Title: Why and When Deep is Better than Shallow: An Implementation-Agnostic State-Transition View of Depth Supremacy
Primary area: learning theory
Keywords: generalization error bound of deep learning, state-transition model, metric growth-rate, abelian, nilpotent, free

Abstract: Why and when is deep better than shallow? We answer this question in a framework that is agnostic to network implementation. We formulate a deep model as an abstract state‑transition semigroup acting on a general metric space, and separate the implementation (e.g., ReLU nets, transformers, and chain‑of‑thought) from the abstract state transition. We prove a bias-variance decomposition in which the variance depends only on the abstract depth‑$k$ network and not on the implementation (Theorem 1). We further split the bounds into output and hidden parts to tie the depth dependence of the variance to the metric entropy of the state‑transition semigroup (Theorem 2). We then investigate implementation‑free conditions under which the variance grow polynomially or logarithmically with depth (Section 4). Combining these with exponential or polynomial bias decay identifies four canonical bias-variance trade-off regimes (EL/EP/PL/PP) and produces explicit optimal depths $k^\ast$. Across regimes, $k^\ast>1$  typically holds, giving a rigorous form of depth supremacy. The lowest generalization error bound is achieved under the EL regime (exp‑decay bias + log‑growth variance), explaining why and when deep is better, especially for iterative or hierarchical concept classes such as neural ODEs, diffusion/score models, and chain‑of‑thought reasoning.