pnugues/EB7 huggingface dataset:
FRUMENTARII were a species of soldiers or archers under the Western Empire. They are first mentioned in the reign of the Emperor Adrian, who made use of them as a kind of spies. They did not form any particular corps distinct from the rest of the forces, but there was a certain number of them in each legion. It is supposed that they were at first a number of young persons, disposed by Augustus throughout the provinces, particularly on all the great roads, to acquaint the emperor, with all expedition, of every thing that happened. Afterwards they were incorporated into the troops themselves, where they still retained their ancient name. As their principal office was the giving intelligence, they were often joined with the curiosi, with whom they agreed in that part of their office. Their name of frumentarii is derived from their being also a sort of purveyors to the armies, cities, and so on, collecting all the corn from the several provinces to furnish the commonwealth.
FRUMENTATION, in Roman antiquity, a largess of corn bestowed on the people. This practice of giving corn to the people was very ancient among the Romans, and frequently used to soothe the turbulent passions of the populace. At first the number of those to whom this largess was given was indeterminate, but it was fixed by Augustus at 200,000.
FRUSTUM, in Mathematics, a part of some solid body which is separated from the rest.

The frustum of a cone is the part that remains when the top is cut off by a plane parallel to the base. It is likewise called a truncated cone.

The frustum of a pyramid is also what remains after the top is cut off by a plane parallel to its base.

The frustum of a globe or sphere is any part of it which is cut off by a plane. The solid contents of it may be found by the following rule: To three times the square of the semidiameter of the base add the square of its height; then multiply that sum by the height, and this product multiplied by ∙5236 gives the solidity of the frustum.
FRUTEX, a shrub. Shrubs, according to Linnaeus, make a branch of the seventh family in the vegetable kingdom; and are distinguished from trees, in their coming up without buds. But this distinction is not universal, although it is generally correct with regard to those of Europe. Nature has made no absolute distinction between trees and shrubs. Frutex, in its general acceptation, is a plant whose trunk is perennial, gemmiparous, woody, dividing and subdividing into a great number of branches. In short, it is the epitome of a tree, as exemplified in the rose-bush.
FRY, in Zoology, signifies the spawn, or rather young, of fish.
FRYBURG, or Freiburg, one of the cantons of Switzerland. It is bounded on the north and the east by the canton of Berne, on the south and west by that of Neufchatel, and on the north-west by the lake of NeuΓchatel.

It is 506 square miles in extent, and in the year 1828 contained 83,800 inhabitants, dwelling in 18,384 houses. It is divided into twelve circles, called bailiwicks.

The canton is full of mountains and hills, but in the north are some extensive and fruitful plains. None of the elevations within the district are more than 6000 feet in , height. The religion of the inhabitants is generally Catholic; but there are about 7000 Protestants in the bailiwick of Murten, who are allowed the free exercise of their religion. The chief means of subsistence are the dairy and the Alpine common husbandry. It is said that the canton contains 34,900 head of black cattle, and that the milch cows yield 24,000 quintals of Gruer cheese. Some horses are bred for sale. Neither wine nor corn is raised in quantities equal to the demand, and the greater part of the people subsist on potatoes; so that when a failure of that crop occurs, their sufferings are excessive. Flax and hemp are cultivated so as to supply the domestic demand.

