pnugues/EB7 huggingface dataset:
CRUZADO, in Commerce, a Portuguese coin, struck under Alphonsus V. about the year 1457, at the time when Pope Calixtus sent thither the bull for a crusade against the infidels. This coin has a cross on one side, and the arms of Portugal on the other.
CRYOLITE, alumine fluatée alkaline, Haüy ; cryone, hatloide, Haidinger.

This rare mineral is of a snow-white colour. It was originally brought by a missionary from Greenland to Copenhagen, where, from its resemblance to the common varieties of the sulphate of barytes, it lay neglected for many years. At length Abildgard, attracted by its peculiar ponderosity, was induced to undertake an examination, in which fluoric acid, hitherto known only as a component of fluor spar, presented itself along with alumine; but as a considerable residue remained unaccounted for, Klaproth repeated the investigation, and discovered the presence .of thirty-six per cent, of soda.

Of the geognostic relations of this interesting mineral nothing was known till the late Sir Charles Giesècké was induced, by his ardent desire for the prosecution of science, to take up his abode in those dreary regions, where he remained for upwards of eight years, and was enabled to visit the locality, which he found situated on the west coast of the peninsula, in a fiord or arm of the sea, denominated Arksut, near a place called Ivikaet, where it occurs in two contemporaneous beds disposed in gneiss, nearly parallel to each other, and at no great distance.

The upper bed contains the fine white cryolite, and appears to have been the only one noticed previous to Giesècké’s visit. The specimens from the lower bed first introduced by him are not only a good deal stained by ferruginous matter, but contain imbedded, sparry iron ore, sometimes in large crystals, galena, pyrites, and also detached crystals of felspar and quartz.

Fragments of cryolite obtained by cleavage are too often called crystals; but nothing of the kind has hitherto been observed. Its cleavage, however, is very distinct after being well soaked in water; it is threefold, two of these forming rectangular prisms with very smooth surfaces, while the third is at right angles to these, and rougher. Its great fusibility, for it yields even to the flame of a can cle, suggested to Abildgard the name of cryolite, taken from κguoj, ice, and λιβος, a stone, which it has always retained. It contains, according to
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CRYPTA, a subterraneous cell or vault, especially under a church, for the interment of particular families or persons. Ciampini, describing the outside of the Vatican, speaks of the cryptae of St Andrew, St Paul, and others. The word is formed of κcυ∙τrω, abscondo, to hide, cover, or conceal.

Vitruvius uses the word crypta for a part of a building answering nearly to our cellar, and Juvenal for a cloaca. Hence crypto-porticus is a subterraneous place arched or vaulted, and used as an under-work or passage in old walls. The same term is also employed to signify the decoration at the entry of a grotto.

Crypta is likewise used by some of our ancient writers for a chapel or oratory under ground.
CRYPTOGAMIA (from zguwro¢, occultus, concealed, and γaμος, nuptia, nuptials), the twenty-fourth class in the Ĺinnaean system, comprehending those plants, the fructification of which is concealed, either through minuteness, or within the fruit.
CRYPTOGRAPHY, the art of writing in cipher, or with sympathetic ink. Amongst the methods which Ovid teaches young women, in order to deceive their guardians, when they write to their lovers, he mentions that of writing with new milk, and of making the writing legible by means of coal dust or soot; from which it appears that the use of sympathetic ink was known to the ancients.

Tuta quoque est, fallitque oculos, e lacte recenti

Litera: carbonis pulvere tange; leges.

Ausonius proposes the same means to Paulinus in the two following verses:

Lacte incide notas; arescens charta tenebit

Semper inaspicuas; prodentur scripta favillis.

But it would appear that the commentators on this poet have mistaken the meaning of the word favilla 1 which is used here to signify fuligo, or soot; and in the same sense it is often employed by other poets. Columella, speaking of the method of preserving plants from insects with soot, calls it nigra favilla. In another place he mentions the same practice, and says fuliginem quae supra focos tectis in-haeret. Other glutinous juices besides milk may be employed for the same purpose. Pliny recommends the milky juice of certain plants, and particularly mentions that of lettuce.

