JAMAICA.

Jamaica, called ∖ aymaca by the Indians, and St Jago by the Spaniards, is the largest and most valuable island in the British West Indies. It is situated between the parallels of 17° 35' and 18° 30' north latitude, and of 76° and 78° 40' west longitude, being one hundred and sixty miles in length by forty-five in breadth, and containing 4,000,000 acres of land. It lies ninety miles west of St Domingo, the same distance south of Cuba, four hundred and thirty-five miles north of Carthagena on the South American continent, and four thousand miles south-west of England.

Jamaica was discovered by Columbus on the 3d of May 1494, whilst coasting along the southern side of the island of Cuba, during his second voyage to the western world. It was found to be densely peopled by Indians, who opposed the landing of the Spaniards; but a discharge of ar-balcts put them to flight, and the discoverer formally took possession of the island in the name of his sovereign. His stay, however, was short, and for eight years the natives were allowed to remain in tranquil possession of their own territory. In 1503 was effected the first European settlement in Jamaica, and this was the result of necessity rather than of choice. During his fourth voyage, Columbus was forced, by stress of weather, to seek shelter on the northern side of the island, where he saved the lives of his exhausted comrades at the expense of the vessels, by running the latter ashore at a point called St Ann’s Bay. Here for twelve months he endured great hardships and privations. He despatched a small squadron to Hispaniola, or Cuba as it is now called, for succours; but the governor of that island was his mortal enemy, and mocked his sufferings instead of alleviating them. A body of Spaniards also threw off their allegiance to their commander, and seizing on ten canocs which he had been preparing, put to sea in them, with the intention of crossing over to Hispaniola; but a storm forced them back to Jamaica, where they committed ravages on the unoffending Indians, and made attacks on Columbus and his few but faithful followers. At length, however, the renegades, after suffering some loss in a battle, were permitted to return to their allegiance; and, on the 28th of June 1504, Columbus bade a final adieu to the shores of Jamaica, in vessels prepared for his relief. In 1509, three years after the death of the discoverer, Jamaica became the theatre of rapine, bloodshed, and every species of cruelty. It was placed at the disposal of the two governors of the Darien government, to make what use of it they thought fit, as an emporium whence provisions might be obtained, or a market from which slaves could be taken at pleasure to work in the mines. The rival governors vied with each other in making the most of the island and its unhappy inhabitants. A detail of the enormities committed would sicken humanity. It is sufficient to say, that they were not less aggravated than those perpetrated in other parts of the New World, at a period when crime was uniformly worked on a gigantic scale. The sanguinary reign of the two governors was put a stop to by Diego Columbus, the son of the great navigator, who appeared to assert his prior claim to rule in the island, which the council of the Indies adjudged to be his right. He despatched Don Juan d’Esquimel with seventy men, who formed a settlement at Santa Gloria. The seat of government was fixed on the banks of a small rivulet called Seville Nueva, where a splendid city arose, but of which no memorial now remains except the name. At first it received its designation from the stream on which it stood, but was afterwards called Seville d’Oro. The peaceably-inclined Indians sank unresistingly down to the condition of serfs and slaves to the white superiors, who now usurped the sole occupancy of the soil. The government of Don Juan d’Esquimel appears to have been as mild as it was unfortunately brief. During its continuance, however, the agriculture of the island was materially advanced. The sugar-cane, the vine, and European cattle, were introduced; and from the wool of the cotton tree, which was celebrated in commerce, fabrics were manufactured of a quality so fine as to prove a source of wealth to the Spaniards. But, in their avaricious search for the precious metals, this means of Aggrandisement was comparatively neglected. The colony, however, continued to increase rapidly in wealth and importance, and was enabled to send off branches from the parent stock to other parts of the island. But improvement for a time suffered a retardation by the death of Diego Columbus in 1526. He was succeeded by Don Pedro d’Esquimel, who has been singled out from amongst other tyrants as a most uncompromising destroyer of the Indians; and his cruelties, added to those inflicted by French corsairs, called flibustiers, had nearly put a period to the prosperity of Jamaica. The Spaniards fled from these plundering attacks across the mountain range, on the further side of which they founded St Jago de la Vega, which soon rose to be a flourishing city. Meanwhile, the French flibustiers reduced Seville d’Oro to ruins in their attacks upon the Spaniards; for the wars between Henry of France and Charles V. were in part transferred from the Old to the New World. The native Indians, thus placed as it were between two fires, continued to suffer severely; and it is stated that in 1558 they had been entirely extirpated. By the junction of the crowns of Spain and Portugal in 1580, Jamaica came into the possession of the latter, and new energy was infused into the colony by the Portuguese who emigrated thither. The cultivation of sugar and other articles was prosecuted with energy; and the breeds of live stock which bad been originally imported from Hispaniola increased so rapidly, that a considerable trade arose in provisions, land, and hides. Passing over two predatory inroads made by the English in 1605 and 1644, we come to the period when the British made a conquest of the island in 1655. By order of Cromwell, a considerable armament was fitted out for the conquest of Hispaniola, at the moment that hostilities were declared against Spain in Europe. The expedition was despatched under the command of General Venables and Admiral Penn; but the intentions of the English were frustrated by the vigilance of the Spaniards. To make amends, however, for the discomfiture, Jamaica was captured in May 1655, after having remained in the possession of Spain for a period of 146 years. For sometime little progress was made, many of the Spaniards still retaining possession of the mountains, and causing annoyance to those in the plains. But after some years they were gradually reduced, notwithstanding occasional assistance obtained from Cuba. A more formidable attempt to recover the island was made by the Spaniards in 1658, but without success. Under its first governors, Jamaica became the head-quarters of buccaneers, who infested these seas, and derived untold wealth from the plunder of the Spanish colonies, and vessels laden with the spoils of the New World. A considerable proportion of the population consisted of outlaws, and soldiers and negro slaves likewise began to be imported by the British, whilst emigration from England on a small scale commenced. Charles at his restoration adopted various lenient and wholesome measures to stifle the feuds which existed between the republican and royalist parties, and held [7:12:497]out every encouragement to new settlers. In 1662, on the accession of Lord Windsor to the chief authority, a municipal government was constituted, and other means adopted to secure subordination, peace, and justice to all. In 1664, a popular legislative assembly was established, and for sixty-four years it continued to check the encroachments of the crown, as well as to regulate the internal affairs of the island. In about fourteen years after Jamaica came into the possession of Britain, it exhibited a remarkable progress in commercial prosperity. Fifty-seven sugar works, forty-nine indigo works, forty-seven cocoa walks, and several salt pans, attested the enterprise and industry of the colonists. Cattle, sheep, goats, and tame hogs, were reared in great numbers; and attention had been turned to the cultivation of cotton, tobacco, arnotta, and other articles. The white population at this time exceeded 15,000. In 1684, the impolicy of slave labour became apparent, in a serious revolt of the blacks, which, however, was speedily suppressed; but the maroons or runaway negroes became exceedingly troublesome to the planters. Two serious calamities overtook Jamaica within the space of two years. The first was the destruction of Port Royal, by one of those sudden convulsions to which this region of the globe is so liable. With the exception of about two hundred houses of the fort, the whole town, with its vast wealth, was submerged by the overflow of the sea. The greater number of the inhabitants perished, and their dead bodies, floating in shoals in a putrid state about the harbour, occasioned an epidemic, to which three thousand individuals fell victims. This earthquake took place in June 1692; and, exactly two years afterwards, a formidable descent was made on the island by the French; but the militia gallantly repulsed the invaders. During the remaining years of the seventeenth century, no memorable events occurred in the annals of Jamaica. The earlier part of that which followed was marked by various attempts made to bring the supplies raised by the representatives of the people under the control of the crown; but without success. In 1727, the revenue bill passed through the House of Assembly, the required fund being L.8000 per annum; and that which has beentermedthemagnachartaof Jamaica was passed,namely, that the laws and statutes of England, which had been introduced and acted upon, should be considered as part of the legislative code of the island for ever. Matters being thus arranged, the prosperity of the colony continued to increase, notwithstanding the annoyance given to the planters by the negro marauders. In 1760, there took place a desperate revolt of the Indians, which ended in the destruction of the greater number of the rebel slaves. The contest was characterised by acts of cruelty and barbarity, which rivalled the early atrocities of the Spaniards. Some were burned, and others, gibbeted alive, were allowed to be broiled to death by a tropical sun. The slaughter or transportation of about one thousand slaves made little impression upon the population, which rapidly increased. The energies of Jamaica were called forth on the occasion of the meditated attack of the combined fleets of France and Spain in 1782. But the victory gained by Admiral Rodney, on the 12th of April of that year, over the French squadron, preserved the island to the British crown. The Jamaicans showed their gratitude by erecting a handsome marble statue in memory of the hero who triumphed on that day. Along with the other colonies of Great Britain, both in the East and West Indies, Jamaica suffered by the imposition of heavy duties on the produce of the island when imported into England. In 1795, another alarming insurrection of the maroons took place, on account of the intemperate policy of Earl Balcarras, then governor of the island. This rebellion continued upwards of seven months, the war being carried on with savage cruelty on both sides; indeed excesses were committed by ∙ the whites, and means employed to subjugate the maroons, s which tended more to exasperate than to bring them under control. Into the particulars of this intestine commotion it were superfluous to enter. The savages exhibited their deep hatred of the whites by all those methods of retaliation common to barbarous tribes. Without openly facing the military forces which were sent against them, they lay in covert, and, whenever an opportunity presented itself, surprised them by unexpected sallies. In the fastnesses of the mountains they found a secure retreat; and as the ordinary means of civilized warfare appeared inadequate to bring the contest to a speedy issue, the governor resolved to call to his aid the bloodhounds of Cuba. This bears the aspect of a harsh, but it finally turned out to be a merciful expedient; for it paralyzed the energies of the Indians, and terrified them into a general capitulation. Their lives were spared, but they were transported, at the expense of the island, first to Nova Scotia, and afterwards to Sierra Leone in Africa. The only other slave insurrection which threatened the well-being of the colony, was that which took place in 1831-32; and with this it is hoped that the servile or predial war which the island has so often been doomed to witness will for ever cease. By the slave emancipation bill the principal ground for dissatisfaction on the part of the black population has been removed; but a discussion of this subject, with the results of the measure, belongs to another part of the present work. Besides the destructive visitation already noticed, Jamaica has repeatedly been visited by earthquakes, although only on one occasion was serious injury sustained. The hurricane, that scourge of the western archipelago, has not passed innocuously over this island. One of these, which occurred in 1780, was particularly destructive, the loss of life and property being both very great on that occasion. Besides these evils, the diseases of this country arc occasionally malignant; the yellow fever, in particular, has long been proverbially fatal.

