BALTIC SEA. The denomination of the Baltic, applied to the inland sea which forms the subject of this article, is first found in the work of Adam of Bremen, who was canon of that city at the close of the eleventh century, entitled Chorographia Scandinaviae. The etymology of this name has given rise to many conjectures. The Swedes derive it from the Scandinavian word baelt, a girdle, because its waters encircle the land; the Prussians, from the Sclavonian or Lettonian word halt, white, from its being frozen part of the year, or from Baltus, one of their kings; while by others it is derived from Baltea., the name of an island mentioned by Pytheas, a merchant of Marseilles, who, in the second or third century before the Christian era, is supposed to have sailed as far north as this sea. In the countries which bound it, its ancient name was Variatzhoiè More, or the Sea of Variaghi; by the modern Russians it is called Baltishoe More; and by the Swedes, Danes, and Germans, the East Sea.

I. The Baltic is entered from the British or Northern Ocean by the Skager-Rack, Cattegat, Sound, andGreatand Little Belts. The Skager-Rack extends from the Naze of Norway and the north-west point of Jutland, to the Gulf of Gottenburg and north point of Jutland, or Scagen Point, better known to English seamen by the name of the Scaw. The narrowest part of the Skager-Rack is 19 leagues. The Cattegat extends from Gottenburg and the Scagen Point to the Sound and Belts. The greatest depth of the Cattegat is 35 fathoms; but it decreases as it approaches the Sound. The Sound is the channel between the coast of Sweden and the island of Zealand. A mass of rocks on the Swedish shore distinguishes its entrance from the Cattegat; its termination is between Falsterbo in Sweden and Cape Stevens in Zealand. Its narrowest part is between Elsineur and Helsingborg, where, measured on the ice, it is 2840 yards. Between Copenhagen and Landscrona it is between six and seven leagues across. Its greatest depth, where narrowest, is 19 fathoms. Towards the Danish shore, at the entrance of the Sound from the Cattegat, its depth is 16 fathoms; but near Copenhagen it is not more than four fathoms. Close to the Swedish shore there is a gradual accumulation of sand. The Great Belt, between the islands of Zealand and Funen, is between seven and eight leagues wide at its broadest place, between Corsoer in Zealand, and Nyborg in Funen. The little island Sprogoe lies nearly in the middle of it. The coasts are in general low and sandy; and the greatest depth is about 22 fathoms. The Little Belt, between Funen and the coast of Jutland, is in its greatest breadth about seven miles, and, where narrowest, about three quarters of a mile. In general the shores are little elevated. Its greatest depth is 27 fathoms.

The Baltic extends 240 leagues from Torneo to the Island of Wollin, on the coast of Pomerania. Its northern extra - mity is situate in the latitude of 65° 5P,and its southern extremity is in 53° 30'. It runs first in an easterly direction as far asMemel, a length of 300 miles, with a mean breadth [7:4:325]of 140.> It then sweeps northwards to the Aland Isles, a leu th of 350 miles, with a mean breadth of 70. Its northern portion forms the Gulf of Bothnia, which is 150 leagues in length, with an extreme breadth of 162 miles. The archipelago of Aland lies at its entrance from the Baltic and forms three channels between the coast of Sweden and the islands composing the archipelago. The breadth of the channel is between eight and nine leagues. This is called the Sea of Aland by the Swedes. The space between Mand and the coast of Finland is filled with numerous slands, among which are two channels. The lower part of the gulf from Aland to L τ meo is called by the Swedes the Sea of Bothnia. Between Umeo and Wasa the channel is narrowed by a number of rocky islands, forming a strait eight or nine leagues wide, from which the gulf widens very considerably, and to its head is called by the Swedes the Gulf of Bothnia. Its greatest ascertained depth is 50 fathoms. On the east the Baltic forms the Gulf of Finland, which is 80 leagues long and from 11 to 22 broad. Its entrance is between Spinthamer Point in Esthonia, and Hangoe Head in Finland. Its greatest depth is 60 fathoms, which, in some places, decreases to five fathoms. A vast number of rocky islands and reefs, many of them level with the water, renders the navigation of this sea extremely dangerous.

The general depth of the Baltic is 60 fathoms; but to, wards its south-east extremity, and nearly in the middle, are two spots, with 110 and 115 fathoms of water. From the east mouth of the Sound to Bornholm, the depth varies from 9 to 30 fathoms; from thence to Stockholm it is from 15 to 50; a little south of Lindo it is 60; and among the Aland Islands it is from 60 to 110.

It was long a generally received opinion that the wa. ters of the Baltic were considerably more elevated than those of the German Ocean, and that they were gradually diminishing. This seems to have rested entirely on the fact of a constant current setting out of the Baltic; and to this it is ascribed by Vice-Admiral Nordenancker, who was president of the Swedish Academy in 1792. In a paper published in their Transactions, he maintains that, from observations made at different periods, the height of the waters of the Baltic was diminishing at the rate of about four and a half lines annually. Celsius, a learned Swede, who flourished towards the middle of last century, advances the same hypothesis; and, from observations made on the coasts of the Baltic, he estimated the diminution at 45 inches in every hundred years. This hypothesis was supported by Linnaeus, who founded on it a theory of the earth; but the chief facts brought forward in support of it, namely, marks on several rocks in the Gulf of Bothnia, and the remains of vessels found at considerable distances from the present shores, by no means warrant it. Μ. Otto, in his physical observations on this sea, has suggested another theory to account for its apparent decrease. He supposes that, instead of really subsiding, it may be only shifting its position, and gaining in one quarter what it loses in another; and this he ascribes to the large and rapid rivers, which carry along with them an immense quantity of earth and sand, by which the beds at their mouths are raised, and their banks extended towards the sea. But recent observations, made at the locks of the canal of Holstein, prove that the levels of the Baltic and the ocean are at present generally the same; and that the trifling differences which may be occasionally observed are owing to accidental and temporary causes. Hence we may infer that the constant current setting out of the Baltic is solely owing to the abundance of the waters which it receives from its rivers.

