pnugues/EB7 huggingface dataset:
CYRENAICA, an ancient kingdom of Africa, corresponding to the present kingdom and desert of Barca and Tripoli. It was originally inhabited by a number of barbarous nations, differing little from great gangs of robbers. Afterwards some colonies from Greece settled there, and Cyrenaica became so powerful a state that it waged war with Egypt and Carthage, often with success. In the time of Darius Hystaspes, Arcesilaus, the reigning prince in Cyrenaica, was driven from the throne, upon which his mother Pheretima applied for assistance to the king of Cyprus. Her son afterwards returning to Barca, the chief city of Cyrene, was there assassinated, together with his father-in-law. Pheretima finding herself disappointed by the king of Cyprus, applied to Darius Hystaspes, and by the assistance of the Persians reduced Barca. Here she behaved with the utmost cruelty, causing all those who had been concerned in her son’s death to be impaled, and the breasts of their wives to be cut off and affixed near them. She is said to have been afterwards devoured by worms, which was looked upon as a divine judgment for her excessive cruelty. The prisoners in the mean time were sent to Darius, who settled them in a district of Bactria, from them called Barca. Cyrenaica, however, seems to have remained free till the time of Alexander the Great, who conquered it along with Egypt. Soon after his death the inhabitants recovered their liberty, but were in a short time reduced by Ptolemy, king of Egypt. Under these kings it remained till Ptolemy Physcon made it over to his bastard son Apian, who in the 658th year of Rome left it by will to the Romans. The senate permitted all the cities to be governed by their own laws, and this immediately filled the country with tyrants, those who were 'most potent in every city or district endeavouring to assume the sovereiġnty of it. Thus the kingdom was [7:7:577] thrown into great confusion; but Lucullus in a great measure restored the public tranquillity on repairing thither during the first Mithridatic war. It was found impossible, however, totally to suppress these disturbances until the country was reduced into the form of a Roman province, which happened about twenty years after the death of Apian, and seventy-six before Christ. Upon a revolt, the city of Cyrene was ruined by the Romans, but they afterwards rebuilt it. In process of time it fell into the hands of the Arabs, and then into those of the Turks, who are still the nominal masters of it.
CYRENAICS, a sect of ancient philosophers, so called from their founder Aristippus of Cyrene, a disciple of Socrates.

The great principle of their doctrine was, that the supreme good of man in this life is pleasure; by which they not only meant privation of pain, and tranquillity of mind, but an assemblage of all mental and sensual pleasures, particularly the latter.

Cicero makes frequent mention of Aristippus’ school, and speaks of it as producing debauchees. Three disciples of Aristippus, after his death, divided the sect into three branches, under which division it languished and sunk; the first called the Hegesiac school, the second the Annicerian, and the third the Theodoran, from the names of their authors.
CYRENE, in Ancient Geography, the capital of Cyrenaica, and one of the cities called Pentapolis, distant from Apollonia, its sea-port, ten miles, and, according to Strabo, situated on a plain, of the form of a table.
CYRIL, St, bishop of Jerusaler»:, born in that city about the year 315, succeeded Maximus in 350. He was afterwards deposed for the crime of exposing to sale the treasures of the church, and applying the money to the support of the poor during a great famine. Under Julian he was restored to his see, and was firmly established in all his old honours and dignities under Theodosius, in which he continued unmolested till his death, which happened in 386. The remains of this father consist only of twenty-three catecheses, and one letter to the Emperor Constantius.