Jamaica is somewhat of an oval shape, and its surface is more beautifully diversified by hills and valleys than that of any other island in the West Indies. An elevated ridge, called in the eastern and highest part the Blue Mountains, runs longitudinally from east to west through the centre of the island, and occasionally rises to nearly 8000 feet above the level of the ocean. Other high ridges running from north to south occasionally intersect this chain. On the south they approach to the sea in gigantic spines, difficult of access, and covered with dense forests. On the opposite side the aspect of the country is very different. Instead of being rugged and abrupt, the hills are remarkable rather for their beauty than their boldness. They are of a gentle acclivity, uniformly rounded at the top with singular felicity, and commonly separated from each other by spacious vales and romantic inequalities. This gently-undulating surface is diversified with groves of pimento, luxuriant pastures, and all the exquisite verdure of the tropics. Viewed from a lofty eminence, the country presents an aspect of grandeur united with beauty, which can scarcely be surpassed. A splendid panorama of mountains appears towering up to the clouds, whilst, lower down, vast savannahs or plains clothed with various vegetation, vales, ravines, majestic woods, rivers, cascades, and mountain torrents, appear spread out before the eye of the spectator in all the beautiful irregularity of nature. The view of the island from the sea has also been celebrated by voyagers for its splendour. At Point Morant, the eastern cape of Jamaica, the scenery is magnificent. The Blue Mountains appear embosomed in a stratum of clouds, the rugged hills below being furrowed with ravines, and descending abruptly to the sea.
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Upon a nearer approach, they are found to have their sides covered with black forests; whilst patches of bright green, and white houses, are descried on running along the south coast towards Port Royal. From Fort Nugent, which is conspicuous under a steep hill, to Port Royal, there is a narrow bit of land called the Palisades, composed of sand overgrown with mangroves, and studded with grave-stones. Behind this is the harbour of the capital; and Kingston is seen stretching over an extended level, and encircled by the loftiest ridge of the Blue Mountain chain. The heights of the principal mountains have been computed as follows: Blue Mountain Peak, 7770 feet; ridge of the same, 7163 feet; Portland Gap ridge, 6501 feet; Portland Gap, 5640 feet; Catherine’s Peak, 4970 feet; with others of a lower elevation. It is stated, however, by some authorities, that the three very remarkable peaks on the grand ridge of the Blue Mountains, called Coldridge, have their respective summits 8184, 7656, and 7576 feet above the level of the sea, whilst other mountains of the same chain exceed a mile in height. The greater number of the mountains present a conical form, with steep but forest-clad declivities, approaching very near the shore on the north coast, and leaving plains of about twelve miles wide on the south. The dark and deep ravines between the lofty mountains, denominated cockpits, are closed in by dense woods, and present a striking contrast to the lower mountains, where coffee, pimento, cotton, capsicums, and other tropical vegetables, flourish luxuriantly.

