pnugues/EB7 huggingface dataset:
PROTOGENES, a celebrated painter, was a native of Xanthus, in Caria, and flourished 330 b. c. , in the time of Alexander the Great, being the contemporary of Apelles. Protogenes lived principally in Rhodes, where he was held in little honour by his neighbours, until Apelles paid him a visit, and declared that Protogenes was only inferior to himself in one particular, that he bestowed too much pains in finishing his paintings. From that moment the reputation of Protogenes was established. His finest painting was that representing the grandson of Sol, which he took seven years to finish, having put on it four courses of colour, that it might be less liable to be obliterated by age. Having been placed in a temple at Rhodes, when the city was besieged by Demetrius, and the painting in danger of being destroyed, Demetrius is said to have retired rather than it should run any risk. It was afterwards carried to Rome and placed in the Temple of Peace, where it was destroyed by fire. There was a dog in this picture, which the painter wished to represent with foam at its mouth; but, after many vain attempts, he threw his brush in a fury at the spot, and by a strange accident produced the very effect he wanted. He also painted a satyr playing on the shepherd’s pipe, which is said tb have been very fine; likewise a portrait of Pythias the mother of the philosopher Aristotle, a Pan, and portraits of Alexander. He was the author of two books on painting.
PROTOTYPE is the original or model after which a thing has been formed; but it is chiefly used for the patterns of things to be engraved, east, or sculptured.
PROTRACTOR, an instrument for laying down and measuring, with accuracy and despatch, angles upon paper, and by which the use of the line of chords is superseded. This instrument is variously formed, and constructed of different materials; and it is necessary in laying down those surveys or other plans where angles are concerned.
PROVEDITOR, an officer in several parts of Italy, particularly at Venice, who has the direction of matters relating to policy.
PROVENCE, a province or government of France, bounded by Dauphiné on the north, by Piedmont on the east, by the Mediterranean on the south, and by the river Rhone, which separates it from Languedoc, on the west. It is about 100 miles in length, and nearly as many in breadth.
PROVENDER originally signified a kind of vessel containing the measure of corn daily given to a horse, or other beast of labour, for his subsistence; but it is now generally used to signify the food for cattle, whatever it may consist of.
PROVERB, according to Camden, is a concise, witty, and wise speech, grounded upon experience, and for the most part containing some useful instruction.

Book of Proverbs, a canonical book of the Old Testament, containing a part of the proverbs of Solomon the son of David king of Israel. The first twenty-four chapters are acknowledged to be the genuine work of that prince; the next five chapters are a collection of several of his proverbs made by order of King Hezekiah; and the two last seem to have been added by different but unknown authors.
PROVIDENTIAL Channel lies between some shoals in the South Pacific Ocean, through which the Endeavour passed, near the north-east coast of New Holland. Long. 137. 50. E. Lat. 5. 38. S.
PROVINCE, in Geography, a division of a kingdom or state, comprising several cities, towns, and districts, all under the same government, and usually distinguished by the extent either of the civil or the ecclesiastical jurisdiction.

The church distinguishes its provinces by archbishoprics; in which sense England is divided into two provinces, namely, Canterbury and York. ,
PROVINCIAL, something relating to a province. It also denotes, in Catholic countries, a person who has the direction of the conventual establishments of a province.
PROVINS, an arrondissement of the department of the Seine and Marne, in France. It extends over 486 square miles, is divided into five cantons and IQ6 communes, and contains 48,500 inhabitants. The capital is a city of the same name, situated on the river Bouzie. It is well built, and ornamented by good promenades; and it contains 880 houses, with 5760 inhabitants, who, besides carrying on the manufacture of mixed cloths, and a considerable trade in corn, cultivate a great quantity of roses for the perfumers of Paris. There is also a mineral spring of some celebrity. Long. 3. 12. E. Lat. 48. 33. 39. S.
PROVOST of a city or town, is a name applied to the chief municipal magistrate in corporate towns or cities. He presides in civic courts, and, with the bailies, who are his deputies, determines in all differences that arise amongst citizens.

