pnugues/EB7 huggingface dataset:
AITON, William, an eminent botanist and gardener, was born at a village near Hamilton in Scotland in 1731. Having been regularly trained to the profession of a gardener, he came into England in the year 1754, and soon obtained the notice of the celebrated Philip Miller, then superintendent of the physic garden at Chelsea, who engaged him as an assistant. His industry and abilities recommended him to the princess-dowager of Walesas a fit person to manage the botanical garden at Kew. In 1759 he was appointed to this office, in which he continued during life, and which was the source of his fame and fortune. The garden at Kew, under the auspices of his present Majesty, was destined to be the grand repository of all the vegetable riches which could be accumulated by regal munificence, from researches through every quarter of the globe. These treasures were fortunately committed to the hands of Mr Aiton, whose care and skill in their cultivation, and intelligence in their arrangement, acquired him high reputation among the lovers of the science, and the particular esteem of his royal patrons. Under his superintendence many improvements took place in the plan and edifices of Kew gardens, which rendered them the principal scene of botanical culture in the kingdom. In 1783 his merit was properly rewarded with the lucrative office of managing the pleasure and kitchen gardens of Kew, which he was allowed to retain with the [7:2:369]botanical department. In 1789 he published his Hortus Kewensis, or a Catalogue of the Plants cultivated in the Royal Botanical Garden at Kew, in 3 vols. 8vo, with 13 plates; a work which had been the labour of many years. The number of species contained in this work amounted to between five and six thousand, many of which had not before been described. A new and curious article in it relates to the first introduction of particular exotics into the English gardens. The system of arrangement adopted is the Linnaean, with improvements, which the advanced state of botanical science required. Mr Aiton, with candour and modesty, acknowledges the assistance he received in this work from the two eminent Swedish naturalists, Dr Solander and Mr Jonas Dryander. Indeed, his character was such as secured him the friendship and good offices of the most distinguished names in science of his time. He was for many years peculiarly honoured by the notice of Sir Joseph Banks, the president of the Royal Society. The Hortus Kewensis was received with avidity by the botanic world, and a large impression was soon disposed of.

Notwithstanding the singular activity and temperance of Mr Aiton, he fell into that incurable malady, a schirrous liver, of which he died in 1793, in his 62d year. His eldest son, devoted to the same pursuits, was, by the king’s own nomination, appointed to all his father’s employments. Mr Alton’s private character was highly estimable for mildness, benevolence, piety, and every domestic and social virtue. He was interred in the church-yard of Kew, amidst a most respectable concourse of friends.
AIUS Locutius, . the name of a deity to whom the Romans erected an altar. The words are Latin, and signify “a speaking voice.” The following accident gave occasion to the Romans erecting an altar to Aius Locutius. One Μ. Seditius, a plebeian, acquainted the tribunes that, in walking the streets by night, he had heard a voice over the temple of Vesta, giving the· Romans notice that the Gauls were coming against them. The intimation was, however, neglected; but after the truth was confirmed by the event, Camillus acknowledged this voice to be a new deity, and erected an altar to it under the namo of Aius Locutius.
AJUTAGE, or Adjutage, a kind of tube fitted to the mouth of the vessel through which the water of a fountain is to be played. To the different form and structure of ajutages is owing the great variety of fountains.
AIX, an ancient city of France, the chief place of the arrondissement of the same name, in the department of the Mouths of the Rhone. It was, before the revolution, fitted with richly endowed ecclesiastical establishments, which have been secularized. It stands on a plain surrounded by hills, which produce abundance of most excellent olives, which, with wine and fruits, form the most important branches of agricultural industry. There arc manufactories of various rich silk goods, of some linen, and hardware. The ancient springs, known to the Romans, but disused till again discovered in 1704, arc slightly warm, but their efficacy is not now highly valued. The population amounts to 21,960 persons. This city is celebrated for having given birth to two famous naturalists, Adanson and Tourncfort, and to the painter Vanloo.

The arrondissement of the same name comprehends 864 square miles, or about 552,960 acres, and contains 10 cantons, 59 communes, and 92,314 inhabitants.

Aix , a town in the continental dominions of the king of Sardinia, in the duchy of Savoy, about 12 miles from Chambery, containing 2038 inhabitants.

