Repository: fox-it/dissect.cstruct

Issue:
Errors when initialising a struct with partial keywords or arguments
When initialising a struct with partial keywords or arguments the other fields become `None` resulting in exceptions, for example when printing the instance of the struct.

When initialising without any arguments it works and all values are 0 as expected. But when you only initialise some of the fields it breaks, example:

```python
from dissect.cstruct import cstruct

C_DEF = """"
struct FooBar {
    uint32  foo;
    uint32  bar;
};
"""

cs = cstruct().load(C_DEF)

print(cs.FooBar())  # works as expected: <FooBar foo=0x0 bar=0x0>
print(cs.FooBar(1, 1)) # works as expected: <FooBar foo=0x1 bar=0x1>

print(cs.FooBar(1)) # breaks, bar=None
print(cs.FooBar(bar=1)) # breaks, foo=None
```

The exception:

```
$ python3 kwargs_init.py 
<FooBar foo=0x0 bar=0x0>
<FooBar foo=0x1 bar=0x1>
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "/workspaces/dissect.cstruct/examples/kwargs_init.py", line 14, in <module>
    print(cs.FooBar(1)) # breaks, bar=None
    ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
  File "/workspaces/dissect.cstruct/dissect/cstruct/types/structure.py", line 388, in __repr__
    value = hex(value)
            ^^^^^^^^^^
TypeError: 'NoneType' object cannot be interpreted as an integer
```

Hints from issue comments:
@Schamper: I think it's more the `repr` that breaks, not the initialization, right? I think this is actually a bug introduced with #101 :smile: @yunzheng: But if you don't initialise with any arguments it works. So it's more the initialisation behaviour i think.@yunzheng: The bug also happens before merging #101, in the 4.1 tagged release:

```shell
$ python3 kwargs_init.py 
<FooBar foo=0x0 bar=0x0>
<FooBar foo=0x1 bar=0x1>
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "/workspaces/dissect.cstruct/examples/kwargs_init.py", line 14, in <module>
    print(cs.FooBar(1)) # breaks, bar=None
    ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
  File "/workspaces/dissect.cstruct/dissect/cstruct/types/structure.py", line 384, in __repr__
    f"{k}={hex(self[k]) if (issubclass(f.type, int) and not issubclass(f.type, Pointer)) else repr(self[k])}"
           ^^^^^^^^^^^^
TypeError: 'NoneType' object cannot be interpreted as an integer
```

To be clear in the example, the following works:

```python
print(cs.FooBar())
print(cs.FooBar(foo=1, bar=2))
```

The following breaks, only one field initialised from the two fields:

```python
print(cs.FooBar(foo=1))
```
@Schamper: We looked at the code together and decided it’s best to change the default initialization behavior of None to be the default for that type instead.@yunzheng: I've currently used the following workaround, which is to initialise it empty first without any arguments, then set the partial values via attributes afterwards, eg:

```python
>>> c = cs.FooBar()
>>> c.foo = 0x1337
>>> print(c)
<FooBar foo=0x1337 bar=0x0>
```

Solution patch:
diff --git a/dissect/cstruct/cstruct.py b/dissect/cstruct/cstruct.py
index 81369ab2..23d8f1a4 100644
--- a/dissect/cstruct/cstruct.py
+++ b/dissect/cstruct/cstruct.py
@@ -321,7 +321,7 @@ def _make_type(
         size: int | None,
         *,
         alignment: int | None = None,
-        attrs: dict[str, Any] = None,
+        attrs: dict[str, Any] | None = None,
     ) -> type[BaseType]:
         """Create a new type class bound to this cstruct instance.
 
diff --git a/dissect/cstruct/types/base.py b/dissect/cstruct/types/base.py
index 5ea6fdb6..53c57b83 100644
--- a/dissect/cstruct/types/base.py
+++ b/dissect/cstruct/types/base.py
@@ -36,14 +36,14 @@ def __call__(cls, *args, **kwargs) -> MetaType | BaseType:
         if len(args) == 1 and not isinstance(args[0], cls):
             stream = args[0]
 
-            if hasattr(stream, "read"):
+            if _is_readable_type(stream):
                 return cls._read(stream)
 
             if issubclass(cls, bytes) and isinstance(stream, bytes) and len(stream) == cls.size:
                 # Shortcut for char/bytes type
                 return type.__call__(cls, *args, **kwargs)
 
-            if isinstance(stream, (bytes, memoryview, bytearray)):
+            if _is_buffer_type(stream):
                 return cls.reads(stream)
 
         return type.__call__(cls, *args, **kwargs)
@@ -83,7 +83,7 @@ def read(cls, obj: BinaryIO | bytes) -> BaseType:
         Returns:
             The parsed value of this type.
         """
-        if isinstance(obj, (bytes, memoryview, bytearray)):
+        if _is_buffer_type(obj):
             return cls.reads(obj)
 
         return cls._read(obj)
@@ -113,7 +113,7 @@ def dumps(cls, value: Any) -> bytes:
         cls._write(out, value)
         return out.getvalue()
 
-    def _read(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] = None) -> BaseType:
+    def _read(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] | None = None) -> BaseType:
         """Internal function for reading value.
 
         Must be implemented per type.
@@ -124,7 +124,7 @@ def _read(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] = None) -> BaseType:
         """
         raise NotImplementedError()
 
-    def _read_array(cls, stream: BinaryIO, count: int, context: dict[str, Any] = None) -> list[BaseType]:
+    def _read_array(cls, stream: BinaryIO, count: int, context: dict[str, Any] | None = None) -> list[BaseType]:
         """Internal function for reading array values.
 
         Allows type implementations to do optimized reading for their type.
@@ -145,7 +145,7 @@ def _read_array(cls, stream: BinaryIO, count: int, context: dict[str, Any] = Non
 
         return [cls._read(stream, context) for _ in range(count)]
 
-    def _read_0(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] = None) -> list[BaseType]:
+    def _read_0(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] | None = None) -> list[BaseType]:
         """Internal function for reading null-terminated data.
 
         "Null" is type specific, so must be implemented per type.
@@ -179,7 +179,7 @@ def _write_0(cls, stream: BinaryIO, array: list[BaseType]) -> int:
             stream: The stream to read from.
             array: The array to write.
         """
-        return cls._write_array(stream, array + [cls()])
+        return cls._write_array(stream, array + [cls.default()])
 
 
 class _overload:
@@ -225,7 +225,10 @@ class ArrayMetaType(MetaType):
     num_entries: int | Expression | None
     null_terminated: bool
 
-    def _read(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] = None) -> Array:
+    def default(cls) -> BaseType:
+        return type.__call__(cls, [cls.type.default()] * (cls.num_entries if isinstance(cls.num_entries, int) else 0))
+
+    def _read(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] | None = None) -> Array:
         if cls.null_terminated:
             return cls.type._read_0(stream, context)
 
@@ -243,11 +246,6 @@ def _read(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] = None) -> Array:
 
         return cls.type._read_array(stream, num, context)
 
-    def default(cls) -> BaseType:
-        return type.__call__(
-            cls, [cls.type.default() for _ in range(0 if cls.dynamic or cls.null_terminated else cls.num_entries)]
-        )
-
 
 class Array(list, BaseType, metaclass=ArrayMetaType):
     """Implements a fixed or dynamically sized array type.
@@ -261,7 +259,7 @@ class Array(list, BaseType, metaclass=ArrayMetaType):
     """
 
     @classmethod
-    def _read(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] = None) -> Array:
+    def _read(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] | None = None) -> Array:
         return cls(ArrayMetaType._read(cls, stream, context))
 
     @classmethod
@@ -275,5 +273,13 @@ def _write(cls, stream: BinaryIO, data: list[Any]) -> int:
         return cls.type._write_array(stream, data)
 
 
+def _is_readable_type(value: Any) -> bool:
+    return hasattr(value, "read")
+
+
+def _is_buffer_type(value: Any) -> bool:
+    return isinstance(value, (bytes, memoryview, bytearray))
+
+
 # As mentioned in the BaseType class, we correctly set the type here
 MetaType.ArrayType = Array
diff --git a/dissect/cstruct/types/char.py b/dissect/cstruct/types/char.py
index cec72c1c..268d690c 100644
--- a/dissect/cstruct/types/char.py
+++ b/dissect/cstruct/types/char.py
@@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ class CharArray(bytes, BaseType, metaclass=ArrayMetaType):
     """Character array type for reading and writing byte strings."""
 
     @classmethod
-    def _read(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] = None) -> CharArray:
+    def _read(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] | None = None) -> CharArray:
         return type.__call__(cls, ArrayMetaType._read(cls, stream, context))
 
     @classmethod
@@ -35,11 +35,11 @@ class Char(bytes, BaseType):
     ArrayType = CharArray
 
     @classmethod
-    def _read(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] = None) -> Char:
+    def _read(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] | None = None) -> Char:
         return cls._read_array(stream, 1, context)
 
     @classmethod
-    def _read_array(cls, stream: BinaryIO, count: int, context: dict[str, Any] = None) -> Char:
+    def _read_array(cls, stream: BinaryIO, count: int, context: dict[str, Any] | None = None) -> Char:
         if count == 0:
             return type.__call__(cls, b"")
 
@@ -50,7 +50,7 @@ def _read_array(cls, stream: BinaryIO, count: int, context: dict[str, Any] = Non
         return type.__call__(cls, data)
 
     @classmethod
-    def _read_0(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] = None) -> Char:
+    def _read_0(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] | None = None) -> Char:
         buf = []
         while True:
             byte = stream.read(1)
diff --git a/dissect/cstruct/types/enum.py b/dissect/cstruct/types/enum.py
index cae53c3f..eea2b7a2 100644
--- a/dissect/cstruct/types/enum.py
+++ b/dissect/cstruct/types/enum.py
@@ -27,7 +27,7 @@ def __call__(
     ) -> EnumMetaType:
         if name is None:
             if value is None:
-                value = cls.type()
+                value = cls.type.default()
 
             if not isinstance(value, int):
                 # value is a parsable value
@@ -64,13 +64,13 @@ def __contains__(cls, value: Any) -> bool:
                 return True
             return value in cls._value2member_map_
 
