JAVA.

This large and fertile island belongs to the group which modern geographers denominate the Sunda Islands. It extends eastward, with a slight deviation on the south, from 105. 11. to 114. 33. of east longitude from Greenwich, and lies between the latitudes of 5. 52. and 8. 46. south. It is in length, between Java Head and the south-east point of the island, 666 statute miles; and its breadth varies from 135⅛ miles, between the south-west point of Pachitan Bay and the north point of Japara, to fifty-six miles, between the mouth of the Serayu River and the Marabaya. Its area is estimated at 50,000 miles. On the south and west it is washed by the Indian Ocean; to the north-west by a strait called the Straits of Sunda, which separates it from the island of Sumatra at a distance, at the narrowest point, of only fourteen miles; and on the south-east by the Straits of Bali, only two miles wide, which divide it from the island of that name. These islands, and others stretching eastward, form with Java a gentle curve of more than 2000 geographical miles. From the eastern peninsula of India, Java is distant 140 leagues, from Borneo about fifty-six leagues, and from New Holland 200.

The island of Java is of a rectangular form, so that if it were divided into five or six parts, each would form a parallelogram. It is extremely diversified on its surface. An uninterrupted range of lofty mountains, varying in elevation from 5000 to 11,000 and even 12,000 feet above the level of the sea, and exhibiting in their round bases or pointed tops their volcanic origin, extends almost east and west through the whole length of the island. They rise to their greatest elevations towards the centre, which is much broken. The tops of these mountains were formerly the craters of volcanoes, which are now extinguished, though many of them emit smoke after heavy rains. From this great chain other innumerable ranges of hills of inferior height run in various directions, and serve to form and confine plains and valleys of different elevations and extent. These mountainous regions present all the most romantic and highly diversified scenery which is to be found amid waving forests, never-failing streams, and constant verdure, heightened by a pure atmosphere, and the glowing tints of a tropical sun. The aspect of the northern coast is low, in many places swampy, and overgrown with mangrove trees and bushes, particularly towards the west. But in advancing five miles inland a sensible improvement is experienced in the atmosphere and climate. Every step in advance leads to a purer air and a brighter scene. Here, amid the mountains, are found elevated and fertile plains, the seat of industry and skilful cultivation. “Here,” says Sir Stamford Raffles, “stupendous mountains are clothed with abundant harvests, impetuous cataracts tamed to the peasant’s will. Here is perpetual verdure; here are tints of the brightest hue. In the hottest season the air retains its freshness, in the driest the innumerable rills and rivulets preserve much of their water. This the mountain farmer directs in endless conduits and canals, to irrigate the land, which he has laid out in terraces for its reception; it then descends to the plains, and spreads fertility wherever it flows, till at last, by numerous outlets, it discharges itself into the sea.”^[1. See History of Java, by Sir Stamford Raffles, vol. i. p. 24. ] The principal harbour is that of Sourabaya, in the eastern districts, formed by the approaching extremities of Java and Madura, which is broad and spacious, and secure against the violence of the sea and the wind. The next in importance is that of Batavia, more properly the roads of Batavia, which [7:12:528]are sheltered by several islands lying in the outer part of the bay. There are other positions along the northern coast which might be improved into convenient harbours, though the whole coast affords excellent anchorage at moderate depths during nearly all seasons of the year. In the smooth sea and moderate weather which usually prevail, the native vessels and small craft always find sufficient shelter at the change of the monsoon, when it is dangerous to anchor on the coast, by running for shelter under some of the islands which are scattered in those seas, or passing up the rivers, which, though presenting a difficult entrance, from the mud banks, that form a bar at their mouth, are mostly navigable for small vessels as far up as the maritime capitals through which they run. The south coast, which rises into high and rugged cliffs, is inaccessible, with the exception of a few bays, on account of its exposure to the open sea, and the violent surf which in consequence dashes against it.

From the mountains of Java numerous streams pour down into the plains. There is no space, indeed, for the formation of large rivers. But there are probably no less than fifty which in the wet season bear down rafts of timber and other rough produce of the country, and not less than five or six at all times navigable to the distance of some miles from the coast; and those which are useful to the agriculturist for the irrigation of the lands cannot be numbered. The principal rivers are the Solo, the largest in the island, which discharges itself on the north side by two principal outlets into the sea near Gressek, and by which the produce of an extensive country is carried down in flat-bottomed boats to the sea. The river of Sourabaya, which is the second in magnitude, falls into the sea by five outlets near Sourabaya. There are several smaller rivers in these eastern districts, which fall into the ocean on the northern shore, and which are highly useful for the conveyance of teak timber from the interior forests to the coast; or which, being directed into canals, tend to improve the inland navigation of the country. Towards the west, the principal rivers which fall into the sea on the northern coast are the Chikandi, the Chidani, the Chi-taram, and the Chimanok. Those which discharge themselves by the south coast are the Chimandiri, which falls into the sea at Wyn-Coop’s Bay, the Chitandui, the Serayu, and others. Along the northern coast almost every district has its principal river, but they have all the disadvantage of being blocked up at their entrance by the accumulation of mud banks, an evil which is increasing with the extension of agriculture, from the quantity of soil necessarily washed down in the process of irrigating the land for the cultivation of rice. Java contains no lakes of any considerable size, though there are several very beautiful lakes of small dimensions among the hills, many of which are the craters of extinguished volcanoes. There are also extensive swamps, which, though they are filled with water during the wet season, are for the rest of the year dried up or choked by vegetation.