Jamaica is abundantly supplied with water. Upwards of two hundred rivers have been enumerated; but, owing to the irregularity of the surface of the country, few of these are navigable for vessels of any burden. Black River, the largest and least rapid of these, flows through a level country, and is navigable by small craft for about thirty miles. The other chief rivers on the south side are Rio Cobre and Rio Minho; and on the north Marthabrae, White, Ginger, and Great Rivers. It is a striking faet, that in an island of such limited extent as Jamaica, there are no less than forty rivers varying from twenty to an hundred feet or more in breadth. They are all of great value, turning the mills and irrigating the plantations through which they flow, besides adding a beautiful feature to the landscape. The springs and rivulets are very numerous, but are unequally distributed. In some parts of the island seven or eight may be enumerated within the circuit of as many miles; whilst other districts are so far removed from water, that, for supplying their necessities, the inhabitants are obliged to have recourse to tanks and ponds. Several of the springs possess medicinal virtues. Two of a sulphureous nature, in particular, one hot, and the other cold, are celebrated as exceedingly beneficial in cutaneous diseases. With regard to harbours, the Jamaica shore has sixteen secure havens, besides thirty bays, roads, or shipping stations, which afford good anchorage.

The soil of this island is in most places deep and fertile. On the north side there is a species of red soil, the shades of which vary from a deep chocolate to a rich scarlet, and in some places approach to a bright yellow. What is denominated the brick mould is a deep, warm, yellow, hazel mould, reposing on a retentive under stratum. This is reckoned one of the best soils in the West Indies for the cultivation of sugar-cane. It is of great depth, easily laboured, and so inexhaustible as to require no manure. The black shell mould is the next in fertility, and this it owes to the mineral salts and exuviae which are intermingled with it. The principal soils on the interior hills and mountains of Jamaica have been thus enumerated: A red clay, on a white marl; a red clay, on a grit; a reddish-brown clay, on marl; a yellowish day, mixed with common mould; a red grit; a loose concha-ceous mould; a black mould, on a clay or other substratum a loose black vegetable mould, on rock; a fine sand; and the varieties of all the foregoing soils. The mountain land in general, when first cleared of its wood, possesses more or less a deep surface of rich black mould mixed with shells a soil which will grow anything. Different parts of the island are characterised by peculiarities of soil, which are either those enumerated, or their varieties intermixed with different mineral or earthy substances. Silver and golden mica are frequently met with, and sometimes mistaken for the genuine metal. Amongst other mineral substances found, are mixed and purplish schistus, and the hard lamellated amianthus, which occurs in large detached masses, having all the appearance of petrified wood. White freestone, quartz of different species, and limestone, are abundant. Subcrystalline spar is found in small detached masses, and rock spar in blocks of great magnitude. A species of bastard marble, having a smooth even grain, is frequently used for limestone. There is a species of smooth clammy marl found, which is sometimes eaten by the negroes when they are diseased, to the detriment of their health. Lead ore, rich, and heavily impregnated with silver, striated antimony, varieties of copper ore, and iron-stone, which is attracted by the magnet, are found; but neither gold nor silver ore has yet been discovered, although the natives possessed these metals in abundance when the island was first visited by the Spaniards.

The climate of Jamaica is conformable to the latitude in which it is placed, but the heat is by no means so fearful as is usually represented. The highest temperature of course prevails in the low situations, those more elevated being colder, in conformity with nature’s universal law. The climate of the island since its cultivation has undergone very considerable change∙ The medium heat at Kingston throughout the year is 80°, and the minimum 70°, of Fahrenheit. The latter is the maximum at eight miles from Kingston; and at an elevation of from 4000 to 5000 feet, the average range is from 55° to 65°, the minimum in winter being 44°, of Fahrenheit. The alternation of temperature is from eight to ten degrees on the south side of the mountains, and it is more so on the north; but the transitions are not so sudden and detrimental as in many parts of the continent of North America. The grand compensation for excess of temperature is afforded by the breezes which regularly every morning set in from the sea to the land, and every evening flow from the land towards the sea, as it were by a wise provision of nature, to preserve the equilibrium which the intense heat of the noon-day sun has disturbed. During the most sultry months, also, a succession of light, fleecy clouds continually cross the sun’s disc, and thus, by intercepting his rays, mitigate their general arden-ey∙ It is cooler and more salubrious on the north side of the island than on the south, and the dwellers on the mountains enjoy a purer and more wholesome air than those resident on the low grounds. There is no striking variation of season, excepting what is occasioned by the alternation of dry and rainy weather. Thunder and lightning arc prevalent, without being mischievous; and although the hurricane season ranges from July to October, severe storms at the windward Caribbee Islands are not experienced at Jamaica. The rains do not always take place in the same months; and in different parts of the island there is a considerable variation in the time of their commencement. In the mountains they are earlier, more frequent, and more heavy, than in the low country. In the latter, one district will have rain a month or six weeks sooner or later than another not twenty miles.distant from it. What are called the spring rains sometimes [7:12:499]do not set in till June, and even later; but occasionally they commence as early as March or April, which is always a great impediment to agricultural operations, this being the time for getting in the sugar crops on the north side of the island. The seasons vary much on either side. On the south, spring may be said to range from November to April, summer from May to August, and winter from September to October. On the north, however, winter ranges from October to March, and on this side there is a more plentiful supply of rain than on the other, but distributed in smaller and more frequent showers. It is, moreover, cooler, and has a vegetation of greater bulk and height. The spring rains are the most violent, and the atmosphere is then exceedingly sultry, and, being much charged with electricity, thunder storms are of frequent occurrence. The distribution of rain is sometimes very capricious, some parts being favoured with plenteous showers, whilst plantations divided from them only by a ridge of hills suffer from drought; and it often happens that, whilst the mountainous regions are visited by daily torrents, the low country is parched for want of rain. During droughts, however, vegetation is much assisted by the fall of dews. The climate of Jamaica is by no means so inimical to the human constitution as is generally represented, that is, provided those resident on the island live temperately. Fevers of various kinds are not uncommon; but the malignant epidemic, the yellow fever, has of late years almost, if not quite, disappeared from Jamaica and the other West India islands. Generally the climate has improved, and the high lands of this beautiful isle are well adapted to the European constitution, and they will be more especially so when they become cleared and cultivated. There are, besides, many districts in the interior where climate and soil are nearly as favourable to health as in any part of Britain; districts which are crown property, and at present lying waste.

