ANCHOR, in Navigation, from the Greek ayxuga, which Vossius thinks is from oyxrç, a crook or hook, an instrument of iron or other heavy material used for holding ships in any situation in which they may be required to lie, and preventing them from drifting by the winds or tides, by the currents of rivers, or any other cause. This is done by the anchor, after it is let down from the ship by means of the cable, fixing itself into the ground, and there holding the vessel fast The anchor is thus obviously an implement of the first importance in navigation, and one on which too much attention cannot be bestowed in its manufacture and proper construction, seeing that on it depends entirely the safety of the vessel in storms. The invention of so necessary an instrument remounts, as may be supposed, to the remotest antiquity. The most ancient anchors consisted merely of large stones, or baskets full of stones, or sacks filled with sand, or logs of wood loaded with lead. Of this kind were the anchors of the ancient Greeks, which, according to Apollonius Rhodius and Stephen of Byzantium, were formed of stone; and Athenaeus states that they were sometimes made of wood. These sorts of anchors retained the vessel merely by their inertia, and by the friction along the bottom. Iron was afterwards introduced for the construction of anchors, and also the grand improvement of forming them with teeth or flukes to fasten themselves into the bottom; whence the words ooovrες and dentes are frequently taken for anchors in the Greek and Latin poets. The invention of the teeth is ascribed by Pliny to the Tuscans; but Pausanias gives the merit to Midas, king of Phrygiâ. Originally there was only one fluke or tooth, whence anchors were called εrsξoo⅛∙o∕4o∕; but shortly afterwards the second was added, according to Pliny, by Eupalamus, or, according to Strabo, by Anacharsis the Scythian philosopher. The anchors with two teeth were called αμ,pzCoao∕ or α,μφιΰτομοι, and from ancient monuments appear to have been much the same with those used in our days, only the stock is wanting in them all. Every ship had several anchors, the largest of which, corresponding to our bower or sheet anchor, was never used but in extreme danger, and was hence peculiarly termed hga or sacra ; whence the proverb sacram anchoram solvere, as flying to the last refuge.

Anchors are now universally made of wrought iron, excepting in Spain and some parts of the South Sea, where they are made of copper. One essential quality in every anchor is a sufficient weight to fix itself in the bottom; and this has been determined by practice for different anchors, and for vessels of different sizes.

Large vessels have several anchors of different sizes, and stowed in different parts of the vessel. These are distinguished by different names, viz. the sheet-anchor, the largest of all, and which is only let down in cases of danger, or when the vessel is riding in heavy gales of wind. The bower-anchors, of which there are sometimes two or three, are nearly of the same size with the sheet, and are distinguished into best bower, small bower, and spare anchor. The stream-anchor is of a much smaller size than the above, used only for riding in rivers or moderate streams. It is not generally above one fourth or one fifth of the weight of the others. Lastly, the kedge-anchor is still smaller, being only about one half of the streamanchor, and is only used when kedging in a river. In ships of war the sheet-anchor is stowed upon the after-part of the fore-channel, on the larboard side, with the stock vertical, and one of the flukes resting on the gang-way. The bower-anchor hangs to the cathead, with the other extremity fixed up to the anchorboards; and the spare anchor is stowed away on the starboard fore-channel. Ships of the largest class carry seven or eight anchors, and the smallest class, as brigs, cutters, and schooners, three or four.

The weight of anchors for different vessels is allowed by the tonnage. A pretty near rule for the principal anchor of ordinary-sized vessels is to allow for the cwts. in the anchor one twentieth of the tonnage. Thus a vessel of 400 tons would require her principal anchor to be 20 cwts., or according to the following tables :—
[table]
[7:3:104]