Cyril, St, patriarch of Alexandria, succeeded Theophilus, his uncle, in 412. Scarcely was he installed when he began to exert his authority with great rigour, and drove the Novatiansand Jews from Alexandria, permitting their wealth and synagogues to be taken from them. This proceeding highly displeased Orestes, then governor of the city, who saw that if the bishop’s authority were not soon suppressed, it might grow too strong for that of the magistrate. Upon this a kind of civil war broke out between Orestes and the bishop; many tumults were raised, and some battles fought in the very streets of Alexandria. Cyril also distinguished himself by his zeal against Nestorius, bishop of Constantinople, who in some of his homilies had, with great propriety, asserted that the Virgin Mary ought not to be called the mother of God. The dispute at first proved unfavourable to Cyril, whose opinion was not only condemned, but he was himself deprived of his bishopric and thrown into prison. Re was soon afterwards released, however, and gained a complete victory over Nestorius, who, in 431, was deposed from his see of Constantinople. Cyril returned to his see at Constantinople, where he died in 444. He also wrote against Theodorus of Mopsuesta, Diodorus of Tarsus, and Julian the Apostate. He composed commentaries on Isaiah and the twelve lesser prophets, and on St John’s gospel, and wrote several other books, consisting of apologies, anathe-matisms, dialogues, canonical letters, homilies, and a treatise on adoration. His works were published in Greek and Latin in 1638, in six volumes folio.
CYSTIC, in Anatomy, a name given to two arteries and two veins.
CYTHEREA, in Mythology, the surname of Venus, so called from Cythera, an island where she had a temple esteemed the most ancient in Greece, and on the shores of which she was believed to be borne by the Zephyrs, surrounded by the Loves, the Tritons, and Nereides, reclining in a languishing posture in a sea-shell. The name bf Cytheriades is given to the Graces which attended her on the shore without quitting her except when she chose rather to be waited upon by the Pleasures.
CYZICENS, Cyzicena, among the ancient Greeks, were a sort of magnificent banqueting houses, always looking towards the north, and usually opening upon gardens. They had their name from Cyzicus, a city considerable for the grandeur of its buildings, and situated in an island of Mysia bearing the same name.
CYZICUM, or Cyzicus, in Ancient Geography, a noble city of Asia Minor, situated in an island of the same name in Propontis, on the coast of Mysia.
CZAR, a title of honour assumed by the grand dukes, or, as they are now styled, emperors of Russia.

The natives pronounce it tzar, tsar, or zaar ; and this, it has been supposed, by corruption from Caesar. But this etymology does not seem correct. When the Czar Peter formerly required of the European courts an acknowledgment of his imperial titles, and that the appellation of Emperor should never be omitted, there was great difficulty made about it, especially at the court of Vienna; a circumstance which led him to produce the famous letter, written in German, from Maximilian I. emperor of Germany, to Vassili Ivanovitch, confirming a treaty of alliance offensive and defensive against Sigismund, king of Poland. In this dispatch, which is dated the 4th of August 1514, and is ratified with the seal of the golden bull, Maximilian addresses Vassili by the titles Kayser and Herrscher aller Russen, emperor and ruler of all the Russias. But independently of this document, there could be no doubt that the foreign courts, in their intercourse with that of Moscow, styled the sovereigns indiscriminately Great Duke, Czar, and Emperor. With respect to England, in particular, it is certain that, in Chancellor’s Account of Russia, published as early as the middle of the sixteenth century, Ivan Vas-silievitch II. is called Lord and Emperor of all Russia ; and in the English dispatches, from the reign of Elizabeth to that of Anne, he is generally addressed under the same appellation. When the European powers, however, styled the czar Emperor of Muscovy, they by no means intended to give him a title similar to that which was peculiar to the emperor of Germany; but they bestowed upon him that appellation as upon an Asiatic sovereign, in the same manner as we now speak of the emperors of China and Japan. When Peter, therefore, determined to assume the title of emperor, he found no difficulty in proving that it had been conferred upon his predecessors by most of the European powers; yet when he was desirous of affixing to the term the European sense, it was considered as an innovation, and was productive of more negotiations than would have been requisite for the termination of the most important state affair. At the same time it occasioned a curious controversy among the learned concerning the rise and progress of the titles by r which the monarchs of the country in question have been distinguished. From their researches it appeared that the early sovereigns of Russia were called great dukes; that Vassili Ivanovitch was probably the first who styled himself tzar, an expression which in the Sclavonian language signifies king ; and that his successors continued to bear, within their own dominions, that title as the most honourable appellation, until· Peter the Great first assumed that of Povelitel, or emperor. After many delays and objections, the principal courts of' Europe consented, about the year 1722, to address the sovereign of Russia by the title of Emperor, without prejudice, nevertheless, to the other crowned heads of Europe.
CZARNIKAU, a circle in the Prussian government of Posen, extending over 616 square miles, and containing five towns or cities, and 29,363 inhabitants. The chief place, which bears the same name, stands on the river Nesse, and contains 307 houses, with 2252 inhabitants.
CZASLAU, a circle of the Austrian kingdom of Bohemia, bounded by the circles of Chrudim .and Tabor. It extends over 1300 square miles, and comprehends nine cities, thirty-three market-towns, and 834 villages. In 1817 the number of houses was 30,390, and of inhabitants 187,120. It is in part watered by the Upper Elbe, and by the Dobrawa, which falls into that river. Towards Moravia the country is mountainous, but in the other parts only undulating; and the soil is fruitful, yielding good crops of corn and flax. In the hills are found silver and iron, and the woods afford great abundance of game.

