pnugues/EB7 huggingface dataset:
CIRCUMVALLATION, or Line of Circumvalla-tion, in the art of war, is a trench bordered with a parapet, and thrown up quite round the besiegers’ camp. It is formed by way of security against any army that may attempt to relieve the place, and also serves to prevent desertion.
CIRCUS, in Antiquity, a large building, either round or oval, used for exhibiting shows to the people. Some derive the word from Circe, to whom Tertullian attributes the invention. Cassiodorus says that Circus is derived from circuitu. The Romans, Servius observes, at first had no other circus than that formed by the Tiber on one side, and a palisade of naked swords on the other. Hence, according to Isidore, came the term ludi circenses quasi circum enses ; but Scaliger ridicules this etymology.

The Roman circus was a large oblong edifice, arched at one end, encompassed with porticos, and furnished with rows of seats placed in an ascending order one over another. In the middle was a kind of foot-bank or eminence, with obelisks, statues, and posts at each end. This served for the courses of the bigae and quadrigae. There were no less than ten circuses at Rome. The largest, built by the elder Tarquin, and called Circus Maximus, was situated between the Aventine and Palatine Mounts. It was so called, either because of its vast circumference, or because the great games were celebrated in it, or because it was consecrated to the great gods Vertumnus, Neptune, Jupiter, Juno, Minerva, and the Dii Penates of Rome. Dionysius of Halicarnassus says that it was three stadia and a half in length, and four jugera in breadth; measures which, allowing to the Roman stadia 625 Roman feet of twelve inches each, will give for the length 2187 Roman feet, or somewhat more than three English furlongs, [7:6:706]and for the breadth, allowing each of the jugera to be 240 Roman feet, 960 Roman feet. It was beautified and enlarged by the Roman emperors, so as to accommodate 250,000 spectators. The most magnificent circuses were those of Augustus and Nero. There are still some remains of the circuses at Rome, at Nismes, and other places.

The Games of the Circus, which some call the Circensian Games, were combats celebrated in the circus, in honour of Consus, the god of councils, and thence also called Consualia. They were also called Roman Games, Ludi Romani, cither on account of their antiquity, as being coeval with the Roman people, or because they were established by the Romans; and the games held there, the great games, ludi magni, because they were celebrated with more expense and magnificence than others, and because they were held in honour of the great god Neptune, who was the Consus. Those who say that they were instituted in honour of the sun, confound the pompa circensis, or procession of the circus, with the games.

