pnugues/EB7 huggingface dataset:
PETROBRUSSIANS, a religious sect, which took its rise in France and the Netherlands about the year 1110. The name is derived from Peter Bruys, a Provençal, who made a most laudable attempt to reform the abuses and remove the superstition which disgraced the beautiful simplicity of the gospel. His followers were numerous, and for twenty years his labour in the ministry was exemplary and unremitted. He was, however, burned in the year 1130, by an enraged populace, said to have been set on by the clergy.

The most noted of Bruys’s followers was a monk named Henry, from whom the Petrobrussians were also called Henricians. Peter the Venerable, abbot of Clugny, wrote a treatise expressly against the Petrobrussians, in the preface to which he reduces their opinions to five heads. They denied that children before the age of reason can be justified by baptism, as it is our own faith that saves by baptism. They held that no churches should be built, an inn being as proper for prayers as a temple, and a stable as an altar; that the cross ought to be pulled down and burned, because we ought to abhor the instrument of our Saviour’s passion; that the real body and blood of Christ are not exhibited in the eucharist, but merely represented by figures and symbols; and that sacrifices, alms, prayers, and the like, do not avail the dead. Langlois accuses the Petrobrussians of Manicheism, and says, they maintained two gods, the one good, the other evil; but this is rather an effect of his zeal for the Catholic cause, which led him to blacken its adversaries, than any real sentiment of the Petrobrussians.
PETROJOANNITES were followers of Peter John, or Peter Joannis, that is, Peter the son of John, who flourished in the twelfth century. His doctrine was not known until after his death, when his body was taken out of his grave and burned. His opinions were, that he alone had the knowledge of the true sense in which the apostles preached the gospel; that the reasonable soul is not the form of man; that there is no grace infused by baptism; and that Jesus Christ was pierced with a lance on the cross before he expired.
PETROLEUM, or Rock Oil, a thick oily substance exuding from the earth, and collected on the surface of wells, in many parts of the world.
PETRONIUS Arbiter, C. the author of a kind of romance, the earliest with which we are acquainted, was born at Massilia, and is supposed to be the same of whom some account is given by Tacitus {Ann. xvi. 18). As proconsul, he administered the province of Bithynia with considerable ability, and on his return to Rome he became the favourite of Nero, and the director as well as participator of all his pleasures. His influence with the emperor excited the envy and jealousy of Tigellinus, and that minister soon found an opportunity of putting an end to his connection with Nero. Petronius chose his own mode øi [7:17:333]closing his life, a. d. 67, that he might escape a severer punishment. There is no certainty, however; that this individual, of whom Tacitus gives an account, is the same with the author of the work of which fragments have come down to us; but even if he be not, still there is no doubt that he must have flourished about this period, from the classical purity of his language, and the general arrangement of his subject. The work is entitled Satyrico ; and of it we have only some fragments, which seem to have formed part of a selection from his work. It contains the adventures of a certain freedman, Encolpius, sometimes of a tragical, sometimes of a comical nature, which gives an opportunity to the author of narrating fully the follies and vices of his age. There has been preserved a beautiful episode, the Matron of Ephesus and the Supper of Trimalchio, which admits us to the domestic circles of the noble Romans, and makes us acquainted with their voluptuous mode of life. The characters are well drawn; the whole idea of the scene is got up with much spirit as well as art; and there are some beautiful descriptions, which make us regret that he should have wasted his talents on common and obscene subjects. The obscenity of much that is preserved is of the most gross and licentious nature; but the beauty of his style, and the purity of his expressions, remind us of the classical period of Roman literature. The best edition is that of Burmann (Traj. ad Rhen. 1709).
PETROPAULOSKAIA, a fortress of Asiatic Russia, in the government of Irkoutsk, sixteen miles south-southwest of Selenginsk. Another fortress in the government of Oufa, 52 miles east-north-east of Verchouralsk. Also a town of Asiatic Russia, in the government of Tobolsk, on the Ischim, forty miles east of Ischim.
PETROSOWODSK, a city of Russia, in the government of Olonez, and the capital of a circle of its own name. It is situated on a bay of the Lake of Onega, and by means of the Salma is connected with the Lake of Lagmosero. It is poorly built, but contains 390 houses, mostly of wood, and 3280inhabitants, who trade in pitch, tar, and ship-timber; and near it there are some large iron-works. It is 303 miles from St Petersburg. Long. 34. 18. 25. E. Lat. 61. 47. 4. N.
