pnugues/EB7 huggingface dataset:
INTERVAL, the distance or space between two extremes, either in time or in place. The word comes from the Latin intervallum, which, according to Isidore, signifies the space inter fossam et murum, between the ditch and the wall; whilst others observe that the stakes or piles driven into the ground in the ancient Roman bulwarks were called valla, and the interstices or vacant spaces between them intervalla. Interval, in Music. The distance between any given sound and another, strictly speaking, is not measured by any common standard of extension or duration, but either by immediate sensation, or by computing the difference between the numbers of vibrations produced by two or more sonorous bodies, in the act of sounding, during the same given time. As the vibrations are slower and fewer during the same instant, the sound is proportionally lower or graver; and, on the contrary, as during the same period the vibrations increase in number and velocity, the sounds are proportionally higher or more acute. An interval in music, therefore, is properly the difference between the number of vibrations produced by one sonorous body of a certain magnitude and texture, and of those produced by another of a different magnitude and texture, in the same time.

Intervals are divided into consonant and dissonant. A consonant interval is that whose extremes, or whose highest and lowest sounds, when simultaneously heard, coalesce in the ear, and produce an agreeable sensation called by Lord Kames a tertium quid. A dissonant interval, on the contrary, is that whose extremes, simultaneously heard, far from coalescing in the ear, and producing one agreeable sensation, are each of them plainly distinguishable from the other, produce a grating effect upon the sense, and repel each other with an irreconcileable hostility. In proportion as the vibrations of different sonorous bodies, or of the same sonorous body in different modes, more or less frequently coincide during the same given time, the chords are more or less consonant. When these vibrations never coincide at all in the same given time, the discord is consummate, and consequently the [7:12:332]interval absolutely dissonant. For a full account of these, see Music.
INTESTATE, in Law, a person who dies without making a will.
INTONATION, in Music, the action of sounding the notes in the scale with the voice, or any other given order of musical tones. Intonation may either be true or false, too high or too low, too sharp or too flat; and then this· word intonation, attended with an epithet, must be understood concerning the manner of performing the notes.

In executing an air, to form the sounds, and preserve the intervals as they are marked, with justness and accuracy, is no inconsiderable difficulty, and scarcely practicable, but by the assistance of one common idea, to which, as to their ultimate test, these sounds and intervals must be referred. These common ideas are those of the key, and the mode in which the performer is engaged; and from the word tone, which is sometimes used in a sense almost identical with that of the key, the word intonation may perhaps be derived. It may also be deduced from the word diatonic, as in that scale it is most frequently conversant; a scale which appears most convenient and natural to the voice. We feel more difficulty in our intonation of such intervals as are greater or less than those of the diatonic order; because, in the first case, the glottis and vocal organs are modified by gradations too large; or too complex, in the second.
INTRENCHMENT, in the military art, is any work which fortifies a post against the attack of an enemy. It is generally taken for a ditch or trench with a parapet. 1ntrenchments are sometimes made of fascines with earth thrown over them, or of gabions, hogsheads, or bags filled with earth, to cover the men from the enemy’s fire.
INTRIGUE, an assemblage of events or circumstances occurring in an affair, and perplexing the persons concerned in it. In this sense it is used to signify the nodus or plot of a play or romance; or that point in which the principal characters are most embarrassed, through the artifice and opposition of certain persons, or the unfortunate falling out of certain accidents and circumstances.
INTRASCA, a city of the kingdom of Sardinia, in the province Pallanza, on Lake Maggiore, containing a nunnery, two churches, 320 houses, and 4570 inhabitants. Here are considerable manufactures of linen goods, hats, glass, and other wares.
INTRINSIC, a term applied to the real and genuine values and properties of any thing, in opposition to their extrinsic or apparent qualities.
INTRODUCTION, in general, signifies any thing which tends to make another in some measure known, before we have leisure or proceed to examine it thoroughly; and hence it is used on a great variety of occasions. The term is also used to signify the actual motion of any body out of one place into another, when that motion has been occasioned by some other body.
INTUITION, amongst logicians, the act by which the mind perceives the agreement or disagreement of two ideas, immediately by themselves, without the intervention of any other; in which case the mind perceives the truth as the eye does the light, only by being directed towards it. See Metaphysics.
INTUITIVE Evidence is that which results from intuition. Dr Campbell distinguishes different sorts of intuitive evidence; one resulting purely from intellection, another kind arising from consciousness, and a third sort from that faculty called common sense, which this ingenious writer contends to be a distinct original source of knowledge; but others refer its supposed office to be intuitive power of the understanding.
INUNDATION, a sudden overflowing of the dry land by the waters of the ocean, rivers, lakes, springs, or rains.
INVALID, a person wounded, maimed, or disabled for action by age.
INVECTED, in Heraldry, denotes a thing fluted or furrowed. See Heraldry.
INVECTIVE, in Phetorìc, differs from reproof, as the latter proceeds from a friend, and is intended for the good of the person reproved; whereas invective is the work of an enemy, and entirely designed to vex and give uneasiness to the person against whom it is directed.
INVENTION denotes the art of finding any thi∏αr new, or even the thing thus found. Thus we say, the invention of gunpowder, the invention of printing, and so on.