It is generally believed that there are no tides in the Baltic. This, however, is not strictly correct. There are sensible tides in the Skager-Racκ; but these begin to diminish in the Cattegat, are very trifling in the Sound and Belts, and in the Baltic, properly so called, are scarcely, if at all, perceptible. There are, however, irregular variations in the level of the waters of the Baltic, which bear some resemblance to tides. These elevations generally occur in autumn, when the weather threatens rain; and they last sometimes a few days, sometimes several weeks. The maximum rise is three feet and a half, and the low shores are occasionally inundated. They also render the freshwater lakes which communicate with the sea brackish. In the Gulf of Bothnia, the fall of the waters is usually succeeded by north winds; whereas, near Stockholm, these winds usually follow the elevation. M. Kraft, formerly professor of experimental philosophy in the lmpe ial Academy of Sciences at Petersburg, in his treatise on the inundations of the Neva at the autumnal equinox, observes, that three or four days before or after the full or new moon, a violent north-west wind drives the waters of the Northern Ocean, during the influx of the tide, into the Baltic, and is accompanied or immediately succeeded by a south wind in that sea and the Gulf of Finland. By Schultens, a learned Swede, who paid particular attention to the physical geography of the Baltic, the irregular elevations of this sea are attributed to the state of the atmosphere. He had observed that when the waters were about to rise the barometer fell, and that when they were about to fall it rose. Hence he inferred that the unequal pressure of the atmosphere on different portions of the water deranged the level of the waters. The difference between the greatest and the least rise of the barometer in the northern parts of Europe is two and a half inches, which answers to three and a half feet of water, or the difference of the elevation of the waters at their extremes.

In the Sound there are superior and inferior currents. These were first observed by some Englishmen, who, be-< ing in a boat in the middle of the channel, found that they drifted towards the Cattegat; but having let down∙ a loaded bucket to the depth of four or five fathoms, the boat became stationary; and when the bucket was sunk deeper, the boat drifted against the superficial current. The general currents of the Baltic are strong, and evidently occasioned by the vast number of rivers and streams that pour their waters into it, many of which, especially towards the north, rise thrice in the course of the year. At the northern extremity of the island of Bornholm, a violent agitation of the waters, or kind of whirlpool, called by the Swedes malt-quern, or the grinding-mill, is occasioned by the current rushing over a circular cluster of sunken rocks. The waves of the Baltic are short and broken, in consequence of sudden changes of wind, irregular depths, and strong currents.

The waters of this sea are not nearly so salt as those of the ocean; and when the wind blows strong from the north, they become so fresh as to be fit for drinking or cooking meat. The degree of their saltness varies in different parts, and even in the same parts, according to the season or wind. According to Bergman, in his Physical Geography, the waters near the south coast of Norway, at the entrance of the Skager-Rack, contain from -⅛th to J, th part of their weight of salt; in the Cattegat ¶gth; in the Baltic ∙⅛∙th; and in the Gulf of Bothnia from -⅛th to y 1 θth. The south-west and west winds augment t ιe saltness, by introducing the waters of the ocean. In the summer it requires 300 tons of the water of the Gulf of Bothnia to produce one ton of salt, but in the winter only 50 tons. This difference is caused by congelation, and by less fresh water flowing into t.

The analysis of three pound⅛ of water taken up from [7:4:326]the British Sea, on the coast of East Friezland, and the same quantity from near Rostock in the Baltic, gave
[table]

The following are the results of some experiments made by Dr Thomson on the specific gravity of the water in the Frith of Forth, the Baltic off Tunaberg, the Sound, and off the Scaw Point; and also on the comparative weight of salt obtained from 1000 grains of each of the waters evaporated.
[table]

In the salt obtained from the water off’ the Scaw, he found
[table]

There is great difference in the temperature in different parts of the Baltic. The general temperature of the Gulf of Bothnia in July is from 48° to 56°, but it is sometimes heated to 70°; the medium of the thermometer throughout the year at Uleoborg is 29°, and at Stockholm 42J 0 . Near the land in the Gulf of Bothnia, the temperature of the atmosphere in the month of July was observed to be 68°, while the temperature of the surface of the water was 65°; and in October the temperatures of both were respectively 39° and 46°. In the Sound, the temperature of the atmosphere in the month of August was 70°; on the surface of the water 68°; and at three fathoms 66°. On the 10th of October 1813 Dr Thomson found the temperature of the Sound to be 54°. The Skager-Rack and Gulf of Norway are open to navigation all the winter, whereas several portions of the Baltic are covered with ice in a very moderate degree of cold; and generally the bays and channels are encumbered with ice at the latter end of December. The waters towards the heads of the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland are first frozen; and the ice being conveyed by the currents to the south, the masses of it are, by the increasing cold, united into vast fields, which become stationary on the west towards Stockholm, and in the east towards the islands of Dagoe and Oesel. In the southern parts of the sea the ice begins to break up in April, but the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland often continue closed till May. The rigour of the climate in the Baltic is supposed to be considerably diminished by the clearing of the forests and the progress of cultivation; at least more intense and long-continued colds, as well as greater extent and solidity of ice, are recorded during th e fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, than what have happened latterly.

The winds are extremely variable in the Baltic, but they blow most commonly from the east in the spring, and from the west in autumn; calms are seldom experienced, except in the middle of summer.

II. There is historical evidence that the herring fishery was a branch of national industry in the Sound as early as the year 1168;^[1. ‘ “In the year 1238 the inhabitants of Gothia (Sweden) and Frise were prevented, by their fear of the Tartars, from sending, as usual, tlicir ships to the herring fishing on the coast of England; and as there was no exportation, 40 or 50 of these fish were sold for a shilling. (Matthew Pans, p. 396.) It is whimsical enough that the orders of Mogul Khan, who reigned on the borders of China, should have lowered the price of herrings in the English market.” (Gibbon’s Roman Empire, vol. xi. p. 422.) ] and in 1389 Philip de Mezieres says that such vast shoals of herrings crowded into the Sound, that 40,000 boats, with from six to ten men each, were employed in the fishery, besides 900 large vessels, in which the herrings were salted. In the Gulfs of Flensborg and Slie, besides what are consumed fresh, about 1000 tons salted are annually exported to Copenhagen and Germany; and, according to the registers of the custom-house at Dalborg, on the south shore of the Gulf of Limfiord, this city exported yearly, from 1720 to 1730, above 23,000 tons, but from 1754 to 1765 the exportation had fallen to about 8000 tons. In the year 1748 the herring first appeared in shoals in the Gulf of Gottenburg; at first they arrived in August and September, but gradually later, and at present not till November or December. In 1752, there were 1000 tons taken; in 1753, 2000 tons; in 1761, 100,000 tons: from 1790 to 1796, nearly 2,000,000 tons were salted, and it was estimated that from 50,000 to 100,000 tons were consumed fresh.