PETSCHANOI, a fortress of Asiatic Russia, in the government of Kolivan, 188 miles west-south-west of Kolivan. Also a cape on the northern coast of Asiatic Russia, in the Frozen Sea. Long. 165. 14. E. Lat. 75. 25. N.
PETTEIA, in the ancient music, a term to which we have no one corresponding in our language. The melo-poeia, or the art of arranging sounds in succession so as to produce melody, is divided into three parts, which the Greeks call lepsis, mixis, and chresis ; the Latins, sumptio, niixio, and usus ; and the Italians, presa, mescolamento, and usο. The last of these is called by the Greeks vεττεια, and by the Italians pettia ; which therefore means the art of making a just discernment of all the manners of ranging or combining sounds amongst themselves, so that they may produce their effect, or express the several passions intended to be raised. Thus it shows what sounds are to be used, and what not; how often they are severally to be repeated; with which to begin and with which to end; whether with a grave sound to rise, or an acute one to fall, &c. The petteia constitutes the manners of the music; chooses out this or that passion, this or that motion of the soul, to be awakened; and determines whether it be proper to excite it on this or on that occasion. The petteia, therefore, is in music much what the manners are in poetry.

It is not easy to discover whence the denomination should have been taken by the Greeks, unless from πεττnα, their game of chess, the musical petteia being a sort of combination and arrangement of sounds, as chess is of pieces called πεττιο, calculi, or chess-men.
PETTIPORE, or Pettapore, a town of Hindustan, in the Northern Circars, and district of Rajamundry, thirty-three miles east-north-east from the town of Rajamundry. Long. 82. 25. E. Lat. 27. 5. N.
PETTYCOTTA, a town of Hindustan, in the Southern Carnatic, and the province of Tanjore, thirty-two miles south by east from the town of Tanjore. Long. 79. 22. E. Lat. 16. 21. N.
PETWORTH, a market-town of the county of Sussex, in the rape of Arundel, and hundred of Rotherbridge. It is situated on the river Arun, fifty miles from London, and has a market which is held on Saturday. The streets are irregular, but the whole appearance is clean. The church is a fine object, and has a very lofty spire. The chief object of attraction is the magnificent mansion and park of the Earl of Egremont, the descendant of the celebrated Sir William Wyndham, to whom it, with other large estates, descended from the Percys, Earls of Northumberland, by a female branch. The population in 1801 amounted to 2264, in 1811 to 2459, in 1821 to 2781, and in 1831 to 3114.
PEWSEY, a town of the county of Wilts, in the hundred of Kinwardstone, seventy-six miles from London. The population in 1801 amounted to 1179, in 1811 to 1209, in 1821 to 1337, and in 1831 to 1588.
PEWSUM, a town of the kingdom of Hanover, in the province of East Friesland, the capital of a bailiwick of the same name, which extends over fifty-four square miles, and contains, besides the town, fourteen parishes, with 6320 inhabitants.
PEWTER, a factitious metal, used in the making of domestic utensils. The basis of this metal is tin, united to small portions of lead, zinc, bismuth, and antimony. There are three sorts of pewter in common use, distinguished by the names of plate, trifle, and ley. The plate-pewter is used for plates and dishes; the trifle, chiefly for pints and quarts; [7:17:336]and the ley-metal for wine measures, and the like. Our very best pewter is said to consist of a hundred parts of tin and seventeen of antimony, though others allow only ten parts of the latter metal. Besides this composition, there are other kinds, compounded of tin, antimony, bismuth, and copper, in several proportions.
PEYAUNG, a town of Hindustan, in the nabob of Oude’s territories, seventy miles north-north-west from Lucknow. Long. 80. 15. E. Lat. 27. 40. N.