Invention is also used for the finding of a thing hidden. The Roman Catholic church celebrates a feast on the 4th of May, under the title of the invention of the holy cross.

Invention is also used for subtilty of mind, or something peculiar to a man’s genius, which leads him to discover things new; in which sense we say, a man of invention. Invention, in Painting, is the choice which the painter makes of the objects that are to enter into the composition of his piece.

Invention, in Poetry, is applied to whatever the poet adds to the history of the subject he has chosen, as well as to the new turn he gives it.

Invention, in Phetoric, signifies the finding out and choosing of certain arguments which the orator is to use for proving or illustrating his point, moving the passions or conciliating the minds of his hearers. Invention, according to Cicero, is the principal part of oratory; and be wrote four books De Inventione, of which we have but two remaining.
INVERBERVIE, or Bervie, a town of Scotland, in Kincardineshire, and a royal burgh in virtue of a charter of David II. dated 1362, and renewed by James VI. in 1595. It is situated on the sea-coast, at the mouth of a stream called Bervie, between two small hills, which terminate in high cliffs towards the sea, at thirteen miles distance north-east from Montrose. The first machine for spinning flax in Scotland was erected at Bervie, which still carries on this manufacture to an inconsiderable extent. It unites with Montrose, Arbroath, Brechin, and Forfar, in returning a member to parliament. In 1831 the population amounted to 1137.
INVERKEITHING, a royal burgh of Scotland, in the county of Fife, is agreeably situated in a bay called St Margaret’s Hope, on the north shores of the Frith of Forth, at the distance of thirteen miles from Kirkaldy, twenty-eight from Stirling, four from Dunfermline, and about fourteen from Edinburgh. It stands on the brow of an acclivity which rises from the margin of the bay, and consists of one main street of considerable length, with diverging lines and thoroughfares, and a number of houses erected in the neighbourhood of the harbour. Inverkeithing is a town of very considerable antiquity. The first existing grant which it possesses is one from William the Lion, confirming one of an earlier but unknown date, by which grant the burgh was endowed with a jurisdiction over the adjacent county to an extent of at least twenty miles each way. Within these limits the civic authorities possessed considerable powers and privileges, some of which remain to this day. James VI. confirmed the writ of the burgh in 1598. The civic government is exercised by a provost and high sheriff, two bailies, a dean of guild, and treasurer, annually elected by the councillors and deacons of the trades. This town, in times of remote antiquity, is said to have been the residence of many noble families; and David I. is known to have had a minor palace here. An old antique tenement is also pointed out as having been the abode of Queen Annabella Drummond, the consort of Robert III. and mother of the first James. Before Edinburgh obtained the honour, Inverkeithing was the place where the convention of royal burghs was regularly held. The burgh possesses a neat town-house, containing a jail with apartments for courts. Besides the established church, which is an elegant modern building, there is an United Associate Synod meeting-house. There is a public grammar-school, with other private seminaries of education. No manufactures are carried on in the town, but in the neighbourhood there is an extensive distillery, a magnesia work, and some saltpans. The chief trade of the place consists in the shipment of coal, of which article large quantities are here embarked. Railways have been laid between the coal-pits and the harbour. The port of Inverkeithing is, by authority, a place where vessels ride quarantine; and here government has stationed a body of officers, with a lazaretto, on shore. In 1821 the population amounted to about 1400, and in 1831 to 3189.
INVERLOCHY, or Innerlochy, a place in the West Highlands of Scotland, in the county of Inverness. It is situated on the east shore of Loch Eil, near the spot where that arm of the sea is joined by the Caledonian Canal. The town of Fort William lies contiguous to it on the south. According to legendary lore, this place is declared to be the site of a city once the greatest in Scotland, and that here King Achaius signed a treaty with Charlemagne. The remains of the ancient pavement of streets are ostentatiously pointed to as corroborating these fanciful conjecture«; but if ever a town existed here, many ages have elapsed since the last vestige of it disappeared, and nothing now remains but a huge quadrangular edifice, styled Inverlochy Castle, which towers in solitary magnificence, and has survived all tradition respecting its origin. The building forms a court, and is provided at the angles with round towers, of the most massive proportions, the whole fabric covering a space of 1600 yards. Inverlochy gives its name to one of the most brilliant victories of the Marquis of Montrose, which he gained in February 1645.
INVERSE, the opposite of direct, is applied to a particular form of proportion. See Arithmetic.
INVERSION, the act by which any thing is inverted or turned backwards. Problems in geometry and arithmetic are often proved by inversion; that is, by a contrary rule or operation.

