    Login / Register Newsletter LAROUSSE  FRENCH LANGUAGE BILINGUAL DICTIONARIES TRANSLATOR CONJUGATOR ENCYCLOPEDIA FOOD FORUM GAMES BOOKS Legal notices and credits LAROUSSE.FR IS A SITE OF THE COMPANY ÉDITIONS LAROUSSE Simplified joint stock company with a capital of 6,037,000 Euros - RCS Paris B 451 344 170 Head office: 21, rue du Montparnasse - 75006 Paris - France. Tel: 01 44 39 44 00 Intra-community VAT number: FR 164 513 44 170 Director of publication: Isabelle Jeuge-Maynart Consumer service: conso@larousse.fr Site hosting is provided by Microsoft Ireland Ltd, Attn: Data Protection, Carmenhall Road, Sandyford, Dublin 18, Ireland (phone: 003531 706 5000). CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY Larousse is committed to maintaining a remuneration and career development policy that respects the principle of equality between women and men. Agreements on professional equality between women and men have been signed by Editions Larousse in recent years. Within the framework of the "law for the freedom to choose one's professional future", the result of the professional equality indicators is 82/100 for the year 2020, for the company Editions Larousse. The index is calculated on the basis of 4 criteria, details of the points obtained below: - Remuneration gap: 35 points obtained out of 40 points - Difference in the rate of individual increases: 35 points obtained out of 35 points - Percentage of employees having benefited from an increase in the year following their return from maternity leave: criterion cannot be calculated - Number of employees of the under-represented sex among the 10 highest paid: 0 point obtained out of 10 points EXECUTIVE MANAGEMENT Isabelle Jeuge-Maynart EDITORIAL DIRECTION Carine Girac-Marinier Julie Pelpel-Moulian EDITING Antoine Caron, Nadine Martres, Marianne Mouchot, Marion Vaillant Update French language: Patricia Maire For the previous version: Yves Garnier, Line Karoubi, Jacques Florent Editors: Catherine Bruguière-Colovic, Anne Charrier, Françoise Delacroix, Michel Giraud, Laurent Girerd, Philippe de La Cotardière, Mathilde Majorel, Michel Margotin, Anne-Françoise Robinson Update French language: Christine Ouvrard , Bruno Durand DIGITAL DIRECTORATE AND MULTIMEDIA DEVELOPMENT Vivien Chantepie Development Manager: Patrice Dervaux Data Development Manager: Ivo Kulev EDITORIAL COMPUTING Editorial IT manager: Philippe Cazabet Editorial IT manager: Sharareh Maljaei GRAPHIC IDENTITY AND ERGONOMICS Today's sower, with its refined graphics, was produced by the studio of designer Yann Pennor's in 1993, from a drawing by Jean Pham Van My. The graphic design of Larousse.fr was carried out by Fidésio MEDIA BASE Serge Boucher STRUCTURING OF TEXTS Christine Lagoutte CODIFICATION Marianne Mouchot QUALIFICATION Editorial IT PRINCIPAL ADVISORS EDITORIAL ADVISORS: Laurent Avezou, Ivan Best, Marie Cornu, Gilles Costaz, René Gentils, Adrien Lherm, Pascal Mougin, Thierry Paquot, Simon Parlier, Vanina Pialot, Raphael Tomas EDITING AND WRITING WORK: Aude Argouse, Emmanuelle Armandon, Dominique Beaux, Géraldine Bertrand, Xavier Bougarel, Jean-Marie Bouissou, Sophie Bourdais, Antonela Capelle, Françoise Cayrac-Blanchard, Isabelle Cordonnier, Pascal Culerrier, Olivier Da Lage, Zakya Daoud, Jean-Yves Deler, Jean -Arnault Dérens, Alain Dieckhoff, Louis-Jean Duclos, Frédéric Durand, Olivier Ferrando, Laurent Fourchard, Claire Fredj, Michel Gaud, Laurent Geslin, Damien Girard, Catherine Gousseff, Jean Gousseff, Frédéric Laupies, Henry Laurens, Gaëlle Le Marc, Yves Léonard, Agnès Levallois, Bernard Lory, Barbara Loyer, Jean-Louis Margolin, Jean-Luc Martineau, Bernard Msihid, Claire Mouradian, Simon Parlier, Jérôme Picon, Yves Plasseraud, Jean Rohr, Dottore Beda Romano, Alain Roux, Patricia Sampaio-Silva , Aude Signoles, Marie-Albane de Suremain, Semih Vaner, Claude Wauthier, Philippe Zacair AUTRES CONTRIBUTEURS Nicole Dérec, René Descombes, Emmanuel Desveaux, Jacques Deverchère, Dirk Devos, Alain Dieckhoff, Marcel Dietschy, François Dollinger, François Donatien, Alain Doran, Claude Dormont, François-G. Dreyfus, Monique Dreyfus, Jean-Claude Drouin, Pierre Du Colombier, Claude-Gilbert Dubois, Emmanuel Dubois, Pierre B. Ducrey, Norbert Dufourcq, Pierre Dufourcq, Armelle Dumas, Charles Dumont, Bernard D. Dupuy, Micheline Durand, Marcel Durliat, Jean Ehrard, Jean Elleinstein, Michel Ellenberger, François Enaud, Charles Engrand, Robert Escarpit, Maurice