pnugues/EB7 huggingface dataset:
PRIMIPILUS, in Antiquity, the centurion of the first cohort of a legion, who had the charge of the Roman eagle.
PRIMITIAE, the first-fruits gathered off the earth, and of which the ancients made presents to the gods.
PRIMITIVE, in Grammar, is a root or original word in a language, in contradistinction to derivative. Thus, God is a primitive; godly, a derivative; and god-like, a compound.
PRIMUM mobile, in the Ptolemaic astronomy, the ninth or highest sphere of the heavens, the centre of which is that of the world, and in comparison with which the earth is but a point. This is supposed to contain within it all other spheres, and to give them motion, turning them quite round, as well as revolving itself, in twenty-four hours.
PRINCIPAL, the chief andmostnecessarypart of athing. The principal of a college or hall is the master thereof.

In commerce, principal is the capital of a sum due or lent, and is so called in opposition to interest. It also denotes the first fund put by partners into a common stock, by which it is distinguished from the calls or accessions afterwards required.

Principal, in Music, see Organ. The term principal is also used in music to designate the more distinguished part written for an instrument where there are several parts written in harmony, and where one of these parts is intended to be the chief and most conspicuous; as in a violin concerto, Violino Principale, and So of other instruments.

Principal Point, in Perspective, is a point in the perspective plane, upon which falls a line drawn from the eye perpendicular to the plane. This point, which is in the intersection of the horizontal and vertical plane, is also called the point of sight, seou point of the eye. Principal Ray, in Perspective, is that which passes perpendicularly from the spectator’s eye to the perspective plane, or picture. The point where this ray falls upon the plane, is thence denominated by some the principal point, but other writers call it the centre of the picture, and the point of concurrence.
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PRINCIPLE, in science, is a truth, admitted without proof, from which other truths are inferred by a chain of reasoning. Principles are of two kinds, primary and general; and to the latter the name of axioms is sometimes given, on account of their importance and dignity. An axiom, or general principle, when the terms in which it is expressed are understood, must be a self-evident truth; but from its very nature it cannot be a first truth. Our first truths are all particular. A child knows that two particular lines, each an inch long, are equal to one another, before he has formed any general notions of length and equality. “Things equal to one and the same thing are equal to one another,” is the first of Euclid’s axioms; and an axiom it undoubtedly is, but to no man has it been a first truth. It is, if we may use the expression, a genus or class of truths, comprehending under it numberless individuals. Were a full-grown man introduced into the world without a single idea in his mind, as we may suppose Adam to have been, he woukl instantly perceive, upon laying together three pieces of wood, each a foot long, that they were all equal in length; and if he were to cut another to the same length with any one of them, he would find, upon trial, that it was of the same length with them all. After a few simple experiments of this kind, he would, by a law of human thought, infer, that all things equal in length, or in any other dimension, to any one thing, are in that dimension equal to one another.

It was not, therefore, with such weakness as some have imagined, that Hobbes declared those propositions commonly called axioms, not to be primary but secondary principles. A primary principle deserves not the name of an axiom, as it is only a particular truth including in it no other truth. There is not one of Euclid’s axioms which has not been the result of induction, though we remember not the time at which the induction was made. That the whole is greater than any of its parts is a general truth which no man can controvert; but every one discovered that truth by observing, that his body was larger than his head, his foot, or his hand, that a mountain is larger than a mole-hill in the middle of it, and that a piece of timber, measuring what is called a yard, is longer than any one of the divisions marked upon it, which are termed inches. Particular objects are observed by the senses, and treasured up in the memory; and the intellect, by its constitution, compares them together, marks in what they agree and disagree, and thence draws its axioms or general principles. He, therefore, who should admit the truth of an axiom, and deny the evidence of sense and perception, would act as absurdly as he who accepts payment in a bank-bill, and refuses it in the individual pieces of gold or silver which that bill represents. General axioms are of infinite use in the pursuits of science; but it is not because they create new truths; they only shorten the process in the discovery of such as might be found, with labour, through the medium of particular propositions.
PRINKIPO, the largest and most easterly of the Prince’s islands. They are situated in the bay of Marmora, about a league distant from the coast of Asia Minor. It is abouta mile in length and half a mile in breadth, and contains what was formerly a considerable and well-built town, but which is now in a ruinous condition. The island was formerly inhabited by the French merchants, who have however abandoned it, owing to the brackishness of the water. It is now inhabited by Greeks, who support themselves by selling wine and provisions to the pleasure parties which arrive from Constantinople. Long. 28. 56. E. Lat. 40. 51. N.
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PRINTS, the impression taken from a copperplate engraved. See Engraving.
PRIOR, in general, something before or nearer the beginning than another with which it is compared.

