rains. But the clouds are exhausted as they pass on westward to this country, the rains gradually become less heavy, and are at last merely sufficient to water the mountains, without much affecting the plains below. In the north-eastern districts of Afghanistan, near the Indus, the countries under the range of Hindoo Coosh have their share of the rains; but 50 miles west, in the valley of Swaut, the season of the monsoon is merely a month of clouds, with occasional rains; and in the plain of Peshawer, which is other 50 or GO miles farther west, and in some of the valleys to the south, it appears only in some clouds and showers: it is still less felt in the valley of the Cabul river. But the passing clouds being opposed by the southern projection of the Hindoo Coosh Mountains and the Soliman range, collect over some of the plains below, which are accordingly plentifully deluged with the periodical rains. In the country of Damaun, eastward of the Soliman Mountains, along the Indus, the monsoon prevails; as also generally in the southern parts of the country. But it varies greatly in different countries, being merely in some parts a month of clouds with showers. Its influence is less felt towards the north. Besides the partial influence of the south-west monsoons to which the eastern and southern provinces of Afghanistan are exposed, it has the winter and the spring rains, which are of great consequence to agriculture in all those countries between the Indus and the Hellespont which are not subjected to the full effect of the south-west monsoon.

The temperature of Afghanistan varies of course with the difference of level, and also from local causes. It is affected by the direction of the prevailing winds, some blowing over snowy mountains, others being heated in summer and rendered cold in winter by their passage over deserts and arid tracts of great extent. The heat of summer is refreshed in some places by the breezes from moister countries, and others are so environed with hills as to be sheltered from all winds. Thus, throughout this extensive country, great diversity of temperature takes place often within very short distances. In the Hindoo Coosh Mountains perpetual winter reigns, and among the lower ranges snow frequently lies for four months in the year. In the plain of Peshawer, which is within view of these snowy summits, the thermometer in summer rises as high as in the hottest parts of India. It is mentioned by Mr Elphinstone, that in a tent artificially cooled, the thermometer stood for several days of summer at 112° and 113° in the shade. But the heat is not so uniform, nor does it last so long, as that of an Indian summer. At intervals in June and July cold north-west winds set in, which refresh the air, and render it pleasant. The last half of September is so cold as to be counted among the winter months, and the cold continues to increase till February. But the winter is not severe; and though there is frost in the night, it is always dispelled during the day by the influence of the sun. The temperature of the different valleys depending in this manner on their respective levels, they frequently exhibit the most remarkable contrasts of heat and cold. The plain of Jellalabad during summer is intolerably hot, while to the south, and immediately' above it, the mountain of Suffaid Coh lifts its snowy summit to the clouds. To the north the nearest hills are cold; and in the distance the Hindoo Coosh Mountains are seen skirting the horizon with a bright outline of perpetual snow, while the table-land of Cabul, immediately to the west, enjoys the coolness and verdure of a temperate summer. Among the Soliman Mountains, the higher countries are exposed to severe cold; but there are some of the lower valleys where the heat is even greater than at Peshawer. The low plains of Damaun, which run along the shores of the Indus, are oppressed during summer by scorching heats both night and day. On the western plains heat predominates, and they are accordingly deserted in the summer by the wandering shepherds, for the cool retreat and grassy valleys of the mountains. At Candahar the heat of summer is excessive, and is occasionally aggravated by the simoom winds. In proceeding north-east, however, along the course of the Helmund and its tributary streams, we reach elevated ground, where the cold is excessive, and where winter is experienced in all its severity. If we ascend the course of the Turnuk to Ghuzni, we find the snow lying deep for some time after the equinox, and so thick a covering of ice on the rivers as to afford a passage for camels. At Cabul the winter is more steady and severe than in England, while the summer heat is greater. The great difference between the seasons, and the quickness with which they change, are marked by the changes which take place in the dress of the inhabitants. In winter they wear woollen garments, and in some places clothes of felt, and over these a large greatcoat of well-tanned sheep-skin with the long shaggy wool inside. With the vernal equinox the snow disappears, the country is covered with young grass, the buds burst forth, and are soon followed by a profusion of flowers; and the inhabitants change their winter dress for a thin one of chintz or cotton, and frequently sleep at night under trees in the open air. The prevailing winds throughout Afghanistan are from the west, and they are generally cold; while the easterly wind is hot, and brings clouds. On the whole, the climate of this extensive country seems little subject to rains, clouds, or fogs; and judging from the size and strength of the inhabitants, it must be considered salubrious. Some fatal diseases are, however, common; such as fevers and agues, which prevail in autumn and in spring; also colds, which are sometimes dangerous in winter; and the small-pox, which still carries off many persons, though the practice of inoculation has long been introduced in all parts; and lastly, the ophthalmia.