Besides the vegetable productions indigenous to Jamaica, the island has been enriched with numerous exotics, the whole forming a vast and interesting catalogue of plants and trees, which our limits will not admit of our enumerating or describing in systematic detail. The forests abound with woods fit for various purposes, as building, mill-work, wheel-making, cabinet-making, dyeing, and so on. There are several species which, from their extreme hardness, cannot be used in cabinet-making, but are valuable for building and other purposes in which durability is principally required. Of these, the black and neesberry bully trees, the green heart, the rose-wood, and fiddle-wood, grow to a great height. The iron-wood, the nature of which tree corresponds with its name, does not grow to a great size, and is principally used for rough posts for the negroes’ houses. There are various beautiful woods for ornamental cabinet work, of which the mahogany, the bread-nut-heart, and the satin-wood, are most highly esteemed. The mahogany tree is one of the most elegant in the island, and grows to from forty to fifty fleet in height; but having been found a profitable article of exportation, the greater part has been cut down for that purpose, and there are not many trees now remaining on the island. The bread-nut tree is pretty abundant in most parts of Jamaica. Its wood is beautifully variegated, and takes a fine polish. The leaves are a nutritious food for horses and other animals; and the negroes find a substantial article of diet in the kernels of the fruit. The cedar grows to a great size, sometimes measuring thirty feet in girth near the root, and it is of proportionable height. The cotton-trce is the largest of all the trees on the island, but it is only used for making canoes, which are hollowed out from the trunks. The pimento is a highly valuable tree, and it flourishes spontaneously in great abundance on the north side of the island. This tree is celebrated for its beauty, and the leaves, when bruised, emit a fine aromatic odour, nearly as powerful as that of the spice itself. A single tree will produce one hundred and fifty of the raw, or one hundred pounds of the dried fruit. One of the most useful trees in the island is the bamboo, which is applied to numerous important purposes. The trumpet tree, which grows from thirty to forty feet in height, produces an agreeable fruit similar to our strawberry; its strong and fibrous bark is used for cordage, and its light trunk for bark logs, and the like purposes. One of the most curious trees is the mangrove, which takes root in the sands, and grows within the margin of the ocean. The coffee-trce is a handsome plant, and its fecundity is much improved by regular pruning. The coffee-bean is covered with a pulp, which when ripe assumes a fine crimson red. The cocoa-tree grows to the height of from fifteen to twenty feet, and bears its nuts in pods. The cultivation of this article is now neglected, not much more being raised than is necessary for the consumption of the inhabitants. The oil-nut tree (ricinus), which produces the castor oil, grows to the height of twelve or fifteen feet, and has a large indented leaf. It bears the fruit, which produces the oil, in clusters. There are two species of the cabbage-tree, the Barbadoes and the native cabbage-tree, the former being the most stately and beautiful. The cocoa-nut tree grows in great luxuriance, and abounds in every part of the island. Besides the above trees, Jamaica is plentifully provided with black and green ebony, yellow sanders, lignum vitae, fustic, logwood, bitter wood, the valuable palmetto (sometimes one hundred and forty feet in height), and others. There is an abundant supply of the most delicious fruits, every month presenting a fresh collation. Amongst these may be mentioned the pine-apple or anana, orange, shaddock, pomegranate, fig, granedillo, necsberry, cashew-apple, kennip, spadillo, banana, mamee (a wild fruit), star-apple, sweet sop, musk-melon, water-melon, sweet melon, citron, avagato pear, several varieties of the mango, the chirimoya, akee, jack-fruit, bread-fruit, very fine grapes, plantain, plum, tamarind, olive, date, mulberry, as well as other delicious fruits. Amongst vegetables, potatoes, yams, cassava, peas and beans of every variety, artichokes, beetroot, carrots, parsnips, cucumbers, tomatoes, radishes, celery, choco, ochro, Lima bean, Indian kale, calalue, and various salads, flourish in abundance. Both maize and Guinea corn grow in great luxuriance in this island; and rice is capable of being raised in certain situations, but it is not an object of attention. Maize or Indian corn is universally cultivated, and it yields an almost incredible return; on an average, it is said, one thousand fold. Guinea grass, which abounds, is considered as of great importance, as the cattle that supply manure to the sugar plantations arc fed by it. The various drugs, dye-stuffs, and spiccs, are of excellent quality. Aloes, cochineal, spikenard, canella, liquorice root, the castor-oil nut already noticed, vanilla, peppers, arrow-root, ginger, ipecacuanha, scammony, jalap, cassia, euphorbia, senna, and others, attest the fruitfulness and capabilities of the soil and climate.

