NAPLES.

This whole kingdom is frequently denominated the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, being situated on both sides of the Straits of Messina, and divided into two portions, commonly distinguished by the natives, Naples, or the continental part, as Domin, al di qud del Faro ; and Sicily, or the island part, as Domin, al di Id del Faro. Although the history of this kingdom forms a material part of that of Italy, and is treated of under that article in this work, yet a short abstract of the course of events seems necessary to connect the important parts there noticed.

In the earliest period of the history of Rome, this part of Lower Italy was peopled by a rude people, called the Ausonians, to whom were subjected other tribes, as the Lucanians and the Bruttians, occupying the mountainous districts of the Abbruzzi, and the Samnites. The country on the eastern coast was called Apulia, and that on the western Calabria. The Greeks established colonies, but chiefly on the sea-shore, and hence the name of Magna Graecia was given to it. The dominion of Rome over Lower Italy began with the subjugation of Tarentum by Fabricius, which was defended by Pyrrhus king of Epirus, but surrendered in the year 273 before our era. It continued till the dissolution of the western Roman empire, in the year 476, an appendage to Rome; but then came under the subjection of the Ostrogoths. About the middle of the sixth century both divisions of the kingdom fell under the government of the emperor of Constantinople, to each of which a separate commander was assigned, called Duke, subordinate to the exarchs of Ravenna. Contests continually existed between these exarchs and the state of Lombardy, in Upper Italy, out of which gradually arose, in the ninth century, several independent states, which obtained the titles of dukedoms, such as Salerno, Capua, and Tarentum, and, above all, Beneventum; and also some republican cities, amongst which the most celebrated were Naples, Amalfi, and Gaëta.

At this period, the Saracens, who had previously seized on Sicily, landed on the continent, and contended for the mastery over Calabria. They seized on the city of Bari, and continued their hostilities till they were defeated by the emperor of Germany, who made himself master of Beneventum; but the country continued in an agitated state, from the furious contests of the three parties of Germans, Greeks, and Arabians, whose fierce and plundering habits produced the greatest calamities in the beautiful country for which they fought. In this state of affairs, during the eleventh century, some warlike adventurers of the Norman race offered their assistance to a Grecian duke, Sergius, against Pandorf, the German prince of Capua, and received as a reward a tract of land, on which was built the city of Aversa, where, in 1029, Rainulf, the first Norman count, established himself. Other bodies of bold and greedy Normans soon arrived, with the twelve sons of Count Tancred of Hauteville, in Lower Normandy, at their head. Amongst these young men was one most remarkable for his bravery and sagacity, Robert Guiscard, who drew around him the stoutest of the peasantry, and of them formed a band of most expert warriors. With great prudence, he accepted, as a feudatory of the pope, the district of Apulia, which he had conquered in 1053, and promised to the other Normans the same title to the lands which they should seize upon in Calabria and in Sicily. Seven years after this, he assumed the title of Duke of Apulia and Calabria.

Roger, a younger brother of Robert, in 1072 subdued the island of Sicily, and, after the death of Robert and of his sons, united in himself the whole territory held by the house of Hauteville, in which he was confirmed in 1098, by an extraordinary bull of Pope Urban II. which gave to him and to his successors the highest spiritual power in his kingdom beyond the Straits of Messina.

Roger II., who succeeded his father, reduced the whole of Lower Italy to a state of subjection by the year 1130, having then secured to his dominions the great, free, and commercial cities of Capua, Amalfi, and Naples. At this period the pope conferred upon him the title of king of Apulia, Calabria, and Sicily, which he soon exchanged for that of king of the Two Sicilies. He acknowledged himself as a feudatory of the holy see, and agreed, as an acknowledgment of his allegiance, to present annually a horse and a purse of ducats.

The union of the two kingdoms continued during a century and a half. On the continent the Lombard law was adopted, but in the island the feudal law of France was exercised. The city of Palermo, in Sicily, was, during the whole of this period, the royal residence.

William, surnamed the Good, the grandson of Roger II. died in 1109, and with him the family of Tancred became extinct; upon which the Emperor Henry VI. of the house of Hohenstauffen, claimed the kingdom in right of his wife Constantina, the daughter of Roger II. The Sicilians, however, abhorring German rule, chose Tancred, a natural son of Roger, and, on his premature demise, his son William, a minor. Henry invaded the country, and exercising great severity, reduced it to his authority. He also died early, and was succeeded by his son Frederick II. who removed the seat of government from Palermo to Naples.

The neighbourhood of the imperial house was an eyesore to the popes, and hence Urban IV., after the death of the Emperor Conrad in 1254, availed himself of his feudal authority, and granted the kingdom of the Two Sicilies as a fief to the brother of Louis IX. of France, Charles of Anjou, who, after some opposition, took possession, and ruled the country with an iron sceptre. The oppressed and discontented people applied to the pope for redress, but without effect. Upon this, John de Procida, a nobleman of a Salernian family, a person endowed with many estimable qualities, and of great penetration and perseverance, resolved to put an end to the sufferings of Sicily. His whole estate had been confiscated on account of his strong attachment to the Hohenstauffen family. In execution of his plans of revenge, he first applied to Peter, king of Aragon, who had married Constantina the daughter of Manfred, for assistance. Peter showed a disposition to assist him, but could do nothing, from the want of pecuniary means, towards obtaining the Sicilian throne. Procida undertook to procure those means, and, properly authorized by Peter, first visited Sicily, where he found all prepared to resist Charles, and where he encouraged the hope of revenge. He then proceeded to Constantinople, and presented himself to the Emperor Palaeologus, who had been alarmed by Charles with threats of invasion, and from whom he obtained promises of a large sum to be sent to Aragon. Flavi ng received the money, he returned to Peter, who immediately commenced warlike preparations, on the pretext of making an attack upon the Moors in Africa. This awakened some suspicion in Charles, but he so fully relied on the security of his possession, that he neglected to make due preparations.

Peter, with his troops, crossed over to Africa, and there made feigned demonstrations of hostility, waiting to see if [7:15:695]the Sicilians would rise in insurrection against the French, as they had engaged to do.

On Easter Monday, the 30th of March 1332, the inhabitants of Messina flew to arms at the sound of the vesper bell. A dreadful massacre ensued, in which all the French were put to death. In their rage the inhabitants sacrificed all, not excepting the aged, the females, and the children; and even those women who had connected themselves with Frenchmen were likewise murdered. This horrible event has ever since been known by the name of the Sicilian Vespers. The other cities of Sicily remained a short time in tranquillity; but before the end of April they followed the example set in Messina, and wherever a Frenchman could be found he was instantly put to death.

As soon as Charles received the horrible intelligence, he hastened from Orvieto, where he was on a visit to the pope, to the city of Naples, and having collected his whole forces, prepared topass over to Sicily. In July, he appeared before Messina, which was ready to surrender on conditions; but as he required unconditional submission, the spirit of the inhabitants was so roused, that they resolved on a defence, which was carried on with the most energetic courage, even the women and children partaking with the men in the dangers, as well as the privations and sufferings, of a siege.

Whilst the siege was in progress, intelligence was received that Peter of Aragon had landed at Trapani with an army of 10,000 foot soldiers and 800 mounted men at arms, and that Palermo had received him with rapturous joy. Charles, disturbed by this occurrence, became also alarmed for the state of Calabria, and having instantly embarked his troops, leaving his military stores behind him, sailed across the strait; but before he reached the continent his fleet was attacked by that of Peter, under the command of his admiral, Roger de Loria, who captured twenty-nine of his vessels, and then ravaged the coast of Naples. Peter was received with joy in Messina, and assumed the government, although the pope issued a bull placing him and the Sicilians under the ban of the church. The next year Constantina arrived with her sons, and was acknowledged as the legitimate inheritor of the crown, which it was then settled should descend to her second son James. Although Charles continued to make attempts to regain his authority in Sicily, they were all unavailing. Contrary to the usual practice of kings in that day, he discovered great personal hostility to Peter, and even charged him with treachery, hoping thus to produce a single combat. The French, however, lost Sicily, and James was firmly seated on the throne. In consequence of this, the two kingdoms were separately ruled during a hundred and sixty years. Whilst the Spanish family ruled the island, the continent was under the subjection of Charles of Anjou, who agreed to hold it as a fief of the papal see, and to pay a yearly tribute of eight thousand ounces of gold.

Robert, the great-grandson of Charles, who in succession filled the throne of Naples, was, in the year 1307, elected king of Hungary by the states of that country. After his death, in the year 1343, in the reign of his granddaughter Johanna, great commotions broke out in Naples. She had married Andrew duke of Calabria, who wished to be acknowledged as king, and is said to have intrigued with that view. He was however murdered, not without strong suspicion that his wife had been participator in the crime. Owing to this charge, and the notorious profligacy of her conduct with other men, the pope, Urban VI., conferred the crown of Naples upon Charles of Durazzo, an Hungarian, who had married a sister of Johanna. He was a short time owned as king of Naples and Hungary; but was assassinated in the latter kingdom about a year afterwards. Two competitors for the crown appeared in Naples; one the son of Durazzo, and the other an adopted or illegitimate son of Johanna. The son of Durazzo, named Ladislaus, after some struggles, conquered Louis of Anjou, the son of Johanna. He also carried on other military operations with great vigour, made himself at one time master of Rome, and aimed at the sovereignty of all Italy; but his projects were terminated by death, in the year 1414. His sister, Queen Johanna II., who succeeded him, adopted King Alphonso V. of Aragon as her heir in 1420; but when he had ascended the throne, a rival appeared in the person of the French prince Louis V. of Anjou, who was successful in his military expeditions, and at length, in 1458, drove Alphonso out of the kingdom. This created jealousies between France and Spain, which, towards the end of the fifteenth century, set the whole of Italy in flames. The contest was carried on with great bitterness, and for a time with varied success, whilst the prospect of the final issue remained doubtful. But at length the crafty king of Aragon, Ferdinand the Catholic, in 1504, gained the complete mastery of the whole of the kingdom of Naples.

During the two succeeding centuries both portions of the kingdom of Naples remained under the government of the kings of Spain. In the former of these centuries, the continued agitation between the people, the nobles, and the crown, had begotten a kind of constitution; and some assemblies or parliaments, which had originated with the house of Anjou, were instituted, and convened both in Naples and in Sicily. The feudal system was introduced; and the barons continually obtained an extension of their privileges, especially the power of life and death over their vassals, by granting which, the successive monarchs calculated upon securing their service in the wars. By this the people were sunk in the greatest misery, and at no time could the Neapolitans make any successful opposition to foreign invaders. The aristocracy were under subjection to the higher ranks of their own body; and a general corruption of morals, especially as regarded the intercourse of the sexes, which had been introduced by the two profligate queens, Johanna I. and II., prevailed amongst all classes. After the Spanish family was firmly seated, few meetings of the assembly of the states were convened either in Naples or in Sicily; and the viceroys managed matters so, that only committees of the ancient states interfered with public business, whilst the city of Naples had almost the whole administration centred within itself, but under the absolute control of the viceroy. By such means the power of the crown was gradually extended, but could only be maintained by very heavy taxation. The imposition of new taxes, and the oppressive modes of enforcing the payment of them, led sometimes to turbulent scenes in the capital, most of which were speedily suppressed; but one of them was of so singular a character as to deserve a short relation.

In the year 1647 it was thought necessary to impose some tax upon all fruit sold in the city; which, being in the summer the chief food of the poor, caused great uneasiness, but no immediate insurrection. A fisherman of Amalfi, named Masaniello, whose wife had been recently detected in smuggling some meat into the city, and fined for it, had conceived an implacable hatred against the suggested, the farmers, and the collectors of the new tax. He was a powerful speaker, and .a leader of one of the parties of the populace who had agreed to have a sham fight upon a festival. On that day he first roused the populace, and excited them to destroy the office where the tax was collected, and the dwellings of those who had proposed or farmed it. In the course of the rioting, the viceroy, instead of ordering the Spanish and German guards to suppress the disturbance, fled, and was personally insulted; but at length he escaped to a sanctuary, where the archbishop joined him; and they conjointly issued a notice that all taxes on pro[7:15:696]visions should be abolished. Besides this, an attempt was made to gain Masaniello by an offer of a pension. But, either from patriotism, or from the vanity of increasing his influence with the mob, he refused to accept the offer, declaring that if the viceroy kept his word he would find the people obedient subjects.

