Title: Opinions and Conjectures, [29 July 1750]
From: Franklin, Benjamin
To:

[July 29, 1750]
Opinions and Conjectures concerning the Properties and Effects of the Electrical Matter, arising from Experiments and Observations made in Philadelphia, 1749.
§1. The Electrical Matter consists of Particles extreamly subtile, since it can permeate common Matter, even the densest Mettals, with such Ease and Freedom, as not to receive any perceptible Resistance.
§2. If any one should doubt, whether the Electrical Matter passes thro’ the Substance of Bodies, or only over and along their Surfaces, a Shock from an electrified large Glass Jar, taken thro’ his own Body, will probably convince him.
3. Electrical Matter differs from common Matter in this, That the Parts of the latter mutually attract, those of the former mutually repel each other: Hence the appearing Divergency in a Stream of Electrical Effluvia.

   *See Mr. Ellicots ingenious Essay on Electricity in the Transactions.

4. But tho’ the Particles of Electrical Matter do repel each other, they are strongly attracted by all other Matter.
5. From these three Things, the extream Subtilty of the Electrical Matter, the mutual Repulsion of it’s Parts, and the strong Attraction between them and other Matter, arises this Effect; That when a Quantity of Electrical Matter is apply’d to a Mass of common Matter, of any Bigness or Length within our Observation, which has not already got it’s Quantity; it is immediately and equally diffused thro’ the whole.
6. Thus common Matter is a Kind of a Spunge to the Electrical Fluid. And as a Spunge would receive no Water, if the Parts of Water were not smaller than the Pores of the Spunge; and even then but slowly, if there were not a mutual Attraction between those Parts, and the Parts of the Spunge; and would still imbibe it faster, if the mutual Attraction among the Parts of the Water did not impede, some Force being required to separate them: and fastest, if instead of Attraction there were a mutual Repulsion among those Parts, which would act in Conjunction with the Attraction of the Spunge: So is the Case between the Electrical and common Matter.
7. But in common Matter there is (generally) as much of this Electrical as it will contain within it’s Substance. If more is added, it lies without, upon the Surface, and forms what we call an Electrical Atmosphere: and then the Body is said to be electrified.
8. Tis supposed, That all Kinds of common Matter do not attract and retain the Electrical with equal Strength and Force, for Reasons to be given hereafter;

   †§22.

 and that those called Electrics per se, as Glass &c. attract and retain it strongest, and contain the greatest Quantity.
9. We know that the Electrical Fluid is in common Matter, because we can pump it out, by the Globe or Tube. We know that common Matter has near as much as it can contain; because when we add a little more to any Portion of it, the additional Quantity does not enter, but forms an electrical Atmosphere: And we know that common Matter has not (generally) more than it can contain; otherwise all loose Portions of it would repel each other, as they constantly do, when they have electrical Atmospheres.
   10. The beneficial Uses of this Electrical Fluid we are not yet well acquainted with; tho’ doubtless such there are and great ones; but we may see some pernicious Consequences that would attend a much greater Proportion of it. For had this Globe we live on, as much of it in Proportion, as we can give to a Globe of Iron, Wood, or the like, the Particles of dust and other light Matters, that get loose from it, would, by Vertue of their separate electrical Atmospheres, not only repel each other, but be repelled from the Earth, and not easily be brought to unite with it again. Whence our Air would continually be more and more clogg’d with foreign Matters, and grow unfit for Respiration. This affords another Occasion of adoring that Wisdom which has made all Things by Weight and Measure!
11. If a Piece of common Matter be supposed intirely free from Electrical Matter, and a single Particle of the latter be brought nigh, ’twill be attracted and enter the Body, and take Place in the Center, or where the Attraction is every way equal. If more Particles enter, they take their Places where the Ballance is equal between the Attraction of the common Matter and their own mutual Repulsion. ’Tis suppos’d they form Triangles, whose Sides shorten as the Number increases; till the common Matter has drawn in so many, that it’s whole Power of compressing those Triangles by Attraction is equal to their whole Power of expanding themselves by Repulsion. Then will such Piece of Matter receive no more.
12. When Part of this natural Proportion of Electrical Fluid is taken out of a Piece of common Matter, the Triangles form’d by the Remainder are supposed to widen by the Mutual Repulsion of the Parts, until they occupy the whole Piece.
13. When the Quantity of Electrical Fluid, taken from a Piece of common Matter, is restored to it again, it enters; the expanded Triangles being again comprest, till there is Room for the whole.
   14. To explain this, Take two Apples or two Balls of Wood or other Matter A, B, each having its own natural Quantity of the Electrical Fluid. Suspend them by Silk Strings from the Ceiling. Apply the Wire of a well charged Vial to A, which will receive from the Wire a Quantity of the electrical Fluid, but will not imbibe it, being already full. The Fluid will therefore flow round it’s Surface and form an electrical Atmosphere. Bring A into Contact with B, and half the electrical Fluid is communicated; so that each has now an electrical Atmosphere (made of half the Quantity) and therefore they repel each other. Take away these Atmospheres by touching the Balls, and leave them in their natural State. Then having fixt a Stick of Sealing Wax to the Middle of the Phial, to hold it by, apply the Wire to A at the same time the Coating touches B. Thus will a Quantity of the Electrical Fluid be drawn out of B, and thrown on A, so that A will have a Redundance of this Fluid which forms an Atmosphere round it, and B an exactly equal Deficiency. Now bring these Balls again into Contact, and the Electrical Atmosphere will not be divided between A and B into two smaller Atmospheres, as before: for B will drink up the whole Atmosphere of A, and both will be found again in their natural State.
15. The Form of the Electrical Atmosphere is that of the Body it surrounds. This Shape may be rendered visible in still Air, by raising a Smoke from dry Rosin, dropt into a hot Tea-Spoon under the electrified Body, which will be attracted and spread itself equally on all Sides, covering and concealing the Body.

   ‡This has only been try’d on a Sphere. Try it on Bodies of other Figures.