But it is now time to advert to the grand staple plant of the island, the sugar-cane. The question which has divided inquirers into this subject, namely, whether the sugar-cane was indigenous to the Antilles, does not require to be discussed in this place. It seems certain that at an early period this valuable plant was extensively cultivated by the Spaniards in Jamaica; and in 1671 a writer speaks of the complicated sugar works scattered over the island as resembling towns or villages. There are several varieties of the sugar-cane, viz. the common cane of the island, the Bourbon cane (so called from its being brought last from the island of that name, though originally a na[7:12:500]tive of the Society Islands), the transparent cane, the ribbon cane, the Batavian or purple cane, and the green stripe cane. Those chiefly cultivated are the Bourbon and transparent cane. The ribbon cane is also sometimes planted, on account of its hardy nature, though it yields much less juice than the other two. It is the most beautiful of all the species, being finely variegated with alternate stripes of crimson and pale yellow, whence it takes its name. The Batavian cane is in no estimation, being unproductive, and is only preserved as a variety. An idea of the extent of ground appropriated to the cultivation of the sugar-cane may be obtained from the fact, that for some years the importations into Great Britain have averaged, in hundredweights, 1,400,000, which, rated so low as a guinea per hundredweight, would give nearly one million and a half sterling. It is of very fine quality, and, by the improved systems of culture and manufacture which are coming into operation, there seems little doubt but that both the quantity and quality may yet be more extended. The quantity of rum made from the sugar is likewise very great. The average imports made annually into England may be taken at 3,500,000 gallons, which may be estimated in value at one million sterling. The next grand staple plant of the island is coffee. It was introduced into Jamaica in 1728, from which period the cultivation of it was extended, until about the beginning of this century, when it appears to have reached its maximum. This plant thrives in almost every soil about the mountains of Jamaica, and in the very driest spots has frequently produced abundant crops. The importation into Great Britain averages about 20,000,000 pounds yearly, which, estimated at the low rate of one shilling per pound, is another million sterling. Cotton, indigo, and cocoa, are not now so extensively cultivated as formerly, having given way to the foregoing staples of the island. The attention of the planters has recently been turned to other vegetable productions, particularly to the sun-flower, which, it is said, may be rendered valuable in a pecuniary point of view. Its fecundity in this climate gives it an advantage over corn for the common purposes of food for poultry, and when mixed with corn it constitutes a nutritious food for horses. The seeds also yield an oil, which, in the opinion of some, is preferable to olive oil. With respect to the other vegetable productions of Jamaica, such as flowers and flowering shrubs, there is little to demand particular attention. A few European flowers thrive, and there are a variety of others indigenous to the island, which flourish wild in the woods and mountain recesses. Here, even in winter, may be seen, what is often witnessed in the torrid zone, fruitsand blossoms suspended at once from the same bough, the rivalship of Pomona and Flora.

Jamaica, like the rest of the islands appertaining to the new continent, when discovered, contained but few species of animals. Only eight varieties of quadrupeds are enumerated as belonging to it, viz. the agouti, peccari, armadillo, opossum, racoon, musk rat, alco, and monkey. The wild hog, the rat, and the mouse, seem now to be the only wild quadrupeds in the island. The wild hogs, which are larger and more fierce than the common kind, frequent the remote woods, and subsist on the fruits and roots with which these abound. The rats are most destructive animals, and their numbers and ravages are almost inconceivable. The island abounds with the feathered tribes remarkable for the brilliancy of their plumage, but there are only a few of them birds of song. Of these the most remarkable is what is termed the nightingale, a species of mock bird, possessing great variety, compass, and sweetness of tone. There are numerous species of the wild pigeon, and also of the parrot; and a variety of aquatic birds, as ducks, teal, coots, divers, and the like. In October the crane and the white galding (one of the heron family), come over in flocks from the island of Cuba. The plover, snipe, and ortolan, are also migratory. Within the last half century the quail has become a very common bird. But the most valuable of the winged inhabitants of the island is the black vulture or carrion crow, which is very useful in devouring all putrid matter.

The sea around this island, and the rivers by which it is watered, abound in excellent fish. There are also salt ponds, which, if properly attended to, might render the planters in a great measure independent of supplies of salt fish from Europe. The sprat, herring, dolphin, anchovy or silver fish, the flying, sword, sun, parrot, rock, king, and gar fishes, the flounder, sole, eel, bream, snapper, mullet, perch, bonecto, Spanish mackerel, sea-devil (weighing from 100 to 300 pounds), old wife, shark, porpoise, sting ray, thrasher, as well as many others, may be caught in abundance. Sea and land turtle are likewise plentiful, and of good eating. Some of the largest rivers contain alligators, but the chief harm which they usually do ⅛ the destroying of the fish, and devouring the poultry and pigs which come in their way. There are three species of snake in Jamaica, the yellow, black, and brown snake, the last being the smallest and least numerous of the three. None of these are venomous in their bite, at least to a serious degree. Several species of the lizard abound here, and scorpions and centipedes are common. There is a very troublesome insect called the cockroach, swarms of which infest every house; but the most annoying of these animals is the mosquito. There are numerous fire-flies, which dis])lay their harmless but vivid coruscations during the night. Bees are very numerous in the woods, and the honey which they produce is of an exquisitely fine flavour.

Amongst the animals useful to man, the ox may be placed first. Oxen, though generally smaller than those of England, are capable of performing a great deal of labour; and they are chiefly employed in those operations for which horses are used in Britain. The horses bred in the island are middle sized, hardy, and active, well fitted for the saddle or the harness, but not for the cart or plough, to which they are never yoked. The mules in Jamaica are far more hardy than the horses, and are consequently more valuable to the planter in assisting him in his operations. The sheep are very good, and the mutton is excellent, but high priced. Goats thrive and increase with little care, and the milk they yield is much superior to that of cows. For the most part the foregoing animals feed on the Guinea grass, and occasionally on the leaves of the bread-nut tree. Hogs are very plentiful, and their flesh is sweet and delicious. All kinds of poultry are raised here in great abundance, excepting geese and the common duck. But the Muscovy duck, the turkey, the Guinea fowl, and the common dunghill fowl, thrive and multiply wonderfully well.

