open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
UmBohlwa

**UmBohlwa** uyinhlwa yevanga enophawu **B** nenani lobuchwe eliyisi-5. Esimweni sawo esiwumncwebe uyinkimbi eshwabezelayo, emnyama, ecwebezelayo; esimweni sawo sokuswelisimo *(amorphous)* iyimpuphu ensundu. Njengenhlwa elula kakhulu yeqembu mbohlwa, unezinzuba ezintathu zenhlenge zokukhanda umnanazuba, okukhiqiza imixube eminingi efana nesimunyane sombohlwa, imbiwa *sodium borate*, kanye nemincwebe eqinile enjenge *boron carbide ne -boron nitride*.

UmBohlwa uhlanganiswe ngokuphelele yi- *cosmic ray spallation* kanye neDangazelakazi hhayi nge-*stellar nucleosynthesis*, ngakho uyingxenye enensada ephansi  kunozungezilanga kanye noqweqwe loMhlaba.  Wakha cishe amaphesenti angu-0.001 ngesisindo soqweqwe loMhlaba.  Igxile eMhlabeni ngokuncibilika emanzini kwemixube yawo evame ukwenzeka ngokwemvelo, izimbiwa e- borate . Lezi zembiwa ngokwezimboni njengama- evaporites, njenge - borax ne- kernite . Amadiphozithi amakhulu kunawo wonke awaziwayo aseTurkey, umkhiqizi omkhulu wamaminerali e-boron.
INkanyihwe

**INkanyihwe** inhlwa yevanga enophawu **Ne**elinenani lobuchwe i- 10. INkanyihwe iwuhowo lwekhethelo. INkanyihwe iwuhowo oluChwenye olungenambala, naphunga, olungasebenzi ngaphansi kwezimo ezijwayelekile, olunesiluthe somoya esicishe sibe okubili kokuthathu. Yatholwa (kanye nomKhalahwe neXhwe) ngowe-1898 njengenye yezinto ezintathu ezisalayo ezingavamile ezingasebenzi ezisele emoyeni owomile, ngemva kokukhishwa kweNihwe, nesOhwe, isAlahwe nomcalahle . INkanyihwe ingeyesibili kulolo howo oluthathu olungavamile ukutholwa futhi iqashelwa ngokushesha njengento entsha evela kumungco yawo ebomvu ekhiphayo. INkanyihwe iyisiqa esingasebenzi, futhi ayikho ixube yeNkanyihwe angashajwayo aziwayo.
UMnyango Wezokuxhumana Nobuchwepheshe Bezezibhangqiwe

**UMnyango Wezokuxhumana Nezobuchwepheshe Bezezibhangqiwe** ( owake waba **uMnyango wezokuxhumakude Nezinkonzo zePosi** kanye **noMnyango Wezokuxhumana** ) ungomunye weminyango kahulumeni waseNingizimu Afrika. Yiwona obhekele ezokuxhumana, ezokuxhumanade nezezimboni zokusakaza eNingizimu Afrika. Inhloko yezombusazwe yomnyango uNgqongqoshe wezokuxhumana nezobuchwepheshe bezezibhangqiwe, unesekela likangqongqoshe elimsizayo. Kusuka ngoJulayi 2024 ungqongoshe walomnyango bekunguSolly Malatsi isekela lakhe kunguMondli Gungubele.

Ngowezi-2014 UMongameli uJacob Zuma waqamba kabusha uMnyango wezokuXhumana wawubiza uMnyango wezokuXhumakude neziNkonzo zePosi, ngesikhathi esifanayo wakhanda uMnyango wezokuXhumana omusha onezibopho ezihlukile, ezihlanganisa nokulumba. NgoNhlangulana 2019 UMongameli Cyril Ramaphosa wamemezela ukuthi yomibili leminyango izohlanganiswa yakhe uMnyango wezokuXhumana nezobuChwepheshe bezeziBhangqiwe.

## Izinhlaka ezingaphansi kwawo
Izinhlangano eziyizinhlaka ezingaphansi kwalomnyango ziyimishumanqa yomphakathi eziphendulela kuHulumeni waseNinizimu ngaphansi koMnyango Wezokuxhumana. Zihlanganisa lezi:

* Broadband Infraco
* IGunya Lezokuxhumana Elizimele LaseNingizimu Afrika *(Independent Communications Authority of South Afric)""
* [[IHhovisi LePosi LaseNingizimu Afrika|IPosi LaseNingizimu Afrika]]
* I-Sentech
* .za Igunya Legama Lesidlangala (.ZADNA)
* Isikhungo Sezinsizakuxhumana zamazuba SaseNingizimu Afrika *(National Electronic Media Institute of South Africa)*
* Inhlangano Yenkonzo Nofikelelo lukaWonke YaseNingizimu Afrika *(Universal Service and Access Agency of South Africa)*
* Isikhungo Samakhono wakuxhakaxholo *(e-Skills Institute)'' 

## uHlu loNgqongqoshe bangaphambili
Intshwayo

**Intshwayo** (elisuka esenzweni 'sokushwaya' nesenzukuthi 'shwayi') ingukuhlelenjwa, ukuhlonzwa, nokuhlakahlwa kokwaziswa kwezinzwa njenjongo yokumelelwa nokuqonda ukwaziswa noma isimo esethuliwe. Zonke izintshwayo zibandakanya iziyabizo ezidlula ohlelweni lwezinzwa.
UZimvalo

**UZimvalo** iduna elingokwemvelo elincane nelingaphandle kwamabili ayizinyanga zikaNotshezi, elinye nguMunge.
Isigaba sesithoba soMthethosisekelo waseNingizimu Afrika

**Isigaba Sesithoba soMthethosisekelo waseNingizimu Afrika** siqinisekisa ukulingana phambi komthetho kanye nenkululeko ekubandlululweni kwabantu baseNingizimu Afrika. Leli lungelo lokulingana liyilungelo lokuqala elisohlwini loMqulu Wamalungelo . Uvimbela kokubili ukucwaswa nguhulumeni kanye nokucwaswa ngabantu abazimele; nokho, uphinde uvumele ukuthi kuthathwe izinyathelo zokuqinisekisa ukuze kulungiswe ukucwasa okungalungile okwedlule.