Afghanistan abounds in wild animals, which find ample range in the extensive forests and large tracts of unfrequented deserts which it contains. The lion, however, though so common in Persia, and though it has been lately found in such numbers in Guzerat, and in the Hurriana, north-west of Delhi, is rare. In the hilly country around Cabul there is a small animal which bears the name without any of the qualities of the lion. In the districts east of the Soliman range tigers and leopards are common, and they are to be found in most of the woody tracts of the country. Wolves, hyenas, jackals, foxes, hares, porcupines, and hedgehogs, are to be seen everywhere. The wolves are formidable during the winter in the cold parts, where they assemble in troops, destroying cattle, and frequently attacking men. The hyenas sometimes attack a bullock singly, and, as well as the wolves, they make great havock among the sheep. Bears of two kinds, the one the black bear of India, and the other of a dirty white, are quite common in all the woody mountains; but they rarely leave their haunts, except when they are tempted by the sugar-cane. There are also mangooses, ferrets, and wild dogs. Monkies are common in the north-eastern parts. The wild boars of Persia and India are seldom seen; and the wild ass is confined to the south-western districts, on the lower Helmund, and to the sandy country round Candahar[7:2:214]. The mountains abound with many kinds of deer, including the elk; but the antelopes are rare, and confined to the plains. A species of deer is seen, which is remarkable for the size of its horns, and the strong but not disagreeable smell of its body. The king is in possession of a few elephants; but neither that animal nor the rhinoceros is to be found in any part of the country.

Among the domestic animals is the horse, a considerable number of which is bred in the Afghan dominions; and those bred near Herat are very fine, uniting the figure of the Arab horse with superior size. In general, however, the breed of Afghan horses is not good. There is a very strong and useful breed of ponies. On the other hand, the mules and asses are the most wretched that can be conceived. The camel is the animal most employed in carrying burdens. The dromedary, the tall long-legged animal common in India, is found all over the plains. The Bactrian camel, with two distinct humps, which is lower than the other by one-third, but stout, and covered with shaggy black hair, is much more rare, and is brought from the country beyond the Jaxartes. Buffaloes are to be found in many parts; and oxen are universally employed in the plough, and sometimes camels. They are not reared in the country, but are imported from the Rajpoot States, where they are the best in India. The sheep forms the principal stock of the pastoral tribes: it is remarkable for a tail about a foot in breadth, and consisting almost entirely of fat; in other respects it resembles the English sheep. The goat abounds in all the mountains, and is not scarce in the plains. Some of the breeds have remarkably long and curiously twisted horns. The pastoral tribes in the country, who are extremely fond of hunting, breed great numbers of excellent greyhounds, and even pointers, resembling those in England both in shape and quality. There is a breed of long-haired cats in great esteem, and of which great numbers are exported.

Of the birds, there are three sorts of eagles, and many kinds of hawks; namely, the gentle falcon, a large grey short-winged bird; the gos-hawk; the shauheen, which soars over the falconer’s head, and strikes the quarry as it rises; and the chirk, which is trained to strike the antelope, and, by fastening on its head, to retard its flight till the greyhounds come up. The other birds arc, herons, cranes, storks, wild ducks, geese, swans, partridges, quails, and a bird known in Europe under the name of the Greek partridge. There is another smaller bird resembling it, which is found nowhere except in Afghanistan. Pigeons, doves, crows, and sparrows, are common in all countries. Cuckoos, which are rare, and magpies, which are unknown in India, abound in the colder climate of those northern mountains; while peacocks, so commonly found wild in India, are here seen only in their domesticated state. Parrots make their appearance in the eastern provinces near the Indus.

The country is not infested with venomous reptiles. The snakes are mostly harmless; and though in Peshawer the scorpions are noted for their size and venom, their bite is scarcely ever fatal. There are no crocodiles, but there are turtles, as well as tortoises. In Khorassan, great flights of locusts have sometimes occasioned famine by their devastations, though this rarely occurs. Musquittoes are less troublesome than in India, except in the southern district of Seestan, where they sting as severely as in Bengal.