Provost, or Prevot-Foyal, a sort of inferior judge formerly established throughout France, to take cognizance of all civil, personal, real, and mixed causes, amongst the people only.

Grand PRGvosτ of France, an officer who had jurisdiction in the king’s house, and over the officers therein.

PR0V0sτ-Mαrshal of an Army, is an officer appointed to seize and secure deserters, and all other criminals.

Provost of the Mint, a particular judge instituted for the apprehending and prosecuting of false coiners.
PROW, the head or fore-part of a ship, particularly in a galley, being that which is opposite to the poop or stern.
PROXIMITY denotes the relation of nearness, whether in respect of place, of blood, or of alliance.
PRUDENCE, in Ethics, may be defined an ability of judging what is best, in the choice both of ends and of means. According to the definition of the Roman moralist (De Officiis, lib. i. cap. 43), prudence is the knowledge of what is to be desired or avoided. Accordingly, he takes prudentia to be a contraction of providentia, or foresight. Plato calls this the leading virtue; and Juvenal observes, that where prudence is present no divinity is absent.

The extremes of prudence are craft or cunning on the one hand, and folly on the other.
PRUDENTIUS, or Aurelius Prudentius Clemens, a famous Christian poet, who flourished under the reign of Theodosius the Great. Born in Spain in the year 348, he first followed the profession of advocate, was afterwards a judge, then a soldier, and at length had an honourable employment at court. A great number of his poems remain; but the style is barbarous, forming a singular contrast to the purity of the Augustan age. The best editions of his works are that of Amsterdam, 1667, with Heinsius’s notes; and that of Paris, 1687, in usum Delphini. .
PRUNING, in Gardening and Agriculture, is lopping off the superfluous branches of trees, to make them bear better fruit, grow higher, or appear more regular.
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PRUYM, a city of Prussia, of the province of>the Lower Rhine, and government of Trêves. It is the capital of a circle of the same name, which extendsover 398 square miles, and comprehends three townsand 156 villages, with 23,500 inhabitants. It was once the capital of a principality, now mediatized, and contains 380 houses, with 2080 inhabitants.
PRYNNE, William, an English lawyer, distinguished in the civil commotions under Charles I., was born at Swains-wick, in Somersetshire, in 1600. His Histriomastix, written against stage-plays in 1632, contained some reflections which offended the court, and he was in consequence sentenced by the Star-chamber to pay a fine of L.5000, to stand in the pillory, to lose his ears, and to suffer perpetual imprisonment. During his confinement he wrote several more books, particularly one entitled News from Ipswich, in 1637, which, reflecting severely on the bishops, subjected him to another sentence by the Star-chamber, which adjudged him to pay another fine of L.5000, to lose the remainder of his ears in the pillory, to be branded on both cheeks with S. L. for seditious libeller, and to be perpetually imprisoned in Caernarvon Castle. But nothing except cutting off his hands could have prevented Prynne from writing. He continued his favourite employment still; and being set at liberty by the House of Commons in 1640, he entered London in a kind of triumph, was elected member of parliament for Newport in Cornwall, opposed the bishops with great vigour, and was the chief manager of Archbishop Laud’s trial. In the long parliament he was zealous in the Presbyterian cause; but when the Independents gained the ascendency he opposed them warmly, and promoted an agreement with the king. When the army expurgated the house and refused him entrance, he became a bitter enemy to them and their leader Cromwell, whom he attacked with so much severity that he was again imprisoned; but he pleaded the liberty of the subject so successfully that he was enlarged, and began to write more controversial books. Being restored to his seat with the other secjuded members after Cromwell’s death, he assisted in promoting the Restoration, and was appointed keeper of the Records of the Tower; a place excellently well calculated for him, and where he rendered himself very useful by the collections he published from them. He presented forty volumes of his works, in folio and quarto, to Lincoln’s-Inn library, of which society he was a member. His principal works are, Records of the Tower, in three volumes folio; and his Parliamentary Writs, in four volumes quarto. The former is one of the rarest works in the whole department of English history. He died in the year 1669, and was buried under the chapel of Lincoln’s-Inn.
PRYTANES, in Grecian antiquity, were the presidents of the senate, whose authority consisted chiefly in assembling the senate, which, for the most part, was done once every day. The senate consisted of five hundred, fifty senators being elected out of each tribe; after which, lots were cast to determine in what order the senators of each tribe should preside, which they did by turns, and during their presidentship were called prijtemes. However, all the fifty prytanes of the tribes did not govern at once, but one at a time, namely, for seven days; and after thirty-five days another tribe came into play, and presided for other five weeks; and so of the rest.
PRZRMYSL, a city of the Austrian kingdom of Galicia, the capital of a circle of the same name, which extends over 2178 square miles. It comprehends five cities, twelve market-towns, and 232 villages, with 238,500 inhabitants, of whom about 16,000 are Jews. The city is fortified, and defended by a lofty castle. It is the see of a bishop, and has a cathedral and fourteen other churches, 760 houses, and 6980 inhabitants, none of them very wealthy. Long. 22. 39. E. Lat. 49. 46. 30. N.
