PAPAL STATES. Under the article Italy we have traced the origin and growth of the temporal power of the Roman pontilis. In the article Rome we shall exhibit a view of the rise and progress of that great state which, first as a republic, and subsequently as an empire, obtained the command of the western world The present article will be limited to a view of the temporal dominions of the sovereign pontiff, in the state in which they actually exist.

This territory is situated in the centre of Italy, being bounded by the Adriatic Sea on the eastern, and the Mediterranean on the western side. It extends in north latitude from 41. 9. 8. to 44. 49. 54., and in east longitude from 10. 26. 2. to 12. 49. 30. The whole is connected together, with the exception only of two small portions. One of these is the dukedom of Benevento, which is surrounded by the Neapolitan province of Principato Ulteriore; and the other the principality of Pontecorvo, enclosed within the province of Terra di Lavoro, belonging to the same state. The papal dominions are bounded on the north-western side by the Austrian kingdom of Venetian Lombardy, on the northeastern by the Adriatic Sea, on the south-eastern by the kingdom of Naples, on the south-western by the Mediterranean Sea, and on the west by part of the grand duchy of Tuscany and a portion of the duchy of Modena. As the two seas, which form partly the eastern and western boundaries of the papal dominions, afford supplies of food, and might be made the means of considerable foreign trade to a more active and enterprising people, they deserve to he noticed. A short description of the shores, the harbours, and the bays, may also be of interest.

The western coast of the pope’s dominions is by far the shortest. It commences a little to the south-east of Orbi-tello, in the Tuscan territory, and proceeds by a bay, not deep, to Civita Vecchia. It has no towns on the shore; but about three miles inland, and visible from the sea, are the cities of Montai to and Corneto, neither of which has any foreign trade. Civita Vecchia is the principal seaport on this side. It is well fortified with good walls and ditches, several half-moon batteries, and various other works; and upon a peninsula is a fine castle, from which a mole is projected, whilst another mole about 180 fathoms in length is carried into the sea. Between these two is the harbour, having seventeen feet of* water at one of the entrances, and twelve feet at the other. Ships are safe everywhere within the harbour, and have twenty feet ¾f water. Proceeding to the south-east of this port, the church of St Peter’s at Rome is visible nearly the whole of the course, but more distinctly after passing the Cape Linaro. There are only a few miserable villages upon the shore; but the small towns of Marinella, Palo, and Montcrone, about two miles from the sea, are visible. The river Tiber has two outlets to the sea, which are divided by the Isola Sacra, a tract of land about half a league in breadth. Of these, the first or northernmost is called the Bocca del Fiumc-cino, and the second Bocca de Fiumara. All the land near and about the mouths of the Tiber is low and marshy, and not easily distinguishable from the water; which renders the approach dangerous, especially when, as is often the case, it is covered with dense fogs. The only mouth of the Tiber for vessels is the Bocca del Fiumecino. It has a bar at its mouth, with seven or eight feet of water, and within it from two to four fathoms. The Bocca de Fiumara has only two feet of water on its bar, and consequently can be entered by nothing larger than boats. There is good anchorage at the distance of from three to six miles from the shore, where there is a depth of water of from six to thirteen fathoms, with good holding ground of stift* mud.

From the mouths of the Tiber the land continues low and marshy, and it has no town, but a few houses and towers at intervals; and, like the rest of the Campagna di Roma, of which it forms a part, is frequently so obscured by haze and fog, that the objects on the shore are not easily distinguishable. At the distance of about thirty miles from the Tiber, near a projecting headland called Cape d’Anzo, is the port and mole of Nettuno or Neptune. The mole projects 200 fathoms into the sea, and, by means of a bend towards the termination, forms a harbour, in which there is a secure anchorage, with a depth of water of from fifteen to twenty feet. The town is small, but ancient. About two miles from the mole, on the sea-shore, and around it, are several vaults, grottos, baths, and pillars, hewn out of the rocks, with other monuments of ancient magnificence. At twenty miles from Nettuno is Cape Circeoor Circello, which forms a deep* bay, with a low marshy coast, near to which good anchorage, in six or seven fathoms water, is found; but there is no shelter against winds from the south-east. At ten miles from thence is Terracina, the last town of the ecclesiastical territory on the Neapolitan frontier. It was Anxur, the capital of the Volsci, in ancient times. The harbour, once of celebrity, is now choked up; and the town, though fortified, is inconsiderable. The country around is fruitful, but marshy and unwholesome.

