NUBIA, an extensive country of Africa, bounded on the north by Egypt, on the south by Abyssinia, on the east by the Red Sea, and on the west by the great Libyan desert. It is difficult to fix the precise limits and extent of this vast region, which will be variously estimated, according as we confine Nubia to the mere valley of the Nile between the first cataract and Meroë, or take into the account, as ought certainly to be done, the adjacent desert. There is, in fact, no principle of unity according to which it can be described as a whole; but, looking rather to the country itself than to any arbitrary definition or limitation, it may be considered as included between the thirteenth and twenty-fourth degrees of north latitude, and the thirty-third and thirty-sixth degrees of east longitude, and consequently as having a superficial area of not less than 360,000 square miles.

With the exception of the immediate banks of the Nile, which are rendered partially productive by laborious irrigation, Nubia consists almost entirely of rocky and sandy deserts. From the southern boundary of Egypt to Derr, the capital of Lower Nubia, the mountains press so closely upon the river, that there is but little ground upon either side for the purposes of agriculture; and the small portion which is capable of being cultivated appears to be diminishing, from the gradual encroachment of the sands, which the winds of the desert carry towards the stream. The peculiar structure of the valley through which the Nile here forces a passage, renders it obvious that there could not at any period have been a very dense population ι in this part of Nubia. But farther up the river, beyond the [7:16:293]parallel of Wady Halfa, there is ample space for the powerful nations which are said to have flourished here in ancient times. At the second cataract immense plains stretch out from either margin of the stream, exhibiting, it is said, even in their present neglected condition, unequivocal indications of fertility; and as there seems to be little doubt that, in former ages, the annual inundation extended considerably beyond the limits of modern cultivation, so it may reasonably be presumed that, anciently, the country was much more productive and populous than in modern times, when the decrease of the inundation, and the continual encroachment of the moving sands on the side both of the Nubian and the Libyan deserts, have combined to produce the desolation which now prevails. At present the Nile seldom or never overflows its banks in this part of Nubia; and the portion of the soil cultivated is irrigated by means of sakkeas or Persian wheels, constructed for raising the water of the river to the level of the adjacent ground. The eastern bank of the Nile is much better adapted for cultivation than the western, being more easily irrigated by artificial means. But it is not a little remarkable, that all the splendid ruins for which this region is distinguished, and which exhibit so great labour, ingenuity, and skill, are found upon the opposite bank; a circumstance which seems to strengthen the presumption that Nubia was formerly much more fertile and populous than in the present day.

The country on the banks of the Nile is divided into a number of little independent principalities, each governed by its own melek or chief. But, taken as a whole, it is composed of two parts; Wady Kenous, and Wady Nouba. The former extends from the confines of Egypt on the south to Wady Seboua; and the latter, from which the general name of the country appears to have been derived, stretches as far as the frontier of Dongola. The chief distinction between these two parts consists in the circumstance, that the languages spoken in each are entirely different. The governors of the various districts are described as ferocious and arbitrary in their proceedings; rude in their treatment of strangers, whom they regard with suspicion; and addicted to most of the vices which are common amongst barbarians. They acknowledge a nominal subjection to the viceroy of Egypt, but seldom neglect any opportunity .that offers of setting his authority at nought. Still, under the safeguard of his firman, Europeans may travel as far as Ibrim (the ancient Prim mis') in perfect safety; but, beyond that point, they must lay their account with being exposed to the vexations and dangers usually incurred in visiting barbarous countries, especially in Africa. In the marauding, slave-hunting expedition of Ismael Pasha in 1821, the treatment which the natives everywhere experienced has had the effect of exasperating and confirming the hostility of all the tribes who inhabit the upper parts of Nubia; nor is it likely that the remembrance of the wanton aggression which was then made upon them will soon be effaced from their memories. Each of the Nubian sheicks pays an annual tribute to the viceroy of Egypt; or rather a certain sum is extorted as an acknowledgment of subjection, and the price of an immunity from a visit by the viceroy’s troops.