-    def _read(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] = None) -> Enum:
+    def _read(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] | None = None) -> Enum:
         return cls(cls.type._read(stream, context))
 
-    def _read_array(cls, stream: BinaryIO, count: int, context: dict[str, Any] = None) -> list[Enum]:
+    def _read_array(cls, stream: BinaryIO, count: int, context: dict[str, Any] | None = None) -> list[Enum]:
         return list(map(cls, cls.type._read_array(stream, count, context)))
 
-    def _read_0(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] = None) -> list[Enum]:
+    def _read_0(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] | None = None) -> list[Enum]:
         return list(map(cls, cls.type._read_0(stream, context)))
 
     def _write(cls, stream: BinaryIO, data: Enum) -> int:
@@ -82,7 +82,7 @@ def _write_array(cls, stream: BinaryIO, array: list[Enum]) -> int:
 
     def _write_0(cls, stream: BinaryIO, array: list[BaseType]) -> int:
         data = [entry.value if isinstance(entry, Enum) else entry for entry in array]
-        return cls._write_array(stream, data + [cls.type()])
+        return cls._write_array(stream, data + [cls.type.default()])
 
 
 def _fix_alias_members(cls: type[Enum]) -> None:
diff --git a/dissect/cstruct/types/int.py b/dissect/cstruct/types/int.py
index b1bc29ca..f994a4d8 100644
--- a/dissect/cstruct/types/int.py
+++ b/dissect/cstruct/types/int.py
@@ -12,7 +12,7 @@ class Int(int, BaseType):
     signed: bool
 
     @classmethod
-    def _read(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] = None) -> Int:
+    def _read(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] | None = None) -> Int:
         data = stream.read(cls.size)
 
         if len(data) != cls.size:
@@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ def _read(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] = None) -> Int:
         return cls.from_bytes(data, ENDIANNESS_MAP[cls.cs.endian], signed=cls.signed)
 
     @classmethod
-    def _read_0(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] = None) -> Int:
+    def _read_0(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] | None = None) -> Int:
         result = []
 
         while True:
diff --git a/dissect/cstruct/types/leb128.py b/dissect/cstruct/types/leb128.py
index 9f0a398b..45b4786a 100644
--- a/dissect/cstruct/types/leb128.py
+++ b/dissect/cstruct/types/leb128.py
@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ class LEB128(int, BaseType):
     signed: bool
 
     @classmethod
-    def _read(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] = None) -> LEB128:
+    def _read(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] | None = None) -> LEB128:
         result = 0
         shift = 0
         while True:
@@ -35,7 +35,7 @@ def _read(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] = None) -> LEB128:
         return cls.__new__(cls, result)
 
     @classmethod
-    def _read_0(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] = None) -> LEB128:
+    def _read_0(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] | None = None) -> LEB128:
         result = []
 
         while True:
diff --git a/dissect/cstruct/types/packed.py b/dissect/cstruct/types/packed.py
index ec42c238..493e85ca 100644
--- a/dissect/cstruct/types/packed.py
+++ b/dissect/cstruct/types/packed.py
@@ -18,11 +18,11 @@ class Packed(BaseType):
     packchar: str
 
     @classmethod
-    def _read(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] = None) -> Packed:
+    def _read(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] | None = None) -> Packed:
         return cls._read_array(stream, 1, context)[0]
 
     @classmethod
-    def _read_array(cls, stream: BinaryIO, count: int, context: dict[str, Any] = None) -> list[Packed]:
+    def _read_array(cls, stream: BinaryIO, count: int, context: dict[str, Any] | None = None) -> list[Packed]:
         if count == EOF:
             data = stream.read()
             length = len(data)
@@ -39,7 +39,7 @@ def _read_array(cls, stream: BinaryIO, count: int, context: dict[str, Any] = Non
         return [cls.__new__(cls, value) for value in fmt.unpack(data)]
 
     @classmethod
-    def _read_0(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] = None) -> Packed:
+    def _read_0(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] | None = None) -> Packed:
         result = []
 
         fmt = _struct(cls.cs.endian, cls.packchar)
diff --git a/dissect/cstruct/types/pointer.py b/dissect/cstruct/types/pointer.py
index f79d86d4..e398ff69 100644
--- a/dissect/cstruct/types/pointer.py
+++ b/dissect/cstruct/types/pointer.py
@@ -12,11 +12,11 @@ class Pointer(int, BaseType):
     """Pointer to some other type."""
 
     type: MetaType
-    _stream: BinaryIO
-    _context: dict[str, Any]
+    _stream: BinaryIO | None
+    _context: dict[str, Any] | None
     _value: BaseType
 
-    def __new__(cls, value: int, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] = None) -> Pointer:
+    def __new__(cls, value: int, stream: BinaryIO | None, context: dict[str, Any] | None = None) -> Pointer:
         obj = super().__new__(cls, value)
         obj._stream = stream
         obj._context = context
@@ -66,7 +66,11 @@ def __or__(self, other: int) -> Pointer:
         return type.__call__(self.__class__, int.__or__(self, other), self._stream, self._context)
 
     @classmethod
-    def _read(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] = None) -> Pointer:
+    def default(cls) -> Pointer:
+        return cls.__new__(cls, cls.cs.pointer.default(), None, None)
+
+    @classmethod
+    def _read(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] | None = None) -> Pointer:
         return cls.__new__(cls, cls.cs.pointer._read(stream, context), stream, context)
 
     @classmethod
@@ -74,7 +78,7 @@ def _write(cls, stream: BinaryIO, data: int) -> int:
         return cls.cs.pointer._write(stream, data)
 
     def dereference(self) -> Any:
-        if self == 0:
+        if self == 0 or self._stream is None:
             raise NullPointerDereference()
 
         if self._value is None and not issubclass(self.type, Void):
diff --git a/dissect/cstruct/types/structure.py b/dissect/cstruct/types/structure.py
index bc52136f..6dbc5cfd 100644
--- a/dissect/cstruct/types/structure.py
+++ b/dissect/cstruct/types/structure.py
@@ -4,13 +4,19 @@
 from contextlib import contextmanager
 from enum import Enum
 from functools import lru_cache
+from itertools import chain
 from operator import attrgetter
 from textwrap import dedent
 from types import FunctionType
-from typing import Any, BinaryIO, Callable, ContextManager
+from typing import Any, BinaryIO, Callable, Iterator
 
 from dissect.cstruct.bitbuffer import BitBuffer
-from dissect.cstruct.types.base import BaseType, MetaType
+from dissect.cstruct.types.base import (
+    BaseType,
+    MetaType,
+    _is_buffer_type,
+    _is_readable_type,
+)
 from dissect.cstruct.types.enum import EnumMetaType
 from dissect.cstruct.types.pointer import Pointer
 
@@ -65,7 +71,7 @@ def __call__(cls, *args, **kwargs) -> Structure:
             # Shortcut for single char/bytes type
             return type.__call__(cls, *args, **kwargs)
         elif not args and not kwargs:
-            obj = cls(**{field.name: field.type.default() for field in cls.__fields__})
+            obj = type.__call__(cls)
             object.__setattr__(obj, "_values", {})
             object.__setattr__(obj, "_sizes", {})
             return obj
@@ -77,7 +83,6 @@ def _update_fields(cls, fields: list[Field], align: bool = False, classdict: dic
 
         lookup = {}
         raw_lookup = {}
-        init_names = []
         field_names = []
         for field in fields:
             if field.name in lookup and field.name != "_":
@@ -94,25 +99,21 @@ def _update_fields(cls, fields: list[Field], align: bool = False, classdict: dic
 
             raw_lookup[field.name] = field
 
-        num_fields = len(lookup)
         field_names = lookup.keys()
-        init_names = raw_lookup.keys()
         classdict["fields"] = lookup
         classdict["lookup"] = raw_lookup
         classdict["__fields__"] = fields
-        classdict["__bool__"] = _patch_attributes(_make__bool__(num_fields), field_names, 1)
+        classdict["__bool__"] = _generate__bool__(field_names)
 
         if issubclass(cls, UnionMetaType) or isinstance(cls, UnionMetaType):
-            classdict["__init__"] = _patch_setattr_args_and_attributes(
-                _make_setattr__init__(len(init_names)), init_names
-            )
+            classdict["__init__"] = _generate_union__init__(raw_lookup.values())
             # Not a great way to do this but it works for now
             classdict["__eq__"] = Union.__eq__
         else:
-            classdict["__init__"] = _patch_args_and_attributes(_make__init__(len(init_names)), init_names)
-            classdict["__eq__"] = _patch_attributes(_make__eq__(num_fields), field_names, 1)
+            classdict["__init__"] = _generate_structure__init__(raw_lookup.values())
+            classdict["__eq__"] = _generate__eq__(field_names)
 
-        classdict["__hash__"] = _patch_attributes(_make__hash__(num_fields), field_names, 1)
+        classdict["__hash__"] = _generate__hash__(field_names)
 
         # If we're calling this as a class method or a function on the metaclass
         if issubclass(cls, type):
@@ -229,7 +230,7 @@ def _calculate_size_and_offsets(cls, fields: list[Field], align: bool = False) -
         # The structure size is whatever the currently calculated offset is
         return offset, alignment
 
-    def _read(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] = None) -> Structure:
+    def _read(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] | None = None) -> Structure:
         bit_buffer = BitBuffer(stream, cls.cs.endian)
         struct_start = stream.tell()
 
@@ -271,12 +272,14 @@ def _read(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] = None) -> Structure:
             # Align the stream
             stream.seek(-stream.tell() & (cls.alignment - 1), io.SEEK_CUR)
 
-        obj = cls(**result)
+        # Using type.__call__ directly calls the __init__ method of the class
+        # This is faster than calling cls() and bypasses the metaclass __call__ method
+        obj = type.__call__(cls, **result)
         obj._sizes = sizes
         obj._values = result
         return obj
 