The games of the circus were instituted by Evander, and re-established by Romulus; and the pomp or procession was only a part of the games, forming the prelude, as it were, and consisting of a simple cavalcade of chariots. Till the time of the elder Tarquin, they were held in an island of the Tiber, and were called Roman Games; but after that prince had built the circus, being constantly held there, they took their name from the place where they were celebrated.
CIRENCESTER, a borough and market town of the hundred of Crowthorne, in the county of Gloucester, and eighty-eight miles from London. The canal uniting the Thames and Severn is in connection with the town, and gives it access to the districts on both these rivers. This town was built by the Romans, and many antiquities of that people are to be seen in the neighbourhood. The church is a large and beautiful building, supported by two rows of pillars, and the tower is furnished with a ring of twelve bells. The inhabitants amounted in 1811 to 4540, in 1821 to 4987, and in 1831 to 5420.
CIRIE, a market-town of Italy, in the province of Turin and kingdom of Sardinia, with 3460 inhabitants.
CIRRIPEDES. See Mollusea, Index.
CISALPINE, any thing on this side the Alps. The Romans divided Gaul and the country now called Lombardy into Cisalpine and Transalpine. That which was Cisalpine with regard to the Romans is Transalpine with regard to us.
CISLEU, in Hebrew chronology, the ninth month of their ecclesiastical and the third of their civil year, answering nearly to our November.
CISPADANA Gallia, in Ancient Geography, a district of Italy, to the south of the Po, occupied by the Gauls in the time of the kings of Rome, and separated from Liguria on the west, by the Iria, running from south to north into the Po, and bounded on the south by the Apennines, and on the east by the Adriatic. The term is formed analogically, frequent mention being made in Cicero, Tacitus, Suetonius, and ancient inscriptions, of the Transpadani, which, with Cispadani, are terms used with respect to Rome. Ptolemy calls the Cispadana Gallia Togata; it extended between the Po and Apennines to the Sapis and Rubico.
CISTERCIANS, in Church History, a religious order founded in the eleventh century, by St Robert, a Benedictine. They became so powerful that they governed almost all Europe, both in spiritual and temporal concerns. Cardinal de Vitri, describing their observances, says, they wore neither skins nor shirts, nor ate flesh, except in sickness; they abstained from fish, eggs, milk, and cheese; they lay upon straw-beds, in tunics and cowls; they rose at midnight to prayers; they spent the day in labour, reading, and prayer; and in all their exercises they observed a continual silence. The habit of the Cistercian monks is a white robe, in the nature of a cassock, with a black scapulary and hood, and it is girt with a wooden girdle. The nuns wear a white tunic and a black scapulary and girdle.
CISTERN denotes a subterraneous reservoir of rain water, or a vessel serving as a receptacle for rain or other water, for the necessary uses of a family.
CISTERNINO, a city of Italy, in the Neapolitan province Bari, containing 3586 inhabitants.
CITADEL, a fortified place, commonly of a pentagonal form, with bastions at the angles of the pentagon, and built on a convenient ground near a city, that it may command it in case of rebellion, or afford a place of refuge to the garrison, and enable it to hold out after the exterior works have been carried.
CITADINESCA, a name given by some writers to the Florentine marble, which is supposed to represent towns, palaces, ruins, rivers, and the like. These delineations are merely accidental, and are commonly much assisted by the imagination, though the natural lines of a stone may sometimes luckily enough represent the ruins of some ancient building, or the course of a river. In England there is a kind of septaria, or ludus Helmontii, which has sometimes beautiful, though irregular, delineations of this kind. The Florentine marble, as we see it wrought up in the ornaments of cabinets and the like, owes a great deal to the skill of the workmen, who always pick out the proper pieces from the mass, and dispose them in the work so as to represent what they please.
CITEAUX, a village of the department of Côte d’Or, in France, containing 670 inhabitants. It was a place of great note on account of its abbey, the abbot of which was the superior of the whole Cistercian order, and under whom were more than 1800 monks and nuns. It was the bury· ing-place of the ancient monarchs of Burgundy, but now all these institutions are abolished, and the church is in ruins.
CITHAERON, in Ancient Geography, a mountain and forest of Boeotia, celebrated both in fable and in song. To the west it runs obliquely, a little above the Sinus Crislaeus, taking its rise contiguous to the mountains of Megara and Attica; then declining into plains, it terminates at Thebes. It is famous for the fate of Pentheus and Actaeon, as also for the orgia, or revels of Bacchus.
CITHARA, in Antiquity, a musical instrument, the precise figure of which is not known. Some think it resembled the Greek delta Δ; and others that it had the form of a half-moon. At first it had only three strings, but the number was at different times increased to eight, nine, and lastly to twenty-four. It was used in entertainments and private houses, and played upon with a plectrum or quill, like the lyre.
CITIZEN, a native or inhabitant of a city, who is vested with the freedom and liberties thereof.