On the following day, however, being joined by some more of the popular leaders, the followers of Masaniello committed some violent outrages, which induced the viceroy to enter into a kind of treaty with this leader, who, though half naked and in rags, found himself at the head of 100,000 armed followers, filled with fury. Some of his followers'having been purchased by the court, agreed to kill him, and whilst he was in treaty with the viceroy and archbishop, the attempt was made; but it failed, and those who were thus shown to be traitors to their chief were instantly put to death. The viceroy himself with difficulty escaped the same fate; but the power of Masaniello was greatly strengthened, and he exercised it with much appearance of fairness and impartiality. The viceroy was fearful that the French might take advantage of the commotion, and create some annoyance, and therefore hastened to make peace with the leader of the insurrection. On the fifth day after it broke out, a treaty was concluded, by which it was stipulated that the taxes imposed since the reign of Charles V. should all be abolished; that in future no new taxes should be levied except by electors; that the people were to elect as well as the nobles; that an act of oblivion should be passed, and the people remain in arms till the ratification of the treaty was completed.

Great rejoicing followed this arrangement. Masaniello having repaired to the viceroy, was appointed captaingeneral, and induced to change his dress for more appropriate apparel; he also received a present of a gold chain. The following day he began to exercise the authority of a sovereign, judging all crimes, whether civil or military, and ordering to instant execution on a gallows he had erected, those whom he had doomed to death. It is said that in these summary proceedings no innocent person suffered and no guilty person escaped. His grandeur was but of short duration. In two or three days he became distracted and delirious, and committed some most extravagant actions; and on the 18th of July he was put to death, with the consent, if not by the orders, of the viceroy.

The tumult did not however terminate with the death of its author. In the capital, as well as in all the other cities of the kingdom, the people rose and drove out those Spaniards who were found in them. The Duke of Guise, who happened to be at Rome, was induced, at the instigation of the pope, to offer his services to the Neapolitans against the Spaniards; and to this he was further encouraged by having some distant pretensions to the throne. The Spaniards in the mean time made a vigorous attack on the city of Naples, but were repulsed by the people, who thereupon formally renounced their allegiance to the Spanish family. In a short time, however, a new viceroy, Count d’Oniate, arrived from Spain. He took the city by surprise, made the Duke of Guise prisoner, and thus frustrated all the designs of France against the Spanish power in Naples.

From that time the whole of the united kingdom continued under the dominion of Spain, till the war of the succession broke out, in the beginning of which, in 1707, it was taken by Prince Eugene, and continued subject to the Emperor till the peace of Utrecht in 1713. By this peace, confirmed by the quadruple alliance of 1718, the two divisions of the kingdom were separated; the continental portion being delivered to the house of Austria, or rather to the Emperor Charles, who had been competitor with Philip of Anjou for the whole Spanish dominions; whilst the island of Sicily was given to the Duke of Savoy, who afterwards attained the dignity of king of Sardinia.

In the year 1717 Philip V. of Spain, at the instigation of his minister Cardinal Alberoni, seized upon Sicily, but in 1720 gave it back to Austria, whilst the Duke of Savoy was satisfied with the island of Sardinia. Thus the two parts were again united under one head, and were ruled by Austrian viceroys until the war which broke out in 1733, respecting the election of a king of Poland. At that period Spain invaded Naples and Sicily, and secured both divisions; and, at the peace of Vienna in 1735, it was settled that the territory should be held by the Infant Don Carlos. When, on the death of King Charles IV. in the year 1759, Don Carlos succeeded to the throne of Spain, the kingdom of the Two Sicilies was delivered over entire to his third son Ferdinand, with a guarantee or stipulation that it should never in future be again united to the Spanish monarchy.

The kingdom of Naples partook of the calamities which were inflicted upon all Europe by the French revolution; but as the history of these events is already treated of in former parts of this work, under the articles France, Great Britain, and especially Italy, it is not necessary here to do more than refer to them. The transactions occasioned by revolutionary attempts made since the fall of Bonaparte are pretty fully narrated under the article Italy.

This kingdom, as a whole, comprehending both the continental and the island portion, is bounded on every side by the sea, except that on the north; and in the continental portion it is in contact with the territory of the church. It extends in north latitude from 35. 40. 10. to 42. 51., and in east longitude from 11. 54. to 18. 34.; but some few of the islands, especially Lampedosa, extend beyond these limits.

The two great divisions are commonly distinguished by their position regarding the narrow sea which divides them, called the Faro or Straits of Messina: thus the continental part is described as Doming al di quà del Faro, and the island part as Doming al di ld del Faro.

The following table shows its actual state according to the divisions before noticed.
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The above enumeration of the inhabitants of the continental part of the kingdom is taken from a minute account of the year 1831. Since that time, an official document, which gives only the final results up to the beginning of 1835, states the population of that part to be then 5,883,273 persons.

The disproportion between the number of cities and that of the towns and villages in the island, as compared with the continent, may be attributed to the ancient state of the latter. Sicily had been partly peopled with colonists from Greece. These had established governments, in some measure independent, but always jealous, and frequently in a state of hostility with their neighbours. Thus fortified places were generally constructed by each of the small communities, as places of refuge to which the cultivators repaired, and where they most commonly dwelt. Such places still retain the titles of cities, though many of them have very few inhabitants, and their defences are mostly in a dilapidated state.

As this kingdom possesses so large an extent of sea coast, our attention is naturally first drawn to a description of it; and this leads us to notice the celebrated strait, which has been depicted by the poets of antiquity in most terrific colours, but whose horrors have been so overcome by the progress of nautical science. Captain W. H. Smyth, a scientific officer, long occupied in surveying the Mediterranean Seas, took accurate measurements by theodolite angles, with a good base line, of the distance across this passage, at four different points. The shortest distance, from the village of Ganziri to Point Pezzo, is three thousand nine hundred and seventy yards; the next in length is from Messina light-house to Point del Orso, five thousand four hundred and twenty-seven yards; the next, from Faro Point to the castle of Scylla, is six thousand and forty-seven yards; and the last, from Messina light-house to the cathedral of Reggio on the continent, is thirteen thousand one hundred and eighty-seven yards.

The. currents in the strait are numerous and various. In settled seasons there is a central stream running north and south, at the rate of from two to five miles an hour, and which, though properly speaking only a current, when uninfluenced by strong winds, is governed by the moon. On each shore there is a counter or returning set at uncertain distances from the beach, often forming eddies to the central current; but in very fresh breezes, the lateral tides are scarcely perceptible, whilst the main one increases, so as to send at intervals slight whirlpools to each shore. There is an uncertain rise and fall of a few inches in the tide, but at the equinoxes it amounts to eighteen or twenty inches. There is usually an interval of from fifteen to fifty minutes between the changes, and the tide runs six hours each way. In light breezes the current may be stronger than the ship’s effort, and, by turning her round, often alarms a person unacquainted with the phenomenon, although there is no actual danger. The greatest risks, however, are occasioned by the heavy gusts of wind which at times rush down through the openings of the mountains on either side, and often prove dangerous to small vessels.

This passage has long been clothed with imaginary terrors; yet as the Athenians, and the Syracusans, and the Locrians, and the Rhegians, fought in it, it could not have [7:15:698]been considered so fearfully horrible by ancient sailors as 'by ancient poets; and the language of the former would probably have borne a very different tenor from the embellishments of the latter, notwithstanding that the passage through it might have been an affair of some moment with their small vessels and inexperienced seamen.

Nelson with his fleet passed through this channel; but, in applauding him for doing so, and attributing to him the merit of first attempting it, his biographers have overlooked the gallant Walton,^[1. Thia was the officer who, after the action between Sir George Byng and the Spanish fleet, was detached in pursuit of six sail of the line and some smaller ships, that had escaped, and reported his success in the following laconic terms: “ Sir,— We have taken or destroyed all the enemy’s ships and vessels on the coast, as per margin. Yours, &c.” ] who had, nearly a century before, passed securely through.

There is a curious aerial phenomenon in the Strait of Messina, noticed by the ancients, and denominated the Fata Morgana by the Sicilians, who believe that the spectacle is produced by the fairies. Most extraordinary accounts of this phenomenon have been given by those who have witnessed it, but more especially by Father Ange-lucci, whose account is thus quoted by Swinburne: “As I stood at my window, I was surprised with a most wonderful and delectable spectacle. The sea that washes the Sicilian shore swelled up and became for ten miles in length like a chain of dark mountains; whilst the waters on the Calabrian shore grew quite smooth, and in an instant appeared as one clear polished mirror, reclining against the ridge. On this glass was depicted, in chiaroscuro, a string of several thousand pilastres, all equal in altitude, distance, and degree of light and shade. In a moment they lost half their height, and bent into arcades like Roman aqueducts. A long cornice was next formed upon the top, and above it rose innumerable castles, all perfectly alike. These soon split into towers, which were shortly afterwards lost in colonnades, then ended in pines, cypresses, and other trees, even and similar.”

This deception is only to be seen under a peculiar concurrence of circumstances. The spectator must stand with his back to the east, on some elevated place behind the city, which commands a view of the wlīole bay, beyond which the mountains of Sicily rise and darken the background of the picture. The winds must be hushed, the surface smooth, the tide at its height, and the water pressed up by currents to a great elevation in the midst of the channel. All these events coinciding, as soon as the sun surmounts the eastern hills, behind the city of Reggio, and rises high enough to form an angle of forty-five degrees on the water before that city, every object existing or moving in Reggio will be repeated upon this marine looking-glass; each image will pass off rapidly in succession as the day advances, and seem to be carried down the wave on which it appeared. Thus the parts of this moving picture will vanish in the twinkling of an eye. Sometimes the air is so impregnated with vapours, and undisturbed by the winds, as to reflect objects in a kind of aerial screen, rising about thirty feet above the level of the sea. In cloudy weather they are drawn on the surface of the water, bordered with fine prismatic colours.

On this subject, which so much engaged the attention of the ancients, Captain Smyth, a cool and accurate observer, says, “I much doubt the accuracy of the descriptions I have heard and read, as I cannot help thinking that the imagination strongly assists these dioptric appearances, having never met with a Sicilian who had actually seen any thing more than the loom or mirage consequent on a peculiar state of the atmosphere; but which, I must say, I have here observed many times to be unusually strong. It is spoken of by some as a luminous ignescent phenomenon, infallibly predictive of an approaching storm.”

In a maritime survey of the Neapolitan shores, we begin on the western side of the continent, where the dominions of the kingdom join the papal territory. The whole coast, though ill furnished with good harbours for large vessels, has some deep indentations and capacious bays, with good anchorage. Of these bays the most northern is that of Gaeta, which is capacious, with good anchoring ground at a depth of from twelve to fourteen fathoms at the north-west of the fortress of that name, situated on a promontory. It is very strong, and is defended by a citadel; notwithstanding which it was taken by the French in 1797, and by the English and their allies in 1799. A little to the south of the bay of Gaeta, the small rivers Erivando, Garigliano, and Volturnus empty themselves into the sea.

The next bay to the south is that of Naples, distinguished at its entrance by the islands of Ischia and Procida to the north-west, and by the island of Capri and the promontory of Campanella to the south-east. The breadth of the entrance between these points is five leagues, and vessels ride in security; but when the wind blows strongly from the north-east, it causes a very considerable swell. The bay of Naples is considered as the most beautiful and interesting indentation of the sea that the world presents. Its curiosities, both of nature and art; its remains of classical antiquity; its varied and wonderful scenery; its volcanic eruptions and earthquakes; its cities, founded, established, and at length overwhelmed, in all the pride of luxury; its mountains converted into lakes, and lakes into mountains; these form a combination of circumstances and events which is nowhere else, upon an equal space, to be found; and its shores have therefore exercised the descriptive pens of many writers.

On the north-west side of this bay, between Cape Miseno and Pozzuoli, the coast is sterile and mountainous. Cape Miseno is a block of tufa or limestone of considerable height, and was evidently a volcano, the crater of which may be traced from the south, though nearly worn away by the action of the sea. In the interior of the mountain are vast caverns and subterranean streets, supposed to have been magazines for the Roman fleets, which rendezvoused in a port sheltered by the cape, the piers of which are still to be seen level with the water. The remains of the town of Misenum, situated on the cape, consist of a theatre, and the ruins of some monuments. On the north of the cape is the Porto di Miseno and Mare Morto, known to the ancients as Acheron.