Next to the weight, the form of the anchor, and the proportions of the different parts, are of great importance. The most general form, and that which has indeed been almost universally adopted all over the world, is that represented at Plate XLIII. fig. 1, and in section at Plate XLIV. fig. 1 and 3, consisting of the two hooked arms tor penetrating and fixing themselves into the soil; the long bar or shank for attaching the cable; and the stock, which is attached to the extremity of the shank, and serves to direct one of the points downwards into the soil. The weight of the anchor then causes the point to penetrate more or less according to the softness or hardness of the bottom; and the action of the vessel on the cable, instead of loosening the anchor, tends rather, by the hooked shape of the arms, to fix these deeper and firmer into the soil; so that the vessel is held quite fast, unless either the cable itself gives way, or any part of the anchor, or the. anchor is dragged along owing to the looseness of the soil. The shank of the anchor is made long,, in order that the stock may have the greater power in directing either the one or the other of the arms downwards. It also serves, when the anchor is to be weighed, as a lever for starting it out of its place; the cable drawing upwards by the extremity, and turning the whole round the point of the fluke. The one end of the shank is made square, to receive and hold the stock steadily in its place without turning. To keep the stock also from shifting along the shank, there are raised on it from the solid iron, or welded on it, two square tenon-like projections, called nuts. The length of the square of the shank is about one sixth of the whole length of the shaft, and the thickness about one twentieth. From the end of this square the shank increases in thickness, tapering towards the extremity, where the arms are attached: in all this part it is either made wholly round, or with a flat on opposite sides, or polygonal. The end next the stock is called the small round. The other extremity, where the arms and the shank unite, is called the crown, and the point of the angle between the arms and the shank the throat. Here the thickness of the shank is from 11 inch in small anchors, to 3 inches in large ones, greater than at the small round. A distance equal to that between the throat of one arm and its bill is marked on the shank from the place where it joins the arms, and is called the trend. Near the extremity of the square part of the shank is the hole for receiving the ring for the cable, which is about half the thickness of the small round, and the diameter nearly equal to the length of the square. The ring used to be invariably lapped with cordage, to prevent the cable from chafing against the iron; but since the introduction of iron cables, this has become no longer necessary.

• The arms make an angle of about 56° with the shank. They are made either round or polygonal like the shank, about half their length. The remainder of the arm consists of three parts, the blade, the palm, and the bill, Plate XLIV. fig. 1, and in another view at fig. 2. The blade is merely the continuation of the arm in a square form. The palm or fluke is a broad, flat, triangular plate, fixed on the inside of the blade, the use of which is, by exposing a broad surface, to take a firmer hold of the ground. The bill is the extremity of the arm, where it is tapered nearly to a point, for the purpose of penetrating more readily into the soil. In some cases the arm is made quite straight from the crown to the bill; in others, and particularly in small anchors, the interior half is made with the arch of a circle, as at fig. 3. The whole length of the arm is nearly half the length of the round part of the shank. It tapers slightly from the throat to the blade, where it is about the same thickness with the small round of the shank.

The palm is about one third of this in thickness, and the breadth of its base is nearly equal to its length.

The stoch of the anchor, represented at fig. 4, is made of oak, consisting of two beams embracing the square, and firmly united by iron bolts and hoops. The length of the stock is rather greater than that of the shank, the thickness in the middle about one twelfth of its length, and tapering to about the half of this at the extremities, the taper being all on the under surface next the arms, and the other quite straight. The taper is not quite regular. It commences at about half the breadth of the stock from the shank, and continues in one straight line to the extremity. The beams of the stock are hooped close together at the extremities, but gradually open towards the centre, that, in case of the wood shrinking, the hoops may be driven farther in, fig. 5. Of late years the stock has frequently been made of wrought iron, the same as the anchor; and this plan is now very generally followed, particularly with smaller anchors. It has this advantage, that the stock can be at any time taken out and laid parallel with the anchor, which is very convenient for stowage. The iron stock, fig. 6, consists merely of a long round bar, about half the diameter of the anchor at the square. Instead of embracing the anchor, like the wood, it goes through a hole in the square, which is swelled out to receive it. It has a shoulder in the middle, which rests against the square, and a key driven through a hole in the stock on the other side keeps it fast. When the stock is to be taken out of its place, the key is driven out: the stock then slides through the hole in the shank, and by means of a bend at its extremity, it is laid parallel with the shank.

