pnugues/EB7 huggingface dataset:
LIOTARD, called the Turk, an eminent painter, was born at Geneva in 1702, and was intended by his father to be a merchant; but, by the persuasion of his friends, who observed the genius of the young man, he was permitted to give himself up to the art of painting. u He went to Paris in 1725, and in 1738 accompanied to Rome the Marquis de Puisieux, who was going as ambassador to Naples. At Rome he was taken notice of by the Earls of Sandwich and Besborough, who engaged Liotard to attend them in a voyage to Constantinople. There he became acquainted with Lord Edgecumbe, and with Sir Everard Fawkener, our ambassador, who persuaded him to proceed to England, where he staid two years. In his journey to the Levant he had adopted the eastern habit, and wore it here with a very long beard. It contributed much to the portraits which he drew of himself, and, some thought, to draw customers; but he was really a painter of uncommon merit. After his return to the Continent, he married a young wife, and sacrificed his beard to Hymen. He came again to England in 1772, and brought a collection of pictures of different masters, which he sold by auction, and some pieces of glass painted by himself, with surprising effect of light and shade, but which were a mere curiosity, as it was necessary to darken the room before they could be seen to advantage. He remained here about two years, as in his former journey. He has engraved some Turkish portraits, one of the empress queen, and the eldest archduchess, in Turkish habits, besides the heads of the emperor and empress. He painted well in miniature, and also in enamel, though he seldom practised it. But he is best known by his works in crayons. His likenesses were as exact as possible, sometimes too like to please those who sat to him. Being devoid of imagination, he could render nothing but [7:13:369]what he saw before his eyes. Freckles, marks of the smallpox, every thing found its place; not so much from fidelity, as because he could not conceive the absence of any thing that appeared to him. Truth prevailed in all his works, grace in few or none. Nor was there any ease in his outline; the stiffness of a bust prevailed in all his portraits.
LIPES, a province of Bolivia, or Upper Peru, in the department of Potosi, abouζsixty leagues long from northwest to south-east, and twenty in breadth. It was formerly a place of great wealth, possessing a considerable number of valuable mines; but many of them have been abandoned on account of the breaking in of water. It has still two mines of gold, one of silver, and one of copper; together with mines of red and white copper, the strata of which are intermixed with gold, silver, iron, and loadstone. The climate is generally cold, and the land unfruitful; but there are particular parts where it is good, and vegetation considerable. Cattle are found in great abundance, inhabiting that part of the chain of the Andes which intersects the province. There are also great numbers of birds.

