pnugues/EB7 huggingface dataset:
ARISTO, a Stoic philosopher, the disciple of Zeno, flourished about 290 years before the Christian era. He differed but little from his master Zeno. He rejected logic as of no use, and natural philosophy as being above the reach of the human understanding. It is said that being bald, the sun burnt his head; and that this caused his death.
ARISTOCRACY, a form of government by which the supreme power is vested in the principal persons of the state. The word is derived from apοτος, optimus, and κgατiω, impero, I govern. See the article Government.
ARISTOGITON, a famous Athenian, who, with Harmodius, killed Hipparchus, tyrant of Athens, about 513 years before the Christian era. The Athenians erected a statue to him.
ARISTOTELIA, in Antiquity, annual feasts celebrated by the citizens of Stagyra, in honour of Aristotle, who was born there; and in gratitude for his having procuredfrom Alexander the rebuilding and repeopling of that city, which had been demolished by king Philip.
ARISTOXENUS, one of the most ancient musical writers, was born at Tarentum, a city in Magna Graecia, now Calabria. He was the son of a musician, and it appears that he lived about the time of Alexander the Great and his successors. His Harmonics in three books, all that are come down to us, together with Ptolemy’s Harmonics, were first published by Gogavinus, but not very correctly, at Venice, in 1562, in 4to, with a Latin version. John Meursius next translated the three books of Aristoxenus into Latin, from the manuscript of Jos. Scaliger; but, according to Meibomius, very negligently. With these he printed at Leyden, in 1616, in 4to, Nicoachus and Alypius, two other Greek writers on music. After this Meibomius collected these musical writers together; to which he added Euclid, Bacchius senior, Aristides, and Quintilianus; and published the whole under the title of Antiques. Musicae Auctores, with a Latin version and notes, at Amsterdam, in 1652, in 4to. The learned editor dedicates these ancient musical treatises to Christina, queen of Sweden. Aristoxenus is said by Suidas to have written 452 different works, among which those on music were the most esteemed. His writings on other subjects are very frequently quoted by ancient authors, notwithstanding Cicero and some others say that he was a bad philosopher, and had nothing in his head but music. The titles of several of the lost works of Aristoxenus, quoted by Athenaeus and others, have been collected by Meursiusin his notes upon this author.
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ARIUS, a divine of the fourth century, the head and founder of the Arians, a sect which denied the eternal divinity and substantiality of the Word, was born in Libya. Eusebius, bishop of Nicoedia, a great favourite of Constantia, sister of the emperor Constantine, and wife of Licinius, became a zealous promoter of Arianism. He took Arius under his protection, and introduced him to Constantia; so that the sect increased, and several bishops embraced it openly. In the cities, however, disputes arose so high, that the emperor was obliged to assemble a council—that of Nice—where, in the year 325, the doctrine of Arius was condemned, he himself banished by the emperor, all his books ordered to be burnt, and capital punishment denounced against whoever dared to keep them. After five years’ banishment, he was recalled to Constantinople, where he presented the emperor with a confession of his faith, drawn up so artfully, that it fully satisfied him. Notwithstanding which, Athanasius, now advanced to the see of Alexandria, refused to admit him and his followers to communion. This so enraged them, that by their interest at court they procured the deposition and banishment of that prelate. But the church of Alexandria still refusing to admit Arius into their communion, the emperor sent for him to Constantinople, where, upon delivering in a fresh confession of his faith in terms less offensive, the emperor commanded Alexander, the bishop of that church, to receive him the next day into his communion; but that very evening Arius died suddenly. The heresy, however, did not expire with the heresiarch: his party continued still in great credit at court. Athanasius, indeed, was soon recalled from banishment, but as soon removed again; for the Arians, under the countenance of government, made and deposed bishops as it best served their purposes. In short, this sect shone with great lustre above 300 years. It was the reigning religion of Spain for above two centuries; it was on the throne both in the East and West; it prevailed in Italy, France, Pannonia, and Africa; and was not extirpated till about the end of the 8th century. It was afterwards set on foot in the West by Servetus. Erasmus seems to have aimed at reviving it in his Commentaries on the New Testament; and the learned Grotius appears to favour the doctrine.