-    def _read_0(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] = None) -> list[Structure]:
+    def _read_0(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] | None = None) -> list[Structure]:
         result = []
 
         while obj := cls._read(stream, context):
@@ -322,7 +325,7 @@ def _write(cls, stream: BinaryIO, data: Structure) -> int:
 
             value = getattr(data, field.name, None)
             if value is None:
-                value = field_type()
+                value = field_type.default()
 
             if field.bits:
                 if isinstance(field_type, EnumMetaType):
@@ -350,7 +353,7 @@ def add_field(cls, name: str, type_: BaseType, bits: int | None = None, offset:
             cls.commit()
 
     @contextmanager
-    def start_update(cls) -> ContextManager:
+    def start_update(cls) -> Iterator[None]:
         try:
             cls.__updating__ = True
             yield
@@ -397,11 +400,27 @@ class UnionMetaType(StructureMetaType):
     """Base metaclass for cstruct union type classes."""
 
     def __call__(cls, *args, **kwargs) -> Union:
-        obj = super().__call__(*args, **kwargs)
-        if kwargs:
-            # Calling with kwargs means we are initializing with values
-            # Proxify all values
+        obj: Union = super().__call__(*args, **kwargs)
+
+        # Calling with non-stream args or kwargs means we are initializing with values
+        if (args and not (len(args) == 1 and (_is_readable_type(args[0]) or _is_buffer_type(args[0])))) or kwargs:
+            # We don't support user initialization of dynamic unions yet
+            if cls.dynamic:
+                raise NotImplementedError("Initializing a dynamic union is not yet supported")
+
+            # User (partial) initialization, rebuild the union
+            # First user-provided field is the one used to rebuild the union
+            arg_fields = (field.name for _, field in zip(args, cls.__fields__))
+            kwarg_fields = (name for name in kwargs if name in cls.lookup)
+            if (first_field := next(chain(arg_fields, kwarg_fields), None)) is not None:
+                obj._rebuild(first_field)
+        elif not args and not kwargs:
+            # Initialized with default values
+            # Note that we proxify here in case we have a default initialization (cls())
+            # We don't proxify in case we read from a stream, as we do that later on in _read at a more appropriate time
+            # Same with (partial) user initialization, we do that after rebuilding the union
             obj._proxify()
+
         return obj
 
     def _calculate_size_and_offsets(cls, fields: list[Field], align: bool = False) -> tuple[int | None, int]:
@@ -425,7 +444,9 @@ def _calculate_size_and_offsets(cls, fields: list[Field], align: bool = False) -
 
         return size, alignment
 
-    def _read_fields(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] = None) -> tuple[dict[str, Any], dict[str, int]]:
+    def _read_fields(
+        cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] | None = None
+    ) -> tuple[dict[str, Any], dict[str, int]]:
         result = {}
         sizes = {}
 
@@ -451,7 +472,7 @@ def _read_fields(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] = None) -> tuple
 
         return result, sizes
 
-    def _read(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] = None) -> Union:
+    def _read(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] | None = None) -> Union:
         if cls.size is None:
             start = stream.tell()
             result, sizes = cls._read_fields(stream, context)
@@ -463,7 +484,12 @@ def _read(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] = None) -> Union:
             sizes = {}
             buf = stream.read(cls.size)
 
-        obj: Union = cls(**result)
+        # Create the object and set the values
+        # Using type.__call__ directly calls the __init__ method of the class
+        # This is faster than calling cls() and bypasses the metaclass __call__ method
+        # It also makes it easier to differentiate between user-initialization of the class
+        # and initialization from a stream read
+        obj: Union = type.__call__(cls, **result)
         object.__setattr__(obj, "_values", result)
         object.__setattr__(obj, "_sizes", sizes)
         object.__setattr__(obj, "_buf", buf)
@@ -471,14 +497,20 @@ def _read(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] = None) -> Union:
         if cls.size is not None:
             obj._update()
 
+        # Proxify any nested structures
+        obj._proxify()
+
         return obj
 
     def _write(cls, stream: BinaryIO, data: Union) -> int:
+        if cls.dynamic:
+            raise NotImplementedError("Writing dynamic unions is not yet supported")
+
         offset = stream.tell()
         expected_offset = offset + len(cls)
 
         # Sort by largest field
-        fields = sorted(cls.__fields__, key=lambda e: len(e.type), reverse=True)
+        fields = sorted(cls.__fields__, key=lambda e: e.type.size or 0, reverse=True)
         anonymous_struct = False
 
         # Try to write by largest field
@@ -488,12 +520,8 @@ def _write(cls, stream: BinaryIO, data: Union) -> int:
                 anonymous_struct = field.type
                 continue
 
-            # Skip empty values
-            if (value := getattr(data, field.name)) is None:
-                continue
-
-            # We have a value, write it
-            field.type._write(stream, value)
+            # Write the value
+            field.type._write(stream, getattr(data, field.name))
             break
 
         # If we haven't written anything yet and we initially skipped an anonymous struct, write it now
@@ -527,14 +555,21 @@ def _rebuild(self, attr: str) -> None:
             cur_buf = b"\x00" * self.__class__.size
 
         buf = io.BytesIO(cur_buf)
-        field = self.__class__.fields[attr]
+        field = self.__class__.lookup[attr]
         if field.offset:
             buf.seek(field.offset)
-        field.type._write(buf, getattr(self, attr))
+
+        if (value := getattr(self, attr)) is None:
+            value = field.type.default()
+
+        field.type._write(buf, value)
 
         object.__setattr__(self, "_buf", buf.getvalue())
         self._update()
 
+        # (Re-)proxify all values
+        self._proxify()
+
     def _update(self) -> None:
         result, sizes = self.__class__._read_fields(io.BytesIO(self._buf))
         self.__dict__.update(result)
@@ -596,65 +631,71 @@ def _func(obj: Any, value: Any) -> Any:
 
 
 def _codegen(func: FunctionType) -> FunctionType:
-    # Inspired by https://github.com/dabeaz/dataklasses
-    @lru_cache
-    def make_func_code(num_fields: int) -> FunctionType:
-        names = [f"_{n}" for n in range(num_fields)]
-        exec(func(names), {}, d := {})
-        return d.popitem()[1]
+    """Decorator that generates a template function with a specified number of fields.
 
-    return make_func_code
+    This code is a little complex but allows use to cache generated functions for a specific number of fields.
+    For example, if we generate a structure with 10 fields, we can cache the generated code for that structure.
+    We can then reuse that code and patch it with the correct field names when we create a new structure with 10 fields.
 
+    The functions that are decorated with this decorator should take a list of field names and return a string of code.
+    The decorated function is needs to be called with the number of fields, instead of the field names.
+    The confusing part is that that the original function takes field names, but you then call it with
+    the number of fields instead.
 
-def _patch_args_and_attributes(func: FunctionType, fields: list[str], start: int = 0) -> FunctionType:
-    return type(func)(
-        func.__code__.replace(
-            co_names=(*func.__code__.co_names[:start], *fields),
-            co_varnames=("self", *fields),
-        ),
-        func.__globals__,
-        argdefs=func.__defaults__,
-    )
+    Inspired by https://github.com/dabeaz/dataklasses.
 
+    Args:
+        func: The decorated function that takes a list of field names and returns a string of code.
 
-def _patch_setattr_args_and_attributes(func: FunctionType, fields: list[str], start: int = 0) -> FunctionType:
-    return type(func)(
-        func.__code__.replace(
-            co_consts=(None, *fields),
-            co_varnames=("self", *fields),
-        ),
-        func.__globals__,
-        argdefs=func.__defaults__,
-    )
+    Returns:
+        A cached function that generates the desired function code, to be called with the number of fields.
+    """
 
+    def make_func_code(num_fields: int) -> FunctionType:
+        exec(func([f"_{n}" for n in range(num_fields)]), {}, d := {})
+        return d.popitem()[1]
 
-def _patch_attributes(func: FunctionType, fields: list[str], start: int = 0) -> FunctionType:
-    return type(func)(
-        func.__code__.replace(co_names=(*func.__code__.co_names[:start], *fields)),
-        func.__globals__,
-    )
+    make_func_code.__wrapped__ = func
+    return lru_cache(make_func_code)
 
 
 @_codegen
-def _make__init__(fields: list[str]) -> str:
+def _make_structure__init__(fields: list[str]) -> str:
+    """Generates an ``__init__`` method for a structure with the specified fields.
+
+    Args:
+        fields: List of field names.
+    """
     field_args = ", ".join(f"{field} = None" for field in fields)
-    field_init = "\n".join(f" self.{name} = {name}" for name in fields)
+    field_init = "\n".join(f" self.{name} = {name} if {name} is not None else {i}" for i, name in enumerate(fields))
 
-    code = f"def __init__(self{', ' + field_args if field_args else ''}):\n"
+    code = f"def __init__(self{', ' + field_args or ''}):\n"
     return code + (field_init or " pass")
 
 
 @_codegen
-def _make_setattr__init__(fields: list[str]) -> str:
+def _make_union__init__(fields: list[str]) -> str:
+    """Generates an ``__init__`` method for a class with the specified fields using setattr.
+
+    Args:
+        fields: List of field names.
+    """
     field_args = ", ".join(f"{field} = None" for field in fields)
-    field_init = "\n".join(f" object.__setattr__(self, {name!r}, {name})" for name in fields)
+    field_init = "\n".join(
+        f" object.__setattr__(self, '{name}', {name} if {name} is not None else {i})" for i, name in enumerate(fields)
+    )
 
-    code = f"def __init__(self{', ' + field_args if field_args else ''}):\n"
+    code = f"def __init__(self{', ' + field_args or ''}):\n"
     return code + (field_init or " pass")
 
 
 @_codegen
 def _make__eq__(fields: list[str]) -> str:
+    """Generates an ``__eq__`` method for a class with the specified fields.
+
+    Args:
+        fields: List of field names.
+    """
     self_vals = ",".join(f"self.{name}" for name in fields)
     other_vals = ",".join(f"other.{name}" for name in fields)
 
@@ -676,6 +717,11 @@ def __eq__(self, other):
 
 @_codegen
 def _make__bool__(fields: list[str]) -> str:
+    """Generates a ``__bool__`` method for a class with the specified fields.
+
+    Args:
+        fields: List of field names.
+    """
     vals = ", ".join(f"self.{name}" for name in fields)
 
     code = f"""
@@ -688,6 +734,11 @@ def __bool__(self):
 