Eschapasse, Guy Ferchault, Marc Ferretti, Mathilde Ferry, Marie-Madeleine Flambard, Denis Fortier, Bruno Foucart, Marie-Delphine Fradet, Louis Frédéric, Henri Friedel, Jean-René Gaborit, André Gac, François Gadbin, Bernard Gagnepain, Ramon Garcia-Pelayo, Jean-Michel Gardair, Miltiadis Garidis, Pierre Garnier, Jean Matricon, Jean-Jacques Mayoux, Daniel Mège, Jean-Pierre Meinadier, Alain Melchior-Bonnet, Sabine Melchior-Bonnet, Michel Melot, Emélie Ménez, Pierre Mermet, Jean A. Meyer, Patrick Mignon, André Mirambel, Henri Mitterand, Pierre Moisy, Sophie Monneret, Aurore Monod-Becquelin, Bernard de Montgolfier, Erika Müller, Jean Narot, Jean-B. Neveux, Guy Noël, Carl de Nys, Alfred Pacquement, Yves Palau, Évelyne Pansu, Michel Parisse, Jean-Loup Passek, Guy Pautot, Véronique Pautot, Jean-Charles Payen, Jean-Louis Péninou, Jacques Perret, Jean Peyrade, Charles Gilbert Picard, Olivier Picard, Claude Pichois, Pierre Henri Picou, Françoise Piérès, Pierre Pierrard, José Pierre, Marc Pincherle, Raymond Poidevin, Alain Poirier, Daniel Poirion, Claude Polin, Jacques Ponthoreau, Bernard Pottier, Henri Poupée, Anne Prache, Geneviève Provost -Chauveau, Guy Rachet, DICTIONNAIRE DES CITATIONS Robert Carlier, Pierre Josserand, Jean-Louis Lalanne, Samuel S. de Sacy Denyse S. de Sacy, Monique Alexandre, Michel Arnaud, Marie Avril, Jacques Bailbé, Basilio, Jean-François Battail, Lucien Biton, Nora Borsos, Jacques Branchu, Francine Chevalier, Antonio Coïmbra-Martins, Else Dahl, Marie-Louise Demange, Yves Florenne, Yvette de La Fontinelle, Jean Frappier, Robert Garapon, Sylvie Girard, Pierre Grappin, Noé Gruss, Mounir Hafez, Danielle Heger-Hainaut, Marguerite Heinemann, Björn Huseby, Ernesto Jareño, Hubert Juin, RP Jacques Leclercq, Louis Malbos, Claude Margueron, Marielle Martin-Kalus, Olsen Munk, Pascal Pia, Claude Pichois, Pierre Pierrard, Marie-Hélène Piwnik, Jean Queval, Guy Rachet, Louise Rapatchka, Jeanne A. Renault, Jacques Roger, Jacqueline de Romilly, Pierre Roudil, Henri Schilli, René Sieffert, Monique Trédé, Diana Tsan,Guy Vogelweith. DICTIONNAIRE DES FILMS Bernard Rapp, Jean-Claude Lamy, Claudine Acs, Laurent Aknin, Philippe Aubert, Claire Aziza, Claude Aziza, Claude Beylie, NT Binh, Jean-Pierre Bleys, Jean-Bernard Bonis, Béatrice Bottet, Jean-Loup Bourget, Caroline Broué, Denis A. Canal, Manuel Carcassonne, Jean-Marie Carzou, Marc Cerisuelo, Michel Chion, Michel Ciment, Gérard Cohen, Serge Daney, Christian Depuyper, Patricia Dinev, Julie-Sarah Doyon, Olivier Eyquem, René Fauvel, Marc Ferro, Carmen Gallego , Martine Godet, Annie Goldmann, Gérard Guégan, Jean-Philippe Guerand, Jean-Claude Guilbert, François Jost, Anne Kieffer, Stéphan Krezinski, Fabien Laboureur, Michèle Lagny, Martine Lamy, Gérard Legrand, Gérard Lenne, Rémy Lillet, Joël Magny, Michel Marie, Marcel Martin, Alain Masson, Géraldine Michelon, Christine de Montvalon, Emmanuelle Mougne, Danièle Parra, Sylvie Pliskin, Alain Rémond,Bertrand Rocher, Jean-Charles Sabria, Gilbert Salachas, Stephen Sarrazin, Michel Sineux, Serge Toubiana, Guillemette de Véricourt. WORLD DICTIONARY OF LITERATURES Articles from French, French-speaking and ancient domains, as well as articles on literary genres were written under the direction of Pascal Mougin. Articles from foreign fields were edited by Karen Haddad-Wotling Hélène Aji, Roger-Michel Allemand, Bénédicte Alllot, Régis Antoine, Gilles Authier, Emmanuèle Baumgartner, Édouard Béguin, Murat Bejta, Krikor Beledian, Michel Bernard, Philippe Bernard , France Bhattacharya, Anne-Marie Callet-Bianco, Jean-François Bianco, Christiane Blot-Labarrère, Daniel Bodi, Charles Bonn, Eric Bordas, Madeleine Borgomano, Roger Bozzetto, Yann Brekillen, Michel Briand, Claire-Akiko Brisset, Laurent Bury, Frédéric Calas, Sylvie Camet, Thierry Canava, Antoine Chalvin, Aboubakr Chraibi, Daniel Compère, Catherine Croizy-Naquet, Rodolphe Dalle, Jules Danan, Pham Dan Binh, André Daspre, Luc Deheuvels, Bernard Duchatelet, Pierre Dufief, Jacques Dürrenmatt, Lucile Farnoux , Eve Feuillebois-Pierunek, Elena Foulliaron, Jean Fourié,Dominique Gauthier-Eligoulachvili, Christine Genin, Stéphane Gioanni, Stéphane Gôdicke, Jacqueline Gojard, Jean-Pierre Goldenstein, Benoît Grévin, Pierre Grouix, Isabelle Guillaume, Halkawt Hakim, Kerstin Hausbei, Julie Higaki, Sophie Houdard, Sylvie Humbert-Mougin, Macha Itzhaki , Claude Jamain, Mavleda Karedza, Pierre Kaser, Georges Kassai, Marc Kober, Florent Kohler, Judith Labarthe-Postel, Jean-François