Lipes, the capital of the above province, was formerly a large and populous town, but has gradually decayed in importance with the province. It is now a small and miserable place. Long. 68. 16. W. Lat. 21. 40. S. The population of the district and town is estimated at about 20,000.
LIPEZK, a circle in the Russian province of Tambow, extending from north latitude 52. 6. to 52. 4., and from east longitude 39. 18. to 40. 32., and containing 1208 square miles. It consists of an extended plane, which includes some steppes, and is more abundant in corn than in wood. It is watered by the rivers Woronesh and Worona. The capital is the city of the same name situated on the Woronesh, 760 miles from St Petersburg, containing 1015 houses and 6440 inhabitants. Long. 39. 45. E. Lat. 52. 50. N.
LIPPA, a fortified town of the circle of Arad, in the province of Farther Theiss, in Hungary. It stands on the river Maros, has a Catholic and a Greek church, and is the seat of a protopope. It contains 390 houses, and 2530 inhabitants, who make much culinary salt, and grow good corn and wine. Long. 21. 35. 7. E. Lat. 46. 5. 9. N.
LIPPE, the capital of a county of the same name in the [7:13:371]circle of Westphalia, in Germany. It is situated on a river of the same name, and was formerly the residence of the principal branch of the house of Lippe. It is now in the possession of the king of Prussia, and carries on a good trade in preparing timber for building vessels on the Rhine, with which it has a communication by the river Lippe. The^country round it is unwholesome and marshy. Long. 8. 12. E. Lat. 51. 43. N.
LIPPE-DETMOLD, a principality in the north-west of Germany. It is bounded on the north by the Prussian Westphalian province, on the north-east by Schauenburg, on the east by Hanover and Waldeck, and on the southeast, south, and west by the Prussian provinces. It is 453 square miles in extent, and comprehends six walled towns, five market-towns, and 145 villages, with 71,450 inhabitants. It is a hilly and woody district, between the Rhine and the Weser. On the slope of the hills there is some good wheat and rye land, but the whole principality produces barely corn sufficient for the consumption, and the cultivation of potatoes has been of late years extended in a degree commensurate with the increase of the population. The only articles for exportation furnished by the state are wood, which passes down the Weser to Bremen; flax and linen yarn, which is sold to the makers of linen in Lemgo, Bielfield, and other parts of Westphalia; and woo], which passes by Bremen to England or Holland. There are no mines, but there is a saline spring at Salzuflen, from which 35,000 bushels of culinary salt are prepared. The income of the state is about L.48,000 yearly, of which L.30,000 is derived from the princely domains and royalties. There was a national debt till lately, but it is nearly discharged by a sinking fund. The military force consists of a battalion of infantry, containing 300 men; besides which there is a militia, in which every man is liable to serve. The principality is divided into twelve bailiwicks. The capital is the city of Detmold, containing 2500 inhabitants.
LIPPI, Lorenzo, an historical and portrait painter, was born in 1606, and learned the principles of painting from Matteo Roselli. He had a fine genius for music and poetry, as well as for painting; and in the latter his proficiency was so great, that some of his compositions in the historical style were taken for those of Roselli. But becoming dissatisfied with the manner of that master, he chose that of Santi di Titi, who was excellent both in design and invention, and appeared to have more of simple nature and truth in his compositions than any other artist of that time. At Florence Lippi painted many excellent designs for the chapels and convents, by which he extended his reputation; and at the court of Innspruck he painted a great number of portraits of the first nobility, which were deservedly admired. Yet, although he was fond of imitating simple nature without any embellishments of invention, his works are held in the highest esteem for the. graceful airs of the heads, the correctness of his outline, and the elegant disposition of the figures. He died in 1664.
LIPPSTADT, a city, the capital of a circle of the same name in the Westphalian Prussian government of Arensburg. It stands on the river Lippe, and contains 575 houses and 3290 inhabitants. There are in it one Catholic, one Calvinist, and four Lutheran churches. One half of the city belongs to the prince of Lippe-Detmold, but the garrison consists of Prussians, and the officers of that monarch regulate the affairs of the post. There is some trade in linen and woollen goods, and in making oil, soap, vinegar, and corn spirits. Long. 7. 45. 55. E. Lat. 51. 38. 59. N.
LIQUEFACTION, an operation by which a solid body is reduced into a liquid by the action of heat.
LIQUID, a body which has the property of fluidity, as water, mercury.

Liquid, amongst grammarians, is a name applied to certain consonants which are opposed to mutes. Thus I, m, n, and r, are liquids.
LIQUOR, a name for any fluid substance of the aqueous or spirituous kind. The principal beverage amongst the Jews, as well as the Greeks and Romans, washwater, milk, and the juices of various plants infused therein. For along time,’ under the commonwealth of Rome, wine was so scarce, that in their sacrifices to the gods the libations were made with milk only. Wine did not become common there till the year 600 of the city, when vines began to be planted.
LIS, or Lys, John Vander, painter of history, landscapes, and conversations, was born at Oldenburg in 1570, but went to Haerlem to place himself as a disciple under Henry Goltzius; and as he was endowed with great natural talents, he soon distinguished himself in that school, and imitated the manner of his master with great success. He adhered to the same style till he went to Italy, where, having visited Venice and Rome, he studied the works of Titian, Tintoret, Paolo Veronese, and Domenico Fetti, so effectually, that he improved his taste and judgment, and altered his manner entirely. He soon received marks of public approbation; and his compositions became universally admired for their good expression, their lively natural colouring, and the sweetness and delicacy of his pencil; although it must be acknowledged that he could never totally divest himself of the ideas and taste peculiar to the Flemings. His subjects were usually histories taken from the sacred writings, or the representations of rural sports, marriages, balls, and villagers dancing, dressed in Venetian habits; all which he painted in a small as well as a large size, with a number of figures, well designed, and touched with a great deal of delicacy. He likewise painted naked figures admirably, with natural and elegant attitudes, and a very agreeable turn of the limbs. A capital picture of this master is, Adam and Eve lamenting the death of Abel, which is admired, not only for the expression, but also for the beauty of the landscape; and in the church of St Nicholas at Venice is another of his paintings, representing St Jerome in the desert, with a pen in his hand, and his head turned to look at an angel, who is supposed to be sounding the last trumpet. The colouring of this picture is rather too red; but it is designed in a fine style, and charmingly pencilled. The paintings of this master are very rarely to be purchased, He died in the year 1629.