Prior more particularly denotes the superior of a convent of monks, or the next under the abbot.

Grand Prior is the superior of a large abbey, where several heads are required.

Prior, Matthew, an eminent English poet, was born at London in the year 1664. His father dying whilst he was very young, an uncle, a vintner, gave him some education at Westminster school, and then took him home to train him up to his own trade. However, at his leisure hours he prosecuted the study of the classics, particularly that of his favourite Horace. Through the influence of the Earl of Dorset he was sent to St John’s College in Cambridge, where, in 1686, he took the degree of bachelor of arts, and afterwards became fellow of his college. In 1710, he was supposed to have had a share in writing the Examiner. In 1711, he was made one of the commissioners of the customs; and was sent as minister plenipotentiary to France, for negotiating a peace with that kingdom. Soon after the accession of George I. to the throne of England in 1714, he presented a memorial to the court of France, requiring the demolition of the canal and new works at Mardyke. The year following he was recalled; and upon his arrival was seized by a warrant from the House of Commons, and strictly examined by a committee of the privy council. Mr Robert Walpole moved the House of Commons for an impeachment against him; and Mr Prior was ordered into close custody. In 1717, he was excepted out of the act of grace; however, at the close of that year he was set at liberty. The remainder of his days he spent in tranquillity and retirement, and died in 1721.
PRIORIES, Alien, were cells of the religious houses in England which belonged to foreign monasteries. When manors or tithes were given to foreign convents, the monks, either to increase their own rule, or rather to have faithful stewards of their revenues, built a small convent here for the reception of such a number as they thought proper, and constituted priors over them. Within these cells there was the same distinction as in those priories which were cells subordinate to some great abbey. These alien priories were most of them founded by such as had foreign abbeys founded by themselves or by some of their family. The whole number is not exactly ascertained. Dugdale has given a list of a hundred, Weever of a hundred and ten.
PRISCIANUS, one of the most celebrated of the ancient grammarians, was surnamed Caesariensis, either because he was born at Caesarea, or had received his education there. He flourished in the reign of Justin (a. d. 518-527), and was a contemporary of the philosopher Boethius, and of Cassiodorus, the minister of Theodoric king of the Goths. He taught grammar at Constantinople, and received a salary from the court, which makes it probable that he was a Christian. Priscianus was distinguished for his thorough acquaintance with grammar, of which he has left us a proof, in a very complete work on that subject. It bears the title, Commentariorum Grammaticoum libri xviii. ad Julianum ; or, in relation to its subject, De Octo Partibus Orationis earundemque Constructione. The first sixteen books are employed on an examination of the eight parts of speech of the ancients, and the last two on syntax in the proper sense of the word. We have also a poem of the same author, in hexameter verse, on the Emperor Anastasius, who died in the year 518; and the style and language are far purer than those of many others in the same age. We have also many other smaller works on grammar.