## uMbhalo
Ngaphansi kwesihloko esithi "ukulingana" lesi sigaba sithi: 
9. (1) Wonke umuntu uyalingana phambi komthetho, futhi unelungelo elilinganayo lokuvikelwa ngumthetho nokusizakala ngomthetho. 

(2) Ukulingana kumbandakanya ukuthokozela onke amalungelo nenkululeko ngokugcwele nangokulingana. Ukuze kukhuthazwe ukulingana, kungahle kuthathwe izinyathelo zomithetho nezinye ezenzelwe ukuthi kuvikelwe noma kuthuthukiswe abantu noma imikhakha yabantu, abancishiselwe amathuba ngenxa yobandlululo olungafanele. 

(3) Umbuso ungebandlulule umuntu ngokungafanele, ngendlela esobala noma ngendlela ecashile, ngesizathu noma ngezizathu ezimbandakanya ukubandlulula ngokobuhlanga, ubulili, ukukhulelwa, isimo somuntu kwezomshado, ubuzwe noma umphakathi umuntu adabuka kuwo, ibala, ubulili umuntu azifanisa noma afaniswa nabo, iminyaka, kukhubazeka, inkolo, unembeza, inkolelo, isiko, ulimi kanye nokuzalwa. 

(4) Akekho umuntu ovunyelwe ukubandlulula omunye ngokungafanele ngendlela esobala noma ecashile ngesizathu noma ngezizathu ngokwemigomo yesigatshana sesi (3). Kufanele kushaywe umthetho kazwelonke ukuze kugwenywe noma kunqandwe ubandlululo olungafanele. 

(5) Ukubandlulula ngesizathu noma ngezizathu ezibalulwe esigatshaneni sesi (3) akufanele ngaphandle uma kuboniswa ukuthi lolo bandlululo lufanele.
Isifakazelo sokuzalwa

**Isifakazelo sokuzalwa** siyisiqoshwa esimqoka esiqopha ukuzalwa komuntu. Ibizo elithi "isifakazelo sokuzalwa" lingabhekisela encwadini yokuqala efakazela izimo zokuzalwa noma kwisifaniselo esifakazelwe esiwumohumela wokubhaliswa kwalokho kuzalwa. Kuye nangezifunda, isiqoshwa sokuzalwa singaqukatha isiqinisekiso sesenzakalo senyanga.

Impokophelo eLondolozekayo yeZizwe eziBumbene ye-17, eyingxenye eyinhloko yohlu lwezenzo 2030, inomgcibisho wokukhulisa ukutholakala ngesikhathi kwemininingo emayelana neminyaka, ubulili, ubuzwe nezinye izici ezifanele, lezo izincwadi ezinjengesifakazelo zokuzalwa ezinamandla wokuyihlinzeka.
UMunge

**UMunge** iduna elingokwemvelo elingaphakathi futhi elikhulu kwamabili ayizinyanga zikaNotshezi,  elinye nguZimvalo.
Isifakazelo somshado

**Isifakazelo somshado** kuyisitatimende esisemthethweni sokuthi abantu ababili bashadile. Ezifundeni eziningi, isifakazelo somshado sikhishwa isisebenzi sikahulumeni kuphela ngemuva kokubhaliswa komshado.

Kwezinye izifunda, isifakazelo somshado siyisiqoshwa esisemthethweni sokuthi abantu ababili bawenzile umgidi womgcagco. Kwezinye izifunda, imvume yomshado inezinkongo ezimbili, eyokuqala ukuvumela umshado ukuba wenzeke nokuthi yona leyoncwadi iqophe isiminya sokuthi umshado wenzekile.

Isifakazelo somshado singadingeka ezimweni ezimbalwa ngezizathu ezihlukile. Singadingeka njengobufakazi ezindabeni ezifana nobugume bengane, lapho kwenziwa isehlukaniso, noma njengengxenye yomlando wohlu lozalo, njll.
Isifakazelo sokufa

**Isifakazelo sokufa** kungaba incwadi engokomthetho ekhishwe inyanga yokwelapha eshoyo ukuthi umuntu ufe nini, noma incwadi ekhishwe ihhovisi lokubhaliswa kwabantu likahulumeni, eveza usuku, indawo nembangela yokufa komuntu, njengoba zibhaliwe encwadini ebhalisa izifo.

Isifakazelo sokufa esisemthethweni sivame ukudingeka lapho kufakwa isicelo sesigqibo sempahla yongasekho. Siyafuneka nalapho kwenziwa ucwaningo lohlu lozalo. Ihhovisi lokubhalisa likahulumeni yilona okuvame ukuba lihlinzeke ngemininingwane yezifo, ngaphandle kokukhipha isifakazelo sokufa, lokhu kwenzelwa ukuba izinhlangano zikahulumeni zithuthukise iziqoshwa zazo, ezifana nencwadi yohlu lwabakhethi, izinzuzo zikahulumeni ezikhokhiwe, iziqoshwa zezincwadi zokuhamba, ukudluliswa kwamafa njll.
Indlozabukhoma

**Indlozabukhoma** (noma **ukudlozabukhoma** noma **ukudloza**) iwukwaluswa kokucondoza, ukwalusa kobuqhebeqhebe obuningi, noma ukwaluswa kokwaziswa ngenjongo yokuqoqa ukwaziswa, ukuthonya, noma ukuqondisa. Lokhu kuhlanganisa ukuqapha buqamama ngokusebenzisa izinguxa zamazuba ezifana umabonakude wentandelo *(closed-circuit television (CCTV))*, noma iseqelo *(interception)* sokwaziswa okufufukiswa ngamazuba njengesinyokotho soxhakaxholo. Kungahlanganisa izindlelasu sobunyoninco, ezifana nokuqoqwa kobuhlakani babantu nokweqela ezokuposa.

