pnugues/EB7 huggingface dataset:
AR SENIUS, a deacon of the Roman church, of great learning and piety. He was appointed by the pope to go to the emperor Theodosius, as tutor to his son Arcadius. Arsenius arrived at Constantinople in the year 383. The emperor happening one day to go into the room where he was instructing Arcadius, his son was seated and the preceptor standing. At this he was exceedingly displeased, took from his son the imperial ornaments, made Arsenins sit in his place, and ordered Arcadius for the future to receive his lessons standing uncovered. Arcadius, however, profited little by his tutor’s instructions, for some time after he formed a design of dispatching him. The officer to whom Arcadius had applied for this purpose divulged the affair to Arsenius, who retired to the deserts of Scete, where he passed many years in the exercises of the most strict and fervent devotion. He died there, at 95 years of age.
ARSHOT, a town of the Austrian Netherlands, situated about 14 miles east of the city of Mechlin, in long. 4. 45. E. lat. 51. 5. N.
ARSON, in English Law, is the malicious and wilful burning of the house or cuthouse of another man; which is felony at common law.
ARSURA, in ancient customs, a term used for the melting of gold or silver, either to refine them or to examine their value. The method of doing this is explained at large in the Black Book of the Exchequer, ascribed to Gervaise, in the chapter De Officio Militis Argentarii, being in those days of great use, on account of the various places and different manners in which the king’s money was paid.

Arsura is also used for the loss or diminution of the metal in the trial. In this sense a pound was said tot ardere denarios, to lose so many pennyweights.

Arsura is likewise used for the dust and sweepings of silversmiths, and others who work in silver melted down.
ARTA, or Larta, a town of Lower Albania, in European Turkey, containing about 6000 inhabitants, Turks and Christians, who carry on a trade in cattle, wine, tobacco, cotton, flax, pulse, fur, leather, wheat, &c. They also manufacture cotton and woollen stuffs. Arta is situated about 9 miles from the gulf to which it gives name, otherwise called Prevesa. Long. 21. 8. E. Lat. 39. 30. N.
ARTABA, an ancient measure of capacity used by the [7:3:631] Persians, Medes, and Egyptians. The Persian artaba is represented by Herodotus as larger than the Attic medimnus by three Attic choenixes: from which it appears that it was equal to 6∣ Roman modii; consequently it contained 166^ pounds of wine or water, or 126∣∙ pounds of wheat. The Egyptian artaba contained five Roman modii, and fell short of the Attic medimnus by one modius; it consequently held 1331 pounds of water or wine, or 100 pounds of wheat.
ARTABAZUS, the son of Pharnaces, commander of the Parthians and Chorasmians in the famous expedition of Xerxes. After the battle of Salamis he escorted his sovereign to the Hellespont with 60,000 chosen men; and after the battle of Plataea, in which Mardonius engaged in opposition to his wishes and advice, he made a noble retreat into Asia with 40,000 men under his command.
ARTAXERXES, the name of several kings of Persia. See Persia.
ARTEDI, Peter, an eminent naturalist, was born in Sweden in the year 1705, in the province of Angermania. Although his parents were poor, yet it appears they found means to give him a liberal education, and with this view sent him to the college of FI urnesand. Intending to embrace the ecclesiastical profession, he went in 1724 to Upsal; but he turned his attention to medicine from the strong bent of his mind for the study of natural history, in which science he made rapid progress, and soon rose to considerable eminence, particularly in the department of ichthyology. Confining his botanical studies to the umbelliferous plants, he suggested a new mode of classification. But Artedi was much better acquainted with chemistry than botany. His attention, however, was chiefly directed to ichthyology, the classification of which he greatly reformed, and new-modelled upon philosophical principles. This arrangement added greatly to his reputation as a naturalist at the time, and afterwards became popular over Europe. In 1728 his celebrated countryman Linnaeus arrived in Upsal, having been appointed to deliver lectures on botany in that place; and so high stood the character of Artedi as a philosopher, that a lasting friendship was formed between these two great men. In 1732 both left Upsal; Artedi for England, in pursuit of his favourite study, and Linnaeus for Lapland, to examine its natural productions; but before parting, they reciprocally bequeathed to each other their manuscripts and books upon the event of death. However, in the year 1735 they met again at Leyden, where Artedi was introduced to Seba, and employed in preparing for the press die third volume of that eminent naturalist’s Thesaurus, which chiefly related to fishes. Artcdi formed the resolution, as soon as that work was finished, to return to his native country, and publish the fruits of his own labours; but as he was returning home from Seba’s house on the evening of the 27th September 1735, the night being dark, he fell into the canal and was unfortunately drowned. According to agreement, his manuscripts came into the hands of Linnaeus, and his Bibliotheca Ichthyologica and Philosophia Ichthyologica, together with a life of the author, were published at Leyden in the year 1738
ARTEMIDORUS, famous for his Treatise on Dreams, was born at Ephesus, and lived under the emperor Antoninus Pius. He styled himself the Ephesian in all his performances but that on Dreams, where he took the cognomen of Daldianus, in compliment to his mother country Daltis. On this work he expended vast labour, not only possessing himself of all that had been written on the subject, but travelling for years in search of fortune-tellers, as well as corresponding with them in various parts, and collecting information on old dreams, and the events which were said to have followed them. It consisted of five books, and, though abounding in frivolous observations, contained others that were interesting. It was first printed in Greek at Venice in 1518; and Rigaltius published an edition at Paris, in Greek and Latin, in 1603, to which he added some notes. Artemidorus wrote also a treatise upon Auguries, and another upon Chiromancy, but they are not now extant.
ARTEMISIA, wife of Mausolus, king of Caria, has immortalized herselfby the honours which she paid to the memory of her husband. She built for him, in Halicarnassus, a very magnificent tomb, called the Mausoleum, which was one of the seven wonders of the world, and from which the title of Mausoleum was afterwards given to all tombs remarkable for their grandeur; but she died of regret and sorrow before it was finished. She appointed panegyrics to be made in honour of him, and proposed a prize of great value for the person who should compose the best. She died about the end of the 106th Olympiad, 351 years before the Christian era.