The eastern sea-coast of the Papal States, bordering on the Adriatic Sea, extends about 120 miles in length. It commences to the south at the river Tronto (the ancient Truentus), by which it is divided from the territory of Naples, and extends to the southern mouth of the river Po, where the Austrian state of Lombardy commences. From the Tronto towards the north there are along the shore a number of* small towns and villages, defended by towers, but no harbour or place of shelter, and the coast generally is low and sandy. The names of the principal places are Termoli, Vasto, Ortona, Francavifla, Pescara, and Giulianova. Next to these is the town of Fortore, where there is a great storehouse, in the form of a tower, which may be seen a long way off. To this storehouse merchandise is sent from the inland towns to be shipped; and there is good anchorage near it, with a depth of water of from six to seven fathoms, on sandy ground. About forty-five miles from the Tronto, the land trending north by west half west, is Monte Conero, or the Mountain of* Ancona; but this whole line of coast is low. At seven miles north-west by north from the foot of the mountain is the mole of the city of Ancona, a surprising work, by which [7:17:4] the harbour is formed. This mole is 2000 feet in length, 100 feet in breadth, and sixty-eight feet in height. On its point there are a battery and a lighthouse, and near it a triumphal arch of white marble, erected in honour of the Emperor Trajan, and considered as one of the most perfect remains of Roman magnificence now existing. The port has a lazaretto, where the quarantine regulations are very strict. The city is defended by a strong fort, in a low situation, on the south side. Ancona is a free port, and vessels may lie in its harbour secure from all winds, as the mole towards its termination has a turn to the west, forming a hook; it is, however, too full of shoals ever to be of consequence as a naval port. Three or four frigates may be well sheltered within the lighthouse, moored by the head and the stern; but in no part of the harbour could ships of that class swing to their anchors. The city is walled, and contains about 20,000 inhabitants. It has the best arsenal in the Roman dominions. The trade is considerable, arising chiefly from the exportation of corn, wool, and silk. The most appropriate merchant-ships for Ancona are those not drawing more than sixteen feet of water.

From Ancona to Rimini, a distance of about fifty miles, the coast is of moderate height, and the shore is of sand. The chief towns are Sinigaglia, Fano, Pesaro, and Rimini; but at none of these is there a harbour for shipping. Sinigaglia has only a mole to protect small craft; but a great fair is held here, to which many of the Greeks resort, and exchange honey, wax, tar, and other articles, for hemp, wheat, and silk. It is said to contain 10,000 inhabitants. Fano and Pesaro possess little or no trade, but are ancient places, each furnished with a great number of churches. Rimini is a small, decayed, but still elegant place, situated on the south point of the river Marecchia, near the mouth of which there is good anchorage, on muddy ground, in seven fathoms water; but there is no shelter from the sea-winds. Under the French government, Rimini was the capital of the department of the Rubico, and contained 16,000 inhabitants. At four leagues farther to the north there is good anchorage opposite the town of Ce-senatico a place inhabited for the most part by fishermen. It is connected by a canal with the modern town of Cer-

via, around which there is an extensive plain, used in summer for the production of salt by natural evaporation. Upon the river Montone, about five miles distant from the sea, stands the city of Ravenna, once an important place, and the seat of government, but now fallen into decay, though still containing 16,000 inhabitants, and possessing several silk manufactories, and a considerable commerce. The river Montone is navigable for small vessels only, and its entrance is denoted by a beacon or moat, on which a light is hoisted at night. At the tower of Volano is the little port of Goro, the westernmost branch of the river Po, within which ships may enter and be secure in six fathoms water; and at four leagues from that point the Roman territory is terminated at Punta della Maestro, the outer point of the main stream of the Po. The alluvial matter of the different branches of that powerful stream has formed numerous shoals, which extend to a considerable distance from the shore, and the bank extends outwards to the distance of two leagues. Within the shoals vessels may haul up, and do so occasionally, in from six to ten fathoms water. The mouths of the Po present a figure much resembling those formed by the Mississippi in America. The river, from its source in the Alps, has a course of nearly 280 miles to the sea, and is augmented by many smaller rivers which fall into it, most of its branches being navigable by small vessels. The current is very strong, and great injury has often been done by inundations. To prevent this, strong dikes have been gradually raised on its banks, and its bed has in consequence become so elevated that the level of its waters, especially in the lower part of its course, are several feet above that of the neighbouring lands.

