CHRONICLE, in matters of literature, a species or kind of history disposed according to the order of time, and agreeing in most respects with annals.
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Chronology, from χξοvος, time, and ∖ ογος, word or description. is the science which treats of time. Its object is to arrange and exhibit the various events which have occurred in the history of the world in the order of their succession, and to ascertain the intervals of time between them.

The preservation of any record, however rude, of the lapse of time, implies some knowledge of the celestial motions, by which alone time can be accurately measured, and some advancement in the arts of civilized life, which could only be attained by the accumulated experience of many generations. Before the invention of letters, the memory of past transactions could not be preserved beyond a few years with any tolerable degree of accuracy. Events which greatly affected the physical condition of the human race, or were of a nature to make a deep impression on the minds of the rude inhabitants of the earth, might he vaguely transmitted through several ages by traditional narrative; but intervals of time, expressed by abstract numbers, and these too constantly varying, would soon escape from the memory. The invention of the art of writing afforded the means of substituting precise and permanent records for vaguc and evanescent tradition; but in the infancy of the world mankind had neither learned to estimate accurately the duration of time, nor to refer passing events to a fixed and determined epoch. Writing was practised many centuries before historians began to assign dates to the events they narrated.

For these reasons the history of the early ages of the world is involved in impenetrable obscurity, and chronology, comparatively speaking, is only of recent date. After political relations began to be established, the necessity of preserving a register of passing seasons and years would soon be felt, and the practice of recording important transactions must have grown up as a necessary consequence of social life. But of these early records, how small a portion has escaped the ravages of time and barbarism? The annals of the early Greeks and of the Etruscans are irretrievably lost. Of the chronicles which Manetho, high priest of Sebenne, professed to have reduced from the archives of the Egyptian temples; of the histories of Sanconiathon the Phoenician, of Berosus, Hecataeus,and others, only a few mutilated fragments have been transmitted to our times through the suspected relation of Josephus, Julius Africanus, Eusebius, Syncellus, and other chronologers. The Gauls destroyed the records of ancient Rome. The Romans, in their turn, extirpated the Druids of Gaul and Britain, and obliterated the last vestiges of their ancient traditions. An Arab chief burned the library of Alexandria, a Chinese emperor the histories of his own country, and a Spanish soldier the paintings and hieroglyphics of the palace of Montezuma.

In order to preserve an exact record of the succession of events, some conventional epochs or fixed point of time, must be taken as the origin of the reckoning, and some standard period assumed with which the successive intervals may be compared. It is a trite remark, that the simplest ideas are generally the latest in representing themselves to the mind. Nothing seems more obvious than to measure the longer intervals of time by the tropical revolutions of the sun, and to number the years in regular succession. But this simple method was not adopted by historians in the earliest ages. In the Scripture history the lapse of time is frequently estimated by generations, or reigns of kings, and not by exact numbers of years. The historians of early Greece proceeded in a similar manner. Hellanicus regulated his narrative by the succession of the priestesses of Juno in the temple of Argos. Others reckoned by the ephori and kings of Sparta, or the archons of Athens. Ephorus, the disciple of Isocrates, who composed a chronological history of Greece, reckoned by generations. Eratosthenes and Apollodorus, who flourished about a hundred years after the death of Alexander the Great, first attempted to introduce precision into historical records, by substituting numbers of years for generations, reigns, or successions. (See Newton’s Chronology, Introduction). Now, when time is measured by any of the above methods, it is obvious that we can only approximate to the intervals between successive events, from our knowledge of the average duration of human life, and of kings’ reigns, in the present state of the world. Chronologers usually reckon three generations equivalent to a hundred years, and Sir Isaac Newton allows eighteen or twenty years to a reign or succession. In a great number of years this estimate is probably near the truth, but it affords very uncertain information with respect to short periods, and none whatever with regard to the duration of an individual reign. It is to those loose methods of marking the lapse of time that we must ascribe the great discrepancy that exists among the chronological accounts of the early ages of Greece and Rome.

Another great cause of uncertainty and confusion in chronology has arisen from the diversity of epochs assumed by historians, and the practice, which has been unhappily too prevalent, of shifting the origin of their eras from one epoch to another. Having little intercourse with each other, the different groups or communities into which mankind were divided in early times, instead of agreeing on a common epoch, began each to date the years from some event, important perhaps in reference to its individual history, but of which other tribes were probably entirely ignorant, or which at least they regarded with indifference. Hence in ancient history we have the Olympiad ofCoraebus, the foundation of Rome, the era ofNabonassar &c.; and in more recent times the Christian era, the Hegira, the era of Yezdegird, &c. Some centuries after the introduction of Christianity, the various sects of Christians began to found their eras on events connected with the appearance of Christ, but without any regard to uniformity. Some reckoned from the epoch of his conception, or the annunciation; others from his birth, others again from his passion, others from his ascension; and hence there is very frequently the greatest difficulty in reconciling the dates given by the historians and annalists of the middle ages.

In reckoning years from any fixed epoch in constant succession, the numbers denoting the years necessarily undergo a constant and unlimited augmentation. But rude nations, and illiterate people in general, seldom attach any definite idea to large numbers. Hence it has been a practice, very extensively followed, to employ cycles or periods, containing a moderate number of years, and to distinguish and reckon the years by their number in the cycle. The Chinese, and some other nations of Asia, reckon not only the years, but also the months and days, by cycles of sixty. The Saros of the Chaldeans, the Olympiad of the Greeks, and the Roman Indiction, are instances of this mode of reckoning time. Several cycles were formerly known in Europe; but most of them were invented for the purpose of adjusting the solar and lunar divisions of time, and were [7:6:653] rather employed in the regulation of the calendar than as chronological eras. They are frequently, however, of very great usc in fixing dates that have been otherwise imperfectly expressed, and consequently form important elements of chronology.

In the article Calendar, we have already treated of that part of Chronology which relates to the measurement of time, and explained with sufficient detail the principal methods that have been employed, or are still in use, for adjusting the lunar months to the solar year, as well as the intercalations necessary for regulating the civil year according to the celestial motions. In the present article it is our purpose to give an account of the different Eras and Periods that have been employed by historians, and by the different nations of the world, in recording the succession of time and events; to fix the epochs at which the eras respectively commenced; to ascertain the form and the initial day of the year made use of; and to establish their correspondence with the years of the Christian era. These elements will enable us to convert, by a simple arithmetical operation, any historical date, of which the chronological characters arc given according to any era whatever, into the corresponding date in the common era of the Incarnation.

Julian Period.

Although the Julian period is not, properly speaking, a chronological cra, yet, on account of its affording considerable facilities in the comparison of different eras with one another, and in marking without ambiguity the years before Christ, it is very generally employed by chronologers. It consists of 7980 Julian years. The number 7980 is formed by the continued multiplication of the three numbers 28, 19, and 15, that is, of the cycles of the sun, of the moon, and of the Indiction: hence, when the number of any year in the Julian period is divided by one of these three numbers, the remainder of the division will indicate the number of that year in the corresponding cycle. The first year of the Christian era had ten for its number in the cycle of the sun, two in the cycle of the moon, and four in the Indiction; but 4714 is the only number less than 7980 which, on being divided by 28, 19, and 15, gives the respective remainders 10, 2, and 4 (See Calendar). Hence the first year of the Christian era corresponded with the year 4714 of the Julian period. In order, therefore, to find the year of our era corresponding to any other year of the period, or the contrary, we have the following rule:

1. When the given year is anterior to the commencement of the Christian era, subtract the number of the year in the Julian period from 4714, and the remainder is the year before Christ: or subtract the year before Christ from 4714, and the remainder is the corresponding year in the Julian period.

2. When the given year is after Christ, subtract 4713 from the year of the period, and the remainder is the year of the Christian cra; or add 4713 to the year of Christ, and the sum is the corresponding year of the Julian period.

Olympiads.

The Olympic games, so famous in Grecian history, were celebrated once every four years, between the new and full moon first following the summer solstice, on the banks of the river Alpheus, near the city of Pisa, in the Peloponnesus, and lasted five days. They arc said to have been originally instituted by Hercules, at the funeral ceremonies of Pelops, 1354 years before the Christian era; but they seem to have been forgotten, or at least to have been discontinued, during several centuries. They were afterwards re-established by Iphitus, king of a canton of Elis, in concert with Lycurgus and Cleosthenes of Pisa, 844 years before Christ, and 470 years from the time of their original institution; but it was not till upwards of a hundred years after this time that they began to be used as a chronological epoch. It was then that the practice was adopted of designating the Olympiad, or period of four years, by the name of the victor in the contests of the stadium, and of inscribing his name in the gymnasium of Olympia. The first who received this honour was Coroebus. The games in which Coroebus was victor, and which form the principal epoch of Grecian history, were celebrated about the time of the summer solstice, 776 years before the common era of the Incarnation, in the 3938th of the Julian period, and twenty-three years, according to the account of Varro, before the foundation of Rome.

Eorm of the Olympic Year. — Before the introduction of the Metonic cycle, the ordinary Grecian year consisted of twelve lunar months, containing twenty-nine and thirty days alternately; and in order to reconcile this with the course of the sun, a thirteenth month was added, at first every second year, and subsequently three times in eight years. The additional or intercalary month contained thirty days, so that the Octaeteris, or period of eight years, consisted of ninety-nine months, containing in all 2922 days, which is exactly equal to eight Julian years. The years which contained the intercalary month were called embolismic, and formed the third, fifth, and eighth of the period. Hence the Olympiads contained forty-nine and fifty months alternately, the first four years of the. Octaeteris containing one intercalary year, and the second two; and hence, also, the Olympic games were celebrated alternately on common and embolismic years. It has been shown in the article Calendar, that the Octaeteris fell short of the actual length of ninety-nine lunations by a day and a half nearly; at the end of two periods, therefore, the moon’s age was three days less than it had been at the commencement, and in order to restore the coincidence between the civil month and the lunation, three days were added to the last year of each second Olympiad. But this correction introduced an error in respect of the sun, and caused the solar year to commence three days too late. This error was allowed to accumulate till the end of the fortieth Olympiad, when a full month of thirty days was omitted, by which means the solar and lunar years were adjusted, and the forty-first Olympiad commenced with the same day of the moon, and the same season of the year, as the first had done 160 years before. According to this arrangement the common years contained 354 days, and the embolismic 384; excepting however the concluding year of each second Octaeteris, which contained 387 .days, and the last year of each fortieth Olympiad, which had 357 days.

In the fourth year of the eighty-sixth Olympiad, Meton published his celebrated cycle of nineteen years, which, after receiving a slight correction from Calippus, continued to be followed ever afterwards, so long as the practice of dating by Olympiads continued in use. Before the introduction of the Metonic cycle, the Olympic year began sometimes with the full moon which followed, sometimes with that which preceded, the summer solstice, on account that the year sometimes contained 384 days instead of 354; but subsequently to its adoption, the year always commenced with the eleventh day of the moon which followed the solstice. In order to avoid troublesome computations, which it would be necessary to recommence for every year, and of which the results differ from one another only by a few days, chronologers in general regard the first of July as the commencement of the Olympic year. Some authors, however, among whom are Eusebius, Jerome, and the historian Socrates, place its commencement at the first of September; but they seem to have confounded the Olympic[7:6:654] year with the civil year of the Greeks, or the cra of the Seleucidae.

It is material to observe, that as the Olympic years and periods begin with the first of July, the first six months of a year of our era correspond to one Olympic year, and the last six months to another. Thus, when it is said that the first year of the Incarnation corresponds to the first of the 195th Olympiad, we are to understand that it is only with respect to the last six months of that year that the correspondence takes place. The first six months belonged to the fourth year of the 194th Olympiad. In referring dates expressed by Olympiads to our era, or the contrary, we must therefore distinguish two cases.

Is/, When the event in question happened between the first of January and the first of the following July, the sum of the Olympic year and of the year before Christ is always equal to 776. The year of the era, therefore, will be found by subtracting the number of the Olympic year from 776. For example, Varro refers the foundation of Rome to the 21st of April of the third year of the sixth Olympiad, and it is required to find the year before our era. Since five Olympic periods have elapsed, the third year of the sixth Olympiad is 5 × 4 + 3=23; therefore, subtracting 23 from 776, we have 753, which is the year before Christ to which the foundation of Rome is referred by Varro.

2d, When the event took place between the summer solstice and the first of January following, the sum of the Olympic year and of the year before Christ is equal to 777. The difference therefore between 777 and the year in one of the dates will give the year in the other date. Thus, the moon was eclipsed on the 27th of August, a little before midnight, in the year 413 before our era; and it is required to>find the corresponding year in the Olympic era. Subtract 413 from 777, the remainder is 364; and 364 divided by four gives 91 without a remainder; consequently the eclipse happened in the fourth year of the ninety-first Olympiad, which is the date to which it is referred by Thucydides.

If the year is after Christ, and the event took place in one of the first six months of the Olympic year, that is to say, between July and January, we must subtract 776 from the number of the Olympic year to find the corresponding year of our era; but if it took place in one of the last six months of the Olympic year, or between January and July, we must deduct 777. The computation by Olympiads seldom occurs in historical records after the middle of the fifth century of our cra.

The names of the months were different in the different Grecian states. The Attic months, which were the most usual, are as follows:

Hecatombeon. Gamelion.

Metageitnion. Anthesterion.

Bocdromion. Elaphebolion.

Pyanepsion. Munychion.

Moemacterion. Thargelion.

Poseideon. Seirophorion.

Era of the Foundation of Rome.

After the Olympiads, the era most frequently met with in ancient history is that of the foundation of Rome, which is the chronological epoch adopted by all the Roman historians. There are various opinions respecting the year in which this event took place; but the authorities most deserving of credit are the five following:

Is/, Fahius Pictor, who places the epoch of the foundation of Rome in the latter half of the first year of the eighth Olympiad, which corresponds with the 3967th of the Julian period, and with the year 747 before Christ.

2tZ, Polybius, who places it in the second year of the seventh Olympiad, corresponding with 3964 of the Julian period, and 750 b c.

3d, Cato, who places it in the first year of the seventh' Olympiad, that is, in 3963 of the Julian period, and 751 B. c.

4∕A, Verrius Flaccus, who places it in the fourth year of the sixth Olympiad, that is, in the year 3962 of the Julian period, and 752 b c. bth, Terentius Varro, who places it in the third year of the sixth Olympiad, that is, in the year 3961 of the Julian period, and 753 b. c.

A knowledge of these different computations is frequently necessary, in order to reconcile the Roman historians with one another, and even with themselves. Livy in general adheres to the epoch of Cato, though he sometimes follows that of Fabius Pictor. Cicero follows the account of Varro, which is also in general adopted by Pliny. Dionysius of Halicarnassus follows Cato. Modern chronologers for the most part adopt the account of Varro, which is supported by a passage in Censorinus, where it is stated that the 991 st year of Rome commenced with the festival of the Palilia, in the consulship of Ulpius and Pontianus. Now this consulship corresponded with the 238th year of our era; therefore, deducting 238 from 991, we have 753 to denote the year before Christ. The Palilia commenced on the 2lst of April; all the accounts agree in regarding this date as the epoch of the foundation of Rome.

The Romans employed two sorts of years, the civil year, which was used in the transaction of public and private affairs, and the consular year, according to which the annals of their history have been composed. From the time of Numa the civil year always commenced with the calends of January; but by reason of the arbitrary manner in which, till the time of Julius Caesar, their calendar was regulated by the pontiffs, the civil months did not retain a fixed place in the solar year, and the calends of January successively passed into the different seasons. Hence part of the Roman civil year corresponded to one Julian year, and part of it to another. Thus, when the 1st of January in the civil year corresponded with the Julian lst of September, the first four months of the civil year belonged to one Julian year, and the last eight months to the Julian year following. With regard to the consular year (or year of the reign before the expulsion of the kings) the confusion and uncertainty are still greater. The epoch of the succession of a king regulated the commencement of the years of his reign, and the installation of the consuls the commencement of the consular year. The initial day of the consulate was never fixed, at least before the seventh century of Rome, but varied with the different accidents which in times of political commotion so frequently occurred to accelerate or retard the elections. Hence it happens that a consular year, generally speaking, comprehends a part not only of two Julian years, but also of two civil years. The consulate is the date employed by the Latin historians generally, and by many of the Greeks, down to the sixth century of our era.

In the era of Rome the commencement of the year is placed at the 21st of April; an event therefore which happened in the months of January, February, March, or during the first twenty days of April, in the year (for example) 500 of Rome, belongs to the ⅛∙ivil year 501. Before the time of the Decemvirs, however, February was the last month of the year. Many authors confound the year of Rome with the civil year, supposing them both to begin on the 1st of January. Others again confound both the year of Rome and the civil year with the Julian year, which in fact became the civil year after the regulation of the calendar by Julius Caesar. Through a like want of [7:6:655]attention, many writers also, particularly among the moderns, have confounded the Julian and Olympic years, by making an entire Julian year correspond to an entire Olympic year, as if both had commenced at the same epoch. Much attention to these particulars is required in the comparison of ancient dates.

The Christian Era.

The Christian or vulgar era, called also the era of the Incarnation, is now almost universally employed in Christian countries, and is even used by some eastern nations. Its epoch or commencement is the 1st of January in the fourth year of the 194th Olympiad, the 753d from the foundation of Rome, and the 4714th of the Julian period. It is usually supposed to begin with the year of the birth of Christ, but there are various opinions with regard to the year in which that event took place. The most probable is, that the birth of Christ happened five years and seven days before the initial day of the vulgar era. This method of dating the years was introduced into Italy in the sixth century, by Dennis or Dionysius the Little, a Roman abbot, and began to be used in France in the seventh, though it was not generally followed in that country before the reigns of Pepin and Charlemagne. In England it seems to have been introduced by St Augustin. Before its adoption the usual practice in Latin countries was to distinguish the years by their number in tlie cycle of Indiction.

In the Christian era the years are simply marked and distinguished by the cardinal numbers; those before Christ being distinguished by the characters b. c. (Before Christ), or A.c. (AnteChristum), and those after Christ by a.d. (Anno Domini.) This method of reckoning time is more commodious than those which employ cycles or periods of any length whatever; and, provided the commencement of the era had been placed at the creation of the world, or at some point of-time prior to all historical records, it would have satisfied, in the simplest manner possible, all the conditions that are necessary for registering the succession of events. But when the commencement of the era is placed, as in the present case, at an intermediate period of history, some inconvenience is felt with regard to the dates of preceding events, on account of the interruption of the numerical order. Some ambiguity is also occasioned by the want of uniformity in the methods adopted by authors, of numbering the preceding years. In order to preserve uniformity in their computations, astronomers denote the year which preceded the first of our era by 0, and the year previous to that by 1 b. c. ; but chronologers, in conformity with common notions, call the year preceding the era 1 b. c., the previous year 2 b. c., and so on. By reckoning in this manner, there is an interruption in the regular succession of the numbers; and in the years preceding the era, the leap years, instead of falling on the fourth, eighth, twelfth, &c., fall, or ought to fall, on the first, fifth, ninth, &c.

In the chronicles of the middle ages much uncertainty frequently arises respecting dates, on account of the different epochs that have been assumed for the commencement of the Christian year. Dennis, the author of the era, thinking it more natural to reckon from the conception, adopted the day of the Annunciation, or the 25th of March, which preceded the birth of Christ by nine months, as the commencement of the first year of the era. The epoch of Dennis therefore precedes that of the vulgar era by nine months and seven days. This manner of dating was followed in some of the Italian states, and continued to be used in Pisa even down to the year 1745. It was also adopted by some of the Popes in their Bulls; and there are proofs of its having been employed in France about the middle of the eleventh century. Some chroniclers, who adhere to the day of the annunciation as the commencement of the year, reckon from the 25th of March following our epoch, as the Florentines in the tenth century. Gregory of Tours, and some writers of the sixth and seventh centuries, make the year commence sometimes with the 1st of March, like the Romans before the time of Numa, and sometimes with the 1st of January. In France under the third race of kings it was usual to begin the year with Easter; and this practice continued at least till the middle of the sixteenth century, for an edict was passed by Charles IX. in the month of January 1563, ordaining that the commencement of the year should thenceforth be considered as taking place on the first of-January. An instance is given, in l’Art de Verifier les Dates, of a date in which the year is reckoned from the 18th of March; but it is probable that this refers to the astronomical year, and that the 18th of March was taken for the day of the vernal equinox. In Germany, about the eleventh century, it was usual to commence the year at Christmas; and this practice also prevailed at Milan, Rome, and other Italian cities, in the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries.

In England, the practice of placing the beginning of the year at Christmas was introduced in the seventh century, and traces of it are found to exist even in the thirteenth. Gervais of Canterbury, who lived in the beginning of the thirteenth century, mentions that almost all writers of his country had agreed in regarding Christmas day as the first of the year, because it forms as it were the term at which the sun finishes and recommences his annual course. In the twelfth century, however, the custom of beginning the civil year with the day of the Annunciation, or the 25th of March, began to prevail, and continued to be generally followed from that time till the reformation of the calendar in 1752. The 'historical year has always been reckoned by English authors to begin with the first of January. The liturgie year of the church of England commences with the first Sunday of Advent.