Indlozabukhoma isetshenziswa izakhamuzi ukuze zivekele amanxuluma azo. Futhi isetshenziswa ngohulumeni ukuze baqoqe ulwazi - kuhlanganisa nobuncondi, ukuvimbela ubugebengu, ukuvikelwa kwenqubo, umuntu, ixongo noma okuthile, noma ukuphenya ubugebengu. Iyasetshenziswa nayizinhkangano zobusela ukuze zicebe ukwenza ubugebengu, futhi nezihwebi ziyayisebenzisa ukuze zibuthe ukwaziswa ngezigebengu, abancintisana nazo, abahlinzeki noma abathengi. Izinhlangano zenkolo ezijutshwe ukuhlonga ukuqembuka nazo ziyakugununda ukudlozabukhoma.

Umthelela wendlozabukhoma ukuthi iyakwazi ukukhinyabeza nengasese labantu ngokungafanele futhi iyagxekwa isishoshovu eziningi. Amazwe wombusowabantu wobukhululeki afuna ukunciphisa indlela uhulumeni nabazimele asebenzise ngayo indlozabukhoma, kuyilapho ohulumeni bendlovukayiphikiswa bayisebenzisa ngokukhululekile ngaphandle kokuvinjwa.

Ubuncondi ngokwencasiselo buyisenzo esingekho emthethweni nesicashile, kuyilapho iningi izinhlobo eziningi zendlozabukhoma zenziwa obala futhi zisemtyethweni.

## Izindlela zokudloza

### NgesiCikizi

Iningi lezenzo zokudlozabukhoma ngesicikizi zibandakanya ukwalusa imininingo nokuhlaziya isinyokotho sakuxhakaxholo.

### Ngezithwebuli

Izithwebuli zendlozabukhoma, noma izithwebuli zezokuphepha, ziyizithwebula mbukiso ezisetshenziselwa injongo yokuqapha indawo ethile. Zivame ukuxhunywa nesilekeleli esiqophayo, futhi zibukwa omantshingelani noma onongqayi.

### Ngokuhlaziya izinkundla zokuxhumana

Enye indlela yokudloza bukhoma ingukwakha amabalazwe sezinkundla zokuxhumana asekelwe emininingweni evela ezinkundleni zokuxhumana ezifana noFacebook, MySpace, noTwitter kanye nokwaziswa kwesihlaziyo sesinyokotho sokushaywa kocingo esifana naleso esitholakala kwisisindamininingo sakwaNSA, kanye nezinye. Khona emva kwalokho, la mabalazwe ezinkundla zokuxhumana avukuzwa imininingo ukuze kumonculwe ukwaziswa okubalulekile okufana nezithakazelo somuntu, ubuhlobo anabo, izimfuno, izinkolelo, imicabango nobuqhebeqhebe.

## Imithombo
Isidlavela

**Isidlavela** (noma **idolobha**) siyindawo yokuhlala yabantu enobungako obuphawulekayo. Izidlavela imvama zinohlelo oluwudwadwa lwezindlu, ezokuthutha, ukuthuthwa kwendle, izinsiza, ukusebenza komhlaba, ukukhiqizwa kwezingudla, nezokuxhumana. Ukuminyana kwazo kwenza kube lula ukwenanana phakathi kwabantu, izinhlangano zikahulumeni nemihwebo, okubuye kuhlomulise amaqembu amaningi, njengokuthuthukisa ukufaneleka kokusatshalaliswa kwezingudla nezinkonzo.

Ngokomlando, abahlali basezidlaveleni babebancane kunoluntu lulonke, kodwa emva kwamakhulu amabili eminyaka yokuthutheleka kwabantu ezidlaveleni, zinabantu abangaphezu kwesigamu sabantu abasemhlabeni abahlala kuzo, futhi lokhu kungaba nemiphumela emibi ekulondolozekeni kwembulunga. Izidlavela zanamuhla zakha umnyombo wezindawo ezinkulu nezindawo zasezidlaveleni —ngokwenz abagebeli abaningi abahamba bebheke maphakathi nesidlavela beyofuna umsebenzi, ezokuzinandisa, nemfundo. Kodwa, ezweni lokubhulungisa okusheshayo, zonke izidlavela ngokwamazinga angafani,  zixhumene ngokwembulunga ngale kwalezo zifunda. Leli thonya elikhulu lisho ukuthi izidlavela zinamathonya amqoka ezindabeni zembulunga, ezifana neNtuthuko elondolozayo, ukufudumala kwembulunga, nezempilonhle zomhlaba. Ngenxa yalamathonya amakhulu ezindabeni zomhlaba, umphakathi womhlabawonke uqokomise utshalomali ezidlaveleni ezolondolozayo usebenzisa iMpokophelo 11 yeNtuthuko yokuLondoloza.