On the whole of the eastern coast, which has been here surveyed, there are a great number of small streams running to the sea. They have their source in the range of the Apennines, at no great distance, and are consequently of short but rapid course. Many of them are dry or nearly so in the summer, at which season the whole district suffers very severely from the want of fresh water.

The present division of the States of the Church is as follows :—
[table]

The Marquis Vanni, who was empowered by the government in 1834 to make an enumeration, returned the po pulation as somewhat greater, namely, as 2,592,329; and these were classed in the following manner: [7:17:5]Agricultural proprietors 1,176,178

Manufacturers, handicrafts, and labourers 691,805

Persons of liberal professions 24,908

Military and marine persons 21,508

Priests, monks, and nuns 53,484

Children below working age 624,446

2,592,329

The cities containing more than 10,000 persons, with the population of each respectively, are the following :—

Rome (in 1836) 152,457 persons.

Bologna (in 1832) 69,000

Perugia 30,000

Ancona 24,000

Ravenna 24,000

Ferrara 24,000

Fermo 19,000

Faenza 18,500

Rimini 17,000

Forli 16,000 ...

Macerata 15,600

Foligno 15,400

Cesana .^ 15,000

Fano 15,000

Benevento 14,000

Pesaro 13,900

Viterbo 13,000 ...

Osimo 12,300

Urbino 12,000

The population of all these cities, including that of Rome itself, does not exceed one fifth of the whole number of inhabitants. Many of the inhabitants of those cities are more or less dependent upon agriculture, and those of the smaller cities and towns are chiefly so. It may in this way be estimated, that the labour of three fourths of the inhabitants on the soil is required to produce a sufficiency of food for the whole number of consumers. The density of the population may be taken as one human being to four acres and a half of land.

According to the Marquis Vanni, the land is appropriated in the following manner:

Under the plough 242,000 rubbie.

Vineyards 14,600

Feeding land 162,000

• Garden culture 1,400

Woods and forests 170,000

590,000

The rubbia is a measure of land nearly equal to four English statute acres.

The face of the Roman territory, with the exception of those parts on the north which form part of the valley of Po, and the portion to the south on the banks of the Tiber, is hilly, and much of it mountainous. The chain of the Apennines, after forming the boundary between the Bolognese and Tuscany, enters the States of the Church near St Sepulchre, and runs through them, in the direction of north-west and south-east, at nearly an equal distance from the Mediterranean. and Adriatic Seas; and then is continued through the Neapolitan provinces of the Abbruzzi, embracing in their course the valley in which the city of Rome stands. From this range of mountains spurs project on both sides, some of them extending to the Mediterranean Sea, and others to the Adriatic; and between these projections are to be found valleys of much beauty, and of the highest degree of fertility. Without any visible communication with this ridge of mountains stand the lofty elevations of the Sorriano and Fogliano in Viterbo, and the St Oreste and Monte Cave in Frosinone. The mountains here are as naked and as desolate as those in Tuscany and in the vicinity of Genoa, but much more lofty. The highest of the Velino, to the north-west of Rome, rises 7870

feet above the level of the sea; Monte della Sibylla, on the border of the Abbruzzi, is 7058 feet; and the Somma is 6800 feet. The promontories are much lower. That of Gennaro, near Rome, is only 3924 feet, Monte Cave 2923, and Monte Rocca di Papa only 2230 feet in height.

The summit of these mountains is composed of granite, in which are found imbedded portions of talc, gneiss, and schist. The offshoots consist in some parts of calcareous stone, and in others of volcanic tuffa, basalt, and lava. The promontories appear to be for the most part of volcanic origin, the product of that matter which seems to extend under the south of Italy. The great northern plain, which is bounded by the Apennines, the river Po, and the Adriatic Sea, has the same character as the plains of Austrian Lombardy. It is covered with a rich marshy soil, which, near Commachio, terminates in an almost useless and always insalubrious swamp. Along the south-western coast extend vast swamps, which are occasionally flooded by the sea. They are scarcely habitable, though sometimes shepherds resort to them. The pestilential volcanic air, impregnated with sulphur, causes them to be avoided. These districts, from the mouth of the river Astura to Terracina, contain the Pontine Marshes, which neither the emperors of ancient nor the popes of modern Rome have been able to render of any value. What Pope Pius VI. performed has been of no avail; and these pestiferous swamps seem to be constantly extending.

