BARBARY STATES.'

The name of Barbary, or the Barbary States, is applied by the moderns to an extensive district, occupying, with the exclusion of Egypt, the whole northern coast of Africa. It comprehends also that portion of the western coast which lies to the north of the Great Desert. The states included within this district are entirely independent of and even hostile to each other, and they also differ in some particulars of their political constitution. There prevails, however, a striking similarity in the whole of their moral and physical circumstances. Throughout all these states we see the same races inhabiting the towns, the plains, and the mountain districts; the same forms of social life; the same degraded and corrupted barbarism succeeding to ancient grandeur and civilization. Nature presents a corresponding similarity in all the peculiar qualities of aspect, soil, and climate. These resembling features constitute Barbary decidedly one region; and it will, therefore, be convenient to introduce here a general view ⅝f what is common to that region; while under the heads of Algiers, Morocco, Tripoli, Tunis, [7:4:361]&c. will be given a view of the special history and circumstances of each.

This part of the world has at different periods been subject to memorable revolutions, and made a distinguished figure in history. It was the domain of Carthage, the most flourishing seat of commerce, and one of the most powerful states in antiquity,—of the prosperous Greek colony of Cyrene,—and of the potent kingdom of Numidia. Even when entirely subjected to the Roman power, it ranked as one of the most valuable provinces of that empire, and fully shared in the measure of civilization which its influence diffused. In a few centuries, however, it was overpowered by the barbarous torrent of Vandal invasion, when Genseric made Carthage the seat of a powerful piratical dominion. In the seventh century the rapid tide of Saracen inroad swept over the whole of this coast, and subjected it to the Moslem creed and institutions, which have remained unaltered to the present day. On the establishment, however, of the Turkish power on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean, the barbarous corsairs, Barbarossa and Dragut, seized the leading seaports upon this coast, and converted them into dens of the most atrocious piracy. This system was prosecuted without interruption for several centuries, till it was arrested by the interposition of the great European powers. France has even undertaken, with regard to the fiercest and most powerful of these states, a system of conquest and colonization, the result of which, however, remains yet to be decided, in as far, at least, as regards the latter.

Among the natural objects which this region presents, the most prominent is that immense and celebrated mountain chain which, under the name of Atlas, traverses nearly its whole extent. The loftiest portion is that which towers over the plain of Morocco, and, notwithstanding the intense heat of the climate, presents a range of summits clad in perpetual snow. The most recent traveller in this country, known by the name of Ali Bey, states that, after a very careful measurement, he found its highest pinnacles to rise 13,200 feet above the level of the sea. The lower stages are well cultivated and of luxuriant fertility; while, in ascending, the sides exhibit every variety of climate, from the torrid to the frigid zone. In skirting the kingdoms of Algiers and Tunis, its height is greatly diminished, and is represented by Dr Shaw as not exceeding the loftier eminences of our own island. The greater part of its declivity is here covered with vines and forests; and only occasionally a rocky precipice rears its head above the rest. This part of the range separates into various branches, differently named, of which the most elevated is Mount Jurjura, in the province of Algiers, covered with snow during a great part of the year. It forms a species of chain by itself, rising very high above all others east of Morocco. Besides the grand chain, there is found between it and the sea another, called the Little Atlas, extending from the Straits of Gibraltar to Bona in Algiers.

The structure and component parts of this vast range have been very imperfectly explored. It appears probable, however, that, as in other mountain groups of the first magnitude, the central mass, as well as the loftier pinnacles, is composed of granite. Ali Bey states, that the rocks on the coast consist of secondary granite, with sandstone resting on it; a combination which seems deserving of notice, from its resemblance to that which occurs at the southern extremity of Africa. Marble also is said to occur abundantly in the western regions. The lower and eastern branches appear, however, to contain a arge proportion of calcareous rocks. The chain, consi-enng its extent, is thought not peculiarly rich in metal- “ores, though this character may have been derived from the supine neglect of the inhabitants in exploring its mineral treasures. Silver and copper are procured to a considerable amount in the Tunisian territory. Algiers produces lead, and a small proportion of iron. Morocco contains no mines that are known or worked, unless in the province of Suse, the southern extremity of the empire. There, iron is found at Idaultit, and copper in considerable quantity in the vicinity of Tessellert. The report of gold and silver mines is treated as a fable by Chenier; but Jackson asserts that he saw evident traces of them in the neighbourhood of Messa. He also confirms the report of Leo, that the sovereigns of Morocco discourage the working of these mines, lest the natives, who at present can with difficulty be retained under the yoke, should thus be enabled to set them completely at defiance.