A citizen of Rome was distinguished from a stranger who belonged to no certain commonwealth subject to the Romans. A citizen is such either by birth or by election, and sons may derive the right from their fathers. To constitute a good Roman citizen, it was necessary to be an inhabitant of Rome, to be enrolled in one of the tribes, and to be capable of dignities. Those to whom were granted the privileges of Roman citizenship were only honorary citizens. It was not lawful to scourge a citizen of Rome.
CITTA DI CASTELLO, a city of the papal dominions in Italy, in the delegation of Perugia. It stands on the: Tiber, and contains a cathedral and nine other churches,; twelve monasteries, nine nunneries, and 6000 inhabitants, who are employed in cultivating wine, oil, and silk.
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CITTERN, a musical instrument resembling the guitar, for which it has been frequently mistaken. Anciently it was called the cistrum, and till latterly was held in great contempt both in France and Britain. The practice on this instrument being easy, it was formerly the amusement and recreation of lewd women and their visitors, insomuch that in many of the old English dramatic writers it is made the symbol of a woman w ho lived by prostitution. It was also the common amusement of waiting customers in barbers’ shops, as being the most easy of all instruments to play on, and therefore it was thought that almost every body could make use of it.
CIUDAD RODRIGO, a city of Spain, in the province of Leon, with 11,000 inhabitants. It is situated on the right bank of the river Agueda, over which is a bridge of ten arches, and which runs to the north-west, and falls into the Duero. It is surrounded with some good pasture-land, but the country around may be generally denominated sterile. It is a place of considerable military importance; but the narratives of its sieges must be sought for among the warlike events of history in the article Spain. Ciudad-Real, a city of La Mancha, in the province of New Castile, in Spain, in latitude 39° 7'. It is situated near the Guadiana, and is usually considered as the first city of La Mancha. In its vicinity there are abundant mines of lapis calaminaris, and a manufactory of tin conducted by the government. This city is adorned by several monasteries and a college, and has a poor-house and work-house where wool and esparto are spun; it also has several tanneries and glove manufactories, and a market for asses and mules. The number of its inhabitants is 8400.
CIVET, a kind of perfume which bears the name of the animal from which it is taken, and to which it is peculiar.

Civet-Cat, the English name of the animal which produces the civet.
CIVIC Crown was a crown given by the ancient Romans to any soldier who had saved the life of a citizen in battle.

The civic crown was reckoned more honourable than any other crown, though composed of no better materials than oaken boughs. Plutarch, in his life of Coriolanus, accounts for the use on this occasion of the branches of the oak in preference to those of all other trees; because, says he, the oaken wreath being sacred to Jupiter, the great guardian of the city, the Romans thought it the most proper ornament for him who had preserved the life of a citizen. Pliny, lib. xvi. cap. 4, speaking of the honour and privileges conferred on those who had merited this crown, says, “They who had once obtained it might wear it al- ' ways.” When they appeared at the public spectacles, the senate and people rose to do them honour, and they took their seats on these occasions among the senators. They were not only personally excused from all troublesome offices, but the honour they enjoyed procured the same immunity for their father, and grandfather by the father’s side.
CIVID ADE, a city of Italy, in the delegation Udine, of the kingdom of Venetian Lombardy. It is situated on the river Natisone, over which is a bridge of 250 feet in length. It contains a cathedral, seven churches, and 3600 inhabitants.
CIVIL, in a general sense, something regarding the policy, public good, or peace, of the citizens or subjects of the state; in which sense we say civil government, civil law, civil right, civil war, and the like.

Civil, in a popular sense, is applied to a complaisant and humane behaviour in the ordinary intercourse of life. See Civility. Civil, in a legal sense, is also applied to the ordinary procedure in an action relating to some pecuniary matter or interest; in which sense it is opposed to criminal.