The ruins of some grand buildings on the shore and under water, at two miles and a quarter to the northward of Cape Miseno, exhibit the site of the voluptuous Baia; opposite to which, on the east, is Pozzuoli, and within half a mile of the latter is the Solfatara, or Sulphur Hill. The vapours which exhale from the various craters, from the Solfatara, from the lakes and hot springs, and from the marshes formed by the waters which anciently flowed in superb aqueducts, infect the atmosphere of these shores; and hence between Cape Miseno and Pozzuoli there is scarcely a habitation. The more healthy situation of the latter, on a point of land advancing into the sea, has retained some inhabitants; whilst beyond it to the eastward the scene improves, and the little island of Nisita is seen covered with verdure.

The Lago d’A verno, and the Lago Lu crino, at the bottom of the bay of Baia, to the north-west, are surrounded by elevated grounds, and, having in some parts a considerable depth, they might be formed into a good harbour, by cutting[7:15:699] a communication toThe sea of less than half a mile in length. The poisonous qualities ascribed to these waters by the ancients no longer exist; for they now possess fish in abundance, the birds fly over and men bathe in them with impunity. The Lago Lucrino, which is to the south of the Averno, covers three or four acres, and is distant from the sea only about ten yards, a sluice forming the communication between them.

In rounding the north shore towards the city of Naples a new scene opens to the eye, the shore being thickly dotted with noble buildings in the midst of beautiful plantations. That city presents itself rising in the form of an amphitheatre on the side of a mountain, and beyond it a vast plain, richly cultivated, and watered by the winding little river Sabeto. On the eastern side of the bay, Vesuvius, with its double summit, rises in majestic solitude from the surrounding plain; and two thirds of its height are cultivated, the summit only being bare of vegetation. On its sides and at its base are scattered villages and villas, built on the lava of successive eruptions, which time has converted into the most fertile of soils. ’ But whilst the eye rests with complacency on this smiling prospect, a sentiment of melancholy cannot fail to accompany the remembrance that, many fathoms deep, he buried the palaces and gardens of some of the ancient masters of the world.

Portici, three miles from Naples to the south-east, is built over, or nearly over, Herculanum, which, as well as Pompeii, has for many years been exhuming or uncovering, so that now the traveller, with a feeling of astonishment and veneration, walks in streets and enters houses which have been buried for seventeen centuries. These overwhelmed cities are chiefly built of and paved with lava, and beneath their foundations are several alternate strata of this substance and of vegetable soil, in which the remains of plants are discovered; whence it seems highly probable, that long before the establishment of the people whom we call the ancients on these coasts, nations absolutely unknown to them, as well as to us, inhabited this soil, and were driven from it by great physical convulsions.

The south-east and the south shores of the bay of Naples rise perpendicularly, in volcanic cliffs, to a great height; immediately behind which are high mountains, clothed with verdure to their summits, and having their sides decorated with villages. On this side stands Castella Mare, with its littlp haven formed by a mole, where vessels of war are built; and two leagues farther to the south-west is Sorrento, the ancient Surrentum, one of the most handsome towns in the kingdom.

In noticing the islands situated on this portion of the coast, Ischia, already named, first presents itself. It was the Pithecusa of the ancients, and consists of one large and several lesser hills, all formed by volcanic eruptions, and abounding in metallic substances. It has many hot springs, and is fertile, producing figs, oranges, pomegranates, chestnuts, and aloes. It is five and a half miles in length, and the hill called Monte Epomeo, in the centre, is of great height. It was formerly a volcano, a dreadful eruption from which is recorded to have happened in the year 1301. The town is on the eastern side, being well fortified, and protected by a citadel connected with it by a stone bridge four hundred yards in length, near to which vessels may anchor securely in between three and four fathoms water, fastened to the shore.

Between Ischia and Cape Miseno are the islands of Procida and Vivara, between which there is secure anchorage for vessels in four fathoms water, open only to south or south-east winds. The first of these is two miles and a fourth across, being partly covered by the town, whilst the rest produces vines, figs, and orange trees. The latter is about a mile in length, and chiefly occupied by fishermen.

After passing to the south by the island of Capri, the extensive gulf or bay of Salerno opens. In this, covered by some islets, but at a distance of three leagues, stands the town of Amalfi. It was once celebrated for that trade to the Levant which was afterwards concentrated in the city of Venice. It was at this place that the mariner’s compass was perfected by Flavio de Gioja in 1302. The road is open to the south; but vessels are secure from such winds as blow at any point between north-west and south-west. Not far from thence is the city which gives its name to the bay. Salerno is large and populous, and stretches along the beach, with a ruined castle on a hill behind it. The road is much exposed to northerly winds; but there is a mole, behind which small vessels may find shelter. The country near it is fertile and pleasant, presenting a range of hills covered with olive groves, orchards, and corn-fields.

From Salerno to Cape Licosa, the southern point of the bay, the coast continues with a smooth sandy beach, on which is the ancient Paestum, with the remains of its antiquated fortifications, more than two miles in circumference, and the ruins of several beautiful temples, and other public buildings. From Licosa, the land trends towards the south-east, with no good port, but safe anchorage off Palenuro, by which town is a communication with the city of Policastro, the ancient Buxentum, but now a place of small importance. In proceeding still southward are found the gulf or bay of St Euphemia, and that of Gioja. They both have some anchoring places near small towns, but no port; and the whole coast is rocky and foul. All this part of the coast has suffered severely from earthquakes, but particularly from that most ravaging one which occurred in 1783, when most of the towns were destroyed. These bays are followed by the strait already noticed, on the northern point of which is the town of Scylla, standing partly on the shore, but the greater part above the rocks. The streets are narrow, and nine different rows of houses rise the one immediately above the other. The dangers arising from an approach to this place have been long proverbial; but the only real hazard is when the current and wind art so opposed as to impel a vessel towards the rocks. Scylla was dreadfully injured by the memorable earthquake of 1783, when a part of its promontory was thrown into the sea.

In the Faro of Messina, the only place of importance on the continental side, is the city of Reggio, celebrated for its manufactures of stockings, gloves, waistcoats of thread and of silk, and some other articles. The environs abound in oranges, citrons, mulberries, and grapes, and produce some sugar-canes.

On clearing the Faro, and proceeding round to the Adriatic, Cape Spartivento, the ancient promontory of Hercules, is passed, being the southernmost continental spot of the kingdom, and situated in latitude 37. 56. north. From thence to Cape Rizzuto, the land forms an irregular concavity. It has several small towns, villages, and towers, near the coast, but no harbour or anchoring place, except with the wind off shore; the water is very deep close to the shore, but there is no secure part where vessels can obtain shelter, in case of finding themselves on a lee shore with a strong gale of wind. Cape Rizzuto has a light tower upon it; and there is another on Cape Nan, fourteen miles distant from it. Not far from the latter cape stands the port of Crotona, a poor place, in an unhealthy situation, from which some corn and cheese are exported, and only remarkable for its having been the place where the school of Pythagoras flourished.

The great gulf or bay of Taranto, to the eastward, extends across about sixty-two miles from the extreme points which form it, namely, Point Alice to the south, and Santa Maria di Leuca to the north. No part of the western shore of the great gulf affords any harbour or shelter [7:15:700]for a vessel with the wind blowing on the shore; but there are many villages and watch-towers on the coast, and a great number of small rivers. The city of Taranto stands in the bottom of the gulf, and had once an excellent port, which is now nearly choked up, from neglect. It has about 18,000 inhabitants, with a fort of some strength. It stands on an island connected with the mainland by two bridges. It has some extensive fisheries. Another town stands on the eastern side of the gulf, now called Gallipoli, but known in antiquity as Callipolis. Near to it is a roadstead, with good anchorage, within gun-shot of the town; but farther in shore the ground is rocky, and there are several shoals. The trade of this town consists chiefly in the export of oil, well known by its name; and in cotton, which is grown in the neighbourhood. From Gallipoli’ to Cape di Leuca are eight leagues, and from thence seven more to Cape Otranto, the easternmost point of land in Italy. The port of Otranto is capable of affording shelter to vessels when the wind is south or south-west; but a northerly wind blows right into it. It admits vessels of 150 tons, and is a place of some trade. To the northwest, on this shore, between Cape Cavallo and Cape Gallo, is the city of Brindisi, the Brundusium of antiquity. This was once a celebrated port, and that from which the Romans usually crossed in their way to Greece; mostly at Dyrrachium, the modern Durazzo. Both places are remarkable from the war between Caesar and Pompey. Brundusium was once the best harbour on this side of the Adriatic; but in the fifteenth century the Prince of Taranto sunk some ships in the middle of the passage, to prevent his enemies from entering, and thereby formed a resting place for sea-weeds and sand, an accumulation of which has choked it up. Stagnant water at length produced a pestilence which carried off two thirds of the inhabitants. The present population scarcely exceeds 8000 persons.

The coast from Brindisi proceeds north-west, on which, on rather low ground, is the city of Monopoli, containing 10,000 inhabitants. It is open to the sea, and is defended by a castle. Not far from it are the towns of Mola and Polignano, and then comes the city of Bari, the largest place on this side of the kingdom. It has good anchorage without, and a small haven, into which vessels can enter. It is a fine city, with 30,000 inhabitants, who export large quantities of wine, oil, and soap. Beyond this is Barletta, the Bardulioï the ancients, once an elegant and populous place, but now much dilapidated. It has some trade in the export of wine, oil, salt, corn, almonds, and liquorice. The gulf or bay of Manfredonia is next to Barletta, in the bottom of which is the city of that name. It was founded as late as the year 1526, and at present contains about 6000 inhabitants, who export corn and salt. It is celebrated for the excellence of its esculent vegetables, particularly its lettuces. Fish is abundant, and very cheap. On the western side of the bay is the Laguna di Salpi, the Palus SalapirM of antiquity, a salt lake eleven miles in length, from which much culinary salt is obtained, owing to the evaporation caused by the sun.

Between Manfredonia and the boundary line towards the papal territory there are no harbours, though there are some spots where there is tolerable anchorage. The best is near the towns of Viesti and Rodi, and behind the islands of Dominico and St Nicoo. There are a number of small towns and villages, defended by forts, along a coast low and sandy. The names of the most important are Termoli, Vasto, Ortona, Francavilla, Pescara, and Giu- 1ianova. The Neapolitan territory terminates at the river Tronto, a stream which descends from the Apennines.

It has appeared necessary to take this notice of the seacoast, because the kingdom of Naples possesses, including the continental and island division, a greater extent of sea-shore than any of the other countries of Europe except the united British kingdoms. The most productive parts of the dominion, as well as the most dense in population, are near the coast; and, in surveying it, the most interesting recollections of classical history are revived or created. For these reasons we shall proceed to pass in review the several shores of the island of Sicily.

The first appearance of the coast of Sicily is romantic, and it is formed by nature into strong positions of defence. Vessels from the westward generally touch first at Cape St Vito, the northernmost point, in north latitude 38. 13. and east longitude 12.45. In proceeding eastward from thence there are some strong towers, once maintained as places of alarm, and with a few guns mounted; but of late most of them have been neglected. They serve, however, as beacons, with fires ready to be kindled; and the alarm given by them is sounded along the coasts with conchshells, similar to the tuba of the Romans. Cape St Vito forms one of the points of the Gulf of Castell-a-Mare, an indentation about ten miles in depth, at the bottom of which is the town of the same name, containing 5000 inhabitants, in a highly cultivated district; and near to it are the interesting remains of a Doric temple, with vestiges of an ancient theatre. To the eastward of this is the bay of Palermo, with the city of that name on the western side of the bay. There is good anchoring ground in almost every part of this bay, near to the shore. To the north-east of the city is a fine mole, near a quarter of a mile in length, extending into water of the depth of nine or ten fathoms; and it forms a noble port, capable of containing a great number of vessels. Along the whole, at the most favourable points, there are establishments for the tunny fisheries. The next point on the coast is Cape Zaftarana, which looks like an island; and five miles beyond it are the towns of Mandero and Milicia. In a bay known as the bay of Solento stands the city of Termini, which has some trading privileges, and from which is exported some oil, wine, sumac, corn, and rice; but the anchorage is exposed during two thirds of the year, when the boats must be drawn up upon the beach.