The operation of the anchor is easily understood. Being let clown by means of the cable,' the weight of the arms throws them downwards, and keeps the whole in a vertical position until it reaches the ground, where it lights upon the crown; and then falling over, the position of the stock at right angles to the arms, and its length and height, together with the weight of the cable, are sure to throw it with one of the arms pointed into the ground, if it does not take this situation of itself. This effect is aided by the anchor descending quickly— and hence it must be allowed to descend freely; for which purpose, in throwing or casting the anchor, the cable is arranged along the deck in long coils, called by the seamen a French flake, one end being attached to the anchor and the other secured on deck. Every thing being prepared, the lashing of the anchor is cast off, and the men stand ready to let go; and when this word is given by the person in command, the fastenings are all cast off, and the anchor, falling into the sea, descends with rapidity, and draws the cable after it so violently, that it is often necessary to throw water on the hause holes to prevent their taking fire. When the anchor, again, is to be removed from its situation and drawn up into the vessel, the operation is termed weighing ; which requires often a very heavy purchase, particularly at starting. This is obtained by means of the windlass, round which the cable is wound, and a number of hands applied to work it. With cables which are too large to be wound round a windlass, a smaller rope is used, termed a messenger, which being attached to the cable at different points, and wound round the windlass, serves to bring the cable forward. But since the introduction of chain-cables this contrivance is not so much required.

λ∖ hen the anchor is brought above water, a tackle is got upon the shank, just within the flukes, and the arms are hove up so as to lie upon the gunnel and anchor-boards; the stock is then made vertical by heaving upon it with a [7:3:105] tackle, in which position it is secured by the stock-lashing. The ring is fastened to the cathead by the stopper, one end of which is fastened round the cathead, and the other is brought through the ring, then over the stopper-cleat, and is belayed round a timber head. To secure the shank at the arms, a chain called the shank painter-chain is passed round it, and fastened to a timber head.

The following table contains the dimensions of the parts of anchors of different weights. The letters G. l. denote the greatest and least diameters or breadths.
[table]

Besides anchors of the common construction, there are various others of different forms occasionally in use. Small vessels often employ what are termed grapnels, which are merely common anchors with four or more arms instead of two, as shown in fig. 7. Following out the same principle, we have the mushroom anchor, fig. 8, much employed in the East Indies, to secure the vessels which they term grabs. In this the arms arc continued in one segment of a sphere all round; it hence requires no stock, as it takes the ground in any direction. Attempts have frequently been made to introduce anchors with only one arm, but hitherto without any decisive result. A patent for an anchor of this kind, as represented at Plate XLIII. fig. 2, was taken out by Mr Stuard, which has attracted some notice. “In order,” says he, in the Specification of his patent, “that this anchor may be sure to fall the right way with the fluke downwards, I would have the shank very short, whereby, when suspended by the cable, it will cant the most, and when it has hold in the ground, the ship will ride safer; as a long shank has more power to loosen and break the ground, and is more likely to be bent or broken from its hold. Let the form of the shank and arm of the anchor be as AA, fig. 2; and, that the parts may be stronger than if made separately and shut together, I would have the bars which compose them in one length, so that there be no weld or joining in the whole length of the shank and arm. The hole B is to receive the ring for the cable, and the hole C is for the stock, which is composed of a wrought-iron bolt, as A, fig. 3, covered with cast-iron at its ends, BB. The palm to be in shape as D, fig. 2, and shown detached in fig. 4, made either entirely of cast-iron, or a cast-iron shell filled with lead, which is of much more specific gravity than iron. The back of the palm to be formed either with concave surfaces or flat surfaces, making angles at the centre. The anchor is also to have a small shackle, fixed on the bend of the shank and arm, as at E, fig. 2, for the buoy-rope to be made fast to. The shank may be made without the hole C, and the hole B made octagonal; or if round, it should have a small fillet projecting from the stock, and a small cavity on one side of the hole B to receive it, thus to prevent the stock from turning round; and instead of a ring for the cable, to have a shackle fitted on the stock, on each side of the shank; and, that the shackle may not turn on the stock and fall too low, a stop is to be fixed on each side at the upper end of the shank.” (See Repertory of Arts, &c. vol. v.)