Laplénie, Arnaud Laster, Maryla Laurent, Andrea Lauterwein, Anne Lemieux-Lemonnier, Jean-Pierre Lion, Mireille Losco , Sophie Lucet, Christian Lutaud, Lara Maconi, Michel Magnien, Laurent Mailhot, Frédéric Mancier, Olga Mandzukova-Camel, Pascal Marchetti, Arnault Maréchal, Patrick Marot, René Martin, Martine Mathieu-Job, Jean-Pierre Mercier, Gérard Milhe Poutingon, Sandra Millot, Pascal Mougin, Timour Muhidine, Françoise Naour, Emmanuel Naya,Claudine Nédélec, Yitskhok Niborski, Isabelle Nières-Chevrel, Marc Orange, Jocelyne Peigney, Jacques-Noël Pérès, Lily Perlemuter, Colette Poggi, Bernard Pouderon, Patrick Rebollar, Jean Relinger, Alain Ricard, Andreia Roman, Serge Saint-Michel, Luca Salza , Peter Schnyder, Jean-Paul Schweighaeuser, Jean-Paul Sermain, Gerald Stieg, Daniel Struve, Alain Tassel, Fatima-Zohra Taznout, Marc Thuret, Jean-François Tournadre, Daniela Ulicna, Gilbert Van De Louw, Gaëlle Vassogne, Coralie Vauchelles, Bruno Vercier, Karin Winkelvoss *Daniel Struve, Alain Tassel, Fatima-Zohra Taznout, Marc Thuret, Jean-François Tournadre, Daniela Ulicna, Gilbert Van De Louw, Gaëlle Vassogne, Coralie Vauchelles, Bruno Vercier, Karin Winkelvoss *Daniel Struve, Alain Tassel, Fatima-Zohra Taznout, Marc Thuret, Jean-François Tournadre, Daniela Ulicna, Gilbert Van De Louw, Gaëlle Vassogne, Coralie Vauchelles, Bruno Vercier, Karin Winkelvoss * COLLABORATEURS DU DICTIONNAIRE DES LITTÉRATURES FRANÇAISES ET ÉTRANGÈRES (1985) PUBLIÉ SOUS LA DIRECTION DE JACQUES DEMOUGIN. F. Abazopoulou, M. Abou Zahab, M. Albert, J. Albertini, A.-M. Amiot, I. Armelln, M.Aubin, F. Bagot-Mignonnat, N. Balbir, M.-A. Barbéris, P. Barbéris, E. Barilier, G. Barthélemy, J.-M. Baude, H. Béhar, R. Bensmaia, Ch. Berg, J. Berque, P. Bertaux, I. Bessière, J. Bessière. F. Bhattacharya, L. Bhattacharya, CG Bjurstrom, J. Blau, A.-M. Blondeau, E. Bogaert, M. Bois, D. Bonnaud-Lamotte, M. Bonneff, A. Boyer. D. Boyer, R. Boyer, Y. Brekillen, P. Brochon, Th. Buck, M.-H. Cardinaud-Steyaert, Ph. Carrard, D. Charles, D. Charpin, M. Chatelain-Courtois, C. Cheval, J. Chevrier, P. Cogny, D. Cohen, M. Cohen, R.-G. Coquin, S. Cornand. F. Court-Pérez, D. Couty, J. Danan, G. Dandurand, Ph. Deblaise, LW Deheuvels, J. Dejeux, M. Delon, G. Demerson, L. De Vos, O. Dirat, J. Drouin, J.-M. Durand, G. Durozoi, B. Eizykman, P. Emond, D. Escarpit, R. Escarpit, M. Estève, A. Fabre, M. Fabre, J. Faublée, R.-M. Fayolle, J. De Fels, J. Feuillet, A. Finck, I. Fleischmann, M. Fortin, P. Fouché, E. Foulliaron, P. Frantz, I. Freire Nunes, J.-C. Frère, A. Frontier , E. Fujimoto, J.-M. Gardair, R. Gardes, J. Gattegno, J. Gengoux, A. Giacomi, J.-M. Gibbal, J.-M. Gleize, R. Goetschel, E. Gould, J.-P. Gourdeau, Interuniversity working group on Victor Hugo, N. Gruss, E. Guiol-Benassaya, A. Gut, J. Guyot, M. Habas-Lebel, B. Hamidi-Simon, J. Haritschelhar, Ph Hédouin, F. Hoffmann, D. Hollier, M.-C. Hoock-Demarle, J. Jaffré, L. Jenny, J.-L. Joubert ,. N. Kasi, G. Kassai, D. Kohler, A. Kokko-Zalcman, A. Kosko, G. Krebs, A. Kremr-Marietti, J.-R. Ladmiral, J. de La Fontinelle, J. Lajarrige. Ph. De Lajarte, L. Lambert, R. Laufer, Cl. Lautier, Y. Lavoine, J. Lecarme, M. Lecreur, H. Lefebvre, Y. Lefèvre, Legionnet, Ph. Lejeune, M. Lemoine, E. Lempereur, J.-M. Le Sidaner, A. Lionnet, M. Lioure, J. Lovichi, J..C. Lyant, J.-P. Mahé, M. Mammeri, P. Marchetti, J. Margain, R. Marrast, Cl. Martin, G. Martzel, G. Maurin, S. Mayoux, G. Meillon, S. Melchior-Bonnet , D. Ménager, J. Michel, A. Miquel, .J. Monférier, C. Morice, A. Naaman, C. Nardin de Fraissans, V. Nikiprowetzky, M. Ohana, A. Okada, P. Orecchioni, L. Orr, G. Paleyret, D. Palmé, P. Pavis, A. Pééva, J. Pépin, L. Perlemuter, M. Perret, J. Pérus, V. Peska, J.-M. Petit, Cl. Pichois, M. Pierre, A. Pierron, M. Piron, B. Plessy, D Poirion, B. Poizat, X. Pons, A. Preiss, J. Raabe, M. Reinhorn, J. Relinger, J. Riaud, A. Ricard, R. Ricatte, D. Riche, J.-L. Rispail, M.-Th. Rita Lopes, E. Rivellne, IL Rozenberg, P. Rozenberg, M.-Cl. Sagay, J.-M. Saintlu, S. Saint-Michel, C. Salles, S. Sarkany, A. Sauvy, J. Seebacher, M. Serres, P. Servant, G. Seurre, R. Sieffert, C. Sirat, D. Slakta, P. Smith, J.-J. Soulis, G. Stieg, J. Strauss, M. Sznycer, M. Tardieu , Ch. Tarting, S. Thierry, Ch. Thomas, M. Thuret, J.-F. Tournadre, A. Tournon, G. Troupeau, J. Trznadel, J. Tubiana, B. Turle, G. Valency, B. Valette, LM Vassallo, I. Verleyreichel, P. Vernois, P. Vernus, A. Viala, A. Viatte, Vollenweider, M. Wasserman, C. Weil, D. Weulersse, B. Witte, N. Yaari, M. Zaini -Lajoubert, M.