A knowledge of the different epochs which have been chosen for the commencement of the year in different countries is indispensably necessary to the right interpretation of the ancient chronicles and annals, in which the dates often appear contradictory, though correctly and precisely marked. We may cite an example or two. It is well known that the emperor Charlemagne was crowned at Rome on Christmas-day in the year 800, and that he died in the year 814, according to our present manner of reckoning; but in the annals of Metz and Moissac, the coronation of Charlemagňe is stated to have taken place in the year 801, and his death in 813. Both these statements appear at first sight to be erroneous; but on attending to the different periods at which the year has been supposed to begin, they will both be easily reconciled with the known facts. In the first case the annalist supposes the year to begin with Christmas, and accordingly reckons the 25th of December and all the following days of that month to belong to 801, whereas in the common reckoning they would be referred to the year 800. In the second case the year has been supposed to begin with the 25th of March, or perhaps with Easter; consequently the first three months of the year 814, reckoning from the 1st of January, would be referred to the end of the year 813. As another example, the English revolution is popularly called the revolution of 1688. Had the year then begun, as it now does, with the lst of January, it would have been the revolution of 1689, that event having taken place in February in the year 1689; but at that time the year was considered in England as beginning on the 25th of March. Another circumstance to which it is often necessary to pay attention in the comparison of dates, is the alteration of style which took place on the adoption of the [7:6:656]Gregorian Calendar. The old style still continues to be used by the Russians and Greeks; and in order to convert a date expressed in this manner intô the new style, it is necessary to attend to the variation which takes place from century to century, in the interval between the commencement of the Julian and Gregorian years. From the •reformation of the calendar in 1582 to the 29th of February 1700, the difference is ten days; from the 1st of March 1700 to the 29th of February 1800, it is eleven days; from the 1st of March 1800 to the 29th February 1900 the difference is twelve days; and after the 1st of March 1900, if the old style shall then continue to be in use, the difference will be thirteen days, till the 29th of February 2100, as has been explained at length in the article Calendar. Era of the Creation of the World.

As the Greek and Roman methods of computing time were connected with certain Pagan rites and observances, which the Christians held in abhorrence, these began at an early period to imitate the Jews in reckoning their years from the creation of the world. The chronological elements on which both Jews and Christians founded their computations for determining the epoch of that event were derived from the Old Testament narrative, which, though sufficiently circumstantial to enable us to determine the lapse of time during the first two ages of the world with considerable precision, has been transmitted to us through three distinct channels, not only differing greatly in respect of chronology, but totally irreconcilable with each other. These are, first, the Hebrew text of the Scriptures; second, the Samaritan text; and, third, the Greek version of the Septuagint. Unfortunately no very conclusive reason can be given for preferring any one of these accounts to another. We have no concurrent testimony with which to compare them: it is not even known which of them was regarded as the most probable by the Jews themselves, when the books of the Old Testament were revised and transcribed by Ezra; and the ordinary rules of probability cannot be applied to a state of things in which the duration of human life extended to nearly a thousand years.

Between the creation and the flood ten patriarchs are enumerated, whose names, with the age of each at the birth of his eldest son, according to the-three versions, are as follows;
[table]

Noah entered the ark when he was 600 years of age; by adding, therefore, a hundred to each of the above sums, we have for the interval between the creation of Adam and the flood,
[table]

Hence it appears that the Greek version assigns to this period a duration of 606 years above the Hebrew account, and 955 above the Samaritan, while the two lat ter differ from each other only by 349 years. On account of their nearer agreement, and also of their greater antiquity, critics generally give the preference to the Hebrew and Samaritan texts; and as it appears from a passage in St Jerome, that in his day some manuscripts of the Samaritan agreed with the Hebrew in respect of Methusaleh and Lamech (two out of the three cases in which it at present differs), chronologers usually adopt the Hebrew account. The Latin or vulgate translation, which was declared authentic by the Council of Trent, is in entire conformity with the Hebrew.

The second age of the world is reckoned from the deluge to the vocation of Abraham. It contains also ten patriarchs (the Scptuagint reckons eleven), with respect to whose ages the three accounts differ still more widely than in the case of the antediluvian patriarchs. The following are their names, with the age of each at the birth of his eldest son:
[table]

From the above sums we must deduct the age of Shem when the deluge took place. This was ninety-eight years. The interval between the flood and the call of Abraham is consequently, »
[table]

In this case the Samaritan and Greek accounts differ greatly from the Hebrew. Their difference from each other is only 230 years; and if we reject Cainan IL, whose name does not appear either in the Hebrew or Samaritan text, the difference is only 100 years, which may easily be supposed to have arisen from the errors of the copyists. The near agreement of the Samaritan and Greek accounts renders it probable that the Hebrew text is in error. As another reason for giving the preference to the Samaritan, it may also be mentioned, that according to the Hebrew account, the dispersion of the descendants of Noah, which took place in the time of Peleg, must have happened about a hundred years after the deluge; and it can hardly be conceived that in so short a space of time they should have increased to so great an extent, that, as it is mentioned, a single country could not contain them. According to the Samaritan text, the dispersion took place about 400 years after the deluge,—a space of time which allows of a considerable increase in the number of the inhabitants of the earth.

From this period the intervals of time between the principal events recorded in Scripture are seldom mentioned in the same circumstantial manner; and the chronologers who computed the succession of years had not only to contend with the discordant readings, but were often obliged to assign arbitrary values to the generations, or other vague terms by which the time is computed. From computations founded on such loose and uncertain data, it would be in vain to look for agreement; accordingly the results not only present great discrepancies, but [7:6:657]appear to be as numerous as the computations. Desvig-noles, in the preface to his Chronology of Sacred History, asserts that he has collected upwards of two hundred different calculations, the shortest of which reckons only 3483 years between the creation of the world and the commencement of the vulgar era, and the longest 6984. The difference amounts to thirty-five centuries. In the following table we have inserted the results obtained by some of the most eminent of the computers. The reader who is desirous of more information on this subject may consult the first volume of the Universal History, or L’Art de Verifier les Pates, avant J. C. p. ix.

Table of the Years elapsed between Adam and the Birth of Christ, according to the computation of the principal Chronoloqers.
[table]

All that can be gathered from these conflicting statements amounts to this, that the true epoch of the creation of the world is utterly unknown. British chronologers in general prefer the computation of Archbishop Usher, who places the creation of the world, or rather of Adam, 4004 years before the vulgar era.

Jewish Year and Eras.

Before the departure of the Israelites from Egypt, their year commenced at the autumnal equinox; but in order to solemnize the memory of their deliverance, the month of Nisan or Abib, in which that event took place, and which falls about the time of the vernal equinox, was afterwards regarded as the beginning of the ecclesiastical or legal year. In civil affairs, and in the regulation of the jubilees and sabbatical years, the Jews still adhere to the ancient year, which begins with the month Tisri, about the time of the autumnal equinox.

The ancient Jewish year was lunisolar, that is to say, the months were regulated by the moon, and intercalations employed to preserve a correspondence between the same months and the same seasons of the year. This correspondence was implied in the ceremonials of their religion. The passover began at the middle of the month Nisan; and, besides the paschal lamb, required the offering of a sheaf of barley as the first fruits of the harvest. Pentecost, or the feast of weeks, which was celebrated fifty days after the passover, required the offering of two loaves as the first fruits of the wheat harvest; and the feast of tabernacles, which was always celebrated on the 15th of the month Tisri, was at the end of the harvest. Hence the passover could only be celebrated about the season when the barley was ready to be cut, Pentecost after the wheat was ripe, and the feast of tabernacles after the vintage and the ingathering of the olives. These regulations rendered it necessary that the three great festivals of the Jews should always occur at nearly the same seasons, and consequently, that some sort of intercalation should be employed for the adjustment of solar and lunar time. But the methods employed for this purpose seem to have been of the rudest kind,—founded on no astronomical calculation, and regulated by no fixed rule. The beginning or end of the month was determined only by sight. When a new moon became visible, a new month began. Experience taught them that it was needless to look out for a new moon before the 29th day of the month; if a new moon then appeared, the next day was the first of the following month; if not, they resumed their watch on the night following, and if the moon was not then visible, they concluded that it must have been obscured by clouds, and the following day was reckoned the first of the succeeding month. Twelve months formed the ordinary year, but every two or three years an intercalary month was added. The rule which they followed with regard to the intercalary month seems to have been this. When the 15th of Nisan, which was the first day of unleavened bread, and of the passover, would have occurred in the ordinary course before the vernal equinox, an intercalary month was inserted before Nisan, in consequence of which the passover, with the feasts depending on it, was thrown back a whole month. The intercalary month was called ve-Adar, or second Adar, from its immediately following Adar, the last of the twelve ordinary months.

While the year continued to be regulated in this uncertain and arbitrarymanncr, it is evident that uniformity could only be preserved by conventional arrangements entered into from year to year. Accordingly the Jews, after their dispersion, were constrained to have recourse to the astronomical rules and cycles of the more enlightened heathen, in order that their religious festivals might be observed on the same days in all the countries through which they were scattered. For this purpose they adopted a cycle of eighty-four years, which is mentioned by several of the ancient fathers of the church, and which the early Christians borrowed from them for the regulation of Easter. This cycle seems to be neither more nor less than the Calippic period of seventy-six years, with the addition of a Greek octaeteris, in order to disguise its true source, and give it an appearance of originality. In fact, the period of Calippus containing 27,759 days, and the octaeteris 2922 days (see Calendar), the sum, which is 30,681, is exactly the number of days in eighty-four Julian years. But the addition was very far from being an improvement on the work of Calippus; for instead of a difference of only five hours and fifty-three minutes between the places of the sun and moon, which was the [7:6:658]whole error of the Calippic period, this difference, in the period of eighty-four years, amounted to one day six hours and forty-one minutes. Buccherius places the commencement of this cycle in the year 162 b. c. ; Prideaux in the year 291 b. c. According to the account of Prideaux, the fifth cycle must have commenced in the year 46 of our era; and it was in this year, according to St Prosperus, that the Christians began to employ the Jewish cycle of eighty-four years, which they followed, though not uniformly, for the regulation of Easter, till the time of the council of Nice.

Soon after the Nicene council, the Jews, in imitation of the Christians, abandoned the cycle of eighty-four years, and adopted that of Meton, by which their lunisolar year is regulated at the present day. This improvement was first proposed by Rabbi Samuel, rector of the Jewish school of Sora in Mesopotamia, and was finally accomplished in the year 360 of our era by Rabbi Hillel, who introduced that form of the year which the Jews at present follow, and which, they say, is to endure till the coming of the Messiah.

The following are the names of the Jewish months, with the number of days in each:
[table]

When each of the two months Marchesvan and Chisleu has twenty-nine days, the year of twelve months contains only 353 days, and is called defective ; when these months contain each thirty days, the year contains 355 days, and is called perfect; when the one contains twenty-nine days and the other thirty, the year is common, and contains 354 days. These two months arc variable, because certain days of the week are regarded by the Jews as unlucky; on such days it is not lawful to celebrate the feasts; and as the passover begins on the same day of the week as that with which the year began, when the first day of the year would fall, in the regular course, on one of the unlucky days, the commencement of the year is postponed to the day following.

Till the fifteenth century the Jews usually followed the era of the Seleucidae or of Contracts. Since that time they generalljr employ a mundane era, and date from the creation of the world, which, according to their computation, took place 3760 years and about three months before the commencement of our era. No rule can be given for determining with certainty the day on which any given Jewish year begins, without entering into the minutiae of their irregular and complicated calendar.

Egyptian Year and Canicular Period.

The ancient year of the Egyptians appears to have been lunisolar, and to have continued so till the reign of Hyperion or Osiris. From that time they employed a solar year, which consisted of365days, ortwelve months of thirty days each, with five complementary days added at the end of the last month. This was their religious year; and as its commencement anticipated that of the true solar year by one day every four years, it was adhered to long after they had discovered that the year consists of 3651- days, from superstitious notions, in order that each of the seasons might in its turn be blessed by the enjoyment of the sacred festivals.

As the anticipation of a day every four years brought back the commencement of the vague year to the same place in the seasons in the space of 1461 years, it follows that 1461 Egyptian years are equal to 1460 Julian years. The period of 1461 Egyptian years is denominated in chronology the Sothic or Canicular period, because it commenced with the heliacal rising of the dog-star, called in Egypt Sothis; that is to say, it commenced at the time when that star begins to disengage itself from the rays of the sun, and to be visible just before sunrise. In the latitude of Lower Egypt the dog-star begins to rise hcliacally about the 20th of July.

The vague year of the Egyptians began with the month of Thoth, or the 20th of July, in the year of our era 136, which year, therefore, was the first of a Sothic period. The same coincidence took place 1460 Julian years before that time, that is to say, in the year 1325 before Christ. The cycle which began 1325 b. c. is regarded by chronologcrs as the second which was used in Egypt. Hence, since 1335+ 1460=2785, the first must have commenced in .the year 2785 b. c. according to the Julian computation. In this first cycle we must place the principal events of Egyptian history, such as the invasion of the shepherds, the establishment of the Israelites in that kingdom, &c.

The names of the Egyptian months are,

1. Thoth. 7. Phamcnoth.

2. Paophi. 8. Pharmuthi.

3. Athyr. 9. Pashon.

4. Cohiac. 10. Payni.

5. Tybi. 11. Epiphi.

6. Meshir. 12. Mesori.

Each month contained thirty days, and the year, as already stated, was completed by the addition of five supplementary or epagomenal days.

Era of Constantinople.

This era, which is still used in the Greek church, and was* followed by the Russians till the time of Peter the Great, dates from the creation of the world. The incarnation falls in the year 5509, and corresponds, as in our era, with the fourth year of the 194th Olympiad. The civil year commences with the 1st of September; the ecclesiastical year sometimes with the 21 st of March, sometimes with the 1st of April. It is not certain whether the year was considered at Constantinople as beginning with September previous to the separation of the Eastern and Western empires.

At the commencement of our era there had elapsed 5508 years and four months of the era of Constantinople. Hence the first eight months of the Christian year 1 coincide with the Constantinopolitan year 5509, while the last four months belong to the year 5510. In order, therefore, to find the year of Christ corresponding to any given year in the era of Constantinople, we have the following rule: If the event took place between the 1st of January and the end of August, subtract 5508 from the given year; but if it happened between the 1st of September and the end of the year, subtract 5509.

Era of Alexandria.

The chronological computation of Julius Africanus was adopted by the Christians of Alexandria, who accordingly reckoned 5500 years from the creation of Adam to the birth of Christ; but in reducing Alexandrian dates to the common era, it must be observed that Julius Africanus placed the epoch of the Incarnation three years earlier than it is placed in the usual reckoning, so that the initial day of the Christian era fell in the year 5503 of the Alexandrian era. This correspondence, however, continued only from the introduction of the era till the accession of Diocletian, when an alteration was made by dropping ten years in the Alexandrian account. Diocletian ascended the throne [7:6:659]of the Roman empire in the year of Christ 284. According to the Alexandrian computation, this was the year 5787 of the world, and 287 of the incarnation; but on this occasion ten years were omitted, and that year was thenceforth called the year 5777 of the world, and 277 of the Incarnation. There are, consequently, two distinct eras of Alexandria, the one being used before, and the other after the accession of Diocletian. It is not very well known for what reason the alteration was made; but it is conjectured that it was for the purpose of causing a new revolution of the cycle of nineteen years (which was introduced into the ecclesiastical computation about this time by Anatolius, bishop of Hierapolis) to commence with the first year of the reign of Diocletian. In fact, 5777 being divided by 19, leaves 1 for the year of the cycle. The Alexandrian era continued to be followed by the Copts in the fifteenth century, and is said to be still used in Abyssinia.

Dates expressed according to this era are reduced to the common era by subtracting 5502, till the Alexandrian year 5786 inclusive, and after that year by subtracting 5492; but if the date belongs to one of the four last months of the Christian year, we must subtract 5503 till the year 5786, and 5493 after that year.

Mundane Era of Antioch.

The chronological reckoning of Julius Africanus formed also the basis of the era of Antioch, which was adopted by the Christians of Syria, at the instance of Panodorus, an Egyptian monk, who flourished about the beginning of the fourth century. Panodorus struck off ten years from the account of Julius Africanus with regard to the years of the world, and he placed the Incarnation three years later, referring it to the fourth year of the 194th Olympiad, as in the common era. Hence the era of Antioch differed from the original era of Alexandria by ten years; but after the alteration of the latter at the accession of Diocletian, the two eras coincided. In reckoning from the Incarnation, however, there is a difference of seven years, that epoch being placed in the reformed era of Alexandria, seven years later than in the mundane era of Antioch or in the Christian era.

As the Syrian year began in autumn, the year of Christ corresponding to any year in the mundane era of Antioch is found by subtracting 5492 if the event falls between January and September; from September to January subtract 5493.

Era of Nabonassar.

This era is famous in astronomy, having been generally followed by Hipparchus and Ptolemy. It had been in use for some centuries among the Chaldean astronomers; for the ancient observations of eclipses, which were collected in Chaldea by Callisthenes, the general of Alexander, and transmitted by him into Greece to Aristotle, were for the greater part referred to the commencement of the reign of Nabonassar, founder of the kingdom of the Babylonians. The epoch from which it is reckoned is precisely determined by numerous celestial phenomena recorded by Ptolemy, and corresponds to Wednesday at mid-day, the 26th of February of the year 747 before Christ. The year consisted of twelve months of thirty days each, with five complementary days added at the end. No intercalation was used; and it is therefore in all respects the same as the ancient Egyptian year. From this circumstance the initial day of the year falls one day earlier every four years than the first of the Julian year; so that 1460 Julian years are equal to 1461 Babylonian years. On account of this difference in the length of the year, the conversion of dates according to the era of Nabonassar, into years before Christ, is attended with considerable trouble. The surest way is to follow a comparative table. Frequently the year cannot be fixed with certainty, unless we also know the month and the day.

The Greeks of Alexandria formerly employed the era of Nabonassar, with a year of 365 days; but soon after the reformation of the calendar by Julius Caesar, they adopted, like the other Roman provincials, the Julian intercalation. At this time the first of Thoth had receded to the 29th of August. In the year 136 of our era, the first of Thoth, in the ancient Egyptian year, corresponded with the 20th of July, between which and the 29th of August there are forty days. The adoption of the Julian year must therefore have taken place about 160 years before the year 136 of our era (the difference between the Egyptian and Julian years being one day in four years), that is to say, about the year 25 b. c. In fact, the first of Thoth corresponded with the 29th of August in the Julian calendar, in the years 25, 24, 23, and 22 b. c.

Era of the Seleucidae, or Macedonian Era.

The era of the Seleucidae dates from the epoch of the first conquests of Seleucus Nicator in Syria, 311 years before Christ, in the year of Rome 442, and twelve years after the death of Alexander the Great. It was adopted not only in the monarchy of the Selcucidae, but in general in all the Greek countries bordering on the Levant; was followed by the Jews till the fifteenth century; and is said to be used by some Arabians even at the present day. By the Jews it was called the Era of Contracts ; by the writers of the books of Maccabees the Era of Kings. But notwithstanding its general prevalence in the East during a great number of centuries, the authors by whom it was followed differ much with regard to their manner of expressing dates, in consequence of the different epochs which they adopt for the commencement of the year. Among the Syrian Greeks the year began with the month El ul, which corresponds to our September. The Nestorians and Jacobites at the present day suppose it to begin with the following month, or October. The author of the first book of Maccabees makes the era commence with the month Nisan, or April; and the author of the second book with the first Tishrin, or October. Albategnius, a celebrated Arabian astronomer, dates from the 1st of October. Some of the Arabian writers, as Alfragan, date from the 1st of September. At Tyre the year was counted from the 19th of our October, at Gaza from the 28th of the same month, and at Damascus from the vernal equinox. These discrepancies with respect to the initial day of the year render it extremely difficult to determine the exact correspondence of Macedonian dates with those of other eras; and the difficulty is rendered still greater by the want of uniformity in respect of the length of the year. Some authors who follow the Macedonian era, use the Egyptian or vague year of 365 days; Albategnius adopts the Julian year of 3651- days. For all these reasons, it frequently happens that the date cannot be fixed, unless some other chronological characters are given with it than merely the month and the year.

According to the computation most generally followed, the year 312 of the era of the Seleucidae began on the 1st of September in the Julian year preceding the first of our era. Hence, to reduce a Macedonian date to the common era, subtract 311 years and four months.

The names of the Syrian and Macedonian months, and their correspondence with the Roman months, are as follows:
[table]
[7:6:660]
[table]

Era of Alexander.

Some of the Greek historians have assumed as a chronological epoch the death of Alexander the Great, which took place in the year 325 before Christ. The year is the same as in the preceding era. This cra has not been much followed; but it requires to be noticed in order that it may not be confounded with the era of the Scleucidae.

Era of Tyre.

The era of Tyre is reckoned from the 19th of October, or the beginning of the Macedonian month IIyperberetaeus, in the year 126 before Christ. In order, therefore, to reduce it to the common era, subtract 125; and when the date is b. c. , subtract it from 126. Dates expressed according to this era occur only on a few medals, and in the acts of certain councils.

Caesarean Era of Antioch.

This cra was established to commemorate the victory obtained by Julius Caesar on the plains of Pharsalia, on the 9th of August in the year 48 b. c., and the 706th of Rome. The Syrians computed it· from their month Tishrin I.; but the Greeks threw it back to the month Gorpiaeus of the preceding year. Hence there is a difference of eleven months between the epochs assumed by the Syrians and Greeks. According to the computation of the Greeks, the 49th year of the Caesarean era began in the autumn of the year preceding our history; and, according to the Syrians, the 49th year began in the autumn of the first year of the Incarnation. It is followed by Evagrius in his Ecclesiastical History.

Julian Era.

The Julian era commences with the Ist of January, forty-five years before Christ. It was designed to commemorate the reformation of the Roman calendar by Julius Caesar.

Era of Spam.

The conquest of Spain by Augustus, which was completed in the thirty-ninth year before Christ, gave rise to another cra, which began with the first day of the following year, and was long followed in Spain and Portugal, and generally in all the Roman provinces subdued by the Visigoths, both in Africa and the South of France. Several of the councils of Carthage, and also that of Arles, are dated according to this era. After the ninth century it became usual to join with it the year of the Incarnation in public acts. It was followed in Catalonia till the year 1180, in the kingdom of Arragon till 1350, in Valencia till 1358, and in Castile till 1393. In Portugal it is said to have been in use so late as the year 1415, or 1422, though it would seem, that after the establishment of the Portuguese monarchy, no other era was used in the public acts of that country than that of the Incarnation. As the cra of Spain commenced with the 1st of January, and the months and days of the year are those of the Julian ca lendar, any date is reduced to the common era by subtracting thirty-eight from the number of the year.