Artemisia, queen of Caria, and daughter of Ligdamis, marched in person in the expedition of Xerxes against the Greeks, and performed wonders in the sea-fight near Salamis, 480 years before the Christian era. She was passionately fond of a man named Dardanus, of Abydos; but, enraged at his neglect of her, she put out his eyes while he was asleep. The gods punished her for this, by increasing the passion she entertained for him; so that the oracle having advised her to go to Leucas, which was the usage of desperate lovers, she took the leap from thence, and was interred at that place. Many writers confound this Artemisia with the former, the wife of Mausolus.
ARTEMISIUM, in Ancient Geography, a promontory on the north-east of Euboea (called Leon and Calx Acte by Ptolemy), memorable for the first sea engagements between the Greeks and Xerxes.
ARTICLE, in Grammar, denotes a particle used in most languages for the declining of nouns, and denoting the several cases and genders thereof. The use of articles arises chiefly from this, that in languages which have no different terminations to express the different states and circumstances of nouns, there is something required to supply that office. The Latins have no articles; but the Greeks, and most of the modern languages, have had recourse to them, for fixing and ascertaining the vague signification of common and appellative names. The Greeks have their ó, the Italians their il, lo, and lα ; the French their le, la, and les ; the Germans their der, das, dat. r ∏ le English also have two articles, a and the, which being prefixed to substantives, apply their general signification to some particular things. Some grammarians make the article a distinct part of speech; others will have it a pronoun, and others a noun adjective. See Grammar.
ARTIFICER, a person who works in iron, brass, wood, &c. such as smiths, brasiers, carpenters, &ć. The Roman artificers had their peculiar temples, where they assembled and chose their own patron to defend their causes; and they were exempted from all personal services. Tarun-tenus Paternus reckons 32 species of artificers, and Constantine 35, who enjoyed this privilege. The artificers were incorporated into divers colleges or companies, each of which had their tutelar gods, to whom they offered their worship. Several of these, when they quitted their profession, hung up their tools, a votive offering to their gods. Artificers were held a degree below merchants and argentarii or money-changers, and their employment more sordid. Some deny that in the earliest ages of the Roman state artificers were ranked in the number of citizens; others, who assert their citizenship, allow that they were held in contempt, as being unfit for war, and so poor that they could scarcely pay any taxes; for which reason they were not entered among the citizens in the censor’s books; the design of the census being only to see what number of persons were yearly fit to bear arms and to pay taxes towards the support of the state. It may be added, that much of the artificers’ business was done by slaves and foreigners, who left little for the Romans to mind but their husbandry and war.
ARTIFICIAL, in a general sense, denotes something made, fashioned, or produced by art, in contradistinction from the production of nature.