The only occupations besides husbandry are linen weaving, for the use of the several families, and plaiting of straw for hats and other purposes, which is sent to other districts. The government is intrusted to a greater and smaller council; the first consisting of 116 members, and the latter of 29. The laws are framed by the small council, and rejected or approved by the greater. In each bailiwick is an amtman or bailiff, chosen by the councils, who administers the laws. The church is in possession of the larger portion of the landed property. The canton pays a contribution to the general funds of the confederation, of 18,600 francs, and provides a contingent of 1240 men to the army of the union. The chief place is the city of the same name on the Soane, on a sandy rock, surrounded with ancient walls, defended by lofty towers. It is a place of no industry, but has four churches, besides a beautiful one belonging to the Jesuits, eight monastic establishments, a college for Catholics, 1079 houses, and 6460 inhabitants. Long. 7. 4. 48. E. Lat. 46. 48. 30. N.
FRYTH, John, a martyr to the Protestant religion in the reign of Henry VIII. He was the son of an innkeeper at Seven Oaks in Kent, and educated in King’s College, Cambridge, where he took the degree of bachelor of arts. Thence he removed to Oxford, and was made a junior canon of Wolsey’s College. Not long after he entered that university, he became acquainted with William Tyndale, a zealous Lutheran, with whom he had frequent intercourse on the abuses in religion. Fryth became a convert to Lutheranism, and publicly avowed his opinions. He was apprehended, examined by the commissary, and confined to his college. At length, having obtained his liberty, in 1528 he went over to Germany, where he continued about two years, and then returned to England more confirmed in his religious sentiments. Finding but few associates, he wandered about from place to place, and was at last taken up at Reading as a vagrant, and put in the stocks, where he remained until he had nearly expired with hunger. He was at length relieved by the humanity of Leonard Cox, a schoolmaster, who finding him a man of letters, procured his enlargement, and administered to his necessities. Fryth now took his departure for London, where, with more zeal than prudence, he began to make proselytes. He was soon however apprehended, by orders of the chancellor Sir Thomas More, and sent prisoner to the Tower. Refusing to recant his opinions, he was condemned to the flames, and accordingly burnt in Smithfield, on the 4th of July 1533. He left several pieces behind him, which were printed in folio in 1573.
FUAGE, in old English writers, a tax of 12d. levied during the reign of Edward III. for every fire.
FUCINUS Lacus, a lake in the central parts of Italy, [7:10:241]to the north-east of Rome, surrounded by a chain of lofty mountains inhabited by the ancient Marsi. Its usual circumference was about forty miles; but there were times when the volume of its waters was much increased, and it enclosed a larger space than this. The purity and transparency of its waters, and the grateful breezes from its surface, were frequent themes of praise to the ancient poets; but the inhabitants on its banks suffered severely from its inundations. Among other magnificent projects to benefit his fellow-citizens, Julius Caesar entertained the idea of cutting a canal to drain the water from the lake and convey it to the Tiber, by which he imagined that he would benefit the inhabitants on its banks, and at the same time increase the volume of water in the Tiber, so as to render it navigable to vessels of greater burden. His murder put an end to the attempt; and it was not till the reign of Caligula that any further steps were taken. It was the Emperor Claudius, however, who first took effectual measures to accomplish the undertaking; and he directed that the waters should be drained off into the river Liris, now Garigliano. Suetonius states that 30,000 men were employed for eleven years in cutting this emissary; but Feboni, a modern Italian geographer, satisfactorily proves that such a number could not have been employed for eleven^ears on this work, gigantic though it was. h is probable that the number in the Manuscripts was originally 3000. This emissary is still in existence, though from neglect it has ceased to be of any advantage to the inhabitants. In the plain of Capistrello the openings are still to be seen which were intended to give light to the workmen in the interior, much in the same way as the Grotto di Posilipoat Naples is now lighted; and alongside of these openings there are smaller perforations in the form of a spiral stair-case, to enable the workmen to descend. The government of Naples has latterly employed engineers to report on the possibility of clearing out this emissary, and of thereby recovering much fertile land now covered by the waters of the lake; but whether it has sufficient funds and sufficient energy to succeed, remains to be proved. (See Feboni Histor. Marsorum, lib. ii. c. 1; Descrizions delie antiche et moderne città accosta de' fiumi Liri e Fibreno, Napoli, 1824.)
FUCUS, a name given by the ancients to certain dyes and paints. By this name they called a purple sea plant used by them in dyeing woollen and linen articles of that colour. It was very beautiful, but fugitive, and in a short time wholly disappeared. Such is the account given of it by Theophrastus.

The women of those times also used a substance called fucus, with which they stained their cheeks red; ŉnd many have supposed, from the same word expressing both dyes, that they were the same. But this, on a strict inquiry, proves not to be the case. The Greeks called every thing fucus which would stain or paint the flesh. But this peculiar substance used by the women to paint their cheeks was distinguished from the others by the name of rizion among the more correct writers, and was in fact a root brought from Syria into Greece. The Latins, in imitation of the Greek name, called this root radicula ; and Pliny very erroneously confounds the plant with the radix lunaria, or struthion of the Greeks.