In most parts of Afghanistan there are two harvests, one in spring and the other in autumn. In the countries west of the Soliman range the former is the most important; but in the eastern parts the autumn harvest is the most considerable. The produce of the first, which is sown in spring and reaped in autumn, is wheat, barley, peas, beans, and other grains; that of the second, sown in the end of spring and reaped in autumn, is rice, Indian corn, and various kinds of pulse. Cotton is confined to the hot climates, and sugar is cultivated in some of the rich plains. Tobacco is produced in most parts. There is another distinct harvest, which is counted of great importance, of musk-melons, water-melons, the scented melon, and various sorts of cucumbers, pumpkins, and gourds, which are grown in the open fields. All common garden-stuff’s are abundant, such as carrots, turnips, beetroot, lettuce, onions, garlic, spinnage, greens of all kinds, cabbages, cauliflowers, and many of the Indian vegetables. The castor oil plant is found everywhere. Madder abounds over all the western provinces, and the assafoetida plant in the hills. In the west, lucerne and a sort of trefoil are among the most important products of husbandry. Of the fruits and trees which abound in tropical countries, few are to be found east of the Soliman range, and none to the west; but almost all the European trees and fruits are indigenous in the congenial climate of those elevated regions. They are frequently found growing wild in different parts of the country, and arc still more common in gardens and orchards. The most common trees in the mountains are pines, oaks, cedars, a sort of gigantic cypress, the walnut and the wild olive tree, the birch, the holley, and the hazel. In Hindoo Coosh the pistachio tree grows wild; and on the plains are the mulberry, the tamarisk, and the willow; also the plane and the poplar. English flowers, such as roses, jessamines, poppies, narcissuses, and hyacinths, are found in the gardens, and often in a wild state.

Of the minerals produced in the country little is known. Gold is said to be washed down the streams that flow from the Hindoo Coosh Mountains. Small quantities of silver are found in Caffristan; also lead, iron, and antimony, in different parts; sulphur and rock-salt in the salt range of mountains, and saltpetre everywhere.

The political institutions of the Afghans present the rude and disjointed materials of a free constitution. The form of the government is patriarchal. The nation is supposed to derive its origin from four tribes, which are divided and subdivided into inferior clans, until the last subdivision does not include more than a few families. The chief of a tribe is called Khan, and is elected in general by the king; while the head of one of the inferior divisions owes his choice to the people. To the khan, among the aristocratic tribes, is committed the collection of the royal revenue and the raising of the militia; and from the exercise of these duties, and the emoluments of his office, he derives extensive power and influence, more especially where he presides over a numerous tribe. Each inferior division of the tribe has its respective head; and in cases of emergency these all meet together and form a general assembly, called a Jeorga, which, with the khan presiding over it, deliberates and decides in all matters of public importance. The heads of the inferior branches of the tribe hold similar assemblies, which decide on minor matters, and arc guided by the same rules as the greater convention. When wars arise among the different tribes, it is the business of the assemblies to provide the means of carrying them on, to concert the plan of operations, or to settle the terms of peace. They have the power, along with the khan, to call out all the fighting men of the tribe, or they may levy taxes for any purpose of public utility. There is scarcely a petty community throughout the nation which does not make its own arrangements for the support of moollahs, an order of Mahometan priests, and for the maintenance and reception [7:2:215]of strangers into the tribe, whom it is always reckoned a duty to treat with peculiar attention.

The Afghan nation consists in this manner of numerous rude democracies, which are formed into one state by the supreme authority of the sovereign. He is the natural head of the tribe of Dooraunce, the greatest, bravest, and most civilized in the nation. He has, besides, a general superintendence over the whole kingdom, and may levy troops or money from each tribe for the common defence. But his authority is not equally respected by all the tribes. In the plains around the towns, throughout a considerable portion of the country, and in all the foreign provinces, he rules with full power, and collects a revenue and maintains an army without the aid of the khans or the popular assemblies. He employs for this purpose officers of his own appointment, namely, a haukim, who collects the revenue and commands the militia; a sirdar, who commands the regular troops, and whose duty it is to enforce submission to the haukim, and to the cauzy, who presides over the administration of justice. The heads of tribes, and under them the heads of the divisions of tribes, act in the revenue and police departments, under the haukim and the sirdar. Where the royal authority is strong, the khans have comparatively little influence; but, on the other hand, where it is weak, it is frequently resisted by the powerful influence of the khans, who form the aristocracy of the land, as their authority is also resisted by the inferior assemblies; and it sometimes happens that those assemblies differ with each other about the limits of their own powers; and hence the democratic tribes are often involved in dissension by this complicated collision of rival authorities. In the concerns of some of the tribes the king never interferes; he merely levies supplies of money for the public service, which, notwithstanding the presence of one of the royal sirdars, are frequently withheld or granted, according to the discretion of the khan: and in like manner the khan and the cauzy contend with more or less success, according to the state of the king’s authority, for the exercise of the judicial power. One or two tribes, such as the Eusofzyes, in the eastern comer of the country, set the king at defiance, and boast of their independence. The country is divided into 27 provinces, in 18 of which the royal authority prevails, and the king’s officers, the haukims and the sirdars, constantly reside. These are, Herat, Furrah, Candahar, Ghuzni, Cabul, Baumican and Ghorebund, Jellalabad, Lughman, Peshawer, Dera Ismael Khan, Dera Ghauzi Khan, Shekarpoor, Sewee, Sinde, Cashmere, Chuch Hazarch, Leia, and Mooltan. Several of these provinces, owing to the distraction of the country, have since aspired to independence; and in the other nine the royal authority carries little weight.