Pilchards abound in the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland, into the bays of which they arrive in shoals in spring and autumn. The pilehard fishery is one of the most important branches of industry to the inhabitants on both sides of the Gulf of Bothnia. As soon as the ice breaks up, upwards of 200 families, with their children and servants, transport themselves to the rocks and islets that line the coast, where they remain fishing till the and of autumn. The annual produce of all the pilchard fisheries is estimated at 300,000 tons at least, which are entirely consumed in the Baltic.

Salmon ascend the rivers from April to June, according as they are free from ice. On the south they abound most in the Oder, Vistula, Diina, and Narrowa; on the north, in the Motala, Dalecarlia, Uleo, Kemi, Torneo, and Keymen. Salmon trout is taken in some bays of the Baltic. In the middle of the river Kemi is a small island, where an annual salmon fair is held. The salmon fisheries of Sweden are very considerable, both in the Cattegat and the Gulf of Bothnia: from 20,000 to 25,000 tons are salted annually.

Whales very rarely enter the Baltic. The common porpoise is the only one of the lesser species of cetaceous animals that lives habitually in this sea; and at Middlefart, in Funen, is a company, which enjoys the exclusive privilege of taking it. There are two varieties of the common seal, both of which are hunted for their oil in March and April, by the peasants of the isle of Gottland, and of the islands in the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland.

III. The coast of the Baltic, including under that appellation the Skager-Rack, the Cattegat, the Sound, and the 1 Belts, as well as Baltic Proper, may be regarded as commencing on the north side at the Naze of Norway. This is the extremity of a rocky peninsula joined to the main by a narrow isthmus; it is surrounded by rocks, of which those named the Bishop and Clerks, five miles to the south of the Naze, are most dangerous to navigators.
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From the Naze to the east, the shore is formed of elevated barren and dreary rocks. The pincipal rivers of Norway which fall into the Skager-Rack and Cattegat are die Glommen, the Laugen, the Louen, the Drammen, the Mandal, and the Nid. At the distance of five miles from die Naze is the town of Mandal, situated on the river of that name: from this place is exported a considerable quantity of smoked and salted salmon, esteemed the best in Norway. About 15 miles to the east of this is Christiansand, which has a good roadstead, besides the advantage of the little river Torvedal, to the east of the town; it exports timber, salt, fish, and iron. Next comes Aren-αal, the most secure and capacious harbour in Norway, formed by the Sound between the Island of Fleekeroe and die Main. On the river Louen is the town of Laurwig, which exports a great deal of iron from the founderies in its neighbourhood. The Gulf of Christiana lies some leagues to the east of it. This gulf runs up into the land 20 leagues, and divides into several branches: the entrance to it is indicated by the island of Faerdar, on which there is a light. The town of Christiana stands at the top of the gulf: its port admits the largest vessels, there being from 30 to 40 feet water close to the quay; and its exports, which consist of fir planks and rafters, pitch, tar, soap, iron, copper, and alum, generally amount to L. 100,000 annually, the timber constituting four fifths. There are several little villages on the gulf, where vessels load with timber. To the east of it is a deep inlet, called Swine-sund, which separates Norway and Sweden; it consists of two basins, the outer of which communicates with the inner by a very narrow strait. On the inner basin, and at the mouth of a small river, is Frederieshall, the commerce of which consists principally in the export of planks, sawed by thirty-six mills on the river.

The Swedish shores of the Skager-Rack and Cattegat are high, with a most rugged and dreary appearance, particularly near Marstrand, where the shore is lined with steep rocks projecting into the sea. The coast of Sehonen forms a striking contrast to the shores of the Skager-Rack and Cattegat, being nearly level and free from rocks. The Swedish coast from theshingar to the Gulf of Bothnia is lined with islands and rocks, and broken into a great number of gulfs and bays. Both shores of the Gulf of Bothnia are rugged and broken; that of Sweden, in particular, forms a sort of alpine ridge. The first river in Sweden, towards its western limit, is the Gotha, which flows into the Cattegat by two branches surrounding the island of Hysingen. This river, and the Motala, which falls into the Bay of Browick at Nordkoeping, are the only rivers of consequence in the southern provinces of Sweden. Between the provinces of Soedermanland and Upland is the lake Maelar, which communicates with the Baltic at Stockholm by two currents called the north and south; its elevation is six feet above the level of the Baltic. The river Dahl, or great river of Daleearlia, the Umeo, Torneo, and several others, which rise in the mountains of Lapland and Norway, fall into the Gulf of Bothnia: the northernmost are subject to three inundations annually; the first in March or April, when the snow on the low ground melts; the second towards the end of May, when the snow melts on the more elevated grounds; and the last towards the end of summer, when the thaw has reached the high lands and dissolved the glaciers. The first commercial, port of Sweden of any note is Uddevalla, a staple town; its exports are iron, planks, and herrings. The town of Marstrand, on an island of the same name, succeeds: it is also a staple place, and its inhabitants are engaged in the herring-fishery, and in supplying provisions to the vessels which run in for shelter, and which exceed 3Ü0 annually. The Paternosters are dangerous rocks some miles north of Marstrand. On the southern branch of the Gotha, some leagues from the sea, is the city of Gottenburg; the port is seldom closed by the ice, and is capable of receiving the largest ships; the harbour is about one fourth of a mile in breadth, and is formed by two chains of rocks.

