pnugues/EB7 huggingface dataset:
AUGUSTIN, or Austin, St, the first archbishop of Canterbury, was originally a monk in the convent of St Andrew at Rome, and educated under St Gregory, afterwards Pope Gregory I., by whom he was sent into Britain with forty other monks of the same order, about the year 596, to convert the English Saxons to Christianity. The missionaries landed in the isle of Thanet; and having sent some French interpreters to King Ethelbert with an account of their errand, the king gave them leave to convert as many of his subjects as they could, and assigned as their place of residence Durovernum, since called Canterbury, to which they were confined till the conversion of the king himself, whose example had a powerful influence in promoting the conversion of his subjects; but though he was extremely pleased at their becoming Christians, he never attempted to compel them. Augustin dispatched a priest and a monk to Rome, to acquaint the pope with the success of his mission, and to desire his resolution of certain questions. These men brought back with them a pall, and several books, vestments, utensils, and ornaments for the churches. His holiness, by the same messengers, gave Augustin directions concerning the settling of episcopal sees in Britain; and ordered him not to pull down the idol temples, but to convert them into Christian churches, only destroying the idols, and sprinkling the place with holy water, that the natives, by frequenting the temples they had been always accustomed to, might be the less shocked at their entrance into Christianity. Augustin resided principally at Canterbury, which thus became the metropolitan church of England; and having established bishops in several of the cities, he died on the 26th May 607. The Popish writers ascribe several miracles to him. The observation of the festival of St Augustin was first enjoined in a synod held under Cuthbert, archbishop of Canterbury, and afterwards by the pope’s bull in the reign of King Edward III.
AUGUSTINS, or Augustini ans, an order of religious, thus called from St Augustine, whose rule they observe. The Augustins, popularly also called Austin friars, were originally hermits, whom Pope Alexander IV. first congregated into one body, under their general Lanfranc, in 1256. Soon after their institution this order was brought into England, where they had about thirty-two houses at the time of their suppression. The Augustins are clothed in black, and make one of the four orders of mendicants.
AUGUSTOW, a woiwodship of Poland, which takes its name from the city which is its capital. The woiwodship is the northernmost part of the kingdom, a long strip, extending from the Bug to the Niemen, between long. 21. 20. and 23. 9. E. and lat. 52. 40. and 55. 5. N. Its extent is 6870 square miles, and it incloses the greater portion of the lakes of Poland, and many districts of ex· tensive woods; but it has some patches of good arable [7:4:193] land-It is divided into five obwods or circles, and contains 335,000 inhabitants.

Augustow, a circle or obwod in the woiwodship of the same name in Poland, formed out of the ancient circles of Sonion and Bober. It extends over 1515 square miles, and contains about 75,000 inhabitants.

Augustow, a city, the capital of the woiwodship of that name, on the river Netta, near an extensive lake. It contains 1980 inhabitants, of whom one quarter are Jews, who have much trade with Russia in horses and cattle. It is situated in long. 22. 53. 10. E. and lat. 53. 49. 30. N.
AUGUSTUS, Fort, a small fortress seated on a plain at the head of Loch Ness, in Scotland, between the rivers Tarf and Oich.

Augustus, the appellation conferred upon Caesar Octavianus, the first Roman emperor. The obscure name Octavianus, Mr Gibbon observes, he derived from a mean family in the little town of Aricia. It was stained with the blood of the proscription; and he was desirous, had it been possible, to eraze all memory of his former life. The illustrious surname of Caesar he had assumed, as the adopted son of the dictator; but he had too much good sense either to hope to be confounded, or to wish to be compared, with that extraordinary man. It was proposed in the senate to dignify their minister with a new appellation; and, after a very serious discussion, that of Augustus was chosen from among several others, as being the most expressive of the character of peace and sanctity which he uniformly affected. Augustus was therefore a personal, Caesar a family, distinction. The former should naturally have expired with the prince on whom it was bestowed; and, however the latter was diffused by adoption and female alliance, Nero was the last prince who could allege any hereditary claim to the honours of the Julian line. But at the time of his death the practice of a century had inseparably connected those appellations with the imperial dignity, and they have been preserved by a long succession of emperors, Romans, Greeks, Franks, and Germans, from the fall of the republic to the present time. A distinction was, however, soon introduced. The sacred title of Augustus was always reserved for the monarch; the name of Caesar was more freely communicated to his relations, and, from the reign of Hadrian at least, became appropriated to the second person in the state, who was considered the presumptive heir of the empire.