Jamaica is divided into three counties, viz. Surrey, Cornwall, and Middlesex; and these are subdivided into twenty-one parishes. Surrey comprises seven parishes, has an area of 1,522,149 acres, and contains two towns and eight villages; Cornwall comprises five parishes, has an area of 1,305,235 acres, and contains three towns and eight villages; and Middlesex comprises nine parishes, has an area of 672,616 acres, and contains one town and thirteen villages. Kingston, the most considerable town in the island, and in reality, though not nominally, the capital, is situated on a gentle slope of about one mile in length, which is bounded on the south by a spacious basin, through which all vessels must advance beneath the commanding guns of Port Royal. The extended inclined plane, on the verge of which Kingston stands, is enclosed on the north by the loftiest ridge of the Blue Mountain chain, termed Liguana, which forms a semicircle, and [7:12:501] terminates on the east at the narrow defile of Rock Fort. From this a long neck of land stretches to Port Royal, and forms the south barrier of a beautiful haven. On the west the semicircle terminates at a contracted pass, upon the edge of an impracticable lagoon, from which the main land sweeps round to Port Henderson, which, together with the projecting salt ponds, forms a natural harbour, where all the navies of Europe might anchor at once. The entrance is defended in such a manner as to render it altogether unassailable by sea. For nine miles around Kingston stretches an alluvial plain, surrounded by a series of irregular mountains, some of which have a considerable elevation. Kingston is principally built of wood; and the houses, which are generally two stories in height, have piazzas fitted up all round with Venetian blinds, or “jalousies,” as they are termed. The streets, which are long, straight, and regular, incline gradually to the harbour, being intersected at right angles by some cross ones. There are several handsome private buildings in the West India style; the public offices are in some instances elegant; and the English and Scotch churches are spacious structures, particularly the former, which is built on a picturesque spot, commanding a splendid view of the city, the plains around it, the amphitheatre of mountains, and the spacious harbour of Port Royal. There are some good institutions here for charitable purposes, particularly the free school, the hospital, the lunatic asylum, and the asylum for deserted negroes. There are excellent stores for all descriptions of goods, and during crop time the wharfs present a busy spectacle, being crowded with buyers and sellers of all kinds of goods here trafficked in. Kingston contains about 30,000 inhabitants, and lies in longitude 76. 33. west, latitude 18. north. On a plain at the top of the declivity on which Kingston is built, are the fine barracks called Up-Park Camp. The camp covers an irregular square of between two and three hundred acres, sloping towards Kingston. The barracks consist of two long parallel lines of buildings, extending from east to west, two stories high, having a six feet basement, an excellent hospital, and a splendid bath. The whole cantonment is surrounded by a wall six feet in height, and surmounted by an iron palisading. Twelve hundred and eighty-four European soldiers are here comfortably encamped; and the attached offices are spacious, lofty, and commodious. A description of the other military stations may also be introduced here. Port Royal is situated nearly at the extremity of a tongue of land which forms the boundary of the harbours of Kingston and of Port Royal. A great part of the town of Port Royal is only a few feet above the level of the ocean, and the tongue of land towards the sea is frequently inundated. The royal naval yard lies to the north, the naval hospital to the south-west, and the works of Fort Charles and the soldiers’ barracks to the southward. The fortifications are very strong, and the situation, though low, is healthy, from its exposure to the sea breeze. The harbour is capable of containing a thousand large ships with convenience. It was upon this spot that the former Port Royal stood when it was overwhelmed by the earthquake in 1692, and, with two thousand houses, was buried eight fathoms under water. On the shore opposite to Port Royal is Apostle’s Battery, a small fort erected on a rock, hort Augusta is a strong fortress, built upon a low neck of land or peninsula, joined to the hills at Port Henderson by a narrow isthmus of sand, having a coal formation for its base. The buildings of the fort occupy the whole area of the point of the peninsula. The barracks are two stories high, well ventilated, healthy, and generally contain four service companies. Stony Füll garrison is situated nine miles north of Kingston, on a ridge of mountains, about 2000 feet above the level of the sea. The barracks, which, generally speaking, are placed on small detached eminences, are capable of containing five hundred men; and as this post commands the grand pass which intersects the island from north to south, it is jus t ly considered as of great importance. Port Antonio, situated at the extremity of the island, eighty tuiles from Kingston, is nearly insulated. The fort is a half-moon battery, with a magazine in the rear. The barracks are new, elevated, and commodious, but not capable of containing a great force. Marson Town is situated in the interior, between the parishes of Westmoreland and St James, on a very high mountain. The station is excellent, both in a military and a sanatory point of view; and the barracks can accommodate upwards of two hundred men. Lucea, or Fort Charlotte, is built on the north-eastern extremity of a peninsula, being bounded on one side by the bay and harbour of Lucea, and on the other by the sea. Majestic mountains rise immediately behind the town, about one mile from the garrison.

St Iago de la Vega, or Spanish Town as it is usually called, the capital of Jamaica, is situated at the extremity of an extensive plain, extending far to the south, southeast, and west, but with the mountains closely approaching the town on the north and north-west, and distant from the sea at Port Royal harbour six miles. At about a quarter of a mile to the north-east of the city runs the Cobre, a river of considerable depth. The town is small, but the buildings are in the magnificent style of Spanish architecture. The government residence, termed the King’s House, is a large building occupying one whole side of a quadrangle. On either side are a variety of public edifices appropriated to government purposes; and the buildings fronting it comprehend the court-house, grand and petty jury, and a variety of other apartments above, whilst the lower part is occupied by a number of public offices. There are many splendid edifices in the town and neighbourhood, possessed for the most part by gentlemen of the legal or medical professions, and in some eases by government officers or country proprietors. Spanish Town has a free school, poor-house, a charity for the support of widows, and another for the support of poor maidens and distressed strangers; and the population amounts to about .5000.

Montego Bay is the chief town and sea-port of St James. It is situated at the foot of a range of mountains, which nearly surround it, except on the sea side, and is, in consequence of its trade, a thriving and pretty populous place. It is not, however, equal to what it once was, having twice suffered severely from fire. There is here a neat church, a school, a jail, and other public buildings, including barracks, which are commodious and comfortable. Falmouth, or Marthabrae, which is fifteen miles east of Montego Bay, is the principal town and sea-port of Trelawny. From being an inconsiderable village, this place has become larger and more populous than Montego Bay. It has derived its advantages from its harbour, where a greater quantity of produce is shipped than from any other part of the island, with the exception of Kingston. There is a good church here, a handsome and spacious court-house, a marine hospital, a neat jail, substantial and commodious barracks, with an hospital, stores, and quarters, and a free school. Savannah-le-Mar is a fine military station, in the midst of a highly-cultivated country. The town is situated on the beach, from which a low alluvial flat extends for several miles. In this plain, about one mile from the town, is an excellent range of barracks. In the other towns there is nothing that claims particular attention; each of them having its church, its court-house, its free school, its jail, and its workhouse.