## uMqondo

Isidlavela singahlukaniswa kwezinye izindawo zokuhlala ngobungako baso obukhulu, futhi nangezinsebenzo zaso kanye nokubaluleka kwaso, esikunikezwa igunya eliphezulu. Leli bizo lingabhekisela emigwaqweni nasembijongweni yesidlavela noma isixuku sabantu abahlala khona, futhi lingasebenza ngomqondo ovamile ukubhekisela endaweni eyisidlidli kuneyase makhaya.
INzululwazi yoKwaziswa

**INzululwazi yokwaziswa** umkhakha wezemfundo ephakeme onake ngokuyinhloko ukuhlaziywa, ukuqoqwa, ukujinjwa, ukulunjwa, ukugcinwa, ukuhoshwa, ukunyukuza, ukusetshalaliswa, nokuvikelwa kokwaziswa. Abakulomkhakha nabangaphandle kwawo bafunda ngokusebenza nokusetshenziswa kolwazi ezinhlanganweni okwenezela ekunananeni okuphakathi kwabantu, kanye nanoma yiziphi izimiso zokwaziswa ngenjongo yokudala , ukwenana, ukuthuthukisa noma ukuqonda izimiso zokwaziswa.

Ngokomlando, inzululwazi yokwaziswa iyamaniswa nenzululwazi yesicikizi, iNzululwazi yeMininingo, umchazangqondo, Ubuchwepheshe, inzululwazi yomtapolwazi, ezeMpilonhle, nezinhlangano zezinkasa. Kodwa, inzululwazi yokwaziswa ibuye ihlanganise nezici zeminye imikhakha ehlukene efana nenzululwazi yokuqogelela, inzululwazi yomqondo, ezohwebo, ezomthetho, ezolimi, umchazazibalo, ezokuphatha, injulalwazi, ezenqubomgomo yezwe, nezinzululwazi zomphakathi.
UbuChwepheshe boKwaziswa nezokuXhumana

**UbuChwepheshe boKwaziswa nokuXhumana** (obubizwa nangokuthi **ubuChwepheshe bezoKwaziswa nezokuXhumana**) igama elijija lelo elithi ubuChwepheshe bezoKwaziswa eligcizelela iqhaza lezokuxhumana ezibumbene kanye nokudidiyelwa kwezokuXhumanakude *(telecommunications)* (izintambo zocingo neziyabizo ezingenantambo) nezicikizi, kanye namahlelokusebenza athengiswayo ayimfuneko, iziphathamniningo nokunye okwenza abasebenzisi bezicikizi bakwazi ukufikelela, ukuqoqlnga, ukufufukisa, ukuqonda nokulumba ukwaziswa.

UbuChwepheshe boKwaziswa nezokuXhumana igama elibuye lisetshenziswe lapho kubhekiselwa ekuhlanganeni kwemibukomsindo *(audiovisuals)* nezixhoxho zocingo kanye nezixhoxho zesicikizi endophini eyodwa noma ngohlelo lokhongco. Kukhona izinxephezelo ezinkulu ezingokomnotho zokuhlangaisa izoxhoxho zezincingo kanye nohlelo lwesixhoxho sesiCikizi ngokusebenzisa uhlelo olubumbene olulodwa lokufaka izindophi, ukusabalalisa isiyabizo, nokuphathwa. Ubuchwepheshe boKwaziswa nezokuxhumana yibizo elihlanganisa kwasani, noma iyiphi inguxa yezokuxhumana, kuhlanganisa nomsakazo, umabonakude, omakhalekhukhwini, izimiso zamaduna nokunye, kanye nezinkonzo nezilekeleli ezihlukene zazo ezifana ukungqungquthela ngombukiso nokufunda buqamama. Ubuchwepheshe bokwaziswa nokuxhumana bubuye buhlanganise nobuchwepheshe benzuko, obufana nokuxhumana ngephepha, nanoma iyiphi indlela yokufufukisa ukuxhumana.

Ubuchwepheshe bokwaziswa nokuxhumana yisihloko esibanzi esinezicabango ezithubekayo. Sihlanganisa noma yimiphi imikhiqizo engakwazi ukuqoqonga, ukulanda, ukuthonya, nokufufukisa , noma ukwamukela ukwaziswa ngamazuba noma ngesimo sezezibhangqiwe (isb. ngezicikizi kuhlanganisa nomakhalipha, omabonakude bezezibhangqiwe, incwazuba, nezithununu). UHlaka lwakaKhono weNkathi yoKwaziswa lungolunye unongo lokuchazisa nokuphathwa kokufaneleka kwezingcwepheshi zlbuchwepheshe bokwaziswa nezokuxhumana kuleli khulu lama-21.
Inkinga yesidlakathi yaseNingizimu Afrika

**Inkinga yesidlakathi yaseNingizimu Afrika** noma **Inkinga yamazuba yaseNingizimu Afrika**, yinkathi eqhubekayo yokucinywa kwamazuba ezweni lonke. Lenkathi yaqala ezinyangeni zokuphela kowe-2007 futhi iyaqhubeka kuze kube manje. Inkampani ekhiqiza isidlakathi kahulumeni waseNingizimu Afrika kanye nesiphehli mandla esiyinhloko, i-Eskom, kanye namalunga oMgwamanqa bakhomba ukusilela kwamandla okuphehla amaZuba njengembangela yalenkinga.

Ngokuka-Eskom nezikhulu zikahulumeni, isixazululo sidinga ukuba kwakhiwe ezinye iziphehlimandla ezintsha. Inkohlakalo nokungaphathwa ngokufanele kwe-Eskom, kusuka kusabusa uThabo Mbeki, kwenze yangalungiseka lenkinga; futhi yande ngokwengeziwe lapho sekuphethe uCyril Ramaphosa.