 And this Form it takes, because it is attracted by all Parts of the Surface of the Body, tho’ it can not enter the Substance already replete. Without this Attraction it would not remain round the Body, but dissipate in the Air.
   16. The Atmosphere of Electrical Particles surrounding an electrify’d Sphere, is not more disposed to leave it, or more easily drawn off from any one Part of the Sphere than from another, because it is equally attracted from every Part. But that is not the Case with Bodies of any other Figure. From a Cube it is more easily drawn out at the Corners than at the plane Sides; and so from the Angles of a Body of any other Form, and still most easily from that Angle, that is most acute. Thus if a Body shaped as A, B, C, D, E be electrify’d or have an Electrical Atmosphere communicated to it, and we consider every Side as a Base on which the Particles rest, and by which they are attracted, one may see by imagining a Line from A to F and another from E to G, That the Portion of the Atmosphere included in F A E G has the Line A E for it’s Basis. So the Portion of Atmosphere included between the Lines H A, A B, and B I has the Line A B for it’s Basis. And likewise the Portion included in K, B, C, L, has B C to rest on; and so on the other Side of the Figure. Now if you would draw off this Atmosphere with a blunt smoothe Body and approach the Middle of the Side A, B, you must come very near before the Force of your Attracter exceeds the Power with which that Side holds it’s Atmosphere. But there is a small Portion between I B K that has less of the Surface to rest on and to be attracted by, than the neighbouring Portions; while at the same Time there is a mutual Repulsion between it’s Particles, and the Particles of those Portions: Therefore here you can get it with more Ease, or at a greater Distance. Between F, A, H, there is a larger Portion, that has yet a less Surface to rest on and to attract it: here therefore you can get it away still more easily: But easiest of all between L, C, M, where the Quantity is the largest, and the Surface to attract and keep it back the least.
When you have drawn away one of these angular Portions of the Fluid, another succeeds in it’s Place, from the Nature of Fluidity and the mutual Repulsion before mentioned; and so the Atmosphere continues flowing off at such Angle like a Stream, ’till no more is remaining. The Extremities of the Portions of Atmosphere over these angular Parts, are likewise at a greater Distance from the Electrified Body, as may be seen by Inspection of the above Figure, than any Part of the other Portions: The Point of the Atmosphere of the Angle C, being much further from C, than any Part of the Atmosphere over the Lines C B or B A. And, besides the Distance arising from the Nature of the Figure, where the Attraction is less the Particles will naturally expand to a greater Distance by their mutual Repulsion. On these Accounts, we suppose Electrified Bodies discharge their Atmospheres upon unelectrified Bodies more easily, and at a greater Distance, from their Angles and Points, than from their smoothe Sides.
Those Points will also discharge into the Air, when the Body has too great an electrical Atmosphere, without bringing any Non-electric near to receive what is thrown off. For the Air, tho’ itself an Electric per se, yet has always, more or less, Water and other non-electric Matters mixt with it; and these attract and receive what is so discharged.
17. But Points have a Property by which they draw on as well as throw off the Electrical Fluid, at greater Distances than blunt Bodies can. That is, as the pointed Part of an electrify’d Body will discharge the Atmosphere of that Body, or communicate it farthest to another Body: so the Point of an unelectrifyed Body will draw off the Electrical Atmosphere from an electrified Body, farther than a blunter Part of the same unelectrified Body will do. Thus a Pin held by the Head, and the Point presented to an electrified Body, will draw off it’s Atmosphere at a Foot Distance; where, if the Head were presented instead of the Point, no such Effect would follow.
To understand this, we may consider, that if a Person, standing on the Floor, would draw off the Electrical Atmosphere from an electrified Body; an Iron Crow, and a blunt Knitting-Needle held alternately in his Hand, and presented for that Purpose, do not draw with different Forces, in Proportion to their different Masses. For the Man, and what he holds in his Hand, be it large or small, are connected with the common Mass of unelectrify’d Matter; and the Force with which he draws is the same in both Cases; It consisting in the different Proportion of Electricity in the electrified Body and that common Mass. But the Force with which the electrified Body retains it’s Atmosphere, by attracting it, is proportioned to the Surface over which the Particles are plac’d; i.e. four square Inches of that Surface retain their Atmosphere with 4 times the Force, that one square Inch retains it’s Atmosphere. And as in Plucking the Hairs from the Horse’s Tail, a Degree of Strength, insufficient to pull away a Handful at once, could yet easily strip it Hair by Hair; so a blunt Body presented, cannot draw off a Number of Particles at once; but a pointed one, with no greater Force, takes them away easily, Particle by Particle.
18. These Explanations of the Power and Operation of Points, when they first occurred to me, and while they floated in my Mind, appear’d perfectly satisfactory: But now I have wrote them, and considered them more closely in black and white, I must own, I have some Doubts about them. Yet as I have at present Nothing better to offer in their Stead, I do not cross them out: for even a bad Solution read, and it’s Faults discovered, has often given Rise to a good one in the Mind of an ingenious Reader.
19. Nor is it of much Importance to us to know the Manner in which Nature executes her Laws; ’tis enough, if we know the Laws themselves. ’Tis of real Use to know, that China left in the Air unsupported, will fall and break; but how it comes to fall, and why it breaks, are Matters of Speculation. ’Tis a Pleasure indeed to know them, but we can preserve our China without it.
20. Thus in the present Case, to know this Power of Points may possibly be of some Use to Mankind, tho’ we should never be able to explain it.
The following Experiments, as well as those in my first Paper shew this Power. I have a large Prime Conductor, made of several thin Sheets of Fullers Pastboard form’d into a Tube, near 10 Foot long, and a Foot diameter. It is covered with Dutch embossed Paper almost totally gilt. This large metalline Surface supports a much greater electrical Atmosphere than a Rod of Iron of 50 Times the Weight would do. It is suspended by Silk Lines, and when charged will strike at near two Inches Distance, a pretty hard Stroke, so as to make one’s Knuckle ache. Let a Person standing on the Floor, present the Point of a Needle, at 12 or more Inches Distance from it; and while the Needle is so presented, the Conductor cannot be charg’d; the Point drawing off the Fire as fast as it is thrown on by the Electrifying Globe.
Let it be charg’d and then present the Point at the same Distance, and it will suddenly be discharg’d. In the Dark, you see a Light on the Point, when the Experiment is made. And if the Person, holding the Point, stands upon Wax, he will be electrified by receiving the Fire at that Distance.
Attempt to draw off the Electricity with a blunt Body, as a Bolt of Iron round at the End and smoothe (A Silversmith’s Iron Punch an Inch thick is what I use) and you must bring it within a Distance of near 2 Inches before You can do it; and then, it is done with a Stroke and Crack. As the Pasteboard Tube hangs loose on Silk Lines; when you approach it with the Punch Iron, it likewise will move towards the Punch; being attracted, while it is charg’d. But if at the same Instant a Point be presented, as before, it retires again, for the Point discharges it.
Take a Pair of large Brass Scales, of two (or more) Feet Beam; the Cords of the Scales being Silk. Suspend the Beam by a Packthread from the Cieling, so that the Bottom of the Scales may be about a Foot from the Floor. The Scales will move round in a Circle by the Untwisting of the Packthread. Set the Iron Punch on End upon the Floor, in such a Place, as that the Scales may pass over it, in making their Circle; then Electrify one Scale by applying the Wire of a charged Vial to it. As they move round, you see the Scale draw nigher to the Floor, and dip more when it comes over the Punch; and if that be placed at a proper Distance, the Scale will snap and discharge it’s Fire into it. But if a Needle be stuck on the End of the Punch, it’s Point upwards, the Scale instead of drawing nigh to the Punch and snapping, discharges it’s Fire silently, thro’ the Point, and rises higher from the Punch. Nay even if the Needle be plac’d upon the Floor, near the Punch, it’s Point upwards, the End of the Punch tho’ so much higher than the Needle, will not attract the Scale and receive it’s Fire, for the Needle will get it and convey it away, before it comes nigh enough for the Punch to act. And this is constantly observable in these Experiments, that the greater Quantity of Electricity in the Pastboard Tube, the farther it strikes or discharges its Fire. And the Point likewise will draw it off at a still greater Distance.
Now if the Fire of Electricity, and that of Lightning, be the same; as I have endeavoured to shew at large in a former Paper; this Pastboard Tube and these Scales may represent electrified Clouds. If a Tube only 10 Foot long, will strike and discharge it’s Fire on the Punch at 2 or 3 Inches Distance; an electrified Cloud of perhaps 10,000 Acres may strike and discharge on the Earth at a proportionably greater Distance. The horizontal Motion of the Scales over the Floor may represent the Motion of the Clouds over the Earth, and the Erect Iron Punch a Hill or high Building: and then we see how electrified Clouds passing over Hills or high Buildings, at too great a Height to strike, may be attracted lower till within their striking Distance. And lastly if a Needle fixt on the Punch, with it’s Point upright, or even on the Floor, below the Punch, will draw the Fire from the Scale silently at a much greater than the striking Distance and so prevent it’s descending towards the Punch; Or if in it’s Course, it would have come nigh enough to strike, yet, being first deprived of it’s Fire it cannot; and the Punch is thereby secured from the Stroke. I say, if these Things are so, may not the Knowledge of this Power of Points be of Use to Mankind; in preserving Houses, Churches, Ships &c. from the Stroke of Lightning; by Directing us to fix on the highest Parts of those Edifices upright Rods of Iron, made sharp as a Needle and gilt to prevent Rusting, and from the Foot of those Rods a Wire down the outside of the Building into the Ground; or down round one of the Shrouds of a Ship and down her Side, till it reach’d the Water? Would not these pointed Rods probably draw the Electrical Fire silently out of a Cloud before it came nigh enough to strike, and thereby secure us from that most sudden and terrible Mischief!
21. To determine the Question, Whether the Clouds that contain Lightning are electrified or not, I would propose an Experiment to be try’d where it may be done conveniently.
