pnugues/EB7 huggingface dataset:
PHILANTHROPY is compounded of two Greek words signifying the love of mankind. It is therefore of nearly the same import with benevolence, and differs from friendship, as the latter affection subsists only between a few individuals, whereas philanthropy comprehends the whole human race.

Whether man has an instinctive propensity to love his species, which makes him incapable of happiness except in the midst of society, and impels him to do all the good that he can to others, feeling their felicity an addition to his own, is a question which has been warmly debated amongst philosophers ever since metaphysics was studied as a science. See Metaphysics and Moral Philosophy.
PHILEMON, a writer of the new comedy, was bornât Soli, in Cilicia, but the precise date of his birth and death is unknown. He began to exhibit his plays at Athens in the reign of Alexander, b. c. 336-323, and died in the reign of the second Antigonus, son of Demetrius, probably about B. c. 280, at the age of ninety-six. He was the contemporary of Menander, and frequently carried off the prize from him, by the attention he paid to humour the prejudices of the people. He was the author of ninety comedies, the [7:17:345]names of fifty-one of which are given by Fabricius in his Bibliotheca Grceca, having been collected from Athenaeus, Pollux, and other ancient authors. Plautus imitated Philemon in his comedy of the Merchant, and in that of the Bacchides. The fragments of Philemon have been collected by Hertel and Gronovius. They have also been published along with the fragments of Menander, Amsterdam, 1709, 8vo. (See Menander.)
PHILETAS, a Greek poet and grammarian, belonging to the island of Cos, flourished under Philip and Alexander the Great, and was preceptor of Ptolemy Philadelphus. He was the author of some Elegies, Epigrams, and other works, which have not come down to us, and is celebrated in the poems of Ovid and Propertius as one of the best poets of his age. Aelian informs us, we presume in jest, that his body was so slender and feeble, that he was obliged to have some lead in his pockets, to prevent his being carried away by the wind.
PHILIBEG, called also a kilt, is a sort of short petticot reaching nearly to the knees, which is worn by the Scotch Highlanders. It is a modern substitute for the lower part of the plaid, being found to be less cumbersome, especially in time of action, when the Highlanders used to tuck the brechtan into their girdle.
PHILIPPI, a town of European Turkey, in Macedonia, at the foot of Mount Pangaeus, eight miles from the seashore, and twenty-six leagues to the eastward of Salonica. On the plain near it was decided the fate of Rome in the battle fought by Augustus and Marc Antony on the one side, against Brutus and Cassini on the other. The place still exhibits the remains of an amphitheatre, and several other monuments of its antiquity and prosperity, although at present it has an inconsiderable population.
PHILIPPICS, Φ∕λ∕ππ∕κo∕ aoyo∕, in literature, is a name applied to the orations of Demosthenes against Philip king of Macedonia. The Philippics are reckoned the masterpieces of that great orator. This name is likewise applied to the fourteen orations of Cicero against Marc Antony.
PHILIPPISTS, a sect or party amongst the Lutherans, who followed Philip Melancthon. He had strenuously opposed the Ubiquists, who arose in his time; and the dispute growing still hotter after his death, the members of the university of Wirtemberg, who espoused Melancthon’s opinion, were called by the Flacians, who attacked it, Philippists.