## Isizinda senkinga
Embikweni okhishwe ngoZibandlela we-1998, abahlaziyi nabaholi bala-Eskom nohulumeni waseNingizimu Afrika babikezela ukuthi i-Eskom izophelelwa amandla wamazuba agciniwe ngowezi-2007 uma kungathathwa isinyathelo sokuvimbela lokho. Ukuze kuphuculwe ukuphakelwa ngamandla nokuthembeka, umbiko wangowe-1998 watusa ukuba kuhlelwe kabusha izinhlaka zika-Eskom ngokuhlukanisa imihwebo yakhe ibe mibili, ukuphehlwa kwamazuba kanye nokufufukiswa kwamazuba. Naphezu kwezixwayiso zombiko wangonyaka we-1998 nezicelo zika-Eskom zokuvunyelwa ukuba wandise ummumatho wakhe, uhulumeni kaZwelonke awuthathanga sinyathelo. Ngaleso sikhathi uhulumeni oholwa ngu-Thabo Mbeki wawucubungula ukusuluza (ukudayisa) ngo-Eskom okwakucashunwa njengesizathu esenza uhulumeni wangathatha sinyathelo. Lokhu kwaphumela ekutheni u-Eskom angasakwazi ukwenezela ngommumatho wokuphehla futhi kanjalo umelane nengqekelelo yezwe ekhulayo yamazuba kusuka ngowezi-2002 kuqhubeke. Uhulumeni wanika u-Eskom isivumelo sokukhulisa ukukhiqizwa kwesidlakathi ngama-70 ekhulwini ngowezi-2004.

### Ingqalasizinda egugayo

Iziphehlimandla eziyi-15 zakhiwa maphakathi kowe-1961 nowe-1996, zenezela ummumatho ohlanganiswe oyizi-35,804 MW. Ekhulwini lama-21, ngummumatho oyizi-9,564 MW kuphela owenezelwe ngeziphehlimandla ezisanda kwakhiwa zaseMedupi naseKusile. Iziphehlimandla eziningi zika-Eskom zineminyaka ecishe ibe ngama-50 ubudala futhi seziphelelwa isikhathi. Kulandela inkathi yokuqala kacimicimi yangowezi-2007 kuya kowezi-2008, u-Eskom wagunyaza ukwakhiwa kweziphehli ezifukuthwa ngamalahle eMedupi naseKusile ukuze andise ukukhiqizwa kwesidlakathi ngama-25 ekhulwini. Ukwakhiwa kwaleziphehli kwadibana nezingqinamba eziningana zobunyoninco nokusaphazwa kwemali kuyilapho ixongo leziphehli ezikhona lalingananwa futhi liqhubeka nokugidinga nangemva kokuphela kwenkathi yazo yokugidinga.

#### uMlando wensebenzo yeziphehlimandla
Ngezansi kunelandasikhathi seziphehlimandla ezinkulu zika-Eskom 

## Imithombo
IsAmoshi

**IsAmoshi** siyinhlwa yevanga edidiyelwe eyonzayo enophawu **-Am**  nenani lobuchwe elingama- 95. Lena inhlwa egaba ishaqantuva *(transuranic)* neyilungu lochunge lwezinhlwa zesAcagu ecansini lezinhlwa lapho ihlelwe ngaphansi kwenhlwa yomLalamthumbi ebizwa umNulundu.
ImBeke

**ImBeke** iyinhlwa yevanga egabantuva- (transuranic) neyonzayo enophawu **Bk** nenani lobuchwe elingama-97.
UmNgcalife

**UmNgcalife** uyinhlwa yevanga eyonzayo enophawu **Cf** nenani lobuchwe elingama- 98. Lenhlwa yalunjaniswa okokuqala engqalabeni kaZwelonke ebizwa Lawrence Berkeley (okwakuyiNyuvesi yase-Carlifonia yeNgqalaba yemiyonzi). Yalunjaniswa ngokuwulula iChumumbi ngezinhlayiyanqangi (izihonyo seHwelanga-4) Lenhlwa iyi- * actinide* , futhi iyinhlwa yesithupha eyalunjaniswa egaba ishaqantuva, futhi ingeyesibili enesisindo seChwe esiphezulu kuzo zonke izinhlwa ezikhiqizwa ngenani elikhulu elanele ukubonwa ngamehlo enyama (ilandela isEntshenye).
IsEntshenye

**IsEntshenye** siyinhlwa elumbanisiwe enophawu **Es** kanye nenani lobuchwe elingama-99. IsEntshenye siyinhlwa yesikhombisa egabantuva.
Inhlaka

**Inhlaka** isithako esiqinile esingakhandwa sibe umumo ohlukahlukene. Ivame ukuba luntwentwe, kodwa ingenziwa sibe mibalabala, futhi isetshenziswa kabanzi kwezobuchwepheshe, nasekwenzeni imihlobiso. Izinhlobo zenhlaka elunjiwe ezaziwayo, nezindala ngokomlando, yilezo zenhlaka ekhandwe ngeSiphehlalu esekwe kumxube wevanga (iSiphemba esintuhlambili, noma igcaki), okuyisakhi esiyinhloko sesihlabathi. Inhlaka yeNasidemcako *(soda-lime)*, iqukethe iSiphehlalu esingaba ama-70 ekhulwini, futhi enhlakeni elunjiwe sinobuningi obungama-90 ekhulwini. Zikhona nezinye izinhlobo zenhlaka ezenziwe ngezinye izindlela nangezinye izithako, futhi eziqine kakhulu. Ngokuvamile ngesiZulu esikhulunywa nsukuzonke, imikhiqizo yenhlaka ibizwa ngokuthi 'eyengilazi' okuyibizo elisuselwa kwelesilumbi.