 @_codegen
 def _make__hash__(fields: list[str]) -> str:
+    """Generates a ``__hash__`` method for a class with the specified fields.
+
+    Args:
+        fields: List of field names.
+    """
     vals = ", ".join(f"self.{name}" for name in fields)
 
     code = f"""
@@ -696,3 +747,83 @@ def __hash__(self):
     """
 
     return dedent(code)
+
+
+def _patch_attributes(func: FunctionType, fields: list[str], start: int = 0) -> FunctionType:
+    """Patches a function's attributes.
+
+    Args:
+        func: The function to patch.
+        fields: List of field names to add.
+        start: The starting index for patching. Defaults to 0.
+    """
+    return type(func)(
+        func.__code__.replace(co_names=(*func.__code__.co_names[:start], *fields)),
+        func.__globals__,
+    )
+
+
+def _generate_structure__init__(fields: list[Field]) -> FunctionType:
+    """Generates an ``__init__`` method for a structure with the specified fields.
+
+    Args:
+        fields: List of field names.
+    """
+    field_names = [field.name for field in fields]
+
+    template: FunctionType = _make_structure__init__(len(field_names))
+    return type(template)(
+        template.__code__.replace(
+            co_consts=(None, *[field.type.default() for field in fields]),
+            co_names=(*field_names,),
+            co_varnames=("self", *field_names),
+        ),
+        template.__globals__,
+        argdefs=template.__defaults__,
+    )
+
+
+def _generate_union__init__(fields: list[Field]) -> FunctionType:
+    """Generates an ``__init__`` method for a union with the specified fields.
+
+    Args:
+        fields: List of field names.
+    """
+    field_names = [field.name for field in fields]
+
+    template: FunctionType = _make_union__init__(len(field_names))
+    return type(template)(
+        template.__code__.replace(
+            co_consts=(None, *sum([(field.name, field.type.default()) for field in fields], ())),
+            co_varnames=("self", *field_names),
+        ),
+        template.__globals__,
+        argdefs=template.__defaults__,
+    )
+
+
+def _generate__eq__(fields: list[str]) -> FunctionType:
+    """Generates an ``__eq__`` method for a class with the specified fields.
+
+    Args:
+        fields: List of field names.
+    """
+    return _patch_attributes(_make__eq__(len(fields)), fields, 1)
+
+
+def _generate__bool__(fields: list[str]) -> FunctionType:
+    """Generates a ``__bool__`` method for a class with the specified fields.
+
+    Args:
+        fields: List of field names.
+    """
+    return _patch_attributes(_make__bool__(len(fields)), fields, 1)
+
+
+def _generate__hash__(fields: list[str]) -> FunctionType:
+    """Generates a ``__hash__`` method for a class with the specified fields.
+
+    Args:
+        fields: List of field names.
+    """
+    return _patch_attributes(_make__hash__(len(fields)), fields, 1)
diff --git a/dissect/cstruct/types/void.py b/dissect/cstruct/types/void.py
index 09d5d8b6..f3191d07 100644
--- a/dissect/cstruct/types/void.py
+++ b/dissect/cstruct/types/void.py
@@ -11,10 +11,17 @@ class Void(BaseType):
     def __bool__(self) -> bool:
         return False
 
+    def __eq__(self, value: object) -> bool:
+        return isinstance(value, Void)
+
     @classmethod
-    def _read(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] = None) -> Void:
+    def _read(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] | None = None) -> Void:
         return cls.__new__(cls)
 
+    @classmethod
+    def _read_0(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] | None = None) -> Void:
+        return [cls.__new__(cls)]
+
     @classmethod
     def _write(cls, stream: BinaryIO, data: Void) -> int:
         return 0
diff --git a/dissect/cstruct/types/wchar.py b/dissect/cstruct/types/wchar.py
index 8799b8ba..ecb98dcc 100644
--- a/dissect/cstruct/types/wchar.py
+++ b/dissect/cstruct/types/wchar.py
@@ -10,7 +10,7 @@ class WcharArray(str, BaseType, metaclass=ArrayMetaType):
     """Wide-character array type for reading and writing UTF-16 strings."""
 
     @classmethod
-    def _read(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] = None) -> WcharArray:
+    def _read(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] | None = None) -> WcharArray:
         return type.__call__(cls, ArrayMetaType._read(cls, stream, context))
 
     @classmethod
@@ -38,11 +38,11 @@ class Wchar(str, BaseType):
     }
 
     @classmethod
-    def _read(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] = None) -> Wchar:
+    def _read(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] | None = None) -> Wchar:
         return cls._read_array(stream, 1, context)
 
     @classmethod
-    def _read_array(cls, stream: BinaryIO, count: int, context: dict[str, Any] = None) -> Wchar:
+    def _read_array(cls, stream: BinaryIO, count: int, context: dict[str, Any] | None = None) -> Wchar:
         if count == 0:
             return type.__call__(cls, "")
 
@@ -56,7 +56,7 @@ def _read_array(cls, stream: BinaryIO, count: int, context: dict[str, Any] = Non
         return type.__call__(cls, data.decode(cls.__encoding_map__[cls.cs.endian]))
 
     @classmethod
-    def _read_0(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] = None) -> Wchar:
+    def _read_0(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] | None = None) -> Wchar:
         buf = []
         while True:
             point = stream.read(2)


Test patch:
diff --git a/tests/test_basic.py b/tests/test_basic.py
index fd3dfca3..869c0398 100644
--- a/tests/test_basic.py
+++ b/tests/test_basic.py
@@ -111,101 +111,6 @@ def test_lookups(cs: cstruct, compiled: bool) -> None:
     assert cs.lookups["a"] == {1: 3, 2: 4}
 
 
-def test_default_constructors(cs: cstruct, compiled: bool) -> None:
-    cdef = """
-    enum Enum {
-        a = 0,
-        b = 1
-    };
-
-    flag Flag {
-        a = 0,
-        b = 1
-    };
-
-    struct test {
-        uint32  t_int;
-        uint32  t_int_array[2];
-        uint24  t_bytesint;
-        uint24  t_bytesint_array[2];
-        char    t_char;
-        char    t_char_array[2];
-        wchar   t_wchar;
-        wchar   t_wchar_array[2];
-        Enum    t_enum;
-        Enum    t_enum_array[2];
-        Flag    t_flag;
-        Flag    t_flag_array[2];
-    };
-    """
-    cs.load(cdef, compiled=compiled)
-
-    assert verify_compiled(cs.test, compiled)
-
-    obj = cs.test()
-    assert obj.t_int == 0
-    assert obj.t_int_array == [0, 0]
-    assert obj.t_bytesint == 0
-    assert obj.t_bytesint_array == [0, 0]
-    assert obj.t_char == b"\x00"
-    assert obj.t_char_array == b"\x00\x00"
-    assert obj.t_wchar == "\x00"
-    assert obj.t_wchar_array == "\x00\x00"
-    assert obj.t_enum == cs.Enum(0)
-    assert obj.t_enum_array == [cs.Enum(0), cs.Enum(0)]
-    assert obj.t_flag == cs.Flag(0)
-    assert obj.t_flag_array == [cs.Flag(0), cs.Flag(0)]
-
-    assert obj.dumps() == b"\x00" * 54
-
-    for name in obj.fields.keys():
-        assert isinstance(getattr(obj, name), BaseType)
-
-
-def test_default_constructors_dynamic(cs: cstruct, compiled: bool) -> None:
-    cdef = """
-    enum Enum {
-        a = 0,
-        b = 1
-    };
-    flag Flag {
-        a = 0,
-        b = 1
-    };
-    struct test {
-        uint8   x;
-        uint32  t_int_array_n[];
-        uint32  t_int_array_d[x];
-        uint24  t_bytesint_array_n[];
-        uint24  t_bytesint_array_d[x];
-        char    t_char_array_n[];
-        char    t_char_array_d[x];
-        wchar   t_wchar_array_n[];
-        wchar   t_wchar_array_d[x];
-        Enum    t_enum_array_n[];
-        Enum    t_enum_array_d[x];
-        Flag    t_flag_array_n[];
-        Flag    t_flag_array_d[x];
-    };
-    """
-    cs.load(cdef, compiled=compiled)
-
-    assert verify_compiled(cs.test, compiled)
-
-    obj = cs.test()
-
-    assert obj.t_int_array_n == obj.t_int_array_d == []
-    assert obj.t_bytesint_array_n == obj.t_bytesint_array_d == []
-    assert obj.t_char_array_n == obj.t_char_array_d == b""
-    assert obj.t_wchar_array_n == obj.t_wchar_array_d == ""
-    assert obj.t_enum_array_n == obj.t_enum_array_d == []
-    assert obj.t_flag_array_n == obj.t_flag_array_d == []
-    assert obj.dumps() == b"\x00" * 19
-
-    for name in obj.fields.keys():
-        assert isinstance(getattr(obj, name), BaseType)
-
-
 def test_config_flag_nocompile(cs: cstruct, compiled: bool) -> None:
     cdef = """
     struct compiled_global
diff --git a/tests/test_types_base.py b/tests/test_types_base.py
index 18483fa6..8ef87088 100644
--- a/tests/test_types_base.py
+++ b/tests/test_types_base.py
@@ -87,7 +87,7 @@ def test_eof(cs: cstruct, compiled: bool) -> None:
 
 def test_custom_array_type(cs: cstruct, compiled: bool) -> None:
     class CustomType(BaseType):
-        def __init__(self, value):
+        def __init__(self, value: bytes = b""):
             self.value = value.upper()
 
         @classmethod
@@ -98,7 +98,11 @@ def _read(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict | None = None) -> CustomType:
 
         class ArrayType(BaseType, metaclass=ArrayMetaType):
             @classmethod
-            def _read(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict | None = None) -> CustomType.ArrayType:
+            def default(cls) -> CustomType:
+                return cls.type()
+
+            @classmethod
+            def _read(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict | None = None) -> CustomType:
                 value = cls.type._read(stream, context)
                 if str(cls.num_entries) == "lower":
                     value.value = value.value.lower()
@@ -123,7 +127,7 @@ def _read(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict | None = None) -> CustomType.Arra
     """
     cs.load(cdef, compiled=compiled)
 