PSALM, a divine song or hymn, but chiefly appropriated to the Psalms of David, a canonical book of the Old Testament. Most of the psalms have a particular title, signifying either the name of the author, the person who was to set it to music or sing it, the instrument which was to be employed, or the subject and occasion of the canticle. Some have imagined that David was the sole author of the Book of Psalms; but the titles of many of them prove the contrary, as Psalm xc∙, which appears to have been written by Moses. Many of the psalms are inscribed with the names Korah, Jeduthun, and others, from the persons who were to sing them.
PSALMIST, in the church of Rome, is one of the lesser ecclesiastical orders, being the same with what amongst us is called clerk, precentor, or singer.
PSALMODY, from the Greek, ∙ψαλ∕xoς, the art or act of singing psalms. (See Psalm.) The earliest music of the Psalms is not now known. The modern Jewish psalmody is by no means the same in all their synagogues in different countries. Psalms were sung by the primitive Christians, but there are no data to show the precise nature of the melodies. St Augustin (lib. x. Confess, cap. 33) says, “De Alexandrino Episcopo Athanasio saepe mihi dictum commcmini, qui tum modicoflexu vocis faciebat sonare lectorem psalmi, ut pronuncianti vicinior esset quam canenti.” St Athanasius was made bishop of Alexandria in 326. Of the Ambrosian and Gregorian chants of the fourth and sixth centuries, time and change Seem to have spared little more than the tonalities. In Roman Catholic church services the psalmody varies according to the particular occasion; and so also in some Protestant churches. Many of the psalm-tunes now in general use in Protestant churches were composed in the time of Luther, or not long afterwards, for the Protestant congregations which then began to spread over the European continént. Others of these tunes arc the productions of various Protestant musicians in later times. Amongst the authors of these more recent tunes, we find the names of some of the Bachs, of Handel, and several other eminent German composers. Psalm-tunés are for voices only, or for voices accompanied by the organ, or for voices accompanied by different instruments; others for a single voice alone, or accompanied, and so on.
PSALTER, the same with the book of Psalms. Amongst the religious in the Catholic countries, the term psalter is also given to a large chaplet or rosary, consisting of a hundred and fifty beads, according to the number of psalms in the psalter.
PSALTERIUM, Greek ∙ψαλrjjp∕oι⅛ formerly called ma-gadis, according to Athenaeus, an ancient musical instrument, which some writers assert to have been the same as the ancient Hebrew nebel. The more modern psaltery being no longer in use, it is unnecessary to describe it.
PSAMMETICUS, or Psammitichus, a renowned conqueror, who, having subdued eleven petty kings of Egypt, became the founder of the kingdom of Egypt, about 670 before Christ. He is memorable, likewise, for taking the city of Azot, after a siege of twenty-nine years, and for discovering the sources of the river Nile.
PSATYRIANS, a sect of Arians, who, in the council of Antioch, held in the year 360, maintained that the Son was not like the Father as to will; that he was taken from nothing, or made out of nothing; and that in God, generation was not to be distinguished from creation.
PSELLUS, Michael, a learned Christian of the eleventh century, was, by birth, a Constantinopolitan of consular rank, and flourished under the Emperor Constantine Monomachus. His genius and industry raised him far above the level of his contemporaries; and the celebrated historian, Anna Comnena, speaks of him as one who had been more indebted for his attainments to his own excellent talents than to the instructions of his preceptors; adding, that having made himself master of all the wisdom of the Greeks and the Chaldaeans, he was justly esteemed the most learned man of the age. Thus furnished, he became the chief instructor of the Constantinopolitan youth. He was at the same time the companion and the preceptor of the emperor, who became so captivated by the studies and amusements in which Psellus engaged him, that, according to Zonaras, he neglected the concerns of the empire. The Byzantine historians complain, that the emperor, deluded by the head of the philosophers, the title with which Psellus was honoured, lost the world. Towards the close of his life, Psellus, meeting with some disappointment, retired into a monastery, - and soon afterwards died; but the time of his death is uncertain. His works, which have been much celebrated, are, Commentaries upon Aristotle’s Logic and Physics; a Compendium of Questions and Answers; and an explanation of the Chaldaic Oracles. The two latter works prove him to have been conversant, not only with Grecian, but with oriental philosophy.
PSEUDO, from ∙ψiuδof, a Greek term, used in the composition of many works to denote false or spurious.
PSEUDONYMOUS, amongst critics, is an author who publishes a book under a false or feigned name; as cryp- [7:18:703]tonymous is given to him who publishes one under a disguised name, and anonymous to him who publishes without any name at all.
PSYLLI, a people in the south of Cyrenaica, so called from Psyllus, their king, and who were almost all overwhelmed by sand. They had something in their bodies fatal to serpents, and their very savom , proved a charm against them.
PTOLEMAIS, in Ancient Geography, the port of Arsinoe, situated on the western bank of the Nile, which concurs to form the island called Nomos Heracleotes, to the south of the vertex of the Delta.