Naphezu kokuba uvendle, igcaki lenhlaka eligqibiwe lingahlala isikhathi eside uma lingaphazanyisiwe, futhi ziningi izibonelo zezivingi zenhlaka ezikhona okungezasendulo. Ubufakazi bezemivubululo isikisela ukuthi ukwenziwa kwenhlaka isenzo esaqala emuva ngokungenanai eminyakeni yezi-3,600 BC kwelaseMesopotamiya, eGibhithe naseSiriya. Izinto zokuqala zenhlaka kwakungubuhlalu, cishe obabenzeke ngengozi lapho kucandulwa noma kukhiqizwa i-fayensi. Ngenxa yokubumbeka kwayo kube yinoma yisiphi isimo, inhlaka kusetshenziswa yona ukwenza amagobongo, afana nemicengezi, amakhamba, amagabha, nezindebe zenhlaka. Inhlaka ingafakwa umbala ngokujoba amatswayi wenkimbi noma ibhacekwe futhi ishicilwe njengenhlaka ecwebeziwe *(enamel glass)*. Izakhi ezigwincizayo, ezikhwentuzayo nezifufukisayo zenhlaka zenza inhlaka efaneleke ekulunjweni kwamaqwangwa ezibuko, izincwamanzi *(prisms)*, nezithako zamazubokukhanya *(optoelectronics)*.

## uHlaka lwayo olusimoncinci

Incasiselo eyamuekelwe *yenhlaka* (noma isinqumela esiluntwentwe) ithi, iyisinqumela esibunjwa ngesicima kuncibilika esisheshayo.
UBhaqanyezi

**UBhanqanyezi** yindikimba eyiqhwa, yohlelo lukanozungezilanga efudumalayo futhi eqala ukukhipha uhowo lapho idlula eduze neLanga, inqubo ebizwa ngokuthi ukutshokuhowo. uBhaqanyezi luhluke kakhulu kuMhlabana. Ukuthamhekela kwawo ekuzungezeni kuphezulu, futhi iningi lawo lingamabhaqanyezi wenkathi ende abuya enkatheni.
UmCanga

**UmCanga**  yinhlwa yecanga enophawu **Cs** nenani lobuchwe elingama- 55. Uyinkimbi engquba ethambile enombala obucwebe sambedu enokudlidliza okungama-28.5 °C (83.3 °F), okuwenza enye yezinhlwa eziyinkimbi ezinhlanu ezingamanzi emazingeni okushisa egumbi. UmCanga unezakhi zesiqa ezifanayo nezeshaqantuva nomkhosha.
IsiVuve

**IsiVuve** (uphawu: **V** ) singumuvo noma ucezu lwesidlakathi samazuba, umehluko ongaba khona (Ubuvuve), nesiphoqi somdikanzuba *(electromotive force)* ngokwe- International System of Units (SI) .
Ubuvuve

**Ubuvuve**, obaziwa nangokuthi **ingcindezi yamazuba**, noma **umehluko ongaba khona (wamazuba)**, bungumehluko wamandla wamazuba phakathi kwezinto izimbili. Phakathi komzuba, buhambelana nomkhwishizo odingwa umuvo owodwa womlelesa ukunyukuzisa inhlayiyana phakathi kwezindawo ezimbili. NgokoHlelo loMhlabawonke lwezilinganiso, umuvo owodwa wobubuvuve ubizwa isiVuve.
Umzuba

**Umzuba** uyinkundla engokoqobo ezungeza izinhlayiyana ezileleswe ngamazuba futhi esebenzisa amandla kuzo zonke ezinye izinhlayiyana ezileleswayo kuleyonkundla, ngokuziheha noma ngokuzixosha.
Insibomvu

**Insibomvu** eyaziwa nangokuthi **ukukhanya kwensibomvu**, iyimiyonzi yenzubawonga enamabangacuphi amade kunawesokhanya namafushane kunawamaza womsakazo. Amaza wensibomvu made kunalawo abantu abangawabona ngamehlo, futhi mafishane kunawechadaza. Igama elithi insibomvu liyinhlanganisela yamabizo amabili asho ukuthi 'phansi kobomvu' ( phaNSI koBOMVU ). Lokhu kungenxa yokuthi ukukhanya kwensibomvu kunomjinge ongaphansi komjinge wokukhanya okubomvu, okunebangacuphi elide kakhulu ukuba abantu bangalibona ngamehlo. Ngakho insibomvu ayibonakali emehlweni.
Uzukhwithi

**Uzukhwithi** ( **UV** ) uhlobo lwemiyonzi yenzubawonga enebangacuphi elisuka ku-10 nm  (elinomjinge ohambisanayo ongaba ngama-30&nbsp;PHz ) ukuya ku-400&nbsp;nm (750&nbsp;THz ), elimfushane kunokukhanya okubonakalayo, kodwa yinde kunamagu-X. Imiyonzi yozukhwithi iyatholakala ekukhanyeni kwelanga, futhi yakha okungaba ishumi ekhulwini lemiyonzi yenzubawonga ephuma elangeni. Uphinde ukhiqizwe amagobela wamazuba, imiyonzi kaCherenkov, nayizibani zekhethelo, ezifana nezibani zomhwamuko, izibani ze-tanning kanye nezibani ezimfipha.
Amaza womsakazo

**Amaza womsakazo** awuhlobo lwemiyonzi yenzubawonga enamabangacuphi amade kakhulu emungcweni wenzubawonga, imvama ngemijinge engama-300 yamahazaqindi             *(gigahertz (GHz)* nangaphansi. Kumahazaqindi angama-300, ibangacuphi elihambisanayo linye (1mm, lincane kunokusamvu kwendumbuluza); kumahaza angama-30 (Hz) ibangacuphi elihambisanayo lingamakhilomitha ayizi-10,000, (lide kunomugqazinga womhlaba). Njengayo yonke imiyonzi yenzubawonga, amaza omsakazo lapho aselinyeni *(vacuum)* ahamba ngesivinini sokukhanya, futhi kumoyambulunga womhlaba ahamba ngesivinini esiseduze, kodwa esingaphansi kwaso.
IChadaza