AUK. See Ornithology.
AULA is used by Spelman for a court-baron; by some old ecclesiastical writers for the nave of a church, and sometimes for a court-yard.

Aula Regia, or Regis, a court established by William the Conqueror in his own hall, composed of the king’s great officers of state, who resided in his palace, and were usually attendant on his person. This court was regulated by the article which forms the eleventh chapter of Magna Charta, and was established in Westminster Hall, where it has ever since continued.
AULCESTER, a market-town in the county of Warwick, distant 103 miles from London and 14 from Warwick. It stands at the junction of the two rivers Alne and Arrow. It was formerly a place of more importance, and the residence of some of our monarchs in remote periods. It still has a church, which is a fine Gothic structure. The market is held on Tuesday. The population amounted in 1801 to 1625, in 1811 to 1862, and in 1821 to 2229.
AULETES, in Antiquity, denotes a flute-player. One of the Ptolemies, kings of Egypt, father of Cleopatra, bore the surname or denomination of Auletes.
AULIC, an epithet given to certain officers of the empire, who compose a court which decides, without appeal, in all processes entered in or submitted to it.

Aulic, in the Sorbonne and foreign universities, is an act which a young divine maintains upon being admitted a doctor of divinity. It begins by a harangue of the chancellor, addressed to the young doctor, after which he receives the cap, and presides at the aulic or disputation.
AULPS, a city on the river Braque, with 2947 inhabitants, in the arrondissement of Draguignan, in the department of the Var, in France.
AULUS Gellius. See Gellius.
AUMBRY, a country word denoting a cupboard.
AUME, a Dutch measure for Rhenish wine, containing 40 English gallons.
AUNCEL WEIGHT, an ancient kind of balance, now out of use, being prohibited by several statutes, on account of the many deceits practised by it. It consisted of scales hanging on hooks, fastened at each end of a beam, which a man lifted up on his hand. In many parts of England auncel weight signifies meat sold by the hand, without scales.
AUNE, a long measure used in France to measure cloths, stuffs, ribbons, &c. At Rouen it is equal to one English ell. at Calais to 1’52, at Lyons to 1∙061, and at Paris to 0"95.
AUNGERVYLE, Richard, commonly known by the name of Richard de Bury, was born in 1281, at St Edmund’s Bury, in Suffolk, and educated at the University of Oxford; after which he entered into the order of Benedictine monks, and became tutor to Edward prince of Wales, afterwards King Edward III. Upon the accession of his royal pupil to the throne, he was first appointed cofferer; then treasurer of the wardrobe, archdean of Northampton, prebendary of Lincoln, Sarum, and Lichfield, keeper of the privy seal, dean of Wells; and last of all he was promoted to the bishopric of Durham. He likewise enjoyed the offices of lord high chancellor and treasurer of England, and discharged two important embassies at the court of France. Learned himself, and a patron of the learned, he maintained a correspondence with some of the greatest geniuses of the age, particularly with the celebrated Italian poet Petrarch. He was also of a most humane and benevolent temper, and performed many signal acts of charity. Every week he caused eight quarters of wheat to be made into bread, and given to the poor. Whenever he travelled between Durham and Newcastle, he distributed eight pounds sterling in alms; between Durham and Stockton five pounds; between Durham and Aukland five marks; and between Durham and Middleham five pounds. He founded a public library at Oxford for the use of the students, which he furnished with the best collection of books then in England; and appointed five keepers, to whom he granted yearly salaries. At the dissolution of religious houses in the reign of Henry VIII. Durham College, where he had fixed the library, being dissolved among the rest, some of the books were removed to the public library, some to Baliol College, and some came into the hands of Dr George Owen, a physician of Godstow, who bought that college of King Edward VI. Bishop Aungervyle died at his manor of Aukland, 24th April 1345, and was buried in the south part of the cross aisle of the cathedral church of Durham, to which he had been a benefactor. He wrote, 1. Philobiblos, containing directions for the management of his library at Oxford, and a great deal in praise of learning, but in very bad Latin. 2. Epistolae Familiarium ; some of which are addressed to Petrarch. 3. Orationes ad Principes; mentioned by Bale and Pitts.