Era of Actium.

This era was established to commemorate the battle of Actium, which was fought on the 3d of September, in the year 31 before Christ, and in the 15th of the Julian era. By the Romans the era of Actium was considered as commencing on the Ist of January of the 16th of the Julian era, and the 30th b. c. The Egyptians, who followed it till the time of Diocletian, dated its commencement from the beginning of their month Thoth, or the 29th of August; and the eastern Greeks from the 2d of September. By the latter it was also called the era of Antioch, and continued to be used till the ninth century. It must not be confounded with the Caesarean era of Antioch, which began seventeen years earlier. Many of the medals struck by the city of Antioch in honour of Augustus are dated according to this era. Besides the era of Actium, there was also an Augustan era, which commenced four years later, or 27 b. c., the year in which Augustus prevailed on the senate and people of Rome to decree him the title of Augustus, and confirm him in the supreme power of the empire.

Era of Diocletian, or Era of Martyrs.

We have already remarked that the Alexandrians, at the accession of Diocletian to the throne of the Roman empire, made an alteration in their mundane era, by striking off ten years from their reckoning. The same event furnished them with an opportunity of establishing a new era, which is still followed by the Abyssinians and Copts. It commences with the 29th of August (the first day of the Egyptian year) of the year 284 of our era, which was the first of the reign of Diocletian. The denomination of Era of Martyrs, subsequently given to it in commemoration of the persecution raised by that prince against the Christians, would seem to imply that its commencement ought to be referred to the year 303 of our era; for it was in this year that Diocletian issued his famous edict; but the practice of dating from the accession of Diocletian has prevailed. In order to transfer a date from this era to that of the Incarnation, it is necessary to recollect the form of the Egyptian year. The ancient Egyptian year consisted of 365 days; but after the introduction of the Julian calendar, the astronomers of Alexandria adopted an intercalary year, and added six additional days instead of five to the end of the last month of every fourth year. In consequence of this regulation the year is exactly similar to the Julian year. The Egyptian intercalary year, however, does not correspond to the Julian leap year, but is the year immediately preceding; and the intercalation takes place at the end of the year, or on the 29th of August. Hence the first three years of the Egyptian intercalary period commence on the 29th of our August, and the fourth commences on the 30th of that month. Before the end of that year the Julian intercalation takes place, and the beginning of the following Egyptian year is restored to the 29th of August. Hence, to reduce a date according to this era to our own reckoning, it is necessary, for common years, to add 283 years and 240 days; but if the date belongs to the first three months of the year following the intercalation, or, which is the same thing, if it falls between the 30th of August and the end of the year of the third year of the Julian cycle, we must add 283 years and 241 days. We ought to remark, that the Ethiopians do not reckon the years from the beginning of the era in a consecutive series, but employ a period of 532 years, after the expiration of which they again commence with unity. This is the Dionysian, or Great Paschal Period, and is formed
[7:6:661]
[table]

by the multiplication of the numbers 28 and 19, that is, of the solar and lunar cycles, into each other.

The following are the Ethiopian or Abyssinian months, with the days on which they begin in the Julian calendar, or old style :—

The additional or epagomenal days begin on the 24th of August. In intercalary years the first seven months commence one day later. The Egyptian months, followed by the modern Copts, agree with the above in every respect excepting the names.

Indidion.

The cycle of indiction is a period of fifteen years, and was very generally followed in the Roman empire for some ages before the adoption of the Christian era. We are unacquainted with the circumstances and the exact time of its origin, but it was certainly not in use before the time of Constantine; and examples occur in the Theodosian code of its being employed in dating the years under the reign of Constance, who died 361 a. c. Three indictions may be distinguished; but they differ only in regard to the commencement of the year.

1. The Constantinopolitan Indiction, which, like the Grecian year, commenced with the month of September. This was followed in the Eastern empire, and in some instances also in France.

2. The Imperial or Coristantinian Indiction, so called because its establishment is attributed to Constantine. This was also called the Coesarean Indiction. It commences on the 24th of September, and it is not unfre-quently met with in the ancient chronicles of France and England.

3. The Roman or Pontifical Indiction, which began on the 25th of December or 1st of January, according as the Christian year was held to commence on the one or other of these days. It is often employed in the papal bulls, especially after the time of Gregory VII.; and traces of its use are found in some of the old French authors.

The first year of the first cycle of Indiction is generally considered to correspond with the year 313 of the Christian era. Some authors, however, regard it as having commenced in 312, others in 314, and some also in 315. The number of cycles, however, is scarcely ever referred to, but only the year in the cycle. Reckoning backwards from 313, the first year of our era is found to be 4 in the cycle of Indiction. Hence to find the Indiction corresponding to any year of the Christian era, add 3 to the date, divide the sum by 15, and the remainder is the Indiction. If there is no remainder, the proposed year is the 15th or last of the cycle.

Era of the Armenians.

The epoch of the Armenian era is that of the council of Tiben, in which the Armenians consummated their schism from the Greek church by condemning the acts of the council of Chalcedon; and it corresponds to Tuesday the 9th of July of the year 552 of the Incarnation. In their civil affairs the Armenians follow the ancient vague year of the Egyptians; but their ecclesiastical year, which begins on the llth of August, is regulated in the same manner as the Julian year, every fourth year consisting of 366 days, so that Easter and the other festivals are retained at the same place in the seasons as well as in the civil year. The Armenians also make use of the mundane era of Constantinople, and sometimes conjoin both methods of computation in the same documents. In their correspondence and transactions with Europeans, they generally follow the era of the Incarnation, and adopt the Julian year.

To reduce the civil dates of the Armenians to the Christian era, we may proceed as follows. Since the epoch is the 9th of July, there were 176 days from the beginning of the Armenian era to the end of the year 552 of our era; and since 552 was a leap year, the year 553 began a Julian intercalary period. Multiply, therefore, the number of Armenian years elapsed by 365; add the number of days from the commencement of the current year to the given date; subtract 176 from the sum, and the remainder will be the number of days from the 1st of January 553 to the given date. This number of days being reduced to Julian years, add the result to 552, and the sum gives the day in the Julian year, or old style.

In the ecclesiastical reckoning the year begins on the llth of August. To reduce a date expressed in this reckoning to the Julian date, add 521 years, and the days elapsed from the 1st of January to the 10th of August, both inclusive, of the year 552; that is to say (since 552 is a leap year), 223 days. In leap years, one day must be subtracted if the date falls between the 1st of March and 10th of August.

The following are the Armenian ecclesiastical months, with their correspondence with those of the Julian calendar :—
[table]

To complete the year, five complementary days are added in common years, and six in leap years.

Era of the Hegira.

The epoch of this era, which is universally used in all Mahommedan countries, is Friday the 16th of July, A. d. 622—the day on which Mahommed fled from Mecca to Medina. Some chronologers, however, and the Arabian astronomers in general, refer its commencement to the preceding day; but though the flight of Mahommed probably began on the evening of Thursday the 15th of July, it is certain, from the comparison of modern dates, that the present practice of the Mahommedans, in dating their civil transactions, is to count from Friday the 16th of July 622. It may be remarked that the civil day of the Mahommedans begins at sunset; the astronomers probably began the day at noon.

The Mahommedan year is strictly lunar, and the civil months are adjusted to the course of the moon, by means of a cycle of 30 years, containing 19 common years of 354 days, and 11 intercalary years of 355 days; whence the cycle contains 10,631 days, which amount to 29 Julian years and 39 days. Each year is divided into 12 months, containing alternately 30 and 29 days, excepting that the last month of the intercalary year contains also 30 days.
[7:6:662]

The intercalary years are the 2d, 5th, 7th, 10th, 13th, 16th, 18th, 21st, 24th, 26th, and 29th of the cycle.

The names of the Turkish months, with the number of days in each, are as follows :—
[table]

The months of the Hegira are composed of weeks of seven days. The following are the names of the days in Turkish and modern Arabic :—
[table]

Such are the chronological elements by means of which Mahommedan dates are reduced to the Christian era. As the rules generally given for this purpose are attended with ambiguity, and cannot be depended on to a day, unless corrected by means of a subsidiary table, we will explain at length a method of proceeding by which the correspondence between the two eras is established, without the slightest risk of ambiguity or mistake. The subject is of some interest, in consequence of the era of the Hegira being used over so large a portion of the world.

Having given a Mahommedan date to find the corresponding date in the Christian era,

1. Divide the number of years elapsed by 80; the quotient will be the number of eyeles, and the remainder the number of years elapsed since the beginning of the current cycle. Call the quotient A, and the remainder B; and let a? be the number of intercalary years in B. Then the number of days that have elapsed from the commencement of the Hegira to the beginning of the year in.which the date occurs, is given by the formula,

10631 A + 354 B + x i for 10,631 is the number of days in the cycle or intercalary period, and 354 is the number of days in the common lunar year. To the sum obtained from this formula add the days since the beginning of the current year, and the result is the number of days from the commencement of the cycle to the given date.

2. To the number of days from the commencement of the Hegira to the given date, add the number of days between the commencement of our era and the Hegira, and the sum is the number of days from the epoch of the Incarnation to the given date. The number of days from the beginning of our era to the beginning of the Hegira is 22,7016; for 621 × 365 = 226665

in 621 years there are 155 leap years 155

from 1st of January to 15th July 622, inclusive 196

Sum 227016

3. It now remains only to reduce the sum thus obtained to Julian years. For this purpose divide by 1461 (the number of days in the Julian intercalary period), and call the quotient C. Divide the remainder by 365, and call the quotient D, and the last remainder y. Then 4 C + D is the number of years elapsed since the beginning of the era, and y is the days elapsed of the current year.

Example. — The treaty of peace concluded between the emperor Charles VI. and Gianihi-Ali Pacha, ambassador of the sultan of Constantinople, is dated the loth of Rabiu 1., in theyearof the Hegira 1153; required the year, month, and day, in the Christian era.

1. In this case the years elapsed are 1152; therefore,

30)1152(38 = A.

90

252

240

12 = B.

The intercalary years being the second, fifth, seventh, tenth, thirteenth, &c., the remainder, 12, contains four intercalary years, whence x = 4; therefore

10631 A = 10631 × 38 = 403978

354 B = 354 × 12 = 4248

x = 4

408230

Add days from first of Moharem to) r ∙.

loth Rabiu I J

Davs from the beginning of the Hegira 408304

2. Add 227016

From beginning of our era to the ì 335330 given date J

3. To convert this sum into Julian years;

1461)635320(434 = C

5844

5092

4383

7090 5844

365)1246(3 = D

1095

151 = τ∕

4 C + D = 4 × 434 + 3 = 1739.

Therefore, as 1739 years have elapsed, the date required is the 151st day of the Christian year 1740. Now since 1740 is a leap year, the 151st day is the 30th of May. This, however, is in Old Style. Add eleven days for the change of style, and we have the 10th of June.

It results, therefore, that the 15th of Rabiu I. of the year of the Hegira 1153 corresponds with the 10th of June 1740 New Style. In this way any Mahommedan date maybe reduced to the corresponding Christian date. The arithmetical operation is extremely simple, and can never lead to ambiguity or error.

Era of Yezdegird, or Gelalaean Era.

This era commences with the elevation of Yezdegird III. to the throne of Persia, and dates from the 16th of June in the year of our era 632. Till the year 1075 a. C. the Persian year resembled that of the ancient Egyptians, consisting of 365 days without intercalation; but at that time the Persian calendar was reformed by Gelal-Edin Malek Schah, sultan of Khorasan, and a method of intercalation adopted, which, though less convenient, is considerably more accurate than the Julian. The intercalary period is 33 years; one day being added to the common year seven times successively at the end of four years, and [7:6:663]the eighth intercalation being deferred till the end of the fifth year (See Calendar). This era was at one period universally adopted in Persia, and it still continues to be followed by the Parsees of India. The months consist of thirty days each, and each day is distinguished by a different name. According to Alfragan, the names of the Persian months are as follows:

Afrudin-meh. Merded-meh. Adar-meh.

Ardisascht-meh. Schaharir-meh. Di-meh.

Cardi-meh. Mahar-meh. Behen-meh.

Tir-meh. Aben-meh. Affirer-meh.

The five additional days (in intercalary years six) are named Musteraca.

As it does not appear that the above-mentioned rule of intercalation was ever regularly followed, it is impossible to assign exactly the.days on which the different years begin. In some provinces of India the Parsees begin the year with September, in others they begin it with October. We have stated that the era began with the 16th June 632. But the vague year, which was followed till 1075, anticipated the Julian year by one day every four years. In 443 years the anticipation would amount to about 112 days, and the beginning of the year would, in consequence, be thrown back to near the beginning of the Julian year 632. To the year of the Persian era, therefore, add 631, and the sum will be the year of our era in which the Persian year begins.

Chinese Chronology.

From the time of the emperor Yao, upwards of 2000 years b. c., the Chinese had two different years; a civil year, which was regulated by the moon, and an astronomical year, which was solar. The civil year consisted in general of twelve months or lunations, but occasionally a thirteenth was added, in order to preserve its correspondence with the solar year. Even at this early period the solar or astronomical year consisted of 365⅜ days, like our Julian year; and it was arranged in the same manner, a day being intercalated every fourth year.

According to the missionary Gaubil, the Chinese divided the day into 100 he, each he into 100 minutes, and each minute into 100 seconds. This practice continued to prevail till the 17th century, when, at the instance of the Jesuit Schaall, president of the tribunal of mathematics, they adopted the European method of dividing the day into twenty-four hours, each hour into sixty minutes, and each minute into sixty seconds. The civil day commences at midnight, and ends at the midnight following.

Since the accession of the emperors of the Iīan dynasty, 205 B. c., the civil year of the Chinese has begun with the first day of that moon in the course of which the sun enters into the sign of the zodiac which corresponds with our sign Pisces. From the same period also, they have employed, in the adjustment of their solar and lunar years, a period of nineteen years, twelve of which are common, containing twelve lunations each, and the remaining seven intercalary, containing thirteen lunations. It is, however, not precisely known how they distributed their months of thirty and twenty-nine days, or, as they termed them, great and small moons. This, with other matters appertaining to the calendar, was probably left to be regulated from time to time by the mathematical tribunal.

The Chinese divide the time of a complete revolution of the sun, with regard to the solstitial points, into twelve equal portions, each corresponding to thirty days, ten hours, thirty minutes. Each of these periods, which is denominated a tze, is subdivided into two equal portions, called tehοηg-hi and tsie-hi ; the tchong-ki denoting the first half of the tee, and the tsie-hi the latter half. Though the tee are thus strictly portions of solar time, yet, what is remarkable, though not peculiar to China, they give their name to the lunar months, each month or lunation having the name of the tchong∙hi or sign at which the sun arrives during that month. As the tee is longer than a synodic revolution of the moon, the sun cannot arrive twice at a tchong-hi during the same lunation; and as there arc only twelve tee, the year can contain only twelve months having different names. It must happen sometimes that in the course of a lunation the sun enters into no new sign; in this case the month is intercalary, and called by the same name as the preceding month.

For chronological purposes, the Chinese, in common with some other nations of the east of Asia, employ cycles of sixty, by means of which they reckon their days, moons, and years. The days are distributed in the calendar into cycles of sixty, in the same manner as ours are distributed into weeks, or cycles of seven. Each day of the cycle has a particular name; and as it is a usual practice, in mentioning dates, to give the name of the day along with that of the moon and the year, this arrangement affords great facilities in verifying the epochs of Chinese chronology. The order of the days in the cycle is never interrupted by any intercalations that may be necessary for adjusting the months or years. The moons of the civil year are also distinguished by their place in the cycle of sixty; and as the intercalary moons are not reckoned, for the reason before stated, namely, that during one of these lunations the sun enters into no new sign, there are only twelve regular moons in a year, so that the cycle is renewed every five years. Thus the first moon of the year 1833 being the first of a new cycle, the first moon of every sixth year, reckoned backwards or forwards from that date, as 1828, 1823, &c., or 1837, 1842, &c., will also commence a new lunar cycle of sixty moons. In regard to the years, the arrangement is exactly the same. Each has a distinct number or name which marks its place in the cycle, and as this is generally given in referring to dates, along with the other chronological characters of the year, the ambiguity which arises from following a fluctuating or uncertain epoch is entirely obviated. The present cycle hegan in the year 1804 of our era; the year 1832 is consequently the 29th of the current cycle.

The cycle of sixty is formed of two subordinate cycles or series of characters, one of ten and the other of twelve, which are joined together so as to afford sixty different combinations. The names of the characters in the cycle of ten, which are called celestial signs, are,

1. Kea; 2. Yich; 3. Ping; 4. Ting; 5. Woo;

6. Ke; 7. Kang; 8. Sin; 9. Jin; 10. Kwey.

And in the series of 12, denominated terrestrial signs,

1. Tse; 2. Tchow; 3. Yin; 4. Maou; 5. Shin; 6. Sze;

7. Woo; 8. We; 9. Shin; 10. Yew; 11. Seo; 12. Hae.

The name of the first year, or of the first day, in the sexagenary cycle, is formed by combining the first words in each of the above series; the second is formed by combining the second of each series, and so on to the tenth. For the next year the first word of the first series is combined with the eleventh of the second; then the second of the first series with the twelfth of the second; after this the third of the first series with the first of the second, and so on till the sixtieth combination, when the last of the first series concurs with the last of the second. Thus Kca-tse is the name of the first year, Yih-tchow that of the second, Kea-seo that of the eleventh, Yih-hae that of the twelfth, Ping-tse that of the thirteenth, and so on. The order of proceeding is obvious.

In the Chinese history translated into the Tartar dialect by the orders of the emperor Kang-hi, who died in 1722, the characters of the cycle begin to appear at the year 2357 b. c. From this it has been inferred, that the [7:6:664]Chinese empire was established previous to that epoch; but it is obviously so easy to extend the cycles backwards indefinitely, that the inference can have very little weight. The characters given to that year 2357 b. c. are Kea-shin, which denote the 41st of the cycle. We must, therefore, suppose the cycle to have begun 2397 b. c., or forty years before the reign of Yao. This is the epoch assumed by the authors of L’Art de Verifier les Pates. The mathematical tribunal has, however, from time immemorial, counted the first year of the first cycle from the eighty-first of Yao, that is to say, from the year 2277 b. c.

Since the year 163 b. c. the Chinese writers have generally dated the year from the accession of the reigning emperor. An emperor, on his accession to the throne, gives a name to the years of his reign. He ordains, for example, that they shall be called Ta-te. In consequence of this edict, the following year is called the first of Ta-te, and the succeeding years the second, third, fourth, &c. of Ta-te, and so on, till it pleases the same emperor, or his successor, to ordain that the years shall be called by some other appellation. The periods thus formed are called by the Chinese Nien∙hao. According to this method of dating the years, a new era commences with every reign; and the year corresponding to a Chinese date can only be found when we have before us a catalogue of the Nien-hao, with their relation to the years of our era.

The Chinese chronology is discussed with ample detail by Freret, in the Memoirs of the Academy of Inscriptions, tom. xviii.; and an abridgment of his memoir is given in L’Art de Verifier les Pates (tom. ii. p. 284, et seq. Ed. in 4to, 1818), from which the preceding account is principally taken.

Indian Chronology.

The method of dividing and reckoning time followed by the various nations of India resembles in its general features that of the Chinese, but is rendered still more complex by the intermixture of Mahommedan with Hindu customs. Like the'Chinese, the Hindus have a solar year, which is generally followed in the transaction of public business, especially since the introduction of European power; and they have also a lunar year, which regulates their religious festivals, and which they follow in their domestic arrangements. Their solar year, or rather sidereal year, is measured by the time in which the sun returns to the same star, and is consequently longer than our astronomical year, by the whole quantity of the precession of the equinoxes. It is reckoned by the Hindus at 365 days, 6 hours, 12 minutes, 30 seconds, and consequently exceeds a Gregorian year by one day in sixty years. The Indian zodiac is divided into twelve solar and twenty-eight lunar signs; and the year begins with the sun’s arrival at the first degree of the first sign. The month is the time the sun takes to pass through one sign; and as each sign contains the same number of degrees, the months vary somewhat in length, according as the sun is nearer the apogee or perigee. The longest month may contain 31 days, 14 hours, 39 minutes, and the shortest only 29 days, 8 hours, 21 minutes. The civil months, however, depend solely on the moon; though, with the same perversion of ingenuity which we have already remarked with regard to the Chinese, and of which it would be difficult to find an example, except in the east of Asia, they derive their names from the solar signs of the zodiac. The first civil month commences with the day after the full moon of that lunation in the course of which the sun enters the first Hindu sign, and so on with the others. When the χ sun enters into no new sign during the course of a lunation, the month is intercalary, and is called by the name of that which precedes or follows it, which some prefix, to distinguish it from the regular month. In some provinces of India, as in Bengal, the civil month commences with the day after the new moon; but in the upper or northern provinces, it begins, as we have stated, with the day after the full moon. From the manner in which they are reckoned, it is evident that the Hindu months, both solar and lunar, neither consist of an entire number of days, nor are regulated by any cycle, but depend solely on the motion of the sun and moon. The time of their commencement is different on every different meridian; and a Hindu has no means of knowing beforehand on what day any month begins, excepting by consulting his almanack. The civil day in all parts of India begins at sunrise.