The word fucus was in those times become such an universal name for paint, that the Greeks and Romans had a fucus metallicus, which was the ceruse employed in painting the neck and arms white; after which they used the purpurissum, or red fucus of the rizium, to colour the cheeks. In after times they also used a peculiar fucus or paint for the purpose, prepared of the creta argentaria, or silver-chalk, and some of the rich purple dyes that were in use at that time. This seems to have been a colour something resembling our rose-pink.
FUEGO, Fogo, or St Philips, one of the Cape de Verd Islands, situated to the west of St Jago. It is chiefly remarkable on account of a volcano issuing from the top of a mountain which may be said in a manner to constitute the whole island. The island is not of great value, there being only a few plantations along the coast, belonging to the Portuguese, and cultivated by negroes. Long. 24. 20. W. Lat. 15. 0. N.
FUEGOS Isle, one of the most southerly of the Philippines, about forty miles in circumference. Long. 123. 25. E. Lat. 9. 25. N.
FUEL, in its widest acceptation, denotes all bodies which are combustible, and used in making fires, such as coal, wood, turf, peat, and the like.
FUENTE-RRABIA, a city and fortification of Spain, in the province of Guipuzcoa, at the mouth of the Ðidas-soa, on the frontier towards France. The harbour has a bar at its mouth, which forbids the entrance of vessels except at high tide; and even then those only from forty to fifty tons burden can enter. It was made a place of considerable note by the operations of that war which preceded the celebrated battle of Roncesvalles. Its latitude is 43. 21. 36. N. and its longitude 1. 16.7. west from London. Ic contains a population of 1700 souls.
FUGA Isle, one of the Philippines, about thirty-five miles in circumference, and situated due north from the large island of Luzon or Luconia. Long. 121. 30. E. Lat. 19. N.
FUGALIA, in Roman antiquity, a feast supposed by some to be the same with the regifugium, held on the 24th of February, in memory of the expulsion of the kings and the abolition of monarchical government. Others again distinguish the fugalia from the regifuge. And some think that the fugalia was the same with the poplifugia, or the feast of Fugia, the goddess of joy, occasioned by the rout of an enemy, for which reason the people abandoned themselves to riot and debauchery.
FUGITIVE, a person compelled to expatriate himself, or abandon his place of abode, on account of his debts or misdemeanours.
FUGUE, in Music (from the Latin fuga, a flight), is a piece of music, either vocal or instrumental, or both, in which one part leads off a succession of notes forming the subject. This is taken up successively by the other parts, and is dispersed through the movement according to the taste of the composer. There are three kinds of fugues; the simple fugue, which contains only one subject, and is hence the least intricate; the double fugue, which consists of two subjects, occasionally intermingled and moving together; and the counter fugue, in which the subjects move in a direction contrary to each other. In all fugues, the parts fly after or follow each other, and hence the general name by which this kind of music is designated. See the article Music.
FULCRUM, in Mechanics, the prop or support by which a lever is sustained.
FULDA, a province of the principality of Hesse Cassel, in Germany. It was formerly an independent ecclesiastical state, governed by its own bishop, and was consigned to Hesse by the congress of Vienna. It extends over 880 square miles, and comprehends five cities, 223 villages, and thirty-three hamlets; and the population lately amounted to 126,500 individuals. The province is generally hilly, and one fourth of it consists of woods. It is the country of basalt, which is to be seen in all its variety of forms. The elevation is great, and the climate raw and cold, but it is said to be salubrious. The product of corn is unequal to the consumption, but potatoes have been much extended, which serve as a substitute for grain. Although the cultivation of flax is in a backward state, the produce of it forms the chief source of the [7:10:242]wealth of the province. The conversion of the flax into linen cloth, chiefly of the coarser kind, is almost the only branch of industry that is pursued. It is divided by the present ruler into eight bailiwicks. The capital, Fulda, takes its name from the navigable river of that name. It is an ancient but well-built town, 650 feet above the level of the sea, but overlooked by the castle in which its former clerical sovereign resided, the excellence and quantity of whose wines have been much celebrated. The city contains 1100 houses and 9600 inhabitants, who follow a great variety of trades, mostly on a small scale. Long. 9. 50. 40. E. Lat. 50. 33. 57. N.
FULHAM, a large village of the county of Middlesex, in the hundred of Ossulton, four miles from London. It is beautifully situated on the left bank of the Thames, over which is a bridge to Putney in Surrey. The palace of the Bishop of London, and several other houses scarcely inferior to it, with the grounds and gardens around them, are very interesting objects; and even those of less pretensions are elegant. The chief pursuit of the labouring inhabitants is gardening; and it supplies the metropolis with a large portion of the fruit and vegetables it consumes. The population amounted in 1801 to 4428, in 1811 to 5903, in 1821 to 6492, and in 1831 to 7317.
FULLERY, a place where cloths, &c. are fulled.
FULMINATION, in Chemistry. Many chemical combinations are accompanied by a loud report. This is termed fulmination, or more commonly detonation.