Java possesses a soil that is extremely rich, and remarkable for its depth, owing, as Sir Stamford Raffles conjectures, to the exclusively volcanic constitution of the country, and the quantity of new mould that is constantly washed down the sides of its mountains. The best soil resembles the richest garden mould in Europe. The seasons, as in all tropical countries, are distinguished into wet and dry, and depend on the periodical winds, or the monsoons. The west monsoon, which brings on the annual rains, begins in October, and becomes more steady in November and December; it continues till the latter end of February or the beginning of March. It often blows with great violence, and is accompanied with heavy rains, which renders this the most unhealthy season. The month of April ushers in the easterly winds and fair weather, which continue for the remaining half year. But the rains, though they often fall in torrents, are not so constant nor so violent as on the continent of India. During the rainy season there are days free from showers; while, again, in July and August, occasional rains refresh the atmosphere, and preserve the brightest verdure of the landscape throughout the year. Thunder-storms are frequent, and the lightning very vivid. The thermometer on the northern coast, at Batavia, Semarang, and Sourabaya, occasionally rises, about three in the afternoon, to 90°, which it rarely exceeds; but in general it has been found to range between 70° and 74° in the evenings, and 83° at noon, or at Semarang 87°. At thirty or forty miles inland from Batavia, on the mountains, it ranges between 60° and 70°, above which it seldom rises. On the hills of Semarang, where Europeans frequently reside during the dry season, at an elevation of about 4000 feet, it is frequently, in the mornings, as low as 45°, and ranges between 50° and 62°; and on the summit of one of the highest mountains, Sindoro, it has been seen as lo was 27°.^[2. See Railles’ History of Java, vol. i. p. 36; Batavian Transactions, vol. viii. Introductory Discourse. ] From its insular situation, Java enjoys the benefit of the land and sea breeze; and its diversified surface affords the choice of climate, and a regular diminution of temperature, in proportion to the elevation. With the exception of the city of Batavia, where the climate is the most baneful in the world, and the low marshy flats on the northern shore, the island of Java is, in point of salubrity, equal to the healthiest parts of British India, or of any tropical country in the world. This fact is attested by the medical registers of the different British regiments stationed in this island. From the 1st November 1813 to the 1st November 1814, the deaths among 7470 British troops, who were exposed to many disadvantages and privations, did not exceed 504, which was only in the proportion of 1 to 14. From November 1814 to November 1815, out of 7487 troops, 252 died, 63 by fever, 123 by dysentery, and 65 by other diseases, which is only in the proportion of 1 in 30 in a year; a low estimate for climates that have borne a better character for salubrity than that of Java.