Civil Death·, any thing that cuts off a man from civil society; as a condemnation to the galleys, perpetual banishment, condemnation to death, outlawry, and excommunication.
CIVILIAN, in general, means one belonging to or connected with the civil law, and is more especially applied to the doctors and professors of this system of jurisprudence, who are accordingly denominated civilians.
CIVITA CASTELLANA, a city of the papal dominions, in the delegation Viterbo, containing 3000 inhabitants. It is supposed to be the ancient Vegi.
CIVIT A DI PENNA, a city, the chief place of a district in the Neapolitan province of Abruzzo Ulteriore. It contains 8869 inhabitants, who are generally very poor and idle.
CIVITA VECCHIA, a delegation of the papal dominions, being the smallest division of this class. It extends over only 180 square miles, or 115,200 acres. It contains one city, one market-town, five villages, and 19,200 inhabitants. The capital of the delegation is a city of the same name, situated on the sea shore. It is fortified, and is the station of the papal fleet, as well as the port from which the chief productions of the southern part of the territory of the church is exported. These consist of corn, alum, aniseed, wool, and wood, but are very insignificant in amount; and as the place is unhealthy, the port is very little visited. The city contains 7110 inhabitants. It is in long. 11. 39. 25. E. lat. 42. 5. 24. N.
CIVOLI, or Cigoli, Lewis, an Italian painter, who bore the family name of Cardi, was born at the castle of Cigoli, in Tuscany, in the year 1559. His Ecce Homo, which he performed as a trial of skill with Barochio and Michael Angelo de Caravaggio, was judged better than those executed by his competitors. He excelled in designing, and was employed by the popes and princes of his time. He died at Rome, in the year 1613.
CTVRAY, an arrondissement of the department of Vienne, in France, containing 460 square miles. It is divided into five cantons, and these again into forty-eight communes, the inhabitants of which amount to 38,000. The chief place, which gives its name to the arrondissement, is situated on the right bank of the Charente, in a fertile district. It contains 328 houses, and 1500 inhabitants. In the neighbourhood there are considerable quarries of marble. Long. 0. 9. E. Lat. 46. 10. N.
CLACKMANNAN, the capital of the shire of the same name, is pleasantly situated on an eminence gently rising out of a plain stretching from east to west, to the height ofl90 feet above the level of the Forth. It consists of one long street, which runs up the acclivity to the gate of the park surrounding Clackmannan tower. This building is tall and impressive; but it is now deprived of the palace of Robert Bruce; and the family house of Bruce of Clackmannan, with the gardens which formerly adorned it, is unfurnished, and will probably go fast to decay, from the property of it being disputed. The church of Clackmannan, which is situated a little south of the principal street, is rather a handsome modern structure, in the Gothic style. The population amounted in 1821 to 4056, and in 1831 to 4266.
CLAGET, William, an eminent and learned divine, born in 1646. He was preacher to the society of Gray’s Inn, which employment he exercised until his death in 1688, when he was also one of the king’s chaplains. Archbishop Sharp gives him an excellent character, and Bishop Burnet has ranked him amongst those worthy men whose lives and labours contributed to rescue the church from the reproaches which the follies of others had drawn upon it. Dr Claget published several things, but his principal work is his “Discourse concerning the Operations of the Holy Spirit.” He was one of those divines who made a resolute stand against the designs of James II. to introduce popery. Four volumes of his sermons were published after his death by his brother Nicholas Claget, archdeacon of Sudbury, father of Nicholas Claget, afterwards bishop of Exeter.
CLAIR Obscure. See Claro Obscuro.
CLAIRAULT, Alexis-Claude, of the French academy of sciences, born at Paris in 1713, was one of the most illustrious mathematicians in Europe. He read to the academy in 1726, when he was not thirteen years old, a memoir upon four new geometrical curves of his own invention; and supported the character of which be had thus laid the foundation by various publications from time to time. He published, Recherches sur les Courbes à double courbure, Paris, 1731, in 4to; Elemensde Geometrie, 1741, in 8vo; Théorie de la Figure de la Terre, 1743, in 8vo; Elémens d’Algèbre, 1746, in 8vo; Théorie de la Lune, déduite du seul principe de l' attraction, 1754, in 8vo; Theorie du Mouvement des Comètes, Paris, 1760. He was concerned also in the Journal des Sçavans, which he furnished with many excellent articles. He died in 1765, at the comparatively early age of fifty-two. He was one of the academicians who were sent into Lapland to measure a degree of the meridian, with a view to the determination of the figure of the earth.
CLAMECY, an arrondissement in the department of the Nievre, in France, extending over 596 square miles.
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It is divided into six cantons, and these into ninety-seven communes, with 61,334 inhabitants. The chief place, of the same name, stands at the junction of the Beuvron and the Yonne. It contains 770 houses and 5300 inhabitants. In the neighbourhood coal-mines are worked, and there is some trade in spinning and weaving cotton. Long. 3. 26. 6. E. Lat. 47. 27. 37. N.
CLAMPING, in joinery, is the fitting a piece of board with the grain to another piece of board across the grain. Thus the ends of tables are commonly clamped, to prevent their warping.
CLANDESTINE, any thing done without the knowledge of the parties concerned, or without the proper solemnities. Thus a marriage is said to be clandestine when performed without the publication of banns and the consent of parents.
CLANS, in history, and particularly in that of Scotland, tribes or septs. The nations which overran Europe were originally divided into many small tribes; and when theycame to parcel out the lands which they had conquered, it was natural for every chieftain to bestow a portion, in the first place, upon those of his own sept or family. These all held their lands of him; and as the safety of each individual depended on the general union, each small society clung together, and was distinguished by some common appellation, either patronymic or local, long before the introduction of surnames or ensigns armorial. But when these became common, the descendants and relations of every chieftain assumed the same name and arms with him; other vassals were proud to imitate their example; and by degrees the same distinctions were communicated to all those who held of the same superior. Thus clanships were formed; and in a generation or two, that consanguinity which was at first in a great measure imaginary was believed to be real. An artificial union was converted into a natural one. Men willingly followed a leader whom they regarded both as the superior of their lands and the chief of their blood; and served him not only with the fidelity of vassals, but with the affection of friends. In the other feudal kingdoms, we may observe such unions as we have dcscribed, imperfectly formed; but in Scotland, whether they were the production of chance, or the effect of policy, or strengthened by preserving genealogies both genuine and fabulous, clanships were universal. Such a confederacy might be overcome, but it could not be broken; and no change of manners or government has been able, in some parts of the kingdom, to dissolve associations which are founded upon prejudices so natural to the human mind. It is easy to imagine how formidable were nobles at the head of followers, who, counting that cause just and honourable which their chief approved, were ever ready to take the field at his command, and to sacrifice their lives in defence of his person or of his fame. Against such men a king contended with great disadvantage; and that cold service which money purchases, or authority extorts, was not an equal match for the ardour and zeal generated by this patriarchal brotherhood in arms.