It is now well known that several metallic solutions may be employed for this purpose; and that these, on being exposed to the action of certain vapours, become visible, and thus exhibit the characters which had been written with them. This effect was perhaps accidentally discovered; but it does not appear to be of great antiquity. In a book De Secretis, compiled by Wecker, from Porta, Cardan, and some other old writers, and printed in 1592, there is no mention of it; nor is it even noticed by Ca-neparius in his book De Atramentis, printed in 1619. The first receipt given for the preparation of a sympathetic ink is in a book by Peter Borrel, printed at Paris in 1653, where it is called “magnetic water which acts at a distance.”
CRYSTAL, in its original import, signifies ice. It was afterwards applied to rock-crystal, or crystallized siliceous earth; for the ancients, according to Pliny, regarded that body as water which had been congealed by the action of cold.

Crystal, a species of stone belonging to the quartz or siliceous genus. See Mineralogy.
CRYSTALLINE, in general, something composed of or resembling crystal.

Crystalline Heavens, in Ancient Astronomy, two spheres imagined between the primum mobile and the firmament, in the Ptolemaic system, which supposes the heavens solid, and only susceptible of a single motion. See Astronomy.
CTESIAS, a native of Cnidos, who accompanied Cyrus the son of Darius in his expedition against his brother Artaxerxes, by whom he was taken prisoner. But having cured Artaxerxes of a wound which he had received in the battle, he became a great favourite at the court of Persia, where he continued practising physic for seventeen years, and was employed in several negotiations. He wrote a history of Persia in twenty-three books, and also a history of the Indies; but these works are now lost, and all that remains of them is an abridgement compiled by Photinus. The most judicious among the ancients looked upon Ctesias as a fabulous writer; yet several of the ancient historians and of modern Christian writers have adopted his chronology of the Assyrian kings.
CTESIBIUS, a mathematician of Alexandria, who flourished about 120 years before Christ. He was the first who invented the pump; and he also invented a clepsydra, or water-clock. His invention for measuring time by means of water was exceedingly ingenious. The water was made to fall upon wheels, which it turned; and the wheels communicated a regular motion to a small wooden image, which by a gradual rise pointed with a stick to the proper hours and minutes engraven on a column near the machine. This contrivance underwent many improvements; and the modern method of measuring time by an hour-glass is an imitation of the clepsydra of Ctesibius.
CTESIPHON, a celebrated Greek architect, who furnished the designs of the famous temple of Ephesus, and invented a machine for transporting the columns to be used in that noble structure. He flourished 544 years before Christ.
CUB, a bear’s whelp. Among hunters, a fox and marten of the first year are also called cubs.
CUBE, in Geometry, a solid body consisting of six equal sides.

CuBE∙Iioot of any number or quantity is a number or quantity which, if multiplied into itself, and then again the product thence arising by the same number or quantity, being the cube-root, the last product shall be equal to the number or quantity of which it is the cube-root. Thus 2 is the cube-root of 8; because two times two is 4, and two times four is 8; and a + b is the cube-root of α 3 + 3 ααb + 3 abb + 6 3 .
CUBIT, in the mensuration of the ancients, a measure of length equal to that of a man’s arm from the elbow to the tip of the fingers. Dr Ąrbuthnot makes the English cubit equal to eighteen inches, the Roman cubit equal to one foot 5∙406 inches, and the cubit of the Scripture equal to one foot 9∙888 inches.

CUCKING∙Stool, an engine invented for punishing scolds and turbulent women, by ducking them in water. It was called in ancient times a tumbrel, and sometimes a trebuchet. In Domesday-book it is styled cathedra stercoris ; and it was in use even in the Saxon times, when it was described as cathedra in qua rixosae mulieres sedentes aquis demergebantur. It was anciently also a punishment inflicted upon brewers and bakers for transgressing the laws. In such a stool they were immcrged over head and ears in stercore, that is, in stinking water. Some think it a corruption from ducking-stool ; others from choking-stool, quia hoc modo demersae aqu is fere suffocantur.
CUCKOW. See Ornithology.
CUCUMIS, the Cucumber. See Horticulture.
CUCURBIT, the name of a chemical vessel employed in distillation. It derives its name from its elongated form in shape of a gourd. Some cucurbits, however, are shallow and wide mouthed. They are made of copper, tin, glass, and stoneware, according to the nature of the substances to be distilled. A cucurbit, provided with its capital, constitutes the vessel for distillation called an akmbic.
CUDDALORE, a town of Hindustan, in the south of India, and province of the Carnatic. It is situated on the western shore of the Bay of Bengal; and its position, naturally strong, would have afforded a more commodious place for the chief British settlement on the coast of Coromandel than Madras. The English East India Company obtained a grant of it from the rajah of Gingee in the year 1681. Here they constructed a factory, which, in consequence of the increasing trade, they wholly rebuilt and fortified in 1702. The town was taken by the French in 1758; but in two years afterwards it was recaptured by