AUNIS, formerly a small province in France, but now included in the department*of the Lower Charente, and belonging to the arrondissements of Rochefort, La Rochelle, and Varennes.
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AURACH, a town of Germany, with a good castle, in the kingdom of Wirtemberg.
AURAE, in Mythology, a name given by the Romans to the nymphs of the air. They are mostly to be found in the ancient paintings of ceilings, where they are represented as light and airy, generally with long robes and flying veils of some lively colour or other, and fluttering about in the rare and pleasing element assigned to them. They are characterized as sportive and happy in themselves, and as well-wishers to mankind.
AURAY, a small seaport town of Lower Brittany, in France, situated on the gulf called Morbihan, and in the department of the same name. It consists of only one handsome street, and is chiefly known for its trade. Long. 2. 25. W. Lat. 47. 48. N.
AURELIA, in Natural History, the same with what is more usually called chrysalis, and sometimes nymph. See Entomology.
AURELIANUS, Lucius Domitius, emperor of Rome, commanded the armies of the emperor Claudius with such glory, that after the death of that emperor all the legions agreed to place him on the throne. This happened in the year 270. He defeated the Goths, Samaritans, Marcomanni, the Persians, Egyptians, and Vandals, and conquered Zenobia queen of the Palmyrenians, and Tetricus general of the Gauls, both of whom were compelled to grace his triumph in the year 274. He was killed by one of his generals in Thrace in the year 276, when he was preparing to enter Persia with a great army.
AURELIUS Victor. See Victor.
AUREOLA, in its original signification, signifies a jewel, which is proposed as a reward of victory in some public dispute. Hence the Roman schoolmen applied it to denote the reward bestowed on martyrs, virgins, and doctors, on account of their works of supererogation; and painters use it to signify the crown of glory with which they adorn the heads of saints, confessors, and martyrs.
AUREUS, a Roman gold coin, equal in value to 25 denarii. According to Ainsworth, the aureus of the higher empire weighed near five pennyweights, and in the lower empire little more than half that weight. We learn from Suetonius that it was customary to give aurei to the victors in the chariot races.
AURICH, a bailiwick in the Hanoverian province of East Friesland, which contains, in one city and 23 villages, 3950 houses and 20,087 inhabitants. The extent is 270 square miles, or 172,800 acres. The land is marshy, but there are some good meadows. The capital of the bailiwick is of the same name, containing 2660 inhabitants, who, by means of a canal to the Ems, carry on some trade in pipes, tobacco, paper, and corn spirits. It is situated in Long. 7. 33. 11. E. and lat. 53. 28. 17. N.
AURICLE, in Anatomy, that part of the ear which is prominent from the head, called by many authors auris externa. Auricles are likewise two muscular bags situated at the basis of the heart, and intended as diverticula for the blood during the diastole.
AURIFLAMMA, in the French history, properly denotes a flag or standard belonging to the Abbey of St Denis, suspended over the tomb of that saint, which the religious, on occasion of any war in defence of their lands or rights, took down with great ceremony, and gave to their protector or advocate, to be borne at the head of their forces. Auriflamma is also sometimes used to denote the chief flag or standard in any army.
AURIGA, the Waggoner, in Astronomy, a constellation of the northern hemisphere. It contains, in Bode’s catalogue, 261 stars. Capella, a well-known, beautiful, double star, is in this constellation.
AURILLAC, an arrondissement in the department of the Cantal, in France, extending over 796 square miles, or 509,440 acres. It is divided into eight cantons, and these into 94 communes, containing 90,576 inhabitants. The chief city of the same name stands on the river Jordone, and contains 10,333 inhabitants, employed in making i woollen stuffs, lace, and carpets.