ARKLOW, a seaport town of Ireland, in the county of Wicklow, situated on the south side of the river Avoca or Ovoca, near the Irish Sea. The river is crossed by a bridge of 19 arches, and its harbour admits small vessels. It contains a charter-school for 50 girls; and there are barracks at its western extremity. It was assailed in 1798 by a body of insurgents, and suffered considerable damage, though they were finally dispersed. Population 3808. 17 miles S. from Wicklow, and 49 S. E. from Dublin. Long. 6. 0. W. Lat. 52. 48. N.
ARLES, an arrondissement in the department of the mouths of the Rhone, in France, extending over 883 square miles, or 585,120 acres. It is divided into eight cantons, and subdivided into 33 communes, which contain 70,641 inhabitants.

Arles, a city, the chief of the arrondissement of the same name, in France. It is situated on the left bank of the principal branch of the Rhone, called the Grand Phone, to avoid the bad navigation of which, a broad and deep canal to the harbour of Boue has been constructed. The surrounding country is fruitful, especially in corn. The city is ancient, large, and well built, containing, besides a cathedral and several churches, a fine town-house, an exchange, and other public buildings, and 20,151 inhabitants. Having been formerly a Roman colonial city, Arles abounds with many interesting remains of that people. The most remarkable are, an amphitheatre of 1000 feet in circumference, though its arena is filled with miserable dwellings; five arches of Roland’s Tower; the remains of the palace of Constantine the Great, called Le Chateau de Trouille; the obelisk of granite before the town-house, 61 feet in height; and the Elysian fields, an ancient burial place, with many sarcophagi. It is in long. 5. 42. 27. E. Lat. 43. 40. 28. N.
ARMADA, a Spanish term, signifying a fleet of men of war. The armada which attempted to invade England in the time of Queen Elizabeth is famous in history. Sec England.
ARMADILLO, in Zoology. See Mammalia Index.
ARMAGEDDON, a place spoken of in the Revelation (xvi. 16), which literally signifies the mountain of Maged-don or Megiddo, a city situated in the great plain at the foot of Mount Carmel, where King Josiah received his mortal wound in the battle against Necho, king of Egypt.
ARMAMAXI, in Antiquity, a kind of Scythian chariots or carriages, composed of two wheels, variously adorned with crowns, shields, breastplates, and other spoils, carried in procession after the images of the gods and great men.
ARMATURA, in a general sense, is the same with what we otherwise call armour. It is more particularly used in the ancient military art to denote a kind of exercise performed with missile weapons, as darts, spears, arrows, and the like. In this sense armatura stands contradistinguished from palaria; the latter being the exercise of the heavy-armed, the former of the light-armed.
ARMENTIERES, a small handsome town in the department of the North, in France, containing 7600 inhabitants. It was taken by Louis XIV. in 1667, who dismantled it. The river Lys traverses the town, and forms a small harbour. Long. 3. 3. E. Lat. 50. 40. N.
ARMIERS, a town in France, in the department of the North, seated on the river Sambre. Long. 3. 45. E. Lat. 50. 15. N.
ARMIGER, a title of dignity belonging to such gentlemen as bear arms; and these are either by courtesy, as sons of noblemen, eldest sons of knights, &c.; or by creation, such as the king’s servants, &c. See Esquire.
ARMILLARY, in a genera] sense, something consisting of rings or circles.

ARMiLLĀRY Sphere, an artificial sphere composed of a number of circles of the mundane sphere, put together in their natural order, to ease and assist the imagination in conceiving the constitution of the heavens and the motions of the celestial bodies. The armillary. sphere revolves upon its axis within a silvered horizon, which is divided into degrees, and movable every way upon a brass supporter. The other parts are the equinoctial, zodiac, meridian, the two tropics, and the two polar circles.
ARMILUSTRIUM, in Roman Antiquity, a feast held among the Romans, in which they sacrificed, armed, to the sound of trumpets.