The grain which forms the principal object of Nubian cultivation is dhourra, the holcus arundinaceus of the botanists. It is raised upon the patches of soil irrigated by means of the sakkeas or Persian wheels, of which there are from six to seven hundred between the first and second cataracts; and, when ground, it is formed into a cake somewhat resembling the Abyssinian teff. But as the people have no mills of any kind wherewith to grind it, this is usually effected by placing the grain in small quantities upon a large stone, and rubbing a smaller one over it until it is reduced to a sort of flour. If it be intended to produce bread of a superior quality, the dhourra is well washed, and then dried in the sun. But in general the people do not take this trouble; and the meal produced by their rude mode of grinding resembles a paste of the coarsest kind, mixed with chaff, sand, and dirt. It is usually placed in an earthen jar, and there left to ferment during twenty-four or thirty hours, after which time it acquires a subacid taste. No leaven is formed. A portion of the fermented pulp is merely poured upon an iron plate or stone placed over a fire, and in a few minutes it is baked into a cake; and this is repeated till the whole be baked. Cakes are usually brought hot to table, in a wooden bowl, with onion sauce, broth, milk, or butter poured on them; but some of a thinner kind, and well toasted, are prepared for the use of the caravans, and may be kept without being spoiled for several months. After the dhourra, the Nubians raise a crop of barley, French beans, lentils, and sometimes also of water-melons. Tobacco is everywhere cultivated, and constitutes the principal luxury of all classes, being either smoked, or sucked in a peculiar manner between the gums and the lip. Animal food is scarce, and seldom eaten, even by the chiefs or sheicks. The liquors used are palm wine, a spirit distilled from dates, and a sort of beer called bouza, which is made from dhourra. Excessive indulgence in these liquors is general throughout the whole country. The only fruit trees cultivated in Nubia are palms, but the soil is adapted for several others. Great sameness prevails in the vegetation of the desert, the trees being mostly acacias, tamarix, date, and domm palms.

The climate of Nubia, though intensely hot in summer, is nevertheless remarkably healthy. This is no doubt a consequence of the extreme dryness of the atmosphere, occasioned by the absence of rain, and the absorbent qualities of the soil. The plague has seldom or never reached Wady Halfa, and beyond the second cataract it is entirely unknown. The small-pox, however, , is a fearful scourge, and, owing to the ignorance and filthiness of the people, occasionally commits dreadful ravages. The houses of the Nubians are constructed of mud or of loose stones. The mud huts are roofed with dhourra stems or palm leaves, which in this climate are found to be a sufficient covering. The houses which are built of stones, being for the accommodation of the better class of inhabitants, commonly consist of two compartments, one for the male and the other for the female members of the family. The utensils of a Nubian household are few and wretched; half a dozen coarse earthen jars, some earthen plates, two stones for grinding dhourra, and a few round sticks, usually constituting their whole stock. From this an idea may be formed of the miserable condition of the inhabitants, as compared with those of any other country, Egypt only excepted.

Still the Nubians are generally well made, strong, and muscular, and have tolerably good features. The women are not handsome, but perfectly well formed, and in general remarkable for agreeable countenances and pleasing manners. They are also modest and reserved, and strictly observant of their conjugal duties. The domestic employments of the women consist chiefly in weaving coarse woollen mantles, cotton cloth for shirts, and mats of the date leaves; they also make drinking-bowls, and plates for containing the dhourra bread. A linen cap and a woollen cloth or mantle constitute the dress of the rich. The women usually wrap themselves in black woollen gowns; but children of both sexes run about quite naked. In ascending the Nile to Sukkat and Mahas, the dress becomes more and more scanty, and at length almost entirely disappears. The Nubians are seldom seen unarmed; indeed the first purchase made by a boy is that of a short crooked knife, which being fastened at the left elbow, is ready to be drawn on the slightest quarrel. Fire-arms are not common, and ammunition is very scarce. The inhabitants of the two divisions of Nubia, Wady Kenous and Wady Nouba, are almost constantly engaged in sanguinary quarrels; and when [7:16:294]death ensues, as is not unfrequently the case, the family of the deceased may either demand the price of blood, or retain the right of retaliation, which may be enforced against the brother, son, or first cousin of the murderer, at the option of the avenger. The consequence of this is, that when a death has occurred in any of these quarrels, a whole family is often obliged to leave the country. Great numbers of the Nubians repair to Cairo, where they usually act as porters, and are esteemed for their honesty; but they always return to their native villages with the little property which they have saved in plying their humble vocation. The inhabitants of Derr-el-Mahas and the more southerly districts differ considerably from the other Nubian tribes. Their houses are constructed only of palm leaves, fastened to high poles, the extremities of which rise considerably above the roofs. The countenances of the people are much less expressive of good nature than in the lower parts of the country, and their character corresponds with this difference of expression. In colour they are perfectly black, and their lips are thick like those of the negro, but they have not the same flat nose and high cheek-bones. A number of the men, and even girls who have attained womanhood, go about quite naked. Burckhardt has described the king of the Mahas as a mean vulgar-looking black, attended by some half dozen naked slaves, armed with shields and lances. Mahas is the nearest place in the country of the blacks, from which slave traders proceed to Cairo, a distance of abouta thousand miles.