Aix , a small island on the coast of France, between the isle of Oleron and the Continent. It is 12 miles northwest of Rochefort, and 11 south-south-west of Rochelle. Long. 1. 4. W. Lat. 46. 5. N.

Aix , a river of France, in the department of the Lower Loire, which joins the Ysable, and falls into the Loire.
AIX-LA-CHAPELLE (or in German Aachen), a circle in the government of Coblentz, in the Prussian province of the Lower Rhine. Its extent is 1452 square miles, and it comprehends 21 cities, 14 market towns, 781 villages, and 627 hamlets. The inhabitants amount to 310,620, of whom 299,800 adhere to the Catholic religion, and the remainder, except 1500 Jews, are Lutherans.

The chief city, of the same name, is very ancient, and was formerly populous; but the present inhabitants amount only to 34,400 persons. It was the seat of the government of Charlemagne, and continued to be the place for the coronation of the emperors of Germany till 1531. It is finely situated in a most fertile soil, and the environs are pleasing; but the city itself bears all the marks of decline. The chief objects of attention are the cathedral, with its brazen gates brought back from Paris, and a number of relies, which are highly venerated by Catholics; the town-house, built by Charlemagne, which is still in good preservation; and the baths, whose curative properties attract to them numerous visitors in the autumn of each year. Every seven years, from the 11th to the 25th of July, the holy relics are exhibited; and this has commonly drawn to the city more than 50,000 votaries.

Of late years manufactories have been introduced, which afford employment to a great number of workmen. The products are, linen and woollen goods, needles, pins, leather, snuff, Prussian blue, brass, soap, thimbles, and various small articles.

This place is remarkable as the theatre of diplomatic affairs, and for the treaties of 1668, 1748, and 1819. Long. 6. 3. E. Lat. 50. 15. N.
AIXETTE, a river in the department of Upper Vienne, in France, which empties itself into the Vienne.
AKERMAN, a circle in the Russian province of Bessarabia, extending along the banks of the Black Sea, where the Dneish forms an estuary. It is nearly destitute of population, except the capital, of the same name, which is built on a tongue of land projecting into the estuary. It is the ancient Roman colony of Alba Julia. It is surrounded with strong walls and ditches, contains a Greek and a beautiful Arminian church, several-mosques, and a synagogue for Jews. The population, of various nations, religions, and languages, amounts to about 15,000. It is a place, from its position, of considerable trade. It is.in long. 30. 10. 15. E. and lat. 46. 11. 45. N.
AKHM ETSCHET, or Simferopol, one of the six circles into which the Russian government or province of Taurien is divided. It is the richest and most fruitful part of the peninsula, extending from long. 32. 31. to 33. 46. E. and from lat. 44. 30. to 45. 9. N. About two-thirds of the district is hilly, and gives rise to the rivers Katscha, Belbak, and Alma, as well as many smaller streams, by whose water fertility is dispersed in the valleys and plains. The circle is estimated to contain about 50,000 inhabitants.