ARMINIANS, a religious sect, which arose in Holland, by a separation from the Calvinists. They followed Arminius, who, thinking the doctrine of Calvin with regard to free-will, predestination, and grace, too severe, began, in the year 1591, to express his doubts concerning them; and upon further inquiry adopted sentiments more nearly resembling those of the Lutherans. After his appointment to the theological chair at Leyden, he thought it his duty to avow and vindicate the principles which he had embraced; and the freedom with which he published and defended them exposed him to the resentment of those that adhered to the theological system of Geneva, which then prevailed in Holland; but his principal opponent was Gomar, his colleague. The controversy which was thus begun, became more general after the death of Arminius, in the year 1609, and threatened to involve the United Provinces in civil discord. The Calvinists, or Gomarists as they were now called, appealed to a national synod. Accordingly the synod of Dort was convened by order of the States General, in 1618, and was composed of ecclesiastical deputies from the United Provinces, as well as from the reformed churches of England, Hcssia, Bremen, Switzerland, and the Palatinate. The principal advocate in favour of the Arminians was Episcopius, who at that time was professor of divinity at Leyden. It was first proposed to discuss the principal subjects in dispute, and that the Arminians should be allowed to state and vindicate the grounds on which their opinions were founded: but some difference arising as to the proper mode of conducting the debate, the Arminians were excluded from the assembly, their case was tried in their absence, and they were pronounced guilty of pestilential errors, and condemned as corrupters of the true religion. In consequence of this decision they were treated with great severity, they were deprived of all their posts and employ-, ι∏ents, their ministers were silenced, and their congregations were suppressed. However, after the death of Prince Maurice, who had been a partisan of the Gomarists, in the year 1625, the Arminian exiles were restored to their former tranquillity; and, under the toleration of the state, they erected churches and founded a college at Amsterdam, appointing Episcopius to be the first theological professor. The Arminian system has very much prevailed in England since the time of Archbishop Laud, and its votaries in other countries are numerous.

The Arminians are also called Remonstrants, from a humble petition, entitled their Remonstrance, which, in the year 1610, they addressed to the states of Holland. Their principal writers are Arminius, Episcopius, Vorstius, Grotius, Curcellaeus, Limborch, Le Clerc, and Wetstein; not to mention many others of more modern date.
ARMINIUS, James, whose real name in Low Dutch was James Harmanni, a famous Protestant divine, was born at Oude water, in Holland, in 1560. He was ordained minister at Amsterdam on the 11th of August 1588, where he soon distinguished himself by his sermons, which were remarkable for their solidity and learning. Martin Lydias, professor of divinity at Franeker, judging him a fit person to refute a writing in which Beza’s doctrine of predestination had been attacked by some ministers of Delft, Arminius at his desire undertook the task; but upon thoroughly examining the reasons on both sides, he came into the opinions he proposed to overturn, and afterwards went still farther than the ministers of Delft had done. In 1600 he opposed those who maintained that ministers should subscribe the confession and catechism every year. In 1602 a pestilential disease raged at Amsterdam, during which he acted with the greatest resolution and courage, in assisting the poor and comforting the sick; and Lucas Trelcatius and Francis Junius dying of that disease at Leyden, the curators of that university chose Arminius professor of divinity there, and he was afterwards made doctor of divinity. Disputes upon grace were soon after kindled in that university; and he was at length engaged in a new contest, occasioned by a disputation of his concerning the divinity of the Som These contests, his continual labour, and the concern of seeing his reputation blasted by a multitude of slanders in relation to his opinions, impaired his health, and threw him into a fit of sickness, of which he died on the 19th of October 1609. Arminius was esteemed an excellent preacher; his voice was low, but very agreeable; his pronounciation admirable; he was easy and affable to persons of all ranks, and facetious in conversation amongst his friends. The curators of the university of Leyden had so great a regard for him, that they settled a pension upon his wife and children. He left several treatises, viz. 1, Disputationes de Diversis Christianae Religionis Capitibus; 2, Orationes, itemque Tractatus Insigniores aliquot; 3, Examen modesti Libelli Gulielmi Perkinsi de Praedestinationis Modo et Ordine, itemque de Amplitudine Gratiae Divinae; 4, Analysis Capitis Noni ad Romanos; 5, Dissertatio de vero et genuino Sensu Capitis Septimi Epistolae ad Romanos; 6, Amica Collatio cum D. Francisco Junio de Praedestinatione, per literas habita; 7, Epistola ad Hippolytum a Collibus. These pieces were collected in a 4to volume, published at Leyden in 1629, which has been several times reprinted.