That narrow tract between the Atlas chain and the sea, which comprises the Barbary States, forms a plain of luxuriant fertility, traversed by innumerable streams descending from this mighty storehouse of waters. Chenier calculates that upwards of six thousand are poured down from the western Atlas upon the plains of Morocco. The vicinity, however, of the receptacle to their source prevents their forming rivers of any great magnitude. The principal are, in Morocco, the Seboo, the Morbeya, the Tensift, and the Suse; in Algiers, the Shelliff; in Tunis, the Mejerdah. The soil, which is naturally of the same loose and sandy character prevalent over northern Africa, is, by this profusion of moisture, rendered equal in fertility to any in the world. Its lightness is even beneficial, by rendering it capable of being worked with the utmost facility; so that, according to Dr Shaw, a yoke of oxen can plough an acre in the day. But wherever water fails, deserts are produced; presenting, on a smaller scale, the same appearances with those immense wastes which extend south of the Atlas. Thus the moisture which these mountains supply is the sole spring of fertility to northern Africa; and Tripoli, where they terminate, borders almost immediately on the sandy waste.

Along the southern base of the Atlas extends a vast region, called Bildulgerid, or more properly Bled-el-Jereed, the dry country. It presents a gradual transition from the luxuriant plains of Barbary to the sterile desolation of the Sahara. Large streams, descending from the great chain, traverse it from north to south, till they expand into lakes, or are lost in the sands of the desert. The moisture, evaporated by the scorching winds which blow from the south, is not sufficient for the production of wheat, barley, or the finer fruits: dates are its abundant and almost sole product. They form the food of its inhabitants, and the basis of their commerce. Considered in a political view, this region is nominally subject to those states of Barbary which lie in contact with it; but the subjection scarcely amounts to more than the payment of a certain tribute. The part contiguous to and dependent upon Morocco is known by the names of Tafilet and Sigil-messa.

The whole of Barbary abounds, in a very remarkable degree, with different species of saline substances. Common salt, particularly, is found in every form, and in the greatest abundance. That drawn from the mines of Morocco is of a red colour, very strong and coarse; but a white and finer kind is produced by evaporation on the seacoast. The lakes of. Barbary are almost all salt to an equal degree with the sea itself; and in the course of the summer many of these dry up entirely, leaving the mineral encrusted on their beds. Near the lake of Marks, in the Algerine territory, there is a mountain composed entirely of salt; and all the chains which traverse it contain copious repositories of this mineral. Most of the springs which are not warm are salt; and in the territory of Tunis [7:4:362] there is no fresh water unless from rain. Many of the rivers, when they dry up in summer, leave their banks copiously encrusted with nitrous and saline exudations. Saltpetre is not found in a concrete state; but at Elemsan, Kairwan, and many other places, the earth is so impregnated with it, that six ounces are obtained from a quintal of soil.

’ The Atlas Mountains, as far as is hitherto known, are not the seat of any volcanic eruptions. In East Barbary earthquakes are frequent during the hot and dry season, and have sometimes thrown down houses, and even carried them to a considerable distance; but these are rare instances, for their effects are by no means so terrible as in the south of Europe and other countries particularly exposed to their ravages. The interior heat, however, manifests itself by that which it communicates to a large proportion of the waters which flow through this territory. Most of the streams of the Jereed are at least lukewarm; and near Oran, Elemsan, Gabs, and other places in the territory of Algiers, they acquire a temperature which fits them for warm baths. About forty miles to the east of Constantina are those called the Hamman Meskouteen, the heat of which is so intense as to boil animal food in a quarter of an hour. The rocks over which this rivulet flows are entirely calcined by its influence, which, acting variously on the different substances, consuming some and leaving others nearly entire, produces some curious phenomena. The rocks at one place represent a line of regular cones, believed by the Arabs to be the tents of their ancestors converted into stone. At another place the action is still deeper and more irregular; the figures of sheep, horses, camels, even of men, women, and children, are presented to the eye, all of which are believed by the natives to have undergone the same transformation.

The productions of the soil in Barbary are not materially different from those of southern Europe, the climate being brought by the vicinity of the mountains to pretty nearly the same temperature. The grains chiefly cultivated are wheat and barley, of which the crops are abundant, though there is not above one in the year. Oats are not frequent, but beans and lentils are very common. Peas have been introduced by Europeans. Pot herbs and fruits are abundant, and nearly resemble those of Europe; with the addition, in the last branch, of the palm-tree and the lotus.