This island abounds in the number and extraordinary variety of its vegetable productions. Between the tops of the mountains and the sea-shore is comprised almost every degree of temperature, and hence the produce of every region finds here some congenial spot. Rice, of which there are a hundred varieties, is cultivated on all the low grounds and ravines along the sea-coast, and in other situations commanding a supply of water. It is the great staple of agriculture in Java, to which every other species of husbandry is subordinate; and this island is the granary of the eastern archipelago, from which all the other adjacent islands and states of Sumatra, Molucca, Borneo, Celebes, and the Moluccas, have been long supplied; while every year about six or eight thousand tons were formerly sent by the Dutch to Ceylon, Coromandel, the Cape, and their other settlements. Notwithstanding this abundant produce, it is calculated that about seven eighths of the island are either neglected or badly cultivated; and such is the fertility of the soil, that it is from the remaining one eighth that these great supplies are derived. Maize or Indian corn ranks next in importance to rice, and is principally cultivated in the higher regions, and in those tracts where there are no mountain streams for the irrigation of the soil. Its cultivation has of late been extended in Java, and is becoming more and more a favourite article of food. Wheat has been introduced by the Europeans, and cultivated[7:12:529] with success to an extent required by the European inhabitants. It thrives well in the interior of the country. Oats and other grain thrive in those parts of the island, and would be produced in great abundance were due attention given to their culture. Potatoes have been cultivated during the last forty years, in elevated situations, near all the principal European establishments, and are found of a good quality; also most of the common culinary vegetables of Europe, though their quality is apt to degenerate unless fresh supplies of seed be procured from Europe. Other species of grain, and leguminous vegetables, and a variety of pulses, are raised as green crops in intervals between those of rice; and in times of scarcity the natives make use of various kinds of the plantain, also the yam and the sweet potato. But in general Indian corn is the only article used by some as a substitute for rice. Cotton of an inferior quality to the Indian cotton is cultivated in almost every part of the island, and its cheapness occasions a considerable exportation. The coffee plant thrives luxuriantly in Java. It was first introduced about the year 1723 by the Dutch, who established a monopoly of the article, and forced the natives to cultivate it, and deliver it into the government stores at a reduced price. During the French administration of Marshal Daendels this cruel oppression was carried still further, and in certain districts every family was forced to take care of a thousand plants, and deliver the produce into the government stores. Under the more humane rule of the British governor, Sir Stamford Raffles, the free cultivation of coffee was permitted to the inhabitants, and all compulsory labour was abolished. The quality of the Java coffee is reckoned superior to that of the West Indies, and ranks with that of Bourbon in the European markets; its cultivation, for which many parts of the island are eminently adapted, has therefore been greatly extended; and it is exported to the amount of twenty-six millions of pounds, which is about two sevenths of the produce of the West Indies. The soil is very favourable to the growth of tobacco, which was introduced by Europeans, and is now extensively raised for exportation in the central districts of the island, about five millions of pounds being sent to the rest of the archipelago. In some parts it forms, after rice, the most important article of cultivation. Pepper was at one time the principal export from Java; but it was strictly monopolized by the government, and the most oppressive modes were resorted to in order to enhance its price. For some time past it has ceased to be cultivated to any extent. Indigo is raised in most parts of the island; and both the climate and soil of Java offer peculiar advantages for the extensive cultivation of this plant. The natives prepare the indigo very unskilfully, and hence it is of very indifferent quality. But if it were more carefully manufactured, it might form a most valuable and important export for the European market.

Notwithstanding the extent to which cultivation has been carried in many districts of the island, large portions of the surface are covered with primeval forests, affording excellent timber for almost every purpose. Extensive forests of teak are found in almost all the eastern provinces, but especially in the central districts of the island. There are great varieties of other kinds of timber, as the suren (the tuna of BengaD, of which the wood is light, strong, and durable, having something of the smell of cedar, and which, as the grain is not fine, is used for making chests, trunks, and carriages. The wungu is often used instead of teak. It is of a somewhat finer grain, and, when in full blossom, is the most beautiful tree existing. The wadang or bayur, a light wood, is well adapted for the masts and sparsof small vessels. There areseveral other similar woods, of which are formed the handles of spears and pikes. There is a close and ponderous wood, the nangha, which is used for beams and rafters in the construction of houses, and sometimes for household furniture. There are other woods, heavy, hard, and close in the grain, which are used for the anchors of small vessels, for ships’ blocks, for naves of wheels, for handles of tools for carpenters and other artificers, for cart-wheels, for machinery, and such like purposes. There are other light woods, which are useful for canoes, for the handles of axes and other like tools, and which are manufactured into planks. There are various descriptions of woods that are well adapted for household furniture, cabinet ware, &c. of a deep-brown or black colour, and which take a fine polish; others of a lighter colour, and finely grained, that are used for inlaying. There are other kinds of woods of various colours, variegated, white, and black, or of yellowish or brown colours, and very heavy, which are employed for canes, handles, and spears. The bamboo flourishes in great luxuriance and variety. The rattans of Java arc, however, inferior to those of Sumatra and Borneo. Many woods afford excellent fuel; and amongst the useful trees may be reckoned the soap tree, of which the fruit is very commonly used in the washing of linen; the kasemah, from the bark of which is made a varnish for umbrellas; the onmpang i from the resin of which the natives prepare a shining varnish for the wooden sheaths of krises; the cotton-tree, from which a silky wool is obtained for stuffing pillows and beds; the wax-tree, from the kernel of which an oil is expressed, which some time after becomes hard, and bears a resemblance to wax, and may be burnt in lamps or converted into candles, affording when burning an agreeable odour; the shrub is also produced which yields the elastic gum from which the India rubber is prepared. This substance is converted into torches, which are employed in searching for edible bird-nests in the caves of the rocks. Few of the trees in Java exude the odoriferous resins which abound in Sumatra, Borneo, and the eastern islands. The camphor tree is unknown. None of the finer kinds of spices, such as the nutmeg, the clove, or the cinnamon, are indigenous to Java; but the few trees planted by Europeans in gardens have thriven well, and there is little doubt that the nutmeg and the clove might be extensively cultivated throughout the island. The vine would also thrive well in some of the eastern provinces; but its growth was always discouraged by the narrow policy of the Dutch, who were afraid lest it should interfere with the wine trade of the Cape of Good Hope. The cottage of every peasant is surrounded with plantations of cocoa-nut trees, which constitute an inheritance that is transmitted from father to son, and which it is reckoned a sacred duty to transmit, and to augment by new plantations. The various species of the palm-tree are found in Java; and, besides the cocoa-nut, there are many trees growing spontaneously, of which the seeds and kernels are used as food. The true sago of Amboyna and the eastern islands is found in a fair, low, and marshy situation, though the preparation of it from the pith of the tree is not known to the inhabitants of Java; but from the αren or sagurus rumpnii, which abounds in all parts, and, from its various and extensive uses, ranks next in importance to the cocoa-nut, a substance is prepared similar in all respects to the true sago of the eastern islands. Other trees exude gums and balsamic oils. The kubab yields a balsamic oil or jelly, which is much esteemed, which has the smell and taste of camphor, and is taken inwardly for violent coughs, or disorders in the stomach. The benzoin-tree produces an odoriferous gum, of an orange colour, which is a valuable article of commerce. The upas or famous poison-tree of Java has long attracted the curiosity of naturalists, and has been the subject of many wonderful, and, as now appears, fabulous tales. It is one of the largest trees in the forests of Java, and rises with a completely naked stem to the perpendicular height of [7:12:530]sixty, seventy, and eighty feet, when it sends jff a few stout branches. The bark, which in old trees is almost half an inch thick, on being cut yields a milky juice, from which a poison is prepared equal in fatality to the strongest animal poisons hitherto known. The inner bark resembles a coarse piece of linen which is worked into ropes, and which, after much bruising, washing, and immersion in water, is worn by the lower classes when working in the fields. But it is remarkable, that after being exposed to a shower of rain, this dress produces an intolerable itching, the effect of a small portion of the poison still adhering to the bark. The story of the tree poisoning the surrounding atmosphere is altogether a fable. It is extremely difficult to penetrate into the forests of Java, from the quantity of underwood and creeping plants with which they are entangled.