PEYRERE, Isaac la, an individual remarkable for versatility in his religious opinions, was born at Bordeaux in 1594, being the son of Protestant parents. He entered the service of the Prince of Condé, who was much pleased with the singularity of his genius. From the perusal of St Paul’s writings, he took it into his head to maintainThat Adam was not the first of the human race; and, to prove this heterodox opinion, he published a book, which was printed in Holland, and entitled Praeadamitae, sive Exercitatio super versibus, 12,'13, 14, cap. xv. Epistolae Pauli ad Pornanos, 1655, in 4to and 8vo. This work was burned at Paris, and the author imprisoned at Brussels, through the influence of the Archbishop of Malines’s grand vicar. The Prince of Condé having obtained his liberty, he travelled to Rome in 1656, and there made to Pope Alexander VII. a solemn renunciation both of Calvinism and Prea-damism. But his conversion was not thought to be sincere, at least with regard to this last heresy. His desire to be the head of a new sect is evident; and his book discovers his ambition, for he there pays many compliments to the Jews, and invites them to attend his lectures. Upon his return to Paris, notwithstanding the earnest solicitations of his holiness that he would remain at Rome, he went again into the service of the Prince of Condé, in quality of librarian. Some time afterwards he retired to the seminary des Vertus, where he died on the 30th of January 1676, at the age of eighty-two, after the sacraments of the church had been administered to him. Father Simon says, that when he was importuned in his last moments to retract the opinion which he had formed respecting the Preadamites, his answer was, Hi quaecunque ignorant blasphemant. His having no fixed opinions in religion is supposed to have proceeded more from a peculiar turn of mind than from corruption of heart; for good nature, simplicity of manners, and humanity, were the leading attributes of his character. “He was,” according to Niceron, “a man of a very equal temper, and most agreeable conversation. He was a little too fond, however, of indulging his wit, which sometimes bordered on raillery; but he took care never to hurt or wound the feelings of his neighbour. His learning was extremely limited. He knew nothing either of Greek or of Hebrew, and yet he even ventured to give a new interpretation of several passages in the sacred volume. He prided himself upon his knowledge of the Latin; but, excepting a few poets which he had read, he was by no means an adept in that language. His style is very unequal; sometimes swelling and pompons, at other times low and grovelling.” Besides the work already mentioned, he has left behind him, 1. a treatise entitled Du Pappel de Juifs, 1643, in 8vo; 2. an Account of Greenland, 1647, in 8vo; 3. an Account of Iceland, 1663, in 8vo; 4. a Letter to Philotimus, 1658, in 8vo, in which he explains the reasons of his recantation.
PEYROUSE, or Perouse, John Francis Galoup de la, the celebrated but unfortunate French navigator, was born at Albi in the year 1741. His father intended to train him up to a maritime life, for which purpose he sent him, when very young, to the marine school, where he became enthusiastically attached to his profession, and ambitious to emulate the fame of the most celebrated navigators. He was appointed midshipman on the 19th of November 1756, and behaved with great bravery in that station, having been severely wounded in the engagement between Hawke and Conflans on the 20th of November 1759. The Formidable, in which he served, was taken, after a vigorous resistance; and it is probable that Perouse reaped some advantage from his acquaintance with British officers. He was promoted, on the 1st of October 1764, to the rank of lieutenant; and as he abhorred a life of ease and idleness, he contrived to be employed in six different ships of war during the peace between Great Britain and France. In 1776 he was promoted to the rank of master and commander. In 1779 he commanded the Amazone, belonging to the squadron of Vice-admiral Count d’Estaing; and when that officer engaged Admiral Byron, the duty assigned to La Pérouse was to carry the orders of the admiral to the whole of the line. He afterwards took the sloop Ariel, and contributed to the capture of the Experiment. In the year 1782, La Pérouse was sent with the Sceptre of seventy-four guns, and two frigates of thirty-six guns each, having some troops and field-pieces on board, to destroy the English settlements in Hudson’s Bay; a task which he easily accomplished, as there was nothing on shore to oppose the smallest force. When he had destroyed the settlements, having learned that some of the English had fled at his approach into the woods, he generously left them provisions, and arms to defend themselves against the savages. In the year 1785, he was appointed to the command of some ships commissioned for a voyage round the world, which unfortunately proved his last. Of this voyage, as far as it was accomplished, full accounts have already been published, from which it is manifest that Pérouse was admirably qualified to discharge such a trust. He was an experienced and skilful seaman; skilled in mathematical and physical science; uncorrupted by that false philosophy which disgraced many of his attendants; and capable of the utmost perseverance in every commendable pursuit. To these valuable qualities he added caution and courage, with a disposition truly benevolent towards the savages whom he visited. Most of the calamities attendant on the voyage, with the exception of the last, were occasioned by the disobedience of his officers, or their neglecting to follow his advice. The last despatches received from this excellent man were dated from Botany Bay, the 7th of February 1788; but since that period no authentic account of him has ever been obtained.