Jamaica is ruled by a governor or captain-general, aided by a council of twelve, and a house of assembly. The [7:12:502]governor is always, and the council generally, appointed by the king, through his secretary for the colonies, from amongst the ex officio justices of the peace. The governor, who bears the title of his excellency, is invested with the chief civil and military authority, and has the disposal of such appointments as his majesty does not reserve to him-selfor his ministers. The council of twelve are appointed by mandamus from the king, and hold their offices during pleasure. The members of this body stand in the same relation to the governor as the privy council in England does to his majesty, giving advice to the superior when necessary. They also constitute a part of the legislature of the colony, and occasionally sit as judges. The lieutenant-governor, chief-justice, attorney-general, and the bishop, are all ex officio members of the council. The assembly consists of forty-five members, each of the parishes sending two representatives, and Spanish Town, Kingston, and Port-Royal, one additional member each. The qualification for a representative is a freehold of L.300 per annum, or a personal estate of L.3000. An elector must be of age, and possessed of a freehold of L.10 per annum in the parish for which he votes. The governor and council may, as occasion requires, summon the assembly together; and the former, of his own authority, can adjourn, prorogue, and dissolve them. They have the sole power of levying taxes, and the distribution thereof, with the exception of an annual permanent revenue to the crown of L.10,000. The council and assembly, with the consent of the king or the governor, may make laws, statutes, and ordinances for the public peace, welfare, and good government of the Colony, provided these be not repugnant, but, as near as may be, agreeable, to the laws and statutes of Great Britain. The English common law is in force in Jamaica, but many of the statute laws are not; for example, the game-laws, poor-laws, bankruptlaws, and most of those relating to the revenue. An English statute, to have force in Jamaica, must be re-enacted by the colonial legislature. With regard to the imposition of any duty payable in the colonies, Jamaica is placed in the same situation as the other colonies of Great Britain. By the 18th Geo. III. cap. 12, the king and parliament declared, that thenceforth they would not impose any duty payable in the colonies, except for the regulation of commerce, the produce whereof should always be applied to the use of the colony in which it is levied. The English bankruptcy laws are not in force here; but there is in force the insolvent debtor’s act, by which a debtor, on making oath that he is possessed of no property above bare necessaries, and delivering his books, if he has any, into the hands of the deputy-marshal or sheriff’s deputy, is, after remaining three months in jail, exonerated from all demands against him. Any person proposing to leave the island must give three weeks’ notice of his intention, on account of creditors.

The supreme court of judicature holds its sittings i∏ Spanish Town, three times a year, for three weeks each time. The chief justice, a nominee of government, presides in it, and with him are associated several assistant-judges, who hold their offices during pleasure. Thejuris-diction of the supreme court is co-extensive with those of the courts of king’s bench, common pleas, exchequer, and insolvent debtors in England, taken collectively. It also decides on questions relative to trade and navigation, th e laying on of duties or customs on the import and export of goods, on informations for land under the quit-rent acts, and all escheats; and is likewise a court of appeal from the inferior courts of common pleas. There are two assize-courts, one for the county of Surrey, and the other for the county of Cornwall. Their sittings are similar to those of the supreme court, but at different periods. For each of these there are eight assistant judges appointed, two or three of whom sit in turns with the chief justice. They receive no salaries, and, like the judges of the supreme court, they hold office only during his majesty’s pleasure. The several inferior courts of common pleas have jurisdiction over all causes (except those in which a freehold is concerned) to the value of L.20 with costs; but, by the aid of ⅛ justifias from the chancellor, who is the governor, they may hold pleas to any amount, except in actions where the title to land or negroes is concerned. These courts are held at the same time, and in the same place of the respective precincts, as the justices of the peace hold the quarter-sessions, once in every three months; but some of them have the privilege of sitting oftener.

The parishes are under the government of a chief magistrate, termed the custos rotulorum, and bench of justices, who hold sessions of the peace every month, and courts of common pleas, for trying actions to the extent of L.20; debts not exceeding 40s. being determined by a single justice. Each parish has a rector and church officers, according to the number of churches or chapels therein; the vestries consist of the custos, two magistrates, ten vestrymen, and the rector; the vestries have the power of assessing and appropriating local taxes, alloting labourers for repairing the highways, appointing way-wardens, nominating collectors of public and parochial rates, and regulating the police of their several parishes.

In the court of chancery the governor sits as chancellor, with powers similar to those of the lord high chancellor in England, and the proceedings are the same as those of the English court of chancery. There is also a court of error, where appeals lie from the courts of law, and of which the governor and council are the judges; acourt of ordinary, for determining ecclesiastical matters, of which the governor is judge; and a court of vice-admiralty, the judge of which is appointed by the crown.

The commerce of this important island consists of the trade with the mother country, the trade with British North America, and the trade with the island of Cuba and other Spanish islands, the Spanish Main, and other territories on the American continent formerly belonging to Spain. Its extent will be seen by the following return.
[table]

In 1830 the total shipping inwards was, number, 715; tons, 120,721: outwards, 690; tons, 130,747: employing altogether about 15,000 seamen. The extent of the commerce of this island will be perceived from the following table:
[7:12:503]
[table]
[7:12:504]

It is always a difficult matter to form a definite idea of the amount of property in any place; but that in Jamaica, moveable and immoveable, is not over-estimated at L.50,000,000 sterling money.