“No region of the earth,” says Marsden, “can boast of a greater abundance and variety of indigenous fruits than Java. The mangustin, pre-eminent for delicacy of flavour amongst all the fruits of the East, of a round form and a purple colour, is found in great abundance. The dorian, a large fruit, like the bread fruit in appearance, of a disgusting smell, and of a flavour like a custard, is said, when seasoned with garlic, to become by frequent use extremely fascinating. The rambutan, a cool and agreeable fruit, of a delicate sub-acid flavour, grows on a showy and elegant tree. The lanseh or lanseb, much relished by the lower classes, grows in clusters like grapes, and has a pulpy substance, with a delicate sub-acid flavour. The pumplemoos, the Batavian lembu or vine of Bengal, and the shaddock of the West Indies, is in Java of an exquisite flavour; as also the pine-apple, which is much superior to that of Hindustan. There are besides extensive varieties of the atrocarpus or jack-fruit, which grows wild in abundance; of the mango, of which no less than forty varieties are enumerated; the plantain, the guava, the rose-apple, the custard-apple, the papaw, besides dates, pomegranates, tamarinds, figs, annanas, oranges, lemons, citrons, melons, pumpkins. In some of the mountainous tracts are to be found peaches, Chinese pears, and other fruits imported from Japan, the Cape of Good Hope, and China. Of the oil-giving plants there are many. From the palma christi is obtained most of the oil that is burned in lamps. There are numerous trees, plants, and shrubs, which supply, from the bark or the leaves, fibres that are converted into ropes, threads, lines used for fishing, thread, and finally cloth, or spun into a kind of stuff resembling silk, gauze, &c. Mats are made from a kind of grass, and from the leaves of various palms; and the paper in common use amongst the Javans is manufactured from the morus papyrifera.

The plants and herbs, and the innumerable flowers which bloom in perpetual succession in Java throughout the year, and impregnate the air with their fragrance, present an inexhaustible field for the researches of the botanist. Many of the flowers are used by the natives in adorning their persons, and are remarkable for their fragrance. From the fula majori, of which whole fields are cultivated, a water is distilled superior to rose-water; and from the eglantine tree, originally imported from Persia, a rose-water is distilled which is in great repute. The coral trees, of different species, are all elegant and showy; and amongst the trees and shrubs there are some that are rare and curious, such as the casuarina equisetifolia, whose pendent branches resemble the hair of the cassowary. The bombax bears a long pod, which contains a silky substance that is used for stuffing cushions. Many varieties of flowers and plants are cultivated in gardens on account of their beauty and fragrance, such as the elastic gum-tree, the convolvulus jalappa, the styrax liquida, and the mountain cabbage-tree of the West Indies. The pitcher-plant (nepenthes dzstulatoria) is found in the most arid situations, and is provided with a curious contrivance for retaining the rains or the dews which refresh the parched ground. To the stalk which bears the leaves, a small tube in the form of a pitcher, and covered with a lid, is attached. By means of a hinge or strong fibre passing over the handle, and connected with the leaf, which is contracted when the weather is showery, or when the dews fall, the lid is opened for the reception of the moisture; and when it is filled it closes again, so firmly as to prevent evaporation, and thus water is secured for the sustenance of the plant. Java produces a variety of medicinal plants, many of which are little known in Europe, though several whose properties have been investigated, are likely to become valuable articles in medicinal practice. It yields also a great variety of culinary vegetables, such as the kurkum, a favourite plant used by the Malays in cooking their fish and flesh, to which it gives the colour and taste of saffron; the pattatas, reckoned a very wholesome root, and eaten either raw or roasted, in which state it has the taste of a chestnut; the foki-foki, which, when boiled in wine with pepper, tastes like an artichoke. All other garden plants, such as endives, cauliflowers, beans, cabbages, pompions, water-melons, yams, potatoes, &c. are produced in great abundance throughout the island.