ARMISTICE, in military affairs, a temporary truce or cessation of arms for a very short space of time. The word is Latin, αrmistitium, and compounded of arma, arms, and sto, to stand or stop.
ARMOISIN, a silk stuff, or kind of taffety, manufactured in the East Indies, at Lyons in France, and at Lucca in Italy. That of the Indies is slighter than those made in Europe.
ARMORIC, or Aremoric, something that belongs to the province of Bretagne or Britany, in France. The [7:3:578] name Armorica was anciently given to all the northern and western coast of Gaul, from the Pyrenees to the Rhine, under which name it was known even in Caesar’s time. The word is of Bas-Breton origin, and signifies maritime; compounded, according to Μ. Menage, of ar, upon, and more, sea.
ARMORY, a storehouse of arms, or a place wherein military habiliments are kept, to be ready for use. There are armories in the Tower, and in all arsenals, citadels, castles, &c.
ARMOUR, a defensive habit, wherewith to cover and secure the body from the attacks of an enemy. In ancient statutes this is frequently called harness. A complete armour anciently consisted of a casque or helm, a gorget, cuirass, gauntlets, tasses, brassets, cuishes, and covers for the legs, to which the spurs were fastened. This formed armour cap-a-ļñe, and was used by the cavaliers and men-at-arms. The infantry had only part of it, viz. a pot or headpiece, a cuirass, and tasses; but all light. Lastly, the horses themselves had their armour, wherewith to cover the head and neck. Of all this furniture of war, scarce any thing is now retained except the cuirass; the gorget or neck-piece worn by officers being at present only a badge of honour, and of no defence.

Armour, Coat, is the escutcheon of any person or family, with its several charges, and otheŗ furniture; as mantling, crest, supporters, motto, &c. Thus we say, a gentleman of coat armour, meaning one who bears arms.
ARMS, Arma, in a general sense, includes all kinds of weapons, whether for defence or offence. Arms of stone and of brass appear to have been, used before those of iron and steel. Josephus assures us that the patriarch Joseph first taught the use of iron arms in Egypt, arming the troops of Pharaoh with a casque and buckler. What contributed most to render the Romans masters of the world was, that having successively warred against all nations, they constantly renounced their own methods, arms, &c. wherever they met with better. Thus Romulus, during his war with the Sabines, a bold and warlike nation, adopted their broad buckler, in lieu of the small Argian buckler, which he had used till that time.

Arms, or Armories, in Heraldry, marks of dignity and honour, regularly composed of certain figures and colours, given or authorized by sovereigns, and borne on banners, shields, coats, &c. for the distinction of persons, families, and states, and passing by descent to posterity. They are called arms, in regard they were borne principally on the buckler, cuirass, banners, and other apparatus of war. They are also called coats of arms, coat armour, &c. because anciently embroidered on surcoats, &c. See Heraldry.
ARMUYDEN, a seaport town of the United Provinces, in the island of Walcheren, formerly very flourishing, but now inconsiderable. Long. 3.40. Ľ. Lat. 51. 30. N.
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ARNALL, William, a political writer, who was employed by Sir Robert Walpole to write the Free Briton in defence of his administration, for which, by the report of the secret committee, he is said to have received L.10,997. 6s. 8d. He died in 1741, at the age of 26.
ARNAUD Belgard, a town of Turkey in Europe, in Albania. It is situated on the Chervesta, 40 miles N. E. of Vallona, in a fertile plain, covered with vines and olives. It is the seat of a Greek bishop, and contains 11,500 industrious inhabitants, who trade largely.

Arnaud de Meyrveilh, or Mereuil, a poet of Provence, who lived in the beginning of the 13th century. He wrote a book entitled Las Recastenas de sa Contesse, and a collection of poems and sonnets. Petrarch mentions him in his Triumph of Love. He died in the year 1220.