Ptolemais, the largest and most considerable town of the Thebais, or Upper Egypt, and nothing short of Memphis. It was situated on the western side of the Nile, almost opposite to Coptos. This town was built by Ptolemy Philadelphus.
PTOLMEY Soter, or Lagus, king of Egypt, a renowned warrior and an excellent prince. He established an academy at Alexandria, and was himself a man of letters. He died at the age of ninety-two, 281 years before Christ.

Ptolemy Philadelphus, his second son, succeeded him, to the exclusion of Ptolemy Ceraunus. He was renowned as a conqueror, but more revered for his great virtues and political abilities. He established and augmented the famous library of Alexandria, which had been begun by his father. He also greatly increased the commerce of Egypt, and granted considerable privileges to the Jews, from whom he obtained a copy of the Old Testament, which he caused to be translated into Greek, and deposited in his library. This is supposed to have been the version denominated that of the Septuagint. He died at the age of sixty-four, 246 years before Christ.

Ptolmey Ceraunus, the elder brother of the preceding, fled to Seleucus king of Macedonia, who received him hospitably; in return for which Ceraunus assassinated him, and usurped his crown. He then invited Arsinoë, the widow and the sister of the murdered king, to share with him the government; but as soon as he got her in his power, he put her and her children to death. He was at length defeated, killed, and torn limb from limb, by the Gauls, 279 years before Christ.

Ptolmey, Claudius, a celebrated mathematician and astrologer, was born at Pelusium in Egypt. He flourished at Alexandria in the second century, under the reigns of Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius, about the 138th year of the Christian era. There are still extant his Geography, and several learned works on astronomy, the principal of which are, 1. The Almagest; 2. De Judiciis Astrologicis ; 3. Pla-nisphaerium. His system of the world was for many years adopted by philosophers and astronomers; but the learned have long rejected it for the system of Copernicus.
PTYALISM, in Medicine, a salivation, or frequent and copious discharge of saliva. The word is Greek, being formed from the verb nruω, to spit.
PUBERTY denotes the age at which the person is capable of procreating or begetting children.