The annual income, or ways and means, of the island, on an average of ten years, has been estimated at about L.490,000. The returns, however, are far from being explicit, for it is nearly impossible to ascertain the actual state of taxes in the island, and the nature of their bearing and operation on commerce. The expenditure for 1831, according to a return laid before parliament, amounted to L.370,000, the items being as follows :—

Governor L.5,500

Chief justice 4,000

Assistant judges 3,400

Speaker of assembly 1,400

Governor’s secretary 3,000

Officers of his majesty’s customs 23,390

Clergy of established church 23,593

Ditto Presbyterian 1,201

Ditto Roman Catholic 200

Charitable institutions 14,656

Army expenses 157,032

Clerk of supreme court and provost marshal 1,160

Secretary of commissioners of public accounts 1,000

Secretary of ditto correspondents 300

Clerk of board of works 400

Commissioners of stamps 1,550

Deputy receiver-general and secretary at the outports 1,560

Marshals of militia regiments 1,050

Alien and bonding office 600

Island agent 2,542

Captains of forts 669

Officers of assembly 6,146

Island botanist 560

Engineer and surveyor of public works 740

Storekeeper .500

Receiver general 7,000

Law expenses and jails 14,874

Roads, bridges, and public buildings 25,850

Printing 7,159

Militia arms, and gunpowder 8,594

Board of works 8,890

Premium on increase slaves 8,120

Registry and vestry returns 5,378

Maroons, and superintendent of ma roon towns 2,030

Miscellaneous 10,000

Interest on public loans 16,900

L.370,000

According to the Jamaica budget for 1832, the income of the island was as follows :—Taxes and internal duties, L.207,367; duties on vessels and cargoes, L.95,970; certificates in circulation, L.399,205; and loan certificates, including L.64,415 loan deposits, L.250,035. Of the expenditure, the military amounts to L.184,I43, besides L.222,729 for the general defence of the island, of which L.176,691 was incurred for martial law in 1832. The civil expenditure was L.85,078, of which L.15,544 was for interest. “On a general view,” says Montgomery Martin, “it may be stated that the annual public revenue of Jamaica is L.300,000; and the vestry or parish, or local taxation of the different counties, a nearly similar sum.” Jamaica thus contributes a very considerable sum to the national exchequer.

The want of an established currency in the West India islands has long been felt as an evil. In no two islands is the currency alike; and in these again it varies in proportion to sterling money, thus:

Sterling. Currency. Dollar. Currency. Jamaica L.100 = L,140 1 = 6s. 8d.

Barbadoes 100 = 135 1 = 6s. 3d.

Windward )

isles, except ŗ 100 = 175 1 = 8s. 3d.

Barbadoes... J

Leeward isles 100 = 200 1 = 9s.

The metallic currency of the island is estimated at L. 100,000. The paper currency consists entirely of the island checks issued by the receiver-general, under the orders of the board of accounts, and upon the security of the island and its revenue. The coins in circulation in this island are chiefly Spanish. There are also some Portuguese gold pieces, and guineas and sovereigns. The Spanish gold coins are doubloons, value sixteen dollars; half doubloons, pistoles, value four dollars; and half pistoles.

In time of war the naval establishment of Jamaica is considerable, but the peace establishment consists only of a few vessels. The military establishment of the island generally includes the head-quarters of four European regiments of the line, one West India regiment composed otCaffres orWestCoast African negroes, and astrong detachment of artillery, making altogether an army of about 3000 men; and of colonial militia from 16,000 to 18,000 men at arms, infantry and cavalry, distributed throughout the several counties. All white males from the age of fifteen to sixty are obliged by law to provide themselves with suitable clothing, and to enlist in either the cavalry or militia. Substitutes are not allowed.

The general post-office and packets next claim our attention. This department comprises a deputy postmaster-general, a principal, and numerous other clerks, in Kingston, and deputy-postmasters stationed at proper and convenient distances along the post-roads in every direction. Mails for all parts of the island are despatched every Saturday evening, and an extra one for Spanish Town every Friday morning. Two packets are despatched monthly from Great Britain for this island. The first touches at the Windward Islands, and arrives at Jamaica about the 20th of every month. The second takes a more direct route, and arrives at her destination about a week after the former.

The press, education, and religion, being intimately blended with one another, may be connected together. The press is unshackled by stamp-duties, and on the increase. There are two daily and four weekly newspapers in the island, all conducted with considerable talent, and with little display of party feeling or faction. Education is rapidly spreading under the aid of the local government, as well as by private means. In the budget of the island there is nearly L.10,000 allotted for free schools. The Jamaica free school at Walton Penn, in the parish of St Ann, has L.1620; Woolmer’s free school, in the parish of Kingston, has L.1500; Vere free school, L.1120; the Titchfieldfree school about a similar sum,andsoon. There may be about thirty public or free schools, attended by nearly 4000 scholars. Besides these, there are a number of most respectable schools, where classical as well as ordinary education may be obtained. Great efforts have been made for the extension of religion, but whether with a success commensurate to the exertions bestowed it is difficult to say. The outlay by the colonial government for 1831 was nearly L.25,000, of which the curates’ stipends amounted to L.8000; rectors’ditto, to L.11,718; expenses of building of chapels, L.1400; annuities of widowsand orphans of the clergy, L.2000; salaries of the registrar and appositar of the diocese, L.475; Presbyterian institutions, [7:12:505]L.301; support of kirk in Kingston, L.700; Presbyterian charity schools, L.200. The bishop of Jamaica, whose see extends over the Bahamas and Honduras, has L.4000, and the archdeacon L.2000, per annum. There are fifty-seven clergymen of the established church, twenty-one of whom are rectors; four of the Scotch Presbyterian church, twenty-four of the Wesleyan Methodist persuasion, sixteen of the Baptist, and eight of the Moravian. The crown livings are now in the gift of the bishop. The established clergy are paid partly by stipend and partly by fees. With regard to the expenditure of Jamaica for her ecclesiastical establishments, the Rev. Mr Bridges informs us, that of late years it has not fallen far short of L.30,000 annually. Pluralities are not permitted; and the negro apprentices, as they are now called, are entitled to demand the gratuitous services of the clergy.

Owing to some mistaken feelings, the census of Jamaica has not been taken, so that it is impossible to state with accuracy the actual population of the island. By some it is said to be half a million, which would give seventy-eight persons to the square mile. The following is a summary for 1833, of the returns of the number of slaves, now apprentices, in the island, the number of stock or horned cattle, and the quantity of land in cultivation and pasture. The returns are given in upon oath.

Slaves. Stock. Acres of Land.

Middlesex 121,194 65,416 1,026,486

Surrey 74,286 16,455 390,386

Cornwall 107,152 83,373 818,852

302,632 165,244 2,235,724

By some the number of whites is estimated at 35,000; and of maroons there are about 1200 in Jamaica. The number of what are denominated free people of colour has not been ascertained, but the total population of the island is not over-estimated at between 400,000 and 500,000.

Before concluding the account of Jamaica, it is necessary to refer to a dependency called the Cayman Isles. These are three small isles, in latitude 19. 20. north, and