The animal world, particularly in its wild members, presents an interesting field of observation. The Numidian lion still retains its ancient character of strength and ferocity. To guard against its attacks, the villages and encampments are surrounded with a species of palisade, and upon the slightest alarm large fires are kindled; yet these multiplied precautions are not always sufficient to prevent the irruption of this lord of the forests. The animal called here a tiger is in reality only a panther. Wild boars are very numerous, and the hunting of them affords a favourite amusement. The hyena is common, and is called the dubbah. Jackson mentions an animal called the aoudad, which inhabits the most lofty and precipitous regions of the Atlas; but, on account of its rugged and inaccessible haunts, has never been sufficiently observed or described. The antelope, or gazelle, from its beauty, is the favourite of the Arabs. The Barbary females paint their eyes with a preparation of lead called Elkahol-filelly, in order that they may rival the largeness and blackness of those of the gazelle. Gazelle here, as angel with us, is the most flattering epithet that can be applied to female beauty. Although the antelope be the swiftest of all animals, he is soon fatigued, so that the greyhound at length comes up with him. The flesh is valued, and is similar to venison. Among the smaller animals the most noted are the jerboa and jird, which are about the size of a rat, burrow in the ground, and afford agreeable food.

Among birds, the chief is the ostrich, a species often described, and which occurs along the whole northern border of the desert. About Wedinoon and Cape Bojador they are said to be the largest, and to have the finest feathers, of any in the world. The feathers form a considerable article in the commerce of Morocco.

The serpent species is very numerous. The great boa constrictor frequently appears in the Sahara. It is not poisonous, and destroys merely by its strength and ferocity. There are several species which contain a very active poison; but these, Dr Shaw conceives, do not exist in that great variety which is enumerated by ancient writers. There are also domestic serpents, of a more harmless nature, never molested, and held even in a kind of veneration. The most destructive of this class are the scorpions, which swarm to such a degree that, in summer, they are often found in the beds. It is believed in Morocco that the flesh of this animal affords a cure for its bite; and most of the inhabitants on that account keep a bottle of scorpions preserved in olive oil. Shaw observes that those of Algiers and Tunis, to the north of the Atlas, are not very noxious, causing only a slight inflammation and fever; but that in the Sahara they are much larger, and their venom more malignant.

The insect tribe in this country presents a much more terrible enemy, the locust. This destructive insect is bred on the confines of the desert; but at irregular intervals, impelled by some unknown cause, its swarms take their direction towards the cultivated regions. They move in vast bodies, and with an order which resembles that of regular armies. The march is all in one direction, led by a chief, called by the natives Sultan Jeraad∙ All attempts to stop their course by digging deep pits or by kindling fires have proved abortive. The foremost, indeed, fall victims to these means of annoyance; but the vast mass behind, undismayed by the fate of their forerunners, continue to pour on, file after file, in close and uninterrupted succession. The fires are extinguished; the pits are filled up; and the husbandman abandons in despair all attempts to arrest their progress. Every thing green is thoroughly consumed; and the fields, from being clad in all the verdure of spring, assume at once the aspect of wintry desolation. This scourge sometimes continues for several years, and is not unfrequently followed by the still more terrible evil of plague. It forms a very inconsiderable compensation to the inhabitants, that they use the locusts as food, and in that view regard them even as a delicacy.

The domestic animals do not differ materially from; those of Europe, with the exception of the camel, which, í though frequent in Barbary, belongs more properly to the desert. The excellence of the horse was formerly the boast of Numidia; and Barbary horses have been highly valued, even in modern times. But the breed is said to have degenerated, chiefly in consequence of the best horses being liable to be seized by persons in power, lhe ass, and still more the mule, are the animals chiefly employed in labour. The cows are small, and produce little milk. The sheep fed on the Atlas arc often of exquisite flavour. The wool being left entirely to nature, is of various quality, some of it coarse, but some very fine. The goats of Morocco produce that species of leather, the softness and pliability of which cause it to be held in such high estimation.

After surveying the aspect of nature, our attention is drawn to the ruins of ancient art. The whole extent of Algiers and Tunis, and even deep into the desert, is co-vered[7:4:363] with the most superb monuments of Roman grandeur. Constantina (the ancient Cirta), Spaitla (Suffetula), El Gemme, and many other places, exhibit specimens of the architecture of that people in its highest perfection. The temple at Spaitla is considered by Bruce as the most perfect example of the composite order existing. It seems matter of regret, as well as of surprise, considering the general interest taken in these objects, that the drawings made by Bruce, or under his direction, though said to be very fine, should never have been given to the public. The remains of Carthage are entirely subterraneous, yet these still convey an idea of the greatness and industry of that celebrated capital. Of the immense aqueduct which conveyed water to the city from the distance of sixty miles, many hundred arches are still to be seen, and several cisterns, nearly entire, are used as habitations by the Arabs. A few years ago, in digging among the ruins of Utica, some labourers found a number of beautiful statues, some mutilated, but others in complete preservation. Among them were two of Tiberius and Augustus, the former very finely executed; also four female figures, two of them exquisite specimens of Grecian sculpture. The spirit of antiquarian research seems to be active among the Christian inhabitants of Tunis; and many, even of the poorer classes, are said to be in possession of, medals, engraved stones, and other curiosities. These, however, by being dispersed, are in some measure lost to the public.