Puberty, in Law, is fixed at the age of twelve in females and fourteen in males; after which they are reckoned fit for marriage. But as to crimes and punishments, the age of puberty is fixed at fourteen in both sexes.
PUBLIUS Syrus, a celebrated writer of mimes, that is, farces in the language of the common people, flourished at Rome about b. c. 42. He was of Syrian extraction, as his name implies, and was brought to Rome as a slave; but his talents having excited the admiration of his master, he received his freedom. His farces were much admired, and Julius Caesar is said to have considered them as superior even to those of Laberius. He interspersed them with moral sentences, many of which have been preserved by later writers. St Jerome states that a collection of these moral sentences was made, and that the Romans employed them as a school-book. They have been again collected from various sources, and published several times, along with Seneca or Phaedrus; and they have also been published separately. The best edition is that of J. C. Orelli, Leipzig, 1822, or that of C∙ Zell, Stuttgard, 1829.
PUBNA, a town of Hindustan, in the province of Bengal, sixty-three miles east from Moorshedabad. Long. 89. 12. E. Lat. 24. N.
PUCIIMARY, a town of Northern Hindustan, in the province of Kemaon, situated at the top of a very steep pass in the mountain, in the neighbourhood of which is a cave containing an image of Maha Dco, and his wife Bowanee, to which pilgrims pay their devotions. A perpendicular cliff is also pointed out here, from which the Hindus precipitate themselves as an offering to their idols. Lat. not ascertained.
PUCKHOLI, the capital of a mountainous district of Hindustan, thought to be the Peucelaotis of the Greeks, It was besieged by the army of Alexander, and now belongs to an Afghan chief. Long. 72. 8. E, Lat. 33. 46. N. The district is mountainous, and is situated on the eastern side of the river Indus, about the thirty-fourth degree of north latitude. The climate here is cold, with frequent falls of snow, even in the plains; and it produces all the grains and fruits ⅛f Europe. The inhabitants are a rude and savage race, amongst whom there is no security for either life or property.
PUCOULOE, a town of Hindustan, in the province of Bengal, and district of Dacca. Long. 89.55. E. Lat. 24.8. N.
PUDDAR, a river of Hindustan, which rises in the province of Ajmeer, and empties itself into the Gulf of Cutch, thirty miles south-west of Janagur.
PUDUCOTTA, a town of Hindustan, in the Southern Carnatic, and district of Tanjore. It was formerly the capital of Tondiman, the hereditary polygar or landholder of a considerable district. It is thirty-two miles south-southwest from Tanjore. Long. 78. 50. E. Lat. 16. 20. N.
PUEGOS, or Siquior, one of the Philippine Islands. It is small, but abounds in inhabitants, who are brave and warlike. It is 50 miles north from the western part of Mindanao.
PUDSEY, a township of the west riding of Yorkshire, in the wapentake of Morley and parish of Calverly, 197 miles from London. It has an establishment settled in 1748, by a colony of Moravians from Germany, who built a village called Fulneck, from the name of the place whence they had emigrated. The large building appropriated to their use has a chapel, a dining-room, and separate divisions for the two sexes till marriage, which is said to be determined by lot. They pursue various manufacturing branches of industry. The population of the township amounted in in 1811 to 4697, in 1821 to 6229, and in 1831 to 7460.
PUERTO-REAL, a city of Spain, in Andalusia, in the province or portcdo of Cadiz. It stands on the bay which takes its name from that city, and has a canal communicating with it. It is near the mouth of the river Guadalete, and is defended towards the water by some powerful batteries. It has a tolerable haven, in which there are establishments for building ships. The streets are wide and clean, and many of the houses magnificent. It contains five churches, three monasteries, a naval hospital, 1050 houses, and between 10,000 and 11,000 inhabitants. Near to it arc those great masses of salt which are produced by natural evaporation from sea-water, and with which hundreds of ships are yearly loaded to all parts of the world.