PHILIPPOPEL, a city of Turkey in Europe, in the government of Rumelia, and in the department of Sofia, the Turkish name of which is Filibé. It stands upon a plain, watered by the river Maritza, which is to a certain extent navigable, in a beautiful situation, on the great road from the’frontiers to Constantinople. It is a well-built place, and has twenty mosques, two caravanserais, several Greek and Armenian churches, and many public and private baths. It is the seat of a Greek archbishop, and also a manufacturing city, in which woollen, silk, and cotton goods are made; and there are some very extensive tanneries. The commodities thus produced form a portion of the exports, to which are added raw materials, such as wool and silk. A great quantity of rice is grown on the banks of the river, and much tobacco, as well as abundance of grapes, on the more elevated parts. The inhabitants are stated to be about 30,000. I
PHILISTUS, a celebrated historian of Syracuse, who was an active partisan of Dionysius the elder, and was by him made governor of the citadel, b. c. 406. Having dared to marry a relation of the tyrant without his knowledge, he was compelled to fly, and took refuge in the city Adria, in the north of Italy, where he employed himself in writing the history of liis native island. Philistus tried to procure his recall, by representing the government of Dionysius in a very favourable light; but the prince refused to fisten to his entreaties; and it was not till the accession of Dionysius the younger that he returned to his native country. It is said that the political party in Syracuse which supported despotic principles were afraid of the influence that Plato might have over the mind of Dionysius; and as Philistus had always been a strenuous assertor of arbitrary power, and was, besides, possessed of considerable talents, it was thought that he might have been made use of to counteract the effects of k Plato’s eloquence. Philistus was killed, b. c. 356, by the Syracusans. He wrote a history of Sicily, the first part of which,was contained in seven books, and extended over a period of eight hundred years, terminating with the siege of Agrigentum, b. c. 406. The second part contained the history of the elder Dionysius to b. c. 368, and he gave, in two books, the reign of Dionysius the younger till B. c. 363.
PHILOLAUS, of Crotona, was a celebrated philosopher of antiquity, of the school of Pythagoras, to whom that philosopher’s Golden Verses have been ascribed. As he made the heavens the principal object of contemplation, it has been idly supposed that he was the author of the true system of the world, which Copernicus afterwards revived. This notion led Bullialdus to place the name of Philolaus at the head of two works written expressly to illustrate and defend that system.
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PHILOMATHES, a lover of learning or science.
PHILOMELA, in fabulous history, was the daughter of Pandion king of Athens, and the sister of Procne, who had married Tereus king of Thrace. Procne separated from Philomela, to whom she was much attached, and spent her time in great melancholy, until she prevailed upon lier husband to go to Athens and bring her sister to Thrace. Tereus obeyed; but he had no sooner obtained Pandion’s permission to conduct Philomela to Thrace, than he fell in love with her, and resolved to gratify his passion. He dismissed the guards whom the suspicions of Pandion had appointed to watch him; offered violence to Philomela; and afterwards cut out her tongue, that she might not disclose the indignities she had suffered from his barbarity. He confined her in a lonely castle; and having taken every precaution to prevent a discovery, he returned to Thrace, and told Procne that Philomela had died by the way, and that he had paid the last offices to her remains. At this sad intelligence Procnc put on mourning for the loss of Philomela; but a year had scarcely elapsed before she was secretly informed that her sister was not dead. Philomela, in her captivity, described on a piece of tapestry her misfortunes and the brutality of Tereus, and privately conveyed it to Procne. The latter was about to celebrate the orgies of Bacchus when she received it, but she disguised her resentment; and as during these festivals she was permitted to rove about the country, she hastened to deliver her sister Philomela from her confinement, and concerted with the latter the best measures for punishing the cruelty of Tcreus. She murdered her son Itylus, then in the sixth year of his age, and served him up as food to her husband during the festival. Tereus, in the midst of his repast, called for Itylus; but Procne immediately informed him that he was then feasting on his flesh, when Philomela, by throwing upon the table the head of Itylus, convinced the monarch of the cruelty of the scene. He drew his sword to punish Procne and Philomela; but whilst about to stab them to the heart, he was changed into a hoopoe, Philomela into a nightingale, Procne into a swallow, and Itylus into a pheasant. This tragedy happened at Daulis, in Phocis; but Pausanias and Strabo, who mention the whole of the story, are silent respecting the transformation; and the former observes, that Tereus, after this bloody repast, fled to Megara, where he laid violent hands on himself. The inhabitants of the place raised a monument to his memory, where they offered yearly sacrifices, and placed thereon small pebbles instead of barley. It was on this monument that the birds called hoopoes were first seen, and hence the fable of his metamorphosis. Procne and Philomela died of excessive grief and melancholy; and as the voice of the nightingale and the swallow is peculiarly plaintive and mournful, the poets have embellished the fable by supposing that the two unfortunate sisters were changed into these birds.
