KOSCIUSZKO, Thaddeus, a Polish general, less celebrated for his exploits than for his attachment to the independence of his country, was descended of a noble but not opulent family, in the province of Lithuania. He was educated in the school of cadets at Warsaw, and made such progress in drawing and in mathematics, that he was named one of four pupils destined to travel at the expense of the state, in order to improve their talents by observation and inquiry. He consequently repaired to France, and having there passed several years devoted to study, returned to his native country enriched with new acquisitions. He obtained the command of a company, and proposed to prosecute the military profession in the Polish array, when the consequences of an unfortunate attachment for the daughter of the Marshal of Lithuania blighted his prospects, and forced him to leave his country. He proceeded to North America, which had just declared itself independent; served as adjutant to General Washington in the war which the revolted colonies had to maintain against the mother country, was decorated with the order of Cincinnatus, and returned to his own country, where he lived in retirement until 1789. About this period he was promoted to the rank of general-major by the Diet, which was then making vain efforts to restrain the influence of foreign powers. Kosciuszko was at that time little known; but in 1792 the affair of Dubienka, where with four thousand men he defended for six hours a post attacked by fifteen thousand Russians, gained him much reputation. He served, with equal distinction, during the whole campaign of that year, under the young Poniatowski; but the weakness of Stanislaus rendered fruitless the most generous efforts to maintain the independence of his country. He submitted to the conditions which were imposed upon him by Russia, and, under the appearance of a treaty of peace, signed the ruin of Poland. The bravest officers of the Polish army, unable to support the disgrace thus incurred, gave in their resignation. Kosciuszko was amongst the number; but having become an object of extreme suspicion to the enemies of his country, he found himself obliged to quit Poland; a circumstance which added much to his credit with the patriotic party, and caused him to be declared a French citizen by the Legislative Assembly of France. He afterwards retired to Leipzig, where his friends in Warsaw, having decided to make a new effort against the Russians, apprised him that he had been chosen as their chief. Kosciuszko did not refuse the perilous honour thus conferred on him; but, convinced that the means which his party had at their disposal were still insufficient, he resolved to proceed circumspectly, and, in order to avoid suspicion, undertook a journey to Italy, where he passed several months. At the beginning of 1794, however, having learned that it was no longer possible to restrain the impatience of the Poles, he drew near to the scene of approaching action, and reached Cracow at the moment when Medalinski had raised the standard of insurrection, and when he himself had just been declared generalissimo of the national forces. Finding himself thus invested with dictatorial power, in circumstances of great difficulty, he was careful not to abuse the trust reposed in him; and, by his conduct in every instance, he amply justified the choice of his countrymen. Master of Cracow, he published a manifesto, and immediately marched against the Russians at the head of a corps of five thousand men. He encountered the enemy, in number about ten thousand, at Wralawice, and, after a combat of four hours, completely defeated them. This first success produced ageneral rising; Warsaw was delivered from the'presence of the Russians; and Kosciuszko soon saw himself at the head of an army of fifty thousand combatants, including about twenty-five thousand regular troops. With this comparatively small force the Polish general-in-chief had to make head at once against the Russians and the Prussians. Frederick William II., who had just failed in his contest with the French, appeared desirous to avenge himself for this affront on the Poles; and, at the beginning of 1794, he marched against Warsaw, at the head of forty thousand men. Kosciuszko, who, upon this point, could not oppose to him more than fifteen thousand men, had, nevertheless, the courage to attack him at Szezekocin, on the 8th of June 1794; but, after a murderous combat, in which he had two horses killed under him, he was obliged to retire to the entrenched camp that covered the capital, where, for two months, he resisted the most impetuous attacks and reiterated assaults. At the same time, he contrived to restrain and keep in order a furious populace, prone to give way to the greatest excesses. Scarcely had he been delivered from the Prussians, in consequence of the diversion which the insurrection of Great Poland operated in his favour, when Kosciuszko saw advancing against him the Russian army under Suwarow, and also that commanded by Fersen. It was in vain that he attempted to prevent the junction of these two armies. On the 4th of October, being attacked at Macijowice, by very superior forces, he obstinately disputed the victory during the whole day; but at length he sank down pierced with wounds, exclaiming, as he fell, Finis Poloniae. He was about to expire under the sabres of the Cossacks, when being happily recognised, he was immediately surrounded with the respectful attentions of his enemies. Having been sent as a prisoner to St Petersburg, he remained two years confined in a dungeon, whence he was not liberated until after the death of the Empress Catharine. Paul 1. immediately after his accession set him at liberty, and loaded him with marks of esteem and regard. The first use which Kosciuszko made of his liberty was to proceed to England, and thence to America, where he passed several years amongst his old companions in arms. In 1798 he returned to France, where he was received with much distinction, and learned that a great number of his countrymen had enlisted under the banners of the new republic. Those who served in the army of Italy sent him the sabre of John Sobieski, which had been found in the Casa di Loretto. From this time he lived either at Paris or at a country-house which he had purchased near Fontainebleau. When Napoleon was about to invade Poland in 1807, he wished to avail himself of the name of Kosciuszko, in the hope of thereby inducing the people of that country to revolt against the Russians. But the Polish general had too much knowledge and experience not to divine the object for which recourse had been had to him, and he answered by positivelyrefusing to comply with the imperial invitation. Nevertheless there was published in the journals a proclamation fabricated in his name, and addressed to the Poles. But although it was not till 1814 that he had an opportunity of denouncing this fraud, yet the truth had long been known in Europe, and the hero of Poland had never ceased to be an object of veneration, even when the government of Bonaparte treated him as a suspected person. When the Russians penetrated into Champagne in 1814, they learned with surprise that their ancient enemy was living peaceably in the immediate vicinity. All those who had an opportunity of visiting his retreat testified their regard for him in the strongest manner; and the Emperor Alexander himself had along interview with the veteran arid patriotic soldier. Nothing could induce Kosciuszko to return to his native country. In 1815 [7:12:761]he made a tour in Italy, and afterwards established himself at Saleure in Switzerland, where he died on the 16th of October 1817. On the intelligence of his demise, the whole of Europe resounded with his eulogium; amongst all nations, and in every country, justice was equally rendered to the brave soldier and the true patriot, who, without any other object than the independence and welfare of his country, had exposed himself to the greatest perils, and the most painful sacrifices. His mortal remains were interred in the cathedral at Cracow, between those of John Sobieski and of Joseph Poniatowski. See Poland. (a.)