Mooring Anchors are those which are fixed in certain situations in harbours or roadsteads, and to which any of the vessels frequenting the place may be secured. As these are no way limited as to weight like portable anchors, they often consist merely of a large block of stone, such as at fig. 9, with an inner ring fixed in the middle of the upper side; or several such stones may be fastened together so as to act as one mass. Mooring anchors are also often made by choosing one of the largest anchors used for first-rate ships, weighing 80 cwt., and by bending one of the arms close down upon the shank, to prevent it catching the cable or mooring chains whilst the ships are riding. These anchors are lowered down into the water with a very strong iron mooring chain fastened to the ring, to which the ships are fastened: they are usually made from such as arc damaged in one of the flukes or arms. A new kind of mooring anchor of cast-iron was described by Mr Hemman of Chatham, to the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, &c., in 1809, for which he obtained a silver medal from the society. AA, fig. 5, Plate XLIII., represents the palm or heavy part of the anchor, made very massive of cast-iron, and of considerable breadth, so that the edge B, or part which enters the ground, may have a great hold; the shank C is made also of cast-iron, and fixed firmly to the head by passing through it, and has a small ring at a, where the buoy-rope is fixed; the other end of the shank goes through the stock DD, which is formed of two large wooden beams hooped together in the same manner as the stocks for common anchors; the end of the shank projects through the stock, and has a strong wrought-iron shackle E fixed to it by a bolt passing through both, and with this the mooring chain is connected. The great advantage of this over the common mooring anchors arises from its great weight and breadth of [7:3:106]edge to act against the ground; and, being made of cast-iron, it is also more durable. A pair of these anchors, weighing 150 cwt. each, will, with the mooring chains, cost about L.874 less than a pair of the common anchors, which, with their chains, cost L.2472. (See Transactions of the Society far the Encouragement of Arts, ⅛c. vol. xxviii.) Another form of this mooring anchor is shown at fig. 10.

This is the name given to a sort of anchor which has often been proposed, but never reduced to practice, for preventing a vessel from drifting, in cases where the great depth of the sea precludes the use of the cable and ordinary anchor. The plan suggested by Dr Franklin seems the most rational. This anchor consisted of two cross bars, secured together in the middle, and having sailcloth fastened to them in the shape of a parallelogram. To the centre of these bars the cable was attached, and being thrown overboard, it was thought the resistance of so large a surface would at least check the rapidity of the ship’s motion.

In fabricating anchors the different parts are first forged 'separately, as the square, the ring, the shank, the arms, and the palms. The square is then welded on to the extremity of the shank, and the ring let through its hole, and then the joining welded. The arms are then welded on to the shank, and the palms to the arms. The forging of such heavy masses of iron as the larger anchors are composed of, and the welding of the parts together, is one of the most difficult operations in smithery, and one which it has required all the ingenuity of our most skilful artists, and a long course of experience, to bring to its present perfection. The shank forms the largest mass. It is formed of an assemblage of smaller bars, united together by welding them into solid masses. This mode is preferable to making a single bar of sufficient size by the forgehammer in the original preparation of the iron, because the compounded bar is not liable to have any internal flaws or cracks, or at least they will not be in a transverse direction; for the bars are all examined separately before uniting them, and any which are imperfect are rejected; if, therefore, after the welding, any cracks are left between the bars, they must be in the length of the anchor, and will not deduct so materially from the strength of the whole.

Formerly the small bars were laid together, so as to form a square, as in fig. 11; and round these, smaller bars were piled to complete the circle; and then this circle was surrounded by bars to the number of 30 or 40, all arranged round the circle, and packed together like the staves of a cask; iron hoops were then driven over all to keep them together, and the whole faggot thus united was welded by repeated heats and elaborate hammering, applied successively from the one end to the other of the bar. Great difficulty was always found in heating and welding together the inside or central bars along with the external ring, the latter becoming quite overheated before the former could be brought up to the welding point. In these circumstances it became very difficult to weld the bar equally, so as to give it all the strength of which the material was susceptible; and it was often thought sufficient to weld merely the outside ring, so as to form a perfect covering or case for the inside bars, which were left in a raw or unwelded state. A more perfect method of welding the heavy bars of the anchor together was introduced some years ago at Plymouth, by Mr Pcrring, clerk of the cheque. This consists in using bars the whole breadth of the shank laid on one another, as at fig. 12, and hooped. These are then welded together in two heats, until the whole is one compact body, which is readily done in this manner, without overworking any part of the iron. If the bars do not extend the whole breadth, they are laid so as to break joint.