The government of the Afghans, though it contains in this manner the elements of freedom, fails entirely in the great end of securing to the community the blessings of good order and peace. The people are bold and independent, and spurn the restraints of law. Among such a variety of independent communities, imperfectly controlled by the royal authority, wars arise, which are waged with great fierceness, and in which the tumultuary militia of the tribes frequently come to blows, and waste each other’s territories. Private revenge also, though prohibited by the laws, is sanctioned by manners: it is accordingly practised by all classes, and is accounted the unalienable right of every freeman. Hence family feuds arise, which are not only carried on with bitterness at the time, but being transmitted from generation to generation, produce a long-continued course of violence and bloodshed. Afghanistan, with its bold and turbulent aristocracy, and the rude independence of its people, presents a lively picture of the state of society in Europe under the feudal system, when every potent baron could defy the authority of the crown, and when, owing to the private feuds of the nobles, the whole country was frequently one general scene of rude commotion. But the liberty of the Afghans, notwithstanding all its disadvantages, is preferable to a state of despotism. The rude and stormy independence which they enjoy is calculated to give to the national character a manly and heroic cast, to inspire the Afghan with proud and elevated sentiments, and to raise him, in point of courage and intelligence, far above the wretched slaves of Asiatic despotism. The Afghan himself, far from desiring to exchange his disorderly independence for the peace of tyranny, glories in the freedom of his institutions; and it is well observed by Elphinstone, that a European visiting the country, however he might lament that the inhabitants were “trained by their unhappy situation to fraud and malice, to rapine, deceit, and revenge, could yet scarce fail to admire their martial and lofty spirit, their hospitality and their bold and simple manners, equally removed from the suppleness of the citizen, and the awkward rusticity of the clown; and he would probably before long discover, among so many qualities that excited his disgust, the rudiments of many virtues.”

The judicial institutions of the Afghans, more especially where the royal authority is superseded, as it frequently is, by that of the khans, are rude and imperfect. There are no regular tribunals of justice, nor any organized systems of police. The popular assemblies of the tribes, composed of khans, mulliks, or elders, assisted by moollahs, and even by grave and experienced persons of inferior rank, discharge the functions of judges in criminal cases. Petty offences are settled by the elders of the village in which they occur; and in loosely governed tribes, every village or subdivision acts for itself. When the members are assembled, they hear the accuser’s story; and after examining witnesses and other evidence, they proceed to give judgment. The right of private revenge, which is congenial to the habits of a barbarous nation, is but feebly restrained by the judicial tribunals. Among several tribes the adjustment of disputes is attempted by mediation and persuasion, to which the chief and the elders lend their influence. But if, notwithstanding this mediation, the aggressor refuses compensation, and the injured party to forgive, the latter is no longer restrained from pursuing his revenge. Among some tribes the obstinate party is compelled to yield obedience to the award of the court. The general law of the country is that of Mahomet; but there is the code of Pooshtoon-Wallee, or the peculiar usages of the Afghans, which has all the force of law. In towns justice is administered by the cauzy, who decides both in civil and in criminal cases, aided by the mooftees. There is an officer named Ameeni Mehkemch, who takes charge of all deposits; and the Darogha of the Adawlut superintends the whole proceedings. There are also three officers who superintend the police of the towns. But in the judicial as well as the police departments the greatest abuses are said to prevail, and justice is frequently sold to the highest bidder.