Inversion, in Grammar, is where the words of a phrase are ranged in a manner not so natural as they might be. For instance, “Of all vices, the most abominable, and that which least becomes a man, is impurity.” Here is an inversion, the natural order being, “Impurity is the most abominable of all vices, and that which least becomes a man.” An inversion is not always disagreeable, but sometimes has a good effect.
INVERTED, in Music, signifies a change in the order of the notes which form a chord, or in the parts that compose harmony, which happens by substituting in the bass, those sounds which ought to have been in the upper part; an operation not only rendered practicable, but greatly facilitated, by the resemblance which one note has to another in different octaves. Hence we derive the power of exchanging one octave for another, or substituting in the extremes those which ought to have occupied the middle station, and vice versa.
INVERURY, a royal burgh of Scotland, in the county of Aberdeen, and capital of a parish of the same name. It is pleasantly situated in the angle of land near the confluence of the Urie and Don, at the distance of sixteen miles north-west of Aberdeen. The oldest charter is a ìiovodamus by Queen Mary, narrating that Inverury had been a royal burgh from time immemorial, but that the charter had been lost during the civil wars. Tradition relates that it was granted by Robert Bruce, after he had gained a battle over the English at this place, the first of that series of victories by which that monarch achieved the independence of his country. The town is small, and its trade is only in manufactures for local use. Besides the parish church, there are two dissenting meeting-houses. The population of the burgh and parish amounted in 1821 to 1129, and in 1831 to 14A9.
INVESTIGATION properly denotes the searching or finding out any thing by the tracts or prints of the feet; and hence mathematicians, schoolmen, and grammarians, have employed the term in their respective researches.
INVESTITURE, in Law, a giving livery of seisin or possession. There was anciently a great variety of ceremonies used upon investitures, which at first were made by a certain form of words, and afterwards by such things as had the greatest resemblance to the thing to be transferred. Thus, where lands were intended to pass, a turf was delivered by the granter to the grantee. In the church, it was customary for princes to make investiture of ecclesiastical benefices, by delivering to the person they had chosen a pastoral staff and a ring.
INVOCATION, in Theology, the act of adoring God, and especially of addressing him in prayer for his assistance and protection.