Artificial Fire-works. See Pyrotechny. Artificial Magnets. See Magnets.
ARTIST, in a general sense, a person skilled in some art. Mr Harris defines an artist to be “a person possessing an habitual power of becoming the cause of some effect, according to a system of various and well-approved precepts.” It is generally applied to an individual who practises the liberal arts as a profession.
ARTLENBURG, a bailiwick in the province of Luneburg, in the kingdom of Hanover, extending over 27 square miles, or 17,280 acres, and containing 3020 inhabitants. A town of the same name, with 525 inhabitants, is the capital of the bailiwick. It is on the banks of the Elbe, and enjoys the benefit of a toll over the river.
ARTOTYRITES, a Christian sect in the primitive church, who celebrated the eucharist with bread and cheese, saying that the first oblations of men were not only of the fruits of the earth, but of their flocks. The word is derived from aςrος, bread, and <ruy>ς, cheese. The Artotyrites admitted women to the priesthood and episcopacy; and Epiphanius tells us it was a common thing to see seven girls at once enter into their church, robed in white and holding a torch in their hand, where they wept and bewailed the wretchedness of human nature and the miseries of this life.
ARTS, Master of. See Degrees, Academical.
ARVALES Fratres, in Roman Antiquity, a college of twelve priests, instituted by Romulus, and chosen out of the most noble families, he himself being one of that body. They assisted in the sacrifices of the ambervalia, annually offered to Ceres and Bacchus for the prosperity of the fruits of the earth, when they wore on their heads crowns made of ears of corn. The original of this institution was as follows: Acca Laurentia, Romulus’s nurse, was accustomed once a year to make a solemn sacrifice for a blessing on the fields, her twelve sons always assisting her in the solemnity; but at last losing one of her sons, Romulus offered himself to supply his place, and gave this small society the name of Arvales Fratres. This order was in great repute at Rome: they held the dignity for life, and never lost it on account of imprisonment, banishment, or any other accident.
AR VII. Supper, a feast or entertainment made at funerals in the north part of England. Arvil bread is the bread delivered to the poor at funeral solemnities.
ARVIRAGUS, an ancient British king, who flourished in the time of the emperor Domitian. He gained a complete victory over Claudius; but being soon after besieged in the city of Winchester, he made a treaty with the Romans, and married the emperor’s daughter Genu-issa. This'monarch lived to a good old age: he confirmed the ancient laws, enacted new ones, and liberally rewarded persons of merit.
ARUSPICES, or Haruspices, in Homan Antiquity, an order of priests who pretended to foretel future events by inspecting the entrails of victims killed in sacrifice; they were also consulted on occasion of portents and prodigies. The aruspices were also chosen from the best families; [7:3:662]and as their employment was of the same nature as that of the augurs, they were as much honoured. Their college, as well as those of the other religious orders, had its particular registers and records.
ARX, in the ancient military art, a town, fort, or castle, for defence of a place. The arx in ancient Rome was a distinct edifice from the capitol, though some have confounded the two.

Arx also denotes a consecrated place on the Palatine Mount, where the augurs publicly performed their office. Some will have the arx to have been the augural temple, but Varro expressly distinguishes between the two.

