pnugues/EB7 huggingface dataset:
ARACHNOIDES, in Anatomy, an appellation given to several membranes,—as the tunic of the crystalline humour of the eye, the external lamina of the pia mater, and one of the coverings of the spinal marrow.
ARACK. See Arrack.
ARAEOPAGUS. See Attica.
ARAEOSTYLE, in Architecture, a term used by Vitruvius to signify the greatest interval which can be made between columns.
ARAEOTICS, in Medicine, remedies which rarefy the humours, and render them easy to be carried off by the pores of the skin.
ARAFAH, the ninth day of the last month of the Ara bic year, named Dhoulhegiat, on which the pilgrims of Mecca perform their devotions on a neighbouring mountain called Arafat.
ARAFAT, Mount, a celebrated mountain in Arabia, held in high veneration by the Mahometans. A visit to this mountain constitutes a necessary part of the religious pilgrimage to Mecca; which we have described at [7:3:373]length under the article Arabia. The mountain consists of a granite rock about 150 feet high, which is ascended by staircases, partly cut in the rock and partly composed of solid masonry. On the summit is a chapel, which the Mahometans believe to have been built by Adam. On this hill also Adam is said to have met his wife Eve after a long absence; and it is thence called Arafat or Gratitude. The interior of the chapel was destroyed by the Wahabys in 1807.
ARAHUM, or Haraħum, in ancient writers, denotes a place consecrated or set apart for holy purposes. Hence the phrase in araho jurare, or conjurare, to make oath in the church; because, by the Ripuarian laws, all oaths were to be taken in the church on the relics of the saints.
ARAL, a great lake lying a little to the eastward of the Caspian Sea. Its length from north to south is said to be near 150 miles, and its breadth from east to west about 70. The shore on the west side is high and rocky, and destitute of good water; yet there are abundance of wild horses, asses, antelopes, and wolves; as also a fierce creature called ajolbart, which the Tartars say is of such a prodigious strength as to carry off a horse. Several great rivers, which were supposed to run into the Caspian Sca, are now known to fall into this lake, particularly the Sihun or Sirr, and the Ghihun or Amo, so often mentioned by the oriental historians. This lake, like the Caspian Sea, has no visible outlet. Its water is also very salt, and for that reason is conveyed by the neighbouring inhabitants by small narrow canals into sandy pits, where the heat of the sun, by exhaling the water, leaves them a sufficient quantity of salt.
ARAMONT, a town of Languedoc in France, seated on the river Rhone. Long. 4. 52. E. Lat. 43. 54. N.
ARANDA de Duero, a town of Spain, in Old Castile, in the province of Burgos, on the right bank of the river Duero. It contains 3300 inhabitants. Long. 3. 9. 24. W. Lat. 4L 40. 12. N.
ARANJUEZ, a town of Spain, about 20 miles from Madrid. It is situated on the banks of the Tagus, a little below the junction of the rivers Xarama, Manzanares, and Tajuna with that stream. The town is small, but well built, and the principal street, the Calle Peyna, is one of the most beautiful in Spain. Near this town is one of the royal residences. The palace has been built and ornamented with most profuse expense by several successive monarchs. The expenditure on this place is estimated to have amounted to more than L.500,000 sterling between the years 1763 and 1776. The gardens were much improved by Wall, the extravagant minister of the grandfather of the present king. Having the advantage of the Tagus and several tributary rivulets, their waters have been employed in forming fountains and . cascades among the various beautiful retreats which the woods afford. The buildings are both spacious and magnificent; and the apartments arc, or rather, before the French plunderers visited it, were, adorned with some exquisite paintings from the pencil of Titian and of Mengs. When this place was first appropriated as a royal residence, Charles III. was principally induced to occupy it for the sake of the game which abounds, to the pursuit of which he was excessively addicted. The injury done to the occupiers of the land in the vicinity of Aranjuez by the parties of the royal establishment was such that the compensations which the king made to them for the damages sustained amounted in some years to the enormous sum of L.70,000 sterling. The town contains, when the court is at Aranjuez, about 10,000 inhabitants Lat. 40. 1. 54. N.