Akhmetschet, a city, the capital of the circle of the same name, in the province of Taurien. It is composed of two parts; the old town, a mere heap of Tartar booths; and the new, built on a regular plan, since the extinction of the former government, with a few good public edifices. It contains three mosques, a Russian, Arminian, and Greek church, with 900 houses, and, according to Usewoloske, 20,000 inhabitants, of various nations and religions. A regiment of Russians is constantly in garrison in the city, which is only moderately fortified. It is in long. 34.1. É. and lat. 44. 59. N.
AKHTIAR, or Sevastopol, a city in the Russian government of Taurien, in the circle Akhmetschel. It lies in a bay, the best harbour of the Taurida, where the Russians have formed an arsenal for the construction and equipment of a navy. The bay is sufficiently extensive to admit of a large fleet, and the depth of water is from 10 to 12 fathoms. There are neither shoals, rocks, nor sand-banks, and vessels are secure from all winds. The inhabitants, exclusive of the garrison, amount to 1500. It is considered rather an unhealthful situation, and the water is not good. It is in long. 33. 27. 40. E. and lat. 44. 41. 30. N.
AKIBA, a famous rabbin, flourished a little after the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus. He kept the flocks of a rich citizen of Jerusalem till the 40th year of his age, and then devoted himself to study in the academies for twenty-four years; and was afterwards one of the greatest masters in Israel. According to the Jewish accounts, he had 24,000 scholars. He declared for the impostor Bar-cochebas, whom he owned for the Messiah; and not only anointed him king, but took upon himself the office of his master of the horse. The troops which the emperor Hadrian sent against the Jews, who under the conduct of this false Messiah had committed horrid .massacres, exterminated this faction, ^ιkiba was taken, and put to death with great cruelty. He lived 120 years, and was buried with his wife in a cave upon a mountain not far from Tiberias, and his 24,000 scholars were buried round about him upon the same mountain. It is imagined he invented a supposititious work under the name of the patriarch Abraham.
AKISSAR, the ancient Thyatira,, a city of Natolia, in Asia, situated in a plain 18 miles broad, which produces plenty of cotton and grain. The inhabitants, who are reckoned to be about 5000, are said to be all Mahometans. The houses are built of nothing but earth or turf dried in the sun, and are very low and ill contrived; but there arc six or seven mosques, which are all of marble. There are remarkable inscriptions on marble in several parts of the [7:2:371]town, which are part of the ruins of the ancient Thyatira. It is seated on the river Hermus, 50 miles from Pergamos. Long. 28. 30. E. Lat. 38. 50. N.
AKOND, an officer of justice in Persia, who takes cognizance of the causes of orphans and widows, of contracts, and other civil concerns. He is the head of the school of law, and gives lectures to all the subaltern officers. He has his deputies in all the courts of the kingdom, who, with the second sadra, make all contracts.
AL, ah Arabic particle prefixed to words, and signifying much the same with the English particle the. Thus they say, alkermes, alkoran, &c. í. e. the kcrmes, the koran,'&c.

Al, or Ald, a Saxon term, 'frequently prefixed to the names of places, denoting their antiquity; as, Aldborough, Aldgate, &c.
ALA, a Latin term, properly signifying a wing; from a resemblance to which several other things are called by the same name. Thus, Ala is a term used by botanists for the hollow of a stalk, which either the leaf or the pedicle of the leaf makes with it; or it is that hollow turning, or sinus, placed between the stalk or branch of a plant and the leaf, whence a new offspring usually issues. Sometimes it is used for those parts of leaves otherwise called lobes or wings.
ALAE, the plural number, is used to signify those petals or leaves of papilionaceous flowers placed between those others which are called the vexillum and carina, and which make the top and bottom of the flowers. Instances of flowers of this structure are seen in those of peas and beans, in which the top leaf or petal is the vexillum, the bottom the carina, and the side ones the alae.

Alae is also used for those extremely slender and membranaceous parts of some seeds which appear as wings placed on them. It likewise signifies those membranaceous expansions running along the stems of some plants, which are therefore called alated stalks. Al⅛, in Anatomy, a term applied to the lobes of the liver, the cartilages of the nostrils, &c.