The difference between the invocation of God and of the saints, as practised by the Roman Catholics, is thus explained in the catechism of the council of Trent. “We beg of God,” says the catechism, “to give us good things, and to deliver us from evil; but we pray to the saints to intercede with God and obtain those things which we stand in need of. Hence we use different forms in praying to God and to the saints; to the former we say, hear us, have mercy on us ; to the latter we only say, pray for us.” The council of Trent expressly teaches that the saints who reign with Jesus Christ offer up their prayers to God for men, and condemns those who maintain the contrary doctrine. The Protestants reject and censure this practice as contrary to

Scripture, deny the truth of the fact, and think it highly unreasonable to suppose that a limited finite being should be in a manner omnipresent, and at one and the same time hear and attend to the prayers which are offered to him in England, China, and Peru; and hence they infer, that if the saints cannot hear their requests, it is inconsistent with common sense to address any kind of prayer to them.

Invocation, in Poetry, an address at the beginning of a poem, in which the poet calls for the assistance of some divinity, particularly of his muse, or the deity of poetry.
INVOICE, an account, in writing, of the particulars of merchandise, with the value, customs, charges, &c. thereof, transmitted by one merchant to another in a distant country.
INVOLUCRUM, amongst botanists, expresses that sort of cup which surrounds a number of flowers, every one of which has, besides this general cup, its own particular perianthium. The involucrum consists of a multitude of little leaves disposed in a radiated manner.
INVOLUTION, in Algebra, the raising any quantity from its root to any height or power assigned. See Algebra.
IO, in fabulous history, daughter of Inachus, or, according to others, of Jasus or Pirene, was priestess of Juno at Argos. Jupiter became enamoured of her; but Juno, jealous of his intrigues, discovered the object of his affection, and surprised him in the company of Io. Jupiter changed his mistress into a beautiful heifer; and the goddess, who well knew the fraud, obtained from her husband the animal whose beauty she had condescended to commend. Juno commanded the hundred-eyed Argus to watch the heifer; but Jupiter, anxious for the situation of Io, sent Mercury to destroy Argus, and to restore her to liberty. Io, freed from the vigilance of Argus, was now persecuted by Juno, who sent one of the Furies to torment her. She wandered over the greater part of the earth, and crossed the sea, till at last she stopped on the banks of the Nile, still exposed to the unceasing torments of the Fury. Here she entreated Jupiter to restore her to her natural form; and when the god had changed her from a heifer into a woman, she brought forth Epaphus. Afterwards she married Telegonus, king of Egypt, or Osiris according to others; and she treated her subjects with such mildness and humanity, that after death she received divine honours, and was worshipped under the name of Isis. According to Herodotus, Io was carried away by Phoenician merchants, who wished to make reprisals for Europa, who had been stolen from them by the Greeks.
IOLAIA, a festival at Thebes, the same as that called Heracleia. It was instituted in honour of Hercules and his friend Iolas, who assisted him in conquering the hydra. It continued during several days, on the first of which were offered solemn sacrifices; the next day horse-races and athletic exercises were exhibited; the following day was set apart for wrestling; and the victors were crowned with garlands of myrtle generally used at funeral solemnities. But they were sometimes rewarded with tripods of brass. The place where the exercises were exhibited was called Iolaion, where were to be seen the monument of Amphitryon and the cenotaph of Iolas, who was buried in Sardinia. These monuments were covered with garlands and flowers on the day of the festival.