The Afghans are strict Mahometans, and the moollahs or priests have great influence over them. They are looked upon with extraordinary reverence, and are especially powerful in the neighbourhood of Peshawer and other parts. They frequently gratify their private enmities by raising a charge of heresy against obnoxious individuals, and exposing them to persecution. In the remote districts of the country an insult to any of those personages would of itself be sufficient to raise a tumult. Being [7:2:216]intrusted with the education of youth,· the practice of the law, and the administration of justice, and in possession of all the learning and science which are to be found in the country, they take the lead in popular assemblies, or in judicial proceedings, and are frequently of use in moderating the violence of an ignorant people. In some circumstances they are enabled, by their superior knowledge and habits of business, to exercise an almost unlimited influence over individuals, and even over bodies of men; to check and control the governors and other civil officers; and sometimes even to overawe and control the power of the crown itself. Those priests are generally taught to read the Persian classics and the Arabic grammar, which they study diligently. They afterwards repair to Buckharia, or Peshawer, or some other seat of Mahometan learning, where they are initiated in logic, law, theology, and the system of physics known in the East, as well as in history, poetry, and medicine, which last is a favourite study. The moollahs are not so intolerant as Mahometans generally are; and the people, when they are not instigated by them, are still less disposed to religious persecution. The Hindoos in Afghanistan are allowed the free exercise of their religion, though they are prohibited from all religious processions or public exposure of their idols. But among so rude a people dissenters from the popular creed can have little security for their freedom; and among the Afghans, accordingly, there are not wanting some cruel examples of religious tyranny. Yet the Hindoos, though they are held to be impure, and though no strict man would consent to eat meat of their dressing, are employed in public situations of trust and emolument, and appear to enjoy as much security as the other inhabitants. All the Afghans are sent in their infancy to a moollah for education, by whom they are frequently taught nothing more than some prayers and passages of the Koran, and the ceremonies of their religion. A great portion of them remain consequently in a state of ignorance, and cannot read their own language. The rich maintain moollahs in their own houses, to teach their children, some of whom are taught to read the Persian classics and the Arabic. The Afghans have no literature of their own beyond a few patriotic songs or tales of love, of which passion they speak in the most romantic strain. The Mahometan religion exercises, as usual, its injurious influence on the character and condition of the women, who, especially among the higher classes, are shrouded in concealment. Polygamy is allowed, and any woman may be divorced at the caprice of her husband. Among the lower classes the women are more freely exposed, and do all the drudgery of the house, being forced to bring in water, and, among the ruder tribes, to do the work of the men out of doors. Slavery is allowed, as in all Mahometan countries. The greater part of the slaves are born at home; but supplies are received of Abyssinians, and negroes from Arabia; and of Persians from the inhabitants of Belochistan, who seize them in their forays. Caufirs are purchased from their own nation, or carried off by some of their own border tribes. These last are generally women, who are in great request on account of their beauty.

The low state of knowledge among the Afghans is evinced by some of their favourite studies and amusements. lhey are greatly addicted to alchemy and to magic; they have implicit faith in ghosts, in dreams, in the arts of divination, the power of talismans, and in the possibility of controlling genii and demons. Grown up men play at marbles. Prisoners base, quoits, and a game like hunt the slipper, are also common; as are wrestling and other trials of strength and skill. Fighting quails, cocks, dogs, rams, and even camels, are much admired. Some of their sports are, however, more manly. The chace is the favourite amusement of all classes, for which the abundance of game in the country affords ample scope. Horse-racing is common. An amusement of the better classes is to tilt with their lances, or to shoot at a mark with carbines or matchlocks on horseback; or with guns or bows and arrows on foot. They also practise a complicated sort of dance, which gives them great delight.

The Afghan women are described as large compared with those of India, and very fair and handsome. The men are all of a robust make, and are generally lean, though bony and muscular; and with high noses, high cheekbones, and long faces. Their hair is always coarse and strong, and they wear long and thick beards, which are generally black or brown, but rarely red. There is an expression of manliness and deliberation in their countenance, joined to an air of simplicity, not allied to weakness. The eastern Afghans have the natural features most strongly marked. Those of the western tribes are less distinct, and exhibit a greater variety of countenance, some of their features being the reverse of sharp, though their high cheek-bones never leave them. The western Afghans are larger and stouter than those of the east, some being of surprising strength and stature; but in general the Afghans are not so tall as the English. The eastern Afghans, owing to the heat of their climate, have generally dark complexions, approaching to that of the natives of Hindostan; while those of the west are olive, with a healthy colour and appearance. But among them, as among the eastern Afghans, are to be found men of swarthy complexions, like the natives of India; and others, again, as fair as Europeans. In the east, however, it is more common for the complexion to have a swarthy tinge than in the west. But the two races, the eastern and the western, are distinguished by still more striking peculiarities in their manners than in their complexion. Having derived their civilisation from the Persians and Indians, they each retain the usages of the respective nations with whom they have been connected. The Persian dress, language, and manners, distinguish the western tribes; and from the supremacy which two of these, particularly that of Dooraunce, have at times maintained over the whole, they decidedly prevail in the nation, and are even recognised where the Indian customs are more in repute. The manners of the Afghans are frank and open; sometimes rustic, but seldom fierce or insolent, except among the eastern tribe of the Eu-sofzyes, who have naturally an arrogant carriage. About towns they are more polished than in the country, and are accustomed to pay respect to their superiors. In all cases they show a great reverence for old age. They are altogether a superior people to the Hindostanees, being free from their puerility, and from the apathy which they display in all matters not bearing on their own interest; nor are they delighted with the baubles which form the most acceptable presents in India. The bulk of the people are rather remarkable for prudence, observation, and, though not very enlightened or enlarged in their views, for a rational spirit of inquiry. At Calcutta those that have seen the arsenal or the ships seem deeply interested in the superior improvements and knowledge of the English. And though they have not the same regard to truth as the Europeans, they do not indulge in the practice of gratuitous falsehood, to which the natives of Hindostan and Persia are universally addicted. From the nature of their country, which admits no travelling except on horseback, they are inured to cold and heat, and to [7:2:217] the exertion of making long journeys, and of climbing mountains, and of swimming across rapid torrents. Old men who seem hardly able to sit on horseback will ride at a good pace up and down the steepest and roughest passes, or along the edge of precipices, where it is even dangerous to walk. They are hospitable to strangers under certain circumstances; but they are notorious freebooters, especially the mountain tribes, and plunder travellers without scruple.