The population of the Barbary States is made up of a number of distinct races. A particular survey of each will therefore be necessary, in order to afford any complete view of the subject.

The first and most numerous class are the Moors. This is a European term, derived from the ancient Mauri, of whom probably no traces are now to be found. It is applied to the inhabitants of the cities of Barbary, and the country in their immediate vicinity. Generally speaking, a Mahommedan city presents a uniform aspect. Everywhere the same silence and seclusion, the same absence of all gaiety, bustle, and animation; narrow and dirty streets, bordered on each side by lines of dead wall; every individual burying himself in the interior of his family, and shrouding his existence, as it were, from all other eyes; while the female sex, who in Europe form the ornament of society, are immured in the apartments of the haram, bought and sold almost as slaves. Withal, however, there is combined an outward deportment of great gravity, solemnity, and decorum, with which neither the sentiments nor actions are found to correspond. But this is more particularly true of the cities of Morocco; for in Algiers and Tunis, an unsettled government, and the habits of a seafaring life, have produced, especially in the lower orders, a greater appearance of activity and turbulence, though without any departure from the general tenor of oriental habits.

A collection of Letters has been published by a female relation of Mr Tully, formerly consul at Tripoli, which gives a very lively picture of the manners of a Barbary court, and particularly oßfemale society. This she had peculiar access to observe, in consequence of the intimate footing on which she lived with the ladies of the palace. The wives of the pasha and the other grandees are generally Georgian or Circassian captives, who are purchased at Constantinople at an early age, and trained in all those accomplishments which fit them for the harams of the great. By the Mahommedan law, each individual may have four wives and an equal number of concubines; but there is one principal wife, who alone shares the sovereign power. She has usually the same origin with the others, and enters the haram as a slave, but succeeds, by address and superior powers of captivation, in raising herself to this envied dignity. It; s unlawful for the daughters of the sovereign to marry a subject; and as they do not usually form alliances with foreign states, they have no resource but to marry Turks and renegadoes, the refuse of society. They thus often choose as companions for life persons unworthy even to appear in their company. Accordingly, the husband is ruled with the most absolute sway, and treated usually worse than their slaves; to all which he quietly submits, in consideration of the lucrative offices this connection secures his advancement to.

The toilet of a Moorish lady is said to be formed entirely after the ancient model. No dressing-table is used; but a number of slaves attend, to each of whom a different office is assigned. One plaits and perfumes the hair, another arranges the eyebrows, a third paints them, and so on. A profusion of the richest Arabian perfumes and scented waters is used, and powdered cloves in vast quantity are stuffed into the hair. The eyelashes, by a very tedious process, are painted black, and, by pulling out a number of the hairs, are formed into a particular shape. This operation, though attended with very acute pain, is cheerfully submitted to. In short, a Moorish lady cannot be fully dressed under several hours; and her appearance is then so completely altered, that her nearest relations could scarcely recognise her.

These ladies are represented, in the Letters alluded to, as by no means spending their time, as usually supposed, in listless indolence. It is their task to overlook the numerous slaves who grind, spin, and perform all the necessary domestic offices. They are particularly expected to superintend the culinary operations, in order to guard against poison, the administering of which at meals is not unusual in these countries. These cares, with those of their family, fill up the time of the more amiable and domestic members of the haram; whilst those of a lighter turn find full occupation in the difficult and dangerous intrigues to which their disposition prompts them. With a few exceptions, however, they seem tolerably cheerful; and the view which these Letters give of their character is, on the whole, favourable.

The inhabitants of the towns do not form a race by themselves, but are aggregated from the various races who inhabit, or have inhabited, the country districts; the Arabs, the Brebers, probably in part also the ancient possessors, and the Vandal conquerors of Northern Africa. All these have been cast into that mould which Moslem despotism invariably forms. There is, however, a peculiar race, called Andalousie, descendants of those Moors expelled from Spain by the stupid despotism of that government. They inhabit chiefly the northern cities of the empire of Morocco, pique themselves on their descent, and seem to retain somewhat of that pride of birth which was probably formed during their residence in Europe.