Before the entrance of the Gotha is the island of Win-goe, with a very high light-house. The south point of the Bay of Skelder is formed of a mass of rocks lying at the entrance of the Sound, named Kullen; this mass projects far into the sea, and on the highest point, 200 feet above the sea, is a fire-tower. On the Swedish shore of the Sound are several villages of little consequence. Helsingborg, which is the usual place from which people cross to Elsineur, is the only one deserving of notice. Four leagues to the southward is Landserona, a small and ill-sheltered port, with 20 feet water; it is a staple town. The next port is Malmoe, which has a considerable trade, although its harbour is not capable of receiving vessels of any great burden. To the south are Skanor and Falsterbo, on the peninsular point which forms the entrance of the Sound from the Baltie. dose to the latter is a firetower, to direct vessels clear of a large reef which runs off from the point. The first Swedish ports on the Baltie of any consequence are Christianstadt and Carlshamn. The former is situated on the Helge, which falls into a gulf that separates the provinces of Sehonen and Bleekin-gen; the latter has 40 trading vessels engaged in foreign voyages. The pincipal export of Carlshamn is potash, which is esteemed of superior quality. They are both staple towns. The principal part of the town of Carlserona is built on the island of Trosoe, the rest of it on several rocky islets joined to the main by bridges. It is a staple town, and has about 40 vessels employed in foreign trade: the port is capable of admitting 100 sail of the line: on one of the islands is a dock for four sail of the line. Carlscrona is the pincipal station of the Swedish navy. The Strait of Calmar, which is from two to three leagues broad, separates the mainland from the island of Oeland. Near the middle of the strait stands the town of Calmar, which, though not a staple place, has a considerable trade, and vessels from 100 to 300 tons, belonging to it. North of Calmar are several small towns on the coast, one of which, Westerwie, has some ship-building. In East Gothland, the province which lies to the north of Smaland on the Baltie, are two considerable gulfs, Sloetbacken and Browick. On the river Motala, which falls into the latter, stands the staple town of Nordkoeping, from which are exported considerable quantities of iron, iron cannon, and copper, though its port can only receive vessels of light burden. From 300 to 400 enter it annually; and 30 or 40 trading vessels belong to it. North of the entrance of a sound which communicates with Lake Maelar by a canal, is Landsort Island, where there is a light, and whence ships take pilots for Stockholm.

Stockholm is built on seven or eight islands and peninsulas, at the entrance of Lake Maelar: the channel is 12 leagues in length, very winding, and terminates in a basin capable of holding 1000 ships. The largest island, on which the city stands, forms two channels, through which the waters of the lake rush out with great impetuosity.

The only ports of any consequence in the province of Upland, are Grislehamn, opposite the islands of Aland, where travellers embark or take sledge for Abo; and Oere-grund, on an island in the channel of Aland, from which the iron from the founderies of Danemora is exported. Formerly it was sent chiefly to England, where it was converted into steel. From Gefle, a staple town on both sides of a river of the same name, are exported considerable quantities of iron, planks, tar, and potash; its imports are [7:4:328]corn and salt. The smaller islands in the Baltic belonging to Sweden have already been noticed. Besides these there are Huen, Oeland, and Gottland. Huen lies in the Sound, four miles from Landscrona, three from the nearest point of Sweden, and four from the nearest point of Zealand: it is about six miles in circumference. CEland is separated from the coast of East Gothland by the Strait of Calmar: the east coast of the island is bold and clear, but the west is dangerous for mariners. Between Oeland and a group of rocks is the southern channel into the Strait of Calmar. Nearly in the middle of the strait is a rock, almost perpendicular, 240 feet high, surrounded by reefs. Gottland, which is 18 leagues from the nearest point of Sweden, and about the same distance from Courland, is 20 leagues in length, and seven at its greatest breadth. Its shore in some places is nearly perpendicular, in other places it ascends gradually. Wisby, the capital, is built on the west coast; at present its port is capable of receiving only a few small vessels. Slitehamn, on the east of the island, is one of the best ports in the Baltic, and is defended by the fort of Carlsbelt.

The coasts, rivers, gulfs, and principal commercial ports of the south and east of the Baltic, are next to be described; and, beginning at the entrance from the German Ocean, those of Denmark first present themselves. The north point of Jutland, in the Scaw, is surrounded by a reef several leagues in extent, and on its extremity is a light-house, 64 feet above the level of the sea. The north and east coasts of this peninsula are generally low; the northern extremity is composed of sands, which are often conveyed by whirlwinds to a great distance, and do considerable damage. In order to fix them, a variety of plants, particularly the Elymus arenarius, sea lime-grass, are sown. The east coasts of Sleswick and Holstein descend gently to the sea. On all these coasts there are numerous gulfs and bays; the first towards the north is the Limfiord, which nearly divides the peninsula of Jutland, being separated from the German Ocean only by a sandy isthmus three or four miles broad; another arm of it advances southward to the town of Wyborg, a length of about 80 or 90 miles; its entrance is two miles wide, but afterwards it becomes greatly wider; sands that very sensibly increase, and masses of granite, obstruct its entrance. In Jutland there are also the Gulfs of Manager and Randers, and several bays. In Sleswick, on the Baltic side, are the Gulfs of Colding, Flensborg, Slie, which resembles a great river, and Ekernefiord; in Holstein are the Gulfs of Kiel, which separates this province from Sleswick, and of Lubec, and the Bay of Colberg. The Guden is the chief river in Jutland, which falls into the Baltic, at the Gulf of Randers, after a course of 40 miles.

From the Scaw to the entrance of the Gulf of Limfiord there are only small towns, chiefly inhabited by fishermen and pilots. On the north shore of the entrance of Limfiord is the fort of Hals, where vessels of too great depth to ascend higher discharge their cargoes; and on the south shore, four leagues and a half from the sea, is Aalborg, the chief town of Jutland. It possesses considerable commerce, its exports consisting of corn, cattle, and fish; and it has 60 or 70 trading vessels belonging to it. Frederica, which stands on a promontory at the entrance of the Little Belt, has an inconvenient and badly-sheltered port: the merchant-vessels passing through the Little Belt pay toll here. Colding, at the head of the gulf of the same name, which separates Jutland and Sleswick, is a commercial town, and has a port of two miles in circuit, and of depth sufficient for the largest vessels. The trade of Sleswick, which stands at the head of the Gulf of Slic, has much declined: the entrance to its port being filled up with sand, a canal has been cut into it.