The Hindu eras have been the subject of much controversy. According to the dreams of Indian mythology, the duration of the world is limited to four yugs or ages, three of which have already passed, and the fourth, which is the hali-yug, is the last and most deteriorated. It is this only which has any reference to authentic chronology. It forms the principal era of India, and comprehends several others in common use, as the era of Vicramaditya, of Salivahana, the Bengalee era, and the cycle of sixty years.

The Kali-yug commenced in the year 3101 b. c. The year is sidereal, and begins when the sun enters the first sign of the Hindu zodiac, which at present happens about the 11th of April. Owing to the precession of the equinoxes, the beginning of the year advances in the seasons at the rate of about one day in sixty years.

The Era of Vieramaditya is reckoned from the year 56 B. c., which corresponds to 3045 of the Kali-yug. This era, the years of which are called Samvat, prevails chiefly in the higher or northern provinces of India, and in Guzerat. Its name is derived from that of a sovereign of Malwa, who, by defeating Soka, king of Delhi, acquired possession of the principal throne of India. Whether the year from which it is reckoned was that of the accession or death of this prince, is uncertain. The years are reckoned in the same manner as those of the Kali-yug; and it may be remarked of the Indian eras in general, that though some of them profess to be counted from the deaths of their kings, or other historical events, they all commence at the time the sun reaches the same point in his annual course through the zodiac.

The Era of Salivahana is the year 78 a. c., which corresponds to 3179 of the Kali-yug, and 134 of the Vicramaditya. The name is derived from Salivahan, who is said to have reigned many years over the kingdom of Nor-singa, and to have been a liberal encourager of the arts and sciences. It is generally used in records or writings of importance, but is most prevalent in the southern provinces of Hindustan. The years are called Saka.

The Fuslee Era, from the near coincidence of its dates with those of the Hegira, seems to have been imposed on the natives of India by their Mahommedan conquerors. It is principally used in revenue transactions, and is pretty generally known over India. There are several eras of this name: but the most common is that which is reckoned from the year 590 a. c. At Madras, the commencement of the Fuslee year is fixed on the 12th of July. In Bengal it begins in September, or with the full moon preceding the autumnal equinox.

The Bengalee Era is also supposed to be derived from the Hegira; but the year is measured by solar time, and therefore differs entirely from the Mahommedan year, which is purely lunar. At the present time, the Bengalee epoch is about nine years· later than the Hegira; the year 1245 of the Hegira having commenced in July 1829, and the Bengalee year 1236 in April 1829. The sidereal year exceeds the lunar year by 10days 211 hours nearly; consequently, by reckoning backwards, it will be found [7:6:665]that the dates of the Bengalee era and of the Hegira coincided about the middle of the sixteenth century. History is silent on the subject; but it seems probable, that though the epoch of the Hegira was partially adopted in India, the Hindus pertinaciously resisted all attempts to disturb their ancient methods of reckoning the subdivisions of the year.

Besides the Indian eras here enumerated, there are some others which are less generally known, or which are followed only in particular provinces. The cycle of sixty years is also sometimes used, particularly in connection with the era of Vicramaditya. According to the Bengal account, the first cycle began 3185 years b. c.; and the year 1832 of our era is consequently the thirty-seventh of the eighty-fourth cycle. In the Telinga account the first cycle began 3114 b. c.; and the year 1832 is the twenty-fourth of the eighty-third cycle.

We will conclude this part of the article with the following table, showing the dates at which the different eras above described respectively commenced.
[table]

The utility of chronological and synchronistic tables in the illustration of history has been long perceived. Of the more ancient writers who devoted their labours to this object, the principal are, Diodorus Siculus, Julius Africanus, Eusebius of Caesarea, and George Syncellus, to whom we are indebted for the preservation of some curious fragments of Berosus, Sanconiathon, and Manetho. The modern works of this kind are exceedingly numerous. It will be sufficient to refer the reader to Petau, de Doctrina Temporis·, Usher’s Annales Veteris et Novi Testamenti; Newton’s Chronology; Blair’s Chronology and History of the World; Playfair’s Chronology; and the Tables Chronologiques de l’ Histoire Ancienne et Moderne of Thouret; without mentioning a multitude of smaller tables, of various degrees of merit. But the most complete work on chronology is the Art de Verifier les Dates, an immense compilation, for which the student of history is indebted to the Benedictines of the congregation of St Maur. We may likewise mention, as a very extensive and useful work, though printed in a most inconvenient form, the Tableaux Historiques Chronologiques et Géographiques of Buret des Longchamps, the second edition of which was published at Brussels in 1822.

The subjoined table of political events has been compiled with great care for the present edition of the Encyclopaedia. Though necessarily of limited extent, it will be found to contain a useful summary of the principal events of ancient and modern history. In the early period, the dates are taken from Usher and Blair, as being those followed by the majority of chronologers. (s.)