Arx was particularly used for a public place in Rome, set apart for the operations of the augurs; in which sense arx amounts to the same with what is otherwise called augxiraculum and auguratorium, and in the camp augurale. Out of this arx it was that the feciales, or heralds, gathered the grass used in the ceremony of making leagues and treaties.
ARZEW, a s.caport in the western part of the kingdom of Algiers, containing very considerable, and sometimes beautiful, remains of antiquity. There are traces of very fine ancient cisterns, though all the water used by the inhabitants is brackish. At the distance of five miles there are very fine salt pits, which serve, however, only for the supply of the neighbouring districts. Long. 1. E. Lat. 35. 52. N.
ARZILLA, a very ancient maritime town of Africa, in the kingdom of Fez, about five leagues from Tangiers. It is built at the mouth of a river, and inhabited by Moors and Jews, who carry on no trade. It was formerly a Roman colony, under the name of Julia Traducta. It afterwards fell under the government of the Goths, and was next taken by the Mahometans. Alphonse of Portugal, surnamed the African, took it by assault in 1471, and brought away the presumptive heir of the crown. After that prince came to the throne, he besieged it in 1508, with 100,000 men; but was obliged to abandon the undertaking. However, at length the Portuguese forsook it of their own accord. It is now sunk into a very small place, not containing above 1000 inhabitants.
AS, in Antiquity, a particular weight, consisting of 12 ounces, being the same with libra, or the Roman pound. The word is derived from the Greek α ∣ ς, which, in the Doric dialect, is used for i ∣ ς, one, q. d. an entire thing; though others will have it named as quasi oes, because made of brass.

As was also the name of a Roman coin, which was of different weight and different matters in different ages of the commonwealth. Under Numa Pompilius, according to Eusebius, the Roman money was either of wood, leather, or shells. In the time of Tullus Hostilius it was of brass, and called as libra, libella, or pondo, because actually weighing a pound or 12 ounces. Four hundred and twenty years after, the first Punic war having exhausted the treasury, they reduced the as to two ounces. In the second Punic war, Hannibal pressing very hard upon them, they reduced the as to half its weight, viz. to one ounce. And lastly, by the Papirian law they took away half an ounce more, and consequently reduced the as to the diminutive weight of half an ounce; and it is generally thought that it continued the same during the commonwealth, and even to the reign of Vespasian. The as, therefore, was of four different weights in the commonwealth. Its original stamp was that of a sheep, ox, or sow; but from the time of the emperors it had on one side a Janus with two faces, and on the reverse the rostrum or prow of a ship.

As was also used to denote any integer or whole; whence the English word ace. Thus as signified the whole inheritance; whence hceres ex asse, the heir to the whole estate.
ASA, king of Judah, succeeded his father Abijam. He j pulled down the altars erected to idols, restored the worship of the true God, and, with the assistance of Benha-dad, king of Syria, took several towns from the king of Israel. He died 917 years before the Christian era, and was succeeded by Jehoshaphat.
ASAPH, St, a small episcopal city in the county of Flint, in North Wales, at the confluence of the rivers Clwd and Elwy, said to have been founded in the year 560. The situation is fine, but the town itself has a poor appearance, the houses being small and ill built. The chief objects are the cathedral, a plain building about 170 feet in length and 90 in height; the bishop’s palace, a co ’ mmodious but simple dwelling; and another church, i∏ which divine service is performed in the Welsh language. The diocese consists of parts of Flintshire, Derbyshire, Montgomeryshire, Merionethshire, and comprehends a few parishes in Shropshire. The deanery, in the gift of the bishop, is a more valuable benefice than the bishopric itself. It is 209 miles from London, and 21 from Chester. No market is held there. Population, in 1801,1513; in 1811, 1724; in 1821, 2294.
ASAR-ADDON, or Esar-Hadpon, the son of Sennacherib, succeeded his father about 712 years before the Christian era, and united the kingdoms of Nineveh and Babylon. He rendered himself master of Syria, sent a colony to Samaria, and his generals took King Manasses, and carried him loaded with chains to Babylon. Asar-Addon died after a reign of 12 years.
ASAROTA, αo ’ αgωrα, from a and da∕jω, I sweep, a kind of painted pavements in use before the invention of mosaic work. The most celebrated was that at Pergamus, painted by Sesus, which exhibited the appearance of crumbs, as if the floor had not been swept after dinner; hence, according to Pliny, the denomination. Perrault supposes them to have been a black kind of pavements, of a spongy matter.
ASBESTOS. See Mineralogy.
ASCALON, a town of Palestine, on the sea coast, 14 miles north of Gaza, and 30 south-west of Jerusalem. It was one of the satrapes of Egypt, and was noted during the crusades. It contains some precious remains of antiquity, long streets, and innumerable red granite pillars, mostly fallen. Long. 34. 47. E. Lat. 31. 38. N.
ASCANIUS, the son of Aeneas and Crusa, succeeded his father in the kingdom of the Latins, and defeated Mezentius, king of the Tuscans, who had refused to conclude a peace with him. At length he founded Alba Longa, and died about 1139 years before the Christian era, after a reign of 38 years.
ASCENDANT, in Astrology, denotes the horoscope, or the degree of the ecliptic which rises upon the horizon at the time of the birth of any one. This is supposed to have an influence on the person’s life and fortune, by giving him a bent and propensity to one thing more than another. In the celestial theme this is also called the first house, the angle of the East, or Oriental angle, and the significator of life. Such a planet ruled in his ascendant, Jupiter was in his ascendant, &c. Hence the word is also used in a moral sense for a certain superiority which one man has over another from some unknown cause.
ASCENSION, a solitary island, or rather rock, in the midst of the Atlantic, about 700 or 800 miles from the western coast of Africa. It was discovered in 1501 by Joao de Nova Gallego, a Portuguese navigator, who named it Ilha de Nossa Senhora de Conceicao. It was seen a second time by Alfonso d’Albuquerque, in his voyage to India in 1503, and then received its present name. As-censiθ[7:3:663] - n consists of a single rocky mountain, though shooting up into several detached peaks, of the most naked and desolate character, consisting in a'great measure of volcanic remains. The beach, always beat upon by a heavy surf, is covered with a sand of snowy whiteness, which, when acted upon by the sun, is intolerable to the eyes. The sides of the cliffs consist of lava, variously coloured, and in different stages of decomposition. Easter Island and Terra del Fuego do not present a more dreary aspect. At a considerable height occurs a plain about eight miles in circumference, from the south-east quarter of which there rises a lofty hill, presenting an appearance of verdure not discoverable in any other part of the island. Here is found a grass peculiar to the island, and a few goats are fed, whose flesh is extremely delicate. Notwithstanding the unproductive character of this island, its excellent harbour, and the fish, sea-fowl, and turtle, with which it abounds, have made it a place of refreshment for the homeward-bound shipping. A crevice in one of die rocks has been employed for depositing letters, to be taken up by the next ship passing in a contrary direction, and has been hence called the sailor’s post-office. Long.