Of the Danish islands, Zealand is the principal; it s length is 24 leagues, its breadth varies from 20 to 14; ⅛ e Gulf of Isefiord, divided into two branches, penetrates the north side of it, at the entrance to which there is only nine feet water, but it deepens within to seven fathoms. The most remarkable river in Zealand is the Nesaa, which nearly traverses it, and enters the Baltic. Elsineur, on the narrowest part of the Sound, has only a roadstead: here the duties of the Sound are paid. The origin of these duties may be traced to the middle ages, when they were established by the sovereigns of Denmark for the support of light-houses and the protection of the navigation of the Baltic from pirates. These duties vary from 450,000 to 600,000 rix-dollars annually. The mails and passageboats cross the Sound from Elsineur to Helsingborg.

Copenhagen is built partly on the mainland, and partly on the island of Amak, which is separated from it by a narrow channel, crossed by two bridges. The port between Amak and the main is one of the best in the Baltic, both by nature and art. Within are basins capable of containing 500 sail, but the entrance admits but one ship at a time. There are two royal dock-yards constructed on islands, where every ship has her particular magazine: the dry-dock is constructed of wood, and requires 20 hours to pump it dry, which is done by horses. Copenhagen is a free port, and for a long time was the only one in Denmark which enjoyed the privilege of importing the produce of Iceland, Greenland, India, China, and America; and, even yet, the principal returns from these countries are made to it.

Macen island is separated from the south-east end of Zealand by Ulfsund, a narrow strait. It is about five leagues long and from one to three broad. It exports 15,000 tons of corn. Samsoe, midway between Zealand and Jutland, is near five leagues long, and is formed of two peninsulas, the largest of which is five miles broad. The other islands belonging to the government of Zealand are of little consequence. Saltholm, in the Sound, may however be particularized; it is four miles long and two broad; almost covered by the sea in winter, but in summer affords good pasturage, and from it are exported to the capital, marble, freestone, and lime.

Funen, the second of the Danish islands in extent, is 16 leagues long and 11 broad. The Gulf of Odenzee runs considerably into it on the north-east. At the head of the gulf stands the town of Odenzee, the capital. From twenty to thirty trading vessels belong to it. At Nyborg, on the Great Belt, a duty is paid by all merchant-vessels passing through; it is also the usual crossing place to Zealand, and has a good port, with about as many vessels belonging to it as Odenzee. The island of Funen exports corn; and in the year 1799 there belonged to it fifty-seven vessels above 20 tons, amounting to 2522 tons, with 109 men. From Rudkoeping, the only town on Langland, an island between Funen and Zealand, corn, salted meat, hides, honey, and wax are exported.

Laaland, the third of the Danish islands in size, is 11 leagues long and from six to eight broad. Considerable portions of its coast are so low as to be inundated during the irregular elevations of the sea. The feathers of aquatic birds and corn are its principal exports. From this island Falster is separated by Guldborg Sound, and from Macen by Grensund. It is eight leagues long and from one to four broad. It exports corn and fruit. In the year 1799 there were in the bailiwick of Laaland and Falster fourteen vessels, of 460 tons and 40 men. In the government of Jutland are the islands of Lessoe and Anholt, in the Cattegat; the latter is surrounded by dangerous banks.

Bornholm is an island about seven leagues and a half from the coast of Sweden, and upwards of 17 from the [7:4:329]island of Rugen. It is eight leagues long and five and a half broad. Its shores are composed of steep rocks, surrounded by dangerous reefs. The principal imports are coffee, sugar, and tobacco; the principal exports are salted cod, corn, poultry, clay for the porcelain manufactory of Copenhagen, and freestone for its public buildings. The centre of commerce is at Ronne, near the middle of the west side of the island. In 1800 this place employed 60 vessels and 130 boats, chiefly in the fisheries.

The first shore on the south of the Baltic is that -of Holstein, the principal port-town of which is Kiel, a place of considerable commerce. The territory of Lubec succeeds. The city of Lubec is situated on the Trave, five leagues from its mouth. Its commerce is chiefly transit, and on commission, drawing from Russia, Sweden, and Denmark their raw commodities, and supplying them with wines, silks, cloth, hardware, and colonial goods. It admits vessels of from 150 to 200 tons. In 1802 it had from 70 to 80 merchant-vessels, and the aame year 1368 entered and 1234 cleared out. Travemunde, at the mouth of the Trave, about nine miles from Lubec, is the port where vessels destined to and from Lubec take their station. The Trave, near Lubec, is joined by the Wakenitz, which, issuing from the Lake of Ratzeburg, thus facilitates the water communication between Lubec and the interior. ∙

On passing the Trave, the duchy of Mecklenburg is entered. Wismar, a bay within the isle of Poel, and Rostock, on the left bank of the Warnaw, three leagues from its mouth, are the principal commercial places in Mecklenburg. The exports from the latter are corn, hemp, flax, hops, wax, butter, honey, cattle, apples, and feathers.

The coast of Pomerania exhibits the effects of the constant action of the waters of the Baltic. On the west, the peninsula of Dars and the island of Zingst form the basin called Des Dars, which has six feet depth. The Strait of Gellen, farther east, separates the island of Rugen from the main. This strait varies in breadth from fourteen miles to one and a quarter, and the eastern entrance, called the Bodden, is navigable for the largest vessels; but in the narrows there is only from three to four fathoms; and the sand accumulates so fast here as to require a toll on all vessels passing through it, to defray the expense of clearing it.

The Gulf of Dantzic lies beyond the eastern limits of Pomerania, the western extremity of which, called the Gulf of Putzic, is formed by a curved tongue of land. On the coast of Prussia are the two remarkable basins called the Fresch-Haff and Curish-Haff. The waters of both are fresh, being supplied from the rivers of Poland; and each communicates with the Baltic by a single strait. The Fresch-Haff, which, besides three branches of the Vistula, receives the rivers Elbing, Passarge, and Pregel, is 16 or 17 leagues long and from one to five broad, lhe communication of this basin with the Baltic has changed several times, and the present passage, near Pillau, was formed by a great storm in 1500; its depth is from 13 to 16 feet. The tongue of land called the Fresch-Nehrung, which separates it from the Baltic, commences near Dantzic, and runs east about 19 leagues; its breadth varies from one to three leagues. The Curish-Haff, or Sea of the Cures, a people of Courland, is 19 leagues long and from one to three broad. Its depth is very irregular, and there are many sand banks in it. Near the upper end there is little current, but in the other parts the currents are very rapid. It communicates with the Baltic by a channel near Memel, 3200 feet wide and from 11 to 13 feet deep. The spit of land which separates it from the Baltic, called the Curish-Nehrung, is about 80 miles long, in some places three miles broad, but in other places it is so very narrow that the waves of the Baltic wash over it into the basin. Its surface, which is principally sand, continually changes by the fury of the winds. From its ancient name, Mendoniemi, or Promontory of Pines, it was probably covered with those trees. It is inhabited only by fishermen and pilots, whose dwellings are not unfrequently overwhelmed by the sand. It is frequented by immense numbers of crows and hawks; the former of which supply food to the inhabitants, and the tithe of them forms part of the revenue of the pastor.