A Chronological Table of the Principal Events of Political History, and of the most important Inventions and Discoveries, from the Creation of the World to the Year 1832.
B. C.
4004
Creation of the World, according to the Hebrew text of the Scriptures.
2349
Commencement of the Deluge.
2200
ì Kingdoms of Babylon, Assyria, and Egypt, sup- 2100 ĵ posed to have been founded respectively by Nim rod, Assur, and Menes.
2089
Kingdom of Sicyon established. 1981 Call of Abraham.
1856
Kingdom of Argos established by Inachus. 1764 Deluge of Ogyges.
1700
The shepherd kings possess Egypt.
1556
Cecrops, first king of Athens.
1503
Deluge of Deucalion.
1493
Cadmus comes into Greece. 1491 The Israelites leave Egypt.
1485
Danaus comes to Greece from Egypt.
1480
Troy built by Dardanus.
1453
The Pentateuch, or five books of Moses, written. 1451 The Israelites enter Canaan.
1406
Minos reigns in Crete; gives laws to the Cretans. 1362 Pelops comes to Greece from Asia.
1352
Corinth said to be founded by Sisyphus. 1344 The kingdom of Mycenae begins.
1325
Isthmian games instituted.
1294
First colony from Italy to Sicily: second, 1264. 1263 The Argonautic expedition.
1257
Theseus unites the cities of Attica. 1252 Tyre, the capital of Phoenicia, built. 1243 Evander conducts a colony of Greeks into Italy. 1225 to 1215 First and second wars of Thebes.
1193
The Trojan war begins.
1184
Troy taken and burnt by the Greeks. 1104 The Heraclidae conquer the Peloponnesus.
1102
Sparta becomes a kingdom.
1079
Saul king of Israel.
1070
Athenians abolish regal government. Medon first Archon. Codrus.
1055
David king of Israel. 1044 Migration of the Ionian colonies. 1008 Dedication of Solomon’s Temple.
979
Rehoboam. Judah and Israel separate kingdoms.
974
Jerusalem plundered by Shiskah (Sesostris) king of Egypt-
894
Gold and silver money coined at Argos.
884
Lycurgus reforms the republic of Lacedaemon.
869
Dido leads a colony of Phoenicians to Africa; founds Carthage.
821
Fall of Nineveh. Sardanapalus. Arbaces.
799
Kingdom of Lydia founded.
790
Pul founds a new Assyrian empire.
776
Commencement of the Olympic era.
760
The Ephori, popular magistrates, instituted at Lacedaemon.
758
Syracuse built by Archias of Corinth.
[7:6:666]
B. C.
754
Athenians limit the office of archon to ten years. Charops.
753
Rome founded by Romulus.
747
Nabonassar extends the Assyrian empire. Medes. Era of Nabonassar begins 26th February.
746
Government of Corinth republican.
721
Captivity of the ten tribes of Israel.
711
Sennacherib, king of Assyria, invades Judea. The Medes revolt. Deioces.
703
Corcyra (Corfu) founded by the Corinthians.
702
Deioces builds Ecbatana, the capital of Media.
685
Second Messenian war begins; continues fourteen years.
684
Athenians make the archonship annual. Creon.
681
Esarhaddon re-unites the kingdoms of Babylon and Nineveh (Assyria).
670
Psammeticus king of all Egypt. Byzantium founded by an Athenian colony.
659
Cypselus usurps the government of Corinth. Periander.
635
Scythians get possession of Upper Asia; Cimmerians of Lydia. Both are dispossessed (607) by Cyaxares.
625
Nabopolassar seizes Babylon; renders himself independent.
624
Draco arclion and legislator of Athens.
606
Destruction of Nineveh by Nabopolassar king of Babylon, and Cyaxares king of Media.
598
Nebuchadnezzar takes Jerusalem; carries the Jews into captivity.
596
Perdiccas founds the monarchy of Macedonia.
594
Solon archon and legislator of Athens.
591
The Pythian games instituted in Greece.
588
First irruption of the Gauls into Italy-
580
Copper money coined at Rome.
571
Tyre taken by Nebuchadnezzar. Egypt subdued.
562
Comedies first exhibited at Athens by Thespis.
560
Pisistratus tyrant of Athens.
546
Kingdoms of Media and Lydia destroyed by Cyrus king of Persia.
539
Marseilles built by the Phocaeans.
538
Babylonian empire subverted by Cyrus. The Jews released from captivity.
534
The Jews begin to rebuild their temple; are engaged in this work nine years.
529
Death of Cyrus the Great. Cambyses king of Persia.
525
Cambyses conquers Egypt.
510
The Pisistratidae expelled from Athens. Democracy restored.
509
Tarquin expelled from Rorpe. Consular substituted for regal government. Brutus.
508
First alliance between the Romans and the Carthaginians.
—
Darius Hystaspes, king of Persia, subdues Thrace; makes an unsuccessful invasion of Scythia.
504
The Athenians, by burning Sardis, embroil themselves with the Persians.
498
Dictatorship instituted at Rome. Lartius.
493
The port of Piraeus built by the Athenians.
490
Battle of Marathon. Tribunes of the people created at Rome.
486
Darius, king of Persia, succeeded by his son Xerxes.
483
Quaestors instituted at Rome.
481
Xerxes renews the war with Greece.
480
Battles of Thermopylae and Salamis. Leonidas. Themistocles.
479
The Persians ravage Attica,—burn Athens,—suffer defeats at Plataea and Mycale. Xerxes leaves Greece.
476
Themistocles rebuilds Athens.
471
Volero renders more popular the election of consuls and other magistrates at Rome.
470
Battles of the Eurymedon. Persians defeated by Cimon.
465
Third Messenian war begins; lasts ten years.
463
The Egyptians, assisted by the Athenians, throw off the Persian yoke.
451
Roman decemvirate. Laws of the twelve tables.
449
Cimon negotiates a peace between the Greeks and Persians.
448
First sacred war concerning the temple of Delphi. Battle of Coronea.
445
Military tribunes substituted for consuls at Rome.
437
Censorship instituted. Pericles powerful at Athens.
431
Peloponnesian war begins; continues twenty-seven years.
421
Peace of six years and ten months between the Athenians and Lacedaemonians; each continues at war with the other’s allies.
416
Sicily becomes the field of the Peloponnesian war.
414
The Athenians are defeated before Syracuse.
409
The Carthaginians enter Sicily; are repulsed by Hermocrates.
405
Battle of Aegospotamos. Usurpation of Dionysius.
404
Athens taken by Lysander. End of the Peloponnesian war. Government of the thirty tyrants.
401
Battle of Cunaxa, and death of the younger Cyrus. Retreat of the ten thousand Greeks. Sparta involved in war with Persia.
—
Persecution and death of Socrates. Expulsion of the thirty tyrants. Thrasybulus.
396
The Lacedaemonians invade Asia. 395, Corinthian alliance assists Persia. 394, Battles of Cnidos and Coronaea. Agesilaus.
387
Peace of Antalcidas. Greek cities of Asia become tributary to Persia.
385
Rome burnt by the Gauls under Brennus.
382
Lacedaemonians seize the citadel of Thebes; (380) are expelled by Pelopidas and Epaminondas.
376
Sea-fight of Naxos. Chabrias.
371
Epaminondasdefeats the Lacedaemonians at Leuctra.
367
Institution of the praetorship at Rome. Licinian law. Plebeian consul.
363
Battle of Mantinea. Death of Epaminondas.
359
Philip king of Macedon.
358
Greek social war. Battle of Methone.
357
Dionysius the Younger expelled from Syracuse.
356
Birth of Alexander the Great. Temple of Diana at Ephesus burnt by Erostratus. Phocian or sacred war.
350
Darius Ochus subdues Egypt.
348
Philip of Macedon takes Olynthus. Sacred war ends.
347
Dionysius recovers the tyranny of Syracuse; is finally expelled (343) by Timoleon.
343
War between the Romans and Samnites begins; continues with interruptions to 272.
340
Timoleon defeats the Carthaginians at Agrigentum.
338
Battle of Cheronaea. 337, Philip chosen to lead the Greeks to the invasion of Persia. 836, Murdered. Alexander. Darius Codomannus.
336
Alexander destroys Thebes; 335, Is chosen generalissimo of the Greeks; Marches into Asia; 334, Defeats the Persians on the banks of the Granicus; 333, Again at Issus; 332, Subdues Egypt and takes Tyre; 331, Defeats the Persians at Arbela. 330, Darius is killed; end of the Persian empire.
[7:6:667]
B. C.
328
Alexander invades India; penetrates to the Ganges; his admiral, Nearchus, sails from the Indus to the Euphrates.
324
Death of Alexander at Babylon—an event followed by wars among his officers, and the dismemberment of his empire.
315
Restoration of Thebes.
312
Era of the Selcucidae.
311
Appian way and aqueducts constructed at Rome.
304
Demetrius Poliorcetes besieges Rhodes; restores (303) the liberty of the Grecian cities.
301
Battle of 1psus. Dismemberment of the empire of Alexander completed.
300
Seleucus founds Antioch, Edessa, and Laodicea.
286
Law of Moenius; the Roman senate bind themselves to sanction all decrees of the people.
285
Astronomical era of Dionysius of Alexandria.
283
Alexandrian library founded.
281
Achaean league negotiated.
280
Pyrrhus, invited by the Samnite allies, invades Italy. Battles of Lyris and Asculum.
277
Greek (Septuagint) version of the Scriptures made by order of Ptolemy Philadelphus.
274
Battle of Beneventum. Pyrrhus withdraws from Italy·
272
Samnite war ended. Rome mistress of all the southern states of Italy.
266
Silver money first coined at Rome.
264
First Punic war begins. Chronology of Paros (Arundel marbles) composed.
256
Regulus defeats the Carthaginians in the sea-fight of Ecnoma; lands in Africa; reduces Clupea and other towns; is vanquished (255) by Xantippus, and taken prisoner.
250
Parthia, under Arsaces, becomes an independent kingdom.
241
Catulus destroys the navy of Carthage. End of first Punic war.
240
Plays (the composition of Livius Andronicus) first acted at Rome.
237
Conquest of Spain attempted by the Carthaginians.
235
Temple of Janus shut; open since reign of Numa.
231
Sardinia and Corsica subdued by the Romans.
227
War between Sparta and the Achaean league; ended (222) by the battle of Sellasia. Cleomenes. Aratus.
225
to 220 Gauls repeatedly defeated and driven from Cisalpine Gaul. Illyria subdued.
219
Hannibal the Carthaginian besieges Saguntum, and brings on the second Punic war.
218
Hannibal leads an army from Spain into Italy, defeats the Romans at Ticinum and Trebia; 217, at Thrasymene; 216, at Cannae; 215, concludes an alliance with Philip (2d) of Macedon.
212
Philip defeats the Aetolians, allies of Rome. Marcellus takes Syracuse.
211
P. Scipio sent into Spain. Antiochus conquers Judea.
207
Asdrubal, conducting supplies to Hannibal, is defeated and slain at the Metaurus. Gold money at Rome.
204
Scipio, having reduced Spain, carries the war into Africa.
203
The Carthaginians recal Hannibal.
202
Battle of Zama. 201, Submission of Carthage. End of second Punic war.
197
Defeat of Philip at Cynocephale. End of first Macedonian war.
192
to 189 War between the Romans and Antiochus, king of Syria. Battle of Magnesia.
188
Philopoemen abrogates the laws of Lycurgus.
172
to 168 Second Macedonian war. Battle of Pydna. Macedon becomes a Roman province.
170
Antiochus Epiphanes takes Jerusalem.
168
First library at Rome.
166
Judas Maccabaeus delivers the Jews from the Syrians.
149
Third Punic war begins.
147
Rome defends Sparta against the Achaean league.
144
Corinth, Thebes, Chalcis destroyed. Greece becomes a Roman province.
—
Carthage destroyed. Carthaginian territory reduced into a province.
141
War of Numantia.
135
to 132 Servile war in Sicily.
133
Tiberius Gracchus slain. Numantia taken. Pergamus annexed to the Roman empire.
121
Caius Gracchus slain.
117
Gallia Narbonensis becomes a Roman province. Ill to 106 Jugurthan war. Metellus. Marius.
109
Cimbri and Teutones invade Gaul; 105, cut off a Roman army of 80,000 on the banks of the Rhone.
102
Marius exterminates the Teutonic army at Aix, and the Cimbrian (101) on the banks of the Athesis.
91
Italian (sociaD war begins; lasts three years.
88
Mithridatic war. Marian civil war.
87
Marius seizes Rome; 86, dies. Cinna.
84
Sylla conquers and makes peace with Mithridates; 83 attacks the Marian party in Italy; 82, seizes Rome, and is made perpetual dictator; resigns his office (78).
77
Civil war of Sertorius in Spain, and of Lepidus and Catulus in Italy.
74
Mithridatic war renewed. Lucullus.
73
to 71 Servile war in Italy. Spartacus. Crassus.
67
Pompey reduces the pirates; 64, subdues Mithridates and Tigranes; 63, reduces Syria into a Roman province.
62
Conspiracy of Catiline. Cicero.
59
First triumvirate; Pompey, Crassus, Caesar.
58
Caesar begins the conquest of Gaul; 55, invades Britain. Crassus goes to Syria; slain (53) by the Parthians.
52
Clodius murdered by Milo.
50
Subjugation of Gaul completed.
49
Civil war. Caesar drives Pompey from Italy, and disperses his army in Spain.
—
Commencement of the era of Antioch.
48
Battle of Pharsalia. Murder of Pompey in Egypt.
47
War in Egypt. Destruction of the Alexandrian library. Defeat of Pharnaces.
46
African war. Cato. Reformation of the calendar; this the year of confusion.
45
War in Spain; Battle of Munda. Caesar declared perpetual dictator.
44
Caesar assassinated. Brutus. Cassius.
43
Battle of Mutina. Second triumvirate; Octavius, Μ. Antony, Lepidus.
42
Battles of Philippi. The triumviri masters of the empire.
40
Accommodation between Sextus Pompey and the triumviri; broken, 39.
36
Pompey driven from Sicily; put to death.
35
Lepidus deprived of power.
32
War between Octavius and Antony.
31
Battle of Actium. .Era of the Roman emperors.
27
Name of Octavius changed, by the senate, to Augustus.
15
Rhaeti and Vindelici defeated by Drusus.
[7:6:668]
B. C.
12
Pannonia subdued by Tiberius.
10
Temple of Janus shut.
8
Augustus corrects the calendar, suppressing the intercalary days for twelve years.
4
Birth of Christ, four years before the vulgar era.
A. D.
9
Three Roman legions under Varus cut to pieces in Germany.
14
Tiberius emperor of Rome.
25
End of the Olympiads.
33
Crucifixion of our Saviour.
37
Caligula emperor.
40
The followers of our Saviour called Christians.
41
Claudius emperor.
43
Expedition of Claudius to Britain. 44, Successes of Plautius.
50
London founded by the Romans. 51, Caractacus carried to Rome.
54
Nero emperor.
61
Boadicea defeats the Romans. Suetonius Paulinus.
64
Rome set on fire—burned six days. First persecution of the Christians.
66
Jewish war begins.
68
Galba emperor. 69, Otho—Vitellius. 70, Vespasian. Destruction of Jerusalem.
77
The Parthians ravage Armenia.
79
Titus emperor. Herculaneum and Pompeii destroyed by an eruption of Vesuvius.
80
Agricoa completes the pacification of South Britain.
81
Domitian emperor.
85
Agricoa defeats the Caledonians; circumnavigates Britain.
88
Dacian war begins.
95
Second Christian persecution.
96
Nerva emperor. 98, Trajan.
103
to 107 Dacia and other eastern countries subdued.
118
Adrian emperor. Conquests of Trajan abandoned. Euphrates, eastern frontier.
120
Adrian’s wall (from Tyne to Solway) built.
132
to 135 Second Jewish war. Jews driven from their country.
138
Antoninus Pius emperor.
139
Lollius Urbicus subdues Britain to the Moray Frith; builds the wall of Antoninus between the Forth and Clyde.
161
Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus joint emperors.
163
Fourth Christian persecution.
166
to 178 War with the Marcomanni, Quadi, &c.
171
Death of Verus∙ Aurelius sole emperor.
180
Commodus. Goths seize the eastern part of Dacia.
189
The Saracens (now first noticed in history) defeat the Romans.
193
Pertinax. Didius Julian. Pescennius Niger. Septimius Severus.
202
Fifth Christian persecution.
209
Severus rebuilds the wall of Antoninus (Graham’s Dyke).
211
Caracalla and Geta emperors. 212, Geta murdered.
213
First mention of the Alemanni (Germans), a union of tribes on the Upper Rhine.
217
Macrinus emperor. 218, Heliogabalus. 222, Alexander Severus. The Goths bribed not to molest the empire.
226
Alexander defeats the Persians; 235, is murdered by Maximin.
236
Sixth Christian persecution. 237, Defeat of the Sarmatians.
238
Papienus and Balbinus joint emperors. Gordian.
242
Gordian defeats Sapor the Persian.
244
Philip the Arabian emperor.
249
Decius emperor. Seventh Christian persecution. First notice of the Franks, a union of tribes on the Lower Rhine.
251
Vibius, Gallus, emperors.
253
The Goths, Burgundians, &c. break into Moesia and Pannonia.
254
Valerian emperor. 257, Eighth Christian persecution.
259
Sapor ravages Syria; takes Valerian prisoner. The Germans advance to Ravenna.
260
Gallienus emperor. Thirty tyrants.
261
Sapor takes Antioch. 263, The Franks invade Gaul; 267, the Heruli Greece.
268
Claudius emperor; defeats (269) 320,000 of the Goths and Heruli.
270
Aurelian emperor.
271
The Alemanni and Marcomanni ravage the empire.
272
Ninth Christian persecution.
273
Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, defeated by Aurelian at Edessa.
274
Silk brought from India.
275
Tacitus emperor. Goths seize Dacia.
277
Probus emperor; drives the Alemanni from Gaul; defeats the Franks.
282
Carus, (284) Diocletian, emperors. The northern nations redouble their attacks.
292
Partition of the empire by Diocletian.
298
Constantine Chlor us defeats the Alemanni near Langres.
302
Tenth Christian persecution.
304
Constantine and Galerius emperors. 306, Constantine (the Great) becomes sole emperor; stops the persecution of the Christians.
313
Constantine publishes the edict of Milan in favour of the Christians; defeats the Franks; also (321) the Saracens.
325
First general council meets at Nice.
329
Seat of empire transferred from Rome to Constantinople.
337
Constantine IL, Constans, and Constantius joint emperors.
350
Franks possess extensive settlements in Gaul.
357
Julian defeats the Germans at Strasburg.
361
Julian emperor; slain (363) in battle with the Persians.
364
Valentinian emperor of the West. Valens, of the East.
373
Scriptures translated into the language of the Goths.
375
"Migration of Nations.” The Huns cross the Don and Wolga.
376
Valens allows the Goths to settle in Thrace. They advance (378) to the gates of Constantinople.
379
Theodosius the Great emperor of the East, in 392 also of the West. Christianity becomes the religion of the state.
381
Second general council held at Constantinople.
383
Huns overrun Mesopotamia; are defeated by the Goths; invade (395) the eastern provinces.
400
Alaric the Visigoth ravages Italy; is defeated (403) by Stilicho.
406
The Vandals, Alans, and Suevi invade France and Spain.
410
Alaric sacks Rome.
411
The Vandals established in Spain.
420
Pharamond, first king of the Franks, supposed to begin his reign.
424
Valentinian III. emperor of the West.
[7:6:669]
A. D.
426
The Romans withdraw finally from Britain.
429
The Vandals pass into Africa.
431
Third general council—held at Ephesus.
439
Vandals take Carthage; establish themselves in the African province.
442
Theodosius 11. concludes a disgraceful treaty with Attila the Hun.
445
to 448 Attila ravages the eastern provinces; exacts a tribute from the emperor; 450, invades Germany and France; sustains a defeat at Chalons.
451
Saxons assist the Britons against the Scots an Picts.
—
Fourth general council—held at Chalcedon.
452
Foundation of the city of Venice.
455
Rome sacked by the Vandals. Genseric.
468
The Visigoths expel the Romans from Spain.
470
Aella the Saxon occupies the kingdom of Sussex defeats (471) all the British princes.
475
Romulus Augustulus last emperor of the West; deposed (476) by Odoacer, king of the Heruli. Extinction of the western empire.
481
Clovis king of the Franks.
485
Battle of Soissons. Syagrius.
488
Theodoric the Ostrogoth defeats Odoacer; becomes king of Italy.
497
Clovis, with his Franks, embraces Christianity; 500, exacts tribute from the Burgundians; 507, subdues the Visigoths settled in Gaul; 510, makes Paris the capital of France. 511, The kingdom divided.
516
Computation of time by the Christian era introduced by Dionysius Exiguus.
529
Belisarius defeats the Persians. Code of Justinian published.
534
Kingdom of the Vandals in Africa destroyed.
537
Rome taken from the Ostrogoths; recovered(547) by Totila.
540
Antioch destroyed by the Persians.
547
Northumbrian kingdom founded by Ida the Saxon.
550
Rise of the kingdom of Poland.
553
Ostrogothic kingdom of Italy destroyed by Narses.
559
France re-united under Clotaire.
568
The Lombards conquer Italy.
580
Latin ceases to be the spoken language of Italy.
585
Kingdoms of the Saxon Heptarchy established, some before, others about this period. Britons in Wales, Cornwall, and Brittany. Civil wars of the Saxons begin.
596
Augustine the monk preaches Christianity to the British Saxons.
602
Papal supremacy authorized by Phocas, emperor of the East.
604
St Paul’s Church in London founded.
616
Jerusalem taken by the Persians under Cosroes II.
622
Era of the Hegira, or flight of Mahommed from Mecca to Medina.
625
Constantinople besieged by an army of Persians, Huns, and Sclavonians.
632
Abubeker—633, Omar, succeed Mahommed as caliphs of the Saracens.
636
Omar takes Jerusalem—640, Alexandria—orders the Alexandrian library to be burnt.
648
The Saracens take Cyprus—653, Rhodes—658, agree to pay the emperor tribute—669, ravage Sicily—672, make a fruitless attack on Constantinople—675, fail in an attempt to establish themselves in Spain.
680
Sixth general or oecumenical council of Constantinople.
690
Pepin d’Heristal (Maire du Palais) regent of France.
698
The Saracens seize Carthage—699 and 700, sustain defeats from the emperor of the East—713, make themselves masters of Spain.
714
Charles Martel (Maire du Palais) regent of France.
718
Christian kingdom of the Asturias founded by Pelagius.
729
The Saracens ravage France—are defeated (732) by Charles Martel, in the battle of Tours.
742
Childeric III. (last of the Merovingian dynasty) king of France.
749
The Abassidae caliphs of the Saracens.
751
Pepin (le Bref.) deposes Childeric, and founds the Carlovingian dynasty of French kings.
754
Pepin takes Ravenna from the Lombards, and confers it on the pope—hence origin of the pope’s sovereignty.
756
Abdarrahman king of Cordova. Didier last king of Lombardy.
762
Almanzor caliph of the Saracens, makes Bagdad the seat of his government.
767
The Turks (a Tartar tribe) ravage Asia Minor.
768
Charles (Charlemagne) and Carloman kings of France.
772
Charlemagne sole ruler.
774
Charlemagne subdues the kingdom of Lombardy— 778, Spain to the Ebro—779, Navarre and Sardinia—785, Saxony.
785
Haroun Alraschid, caliph of the Saracens, ravages part of the empire of the East—encourages science among the Arabs.
787
The Danes pay their first visit to England. Seventh general council—held at Nice.
794
Charlemagne defeats and disperses the Huns.
797
The Saracens ravage Cappadocia, Cyprus, and Rhodes.
800
Charlemagne crowned emperor of the Romans. Clocks brought from the East to Europe.
814
Louis (le Débonnaire) emperor and king of France —817, divides his dominions among his sons.
827
Egbert unites the kingdoms of the Saxon heptarchy into one—England. The Danes begin to infest the English coast.
838
Ethelwolf king of England. Tithes.
843
Kenneth M<Alpin reduces the whole of North Britain into the monarchy of Scotland.
853
Separation of the Greek and Latin churches.
855
Kingdom of Navarre founded by Garcias.
855
Ethelbald and Ethelbert—866, Ethelred—872, Alfred, kings of England. The Danes commit destructive ravages.
874
Iceland peopled by the Norwegians. ,
875
Norway, Orkney, Shetland, and the Hebrides, subject to Harold Harfager.
877
Louis (the Stammerer) emperor of Germany and king of France. Hereditary feudal system begins to prevail in France.
878
to 890 Alfred the Great destroys the Danish power in England; establishes a militia—a navy; divides England into counties, hundreds, &c.; publishes a code of laws.
880
The Normans ravage France; 885, besiege Paris.
886
University of Oxford founded by Alfred.
900
Louis IV. (last Carlovingian) emperor of Germany.
901
Edward the Elder king of England.
904
The Russians before Constantinople.
911
Conrad, duke of Franconia (a German), elected emperor by the princes of the empire.
[7:6:670]
A. D.
912
Rollo the Norman extorts a grant of the province of Neustria (Normandy) from Charles the Simple.
915
University of Cambridge founded.
928
Athelstan king of England.
931
Rise of the republic of Pisa. Geneva in the hands of the Saracens.
941
Edmund I.—948, Edred—955, Edwy—959, Edgar, kings of England. Wolves extirpated by Edgar.
961
Candia retaken from the Saracens.
964
Otho the Great re unites Italy to Germany.
967
Antioch retaken from the Saracens.
970
Greenland discovered by Gunbiorn, an Icelander.
976
Edward II. and 978, Ethelred IL, kings of England.
977
Greece, Macedon, and Thrace, ravaged by the Bulgarians.
986
Louis V. (last Carlovingian) king of France.
987
Hugh Capet, count of Paris, ascends the throne of France—third dynasty.
991
The arithmetical figures introduced into Europe by the Arabians.
999
Boleslaus first king of Poland.
1002
Massacre of the Danes settled in England, by Ethelred; the cause of an invasion by Sueno, king of Denmark, in 1013, and by Canute, his son, in 1014.
1016
Edmund Ironside king of England. War with Canute, king of Denmark.
1017
Canute becomes king of England.
1018
The Normans invade Italy.
1030
Caliphat of Cordova dismembered.
1036
Harold Harefoot king of England.
1039
Hardicanute (last Danish) king of England.
—
Macbeth murders Duncan—usurps the throne of Scotland.
1041
Edward the Confessor (son of Ethelred II.) king of England. Danish power in England annihilated.
1043
The Turks subdue Persia—1055, take Bagdad— deprive the caliphs of temporal authority—suffer them to retain the spiritual.
1056
Milan a republic.
1057
Macbeth slain by the English. Malcolm Canmore, son of Duncan, king of Scots.
1058
Guiscard the Norman expels the Saracens from Sicily.
1062
A council of bishops decrees that the cardinals alone shall nominate supreme pontiffs.
1065
The Turks take Jerusalem from the Saracens.
1066
Harold king of England. William, duke of Normandy, disputes his title; defeats Harold at Hastings, and gains the crown.
1070
Feudal law introduced into England by William the Conqueror.
1073
Pope Gregory VΠ. (Hildebrand) publishes a bull against the investiture and marriage of priests; 1076, excommunicates and deposes the emperor Henry VI.
1079
Doomsday book begun by order of William the Conqueror—finished 1085 or 1086.
1085
Alphonso of Castile takes Toledo and Madrid from the Saracens.
1086
Carthusian order of monks established.
1087
William II. (Rufus) king of England; Robert, his brother, duke of Normandy.
1091
Saracens in Spain assisted by the Moors, who take possession of their dominions.
1095
Council of Clermont. First crusade. Peter the hermit.
1098
The crusaders take Antioch, and, 1099, Jerusalem; erect a Christian kingdom; Godfrey of Bouillon ' sovereign. Knights of St John instituted.
1100
Henry I. king of England.
1102
Guiscard the Norman assumes the title of king of Naples.
1106
Normandy re-annexed to England.
1108