Neither the camel nor the elephant is found in Java, nor have they either the ass or the mule. But they have a male breed of fine horses, strong, fleet, and well made; and a still finer breed is imported from Buna, or the neighbouring island of Sumbawa, which much resembles the Arabian horse in all qualities excepting size. The bull and the cow are common, and the breed has been improved by a species brought from the continent of India. But the animal of most essential use in agriculture is the buffalo, which is a large and fierce animal, heavier than our largest oxen, and well qualified for a beast of burden. Goats of a small size are numerous; sheep are scarce and small. The hog is principally reared by the Chinese. Wild animals abound in the forests. The royal tiger is here as powerful and as large as in Bengal. There is a smaller species of a black kind which is very ferocious, and in size and shape resembles a leopard; there is also the leopard and the tiger-cat. The rhinoceros is amongst the largest quadrupeds found in Java. It is principally met with in the western parts, lying in the deep jungles of the high grass, remote from observation. Deer and antelopes abound in the woods; also hares and rabbits, as well as all the varieties of the wild hog, which are extremely destructive to the plantations. Other smaller quadrupeds, such as the weasel and squirrel, are common. Amongst the feathered tribes are found the cassowary, called emeu by the Indians, a very large and powerful bird; the white eagle, and several varieties of the falcon; also the carrion-crow and the owl, the peacock, two species of parrots, one of which is very beautiful, and sells at a high price. Birds of paradise sometimes visit the island. Pigeons of the most beautiful plumage are found; also pheasants, jingle and pea-fowl, quail, snipes; wild ducks and geese are not so common. The Java sparrow is a very handsome bird. Amongst the most interesting subjects for the study of the naturalist is the small swallow, which forms edible nests, of which large quantities are annually exported to the Chinese market, where they are considered as a very great luxury. The aquatic tribe are numerous. At the mouths of the rivers the cayman or alligator, more resembling the crocodile of Egypt than that of the Ganges, is found lurking for its prey. The waterguana, in length about six or seven feet, infests the rivers and ponds, where it is very destructive. There are various kinds of lizards; amongst others a small one, which is not above eighteen or twenty inches in length. Two species[7:12:531] of the turtle are found in the surrounding seas, which abound also in a variety of excellent fish not known in Europe; and in soles and carp, as well as in oysters and shell-fish of every kind. There are thirty-four species of river-fish, many of which are excellent. In the several bays on the shores of the island are numerous sharks, which are often seen swimming around the ships.

The serpent brood are numerous, and of various kinds. It is uncertain whether the boa constrictor be found in Java-There are several which attain to a very large size, from twenty-five to thirty feet in length. One of these, the ular lalang i is much dreaded by the natives, and is said to be poisonous. Scorpions and musquitoes abound in marshes; and there are various sorts of dangerous and disgusting vermin, such as ants, spiders, fire-flies, which swarm in the roads, houses, and even bed-chambers of the inhabitants. In the woods is found a venomous spider, the body of which is nearly two inches in diameter, the fore legs and claws nearly four inches in length, and the webs spun by it so strong as frequently to entangle and catch the smaller birds.

Manufacturing industry can scarcely be said to exist in Java. Weaving is exclusively practised by the women, who make coarse cloths of cotton, and sometimes of silk, for the use of their families. These they dye of various colours; but, with the exception of blue and scarlet, all their dyes are apt to fade. Tanning is carried on in some districts with tolerable success; also saddlery; and there are manufactures in iron, brass, and tin. Salt is manufactured in Java to a great extent, both for the home supply and also for exportation. Under the Dutch government, the manufacture of salt was farmed out to the Chinese as an exclusive privilege; a system liable to much abuse, and which left the price in a great measure at the discretion of the farmer. The farming of salt was abolished under the British regime in 1813. Saltpetre is obtained in many parts of the island, and whilst the French possessed the island, saltpetre works were established underEuropean superintendents; powder-mills, founderies for shells, shot, anvils, &c. and manufactories of swords and small arms. From the resources and industry of this island alone the French were enabled to equip an army of 15,000 men, besides a numerous militia in every district; a proof of the progress of manufacturing industry amongst the natives. The trade of a blacksmith is held in high estimation, and considered almost as a liberal profession; chiefly, it is probable, on account of the value attached to the manufacture of arms. Their small boats and barks are made of various and convenient shapes; but they fail whenever they attempt to construct vessels of any magnitude.