ARARAT, a lofty mountain of Armenia, which rises from the adjacent plain to the height of 9500 feet, lt has two peaks covered with perpetual snow, which, viewed from the north, are seen to be separated by a deep glen in the body of the mountain. From the slope of this deep cleft the lesser head rises in a perfectly conical shape. The larger peak is of the same form, only-more rounded at the top; and the north-west face of the mountain is broken and abrupt, and opens half-way down into a stupendous rocky chasm of great depth, and peculiarly black. Many travellers have attempted to scale the summit of this tremendous mountain. But the distance between the commencement of the perpetual snow line and the summit, and the long-continued cold to which the traveller would consequently be exposed, baffled for a long time all such hazardous attempts. Lately, however, a German traveller, accompanied by a companion, accomplished this daring feat, and attained the snowy summit, on which no human foot had ever trod before. The mountain is held in peculiar veneration by the Armenian Christians, from the belief that Noah’s ark after the flood rested on its summits. It is evidently of volcanic origin; but Dr Reinegg’s assertion, that an eruption occurred in 1783, is totally devoid of foundation. This fact was ascertained by Sir R. K. Porter from the priests of a neighbouring monastery, where an account was kept of the appearances exhibited by the monastery for several centuries back.
ARASSI, a maritime, populous, and trading town of Italy, in the territory of Genoa. Long. 7. 20. E. Lat. 44. 3. N.
ARATEIA, in Antiquity, a yearly festival celebrated at Sicyon, on the birth-day of Aratus, wherein divers honours were paid by a priest consecrated to this service, who for distinction’s sake wore a riband bespangled with white and purple spots.
ARATUS, general of the Achaeans, conquered Nicoles, tyrant of Sicyon. Two years after he surprised Acrocorinthus, and drove out the king of Macedonia: he delivered Argos from its tyrants, and was poisoned by Philip liking of Macedonia, whom he had newly restored. He was about 62 when he died, the second year of the 141st Olympiad. He was interred at Sicyon, and received the greatest honours from his countrymen.

Aratus, a Greek poet, born at Soli, or Solae, a town in Cilicia, which afterwards changed its name, and was called Pompeiopolis in honour of Pompey the Great. He flourished about the 124th, or, according to some, the 126th Olympiad, in the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt. He discovered in his youth a remarkable poignancy of wit, and capacity for improvement; and having received his education under Dionysius Hera-clcotes, a Stoic philosopher, he espoused the principles of that sect. Aratus was physician to Antigonus Gonatus, the son of Demetrius Poliorcetes, king of Macedon. His [7:3:375] poem entitled Phaenomena describes the nature and motion of the fixed stars, and shows the particular influences of the heavenly bodies, with their various dispositions and relations. He wrote this poem in Greek verse. It was translated into Latin by Cicero, who tells us, in his first book De Oratore, that the verses of Aratus are very noble. This piece was translated by others as well as Cicero, there being a translation by Germanicus Caesar, and another into elegant verse by Festus Avienus. An edition of the Phoenomena was published by Grotius, at Leyden, in quarto, in 1600, in Greek and Latin, with the fragments of Cicero’s version, and the translations of Germanicus and Avienus; all which the editor has illustrated with curious notes. A valuable edition of the Phoeno-menαwas published at Oxford, by Fell, in 1672, in 8vo; but the most complete is that of Buhle, published at Leipsic in 1801, in 2 vols. 8vo. There are several other works ascribed to Aratus. Suidas mentions the following ;—Hymns to Pan; Astrology and Astrothesy; a composition of Antidotes; an Έitiόντιχον on Theopropus; an Hdûffwoe on Antigonus; an Epigram on Phila, the daughter of Antipater and wife of Antigonus; an Epicedium of Cleombrotus; a Correction of the Odyssey; and some Epistles in prose. Virgil, in his Georgies, has imitated or translated many passages from this author; and St Paul has quoted a passage of Aratus. It is in his speech to the Athenians (Acts xvii. 28), wherein he tells them that some of their own po*ets have said, Too γαg κα∕ γεvος tg ∣ w, For we are also his offspring. These words are the beginning of the fifth line of the Phoenomena.
ARAUCANIA, a district of Chili, in South America, lying between 37° and 39° of south latitude. The Araucanians had a certain tincture of civilization, which was united with a high and unconquerable spirit of independence. They warred with the Spaniards for more than a century, and though often vanquished in the field, never would submit to them. Their government, according to Molina, was a sort of federal republic; and they had a nobility, and held national councils annually. The number of fighting men in the four districts which composed Araucania was about 7000 or 8000. They still enjoy their independence. See America.