The whole coast of Prussia and Courland is low, sandy, and covered with pebbles; the latter, however, has calcareous cliffs, which seem to run under water to the island of Gottland. The Gulf of Livonia or Riga has Domes-ness for its southern limit, between which and the Swa-verort is the entrance, eight leagues wide; but from Domes-ness a sand bank runs off, and a reef from Swa-verort. The coast of Livonia, and the islands off it, are in general higher than those of Courland, and are composed of sand, gravel, and calcareous strata. Entering the Gulf of Finland, on the south side is the bay of Rog-gerswic, inclosed by islands. The whole of the coast of Finland is naked, stony, lined with rocks and islets, and nearly bare of vegetation.

The principal rivers of Prussia that flow into the Baltic are the Oder and the Vistula. The Oder, after dividing into four principal branches near the frontiers of Pomerania, again flows into one stream near Stettin, and falls into the Gros-Haff. Between the Oder and the Vistula several lesser rivers discharge themselves, and being generally navigable, form ports at their mouths. Three of the branches of the Vistula fall into the Fresch-Haff; and the fourth, which alone retains its original name, enters the Gulf of Dantzic at Weixelmunde. The Pregel, which is deeper than the Fresch-Haff, into which it falls, is navigated by vessels of considerable burden. The Elbing issues from Lake Dramsen, and, as has been already noticed, falls into the Fresch-Haff. The Niemen, below Tilsit, separates into two branches, one running to the south-west and the other to the north-west; thus both subdivide, and fall into the Curish-Haff near Memel. The Dange, which gives a port to Memel, has a short course, but is wide and deep.

Stralsund is the first commercial port on the Pomeranian shore of the Baltic. Its harbour is inclosed by jetties, but the access is dangerous and difficult, on account of sand banks. It has a considerable export trade in brandy, starch, and linens. Stettin, on the Oder, succeeds. Vessels of moderate burden go up to it, but large ones discharge at Swinemunde, on the channel into the Gros-Haff, which separates the islands of Usedom and Wollin. Between the years 1787 and 1796 the annual exports were 3714 tons. The imports consist of manufactured goods from England; salt, wines, and fruits from France, &c.; and linseed from Russia. About 160 vessels, manned by 1000 seamen, belong to it. From Politz, near the mouth of the Oder, are exported several thousand bushels of hops, chiefly to Sweden.

The principal islands off the coast of Pomerania are Rugen, Usedom, Ruden, and Wollin. Rugen is separated from the mainland by the Strait of Gellen. It is of a very irregular shape, and consists of the island proper and three peninsulas. It is supposed to contain 142,000 acres. Two of the peninsulas terminate in promontories, composed of chalky cliffs, one of which is 430 feet high. There is no port on the island; but from the roads are exported herrings, cattle, corn, and salted geese. The coasts are very dangerous, scarcely a year passing in which some vessels are not stranded; and several ancient regulations are still in force respecting the assistance which [7:4:330]the inhabitants are bound to give in case of shipwrecks. The islands of Usedom, Ruden, and Wollin, are formed by the alluvion of the Peene and the Oder; they are very low, and in general sandy.

Dantzic is the principal commercial place in Prussian Poland. It is situated on the western branch of the Vistula, five miles from its mouth, and at the confluence of the rivulets Motlau and Radaune. These form its port, to which there is an entrance by a canal giving a new channel to the Vistula, the old one being choked up. Dantzic has long justly been considered one of the granaries of Europe. Its annual exports of corn average about 700,000 tons. Its other exports are timber, beer, brandy, horse-hair, hogs’ bristles, feathers, wool, amber, honey, wax, linens, masts of ships, eork-wood, hemp and flax, potash, salt, tar, skins, fruits, &c. Its imports are English manufactures and London porter, herrings, fruits, lead, coffee, tea, sugar, indigo, wines, &c.

Pillau, whence there is a considerable export of timber, stands on a peninsula washed by the Fresch-Haff on one side, and by the Baltic on the other. From Königsberg, on an island at the mouth of the Pregel, are exported nearly the same articles as from Dantzic, in between 600 and 700 vessels annually. From Elbing, at the. mouth of the river of the same name, corn, starch, linseed oil, soap, cordage, sail cloth, saltpetre, potash, and timber, are exported in between 300 and 400 vessels annually. The port of Memel, formerly the mouth of the river Dange, is liable to be encumbered with mud; its chief exports are ship timber, masts, linseed of a superior quality, hemp, flax, hides, and tallow.

The first Russian river of consequence that falls into the Baltic is the Western Dwina. It is navigable from its source to within a few miles of Riga, where ridges of rocks form fourteen falls. These, however, do not prevent the floating down of immense quantities of timber. It is frozen from the end of November to the beginning of April. It separates Courland from Livonia, and, after a course of 180 leagues, falls into the Gulf of Livonia before Riga. The Narrowa, which is the only oμtlet of Lakes Peipus and Plaskoff, falls into the Gulf of Finland at Narva, but its navigation is obstructed half a league above that town by a fall. The Neva, which issues from Lake Ladoga, disembogues itself by several branches at Petersburg, above which it is from 150 to 200 fathoms broad. It is shallow, and is frozen from the end of October to the end of April. The principal rivers in Finland are the Wuoxen, which falls into Lake Ladoga; the Kymene, which discharges itself into the Gulf of Finland; and the Kumo, Uleo, Kemi, and Torneo, which fall into the Gulf of Bothnia, at the towns of their respective names. In Courland, Russia has only two ports of any commercial consequence, Liebau and Windau. From the former, on a river of the same name, 111 vessels cleared out, and 113 entered it, in the year 1800; and the value of its exports amounted to 1,065,700 rubles, and of its imports to 620,000. Riga and Pernau are the principal ports in Livonia. Riga is one of the most commercial cities of the Baltic, and the second of Russia in this respect. Its port can only receive small vessels, large ones being obliged to lie in the roads. The exports consist of corn, hemp, flax, ship timber, pitch, potash, hides, tallow, iron, &c. The imports are woollen and cotton goods, hardware, wines, oils, spirits, and colonial produce.