Czaslau, a city of Bohemia, the chief place of the circle of the same name, about twenty-five miles east of Prague. It contains 2560 inhabitants, and 283 houses. In the cathedral is a monument to the memory of Zisea, the leader of the Hussite reformers, who was buried there.
CZERNOWITZ, a circle in the Austrian kingdom of Gallicia, formerly known by the name of Bucowina. It was anciently a part of Moldavia, but transferred to Austria in 1777. It extends over 3400 square miles, or 2,180,000 English acres. In 1817 the population amounted to 201,319, in 41,864 families, of which 915 were Jews. It comprehends three cities, three market-towns, and 274 villages. The inhabitants are principally of the Wallachian or Moldavian race, and mostly adhere to the Greek church; but there are also Armenian, Hungarian, and German settlers, besides the Jews. The face of the country, being a continuation of the Carpathian range, is mountainous, and much of it is covered with woods. Many of the valleys are highly fertile, and yield excellent corn, potatoes, flax, hemp, and garden fruits. The principal tree is the beech, from which the province received its ancient name. The district is rich in mineral products, affording gold from the sands of the river Bistritza, and from various mines silver, lead, copper, iron, and rock salt. The chief manufactures are of the several minerals, and of potash, corn, spirits, and leather. Under the house of Austria the district has much improved, owing to good roads having been opened through it, connecting Gallicia with Hungary.

Czernowitz, a city, the capital of the circle of the same name, in the Austrian province of Gallicia. It is situated on the river Pruth, and has a Greek cathedral, and several other churches, both for Catholics and Greeks. It is the seat of the courts of law, and of several establishments of education. It contains about 500 houses, and in 1817 the population amounted to 5460 persons. It has manufactories of gold and silver wares, watchmaking, and some others, and carries on a trade between Hungary and Gallicia, which is chiefly in the hands of the Jews. Long. 48. 25. 10. E. Lat. 48. 25. 40. N.
CZORTKOW, a circle in the Austrian kingdom of Gallicia, in the eastern frontier, bordering on the Russian territory. Its extent is about 1450 square miles. It comprehends three cities, nineteen market-towns, and 242 villages. It contained, in 1817, 30,829 houses, and 149,488 inhabitants, of whom 7226 were Jews. Its rivers run by the Dniester into the Black Sea. It is a fertile district, abounding in wheat, maize, pulse, tobacco, aniseed, honey, wax, cattle, and all kinds of fruit.
D, THE fourth letter of the alphabet, and the third consonant. Grammarians generally reckon D among the lingual letters, supposing the tongue to have the principal share in its pronunciation; though the Abbé de Dangeau is rather inclined to regard it as a palate letter. The letter D is the fourth in the Hebrew, Chaldee, Samaritan, Syriac, Greek, and Latin alphabets; in all of which languages except the last it has the same name, though somewhat differently spoken, namely, in Hebrew, Samaritan, and Chaldee, Daleth or Dhaleth, in Syriac Doleth, and in Greek Delta. The form of our D is the same with that of the Latins, as appears from all the ancient medals and inscriptions, and the Latin D is no other than the Greek Δ, with the angle on the left hand rounded off into a curve. The Δ of the Greeks, again, is borrowed from the ancient character of the Hebrew Daleth ; which form it still retains, as is shown by Souciet, in his Dissertation on the Samaritan Medals.