There is another part of Nubia which is well deserving of particular notice; we mean the vast tract of country extending from the Nile to the Red Sea, between the parallels of 23° and 15° of north latitude. Modern travellers have penetrated this extensive region only by one line, namely, that which is followed by the Nubian caravans proceeding from Egypt to Sennaar. It is described as throughout a complete desert, without even a single fixed habitation, but interspersed with wadys or valleys, producing some trees, shrubs, or grass, and usually containing a few wells or rills, which are resorted to by the wandering Arabs, and also by the caravans, for a supply of water. The want of this important article forms the chief danger attending the journey; but if due precautions be taken, and the water-bags be properly filled at the wells, travellers can never be reduced to a state of great suffering, as many days seldom elapse without the means of obtaining a supply. Burckhardt, after having passed through the deserts of Suez and Sinai, did not consider this tract as quite so dreary, although its aspect is much more rugged, being in general hilly. At the southern extremity of this desert, through which roam the Bishareen tribes, is the district of Berber, consisting of four large villages, the inhabitants of which are chiefly employed in carrying on the trade of Egypt and Arabia with the interior of Africa. The people are a very handsome race, of a reddish-brown colour; which, if the mother be a slave from Abyssinia, becomes a light brown, but if from the negro countries, extremely dark, indeed almost black. The men are somewhat taller than the Egyptians, and also better ]imbed, and more muscular. Their features bear no resemblance to those of the negro; the face being oval, the nose often perfectly Grecian, and the cheek-bones by no means prominent. They consider themselves as Arabs, not negroes, and are very careful in maintaining the purity of their race. A free-born Meyrefab never marries a slave, whether Abyssinian or negro, but always an Arab girl belonging· to his own or to some neighbouring tribe. Few men have more than one wife; but every one who can afford it keeps a female slave or mistress, either in his own or in a separate house; and traders passing through Berber usually take a mistress during the period of their stay in the district. Drunkenness is the constant companion of this debauchery; and these dissolute habits produce the most pernicious effects on the morals and conduct of the people, Their character indeed is deformed by every degrading and debasing vice; they are noted for treachery and dishonesty; in the pursuit of gain they are restrained by no principle, breaking without scruple the most solemn engagements; and in transactions amongst themselves they commonly terminate every dispute by the law of the strongest. Quarrels are frequent and violent at drinking parties, and mostly end in bloodshed either with the knife or the sword. The principal scenes of these disorders are the bouza huts, which are kept by women of infamous character, by whom the liquor is also manufactured. Indeed no one ventures to enter one of these without his sword, and several persons of distinction have been killed in them. In a word, it is marvellous that a people so completely abandoned to the dominion of the most brutal passions have not long since been consumed by their own vices. Another part of this territory is the district of Taka, inhabited by the Bishareen Arabs. It is comparatively populous and fertile, differing in many respects from the other parts of Nubia; and through it passes the road to Souakin, followed by Burckhardt, the first who made us acquainted with Taka.

The government of Nubia, like that of Egypt, is essentially military. The officers, all of whom are Turks, decide every question connected with the revenues, and frequently interfere, in other affairs, with the decisions of the cadis or civil judges. The system of the government is to extort from the peasant the utmost possible amount in the shape of taxes, leaving him only what is considered a sufficient subsistence, which, as might be expected, isusuallya most miserable one. In some places, indeed, if the peasants did not actually steal from their own fields, they could not exist; and although they bury their grain under ground, and by various other methods deceive their oppressors, yet numbers perish from the want of sufficient sustenance and clothing. A vast proportion of the peasants subsist on food which is more calculated for cattle than human beings; and even of this, bad as it is, they have rarely enough. The pasha has power enough to keep them, in subjection, and by his extortions fills his coffers. He not only imposes enormous taxes on every article of produce, but obliges the people to cultivate whatever he chooses, and to take the price which he offers for the produce. He is the only purchaser of the grain, cotton, and indigo, the gum of Kordofan, ostrich feathers, and other articles. Slaves are almost the only commodity which the merchants are allowed to take in exchange for the manufactures which they carry to Kordofan and Sennaar; and even the wild animals of the desert, as the giraffe, form a government monopoly. The pasha is also the landlord or proprietor of this immense region; and the people are his slaves. His revenues are derived not only from the regular taxes, but likewise from his profits as a merchant, which are enormous, owingtothe low rate at'which he pays the peasants for their produce, compared with the high price at which he afterwards sells it to Europeans. This source of gain, however, is greatly diminished by the roguery of the different officers through whose hands the various commodities pass. From the highest to the lowest there is no exception in this respect; mabmours, nayrs, kiachefs, ’ caimacans, and mallums or Coptic accountants, all concur in diminishing the amount, and sharing the plunder·of the unhappy peasantry. The Copts employed in this department not only cheat the ignorant Turks, who generally cannot read their accounts, but often trade with the money of the treasury, and sometimes incur losses they are unable to make good; on which account numbers of them are always immured in the prisons of the viceroy.