Louis VI. of France incorporates towns; abridges the power of the feudal chiefs.
1110
Order of the Templars instituted.
1119
War between England and France. Battle of Andel i.
1135
Stephen king of England.
1137
Pandects of Justinian discovered at Amalphi.
1138
Battle of the Standard; David First of Scots defeated by the earl of Albemarle.
1139
Civil war in England between Stephen, and Matilda, daughter of Henry I.; 1141, Battle of Lincoln.
1140
Canon law introduced into England. Faction of the Guelphs and Ghibellines.
1147
Second crusade. Bernard of Clairvaux. Moscow founded. Alphonso Henriquez takes Lisbon from the Moors; assumes the title of king of Portugal.
1150
Study of civil law revived at Bologna. Scholastic philosophy cultivated.
1152
Frederic Barbarossa emperor of Germany.
1153
Treaty of Winchester; compromise between Stephen and Prince Henry, son of Matilda.
1154
Henry II. (Plantagenet) king of England. Guelphs and Ghibellines at war in Italy.
1157
Bank of Venice established.
1160
Religious sect of the Albigenses begins to attract notice.
1163
London bridge built of stone.
1164
Teutonic order of knighthood instituted in Germany.
—
King of England attempts to retrench clerical usurpations. Council of Clarendon. Becket.
1172
Ireland conquered by Henry II. Strongbow earl of Pembroke.
1175
Division of England into four circuits; appointment of itinerant judges.
1179
University of Padua founded.
1180
Philip (Augustus) king of France. Guelphic party repulsed. Bills of exchange in use.
1187
Jerusalem taken by Saladin, sultan of Egypt.
1189
Richard I. king of England. Third crusade; the leaders, Frederick of Germany, Richard of England, Philip of France.
1191
Ptolemais reduced by the crusaders; Battle of Ascalon; truce of three years, three months, three weeks, three days, &c. with Saladin.
1200
Universities establishing in many large towns.— First historical notice of the mariner’s compass.
1202
Fourth crusade, under Baldwin, earl of Flanders; bursts upon Constantinople. Baldwin becomes emperor of the East.
1204
The inquisition established by Pope Innocent III.
—
Provinces of Normandy, Anjou, &c. re-united to France.
1206
Gengis Khan. Mogul empire. Dispute between John, king of England, and the pope; settled 1213.
1208
London obtains a charter for electing its own magistrates.
1210
Crusade against the Albigenses.
1212
Battle of Toledo; Christians defeat the Moors.
[7:6:671]
A. D.
1213
King of England becomes a vassal of the holy see.
1215
Magna Charta signed by John.
1216
Henry III. king of England.
1217
Fourth crusade, under Andrew, king of Hungary.
1218
Switzerland a province of the German empire.
1219
Damietta taken by the crusaders.
1222
Assembly of estates of France called a parliament.
1226
St Louis king of France. Institution of the monastic orders of St Dominic and St Francis.
1227
Gengis Khan and the Moguls (Western Tartars) overrun the empire of the Saracens.
1228
Sixth crusade under the emperor Frederic II.
1234
Inquisition committed to the Dominicans.
1237
Russia subdued by the Moguls.
1248
Seventh crusade under St Louis.
1254
Interregnum in Germany to 1273.
1256
Hanseatic league formed.
1258
Bagdad taken by the Moguls. End of the empire of the Saracens.
1261
Battle of Largs. Norwegians defeated by Alexander III. king of Scots. Use of the mariner’s compass known in France.
1264
Borough deputies sit, for the first time, in the English parliament. Earl of Leicester. Battle of Lewes and (1265) of Evesham.
1266
Charles, count of Anjou, defeats Mainfroy, king of Naples and Sicily; 1268, succeeds him as king.
1272
Edward I. king of England. Florentine academy founded.
1273
Rodolph of Hapsburg (first of the Austrian family) emperor of Germany.
1279
The Moguls subdue China.
1282
Sicilian vespers. King of Aragon obtains possession of Sicily; academy de la Crusea instituted.
1283
Edward I. conquers Wales.
1290
Death of Margaret of Norway queen of Scots. Competition of Bruce, Baliol, &c. for the crown. Edward I. arbiter.
1291
Ptolemais taken by the Turks. End of the crusades.
1292
Edward extorts an admission of his feudal superiority from the Scots barons; decides the disputed succession in favour of Baliol.
1295
First English House of Commons assembled.
1296
Edward dethrones Baliol; attempts to annex Scotland to his other dominions. Battles (1297) of Stirling and (1298) Falkirk. Sir William Wallace.
1299
Othman (founder of the Ottoman empire) makes Prusa the seat of the Turkish power.
1301
King of England’s eldest son created prince of Wales. Spectacles used.
1305
Robert Bruce attempts to restore the independence of Scotland; 1306, is crowned at Scone.
1307
Establishment of the Swiss republics. William Tell. Edward II. king of England.
1308
Pope transfers his residence from Rome to Avignon.
1310
Lincoln’s Inn Society established. Rhodes taken by the knights of St John. Chimneys used in domestic architecture.
1312
Order of Templars suppressed.
1314
Battle of Bannockburn. Independence of Scotland secured.
1319
Catalonia and Valencia united to Aragon. University of Dublin established.
1325
First treaty of commerce between England and Venice.
1327
Edward III. king of England.
1328
Philip of Valois king of France. Salic law.
1329
David II. (Bruce) king of Scots.
1331
The Teutonic knights settle in Prussia.
1332
to 1336 Crown of Scotland contended for by David Bruce, and Edward, son of John Baliol. Battle of Halidon Hill.
1336
Crown of France claimed by Edward III.—the cause, in 1339, of war between France and England.
1340
Gunpowder invented by Swartz, a monk of Cologne. Oil painting by John Van Eyk.
1341
Petrarch crowned at Rome.
1345
Canary islands discovered by the Genoese. Firearms in use.
1346
Battles of Cressy and Durham. Siege of Calais.
1347
Rienzi tribune of the people at Rome. University of Prague founded.
1350
Order of the Garter instituted by Edward III.
1351
John king of France.
1352
The Turks first enter Europe.
1355
The Golden Bull fixes the constitution of the German empire.
1356
Battle of Poictiers. Black Prince.
1357
Coals first used in London.
1360
Peace of Bretigni. Aquitaine ceded to England.
1361
The Turks conquer Adrianople; settle in Europe; establish the military order of Janizaries.
1362
Edward III. abolishes the use of French in the English courts of law.
1365
Universities of Vienna and Geneva founded.
1370
War between England and France renewed.
1377
Pope returns to Rome. Richard II. king of England. Doctrines of Wickliffe propagated.
1378
Two popes, Urban VI. at Rome, Clement VII. at Avignon.
1380
Tamerlane (or Timour) the Mogul conqueror, subdues Chorasan.
1381
Wat Tyler and Jack Straw’s insurrection in England. Bills of exchange used by the English.
1383
Cannon employed in the defence of Calais.
1384
First navigation act in England. Windsor Castle built.
1386
Tamerlane subdues Georgia.
1388
Battle of Otterburn. Douglas. Percy.
1392
Cape of Good Hope discovered by the Portuguese.
1395
Hungarians defeated by the Turks.
1398
Delhi taken by Tamerlane.
1399
Henry IV. (of the house of Lancaster) king of England. Order of the Bath instituted.
1400
Wenceslaus, emperor of Germany, deposed by the electoral princes.
1401
First final law against heresy in England. William Sautré, a Wickliffite, the first victim.
1402
Battle of Homeldon; 1403, of Shrewsbury.
—
Moguls under Tamerlane defeat the Turks under Bajazet at Angoria; 1405, death of Tamerlane.
1406
James I. king of Scots.
1411
University of St Andrews founded.
1412
Algebra taught in Europe by the Arabs.
1413
Henry V. king of England. Persecution of the Lollards.
1414
Council of Constance deposes two popes. Pontificate vacant for three years.
1415
Civil war of the Burgundians and Armagnacs in France. Invasion of Henry V. Battle of Agincourt. John Huss and (1416) Jerome of Prague consigned to the flames for heresy by the council of Constance.
1417
First mention of the Bohemians or gypsies in Europe. Paper made from linen rags.
[7:6:672]
A. D.
1420
The island of Madeira discovered by the Portuguese. Treaty of Troyes. Henry V. regent of France.
1421
The Turks invest Constantinople; conclude a ten years’ truce with the Christians.
1422
Henry VI. king of England and (by treaty of Troyes) of France. Charles VII. takes arms in support of his claim to the crown of France.
1424
French and Scots defeated at Verneuil by the Duke of Bedford.
1425
Court of Session in Scotland instituted by James I. 1428 Siege of Orleans; raised by Joan of Arc.
1430
Charles VII. crowned at Rheims; Henry VI. at Paris.
1431
Maid of Orleans (Joan of Arc) burnt for sorcery. Rise of the Medici family at Florence.
1432
The Azores discovered by the Portuguese.
1437
James II. king of Scots.
1439
Temporary re-union of thcGreekandLatin churches.
1440
Art of printing invented by John Guttenberg.
1442
African slave trade commences.
1444
Truce with Turkey broken by the Christians. Battle of Varna. Scanderbeg frees Albania from the Turkish yoke.
1445
Constantine Palaeologus last emperor of the East.
1446
Vatican library founded at Rome.
1450
Mahommed II. emperor of the Turks.
1453
The Turks take Constantinople, and extinguish the eastern empire of the Romans. A standing army established in France. The EngJish retain Calais alone of their continental possessions. War in France at an end.
1454
University of Glasgow founded.
1455
Civil war between the royal houses of York and Lancaster, or “war of the Roses.” Battle of St Albans.
1456
The Turks defeated before Belgrade by John Hunniades.
1459
Engraving on copper invented.
1460
James III. king of Scots. Battles of Northampton and Wakefield.
1461
Edward (of the house of York) proclaimed king of England by his party. Battle of Towton. Louis XI. king of France.
1464
Stages, diligences, and posts established in France.
1468
The Orkney and Shetland islands united to the kingdom of Scotland.
1470
Edward IV. driven from England. Henry VI. restored to the throne.
1471
Return of Edward. Battles of Barnet and Tewkesbury; destruction of the Lancastrian party.
1474
Cape Verde Islands discovered by the Portuguese.'" 1477 University of Aberdeen established.
1479
Ferdinand and Isabella unite the kingdoms of Aragon and Castile; establish the inquisition in their dominions. Russia freed from Tartar subjection.
1481
Death of Mahommed II.
1483
Charles VIII. king of France. Edward V. king of England murdered. Richard III. king of England.
1785
Richard (last English king of the Plantagenet dynasty) is slain in the battle of Bosworth. Henry earl of Richmond becomes king; styled Henry VII.
1486
and 1487 Imposture of Lambert Simnel.
1488
James IV. king of Scots.
1491
Granada, the last possession of the Moors in Spain, subdued by Ferdinand and Isabella. Bretagne, the last independent fief in France, re-united to the crown. Opposition of Henry VII.; bought off (1492) by the treaty of Estaples.
1492
Hispaniola and Cuba discovered by Christopher Columbus.
1493
Maximilian I. emperor of Germany.
1494
Invasion, of Italy by Charles VIII. Continent of America discovered by Columbus.
1496
Newfoundland discovered by Sebastian Cabot.
1497
Vasco de Gama, a Portuguese, doubles the Cape of Good Hope, and sails to the East Indies.
1498
Louis XII. king of France.
1499
North America discovered by Cabot. Execution of Perkin Warbeck, pretended son of Edward IV. Conquest of the Milanese by Louis XII.
1500
The Portuguese discover Brazil.
—
to 1504 War between the kings of France and Spain for the possession of Naples. Treaty of Blois. Pope Julius II.
1507
Madagascar discovered by the Portuguese.
1508
Julius II. forms the league of Cambray against Venice. Porto Rico Jamaica, and Cuba colonized by the Spaniards.
1509
Henry VIII. king of England. Battle of Aignadel.
1510
Julius dissolves the league of Cambray; acts against his ally Louis XII. General wars.
—
to 1515 Goa, Malacca,Ormus, conquered by the Portuguese. Albuquerque.
1512
Council of Pisa. Navarre united to Spain. Battle of Ravenna.
1513
Invasion of France by Henry VIII. Battle of Spurs. Invasion of England by the Scots. Battle of Flodden; James IV. slain. James V. king of Scots. South Sea entered by Nugnez Balboa.
1514
General pacification among the European powers.
1515
Francis I. king of France. Invasion of Italy. Battle of Marignan. The Milanese submit to France.
1516
Charles of Austria (the grandson of Ferdinand) king of Spain.
1517
Reformation in Germany begun by Luther. The Turks end the sway of the Mamelukes in Egypt. China visited by Ferdinand d’Andrada, a Portuguese.
1518
Pope Leo X. condemns Luther’s doctrines.
1519
Charles king of Spain is elected emperor of Germany. Magellan explores the South Seas.
1520
Reformation in Switzerland. Zuinglius. Sweden and Denmark united. Massacre of Stockholm by Christiern II.
1521
Luther cited before the diet of Worms. Gustavus Vasa king of Sweden. Cortez completes the conquest of Mexico General wars renewed by Charles and Francis. Ladrone and Philippine islands discovered by Magellan.
1522
First voyage round the world performed by a ship of Magellan’s squadron. Rhodes taken by the Turks; also Belgrade in 1523.
1523
The Spaniards subdue Chili.
1524
Sweden and Denmark embrace Lutheranism. Battle of Biagrassa. Death of the Chevalier Bayard.
1525
Grand Master of the Teutonic order makes himself hereditary duke of Prussia. Battle of Pavia. Captivity of Francis I.
1526
Treaty of Madrid. Holy League. The Turks acquire the sovereignty of Moldavia and Wallachia.
1527
Rome sacked by the army of Charles V. Pope made prisoner. Pizarro begins the conquest of Peru. The Bermudas discovered by John Bermudez, a Spaniard.
1529
The Turks threaten Vienna. Peace of Cambray.
[7:6:673]
A. D.
Diet of Spire. The reformers acquire the name of Protestants. Papal opposition to the dissolution of Henry VIIL’s marriage with Catherine of Spain precipitates the reformation in England.
1530
Diet and confession of Augsburg. League of Smalcalde. Secretary of state appointed in England.
1532
Treaty of Nuremberg; the German Protestants obtain liberty of conscience. Court of Session remodelled by James V.
1533
Henry VIII. quarrels with the Holy See; 1534, is declared by parliament “The only supreme head of the church of England upon earth.”
1534
Anabaptist republic at Munster. Jack of Leyden. Barbarossa seizes the kingdom of Tunis.
1535
Society of the Jesuits instituted by Loyola. Expedition of Charles V. against Tunis.
1536
Renewal of war between Charles and Francis; Milan the cause. Invasion of France.
1538
Dissolution of all the monasteries in England. English Bible read in the churches. Turks defeat the Germans at Essek on the Drave. Barbarossa ravages the coasts of Italy. Truce of Nice.
1540
Reformation at Geneva. Calvin. Variation of the compass noticed by Cabot.
1541
Great part of Hungary subdued by the Turks. Disastrous expedition of Charles V. against Algiers.
1542
Renewal of hostilities between France and the empire. The Turks allies of Francis. Henry VIII. makes war with Scotland. Battle of Solway Moss. Mary Queen of Scots. Japan visited by Ferdinand Mendez Pinto.
1544
Battle of Cerisoles. Peace of Crespi.
1545
Battle of Ancrum Muir.
1546
Peace concluded between Charles V. and Turkey. Council of Trent meets. Religious war in Germany.
1547
Battle of Mulhausen. Henry IL king of France; Edward VI. king of England; Duke of Somerset protector. Battle of Pinkey. Orange trees brought from China to Portugal.
1548
The Interim published and enforced in Germany.
1549
English liturgy completed. Telescopes invented.
1551
War of Parma.
1552
The German Protestants assisted by Henry II. of France. Peace of religion concluded at Passau. War with France continues; siege of Metz.
1553
Lady Jane Grey proclaimed queen of England; obliged to resign the crown to the Princess Mary. Queen Mary attempts to restore the Catholic religion, and (1555) persecutes the Protestants.
1555
Recess of Augsburg. Charles V. resigns the Spanish dominions to his son Philip, and Germany to his brother Ferdinand. Truce of Vaucelles.
1556
War rekindled in Italy and the Low Countries. Waigat’s Strait discovered by Stephen Borrough.
1557
England joins Spain against France. Battle of St Quentin. Calais taken by the French.
1558
Elizabeth queen of England. Marriage of Mary queen of Scots to the dauphin.
1559
Peace of Chateau Cambresis. Francis II. kipg of France.
1560
Charles IX. king of France. Struggle between the French Catholic and Protestant parties commences. Papal jurisdiction abolished, and Presbyterian worship established in North Britain by the Scots Parliament. John Knox.
1561
Mary queen of Scots returns from France to her own dominions. Persecution of the Dutch and Flemish Protestants by Philip II. of Spain; the cause (in 1566) of a war in the Low Countries.
1562
Religious war rages in France. Battle of Dreux.
1563
The Protestants obtain toleration.
1564
The Turks fail in an attempt to take Malta.
1565
Marriage of the queen of Scots to Lord Darnley. Catholic or Holy League of Bayonne negotiated.
1566
Revolt of the Low Countries from Philip II. His governor (Duke of Alva) commits great cruelties. Flemish refugees establish manufactures in England.
1567
Religious war in France renewed. Battle of St Denis. Lord Darnley murdered. A resignation of the crown is extorted from Mary; her son is proclaimed king (James VI.), and the Earl of Murray appointed regent. Solomon Islcs discovered by Mendana.
1568
Battle of Langside. Mary escapes into England; is put under restraint by Elizabeth. Philip II. employs the inquisition to exterminate the Moors in Spain.
1569
The Regent Murray assassinated. French Protestants defeated at Jarnac and Moncontours.
1570
Treaty of St Germain en Laye. The French Protestants obtain an amnesty, liberty of conscience, and other privileges. Queen Elizabeth excommunicated by the pope.
1571
The Turks conquer Cyprus; are defeated in the naval action of Lepanto.
1572
Massacre of St Bartholomew. The Brille taken by Flemish privateers (the Gueux).
1573
Siege of Haarlem. Requesens succeeds Alva in the Low Countries. Siege of Rochelle. Toleration granted to the French Protestants.
1574
Henry III. king of France. Africa invaded by Don Sebastian, king of Portugal. Siege of Leyden.
1576
The Catholic league in France formed against the Protestants. Frobisher’s Straits discovered by Sir Martin Frobisher.
1578
Elizabeth supports the insurgents in the Low Countries. The Spaniards are defeated at Rimenant.
1579
Union of Utrecht. Battle of Alcagar; king of Portugal slain.
1581
Philip II. takes possession of Portugal. The world circumnavigated by Sir Francis Drake. Parish registers kept in England.
1582
Raid of Ruthven; James VI. seized by the Earl of Gowrie. Reformation of the calendar by Pope Gregory XIII.
1584
William Prince of Orange murdered. Siege of Antwerp by the Duke of Parma. Virginia discovered by Sir Walter Raleigh. Tobacco used in England.
1586
Babington’s conspiracy against the life of Elizabeth.
1587
Mary Queen of Scots beheaded. French Protestants defeat the army of the league at Coutras. Davis’ Straits explored by John Davis.
1588
Spanish Armada sent to invade England.
1589
Henry III. joins the Protestants under the king of Navarre; besieges Paris; is assassinated. Henry IV. (of Navarre) king of France. Coaches first used in England.
1590
Henry obtains aid from England; defeats the army of the league at Ivri. Telescopes first made.
1591
Elizabeth rc-endows the University of Dublin.
1594
Earl of Tyrone’s rebellion in Ireland. Falkland Isles discovered by Hawkins.
1595
The Dutch establish factories in Java.
1597
Watches brought to England from Germanv.
[7:6:674]
A. D.
1598
Edict of Nantes in favour of the French Protestants. Reduction of Cadiz by an English armament. Peace of Vervins between France and Spain. Philip III. king of Spain.
1599
Eastern possessions of Spain and Portugal seized by the Dutch. Earl of Essex sent to suppress Tyrone’s insurrection in Ireland.
1600
Gowrie’s conspiracy in Scotland. English East India Company established. Battle of Nieuport. Thermometer.
1601
Ostend invested by the Archduke Albert.
1602
Decimal arithmetic invented at Bruges.
1603
Union of the Crowns of England and Scotland, James VI. of Scotland becoming king of Great Britain.
1604
Ostend reduced by Spinola.
1605
Gun-powder plot.
1606
English colonies settled in Virginia and New England.
1608
Galileo constructs telescopes; discovers the satellites of Jupiter; spots; rotation of the sun.
1609
Spain acknowledges the independence of the United Provinces. Evangelical union and Catholic league formed in Germany.
1610
Henry IV. murdered by Ravaillac. Louis XIII. king of France. Hudson’s Bay discovered.
1611
Baronets first created in England by James I. Smolensko seized, and Moscow burnt by the Poles.
1614
Logarithms invented by Napier of Merchiston. New river brought to London by Sir Hugh Middleton.
1616
The English establish factories in Amboyna, Banda, &c. Baffin’s Bay discovered. Cape Horn.
1617
Family compact of the Emperor Mathias; alarming to the evangelical union.
1618
Beginning of the Thirty Years’ War.
1619
Ferdinand II. emperor of Germany. Circulation of the blood discovered by Dr Harvey. Vanini burnt at Toulouse for atheism.
1620
Battle of Prague. Elector Palatine loses his dominions. Catholicism forced upon the Protestants of Bearn. The French reformers take arms with the intention of establishing a republic. The English make a settlement at Madras.
1621
Philip IV. king of Spain. Batavia built by the Dutch. The English House of Commons claim unlimited freedom of debate; beginning of the disputes concerning privilege and prerogative.
1623
Knights of Nova Scotia instituted by James I. Peace between Louis XIII. and his Protestant subjects. Edict of Nantes confirmed.
1624
Massacre of the English settlers in Amboyna by the Dutch.
1625
Charles I. king of Great Britain. Barbadoes colonized by the English.
1626
League of the Protestant princes of Germany against the emperor. War between Louis XIII. and his Protestant subjects renewed; the latter supported by England. Richelieu. Buckingham.
1627-8
Siege of Rochelle. English Bill of Rights.
1629
France and (1630) Sweden join the enemies of the emperor.
1631
Battle of Leipsic; Imperialists defeated. Description of the Vernier published.
1632
Battle of Lutzen; Gustavus Adolphus slain. Christina queen of Sweden. English non-conformists emigrate in great numbers to North America, and form many settlements.
1632
to 1697 The Buccaneers wage implacable war with the Spaniards in America.
1634
Battle of Nordlingen. Evangelical union disposed to peace.
1635
Treaty of Prague. Sweden and France continue the war. French academy instituted.
1637
Ferdinand III. emperor of Germany.
1638
Bagdad taken by the Turks.
1639
The Scottish Covenanters take arms in defence of Presbytery. Reflecting telescope constructed by Mersenne.
1640
John, duke of Braganza, recovers the kingdom of Portugal. Long Parliament assembled.
1641
Earl of Strafford beheaded. Irish rebellion; massacre of the Protestants in Ulster.
1642
Civil war between Charles I. and the Long Parliament. Battle of Edgehill. Van Diemen’s Land and New Zealand discovered by Tasman.
1643
Louis XIV. king of France. Anne of Austria regent. Battle of Rocroi. Solemn league and covenant between the English and Scottish parliaments. Friendly Islands; Tasman. Barometer; Torricelli.
1644
The Tartars subdue China. Battle of Marston Moor.
1645
Execution of Archbishop Laud. Battle of Naseby.
1646
Royalist force completely broken; Charles surrenders to the Scottish army; civil war ended.
1648
Peace of Westphalia. War of the Fronde at Paris. Exclusion of Presbyterians from the House of Commons (Pride’s Purge). Rump Parliament.
1649
Charles I. beheaded. Monarchy abolished in England. Commonwealth. Prince of Wales assumes the title of Charles II. The Covenanters declare him king of Scotland. Cromwell storms Drogheda and Wexford; 1650, defeats Charles at Dunbar; and 1651, at Worcester. Commonwealth recognised by every dependence of the British kingdoms, and by foreign states.
1651
Office of stadtholder abolished by the Dutch. English act of navigation passed.
1652
First war between the English and Dutch.
1653
Dissolution of the Rump Parliament by Cromwell. and 1654 The Dutch defeated in several naval actions.
1654
End of the commonwealth of England. Cromwell lord protector.
1655
Persecution of the Waldenses. Cromwell joins France in a war against Spain. Jamaica reduced by Penn, an English admiral. Blake destroys the shipping in the harbours of Tunis and (1657) Santa Cruz. Fourth satellite of Saturn discovered by Huygens. Pendulum clocks made,
1656
Frederick William, elector of Brandenburg, procures a recognition of the independence of Prussia.
1658
Spaniards totally defeated near the Downs. Dunkirk taken and delivered to the English. Richard Cromwell lord protector of England. Copenhagen besieged by Charles X. of Sweden.
1659
Peace of the Pyrenees between France and Spain. Richard Cromwell resigns his office. Rump Parliament re-assembles. Micrometer; Huygens.
1660
Charles II. restored to the throne of Great Britain. Peace of Oliva between Sweden, Denmark, and Poland.
1661
Sir FIenry Vane, the Marquis of Argyle, and others, executed for treason.
1662
Act of uniformity passed by the English Parliament; two thousand clergymen in one day resign their benefices. Dunkirk sold back to the French. Royal Society of London instituted.
[7:6:675]
A. D.
1663
Carolina planted. Bombay taken by the English. French academy of inscriptions instituted.
1664 to 1667
Second Dutch war. Many naval actions fought; success various.
1665
Charles II. king of Spain. Great plague in London. Rotation of Jupiter, Mars, and Venus, observed by Cassini.
1666
Great fire of London. Tea first imported into England. The academy of sciences instituted in France. The Covenanters defeated on Pentland Hills.
1667
Peace of Breda; end of second Dutch war. Louis invades the Spanish Netherlands. Triple alliance.
1668
Peace of Aix la Chapelle.
1669
Candia taken by the Turks. Cabal administration in England. Secret treaty with France against Holland.
1670
English Hudson’s Bay Company incorporated.
1671
The Danes seize the island of St Thomas. Fifth satellite of Saturn discovered by Cassini.
1672
Louis and Charles unite against the Dutch. Naval action of Southwold. Louis overruns the greater part of the seven United Provinces. Office of stadtholder restored.
1673
Catholics excluded from office in Britain by the test act. Spain and Germany support the Dutch. French evacuate the United Provinces.
1674