The inhabitants of the towns differ ’ in their origin and character from the cultivators and peasantry. The greater part of them in the western country consists of a race called Taujiks, originally descended from the Arabs and Persians; and in the east, of Hindikies, who are of Indian origin. No Afghan ever keeps a shop, or exercises any handicraft trade. Those employments are chiefly left to the classes mentioned above, and to the Persians, some of whom have acquired great wealth. The banking business is chiefly prosecuted by the Hindoos. They lend money at an enormous interest by negotiating bills of exchange; and they occasionally accommodate government with loans, for which they receive bills on the revenues of the provinces. Many of them are rich, and they conceal their wealth. Mr Elphinstone relates, that one of them, who gave him cash for bills on India, would only make his payments in the dead of night, when he dug up the money, and paid it with the utmost secrecy. There is a very strict police in the towns, which being exercised by the Mahometan priests, often affords pretexts for extortion. The food of the common people is leavened bread, rice, flesh, vegetables, sometimes cheese, and always dried curds, of which all classes are fond. Provisions are cheap, and there is a prodigious abundance of fruit.

In an inland country such as Afghanistan, mountainous, destitute of navigable rivers or of proper roads, commerce is carried on entirely by beasts of burden. There are no wheeled carriages, and camels are the animals chiefly employed. The merchants travel at the rate of about 8 or 10 miles a day in large caravans, the roads often lying through close and craggy defiles, and narrow stony valleys, among bare mountains, or along the beds of torrents, or over waste plains, where there is neither water nor provisions. The principal trade is with India, Persia, and Chinese and Independent Tartary. The caravans which set out for Tartary consist of horses or ponies, which are alone able to traverse the mountainous roads that he in one part over the snowy ridges of Hindoo Coosh. They set off from Cashmere and Peshawer. Cabul is the great mart of Independent Tartary, Candahar and Herat that of Persia. The trade from the north of India centres in Peshawer. That which crosses the desert from Jypore and other countries still farther south comes to Shekarpoor, Bahawulpoor, and Mooltan; and that which is carried on by sea comes to Koratchee, and thence to Shekarpoor and Candahar. The exports to Hindostan, which form by far the most considerable trade carried on by the Afghans, consist of horses and ponies, which chiefly come from Balk, on the northern side of the Hindoo Coosh Mountains; furs, shawls made at Cashmere, and fruits. The imports are coarse cotton cloths, which are worn by all the common people of the country; muslins, silken cloth, brocade, indigo in great quantities, ivory, chalk, bamboos, wax, tin, sandal wood, sugar, musk, coral, drugs, and spicés of all kinds. To Independent Tartary the exports are chiefly white cloth, shawls, Indian turbans, chintz, and indigo previously imported from India. The imports are horses, gold, and silver; the latter consisting of the gold coin of Buckharia, Dutch ducats, Venetiaa sequins, and ingots of silver from

China; cochineal, cloth, British hardware, looking glasses, Russian leather from Buckharia, to which place they come from Russia; also a fine cloth made of camels’ wool. The exports to Persia are shawls and shawl goods, indigo, carpets of Herat, chintz, Indian brocades, muslins, and other cotton cloths. The imports are raw silk, silken stuffs, a coloured cotton manufacture, and silken manufactures, which are used in large quantities by all ranks; embroidered satin, velvet, and Persian brocade, which are confined to the rich. Indian chintz, manufactured at Masulipa-tam on the Coromandel coast, comes by sea to Busheer in the Persian Gulf, and is thence brought by land to Afghanistan, where it is much used. The exports to Chinese Tartary are the same as to Buckharia. The imports are woollens, Chinese silk and satin, tea in small boxes of thin lead, china, porcelain, raw silk, cochineal, crystal, gold dust, and ingots of gold and silver with the Chinese stamp.