Lis, John Vander, of Breda, an historical painter, was born at Breda about the year 1601, and became a disciple of Cornelius Polemburg, whose manner he imitated with extraordinary exactness, in the tint of his colouring, his neatness of pencilling, and the choice of his subjects. There are some paintings of this master which, though they appear to have somewhat less freedom and lightness of touch, are nearly equal to those of Polembnrg, and are frequently taken to be his.
LISBURN, a town of Ireland, in the county of Antrim, situated on the western bank of the river Lagan, about seven miles south-south-west of Belfast. It is a large and busy town, being the second in commercial importance in the county. The manufacture of linen, muslin, and cambric, is carried on to a considerable extent. The principal public buildings are, a fine church, a market-house, an infirmary, a catholic chapel, and several dissenting places of worship. It was destroyed by fire in 1707, and rebuilt in its present form. It returns a member to parliament. It contains a population of 6201.
LISIEUX, an arrondissement of the department of Calvados, in France, extending over 339 square miles, and inhabited by 69,500 persons. It is divided into five cantons, and these into 142 communes. The capital is the city of that name situated at the junction of the two rivers Toques and Orbec. It was formerly fortified, but the ramparts have been converted into elegant promenades. It contains 1700 houses, and 11,500 inhabitants, who are employed in the woollen manufacture, and also, but to a greater extent, in making linen of a superior quality, known as toiles cretonnes through France. It is particularly celebrated for its bleaching and its dyeing. Long. 0. 10. E. Lat. 49. 11. N.
LISMORE, one of the Hebrides, or Western Islands of Scotland, belonging to Argyleshire, situated at the mouth of Loch Linnhe, about nine miles in length, and from one to two in breadth. The surface is hilly and uneven; but the soil is fertile, and yields a sufficient quantity of grain for the support of the inhabitants; oats, barley, potatoes, and flax being the articles of crop generally cultivated. The whole island lies upon a rock of limestone, which article is exported in considerable quantities. In the lakes there are strata of marl found varying from ten to sixteen feet in depth. It was anciently the residence of the bishops of Argyle, and contained, Until very recently, a Roihan Catholic college for the education of the clergy of that persuasion in this part of the country. The ruins of an old castle are still to be seen, and in several places vestiges of fortified camps. The population amounted in 1831 to 1790.

Lismore, a town of Ireland, in the county of Waterford, situated on the southern bank of the Blackwater, about twenty-six miles north-east of Cork. It was formerly a considerable city, being the see of a bishop, but has been often destroyed by fire, and is now a small, mean place. It possesses a small cathedral, and a castle situated on the verge of a rock which rises perpendicularly over the river. It has no manufacture of any kind, the inhabitants being principally engaged in agricultural pursuits.
LISSA, an island in the Adriatic Sea, being a part of the Austrian province of Dalmatia. It is fifty-seven square miles in extent, and contains 4557 inhabitants. Although it is mountainous, it is very productive in wine, oil, honey, figs, almonds, and silk, but deficient in corn. There are large flocks of sheep yielding excellent wool, and many goats, and upon the coast there are large fisheries. The chief town, of the same name, is on a convenient harbour, and contains, including the two adjoining hamlets ofßanca, 2676 inhabitants. It is situated on the spot where formerly stood the celebrated city of Issa, noticed by Strabo.