The Mediterranean Sea receives the water of but one considerable river in the Papal States. The celebrated Tiber rises in the Apennines, near St Albonigo, in the duchy of Tuscany, enters the Roman territory at the town of Sepulchro, and, taking a south-westerly direction, after a course of nearly 150 miles, and passing through Rome, falls into the sea at Ostia. It is only navigable for the last fifteen miles between the metropolis and its mouth. The tributary streams of the Tiber are the Topia and the Chiana, which originate in Tuscany, and a few small brooks and rivulets. The principal river of the Roman States is that which forms one of its boundaries, the Po. From the Roman States its water is augmented by the streams of the Panaro, the Reno, the Riolo, the Porotto, the Idice, the Santerno, the Senio, and the Lamone. These various streams are, for the most part, united by canals, and rendered navigable; and they also greatly contribute to cultivation, by affording easy means of irrigating the fields near them. Besides the Po, the other streams which empty themselves into the Adriatic from the papal territory are the following: The Montone, which runs into the sea near Ravenna; the Savio, which empties itself near Forli; the Uso, a small stream near Forli, which has become celebrated from the pope having decided, in 1756, that it was the Rubico, though the inhabitants still maintain that the Piscatella, a small river near it, is that at which Julius Caesar hesitated; the Matauro, which runs by Fano; the Cessano, near Urbino; the Musone, the Leta, the Asone, and the Tronto, which last forms the boundary between the Roman States and the territory of Naples.

There are several lakes in the Papal States. The largest of these is that of Perugia and Trasimeno, celebrated for the victory obtained there by Hannibal over the Romans. On the latter there are three islands. It is well stored with fish, and the outlet is into the Tiber. The lake of Bolsena is a little to the north-west of Viterbo, and was known in ancient times by the name Vulsinius. It has two islands. There is another lake near to it, that of Bracciano, which was formerly called Sabatinus. Besides these three lakes, there are many smaller, such as the charming Lago d’Albano and Lago di Remi, in the vicinity of Rome; Lago Pie di Luca, in Uieti; the lakes of Fogliana, of Monaco, of Crapolace, and Caressa, in the Pontine Marshes; and those of the valley of Commachio.
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The mountainous parts of this territory abound in mineral springs of various degrees of medicinal celebrity. Those most frequented are the acid springs near Rome, the baths of Bracciano, the baths of Stigliano near Tolfa, the baths of Palazzi near Civita Vecchia, the warm baths and acid springs of Viterbo, the baths of Giosinelli near Montefiascone, the baths of Porretta in Bologna, and the Lago di Bagni, of tepid water, from which alum and sulphur are obtained, and which is much used for immersion.

The climate of the Ecclesiatical States varies much, according to the local position of the several parts. Some of those produce the orange in perfection, whilst others are covered with snow during great part of the year. The tops of the Apennines are clothed with snow in October, and it generally remains till May. The northern part, in the valley of the Po, has the climate of Lombardy, and the environs of Rome that of Sicily; whilst at Terracina the heat of the Antilles is felt, without the refreshing tradewinds. There the dates ripen, and the gardens are enclosed with fences formed by the aloe. The heat is but slightly tempered by breezes from the sea; and these parts are subject to the visitation of the dreaded sirocco. The air upon and between the Apennines is generally favourable to health; but on the Pontine Marshes, and near the mouths of the Po, as well as near to Rimini, the marshes are gradually extending, and their pestiferous influence is observable in the increase of dense fogs, and the rapid diminution of the population.

The description of the agriculture of Lombardy, given under that head in the present work, will apply to the portion of the territory of the Church near the Po, in the four delegations of Bologna, Ferrara, Ravenna, and Forli. In the other parts the art is most negligently exercised, as well in the Apennines as in the plains of Rome itself. The Roman States produce a sufficiency of corn for their own consumption; for if some districts are deficient, the others are more than sufficient. Wheat, maize, and barley, are the chief grain; but the great mass of the poorer people eat but little bread, and, especially in the Apennines, substitute chestnuts, onions, garlic, and beans instead of it. A great part of their food consists of fruits, culinary vegetables, and salads. They rarely taste animal food, except a little bacon or sausages. Flax and hemp are raised in sufficient quantities to supply the inhabitants; and saffron is produced to such an extent that it has become an article of export. Some cotton is raised, and the growth of it is rapidly extending. In some parts many plants are raised that are applied by the perfumers to their preparations, such as spikenard, annis, and others. The olive grows everywhere, but is almost exclusively destined to domestic consumption.