The commerce of Java was very extensive at the period of the Dutch establishment in the Eastern Seas. “But,” says Sir Stamford Raffles, “it would be painful to point out how far, or to show in what manner, that commerce was interfered with, checked, changed in its character, and reduced in its importance, by the influence of a withering monopoly, the rapacity of avarice armed with power, and the short-sighted tyranny of a mercantile administration.” The Javans were, prior to this time, plentifully supplied both with gold and jewels, and with other valuable articles, in exchange for the produce of their tranquil industry and their fertile soil. Constant requisitions were made by the government for the services of native vessels, at rates far below a just compensation; and native traders were forbidden to trade in any of the articles of the Dutch monopoly. This traffic was almost entirely annihilated, or diverted from its course, by the restrictive policy of the Dutch, and by their monopolies. The commerce of the country revived under the more liberal administration of the British governor Sir Stamford Raffles, one of those great and enlightened men who seemed to value the possession of power only as it enabled him to benefit mankind. This extension of trade appears from the increasing amount of tonnage employed tocarryiton. The shipping that cleared outfrom the port of Batavia in 1812, was 52,375 tons; in 1813, 64,306; in 1814, 72,718. By an official return in March 1816, it appears that the total quantity of tonnage in vessels boarded in their passage through the Straits of Sunda, amounted, in 1812, to 45,000 tons; in 1813, to 56,000 tons; in 1814, to 64,000 tons; and in 1815, to 130,000 tons; and, adding vessels not boarded, the whole tonnage for four years would amount to 390,000. Java has great advantages for its internal trade, from its navigable rivers, by which the produce of the interior is conveyed to the coast, and from its excellent roads. A high post-road, passable for carriages at all seasons of the year, runs nearly the whole length of the island east and west, a distance of 800 English miles; and a high military one, equally well made, crosses the island from north to south; cross roads branching off from these main roads, so that there is easy access to all parts of the island. The internal trade of the island was, however, heavily oppressed by local duties, rendered still more oppressive in the hands of the Chinese, to whom they were farmed out; and by market duties. From this oppression it was only partially relieved by the British. The coasting and foreign trade of Java is carried on in vessels belonging chiefly to Chinese, Arabs, Bugis, natives of Celebes, and in smaller Malayan craft. The island is a great entrepôt for the produce of the whole eastern archipelago; and its merchants, a great proportion of them Chinese, are very rich, and remarkable for honourable dealing and persevering industry. Java exports for the use of the other islands, including the Malayan ports on the peninsula, rice, a variety of vetches, salt, oil, tobacco, timber, Java cloths, brass-wire, edible bird-nests to the value of L.40,000 or L.50,000, a variety of minor articles, the produce of her agriculture and manufactures, besides a considerable quantity of European, Indian, and Chinese goods. The following articles, the exclusive produce of the eastern islands, are collected at its principal ports for re-exportation to India, China, and Europe; tin from Banca; gold-dust, diamonds, camphor, benjamin, and other drugs, edible bird-nests, biche de mer, rattans, bees’ wax, tortoise-shell, and dyeing woods, from Borneo and Sumatra; sandal and other fine woods, nutmegs, cloves, and mace, coarse, wild, and damaged spices, kayu-puti, and other pungent oils, from the Moluccas; horses and sapan wood from Sumbawa; Bugis cloths, and many collections for the Chinese market, from Celebes. A very extensive trade is carried on with China in Chinese junks, about eight or ten of which annually arrive from Canton or Amoi with cargoes of teas, raw silk, silk piece goods, varnished umbrellas, iron pots, coarse China ware, sweetmeats, nankeen paper, and numerous other minor articles, for the use of the Chinese settlers, many of whom come annually to Java, where they employ themselves as labourers on their first arrival; but, by frugal habits and persevering industry, they soon acquire property, and become extensive merchants. European vessels carry out from Java to China, tin, pepper, spices, rattans, and betelnut; and bring back Chinese produce for the European market, a balance of cash, and manufactures for Batavia. Whilst Java was in possession of the English, all kinds of piece goods, opium, and other articles, were imported from Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay, and bills, gold-dust, bees’ wax, tin, Japan camphor, sago, and teak-timber, were taken away in return. Under the English rule the trade was free, and great quantities of teak were imported into the markets of Bengal. But since the island was ceded to the Dutch, the old system has been revived, and the teak of [7:12:532]Java has been artificially raised in price two hundred per cent. The latter is of a superior quality to that of Pegu or the Malabar coast; and, notwithstanding that it was monopolized by the Dutch government, it was exported to the Moluccas, to Malacca, and to the Cape of Good Hope, where all the public buildings are constructed of Javan teak. Large quantities of Javan sugar, which is of a superior quality, were exported to Bombay, and also by Arab vessels to the Red Sea, and particularly to Moeha. But Arab traders of capital have since been driven out of the market by the monopolies of the Dutch. Java, since the partial opening of the Indian trade in 1810, has largely imported European manufactures.