PEYRUSSE, a city of France, in the department of Aveiron and arrondissement of Villefranche. It stands on an elevation, at the base of which flows the river Diège. It has a hospital,and 910 houses, with 6350 inhabitants. Long. 1. 55. E. Lat. 44. 36. N.
PEYTAHN, a district of Northern Hindustan, with a mountainous irregular surface, much covered with jungle. It is tributary to the rajah of Nepaul, and is situated about the twenty-ninth degree of north latitude. Also a town in the Nepaul territories, the capital of a district of the same name. Long. 82. 15. E. Lat. 29. 4. N.
PEZAY, N. Masson, Marquis de, born at Paris, where he early applied himself to the study of letters, and afterwards went into the army. He was made a captain of dragoons, and had the honour of giving some instructions in tactics to the ill-fated Louis XVI. Being appointed inspector-general of some coasting vessels, he repaired to the maritime towns, and executed his commission with more care and attention than was to be expected from a votary of the muses. But as he had at the same time displayed too much haughtiness, a complaint was made against him to the court, and he was banished to his country-seat, where he died soon afterwards, in the beginning of 1778. He was the intimate friend and companion of Dorat, whom he had studied, and successfully imitated; but his poems have more delicacy, and are less disfigured with trifling conversations of gallantry. He left behind him, 1. aTransla-tion[7:17:337] of Catullus, which is not much esteemed; 2. Les Soirées Helvetiennes, Alsaciennes, et Franc-Comtoises, 1770, in 8vo; 3. Les Soirées Provençales, in manuscript; 4. La Rosière de Salency, a pastoral in three acts, which was performed with success in the Italian theatres; 5. Les Campagnes de Mailebois, in three vols. 4to, and a volume of maps.
PEZENAS, a city of France, in the department of Hérault and arrondissement of Beziers. It is situated in a fine district on the river Peine, near to its junction with the Hérault. It contains 1600 houses, with 8640 inhabitants, who are employed in silk-mills, in tanneries, and in making brandy, soap, and other commodities. Long. 3. 21. E. Lat. 43. 28. N.
PFKOW, or Pleskow, a government or s tad th old crate of the empire of Russia. It is formed out of a part of what was formerly Great Russia, or rather of the grand principality of Novogorod. It extends in north latitude from 55. 55. to 58. 4., and in east longitude from 27. 15. to 32. 1., having a superficies of 22,990 square miles. It is divided into eight circles, and comprehends ten cities or towns, and four hundred and thirty-five parishes. The population amounts to about 800,000 persons. The climate is severely cold, and the soil not fertile.. The surface is covered with gentle elevations, woods, rivers, lakes, morasses, and heaths. The chief products, beyond what domestic consumption requires, consist of pitch, tar, flax, hemp, planks, masts, and flax-seed, which are conveyed to St Petersburg. The capital is the city of the same name situated on the Welikaja, is the see of an archbishop, with a cathedral, and fifty-nine other churches. It contains 1480 houses, constructed for the most part of wood, and about 10,000 inhabitants, whose chief trade is making sail-cloth and linen, and dealing in the raw products of their district. Long. 29. 5. E. Lat. 57. 40. N.
PHAEDO, a native of Elis, was the founder of the Eliac sect of philosophy, and the person whose name Plato inscribed in one of his most celebrated dialogues. The exact date of his birth and death is unknown, but he flourished B. c. 399. By the fortune of war he was taken prisoner, and reduced to a state of slavery. He was brought to Athens, where he became known to Socrates, who admired his talents so much that he caused Alcibiades or Crito to release him from servitude. He then became one of the most devoted attendants on his benefactor. It appears that he was not at all satisfied with the manner in which he was introduced by Plato into his dialogue; and he used to declare publicly that he had never spoken in that way, and that he had never heard Socrates use the language which Plato put into his mouth. Plato was so much offended with this proceeding, that, in revenge, he threatened to bring a lawsuit against Phaedo, to prove that he had never received his freedom. (Athenaeus, xi. 505, e; 507, c.) He composed several dialogues, the titles of which were, Zopyrus, Simon, and several which it was doubtful if they belonged to him; Nicias, Antimachus, Medus, ascribed by some to Aeschines, by others to Polyaenus; Sythici Sermones, ascribed also to Aeschines; and three others quoted by Suidas. He was succeeded in his school by Pleistanus of Elis, Pleistanus by Stilpo, Stilpo by Menedemus of Eretria and Asclepiades of Phlius. (Diogenes Laertius’s Life of Phaedo.)