   On the Top of some high Tower or Steeple, place a Kind of Sentry Box big enough to contain a Man and an electrical Stand. From the Middle of the Stand let an Iron Rod rise, and pass bending out of the Door, and then upright 20 or 30 feet, pointed very sharp at the End. If the Electrical Stand be kept clean and dry, a Man standing on it when such Clouds are passing low, might be electrified, and afford Sparks, the Rod drawing Fire to him from the Cloud. If any Danger to the Man should be apprehended (tho’ I think there would be none) let him stand on the Floor of his Box, and now and then bring near to the Rod, the Loop of a Wire, that has one End fastened to the Leads; he holding it by a Wax-Handle. So the Sparks, if the Rod is electrified, will Strike from the Rod to the Wire and not affect him.
22. Before I leave this Subject of Lightning, I may mention some other Similarities between the Effects of that and those of Electricity. Lightning has often been known to strike People blind. A Pigeon that we struck dead to Appearance by the Electrical Shock, recovering Life, droopt about the Yard several Days, ate Nothing, tho’ Crums were thrown to it, but declined and dyed. We did not then think of it’s being deprived of Sight; but afterwards a Pullet struck dead in like Manner, being recover’d by repeated blowing into it’s Lungs, when set down on the Floor, ran headlong against the Wall, and on Examination appear’d perfectly blind. Hence we concluded, that the Pigeon had been absolutely blinded by the Shock. The biggest Animal we have yet killed, or try’d to kill with the Electrical Stroke was a well grown Pullet.
23. Reading the ingenious Dr. Hales’s Account of the Thunder Storm at Stretham, the Effect of the Lightning in stripping off all the Paint that had covered a gilt Moulding of a Pannel of Wainscot, without hurting the Rest of the Paint: I had a Mind to lay a Coat of Paint over the filleting of Gold on the Cover of a Book, and try the Effect of a strong electrical Flash sent thro’ that Gold from a charged Sheet of Glass. But having no Paint at Hand, I pasted a narrow strip of Paper over it; and when dry sent a Flash thro’ the Gilding; by which the Paper was torne off from End to End with such Force, that it was broke in several Pieces, and in others brought away Part of the Grain of the Turky Leather, in which the Book was bound; and convinced me that had it been painted, the dry Paint would have been stripped off in the same Manner with that on the Wainscot at Stretham.
24. Lightning melts Metals; and I hinted in my Paper on that Subject, that I suspected it to be a cold Fusion (I do not mean a Fusion by Force of Cold, but a Fusion without Heat.)
We have also melted Gold, Silver and Copper in small Quantities by
   the Electrical Flash. The Manner is this: Take Leaf Gold, Leaf
   Silver or Leaf gilt Copper, commonly call’d Leaf Brass or Dutch
   Gold. Cut off from the Leaf long narrow Strips the Breadth of a
   Straw; Place one of these Strips between two Strips of smoothe
   Glass that are about as wide as your Finger. If one Strip of Gold, the Length of the Leaf, be not long enough for the Glass, add another to the End of it; so that you may have a little Part hanging out loose at each End of the Glass. Bind the Pieces of Glass together from End to End with a Silk Cord. Then place it so as to be part of an Electrical Circle (the Ends of Gold hanging out, being of Use to joyn with the other Parts of the Circle) and send the Flash thro it from a large electrified Jar. Then if your Strips of Glass remain whole you will see that the Gold is missing in several Places, and instead of it, a metalline Stain on both the Glasses. The Stains on the upper and under Glass are exactly similar in the Minutest Stroak, as may be seen by holding them to the Light. The Metal appears to have been not only melted, but even to be vitrified, or otherwise so driven into the Pores of the Glass as to be protected by it from the Action of the strongest Aqua fortis or Aqua Regia. I send you inclosed two little Pieces of Glass with these metaline stains upon them, which can not be removed without taking Part of the Glass with them. Sometimes the Stain spreads a little wider than the Breadth of the Leaf; and looks brighter at the Edge, as by inspecting closely you may observe in these. Sometimes the Glass breaks to Pieces. Once the upper Glass broke into a thousand Pieces like coarse Salt. These Pieces I send you were stained with Dutch Gold; true Gold makes a darker Stain somewhat reddish, Silver a greenish Stain. We once took two Pieces of thick Looking Glass, as broad as a Gunters Scale, and six Inches long; and placing Leaf Gold between them, put them betwixt two smoothly plain’d Pieces of Wood, and fixt them tight in a Bookbinder’s small Press: yet tho’ they were so closely confined; the Force of the Electrical Shock shiver’d the Glass into many Pieces. The Gold was melted and stain’d into the Glass as usual. The Circumstances of breaking the Glass differ much in Repeating the Experiment, and sometimes it does not break at all: But this is constant, that the Stains, in the upper and under Pieces, are exact Counterparts of each other: And tho’ I have often taken up the Pieces of Glass immediately after this melting, between my Fingers, I never could perceive the least Warmth in them.
25. In one of my former Papers I mentioned that Gilding on a Book, tho’ at first it communicated the Shock perfectly well, yet fail’d after a few Experiments, which we could not account for. We have since found, that one strong Shock breaks the Continuity of the Gold in the Filetting, and makes it look rather like Dust of Gold; Abundance of it’s Parts being broken and driven off; And it will seldom conduct above one strong Shock. Perhaps this may be the Reason; When there is not a perfect Continuity in the Circle, the Fire must leap over the Vacancies; there is a certain Distance which it is able to leap over a Vacancy, according to it’s Strength; if a Number of small Vacancies, tho’ each be very minute, taken together exceed that Distance, it can not leap over them, and so the Shock is prevented.
   26. From the before mentioned Law of Electricity, That Points as they are more or less acute, both draw on and throw off the Electrical Fluid with more or less Power, and at greater or less Distances, and in larger or smaller Quantities in the same Time; we may see how to account for the Situation of the Leaf-Gold suspended between two Plates, the upper one continually electrified, the under one in a Person’s Hand standing on the Floor. When the upper Plate is Electrified, the Leaf is attracted and raised towards it, and would fly to that Plate, were it not for it’s own Points: the Corner that happens to be uppermost, as the Leaf is rising; being a sharp Point from the extream Thinness of the Gold, draws and receives at a Distance a sufficient Quantity of the electrical Fluid, to give itself an Electrical Atmosphere, by which it’s Progress to the upper Plate is stopt, and it begins to be repell’d from that Plate, and would be driven back to the under Plate, but that it’s lowest Corner is likewise a Point, and throws off or discharges the Overplus of the Leaf’s Atmosphere, as fast as the upper Corner draws it on. Were these two Points perfectly equal in Acuteness, the Leaf would take Place exactly in the middle Space; for it’s Weight is a Trifle compar’d to the Power acting on it. But it is generally nearest the unelectrified Plate, because, when the Leaf is offered to the electrified Plate at a Distance, the sharpest Point is commonly first affected, and raised towards it; so that Point from it’s greater Acuteness receiving the Fluid faster than it’s opposite can discharge it at equal Distances, it retires from the electrified Plate, and draws nearer to the unelectrified Plate, ’till it comes to a Distance where the Discharge can be exactly equal to the Receipt, the latter being lessened and the former increased; and there it remains, as long as the Globe continues to supply fresh Electrical Matter. This will appear plain, when the Difference of Acuteness in the Corners is made very great. Cut a Piece of Dutch Gold (which is the fittest for these Experiments, on Account of it’s greater Strength) into the Form in the Margin; the upper Corner a right Angle, the two next obtuse Angles, and the lowest a very acute one; and bring this on your Plate under the electrified Plate, in such a Manner, as that the right Angle Part may be first raised (which is done by covering the Narrow End with the Hollow of your Hand) and you will see this Leaf take Place much nearer to the upper than to the under Plate; because without being nearer, it can not receive so fast at its right angle’d Point as it can discharge at it’s acute one. Turn this Leaf with the acute Part uppermost, and then it takes Place nearest the unelectrified Plate; because otherwise it receives faster at its acute Point than it can discharge at it’s right angled one. Thus the Difference of Distance is always proportioned to the Difference of Acuteness. Take Care, in cutting your Leaf to leave no little ragged Particles on the Edges, which sometimes form Points where you would not have them. You may make this Figure so acute below and dull above, as to need no under Plate: it discharging fast enough into the Air. When it is made narrower; as the Figure between the prickt Lines, we call it the Golden Fish, from its Manner of Acting: for if you take it by the Tail, and hold it at a Foot or greater horizontal Distance from the Prime Conductor, it will, when let go, fly to it with a brisk but waving Motion, like that of a Fish thro’ the Water: It will then take Place under the Prime Conductor, at perhaps a Quarter or Half an Inch Distance, and keep continual Shaking of it’s Tail like a Fish; so that it seems animated. Turn it’s Tail to the Prime Conductor, and then it flies to your Finger and seems to nibble it. And if you hold a Plate under it at 6 or 8 Inches Distance, and cease turning the Globe; when the Electrical Atmosphere of the Conductor grows small, it will descend to the Plate and swim back again several Times with the same Fish-like Motion, greatly to the Entertainment of Spectators. By a little Practice in dulling or sharpning the Heads or Tails of these Figures, you make them take Place as desired, nearer or farther from the Electrified Plate.
27. It is said in Section 8. of this Paper that all Kinds of common Matter are supposed not to attract the Electrical Fluid with equal Strength: and that those call’d Electrics per Se, as Glass &c. attract and retain it strongest, and contain the greatest Quantity.
This latter Position may seem a Paradox to some, being contrary to the hitherto received Opinion, and therefore I shall now endeavour to explain it.
28. In Order to this, let it first be consider’d That we can not, by any Means we are yet acquainted with, force the Electrical Fluid thro’ Glass. I know it is commonly thought that it easily pervades Glass; and the Experiment of a Feather suspended by a Thread in a Bottle hermetically sealed, yet moved by bringing a rubb’d Tube near the outside of the Bottle, is alledg’d to prove it. But if the Electrical Fluid so easily pervades Glass, How does the Vial become charg’d (as we term it) when we hold it in our Hands? Would not the Fire thrown in by the Wire, pass thro’ to our Hands, and so escape into the Floor? Would not the Bottle in that Case be left just as we found it, uncharg’d; as we know a Metal Bottle, so attempted to be charg’d would be? Indeed if there be the least Crack, the minutest Solution of Continuity in the Glass, tho’ it remains so light, that Nothing else we know of will pass, yet the extreamly subtile electrical Fluid, flies thro’ such a Crack with the greatest Freedom, and such Bottle we know can never be charg’d:

   *See the first 16 sections of the third Letter, p. 31 &c. [above, III, 352–6].

 What then makes the Difference between such a Bottle, and one that is sound, but this; That the Fluid can pass thro’ the one and not thro’ the other?
29. It is true, there is an Experiment that at first Sight would be apt to satisfy a slight Observer, that the Fire thrown into the Bottle by the Wire does really pass thro’ the Glass. It is this: Place the Bottle on a Glass Stand under the Prime Conductor: suspend a Bullet by a Chain from the Prime Conductor, ’till it comes within a quarter of an Inch, right over the Wire of the Bottle; Place your Knuckle on the Glass Stand, at just the same Distance from the Coating of the Bottle, as the Bullet is from it’s Wire. Now let the Globe be turnd, and you see a Spark strike from the Bullet to the Wire of the Bottle, and the same Instant you see and feel an exactly equal Spark striking from the Coating to your Knuckle: and so on Spark for Spark.

   †See § 10 of the third Letter, p. 36 [above, III, 355].

 This looks, as if the whole received by the Bottle was again discharged from it: and yet the Bottle by this means is chargd! And therefore the Fire that thus leaves the Bottle, tho’ the same in Quantity, can not be the very same Fire that entered at the Wire: For, if it were, the Bottle would remain uncharg’d.

30. If the Fire that so leaves the Bottle be not the same that is thrown in, thro’ the Wire, it must be Fire that subsisted in the Bottle (that is in the Glass of the Bottle) before the Operation begun.
31. If so, there must be a great Quantity in Glass, because a great Quantity is thus discharg’d even from very thin Glass.
32. That this Electrical Fluid or Fire, is strongly attracted by Glass, we know from the Quickness and Violence with which it is resum’d by the Part that had been deprived of it, when there is an Opportunity. And by this, that we can not from a Mass of Glass draw a Quantity of Electrical Fire; or electrify the whole Mass minus, as we can a Mass of Metal. We cannot lessen nor increase it’s whole Quantity; for what it has it holds; and it has as much as it can hold: It’s Pores are fill’d with it as full as the mutual Repellency of the Particles will admit: and what is already in, refuses or strongly repels any additional Quantity. Nor have we any Way of Moving this Electrical Fluid in Glass, but one; that is, by covering Part of the two Surfaces of thin Glass with Non-electrics; and then throwing an additional Quantity of this Fluid on one Surface, which spreading in the Non-electric; and being bound to that Surface by it, acts by it’s repelling Force on the Particles of electrical Fluid contain’d in the other Surface, and drives them out of the Glass into the Non-electric on that Side from whence they are discharg’d; And those added on the charg’d Side can then enter. But when this is done, there is no more in the Glass, nor less than before; just as much having left it on one Side, as it received on the other.
33. I feel a Want of Terms here, and doubt much, whether I shall be able to make this intelligible. By the Word Surface in this Case, I do not mean mere Length and Breadth without Thickness: But when I speak of the upper or under Surface of a Piece of Glass, the outer or inner Surface of the Phial, I mean Length, Breadth and half the Thickness; and beg the Favour of being so understood.
Now I suppose that Glass in it’s first Principles, and in the Furnace, has no more of this electrical Fluid than other common Matter: That when it is blown, as it cools, and the Particles of common Fire leave it, it’s Pores become a perfect Vacuum: That the component Parts of Glass are extreamly small and fine, I guess from it’s never shewing a rough Face where it breaks, but always a Polish; and from the Smallness of its Particles, I suppose the Pores between them must be exceeding small; which is the Reason that Aqua fortis, nor any other Menstruum we have, can enter to separate them, and dissolve the Substance, nor is any Fluid we know of, fine enough to enter, except common Fire and the electrical Fluid. Now the Departing Fire, leaving a Vacuum, as aforesaid, between these Pores, which Air nor Water are fine enough to enter and fill; the Electrical Fluid (which is every where ready in what we call the Non-electrics, and in the Non-electric Mixtures that are in the Air) presses or is attracted in: yet does not become fixt with the Substance of the Glass, but subsists there as Water in a Porous Stone, retain’d only by the Attraction of the fixt Parts, itself still loose and fluid.
But I suppose farther, that in the Cooling of the Glass, it’s Texture becomes closest in the Middle, and forms a Kind of Partition, in which the Pores are so narrow, that the Particles of the Electrical Fluid, which enter both Surfaces at the same Time, cannot go thro’ or pass and repass from one Surface to the other, and so mix together. Yet tho’ the Particles of Electrical Fluid imbib’d by each Surface can not themselves pass thro’ to those of the other, their Repellency can; and by this Means they act on one another. The Particles of Electrical Fluid have a mutual Repellency, but by the Power of Attraction in the Glass, they are condensed or forced nearer to each other.
When the Glass has receiv’d, and by it’s Attraction forced closer together so much of this elastic Fluid, as that the Power of Attracting and condensing in the one is equal to the Power of Expansion in the other, it can imbibe no more, and that remains it’s constant whole Quantity; But each Surface could receive more, if the Repellency of what is in the opposite Surface did not resist it’s Entrance. The Quantities of this Fluid in each Surface being equal, their repelling Action on each other is equal: and therefore those of one Surface cannot drive out those of the other. But if a greater Quantity is forced into one Surface than the Glass would naturally draw in; this increases the repelling Power on that Side, and overpowering the Attraction on the other, drives out Part of the Fluid, that had been imbibed by that Surface, if there be any Non-electric ready to receive it: Such there is in all Cases, where Glass is electrified to give a Shock.
The Surface that has been thus emptied, by having it’s Electrical Fluid driven out, resumes again an equal Quantity with Violence, as soon as the Glass has an Opportunity to discharge that over-Quantity, more than it could retain by Attraction in it’s other Surface, by the additional Repellency of Which the Vacuum had been occasioned. For Experiments favouring this Hypothesis, I must, to avoid Repetition, beg Leave to refer you back to what is said of the Electrical Vial in my former Papers.
34. Let us now see, how it will account for several other Appearances.
Glass, a Body extreamly elastic (and perhaps it’s Elasticity may be owing in some Degree to the subsisting of so great Quantity of this repelling Fluid in it’s Pores) must, when rubb’d, have it’s rubb’d Surface somewhat stretcht, or it’s solid Parts drawn a little farther asunder; so that the Vacancies in which the Electrical Fluid resides, become larger, affording Room for more of that Fluid, which is immediately attracted into it, from the Cushion or Hand rubbing, they being supply’d from the common Stock. But the Instant the Parts of the Glass so opened and filled have past the Friction, they close again, and force the additional Quantity out upon the Surface, where it must rest, till that Part comes round to the Cushion again; unless some Non-electric (as the Prime Conductor) first presents to receive it. In the Dark, the Electrical Fluid may be seen on the Cushion in two Semi-circles or Half-moons, one on the Fore-Part, the other on the Back Part of the Cushion, just where the Globe and Cushion separate. In the fore Crescent, the Fire is passing out of the Cushion into the Glass; in the other it is leaving the Glass and returning into the Back Part of the Cushion. When the Prime Conductor is apply’d, to take it off the Glass, the back Crescent disappears.
But if the inside of the Globe be lined with a Non-electric, the additional Repellency of the electrical Fluid thus collected by Friction in the rubb’d Part of the Globe’s outer Surface, drives an equal Quantity out of the inner Surface into that Non-electric Lining, which receiving it and carrying it away from the rubb’d Part into the common Mass thro’ the Axis of the Globe and Frame of the Machine; The new collected Electrical Fluid can enter and remain in the outer Surface, and none of it, or a very little, will be received by the Prime Conductor. As this charg’d Part of the Globe comes round to the Cushion again, the outer Surface delivers it’s Overplus Fire into the Cushion; the opposite inner Surface receiving at the same Time an equal Quantity from the Floor.
Every Electrician knows that a Globe wet within will give little or no Fire; the Reason has not before been attempted to be given that I know of.
35. So if a Tube lined with a Non-electric be rubb’d, little or no Fire is obtained from it. What is collected from the Hand in the downward rubbing Stroke entring the Pores of the Glass, and driving an equal Quantity out of the inner Surface into the Non-electric Lining. And the Hand in passing up to take a second Stroke, takes out again what had been thrown into the outer Surface; and then the inner Surface receives back again, what it had given to the Non-electric Lining. Thus the Particles of Electrical Fluid belonging to the inside Surface go in and out of their Pores every Stroke given to the Tube. Put a Wire into the Tube, the inward End in Contact with the Non-electric Lining, so it will represent the Leyden Bottle. Let a Second Person touch the Wire while you rub, and the Fire driven out of the inward Surface, when you give the Stroke, will pass thro’ him into the common Mass, and return thro’ him, when the inner Surface resumes it’s Quantity; and therefore this new Kind of Leiden Bottle can not so be charg’d; But thus it may. After every Stroke, before you pass your Hand up to make another, let the second Person apply his Finger to the Wire, take the Spark and then withdraw his Finger; and so on till he has drawn a Number of Sparks; thus will the inner Surface be exhausted, and the outer Surface charg’d. Then wrap a Sheet of gilt Paper close round the outer Surface; and grasping it with one Hand, you may receive a Shock, by applying the Finger of the other Hand to the Wire. For now the vacant Pores in the inner Surface resume their Quantity, and the overcharg’d Pores in the outer Surface discharge that Overplus: the Equilibrium being restored thro’ your Body, which could not be restored thro’ the Middle of the Glass.

   ‡See §15 of the third Letter p. 39 [above, III, 356].