AURIOL’S Island, one of the Aladin Islands, on the east side of the Bay of Bengal, about 12 miles in circumference. Lat. 9. 22. N.
AURISCALPIUM, an instrument to clean the ears, and serving also for other operations in disorders of that part.
AUSCHWITZ, a city at the confluence of the Sola and the Vistula, formerly a ducal seat, in the circle of Myslenicze, in the Austrian province of Galicia.
AUSI, an ancient and very savage people of Libya. Herodotus tells us that they were unacquainted with marriage, and had all their women in common. The children were brought up by their mothers till they were able to walk; after which they were introduced to an assembly of the men, who met every three months, and the man to whom any child first spoke acknowledged himself its father. They celebrated annually a feast in honour of Minerva, in which the girls, dividing into two companies, foughtwith sticks and stones, and those who died of their wounds were concluded not to have been virgins.
AUSONIA, the ancient name of Italy, so called from its earliest inhabitants the Ausones.
AUSONIUM Mare, in Ancient Geography, a part of the Ionian Sea, extending southward from the promontory Japygium to Sicily, which it washes on the east, as it does the Bruttii and Magna Graecia on the south and east. It is separated from the Tuscan Sea by the Strait of Messina.
AUSONIUS (Decimus Magnus), one of the best poets of the fourth century, was the son of an eminent physician, and born at Bourdeaux. Great care was taken of his education, the whole family interesting themselves in it, either because his genius was very promising, or that the scheme of his nativity, which had been cast by his maternal grandfather, led them to imagine that he would one day rise to great honour. He made uncommon progress in classical learning, and at the age of thirty was chosen to teach grammar at Bourdeaux. He was promoted some time after to be professor of rhetoric; in which office he acquired so great a reputation that he was sent for to court to be preceptor to Gratian, the emperor Valentinian’s son. The rewards and honours conferred on him for the faithful discharge of his office prove the truth of Juvenal’s maxim, that when fortune pleases she can raise a man from the humble rank of rhetorician to the dignity of consul. He was actually appointed consul by the emperor Gratian in the year 379, after having filled other considerable posts; for besides the dignity of questor, to which he had been nominated by Valentinian, he was made prefect of the praetorium in Italy and Gaul after that prince’s death. His speech, returning thanks to Gratian on his promotion to the consulship, is highly commended. The time of his death is uncertain; but he was alive in 392, and is said to have attained a great age. The emperor Theodosius had a great esteem for Ausonius, and pressed him to publish his poems. There is great inequality in his works; and in his manner and style there is a harshness which was perhaps rather the defect of the times in which he lived than of his genius. The best editions of his poems arc that of Amsterdam in 1671, in 8vo, and that of Paris in 1728, in 4to.
AUSPEX, a name originally given to those who were afterwards denominated augurs. The word is evidently formed from avis, bird, and inspicere, to inspect; auspices, q. d. avispices.
AUSSERHODEN, one of the districts of the canton of Appenzell, in Switzerland, comprehending two thirds of that territory, being 227 square miles, or 145,280 acres, and containing 42,000 inhabitants. It is subdivided into two parts, namely, the Hither and Farther Gitten. All the inhabitants of this latter district adhere to the Protestant reformed church, as those of the former do to the Romish faith, which renders the administration of the two parts distinct from each other.
AUSTER, one of the four cardinal winds, as Servius calls them, blowing from the south.
AUSTERLITZ, a small town of Moravia, situated twelve miles south-east of Brunn. It contains hardly 2000 inhabitants, but has been rendered memorable by the great victory obtained in its vicinity, on the 2d December 1805, by the French under Napoleon, over the united forces of Austria and Russia under their respective emperors.
AUSTLE, St, a market-town of the hundred of Pow-den, in the county of Cornwall. It stands in the centre of the county, and is surrounded by a district rich in mines, and abounding in clay used in the potteries of Staffordshire. There are also some manufactures of woollen cloths. The market is held on Friday, and is well supplied. It is 243 miles from London, and 13 from Truro. The population in 1801 amounted to 3788, in 1811 to 3686, and in 1821 to 6175. The increase of inhabitants between 1811 and 1821 has therefore been great.