It appears from Mr Crawfurd’s statement that there does not exist here the same inveterate prejudice against European ιnanufactures as in India and China. Since the opening of the free trade, the fine cottons of Britain have, from their cheapness, in a great measure superseded those of Hindustan. Chintzes are the favourite article, in which the pattern is of much consequence. The taste of the Javanese is for bright colours, red and green in preference to all others, and next to these yellow and brown; whilst black is unsaleable. The pattern should be small, filling the ground without crowding it. White calicoes and cotton cambrics are also purchased by the natives, to be painted by themselves. Although Java lies under the tropics, its mountainous and maritime situation produces a demand for light woollens. These should be cheap Yorkshire cloths, such as cost at Leeds 5s. to 6s. 6d. per yard. Iron, to the extent of 28,000 cw t., and to the value of L.22,500, is annually imported into Java, which is destitute of that important metal. The Swedish is preferred, though British iron has of late been introduced to a considerable extent. Fire-arms and ammunition are the most saleable articles, but their export has hitherto been prohibited by European governments. There has been recently a great extension of demand for our glass and earthen ware. A constant demand, limited only by the means of the purchaser, is also daily increasing for gold lace, and the other European manufactures used as dress, furniture, saddlery, &c.

Amongst the two races of people who inhabit the oriental islands, distinguished into the brown coloured race, and the Papuas or oriental negroes, the natives of Java belong to the former. They are under the middle size, the standard for men being five feet two inches, and for women four feet eleven inches. Their complexion is a yellowish brown, generally without any tincture of red. Of this colour they admire the fair specimens, and their standard beauty is a virgin gold; but they consider the European white as a sickly tint. They have a round face, little black eyes, a small nose, and a large mouth, with thick lips. On the head, beard, and other parts of the body, there is a remarkable deficiency of hair. Compared with the Europeans and southern Asiatics, they are considered by Mr Crawfurd as an ill-looking race; but the opinion of Sir Stamford Raffles is, in this respect, more favourable. Their constitution is healthy, and they seem to attain a longevity equal to that of Europeans. Early marriages are as universal as amongst other Asiatics, a man being scarcely ever known single at twenty-five, whilst an unmarried female at eighteen is considered as an old maid. The lot of the female sex differs considerably from what it usually is among Asiatics. They are by no means immured with the same jealousy; British gentlemen have even been admitted to visit the harems of the sultans and chiefs, where they were received by the ladies with all the dignified propriety of persons accustomed to mix in general society. To women the commercial and pecuniary affairs of the family are almost wholly intrusted. Of these privileges and advantages, however, they are said not always to make the very best use. The right of divorce, with which they are indulged equally with the other sex, is carried by them beyond all excusable limits. R is very common for a woman, before the age of thirty, to have divorced three or four husbands; and Mr Crawfurd had one pointed out to him who was living with her twelfth. No difficulty occurs in regard to the disposal of the children, who, in Java, are never viewed in the light of a burden. Besides being easily supported, they are usually few in number, a circumstance ascribed to the hard labour which the mothers undergo, and the consequent frequency of abortion. Besides the management of the household, they weave all the cloths worn in the family, and perform various other offices which in Europe devolve on the other sex. Polygamy is permitted by law, but it is known only amongst the great; and, even with them, the first wife alone is of their own rank, and mistress of the family; the others occupy a place decidedly inferior. The natives of Java were drawn by their Dutch masters in very dark colours; but the English residents, after careful observation, have described them much more favourably. They are generous, warm-hearted, and susceptible of strong attachments. Their affections of kindred are peculiarly forcible; so that, even in civil contests, those fraternal enmities, so conspicuous in other Asiatic states, are scarcely ever observable. The English, who placed confidence in them, found them honest in the intercourse of common life; and they share only in a slight degree those habits of piracy for which the Malay tribes are so notorious. In society they are uncommonly good humoured, courteous, and polite, and are scarcely ever seen in a passion, unless on those occasions when they are hurried to the last extreme of violence. These unhappily too often occur under the impulse of that violent jealousy and revenge which form their ruling passions. The disregard of human life seems to proceed to an excess amongst them scarcely known in any other quarter of the globe. It is stated that, in any part of Java, an assassin may be hired for the moderate sum of fifteen or twenty shillings; but, in general, the injured party conceives it more honourable to decline this cheap mode of redress, and to seek vengeance with his own hand. Some, driven to the extreme of desperation, run furiously into the streets, and kill indiscriminately all whom they meet, till they are themselves overpowered and cut down. This dreadful atrocity, which, by a corruption of the native term, is called “running a muck,” is said, however, to prevail, not amongst the native Javanese, but amongst the other Malay tribes resident in the capital.