If the Tube be exhausted of Air a Non-electric Lining in Contact with the Wire is not necessary: For in Vacuo, the Electrical Fire will fly freely from the inner Surface to the Wire, and back again from the Wire to the inner Surface, without a Non-electric Conductor. But Air resists it’s Motion, for being itself an Electric per Se, it does not attract it, having already it’s Quantity. So the Air never draws off an Electrical Atmosphere from any Body, but in Proportion to the Non electrics mixt with it: It rather keeps such an Atmosphere confined, which from the mutual Repulsion of it’s Particles tends to dissipation, and would immediately dissipate in Vacuo.
And thus the Experiment of the Feather inclosed in a Glass Vessel hermetically seal’d but moving on the Approach of the rubbed Tube is explained. When an additional Quantity of the Electrical Fluid is apply’d to the Side of the Vessel by the Atmosphere of the Tube, a Quantity is repell’d and driven out of the inner Surface of that Side into the Vessel, and there affects the Feather; returning again into it’s Pores, when the Tube with it’s Atmosphere is withdrawn: not that the Particles of that Atmosphere did themselves pass thro’ the Glass to the Feather. And every other Appearance I have yet seen, in which Glass and Electricity are concern’d, are I think explain’d, with equal Ease, by the same Hypothesis. Yet perhaps it may not be a true one, and I shall be obliged to him that affords me a better.
36. Thus I take the Difference between Non-Electrics, and Glass, an Electric per Se, to consist in these two Particulars,
1. That a Non-electric easily suffers a Change in the Quantity of the Electrical Fluid it contains: you may lessen its whole Quantity by drawing out a Part, which the whole Body will again resume; But Glass, you can only lessen the Quantity contained in one of it’s Surfaces; and not that, but by supplying an equal Quantity at the same Time to the other Surface; so that the whole Glass may always have the same Quantity in the two Surfaces; their two different Quantities being added together. And this can only be done in Glass that is thin; beyond a certain Thickness we have yet no Power that can make this Change. And,
2. That the Electrical Fire freely removes from Place to Place in and thro’ the Substance of a Non-Electric, but not so thro’ the Substance of Glass. If you offer a Quantity to one End of a long rod of Metal, it receives it, and when it enters, every Particle that was before in the Rod pushes it’s Neighbour and so on quite to the farther End where the Overplus is discharg’d; and this instantaneously, when the Rod is Part of the Circle in the Experiment of the Shock. But Glass from the Smalness of it’s Pores, or stronger Attraction of what it contains, refuses to admit so free a Motion. A Glass Rod will not conduct a Shock, nor will the thinnest Glass suffer any Particle entring one of it’s Surfaces to pass thro’ to the other.
37. Hence we see the Impossibility of Success in the Experiments proposed to draw out the effluvial Virtues of a Non-electric as Cinnamon for Instance, and mixing them with the Electrical Fluid, to convey them with that into the Body, by including it in the Globe, and then Applying Friction &c. For tho’ the Effluvia of Cinnamon and the Electrical Fluid, should mix within the Globe, they would never come out together thro’ the Pores of the Glass, and so go to the Prime Conductor. For the Electrical Fluid itself can not come thro’, and the Prime Conductor is always supply’d from the Cushion, and that from the Floor. And besides, when the Globe is filled with Cinnamon, or other Non-electric, no electrical Fluid can be obtained from it’s outer Surface, for the Reason before mentioned. I have try’d another Way, which I thought more likely to obtain a Mixture of the Electrical and other Effluvia together, if such a Mixture had been possible. I placed a Glass Plate under my Cushion to cut off the Communication between the Cushion and Floor, then brought a small Chain from the Cushion into a Glass of Oyl of Turpentine, and carried another Chain from the Oyl of Turpentine to the Floor; taking Care that the Chain from the Cushion to the Glass touched no Part of the Frame of the Machine. Another Chain was fixt to the Prime Conductor and held in the Hand of a Person to be electrised. The Ends of the two Chains in the Glass were near an Inch Distant from each other, the Oil of Turpentine between. Now the Globe being turn’d, could draw no Fire from the Floor thro’ the Machine; the Communication that Way being cut off by the Glass Plate under the Cushion: It must then draw it thro’ the Chains, whose Ends were dipt in the Oil of Turpentine. And as the Oil of Turpentine being an Electric per Se could not conduct; what came up from the Floor was obliged to jump from the End of one Chain to the End of the other, thro’ the Substance of that Oyl, which we could see in large Sparks; and so it had a fair Opportunity of Seizing some of the finest Particles of the Oyl in it’s Passage, and carrying them off with it: But no such Effect followed: nor could I perceive the least Difference in the Smell of the Electrical Effluvia thus collected, from what it has when collected otherwise; nor does it otherwise affect the Body of a Person electrised.
I likewise put into a Phial, instead of Water, a strong Purgative Liquid, and then charg’d the Phial, and took repeated Shocks from it: In which Case, every Particle of the Electrical Fluid, must, before it went thro’ my Body, have first gone thro’ the Liquid, when the Phial was charging, and return’d thro’ it when discharging; yet no other Effect follow’d than if [it] had been charg’d with Water. I have also smelt the Electrical Fire, when drawn thro’ Gold, Silver, Copper, Lead, Iron, Tin, Wood and the human Body, and could perceive no Difference; the Odour is always the same, where the Spark does not burn what it strikes: Therefore I imagine it does not take that Smell from any Quality of the Bodies it passes thro’. And indeed as that Smell so readily leaves the Electrical Matter, and adheres to the Knuckle receiving the Sparks, and to other Things; I suspect that it never was connected with it, but rises instantaneously from Something in the Air acted upon by it. For if it was fine enough to come with the Electrical Fluid thro’ the Body of one Person, why should it stop on the Skin of another?
But I shall never have done, if I tell You all my Conjectures, Thoughts and Imaginations on the Nature and Operations of this Electrical Fluid, and relate the Variety of little Experiments we have try’d.
I have already made this Paper too long for which I must crave Pardon, not having Time to make it shorter. I shall only add, That as it has been observed here, that Spirits will fire by the Electrical Spark in the Summer Time, without heating, when Fahrenheits Thermometer is above 70°. So when the Weather is colder, if the Operator puts a small flat Bottle of Spirits in his Bosom, or a close Pocket, with the Spoon, some little Time before he uses them; the Heat of his Body will communicate Warmth more than sufficient for the Purpose.
To Peter Collinson Esqr. F.R.S. London


Title: Paper on the Academy, [31 July 1750]
From: Franklin, Benjamin
To:

Within a few weeks of their organization, Nov. 13, 1749, the Academy trustees had received subscriptions amounting to more than £700. Twenty-three trustees alone subscribed £383 annually for five years—William Allen’s pledge of £75 a year was the largest; and some forty or fifty other citizens promised a total of £322 8s. the first year. An unexpected gift of £100 came from the London merchants David Barclay & Sons; and in March 1751 Mayor Thomas Lawrence, with the City Council’s approval, gave his salary of £100 to the Academy instead of spending it for a feast for the citizens (see above, II, 329). To pay off the indebtedness on the New Building the trustees borrowed £800 from the Lottery Managers; and it cost them £598 to remodel it for school uses. Two lots adjoining the building were purchased, 1751. Apparatus had to be bought and instructors engaged. “I asked Mr. Franklin, who is the soul of the whole,” Richard Peters wrote Thomas Penn, “whether they would not find it difficult to collect masters. He said, with an air of firmness, that money would buy learning of all sorts, he was under no apprehensions about masters. …” The trustees turned for additional support to the City Council (11 of whose 24 members, including BF, were trustees); William Allen presented their appeal, July 30, 1750. The next day a paper of Franklin’s was laid before the Council giving an account of what had already been accomplished for the Academy “and what Advantages are expected from that Undertaking.”

[July 31, 1750]
The Trustees of the Academy have already laid out near £800, in the Purchase of the Building, and will probably expend near as much more in fitting up Rooms for the Schools, and furnishing them with proper Books and Instruments for the Instruction of Youth.
The greatest Part of the Money paid and to be paid, is subscribed by the Trustees themselves, and advanced by them; many of whom have no Children of their own to educate, but act from a View to the Public Good, without Regard to Sect or Party. And they have engaged to open a Charity School within two Years for the Instruction of Poor Children gratis, in Reading, Writing and Arithmetick, and the first Principles of Virtue and Piety.
The Benefits expected from this Institution, are,
1. That the Youth of Pensilvania may have an Opportunity of receiving a good Education at home, and be under no Necessity of going abroad for it; whereby not only a considerable Expence may be saved to the Country, but a stricter Eye may be had over their Morals by their Friends and Relations.
2. That a Number of our Natives will hereby be qualified to bear Magistracies, and execute other public Offices of Trust, with Reputation to themselves and Country; there being at present great Want of Persons so qualified in the several Counties of this Province. And this is the more necessary now to be provided for by the English here, as vast Numbers of Foreigners are yearly imported among us, totally ignorant of our Laws, Customs, and Language.
3. That a Number of the poorer Sort will hereby be qualified to act as Schoolmasters in the Country, to teach Children Reading, Writing, Arithmetick, and the Grammar of their Mother Tongue; and being of good Morals and known Characters, may be recommended from the Academy to Country Schools for that Purpose; The Country suffering at present very much for want of good Schoolmasters, and oblig’d frequently to employ in their Schools, vicious imported Servants, or concealed Papists, who by their bad Examples and Instructions often deprave the Morals or corrupt the Principles of the Children under their Care.
4. It is thought that a good Academy erected in Philadelphia, a healthy Place, where Provisions are plenty, situated in the Center of the Colonies, may draw Numbers of Students from the Neighbouring Provinces, who must spend considerable Sums yearly among us, in Payment for their Lodging, Diet, Apparel &c. which will be an Advantage to our Traders, Artisans, and Owners of Houses and Lands. This Advantage is so considerable, that it has been frequently observed in Europe, that the fixing a good School or College in a little inland Village, has been the Means of making it a great Town in a few Years; And therefore the Magistrates of many Places, have offer’d and given great yearly Salaries, to draw learned Instructors from other Countries to their respective Towns, meerly with a View to the Interest of the Inhabitants.
Numbers of People have already generously subscribed considerable Sums to carry on this Undertaking; but others, well disposed, are somewhat discouraged from contributing, by an Apprehension lest when the first Subscriptions are expended, the Design should drop. The great Expence of such a Work is in the Beginning: If the Academy be once well-open’d, good Masters provided, and good Orders established, there is Reason to believe (from many former Examples in other Countries) that it will be able after a few Years, to support it self. Some Assistance from the Corporation is immediately wanted and hoped for; and it is thought that if this Board, which is a perpetual Body, take the Academy under their Patronage, and afford it some Encouragement, it will greatly strengthen the Hands of all concern’d, and be a Means of Establishing this good Work, and continuing the good Effects of it down to our late Posterity.