-    # We just don't want to compiler to blow up with a custom type
+    # We don't want the compiler to blow up with a custom type
     assert not cs.test.__compiled__
 
     result = cs.test(b"\x04asdf\x04asdf")
diff --git a/tests/test_types_char.py b/tests/test_types_char.py
index bc939933..71b07759 100644
--- a/tests/test_types_char.py
+++ b/tests/test_types_char.py
@@ -43,3 +43,9 @@ def test_char_eof(cs: cstruct) -> None:
         cs.char[None](b"AAAA")
 
     assert cs.char[0](b"") == b""
+
+
+def test_char_default(cs: cstruct) -> None:
+    assert cs.char.default() == b"\x00"
+    assert cs.char[4].default() == b"\x00\x00\x00\x00"
+    assert cs.char[None].default() == b""
diff --git a/tests/test_types_custom.py b/tests/test_types_custom.py
index e9fb98f8..4cf624cb 100644
--- a/tests/test_types_custom.py
+++ b/tests/test_types_custom.py
@@ -12,6 +12,10 @@ class EtwPointer(BaseType):
     type: MetaType
     size: int | None
 
+    @classmethod
+    def default(cls) -> int:
+        return cls.cs.uint64.default()
+
     @classmethod
     def _read(cls, stream: BinaryIO, context: dict[str, Any] | None = None) -> BaseType:
         return cls.type._read(stream, context)
@@ -41,12 +45,12 @@ def test_adding_custom_type(cs: cstruct) -> None:
     cs.EtwPointer.as_64bit()
     assert cs.EtwPointer.type is cs.uint64
     assert len(cs.EtwPointer) == 8
-    assert cs.EtwPointer(b"\xDE\xAD\xBE\xEF" * 2).dumps() == b"\xDE\xAD\xBE\xEF" * 2
+    assert cs.EtwPointer(b"\xde\xad\xbe\xef" * 2).dumps() == b"\xde\xad\xbe\xef" * 2
 
     cs.EtwPointer.as_32bit()
     assert cs.EtwPointer.type is cs.uint32
     assert len(cs.EtwPointer) == 4
-    assert cs.EtwPointer(b"\xDE\xAD\xBE\xEF" * 2).dumps() == b"\xDE\xAD\xBE\xEF"
+    assert cs.EtwPointer(b"\xde\xad\xbe\xef" * 2).dumps() == b"\xde\xad\xbe\xef"
 
 
 def test_using_type_in_struct(cs: cstruct) -> None:
@@ -62,13 +66,26 @@ def test_using_type_in_struct(cs: cstruct) -> None:
     cs.load(struct_definition)
 
     cs.EtwPointer.as_64bit()
-    assert len(cs.test().data) == 8
-
     with pytest.raises(EOFError):
         # Input too small
-        cs.test(b"\xDE\xAD\xBE\xEF" * 3)
+        cs.test(b"\xde\xad\xbe\xef" * 3)
+
+    cs.EtwPointer.as_32bit()
+
+    obj = cs.test(b"\xde\xad\xbe\xef" * 3)
+    assert obj.data == 0xEFBEADDE
+    assert obj.data2 == 0xEFBEADDEEFBEADDE
+    assert obj.data.dumps() == b"\xde\xad\xbe\xef"
+
+
+def test_custom_default(cs: cstruct) -> None:
+    cs.add_custom_type("EtwPointer", EtwPointer)
+
+    cs.EtwPointer.as_64bit()
+    assert cs.EtwPointer.default() == 0
 
     cs.EtwPointer.as_32bit()
-    assert len(cs.test().data) == 4
+    assert cs.EtwPointer.default() == 0
 
-    assert cs.test(b"\xDE\xAD\xBE\xEF" * 3).data.dumps() == b"\xDE\xAD\xBE\xEF"
+    assert cs.EtwPointer[1].default() == [0]
+    assert cs.EtwPointer[None].default() == []
diff --git a/tests/test_types_enum.py b/tests/test_types_enum.py
index 0a9c1726..9045e2b5 100644
--- a/tests/test_types_enum.py
+++ b/tests/test_types_enum.py
@@ -407,3 +407,17 @@ def test_enum_reference_own_member(cs: cstruct, compiled: bool) -> None:
     assert cs.test.A == 0
     assert cs.test.B == 3
     assert cs.test.C == 4
+
+
+def test_enum_default(cs: cstruct) -> None:
+    cdef = """
+    enum test {
+        A,
+        B,
+    };
+    """
+    cs.load(cdef)
+
+    assert cs.test.default() == cs.test.A == cs.test(0)
+    assert cs.test[1].default() == [cs.test.A]
+    assert cs.test[None].default() == []
diff --git a/tests/test_types_flag.py b/tests/test_types_flag.py
index c9cc2c76..935aac97 100644
--- a/tests/test_types_flag.py
+++ b/tests/test_types_flag.py
@@ -255,3 +255,17 @@ def test_flag_anonymous_struct(cs: cstruct, compiled: bool) -> None:
 
     t = test(b"\xff\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x0a\x00\x00\x00")
     assert t.arr == [255, 0, 0, 10]
+
+
+def test_flag_default(cs: cstruct) -> None:
+    cdef = """
+    flag test {
+        A,
+        B,
+    };
+    """
+    cs.load(cdef)
+
+    assert cs.test.default() == cs.test(0)
+    assert cs.test[1].default() == [cs.test(0)]
+    assert cs.test[None].default() == []
diff --git a/tests/test_types_int.py b/tests/test_types_int.py
index 056d22e1..329c9d71 100644
--- a/tests/test_types_int.py
+++ b/tests/test_types_int.py
@@ -233,7 +233,7 @@ def test_int_eof(cs: cstruct) -> None:
         cs.int24[None](b"\x01\x00\x00")
 
 
-def test_bytesinteger_range(cs: cstruct) -> None:
+def test_int_range(cs: cstruct) -> None:
     int8 = cs._make_int_type("int8", 1, True)
     uint8 = cs._make_int_type("uint9", 1, False)
     int16 = cs._make_int_type("int16", 2, True)
@@ -336,7 +336,7 @@ def test_int_struct_unsigned(cs: cstruct, compiled: bool) -> None:
     assert obj.dumps() == buf
 
 
-def test_bytesinteger_struct_signed_be(cs: cstruct, compiled: bool) -> None:
+def test_int_struct_signed_be(cs: cstruct, compiled: bool) -> None:
     cdef = """
     struct test {
         int24   a;
@@ -370,7 +370,7 @@ def test_bytesinteger_struct_signed_be(cs: cstruct, compiled: bool) -> None:
     assert obj.dumps() == buf
 
 
-def test_bytesinteger_struct_unsigned_be(cs: cstruct, compiled: bool) -> None:
+def test_int_struct_unsigned_be(cs: cstruct, compiled: bool) -> None:
     cdef = """
     struct test {
         uint24  a;
@@ -400,3 +400,13 @@ def test_bytesinteger_struct_unsigned_be(cs: cstruct, compiled: bool) -> None:
     assert obj.d == 0xFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF
     assert obj.e == [0x4141, 0x4242]
     assert obj.dumps() == buf
+
+
+def test_int_default(cs: cstruct) -> None:
+    assert cs.int24.default() == 0
+    assert cs.uint24.default() == 0
+    assert cs.int128.default() == 0
+    assert cs.uint128.default() == 0
+
+    assert cs.int24[1].default() == [0]
+    assert cs.int24[None].default() == []
diff --git a/tests/test_types_leb128.py b/tests/test_types_leb128.py
index d66972a3..30e6dae9 100644
--- a/tests/test_types_leb128.py
+++ b/tests/test_types_leb128.py
@@ -189,3 +189,11 @@ def test_leb128_unsigned_write_amount_written(cs: cstruct) -> None:
     out3 = io.BytesIO()
     bytes_written3 = cs.uleb128(13371337).write(out3)
     assert bytes_written3 == out3.tell()
+
+
+def test_leb128_default(cs: cstruct) -> None:
+    assert cs.uleb128.default() == 0
+    assert cs.ileb128.default() == 0
+
+    assert cs.uleb128[1].default() == [0]
+    assert cs.uleb128[None].default() == []
diff --git a/tests/test_types_packed.py b/tests/test_types_packed.py
index 9c7d6675..5e4d2f21 100644
--- a/tests/test_types_packed.py
+++ b/tests/test_types_packed.py
@@ -7,12 +7,12 @@
 
 def test_packed_read(cs: cstruct) -> None:
     assert cs.uint32(b"AAAA") == 0x41414141
-    assert cs.uint32(b"\xFF\xFF\xFF\xFF") == 0xFFFFFFFF
+    assert cs.uint32(b"\xff\xff\xff\xff") == 0xFFFFFFFF
 
-    assert cs.int32(b"\xFF\x00\x00\x00") == 255
-    assert cs.int32(b"\xFF\xFF\xFF\xFF") == -1
+    assert cs.int32(b"\xff\x00\x00\x00") == 255
+    assert cs.int32(b"\xff\xff\xff\xff") == -1
 
-    assert cs.float16(b"\x00\x3C") == 1.0
+    assert cs.float16(b"\x00\x3c") == 1.0
 
     assert cs.float(b"\x00\x00\x80\x3f") == 1.0
 
@@ -21,13 +21,13 @@ def test_packed_read(cs: cstruct) -> None:
 
 def test_packed_write(cs: cstruct) -> None:
     assert cs.uint32(0x41414141).dumps() == b"AAAA"
-    assert cs.uint32(0xFFFFFFFF).dumps() == b"\xFF\xFF\xFF\xFF"
+    assert cs.uint32(0xFFFFFFFF).dumps() == b"\xff\xff\xff\xff"
     assert cs.uint32(b"AAAA").dumps() == b"AAAA"
 
-    assert cs.int32(255).dumps() == b"\xFF\x00\x00\x00"
-    assert cs.int32(-1).dumps() == b"\xFF\xFF\xFF\xFF"
+    assert cs.int32(255).dumps() == b"\xff\x00\x00\x00"
+    assert cs.int32(-1).dumps() == b"\xff\xff\xff\xff"
 