Five miles to the eastward of Termini is the site of the ancient Himaera, celebrated on account of one of the most disastrous battles that history has recorded, and which was subsequently destroyed by Hannibal. Near to it the Fiume Grande, one of the most considerable streams of Sicily, discharges its waters into the sea, through one of the most unhealthy but most fertile districts of the island.

About twelve miles to the east of Fiume Grande stands the city of Cefalu, on a low projecting point of land, under a conical mount, on the summit of which are the ruins of an ancient Phoenician edifice and a Saracenic castle. The city has a fine cathedral, and contains 9000 inhabitants. From Cefalu to Caronia is six leagues. The district is the most extensively wooded with oak, elm, and ash trees of any in Sicily, and most of the trees are converted into charcoal. On the shore there is good anchorage, which continues by the towns of Santa Agata and San Marco, quite to Cape Orlando. Here is a dangerous reef of rocks; but between it and the shore there is good ground, where small vessels may anchor in safety. Cape Orlando is distinguished by the Brolo Castle, a ruinous structure, and a rock between sixteen and seventeen feet in circumference, and twenty feet above the level of the water, behind which a ship may ride in safety, except when a southerly wind blows with great violence.

Next to Cape Orlando is the bay of Patti, a perfectly safe anchorage in all parts except in the centre, where there is a large rock; but as it appears above water, all danger is easily avoided. The unhealthy town of Oliveri stands on the banks of the small river Elicona. From Oliveri a sandy beach Extends along a fertile plain studded with [7:15:701]the towns of Fornari, Barcelona, Pozzo di Gotto, and some villages, and terminates at the promontory and city of Milazzo.

Milazzo, the ancient Mylae, is situated on the southern part of the peninsula or promontory of that name, facing the east. It consists of the upper and lower town, which together contain 8000 inhabitants, who are industrious, and subsist by the export of wine, silk, fruit, soap, red and white argols, corn, olive oil, linseed oil, and tunny fish. A citadel commands the city, the port, and the promontory. This northern coast of Sicily terminates with Cape Rasaculmo, which is a deep sandy bay, with several small streams running into it. The banks are much injured by malaria, but the heights near them are thickly peopled. Off the cape is good anchorage ground, with from twelve to twenty fathoms depth of water.

The eastern coast of Sicily begins at the north with the Faro of Messina, which has been already noticed, and the city of that name. That celebrated vortex known to the ancients as Charybdis, but now called Galofaro, is formed at the back of the tongue of land named Braccio di St Rainiere, which is one bank of the harbour of Messina. This whirlpool was said by the ancients to swallow up ships, and upon the return of the tide to throw them up again in broken pieces. Captain Smyth describes it as an agitated water from seventy to ninety fathoms in depth, circling in quick eddies, which seem to be caused by the meeting of the harbour and of the lateral currents with the main current; the latter being forced over in this direction by the opposite point of Pezzo. The risk is proverbial; and at the present day small craft are sometimes endangered by it, and ships of war wheeled round upon its surface; but, with caution, very little danger or inconvenience is to be apprehended from it, especially since a light-house has been constructed.

In our progress westward is Scaletta, a small town of 700 inhabitants; then Cape Grosso, Point St Alessio, and Cape St Andrea, near to the last of which, in a bay of the same name, is the city of Taromina, in a fine situation, but not very healthy; but it has good anchorage ground, in water from eight to thirty fathoms in depth. About two miles beyond it, the Alcantara, one of the most considerable rivers of Sicily, falls into the sea. Near to this is the district of Mascali, which is most fertile, and, amongst other productions, yields annually about 90,000 pipes of excellent wine.

Beyond this, at the distance of five miles, is Point Toc-co, formed of a precipitous mass of basaltic lava, converted into a mole, and forming a small port called the Marina of Aci. Not far from it is the city of Aci Reale, standing on extensive streams of lava. It is in a healthy and fertile spot, is clean and well built, and is said to contain 14,000 inhabitants. Another remarkable promontory, three miles from it, Cape Molino, is formed of lava; and the town of La Trezza, near to the latter, is built wholly of that substance, the very dark hue of which, contrasted with the white-washed lintels and door-posts of the houses, has a singular appearance. Near La Trezza are the remarkable rocks called the Cyclops, which have a bold and striking appearance; for the basalts that form them are mostly vertical, and consist of prisms of from four to eight sides.

The whole coast from thence, including the great bay or gulf of Catania, may be considered as within the line of the base of Mount Aetna, which towers over every part of it. That base is calculated to extend in circumference about eighty-seven miles, and its summit is ascertained to be 10,870 feet above the level of the sea. The summit is fourteen and a half miles northward from the city of Catania.

The bay upon which Catania stands is seven and a half miles in extent from La Trezza to Cape Santa Croix; the ground is generally clean, and ships may anchor in any part of it during the fine season. The city, originally a Greek colony, has been most dreadfully ravaged by wars, earthquakes, and volcanic eruptions. We avoid noticing the manifestations of volcanic power which have at various periods been exhibited, with the exception 'of the tremendous one in 1693, in which more than 50,000 persons perished, and the whole of the buildings were destroyed, except a few which were subsequently taken down to carry on the plan laid down for rebuilding the new city. It is now regular, spacious, and handsome. The churches and other public buildings are magnificent, being for the most part constructed of lava, faced with magnesian limestone, and enriched with marble. It is the residence of many of the Sicilian nobility, and has many literary and charitable institutions. The population amounts to about 75,000. The environs of the city, excepting those parts covered with lava, are fertile and well cultivated, but have a black and repulsive appearance. The harbour of Catania is generally filled with small craft, which repair to it for corn, maccaroni, potatoes, olives, figs, silk, wine, almonds, cheese, oil, soda, manna, cantharides, amber, snow, and lava. The beauty of the situation, according to General Cockburn, exceeds all power of description. It is a fine well-built city, close on the sea shore, overshadowed by the gigantic majesty of Aetna, and encompassed by the several minor volcanic hills, which appear like so many branches arising from the parent stock; whilst the placid brilliancy of the sea-view in front, and the solemnity of the inland scenery behind, contribute to form as magnificent a prospect as any part of the island can exhibit.

A little to the south of Catania the river Trachino enters the sea; and near to it is the city of Aguni, with its port of La Bruca, with a harbour looking like a work of art rather than of nature, as the rocks rise vertically to the height of forty or fifty feet. The city of Augusta, after passing Point Grosso Longa, presents itself on a peninsula. It is large, strong, and well fortified; the inhabitants, about 8000 in number, subsist chiefly by collecting salt from some salines near them, and by the export of oil and wine. The western sides of the harbour are watered by several streams abounding with fish. On the same side are the mountains of Hybla, celebrated by the ancients on account of the honey produced on them, especially on those hills called Hybla-Galatea and Hybla-Maegara. The inhabitants still obtain excellent honey, the sale of which is the chief as well as the most profitable trade. There is a fort and a lighthouse, which, with the cathedral, form the marks for reaching the anchorages; the latter are good, although the inner one is deemed unhealthy.

The next place to Augusta is the city of Syracuse, occupying only one of the four portions included in its extent when in ancient times it was a Greek colony, founded by Corinthians; it is said to have then contained half a million of inhabitants. The whole of the present city now scarcely covers the island of Ortygia. It suffered most dreadfully by an earthquake in 1693, which destroyed a great part of the population; and the present inhabitants do not amount to more than 13,000 persons.

The city constitutes a fortress of considerable strength; and the entrance of the harbour, which is half a mile wide, is defended by a fort on the south of the town. The adjacent country being copiously irrigated, and possessing a marly soil, is exuberantly fertile, producing wheat, oil, hemp, tobacco, fruit, pulse, and several kinds of delicious wines; but, from the marshes of the alluvial plains on the west side, pernicious miasmata have frequently arisen, and occasioned the destruction of human life. The port is a very secure one, easy of access, and sufficiently capacious to admit a large fleet, with good conveniences for shipping [7:15:702]provisions and water, as was experienced by Lord Nelson, who, in five days, obtained supplies sufficient for his memorable pursuit of the French fleet in the year 1798.

Between Syracuse and Cape Passaro, the southernmost spot in Sicily, is the extensive bay, the northern point of which is Cape Icongo. In the whole of it there is good shelter for large as well as small vessels, which may be compelled to bear up in the channel of Malta by a westerly gale of wind. The anchorage is good in from nine to thirty fathoms of water, with a good holding ground of stiff clay. The places on this bay are Avola and Noto. The former has 7000 inhabitants, who carry on a considerable traffic in wine, corn, almonds, oil, honey, and some sugar made from the only plantation of canes now left on the island. The city of Noto, with 13,000 inhabitants, is within four miles of the shore. It is finely situated and well built, and the country around is fertile; but the air is unhealthy, especially near the river Abysso, the ancient Hebrus, which winds through the plain on which it stands. There are, besides, the smaller towns of Vindicari, Marza-memi, and Pechino, the inhabitants of which chiefly depend on the fishery.

That part of the coast of Sicily the direction of which is from south-east to north-west, extends from Cape Granitola in the west, to Cape Passaro in the east. It completes that irregular triangular figure of the island which induced the ancients to bestow upon it the name of Trinacria. The coast between the two points here named is generally low and arid, and does not possess a single harbour for large ships, although there are several tolerable summer anchorages. Of these the principal are, Sciacca, Siculiana, Girgenti, Alioata, and Port Paolo; and the secondary are, Palma, Port Nicoo, Terra Nova, Scoglietti, Secca, Pozzallo, and La Marza. The most remarkable headlands of the coast are, Cape St Marco, Cape Bianco, Point Tenda, Cape Scalambra, and Cape Passaro. Towards these the approaches are not so clear nor so deep as those of the northern shores; but ships are safe which by day are not in less than twelve fathoms water, or at night in about twenty fathoms.

The tides, or rather the currents, arising from the constant evaporation and the action of the winds, observe no regularity, rising a foot or two, according to the weather, and the peculiarities of locality and depth. Thus, the northwest winds, raking the shores, produce a strong set to the south-east, whilst the south-west wind, which is very sensibly felt during the vernal equinox, causes strong counter-currents; and at length, on a change of wind to the opposite quarter, the whole body of water rushes with great velocity to the westward. In settled weather, the currents between Sicily and the African shore run to the eastward at the rate of from half a mile to a mile an hour. In the channel of Malta, the current at south-east has been found so strong, that ships have found it difficult to beat up to Maritimo; whilst others, driven to leeward of Malta, have been obliged to carry a press of sail in order not to lose way, until a change of wind enabled them to make the island again.

From Cape Granitola to Cape St Marco there is a long but slender bay, a distance of twenty miles from the two points. It is called the gulf of Tre Fontane. It is of easy access, but has no good shelter except for small vessels. In it, near to Port Paolo, are the solitary ruins of Selynus or Selinuntum, appearing, at no great distance, like a large city. These extraordinary vestiges of ancient greatness, though only an incongruous mass of shafts of columns, metopae, capitals, &c. excite great admiration, and attest the mighty exertions of a once energetic people.

From St Marco to Cape Bianco a similar bay extends about fourteen miles, in which there is good anchorage; but it is only safe in the summer months, near the town of

Sciacca, the celebrated Thermae Selinuntiae of'antiquity. It is a poor but large place. The baths are supplied by two springs; one of which is sulphureous and hot, being about 126° of Fahrenheit; the other cool, being about 60°, and impregnated with the saline qualities of the rock from which it springs. The steam-baths of Daedalus are situated on an insulated rock, and have been in use upwards of three thousand years.