PHILOXENUS, a celebrated dithyrambic poet, a native of the island of Cythera, flourished b. c. 398, being contemporary with Timotheus and Telestes, and died at the age of sixty, b. c. 380. He was a son of Euletidas, and, when Cythera was taken by the Lacedaemonians, he was carried off as a slave. He was sold to Hegesylus, and on his death was bought by the poet Melanippides, by whose instruction he seems to have profited. He was devoted to the pleasures of the table, and became a great favourite of the elder Dionysius. Amongst various anecdotes told of him, it is said that Dionysius once repeated some of his own poetry to him, and asked his opinion of it, when the poet boldly told him that it was mere trash. The tyrant ordered him to prison, but at the solicitation of his friends released him the following day, and invited him to supper. He again repeated some poetry; but when Philoxenus was asked his opinion, he simply said, “Order me again to prison ;” and arose, in expectation of being led away; but the tyrant was amused at the idea, and forgave him. Philoxenus, however, took an early opportunity of leaving Syracuse, and retired to Tarentum, which no solicitation of the tyrant could induce him to leave. According to another statement, he was so long confined in prison, that he had time to write a poem entitled Cyclops, which is said to have been one of the finest of his productions. Alexander the Great was a great admirer of the dithyrambics of Philoxenus and Telestes.
PHILTER, or Philtre (philtrum), in Pharmacy or Chemistry, a strainer. This term is also used for a drug or preparation, which, it is pretended, will excite love. The word is formed from the Greek p∕λsw, I love, or p∕λoς, lover ; because philters were given by the Greeks and Romans to excite love. Many grave authors believe the reality of these philters, and allege various facts in confirmation of their sentiments.
PHILYRA, in fabulous history, was one of the Oceanides, whom Saturn met in Thrace. The god, to escape from the vigilance of Rhea, changed himself into a horse, and by Philyra had a son half a man and half a horse, called Chiron. Philyra was so ashamed of having given birth to such a monster, that she entreated the gods to change her nature; and she was accordingly metamorphosed into a tree, called by her name amongst the Greeks.
PHLEBOTOMY, the opening of a vein with a proper sharp-edged and pointed instrument, to let out a certain quantity of blood, either for the preservation or recovery of a person’s health. See Surgery.
PHLEGON, a Greek historian, was a native of Tralles, in Lydia, and the freedman of the Emperor Hadrian (a. d. 117-138); and he is said to have published under his own name some works which were really the production of the emperor. He was the author of a history or chronicle, in sixteen books, which ended a. d. 141; and the loss of this work is the more to be regretted, as it would have probably furnished us with some curious information respecting the early times of the Christian church. A small fragment, entitled De Olympiis, on the origin and institution of the Olympic games, still remains; and in this work he notices the eclipse or wonderful darkness which occurred at the death of our Saviour. We have also two other works; De Longaevis libellus, in which he mentions a certain Faustus, aged 136, who was presented to the emperor; and De Rebus Mirabilibus liber, a collection of popular stories, and prodigies performed at Delphi, which are narrated by those who had been eye-witnesses. These fragments have been frequently published, but the edition of Bast (Halle, 1822, 8vo) includes all the valuable annotations of his predecessors.
PHOCAEA, the most northern of the cities of Ionia, was situated on the coast, about two hundred stadia from Smyrna. It was founded by a colony of Phocians, led by two Athenians, Philogenes and Damon, and was not admitted into the Ionian confederacy till it had received, from Teos and Erythrae, kings of the race of the Codridae. Its citizens are said to have been the first amongst the Greeks who extended their voyages to great distances; in fact, the Adriatic, Tuscany, and even Tartessus, were visited in pursuit of commercial speculations. After the conquest of Croesus, Cyrus sent his general Harpagus to reduce the Greek cities of Ionia, and the Phocaeans abandoned their city rather than submit to the Persian yoke, b. c. 544. Some of them returned, but the greater part eventually settled in Italy, and founded the city of Velia. Phocaea, however, must still have continued to exist, as it furnished three ships in the Ionian revolt. Livy describes the city as standing at the bottom of a bay, and as being of an oblong shape. It enclosed a space of two miles and a half in length, and then contracted on both sides into a narrow wedge-like form, which place they called Lampter, or the lighthouse. It had two excellent harbours; the one towards the south was called Naustathmos, and the other was situated close to Lampter. It was taken and plundered by the Romans in the war against Antiochus. Phocaea founded Massilia, and Attalia in Corsica. The site is still called Palaio Fokia.