-    assert cs.float16(1.0).dumps() == b"\x00\x3C"
+    assert cs.float16(1.0).dumps() == b"\x00\x3c"
 
     assert cs.float(1.0).dumps() == b"\x00\x00\x80\x3f"
 
@@ -38,8 +38,8 @@ def test_packed_array_read(cs: cstruct) -> None:
     assert cs.uint32[2](b"AAAABBBB") == [0x41414141, 0x42424242]
     assert cs.uint32[None](b"AAAABBBB\x00\x00\x00\x00") == [0x41414141, 0x42424242]
 
-    assert cs.int32[2](b"\x00\x00\x00\x00\xFF\xFF\xFF\xFF") == [0, -1]
-    assert cs.int32[None](b"\xFF\xFF\xFF\xFF\x00\x00\x00\x00") == [-1]
+    assert cs.int32[2](b"\x00\x00\x00\x00\xff\xff\xff\xff") == [0, -1]
+    assert cs.int32[None](b"\xff\xff\xff\xff\x00\x00\x00\x00") == [-1]
 
     assert cs.float[2](b"\x00\x00\x80\x3f\x00\x00\x00\x40") == [1.0, 2.0]
     assert cs.float[None](b"\x00\x00\x80\x3f\x00\x00\x00\x00") == [1.0]
@@ -49,8 +49,8 @@ def test_packed_array_write(cs: cstruct) -> None:
     assert cs.uint32[2]([0x41414141, 0x42424242]).dumps() == b"AAAABBBB"
     assert cs.uint32[None]([0x41414141, 0x42424242]).dumps() == b"AAAABBBB\x00\x00\x00\x00"
 
-    assert cs.int32[2]([0, -1]).dumps() == b"\x00\x00\x00\x00\xFF\xFF\xFF\xFF"
-    assert cs.int32[None]([-1]).dumps() == b"\xFF\xFF\xFF\xFF\x00\x00\x00\x00"
+    assert cs.int32[2]([0, -1]).dumps() == b"\x00\x00\x00\x00\xff\xff\xff\xff"
+    assert cs.int32[None]([-1]).dumps() == b"\xff\xff\xff\xff\x00\x00\x00\x00"
 
     assert cs.float[2]([1.0, 2.0]).dumps() == b"\x00\x00\x80\x3f\x00\x00\x00\x40"
     assert cs.float[None]([1.0]).dumps() == b"\x00\x00\x80\x3f\x00\x00\x00\x00"
@@ -60,12 +60,12 @@ def test_packed_be_read(cs: cstruct) -> None:
     cs.endian = ">"
 
     assert cs.uint32(b"AAA\x00") == 0x41414100
-    assert cs.uint32(b"\xFF\xFF\xFF\x00") == 0xFFFFFF00
+    assert cs.uint32(b"\xff\xff\xff\x00") == 0xFFFFFF00
 
-    assert cs.int32(b"\x00\x00\x00\xFF") == 255
-    assert cs.int32(b"\xFF\xFF\xFF\xFF") == -1
+    assert cs.int32(b"\x00\x00\x00\xff") == 255
+    assert cs.int32(b"\xff\xff\xff\xff") == -1
 
-    assert cs.float16(b"\x3C\x00") == 1.0
+    assert cs.float16(b"\x3c\x00") == 1.0
 
     assert cs.float(b"\x3f\x80\x00\x00") == 1.0
 
@@ -76,12 +76,12 @@ def test_packed_be_write(cs: cstruct) -> None:
     cs.endian = ">"
 
     assert cs.uint32(0x41414100).dumps() == b"AAA\x00"
-    assert cs.uint32(0xFFFFFF00).dumps() == b"\xFF\xFF\xFF\x00"
+    assert cs.uint32(0xFFFFFF00).dumps() == b"\xff\xff\xff\x00"
 
-    assert cs.int32(255).dumps() == b"\x00\x00\x00\xFF"
-    assert cs.int32(-1).dumps() == b"\xFF\xFF\xFF\xFF"
+    assert cs.int32(255).dumps() == b"\x00\x00\x00\xff"
+    assert cs.int32(-1).dumps() == b"\xff\xff\xff\xff"
 
-    assert cs.float16(1.0).dumps() == b"\x3C\x00"
+    assert cs.float16(1.0).dumps() == b"\x3c\x00"
 
     assert cs.float(1.0).dumps() == b"\x3f\x80\x00\x00"
 
@@ -94,8 +94,8 @@ def test_packed_be_array_read(cs: cstruct) -> None:
     assert cs.uint32[2](b"\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x00\x00\x02") == [1, 2]
     assert cs.uint32[None](b"\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x00\x00\x02\x00\x00\x00\x00") == [1, 2]
 
-    assert cs.int32[2](b"\x00\x00\x00\x01\xFF\xFF\xFF\xFE") == [1, -2]
-    assert cs.int32[None](b"\xFF\xFF\xFF\xFE\x00\x00\x00\x00") == [-2]
+    assert cs.int32[2](b"\x00\x00\x00\x01\xff\xff\xff\xfe") == [1, -2]
+    assert cs.int32[None](b"\xff\xff\xff\xfe\x00\x00\x00\x00") == [-2]
 
     assert cs.float[2](b"\x3f\x80\x00\x00\x40\x00\x00\x00") == [1.0, 2.0]
     assert cs.float[None](b"\x3f\x80\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00") == [1.0]
@@ -107,8 +107,8 @@ def test_packed_be_array_write(cs: cstruct) -> None:
     assert cs.uint32[2]([1, 2]).dumps() == b"\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x00\x00\x02"
     assert cs.uint32[None]([1, 2]).dumps() == b"\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x00\x00\x02\x00\x00\x00\x00"
 
-    assert cs.int32[2]([1, -2]).dumps() == b"\x00\x00\x00\x01\xFF\xFF\xFF\xFE"
-    assert cs.int32[None]([-2]).dumps() == b"\xFF\xFF\xFF\xFE\x00\x00\x00\x00"
+    assert cs.int32[2]([1, -2]).dumps() == b"\x00\x00\x00\x01\xff\xff\xff\xfe"
+    assert cs.int32[None]([-2]).dumps() == b"\xff\xff\xff\xfe\x00\x00\x00\x00"
 
     assert cs.float[2]([1.0, 2.0]).dumps() == b"\x3f\x80\x00\x00\x40\x00\x00\x00"
     assert cs.float[None]([1.0]).dumps() == b"\x3f\x80\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00"
@@ -169,3 +169,20 @@ def test_packed_float_struct_be(cs: cstruct, compiled: bool) -> None:
 
     assert obj.a == 0.388916015625
     assert obj.b == 42069.69140625
+
+
+def test_packed_default(cs: cstruct) -> None:
+    assert cs.int8.default() == 0
+    assert cs.uint8.default() == 0
+    assert cs.int16.default() == 0
+    assert cs.uint16.default() == 0
+    assert cs.int32.default() == 0
+    assert cs.uint32.default() == 0
+    assert cs.int64.default() == 0
+    assert cs.uint64.default() == 0
+    assert cs.float16.default() == 0.0
+    assert cs.float.default() == 0.0
+    assert cs.double.default() == 0.0
+
+    assert cs.int8[2].default() == [0, 0]
+    assert cs.int8[None].default() == []
diff --git a/tests/test_types_pointer.py b/tests/test_types_pointer.py
index d5940d4c..65be5dd6 100644
--- a/tests/test_types_pointer.py
+++ b/tests/test_types_pointer.py
@@ -13,9 +13,10 @@ def test_pointer(cs: cstruct) -> None:
     cs.pointer = cs.uint8
 
     ptr = cs._make_pointer(cs.uint8)
+    assert issubclass(ptr, Pointer)
     assert ptr.__name__ == "uint8*"
 
-    obj = ptr(b"\x01\xFF")
+    obj = ptr(b"\x01\xff")
     assert repr(obj) == "<uint8* @ 0x1>"
 
     assert obj == 1
@@ -45,7 +46,7 @@ def test_pointer_operator(cs: cstruct) -> None:
     cs.pointer = cs.uint8
 
     ptr = cs._make_pointer(cs.uint8)
-    obj = ptr(b"\x01\x00\xFF")
+    obj = ptr(b"\x01\x00\xff")
 
     assert obj == 1
     assert obj.dumps() == b"\x01"
@@ -235,3 +236,16 @@ def test_pointer_of_pointer(cs: cstruct, compiled: bool) -> None:
     assert obj.ptr == 1
     assert obj.ptr.dereference() == 2
     assert obj.ptr.dereference().dereference() == 0x41414141
+
+
+def test_pointer_default(cs: cstruct) -> None:
+    cs.pointer = cs.uint8
+
+    ptr = cs._make_pointer(cs.uint8)
+    assert isinstance(ptr.default(), Pointer)
+    assert ptr.default() == 0
+    assert ptr[1].default() == [0]
+    assert ptr[None].default() == []
+
+    with pytest.raises(NullPointerDereference):
+        ptr.default().dereference()
diff --git a/tests/test_types_structure.py b/tests/test_types_structure.py
index cea0efbc..d2d65d06 100644
--- a/tests/test_types_structure.py
+++ b/tests/test_types_structure.py
@@ -1,5 +1,6 @@
 import inspect
 from io import BytesIO
+from textwrap import dedent
 from types import MethodType
 from unittest.mock import MagicMock, call, patch
 
@@ -7,6 +8,7 @@
 
 from dissect.cstruct.cstruct import cstruct
 from dissect.cstruct.exceptions import ParserError
+from dissect.cstruct.types import structure
 from dissect.cstruct.types.base import Array, BaseType
 from dissect.cstruct.types.pointer import Pointer
 from dissect.cstruct.types.structure import Field, Structure, StructureMetaType
@@ -27,6 +29,7 @@ def test_structure(TestStruct: type[Structure]) -> None:
     assert len(TestStruct.fields) == 2
     assert TestStruct.fields["a"].name == "a"
     assert TestStruct.fields["b"].name == "b"
+    assert repr(TestStruct.fields["a"]) == "<Field a uint32>"
 
     assert TestStruct.size == 8
     assert TestStruct.alignment == 4
@@ -43,7 +46,7 @@ def test_structure(TestStruct: type[Structure]) -> None:
 
     obj = TestStruct(a=1)
     assert obj.a == 1
-    assert obj.b is None
+    assert obj.b == 0
     assert len(obj) == 8
 