The sciences, which anciently formed the glory of the Saracen name, are now, throughout the whole of this region, entirely extinct. Instruments are still shown, which display the most exquisite mechanical skill; but they are preserved merely as antique curiosities, without any knowledge of the principles by which they were constructed. Astronomy does not extend to the construction of a sundial, nor chemistry beyond the making of rose-water. With regard to medicine, the estimation in which that science, once so flourishing, is held, may be judged from the emolument reaped by its professors. The fee of a physician scarcely ever exceeds sixpence, and the most serious operations are performed for a shilling. These humble practitioners, however, succeed tolerably when only external wounds are to be healed; but in all internal maladies it appears very doubtful whether more patients die of the disease or of the remedies administered.

The Jews form a numerous class throughout all the [7:4:364]cities, both of Eastern and Western Barbary. They seem to exist there nearly on the same footing as in Europe during the middle ages, the objects of universal hatred, contempt, and derision, and their plunder the invariable resource, whenever the sovereign finds himself in pecuniary embarrassment. Yet their knowledge of trade, and entire devotion to it, have almost secured to them the monopoly of mercantile and money transactions; and they are thus enabled to make such enormous profits as induce them to endure all this oppression. In Morocco, however, long-suffering appears at length to have wearied out their patience, and their numbers have been considerably thinned. In the capital, they are not now supposed to exceed 2000. But no such diminution seems to have occurred in the other states. Tunis is calculated to contain above 15,000.

The country Moors, or those who cultivate the plains of Barbary, appear to differ very widely from the inhabitants of the cities. The property, or rather the occupation of land, is, as usual in despotic countries, much subdivided. The manners of the cultivators have been little observed, but they are said to be characterized by a peculiar degree of ignorance and simplicity.

The inhabitants of the pastoral districts intermediate between the sea-coast and the Sahara are known by the name of Arabs. They appear, in fact, to comprise such of the descendants of the conquerors of Barbary as have adhered to their original and native employments. They exhibit the same migratory habits, the same simplicity of life, and the same union of hospitality and plunder, which distinguish their countrymen in Arabia. The touch of despotism has, however, taken from them much of that sense of honour and dignity which elevate the latter above the common level of barbarous tribes. They live in tents, thirty or forty of which united form a camp or douar, under the command of a scheik; and the supremacy over a number of these camps constitutes a great scheik or emir. The tents are made by themselves, of camels’ hair and the fibres of the palm-tree; and they are arranged generally in three concentric circles, around the habitation of the scheik. The cattle go out to pasture during the day, and are tended by the men and boys; at night they are brought within the circle of the tents, where they arc further guarded by a number of vigilant dogs, which bark incessantly. The complexion of the Arabs is of a deep copper. The females possess beauty when young, but quickly lose it. They adorn themselves by puncturing and tattooing, practices unknown to the other inhabitants of Barbary. When the spot occupied by a douar is exhausted, they remove to another; the women are then conveyed in groups, generally of three upon the back of each camel; whilst the children, lambs, and kids, are lodged in panniers on the sides. The scheiks embrace every opportunity of acting independently; and whenever a weak government or civil war occurs, they immediately begin to plunder. Of all the inhabitants of Barbary, the Arabs are animated with the most bigoted zeal for the Moslem tenets, and the deadliest enmity to the Christian name. This disposition, the effects of which have been felt by all European visitors, has probably darkened somewhat beyond reality the picture drawn by them of these tribes.

From the inhabitants of the plains, we ascend to those of the mountain districts. The greater part of the declivity of the Atlas chain is cultivated by a very remarkable people, called the Brebers. They have been named also Brebes, Berebbers, Barbars; and from them the name of Barbary is supposed to be derived. They appear to be descended from the original possessors of this region; view themselves still as its rightful owners; and regard with boundless indignation all the other nations by whom it is now occupied. Their subjection has always been very imperfect, the slightest injury being sufficient to drive them into rebellion. Their chiefs are elective, and they alone, in this part of Africa, have a government moulded into somewhat of a republican form. They bear an extremely warlike character, and excel the inhabitants of the plains in the management of fire-arms. The army of Morocco has often been completely defeated by them, and pursued to the gates of the capital. In general, however, they carry on war chiefly by surprise and ambuscade. The idea formed of them by the Saracen conquerors may be conceived by a passage in a celebrated Arabian writer, Bakoui, who gravely informs us that they are the offspring of the giant Goliah, whom they resemble in strength and wickedness. They are divided into various tribes, of whom the Errifi, inhabiting a province of the same name between Algiers and’ Morocco, are the most powerful and ferocious.

The Brebcrs are distinguished from the other inhabitants of Barbary by a language which has nothing in common with any of the rest. It is considered by Adelung as being the same, allowing for some variation of dialect, with that of the Tibboo, the Tuarick, and of all the indigenous population of this part of Africa. Marsden and Langles have supposed it to be a corruption of the ancient Punic language; but Mr Pinkerton forcibly argues, that a language which has no abstract terms, none belonging to the arts and sciences, and no written characters, could scarcely be even a corruption of the language of a civilized people. Its high antiquity, however, cannot well be doubted.