Though the entrance to Revel is through dangerous shoals, and the town stands on a river which affords little or no intercourse with the interior, yet its commerce is considerable. Its exports and imports are nearly the same as Riga.

Petersburg is built on both sides of the Neva, and on several islands. The mouth of the river being choked by sand, there are only from Seven to eleven feet of water over it, according as the wind blows from the east or west. With easterly winds the river often falls three or four feet below its general level, whereas westerly winds sometimes raise it from ten to fifteen feet. Loaded ships of any considerable burden cannot, therefore, approach within four miles of the city. The principal exports are iron, hemp, flax, cordage, tallow, hides, linseed oil, hemp and flax seed, planks and rafters, leather, soap, candles, wax and honey, fish, caviar, tobacco, rhubarb, tea, isinglass, feathers, linen, and furs. The principal imports are English cotton manufactures, French wines, colours, coffee, sugar, drugs, &c.

Cronstadt, the principal station of the Russian fleet, is built on a little island on the Gulf of Petersburg, four leagues below the city, the same distance from Ingria, and nine leagues from Finland. The channel to the capital lies between this place and the coast of Ingria. Its navigable breadth is three quarters of a mile, its depth four fathoms. The channel between Cronstadt and the coast of Finland has only five feet of water. Cronstadt has three havens, two for ships of war and one for merchant vessels. The dry docks, which communicate with the sea by a canal, require nine days to empty them. The principal man of war’s port has space for thirty sail of the line.

The first commercial port in Finland is Wyborg, built on a peninsula in a gulf of the same name. It exports corn, butter, tallow, fish, fish oil, salted provisions, timber, tar, and hops. Helsingfors, the best port in Finland for large ships, is on a bay; and opposite to it is Sveaborg, the Gibraltar of the north. It occupies seven islands, and has two basins for repairing ships of the line and smaller vessels. At the entrance of the Gulf of Bothnia, on a peninsula, stands Abo. Vessels drawing nine or ten feet go up to the town. While it belonged to Sweden it was a staple town, with some trade to the Mediterranean, France, and Holland, whither it exported iron, nails, copper, deals, rafters, pitch and tar, salted provisions, hides, furs, coarse linens, and firewood, to Stockholm and Copenhagen. From Abo there is no commercial place of consequence till we come to Gamla Carlby, which, in 1794, had fourteen ships of 1530 tons, thirteen of which were employed in foreign trade. Its exports that year were 1800 barrels of tar, 1500 of pitch, between 3000 and 4000 deals, 2000 lbs. of butter, 273 cwt. of tallow, and 900 barrels of corn. Brahested, a staple town while Finland belonged to Sweden, possesses commerce nearly of the same kind and to the same amount as Gamla Carlby. It lies in a bay between two peninsulas. Uleoborg, the chief town of East Bothnia, on the Uleo, exports annually a considerable quantity of pitch and tar, butter, tallow, salmon, pike, herrings, and deals. On the islands at the mouth of the river are two building places, from which five or six ships are launched annually. Torneo is situate on a peninsula, and had formerly a good harbour, but the accumulation of sand has almost ruined it. The exports, besides the general articles from the other ports of Finland, are salted and smoked rein-deer flesh, and the furs of the rein-deer, fox, wolf, and ermine, procured from the Laplanders, who visit the town once a year.

The Russian islands at the northern extremity of the Gulf of Livonia, Oesel and Dagoe, and the numerous islands and rocks in the Gulf of Finland, require no particular notice. The archipelago of Aland, which was ceded to Russia along with Swedish Finland in 1809, is composed of one considerable and above eighty lesser islands and rocks. They are in general elevated, rising on rocky peaks, with numerous caverns. The principal island is nearly round, and twenty leagues in circumference. There is no town [7:4:331]on any of them. Besides fire-wood, 12,000 loads of which are sent annually to Finland and Sweden, the inhabitants export salted beef, seal skins and oil, tallow, hides, pilchards, and butter, chiefly to Stockholm.

IV. The commerce of the Baltic is considerably facilitated and increased by means of different canals, which form a communication with different parts of it, with it and other seas, and with the interior of the countries, the shores of which it washes.

The ancient Scandinavian chronicles mention a natural water communication between the Baltic and the German Ocean through the Danish peninsula, by means of the Gulf of Kiel, the river Lewensau, the lake Flemhud, and the river Eyder. When the communication ceased to be practicable, an attempt to renew it was made in the middle of the seventeenth century by the duke of Holstein Gottorp. It did not however succeed, in consequence of the opposition of the king of Denmark. The union of Holstein and Denmark taking place in 1773, the proposed canal was begun in 1777, and finished in 1784. It enters from die Baltic by the Gulf of Kiel, near the mouth of the Lewensau, the waters of which serve to supply it; then joins the northern extremity of Lake Flemhud, unites with the Upper Eyder, passes by Rendsburg, and falls into the German Ocean at Tonningen. The perpendicular fall towards the Baltic is twenty-five feet six inches, and that towards the ocean twenty-three. To Lake Flemhud, which is the highest point, vessels are drawn by horses, and elevated by three locks of nearly ten feet fall each; three other locks lower them to the Eyder; and from Rendsburg to Tonningen vessels use their sails. The whole length of the navigation from sea to sea is about 105 miles, of which the canal forms 20|: its breadth is 100 feet at top, 54 at bottom, and the least depth 10 feet, so that it can admit vessels of about 140 tons burden. Upwards of 2000 pass it annually. The Baltic and the German Ocean are also united by means of the canal of Stecknitz. This canal unites the rivulet of that name which falls into the Trave with the Devenau, a rivulet that runs into the Elbe at Lauenburg. This navigation is fit only for flat-bottomed ⅛oats, and is very tedious.