About eight miles beyond Cape Bianco is the town of Siculiana, having about 4500 inhabitants. It is pleasantly situated, but in an unhealthy climate. The chief trade consists in the exportation of sulphur, of which there are some extensive mines in the neighbourhood. The city of Girgenti, a few miles farther east, stahds on a hill at nearly 1200 feet above the level of the sea, and is so elevated that almost every house in it can be seen at once. It contains 15,000 inhabitants, amongst whom is an abundance of monks and priests. It has a cathedral, a large and heavy structure of the thirteenth century; but it is irregularly built, dirty, and in appearance very poor. Near to it is the site of the ancient city of Agrigentum, said to have once contained 200,000 inhabitants, and to have been renowned for its power and commercial enterprise. The space which was once occupied by that city is now a continued range of orchards and gardens, and of groves of almond and olive trees. The vestiges of the city have been amply described by Captain Smyth, in his able and accurate account of the island. The port is formed by a mole, having on it a light-house; and without it there is good anchorage. At this port, also, large quantities of sulphur are shipped.

About five miles from Point Bianco is the respectable city of Palma, at the distance of two miles from the shore. It contains about 8000 persons, who enjoy comparative affluence, derived from a brisk trade in almonds and sulphur. The town overlooks one of the richest and best cultivated valleys in Sicily, and near to it many cattle are reared. In the bay of Grugno, about ten miles from Palma, is the city of Alicata. It stands at the mouth of the river Salso, otherwise called Ciotta, one of the largest streams of Sicily. The ground near the shore is shoal and rocky, yet in the summer it is a place of some trade, exporting corn and sulphur. It contains about 11,000 inhabitants. The provinces of Mazzara and Noto are here divided by the river Salso. At the entrance there is a bar, on which the surf beats so heavily with southerly winds, that boats can only enter it by a narrow passage, w¾ich is always difficult, and sometimes dangerous.

At the distance of fourteen miles from Alicata, along an open beach, is the city of Terra Nova, the Gela of antiquity. About a mile from the town there is good anchorage in from seven to ten fathoms water, but it is much exposed when the wind blows from the south-west. The city is situated on table-land, considerably elevated; and it has a fine palace, but few other edifices worthy of notice. The country around abounds in corn. Terra Nova contains about 9000 inhabitants, who chiefly subsist by trading in sulphur, corn, wine, and by making some coarse cloth.

The whole coast to Cape Scalambra is within a reef of rocks, always an object of peculiar dread to the ancients, and, notwithstanding all the improvements made in navigation, the cause of the loss of many ships. It is not safe to approach nearer the shore than a depth of water of fourteen fathoms, nor, with a westerly wind, quite so near as that depth. The eastern side of Cape Scalambra has a small port for vessels of an easy draught of water, where carruba beans, charcoal, wood, and some other articles, are shipped. From Cape Scalambra the distance to Point Spina is eight miles; at the latter place the coast is foul and rocky; but at three leagues farther is the town of Pozzallo, which is the chief shipping place for the produce [7:15:703]of the district. The next point is Cape Passaro, which terminates the southern side of the island. It is the most southern land of Sicily, being in east longitude 15. 8. 56. and in north latitude 36.41.30. Near to it the water of the limpid stream of Busaidone irrigates the land of Spacca-forno, a walled town three miles from the shore. It has 8000 inhabitants, with numerous churches, convents, and public buildings. The trade is chiefly with Malta, to which it exports grain, flax, carrubas, acorns, soda, and live cattle.

The western shore of Sicily, which extends from Cape St Vito to Cape Granitola, will require but a short description. Proceeding from the first of those capes in a southern course, we come to Point Emilia, opposite to which is the dangerous shoal of that name, on which there is only two fathoms of water, whilst everywhere around it there are from six to ten fathoms. On Mount St Julian, at an elevation of 2175 feet, once stood the famous temple of Venus Erycina, one of the most magnificent and most sensual of all the heathen establishments, only a few vestiges of which now remain. The town of that name near it contains about 8000 inhabitants. At the distance of four miles from this is the city of Trapani, which may be approached with safety by vessels of from 200 to 300 tons; though, as the ground is much broken, and there are many countercurrents, great care is required on the part of the pilot.

Trapani is a fortified city occupying the site of the ancient Drepanum, is surrounded by a wall with bastions and ravelins, and contains about 25,000 inhabitants, amongst whom are some of the best artists, artificers, and sailors of the island. It is a place of much enterprise and industry. The streets are regular and commodious; the cathedral and senatorial palace are fine edifices; and there are many convents, two hospitals, and forty churches. From Trapani southward to Cape Boĕo and Marsala, a distance of ten miles, the coast is altogether low, irregular, and varied by numerous islets resting upon a base of shoal and rocky ground, which in some parts extends two miles from the shore. The country on the main island is laid out in extensive salt-works, by the construction of causeways about a foot and a half high, enclosing square places which communicate by dams with each other. The salt is heaped in a pyramidical form, at a distance resembling tents, and when quite dry is exported, chiefly to Marseilles. The space beyond, anciently known as the Field of Hercules, produces abundance of sweet wine, as well as of corn, oil, and barilla.

Above Cape Boëo, in a healthy situation, stands the city of Marsala, the ancient Lilybaeum, once the capital of the Carthaginians in Sicily. This place is moderately well built, and surrounded by a wall; the inhabitants at present amount to about 21,000, and produce much wine, fruit, and barilla. Near to it there is a great establishment for shipping the wine made at Marsala to England, where it is well known by the name of this city. The ground on the beach is all shoal and foul, and large ships must anchor at nearly two miles from the mole, which has been constructed near the English wine stores.

About nine miles from Cape Boëo is Point Feto, one league from which is the city of Mazzara, the ancient Mazum. It contains 8000 inhabitants, and, though so small, has a respectable appearance from the sea, the domes rising above the houses. It is surrounded with a Saracenic wall; but the streets are narrow, ill paved, and dirty. It is, however, a place of some considerable trade, exporting largely grain, pulse, cotton, wine, fish, fruit, barilla, madder roots, oil, and soap. The entrance of the river Salemi forms the little haven of Mazzara, and is convenient for small craft; but larger vessels are obliged to lie at a very exposed anchorage without, in from eight to twelve fathoms water, where the holding ground is a stiff clay. This place is about six miles distant from Cape Granitola, where terminates the survey that has been taken of the shores of Sicily. Connected with the survey there is an atmospheric phenomenon which deserves notice. It occurs principally on the southern coast of Sicily, but exhibits its greatest force in the neighbourhood of Mazzara. It commonly bears the name of marobia, and is thus described by Captain Smyth.

“Its approach is announced by a stillness in the atmosphere and a lurid sky, when suddenly the water rises nearly two feet above its natural level, and rushes into the creeks with amazing rapidity, but in a few minutes recedes again with equal velocity, disturbing the mud, tearing up the sea-weed, and occasioning a noisome effluvia. During its continuance the fish float quite helpless on the turbid surface, and are easily taken. The rapid changes generally continue from thirty minutes to two hours, and are succeeded by a breeze from the southward, which quickly increases to heavy gusts.”

From the vast extent of sea coast appertaining to the two divisions of the kingdom of Naples, the fishery has been at all times one of the chief sources of occupation to the inhabitants, and, next to agriculture, employs the greatest proportion of labour. The principal branch of the fishery is that for the tunny, or scomber-thynnus, which is carried on by a kind of joint-stock company, in which the population of many towns and villages are engaged. This fish was, according to Oppian, in the highest estimation with the Greeks, the Carthaginians, and the Romans, who made from it the sauce called garum. This fish is gregarious, and shoals of them enter the Mediterranean early in the year, with an extended base for the tides to act upon, as they swim broad and deep, in a conical form. In the progress of the shoal to the eastward it inclines over towards the European coasts, and is caught in great abundance in May, June, and July. The average length of the tunny is from four to eight feet, and the girth is nearly the same; yet there are many of still greater size, and the females are always the largest.

The manner of taking them is similar to that which was practised by the ancients. Large nets are spread out in the shape of a parallelogram, about fifteen hundred feet in length, three hundred in width, and from forty to a hundred in depth, divided into four quadrilateral spaces called rooms, having channels of communication with each other. These nets are moved east and west at about a mile distant from the shore, across the known route of the fish, with each of the spaces at right angles, and secured vertically by a number of anchors and stones at the bottom, whilst the upper edge of the net is floated by large logs of the cork tree and other light wood. The whole is then connected with the shore by a stout single net of very large meshes, called the wall, that arrests the progress of the tunny, and induces them to enter the outer room, which is thereupon raised a little and closed by the boatmen on the look-out. The fish, alarmed, and seeking to escape, swim from side to side, and thus enter the next room, when their retreat is again prevented, and thus finally they enter the fatal part, called corpo, or chamber of death, where the meshes are smaller and stronger, and made of rope of superior quality to the rest of the net. When in this way the chamber is filled, which sometimes occupies two or three days, large flat-floored boats, peculiarly constructed for the purpose, assisted by many smaller ones, close round, and, weighing the net, secure the prey with harpoons, and another species of sharp hook on a wooden staff’, that is struck into the head to prevent the fish from floundering. In the management of this weapon the fishermen display great dexterity. Although the size and shape of this fish have rather a disgustingly coarse appearance, the flesh is agreeable to the taste, and it is esteemed very nutritious food. There are often many other fishes taken with the tunnies, all [7:15:704]of which, except the sword-fish and the palamita, belong to the labourers as a perquisite beyond their wages.

The sword-fish passes by the shores of Sicily, in its route to the Archipelago and the Black Sea, about the time of the vernal equinox, and is often taken in the tunny nets; but in the Straits of Messina there is a particular fishery for them, in which much activity is displayed. This fish is taken by the harpoon, in a manner similar to that practised in the whale-fishery. When the fish is struck it immediately dives, and the long coil of rope fastened to the harpoon is suffered to run out till the animal becomes faint; but it is sometimes so vigorous as to oblige the fishermen to cut it adrift, lest it should draw the boat under water. The length of this fish is from seven to thirteen feet, exclusive of a sword projecting from the snout, about three feet long and three or four inches broad. The weight varies from eighty pounds to upwards of two hundred and fifty pounds. Notwithstanding this magnitude, the flesh is esteemed very delicate food, and, when broiled in slices, resembles veal.

The anchovy fishery is chiefly carried on for the sake of foreign trade. That fish is taken in shallow water during the months of March, April, and May, by means of nets ten or twelve feet wide, and very long. The curing of them occupies about a month. The fish are first thrown into brine, to give the salters time to nip off their heads with the finger and thumb, and pack them regularly, with alternate layers of salt, in the barrels designed for their exportation, which generally contain about two hundred pounds each. When the cask is filled, a round board, somewhat smaller than the head-piece, is placed over the whole, and loaded with stones, by which the contents are sufficiently compressed in a few days to allow of the casks being properly coopered up for exportation.

Besides these large objects of the fishery, the coast swarms with mullets, the roes of which are converted into a sauce called botarga, which is in much request. A great variety of testaceous and crustaceous fish, amongst which arp prawns of gigantic size, is taken along the whole shore. Coral is also fished for in many places, but yields the greatest profit to the seamen and merchants of Trapani, on the western coast of the island.

The importance of the fishery in a country where the number of days in which the inhabitants are precluded from animal food is so great as in Italy, has induced us to give a more extended notice of that subject, and the shores on which it is conducted, than would have been appropriate under other circumstances.

We turn now to that branch of industry, the cultivation of the soil, which in every country is the chief occupation of the people, and at the same time the principal means of their subsistence. In this work, under the head of Lombardy, the agriculture of that country is minutely described; and the observations there communicated are in a great degree applicable to the kingdom of Naples. The difference of climate in countries removed from each other by six to eight degrees of latitude, will necessarily cause some difference in their productions and in the modes of obtaining them.

Both on the continent and in the island of Sicily much silk is procured, but very little beyond what is required for domestic consumption. But the same diligence and skill is not applied as in Lombardy and Piedmont to the increase of mulberry-trees. Oil is the chief article of the agricultural kind which is exported. The olive-trees are abundant in all the provinces, with the exception of the Abbruzzi, Molise, and Basilicata, and the mountainous parts of Calabria. In the provinces of Bari and of Otranto nearly two thirds of the land are covered with olive-trees; but in these places the quantity is more thought of than tħe quality, and the oil will scarcely keep more than one year.

It is the substitute for the butter made in the more northern parts of Italy, and enters largely into all the edible preparations of the inhabitants. A large portion of the oil is converted into soap, and it is generally used in lamps to supply the place of candles. The quantity of oil exported has of late years been, on an average, 36,300 tons, valued at L.762,900; that exported to Great Britain is estimated at 4500 tons, valued at L.90,000.