-Cl. Zimmermann, P. Zumthor. Vollenweider, M. Wasserman, C. Weil, D. Weulersse, B. Witte, N. Yaari, M. Zaini-Lajoubert, M.-Cl. Zimmermann, P. Zumthor. Vollenweider, M. Wasserman, C. Weil, D. Weulersse, B. Witte, N. Yaari, M. Zaini-Lajoubert, M.-Cl. Zimmermann, P. Zumthor. MUSIC DICTIONARY Marc Vignal Josette Aubry, Marie-Danielle Audbourg-Popin, Maria-Madalena de Azeredo Perdigão, Pierre Balscheff, Pierre-Emile Barbier, Philippe Beaussant, Marie-Claire Beltrando-Patier, Dominique Bosseur, Jean-Yves Bosseur, André Boucourechliev, Jacques Bourgeois, Camille Bourniquel, Agnès de Boysson, Nanie Bridgman, Hélène Bruce, Remy Campos, Roland de Candé, Gilles Cantagrel, Costin Cazaban, Jean-Claude Ch. Chabrier, Jacques Chailley, Janine Chatignion, Michel Chion, Nathalie Combase, Gérard Condé, Pascal Contet, Alain Daniélou, Roger Delage, Pierre Dumoulin, Jean Déquence, Sylviane Falcinelli, Henri-Claude Fantapié, Joël-Marie Fauquet, Alain Féron, Madeleine Gagnard, Jean Gallois, André Gauthier, Yann Geslin, Philippe Godefroi, Antoine Goléa, Hélène Hachard, Dominique Hausfater, Colette Herzog, Pascal Huynh, Dominique Jameux, Gustave Kars, René Koering,Jean-François Labie, François Lafon, Jérôme de La Gorce, Frédéric de La Grandville, Henry-Louis de La Grange, Paul-Gilbert Langevin, Marie-Claire Le Moigne-Mussat, André Lischke, Emmanuelle Loubet, Jean-Jacques Maltret, Roland Mancini, Guy Maneveau, Gérard Mannoni, Patrick Marcland, Harry Margaritis, Marcel Marnat, Jean-Christophe Marti, Christian Meyer, Denis Morrier, Michel Noiray, Anna Penesco, Mihnea Penesco, Alain Périer, Michel M. Philippot, Hélène Pierrakos, Alain Poirier , Frédéric Robert, Jacques Rouchouse, Jean-Jacques Rouveroux, Jean Roy, Marie-Louise Sasia, Pierre Schaeffer, Jérôme Spycket, Ivanka Stoianova, Patrick Szersnovicz, Akira Tamba, Maurice Tassart, Roger Tellart, Jean Terrayre, Robert Trocoire, Pierre Vidal, Marc Vignal, Marcel Weiss, Charles Whitfield, Stéphane WolffFrédéric de La Grandville, Henry-Louis de La Grange, Paul-Gilbert Langevin, Marie-Claire Le Moigne-Mussat, André Lischke, Emmanuelle Loubet, Jean-Jacques Maltret, Roland Mancini, Guy Maneveau, Gérard Mannoni, Patrick Marcland, Harry Margaritis , Marcel Marnat, Jean-Christophe Marti, Christian Meyer, Denis Morrier, Michel Noiray, Anna Penesco, Mihnea Penesco, Alain Périer, Michel M. Philippot, Hélène Pierrakos, Alain Poirier, Frédéric Robert, Jacques Rouchouse, Jean-Jacques Rouveroux, Jean Roy, Marie-Louise Sasia, Pierre Schaeffer, Jérôme Spycket, Ivanka Stoianova, Patrick Szersnovicz, Akira Tamba, Maurice Tassart, Roger Tellart, Jean Terrayre, Robert Trocoire, Pierre Vidal, Marc Vignal, Marcel Weiss, Charles Whitfield, Stéphane WolffFrédéric de La Grandville, Henry-Louis de La Grange, Paul-Gilbert Langevin, Marie-Claire Le Moigne-Mussat, André Lischke, Emmanuelle Loubet, Jean-Jacques Maltret, Roland Mancini, Guy Maneveau, Gérard Mannoni, Patrick Marcland, Harry Margaritis , Marcel Marnat, Jean-Christophe Marti, Christian Meyer, Denis Morrier, Michel Noiray, Anna Penesco, Mihnea Penesco, Alain Périer, Michel M. Philippot, Hélène Pierrakos, Alain Poirier, Frédéric Robert, Jacques Rouchouse, Jean-Jacques Rouveroux, Jean Roy, Marie-Louise Sasia, Pierre Schaeffer, Jérôme Spycket, Ivanka Stoianova, Patrick Szersnovicz, Akira Tamba, Maurice Tassart, Roger Tellart, Jean Terrayre, Robert Trocoire, Pierre Vidal, Marc Vignal, Marcel Weiss, Charles Whitfield, Stéphane WolffAndré Lischke, Emmanuelle Loubet, Jean-Jacques Maltret, Roland Mancini, Guy Maneveau, Gérard Mannoni, Patrick Marcland, Harry Margaritis, Marcel Marnat, Jean-Christophe Marti, Christian Meyer, Denis Morrier, Michel Noiray, Anna Penesco, Mihnea Penesco, Alain Périer, Michel M. Philippot, Hélène Pierrakos, Alain Poirier, Frédéric Robert, Jacques Rouchouse, Jean-Jacques Rouveroux, Jean Roy, Marie-Louise Sasia, Pierre Schaeffer, Jérôme Spycket, Ivanka Stoianova, Patrick Szersnovicz, Akira Tamba, Maurice Tassart, Roger Tellart, Jean Terrayre, Robert Trocoire, Pierre Vidal, Marc Vignal, Marcel Weiss, Charles Whitfield, Stéphane WolffAndré Lischke, Emmanuelle Loubet, Jean-Jacques Maltret, Roland Mancini, Guy Maneveau, Gérard Mannoni, Patrick Marcland, Harry Margaritis, Marcel Marnat, Jean-Christophe Marti, Christian Meyer, Denis Morrier, Michel Noiray, Anna Penesco, Mihnea Penesco, Alain Périer, Michel M. Philippot, Hélène