But the peasants in Upper Nubia are free from these exactions, and therefore comparatively happy. It is no doubt true, that, instead of one dollar· in money, two pieces [7:16:295]of linen cloth, and a sheep, which was all they paid their ancient meleks, they are now obliged to pay fifteen dollars in cash and five in grain, being in all three hundred piastres, or ten times the amount of their former contributions; and they are likewise obliged to work instead of sleeping during the greater part of the day, as was formerly their custom when under their own chiefs. But the man who is at all industrious may nevertheless earn what is amply sufficient to afford him food, and such dress as he has been accustomed to. Each sakkea or Persian wheel is sufficient to water three quarters of a feddan of land, planted with indigo; and each feddan, when carefully irrigated, produces a hundred cantars of the herb, and sometimes more, being about seventy-five cantars for the extent of land which one wheel will water. The government pay the peasant !2∣ Egyptian piastres for each quintal, or 937 piastres for the whole; which, at the current rate of the dollar in this country (fifteen piastres), is equal to 62½ dollars. If from this we deduct twenty dollars for the duty, there remains for the persons to whom the wheel belongs 4>2½ dollars, or 637 piastres; but as the calculation here made is at the lowest rate, two piastres a day may fairly be estimated as the clear gain of the peasantry by each water-wheel. This sum, small as it may appear, is sufficient for the support of one fiunily, provided it contain five persons capable of putting their shoulders to the wheel; if it do not, however, two families must unite to make up this number. The immense expense of the water-wheel forms a great deduction from the gain of the peasant in Egypt; but in Nubia they are so much more simple that they cost only a trifling sum, as oxen may be obtained for thirty piastres each, whilst their “keep” is next to nothing. Two piastres, or sevenpence sterling, may appear a very small sum to a European; but in this country, where every necessary is so cheap, it is amply sufficient for the support of a family, in both divisions of Egypt, where bread is much dearer, and meat and milk are double the price, the fixed remuneration of a labourer amounts to only half a piastre per day, with which he has to sustain himself and perhaps a family. But in Nubia most of the peasants have slips of land watered by the partial inundation of the river, and gain considerably by their date trees, although they pay a tax of a piastre for each. They also rear flocks; cultivate vegetables, particularly bamia-and malakhia; and make linen, spirit, bouza, and other articles. The condition of the peasants of Upper Nubia is therefore happy, compared with that of the Fellaheen of Egypt, the most oppressed and degraded population in the world.

The Arabs of the desert have still more reason to be satisfied with the government. They pay tribute only for the land they cultivate, which is in general very little, and in many cases none at all; and otherwise they gain a sufficient livelihood by transporting to Egypt on their camels the grain collected as revenue, or purchased by the government, and by aiding the passage of troops and merchants, which is now unintermitted. As far as regards taxes, and the means of subsistence, therefore, the Arabs of the desert in Upper Nubia, as well as the peasants on the Nile, are in a much better condition than the Fellaheen of Egypt. But in all other respects they are equally galled and insulted by their Turkish rulers. In Egypt, the officers only are oppressive, and the soldiers, who mostly belong to the class of Fellaheen, are not insolent. In Nubia, however, it is far otherwise. The comparatively white complexion of the troops, their character as conquerors, and their pride ŭs askaria (soldiers), induce them to despise the natives, and exercise oppressions which the government by no means authorizes. When the chief governor of a province is a man possessed of talent, energy, and firmness of character, the officers and soldiers are prevented from committing many excesses. But when the country has the misfortune to be governed by an individual destitute of the qualities we have mentioned, and too timid to redress the grievances occasioned by the disorderly conduct of the troops, its state may easily be imagined. Every evil is then aggravated by impunity. Men whose ancestors have been meleks or chiefs in the country for ages, are obliged to submit to the insolence and tyranny of a lawless soldiery. Taxes oppressive in themselves are rendered tenfold more so by the mode in which they are levied. Every collection is a species of military execution. No proper notice is almost ever given. “Pay to-morrow, or the bastinado,” is the usual intimation conveyed to the peasant, who, not being allowed sufficient time to raise the money, is subjected to this cruel and degrading punishment, and sometimes nailed by the ear to a board. The revolt of the Mahas, described by Mr Hoskins, was occasioned by this summary mode of collecting some arrears of taxes.

Nubia, under proper management, might become a far greater source of wealth to the ruler of Egypt than it now is, or seems likely to be, under his sway. His system is one which is not only calculated to defeat its own objects in a fiscal point of view, but to exasperate the natives, whom good policy would try to conciliate, and also to sow the seeds of future anarchy and convulsion. At the same time, notwithstanding the galling conduct of the Egyptian authorities, the natives are sensible of the advantage of a firm and settled government; and the peasants of the Nile, in particular, are glad to be released from the tyranny and spoliation which accompanied the feuds and petty wars by which the country was formerly distracted. “Did the Turks,” says Mr Hoskins, “but treat them as men, and not disgust them by their insulting manners, and by inflicting on them such degrading and infamous punishments; had their rulers but a few ideas of common policy and legislation; the resources [of the country] might be greatly augmented, the revenue increased, and the people the most happy and contented under the sun. The superiority which fire-arms afforded to their haughty conquerors taught them to despise the strength of the Arabs; and, with that insolence which is ever united with ignorance, they do not, in the slightest degree, endeavour to attach them to the government, or, in fact, condescend to treat, otherwise than as a vastly inferior race, the people whom it cost them so much, with all their advantages, to conquer.”^[1. Hoskins, Travels in Ethiopia, pp. 230, 23G. ]