PHOCION, a very celebrated Athenian general, was descended from a family which at no time had been particularly distinguished in the political transactions of their country. He was born b. c. 402, and died b. c. 317, at the age of eighty-five. His early years were spent under the direction of Plato and Xenocrates, and his subsequent career showed that he had profited by their instruction. His aspect was forbidding, though his disposition was mild and gentle. It was remarked, that he was never seen to laugh or to weep. He commenced his military career under Chabrias, and gained so much influence with that general that he directed many of his proceedings. The victory at Naxos, B. c. 376, was in a great measure due to his prudence and military talents; nor was he less distinguished as a statesman and orator. He was quick in perception, and ready in debate, so that Demosthenes feared him more than any other orator, and is said to have called him the Hatchet. Phocion was aware of the true position of his country, knowing that she could no longer maintain that predominating influence which she had possessed during the last century. Peace was therefore the true policy of Athens, and he at all times advocated such a course of conduct. Yet, though his sense of the true interests of his country led him to be the promoter of peace, he was at all times ready to assist with his military talents. He commanded in the expedition, B. c. 350, against Euboea, and gained the battle of Jamynae. When Philip king of Macedonia laid siege to Byzantium, and the cities along the coast, Phocion relieved these cities from all danger, and compelled Philip to retire. At the head of his army he endured all the fatigues of the lowest of his soldiers; and when he appeared more warmly dressed than usual, the soldiers used to consider it the sign of a severe winter. He was a man of the strictest integrity; and, at a time when few of the orators and statesmen of Athens were able to resist the temptation of enriching themselves at the expense of their country, Phocion remained poor, and refused all the offers of the Macedonian kings. He was, of course, opposed to the policy of Demosthenes, and employed all his influence to thwart his measures. In the troubles which followed the death of Alexander, he was favourable to the party of Antipater; and when Polysperchon re-established the popular form of government, Phocion was seized, and being brought before an assembly, [7:17:450]composed chiefly of slaves and strangers, he was condemned to die. He was put to death in his eighty-fifith year.
PHOCYLIDES, a Greek poet, was a native of Miletus, in Ionia, and flourished b. c. 544, being the contemporary of Theognis. He was the author of some epic poems and elegies; but, of all his works, only a poem (Carmen Nutheti-con), of two hundred and seventeen verses, has been preserved. As it is only alluded to by an ancient scholiast on Nicander, there is some doubt if it be really the production of Phocylides, as none of the passages quoted by Plato, Aristotle, Strabo, and other writers, are to be found in any part of this poem. It is published in all the editions of the Sententiae of Theognis; but the most valuable one is that by J. A. Schier, with a Latin translation, and learned annotations, Leipzig, 1751, 8vo.
PHOEBUS, one of the names applied by the ancient mythologists to the Sun, Sol, or Apollo.
PHOLIS, an old name for gypsums or plaster-stones. It [7:17:453]is derived from φοKις, a scale or small fiake, because these stones are composed of particles of that form.
PHONICS, the doctrine or science of sound, otherwise called acoustics. See Acoustics.
PHORMINX, a stringed instrument used by the ancient Greeks, and probably by the Egyptians. Its nature is not known; but it is mentioned by Homer, Euripides, and others.
PHOSPHORUS, a name given to certain substances which shine in the dark without emitting heat. By this circumstance they are distinguished from the pyrophori, which, though they take fire on being exposed to the air, are yet entirely destitute of light before such exposure. Phosphori are divided into several kinds, known by the names of Bolognian phosphorus, Mr Canton’s phosphorus, Baldwin’s phosphorus, phosphorus of urine, and the like. The phosphorus of urine is by far the most remarkable, both with respect to the quantity of light which it emits, and its property of taking fire and burning very fiercely upon being slightly heated or rubbed.