His grammatical works have been published by Krehl, Leipzig, 1819, in two vols.; and the smaller essays by Lindemann, Leyden, 1817.
PRISM, in Geometry, is a solid body, the two ends of which are any plane figures which are parallel, equal, and similar; and its sides, connecting those ends, are parallelograms.
PRISMOID is a solid body, somewhat resembling a prism, but its ends are any dissimilar parallel plane figures of the same number of sides, the upright sides being trapezoids. If th(* ends of the prismoid be bounded by dissimilar curves, it is sometimes called a cylindroid.
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PRISTINA, a city of Turkey in Europe, in the province of Beldschterin. It is strongly fortified, is the seat of a Greek archbishop, and the principal market of an extensive district. It contains 2000 houses and 10,000 inhabitants; and is the centre of one of the greatest mining ports of Turkey, abounding in iron ore, and yielding some silver.
PRITTELWELL, a town of the county of Essex, in the hundred of Rochford. It is situated about one mile from the north bank of the Thames, near Southend. The population amounted in 1821 to 1922, and in 1831 to 2266.
PRIVAS, an arrondissement in the department of the Ardèche, in France, extending over 710 square miles. It comprehends ten cantons, divided into 107 communes, and 90,640 inhabitants. The capital is the city of the same name the seat of the boards of the departmental government, and of the courts of law. It contains 520 houses, with 3340 inhabitants, employed in making woollen goods, and in tanneries. In the vicinity are abundant mines of fossil coal. Long. 4. 31. E. Lat. 44. 45. N.
PRIVATEERS are a kind of men-of-war, fitted out and provided with military stores by private individuals; and the persons concerned, instead of pay, are permitted to retain their captures, allowing the admiral his share.

Privateers may not attempt any thing against the laws of nations; as to assault an enemy in a port or haven under the protection of any prince or republic, whether he be friend, ally, or neutral; and before a commission can be granted to any privateer, the commander is to give security, if the ship be not above 150 tons, in L.1500, and if the ship exceeds that burden, in L.3000, that the owners will make satisfaction for all damages which they shall commit in their courses at sea.

Besides these private commissions, there are special commissions for privateers, granted to commanders of ships and others, who take pay, are under a marine discipline, and, if they do not obey their orders, may be punished with death.
PRIVATIVE, in Grammar, a particle, which, prefixed to a word, changes it into a contrary sense. Thus, among the Greeks, the α is used as a privative; as in α-0εος, atheist, acephalus, and the like.

PRIVY-Council. The king’s will is the sole consti tuent of a privy-counsellor; and it also regulates their number, which in ancient times was about twelve. Afterwards it increased to so large a number that it was found inconvenient for secrecy and despatch; and therefore Charles II. in 1679 limited it to thirty. Since that time, however, the number has been much augmented, and now continues indefinite. Privy-counsellors are made by the king’s nomination, without either patent or grant; and, on taking the necessary oaths, they become immediately privy-counsellors during the life of the king that chooses them, but subject to removal at his discretion.

The privy-council is the primnm mobile of the state, and that which gives the motion and direction to all the inferior parts. It is likewise a court of justice of great antiquity; the primitive and ordinary way of government in England being by the king and privy-council. At present the privy-council takes cognizance of few or no matters except such as cannot well be determined by the known laws and ordinary courts; such as matters of complaint and sudden emergencies; their constant business being to consult for the public good in affairs of state.

In plantation or admiralty causes, which arise out of the jurisdiction of this kingdom, the privy-council has cognizance, being the court of appeal in such causes; and from all the dominions of the crown, excepting Great Britain and Ireland, an appellate jurisdiction (in the last resort) is vested in this tribunal, which usually exercises its judicial authority in a committee of the whole privy-council, who hear the allegations and proofs, and make their report to his majesty in council, by whom the judgment is finally given.

By the common law, the privy-council was dissolved ipso facto by the king’s demise. But now, to prevent the inconveniences of having no council at the accession of a new prince, it is enacted, by 6 Anne, cap. 7, that the privycouncil shall continue for six months after the demise of the crown, unless sooner determined by the successor. (Blackstone’s Commentaries, book i.)
PRIZE, or Prise, in maritime affairs, a vessel taken at sea from the enemies of a state, or from pirates; and that either by a man-of-war, a privateer, or other, having a commission for that purpose.
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PROBATE of a will or testament, in Law, is the exhibiting and proving of last wills and testaments before the ecclesiastical judge delegated by the bishop, who is ordinary of the place whère the party died.
PROBATION, in the universities, is the examination and trial of a student who is about to take his degreĕs'.
PROBATIONER, in the Church of S’cotland, a student in divinity, who, upon bringing certain certificates and testimonials, is admitted to undergo several trials; and, on his acquitting himself properly in these, is provided with a license to preach.
PROBLEM, in Logic, is a proposition that appears neither absolutely true nor absolutely false; and, consequently» may be asserted either in the affirmative or negative.