The chief trade of Nubia, as already mentioned, consists in slaves imported from the interior of Africa, and either conveyed northwards to Egypt, or sent across the Red Sea from Souakin to Jidda. The annual import is estimated at about 5000, of whom 2500 are for Arabia, 1500 for Egypt, and 1000 for Dongola and the Bedouins of the mountains. Few of the slaves are above the age of fifteen; but the most valued are those between eleven and fifteen, who, if males, sell for fifteen or sixteen dollars, and if females, for twenty-five or twenty-six. In the East, slaves are chiefly employed as domestics, and people are seldom fond of any who have not been in the family from an early age. These children, as long as they remain within the negro territories, are treated with great indulgence; but when they once enter the desert, and have no longer any chance of escape, this treatment is entirely changed, and the lash unsparingly applied. The health of the slave, however, is always attended to; he is regularly fed, and receives a share of water with his master. Dates, gums, and ostrich feathers are also exported; as are senna leaves, ebony, sandal-wood, [7:16:296]and some other articles, though in small quantities. Gold is found in mines, and amongst the river sands, but not in such abundance as to form any considerable article of exchange.

One of the most remarkable features of this region consists in the magnificent monumental remains with which it is covered along the line of the stream, and which continue to perpetuate the genius and power of the ancient population of the country situated on the Upper Nile. That Egypt was indebted to Ethiopia (which included Nubia) for the rudiments, and perhaps even for the finished patterns, of architectural skill, is no longer questioned by any writer whose pursuits have qualified him to form a judgment of the subject. Gau, in his splendid work on Nubia, maintains it as a first principle, that this country was the cradle of Egyptian architecture; and its monuments embrace the whole period during which the art flourished in the valley of the Lower Nile. He conceives that all the architecture of Egypt, from the first rude effort to cut a temple in the rock, to the construction of those detached edifices which were afterwards erected in the times of the Greeks and Romans, has its types in the structures of Nubia. Hence, in the architectural history of that country, he distinguishes three great epochs; the first comprehending the temples cut in the sides of the hills or rocks, which are evidently the most ancient; the second, those which are detached from the chambers cut in the rock, but still retain the colossal masses of the primitive type; and the third, the small edifices of Maharraga, Gartaas, and Dondour, with several analogous structures in Egypt. This classification appears to be perfectly natural and well founded, inasmuch as the only test of the relative antiquity of such monuments is a reference to the comparative simplicity of their structure or formation. It is upon this principle, therefore, that we shall now proceed to describe very shortly, some of the principal temples and other edifices in Nubia.

At Gibel-el-Birkel, Waddington discovered two temples excavated in the solid rock, and having only their exterior chambers formed of masonry; circumstances in which they resemble those of Girshé, Seboua, and Derr. The smaller of the two has six halls or apartments, five of which are cut in the body of the mountain; the larger, constituting the entrance, stands on an artificial foundation of stone, by means of which it is raised as high as the rock in which the other is excavated. Near the adytum there are figures of Ammon and of Horus; and vestiges of hieroglyphics may be discerned in all the chambers. From the plainness of the masonry, the rudeness and decay of the sculptures, and the decomposition of the walls, it has been concluded that this is older than any of the temples of Egypt, or even of Nubia. The temple of Girshé also belongs to the more simple order of structures, and indicates a rude state of the arts connected with architecture. The porticoconsists of five square columns on each side, cut out of the rock, with a row of circular pillars in front, constructed of several blocks, and originally surmounted with an entablature, though only two of them now remain. Before every one of the square columns stands a colossal statue of sandstone, eighteen feet in height, holding a lash or flail in one hand, and the other hanging down; the figure of each is that of a male, with the pointed beard under the chin, the high sphinx-cap on the head, and the shoulders covered with hieroglyphical inscriptions. On both sides of the porticothere is an open alley, which is hewn in the rock. The pronaos, eighteen yards square, is entered from the portico and contains two rows of immense columns without capitals, in front of each of which there is a colossal figure, more than twenty feet in height, with the hands crossed on the breast, and holding the flagellum in one, and the handled cross, or emblem of life, in the other. On the side walls are four recesses or niches, in each of which are three statues of the natural size, representing the different figures, male and female, which are observed upon the walls of the temples of Egypt. A door leads from the pronaos into the cella, in the middle of which there are two massive pillars, and, upon either side, a small apartment. Very little is now discernible of the sculpture and hieroglyphics with which the walls were covered; but enough remains to show that they were very rudely executed.^[2. This is the same place which by other travellers is called Guerfch Hassan, or Gwersh Hassan, and is described with much minuteness in several of their works. (See Henniker, Notes, &c. p. 154.) ] The ruined structure at Seboua has before it a propylon similar to that of Gournch at Thebés. The pronaos on each of its longest sides has five columns without capitals, and in front of each is a colossal figure, sixteen feet in height, with the arms crossed on the breast, and the usual emblems in the hands. Before the entrance there lies on the ground a huge statue, the head and bust of which are buried in the sand; and in front of the propylon are two statues, ten feet in height, with their faces towards the river, and attached by the backs to stone pillars of equal elevation. An avenue of sphinxes leads from the bank of the Nile to the temple, but the greater part of them are now buried in the sand, four only remaining visible. The whole fabric appears to be of the remotest antiquity, and has been imitated by the more modern architects of Egypt.^[3. The propylon and pronaos are found, on a large scale, at Gournch, near Thebes; the two statues in advance of the propylon are the miniatures of those in front of the Memnonium; and the sphinxes are seen are Karnak. ]