There are five classes of cultivators in Afghanistan: 1. the proprietors, who cultivate their own lands; 2. tenants, who pay a rent in money, or in part of the produce; 3. buzgurs, who, like the metayers, are supplied with seed, cattle, the implements of husbandry, and furnish only their labour; 4. hired labourers; and, 5. villains, who are the property of the landlord. From the influence of various causes, landed property is more equally divided than in most countries. The Mahometan law, which divides the father’s property equally among his children, soon breaks down the largest landed estates; and rendering the portions too small for the support of their proprietors, they are consequently sold to those who have acquired wealth in public employments, or by agriculture or commerce. Hence small proprietors, who cultivate their own lands either with the aid of their families or labourers, are numerous. The number of tenants is not great; and many of these subset it to others, who let it to metayers. The common term of a lease is one or two years; the longest is for five. The rent varies from one-tenth to two-thirds of the produce, the latter being the rent of the fertile lands around Cabul. The value of land is from nine to twelve years' produce. Labourers in husbandry are paid by the season, which is about nine months. They receive, besides food and clothing, 30 rupees, equal to L.3. 10s. In towns the price of labour is 4d. a day with food; in Candahar it is between 6⅜d. and 7d. The price of provisions is incredibly low. In Candahar coin of the value of 1000 pence would purchase five pounds of wheat flour; and at Peshawer the price of flour to the British mission was 76 pounds for a single rupee of the value of 2s. 4d.

The Afghan nation is divided into a variety of clans, which we cannot even enumerate; nor does it appear to be necessary, since a mere list of names, even if it were given, would throw no light whatever on the peculiar character and manners of the different tribes. One important distinction, however, divides the community into two great classes; namely, the pastoral tribes, who live in tents, and who migrate with the seasons in quest of subsistence for their flocks and herds; and those again who follow agriculture, and have fixed habitations. The country of Afghanistan which is near the hills consists of flat and low-lying plains, or of strongly-marked ranges of mountains. Western Afghanistan has an entirely opposite character, consisting of extensive and open plains, inhabited chiefly by pastoral tribes. These wandering hordes select the grassy valleys among the mountains for their summer habitation; but the approach of winter warns them to go in quest of more genial regions; and they accordingly migrate, some to the lower valleys at the foot of the Paropamisan Mountains, some to the low countries in the south, and others of the more purely pastoral tribes, wandering[7:2:218] from the mountain valleys of Khorassan, along the course of the Gomul, and across the Soliman hills, fix their winter habitations in the plains of Damaun, along the western shores of the Indus. The Dooraunces, who occupy a tract in the plain of Khorassan, 400 miles in length by about 148 in breadth, form one of the greatest pastoral tribes. It consists of many subordinate tribes, all of whom are more or less addicted to the wandering life; though a considerable proportion combine agriculture with pasturage, and have fixed residences. The pastoral part of the Dooraunce people are mostly to be found in the eastern hilly tracts near the frontiers of Persia, between Herat and Seestan, and in the waste plains of the south. To the south-east of Candahar the inhabitants are shepherds; in other parts of the country the husbandmen and shepherds are intermixed. North of Can-dahar, the migrating tribes seek the plains in winter and the hills in summer. Those to the south retire from the summer heat to the northern hills. The numerous tribes still farther south beyond the Helmund also quit the plains, which are thus left with scarcely a single inhabitant before the middle of spring. There are some tribes, such as the Naussers, who are purely pastoral in their habits, who live in tents, and have no fixed dwelling-place, and who regularly wander with the change of the season from their winter to their summer habitations. At the appointed time they assemble and march in a body, amounting to 30,000 people, with their numerous flocks and camels, and their whole possessions, and are encamped in about 200 tents. In the wild and solitary wastes of Khorassan they move in perfect security; but as they approach the populous parts of the country, they have to make their way through hostile tribes, who beset them in the mountain passes, and either attack the main body or cut off the stragglers. Hence they are compelled to adopt the strictest precautions. Scouts are planted on all sides, the flanks and rear are protected by armed bands, and the main body advances with all the caution and exact discipline of a regular army. These shepherds are all plunderers; and no single travellers, if they are rich, are safe in any part of the country. They are fierce and warlike in their actions, and enterprising in their habits; yet are they capable of strong attachments, and are keenly alive to the force of social and domestic ties. In distant countries they dwell with the fondest enthusiasm on the valleys of their native land, on the varieties of its scenery, on the beauties and delights of spring, and on all the pleasing vicissitudes of their wandering life; and it is seldom that they quit their own happy abodes for foreign adventures. Their camps usually consist of from 10 to 50 tents. One hundred is an unusually large number. The tent is formed of coarse black camlet, and affords excellent shelter from the weather, the threads of the blanket swelling as soon as they become wet; so that its texture, naturally close, is rendered quite impervious to rain. The tents of the common people are from 20 to 25 feet long, 10 or 12 feet broad, and 8 or 9 feet high. The tents of the khans arc of a superior description, being large enough to contain a numerous assembly, and so high as easily to admit a camel.