Problem, in Geometry, is a proposition, in which some operation or construction is required; as to divide a line or angle, erect or let fall perpendiculars.
PROBOLINGO, the capital of a district of Java, occupied by a native of China, who purchased it from the former government. He was called the China Major, and on the 18th of June 1813, was unfortunately murdered along with two British officers, Colonel Fraser of the 78th Regiment, and Captain Macpherson, who, on their way to disperse a band of insurgents, fell into an ambuscade.
PROBY’S ISLAND, a small island in the South Pacific Ocean, so called by Capt∕m Edwards in 1791 ∙ The natives call it Onoo-afou. Long. 175. 51. W. Lat. 15. 53. S.
PROCESS, in Law, denotes the proceedings in any cause, real or personal, civil or criminal, from the original writ to the conclusion of the suit.

Process, in Chemistry, the’whole course of an experiment or series of operations, tending to produce something new.

Process, in Anatomy, denotes any protuberance or eminence in a bone.
PROCESSION, a ceremony in the Catholic church, consisting of a formal march of the clergy and people, putting up prayers, and in this manner visiting some church, or other holy place.
PROCLAMATION, a public notice given of anything of which the king thinks proper to advertise his subjects.

Proclamations form a branch of the king’s prerogative, and they have a binding force, when they are grounded upon and enforce the laws of the realm. For though the making of laws is entirely the work of a distinct part, the legislative branch of the sovereign power, yet the manner, time, and circumstances of putting those laws in execution, must frequently be left to the discretion of the executive magistrate; and therefore his constitutions or edicts, concerning those points, which we call Proclamations, are binding upon the subject, where they do not either contradict the old laws, or tend to establish new ones, but only enforce the execution of such laws as are already in being, in such manner as the king shall judge necessary.
PROCLUS, surnamed Diadocus, a Greek philosopher and mathematician,was born in Lycia, and lived about the year 500. He was the disciple of Syrianus; and the friend of the Emperor Anastasius. It is said, that when Vitalian laid siege to Constantinople, Proclus burned his ships with large brazen specula. This philosopher was a Pagan, and wrote against the Christian religion. Thereare still extanthis Commentaries on someofPlato’s books, and other of his works,written in Greek.
PROCONSUL, a Roman magistrate, sent to govern a province with consular authority.

The proconsuls were appointed out of the body of the senate; and commonly, when the year of any one’s consulate expired, he was sent as proconsul into some province. The proconsuls decided cases of equity and justice, either privately in their palace, where they received petitions, heard complaints, and granted writs under their seal; or publicly, in the common hall, with the usual formalities observed in the court of judicature at Rome. Their office lasted only a year.
PROCOPIUS, a Greek historian, born in Caesarea. He acquired great reputation by his works in the reign of Justinian, and was secretary to Belisarius during all the wars carried oh by that general in Persia, Africa, and Italy. Having at length became senator, he obtained the title of illustrious, and was made praetor of Constantinople.
PROCTOR, a person commissioned to manage another person’s cause in any court of the civil or ecclesiastical law.