D is sometimes put for the aspirate Th, as Theos, Deus ; sometimes it is converted into B, as Duellum, Bellum, Duellona, Bellona. It has also an affinity with T, as Quintilian has observed (lib. i. c. 4); and hence, anciently, we meet with Alexanter and Cassantra, for Alexander and Cassandra, and, vice versa, quodannis and adque for quotannis and atque. In like manner, it is interchanged with R for the sake of euphony, as in meridies for medidies. In praenomens D stands for Decimus, and in the titles of emperors, for Divus. It is also a numeral letter, representing five hundred. This arises from the circumstance that the letter D is analogous in form to IϽ, the half of CIϽ, which is the Roman numeral expression for a thousand. With a dash placed on the top thus, D, its value is increased tenfold, or, in other words, it stands for five thousand. Used as an abbreviation, D has various significations, for which see article Abbreviations.
DABER, a town, formerly a city, of Prussian Pomerania, situated between the two lakes Daber and Teetz. Its walls are in ruins; but it has some cloth manufactures, and about 1000 inhabitants. It is the chief place of a circle of the same name, extending over 231 square miles, or 147,840 English acres, comprehending two cities and fifty-one villages, with 16,238 inhabitants.
DABRINGSHAUSEN, a town in the Prussian province of Westphalia, in the government of Westphalia, with some very considerable iron-works, which afford employment to the population, amounting, in 1817, to 4044 persons, but since much increased.
DABUL, a town of Hindustan, on the coast of Concan, in the province of Bejapoor, which was sacked by the Portuguese in 1509, but was afterwards re-taken by the natives. Its principal trade consists in pepper and salt. It is eighty miles south from Bombay. Long. 72. 53. E. Lat. 17. 45. N.
DACHAU, a bailiwick in the circle of the Isar, in the kingdom of Bavaria. It extends over 264 square miles, or 168,960 English acres, and contains 21,556 inhabitants, in two towns, 142 villages, and a great number of single farms and gentlemen’s houses. The greater part of the district is of moderate fertility, and watered by the rivers Amber, Maisach, and Glow; but there is an extensive moor, which, in spite of efforts to cultivate it by colonists, still remains in an unproductive state. The capital is of the same name, and contains only 1100 inhabitants.
DACIA, in Ancient Geography, a country which Trajan, who reduced it into the form of a province, joined to Moesia by a bridge. This country extended between the Danube and Carpathian Mountains, and from the river Tibiscus to the mouth of the Danube and to the Euxine; on the north side, next the Carpates, it was terminated by the river Hierasus, now the Pruth, and on the west by the Tibiscus or Teiss; and it comprehended a part of Upper Hungary, all Transylvania and Wallachia, and a part of Moldavia. There was a Dacia Aureliana, part of Illyricum, which was divided into the eastern and western, Sirmium being the capital of the latter, and Sardica of the former; but this belonged to the lower age.
DACTYL (dactylus), a foot in the Latin and Greek poetry, consisting of a long syllable, followed by two short ones; as carmine. It is derived from δακruaoς, a finger, because, as some say, it is divided into three joints, the first of which is longer than the other two.

