pnugues/EB7 huggingface dataset:
ABREAST (a sea term), side by side, or opposite to; a situation in which two or more ships lie, with their sides parallel to each other, and their heads equally advanced. This term more particularly regards the line of battle at sea, where on the different occasions of attack, retreat, or pursuit, the several squadrons or divisions of a fleet are obliged to vary their dispositions, and yet maintain a proper regularity by sailing in right or curved lines. When the line is formed abreast, the whole squadron advances uniformly, the ships being equally distant from and parallel to each other, so that the length of each ship forms a right angle with the extent of the squadron or line abreast. The commander-in-chief is always stationed in the centre, and the second and third in command in the centres of their respective squadrons.— Abreast, within the ship, implies on a line with the beam, or by the side of any object aboard; as, the frigate sprung a leak abreast of the main hatchway, i. e. on the same line with the main hatchway, crossing the ship’s length at right angles, in opposition to afore or abaft the hatchway.
ABRIES, a town in France, in the department of the Upper Alps, and arrondissement of Briançon. It was formerly a portion of Savoy. Inhabitants 2030.
ABROGATION, the act of abolishing a law, by authority of the maker; in which sense the word is synonymous with abolition, repealing, and revocation.

Abrogation stands opposed to rogation; it is distinguished from derogation, which implies the taking away only some part of a law; from subrogation, which denotes the adding a clause to it; from abrogation, which implies the limiting or restraining it; from dispensation, which only sets it aside in a particular instance; and from antiquation, which is the refusing to pass a law.
ABROKANI, or Mallemolli, a kind of muslin, or clear, white, fine cotton cloth, brought from the East Indies, particularly from Bengal.
ABROTONUM, in Ancient Geography, a town and harbour on the Mediterranean, one of the three cities that formed Tripoli.
ABRUCENA, a town on the district of Guadix, in the province of Granada, in Spain, between the Sierra Nevada and Jaen.
ABRUD-BANYA, a town of Hungary, in the province of Magyoren, in the circle of Weissenburg. It is situated on the river Ampoy, has one Reformed and one Greek church, is the seat of a board of mining, and in its vicinity mines of gold and of silver are wrought. It is in Lat. 46. 14. 9. N. and Long. 23. 49. 3. E.
ABRUS, in Botany, the trivial name of the Glycine.
ABSALOM, in Scripture History, the son of David by Maacah, was brother to Tamar, David’s daughter, who was ravished by Amnon, their eldest brother by another mother. Absalom waited two years for an opportunity of revenging the injury done to his sister; and at last procured the assassination of Amnon at a feast which he had prepared for the king’s sons. He took refuge with Talmai, king of Geshur; and was no sooner restored to favour than he engaged the Israelites to revolt from his father. Absalom was defeated in the wood of Ephraim: as he was flying, his hair caught hold of an oak, where he hung till Joab came and thrust him through with three darts. David had expressly ordered his life to be spared, and extremely lamented him. The weight of Absalom’s hair, which is stated at “200 shekels after the king’s weight,” has occasioned much critical discussion. If, according to some, the Jewish shekel of silver was equal to half an ounce avoirdupois, 200 shekels would be 6½ pounds; or, according to Josephus, if the 200 shekels be equal to 5 minae, and each mina 2½ pounds, the weight of the hair would be 12½ pounds, a supposition not very credible. It has been supposed by others, that the shekel here denotes a weight in gold equal to the value of the silver shekel, or half an ounce, which will reduce the weight of the hair to about 5 ounces; or that the 200 shekels are meant to express the value, not the weight.
ABSCESS, in Surgery ; from abscedo, to separate; a cavity containing pus, or a collection of puriform matter in a part: So called, because the parts which were joined are now separated; one part recedes from another, to make way for the collected matter.
ABSCISSE, in Conics, a part of the diameter or transverse axis of a conic section, intercepted between the vertex or some other fixed point and a semiordinate. See Conic Sections.
ABSCONSA, a dark lantern used by the monks at the ceremony of burying their dead.
ABSENTEE. See Ireland.
ABSIMARUS, in History, having dethroned Leontius, cut off his nose and ears, and shut him up in a monastery, was proclaimed by the soldiers emperor of the East, a. d. 698. Leontius himself was also an usurper. He had dethroned Justinian II. who afterwards, with the assistance of the Bulgarians, surprised and took Constantinople, and made Absimarus prisoner. Justinian, now settled on the throne, and having both Absimarus and Leontius in his power, loaded them with chains, ordered them to lie down on the ground, and with a barbarous pleasure held a foot on the neck of each for the space of an hour in presence of the people. They were beheaded A. d. 705. '
ABSINTHIATED, any thing tinged or impregnated with absinthium or wormwood. Bartholin mentions a woman whose milk was become absinthiated, and rendered, as bitter as gall, by the too liberal use of wormwood.