Title: From Benjamin Franklin to Samuel Johnson, 9 August 1750
From: Franklin, Benjamin
To: Johnson, Samuel

Revd. Sir
Philada. Augt. 9. 1750
At my Return home I found your Favour of June the 28th. with the Bishop of Cloyne’s Letter enclos’d, which I will take care of, and beg Leave to keep a little longer.
Mr. Francis, our Attorney General, who was with me at your House, from the Conversation then had with you, and reading some of your Pieces, has conceiv’d an Esteem for you equal to mine: The Character we have given of you to the other Trustees, and the Sight of your Letters relating to the Academy, has made them very desirous of engaging you in that Design, as a Person whose Experience and Judgment would be of great Use in forming Rules and Establishing good Methods in the Beginning, and whose Name for Learning would give it a Reputation. We only lament, that in the infant State of our Funds, we cannot make you an Offer equal to your Merit. But as the View of being useful has most Weight with generous and benevolent Minds, and in this Affair you may do great Service not only to the present but to future Generations, I flatter myself sometimes that if you were here, and saw Things as they are, and convers’d a little with our People, you might be prevail’d with to remove. I would therefore earnestly press you to make us a Visit as soon as you conveniently can; and in the mean time let me represent to you some of the Circumstances as they appear to me.
1. The Trustees of the Academy are applying for a Charter, which will give an Opportunity of improving and modelling our Constitution in such a Manner, as, when we have your Advice shall appear best. I suppose we shall have Power to form a regular College.
2. If you would undertake the Management of the English Education, I am satisfied the Trustees would, on your Account make the Salary £100 Sterling (they have already voted £150 Currency which is not far from it) and pay the Charge of your Removal. Your Son might also be employ’d as a Tutor at £60 or perhaps £70 per annum.
3. It has been long observ’d, that our Church is not sufficient to accommodate near the Number of People who would willingly have Seats there. The Buildings encrease very fast towards the South End of the Town, and many of the principal Merchants now live there, which being at a considerable Distance from the present Church, People begin to talk much of Building another, and Ground has been offer’d as a Gift for that purpose. The Trustees of the Academy are ¾ths of them Members of the Church of England, and the rest Men of moderate Principles: They have reserv’d in the Building, a large Hall for occasional Preaching, publick Lectures, Orations, &c. It is 70 foot by 60, furnish’d with a handsome Pulpit, Seats, &c. In this, Mr. Tennent collected his Congregation, who are now building him a Meeting-House: In the same Place, by giving now and then a Lecture, you might with equal Ease collect a Congregation, that would in a short Time build you a Church, (if it should be agreable to you).
In the mean time, I imagine you will receive something considerable yearly, arising from Marriages and Christnings in the best Families, &c. not to mention Presents, that are not unfrequent from a wealthy People to a Minister they like; and tho’ the whole may not amount to more than a due Support, yet I think it will be a comfortable one. And when you are well settled in a Church of your own, your Son may be qualified by Years and Experience to succeed you in the Academy; or if you rather chuse to continue in the Academy, your Son might probably be fix’d in the Church.
These are my private Sentiments, which I have communicated only with Mr. Francis, who entirely agrees with me. I acquainted the Trustees that I would write to you, but could give them no Dependance that you would be prevail’d on to remove: They will however treat with no other ’till I have your Answer.
You will see by our News Paper, which I enclose, that the Corporation of this City have voted £200 down and £100 a Year out of their Revenues, to the Trustees of the Academy: As they are a perpetual Body, chusing their own Successors, and so not subject to be chang’d by the Caprice of a Governor or of the People, and as 18 of the Members, (some the most leading) are of the Trustees, we look on this Donation to be as good as so much Real Estate; being confident it will be continu’d as long as it is well apply’d, and even encreas’d if there should be Occasion. We have now near £5000 subscribed, and expect some considerable Sums besides may be procured from the Merchants of London trading hither. And as we are in the Center of the Colonies, a healthy Place, with Plenty of Provisions, we suppose a good Academy here may draw Numbers of Youth for Education from the neighbouring Colonies, and even from the West Indies.
I will shortly print Proposals for Publishing your Pieces by Subscription, and disperse them among my Friends along the Continent. My Compliments to Mrs. Johnson and your Son; and Mr. and Mrs. Walker your good Neighbours. I am, with great Esteem and Respect, Sir, Your most humble Servant
B Franklin
P.S. There are some other Things best treated of when we have the Pleasure of seeing you. It begins now to be pleasant Travelling: I wish you would conclude to visit us in the next Month at farthest. Whether the Journey produces the Effect we desire, or not, it shall be no Expence to you.
Dr. Johnson


Title: From Benjamin Franklin to Samuel Johnson, 23 August 1750
From: Franklin, Benjamin
To: Johnson, Samuel

Dear Sir,
Philadelphia, August 23, 1750
We received your favour of the 16th instant. Mr. Peters will hardly have time to write to you per this post, and I must be short. Mr. Francis spent the last evening with me, and we were all glad to hear that you seriously meditate a visit after the middle of next month, and that you will inform us by a line when to expect you. We drank your health and Mrs. Johnson’s, remembering your kind entertainment of us at Stratford.

I think with you, that nothing is of more importance for the public weal, than to form and train up youth in wisdom and virtue. Wise and good men are, in my opinion, the strength of a state: much more so than riches or arms, which, under the management of Ignorance and Wickedness, often draw on destruction, instead of providing for the safety of a people. And though the culture bestowed on many should be successful only with a few, yet the influence of those few and the service in their power, may be very great. Even a single woman that was wise, by her wisdom saved a city.
I think also, that general virtue is more probably to be expected and obtained from the education of youth, than from the exhortation of adult persons; bad habits and vices of the mind, being, like diseases of the body, more easily prevented than cured.
I think moreover, that talents for the education of youth are the gift of God; and that he on whom they are bestowed, whenever a way is opened for the use of them, is as strongly called as if he heard a voice from heaven: nothing more surely pointing out duty in a public service, than ability and opportunity of performing it.
I have not yet discoursed with Dr. Jenney concerning your removal hither. You have reason, I own, to doubt, whether your coming on the foot I proposed would not be disagreeable to him; though I think it ought not: for should his particular interest be somewhat affected by it, that ought not to stand in competition with the general good; especially as it cannot be much affected, he being old, and rich, and without children. I will however learn his sentiments before the next post. But whatever influence they might have on your determinations about removing, they need have none on your intention of visiting; and if you favour us with the visit, it is not necessary that you should previously write to him to learn his dispositions about your removal; since you will see him, and when we are all together, those things may be better settled in conversation than by letters at a distance. Your tenderness of the church’s peace is truly laudable; but, methinks, to build a new church in a growing place is not properly dividing but multiplying; and will really be a means of increasing the number of those who worship God in that way. Many who cannot now be accommodated in the church, go to other places, or stay at home; and if we had another church, many who go to other places, or stay at home, would go to church. I suppose the interest of the church has been far from suffering in Boston by the building of two churches there in my memory. I had for several years nailed against the wall of my house a pigeon box that would hold six pair; and though they bred as fast as my neighbours’ pigeons, I never had more than six pair, the old and strong driving out the young and weak, and obliging them to seek new habitations. At length I put up an additional box with apartments for entertaining twelve pair more; and it was soon filled with inhabitants, by the overflowing of my first box, and of others in the neighbourhood. This I take to be a parallel case with the building a new church here.
Your years I think are not so many as to be an objection of any weight, especially considering the vigour of your constitution. For the small-pox, if it should spread here, you might inoculate with great probability of safety; and I think that distemper generally more favourable here than farther northward. Your objection about the politeness of Philadelphia, and your imagined rusticity, is mere compliment; and your diffidence of yourself absolutely groundless.
My humble respects, if you please, to your brethren at the commencement. I hope they will advise you to what is most for the good of the whole, and then I think they will advise you to remove hither.
Please to tender my best respects and service to Mrs. Johnson and your son. I am, dear Sir, Your obliged and affectionate humble servant,
B. Franklin


Title: To Benjamin Franklin from Peter Kalm, 2 September 1750
From: Kalm, Peter
To: Franklin, Benjamin

Peter Kalm visited Niagara Falls in the summer of 1750. He sent a report to Franklin, asking him, if he wished to print it in the Gazette, to “turn it in better English,” as Kalm was, he confessed, “but a poor English man” and had “no Dictionary to run to for help.” Franklin accordingly published it in the issue of Sept. 20, 1750. His editorial treatment of the clumsy grammar and choice of words, the spelling and punctuation, while retaining Kalm’s content and essential structure, made the style as smooth and clear as anything wholly his own.
For example:

Kalm:
“Now since I have myself seen it”

BF:
  “Now, since I have been on the Spot”

Kalm:
  “they grew quite other men”

BF:
  “they chang’d their Behaviour”

Kalm:
  “I had now got a so clear idea or description of the fall, that it was for my eyes, as I saw it for me. But now I would go, and myself see, if all was true, and which was true or not.”