AUTOCHTHONES, an appellation assumed by some nations, importing that they sprung, or were produced, from the same soil which they still inhabited. In this sense Autochthones is nearly synonymous with Aborigines. The Athenians valued themselves on their being Autochthones, self-born, or γr i γοκις, earth-born ; it being the prevailing opinion among the ancients, that, in the beginning, the earth, by some prolific power, produced men, as it still does plants. The proper Autochthones were those primitive men who had no other parent beside the earth; but the name was also assumed by the descendants of these men, provided they never changed their ancient state, nor suffered other nations to mix with them. In this sense it was that the Greeks, and especially the Athenians, pretended to be Autochthones, and, as a badge of this distinction, wore a golden grasshopper woven in their hair, an insect supposed to have the same origin.
AUTOCRATOR, a person vested with an absolute independent power, by which he is rendered unaccountable to any other for his actions. The power of the Athenian generals or commanders was usually limited; so that, at the expiration of their office, they were liable to render an account of their administration. But, on some extraordinary occasions, they were exempted from this restraint, and sent with a full and uncontrollable authority; in which sense they were styled Αυτοx,ξα,τοξi1. The same people also applied the name to some of their ambassadors, who were vested with a full power of determining matters according [7:4:239]to their own discretion. These were denominated Τϊξΐσβιις hurο×ζaτοξiζ, and resembled our plenipotentiaries.
AUTO da Fe, act of faith. See Act of Faith.
AUTOAUTODIDACTUS, a self-taught scholar.
AUTOGRAPH denotes a person’s own handwriting, or the original manuscript of any book, &c.
AUTOLITHOTOMUS, he who cuts himself for the stone. Of this a very extraordinary instance is given by Reiselius, in the Ephemerides of the Academy Natures Curiosorum, dec. 1, an. 3, obs. 192.
AUTOMATON (from avτος, ipse, and μaoμaι, excitor), a self-moving machine, or one so constructed, by means of weights, levers, pulleys, and other mechanism, as to move for a considerable time as if endowed with animal life. According to this description, clocks, watches, and all machines of that kind, are automata.

Under the article Androides, it was observed that the highest perfection to which automata could be carried was to imitate exactly the motions and actions of living creatures, especially of mankind, which are with more difficulty imitated than those of other animals. Very surprising imitations, however, have been made of other creatures. So long ago as 400 years before Christ, Archytas of Tarentum is said to have made a wooden pigeon that could fly; nor will this appear at all incredible, when we consider the flute-player made by Μ. Vaucanson, and the chessplayer made by Μ. Kempel. Dr Hooke is also said to have made the model of a flying chariot, capable of supporting itself in the air. But Μ. Vaucanson above mentioned distinguished himself still more eminently. That gentleman, encouraged by the favourable reception of his fluteplayer, made a duck, which was capable of eating, drinking, and imitating exactly the natural voice of that fowl. Nay, what is still more surprising, the food it swallowed was evacuated in a digested state; not that it was really in a state of natural excrement, but only considerably altered from what it was when swallowed; and this digestion was performed on the principle of solution, not of trituration. The wings, viscera, and bones, of this artificial duck, were also formed so as very strongly to resemble those of a living animal. Even in the actions of eating and drinking this resemblance was preserved; the artificial duck swallowed with avidity and with quick motions of the head and throat, and likewise muddled the water with its bill, exactly like a natural one. See Androides.
AUTONOMIA, a power of living or being governed by our own laws and magistrates. The liberty of the cities under the faith and protection of the Romans consisted in their autonomia; that is, they were allowed to make their own laws, and elect their own magistrates, by whom justice was to be administered, and not by Roman presidents or judges, as was done in other places which were not indulged with the autonomia.
AUŢOPYROS, from aυτoς, and <nvgoς, wheat; in the ancient diet, an epithet given to a species of bread, wherein the whole substance of the wheat was retained, without retrenching any part of the bran. Galen describes it otherwise, viz. as bread where only the coarser bran was taken out; and thus it was a medium between the finest bread, called similagineus, and the coarsest, called furfu-raceus. This was also called autopyrites and syncomistus.