But of all the rock temples of Nubia, that of Ebsamboul or Ipsamboul,^[4. The name, as spelled by Belzoni, is Ybsambul, whilst others write it Ebsamboul and Ibsamboul. But all these forms are probably corruptions of Abou-Sambul, which appears to be the genuine name. ] s about a day and a half’s journey below the second cataract, is incomparably the most remarkable. In the course of centuries the sand of the desert had so completely overwhelmed it, that nothing appeared to the eye of the traveller except the bust of one of the colossal figures which were placed at the front of the entrance. But the dimensions of this statue were so great as to excite the curiosity of all who examined it; and the countenance, when seen at a proper distance, appeared strikingly beautiful. Animated with a desire to explore the buried structure of which this statue formed an exterior ornament, a party, consisting of Mr Belzoni and Captains Irby and Mangles, with some attendants, undertook to remove the sand, so far at least as to ascertain whether there was a door-way, or any other access to the interior. At first they relied upon the assistance of the natives, who readily entered into terms with them; but the increasing fatigue, and an evident disinclination to the work, induced the Nubians to break their engagement, and the travellers had no resource but to complete the labour with their own hands. In the hot season of the year, and with a scanty supply of necessaries, they worked day by day in the sand, from sunrise till night; and at length, after more than three weeks of continued exertion, each performing the labour of about a dozen Nubians, a corner of the door-way became visible; and an entrance having been effected, the interior was explored, probably for the first time during a thousand years.

The first glance at the interior convinced Belzoni and his associates that it was evidently a very large structure; but their astonishment increased when they found it to be one of the most magnificent of temples, enriched with [7:16:297] beautiful intaglios, paintings, and colossal figures. The pronaos, fifty-seven feet in length, and fifty in breadth, is supported by two rows of square pillars in a straight line from the front door to that of the sekos; and each pillar has attached to it a figure finely executed, and very little injured by time, the top of the head-dress reaching the ceiling, which is about thirty feet in height. Both the pillars and the walls are covered with representations of battles, storming of castles, triumphs, and sacrifices, in a style, if not superior to, at least bolder than, that of almost any in Egypt, both in regard to the design and the workmanship. The second hall, which is of less dimensions, contains four pillars about four feet square, and the walls are covered with hieroglyphics in tolerable preservation. Beyond this there is a chamber of the same width, but shorter, in which is the entrance to the sanctuary; and at each end is a door leading into smaller apartments in the same direction with the adytum. The sanctuary itself is twenty-three feet in length by twelve in breadth, and contains a pedestal in the centre, with four colossal figures in a sitting posture at the end, all in good order, and uninjured. On the right side of the great hall there are two doors at a short distance from each other, and which lead into two separate apartments of considerable dimensions, at the end of which are several unfinished hieroglyphics, sketched so as to give an idea of the manner of drawing. At the lateral corners of the entrance from the first into the second chamber are doors, each of which leads into a chamber twenty feet by ten; and these again open into other apartments, forty-three feet in length by eleven in breadth. The most remarkable subjects in this temple are a group of captive Ethiopians in the western corner; a hero killing a man with his spear, and another lying dead at his feet; and the storming of a castle, which forms part of the representation. The outside or external front of this temple is truly magnificent, being a hundred and seventeen feet in width, and eighty-six feet in height, whilst the space from the top of the cornice to that of the door is sixty-six feet and a half, and the height of the door itself twenty feet. There are four enormous sitting figures, the largest in Nubia, or even in Egypt, excepting only the great sphinx at the Pyramids, to which they approach in the proportion of nearly two thirds. On the top of the door is a statue of Osiris, twenty feet in height, with a colossal figure on each side looking towards it. The cornice of the temple is adorned with hieroglyphics, and under it are a torus and frize, the one six and the other four feet in breadth. Above the cornice is a row of squatted monkeys, twenty in number, and each eight feet and a half across the shoulders. This temple was nearly two thirds buried in the sand, of which thirty-one feet were removed before reaching the upper part of the door. It is excavated in the solid rock, which here rises about a hundred feet above the Nile, and, excepting one of the tombs at Biban-el-Molouk, is the largest of the kind either in Egypt or Nubia.^[5. "The heat was so great in the interior of the temple,” says Belzoni, “that it scarcely permitted us to take any drawings, as the perspiration from our hands soon rendered the paper quite wet. Accordingly, we left this operation to succeeding travellers, who may set about it with more convenience than we could, as the place will become cooler.” (Narrative, p. 214.) ]