Wine is generally cultivated, but the management of the vines is careless, and the selection of the kinds of them very negligent and injudicious. The best wine is made about Montefiascone, Orvieto, and Monte Cave; but the greater part of the common wine is very indifferent. Some little of a moderate quality is made about Bologna and Ravenna, part of which finds a market in Venice. The land produces a great variety of fruits. In the plain of Rome, oranges, citrons, pomegranates, and figs ripen; and amongst the Apennines there is an abundance of almonds, pistachio-nuts, and walnuts, and especially of chestnuts. The forests produce wood for fuel, and some little is sent to the l§le of Elba to supply the iron-works. On several parts of the coast much soda is prepared. The woods of Terracina have many cork-trees, the bark of which becomes an article of foreign commerce.

Formerly the breeding of horses was carefully attended to, but of late it has been negligently pursued; and the celebrated race known by the name of Borghese has deterio rated, and nearly disappeared. On the Apennines asses and mules are used as beasts of burden, for riding, and for the plough. Oxen are almost universally employed. The breed of cows is very fine; and they roam about the Campagna di Roma almost without attendance. The milk is not converted into cheese or butter, but the profit they yield to the proprietors, some of whom have herds of nearly two thousand, arises from the sale of the calves, and of the mothers when fattened. Sheep are very numerous, especially on the shores of the Mediterranean. There are two distinct races. One of these, called negretti i are small, with very strong and very white wool, as fine as that of Aragon, whence the race, as well as the name they bear, has been derived. They give abundance of milk, from which much cheese is made. These flocks, like their ancestors in Spain, are migratory. In the month of May they march from the plains near Rome to the mountains of Norcia and Abbruzzi, and return again in Oötober. The other race of sheep, called pouille, are inferior in their wool,, and are stationary on the Apennines, and the lands situated on the Adriatic shore. Goats ate very numerous, both on the plains and on the Apennines. They yield abundance of milk, which is converted into cheese; but much of it serves to sustain the swine, of which large herds are bred and fattened upon some of the most extensive farms. The culture of silk is one of the most important objects in Roman agriculture, and gives occupation to almost every member of certain families for the season. The soil is favourable to the growth of the white mulberry, the leaves of which yield the finest silk; that of the best quality, collected near Fossombrone, is chiefly exported to England and Germany.

The manufacturing operations of the Ecclesiastical States are very confined, and chiefly adapted to domestic consumption. The chief seat of the silk manufactory is Bologna, which formerly had the monopoly of the trade in crapes, but now divides it with the fabrics of other parts of Europe. Linen and wbollen cloths are made, some good paper is produced, and leather is made in several parts; also glass, pottery, rosanies from Loretto, artificial flowers, tallow, and wax-candles, with a variety of small articles.

There are no mines worked within the Roman territory, but considerable quantities of excellent alum and of sulphur are furnished, and some saltpetre; and on the coast there are lagunes, from which culinary salt is made by the natural evaporation of the sun’s rays.

The subjects of the Roman pontiff all adhere to the Catholic church, with the exception of 16,000 Jews. The states have six archbishops, seventy-two bishops, 1824 religious houses for monks, and 612 nunneries, and 2098 parochial divisions. The civil government is in the hands of the college of cardinals, and the executive is administered by the Cardinal Vicarius, who is a kind of prime minister. The universities in actual operation are but three, viz. Bologna, with 680 students; Rome, with 460; and Perugia, with 200. Besides these, four others have been decreed in Camerino, Fermo, Macerata, and Ferrara, but are not as yet established. In most of the cities there are schools of the fine arts, which tend to keep alive the attachment to music, painting, statuary, and antiquities, for which, with architecture, Italy has long been celebrated. The education of the poorer classes is less attended to than in some other parts of Europe.

The military force of the Holy See, as regulated by a decree of the 29th of December 1834, consists of ten battalions of native and two of foreign infantry, one regiment of dragoons, one of carabineers, two of sharp-shooters or riflemen, and a corps of artillery, the whole amounting to 17,372 men, and 1524 horses. There is at present no marine force of any description.

The finances of the Roman States are not clearly known.
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The public debt is calculated to exceed eight millions sterling, and to be annually increasing, although the taxes levied are said to be heavier in proportion to the wealth of the community than they are in any of the other European states. (g.)