There is much wine grown, but of bad quality, and not capable of being kept more than the year in which it is made; but some of tolerable quality and flavour, and of durable strength, is made in Sicily, and finds a good vent in England, to which market about 300,000 gallons are annually exported. Cotton-wool is grown in the provinces of Bari, Otranto, and Basilicata, on the continent, and upon a small scale in several parts of Sicily. The annual growth is about 80,000 bags; but this quantity is insufficient for the home consumption, and a supply of cotton yarn and of cotton goods from England is required to the yearly amount of about L.375,000. Flax and hemp are grown, as likewise tobacco, saffron, liquorice, almonds, figs, raisins, currants, dates, oranges, lemons, capers, manna, and a variety of other precious fruits. In most years this kingdom grows rather more corn than is required for its own consumption. This consists chiefly of maize, upon which the poorer classes principally subsist. Wheat, when sown, is generally a beneficial crop, though occasionally subject to blight, and to other accidents of the weather. In some of the marshy portions of the country rice is cultivated with success, in spite of its ill effects on the health of the inhabitants. In the best cultivated districts, the pasture-land is inconsiderable, and the stall-feeding of cattle is generally practised. There are, however, in the mountains, some extensive plains, affording excellent pasture for sheep. The whole number of sheep in the kingdom is estimated at 2,500,000, about one half of which are migratory, being kept on the mountains in summer, and in the valleys in winter. The wool varies in quality, but is in general good, and some portion of it is exported. The cows are of a race brought from Hungary. The oxen are commonly used to plough the land, and to draw waggons or carts. In the warm and marshy parts of Terra di Lavoro and Puglia are reared some buffaloes, which serve as beasts of draft, and whose milk is converted into a kind of cheese called proroge. Horses are said to degenerate fast in Naples. Numerous mules are reared, especially in the provinces of Otranto and Abbruzzo, whence those appropriated to the use of the nobility in their carriages are mostly brought.

The condition of society, and the tenures of land, contribute much to the depression of agriculture, and, through it, of every other description of industry. The soil is owned in very large portions, either by the king, by the religious houses, or by the higher nobility. The peasants who cultivate the land are commonly metayers, dividing equally with the lord the annual produce; but in many cases where the soil is peculiarly fertile, the peasant has but one third of the harvest for his share. Under the government of the Napoleon family, some of the church-lands were sold to speculators; but the change of proprietors has caused no alteration in the condition of the occupiers, or in the course of husbandry. As the climate of Sicily is somewhat warmer than that of the continental part of the kingdom, there is some variation in the practice of husbandry, as well as in its productions. The wheat of Sicily, which in ancient times contributed greatly to the subsistence of Rome, is not now extensively cultivated, because the peasants find it much more profitable to grow hemp and flax. A very large portion of the cultivated land is under fallow, which, from the scarcity of manure, is adopted, and forms an imperfect substitute, for that material. With the negligent culture of Sicily, the corn exported, chiefly wheat, [7:15:705]is nefafjy e’qùal in value to that of all the other commodi-tieè which are exported. Some of the feudal rights of the nobles have, been abolished, and, instead of the personal services of the peasants, the system of a partnership in the products, as described in the continental division, has been introduced.

The mineral productions are insignificant, and consist solely of some iron extracted from mines in the vicinity of Stilo. There are mines of rock-salt, which are but slightly worked. That substance, however, is largely collected on the sea-shore, where, by the operation of the sun alone, it is prepared for culinary purposes. In Sicily much sulphur is obtained, and forms an important article of foreign trade. Some alum is also collected; and in many parts quarries of marble, of various descriptions, are extensively worked; but most of that substance is used for the building in and around the cities of the kingdom.

The manufactures of this kingdom are for the most part of the domestic kind. The females spin the flax, hemp, or wool, and the coarse cloths made from those substances satisfy the majority of the inhabitants. Silk goods are made in some establishments of greater magnitude than those adapted for the manufacture of other articles. There are manufactures of coarse woollen goods in many of the provincial cities, and also of cotton goods. Leather, paper, hardware, glass, earthenware, and porcelain, mostly of indifferent workmanship, and in small portions, are also made in several parts of the kingdom. The condition of the great body of the people compels them to be satisfied with coarse clothing, little or no domestic furniture, or even cooking utensils, and to procure what little they do use of the cheapest and most durable kind.

No country of Europe has so little foreign trade, in proportion to its extent and population, as the kingdom of Naples. It produces almost every thing that is necessary for the inhabitants, and has a very magnificent surplus of productions to give in exchange for the few luxuries which the condition of the population requires. The chief part of the foreign trade centres in the city of Naples, to which the greater portion of the spare products are brought by small coasting vessels, and whence also are dispensed what foreign commodities are required. The nature and extent of the trade, as far as these can be obtained, will be found in the account of that city.

The face of the country displays great inequalities. The Apennines enter the kingdom on the north-west side, from the papal territory, and at Rappolla divide into two branches. The left branch runs through Basilicata to the province of Otranto, where they terminate in the sea at Capo di Leuca; though it is asserted that a continuation of them under the sea extends to the island of Corfu and the Turkish dominions. The right branch runs through the three provinces of Calabria to the southernmost part of the peninsula, near the Straits of Messina. The highest point of this range of mountains within the kingdom is Tassa d’Italia, 8255 feet in height, near to which are some others of about equal height, but which have not been accurately measured. The next loftiest are, Monte Calvo, 4810 feet; Monte Celevo, 4800; Sila, 4634; Vesuvius, 3500; Bolgario de Salerno, 3496; and Epomeo d’Ischia, 2364 feet. From each of these chains of hills there are many spurs, some insulated, and others connected with the main branch. Those on the western side have at some period had volcanoes of greater or less igneous production, the existence of which is manifest by the lava and tufa which their eruptions have left, though none but Vesuvius is now in activity. These minor branches of mountains, projecting from the main range, are so far distant from each other as to leave spaces for plains of various extent, which open on both sides towards the sea. Upon the eastern side some of these are extensive steppes, and the mountains looking in that direction are in à great degree naked and barren; but the smaller hills, and the valleys between them, are for the most part pleasing to the view, and highly fertile. On the western side of the main range, especially near the coast, there seems to exist a subterraneous fire, which finds vent in Vesuvius, and in other parts, as is manifest by the tremendous visitations of earthquakes.

The kingdom of Naples, taken as a whole, is scantily supplied with water, though in some parts there is so much that it renders the air unwholesome. As the mountains run through the middle of the country, and the rivers have their sources in them, their courses are necessarily short. The eastern side of the Apennines is by far the driest, and the rivers are of the shortest course, whilst many of them are nearly or altogether destitute of water in the summer months. The chief rivers are, the Garigliano, which enters it from the papal states, and runs to the sea in the province of Terra di Lavoro; the Volturno, which receives the smaller streams Cavaliene, Lorda, Ta-rano, and Salone, and enters the sea near the town of Mondragone, on the western coast; the Crati, which rises in Calabria Citeriore, waters the plains of Cosenza, and enters the gulf of Tarento near St Mauro; the Silaro, which rises at the foot of the mountain Paflagone, in Principato Citeriore, receives the waters of the Calore and the Negro, and falls into the sea at Altavilla; the Ofanto, next to the Garigliano the largest river in the kingdom, but in no part,navigable, rises in Principato Citeriore, passes through Capitanata, and empties itself into the Adriatic Sea; and the Pescara, which is composed of two mountain streams of Abbruzzo, runs to the north, and falls into the Adriatic. The shorter streams are numerous, and mostly destitute of water in the hot months. There are no canals available for the purposes of navigation, but many of short length have been constructed in order to irrigate particular districts. There are several internal lakes, but only one of considerable extent. The lake of Cellano, sometimes called Fucino, in the province of Abbruzzo, is fifteen miles in length and ten in breadth, and receives the waters of three small rivers. It has a river issuing from it, but frequently overflows the surrounding country, and generates pestilential malaria. Amongst the smaller lakes, that of Agnano, in the province of Naples, between the mountains Astroni and Pausilippo, has the singularity of being without any streams either entering or issuing from it, but is kept in motion resembling the rise and fall of tides in the sea by subterraneous gases, which are constantly escaping from it, and have a pestiferous effect upon those who approach too near to it. Some baths in the vicinity are found beneficial in cases of si-philis, gout, and rheumatism. The smaller lakes are very numerous.

The climate is healthy, excepting in the spots where stagnant water produces malaria, and at the time when the easterly wind, called the sirocco, prevails. The heat of the sun is tempered by the breezes from the sea, which surrounds the kingdom on three of its sides. The quantity of rain which falls annually is about twenty-nine inches, or one third more than falls in Paris. Snow is rarely seen, except upon the high mountains, and the rivers are never frozen.

The government of this kingdom is an unmixed and absolute monarchy; but in the Sicilian division there is a sort of mixed constitution, and a body with the name of a parliament. The power of the parliament is, however, of so little weight as scarcely to deserve notice. The only check on absolute power is the rigid adherence which the great mass of the people evince to their ancient customs, and to their civil, judicial, and religious practices. After the disturbances of 1821, a body of the most respectable inhabitants was formed by the king, one on the continent and another[7:15:706] in Sicily, under the name of Consultas, who were represented to the people at large as securities for the good government of the two portions of the dominion, and were to exercise supervision rather than control over the several branches of the executive administration. Like all such half or evasive measures, no good effect has been produced by them, nor have they any legislative influence.

The religion of the whole kingdom is strictly that of the Roman Catholic church, which all the inhabitants profess, except about 80,000 Greeks, who follow the ritual of their church, and about 2000 Jews, who are tolerated. The church establishment comprehends fourteen archbishops, seventy-seven bishops, 129 assistant bishops, 26,800 priests, 11,730 other clerical persons in rank below the priesthood, and 9520 female religious persons. Education is at a low ebb. In Naples there is a university with 1350 students, another in Palermo with 400, and a third in Catania with 300. There are also many Latin schools for citizens, and a few primary schools.

The revenues of the kingdom arise chiefly from taxation of various kinds. Nearly one third is derived from a land-tax; the remainder is collected from an excise on consumption, from a stamp-tax, a lottery, from the post-office, and from a deduction of ten per cent, on all the salaries of public officers. By the accounts of 1831, the amount of the whole was 26,650,000 ducats, or, taking the ducat at 4s. 3d. sterling, about L.5,360,000. The expenditure of the government in the same year amounted to 27,340,000 ducats. By the growing increase of the taxes, the revenue amounted, in the year 1834, to 30,900,000 ducats, thus leaving a surplus applicable to the sinking fund for diminishing the national debt. The debt consisted of two portions, viz. somewhat more than one million sterling within the kingdom, and a loan made by the Rothschilds in England, amounting to two millions and a half. By the increase of revenue these debts are in course of liquidation, and it is estimated that, if no interruption of the present progress should intervene, in the year 1842 the whole debt will be discharged. The income and the expenditure of Sicily are stated to be nearly one third part of that of the united kingdom. The expenditure of the royal family is about L.420,000 a year, and that of the army L.l,700,000.

The army consists of the royal guards, which comprehends a corps of horse artillery, two of grenadiers, one of jagers, and two of cavalry; and the troops of the line, which comprehend a corps of engineers, two regiments of artillery, a brigade of veteran artillery, a brigade of artificers and miners, eleven regiments of infantry, of which four are Swiss, and three regiments of cavalry; the whole amounting to about 30,000 men.

The cities in the two divisions of the kingdom, which contain a population of more than 11,000 persons, are the following:
[table]

Naples, a city of Italy, the capital of the kingdom of the same name, though frequently called the kingdom of the Two Sicilies. The exact position, as taken from the light-house, is 14. 15. 45. east longitude from Greenwich, and 40. 50. 10. north latitude. This city stands on the shore of a bay or gulf of the same name, the beauty of which has been so long and so generally celebrated, that it requires only a short notice here. This bay, taken as a whole, may be considered as one of the most interesting, as well as most beautiful, on the globe. The curiosities both of nature and of art; the remains of classical antiquity; the varied and wonderful scenery; the volcanic eruptions and earthquakes which it has experienced; the cities founded and established in all the pride of luxury, but since overwhelmed; mountains converted into lakes, and lakes turned into mountains; all of these form a combination of circumstances and events, which is to be found in no other spot within the same compass on the earth’s surface.