ARAUSIO, Civitas Arausiensis or Arausicoum, or Colonia Secundanorum ; so called, because the veterans of the second legion were there settled; now Orange, in the west of Provence, on an arm of the rivulet Egue. An ancient amphitheatre is still to be seen here. Long. 4. 46. E. Lat. 44. 10. N.
ARAW, a town of Switzerland, in Argow, seated on the river Aar. It is handsome, large, and remarkable for its church, its fountain, and the fertility of the soil. Long. 8. 0. E. Lat. 47. 25. N.
ARBACES governed Media under Sardanapalus. Seeing him spinning among a company of his women, he stirred up his people to revolt, and dethroned Sardanapalus, who thereupon burnt himself in his palace. Arbaces being crowned, began the monarchy of the Medes, which lasted 317 years under nine kings, till Astyages was expelled by Cyrus. Arbaces reigned 22 years, and died a. m. 3206.
ARBALEST, or Cross-bow. See Cross-bow.
ARBE, anciently Arba, an island and city of Illyria, in the gulf of Quarnaro. Of this island, which has been but slightly noticed by geographers, there is a full account in the Abbé Fortis’s Account of Dalmatia. The appearance of the island is exceedingly pleasant. On the east it has a very high mountain, at the foot of which the rest of the island is extended to the westward, and divided into beautiful and fruitful plains interspersed with Htle hills fit to bear the richest products. At the extremity that looks to the north a delightful promontory called Loparo, stretches into the sea: it is crowned with little hills, which almost quite inclose a fine cultivated plain. Near this promontory are the two small islands of S. Gregorio and Goli. The city of Arbe stands on a rising ground between two harbours, which form a peninsula.
ARBELA, now Irbil, a city of Assyria, lying in long. 44. 5. E. lat. 35. 15. N. It is famous for the last and decisive battle fought in its neighbourhood between Alexander the Great and Darius Codomannus. This battle was fought 331 years before Christ, and determined the fate of the Persian empire. Arrian relates, that Darius’s army consisted of a million of foot and 40,000 horse; according to Diodorus, there were 200,000 horse and 800,000 foot; Plutarch relates that the horse and foot together made up a million; and Justin gives us exactly half Diodorus’s number. The Macedonian army, according to Arrian, consisted of 40,000 foot and 7000 horse. “With the loss of 500 men,” says Dr Gillies, “Alexander destroyed 40,000 of the barbarians, who never thenceforth assembled in sufficient numbers to dispute his dominion in the East. The invaluable provinces of Babylonia, Susiana, and Persis, with their respective capitals of Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis, formed the prize of his skill and valour. The gold and silver found in those cities amounted to thirty millions sterling; the jewels and other precious spoil belonging to Darius sufficed, according to Plutarch, to load 20,000 mules and 5000 camels.” (Gillies’s History of Greece.)
ARBERG, a town of Switzerland, in the canton of Bern, with a handsome castle, where the bailiff resides. It is seated on the river Aar, in a kind of island. Long. 7. 15. E. Lat. 47. 0. N.
ARBITER, .in the Civil Law, implies a judge nominated by the magistrate, or chosen voluntarily by the two contending parties, in order to decide their differences. The civilians make a difference between arbiter and arbitrator though both found their power on the compromise of the parties; the former being obliged to judge according to the customs of the law, whereas the latter is at liberty to use his own discretion, and accommodate the differences in the manner that appears to him most just and equitable.
ARBITRARY, that which is left to the choice or arbitration of men, or not fixed by any positive law or injunction.

Arbitrary Punishment, in Law, denotes such punishments as are by statute left to the discretion of the judge. It is a general rule in arbitrary punishments, that the judge cannot inflict death. Hence all punishments that are not capital have acquired the name of arbitrary punishments, even although they be expressly pointed out by statute.
ARBOIS, a small populous town of France, in the department of Jura, formerly Franche Compté, famous for its wines. Long. 5. 40. E. Lat. 46. 55. N.
ARBON, one of the eight circles into which the canton of Thurgaw is divided.

Arbon, a town of Switzerland, chief of the circle of the same name. It contains 170 houses and 900 inhabitants, about equally catholics and reformed protestants, who use the only church alternately, and divide the magistracy between them equally. It has a considerable trade in linen goods. It is on the lake of Constance. Long. 9. 25. E. Lat. 42. 27. N.