Separate treaty concluded between Great Britain and Holland. Louis continues the war alone. Battle of Seneffe. John Sobieski king of Poland.
674-5
Palatinate devastated by Turenne.
1676
Charles concludes a secret treaty with Louis; becomes a pensioner of France. Carolina colonized by the English.
1677
War between Russia and Turkey. Marriage of thePrincess Mary, presumptive heiress of the British crown, to the Prince of Orange.
1678
A British force is raised to assist the Dutch, but immediately disbanded, through the influence of French gold over the king and House of Commons. Peace of Nimeguen. Popish plot.
1679
Habeas Corpus act passed by the parliament of England. Rising of the covenanters in the west of Scotland. Battle of Bothwell Bridge. Whig and Tory become party names.
1680
Bill for excluding the Duke of York (because apapist) from the succession passed by the Lower and rejected by the Upper House. Pennsylvania colonized.
1682
Peter the Great czar of Muscovy. Charters of London and other towns seized by Charles.
1683
Ryc-House plot. Execution of Lord Russell and Algernon Sydney. Turks defeated before Vienna by John Sobieski.
1684
Louis XIV. acquires Strasburg and Luxemburg.
1685
James II. king of Great Britain. Louis XIV. revokes the edict of Nantes. Duke of Monmouth invades the west of England. James suspends the test act.
1686
Newtonian philosophy published. Air-pump. League of Augsburg against France.
1687
Expulsion of the president and fellows of Magdalen College, Oxford.
1688
Declaration of general indulgence issued by James. Prosecution of the primate and six bishops. Union of all parties in defence of the constitution. Prince of Orange lands in England. James escapes to France. The Revolution.
1689
English and Scottish conventions settle the British crown on William and Mary, 13th February. Act of toleration. Presbytery established in Scotland. Battle of Killicrankie; death of Dundee. Siege of Londonderry.
1690
Battle of the Boyne. The English establish themselves at Calcutta.
1691
Treaty of Limerick. Ireland renounces the authority of James.
1692
Massacre of Glencae. Battle of La Hogue. 'Reduction of Namur by the French. Battle of Stein-kirk. Hanover made an electorate.
1693
Funding system commenced. Bank of England established.
1694
Triennial bill. Death of Queen Mary.
1695
Namur retaken by William.
1697
Peace of ítyswick. Peter the Great defeats the Turks and takes Azoph. Charles XII. king of Sweden. Prince Eugene defeats the Turks at Zenta.
1698
England, Holland, and France, concert a secret treaty for the partition of Spain on the death of Charles II. Charles makes a will in favour of the Elector of Bavaria.
1699
Peace of Carlowitz between the Christian powers and Turkey. Scots plant a colony at Darien. Death of the Elector of Bavaria.
1700
Second partition treaty. Will of Charles in favour of the Duke of Anjou, second son of the Dauphin. Poland, Denmark, and Russia, form an alliance against Sweden. Charles XII. takes Copenhagen. Academy of Berlin. New Britain discovered by Dani])ier.
1701
Succession to the crown of Great Britain settled on the Princess Sophia of Hanover and her protestant heirs. Death of Charles II. of Spain. Duke of Anjou proclaimed by the title of Philip V. The emperor disputes his claim, and takes the field in Italy. Grand alliance. Battle of Narva; the Russians defeated by Charles XII. Death of James II. His son acknowledged king of Great Britain by Louis. England joins the grand alliance. War of the Spanish succession.
1702
Anne queen of Great Britain. Marlborough commander-in-chief of the allied army in Flanders. Battle of Friedlingen; the imperialists defeated. Spanish and French fleet destroyed in the harbour of Vigo. Charles XII. takes Warsaw; defeats Augustus, king of Poland, at Clissaw; enters Cracow. French send colonies to the Mississippi.
1703
Duke of Savoy and king of Portugal join the grand alliance. Villars defeats the imperialists at Hochstet. Archduke Charles assumes the title of king of Spain. Charles XII. defeats Augustus at Pultusk. St Petersburg founded.
1704
Battle of Blenheim. Gibraltar taken; French fleet defeated off Malaga by Sir G. Rooke. Augustus dethroned, and Stanislaus Leczinski chosen king ι of Poland.
1705
Joseph I. emperor of Germany. The Archduke Charles, supported by a British armament, re duces Valencia and Catalonia. The Russians, entering Poland, are defeated and driven beyond the Dnieper by Charles XII.
1706
Battle of Ramillies. Siege of Turin; raised by Prince ι Eugene. Madrid taken by the English and Portuguese; retaken by Philip. Majorca and Ivica reduced by a British fleet. Battle of Frauenstadt; Russians and Saxons defeated. Augustus acknow-ι ledges Stanislaus as king of Poland.
[7:6:676]
A. D.
1707
Legislative union of England and Scotland finally arranged (March 6). Italian dominions of Spain subdued by the allies. Battle of Almanza; the allies defeated. The French carry war into Germany; penetrate to the Danube. Siege of Toulon.
1708
The Pretender makes a fruitless attempt to enter the Forth with a French armament. Battle of Oudenarde. Siege of Lisle. Sardinia and Minorca reduced by the British. Charles XII. invades Russia.
1709
Louis XIV. offers the whole Spanish dominion to the house of Austria, and large concessions to the other allies; these proposals rejected. Siege of Mons. Battle of Malplaquet; the French defeated, and Mons taken. Battle of Pultowa; king of Sweden defeated by the czar. Augustus restored to the throne of Poland.
1710
Conferences of Gertruygdenberg. Douay, Aire, and other places within the French frontier reduced. Battle of Almenara. The allies again at Madrid, and again obliged by the French and Spaniards to retire. Trial of Dr Sacheverel. Change of the English ministry. Intrigues in favour of the Pretender; abetted by the queen. The czar conquers Carelia and Livonia. St Paul’s Cathedral rebuilt.
1711
Charles, competitor with Philip for the crown of Spain, becomes emperor of Germany. Secret treaty negotiated between the French and English Courts. Creation of British peers to support the . measure. The czar invades Turkey. Concludes (to save his army from destruction) a disadvantageous treaty with the Porte. English South Sea Company incorporated.
1712
The Duke of Ormond supersedes Marlborough; separates the British from the allied forces. The French retake Douay and other towns.
1713
Treaty of Utrecht signed 3lst March. Hostilities continued by the emperor alone. Landau, Freyberg, and other towns reduced by the French. Pragmatic sanction.
1714
Treaty of Rastadt. George I. (elector of Hanover) king of Great Britain. Louis XV. king of France; Duke of Orleans regent. Peter the Great defeats the Swedes at Sea; subdues the isle of Oeland.
1715
An army of Prussians, Danes, and Saxons, besieges Stralsund; the defence conducted by Charles XII. Rebellion in Scotland. Battle of Sheriffmuir. The Turks take the Morea from the Venetians. Compensation pendulum; Graham.
716
Charles XII. invades Norway. Bill for Septennial parliaments passed by the British legislature. Emperor supports Venice against Turkey. Battle of Peterwaradin; the Turks defeated.
1717
Prince Eugene invests Belgrade; defeats the Turkish army; takes the town.
1718
Peace of Passarowitz. Turkey retains the Morea. Quadruple alliance. England attacks Spain by sea, France by land. Charles XII. falls at the siege of Frederickshall: his death followed by a cessation of arms among the northern powers.
1719-20
Mississippi scheme in France. South Sea scheme in England.
1720
Philip of Spain accedes to the terms of the quadruple alliance. Treaties of peace concluded by the sovereigns of Hanover, Sweden, Prussia, and Denmark. Duke of Savoy becomes king of Sardinia. Inoculation practised in England.
1721
George I. supports Sweden against Russia. Treaty of Nystadt. Peter assumes the title “Emperor of Russia.” Ruin of the South Sea scheme. Great mercantile distress in Britain.
1722
Peter the Great supports the schah of Persia against the Afghans; obtains the cession of three pro- • vinces on the shores of the Caspian. Jacobite conspiracy in favour of the Pretender defeated.
1723
Duke of Orleans, regent of France, dies.
1724
Philip V. resigns the crown of Spain to his son Louis; resumes it after his son’s death. Academy of sciences of St Petersburg instituted.
1725
Catherine empress of Russia. Treaty of Vienna between the emperor and the king of Spain; and of Hanover between France, England, Holland, Prussia, Denmark, and Sweden, in opposition to the former.
1726
A British fleet sent to blockade Porto Bello.
1727
Siege of Gibraltar by the Spaniards. Congress of Soissons. George II. king of Great Britain. Peter II. emperor of Russia.
1728
Treaty between Great Britain and Holland. Books printed at Constantinople. Behring Strait discovered.
1729
Peace of Seville concluded between France, Spain, and Great Britain. Corsica revolts from the Genoese. Rise of methodism in England; John Wesley.
1730
The Persians under Kouli Khan defeat the Turks. Aberration of the fixed stars observed by Dr Bradley. Fahrenheit’s thermometer.
1731
Treaty of Vienna. Pragmatic sanction guaranteed by the parties to the peace of Seville. Don Carlos, son of Philip V., succeeds to the duchies of Parma and Placentia.
1732
Culture of coflee introduced by the English into their American settlements.
1733
Death of Augustus II. War for the crown of Poland. Stanislaus the ex-king supported by France and Spain; the elector of Saxony by the emperor and Russia.
1734
The French and their allies take Philipsburg; possess themselves of Naples and Sicily; defeat the imperialists at Bitonto, Parma, Guastalla. Treaty of commerce concerted between Great Britain and Russia.
1735
Preliminaries of a treaty (Vienna) settled between the courts of Paris and Vienna—Stanislaus to resign Poland and obtain the duchy of Lorraine— the Duke of Lorraine, Tuscany—Don Carlos, the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, in exchange for Parma and Placentia.
1736
Empress of Russia (Anne) commences hostilities against Turkey; reduces Azoph; ravages the Crimea. Kouli Khan seizes the throne of Persia; takes the name “Nadir Schah.” Porteous mob at Edinburgh.
1737
Ockzakoff taken by the Russians.
1738
Definitive treaty of Vienna, between France and Germany. The emperor joins Russia against Turkey. Nadir Schah subdues Candahar.
1739
The Turks defeat the imperialists in Hungary; conclude an advantageous peace with Germany and Russia. Convention of Prado. War between Great Britain and Spain. Reduction of Porto Bello.
1740
Frederick III. (the Great) king of Prussia. Death of the emperor Charles VI. Pragmatic sanction, securing the hereditary dominions of Austria to
[7:6:677]
A. D.
Maria Theresa, daughter of Charles, disregarded. War of the Austrian succession.
1741
Battle of Molwitz; Frederick defeats the Austrians; receives the submission of Silesia. The elector of Bavaria claims Bohemia and the imperial crown; gains the support of France; carries Prague by assault; is crowned king of Bohemia. British parliament grants a subsidy to Maria Theresa. Sweden declares war against Russia; battle of Wihnanstrand. Siege of Carthagena. Expedition to the South Sea under Commodore Anson.
1742
Elector of Bavaria chosen emperor (Charles VII.). British army sent into the Netherlands to support Maria Theresa. The Austrians recover Linz; take Munich. Battle of Czaslau. Peace of Breslau between Austria, Prussia, and Poland. Retreat of the French and Bavarians; siege of Prague. Convention of Turin between Austria and Sardinia. Austrian dominions in Italy attacked by Spain; with little success.
1743
French driven from the Palatinate. Battle of Dettingen. French defeated by the British. Treaty of Worms between Austria and Sardinia. Familycompact; France and Spain. Peace of Abo; Russia and Sweden. War between Nadir Schah and Turkey. Society of Sciences of Copenhagen. University of Erlangen.
1744
Invasion of England, in favour of the Pretender, attempted by France. War declared between France and England. French and Spaniards overrun Savoy. Treaty of Frankfort between France and Prussia.
1745
Death of Charles VII.; his son Maximilian Joseph consents to guarantee the pragmatic sanction, and concludes peace with Maria Theresa. France and Spain continue the war. Battle of Fontenoy. Francis duke of Tuscany (husband of Maria Theresa) chosen emperor. Treaty of Dresden; internal peace of Germany restored. Prince Charles Edward, grandson of James II. lands in Scotland; takes Edinburgh; defeats the king’s army at Pres-tonpans; marches into England. Habeas corpus act suspended; militia called out. Duke of Cumberland takes the command of the army. The prince retreats into Scotland.
1746
Siege of Stirling castle. Battle of Culloden. The rebellion entirely suppressed. Flanders, Brabant, and Hainault subdued by the French. Battle of Roucoux gained by the French, and of St Lazaro by the Austrians. Ferdinand VI. king of Spain. Genoa garrisoned by Austrians; the garrison expelled by the Genoese. Madras reduced by the French.
1747
Neutral territory of the United Provinces invaded by the French. Prince of Orange (William IV.) declared stadtholder, and hostilities commenced with France. Battle of Vai; allies under the Duke of Cumberland defeated. Bergen-op-Zoom taken by the French. Siege of Genoa. French defeated at sea; off Cape Finisterre by Admiral Anson; off Belleisle by Admiral Hawke. Nadir Schah assassinated.
1748
Pondicherry in the East, Cuba and Hispaniola in the West Indies, attacked by British armaments. Siege of Maestricht. Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, between Great Britain, France, Spain, Austria, Sardinia, and Holland.
1749
Kingdom of Afghanistan founded by Achmet Abdallah, a general of Nadir Schah. League of the Pope, Venetians, &c. against Algiers. English and French in the East Indies take opposite sides in a contest of native princes for the nabobship of Arcot.
1750
Treaty of Copenhagen between Sweden and Denmark concerning Holstein. Commercial treaty between Great Britain and Spain. Academy of Sciences at Stockholm. Royal Society of Gottingen. Westminster Bridge finished.
1751
Siege of Arcot. Captain Clive. Death of Frederick Prince of Wales.
1752
New style adopted in Britain; September 2d reckoned September 14th.
1753
Hostilities in India continued; advantage generally on the British side. British Museum established.
1754
The French (having connected Canada and Louisiana by a chain of forts) attempt to circumscribe the British American colonies; attack Nova Scotia and Virginia. War in India concluded; noninterference with native governments a stipulation of the treaty.
1755
Armaments sent by Great Britain and France to support their respective American colonies. Expeditions of General Braddock against the French posts on the Ohio, of Sir W. Johnson against Crown Point, of General Shirley against Niagara, —all unsuccessful. Maritime commerce of France distressed by British cruizers. Treaty between George II. and Russia for defence of Hanover. Foundation of the Burman empire in the eastern peninsula of India. Destruction of Lisbon by an earthquake.
1756
Kings of Britain and Prussia conclude a treaty for the exclusion of foreign troops from Germany; Austria, Russia, Sweden, and France, another for the partition of Prussia. Minorca attacked by the French. Declaration of war between Great Britain and France. Militia bill; rejected by the Peers. German mercenaries brought to defend Britain from invasion. Admiral Byng attempts to relieve Minorca; fails; the island submits. Calcutta taken by the Soubalidar of Bengal; garrison thrust into the Elack Hole ; 123 die of suffocation. King of Prussia invades Saxony (beginning of the Seven Years’ War); takes Dresden; enters Bohemia; defeats the Austrians at Lowositz. William Pitt prime minister of George II.
1757
Admiral Byng tried for misconduct off Minorca; shot. French troops pass the Rhine to invade Hanover. Pitt, opposing British interference with the affairs of Germany, is dismissed from office. Duke of Cumberland sent to defend the electorate. Battle of Reichenberg; the Austrians, repulsed by the Prussians, retreat to Prague. Battle; siege of Prague; battle of Colin; siege raised. Memel taken by the Russians. Duke of Cumberland repulsed and driven from the electorate. Convention of Closter-Seven. Pitt reinstated. Frederick gains the battles of Rosbach and Lissa; the Russians return home. The Hanoverians rise against the French. Colonel Clive recovers Calcutta; defeats the Soubahdar of Bengal at Plassy; lays the foundation of the British power in India.
1758
The Hanoverians drive the French across the Rhine. Britain and Prussia engage not to treat but in concert, and the former grants the latter a large subsidy. Battle of Crevelt; the French defeated by Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick. Battle of Sangershausen; the prince defeated. Frederick en-
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ters Moravia; invests Olmutz; raises the siege to oppose the Russians; defeats them at Zorndorff; is defeated at Hochkirchen by the Austrians; expels them from Silesia and Saxony. The works of Cherburg demolished; islands of Cape Breton and St John on the coast of America, and French settlements on the coast of Africa, reduced by British armaments. Achromatic telescope; Dollond.
1759
Frankfort on the Maine (a neutral city) seized by the French. Battle of Minden; French defeated by Prince Ferdinand. The Russians enter Silesia; defeat Frederick at Cunersdorff. Guadaloupe reduced. Battle of Quebec; death of General Wolfe; surrender of Quebec. British gain advantages in the East Indies; take Surat. French fleet under Conflans, destined for the invasion of Britain, destroyed by Admiral Hawke; another, under Thurot, pillages Carrickfergus; is captured off the Isle of Man (February 1760).
1760
Three armies, Austrian, Russian, and Swedish, sur round Frederick at Lignitz; he defeats the Austrians, and prevents their junction. The Russians pillage Berlin. Battle of Torgau; the Austrians again defeated. Siege of Quebec by the French; raised. Province of Canada submits to Britain. Siege of Pondicherry. George III. king of Great Britain.
1761
Pondicherry taken; French power in India destroyed. Negotiations for a general pacification opened at London and Paris. Belleisle reduced by a British armament. Family compact of the Bourbons; Pitt proposes instant war with Spain; resigns; Earl of Bute succeeds as premier. Negotiations broken off*.
1762
War declared by the courts of London and Madrid. Spaniards invade Portugal; are expelled by British assistance. Peter III. emperor of Russia: he concludes an offensive and defensive alliance with Sweden, a peace with Prussia. Catherine II. empress of Russia; adheres to the peace, but withdraws her troops. The West India islands belonging to France, the town of Havannah, with a great part of Cuba, and the Philippine Islands, belonging to Spain, subdued by British armaments. Preliminaries of a treaty signed at Fontainbleau (November 3).
1763
Treaties of Paris and Hubertsburg; France cedes to Britain Canada, Cape Breton, St Vincent, Tobago, and the coast of Senegal; Spain cedes Florida; Prussia and Austria mutually restore conquests; end of the Seven Years’ War. Parliaments of Paris, Rouen, &c. declare against the arbitrary imposition of taxes. Grenville administration formed. Wilkes expelled from the House of Commons.
1764
Stanislaus Poniatowski king of Poland. Byron’s voyage.
1765
British government suggests the taxation of the North American colonies. Stamp act. Opposition of the colonies. Rockingham administration.
1766
Repeal of the stamp act. Grafton administration. Civil war in Poland arising out of religious differences. Death of James Stuart, son of James II.
1767
Jesuits banished from Spain and the Indies, Naples and Sicily. British government imposes new taxes on the American colonies. Russia and Prussia interfere in the domestic broils and government of Poland.' Otaheité discovered by Wallis.
1768
Riots at Boston in North America. Corsica ceded by Genoa to France. War between Russia and Turkey, arising out of the interference of the former in the affairs of Poland. Royal Academy established. Voyage of Bougainville.
1769
House of Commons annul the votes of the Middlesex electors. Wilkes. Luttrel.
1770
Dispute between Great Britain and Spain respecting the Falkland Islands; compromised without honour to Britain (1771). The Russians send an armament into the Mediterranean; obtain a footing in the Morea; destroy the Turkish fleet off Scio; subdue Moldavia and Wallachia. Blackfriars Bridge finished.
1771
House of Commons issue an order for the apprehension of the printers and publishers of certain parliamentary debates. Crosby, lord mayor, and Oliver, an alderman of London, resisting the execution of the order, are sent to the Tower by command of the house. From this period the proceedings in both houses of Parliament have been regularly reported in the newspapers. Members of the parliament of Paris deprived of their offices, and banished to different parts of the country. Turks defeated near Bucharest, and in the Crimea. Cooke’s first voyage.
1772
Treaty between Russia, Prussia, and Austria, for the partition of Poland. British American colonies claim the sole right of legislating for themselves.
1773
First partition of Poland. Society of the Jesuits suppressed in France. Constitution of the British East India Company settled by act of Parliament, on nearly the existing basis. Assembly of Massachusetts Bay pass a resolution against the importation of tea; a quantity thrown into the sea at Boston.
1774
Peace of Kainargi; the Crimea independent; Russian frontier advanced into Turkey. Port of Boston closed by act of Parliament. Congress of twelve provinces at Philadelphia. Louis XVI. king of France. New Caledonia discovered by Cook.
1775
War of American independence. Battle of Bunker’s Hill. General congress of thirteen provinces. Washington commander in chief. Louis XVI. restores the parliament of Paris. Spain engaged in war with the Moors and Algerines.
1776
The United States of North America declare themselves independent (July 4). Philosophical administration in France.
1777
Capitulation of General Burgoyne at Saratoga. Alliance between France and Switzerland.
1778
To prevent an alliance between the American colonies and France, the British government offer to concede the right of self-taxation to the colonial assemblies—without effect: the alliance is concluded. A British fleet is sent to cruise against the French. War of the Bavarian succession; Austria and Prussia the belligerents. Sandwich Islands discovered by Cook.
1779
Treaty of Teschen between Austria, Prussia, and Bavaria. Spain joins France in the war against Britain. Islands St Vincent and Grenada reduced by the French. Holland refuses Britain the assistance stipulated by treaty 1678. Captain Cook • killed at Owhyhee.
1780
War in India with the Mahrattas and Hyder Ali. Riots in London; Lord George Gordon. South Carolina reduced. The Americans defeated at Camden. Spanish fleet defeated off Cape St Vincent, and French in the American seas, by Rodney. Armed neutrality; Russia, Denmark,
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Sweden, Holland, Portugal, German and Italian States, the parties. War declared against Holland.
1781
St Eustatia and the colonies of Berbice, Essequibo, and Demerara taken from the Dutch. Jersey invaded by France. Gibraltar besieged by Spain. Minorca reduced by the French and Spaniards; Tobago by the French. Army of Cornwallis surrenders to Washington. Planet Uranus discovered by Herschell.
1782
House of Commons condemns the American war. Rockingham; Shelburne administration. Ireland declared independent of the British parliament. St Christophers reduced by the French. Their fleet defeated by Rodney. Floating batteries employed against Gibraltar destroyed by General Elliot. Tippoo Saib, son of Hyder Ali, continues the war in India. Revolutions attempted in Geneva and some of the Swiss cantons.
1783
Treaties of peace concluded between Great Britain and her enemies. Independence of the United States of America recognised. Washington president. The Crimea seized by Russia. Pitt administration.
1784
Peace concluded with Tippoo Saib. Board of control established for regulation of affairs of India.
1785
German league. Treaty of commerce negotiated with France; concluded in 1786.
1786
Death of Frederick the Great; Frederick William succeeds. Contest for power between the stadtholder and the pensionaries of several of the states of H( Hand. Sinking fund established for the extinction of the national debt of Great Britain. Impeachment of Warren Hastings.
1787
Civil war in Holland. The stadtholder obtains aid from Prussia; secures an extension of authority. First assembly of the notables of France, at Versailles. Turkey engaged in hostilities with Russia and Austria.
1788
Second assembly of the notables. The Swedes attack Russia; the Danes Sweden. Oczakofftaken from the Turks. Great Britain, Holland, and Prussia conclude a defensive alliance; compel Sweden and Denmark to abstain from hostilities. Prince of Wales regent for four months. Charles IV. king of Spain. Convict colony of Botany Bay founded. Death of Prince Charles Edward Stuart at Rome.
1789
Abolition of the slave trade proposed in the British parliament. The states·general of France meet at Versailles (May 5). French revolution. Constituentassembly. Bastille destroyed (July 14.) National guard instituted. Feudal privileges and tithes suppressed. Jacobin club. Insurrection in the Low Countries. Suwarrow defeats the Turks. The Austrians take Belgrade.
1790
France divided into eighty-three departments. Religious orders suppressed. Hereditary nobility abolished. Assignats. Civil constitution of the clergy. Belgic confederation at Brussels. Alliance of Prussia with Poland and Turkey. Peace of Werela between Russia and Sweden. Capture of Ismael by Snwarrow. The Austrians enter Brussels. War with Tippoo Saib renewed; concluded 1792.
1791
Flight; arrest of Louis XVI. He is conducted to Paris; accepts the constitution of 1791. Legislative assembly. Party of the Girondists. Convention of Pilnitz. The pope issues a bull against the civil oath of the French clergy. Peace of Szistowa between Austria and Turkey.
1792