Fulmination, in the Romish canon law, is a sentence of a bishop, official, or other ecclesiastic appointed by the pope, by which it is decreed that some bull sent from the pope shall be executed.
FULTA, a large village of Hindustan, ip the province of Bengal, situated on the east bank of the river Hooghly, twenty miles south-south-west in a straight line from Calcutta, but much more by the windings of the river. It has safe anchorage for ships, where they are protected from the swell of the sea, and where the anchors hold fast, the bottom being stiff clay.
FULNEK, a town of the circle of Prerau, in the Austrian province of Moravia. It contains 400 houses, and 3045 inhabitants, among whom are many cloth manufacturers. This was the original spot whence issued the respectable Protestant sect of the United Brethren, known in Germany by the name of Hernhutters or Zin-gendorfers, and in England called Moravians. The establishment in Yorkshire of this sect is called by the name of the place of its origin.
FUMIGATION, in Chemistry, a kind of calcination, when metals or other hard bodies are corroded or softened by receiving certain fumes for that purpose.
FUNAMBULUS, among the Romans, was what we call a rope-dancer, and the Greeks schoenobates.

There was a funambulus, it seems, who performed at the time when the Hecyra of Terence was acted; and the poet complains that the spectacle prevented the people from attending to his comedy. Ita populus studio stupidus in funambulo, animum occuparat.

At Rome the funambuli first appeared under the consulate of Sulpicius P¢eticus and Licinius Stolo, who were the first to introduce scenic representations. It is added, that they were first exhibited in the island of the Tiber, and that the censors Messala and Cassius afterwards promoted them to the theatre.

In the Floralia, or Ludi Florales, held under Galba, there were funambulatory elephants, as we are informed by Suetonius. Nero also gave similar entertainments in honour of his mother Agrippina. Vopiscus relates the same of the time of Carinus and Numerianus.
FUNCHAL, a sea-port town on the island of Madeira, of which it is the capital. It is situated in the centre of a large bay, the extremities of which are formed by two steep promontories. The city is by no means handsomely built, the only respectable looking houses being those belonging to English merchants. The streets are narrow, irregular, and dirty. Funchal contains six parishes, one cathedral and seven other churches, four convents, and three hospitals. The trade of Funchal consists almost entirely in the exportation of the wine which the island produces, and which is so much sought after in the British dominions and settlements. It is principally carried on by English merchants, who are numerous, and constitute the most opulent portion of the inhabitants. The Madeira wine is exported not only to Britain, but to the East and West Indies. The bay does not afford secure anchorage, and landing is also attended with danger, on account of the heavy surf which breaks upon the shore. The harbour is defended by several batteries and a castle, but on the land side the town is defenceless, a great oversight. Ships, by touching at Funchal, may obtain, [7:10:244]besides water, wine, fruits, and vegetables, very reasonably; but fresh meat and poultry are high priced, and difficult to be obtained. The population amounts to about 15,000. Long. 17. 4. W. Lat. 32. 38. N.
FUNCTION, the act of fulfilling the duties of any employment.