Sir Eyre Coote. In 1782, after the destruction of Colonel Braithwaite’s detachment by Tippoo, it was forced to surrender to the combined forces of the French and Hyder; and the works were greatly strengthened, and a strong garrison sent to defend them. In 1783 it was besieged by the British, who were repulsed with the loss of 942 killed and wounded, in a desperate attempt to storm the works. At the conclusion of the peace of 1783, it was ceded to the British. The adjacent country was fearfully ravaged during the wars with Hyder Ali, and most of the inhabitants were forced to fly. It is now comprehended in the British collcctorship of Arcot, and is rapidly recovering from the devastations of war. It is 102 miles S. S. W. from Madras, and fifteen S. S. W. from Pondicherry. Long. 79. 52. E. Lat. 11. 44. N.
CUDDAPAH, or Curpa, an extensive district of Hindustan, in the province of Golconda, formerly governed by a nabob, who received his appointment from the court of Delhi. It subsequently fell into the hands of the Nizam of the Deccan, by whom, in the year 1800, it was ceded to the British. It is now subdivided into two collectorships under the Madras government, Cuddapah and Bellary, the former comprehending the eastern and the latter the western portion of the Balaghaut ceded districts. The principal towns arc Cuddapah, Wandicota, and Combam. The country, with the exception of the hilly parts, produces grain, cotton, sugar, and other articles, and is daily improving under the administration of the English.

Cuddapaii, a town and fortress of the above district. It is mentioned in history in the year 1687 as the residence of a nabob under the kings of Golconda; and on the conquest of that country by the Mahommedans, the same officer was confirmed in his office by Aurungzebc. It is now the residence of a British judge and collector of revenue. Long. 79. Ľ. Lat. 14. 28. N.
CUDDY, in a first-rate man of war, is a place lying between the captain-lieutenant’s cabin and the quarterdeck, and divided into partitions for the master and other officers. It denotes also a kind of cabin near the stern of a lighter or barge of burden.
CUENCA, a province of New Castille, in Spain, of which division it occupies the most eastern part. It is a very mountainous country in general, though between the ridges of the hills several rivers run, within the influence of which some degree of fertility exists. It lies between 38° 55' and 41° 22' north latitude; its extent is 945 square leagues; and its population is 294,290 souls,· or 311 to the square league. It is the most thinly peopled of any part of the peninsula, the average population of which is 690 to the league.

The rivers Xucar, Cabriel, Guadiela, and Gallo, run through the province, and discharge their waters into the Tagus. The hills abound with timber well calculated for the construction of ships, but the expense of conveyance forbids its being extensively applied to that use. Considerable flocks of Merino sheep are depastured in the spring and summer in this province, and the wool produced in it is considered as the finest in all Spain. The capital city, Cucnça, is situated in a very barren country, and a cold dry climate; it is near the river Xucar, and is extensive, containing 12,000 inhabitants. It is the see of a bishop, and has a most sumptuous cathedral, and several other rich churches and convents. The inhabitants are said to have more of the unmixed ancient Castilian character than the people of any other large town in Spain. The city is situated in long. 2. 16. W. and lat. 40. 7. N.