Alae, in the Roman Art of War, were the two wings or extreme parts of the army drawn up in order of battle.
ALABA, ône of the three smallest districts of Biscay, in Spain, but pretty fertile in tye, barley, and fruits. There are in it very good mines of iron, and it had formerly the title of a kingdom.
ALABARCHA, in Antiquity, a kind of magistrate among the Jews of Alexandria, whom the emperor allowed them to elect, for the superintendency of their policy, and to decide differences and disputes which arose among them.
ALABASTRUM Dendroide, a kind of laminated alabaster, beautifully variegated with the figures of shrubs, trees, &c. found in great abundance in the province of Hohenstein.
ALADINISTS, a sect among the Mahometans, answering to freethinkers among us.
ALADSCHAHISSAR, a Turkish pachalic (Sand-schah), part of the ancient Bulgaria, a mountainous district, in which the river Moravia rises in two branches, and runs into the Danube. It extends from long. 21. 45. to 22. 30. E. and from lat. 42.30. to 43.30. N. The greatroad from Belgrade passes through the northern part of the province. It is productive of wine, feeds much cattle, and has some rivers near Camplina. The capital, of the same name, sometimes called Kruschevarz, is the seat of a Greek bishop, and has a castle; once the residence of the predatory chief Von Serf, and conquered from him by the Sultan Murad the Second. It is near the east bank of the river Moravia.
ALADULIA, a considerable province of Turkey in Asia, in that part called Natolia, between the mountains of Antitaurus, which separate it from Amasia on the north, and from Caramania on the west. It has the Mediterranean Sea on the south; and the Euphrates or Frat on the east, which divides it from Diarbekir. It comprehends the Lesser Armenia of the ancients, and the east part of Cilicia. Formerly it had kings of its own; but the head of the last king was cut off by Selim I. emperor of the Turks, who had conquered the country. It is now divided into two parts: the north, comprehended between Taurus, Antitaurus, and the Euphrates, is a beglerbeglic, which bears the name of Marash, the capital town; and the south, seated between Mount Taurus and the Mediterranean, is united to the beglerbeglic of Aleppo. The country is rough, rugged, and mountainous; yet there are good pastures, and plenty of horses and camels. The people are hardy and thievish. The capital is Malatigah.
ALAIN, Chartier, secretary to Charles VII. king of France, born in the year 1386. He was the author of several works in prose and verse; but his most famous performance was his Chronicle of King Charles VII. Bernard de Girard, in his preface to the History of France, styles him “an èxcellent historian, who has given an account of all the affairs, particulars, ceremonies, speeches, answers, and circumstances, at which he was present himself, or had information of.” Giles Coroxet tells us that Margaret, daughter to the king of Scotland, and wife to the dauphin, passing once through a hall where Alain lay asleep, she stopped and kissed him before all the company who attended. Some of them telling her, that it was strange she should kiss a man who had so few charms in his person, she replied, “I did not kiss the man, but the mouth from whence proceed so many excellent sayings, so many wise discourses, and so many elegant expressions.” Mr Fontenelle, among his Dialogues of the Dead, has one upon this incident, between the princess Margaret and Plato. Mr Pasquier compares Alain to Seneca, on account of the great number of beautiful sentences interspersed throughout his writings.
ALAJOR, a Spanish town, in the island of Minorca, and the province of Majorca, the chief town of a district containing 3950 inhabitants.
ALAIS, an arrondissement in the department of the Gard, in France, extending over 480 square miles, or 307,200 acres. It is divided into nine cantons, and ninety-nine communes, and contains 68,223 inhabitants.

Alais, a city, and chief of the arrondissement of the same name. It is situated on the river Gardon, at the foot of the Cavennes. It contains 9380 inhabitants, who are employed in manufacturing ribbons, sewing-silk, silkhosiery, cotton-goods, glass, porcelain, and other articles. Long. 3. 29. 40. E. Lat. 44. 7. N.
ALAMAGAN, one of the Ladrone or Marianne islands, in the Indian Ocean, is situated in long. 146. 47. E. lat. 18. 5. N. It is of an irregular form, and about 12 miles in circumference. The land in some places of this island is pretty high, so that it may be seen at the distance of 12 or 14 leagues. Near the north end of the island there is a volcano, which emitted an immense body [7:2:373]of smoke in the year 1799, when it was visited by Captain Bass. The volcano is in a mountain close to the sea, rising above its level 1200 or 1500 feet. The high parts of the island are rugged and sterile. In the lower parts there is a profusion and luxuriance of vegetation. They abound with cocoa-nut trees, several kinds of stone-fruit, and the mellora or bread-tree of the Nicoar islands. Some small sugar-canes, some banana trees, and one bread-fruit tree, were discovered. Lizards, land-crabs, large partridges, quails, pigeons, owls, thrushes, and bullfinches, are numerous. But no fresh water, which was the object of Captain Bass’s visit, could be found.
ALAMANDUS, Lewis, in French Aleman, archbishop of Arles, and cardinal of St Cecilia, was one of the, greatest men of the 15th century. The cardinal presided in the council of Basil, which deposed Eugenius IV. and elected the antipope Felix V. He is much commended by Aeneas Sylvius, as a man extremely well formed for presiding in such assemblies,—firm and vigorous, illustrious by his virtue, learned, and of an admirable memory in recapitulating all that the orators and disputants had said. At the request of the canons and Celestine monks of Avignon, and the solicitation of the cardinal of Clermont, legate a latere of Clement VII., he was beatified by the pope in the year 1527.
ALAMANNI, Lewis, was born at Florence, of a noble family, on the 28th of October 1495. He was obliged to fly his country for a conspiracy against Julius de’ Medici, who was soon after chosen pope under the name of Clement VII. During this voluntary banishment he went into France, where Francis I., from a love to his genius and merit, became his patron. This prince employed him in several important affairs, and honoured him with the collar of the order of St Michael. After the death of Francis, Henry, duke of Orleans, who succeeded him in 1537, showed no less favour to Alamanni, and in the year 1551 sent him as his ambassador to Genoa. This was his last journey to Italy; and being returned to France, he died at Amboise on the 18th of April 1556, being in the 61st year of his age. He left many beautiful poems, and other valuable performances, in the Italian language. We have also some notes of his upon Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey: those upon the Iliad were printed in the Cambridge edition of Homer in 1689, and Joshua Barnes has also inserted them in his fine edition of Homer in 1711.
ALAMODALITY, in a general sense, is the accommodating of a person’s behaviour, dress, and actions, to the prevailing taste of the country or times in which he lives.