ARBOUR, in Gardening, a kind of shady bower, formerly in great esteem. Arbours are generally made of lattice work, either of wood or iron; and covered with elms, limes, and hornbeams; or with creepers, as honeysuckles, jessamines, or passion-flowers; either of which will answer the purpose very well, if rightly managed.
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ARBROATH. See Aberbrotnick.
ARBURG, a town of Switzerland, in the canton of Bern, on the river Aar. It is small, but very strong, being seated on a rock, and defended by a good fortress cut out of the rock. Long. 7. 55. E. Lat. 47. 10. N.
ARBUSTUM implies a number or multitude of trees planted for the fruit’s sake. The word was more peculiarly applied to a place planted with trees for fastening vines to, which are hence called by Columella Arbustivae. Arbustum is sometimes also used to denote an orchard, or field wherein trees are planted at such distance that there is room for ploughing and growing corn between.
ARCADE, in Architecture, is used to denote any opening in the wall of a building formed by an arch.
ARCESILAUS, a celebrated Greek philosopher, about 300 years before the Christian era, was born at Pitane, i∏ Eolis. He founded the second academy, called the second or middle school. He was a man of great erudition, and had many disciples. The middle school laid it down as a principle, that we could know nothing, nor even assure ourselves of the certainty of this position; from whence they inferred, that we should affirm nothing, but always suspend our judgment. They advanced, that a philosopher was able to dispute upon every subject, and bring conviction with him, even upon contrary sides of the same question; for there are always reasons of equal force both in the affirmative and negative of every argument. According to this doctrine, neither our senses nor even our reason are to have any credit; and, therefore, in common affairs, we are to conform outSelves to received opinions. Arcesilaus was succeeded by his disciple Lacydes.
ARCHAEUS, or Archeus. See Arcneus.
ARCHBISHOPRIC, in Ecclesiastical Geography, a province subject to the jurisdiction of an archbishop.
ARCHBUTLER, one of the great officers of the German empire, who presents the cup to the emperor on solemn occasions. This office belongs to the king of Bohemia.
ARCHCHAMBERLAIN, an officer of the empire, much the same with the great chamberlain in England. The elector of Brandenburg was appointed by the golden bull arch chamberlain of the empire.
ARCHCHANCELLOR, a high officer, who in ancient times presided over the secretaries of the court. Under the first two races of the kings of France, when their territories were divided into Germany, Italy, and Arles, there were three archchancellors; and hence the three archchancellors still subsisting in Germany—the archbishop of Mentz being archchancellor of Germany, the archbishop of Cologn, and the archbishop of Treves.
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ARCHCHANTER, the president of the chanters of a church.
ARCHCOUNT, a title formerly given to the earl of Flanders on account of his great power and riches.
ARCHDEACON, an ecclesiastical dignitary or officer, next to a bishop, whose jurisdiction extends either over the whole diocese or only a part of it. He is usually appointed by the bishop himself, and has a kind of episcopal authority, originally derived from the bishop, but now independent and distinct from his. He therefore visits the clergy, and has his separate court for punishment of offenders by spiritual censures, and for hearing all other causes of ecclesiastical cognizance. There are 60 archdeacons in England.

Archdeacon' s Court is the most inferior court in the whole ecclesiastical polity. It is held, in the archdeacon’s absence, before a judge appointed by himself, and called his official; and its jurisdiction is sometimes in concurrence with, sometimes in exclusion of, the bishop’s court of the diocese. From hence, however, by statute 24, Henry VIII. cap. 12, there lies an appeal to that of the bishop.
ARCHDRUID, the chief or pontiff of the ancient druids of a nation.
ARCHDUKE, a title peculiar to the house of Austria, all the sons of which are archdukes, and the daughters archduchesses.
ARCHELAUS, a celebrated Greek philosopher, the disciple of Anaxagoras, flourished about 440 years before Christ. He read lectures at Athens, and did not depart much from the opinions of his master. He taught that there was a double principle of all things, namely, the expansion and condensation of the air, which he regarded as infinite. Heat, according to him, was in continual motion. Cold was ever at rest. The earth, which was placed in the midst of the universe, had no motion. It originally resembled a wet marsh, but was afterwards dried up; and its figure, he said, resembled that of an egg. Animals were produced from the heat of the earth, and even men were formed in the same manner. All animals have a soul, which was born with them, but the capacities of which vary according to the structure of the organs of the body in which it resides. Socrates, the most illustrious of his disciples, was his successor.