Pierrakos, Alain Poirier, Frédéric Robert, Jacques Rouchouse, Jean-Jacques Rouveroux, Jean Roy, Marie-Louise Sasia, Pierre Schaeffer, Jérôme Spycket, Ivanka Stoianova, Patrick Szersnovicz, Akira Tamba, Maurice Tassart, Roger Tellart, Jean Terrayre, Robert Trocoire, Pierre Vidal, Marc Vignal, Marcel Weiss, Charles Whitfield, Stéphane WolffAnna Penesco, Mihnea Penesco, Alain Périer, Michel M. Philippot, Hélène Pierrakos, Alain Poirier, Frédéric Robert, Jacques Rouchouse, Jean-Jacques Rouveroux, Jean Roy, Marie-Louise Sasia, Pierre Schaeffer, Jérôme Spycket, Ivanka Stoianova, Patrick Szersnovicz , Akira Tamba, Maurice Tassart, Roger Tellart, Jean Terrayre, Robert Trocoire, Pierre Vidal, Marc Vignal, Marcel Weiss, Charles Whitfield, Stéphane WolffAnna Penesco, Mihnea Penesco, Alain Périer, Michel M. Philippot, Hélène Pierrakos, Alain Poirier, Frédéric Robert, Jacques Rouchouse, Jean-Jacques Rouveroux, Jean Roy, Marie-Louise Sasia, Pierre Schaeffer, Jérôme Spycket, Ivanka Stoianova, Patrick Szersnovicz , Akira Tamba, Maurice Tassart, Roger Tellart, Jean Terrayre, Robert Trocoire, Pierre Vidal, Marc Vignal, Marcel Weiss, Charles Whitfield, Stéphane Wolff DICTIONNAIRE DE LA PEINTURE Michel Laclotte, Jean-Marie Cuzin, Arnaud Pierre, Hélène Adhémar, Götz Adriani, Katarina Ambrozic, Agnès Angliviel de La Baumelle, Valentina Anker, Lucie Auerbacher-Weil, François Avril, Mina Bacci, Roseline Bacou, Alessandro Ballarin, Nicole Barbier, Madeleine Barbin, Germaine Barnaud, Marc-Didier Bascou, Jeannine Baticle, Marie-Thérèse Baudry, Annie Bauduin, Michael Bauer, Marie Bécet, Sylvie Béguin, Luciano Bellosi, France Benoit, Ségolène F. Bergeon, Victor Beyer, Albert Blankert, Bernard Blistène, Vitale Bloch, Nicole Blondel, Anthony Blunt, Olivier Bonfait, Geneviève Bonnefoi, Evelina Borea, Marc Bormand, Helmut Börsch-Supan, Josette Bottineau-Gory, Alan Bowness, Dominique Bozo, Henrik Bramsen, Arnauld Brejon de Lavergnée, Gisèle Breteau, Jean- Philippe Breuille, Anita Brookner, Georges Brunel, Yvonne Brunhammer, Manfred Brunner,Jura Brüschweiler, Walther Buchowiecki, Thérèse Burollet, Françoise Cachin, Maria Teresa Caracciolo Arizzoli, Maria-Letizia Casanova, Liana Castelfranchi Vegas, Raffaello Causa, Luce Cayla, Marie Cerciello, Thérèse Charpentier, Éric de Chassey, André Chastel, Albert Châtillot , Maria Cionini Visani, Jean Clair Art critic, Annie Claustres, Annie Cloulas, Isabelle Compin, Claire Constans, G. Jean Copans, Dominique Cordellier, Sabine Cotté, Sylvie Couderc, Jean Coural, Bernard Crochet, Nicole Dacos (Crifo), Valérie Da Costa, Adriano Da Gusmão, Cécile Debray, Carlo Del Bravo, Jacques Depuilly, Sirarpie Der Nersessian, Sylvie Deswarte, Matias Diaz Padron, Anne Distel, Pier Paolo Donati, François Donatien, Bernard Dorival, Gilberte Émile-Mâle, Isabelle Ewig, Antoinette Fay-Hallé, André Fermigier, Carine Florentin,Francesca Flores d'Arcais, Marie-Thérèse de Forges, Jacques Foucart, Régine Fragnier, José Augusto França, Claire Frèches, Peter Fusco, Danielle Gaborit, Maximilien Gauthier, Laura Gensili, Pierre Georgel, Véronique Gérard-Powell, Roger Van Gindertael, Charles Goerg, Mina Gregori, Andreina Griseri, Jean-Jacques Gruber, Paul Guinard, Guy Habasque, John Hayes, Françoise Heilbrun, Robert Herbert, Angélique Héron de Villefosse, Wulf Herzogenrath, Michael Hirst, Volker Hoffman, Jaromir Homolka, Dieter Honisch, Madeleine Hours , Nicole Hubert, Wladislava Jaworska, Ionel Jianou, Ivan Jirous and Vera Jirousova, Barthélémy Jobert, Michael Kitson, Anna Klapheck, Dirk Kocks, Oldrich Kulik, Gustav and Vita Maria Künstler, Geneviève Lacambre, Jean Lacambre, Jacques Lassaigne, Hélène Lasalle, Pierre Laure, Willy Laureyssens, Patrick Le Chanu, Sylvain Lecombre,Sylvie Lecoq-Ramond, Serge Lemoine, Monique Le Noan-Vizioz, Jean-Jacques Levêque, Renée Loche, Stéphane Loire, Philippe Lorentz, Boris Lossky, Françoise Maison, Guitmie Maldonado, Laura Malvano, Marie-Thérèse Mandroux-França, Jean-Patrice Marandel, Claire Marchandise, Georges Marlier, Jean-Hubert Martin, Arpag Mekhitarian, Frieder Mellinghoff, Gunter Metken, Éric Michaud, Olivier Michel, Esther Moench-Scherer, Catherine Monbeig Goguel, Jean-Paul Monery, Geneviève Monnier, Jennifer Montagu, Brigitte de Montclos, Bernard de Montgolfier, Johann Henrich Müller, Anna-Maria Mura, Johann Muschik, André Mussat, Helga Muth, Henry Nesme, Marguerite Neveux, Fritz Novotny, Leif Østby, Jean-René Ostiguy, Hervé Oursel, Torsten Palmer, Évelyne