The Baltic has communication with the interior of Germany by the canals of Muhlrose and Finow. The first unites the Oder above Frankfort with the Spree, one of the tributary streams of the Elbe. The canal of Finow joins the river of this name, which falls into the Oder, with the Havel, another branch of the Elbe. By means of these and some lesser canals a long navigation through Silesia, Brandenburg, Lower Saxony, and Pomerania, is maintained. There is also an artificial navigation which unites the Vistula and the Oder: this is the canal of Bromberg, which joins the Brahe, a tributary of the Vistula, with the Netze, which falls into the Warthe, and the latter into the Oder. The Niemen, in conjunction with the Dnieper, affords a communication between the Baltic and the Black Sea; the canal of Pinsk uniting the former river near its head with the Priapetz, which falls into the Dnieper. These seas are also united by means of the Dwina and Dnieper. The boats employed in this navigation ascend the Dwina to the I lla, which they also ascend as far as the Lake Bieloe, out of which it flows. By crossing this lake they reach the river Essena, which they ascend to Lake Beresina. Here they enter a canal four leagues in length, which conveys them into Lake Plawia. From this lake flows the river Sargutsch, which joins the river Beresina, and this latter falls into the Dnieper; but the cataracts in this river, about 250 miles above its estuary, greatly impede the intercourse which might otherwise be established by these two navigations between the Baltic and the Black Sea.

The Baltic and Caspian Sea are united by the canals of Ladoga and Vyschnei Volotschok. The canal of Ladoga, so called, not because it enters that lake, but as winding along its margin, extends from the river Volchof to the Neva. In the original navigation the boats passed from the canal of Ladoga up the Volchof to Lake Ilmen, and from this lake entered the river Masta; but in consequence of the fatal accidents that happened on the rapids of this river, one of which is six or seven leagues long, a canal was cut directly upon the Volchof to the Masta above the rapids. The old route is here only followed at a certain season, and by boats of a peculiar construction. Ascending the Masta, the boats enter the Lake Mstinskoja, and thence the river Shlina, from which, by means of a canal with a lock, they enter the Sna, and by another lock the canal of Vyschnei Volotschok. This is a league in length, and from it ∙a lock lowers the boats into the Twerza, which they descend to the Wolga. In order to facilitate the ascending navigation from Petersburg, which is rendered tedious by the rapidity of the Volchof and the Masta, a canal has been cut, combining the Tichwin, which falls into the Ladoga, and the Somina, which falls into the Molaga, a tributary of the Wolga. In spring the vessels may draw two and a half feet water, but in summer only twenty-six inches. In autumn the navigation from Vyschnei Volotschok to Petersburg is performed in rather more than a month, in summer in three weeks, and in spring in a fortnight.

By these canals a navigation is established nearly the whole way from Petersburg to the frontiers of China, there being an interruption only in two places, both not more than sixty miles. The distance from Petersburg is between 1600 and 1700 leagues; but the rivers being navigable only in the fine season, it requires three years to complete the passage. The extent of the commerce is about one and a half million of rubles annually.

The Baltic and the Caspian are also connected by the canal of Maria. The boats ascend the Neva, cross the Lake Ladoga, and enter the Swir, which they ascend to Lake Onega. From this lake they ascend the Wytegra, which is united by the canal of Maria to the Kowska. By ascending this they arrive at Lake Bieloe, and crossing it enter the river Tchesna, which they descend to the Wolga. A canal has long been projected to form a communication between the Baltic and the White Sea; but though it was begun more than fifty years ago, there is only a small portion of it executed.

Ever since the time of Gustavus Vasa, the Swedes have been anxious to form an inland navigation between Stockholm and the Cattegat, principally in order to avoid the payment of the duties of the Sound, and Danish privateers in case of war. This navigation presented no very formidable difficulties. The Gotha flows out of Lake Venar; this is at no great distance from Lake Hielmar; and this again is still nearer Lake Maelar, which communicates with the Baltic at Stockholm. Hence it appears that the plan of forming an internal water communication between Gottenburg and the capital may be divided into three principal parts; the junction of the Hielmar and the Maelar, of the Hielmar and the Venar, and the rendering the Gotha navigable from the Venar to Gottenburg. The Hielmar is seventy-three feet higher than the Maelar, which is six feet above the Baltic. These two lakes were united in the reigns of Christina, Charles XI., and Charles XII., by the small river Ulvison and the canal of Arboga. Nine locks are necessary to establish this communication. The obstacles that opposed the navigation of the Gotha from Lake Venar were principally just at its first issuing from that lake, at the four cataracts, twenty leagues above Gottenburg, called by the general name of Trollhaeta; the fall of Akerström, about a mile below these cataracts, and [7:4:332]a bed of rocks at Edit, considerably nearer Gottenburg. The first impediment was removed in the reigns of Charles XL and XII. by the Carlsgraf Canal. Attempts were made to remove the second by carrying a canal along the channel of the river; but these not succeeding, it was resolved to cut the canal through the solid rock which forms its banks. This work was begun in 1793, and completed in seven years. The canal commences below the first fall of Trollhaeta (for this fall, by the former plan, had been nearly turned into still water), and is carried nearly a league before it again joins the river; its breadth is twenty-two feet and its depth six and a half, and it has eight locks and a large reservoir. A communication between Lake Maelar and the Lake Sodra Barken, on the borders of Dalecarlia, is effected by means of the canal of Strachms-holm, several small lakes, a river, and several locks, some of which have a fall of thirty-eight feet. A communication between Lake Maelar and the Baltic, considerably to the south of the exit of that lake, and much shorter than by it, is afforded by means of a canal that joins Lake Maelar with the Sound, at the head of which stands the town of Soeder Telje.

See Thomson’s Travels in Sweden; Tableau de la Mer Baltique, par Catteau; Tableau des Etats Danois, par Catteau; Macpherson’s edition of Anderson’s History of Commerce; Oddy’s European Commerce; Maritime Geography and Statistics, by Tuckey.