After the lapse of many centuries, the vestiges of the terrible subterranean fires that convulsed these coasts are still visible. The lakes Acheron (Mare Morto), Avernus (Averno), and others which border the sea, are incontestibly the craters of ancient volcanoes, as well as the enormous cones reversed, which are everywhere seen on the shores, on the summits of the mountains, on their sides, and at their bases. The remembrance of the most ancient convulsions was conveyed by tradition, and, being embellished by the poetical imaginations of the Greeks, whose colonies were established on these shores, gave birth to the mythology concerning the infernal gods. The yawning fissures, several of which showed the existence of internal fires by the smoke that issued from them, whilst others emitted pestilential vapours, were easily conceived to be the gates of Tartarus, and the entrances to the realms of death. Temples were erected on their edges, at which the worshippers arrived by subterranean passages; and hence are derived the fables of the Sybils, and the poetical descents to the infernal regions. Nature having reposed for ages, the fertility of these districts was renewed, and men, invited by that fertility, as well as by the serenity of the climate, crowded to their shores. The city of Cumae was founded probably by a colony of Greeks; and others succeeded, which formed many petty sovereignties, sometimes at war with each other, sometimes allied, until all were finally absorbed in the Roman empire.

The Romans, masters of the known world, and enriched by the spoils of the East, thought only of enjoyment. Tired of the monotonous splendours of their capital, they sought in the country the charms of tranquillity mingled with luxury. But no part of Italy offered such natural advantages as the shores of the Bay of Naples, which, being blessed with a genial climate and a serene sky, and possessing abundance of warm springs for the formation of baths, were gradually covered with villas and temples by the now effeminate Romans. Thus, the whole country from Cape Miseno to Sorrentum, seemed to the eye but one continued city. Within this extent were built the towns of Misenum, Baia, Direachea or Puteolis (Pozzuoli), Neapolis (Naples), Herculanum, Pompeii, Stabia, and Sorrentum, each of which had its theatre, amphitheatre, forum, and [7:15:707]an incredible number of temples, the ruins of which attest their former magnificence.

Amidst these circumstances of pomp and luxury, frequent earthquakes at length alarmed the voluptuous inhabitants, and were the precursors of a dreadful crisis. Vesuvius at that time presented the aspect of an ancient volcano, but nothing indicated that its fires were not entirely extinct; its sides were highly cultivated in their whole circumference, and its summit alone appeared arid and burned. In the first year of the reign of Titus (a. d. 79), its fires burst forth suddenly; rivers of fluid lava and mud issued from it, as well as clouds of ashes and pumice-stone, which overwhelmed all the eastern shores of the bay; and, from Herculanum to Stabia a chain of hill composed of those substances occupied the place of fertile fields. These two towns, as well as Pompeii, disappeared, whilst the western shore suffered nothing, the lava stopping at Naples, which itself received but little damage.

The nobles of Rome, however, continued to pass part of the year on the shores of Naples, and the period when they were generally deserted is unknown; but it is supposed to have been during the ages of barbarism which succeeded the fall of the Roman empire. The appearance of the shores, and the ruins which cover them, from Cape Miseno to Pausilippo, attest the ravages of one or more convulsions posterior to that which occurred in the reign of Titus. The mountains have been torn into fragments, the passages to the subterranean temples filled up, and the temples themselves either destroyed or displaced; whilst the sea must have rushed with rapidity over the lands from which it is now again slowly retiring. The only convulsion of which the date has been preserved is that of 1538, in which the Lucrine Lake, so famous for its oysters, was greatly reduced, and a mountain rose in its place.

The bay, the history of which has been here sketched, is distinguished at its entrance by the islands of Ischia and Procida to the north-west, and by the island of Capri and the promontory of Campanella to the south-east. The breadth of the entrance is about five leagues; and there, as well as within the bay, is good anchorage, with a depth of nearly seven fathoms water. The bay is well sheltered from all winds, excepting those which blow from any point between east-south-east and due south; and it is exposed to the sea only by the passage between Capri and the main, which is of little or no consequence. In the bottom of the bay a harbour has been formed by the construction of a mole in the shape of the letter L, in which merchant ships and most of the royal navy lie, and where boats may always land. There is no regular tide, but a rise and fall of waters is occasioned by the winds in south-west gales. Ships can be conveniently supplied with water at the mole. The extent of the bay is about thirty miles, and the city is built at the bottom of it, and extends along the shore in the same circular shape as its fβrm. It rises from the shore like an amphitheatre, and, as a whole, can be most advantageously seen from the water. The entire line of buildings, including the suburbs, is between four and five miles. Towards the sea, the sameness of the range of buildings is relieved by many beautiful quays, and the great number of vessels and boats approaching to or proceeding from them, and by two forts which defend the town, called L’Uovo and San Elmo.

This city may, in regard to extent and population, be considered as the fourth in Europe, following after London, Paris, and Constantinople, unless the late rapid increase of Moscow shall cause it to rank after that reconstructed metropolis. The streets of the city are mostly in a circular direction, and many of them are narrow. They are well paved with lava, and of late years have been lighted by lamps hung in the French manner in the middle of the streets. They are generally kept clean, the filth being carried away by large subterranean sewers. From their narrowness, and the height of the houses, they have for the most part a gloomy aspect. The Strada di Toledo is however an exception, and is one of the finest streets in Europe. It extends half the length of the city, is bordered on both sides by magnificent houses, and is terminated at one extremity by a square, the Piazzo di Mercato, and at the other by the royal palace. The houses in it are of singular architecture, and more remarkable for their size than their elegance. They are mostly six or seven stories in height, have flat roofs, and are covered with a kind of stucco made of pozzolano sand, which becomes indurated by exposure to the atmosphere. Most of them have balconies in front; and the roofs are frequently covered with flowers, shrubs, and small trees, planted in boxes filled with earth. The attention of visitors is much attracted by the Largo del Palazzo, by Santa Lucia, and the Platamone, but more than all by the Chiaja, which comprehends a public garden called the Villa Reale, extending more than half a mile in length on the margin of the bay, and reaching to the grotto of Posilipo. This garden is ornamented with luxuriant trees, shrubs, flowers, and modern statues, and has the basin of a fountain standing on the backs of four lions; a group found at Paestum, and placed here in the spot which was previously occupied by the celebrated Toro Farnese, now removed to the Museum.

In noticing the public institutions of Naples, the most prominent object is that now called the Studii Publici. This university was erected by the viceroy Fernando Ruez de Castro, according to the plan furnished by Fontana, and opened in 1616 by his son and successor Don Pedro de Castro. In the year 1790, King Ferdinand I. removed the university to the convent of Gesu Vecchio, and converted the edifice built by De Castro into a Royal Museum, which has been since enriched by the antiquities found in Minturnae, the ancient Capua, Herculanum, Pompeii, Nu-cera, Nola, and Paestum, together with the collection of paintings once placed in the palace of Capo di Monte; and thus this Museum, may now be considered as the finest in Europe, more especially with respect to Grecian and Roman antiquities.

Although few objects of the kind are more worthy of detailed description, yet the nature of this work necessarily forbids any other than mere cursory notices of the most distinguished of them. In the quadrangle which the building forms there is a colossal statue of Alexander Severus, another of the Genius of Rome, and one of Urania, reported to have been found in Pompey’s theatre at Rome. The staircase is ornamented with a lion in Carrara marble, and two statues in Greek marble, taken from Herculanum. Surrounding the quadrangle are the schools for drawing, and the apartments appropriated to antique fresco, statues, and other works of art. The division of this institution next to be noticed is the gallery of ancient paintings found in Herculanum, Pompeii, and Stabia, which have been recently removed from Portici. These are so elegant in regard to composition, and yet generally so badly executed, that it is supposed the greater part of them may have been copies made by common house painters from the most renowned pictures of antiquity. Recent excavations at Pompeii have, however, produced large historical pictures, far too well executed to have been the work of common painters, and so admirable with respect to accuracy of outline and beauty of composition, that even the frescos of Raffaelie in the Vatican do not excel them. The recently disentombed paintings are now added to those brought from Portici, and amount, including the latter, to nearly one thousand six hundred; a number which must increase almost daily, as long as the excavation of Pompeii is continued. This unique gallery has been so well arranged, that [7:15:708]there is every reason to suppose it may in future become the favourite study of modern painters. The subjects represented in these pictures are too numerous to be even named; and where so many are exquisite it would be difficult to make a selection for the purpose of describing them.

The gallery of ancient sculptures, or rather three galleries appropriated to them, contain numerous pieces of Grecian as well as of Roman workmanship, exhibiting busts of celebrated personages both male and female, especially of the family of the Balbi; several equestrian statues; groups of figures representing the actions of Bacchus, Cupid, Venus, Apollo, Cybele, Ganymede, and Euterpe. The greater part of these have been obtained by excavation from Herculanum or Pompeii.

The hall of Flora, the hall of Apollo, the hall of the Muses, the hall of the Venuses, the hall of Jupiter, the hall of Atlas, and that of Antinous, are filled with statues which have some connection with the names they severally bear. Many of these are from the Grecian chisel, some attributed to, or known to be the work of, Phidias and Praxiteles. In the hall of the Muses is the large beautiful vase of Greek marble, an inscription on which shows it to ‘have been the work of an Athenian sculptor of the name of Salpion. It is adorned with bas-reliefs relative to the education of Bacchus. In the cabinet connected with these galleries there are some statues highly valued, especially one attributed to Praxiteles, called Venus Calli-pige, the rival of the Venus de’ Medici.: There are also many smaller figures and groups which never fail to excite admiration.

One apartment is appropriated to the celebrated group of the Toro Farnese, and bears that name. This piece was originally brought from Rhodes to Rome, but removed thence to Naples about the close of the seventeenth century. It is supposed to represent Dirce bound with the hair of her head to the horns of a bull by Amphion and Zethus, the sons of Lycus king of Thebes, and their mother, Antiopa, commanding them to detain the bull and set Dirce free. Antiquaries are of opinion that this group was formed from one solid block of marble, by two Rhodian artists, Apollonius and Tauriscus, about two hundred years before the Christian era. It was found cruelly mutilated in the baths of Caracalla, and restored by Giovanni Battista Bianchi of Milan. The head of the bull and the upper parts are modern. The trunks alone of the figures of Amphion and Zethus are antique; but the statues of Antiopa and the youth seated are nearly in their original state.

These galleries also contain columns of precious marbles, found in Herculanum, Pompeii, and other parts of Magna Graecia; and the statue of the priestess Eumachea, from Pompeii, has been lately placed near the open court also. There are the measures of capacity found at Pompeii, and a small perpetual almanac of marble, corn-mills of lava, and a machine of lava for bruising olives in order to extract oil, all of which have been brought from Pompeii.

An apartment on the ground floor is wholly filled with antiquities of the Etruscans, or those of the more ancient people the Osci, or some brought from Egypt. Amongst the first are many curious vases; and among the others, well-preserved mummies of the human species, in painted cases of sycamore wood. Another of the rooms is wholly filled with bronze sculpture of animals and human figures of various sizes, in different positions and actions. These have been mostly obtained from the excavations in Pompeii and Herculanum.

Above these rooms, on the large landing place, in an apartment on the left, are the papyri found about the year 1753, in a villa of Herculanum, unrolled. This library of papyri was discovered under what is now the garden of the Augustine monks in Pörtici; but as the scrolls of papyri found in Herculanum were so precisely like charcoal that they had been constantly taken for it, the scrolls in question might have shared the same fate, if the order in which they were placed, one above another, had not excited curiosity, and produced an examination, which led to the discovery of Greek and Latin words written on these supposed pieces of charcoal. The diligence of the excavators was in consequence redoubled; and seven inkstands, with a stylus case, all of ancient pottery, together with three small busts in bronze, one of them representing Epicurus, were found in the same room with the papyri, which, amounting to 1730 scrolls, were deposited, by order of Charles III. then king of Naples, in the Royal Museum at Portici, whence they were conveyed to the Museum at Naples; and notwithstanding they are so much scorched as to resemble tinder, the Padre Antonio Piaggio invented a machine capable of separating and unrolling them. Those hitherto unrolled are 408 in number, of which eighty-eight only are legible; the others being fragments, are very difficult to decipher. Two volumes of these papyri have been published, one in the year 1793, and the other in 1809; a third is, we understand, in preparation for the press. The first volume contains a work of Philodemus on music; the second contains a fragment of a Latin poem, supposed to have been written by Rabirius, and two books, the second and eleventh, of Epicurus upon Nature. The third volume will contain, amongst other matter, the tenth and eleventh books of Philodemus, the former on economy, and the latter on pride. It is conjectured, that of the manuscripts still remaining to be unrolled, twenty-four are Latin, and the remainder Greek.