The arms are formed and welded together into a mass in the same manner as the shank. They are then united' to the extremity of the shank, by shutting or welding them all together at the crown, for which purpose the end of the shank is formed with a flatted surface or scarf, having a shoulder on each side, and the ends of the arms with similar scarfs, as at fig. 13. A more perfect method of uniting the arms and the shank,by Mr Perring, is, to form the crown separately of bars similarly to the shank, uniting them into one for half the length only, and the other half remaining split in two, as at fig. 14; then opening this by means of two rods, welded on the ends on purpose, bending them round two steady pins, as at fig. 15, so as to form part of the arms, as at fig. 16. The angular opening being then filled up by a piece formed of bars properly welded, another piece half the thickness of the arms is bent over and united with the others, so as together to form the crown and part of the arms on each side. In this manner a much firmer joint is formed than by mere scarfing. The crown piece being thus formed, the shank is welded to one extremity, and the two arms and the blades to the two others. The blades of the arms are formed in a manner similar to the shank. The palms are made by laying a number of plates one on another, and welding them all properly together, after which the palms are shut on upon the blades.

After the different parts of the anchor are thus forged and welded together, they are all smoothed and finished off by working with hammers till the metal becomes quite cold. This process, besides improving greatly the appearance of the anchor, is of real use in hardening the surface, and causing it to withstand better the corrosion of the seawater.

The following is a more particular account of the operations of the anchor-smith on a large scale. The hearth AA of the anchor-smith’s forge, sec fig. 6, Plate XLIIL, is built of brick-work raised about 6 or 9 inches above the ground, and 6 or 7 feet square; in the centre is a large cavity, to contain the fire; at the back of the hearth a vertical brick wall B is erected, supporting and forming one side of the chimney, which is little more than a dome placed over the hearth, and opening at the top with a low chimney to carry off the smoke. Behind the wall the bellows CD are placed; the noses of the pipes being about the level of the hearth, and coming through the wall, which at that part is defended from the action of the fire by a facing of fire-stone. In this fire-stone the tue-iron is fixed; it is a tube made of wrought iron, and very thick in the substance, that it may not burn away in the fire: the pipes of the bellows are inserted in the tue-iron, and thus convey the stream of air into the centre of the fire.

The bellows are not like those which ordinary smiths make use of; but two large pairs of single bellows CD are placed horizontally by the side of each other, the pipes of both being inserted into the same tue-iron, and directed to blow to the same focus in the centre of the fire: these bellows are exactly like those in use for domestic purposes, which only throw out air when the upper board is pressed down. The two are worked alternately by means of chains c d attached to the ends of the upper boards, and united to the end of the working levers HI, placed over each pair of bellows. From the opposite extremities of these levers other chains er are extended to the opposite side of a long lever GG, which moves upon the pivots of a vertical axis E, and is loaded at the ends by heavy weights, to give it momentum. Now, two or more men pushing in opposite directions can give it a motion backwards and forwards, and by the communication of the chains and upper levers HI, they will alternately lift up the upper boards CD of the bellows, which being sufficiently loaded, will subside themselves, and force their contents [7:3:107]of air into the fire. The men who work the lever G are * aided by six or eight more, who place themselves upon the board of one pair of bellows, and as soon as it subsides, they step upon the other pair, which also sinks, and then they return: they have ropes suspended from the roof to enable them to lift themselves, and mount from one bellows upon the other with more ease. The common tue-iron, which is simply a cone of wrought-iron, set with clay into fire-stone, composing the back of the hearth, is very soon burnt by the great heat. The most improved forges, therefore, are now furnished with what is called the water tue-iron, which is made hollow, and water introduced into it to keep it cool. For this purpose two cones are formed of thick iron plate, each with a small aperture at the vertex; these, when put one into the other, are welded together at their bases and their points, so as to form one cone, which is hollow, with a small space all round; two pipes communicate with the hollow, one bringing a continual supply of cold water, and the other conveying away that which is heated by the fire. By this means the tue-iron is kept cool, and can never acquire such a degree of heat as to be burned away: this tue-iron is set with fireclay into a frame of cast-iron, built up in the brick-work of the wall B.