Lissa, a city of Polish Prussia, in the government of Posen, and circle of Fraustadt. It is situated on the frontier towards Silesia, is a well-built city, in a sandy district. It contains two churches of Calvinists, one of Lutherans, and one of Catholics, two hospitals, 780 houses, with 7954 inhabitants, of whom 3640 are Jews. It enjoys considerable trade, chiefly carried on by the Jews, who make linen, [7:13:379]woollen, and other goods. Long. 16. 32. 20. E. Lat. 51. 51. 55. N.
LIST, in commerce, the border of cloths or stuffs, serving not only to show their quality, but to preserve them from being torn in the operations of fulling, dyeing, &c. List is used on various occasions, but chiefly by gardeners for securing their wall trees.

List is also used to signify the enclosed field or ground wherein the ancient knights held their jousts and combats. It was so called, as being hemmed round with pales, barriers, or stakes, as with a list. Some of these were double, one for each cavalier, which kept them apart, so that they could not come nearer each other than within a spear’s length.

Civil List, in the British polity. The expenses defrayed by the civil list are those which in any shape relate to civil government, as the expenses of the household; all salaries to officers of state, to the judges, and every one of the king’s servants; the king’s private expenses, or privy purse; and other very numerous outgoings. The civil list is indeed properly the whole of the king’s revenue in bis own distinct capacity; the rest being rather the revenue of the public or its creditors, though collected and distributed again in the name and by the officers of the crown. It now stands in the same place as the hereditary income did formerly; and as that has gradually diminished, the parliamentary appointments have increased. See England.
LISTER, Martin, an eminent English physician and naturalist, was born in 1638, and educated at Cambridge. He afterwards travelled into France, and on his return practised physic at York, and afterwards at London. In 1683, he was created doctor of physic, and became fellow of the College of Physicians in London. In 1698, he attended the Earl of Portland in his embassy from King William III. to the court of France (of which journey he published an account on his return), and was afterwards physician to Queen Anne. He also published, 1. Historia Animalium Angliae, 4to; 2. Conchyliorum Synopsis, folio; 3. Cochlearum et limachurn exercitatio anatomica, in four vols. 8vo; 4. Many pieces in the Philosophical Transactions; and other works.
LITANY, a solemn form of supplication to God, in which the priest utters some things fit to be prayed for, and the people join in their intercession, saying we beseech thee to hear us, good Lord. The word comes from the Greek λ∕rαvua, supplication, from λ∕rαveυω, I beseech.

At first the use of litanies was not fixed to any stated time, but they were only employed as exigencies required. They were observed, in imitation of the Ninevites, with ardent supplications and fastings, to avert the threatening judgments of fire, earthquakes, inundations, or hostile invasions. About the year 400, litanies began to be used in processions, the people walking barefoot, and repeating them with great devotion; and it is pretended, that by this means several countries were delivered from great calamities. The days upon which these were used were called rogation days. These were appointed by the canons of different councils, till it was decreed by the council of Toledo that they should be employed every month throughout the year; and thus by degrees they came to be used weekly on Wednesdays and Fridays, the ancient stationary days for fasting. To these days the rubric of the episcopal church has added Sundays, as being the greatest days for assembling at divine service. Before the last review of the common prayer, the litany was a distinct service by itself, and performed some time after the morning prayer was over; at present it is made one office with the morning service, being ordered to be read after the third collect for grace, instead of the intercessional prayers in the daily service.
LITCHFIELD, a city in the hundred of Offlow, in Staffordshire, situated upon a branch of the river Trent, 119 miles from London by Coventry, and 124 by Northampton. It has been an episcopal city almost from the introduction of Christianity into this island; and the cathedral is said to have been first built in the year 300. It is a fine building, walled in like a castle, and, from its elevated situation, a prominent object over a great extent of country. A spire rises from the centre, 256 feet in height; and at the west end are two towers, terminating also in spires. This city was for a short period in the eighth century made the see of an archbishop; but was soon afterwards reduced again to a bishopric. In the year 1072, it was removed to Chester, and in 1102 to Coventry, and united to that see. The cathedral is a fine piece of architecture, and the interior is adorned with some marble monuments, particularly those of Dr Johnson and Mr Garrick, both natives of the city. The government is executed by a corporation consisting of two bailiffs and twenty-four burgesses, and sends, as before the passing of the reform act, two members to parliament. It is a county, with exempt jurisdiction. There is little trade, except what is internally carried on upon the canals. It has markets on Tuesdays and Fridays. The population amounted in 1801 to 4712, in 1811 to 5022, in 1821 to 6075, and in 1831 to 6723.