The dactyl is said to have been the invention of Dionysius or Bacchus, who delivered oracles in this measure at Delphos, before Apollo. The Greeks called it íroXmxo¢. The dactyl and spondee are the most considerable of the poetical feet, as being the measures used in heroic verse. These two are of equal time, but not equal motion. The spondee has an even, strong, and steady pace, like a trot; while the dactyl resembles the nimbler strokes of a gallop.
DACTYLI Idaei, the Fingers of Mount Ida. Concerning these, Pagan theology and fable give very different accounts. The Cretans paid divine worship to them, as the persons who had nursed and brought up the god Jupiter; and hence it appears that they were the same as the Corybantes and Curetes. Nevertheless Strabo makes them different, and says, that the tradition in Phrygia was, that the Curetes and Corybantes were descended from the Dactyli Idaei; that there were originally an hundred men in the island, who were called Dactyli Idaei, from whom sprang nine Curetes, and each of these nine produced ten men, as many as the fingers of a man’s two hands; and that this gave the name to the ancestors of the Dactyli Idaei. He relates another opinion, which is, that there were but five Dactyli Idaei, who, according to Sophocles, were the inventors of iron; that these five brothers had five sisters, and that from this number they received the name of Fingers of Mount Ida, because they were ten in number, and worked at the foot of this mountain. Diodorus Siculus, however, represents the matter a little differently. He says that the first inhabitants of the island of Crete were the Dactyli Idaei, who had their residence on Mount Ida; that some said they were an hundred, others only five in number, equal to the fingers of a man’s hand, whence they had the name of Dactyli ; that they were magicians, and addicted to mystical ceremonies; that Orpheus was their disciple, and carried their mysteries into Greece; that the Dactyli invented the use of iron and of fire; and that they had been recompensed with divine honours. Diomedes the grammarian states, that the Dactyli Idaei were priests of the goddess Cybele, and that they were called Idaei, because that goddess was chiefly worshipped on Mount Ida in Phrygia, and Dactyli, because, in order to prevent Saturn from hearing the cries of the infant Jupiter, whom Cybele had committed to their custody, they used to sing certain verses of their own invention, in the Dactylic measure.
DACTYLIC, something which has a relation to dactyls. Anciently there were dactylic as well as spondaic flutes, tibiae dactylicae. The dactylic flutes consisted of unequal intervals, as the dactylic foot does of unequal measures.

Dactylic Verses are hexameter verses, ending in a dactyl instead of a spondee; as spondaic verses are those which have a spondee in the fifth foot instead of a dactyl.
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DACTYLIOMANCY (JDactyliomantia), a sort of divination performed by means of a ring. The word is composed of the Greek δακτυλ/o;, a ring, from δακn∣λog, a finger, and μαwna, divination.

Dactyliomancy consisted principally in holding a ring, suspended by a fine thread, over a round table, on the edge of which were made various marks with the twenty-four letters of the alphabet. The ring, in shaking or vibrating over the table, stopped over certain of the letters, which, being joined together, composed the answer required. But the operation was preceded and accompanied by several superstitious ceremonies; for the ring was consecrated with a great deal of mystery. The person who held it was required to be clad in linen garments to the very shoes, his head was to be shaved all round, and in his hand he was to hold vervain; and before he proceeded, the gods were first to be appeased by a formulary of prayers or liturgy. Ammianus Marcellin us gives the process at large in his twenty-ninth book.
DACTYLUS, a sort of dance among the ancient Greeks, performed chiefly by the athletae.
DADUCHI, in Antiquity, priests of Ceres. That goddess having lost her daughter Proserpine, began, according to the mythologists, to make search for her at the beginning of the night. In order to do this in the dark, she lighted a torch, and thus set forth on her travels throughout the world; for which reason it is that she is always represented with a lighted torch in her hand. On this account, and in commemoration of her pretended exploit, it became a custom for the priests, at the feasts and sacrifices of the goddess, to run about in the temple, with torches in their hands. One of them took a lighted torch from off the altar, and holding it in his hand, ran with it to a certain part of the temple, where he gave it to another, saying to him, Tibi trado ; the second, in like manner, ran to another part of the temple, and gave it to the third, and so of the rest. From this ceremony the priests came to be denominated daduchi, δαδούχοι, or torch-bearers; from ⅛i, an unctuous resinous wood, as pine or fir, of which the ancients made torches; and sχ ι ω, 1 have or 1 hold. The Athenians also gave the name daduchus to the high-priest of Hercules.