Branches of the Sierras Molina, Cuença, and Campillos, run through the province. It contains 4350 horses, 26,000 mules, 26,035 asses, 22,780 oxen and cows, 922,000 sheep, 94,000 goats, and 18,000 swine. Besides, the wool, the flax, and esparto of this province are good; it possesses also some soap, glass, iron, porcelain, and esparto manufactories. It contains two cities, 240 towns, and thirty-seven villages. This province enjoys the privileges and laws of Castille, and is under the captain-general of Madrid. In the capital there is a tribunal of the inquisition established. There are several woollen and linen manufactories, and paper mills.
CUENZA, or Bamba, a town of Colombia, in Quito, and the capital of a province. The streets are straight and broad, and the houses are mostly built of unburned bricks. The town contains three churches, four convents, two nunneries, an hospital, a chamber of finance, and other edifices. The environs are very fertile and pleasant. The population amounts to about 20,000. Long. 79. 13. W. Lat. 2. 55. S.
CUERENHERT, Theodore Van, a very remarkable person, was a native of Amsterdam, where he was born in 1522. He was a man of science, and, according to report, also a poet. The sister arts at first he considered as an amusement only; but in the end he was obliged to have recourse to engraving alone for his support; and though the different studies in which he employed his time prevented his attachment to his profession being as close as [7:7:529]it might have been, yet the marks of genius are discoverable in his works. They are slight, and hastily executed , with the graver alone, but in an open careless style, so as to resemble designs made with a pen. He established himself at Haerlem, where pursuing his favourite studies in literature, he learned Latin, and was made secretary to the town; he was also sent several times as ambassador to the Prince of Orange, to whom he addressed a famous manifesto, which that prince published in 1566. And if he had stopped there, it would have been well; but directing his thoughts intoadifferent channel, he undertookan argument as dangerous as it was absurd. He maintained that all religious communions were corrupted; and that, without a supernatural mission, accompanied with miracles, no person had a right to administer in any religious office. He therefore pronounced every man who entered any place of public worship to be unworthy the name of Christian; and this he not only advanced in words, but strove to show the sincerity of his belief by practice, refusing to communicate either with Protestants or Catholics. His works were published in three volumes folio in 1630; and though he was several times imprisoned, and at last sentenced to banishment, yet he does not appear to have altered his sentiments. He died at Dergoude in 1590, aged sixty-eight.
CUERPO. To walk in cucrpo is a Spanish phrase for going without a cloak, or without the formalities of a full dress.
CUFA, a town of Irak Arabi, founded by the caliph Omar after the ruin of Ctesiphon. It was the residence of the caliphs until Almanzor removed the seat of government to Bagdad. It afterwards fell into· decay, and at present there remains little more of it than the mosque in which Ali was assassinated. This is a plain building of a square form, and is still held in high veneration by the Mahommedans. It is ninety miles south of Bagdad.
CUFF, Henry, the unfortunate secretary of the unfortunate Earl of Essex, was born at Hinton St George, in Somersetshire, about the year 1560, and descended of a respectable family, who were possessed of considerable estates in that county. In 1576 he was entered of Trinity College, Oxford, where he soon acquired considerable reputation as a Greek scholar and disputant. IIc obtained a fellowship in the above-mentioned college; but he was subsequently expelled for speaking disrespectfully of the founder. He was, however, soon afterwards admitted of Merton College, of which, in 1586, he was elected probationer, and in 1588 fellow. In this year he took the degree of master of arts. Some time afterwards he was elected professor of Greek, and in 1594 appointed proctor of the Į university. It is uncertain when he left Oxford; nor arc we better informed as to the means of his introduction to the Earl of Essex. When that nobleman, however, was made lord-lieutenant of Ireland, Mr Cuff' was appointed his secretary, and continued intimately connected with his lordship until his confinement in the tower; and he is generally supposed to have advised those violent measures which ended in their mutual destruction. The earl indeed confessed as much before his execution, and charged Cuff to his face with being the author of all his misfortunes. The unlucky secretary was tried for high treason, convicted, and executed at Tyburn on the 30th of March 1601. Lord Bacon, Sir Henry Wotton, and Camden, speak of him in very harsh terms. But he was certainly a man of learning and abilities. He wrote two books: the one entitled The Differences of the Ages of Mans Life ; the other De Rebus Gestis in Sancto Concilio Nicono. The first was published after his death, but the second is still in manuscript.
CUIRASSE, a piece of defensive armour made of iron plate, well hammered, and serving to cover the body, from the neck to the girdle, both before and behind. Some derive the word from the Italian cuore, the heart, because the cuirasse covered that part; others from the French cuir, or the Latin corium, leather, because defensive arms were originally made of leather. Cuirasses were not brought into use till about the year 1300, though they were known in different forms, both to the ancient Greeks and Romans.
CUIRASSIERS, a sort of heavy cavalry armed with cuirasses. All the powers and states of the Continent, great and small, have at present, we believe, regiments of cuirassiers; and Great Britain has at length followed their example, the regiments of life guards being now provided with cuirasses. The propriety of this innovation, however, has been much questioned by very competent judges. The cavalry of this description in the French army, who fought at Waterloo, had, until that time, been thought almost invincible; and such was their reputation for courage and daring, that “brave comme un cuirassier” had become a proverb in the French army. But, notwithstanding their gallantry and musket-proof armour, they were completely routed and destroyed by the superior weight and dexterity of the life guards; a proof, as it should seem, that the latter required no such protection. But those in command of our army thought differently; and not long after our heavy cavalry had thus established its superiority in battle, the men were encased in armour.
CULDEE, in Ecclesiastical History, a sort of monkish priests formerly inhabiting Scotland and Ireland. Being rem’arkable for the religious exercises of preaching and praying, they were called, by way of eminence, dei cultores ; and hence seems to be derived the word culdees. They made choice of one of their own fraternity to be their spiritual head, who was afterwards called the Scotch Bishop.
CULEUS, in Roman antiquity, the largest measure of capacity for things liquid, containing twenty amphorae, or forty urnae. It contained 143 gallons three pints English wine-measure, or 11,095 solid inches.
CULLERA, a city of Spain, in the province of Valencia, not far from the mouth of the Xucar, containing 5000 inhabitants. Many trades and a great deal of fishing are carried on here.
CULLODEN, a place in Inverness-shire, the scene of the last battle fought between the house of Stuart and that of Hanover, on the 16th April 1746, in which the hopes of the former were for ever extinguished. The field of battle is a vast tract of table land, covered with heath, over which are scattered a few cottages. It is situated about five miles east of the town of Inverness.
CULM, or Culmus, among botanists, a straw or haulm, defined byLinnaeus to be the proper trunk of the grasses, which elevates the leaves, flower, and fruit.