At a subsequent period, Mr Bankes visited Ebsamboul, and succeeded in uncovering down to the feet one of the four colossal sitting figures, upon the limbs of which he discovered and copied an inscription in Greek relating to Psammeticus. He next cleared the head of the fourth colossal figure, which had not before emerged above the surface, so as to be able to make a drawing of the whole; and the approach being thus disencumbered, the interior of the temple was lighted up with wax candles fixed on upright poles, to enable Mr Bankes and his assistant draughtsmen to copy all the paintings in detail. It is much to be regretted that the labour in opening this temple has not been attended with any permanent effect; the winds of the desert and the natural lubricity of the sand having soon rendered the approach nearly as difficult as before. In about two years the door-way was again covered up, and by this time the interior must be quite as inaccessible as ever. All travellers agree in the accounts they give of Ebsamboul, which is described as the ne plus ultra of Egyptian labour. According to Sir Frederick Henniker, there is no temple at Denderah, Thebes, or Philae, that can be put in comparison with it; and the traveller just named rejoices in “having seen the noblest monument of antiquity that is to be found on the banks of the Nile.” This is not the place to enter into details respecting the hieroglyphical emblems and inscriptions with which different parts of - this wonderful structure are covered. The larger chamber is jf distinguished as the temple of Osiris, and the smaller as that of Isis, to whom it is dedicated. The former is represented in a sitting posture, attended by the hawk-beaded deity; whilst the latter holds in her hand the lotus-headed sceptre, surrounded with numerous inscriptions and emblems. Much interesting sculpture is also lavished upon the second and third apartments; and in a niche at the upper end of the latter is a small statue of Nephthe, thewife of Typhon, seated. In several places of the square border which encircles the front of the temple, and also on the buttresses between the colossal figures, are a number of ovals or rings, containing the name and praenomen of Ramesses the Great, the same Pharaoh whom the Greeks indicate by the name of Sesostris or Sethosis. We may here add, that a striking resemblance has been observed between the rock temples of India, particularly that in the island of Elephanta, and those of Nubia, especially that of Ebsamboul; indeed the similarity is so great as to have suggested the notion of a common origin, as well in regard to the mythology as the architecture of both countries.^[6. See is me s Account of the Cave-lemple of l£lephanta, in the Transactions of the Literary Society of Bombay, vol. i. pp. ]

The temple of Samnch, situated on the western bank of the river, between the twenty-first and twenty-second degree of north latitude, affords a specimen of a more perfect class of structures; intermediate, it would seem, between such excavations as that of Ebsamboul and the magnificent edifices of Karnak and Luxor. It is built of sandstone, and differs in shape from other edifices of a similar kind, though in its plan it somewhat resembles the small chapel at Elephantina in Egypt. The principal building is about thirty-six feet in length and nine in breadth. On either hand there stood originally four small pillars, of which two remain on the one side, and three on the other, all covered with sculptures. The inner walls are adorned with hieroglyphics and mystic representations, amongst which may be mentioned the ship of Osiris; and upon the outer wall Burckhardt’s distinguished figures of Mendes. The sculptures are rather coarsely executed, and the lines dividing the columns of hieroglyphics, some of which have been left unfinished, are not straight. The temple of Dondour or Tangour is likewise deserving of attention, from the peculiarities of its style, having been classed by Gau amongst those structures which belong to the last of the epochs of Nubian art already mentioned. It is in form a parallelogram, having the proportions observed in some Grecian structures; and in the pillars may be recognised the mixed Greek and Egyptian style. Between the second and third cataract, in latitude twenty-one degrees north, is the temple of Soleb or Solib. An elevated stone foundation extends in front of the temple, and the remains of two sphinxes are seen at either side of the approach. The first [7:16:298]chamber is more than a hundred feet in breadth, and about ninety feet in depth, having round three of its sides a single row of pillars, and on the fourth indications of a double row. They have all been executed from the same model, and are inscribed with hieroglyphics. In the second chamber may be traced a row of pillars, resembling those of the first; but they are all broken, and the fragments scattered about in every direction. The dimensions of the adytum cannot now be ascertained, the side walls having been completely destroyed. The temple of Soleb affords the lightest specimen anywhere to be seen of Ethiopian architecture, and, for elegance of proportion, has been compared to that of Minerva Sunias at Cape Colonna. At Gibel-el-Birkel there are the remains of two temples, partly excavated in the rock, and partly constructed, like those of Girshé and Seboua. The principal temple is of vast dimensions, and contains no less than six chambers. It is supposed to have been the work of different and distant periods; and, even in the construction of those parts which belonged to the original building, many stones were employed which had formed parts of some more ancient edifice. The vicinity of Gibel-el-Birkel is remarkable for pyramids, which, though much inferior to those of Egypt, probably originated in the same views of vanity or superstition, not to say tyranny. For further information on the subject of Nubian rock excavations and architecture, the reader is referred to the works of Burckhardt, Light, Legh, Richardson, Henniker, Caillaud, Waddington, and Hoskins, in which will be found ample descriptions of the remains on either side of the Nile, from Assouan to Meroë, accompanied occasionally with drawings and plans. The reader is also referred to the articles Ethiopia, Ethiopian Nations, and Meroe.