The Shelluhs inhabit the southern parts of Morocco. They are smaller in stature than the Brebers, and in character somewhat less rude. In all other respects they exactly resemble, and may be considered as a branch of, that race. Some writers have asserted that their language is different; but the vocabulary given by Chenier, and the information of Dupuis, seem to leave no doubt that it is merely a dialect with very slight variations.

To these different classes we may finally add one which is not inconsiderable, namely, that of the negroes. Originally brought as slaves from Soudan and Timbuctoo, they have multiplied greatly, and have even risen to distinguished situations. The sovereigns of Morocco, unable, from the natural jealousy of despotism, to trust their own subjects, have placed their entire confidence in negro troops. These form the standing army of the empire, the body-guard of the sovereign, and the garrison of all the principal fortresses. Their pay is very limited, not exceeding a penny a day; but its smallness is compensated by the license in which they are allowed to indulge. A person well acquainted with Morocco being asked its amount, answered, “Whatever they can rob or steal.” Muley Ishmael maintained nearly 100,000 of these troops. Their fidelity to their monarch is said to be exemplary. Negro slaves still continue to be imported in great numbers, particularly into Morocco.

The different states, however, have each features peculiar to itself, which will be noticed under their respective heads.

The political state of this extensive region has suffered no change from the lapse of time, and is that of a savage, uncontrolled, and turbulent despotism. In Turkey and the Asiatic empires, there are public bodies rendered venerable by religion, by law, and even by knowledge, who share and moderate the power of the despot. In Barbary there are none such; the will, or rather momentary caprice, of the sovereign, rules every thing. Yet the throne, though thus absolute, is not thereby rendered secure: resting on no basis, it is overturned by the slightest storm that arises. The death of a sovereign is almost [7:4:365]invariably followed by disputed succession and civil war; so that tranquillity, the sole boast of despotism, is not even secured by it to this unfortunate country.

The religion of Barbary is well known to be throughout Mahommedan, professed with a degree of rigour and intolerance unknown in any other region of the globe. There is not, however, as in Turkey, any great body, like the Ulema, to act as the depositary of its doctrines and influence. This power is here enjoyed by individuals who raise themselves, by personal merit or demerit, to the character of saints. Saints, in Morocco, almost share with the sovereign the power of the empire. Sidi Ali and Sidi Alarbi are the two most eminent reigning saints. Their consideration is chiefly supported by working miracles, and does not require any sacrifice of the pleasures of life. They indulge in all without reserve, and, besides the usual number of wives, keep numerous concubines. The districts in which these saints reside pay no taxes, and are subject to no authority except theirs; and they are perpetually surrounded by a body of armed men, to chastise their own enemies and those of the prophet. At some distance from Tripoli is a fortified village possessed by a saint, called the Lion, serving as an asylum for every species of criminals, even those who are guilty of high treason. Idiots throughout Barbary are generally reputed saints; and some, in order to maintain the reputation of sanctity, find it expedient to counterfeit the total absence of reason.

The population of Barbary has been very variously reported, and has never been fixed on any precise or authentic data. We shall collect the different statements made on the subject. Mr Jackson gives that of Morocco at 14,886,600, of whom the cities and towns contain 895,600, the provinces within Atlas 10,341,000, the Berebbers amount to 3,000,000, the Tafilets to 650,000. He states these numbers to be founded upon information extracted from the Imperial Register. They are quite improbable, and very far beyond any estimate formed by preceding travellers. Chenier does not conceive that the empire can contain above six millions; and some have even reduced the estimate as low as two. Mr Macgill heard the population of the Tunisian territory generally estimated at five millions, but is inclined to reduce the estimate to half that amount. Of these he supposes that 7000 may be Turks, 100,000 Jews, 7000 Christians; the rest Moors, Arabs, and renegadoes. The Algerine territory has been estimated at somewhat more than two millions and a half. Tripoli is reckoned by Ali Bey to contain two millions, which is probably beyond the truth. Of the great cities, Morocco is generally supposed to contain 30,000; Fez, by Jackson 380,000, by Ali Bey only 100,000; Tunis, by Mr Macgill 100,000, by Mr Blaquiere 130,000; Algiers, by Dr Shaw 117,000; Tripoli, by Mr Blaquiere 25,000, by Ali Bey only 15,000.