**IChadaza** liwuhlobo lwemiyonzi yenzubawonga enamabangacuphi alinganiselwe kusuka emitheni elilodwa kuya emilimitheni elilodwa ahambisana nemijinge ephakathi kwamahazagidi angama-300 MHz namahazaqindi angama-300 GHz ngokulandelana. Imithombo ehlukene ichasisa amazinga ahlukene omjinge njengamachadaza; incasiselo engaphezulu ebanzi ihlanganisa kokubili umjinge ophakeme kakhulu (UHF) nomjinge ophakeme ngokweqile (EHF).
Izibalomininingo

**Izibalomininingo** uqeqesho olunake ukuqoqwa, ukuhlelwa, ukuhlaziywa, ukuhlakahlwa, nokwethulwa kwemininingo. Ekusebenziseni izibalomniningo enkingeni yenzululwazi, yezimboni, noma enkingeni yomphakathi, kulindelekile ukuba ukuqala ngesibalo sabantu eliyisibalomininingo noma unongo lwesibalomininingo esizofundwa. Izibalo zabantu zingaba amaqembu angafani wabantu afana "nabo bonke abantu abahlala ezweni". Izibalomininingo zibhekele zonke izici zemininingo, kuhlanganise nokuceba ukuqoqwa kwemininingo ngokuvumelana nomklamo wenhlolovo yesibalomininingo nemiklamo yomgcanso.

Lapho imininingo yokubalwa kwabantu kulukhuni ukuyiqoqa, osozibalomininingo baqoqa imininingo ngokuthuthukisa imiklamo yomgcanso eqondile nezangulo zenhlolovo yesibalomininingo. Ukusangula unongo kuqinisekisa ukuthi izigqibo neziphetho zingajijiswa ngokulinganiselayo kusuka esangulweni kuya esibalweni sabo sisonke. Isifundo esiwumgcanso sibandakanya ukuthatha isilinganiso zesimiso esifundwayo, ukulumba leso simiso, nokuthatha izilinganiso ezengeziwe usebenzisa inqubo efanayo ukuze unqume ukuthi ingabe ukulumba kuwaguqulile amanani wesilinganiso. Ngokuphambene, Isifundo sokuqaphela sona asibandakanyi ukulumba okungumgcanso.

## Imithombo
IBima

**IBima** liyinhlwa yevanga enophawu u- **Bi** nenani lobuchwe elingama-83. Liyinkimbi yangemva koshintsho kanye nenye ye-*pnictogens*, enezakhi zesiqa ezifana nezelamani zayo isAsumu neSibidani eqenjini elincane le-15.. IBima eyinhlwa itholakala ngokwemvelo, futhi izimo zayo zeSibabuli  nentuhla zakha amadwalambi abalulekile wokuhweba. Lenhlaka ekhululekile ingama-86 ekhulwini ogqinsi njengomthofu . Iyinkimbi ephukayo enombala omhlophe-sabucwebe uma isanda kukhiqizwa. Ukuthuhleka kobuso ngokuvamile kunika amasangulo alenkimbi umbala usabomvu.
IsAsumu

**IsAsumu** iyinhlwa yevanga enophawu **As** nenani lobuchwe elingama -33. IsAsumu sitholakala kwizimbiwa eziningi, ngokuvamile lihlanganiswe nesibabuli nezinkimbi, kodwa futhi njengomncwebe oyisisekelo ocwebileyo. IsAsumu siyinhlanganisela yenkimbithi *(metalloid)*. Inama- allotropes ahlukahlukene, kodwa isimo esimpunga, esibukeka okwensimbi kuphela, esibalulekile embonini.
Imvula

**Imvula** ingamaconsi wamanzi ajiyile asuka kumhwamuko osemkhathini abese ewela phansi ngokuna . Imvula iyingxenye enkulu yomjikelezo wamanzi futhi iyona eletha amanzi amaningi ahlanzekile eMhlabeni. Ihlinzeka ngamanzi imikhando yamazubomjilimba, ukuchelela ngezitshalo, kanye nezimo ezifanele zezinhlobo eziningi zexhaxhaemvelo.

Imbangela eyinhloko yemvula umswakama ohamba ngomehluko wodwadwa lwemingakontathu yezingakushisa nomswakama owaziwa gokuthi umsinga wesimosezulu. Uma kunomswakama owanele kanye nomdiki okhuphukayo ukuna kuzokhithika emafini omnyukakhoza afana namafenala (anokuduma) aletha imvula esamithende. Ezintabeni, ukuna ngamandla, iwulukuhlu, kungenzeka kuphela ezinhlangothini zevamasivungu, lapho umoya oswakeme okhuphukayo iuphola khona, ujiyeke bese ukhithika njengemvula. Ezindwaweni ezifana nenswelasivungu yentaba, kuba nezimo zogwadule ngenxa yokuthi umoya owomile obangwa ukwehla kwawo.