The anvil K is only a cubic block of cast-iron, placed on the ground much lower than the ordinary smith’s anvil; because, as the anchor-smiths always strike by swinging their hammers over their heads, at arms’ length, they have more force when the work lies low on the ground than if raised up. At a distance of eight or nine feet from the hearth AA a strong crane-gib LM is erected, so as to turn freely upon the vertical post Μ. It has no tackle, but the upper beam L, which must be horizontal, has a large iron loop n hung upon it, with a roller o, which admits it to run freely backwards and forwards upon the beam: the lower end of the loop suspends the anchor; therefore, by moving the rollers along the beam of the gib, and by turning the gib round on its pivots, the ’anchor can be placed in any position in the fire or upon the anvil. To give motion to the roller o, a rack p is connected with it; and this is moved by a pinion upon the axis of the wheel t, which has an endless rope hanging down, so that a labourer can reach it, and thus remove the anchor nearer or farther from the centre, however great its weight may be. The workmen employ scarcely any other tools than their sledge-hammers, and a few large punches, cutting chisels, and sets or prints, which, when urged by the hammers, will give any particular figure to the work: the hammers are of the largest kind, and weigh from 14 to 18 pounds, according to the strength of the workmen. In the Royal dock-yard great use is made of a stamping machine, which the workmen call Hercules, and which is very similar to the machine for driving piles. A heavy iron weight N, guided like the ram of the pile engine, is drawn up by the strength of several men, and let fall upon the anchor, to weld the bars, in the same manner as by a forge-hammer. The machine is erected on a large block of stone, which supports the anvil 0: two square iron bars PP are fixed on each side of the anvil, in a vertical position, the angles of the bars being placed towards each other. These vertical bars are eight or nine feet high, and are fixed at the top to a beam in the roof of the building in which the machine is placed. The ram N, which weighs 4 l’ ļ-cwt., is fitted to slide up and down between the bars P, having notches in its sides, which receive the angles of the bars: it is drawn up by a rope passing over an iron pulley Q, mounted upon pivots above the top of the vertical bars; and the rope has eight or ten small ones R spliced into it, for as many men to act together (which they do by a motion similar to that of ringing), to elevate the ram, and let it fall upon the iron placed upon the anvil 0. The Hercules is placed in the same sweep of the crane as the anvil K, so that the iron can be conveyed to either with equal ease.

The first step in making the different parts of the anchor is to assemble or faggot the bars. For the centre of the mass which is to make the shank, four large bars are first laid together; then upon the flat sides of the square so formed smaller bars are arranged, to make it up to a circle. The number is various, but in large anchors six or eight bars are laid on every side. This circle is surrounded by a number of bars arranged like the staves of a cask: as many as 36 are often used, and they form a complete case for the others. The ends are made up by short bars to a square figure. The faggot is finished by driving iron hoops upon it at sufficient distances; see W in the figure; and it is suspended from the crane in such a manner that it can be moved and turned in any direction, by only one or two men, even when it weighs three tons. For this purpose an iron pulley lι is hooked to the iron loop n of the crane; and a short endless chain I passed over the pulley suspends the faggot in its loop. In this manner the weight of the iron is in reality borne by the pivot of the pulley k, and the mass can be easily turned round upon its centre to bring any side upwards. To give a power to the man who guides it, one of the four central bars is double the length of the faggot, and projects, see g, to form a long lever, by which it is steered; and two holes are made through the end of this bar to insert a cross lever k, by which the faggot is turned or rolled round upon its centre. As the faggot hangs very nearly on a balance in the loop of the chain I, the man, by weighing on the end of the long bar g, can easily raise up its end from the anvil K, and, swinging the crane on its pivots, move it into the fire, which is made up hollow like an oven. To effect this form, the fireman first spreads the coals evenly upon the hearth, and with his shovel or slice makes a flat surface about the level of the tue-hole: he then arranges some large cinders or cakes round in a circle upon this surface, and by other cinders builds it up like an oven or dome, leaving a mouth to introduce the iron. The oven is adapted in size to the magnitude of the mass of iron, and must be brought forwards upon the hearth, to leave a space between its interior cavity and the orifice of the tue-iron; in which space a passage is made from the tue-hole to the fire, and filled up with large lighted coals, and then covered up by small coals. The blast from the bellows passes through these hot coals, in order that the cold air may not enter the fire at once and blow on the iron, but be first converted into flame, which is urged forcibly into the oven, and reverberated from the roof and sides upon the iron placed in the centre. As the floor of the oven is nearly upon a level with the tue-hole, the flame from the coals between it and the fire also plays upon the bottom, and thus heats the iron on all sides. The outside of the dome is covered over with a considerable thickness of small coals, which cake together, and, as the inside of the oven consumes, settle down into a dome again, which the smith aids by striking the outside with the flat of his slice. If the fire breaks out at any place in the roof, the smith immediately repairs the breach with fresh coals, and damps them with water, that they may not burn too fast; for if the inside of the oven burns very fiercely, the flames will not be reverberated so forcibly as when it is in the state of burning cake. Care must likewise be taken to prevent the fire from burning back to the tue-iron. The mouth of the oven should be made no larger than to admit the work; and, that as little heat as possible may escape by the iron, the mouth is filled round it with coals. F is an iron screen hung on [7:3:108]binges, to swing before the mouth of the fire when the 'iron is withdrawn, that the workmen may not be scorched by the heat.