Litchfield, a county of Connecticut, United States, bounded on the north by Massachusetts, on the east by Hartford, on the south-east by New Haven, on the southwest by Fairfield, and on the west by New York. The face of the country is rough and mountainous; but the soil is good, yielding excellent crops of wheat and Indian corn, and affording fine pasturage. From the inland situation of the county, no maritime commerce can be carried on, and the inhabitants are almost wholly engaged in agricultural and manufacturing pursuits. The population amounted in 1830 to 42,855.

Litchfield, the capital of the above county, a posttown, situated about thirty miles west of Hartford, and thirty-one north-north-west of New Haven. The situation is elevated, and affords a beautiful and extensive prospect of the surrounding country. The town contains a courthouse, a jail, a female academy, a law-school, a printing establishment, a bank, and nine places of worship. It is a good agricultural town, and possesses numerous mills and manufacturing establishments, cotton manufactories, ironworks, &c. Long. 73. 37. W. Lat. 4L 50. N. The population amounted in 1830 to 4456.
LITERARY, any thing belonging to literature.

Literary Property, or Copyright. See Copyright.
LITERATI (letrados, lettered), an epithet given to such persons amongst the Chinese as are able to read and write their own language. The literati alone are capable of being made mandarins. Literati is also the name of a particular sect, either in religion, philosophy, or politics, consisting principally of the learned men of that country, amongst whom it is called jukiao, or learned. It had its rise in the year of Christ 1400, when the emperor, to awaken the native affection of the people for knowledge, which had been quite banished by the preceding civil wars, and to stir up emulation amongst the mandarins, selected forty-two of the ablest of the doctors, to whom he gave a commission to compose a body of doctrine agreeable to that of the ancients, which was then become the rule or standard of the learned. The delegates applied themselves to the business with very great attention; but some fancied them rather to have wrested the doctrine of the ancients to make it consist with their own, than to have built up theirs upon the model of the ancients. They speak of the Deity as if that being were no more than mere nature, or the natural power or virtue that produces, disposes, and preserves the several parts of the universe. He is, say they, a pure, perfect principle, without beginning or end; [7:13:380]the source of all things, the essence of every being, and that which determines it to be what it is. They make God the soul of the world; they say he is diffused throughout all matter, and produces all the changes which occur in it. In short, it is not easy to determine whether they resolve God into nature, or lift up nature into God; for they ascribe to it many of those things which we attribute to the Deity. This doctrine introduced a refined kind of atheism, instead of the idolatry which prevailed before. The work, being composed by so many persons of learning and parts, and approved by the emperor himself, was received with infinite applause by all the people. Many were pleased with it, because it seemed to subvert all religion; others approved of it, because the little religion that it left them could not give them much trouble. And thus was formed the sect of the literati, consisting of the maintainers and adherents to this doctrine. The court, the mandarins, and the persons of fortune and quality, and others, are generally amongst its adherents; but a great part of the common people still hold to their worship of idols. The literati freely tolerate the Mahommedans, because they adore, with them, the king of heaven, and author of nature; but they entertain a perfect aversion to all sorts of idolaters, and it was once resolved to extirpate them. The disorder this would have occasioned in the empire prevented it; and they now content themselves with condemning them, in general, as heresies, which they do solemnly every year at Pekin.