This sort of trunk is tubular or hollow, and has frequently knots or joints distributed at proper distances throughout its whole length. The leaves are long, sleek, and placed either near the roots in great numbers, or proceed singly from the different joints of the stalk, which they embrace at the base, like a sheath or glove.

The haulm is commonly garnished with leaves; sometimes, however, it is naked, that is, devoid of leaves, as in a few species of cypress-grass. Most grasses have a round cylindrical stalk; in some species of schoenus, scirpus, cypress-grass, and others, it is triangular.

The stalk is sometimes entire, that is, has no branches, sometimes branching, as in schoenus aculeatus et capensis ; and not seldom it consists of a number of scales, which lie over each other like tiles.

Lastly, in a few grasses the stalk is not interrupted with joints, as in the greater part. The space contained betwixt every two knots or joints is termed by botanists internodium and articulus culnň.

This species of trunk often affords certain marks of distinction in discriminating the species. Thus, in the genus eriocaulon, the species are scarcely to be distinguished but by the angles of the culms or stalks. These in some species ale in number five, in others six, and in others ten.
CULMIFEROUS Plants (from culmus, a straw or haulm), plants, so called, which have a smooth jointed stalk, usually hollow, and wrapped about at each joint with single, narrow, sharp-pointed leaves, and the seeds contained in chaffy husks. Such are oats, wheat, barley, rye, and the other plants of the natural family of the Grasses.
CULMINATION, in Astronomy, the passage of any heavenly body over the meridian, or its greatest altitude for a given day.
CULNA, a town of Bengal, on the northern bank of one of the numerous streams which constitute the delta of the Ganges. At this place boats generally stop to take in a stock of fresh water and provisions, and to procure a pilot to convey them through the intricate navigation of the Sunderbunds. Long. 89. 32. E. Lat. 22.50. N. There is another town of this name in the province of Bengal, and district of Jessore, seventy miles east-north· cast from Calcutta. Long. 89. 32. E. Lat. 22. 50. N.