BF:
  “But as I have found by Experience in my other Travels, that very Few observe Nature’s Works with Accuracy, or report the Truth precisely, I cannot now be entirely satisfied without seeing with my own Eyes whenever ’tis in my Power.”

Kalm:
  “he writes, he was in such and such places, where he yet never was.”

BF:
  “he writes of what he saw in Places where he never was.”

Kalm’s account of the falls, as revised by Franklin, was reprinted several times in the following year—in the Gentleman’s Magazine, the Virginia Gazette, and as an appendix to John Bartram’s Observations … In his Travels from Pensilvania To Onondago (London, 1751).

Dear Sir.
Albany the 2: of Septemb. 1750.
After a pritty long journey made in a short time, I am come back to this town: you remember, Sir, that when I took leave of you, I told you, that if my time would permit, I would this summer take a view of Niagara fall, one of the greatest curieusities in the world. When I the last year came back from Canada, you did ask me several things about this fall; I told you all what I have heard of it in Canada of French Gentlemen, that had been there but it was yet all relata refero, I could not assure you of the truth of it, because I had not then seen it myself, and so it could not satisfy my own, much less your curieusitie. Now since I have myself seen it, it is in my power to give you a pritty sufficient description of this great curieusity in the world. After a fatigant travel, first horseback through your Six indians country to Oswego, and since from there in a battoe upon the Lake Ontario I came the 12th day of August in the evening to Niagara Fort: the French there were mighty perplexed at my first coming there, thinking I was an English Officer, that under pretext of Seing Niagara fall came there in some other view; but so soon I did shew them my Passports, they grew quite other men; they receiv’d me with the greatest civility. Niagara fall is six French leagues from Niagara Fort; you goes first 3. leagues by water up Niagara River; and since three leagues by land over the carrying-place. As it was late when I arriv’d at the Fort, I could not the same day go to the fall; but yet I did my business to prepare me to do it. The Commendant of the Fort, Monsieur Beaujeu, did call together all the Officers and Gentlemen there were to supper with him: I had read before most all the Authors, that have writ any thing about this fall; the last year in Canada I made thousand querries about it to several Gentlemen that has been at it, so that I had a pritty good knowledge of the fall. Here at the supper I begg’d the Gentlemen would tell me all what they knew and thought worth notice of this fall, which they all accordingly did; I observ’d that in great many thing they all did agree, but in some there were different opinions. All this I took very well notice of; since they had told me all what they thought they knew, I made several querries to them about what I had read and heard hereof, if a such or such thing is true; and I had upon all their answer. I had now got a so clear idea or description of the fall, that it was for my eyes, as I saw it for me. But now I would go, and myself see, if all was true, and which was true or not. Accordingly the next morning at the break of the day upon the 13th of August, I went to the fall. The Commendant had given order to two of the Officers of the Fort to go with me, to shew me every thing, and besides one of this two Officers had with him orders from the Commandant to Monsieur Joncaire, that had liv’d ten years by the carrying place, and did know every thing worth notice of the fall better than any Frenchman, indian or person in the world, to go with me and shew and tell me every thing he knew. A little before we came to the carrying place, the water of Niagara River grew so rapid, that four men in an [light?] Birch canoe had much work to get up to the carrying place. You can yet go with canoe half a League farther up the river than to the beginning of the carrying place though you have to work against the most rapid water; but higher up it is quite impossible to go in a canoe, being since nothing else to the great fall for two leagues and half of the river, than great many smaller falls one after the other, wherein the greatest battoe or canoe in a moment should be turn’d uppside down. We did since walk over the carrying place, having in the beginning besides the steep and high side of the river to step up two high steep hills, one after the other. Here upon the carrying place I saw above two hundred indians, most part of the six nations, busy in carrying packs of furrs, chiefly skins of Deers and bears over the carrying place: you would have been surpriz’d to see what abundance of such things are brought every day over this place: an indian gets 20 pences for every pack he carries over the carrying place, a distance of 3. leagues. Half an hour past 10. in the morning I came at the great fall, which I found such:
The River runs here from SSE to NNW, and the great fall crosses it, though not in a right line, but forming almost a figure of an half Circle or horse-shoe. Above the fall in the middle of the river is an island that goes from SSE. to NNW. or parallel with the sides of the river, its length is about 7 or 8. French arpents (you must know, that an arpent is 120 feet long.) The lower end of this island is just at the perpendicular side of the fall. On both sides of this island runs all the water that comes from the Lakes of Canada viz. the upper Lake, Lake mischigan, Lake Huron, and lake Eriée: you knows, Sir, that all this Lakes are more small Seas than lakes. You can most every where see the Sun or rise or set in the water; besides this Lacs there are great many great rivers that empties their water in them, whereof the most part is coming down this Niagara fall. Before this water comes to this island, it runs but slowly, but so soon it is nigh the island, it grows to the most rapid water in the world, running with a surprizing swiftness before it comes to the fall; it is quite white, and in many places is thrown high up in the air; the greatest and strongest battoe would in a moment be turn’d here upside down. The water that goes down on the West side of the island is more rapid, in greater abundance, whiter, and seems almost to outdo an arrow in swiftness. When you is at the fall, and looks up the river, you can more than plainly see how the river above the fall is every where exceeding steep almost as the side of a hill. When all this water comes to the very fall, then it throws it self there down perpendiculair; the hairs will rise and stand upright upon your head, when you sees this; I can not with words express how amazing this is; you can not see it, without to be quite afraid, seing a such great quantity of water falling down perpendiculair to a surprizing hight. I suppose, Sir, you have a desire to know the very hight of this great fall: you know, Sir, that Father Hennepin made it 600. feet perpendiculair;but this good man has gain’d so very little Credit in Canada; the name of honour they there give him is, that they call him un grand Menteur, or a great Liar; he writes, he was in such and such places, where he yet never was. It is true, he has seen this fall; but you know, Sir, that it is a very common thing with Soldiers, Sailors and travellers, to tell what wonderfull thing they have done or seen, to make a louse an Elephant, to magnify every thing, and often try to make you believe what never had happen’d but in their head; so it was with Father Hennepin. I have travel pritty much, but I have seldom or never been so happy to see the wonderfull thing that others have told of for me. I like to see a thing as it is, and tell it such to others. After Father Hennepins time the height of this fall is grown lesser and lesser, so that since they now have measur’d it several times with mathematical instrument they always find it to be 137. French foot high perpendiculair. Monsieur Morandrier, the Kings Ingenieur in Canada, which has measur’d it three times with mathematical instrument, told me, and gave me too with his own hand and name under the abovemention’d hight of 137. foot, and all the French Gentlemen, that now were present, with me, did agree with him, without the least contradiction. It is true, if, you will try to measure it with a line, you will sometimes find it 140, sometimes 150, sometimes yet more foot high, but the reason is, that you with a line not can come to any certitude of the hight the water carrying away the line, etc. When the water is come down to the bottom of the rock of the fall it jumps back to a very great height in the air; in other places it is white as a milk or snow and in such motion, as the water in a kettel, under which you have made the strongest fire. You remember, Sir, to what great distance Father Hennepin says that men can hear the noise of this fall: all the gentlemen, that were with me, did agree, that the furthest you can hear the noise of the fall is 15. leagues, and that very seldom. When it is quite calm, you can hear it to Niagara Fort, but seldom otherwise, because the waves of the lake Ontario otherwise makes a noise there by the shore. That they have observ’d at Niagara Fort, that when they hear there the noise of this fall louder than else, they are sure of a Nordeast wind, and that never fails, which is wonderfull when the fall is situated at SW. from the Fort, and rather should seem to be a sign to a contrary wind. Sometimes this fall makes a greater noise, than at other times, and when so is, it is a certain mark to an approaching bad weather or rain and this the indians here have allways for a sure sign. Now when I was here, it made not an extraordinary great noise; just by the fall I could very easily hear what the French did say to me, and they what I said to them, without that any of us did talk much louder, than we usually did when we were at any place where we heard no fall: I do not know how others have found here so great noise; may be at certain times, as abovemention’d. The Locusts in the trees just by the fall made three times greater and louder noise than all the fall. From the place, where the water falls down, it rises such abundance of vapors as the greatest and thickest smoak, though sometimes more, other times less; this vapors do rise high up in the air, when it is calm, but follows the wind, when it blows hard. If you goes nigh to this vapor or fog, or that the wind do drive him unto you it is so penetrating, that you in few minutes, will be so wet, as you had laid an hour under water: I let two young Frenchmen go down to bring from the side of the fall at the bottom all the several herbs, stones and shells they should find there; they came up in few minutes, and I really thought, that they had fallen into the water. They were oblig’d to strip themselves quite naked, and hang their cloats in the Sun to dry. When you is on the other or East side of Lake Ontario great many leagues from the fall, you can every clear and calm morning see the vapors of this fall rising in the air; you would think all the woods thereabout were set in fire of the indians; such is the smoake