Pansu, Béatrice Parent, René Passeron, Denis Pataky, Claude Pecquet, Françoise Pellicer, Christine Peltre,Alfonso Emilio Pérez Sánchez, Pierre-Henri Picou, Arnauld Pierre, Charles Pietri, Anne Pingeot, Évelyne Pomey, Anne Prache-Paillard, Nathalie Prat, Giovanni Previtali, Robert Prinçay, Gabriella Repaci-Courtois, Claudie Ressort, Nicole Reynaud, Monique Ricour, Jean Rivière, Daniel Robbins, Philippe Robert-Jones, Renato Roli, Giovanni Romano, Anne Roquebert, Marco Rosci, Artur Rosenauer, Pierre Rosenberg, Robert Rosenblum, Élisabeth Rossier, Marcel Röthlisberger, Pascal-Louis Rousseau, Alain Roy, Jean Rudel, Xavier de Salas, Jean-Pierre Samoyault, Cécile Scailliérez, Winifred Schiffman, Antoine Schnapper, Jean-Pierre Seguin, Arlette Sérullaz, Maurice Sérullaz, Nicola Spinosa, Marcel-André Stalter, Charles Sterling, Margaret Alison Stone, Sir Roy Strong, John Norman Sunderland , Miriam Tal, Daniel Ternois, Jacques Thirion, Jacques Thuillier,Amanda Tomlinson, Bruno Toscano, Hélène Toussaint, Pierre Vaisse, Dora Vallier, William Vaugham, Françoise Viatte, Germain Viatte, Jacques Vilain, Michael Voggenauer, Carlo Volpe, Jacques Wilhelm, Stanislas Zadora, Franca Zava Boccazzi, Henri Zerner, Bernard Zumthor ROCK DICTIONARY Yann Plougastel, Maurice Achard, Gérard Bar-David, Philippe Barbot, François Bensignor, Yves Bigot, Philippe Blanchet, Olivier Cachin, Alexis Campion, Benoît Carles, Hugo Cassavetti, Jean Cordoba, Yves Couperie, Emmanuelle Debaussart, Francis Dordor, Michel Doussot, Michel Embareck, Henri Escudier, Christian Eudeline, Jean-Paul Germonville, Loïck Gicquel, Ariane Gil, Gérard Herzaft, Ian Holchaker, Gilles de Kerdrel, Patrick Labesse, Marc Lambron, Véronique de Launay, Vincent Le Leuch, Patrick Mahé, Dominique Mesmin, Frédéric Péguillan, Didier Saltron, Patricia Scott-Dunwoodie, Benjamin Sire, Elste Thomson, Jacques Vassal. Great Jazz Creators Gerald Arnaud, Jacques Chesnel GEOPOLITICAL FILES Aude Argouse, Gilles Baud-Berthier, Dominique Beaux, Géraldine Bertrand, Xavier Bougarel, Jean-Marie Bouissou, Sophie Bourdais, Jean-Claude Boyer, Antonela Capelle, Françoise Cayrac-Blanchard, Isabelle Cordonnier, Olivier Da Lage, Zakya Daoud, Jean- Yves Deler, Jean-Arnault Dérens, Alain Dieckhoff, Louis-Jean Duclos, Frédéric Durand, Laurent Fourchard, Claire Fredj, Michel Gaud, Laurent Geslin, Catherine Gousseff, Jean Gousseff, Azadeh Kian-Thiébault, Henry Laurens, Gaëlle Le Marc, Yves Léonard, Agnès Levallois, Adrien Lherm, Bernard Lory, Barbara Loyer, Jean-Louis Margolin, Jean-Luc Martineau, Claire Mouradian, Simon Parlier, Olga Pichon-Bobrinskoy, Yves Plasseraud, Jean Rohr, Dottore Beda Romano, Alain Roux, Patricia Sampaio -Silva, Marie-Albane de Suremain, Hugues Tertrais, Jérôme Vaillant, Semih Vaner, Nebojsa Vukadinovic, Claude Wauthier,Philippe Zacair. LAROUSSE MÉDICAL Gérard Amarenco, Bernard Amor, Jacques Amouroux, Bernard Badelon, Claude Barbanel, Dominique Barrucand, Henri-Pierre Bass, Laurence Batellier, Bernard Bendriem, Marie-Christine Béné, Pierre Bert, Anne-Marie Berthier, Alain Bertrand, Michel Bicheron, Jean Bignon , Catherine Boccaccio, Michel Bocquet, Pierre Bonfils, Claude Bouchard, Philippe Boulu, François Boureau, Antoine Bourrillon, Marie-Germaine Bousser, Jean-Luc Breau, Anne Buré-Rossier, Françoise Bussière, Emmanuel Alain Cabanis, Aldo Campana, Nicole Casadevall, Yves Castaing, Robert Cavezian, Jean-Claude Chanussot, Yves Chapuis, Claude Chastel, Marie-Émilie Chauveau, François Chieze, Christos Chouaïd, Boyan Christoforov, Michel Comet, Michel Crépin, Max Dana, François Daniel, Annick Datry, Marie-Laure Debin , Nathalie Delamare, Christian Delboy, Thierry Delboy, Marc Delpech,Catherine Despréaux, Jean-Yves Devaux, Annick Deveau, Henri Dufour, Hervé Dupont, Benoît Eurin, Michel Febvre, Pierre Fenaux, Élisabeth Figon, Françoise Forette, Jean Fouchard, Patrick Fournet, Christian Fréville, Wolf Herman Fridman, René Frydman, Véronique Gagey , Jean-François Gaillard, Michel Garre, Bernard Gattegno, Nadine Gautier, Roger Gay, Bernard Genetet, Noëlle Genetet, Marc Gentilini, Gisèle George, Claude Gillot, François Guérin, Yves Guillot, Jean-Marc Guinchard, Bernard Guy-Grand, Henry Hamard, Aline Hartmann, Gilbert Herbelet, Albert Hirsch, Francine Hirzowski, Marie-Thérèse Iba-Zizen Cabanis, Alain Ichir, Jacques Ingrand, Lucien Israël, Laurent Jacob, Christophe Jamin, Olivier Jonquet, Jean Jouquan, Michel Jouvet, Yves Juvain, Jacques Kopferschmitt, Albert