The library, the door of which is on the landing-place, is a magnificent apartment, being 212 feet in length, eighty in width, and eighty-one in height. This library is stated to contain 300,000 printed volumes, and 6000 manuscripts. The collection of books printed in the fifteenth century is particularly valuable, because it comprises those published during that period at Naples, many of which are unknown to librariansjn general. There is likewise a superb collection of works published by Bodoni; and amongst the manuscripts are the works of St Thomas Aquinas, the Aminta of Tasso, the Acts of the Apostles written in the tenth century, and many illuminated missals of uncommon beauty, which had been executed for the Farnese family.

Other and spacious apartments in this Museum are furnished with those treasures from Herculanum which show the domestic manners and lives of the Romans. One contains the personal ornaments, such as rings, necklaces, brooches, ear-rings, medals, gems, gold chains, gold nets, bracelets, mirrors, pins for fastening the hair, and many similar objects. One room is the repository for kitchen furniture of bronze, exhibiting kettles, saucepans, and other utensils. Another is the repository for steelyards, scales, weights, measures, lamps, and candelabras; whilst others are miscellaneous repositories for various descriptions of objects, some valuable for their antiquity, others for their beauty, and all interesting, as tending to illustrate the history and the manners of the ancients. A gallery of paintings, the Farnese collection, forms a part of the Museum. It contains many most admirable pictures, but is especially rich in portraits of distinguished personages, and in historical Scripture pieces.

As there is not a museum in any country which, in all respects, can be compared with this, and as it forms the chief object of curiosity in the city, we have thought it proper to give some account of its contents. It deserves to be mentioned, that access may be always had to it, from eight in the morning to two in the afternoon, on all but festival and gala days.
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One of those public buildings in Naples which deserve notice is the Palazzo Reale, the town residence of the king. It was erected by the Count di Lemnos, on a plan designed by the eminent architect Fontana. It contains magnificent apartments, handsomely furnished, and enriched with fine pictures. The most distinguished pieces are, the Madonna of Monte Casino by Raffaelle; the Cardinal Virtues, copied from Raffaelle by Annibal Carracci; Orpheus, by Caravaggio, and Christ disputing with the Doctors, by the same master. There is one fine hall hung round with portraits of the several viceroys, by Massimo and Paolo Mattei; and a handsome chapel, with an altar of agate, lapis lazuli, and other precious marbles. The residence of Prince Leopold, which stands nearly opposite to the Palazzo Reale, contains the finest collection of pictures in Naples.

As in other purely Catholic cities, the churches are objects of particular attention. In Naples they are very numerous. The archiepiscopal church or cathedral is dedicated to St Januarius or San Gennaro, the patron saint of the city. It is a Gothic edifice, more magnificent than tasteful, having been built on the site of an ancient temple erected in the time of the Emperor Constantine, which was destroyed by an earthquake. The outside is incrusted with white marble, and ornamented with two columns of porphyry. The inside is not splendid, though supported by upwards of a hundred columns of Egyptian granite, or Grecian and other marbles, taken from the temples of Apollo and Neptune. The font, placed near the principal entrance, is an ancient vase of basalt, adorned with the attributes of the heathen god Bacchus. The high altar is composed of precious marbles, and ornamented with two antique candelabras of jasper. Under it is a subterranean chapel, supposed to be the remaining part of a temple of Apollo, in which are the relics of the patron San Gennaro.

Within the cathedral is the chapel called II Tesoro, built in consequence of a vow made by the city of Naples during a plague in 1526. The entrance to this chapel is through a magnificent bronze door, adorned with fine columns of rare marble, and statues of St Peter and St Paul. The interior of the edifice is a rotunda, embellished with a cupola, painted by Lanfranco, and supported by forty-two Corinthian columns, between which are placed, on festival days, thirty-six silver busts of saints, and eighteen busts in bronze, all executed by the most eminent artists. Over the altar is a statue of San Gennaro in the act of blessing the people; and a silver tabernacle containing the head of that saint, and two small vessels filled with his blood, supposed to have been collected by a Neapolitan lady during his martyrdom. The ceremony of liquefying the blood of this saint takes place three times a year, namely, in May, September, and December, and is thought an interesting sight by many foreigners. If it liquefy quickly, the joy expressed by the Neapolitans is great; but if there be any unexpected delay, the tears, prayers, and cries, are excessive, as the non-performance of this miracle is supposed to announce some dreadful impending calamity.

Our limits do not admit of noticing all, or even the names, of the numerous other churches within this city. The paintings and statuary in many of them are the finest pieces of art, and executed by the best masters; and the buildings themselves display the best models of architecture. Of these religious edifices, the number of parochial churches is fifty-five, and the churches in the monasteries, nunneries, and hospitals, are 149, besides about 150 chapels, and numerous oratories.

There are, numerous hospitals in the city, and various charitable institutions for relieving distress, some of them well endowed. Amongst the most remarkable, is an extensive and magnificent building called Albergo de’ Poveri. It is an asylum for orphans, and for children whose parents cannot afford to give them the advantage of a good education. In it the boys are instructed in reading, writing, drawing, and engraving; and the girls in sewing, knitting, spinning, and weaving linen, and in other arts beneficial in their station.

Naples abounds in theatres. The Teatro Reale de San Carlo is the largest and most splendid opera-house in Italy. It was destroyed by fire in 1815, and nothing was left standing but the front and the party walls; but in eleven months afterwards it rose from its ashes, ornamented with even more than its original splendour. It contains six rows of boxes, has a parterre capable of containing 670 persons sitting, with 150 standing, a stage, the dimensions of which are vast, spacious corridors, excellent stairs, and an edifice adjoining, called the Ridotto, which comprises ball-rooms, eating rooms, and apartments for gambling, the last of which have been closed since the last revolutionary disturbances. The Teatro Reale del Fondo is another opera-house, smaller than San Carlo, but very elegant. The Teatro de’ Fiorentini and the Teatro Nuovo are appropriated to buffas, operas, and plays. The Teatro San Fernando is larger than any other except that of San Carlo. The Teatro della Fenica and that of San Carleno are very small, but much frequented on account of Puncinello, who is the prominent actor, and great favourite of the populace. These two houses are opened twice in every twenty-four hours.

Amongst other gratifications, Naples is furnished with some beautiful promenades. The most frequented are the Villa Reale, the Chiaja, the Giardino, and the Botanico all constructed by the French, as was the Strada Napoleon, a magnificent work, which extends from the city to Capo di Monte. The road begun by Murat, extending from Mergellina to Capo Coroglio, is a beautiful promenade, two miles in length, leading to Pozzuoli.

The excursions which may be made in the environs of the city are of the most inviting nature, and especially attractive to all persons familiar with the writings of the classical ages. We have space to do little more than mention the names of the most prominent objects. In an excursion to Baiae may be seen the tomb of Virgil; the grotto of Pozzuoli, 2316 feet in length and twenty-two feet in height; the Lucrine Lake; the villa of Nero; the ruins of Caesar’s villa; the temples of Venus, of Mercury, and of Diana; an amphitheatre, ruined by an earthquake, capable of containing 45,000 persons; and the sepulchre of Agrippina.

An excursion to Cumae may enable the traveller to visit Solfatara, the Forum Vulcani of the ancients, where alum, vitriol, and sal-ammonia are now made from the volcanic substances in the vicinity; the villa of Cicero; the Lake of Avernus, with the temple of Monte-Novo, supposed to have been dedicated to Pluto or Proserpine; the remains of the aqueduct called Arco Felice; and the ancient city of Cumae itself, with the grotto of the Sibyls.

To the Lake d’Agnano is a common excursion. It leads to the crater of a volcano; to the vapour baths of San Germano; the grotto Del Cane, the memphitic air of which throws a dog into convulsions, extinguishes a lighted torch, and prevents a pistol from going off; the Pisciarelli, a rivulet of boiling water; and the Astroni, the romantic crater of an extinct volcano, now converted into a royal hunting park.

A; visit to Caserta, and especially to the grand aqueduct five miles beyond it, is highly gratifying. This celebrated work of modern date collects the water from nine springs, and conveys them through lofty mountains, and under a bridge of stupendous height and beautiful construction, a distance of nearly twelve miles. The Palace of Caserta, the most splendid royal residence, is a prodigious pile, of a rectangular form, 746 feet in length, 576 feet in [7:15:710]breadth, and 113 feet in height. Superb columns ornament the outside of this edifice, the principal court of which is 507 feet in length, and particularly magnificent, as is also the grand staircase. The vestibule of the chapel, and the chapel itself, excite admiration; and the latter contains a fine painting by Mengs. The theatre is decorated with twelve columns of basalt, taken from the temple of Jupiter Serapis. The royal apartments, though vast and beautifully proportioned, are so ill furnished as to be but little worthy of attention.

As the three greatest objects of curiosity, Vesuvius, Herculanum, and Pompeii, are fully described in this work, the reader is referred to them in their alphabetical order, where the space allotted to them is more appropriately occupied than it would have been in a description of the city of Naples.

. The French, whilst masters of the city, erected a fine and commodious market, which is in communication with the Strada Toledo. It is in imitation of an ancient Forum Venalium, and the centre is ornamented with an allegorical figure of Abundance. It is well supplied with all kinds of provisions from the fertile fields in the vicinity. The prices of the chief articles of sustenance are moderate, as stated by the British consular returns, viz. bread and flour 2d. per pound, beef 4d., mutton 2½d., pork 3d., cheese 6d., butter Is. 4d∙, coffee Is. 2d., and sugar 7d. The supply of vegetables is of the greatest importance, and the rates of all of them are very low. The fishing supplies abundance of food, and gives occupation to a large portion of the male population; and, besides what is caught in the neighbouring water, a considerable part of the cod-fish cured in Newfoundland finds a vent in Naples, as well as in the other Catholic countries which border the Mediterranean.

The foreign trade of Naples, in which city that of the greater part of the kingdom is carried on, consists in the exportation of silk, oil, wool, linseed, liquorice, wine, and a few smaller articles. The imports consist, as far as regards Great Britain, principally of cotton wool, cotton twist, and cotton manufactures, which, in value, are four fifths of the whole. Cod-fish and pilchards amount to about one half of the remainder, and the rest is composed of colonial articles. There is at some seasons a considerable importation of corn, chiefly of wheat, from Odessa, Taganrock, and the other ports in the Black Sea and the Sea of Azof. This wheat, distinguished by its hardness, and reduced to flour by pounding instead of grinding, is found to be the best for making macaroni, vermicelli, and similar kinds of food, which form a much more common kind of sustenance with the Neapolitan people than bread.

The climate of different parts of the city varies much with respect to its salubrity; and in some parts, especially in that called St Lucia, it is found to be dangerous, not merely for invalids, but for persons in health. This arises from the vicinity of the sea, the dampness of which, combined with that of a tufa under which the houses are built, is very prejudicial. On the other hand, in the district called the Largo del Castello, the air is very soft, warm, and congenial to those who are afflicted with weak lungs. Naples is abundantly supplied with water; but all of it is by no means good. Some of the fountains, such as the Largo del Castello, that of Fontana Medina, and that of Fontana di San Pietro, yield excellent and salubrious water; but most of the rest have a tendency to produce dysentery, or other putrid diseases, especially in strangers.

The population of the city amounted in 1833 to 358,990, and was estimated in 1836 at 372,000. Amongst these are more than 40,000 called Lazaroni; a poor class, with no habitations, but sleeping in the streets, and picking up a scanty subsistence by occasional slight and servile occupations. Those who are best acquainted with the Neapolitan character give a favourable report of their manners: their passions are easily excited to acts of violence, but, when treated with mildness and kindness, they can, without much difficulty, be prevented from committing any very grievous excesses. (g.)