Vinum absinthites, or poculum absinthiatum, “wormwood wine,” is much spoken of among the ancients as a wholesome drink, and even an antidote against drunkenness. Its medical virtues depend on its aromatic and bitter qualities. Infused in wine or spirits, it may prove beneficial in cases of indigestion or debility of the stomach.
ABSINTHIUM, in Botany, the trivial name of the common wormwood.
ABSOLUTE, in a general sense, something that stands free or independent.

Absolute is more particularly understood of a being or thing which does not proceed from any cause, or does not subsist by virtue of any other being, considered as its cause; in which sense God alone is absolute. Absolute, in this sense, is synonymous with independent, and stands opposed to dependent. Absolute also denotes a thing that is free from conditions or limitations; in which sense the word is synonymous with unconditional. We say, an absolute decree, absolute promise, absolute obedience.

ABSOLUTE Government, that in which the prince is left solely to his own will, being not limited to the observance of any laws except those of his own discretion.

ABSOLUTE Equations, in Astronomy, is the aggregate of the optic and eccentric equations. The apparent inequality of a planet’s motion, arising from its not being equally distant from the earth at all times, is called its optic equation, and would subsist even if the planet’s real motion were uniform. The eccentric inequality is caused by the planet’s motion being uniform. To illustrate which, conceive the sun to move, or to appear to move, in the circumference of a circle, in whose centre the earth is placed. It is manifest, that if the sun moves uniformly in this circle, it must appear to move uniformly to a spectator on the earth; and in this case there will be no optic nor eccentric equation: but suppose the earth to be placed out of the centre of the circle, and then, though the sun’s motion should be really uniform, it would not appear to be so, when seen from the earth; and in this case there would be an optic equation, without an eccentric one. Imagine further, the sun’s orbit to be not circular but elliptic, and the earth in its focus; it will be as evident that the sun cannot appear to have an uniform motion in such ellipse: so that his motion will then be subject to two equations, the optic and the eccentric.

ABSOLUTE Number, in Algebra, is any pure number standing in any equation without the conjunction of literal characters; as 2 x + 36 = 48; where 36 and 48 are absolute numbers, but 2 is not, as being joined with the letter x.
ABSOLUTION, in Civil Law, is a sentence whereby the party accused is declared innocent of the crime laid to his charge.

Absolution, in the Canon Law, is a juridical act, whereby the priest declares the sins of such as are penitent remitted.—The Romanists hold absolution a part of the sacrament of penance; the council of Trent, sess. xiv. cap. iii. and that of Florence, in the decree ad Armenos, declare the form or essence of the sacrament to lie in the words of absolution, “I absolve thee of thy sins.” The formula of absolution, in the Roman church, is absolute; in the Greek church, it is deprecatory; and in the churches of the Reformed, declarative.
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Absolution is chiefly used among Protestants for a sentence by which a person who stands excommunicated, is released or freed from that punishment.
ABSORBENT, in general, any thing possessing the faculty of absorbing, or swallowing up another.

Absorbent Medicines, testaceous powders, or substances into which calcareous earth enters, as chalk, crabs eyes, &c. which are taken inwardly, for drying up or absorbing any acid or redundant humours in the stomach or intestines. They are likewise applied externally to ulcers or sores with the same intention.