14.28. W. Lat. 8.8. S. . ’

Ascension Day, a festival of the Christian church, held ten days before Whitsuntide, in memory of our Saviour’s ascension into heaven after his resurrection.
ASCETERIUM, in ecclesiastical writers, is frequently used for a monastery, or place set apart for the exercise of virtue and religion. The word is formed from ascesis, exercise; or ascetra, one who performs exercise. Originally it signified a place where the athletae or gladiators performed their exercises.
ASCETIC, an ancient appellation given to such persons as, in the primitive times, devoted themselves more immediately to the exercises of piety and virtue in a retired life, and particularly to prayer, abstinence, and mortification. The word is derived from α<ixtω, exerceo, I exercise. Afterwards, when the monks came in fashion, this title was bestowed upon them, especially upon such of them as lived in solitude.
ASCHAFFENBURG, a city in the Bavarian circle of die Lower Maine. It is situated on an elevation above the river Maine, containing eight churches, 755 houses, and 6590 inhabitants. The streets are narrow and crooked, the houses large and antique. Near it the castle, formerly the residence of the prince, is a fine building, with an orangery and pheasantry. There are several institutions for civil and ecclesiastical education. The trade consists in paper and leather made in the city, in building vessels to navigate the river, and in the transit commerce which the long stream creates.

Aschaffenburg, a bailiwick in the circle of the Lower Maine, containing 10,635 inhabitants, in one market-town and 18 villages, besides several small hamlets. It lies on both sides of the Maine, is mountainous and woody, but produces good wine and cider, and feeds many herds of black cattle.
ASCHENDORF, a bailiwick in the circle of Meppen and province of Osnaburg, in the kingdom of Hanover. It lies on the banks of the Ems, and contains two towns and five villages, with 8972 inhabitants, almost wholly Catholics, with many remains of old German habits and prejudices.—The capital of the bailiwick is of the same name, and contains one church, a monastery of Franciscans, and 1177 inhabitants, several of whom are seamen.