Function is a term used in analytics for an algebraical expression in any way compounded of a certain letter or quantity with other quantities or numbers: and the expression is said to be a function of that letter or quantity. Thus α — 4 X, or ax + 3 x i , or '2x — aVa ’ — x 2 , or x e > or c x , is each of them a function of the quantity x.
FUND, in general, signifies any sum of money appropriated for a particular purpose. Thus, that part of the national revenue which is set apart for the payment of the national debt is called the sinking fund. But, when we speak of the funds, we generally mean the large sums which have been lent to government, and constitute the national debt; and for which the lenders, or their assignees, receive interest from revenues allotted for that purpose. The term stock is used in the same sense; and is also applied to the sums which form the capital of the Bank of England, the East India and South Sea Companies; the proprietors of which are entitled to a share of the profits of the respective companies.
FUNDAMENTAL, in general, something that serves as a base or foundation for another.

Fundamental, in Music. A fundamental sound is that which forms the lowest note of the chord, and from which are deduced the harmonical relations of the rest; or which serves for a key to the tone. The fundamental bass is that which serves for a foundation to the harmony. A funda mental chord is that whose base is fundamental, and in which the sounds are ranged in the same order as when they are generated, according to the experiment so often repeated by Μ. d’Alembert in his Preliminary Discourse and Elements of Music. As this order removes the parts to an extreme distance one from the other, they must be approximated by combinations or inversions; but if the bass remains the same, the chord does not for this reason cease to bear the name of fundamental. Such an example is this chord, ut mi sol, included in the interval of a fifth: whereas, in the order of its generation, ut sol mi, it includes a tenth, and even a seventeenth; since the fundamental ut is not the fifth of sol, but the octave of that fifth.

Fundamental Bass. This part in music is, according to Rousseau, and indeed according to all authors who have proceeded upon Μ. Rameau’s experiment, in its primary idea, that bass which is formed by the fundamental notes of every perfect chord that constitutes the harmony of the piece; so that under each chord it causes to be heard, or understood, the fundamental sound of that particular chord; that is to say, the sound from whence it is derived by the rules of harmony. From which we may see that the fundamental bass can have no other contexture than that of a regular and fundamental succession, without which the procedure of the upper parts would be illegitimate.

To understand this well, it is necessary to be known, that, according to the system of Rameau, which Rousseau has followed in his Dictionary, every chord, although composed of several sounds, can only have one which is its fundamental, viz. that which produces this chord, and which is its bass according to the direct and natural order. Now, the bass which prevails under all the other parts does not always express the fundamental sounds of the chords; for amongst all the sounds which form a chord, the composer is at liberty to transfer to the bass that which he thinks preferable; regard being had to the procedure of that bass, to the beauty of the melody, and, above all, to the expression. In this case, the real fundamental sound, instead of retaining its natural station, which is in the bass, will either be transferred to some of the other parts, or perhaps even entirely suppressed, and such a chord is called an inverted chord. For farther particulars relative to this subject, see Music.
FUNDI, in Ancient Geography, a town of Latium, on the Via Appia, near Cajeta, enjoying all the privileges of Roman citizens, except the right of suffrage and of magistracy. Now Fondi, a city of Naples, on the confines of the pope’s dominions.
FUNEN, an island in the Baltic, which, with the island of Langeland and some smaller islands, forms a province of the kingdom of Denmark, which extends over 1176 square miles. These islands partake, in soil and formation, of the same character as the adjoining continental dominions of the same monarchy. The climate also resembles Hamburg, being moist, and excessively variable. The inhabitants amounted in 1832 to 167,062 persons, who speak the Danish language, and profess the Lutheran religion. The agriculture is tolerably conducted, and the province yields a surplus of corn, chiefly rye and oats, which are sent to other parts of the kingdom or to Norway. The dairies also have a surplus of butter and cheese. There are few manufactures, except those of the domestic kind, which employ the people during the long winter nights in spinning. The capital is Odensee, in the centre of Funen.