     # Test hashing of values
@@ -72,6 +75,10 @@ def test_structure_write(TestStruct: type[Structure]) -> None:
     assert obj.dumps() == b"\x01\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00"
 
     obj = TestStruct()
+    assert obj.a == 0
+    assert obj.dumps() == b"\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00"
+
+    obj.a = None
     assert obj.dumps() == b"\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00"
 
 
@@ -521,6 +528,17 @@ def test_structure_field_discard(cs: cstruct, compiled: bool) -> None:
         mock_char_new.assert_has_calls([call(cs.char, b"a"), call(cs.char, b"b")])
 
 
+def test_structure_field_duplicate(cs: cstruct) -> None:
+    cdef = """
+    struct test {
+        uint8 a;
+        uint8 a;
+    };
+    """
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="Duplicate field name: a"):
+        cs.load(cdef)
+
+
 def test_structure_definition_self(cs: cstruct) -> None:
     cdef = """
     struct test {
@@ -540,3 +558,206 @@ def test_align_struct_in_struct(cs: cstruct) -> None:
 
         _, kwargs = update_fields.call_args
         assert kwargs["align"]
+
+
+def test_structure_default(cs: cstruct, compiled: bool) -> None:
+    cdef = """
+    enum Enum {
+        a = 0,
+        b = 1
+    };
+
+    flag Flag {
+        a = 0,
+        b = 1
+    };
+
+    struct test {
+        uint32  t_int;
+        uint32  t_int_array[2];
+        uint24  t_bytesint;
+        uint24  t_bytesint_array[2];
+        char    t_char;
+        char    t_char_array[2];
+        wchar   t_wchar;
+        wchar   t_wchar_array[2];
+        Enum    t_enum;
+        Enum    t_enum_array[2];
+        Flag    t_flag;
+        Flag    t_flag_array[2];
+        uint8   *t_pointer;
+        uint8   *t_pointer_array[2];
+    };
+
+    struct test_nested {
+        test    t_struct;
+        test    t_struct_array[2];
+    };
+    """
+    cs.pointer = cs.uint8
+    cs.load(cdef, compiled=compiled)
+
+    assert verify_compiled(cs.test, compiled)
+
+    assert cs.test() == cs.test.default()
+
+    obj = cs.test.default()
+    assert obj.t_int == 0
+    assert obj.t_int_array == [0, 0]
+    assert obj.t_bytesint == 0
+    assert obj.t_bytesint_array == [0, 0]
+    assert obj.t_char == b"\x00"
+    assert obj.t_char_array == b"\x00\x00"
+    assert obj.t_wchar == "\x00"
+    assert obj.t_wchar_array == "\x00\x00"
+    assert obj.t_enum == cs.Enum(0)
+    assert obj.t_enum_array == [cs.Enum(0), cs.Enum(0)]
+    assert obj.t_flag == cs.Flag(0)
+    assert obj.t_flag_array == [cs.Flag(0), cs.Flag(0)]
+    assert obj.t_pointer == 0
+    assert isinstance(obj.t_pointer, Pointer)
+    assert obj.t_pointer_array == [0, 0]
+    assert isinstance(obj.t_pointer_array[0], Pointer)
+    assert isinstance(obj.t_pointer_array[1], Pointer)
+
+    assert obj.dumps() == b"\x00" * 57
+
+    for name in obj.fields.keys():
+        assert isinstance(getattr(obj, name), BaseType)
+
+    assert cs.test_nested() == cs.test_nested.default()
+
+    obj = cs.test_nested.default()
+    assert obj.t_struct == cs.test.default()
+    assert obj.t_struct_array == [cs.test.default(), cs.test.default()]
+
+    assert obj.dumps() == b"\x00" * 171
+
+    for name in obj.fields.keys():
+        assert isinstance(getattr(obj, name), BaseType)
+
+
+def test_structure_default_dynamic(cs: cstruct, compiled: bool) -> None:
+    cdef = """
+    enum Enum {
+        a = 0,
+        b = 1
+    };
+
+    flag Flag {
+        a = 0,
+        b = 1
+    };
+
+    struct test {
+        uint8   x;
+        uint32  t_int_array_n[];
+        uint32  t_int_array_d[x];
+        uint24  t_bytesint_array_n[];
+        uint24  t_bytesint_array_d[x];
+        char    t_char_array_n[];
+        char    t_char_array_d[x];
+        wchar   t_wchar_array_n[];
+        wchar   t_wchar_array_d[x];
+        Enum    t_enum_array_n[];
+        Enum    t_enum_array_d[x];
+        Flag    t_flag_array_n[];
+        Flag    t_flag_array_d[x];
+        uint8   *t_pointer_n[];
+        uint8   *t_pointer_d[x];
+    };
+
+    struct test_nested {
+        uint8   x;
+        test    t_struct_n[];
+        test    t_struct_array_d[x];
+    };
+    """
+    cs.pointer = cs.uint8
+    cs.load(cdef, compiled=compiled)
+
+    assert verify_compiled(cs.test, compiled)
+
+    assert cs.test() == cs.test.default()
+
+    obj = cs.test()
+    assert obj.t_int_array_n == obj.t_int_array_d == []
+    assert obj.t_bytesint_array_n == obj.t_bytesint_array_d == []
+    assert obj.t_char_array_n == obj.t_char_array_d == b""
+    assert obj.t_wchar_array_n == obj.t_wchar_array_d == ""
+    assert obj.t_enum_array_n == obj.t_enum_array_d == []
+    assert obj.t_flag_array_n == obj.t_flag_array_d == []
+    assert obj.t_pointer_n == obj.t_pointer_d == []
+
+    assert obj.dumps() == b"\x00" * 20
+
+    for name in obj.fields.keys():
+        assert isinstance(getattr(obj, name), BaseType)
+
+    assert cs.test_nested() == cs.test_nested.default()
+
+    obj = cs.test_nested.default()
+    assert obj.t_struct_n == obj.t_struct_array_d == []
+
+    assert obj.dumps() == b"\x00" * 21
+
+    for name in obj.fields.keys():
+        assert isinstance(getattr(obj, name), BaseType)
+
+
+def test_structure_partial_initialization(cs: cstruct) -> None:
+    cdef = """
+    struct test {
+        uint8 a;
+        uint8 b;
+    };
+    """
+    cs.load(cdef)
+
+    obj = cs.test()
+    assert obj.a == 0
+    assert obj.b == 0
+    assert str(obj) == "<test a=0x0 b=0x0>"
+
+    obj = cs.test(1, 1)
+    assert obj.a == 1
+    assert obj.b == 1
+    assert str(obj) == "<test a=0x1 b=0x1>"
+
+    obj = cs.test(1)
+    assert obj.a == 1
+    assert obj.b == 0
+    assert str(obj) == "<test a=0x1 b=0x0>"
+
+    obj = cs.test(a=1)
+    assert obj.a == 1
+    assert obj.b == 0
+    assert str(obj) == "<test a=0x1 b=0x0>"
+
+    obj = cs.test(b=1)
+    assert obj.a == 0
+    assert obj.b == 1
+    assert str(obj) == "<test a=0x0 b=0x1>"
+
+
+def test_codegen_make_init() -> None:
+    _make__init__ = structure._make_structure__init__.__wrapped__.__wrapped__
+
+    result = _make__init__([f"_{n}" for n in range(5)])
+    expected = """
+    def __init__(self, _0 = None, _1 = None, _2 = None, _3 = None, _4 = None):
+     self._0 = _0 if _0 is not None else 0
+     self._1 = _1 if _1 is not None else 1
+     self._2 = _2 if _2 is not None else 2
+     self._3 = _3 if _3 is not None else 3
+     self._4 = _4 if _4 is not None else 4
+    """
+    assert result == dedent(expected[1:].rstrip())
+
+    structure._make_structure__init__.cache_clear()
+    assert structure._make_structure__init__.cache_info() == (0, 0, 128, 0)
+    result = structure._make_structure__init__(5)
+    assert structure._make_structure__init__.cache_info() == (0, 1, 128, 1)
+    cached = structure._make_structure__init__(5)
+    assert structure._make_structure__init__.cache_info() == (1, 1, 128, 1)
+    assert result is cached
diff --git a/tests/test_types_union.py b/tests/test_types_union.py
index 44a49579..0caf59a9 100644
--- a/tests/test_types_union.py
+++ b/tests/test_types_union.py
@@ -3,8 +3,8 @@
 import pytest
 
 from dissect.cstruct.cstruct import cstruct
-from dissect.cstruct.types.base import Array
-from dissect.cstruct.types.structure import Field, Union
+from dissect.cstruct.types.base import Array, BaseType
+from dissect.cstruct.types.structure import Field, Union, UnionProxy
 
 from .utils import verify_compiled
 
@@ -33,12 +33,17 @@ def test_union(TestUnion: type[Union]) -> None:
     obj = TestUnion(1, 2)
     assert isinstance(obj, TestUnion)
     assert obj.a == 1
-    assert obj.b == 2
+    assert obj.b == 1
     assert len(obj) == 4
 
     obj = TestUnion(a=1)
     assert obj.a == 1
-    assert obj.b is None
+    assert obj.b == 1
+    assert len(obj) == 4
+
+    obj = TestUnion(b=1)
+    assert obj.a == 1
+    assert obj.b == 1
     assert len(obj) == 4
 
     assert hash((obj.a, obj.b)) == hash(obj)
@@ -52,6 +57,20 @@ def test_union_read(TestUnion: type[Union]) -> None:
     assert obj.b == 1
 