of the fall; in the same manner you can see the smoake of the fall on the West side of Lake Eriee great many leagues off. Several of the French Gentlemen told me, that when birds do come flying in this thick fog and smoake of the fall, they fall down and perish in the fall, either that their wings are grown to wet or that the noise of the fall makes them afraid, and that they don’t know where to go in the darkness, but others of the French gentlemen did not agree in that, and thought seldom or never any bird is perish’d here upon that manner, because they all did agree in that that among the great many birds which are found dead below the fall, you never shall find other, but such that live and swim chiefly in the water, as Ducks, gease, Swaans, water-hens, Teals. But therein did they French all agree that the most, if not all, birds, which perish here, are thrown in the fall in this manner, that they do swim in the river above the fall, and so they are carryed down lower and lower with the water, and you know, Sir, that Ducks and waterfowls commonly takes a great delight to be carryed with the stream and rapidness of the water; so here this birds permit themselves to be so long carryed down with the water, untill the swiftness of the water is so great, that it is not more possible for the birds to get up, but they are forced to follow the stream, and so thrown down the fall, perishing in this manner. Hundred times have the French seen great heaps of Ducks in the later end of the Summer been carryed down and thrown in the great fall, as now is said; you can see, that they try to get up of the water but can not. In the months of September and October they find every morning here such abundance of waterfowls below the fall at the shore that the garrison of the fort for a long time do live chiefly upon this. Besides the birds, they find sometimes Several sorts of dead fishes, Deers, bears, and other animals, that have tryed to cross the river above the fall; the greater animals you find chiefly all broken in pieces. Nighest below the fall is the water not rapid, but goes all in circles and whirls, almost as a boiling pot; the indians use to make there small canoes, and go there fishing; but a little lower begins the other smaller falls. When you is above the fall, and looks down, your head begins to turn Self. The French, that have hundred times been here, will seldom see down there, without keeping them fast at some tree with one hand. It has always been believed, that it was [not] possible for any body in the world to coome to the island, that is in the middle of the fall; But an accident that did happen 12 year ago, or therabout, has made it appear otherwise: the History is this: Two indians of the Six Nations went out from Niagara fort to hunt upon an island, that is in the middle of Niagara River some leagues above the great fall, and where it use to be abundance of Deers: they have got some French Brandy at Niagara Fort; this they tasted several times going over the carrying place; and when they there went into their canoe, they took sometimes a dram, and went so along up the river towards this island, where they were to hunt for deers; but they grew sleepy, and laid them down in the canoe to sleep. The canoe went farther and farther down with the water, so that he came nigh to that island, that is in the middle of the fall; here one of the indians got awake of the noise of the fall; he cries out to the other, that they were gone; yet they tryed, if possible, to save their live; this island was nighest, and with much working they got on shore there. They were in the beginning glad; but when they had consider’d every thing, they thought themselves hardly better, than to have gone down the fall, and so perish, because it was yet nothing to do for them, than to throw them in the fall, or to starve of hunger; but the necessity, that have been the beginning of several useful thing, made them try all: at the lower end of the island the rock of the fall is perpendiculair, and no water is running there; great woods is over all the island; they went there, and made stairs or ladders of bark of Lindtree, which they made so long, as they found they hight of the fall: one end of this ladder they did tie to a great tree, that grew at the side of the rock above the fall, and the other end the let fall down to the water; so they went down along their new invented stairs, and when they came to the bottom in the middle of the fall, they did rest a little, and as the water nighest below the fall is not rapid, as abovemention’d, they threw themselves out in the water thinking to swim on shore; but I have said before, that one fall is on one side of this island, and the other on the other; this makes that the waves of both falls running against one another, turns back against the rock, that is just under the island; therefore hardly had the indians come in the water, before the waves did throw them with violance against the rock, from whence they came; they tryed it several times, but grew at last weary, because of that the often were thrown against the rock; the rock had tored of the skin of their body in many places: they were then oblig’d to climb up their stairs again to the island, not knowing what to do; they perceived at length some Indians upon the shore, to which they cryed out; they indians did pity them, but did give them little hope of help, yet they made hast down to the Fort, told the Commandant where two of their Brothers were; the Commendant did persuade them in all manner to try to help this two poor indians, and it was done in this manner: the fall water, that runs on the East side of this island is shallow, especially a little above the island towards the Eastern shore; the Commandand let be made poles or sticks with iron at the end; two indians took upon them to walk to this island to save the other poor creatures, or to self perish; they took leave of all the others, as they were going to the death; every one had two such poles in his hands to set in the bottom of the Stream, to keep them steady; so the went along, and not alone came to the island, but returned back with the two poor indians, to which they have given some of their poles; these two indians that in the abovemention’d manner were first brought to this island are yet a life; they were 9. days upon the island, and were almost starved of hunger. Now since the road have been found out to this island, the indians often do go there to kill Deers, which have tryed to cross the river above the fall, but been so happy to have come upon this island, there carryed of the stream; they do increase there much, which makes the indians come there; but if the king of France would give me all Canada, I yet would not venture to go to this island, and I am sure, Sir, you would follow my example. On the West side of this island are some small islands or rocks of no consequence. The East side of the River is most perpendiculair, but the West side more slooping. In former times it was at that fall, which is on the West side of the island, a piece of a rock, that did hang over the rest, so that the water, that went thereover, and since fell perpendiculair, made that you could go under this rock between the perpendiculair side of the rock and the water, but this rock, that so hung out, is some year ago fallen down, that now it is nowhere any possibility to go between the falling water and the rock, but the water runs down all along the rock.
The breadth of the fall, as it goes in a semicircle, is reckon’d to be about 6. arpents; the island is in the middle of the fall, and from it to every side is almost the same breadth; the breadth of the island at its lower end 2/3 arpent, or thereabout. Below the fall in the holes in the rocks are great plenty of Eales, which the indians and the French do catch only with their hands, without any other things; I sent two indian boys down, which directly came up with some and twenty fine eals. Every day when the Sun shines you sees here from 10 a clock in the morning to 2. a clock after noon, below the fall and under you, when you stands at the side over the fall, a fine Rain-bow, and sometimes two Rainbows, one on the outside of the other: I was so happy, that it was a fine clear day, when I was at this fall, and it was with some delight that I saw the rainbow, having allmost all the colours, which you find in a Rainbow in the air; the more vapours, the brighter and clearer is the rainbow; I saw it upon the East side of the fall at the bottom of the river above the water under the place where I stood; when the wind carries the vapours from that place, the rainbow is gone, and appears again so soon as new vapours come. From the fall to that place above the fall, where the canoes, that are coming from Lac Eriée put on shore, or from the fall to the upper end of the carrying place is half a English mile; lower they dare not go, of fear to be obliged to try the fate of the two indians, and that perhaps with less Success. They have often found below the fall pieces of human bodies perhaps of drunk indians, that unhappely had come down the fall. It was told me at Oswego, that in October or thereabout is such plenty of feathers to be found here below the fall, that a man in a day can gather thereof enough for several beds, which feathers are come of birds killed at the fall; I asked the French, if this was true: they answered, that they never have seen such thing; but if they will pluck the feathers of the dead birds, then they can have feathers for several beds. The French told me, that they often had thrown whole great thick trees in the river above the fall, and let them go down with the water, to see these trees since tumble down the fall; they have with a surprizing swiftness fallen down, but they never could see them since, whence the French conclude, that it must be just under the fall a bottomless deep or an abyssus; I am too of that opinion, that it must be a surprizing deep here, but yet I think, that if they have examined all thing very well, they would have found the trees to some distance below the fall. The rock of the fall over which the water falls, consists of a gray limestone.
Here you have, Sir, a short description of this famous Niagara fall: you can trust upon that this is true; you must excuse me, that you find here no wonder: I can not make the nature otherwise than I find it; I like more, that man shall say some hundred years hereafter, that they find every thing then, as I have said, than that I should be look’d upon as one false wonder-maker. I could in other things satisfy your curieusity of what I have seen in this my journey; but my time will not permitt me; I hope in few days to have the honour to see you.
If you, Sir, find this worth to give a copy of it in your News Paper, pray turn it in better English: I am but a poor English man, and now I have no Dictionary to run to for help.
My Respect to Mistriss Franklin. I have the honour to be, Dear Sir your most humble servant
Peter Kalm.
 Addressed: To  Mr. Benjamin Franklin  Postmaster at Philadelphia  in  Philadelphia.
Endorsed: Mr. Kalm’s curious Letter, contg. [the] first good Acct. we have of Niagara Falls