Arnaud de Ronsil, George, son of an eminent surgeon at Paris, and some time professor of surgery in the college of St Côsme. On account of an accident that occurred while he was practising midwifery, he removed from Paris to London, where he acquired great repute by his operations, and his writings on surgical subjects. Before his time the treatment of hernia had been but imperfectly understood; and the surgeons of this country are indebted to the observations of Arnaud for many of those improvements which have since rendered their practice so successful in this branch of the art. The following is a list of his principal works:—1, Traité des Hernies ou Descentes, 2 vols. 12mo, Paris, 1749. 2, Observations on Aneurysms, London, 1750. 3, Instructions on the Diseases of the Bladder and Urethra, London, 1763. 4, A Dissertation on Hermaphrodites, London, 1750. These were afterwards collected and published, with additions, under the title of Mémoires de Chirurgie, avec quelques Remarques sur l’Etat de la Médecine et de la Chirurgie en France et en Angleterre, 2 vols. 4to, London, 1768. 5, Remarks on the Use of the Extract of Lead of Goulard, London, 1776. Arnaud died in 1774.

Arnaud de Villa Nova, a famous physician, who lived about the end of the 13th and beginning of the 14th century. He studied at Paris and Montpelier, and improved himself by visiting the schools of Italy and Spain. He was well acquainted with languages, particularly with the Greek, Hebrew, and Arabic. His desire after the acquisition of knowledge was ardent, but it carried him too far in his researches. He put unlimited faith in astrology, and published a prediction that the consummation of the world would take place in the middle of the 14th century. He practised physic at Paris for some time; but having advanced some new doctrines, he drew upon himself the resentment of the university; and his friends, fearing he might be arrested, persuaded him to retire from that city. Upon his leaving France he went to Sicily, where he was received by king Frederic of Arragon with the greatest marks of kindness and esteem. Some time afterwards this prince sent him to France to attend pope Clement in an illness; and he was shipwrecked on the coast of Genoa about the year 1313. His works, with a life prefixed, were printed at Lyons in 1520, in one volume folio, and at Basil in 1585, with the notes of Nicholas Tolerus.
ARNAULD, Antony, a very celebrated doctor of the Sorbonne, was born in 1612. He published in 1643 A Treatise on Frequent Communion, which highly displeased the Jesuits; and the disputes upon grace, which broke out about this time in the university of Paris, and in which he took a zealous part with the Jansenists, helped to increase the animosity between him and the Jesuits. But nothing raised so great a clamour against him as the two letters he wrote On Absolution ; in the second of which the faculty of divinity found two propositions which they condemned, and Μ. Arnauld was expelled the society. Upon this he retired; and during a retreat which lasted nearly twenty-five years, he composed that great variety of works which are still extant, on grammar, geometry, logic, metaphysics, and theology. In 1679 he withdrew from France, lived in obscurity in the Netherlands, and died in 1694. His heart, at his own request, was sent to be deposited in the Port Royal. Arnauld was a man of genius, remarkable for the strength of his memory and a command of his pen, which he possessed unimpaired to the last year of his life. Mr Bayle says, he had been told by persons who had been admitted into his familiar conversation, that he was a man very simple in his manners; and that unless any one proposed some question to him, or desired some information, he said nothing that was beyond common conversation, or that might make one take him for a man of great abilities; but when he set himself to give an answer to such as proposed a point of learning, he seemed as it were transformed into another man: he would then deliver a multitude of fine things with great perspicuity and learning. A complete collection of his works, extending to 45 vols. 4to, was published at Lausanne in 1777-83.
ARNAY-LE-DUC, a town of France, in the department of Cote d’Or, which carries on a pretty good trade. It is seated on the Auxois, in a valley near the river Aroux. Long. 4. 26. E. Lat. 47. 7. N.
ARNDT, John, a famous Protestant divine of Germany, born at Ballenstadt, in the duchy of Anhalt, in the year 1555. He died in 1621. His Treatise on True Christianity has been translated into several languages.
ARNE, Thomas Augustine, doctor of music, was born in King Street, Covent Garden, where his father was an upholsterer. He served three years with an attorney; but his strong propensity for music prevailed over the law, and he finally attached himself to the science, in which he soon became so eminent as to receive the degree of doctor from the University of Oxford in 1759. His compositions are numerous, he having adapted upwards of thirty musical pieces for the stage. They are characterized by a natural ease and elegance, a flow of melody, and a fullness and variety without affected or extraneous modulation. His most celebrated works are, Artaxerxes, which he paraphrased from Metastasio; the Masque of Comus ; the Opera of Operas, a burletta; the Guardian Outwitted; and the Bose ; some of which have taken a permanent hold of the stage. Dr Arne died March 5, 1778.