 
+def test_union_read_offset(cs: cstruct, TestUnion: type[Union]) -> None:
+    TestUnion.add_field("c", cs.uint8, offset=3)
+
+    obj = TestUnion(b"\x01\x00\x00\x02")
+    assert obj.a == 0x02000001
+    assert obj.b == 0x0001
+    assert obj.c == 0x02
+
+    obj = TestUnion(1)
+    assert obj.a == 1
+    assert obj.b == 1
+    assert obj.c == 0
+
+
 def test_union_write(TestUnion: type[Union]) -> None:
     buf = b"\x01\x00\x00\x00"
     obj = TestUnion(buf)
@@ -68,6 +87,35 @@ def test_union_write(TestUnion: type[Union]) -> None:
     obj = TestUnion()
     assert obj.dumps() == b"\x00\x00\x00\x00"
 
+    obj = TestUnion(5, 1)
+    assert obj.dumps() == b"\x05\x00\x00\x00"
+    obj.a = None
+    assert obj.a == 0
+    assert obj.dumps() == b"\x00\x00\x00\x00"
+
+    obj = TestUnion(None, 1)
+    assert obj.a == 0
+    assert obj.dumps() == b"\x00\x00\x00\x00"
+
+    obj = TestUnion(1, None)
+    assert obj.b == 1
+    assert obj.dumps() == b"\x01\x00\x00\x00"
+
+
+def test_union_write_anonymous(cs: cstruct) -> None:
+    cdef = """
+    union test {
+        struct {
+            uint32 a;
+        };
+    };
+    """
+    cs.load(cdef)
+
+    obj = cs.test(b"\x01\x00\x00\x00")
+    assert obj.a == 1
+    assert obj.dumps() == b"\x01\x00\x00\x00"
+
 
 def test_union_array_read(TestUnion: type[Union]) -> None:
     TestUnionArray = TestUnion[2]
@@ -155,7 +203,7 @@ def test_union_cmp(TestUnion: type[Union]) -> None:
 
 def test_union_repr(TestUnion: type[Union]) -> None:
     obj = TestUnion(1, 2)
-    assert repr(obj) == f"<{TestUnion.__name__} a=0x1 b=0x2>"
+    assert repr(obj) == f"<{TestUnion.__name__} a=0x1 b=0x1>"
 
 
 def test_union_eof(TestUnion: type[Union]) -> None:
@@ -214,6 +262,11 @@ def test_union_definition_nested(cs: cstruct, compiled: bool) -> None:
     buf = b"zomgholybeef"
     obj = cs.test(buf)
 
+    assert isinstance(obj.c.a, UnionProxy)
+    assert len(obj.c.a) == 8
+    assert bytes(obj.c.a) == b"holybeef"
+    assert repr(obj.c.a) == "<a a=0x796c6f68 b=0x66656562>"
+
     assert obj.magic == b"zomg"
     assert obj.c.a.a == 0x796C6F68
     assert obj.c.a.b == 0x66656562
@@ -273,6 +326,9 @@ def test_union_definition_dynamic(cs: cstruct) -> None:
     assert obj.a.data == b"aaaaaaaaa"
     assert obj.b == 0x6161616161616109
 
+    with pytest.raises(NotImplementedError, match="Writing dynamic unions is not yet supported"):
+        obj.dumps()
+
 
 def test_union_update(cs: cstruct) -> None:
     cdef = """
@@ -317,6 +373,10 @@ def test_union_nested_update(cs: cstruct) -> None:
     assert obj.c.a.b == 0x48474645
     assert obj.dumps() == b"1337ABCDEFGH"
 
+    obj.c.b.b = b"AAAAAAAA"
+    assert obj.c.a.a == 0x41414141
+    assert obj.dumps() == b"1337AAAAAAAA"
+
 
 def test_union_anonymous_update(cs: cstruct) -> None:
     cdef = """
@@ -338,3 +398,135 @@ def test_union_anonymous_update(cs: cstruct) -> None:
     obj = cs.test()
     obj.a = 0x41414141
     assert obj.b == b"AAA"
+
+
+def test_union_default(cs: cstruct) -> None:
+    cdef = """
+    union test {
+        uint32 a;
+        char   b[8];
+    };
+
+    struct test_nested {
+        test   t_union;
+        test   t_union_array[2];
+    };
+    """
+    cs.load(cdef)
+
+    assert cs.test() == cs.test.default()
+
+    obj = cs.test()
+    assert obj.a == 0
+    assert obj.b == b"\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00"
+
+    assert obj.dumps() == b"\x00" * 8
+
+    for name in obj.fields.keys():
+        assert isinstance(getattr(obj, name), BaseType)
+
+    assert cs.test_nested() == cs.test_nested.default()
+
+    obj = cs.test_nested.default()
+    assert obj.t_union == cs.test.default()
+    assert obj.t_union_array == [cs.test.default(), cs.test.default()]
+
+    assert obj.dumps() == b"\x00" * 24
+
+    for name in obj.fields.keys():
+        assert isinstance(getattr(obj, name), BaseType)
+
+
+def test_union_default_dynamic(cs: cstruct) -> None:
+    """initialization of a dynamic union is not yet supported"""
+    cdef = """
+    union test {
+        uint8  x;
+        char   b_n[];
+        char   b_d[x];
+    };
+
+    struct test_nested {
+        uint8  x;
+        test   t_union_n[];
+        test   t_union_d[x];
+    };
+    """
+    cs.load(cdef)
+
+    obj = cs.test()
+    assert obj.x == 0
+    assert obj.b_n == b""
+    assert obj.b_d == b""
+
+    obj = cs.test_nested()
+    assert obj.x == 0
+    assert obj.t_union_n == []
+    assert obj.t_union_d == []
+
+
+def test_union_partial_initialization(cs: cstruct) -> None:
+    """partial initialization of a union should fill in the rest with appropriate values"""
+    cdef = """
+    union test {
+        uint8 a;
+        uint8 b;
+    };
+    """
+    cs.load(cdef)
+
+    obj = cs.test()
+    assert obj.a == 0
+    assert obj.b == 0
+    assert str(obj) == "<test a=0x0 b=0x0>"
+
+    obj = cs.test(1, 1)
+    assert obj.a == 1
+    assert obj.b == 1
+    assert str(obj) == "<test a=0x1 b=0x1>"
+
+    obj = cs.test(1)
+    assert obj.a == 1
+    assert obj.b == 1
+    assert str(obj) == "<test a=0x1 b=0x1>"
+
+    obj = cs.test(a=1)
+    assert obj.a == 1
+    assert obj.b == 1
+    assert str(obj) == "<test a=0x1 b=0x1>"
+
+    obj = cs.test(b=1)
+    assert obj.a == 1
+    assert obj.b == 1
+    assert str(obj) == "<test a=0x1 b=0x1>"
+
+    obj = cs.test(a=1, b=2)
+    assert obj.a == 1
+    assert obj.b == 1
+    assert str(obj) == "<test a=0x1 b=0x1>"
+
+    obj = cs.test(b=2, a=1)
+    assert obj.a == 2
+    assert obj.b == 2
+    assert str(obj) == "<test a=0x2 b=0x2>"
+
+
+def test_union_partial_initialization_dynamic(cs: cstruct) -> None:
+    """partial initialization of a dynamic union should fill in the rest with appropriate values"""
+    cdef = """
+    union test {
+        uint8  x;
+        char   b_n[];
+        char   b_d[x];
+    };
+    """
+    cs.load(cdef)
+
+    # Default initialization should already work
+    cs.test()
+
+    with pytest.raises(NotImplementedError, match="Initializing a dynamic union is not yet supported"):
+        cs.test(1)
+
+    with pytest.raises(NotImplementedError, match="Initializing a dynamic union is not yet supported"):
+        cs.test(x=1)
diff --git a/tests/test_types_void.py b/tests/test_types_void.py
index 6393f9b1..6e825857 100644
--- a/tests/test_types_void.py
+++ b/tests/test_types_void.py
@@ -2,12 +2,64 @@
 
 from dissect.cstruct.cstruct import cstruct
 
+from .utils import verify_compiled
 
-def test_void(cs: cstruct) -> None:
+
+def test_void_read(cs: cstruct) -> None:
     assert not cs.void
 
     stream = io.BytesIO(b"AAAA")
     assert not cs.void(stream)
 
     assert stream.tell() == 0
+
+
+def test_void_write(cs: cstruct) -> None:
     assert cs.void().dumps() == b""
+
+
+def test_void_array_read(cs: cstruct) -> None:
+    assert not cs.void[4]
+
+    stream = io.BytesIO(b"AAAA")
+    assert not any(cs.void[4](stream))
+    assert not any(cs.void[None](stream))
+    assert stream.tell() == 0
+
+
+def test_void_array_write(cs: cstruct) -> None:
+    assert cs.void[4](b"AAAA").dumps() == b""
+    assert cs.void[None](b"AAAA").dumps() == b""
+
+
+def test_void_default(cs: cstruct) -> None:
+    assert cs.void() == cs.void.default()
+    assert not cs.void()
+    assert not cs.void.default()
+
+    assert cs.void[1].default() == [cs.void()]
+    assert cs.void[None].default() == []
+
+
+def test_void_struct(cs: cstruct, compiled: bool) -> None:
+    cdef = """
+    struct test {
+        void    a;
+        void    b[4];
+        void    c[];
+    };
+    """
+    cs.load(cdef, compiled=compiled)
+
+    assert verify_compiled(cs.test, compiled)
+
+    stream = io.BytesIO(b"AAAA")
+
+    obj = cs.test(stream)
+    assert not obj.a
+    assert not any(obj.b)
+    assert not any(obj.c)
+
+    assert stream.tell() == 0
+
+    assert obj.dumps() == b""
diff --git a/tests/test_types_wchar.py b/tests/test_types_wchar.py
index a8086d6e..65a63d1e 100644
--- a/tests/test_types_wchar.py
+++ b/tests/test_types_wchar.py
@@ -75,3 +75,9 @@ def test_wchar_eof(cs: cstruct) -> None:
         cs.wchar[None](b"A\x00A\x00A\x00A\x00")
 
     assert cs.wchar[0](b"") == ""
+
+
+def test_wchar_default(cs: cstruct) -> None:
+    assert cs.wchar.default() == "\x00"
+    assert cs.wchar[4].default() == "\x00\x00\x00\x00"
+    assert cs.wchar[None].default() == ""