With a soil so fertile, and where manufacturing industry is in so low a state, the productions of the earth must form the staple articles of export. Barbary, in ancient, and even in modern times, has been the granary of southern Lurope. More lately, however, this branch of trade has been nearly cut off by a general prohibition, in all the states, against the exportation of corn. The materials for export are thus reduced to fruits, gums, hides, wax, and the produce of the very few manufactures which flourish throughout these states. Of these Morocco leather is the most important. Fez is the place where this manufacture has t>θen brought to the highest perfection; but it is also carried 0n in the other cities of Morocco, as well as those of East- ern Barbary. Fez is also distinguished by the manufacture of woollen haiks, a species of long cloths universally worn by the Moors when they go abroad; of sashes and silk handkerchiefs; and of carpets, which are little inferior to those of Turkey. Tunis is famous for the manufacture of a species of conical woollen caps called scullcaps, universally worn, not only in Barbary, but over the Levant. This fabric formerly employed fifty thousand persons; but the manufacturers of Leghorn and Marseilles now imitate it, and succeed in underselling the Tunisians, though, in the quality of the stuff, the latter remain still unrivalled. Robes and shawls of woollen gauze are also made to a great extent. Concerning the manufactures of Algiers and Tripoli we have few details; but, with the exception of caps, they appear to be nearly similar to those of Tunis.

The caravan trade with the interior of Africa is chiefly carried on from Morocco and Tripoli. From the former it is very extensive. The caravans carry chiefly salt, tobacco, and European goods; and bring back slaves, ivory, and gold dust. Lempriere estimates the amount of the former at one million, the latter at ten millions; which, if at all correct, would imply that the profits on this trade are immense. The trade from Tripoli has been greatly diminished, in consequence of the pasha having embroiled himself with his Arab neighbours, who, occupying the route by which the caravans must pass, render the communication extremely precarious.

The European goods for which there exists a demand in the Barbary States are exceedingly various. They 7 include more or less of almost every article, both of manufacture and of colonial produce. In the former class are such articles as, being of inferior quality, can be afforded at a cheap rate; Yorkshire cloths, particularly druggets and serges; muslins of the coarsest and cheapest sorts; coarse linens, particularly German. Raw silk and Spanish wool w ere imported to a great extent when their manufactures were more flourishing. French wines are imported into the eastern states, where the precepts of Mahomet are less rigidly observed. The other imports are tin and lead to a considerable extent, English being preferred; coffee, sugar, and the different kinds of spices; hardware, cutlery, toys, in some demand; also alum, vitriol, cochineal, gum-lac, and vermillion, for their manufactures.

The commerce of Eastern Barbary has hitherto been carried on chiefly from Leghorn and Marseilles. Louis XIV. established at the latter port a Royal African Company, which formed several establishments upon the coast of the Algerine province of Constantina. The objects were the corn trade and the coral fishery, which they shared at first with an English company already established; but the latter failing, the whole trade fell into the hands of the French. Their first establishment was at the Bastion de France. at the western extremity of Algiers; but this was abancsoned, and they settled at La Cala, Bona, Il Col, and Tabarca. They paid L.4000 a year to the dey of Algiers, and 100 per cent, to the bey of Constantina, on the grain exported; in addition to which they were obliged to submit to various forms of extortion and humiliation. The continental war, and the extinction of the French naval power, threw a large proportion of this trade into the hands of the British; and Malta became the channel through which it was conducted. In 1806 the British government contracted with the dey of Algiers for the possession of La Cala, Bona, and II Col; in consideration of which they stipulated to pay him the sum of 50,000 dollars (L.l 1,000 sterling). Mr Blaquiere, and other persons acquainted with this coast, are of opinion that very important advantages might be derived from this settlement. The coral fishery alone might employ 500 boats and 9000 men; besides which, there is a large export of hides, wax, and wool. It is added, that the [7:4:366]country produces ship-timber, particularly oak, of the best f quality, and in inexhaustible abundance; and that excellent hemp and flax might be raised. The British government, however, never formed any establishment or derived any benefit from the privilege thus purchased. The coral fishery is carried on by a small number of French and Neapolitan boats; and the spirited attempts made by the merchants at Malta to open a communication with this quarter have been frustrated.

We shall finally consider these states under the view which has so justly excited the interest and sympathy of the British nation. Piracy, with the main view of capturing Christians as slaves, has for ages formed the main employment of the barbarous states situated along the Mediterranean. To be placed under the absolute control of the most brutal and corrupted of mortals, whom religious antipathy has besides divested of every human sympathy—without any law or earthly power to appeal to—the hopeless victims of brutal cruelty, and still more brutal voluptuousness;—this is’certainly the most dreadful fate to which human beings were ever devoted. Yet such has been the fate of thousands of Europeans, among whom were often those who, from rank, sex, and cultivation of mind, must have been most keenly sensible of its horrors. Painful as the subject is, it seems indispensable to give some details which may illustrate the extent of the evil, and the necessity which existed for some arrangements to remedy it.