ABSORBENTS, Or ABSORBING VβSSelS, in Anatomy, a name given promiscuously to the lacteal vessels, lymphatics, and inhalant arteries; a minute kind of vessels found in animal bodies, which imbibe fluids that come in contact with them. On account of their minuteness and transparency, they escape observation in ordinary dissection. They have, however, been detected in every tribe of animals, and, in the animals which have been examined, in every part of the body.
ABSORPTION, in the animal economy, is the function of the absorbent vessels, or that power by which they take up and propel substances. This power has been ascribed to the operation of different causes, according to the theories which physiologists have proposed. Some attribute it to capillary attraction, others to the pressure of the atmosphere, and others to an ambiguous or unknown cause, which they denominate suction; for this last is nothing else than the elastic power of one part of the air restoring the equilibrium, which has been destroyed by the removal or rarefaction of another part.

ABSORPTIONS of the Earth, a term used by Kircher and others for the sinking in of large tracts of land by means of subterranean commotions, and many other accidents.

Pliny tells us, that in his time the mountain Cybotus, with the town of Curites, which stood on its side, were wholly absorbed into the earth, so that not the least trace of either remained; and he records the like fate of the city of Tantalis in Magnesia, and after it of the mountain Sipylus, both thus absorbed by a violent opening of the earth. Galanis and Gamales, towns once famous in Phoenicia, are recorded to have met the same fate; and the vast promontory called Phegium, in Ethiopia, after a violent earthquake in the night-time, was not to be seen in the morning, the whole having disappeared, and the earth closed over it. These and many other histories, attested by the authors of greatest credit among the ancients, abundantly prove the fact in the earlier ages; and there have not been wanting too many instances of more modern date. (Kircher’s Mund. Subter, p. 77.)

Picus, a lofty mountain in one of the Molucca isles, which was seen at a great distance, and served as a landmark to sailors, was entirely destroyed by an earthquake; and its place is now occupied by a lake, the shores of which correspond exactly to the base of the mountain. In 1556, a similar accident happened in China. A whole province of the mountainous part of the country, with all the inhabitants, sunk in a moment, and was totally swallowed up: the space which was formerly land was also covered with an extensive lake of water. And, during the earthquakes which prevailed in the kingdom of Chili, in the year 1646, several whole mountains of the Andes sunk and disappeared.
ABSORUS, Apsorus, Absyrtis, Absyrtides, (Strabo, Mela, Ptolemy); islands in the Adriatic, in the gulf of Carnero; said to be so called from Absyrtus, Medea’s brother, there slain. They are now called Cherso and Osero.
ABSTEMII, in church history, a name given to such persons as could not partake of the cup of the eucharist on account of their natural aversion to wine. Calvinists allow these to communicate in the species or bread only, touching the cup with their lip; which, on the other hand, is by the Lutherans deemed a profanation.
ABSTERGENT Medicines, those employed for resolving obstructions, concretions, &c. such as soap, &c.
ABSTINENTS, or Abstinentes, a set of heretics that appeared in France and Spain about the end of the third century. They are supposed to have borrowed part of their opinions from the Gnostics and Manicheans, because they opposed marriage, condemned the use of flesh' meat, and placed the Holy Ghost in the class of created beings. We have, however, no certain account of their peculiar tenets.
ABSTRACT, in a general sense, any thing separated from something else.

ABSTRACT Ideas, in Metaphysies. See Abstraction. ABSTRACT Mathematics, Otherwise called Pure Mathematics, is that which treats of magnitude or quantity, absolutely and generally considered, without restriction to any species of particular magnitude; such are Arithmetic and Geometry. In this sense, abstract mathematics is opposed to mixed mathematics; wherein simple and abstract properties, and the relations of quantities primitively considered in pure mathematics, are applied to sensible objects, and by that means become intermixed with physical considerations: such are Hydrostatics, Optics, Navigation, &c.

Abstract Numbers, are assemblages of units, considered in themselves, without denoting any particular and determinate things. Thus, six is an abstract number when not applied to any thing; but if we say 6 feet, 6 becomes a concrete number.

Abstract Terms, words that are used to express abstract ideas. Thus beauty, ugliness, whiteness, roundness, life, death, are abstract terms.

Abstract, in Literature, a compendious view of any large work; shorter and more superficial than an abridgement.
ABSTRACTION, in Metaphysics, is a term used to denote the mind’s power of considering certain qualities or attributes of an object apart from the rest; or the power which the understanding has of separating the combinations which are presented to it.