Proctor, in the English universities. See Universities.
PROCURATION, an act or instrument by which one person is empowered to treat, transact, or receive, in the name of another.
PROCYON, in Astronomy, a fixed star of the second magnitude, situated in canis minor, or the little dog.
PRODICUS, a celebrated sophist, was a native of Julis in the island of Ceos, and flourished about b c.432. He was the contemporary of Democritus of Abdera, and Gorgias of Leontium, and he Was the disciple of Protagoras, whom he rivalled in eloquence. His talents were so highly appreciated by his fellow-citizens, that he was employed on various embassies, and on his arrival at Athens, he opened a school where he was attended by the most distinguished men of the age, Euripides, Socrates, Theramenes, and Isocrates. Xenophon has preserved an apologue of Prodicus, which is considered as one of the most precious fragments of antiquity: it is Hercules between virtue and vice. In the Axiochus of Plato there is also the analysis of a harangue which Prodicus composed to dissipate all fears of death. He was at last accused of being a corrupter of youth, and condemned to drink the fatal bowl of hemlock.
PRODUCT, in Arithmetic and Geometry, the factum of two or more numbers, or lines, into one another. Thus 5 X 4=20, the product required.
PROEDRI, amongst the Athenians, were magistrates, who had the first seats in the public assemblies, and whose office it was to propose at each assembly the things to be deliberated on and determined. Their office always ended with the meeting.
PROFESSOR, in the universities, a person who teaches or reads public lectures in some art or science. See Universities.
PROFILE, in Architecture, the draught of a building, fortification, or other structure, in which are expressed the several heights, widths, and thicknesses, such as they would appear were the building cut down perpendicularly from the roof to the foundation.

Profile, in this sense, amounts to the same with elevation, and stands opposed to plan or ichnography. Profile is also used for the contour or outline of a figure, building, member of architecture, or the like; as a base, a cornice, and the like. Hence profiling is sometimes used for designing, or describing the member with rule, compass, and other instruments.

Profile, in Sculpture and Painting. A head, or a portrait, is said to be in profile, when either is represented sidewise, or in a side-view; as, when in a portrait there is but one side of the face, one eye, one cheek, &c. shown, and nothing of the other. On almost all medals, the faces are represented in profile.
PROGRAMMA, anciently signified a letter sealed with the king’s seal. Programma is also an university term for a billet issued by way of invitation to an oration, and containing the argument, or as much of it as is necessary for understanding the same.
PROGRESSION, in general, denotes a regular advancing, or going forwards, in the same course or manner.

Progression, in Mathematics, is either arithmetical or geometrical. Continued arithmetical proportion is, where the terms increase and decrease by equal differences, and is called arithmetical progression. Geometrical progression is when the terms increase or decrease by equal ratios.
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PROJECTION, in Perspective, denotes the appearance or representation of an object on the perspective plane. The projection of a point is a point through which an optic ray passes from the objective point through the plane to the eye; or it is the point in which the plane cuts the optic ray; and hence may be easily conceived what is meant by the projection of a line, a plane, or a solid.

Projection, in Alchemy, the casting of a certain imaginary powder, called powder of projection, into a crucible or other vessel full of some prepared metal or other matter, which is to be hereby presently transmuted into gold.

Powder of Projection, or of the philosopher’s stone, is a powder supposed to have the virtue of changing any quantity of an imperfect metal, as copper or lead, into a more perfect one, as silver or gold, by the admixture of a little quantity of the powder. The mark to which alchemists directed all their endeavours, was to discover this powder of projection.
PROJECTURE, in Architecture, the cutjetting and prominence, or embossing, which the mouldings and other members have beyond the naked wall, column, or other part of the building.
PROLAPSUS, in Surgery, a prolapsion or falling out of any part of the body from its natural situation. Thus we say, prolapsus intestini, a prolapsion of the intestine, &c.
PROLATE, in Geometry, an epithet applied to a spheroid produced by the revolution of a semi-ellipsis about its larger diameter.
PROLATION, a musical term signifying a series of notes, ascending or descending, which are to be sung to one syllable. Anciently the word had a different musical meaning. Thus Morley, in his Introduction, page 14, tells us that prolation is the measuring of semibreves by minims, and is either greater or less. The greater prolation is when the semibreve contains three minims. The sign of this is ø or G . The less prolation is when the semibreve contains only two minims. The sign of this is Q θ r C ∙ The old musicians called the ternary measure perfect, and the binary measure imperfect.
PROLEGOMENA, in Philology, certain preparatory observations prefixed to a book or treatise, and containing something necessary for the reader to be apprised of, to enable him the better to understand the book, or to enter deeper into the science.