The most particular and authentic account of the treatment of slaves at Algiers is that given in the American work already alluded to. On the 23d October 1792, the ship President saw approaching an armed xebeck, bearing Spanish colours till she came within gun-shot, when she instantly hoisted the bloody flag, and fired. Escape was now impossible; the xebeck instantly put out a boat, with thirty armed men, who rowed furiously towards the vessel, and boarded it with the wildest shouts and outcries. No resistance being made, they began to strip the crew with a fury of avarice of which it was impossible to form an idea. Sometimes several fell upon one American, and fought over him for the clothes of which he was stript. Having ransacked every corner, they then ordered the Americans to descend into the boat; and those who showed any hesitation were instantly knocked down and kicked over into it. On reaching Algiers the distribution took place. The dey first made his choice, which was formerly limited to an eighth of the whole, but at this time extended to as great a number as he chose to demand. For this purpose they were conducted to the palace, and drawn up in files along a court, where they passed under this review. Having made his selection, he dismissed the rest with the compliment, “Go, you Christian dogs, and eat stones.” The youngest were employed in menial offices about the palace, the rest were put to work in the marine and in public buildings. Whenever a foreign vessel was in the port, they were loaded with thirty or forty pounds weight of chains, in order to prevent their escape. Their heaviest labour consisted in dragging immense stones from a neighbouring quarry, for the repair and enlargement of the mole. A body of Turks attended to urge them on, but gave no aid, unless by continually roaring out Hyomoly, “heave away,” with a noise so tremendous, that it was heard at the distance of more than a league. At night they were locked up in two huge buildings called bagnios, the lower part of which was employed for shops, and the upper for the joint accommoda tion of the captives and of the wild beasts belonging to the dey. There was no bed in the place, and they were obliged to lie on the floor, till their own ingenuity enabled them to erect some humble substitute. The daily allowance of food was a pound of very bad bread and a small quantity of oil. Many sunk under this accumulation of distress, and were carried to the Spanish hospital, the only relief provided for their miseries. The sympathy of the American people having been at length excited by reports of their sufferings, they opened a negociation, and at the expense of nearly 800,000 dollars, procured the release of the captives.

The observations made by Captain Croker during his visit in 1815 agree with the narrative of the Americans and prove that no improvement had taken place. At the period of his arrival, three hundred Christian captives had been driven in from Bona, exposed to such treatment that fifty died within six days after reaching Algiers. They were still employed in the quarries, and loaded with chains, as before. His description of the house in which they were locked up is, that, “if it had light,” it would resemble those in which the West Indian negroes keep their pigs. When at peace with the great powers, their piracy is chiefly exercised on Naples and Sardinia, with whom they have always taken care to continue at war. European, and even English colours, are assumed to entrap the unfortunate victims. They frequently also make descents on the coast, and sweep away all the inhabitants, without distinction of age or sex. The Tunisians, at the commencement of the reign of the late bey, landed on the island of St Pierre, belonging to Sardinia, and carried off the whole population, amounting to upwards of a thousand. At Tunis and Tripoli the treatment of slaves is not so utterly inhuman as at Algiers. The most dreadful fate is that of those who are judged fit to be received into the haram of the prince, or any of his principal officers; which, in consequence of the depraved propensities here prevalent, is not confined to one sex. Of those who become the slaves of private persons, both at Tunis and Algiers, some are tolerably, and a few very well treated.

It is not easy to ascertain the precise extent to which this enormous evil existed. Mr Blaquiere, though he represents its horrors in the most glowing colours, considers the whole number of captives as amounting only to a thousand. Mr Macgill calculates two thousand in Tunis alone, and the Americans the same number at Algiers. The first estimate, however, is probably the more correct, as, by a calculation of the amount and rate of ransoms returned, the number in Algiers, at the time of Lord Exmouth’s first expedition, appears to have been four hundred and fifteen.

For the measures by which, in each of the Barbary states, the system of piracy has been at last suppressed, and for the formation, in the greatest of these states, of a French colony, which promises to effect a remarkable change in the condition of this part of the African continent, the reader is referred to the separate articles on Algiers, Tunis, &c.

See Shaw’s Travels; Jackson’s Account of Morocco; Macgilľ s Account of Tunis; H↑aquiere s Tetters on iSicily; Tully’s Letters; Ali Bey’s Travels; Keatinge’s Travels; Appendix to Robert Adams’s Travels in the Interior of Africa; Account of Algiers, and of the Treatment of Ame~ rican Captives, by James Wilson Stephens, of Philadelphia. (e.) [7:4:367]