All the men unite to assist in blowing the bellows, which they work in the manner already described, from half an hour to an hour, according to the size of the anchor, until they have raised the iron to a good welding heat. The mouth of the fire is opened occasionally to inspect the process, and the faggot is turned in the fire if it is not found to be heating equally in every part. Eight men, and sometimes more, are employed to forge an anchor: six of them strike with the hammers, one is stationed at the guide-bar, and the eighth, who is master or foreman, directs the others, and occasionally assists to guide the anchor. When the whole of that part which is in the fire comes to a good welding heat, the workmen leave the bellows and take up their hammers; the coals are removed from the iron, which is swung out of the fire by the man who guides it, assisted by others, and the hot end placed on the anvil; during which time one or two labourers with birch brooms sweep off the coals which adhere to it.

The smiths now begin hammering, one half the number standing on one side, and the other half on the other: they use large sledges weighing from sixteen to eighteen pounds, and faced with steel, striking in regular order, one after the other, swinging the hammers at arms’ length, and all striking nearly at the same place. The foreman places himself near the man who guides, and with a long wand points out the part he wishes them to strike, and at the same time directs and sometimes assists the guide to turn the faggot round, so as to bring that side uppermost which requires to be hammered. This is continued as long as the metal retains sufficient heat for welding. This process is exceedingly laborious for the workmen, and is much more effectually performed by means of the Hercules, which strikes such powerful blows upon the iron as to consolidate the bars much more than the strokes of small hammers can do, however long they may be continued. When the iron has lost so much of the heat that it will no longer weld, the foreman takes a number of pins, made like very thick nails without heads: one of these he holds in the end of a cleft stick, places its point upon the iron, and two smiths, with their sledges, strike on it with all their force, to drive it through the bars; but this they must do quickly, or the pins will become hot and soft, so as not to penetrate the bar. These pins are intended to hold the whole together more firmly, and, by swelling out the sides, to fill up any small spaces there may be between the bars. The iron is now returned to the fire, another mouth being opened on the opposite side of the oven, to admit the end or part which has been welded to come through, that a part farther up the faggot may be heated; and when this is done the welding is performed in the same manner as before. Thus, by repeated heatings, the faggot is made into one solid bar of the size and length intended. It is then hammered over again at welding heats to finish it, and make an even surface; and in this second operation the workmen do not leave off hammering as soon as the iron loses its full welding heat, but continue till it turns almost black. This renders the surface solid and hard, and closes all small pores at which the sea-water might enter, and by corroding the bars, expand them, and in time split open the mass of iron.

The shank for an anchor is made larger at the lower end, where the arms are to be welded to it, and is of a square figure. A sort of rebate or scarf s is here formed on each side of the square, in order that the arms may apply more properly for welding. This scarf is made in the original shape of the faggot, and finished by cutting away some of the metal with chisels whilst it is hot, and using sets or punches, properly formed,, to make a square angle' to the shoulder of the scarf. The upper end of the shank is likewise square; and the length between these square parts is worked either to an octagon or round, tapering regularly from the lower to the upper end. The hole to receive the ring of the anchor is pierced through the square part at the upper end, first by a small punch, and then larger ones are used till it is sufficiently enlarged. The punch is made of steel; and when it is observed to change colour by the heat, it is struck on the opposite end to drive it out, and is instantly dipped in water to cool it, and another driven in. The projecting pieces or nuts, which are to keep the stock or wooden beam of the anchor, and its place on the shank, are next welded on. To do this the shank is heated, and at the same time a thick bar is heated in another forge: the end of this is laid across the shank, and the men hammer it down to weld it to the shank; then the piece is cut off by the chisel, and another piece welded on the opposite side.