France declares war against Austria. An Austrian and Prussian army invades France. Thuilleries attacked. Swiss guards massacred by an armed mob. Royal authority suspended (Aug. 10). Royal family imprisoned in the Temple (14). Massacre of the state prisoners at Paris (Sept. 2 and 3). Battle of Valmy. National convention. Abolition of royalty (21). Republic proclaimed. Battle of Jemappes. Savoy incorporated with the French republic. Peace of Jassy between Russia and Turkey. Disturbances in St Domingo. City of Washington founded.
1793
Execution of Louis XVI. (Jan. 21). First coalition against France. Reign of terror. Levy en masse of all Frenchmen between eighteen and twenty-five years of age. Toulon taken by the English. Christian religion abolished. New era introduced, to date from 22d Sept. 1792. Queen beheaded (Oct. 16). Toulon retaken from the English. Bonaparte. Second partition of Poland. Pondicherry reduced by the English.
1794
Fall of Robespierre. Struggle of the Poles against Russia. Kosciusko. Habeas Corpus act suspended. Telegraph invented. Victory of Lord Howe (June 1). Exchequer bills issued. American minister received at Paris. Retreat of the British army in Flanders. Battle of Praga; 30,000 Poles butchered by Suwarrow. Trial of John Horne Tooke. The Duke of York leaves the Continent. Missionary societies established in England.
1795
Battle of Fleurus. Occupation of Amsterdam by the French. Revolution in Holland; United Provinces dependent on France. Third and last partition of Poland between Russia, Austria, and Prussia. End of the elective kingdom of Poland. Peace of Basle between France and Prussia. Death of Louis XVII. in the Temple. Peace between France and Spain; St Domingo wholly yielded to the former. Martinique, St Lucia, Guadaloupe, Cape of Good Hope, Ceylon, taken by the English. Belgium and Liege united to the French republic. Insurrection of the 13th Vin-demiaire (Oct. 5). Barras. Bonaparte. New Constitution. Councils of Ancients and Five Hundred. Executive Directory. Polytechnic School. National Institute of France. Mungo Park.
1796
Italian campaign of Bonaparte. Battles of Monte-notte and Monte-lezino (April 14). King of Sardinia cedes Savoy and Nice to the republic. Battle of Lodi (May 10). Sovereigns of Naples and Parma make peace. Conquest of the Milanese. Cisalpine republic. Retreat of Moreau from the Danube. Paul emperor of Russia. War between England and Spain (Oct. 5). Battle of Arcole (Nov. 15). Irish insurrection act. Lithography; Sennefelder.
1797
Mutiny in the British navy. Battle of Rivoli. Part of the papal territory ceded to France. Bonaparte traverses the Tyrol; subdues Carinthia, Styria, &c.; opens negotiations with the court of Vienna at Leoben (April 18). Successes of Hoche and , Moreau on the Rhine; arrested by the negotiations. Venice revolutionized (May 12), and Genoa (21). Spanish fleet defeated off Cape St Vincent. Trinidad taken by the English. Treaty of Campo Formio (Oct. 7). French frontier extended to the Rhine. Dutch fleet defeated off Camperdown (Oct. 11). Britain menaced with invasion. Rebellion in Ireland.
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1798
Rome revolutionized (Feb. 15). The French sow discord in Switzerland. Geneva incorporated with France. Helvetic confederation. Batavian republic. Malta reduced, and Egypt invaded, by Bonaparte. Battle of Aboukir; Nelson; Brueys. Rebellion in Ireland continues; 1000 French troops land; are taken prisoners. Russia and Turkey unite against France. Vaccination; Jenner.
1799
Austria and Naples renew the war. Naples taken by the French. Forces of the republic under Jourdan, Massena, and Moreau, pressed by the Austrians and Russians in Switzerland, Germany, and Italy. Syria invaded by Bonaparte. Siege of Acre; Sir Sydney Smith. Defeat of the Turks at Aboukir (July 25). Return of Bonaparte to Europe. Capture of Seringapatam; fall of Tippoo Saib; partition of Mysore. Rome recovered by the allies. The English and Russians invade Holland; give up 8000 French prisoners to obtain a safe retreat (Oct. 18). French directory subverted. Bonaparte first consul (Nov. 10). Death of Washington.
1800
The Irish parliament vote for a legislative union between Great Britain and Ireland. Bill, to effect this, obtains the royal assent (July 2). Genoa taken by the Austrians. Battles of Montebello and (June 14) of Marengo. Prince of Parma made king of Etruria. Moreau penetrates into Bavaria. Battle of Hohenlinden. Republic of the seven Ionian Islands. First congress at Washington. Royal institution founded.
1801
Treaty of Luneville (Feb. 9); Austria makes further concessions to France. Malta taken by the English. Armed neutrality formed against Great Britain by Russia. Battle of Alexandria (March 21). Death of Abercromby. Alexander emperor of Russia (24). Addington administration. Danish fleet attacked before Copenhagen by Lord Nelson (April 2). Convention between Great Britain and Russia, Sweden, and Denmark (June 17). French troops in Egypt agree to evacuate the country (Sept. 2). Planet Ceres discovered by Piazzi.
1802
Peace of Amiens (March 27). Catholicism re-established in France. Bonaparte first consul for life (July 29.) French expedition against St Domingo; Toussaint L’Ouverture. First consul gives new constitutions to the French, Cisalpine, Ligurian, and Helvetian republics; regulates the internal arrangements of Germany. Legion of Honour instituted. Planet Pallas discovered by Olbers.
1803
Disputes between the courts of London and Paris (March). War renewed (May 16). Invasion threatened by France; preparations to repel it made in Britain. Insurrection in Ireland. The French reduce Hanover. England declares war against Holland. St Lucia, Tobago, Demerara, Essequibo, reduced by British armaments. St Domingo independent; Dessalines. Marquis Wellesley defeats the native powers of India. Concludes a treaty (Dec. 17), by which the British possessions are greatly extended. Treaty of neutrality between Great Britain and Sweden. Louisiana acquired by the United States of America.
1804
Conspiracy against the first consul. Duke D’Enghien seized in the territory of a neutral state (Baden), and shot. Mr Pitt resumes office (May 7). Bonaparte emperor of the French. The emperor of Germany assumes the style “Emperor of Austria.” Ohio a state of the North American Union. Dessalines proclaimed emperor of Haiti. Planet Juno discovered by Harding.
1805
Spanish South American fleet destroyed by a British armament; war declared between the countries (Jan. 24). Impeachment of Lord Melville for misapplication of public money. Catholic claims debated. Napoleon crowned king of Italy at Milan (May 26). Genoa annexed to the empire (June 4). Coalition of Great Britain, Austria, and Russia, against France. Napoleon crosses the Rhine; compels General Mack, with 20,000 men, to surrender at Ulm (Oct. 20). Battle of Trafalgar (Oct. 21); the navies of France and Spain destroyed. Death of Nelson. The French enter Vienna (Nov. 13). Battle of Austerlitz (Dec. 2). Peace of Presburg (25). War with the Mahratta chief Hoìkar; siege of Bhurtpore; peace (Dee. 24); the Company’s territory extended.
1806
Cape of Good Hope reduced by the English (Jan. 18). Death of Mr Pitt (23). Administration of Mr Fox and Lord Grenville. Slave trade restricted. Acquittal of Lord Melville. The Prussians take possession of Hanover. Joseph Bonaparte king of Naples. Louis Bonaparte king of Holland. British force lands in Calabria. Battle of Maida (July 4). Confederation of the Rhine (12). Death of Charles James Fox (Sept. 13). Negotiations for peace broken off. King of Prussia declares war against France (Oct. 9). Battles of Saalfeld, Jena, Auerstadt. Capture of Berlin. Conquest of Silesia. Invasion of Poland. Battle of Pultusk. “The Continental System” published at Berlin. British fleet sent into the Tagus. Christophe ruler of the black republic of Haiti.
1807
War between Russia and Turkey. England co-operates with the former; sends expeditions to the Dardanelles and Egypt. Act of parliament to abolish the slave trade sanctioned (March 25).. Bill to remove Catholic disabilities brought forward by ministers; opposed by the king; change of administration. Duke of Portland. Battle of Eylau. Dantzic taken by the French (May 20). Battle of Friedland (June 14). Conference of the sovereigns of France, Russia, and Prussia, upon a raft in the Niemen (25). Peace of Tilsit (July 7). Jerome Bonaparte king of Westphalia. Bombardment of Copenhagen; surrender of the Danish fleet (Sept. 7). Invasion of Portugal by the French; the royal family embark for Brazil. French troops enter Spain; seize the strongest towns. Kingdom of Etruria annexed to the empire. Planet Vesta discovered by Olbers.
1808
A new French nobility created by Bonaparte (Jan.). Charles IV. of Spain resigns the sovereignty to his son Ferdinand (March 19). Napoleon compels the resignation of both (May 5). Joseph Bonaparte king of Spain. Murat king of Naples. Junta of Seville proclaim Ferdinand VII.; declare waragainst the French (May'29). Sir Arthur Wellesley in Portugal. Battles of Roleia and Vimcira (Aug.21). ConventionofCintra(30). Britisharmy enters Spain. Battles of Durango, Espinosa, Tudela. Conference of Napoleon and Alexander at Erfurt; produces offers of peace to England. Napoleon joins the army in Spain. Madrid taken (Dec. 4). The British retreat.
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1809
Battle of Corunna; fall of Sir John Moore (Jan. 16). Convention between Spain and Great Britain. Duke of York’s direction of the army the subject of parliamentary investigation. He resigns the office of commander-in-chief. Abdication of Gustavus IV. of Sweden; Charles XIII. king. Soult enters Portugal. Oporto taken. Battle of Medellin (March 19). Sir Arthur Wellesley opposes Soult; recovers Oporto. Emperoι r of Austria declares war against France (April 8); invades Bavaria; battle of Eckmuhl; capitulation of Vienna (May 13); Austrians repulsed in Italy; papal territory incorporated with the dominions of France (17). Battle of Essling (21 and 22); of Wagram (July 6); of Talavera (28). Insurrection in the Tyrol; Hofer. British expedition to Walcheren. Cayenne, Martinique, Ionian Islands, taken from France. War between Russia and Persia. Britain concludes treaties with Turkey and Persia. Peace of Vienna between France and Austria (Oct. 14). Defeat of the Spaniards at Ocana and Alba de Tormes. Mr Perceval prime minister. Jubilee.
1810
Sir Francis Burdett committed to the Tower by the House of Commons. Napoleon marries Maria Louisa, daughter of the emperor of Austria; dethrones his brother Louis; annexes the United Provinces to France (July 1). The United States of America prohibit all intercourse with Great Britain and France. Marshal Bernadotte chosen crown-prince of Sweden (Aug. 18). Massena reduces Ciudad Rodrigo and Almeida; battle of Busaco (Sept. 27). Meeting of the Spanish cortes (28). Sicge of Cadiz. Isle of Bourbon, Mauritius, settlements in Madagascar belonging to the French, Amboyna and Banda, to the Dutch, reduced by British armaments. Mental derangement of George III. Prince of Wales regent.
1811
Massacre of the Mamelukes at Cairo (March 1). Massena commences a retreat from Portugal (5). Battle of Fuentes d’Honor; of Albnera (May 16). The Spanish American colonies refuse submission to the Cortes; claim independence. Java, with all its dependencies, reduced by the British. Riots at Nottingham.
1812
Ciudad Rodrigo stormed by Lord Wellington (Jan. 19). Constitutional code promulgated in Spain (March 20). Badajos stormed (April 6). Assassination of Mr Perceval (May 11). Administration of Lords Liverpool and Castlereagh. The United States declare war against Britain (June 18); invade Canada. Treaties of alliance; Russia with Sweden, with Great Britain, with the Spanish Cortes; of peace, with Turkey, the Pruth the frontier. War between France and Russia (June 24). Battle of Salamanca (July 22). Smolensko taken (Aug. 18). Battle of Borodino (Sept. 7). Entry of the French into Moscow (14); the city burnt by the inhabitants. Napoleon offers peace; retreats from Moscow (Oct. 22). Frost and the Russians destroy the French army.
1813
Prussia joins the enemies of France (Feb. 22). Napoleon enters Germany. Battle of Lutzen (May 2); of Bautzen (21 and 22); of Richenbach; truce (June 4); the French to occupy Silesia. Sweden and Austria join the allies. England contributes largely towards the expenses of the war. Battle of Vittoria gained by Lord Wellington (June 21). St Sebastian stormed (August 31). The allies resume hostilities with 180,000 men; Napoleon with as many. Battles of the Katzbach (August 26); Dresden (September 4 and 5), &c.; Leipsic (October 16, 18, 19). Bavaria joins the allies. Lord Wellington enters France (October 18). Battle of Hanau (October 30). Revolution in Holland (November 16). Prince of Orange restored (December 2). British trade to India partially opened.
1814
The allies invade France at different points; after many conflicts with various success, enter Paris (March 31). Bonaparte abdicates (April 11); embarks at Frejus for Elba (28). Louis XVIII. enters Paris (May 3); Ferdinand VII. Madrid (14). Peace of Paris between France and the allies (30); France reduced to her limits on the 1st January 1792. King of Spain suppresses the Cortes; re-establishes the Inquisition, Jesuits’ College, &c. Norway united to Sweden (August 14). City of Washington taken by the British (24) . Congress of Vienna (September 26); Belgium united to Holland. Hanover a’kingdom. Peace of Ghent between Great Britain and America (December 15).
1815
Congress of Vienna guarantees the integrity of the twenty-two Swiss cantons; issues a manifesto against Bonaparte on his return to France. Bonaparte leaves Elba (February 26); lands at Cannes (March 1); enters Paris (21). Britain, Russia, Austria, Prussia, bind themselves to bring 150,000 men each into the field against Bonaparte (25) . Murat attacks the Austrians; loses the battle of Tolentino (May 3), and the kingdom of Naples (20). The three legations restored to the Pope (29). Bonaparte leaves Paris (June 10) to oppose the allies. Conflicts at Charleroi, Quatre Bras, Ligny (15, 16, 17). Battle of Waterloo (18). Bonaparte abdicates in favour of his son (24). The allies enter France. Capitulation of Paris (July 3). Return of Louis XVIII. to the capital (8). Bonaparte surrenders to Captain Maitland, Fl. B. Μ. S. Bellerophon (15). Ney, Labedoyere, shot. Holy alliance concluded (September 26). Bonaparte at St Helena (October 13). Ionian republic established (November 5). New treaties, providing for the military occupation of France by foreign troops for five years, and further contracting the French frontier, concluded between the allies and Louis XVIII. (November 20). Congress of Vienna adjusts the boundaries of the states formerly dependent on the French empire; fixes the federative constitution of Germany.
1816
Majority of thirty-seven in the House of Commons against the property-tax (March 19). Princess of Wales married to Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (May 2). Bombardment of Algiers by Lord Exmouth (August 27). Declaration of South American independence issued at Buenos Ayres. Duke of Cambridge governor-general of Hanover (Nov. 2). Distress; riots in England. Spa Fields Mob (December 2).
1817
Habeas Corpus Act suspended (March 7). Insurrection at Nottingham. Convention between Louis XVIII. and the pope; privileges of the Gallican church secured. Spain disturbed, and Portugal threatened with popular tumults. Waterloo Bridge opened (June 18). Bolivar supreme chief of the government of Venezuela. Death of
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the Princess Charlotte (November 6). Pindarri war in India; ended (December 17).
1818
Habeas corpus suspension act repealed (January 31). Bernadotte king of Sweden (February 30). Censorship of the press enforced by Louis XVIII. France, Spain, and the Netherlands, agree to measures proposed by England for the suppression of the slave trade. Duke of Clarence marries the Princess of Saxe-Meiningen; Duke of Kent the Princess of Saxe-Coburg (July 13). A papal bull allows benefices in Spain to remain two years vacant, and yields the revenues to the service of the government (August 12). Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (September 29). Army of occupation withdrawn from France (October 9). Death of Queen Charlotte (November 17).
1819
Southwark Bridge opened (March 26). Princess Victoria born (May 23). Radical reform meetings (June 23). Congress of Carlsbad (August 1). Manchester massacre (16). Chili, Buenos Ayres, Colombia, de facto independent. The“Six Acts” sanctioned by the British legislature. Spain cedes the Floridas to North America. New South Shetland discovered.
1820
Revolution in Spain; Constitution of 1812 proclaimed (January 1). Death of George III. (29). The king of Spain swears to the constitution; inquisition suppressed (March 8). Expulsion of the Jesuits from Russia (25). Revolution at Naples (May 15). Carbonari. Constitutional junta in Portugal (October 1).
1821
Revolution in Brazil (January 1). Congress of Leybach. Austrian army occupies Naples (8). Disturbances in Piedmont; the king resigns in favour of his brother (April 10). Death of Napoleon Bonaparte (May 5). Coronation of George IV. (July 19). Austrian troops occupy the kingdom of Sardinia (29). George IV. visits Dublin (August 17), and Hanover (October 10). Catholic bill lost in the House of Peers.
1822
The Greeks declare themselves free (January I). The Prince Royal of Brazil institutes a representative government (February 16). Spanish Cortes meet at Madrid (March 1). The Greeks victorious at Larissa, Salonica, and Thermopylae. The king of Portugal swears to the new constitution (October 1). Brazil independent; the Prince Regent proclaimed emperor (12). Congress of Verona (20). Great distress in Ireland. George IV. visits Scotland.
1823
Mediation of the holy alliance rejected by the cortes of Spain (January 9); removal of Ferdinand to Seville, thence to Cadiz (March 20). French army enters Spain (April 7), and Madrid (May 23). The king of Portugal suppresses the constitution (June 5). Cadiz invested by the French (25). Guatemala proclaims its independence (July 20). Battle of the Trocadero before Cadiz (August 31). Riego taken (September 15); executed at Madrid (November 27). Proceedings of the cortes from 7th March 1820 annulled; end of the Spanish revolution (October 1). Mexican constitution proclaimed (4). The government of Great Britain sends consuls to the new states of South America.
1824
The English troops defeated by the Ashantees (January 21). Bolivar dictator of Peru (February 10). Lord Hastings, the governor-general of India, declares war against the Burmese (March 5). Capture of Rangoon (May 5). The Ashantees driven from Cape Coast Castle (July 22). Charles X. king of France. Treaty between the United States and Colombia (Oct. 3). Provisional government in Greece (12). The Turks evacuate Moldavia (Nov. 23). Mechanics’ Institutions formed. Union of the Scotch dissenters. Catholic rent.
1825
Great Britain concludes a treaty of commerce with the united provinces of Rio de la Plata (February 2). Mr Adams president of the United States of North America (9). Ibrahim Pasha invades Greece (26). Convention concluded between Russia and Great Britain for the freedom of navigation, commerce, and fishery on the Pacific Ocean, and the north-west coast of America (28). Independence of St Domingo confirmed by the king of France (April 17). Treaty between Great Britain and Colombia (18). Ibrahim Pasha defeats the Greeks near Forgi (19). Treaty between Great Britain and Mexico(April 29). Ports in the East Indies belonging to the Dutch opened to the ships of all nations (July 21). Resolution of the provisional government of Greece to have recourse to the protection of England (24). The provinces of Upper Peru declare their independence, and take the name of the Bolivian republic (August 6). Treaty of commerce and navigation concluded between Great Britain and the Hanse Towns (September 26). The Spaniards evacuate Mexico (November 18). Death of Alexander, emperor of Russia (December 1). General Campbell defeats the Burmese near Prome (1, 2, 5). Act against the Catholic association. Petitions against the Corn Laws. Joint stock company mania; Commercial distress; Failures.
1826
War between Brazil and Buenos Ayres (January 3). Bhurtpore stormed by the British troops under Lord Combermere. Sir A. Campbell defeats the Burmese near Malloun (20). Surrender of Callao (23); Peru evacuated by the Spaniards. Treaty of navigation between Great Britain and France (26). Peace concluded bctaveen the East India Company and the Burmese (February 24). Death of John VI. emperor and king of Portugal. Don Pedro grants the Portuguese a charter; confirms the regency (April 26); abdicates in favour of his daughter Donna Maria da Gloria (May 2). Treaty of navigation between Great Britain and Sweden (19). Departure of the Ottoman troops from Wallachia. Opening of the first congress of the Bolivian republic (25). Landing of the Greeks near Salonichi; battle with Omer Pasha (June 1). Importation of foreign silks into Great Britain permitted from June 5. Insurrection of the Janissaries at Constantinople. New organization of the Ottoman army. Defeat of the Janissaries; suppression of the corps (14, 15, 16). Convocation of a general congress in Chili to frame a constitution (15). Death of ex-presidents Adams and Jefferson on the fiftieth anniversary of the declaration of North American independence (July 4). The national congress constitutes Chili a confederative state (11)∙ Ashantees defeated by the English (August 7). National assembly of Greece called together in the Isle of Paros (14). Bolivar president of Peru for life (19). Nicholas, emperor of Russia, crowned at Mqscow (September 3). Russia declares war against Persia. Colombian flag admitted into
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A. D.
French ports (September 28). The infant Don Miguel takes the oath of fealty to the Portuguese constitution at Vienna (October 4). Lotteries cease in England (18). Treaty between Great Britain and Brazil for the abolition of the slave trade. The Portuguese rebels take Lamego; Portugal entreats the assistance of Great Britain (Dec. 3). English troops arrive at Lisbon (25).
1827
Death of the Duke of York (January 5). The Duke of Wellington appointed commander-in-chief (22). Lord Liverpool becomes incapable of transacting public business (February 17). Subject of Catholic claims brought before the House of Commons by Sir Francis Burdett; majority against concession four (March 5, 6). Departure of the Hecla, Captain Parry, from Deptford, on the northern expedition (25). Mr Canning appointed first lord of the treasury (April 10); the Duke of Clarence lord high admiral (17). National guard of France disbanded by Charles X. (April 30). Unitarian marriage bill assented to by the House of Peers (June 26). Resolution of the Bank of England to discount bills at four per cent. (July 5). Death of Mr Canning (August 8). Lord Goderich appointed premier (11); Duke of Portland president of the council (17). Return of Captain Parry from the northern expedition (September 29). Battle of Navarino (October 20). French chambers dissolved; seventy-six new peers created (November 5). The bank of Lisbon suspends its payments (Dec. 7).
1828
Resignation of Lord Goderich (January 8). Duke of Wellington premier. British troops withdrawn from Portugal. Usurpation of Don Miguel. Finance committee appointed (February 15). Test and corporation acts repealed (26). Law commission appointed (29). Catholic relief bill rejected by the Upper House (January 9); majority forty-four. Mr O’Connell, a Catholic, elected Μ. P. for the county of Clare. Catholic association. Brunswick clubs.
1829
Settlement of the Oatholic question recommended in a speech from the throne (February 5). Catholic association suppressed by act of Parliament (March 5). Catholic relief bill receives the royal assent (April 13). The Irish forty-shilling freeholders disfranchised. Agricultural distress. Partial disturbances in England (November and December).
1830
Measures of reform proposed in the House of Commons; by the Marquis of Blandford (February 18), by Lord John Russell (23), by Mr O’Connell (May 28), unsuccessfully. Death of George IV (June 26); William IV. king of Great Britain. Revolution of July, in France. Duke of Orleans becomes “King of the French.” Revolution in Belgium. Riots in England; great destruction of agricultural produce. Reform associations and political unions formed at Birmingham, &c. Duke of Wellington resigns (November 16). Earl Grey premier; Mr Brougham lord high chancellor. Revolution of the 19th November in Poland.
1831
Reform bill announced to the House of Commons by Lord John Russell (March 1); read a first time (14); frustrated in committee by a motion of General Gascoyne; (Parliament dissolved); debated in a new House of Commons from June 15 to September 22; carried by a final majority of 109; rejected by the Peers (October ]) by a majority of forty-one. Parliament prorogued. Riots at Derby, Nottingham, and Bristol. Prince Leopold accepts the crown of Belgium. Warsaw surrenders to the Russians; the Poles are reduced to complete submission. Insurrection at Lyons (November). Cholera Morbus breaks out at Sunderland.
1832
The reform bill (introduced again into the House of Commons December 12, 1831), is debated until the 22d March; and endangered in the House of Peers by a motion of Lord Lyndhurst (May 7). Ministers resign. The House otCommons and the country present to the king addresses expressing confidence in the retired ministry. The Duke of Wellington attempts to form an administration; fails; Earl Grey and his colleagues are recalled (May 18). Royal assent given to the English reform bill (June 7), to the Scotch (July 17), to the Irish (August 7). Hereditary peerage abolished in France. Prince Otho of Bavaria accepts the sovereignty of Greece (May 7). Carlist and republican insurrection in Paris (June 5, 6). The city declared in a state of siege. The diet of Frankfort publishes resolutions abridging the liberties of Germany (28). Don Pedro, exemperor of Brazil, lands at Oporto (July 9); civil war for the possession of Portugal. Death of young Napoleon (July 22).