Iolas, or Iolaus, in Fabulous History, a son of Iphiclus, king of Thessaly, who assisted Hercules in conquering the hydra, and burned with a hot iron the place where the heads had been cut off, to prevent the growth of others. He was restored to youth and vigour by Hebe, at the request of his friend Hercules. Some time afterwards Iolas assisted the Heracleidae against Eurystheus, and killed the tyrant with his own hand. According to Plutarch, Iolas [7:12:338]had a monument in Boeotia and Phocis, where lovers used to go and bind themselves by the most solemn oaths of fidelity, considering the place as sacred to love and friendship. According to Diodorus and Pausanias, Iolas died and was buried in Sardinia, where he had gone to make a settlement at the head of the sons of Hercules by the fifty daughters of Thespius.
ION, in fabulous history, a son of Xntbus, and Creüsa, daughter of Erechtheus, who married Helice, the daughter of Selinus king of Aegiale. He succeeded to the throne of his father-in-law, and built a city, which he called Helice, on account of his wife. His subjects received from him the name of Ionians, and the country that of Ionia. See Ionia. Ion, a tragic poet of Chios, who flourished about the eighty-second Olympiad. His tragedies were represented at Athens, where they met with universal applause. He is mentioned and greatly commended by Aristophanes, Athenaeus, and others.
IONIC Order. See Architecture. Ionic Dialect, in Grammar, a manner of speaking peculiar to the people of Ionia.

Ionic Sect was the first of the ancient sects of philosophers; the others were the Italic and the Eleatic. The founder of the Ionic sect was Thales, a native of Miletus, in Ionia, whence his followers assumed the appellation of Ionic. Thales was succeeded by Anaximander, and the latter by Anaximenes, both of Miletus. Anaxagoras Clazomenius succeeded them, and removed his school from Asia to Athens, where Socrates was his scholar. It was the distinguishing tenet of this sect that water was the principle of all natural things.
IONIUM Mare, a part of the Mediterranean Sea, at the bottom of the Adriatic. It lies between Sicily and Greece. That part of the Aegean Sea which lies on the coasts of Ionia in Asia is called the Sea of Ionia, and not the Ionian Sea. According to some authors, the Ionian Sea receives its name from Io, who swam across after she had been metamorphosed into a heifer.
IPHICRATES, one of the most celebrated generals of the Athenians, was a man of low origin, who raised himself to the highest rank by his prudence and military talents. The exact date of his birth and death is unknown; but he began to take an active part in the affairs of his country in 392, b. c. when he proceeded with Conon to oppose Agesilaus, who began to threaten the independence of Athens. At this time he defeated a mora of the Lacedemonians, a body of men then the most active and vigorous in Greece. (Xen. Hell. iv. 5, 11—18.) On the death of Thrasybulus, b. c. 389, Iphicrates was appointed to succeed him in the command of the troops on the Hellespont, and there laid siege to Abydos, which was commanded by Nicoochus, the Spartan general; but the result of the siege is not known, (v. 1, 6-7.) For many years we lose sight of Iphicrates; nor does he again appear on the stage till B. c. 374, when we find him commanding the mercenary troops of Persia in Egypt. Next year, when Corcyra was threatened by the united fleets of Sparta and Syracuse, Athens sent to the assistance of this island a fleet of sixty vessels, commanded, first by Timotheus, and afterwards by Iphicrates. The latter, assisted by the orator Callistratus, and Chabrias, attacked and defeated the Syracusans, (vi. 2.) History again fails us, and we hear nothing more of Iphicrates till b. c. 355, when he was sent, along with Timotheus and Chares, to recover Byzantium and some other cities which had revolted. 1he fleet commanded by these three generals was soon in presence of the enemy; and they were preparing to offer battle when a tempest dispersed part of their vessels. Chares wished, nevertheless, that they should engage in battle, but Iphicrates and Timotheus opposed the proposal. On this account they were recalled, and, being accused by Chares and Aristophon of treachery, Timotheus was most unjustly condemned, whilst Iphicrates, who defended himself, not only by his eloquence, but by arming a number of his friends, was acquitted (Nepos, Timoth. et Iphicr.) From that time he quitted the military service of his country. He was married to the daughter of Cotys, king of Thrace, and had by her a son named Menestheus.