PHAEDRA, in fabulous history, was a daughter of Minos and Pasiphaë, who married Theseus, by whom she became the mother of Acamas and Demophoon. They had already lived for some time in conjugal felicity, when Venus, who hated all the descendants of Apollo, because he had discovered her amours with Mars, inspired Phaedra with the strongest passion for Hippolytus, the son of Theseus by the Amazon Hippolyte. This passion she long attempted to stifle, but in vain; and therefore, in the absence of Theseus, she addressed Hippolytus with all the impatience of desponding love. He rejected her with horror and disdain. Incensed at the reception which she had met, she resolved to punish his coldness and refusal; and on the return of Theseus she accused Hippolytus of attempts upon her virtue. He listened to κ her accusation, and, without hearing Hippolytus’s defence, banished him from his kingdom, and implored Neptune, who had promised to grant three of his requests, to punish him in an exemplary manner. As Hippolytus fled from Athens, his horses were suddenly terrified by a sea monster, which Neptune had sent on the shore; and he was thus dragged through precipices and over rocks, trampled under the feet of his horses, and. crushed under the wheels of his chariot. When his tragical end became known at Athens, Phaedra confessed her crime, and hung herself in despair, unable to survive one whose death had been occasioned by her licentiousness and falsehood. The death of Hippolytus, and the infamous passion of Phaedra, form the subject of a tragedy of Euripides, and also of one by Seneca. She was buried at Troezene, where her tomb was still to be seen in the time of the geographer Pausanias, near to the temple of Venus, which she had built to render the goddess favourable to her passion. Close by her tomb was a myrtle, the leaves of which were full of small holes, which, it was reported, Phaedra had done with a hair pin, when the vehemence of her passion had rendered her melancholy and almost desperate. She was represented in a painting in the temple of Apollo at Delphi, as suspended in the air, whilst her sister Ariadne stood close by, with her eyes fixed upon Phaedra.
PHAEDRUS, the author of five books of fables, in Latin iambic measure, was a native of Thrace or Macedonia, and-brought at a very early age to Rome, where he became the slave of Augustus, and from whom he subsequently received his freedom. The few facts that we know respecting his personal history are to be collected from his fables, as he is noticed by no earlier writer than Avianus, unless, perhaps, Martial may allude to him in one of his epigrams (iii. 20). If he really existed at this early period, it is strange that he should have been unknown to Seneca ( Cons, ad Polyb. 27). By his long residence at Rome, Phaedrus acquired a complete acquaintance with the language, and wrote it with as much ease as he could have done that of his own country. In the reign of Tiberius, he excited the wrath of Sejanus, and was banished by him, though for what cause we are nowhere distinctly informed. Under Caligula we find him in hopes of being reinstated in his position at court, through the influence of Eutychus. Part at least of these fables must have been written in. the latter years of the poet, and not published till after the death of Sejanus. Schwabe, who has examined this point with great diligence, thinks that the first two books were written after the departure of Tiberius to Caprea, the third under Caligula, and the fourth and fifth under Claudius^ One part of these fables consists of very happy translations of the Greek fables of Aesop into the Latin language, or imitations of them in verse, similar to that employed in the translations. The other part seems to have been original, or at least we have no longer the writers from whom he borrowed his subjects. The style is pure, the .language/ remarkably correct, and the whole is written with simplicity and ease. Yet many have doubted whether these fables can be considered as the genuine productions of Phaedrus, the freedman of Augustus, as we have so few manuscripts of the work, and as Seneca was evidently unacquainted with it. Some ascribe them to the pen of Nicoaus Perotti, archbishop of Manfredonia, who lived about the middle of the fifteenth century; but, in later times, the discovery of some manuscripts, one of which is considered as of the tenth century, has proved the incorrectness of such a supposi-.
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tion. The best edition of the works of Phaedrus is that by Schwabe, two vols. Brunswick, 1806, 8vo.