Whilst this process of forging the shank is going on, the smiths of another forge, placed as near as convenient to the former, are employed in making the arms, which are made from faggots in the same manner as the shank, but of less size and shorter: they are made taper (seeX), one end of each being smaller than the other: the larger ends are made square, and cut down with scarfs, r, to correspond with those, s, at the lower end of the shank. The middle parts of the arms are rounded, and the outer extremities are cut away as much as the thickness of the flukes or palms m, that the palms may be flush with the upper sides when they are welded on. The flukes are generally made at the iron-forges in the country, by the forgehammer; but in some yards they are made by faggoting small bars, leaving a long one for a handle. When finished, they are welded to the arms, which have then the appearance of X. The next business is to unite the arms to the end of the shank; and in doing this particular care is necessary, as the goodness of the anchor is entirely dependent upon its being effectually performed. In so large a weld, the outside is very liable to be welded, and make a good appearance, while the middle part is not united. To guard against this, both surfaces of the scarfs should be rather convex, that they may be certain to touch in the middle first. When the other arm is welded, the anchor is complete, except the ring, which is made from several small bars welded together, and drawn out into a round rod, then bent to a circle, put through the hole in the shank, and its ends welded together. If the shank or other part is crooked, it is set straight by heating it in the crooked part, and striking it over the anvil, or by the Hercules. After all this the whole is heated, but not to a white heat, and the anchor hammered in every part, to finish and make its surface even. This is done by lighter hammers, worked by both hands, but not swung over the head. This operation renders the surface of the metal hard and smooth; and if very effectually performed, the anchor will not rust materially by the action of the seawater. The hammering is continued till the iron is quite black and almost cold. It is common with some manufacturers, after they have made up the shank, to heat it again, and apply the end of a thin flat bar properly heated upon it; then by turning the large shank round, the bar is wound spirally upon it, so as to form a complete covering to the whole. This method admits of emploving a kind of iron which is less liable to corrosion, but we fear it is sometimes resorted to to conceal the bad qualities of the iron of which the anchor is composed.

The iron from which anchors are made ought to be of the best quality: that kind of it which is called red short [7:3:109]will not bear sufficient hammering to weld the bars; and cold short, from its brittleness, is not to be depended upon when the anchor is in use. A good anchor should be formed of the toughest iron that can be procured.

A new and improved method of fabricating anchors, for which a patent has been taken out by Lieutenant Rodgers, has been lately introduced. This consists in making the shank hollow, and uniting it to a solid square at one end, and to a solid piece at the other, which forms the crown and part of the arms. The hollow part is bound at intervals by hoops, and the whole forms a much stronger anchor, of the same weight, than those of the common construction. The stock also is let on over the end of the square, and keyed up against a collar, by which means the anchor can be unstocked with great facility. See Plate XLIII. fig. 7.

The most extensive establishment for fabricating anchors, &c. is that at Woolwich dock-yard. There the blowing apparatus, the working of the lift and tilt hammers, &c. is all done by a steam-engine of from 14 to 16 horse power. The improvements of Perring and Rodgers have been there introduced. (c.)

To steer the ship to her Anchor, is to steer the ship’s head towards the place where the anchor lies when they are heaving the cable into the ship, that the cable may thereby enter the hause with less resistance, and the ship advance towards the anchor with greater facility.

Anchor- Ground is a bottom which is neither too deep, too shallow, nor rocky; as in the first the cable bears too nearly perpendicular, and is thereby apt to jerk the anchor out of the ground; in the second, the ship’s bottom is apt to strike at low water, or when the sea runs high, by which she is exposed to the danger of sinking; and in the third, the anchor is liable to hood the broken and pointed ends of rocks, and tear away its flukes, whilst the cable, from the same cause, is constantly in danger of being cut through as it rubs on their edges.

Anchor, in Architecture, is a sort of carving somewhat resembling an anchor. It is commonly placed as part of the enrichment of the boultins of capitals of the Tuscan, Doric, and Ionic orders, and also of the boultins of bed mouldings of the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian cornices, anchors and eggs being carved alternately through the whole building.

Anchors, in Heraldry, are emblems of hope, and are taken for such in a spiritual as well as a temporal sense.