In the ancient religion of the Javanese, which was undoubtedly derived from Hindustan, Siva, with his family, and Buddha, were the chief objects of adoration. Their temples appear, from the late inquiries of our countrymen, to have rivalled in splendour those erected in the native seats of their religion. In the course of the fifteenth century, the whole island of Java was, by Arab traders and settlers, converted to Mahommedanism. This faith, however, which is generally observed with so much strictness, is professed here in a very loose and imperfect manner. It need only be observed, that wine and spirits are not only used without scruple on ordinary occasions, but are even sometimes produced at religious festivals. An extreme indifference prevails as to all its outward observances. In return, superstitious credulity is common to a degree almost unparalleled. A belief in sorcery is universal. If a person write the name of another on a skull, bone, or leg, and suspend it from a tree on haunted ground, where two roads meet, the laws doom to death, himself, his friends, his children, and his children’s children. Availing themselves of this credulity, various persons usually start up, in troubled times, as saints, prophets, or as the descendants of one of the ancient kings of Java, and at [7:12:533]tract a multitude of followers. Christianity has not obtained any footing in Java; and Mr Crawfurd doubts if it ever will, till the conduct of its Indian professors becomes more conformable to its precepts.

The Javanese language is the most copious and improved of any used in the Indian islands. It has Sanscrit for its basis, but with considerable variations. In the beauty of its written characters it is not surpassed by any of the languages of Asia. It is distinguished by its vast copiousness as to particular, and barrenness as to general terms. Thus there are five names for a dog, and seven for a horse, but no general word for an animal. The abstract terms nature, space, and others of that kind, are entirely wanting. All their literature, as is usual among rude nations, is metrical, and may be divided into lyrical compositions or songs; romances founded on Hindu legends; romances founded on modern story; histories of modern transactions; with legal and ethical tracts, chiefly in prose. Of these compositions, the songs, in which feeling and passion are simply expressed, appear to be the most pleasing. The romances consist chiefly of abridged translations of the Mahabarat and Ramayana, from the Hindu original into a now dead. Javanese language called the Kawi. These versions, being free from the endless prolixity of the originals, may be read with greater pleasure. Java had no history previous to the Mahommedan invasion; and even now, its annals consist merely of metrical legends, which, being written under the eye of the prince whose deeds they relate, cannot be suspected of very strict impartiality. Besides the rudeness of these compositions, there is an absence of that energy, ardour, and sublimity, which have often characterised the poetry of far ruder nations. This seems justly ascribed to the despotic form of the government, which represses all the nobler sentiments natural to independent man, when individual character is permitted to unfold itself.

The government of Java is more absolute than that of any other part of the archipelago, and differs little in this respect from the great monarchies of Asia. There is no rank but what emanates from the sovereign; and no bounds are set to the marks of respect shown by inferiors to the higher classes. No individual, of whatever rank, can stand in the presence of a superior, not even the heir-apparent in that of the sovereign. Whenever a chief appears in public, all his inferiors must throw themselves into the posture called dodoh, which may be rendered by the English term “squatting,” in which they remain till he disappears. Sir Stamford Raffles describes himself as much annoyed at seeing, in one of his progresses, the whole population of the country quitting their work, and remaining fixed in this uneasy posture as long as he remained in sight. They have a language, or at least a modification of the language, which must be used by the inferior in addressing those of higher rank. The revenue of the sovereign, as is usual in Asiatic despotisms, arises from the rent of all the cultivated lands in the country, levied in kind, and in the enormous proportion of one half of the entire produce. This, however, by the allowance of one sixth for reaping, is reduced to about two fifths. It is paid, not into the treasury, but by the king assigning to each of his officers and servants a certain number of cultivators, whose rents he is to receive. The Javan farmer is supposed, on the whole, to be more mildly treated than the Hindoo.

The population of Java, including the small contiguous island of Madura, was found, by a census taken in 1815, to amount to 4,600,000. Of these, three millions are in the provinces immediately subject to European authority; the rest is subject to the native princes. The principal European capitals, Batavia, Samarang, and Surabaya, contain respectively 60,000, 25,000, and 20,000 inhabitants; the chief native capitals, Surakerta and Vug Yukerta, about 105,000 each. The Chinese, amounting to 94,000, form the most active and industrious part of the population; the manufactures of salt, sugar, and arrack, are solely in their hands. Slavery in Java prevails to a much less extent than in the other islands. The slaves do not exceed 30,000; and none of them are native Javans, but obtained by purchase or capture from Celebes or Borneo. The philanthropic measures adopted by Sir Stamford Raffles, with a view to the abolition of the trade, were seconded by the chiefs, and productive, to a considerable extent, of the desired effect. (f.)