Abstraction is chiefly employed in these three ways. First, When the mind considers any one part of a thing, in some respect distinct from the whole; as a man’s arm, without the consideration of the rest of the body. Secondly, When we consider the mode of any substance, omitting the substance itself; or when we separately consider several modes which subsist together in one subject. This abstraction the geometricians make use of when they consider the length of a body separately, which they call a line, omitting the consideration of its breadth and thickness. Thirdly, It is by abstraction that the mind forms general ideas. Thus, when we would understand a thinking being in general, we gather from our self-consciousness what it is to think; and omitting those things which have a particular relation to our own minds, or to the human mind, we conceive a thinking being in general.

Ideas formed in this manner, which arc what we properly call abstract ideas, become general representatives of all objects of the same kind. Thus the idea of colour that we receive from chalk, snow, milk, &c. is a representative of all of that kind; and has a name given it, whiteness, which signifies the same quality wherever found or imagined. See the article Metaphysics.
ABSURDUM, reductio ad absurdum, is a mode of demonstration employed by mathematicians when they prove the truth of a proposition by demonstrating that the contrary is impossible, or leads to an absurdity. It is in this manner that Euclid demonstrates the fourth proposition of the first book of the Elements, by showing that the contrary involves a manifest absurdity, viz. That two straight lines can inclose a space.
ABSYRTUS, in heathen mythology, the son of Aeetes and Hypsea, and the brother of Medea. The latter running away with Jason, after her having assisted him in carrying off the golden fleece, was pursued by her father; when, to stop his progress, she tore Absyrtus in pieces, and scattered his limbs in his way.
ABTERODE, a town in the bailiwick of Bilstein, in Hesse-Cassel, in Germany, with 972 inhabitants, who find employment chiefly in making woollen cloth.
ABTHANES, in History, a title of honour used by the ancient inhabitants of Scotland, who called their nobles thanes, which in the old Saxon signifies kings ministers ; and of these the higher rank were styled abthanes, and those of the lower underthanes.
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ABU and CANDU, a group of twelve islands in the southern division of the Indian Ocean, to the south of the Maldives, in Lat. 5. 6. S. and Long. 74. 23. E. They are rocky, but have good anchorage, under the shelter of a reef., There are no inhabitants, nor has any good water been found.
ABU-ARISCH, the capital of the territory of the same name, on the Red Sea, in a fruitful plain, with rock-salt mines near it. It is in Lat. 16.45. N. and Long. 42.33. E.
ABUBEKER, or Abu-Becr, the first caliph, the immediate successor of Mahomet, and one of his first converts. His original name was Abdulcaaba, signifying servant of the caaba or temple, which, after his conversion to Mahometanism, was changed to Abdallah, servant of God ; and on the marriage of the prophet with his daughter Ayesha, he received the appellation of Abu-Beer, Father of the virgin. Illustrious by his family, and possessed of immense wealth, his influence and example were powerful means of propagating the faith he had adopted, and in gaining converts to the new religion. Abubeker was a sound believer; and although he lived in the greatest familiarity with Mahomet, he had always the highest veneration for his character. He vouched for the truth of his revelations after his nightly visits to heaven, and thus obtained the appellation of the faithful. He was employed in every mission of trust or importance, was the constant friend of the prophet, and when he was forced to fly from Mecca, was his only companion. But notwithstanding his blind devotion to Mahometanism, his moderation and prudence were conspicuous in checking the fanatical zeal of the disciples of the new religion on the death of Mahomet. This event threatened destruction to the doctrines of Islamism. Its followers could not doubt that it had taken place, and they were afraid to believe it. In this uncertainty and fluctuation of belief, Omar drew his sword, and threatened to cut in pieces all who dared to assert that the prophet was dead. Abubeker, with more coolness and wisdom, addressed the people, Is it, says he, Mahomet wham you adore, or the God whom he has revealed to you ? Know that this God is alone immortal, and that all those whom he has created are subject to death. Appeased and reconciled by this speech, they elected him successor to Mahomet, and tie assumed the modest title of caliph, which has continued with all his successors. Ali, the son-in-law of the prophet, regarding the elevation of Abubeker as a violation of his legal rights to the succession, refused at first to recognise the appointment, till he was forced by threats into compliance and submission. His partisans, however, still considered him as the legitimate successor, and their opinion has prevailed among many Mussulmans, who believe that the sovereign authority, both spiritual and temporal, remains with his descendants.