Mr Elphinstone estimates the population at 14,000,000, to which he supposes that the different natives who inhabit the country contribute in the following proportions: Afghans, 4,300,000; Beloches, 1,000,000; Tartars of all descriptions, 1,200,000; Persians, including Taujiks, 1,500,000; Indians, Cashmeres, &c. 5,700,000 ; miscellaneous, 300,000.

The Afghans, like most barbarous nations, derive their origin from high antiquity. They claim their descent from

Afghan, the son of Irmia or Birkía, son of Saul, king of Israel; but this is a vain tradition, which is unsupported by the slightest historical evidence. The first account we have of them is in the 9th century, when they were established in the north-eastern mountains of Afghanistan. In 997 Afghanistan was conquered by a Tartar officer, Se-buctaghi, who made Ghuzni or Ghizni his capital. His son Mahmood greatly enlarged the limits of his empire, which extended over the present kingdom of Cabul, India, Balkh, Badukshan, and a great part of Khorassan. His dynasty lasted till the year 1159, from which period till the invasion of Baber in 1506, different dynastics reigned in Afghanistan with some interruption. The country was subdued by Ghengis Khan and Tamerlane; and during their government, and that of their descendants, the native Afghans appear to have maintained their independence in the mountains. Baber, the descendant of Timour, began his career by the conquest of Cabul, which was his capital till the end of his reign. On his death his sons extended their conquests into India. Their capital was transferred to Delhi; and the plains of Afghanistan were divided be· •tween the empires of Hindostan and Persia, while the mountains as before afforded an asylum to those who rejected a foreign yoke. In 1720 the Afghan tribes threw off their allegiance to Persia, and advancing into the country, took Ispahan. But in 1728 they were driven back by the celebrated usurper Nadir Shah, who pursuing his success, in the year 1737 subdued the whole of Afghanistan. He established his power over all the countries to the west of the Indus, which continued subject to Persia till his assassination in 1747. On this event an Afghan officer of the Dooraunce tribe, Ahmed Shah, who had risen to high command in Nadir’s army, took possession of Candahar, and having united all the Afghans under his authority, founded the present kingdom. He was a wise and politic prince, who united courage and activity with great military talents. He invaded Hin-dostan at different times; and in the memorable battle of Paniput, fought in 1761, on the 7th January, he gave a decisive blow to the Mahratta power. He died in 1773, and was succeeded by his son Timour Shah, whose indolence was as noted as his father’s activity. He died in 1792, after a despotic reign, leaving his dominions to his two sons, Homayon and Zemaun Shah. War soon broke out between the two brothers; and the elder being defeated, the whole kingdom acknowledged the authority of Zemaun Shah. In 1796 this prince invaded Hindostan with a large army, and advanced to Lahore; but he was obliged to retreat in consequence of an insurrection in his own country. In 1800 Zemaun Shah was dethroned and deprived of his sight by his brother Mahmood. He was in 1803 expelled by his brother Shuja, who was in his turn expelled by Mahmood in 1809, and had a pension assigned him of 50,000 rupees per annum. Meantime Run-jeet Singh, the Seik chief of Lahore, profiting by the confusion, conquered Peshawer, the modern capital of Afghanistan. In 1818 Shah Shuja, impatient of retirement, attempted to regain his former dignity; but failing in this, he was, with a lenity not common among Asiatic conquerors, allowed to retire with his pension; and at the same time a pension was assigned to his blind brother Zemaun Shah. The two rival competitors, Mahmood and Shuja, were in 1826 quietly residing, the latter within the British territories, and the former with his son Camram, at Herat. The country was then partitioned among the sons of Futtch Khan, and Yar Mahomed Khan was ruling at Peshawer. (An Account of the Kingdom of Cabul and its Dependencies in Persia, Tartary, and India ; by the Hon. Mountstuart Elphinstone.) (f ) [7:2:219]