Archelaus, the son of Herod the Great, was declared king of Judea the second year after the birth of Christ. He put to death 3000 persons before he went to Rome to be confirmed by Augustus. However, that emperor gave him half of what had been possessed by his father; but at length, on fresh complaints exhibited against him by the Jews, he banished him to Vienne in Gaul, A. d. 6, where he died.

Archelaus, the son of Apollonius, one of the greatest sculptors of antiquity, was a native of Ionia, and is thought to have lived in the time of the emperor Claudius. He executed in marble the apotheosis of Homer. Kircher, Spanheim, and several other learned antiquaries, have given a description and explication of this work.
ARCHENA, a town of Murcia, in Spain. It is situated on the river Segura, at the eastern extremity of the delicious valley of Ricoe, and celebrated for its thermal springs. The waters retain a uniform heat of 41° of Reaumur, or 112° of Fahrenheit. These springs are much resorted to, though the situation is most melancholy, and the accommodations for invalids very bad.
ARCHERS, a kind of militia or soldiery armed with bows and arrows. I he word is formed of arcus, a bow; whence arcuarius, and even arquis and arquites, as they are also denominated in the corrupt state of the Latin tongue. Archers were much employed in former times; but they are now laid aside, excepting in Turkey and some of the eastern countries. As an exercise, the practice of archery is still kept up in many places.
ARCHES Court. See Court of Arches.
ARCHETYPE, the first model of a work, which is copied after to make another like it. Among minters it is used for the standard weight by which the others are adjusted. The archetypal world, among Platonists, means the world as it existed in the idea of God before the visible creation.
ARCHEUS (from the principal, chief, or first mover), a sort of primum mobile set up by Helmont, to superintend the animal economy, and preserve it. It is akin to Plato’s anima mιmdi. Hippocrates uses the words α fZ α 'Ι t0 signify the former healthy state before the attack of the disease.
ARCIIIACOLYTHUS (from αgχρς, chief, and axoaou-A>i, minister), an ancient dignity in cathedral churches, the ministers whereof were divided into four orders or degrees, viz. priests, deacons, subdeacons, and acolythi, each of which had their chiefs. The chief of the accly-thi was called archiacolythus.
ARCHIATER, Archiatrus, properly denotes chief physician of a prince who retains several. The word is formed of αsγη, principium, chief, and ιaτρος, medicus, a physician.
ARCHIDAPIFER (from αgχoj, and dapifer, sewer), or chief sewer, is a great officer of the empire. The elector of Bavaria is archidapifcr. The palatine of the Rhine at one time pretended this office was annexed to his palatinate, but he has since desisted.
ARCHIDONA, a city of Spain, on a small stream which flows into the river Guadalorza, in the province of Granada, lt is a well built town, with one church, five monasteries, and 5000 inhabitants, who derive their subsistence chiefly from the excellent oil which they make from their abundant olives.

.ARCHIEROSYNES, in the Grecian Antiquity, a high priest vested with authority over the rest of the priests, and appointed to execute the more sacred and mysterious rites of religion.
ARCHIGALLUS, in Antiquity. the high priest of Cybele, or the chief of the eunuch priests of that goddess, called Galli.
ARCHIGERONTES (from aξχοζ, and γiξωv, old), in Antiquity, ⅛ e chiefs or masters of the several companies of artificers at Alexandria. Some have mistaken the archigerontes for the arch-priests appointed to take the confession of those who were condemned to the mines.
ARCHIGUBERNUS, Archiguberneta, or Archi-gubernites, in Antiquity, the commander of the imperial ship, or that which the emperor was aboard of. Some have confounded the office of archigubernus with that of proefectus classis, or admiral; but the former was under the ∣ command of the latter. Potter takes the proper office of the archiguberneta to have been, to manage the marine affairs, to provide commodious harbours, and order all things relating to the sailing of the fleet except what related to war. '
ARCHIL, Archilla, Rocella, Orsielle, is a whitish moss which grows upon rocks, in the Canary and Cape de Verde Islands, and yields a rich purple tincture, fugitive indeed, but extremely beautiful. This weed is imported to us as it is gathered. Those who prepare it for the use of the dyer grind it between stones, so as to thoroughly bruise, but not to reduce it into powder; and then moisten it occasionally with a strong spirit of urine, or urine itself mixed with quicklime. In a few days it acquires a purplish red, and at length a blue colour. In the first it is called Archil ; in the latter, Lacmus or Litmase.