Some imagine the word clan to be only a corruption of the Roman colonia; but Mr Whittaker asserts that it is purely British, and signifies a family or sept.
CLAPHAM, one of those large villages touching on London, which contains the residences of the more wealthy citizens. It is situated in the hundred of Brixton, of the county of Surrey, and distant three miles from the bridges. The inhabitants amounted in 1811 to 5803, in 1821 to 7151, and in 1831 to 9958.
CLARE, a market-town of the hundred of Resbridge, in the county of Suffolk, on the river Stour, fifty-five miles from London. The market is held on Friday. The inhabitants amounted in 1821 to 1487, and in 1831 to 1619.
CLARENCIEUX, the second king at arms, so called from the Duke of Clarence, to whom he first belonged; for Lionel, third son to Edward III. having by his wife the honour of Clare in the county of Thomond, was afterwards ' declared Duke of Clarence, which dukedom subsequently 1 escheating to Edward IV. he created this earl a king at arms. His office is to marshal and dispose of the funerals ’ of all the lower nobility, as baronets, knights, and esquires, on the south side of the Trent; and hence he is sometimes called surroy or south-roy i in contradistinction to norroy.
CLARENDON, Constitutions of, certain constitutions made in the reign of Henry II. a. d. 1164, in a parliament held at Clarendon, by which the king checked the power of the pope and his clergy, and greatly narrowed the total exemption they claimed from secular jurisdiction.

Clarendon, Earl of. See IIyde.
CLARET. See Wine.
CLARIAC, a city of the department of the Lot and Garonne, in France, on the right bank of the Lot, containing 5068 inhabitants, extensively occupied in the cultivation of hemp and flax.
CLARICHORD, or Maniciiord, a musical instrument in the form of a spinet, but now out of use.

It has forty-nine or fifty stops, and seventy strings, which bear on five bridges, the first of which is the highest, while the rest diminish in proportion. Some of the strings are in unison, their number being greater than that of the stops. There are several little mortises for passing the jacks, armed with brass-hocks, which stop and raise the chords instead of the feather used in virginals and spinets; but what distinguishes it most is, that the chords are covered with pieces of cloth, which render the sound sweeter, and deaden it so that it cannot be heard at any considerable distance; and hence it is particularly in use among nuns, who learn to play, and yet are unwilling to disturb the silence of the dormitory.