Abubeker first collected and digested the revelations of Mahomet, which had hitherto been preserved in detached fragments, or in the memories of the believers; and to this the Arabians gave the appellation Almoshaf, or the Book. He died in the 13th year of the Hegira, respected as a prudent and equitable ruler.
ABUCCO, Abocco, or Abochi, a weight used in the kingdom of Pegu. One abucco contains 12½ teccalis; two abuccos make a giro or agire ; two giri, half a hiza ; and a hiza weighs an hundred teccalis; that is, two pounds five ounces the heavy weight, or three pounds nine ounces the light weight of Venice.
ABUCHO W, a village in Russia, in the circle of Bo-goradsk, and government of Moscow, where are mills belonging to the emperor, from whence 10,000 poods of gunpowder are annually delivered. It stands on the river Kliasma, whose stream turns seven mills.
ABUKESO, in commerce, the same with Aslan.
ABUKOR, a town near Lepanto, in the province of Aimabochte, in Turkey in Europe.
ABULAHOR, a town of Turkey in Europe, on the river Aspre, in the Sandschac or Standard of Joanina, and province of Romelia.
ABULAWO, a town of Russia, in the circle of Kra-piwna, and government of Tula.
ABULFARAGIUS, Gregory, son of Aaron, a physician, born in 1226, in the city of Malatia, near the source of the Euphrates in Armenia. He followed the profession of his father, and practised with great success; but he acquired a higher reputation by the study of the Greek, Syriac, and Arabic languages, as well as by his knowledge of philosophy and divinity; and he wrote a history which does great honour to his memory. It is written in Arabic, and divided into dynastics. It consists of ten parts, being an epitome of universal history from the creation of the world to his own time. The parts of it relating to the Saracens, Tartar Moguls, and the conquests of Jenghis Khan, are esteemed the most valuable. He professed Christianity, was bishop of Aleppo, and is supposed to have belonged to the sect of the Jacobites. His contemporaries speak of him in a strain of most extravagant panegyric. He is styled the king of the learned, the pattern of his times, the phoenix of the age, and the crown of the virtuous. Dr Pococke published his history with a Latin translation in 1663, in 2 vols. 4to.
ABULFAZEL, who is called by Sir William Jones, “a learned and elegant,” and by others, “the most elegant” writer that the East has produced, was vizier and historiographer to the Great Mogul, Akber. We have not been able to discover the year of his birth, but his death took place in 1604, when he was assassinated on his return from a mission to the Decan. According to some writers, this foul act was perpetrated at the instigation of the heir apparent to the throne, who had become jealous of the minister’s influence with the emperor. Akber greatly lamented the loss of a man who was not only an able minister of state, but of such talents as a writer, as to make it a common saying in the East, “that the neighbouring monarchs stood more in awe of his pen than of the sword of his master.” He wrote, by the emperor’s command, a history of his reign, which came down to the forty-seventh year, in which he was assassinated. In connection with this, he also compiled a volume, intended to exhibit a geographical and statistical view of the empire, and of the revenue, household, and expenses of the sovereign. It likewise embraces an account of the religion of the Hindoos, of their sacred books, and their several sects in religion and philosophy. This work, which is fraught with much curious and valuable information, is known under the name of the Ayeen Αkbery. It has been translated into English with great accuracy by Mr Francis Gladwin. The translation was undertaken and published at Calcutta, under the intelligent patronage of Mr Hastings. “Such a work,” he said, in a minute of council, “could not but prove peculiarly useful; as it comprehends the original constitution of the Mogul Empire, described under the immediate inspection of its founder, and will serve to assist the judgment of the Court of Directors on many points of importance to the first interests of the company.”—The Calcutta edition, published in 1783-6, in three volumes quarto, is a splendid book, and the most valuable in every respect, as the London reprints are by no means accurate.
ABUNA, the title given to the archbishop or metropolitan of Abyssinia.