On the whole, it appears that, by a more accurate classification of the monuments, and the aid of inscriptions, which to former travellers were altogether unintelligible, we are now enabled to rectify misconceptions, correct mistakes, discard mere conjectures, and, in fact, make a real and valuable addition to the history of civilized Egypt. Between the temples excavated in the rock, such as those of Derr and Ebsamboul, and the buildings of a later date, there was an intermediate stage in the art, which it is important to distinguish. The first architectural attempt in Nubia probably consisted in the improvement of some hole or cave in the rock; or, even if the country possessed no natural caves for imitation by a people possessing the troglodyte habits natural to the inhabitants of a burning climate, the mountains themselves would afford facilities for constructing durable habitations. After having got possession of a hole or cave, the next step of these primitive architects would probably be to extend the excavation, to form several chambers separated by the native rock, and when a compartment of larger dimensions was designed, to have square pillars for the support of the roof. In the course of time the outer front, with the inner walls and pillars, would receive decorations derived from imitations of the natural forms of the country, and subjects connected with the historical remembrances or religious creed of the nation. We see abundant evidence in the rock temples of Nubia to convince us, that the order of progression and improvement here indicated was that actually followed in their gradual enlargement and decoration; yet a prodigious period must have elapsed between the rudest excavation in the rock, such as Derr appears to have been in its primitive state, and the highly-finished sculptures of the great temple of Ebsamboul. In fact, “antiquity appears to have begun” long after these primeval architects had commenced their troglodyte labours. But, in surveying the wonders which crowd the banks of the Nile from Meroë to Memphis, our minds become insensibly impressed with the reflection, that the wealth, power, and genius which produced them have entirely passed away; that, if the new worlds have risen, and new races been discovered, “we have lost old nations and that, in the lapse of ages, empires themselves vanish, like the baseless fabric of a vision, leaving scarcely a wreck or trace behind them. Throughout many parts of this extensive tract, a race little superior to savages pass a rude and precarious life, ignorant of the arts which once flourished in their country, and insensible to the beauty and magnificence of the ruins which they desecrate. They have long ceased to claim any connection with the people who constructed the monuments of Ebsamboul, Karnak, Luxor, and Gournch; and having relapsed into that low condition where curiosity becomes dormant or extinct, they are only moved with wonder when they observe the natives of civilized regions exploring their temples, or taking the dimensions of their obelisks and pyramids. The contrast between what now is, and what once must have been in Ethiopia and in Egypt, is indeed most striking; nor is it easy to pass, even in thought, through the various scenes of conquest and desolation which must have conspired to produce the effects we contemplate. History sheds no light on events and characters which the lapse of three thousand years has covered with impenetrable obscurity; and whilstgrop-ing our way amidst temples dedicated to gods, and structures raised in honour of heroes, whose very names sound like voices from the dead, we content ourselves with the conclusion, which all the monuments impress on us, that, long before the dawn of history, there had existed in that singular region a great people, whose architectural monuments have outlasted their learning, their philosophy, and almost even their very name.

(See Buckhardt’s Travels in Nubia; Waddington’s Journal of a Visit to some parts of Ethiopia; Richardson’s Travels in the East; Henniker’s Notes of a Visit to Egypt and Nubia; Hoskins’ Travels in Ethiopia ; Belzoni’s Sarratm of Operations and Discoveries in Egypt and Nubia ; Gau’s Nubia ; Life and Adventures of Giovanni Finati ; Russell’s Nubia and Abyssinia ; the work entitled British Museum; and Heeren’s Historical liesearches.) (a.)