Kujas, Anne-Sophie Labussière, Catherine Lamy, Charles Lapière,Sylvie Lariven, Muriel Laromiguière, Arnaud Lazarus, Jean-Roger Le Gall, Marie-France Le Heuzey, Gisèle Le Moël, Élisabeth Le Nestour, Bernard Lebeau, Michel Lecendreux, Christophe Lelaidier, Ghislaine Leleu, Bruno J. L'Heureux, Jean- Claude Liehn, Beatriz Loiseau, Jean-Denis Lumbroso, Jean-Pierre Luton, Louis-Joseph Lutzler, Claudine Luu, Peter M. Lydyard, Monique Madier, Ely Mandel, Xavier Marchandise, Sandrine Marion, José M. Mascaro, Hélène Massiou, Michel Masson, Philippe Matron, Jean-Jacques Mazeron, Jean-Christophe Mercier, Paul Messerschmitt, M. Kamel Metahni, Caroline Métais, Olivier Meyer, Vladimir Mitz, Claude Moreau, Yves Morin, Éric Nataf, Catherine Nicolas, Gérard Nitenberg, Jean-Pierre Nozais, Isidore Pelc, Yvon Pennec, Yann Person, Martine Pierre-Marie-Granier, Christian Porcq, Anne-Marie Prieur, Antoine Puissant,Danièle Ranoux, Jean de Recondo, Alain Reinberg, Ruddy Richard, Caroline Rivolier, René Robert, Paul Sachet, Kamran Samii, Hélène Sancho-Garnier, Benoît Schlemmer, Olivier Spatzierer, Philippe Stchepinsky, Nadine Taggiasco, Claude Talamon, Jean-Noël Talbot, Ysé Tardan-Masquelier, Marie-Claire Taugourdeau, Martin Thibierge, Claude Thuot, Patrick Tomatis, Thierry Urban, François Vachon, Patrice Van Amerongen, Bruno Varet, Jean Varin, Dominique Verdier, Jean-Claude Verdier, Jacqueline Wainsten, Jean-Pierre Wainsten , Pierre Youinou, Mathieu ZuberClaude Thuot, Patrick Tomatis, Thierry Urban, François Vachon, Patrice Van Amerongen, Bruno Varet, Jean Varin, Dominique Verdier, Jean-Claude Verdier, Jacqueline Wainsten, Jean-Pierre Wainsten, Pierre Youinou, Mathieu ZuberClaude Thuot, Patrick Tomatis, Thierry Urban, François Vachon, Patrice Van Amerongen, Bruno Varet, Jean Varin, Dominique Verdier, Jean-Claude Verdier, Jacqueline Wainsten, Jean-Pierre Wainsten, Pierre Youinou, Mathieu Zuber THEMATICA François Demay, Anne Tavard, Market House Book Translation Biat Translation, Translatel. Editing and writing work Dominique Beaux, Viviane Bories, Jean Boudarel, Anne-Claire Brabant, Laure Catherine, Marc Chabrier, Lionel Charles, Pascale Cheminée, Laure Ciccione, Gilles Costaz, Ioana Culcer, Didier Delacroix, Jean-Christophe Delmas, Sylvie Deraime, Antoine Derouin, Thérèse Dout, Marie-Thérèse Eudes, Myriam Florent, François Flori, Michel Giraud, Laurent Girerd, Gersende Goursaud de Merlis, Ariane Gransac, Patricia Guédot, François Hardy, Valérie Hauzy, Anna Hurwic, Nathalie Kristy, François Lachaud, Alexandra Laederich, Léonor Lara , Maurice Lauzier, Guillaume Leingre, Sophie Lelouey, Bernard Marck, Philippe Margotin, Maurice Mashaal, Cécile Moreira, Marianne Mouchot, Raphaëlle Mourey, Iwona Nowoszewska, Marcin Nowoszewski, Patrick Pasques, Éric Mathivet, Vanina Pialot, Jacques Pinturault, Aurélie Prissette, Michel Rochard, Bernard Rolet, Sylvie Sargueil,Xavier Truchet, Cécile Vanwalleghem, Philippe Weyl, Catherine Zerdoun, Robert Zuili. ICONOGRAPHY Photographic research and documentation: Valérie Perrin Agnès Calvo, Marie-Annick Réveillon, Claudie Rouquié-Troisville, Nathalie Bocher-Lenoir. Laure Bachetta, Catherine Claudot, Christian Limouzy, Laurence Vacher, assisted by Martine Debrais, Valérie François, Claudie Gautier, Cécile Niesseron. Base Images Béatrice Ausset, Jacques Bottet, Christine Dufour, Nathalie Magne, Catherine Montagne, Danièle Portaz, Dominique Rimbert. Drawing up Jacqueline Pajouès, Marie Vorobieff Gilles Alkan, Animex Productions, Isabelle Arslanian, Jacek Babicki, Base Line, Chantal Beaumont, Maurice Beranger, Francis Bérille, Alain Bertrand, Laurent Blondel, Noël Blotti, Pierre Bon, Paul Bontemps, Vincent Boulanger, Franck Bouttevin, Pierre Brackers de Hugo, Jacques Cartier, Claude Chambolle, Isabelle Chenu, Mireille Chenu, Bruno Chizat, Frédérique Collinet, Patricia Condoris, Isaïe Correia, François Crozat, Fabrice Dadoun, Bruno David, Bernard Delanghe, Jacky Deum, Henri Dewitte, Alain Doussineau, Claire Felloni, Jos Fichet , Virginie Fréchuret, Marina Fulchiron, Christian Godard, Patrick Grace, Jean-Luc Guérin, Marie Guibert, Dominique Guéveneux, Philippe Guinot, François Guiol, Éliane Guyart, Régis Haghebaert, Denis Horvath, Xavier Hüe, Catherine Huerta, Catherine Jacquinet, Charles Jaillard , Michel Janvier, Danièle Jourdrand,Brenda Katté, Yves Larvor, Marc Legrand, Gilbert Macé, Claudine Maerten, François Martin, Lucien Mathieu, Florence Maurier, Pierre Menanteau, Emmanuel