Alamodality of writing is defined, the accommodation of mental productions, both as to the choice of subject and the manner of treating it, to the genius or taste of the times, in order to render them more acceptable to the reader.
ALAMODE, a phrase originally French, importing a thing to be in the fashion or mode. The phrase has been adopted not only into several of the living languages, as the English and High Dutch, but some have even taken it into the Latin. Hence we meet with Alamodicus and Αlamodalitas. Alamode, in Commerce, a thin, glossy, black silk, chiefly used for women’s hoods and men’s mourning scarfs.
ALAMOS, Balthasar, a Spanish writer, born at Medina del Campo, in Castile. After having studied the law at Salamanca, he entered into the service of Anthony Perez, secretary of state under Philip II. He was in high esteem and confidence with his master, upon which account he was imprisoned after the disgrace of this minister. He was kept in confinement 11 years, when Philip III. coming to the throne, set him at liberty, according to the orders given by his father in his will. Alamos continued in a private capacity till the duke of Olivarez, the favourite of Philip IV., called him to public employments. He was a man of wit as well as judgment, but his pen was superior to his tongue. He died in the 88th year of his age. His Spanish translation of Tacitus, and the aphorisms which he added in the margin, gained him great reputation. This work was published at Madrid in 1014, and was to have been followed, as mentioned in the king’s privilege, with a commentary, which, however, has never yet appeared. The author composed the whole during his imprisonment.
ALAN, Cardinal William, was born at Rossal, in Lancashire, in the year 1532. He went to Oxford at the age of 15, and in 1550 was elected fellow of Oriel College. In 1556, being then only 24 years old, he was chosen principal of St Mary’s Hall, and one of the proctors of the university. In 1558 he was made canon of York; but, upon Queen Elizabeth’s accession to the throne, he left England, and settled at Louvaine, in an English college, of which he became the chief support. In 1565 he visited his native country; but on account of his extreme activity in the propagation of the Roman Catholic religion, he was obliged to fly the kingdom in 1568. He went first to Mechlin, and then to Douay, where be was made doctor of divinity. Soon after he was appointed canon of Cambray, and then canon of Rheims. He was created cardinal on the 28th of July 1587, by the title of St Mar-tin in Montibus, and obtained from the king of Spain à rich abbey in the kingdom of Naples, and afterwards the bishopric of Mechlin. It is supposed to have been by the advice and instigation of this priest that Philip II. attempted to invade England. He died on the 20th of October 1594, aged 63, and was buried in the English college at Rome. He was a man of considerable learning, and an elegant writer. He wrote many books in defence of the Romish religion. The most remarkable are, 1. A Defence of the Twelve Martyrs in one .Year. Tho. Alfield was hanged for bringing into England and publishing this and others of Alan’s works, in the year 1584. 2. A Declaration of the Sentence of Sextus V. &c.; a work intended to explain the pope’s bull for the excommunication of Queen Elizabeth, and to exhort the people of England to take up arms in favour of the Spaniards. Many thousand copies of this book, printed at Antwerp, were put on board the Armada; but the enterprise failing, they were afterwards destroyed. 3. Of the Worship due to Saints and their Relics, 1583. This treatise was answered by Lord Burleigh, and is esteemed the most elegant of the cardinal’s writings.