PHOTINIANS, in Ecclesiastical History, were a sect of heretics in the fourth century who denied the divinity of our Lord. They derive their name from Photinus their founder, who was bishop of Sirmium, and a disciple of Marcellus. In the year 343 Photinus published his notions respecting the Deity, which were repugnant both to the orthodox and to the Arian systems. He asserted that Jesus Christ was born of the Holy Ghost and the Virgin Mary; that a certain divine emanation, which he called the Word, descended upon him; that, because of the union of tþe Divine Word with his human nature, he was called the Son of God, and even God himself; and that the Holy Ghost was not a person, but merely a celestial virtue proceeding from the Deity. Both parties condemned the bishop in the councils of Antioch and Milan, held in the years 345 and 347. He was also condemned by the council at Sirmium in 351, and having been degraded from the episcopal dignity, he died in exile in the year 372 or 375. His opinions were afterwards revived by Socinus.
PHOTINX, an ancient wind-instrument of Egypt, said to have been a kind of flute of a curved form. Several modem wind-instruments are curved.
PHOTIUS, patriarch of Constantinople, was one of the most remarkable men of his time, and by his merit raised himself to the patriarchate. When Bardas had driven Ignatius from the see, Photius was consecrated by Asbestus in 859. He condemned Ignatius in a synod, upon which the pope excommunicated him; and, to balance the account, Photius anathematized the pope. Basilius of Macedonia, whom Photius had reproved for the murder of the Emperor Michael, expelled him, and restored Ignatius; but afterwards, upon the death of Ignatius, Photius was re-established in the year 878. At last, being wrongfully accused of a conspiracy against the person of Leo the philosopher, son and successor of Basilius, he was expelled in 886, and is supposed to have died soon afterwards. He wrote a Bibliotheca, which contains an examination of two hundred and eighty authors; and we have also two hundred and fifty-three epistles of his, the Nornocanon under fourteen titles, and an abridgment of the acts of several councils. This great man was born in Constantinople, and descended from a very illustrious and noble family. His natural abilities were eminent, and he cultivated them with the greatest assiduity. There was no branch of literature, whether sacred or profane, and scarcely any art or science, in which h e was not deeply versed. Indeed he appears to have been by far the greatest man of the age in which he lived; and he was so intimately concerned in the chief transactions of it, that ecclesiastical writers have on that account called it Saeculurn Photianum. He was first raised to the chief dignities of the empire, being made principal secretary of state, captain of the guards, and a senator; and in all these stations he acquitted himself with a distinction suitable to his great abilities, having been an able statesman as well as a profound scholar. His rise to the patriarchate was very rapid; for when he was chosen to that office he was only a layman; but, that he might, as it were, be gradually raised to that dignity, he was made monk the first day, reader the next, and the following days sub-deacon, deacon, and priest, so that in the space of six days he attained to the highest office in the church. On the whole, however, his ardent love of glory and unbounded ambition led him to commit excesses which rendered him a scourge to those around him. Fabricius describes his Bibliotheca, or Library, as non liber, sed insignis thesaurus, not a book, but an illustrious treasure, in which are contained many curious things relating to authors, and many fragments of works which are nowhere else to be found. It was brought to light by Andreas Scottus, and communicated by him to David Hoeschelius, who caused it to be printed in 1601. Scottus, considering the great utility of this work, translated it into Latin, and printed his translation separately in the year 1606. The Greek text, together with the translation, was afterwards printed at Geneva in 1611.
PHOTOMETER, an instrument for ascertaining the intensity of light. See Meteorology and Optics.
PHRASE, in Grammar, an elegant turn or manner of expression, peculiarly belonging to this or that occasion, this or that art, this or that language. Thus we say, an Italian phrase, an eastern phrase, a poetical phrase, a rhetorical phrase. Phrase is sometimes also used for a short sentence or small circuit of words constructed together. In this sense, Father Buffier divides phrases into complete and incomplete. Phrases are complete where there is a noun and a verb, each in its proper function; that is, where the noun expresses a subject, and the verb the thing affirmed of it. Incomplete phrases are those where the noun and the verb together only perform the office of a noun, and consist of several words, which, without affirming any thing, might be expressed by a single term. Thus, that which is true, is an incomplete phrase, and might be expressed in one word, truth ; and again, that which is true satisfies the mind, might be converted into truth satisfies the mind.
PHRASEOLOGY, a collection of the phrases or the elegant expressions in any language.