Mercier, Catherine Michaud, Marcel Miller, Claude Millet, Denise Millet, Patrick Morin, Behzad Nahed, Catherine Nouvelle , Jocelyne Ortéga, Jean-Marc Pariselle, Jean-Marie Patier, François Pichon, Claude Poppé, François Poulain, Raymonde Quéré, Bernard Rocamora, Alain Rolland, Dominique Roussel, Richard Roussel, Dominique Sablons, Michel Saemann, Tom Sam You, Léonie Schlosser , Jean-Claude Senée, Sandra Smith, Pierre Soulié, Étienne Souppart, Masako Taëron, Patrick Taëron, Jacques Toutain, Amélie Veaux, Alain Vial, Denise Weber, Drawings archivesCatherine Michaud, Marcel Miller, Claude Millet, Denise Millet, Patrick Morin, Behzad Nahed, Catherine Nouvelle, Jocelyne Ortéga, Jean-Marc Pariselle, Jean-Marie Patier, François Pichon, Claude Poppé, François Poulain, Raymonde Quéré, Bernard Rocamora, Alain Rolland, Dominique Roussel, Richard Roussel, Dominique Sablons, Michel Saemann, Tom Sam You, Léonie Schlosser, Jean-Claude Senée, Sandra Smith, Pierre Soulié, Étienne Souppart, Masako Taëron, Patrick Taëron, Jacques Toutain, Amélie Veaux, Alain Vial, Denise Weber, Drawings ArchivesCatherine Michaud, Marcel Miller, Claude Millet, Denise Millet, Patrick Morin, Behzad Nahed, Catherine Nouvelle, Jocelyne Ortéga, Jean-Marc Pariselle, Jean-Marie Patier, François Pichon, Claude Poppé, François Poulain, Raymonde Quéré, Bernard Rocamora, Alain Rolland, Dominique Roussel, Richard Roussel, Dominique Sablons, Michel Saemann, Tom Sam You, Léonie Schlosser, Jean-Claude Senée, Sandra Smith, Pierre Soulié, Étienne Souppart, Masako Taëron, Patrick Taëron, Jacques Toutain, Amélie Veaux, Alain Vial, Denise Weber, Drawings ArchivesMichel Saemann, Tom Sam You, Léonie Schlosser, Jean-Claude Senée, Sandra Smith, Pierre Soulié, Étienne Souppart, Masako Taëron, Patrick Taëron, Jacques Toutain, Amélie Veaux, Alain Vial, Denise Weber, Drawings ArchivesMichel Saemann, Tom Sam You, Léonie Schlosser, Jean-Claude Senée, Sandra Smith, Pierre Soulié, Étienne Souppart, Masako Taëron, Patrick Taëron, Jacques Toutain, Amélie Veaux, Alain Vial, Denise Weber, Drawings Archives Mapping Nadine Martrès Geographic maps of countries and continents: EDITERRA, with the collaboration of Nicolas Georget, Stéphanie Rondeau, Jacques Sablayrolles Maps of French regions and departments: Krystyna Mazoyer-Dzieniszewska, Michel Mazoyer, Nathalie Cottrel, Léonie Schlosser and Victoire Zalacain Maps themes: Michel Mazoyer Capture Annie Godefroy, Marianne Nicaud, Monique Brétillard. WRITING-CORRECTION Chantal Pagès, Annick Valade. Monique Bagaïni, Chantal Barbot, Madeleine Biaujeaud, Henri Goldszal, Françoise Mousnier, Julien Ringuet, Édith Zha and, for the Citations component : André Jouette, Dominique Le Bourg, Maud Sissung. MULTIMEDIA PRODUCTION Media production, scriptwriting, writing Monique Chauvin, Frédéric Denhe, Agnès Lara, Anne-Marie Lelorrain, Moïse Pijollet, Stéphanie Préchoux, Delphine Roger. Animations Stéphane Arzt, Julie Fliniaux, Samuel Girardin, Stéphan Guerin, François Ricolleau, Christine Schoffen, François Vidal. Philippe Bonnet, Véronique Clad, Franck Deschaux, Stéphane Faugère, Julie Fliniaux, Véronique Lacroix, Christine Schoffen, Jean-Pierre Valentin Media editors Farnaz Bidgoli-Rad, Benoît Garrigues, Agnès Lara, Justine Plessier, Jérôme Renaudin, Alain Sousa, Emmanuèle Zumstein Some animations were created with Macromedia products, © 1995-1998 Macromedia Inc. All rights reserved. Shockwave Flash and Flash Player are registered trademarks of Macromedia Inc. Sound design and editorial advice Eugene Lledo Music and other sounds Sound for Son Conductor and musical advisor: Amaury du Closel Voice and sound effects of animations Talk-over Voice Jean-Yves Berthelot and Elizabeth Landwerlin (animations), François Cognard and Gaëlle Savary (videos). Archival Voices Institute of Sound Archives, National Audiovisual Institute National Library of France (audiovisual department), Europe 1, TF 1, Katia Kulawick. Art Videos © Froggies. Art of Art. 2008. Thanks Michel Carlo, Christophe Lafarge, Martine Préchoux, Hugues Reboul, Gilbert Scher. Mobile applications Index Legal notices and credits CGU Confidentiality charter Cookies Contact © Larousse Continue without accepting optional cookies> Respect for your privacy is our priority Our organization and its partners store and / or access information on your device, such as unique cookie IDs to process personal data. 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