### Amagama wesizulu wemvula
TYPES OF RAINFALL - IZINHLOBO ZEMVULA

Relief rainfall - umqombola

Frontal rainfall - umshuqungane

Convectional rainfall - umnyukakhoza

TYPES OF PRECIPITATION - IZINHLOBO ZOKUNA

Liquid - Eluketshezi

Freezing - Enqandisayo

Frozen - Enqumile

LIQUID - ELUKETSHEZI

Drizzle - umkhizo

Rain - imvula

Fog condensation - umzolo
IsAlahwe

**IsAlahwe** siyinhlwa yevanga enophawu u **-Ar** nenani lobuchwe eliyi-18. Siseqenjini le-18 lecansi lezinhlwa futhi siwuhowo oluntentemukayo. IsAlahwe siwuhowo lwesithathu oliyinala kakhulu kumoyambulunga woMhlaba, ngenani elingu-0.934% (9340 ppmv ). Siyinala ngokuphindwe kabili kunomhwamuko wamanzi (olinganiselwa ku-4000 ppmv, kodwa uhluka kakhulu), sigcwele izikhathi eziphindwe ngama-23 kunomcalahle ontuhlambili (400 ppmv), futhi siyinala izikhathi ezingaphezu kwama-500 kunenkanyihwe (18 ppmv). IsAlahwe siwuhowo oluntentemukayo oliyinala kakhulu egobohleni lomhlaba, sakha okungaba -0.00015% lwegobohla.
IsAcagu

**IsAcagu** siyinhlwa yevanga enophawu - **Ac** nenani lobuchwe elingama-89. Yaqala ukuhlukaniswa nguFriedrich Oskar Giesel ngo-1902. Izinhlwa ezitholakala phakathi kwesAcagu nomLangalambi, eziyiqembu lezinhlwa eziyi-15 ecansini lezinhlwa zibizwa ngokuthi uchunge lwesAcagu. IsAcagu kanye nemPosumu, umSebembi, nomLahwe, zingezinye zezinhlwa zanguna eziyonzayo ezaqhingwa zodwa..
IsiBidani

**IsiBidani** siyinhlwa yevanga enophawu **Sb** nenani lobuchwe elingama-51. Liyinkimbithi *(metalloid )* empunga ecwebezelayo, itholakala emvelweni ikakhulukazi njenge-*sulfide mineral stibnite*. Imixube yesiBidani ibiyaziwa kusukela ezikhathini zasendulo futhi zazincushuzwa ukuze zisetshenziswe njengomuthi nezimonyo .
Unongo

**Unongo** liwusempu lwento, umuntu noma uhlelo olwazisayo. Legama lisho ingxenye encane yento enkulu. Lisho into emelela okunye. Izinjongo zingahlukaniswa kube izinjongo ezingokoqobo, izinongo eziyisicabangelo, eziwumgogodla wenjulalwazi nenzululwazi , njengoba cisho yonke imibono yenzululwazi ifaka phakathi uhlobo oluthile lomkhakha ongokoqobo noma wabantu.

KwezeNtengiselwano, "unongo" lungabhekisela  kumklamo othile womkhiqizo obukiswayo (isb. Ford Model T), futhi lungabhekisela nasemkhiqizweno othwngiswayo ngokwawo.

Izinhlobo zonongo yilezi:

## uNongo olungokoqobo

**Unongo olungokoqobo** (imvama olubizwa ngokuthi **unongo** kodwa kulomongo luhlukaniswa nonongo oluyisicabango) luyisifaniselo esingokoqobo esingaba sikhulu noma sincane sento ethile. Into eyenziwa unongo ingaba ncane (ngokwesibonelo, ichwe) noma ibe nkulu (ngokwesibonelo, uhlelo lukanozungezilanga). Ngomunye umqondo, unongo olungokoqobo "kuhlake liwukubonakaliswa konongo oluyisicabango; unongo oluyisicabango lucatshangwa kusengaphambili njengomklamo walelo elingokoqobo", osekusele ukuba lukhandwe njengoba lucatshangiwe.

Isilinganisazwe sonongo nento esiyimelelayo zivame ukuma ngokufanayo ngomqondo wokuthi olunye lungukulinganiswa kancane kolunye.
UmConjambi

**UmConjambi** uyinhlwa yevangaenophawu  **Co** nenani lobuchwe elingama-27. NjengesiNimbi, umConjambi utholakala oqweqweni Lomhlaba kuphela esimweni esihlangene sevanga, ngaphandle kwezingxenye ezincane ezitholakala kumagqusho ensimbi yeqhumanyezi lemvelo . Inhlwa ekhululekile, ekhiqizwa ukuncibilika okunciphisayo, iyinkimbi eqinile, ecwebezelayo, empunga sabucwebe .
UmBhanya

**UmBhanya** uyinhlwa yevanga enophawu u- **Ba** nenani lobuchwe elingama-56. Liyinhlwa yesihlanu eqenjini lesi-2 futhi liyinkimbi yomhlaba engqubathi ethambile, ebucwebe. Ngenxa yokusabela okuphezulu ngokwevanga kwawo, umbhanya awutholakali emvelweni njengento yamahhala.
UmCaphana

**Umcaphana** uyinhlwa yevanga enophawu u- **Ca** nenani lobuchwe elingama-20. Njengenkimbi yomhlaba engqubathi, umcaphana uyinkimbi esabelayo eyakha ungqimba olumnyama lwentuhla yenihwe lapho uhlangana nomoya. Izakhi zawo ezingokoqobo nezingokwesiqa zifana kakhulu nohlobolunye lwayo olunzima kakhulu iSolombi  nomBhanya. Iyinhlwa yesihlanu eyinala kakhulu ogobohlweni lomhlaba, futhi iyinhlwa yesithathu eyinkimbi eningi, ngemva kwensimbi nesAlumbe . Umxube womcaphana ovame kakhulu emhlabeni, umcaphana womcalahle, otholakala kwitshemcako nasezinsaleleni zentshicwa yokuphila kwasolwandle kwaphambili; *i-gypsum, i- anhydrite, i-fluorite, ne- apatite* nazo ziyimithombo yomcaphana.
Intando yeningi

**Umthetho weningi** isimiso esithi iqembu elinabaseki abaningi kube yilo elibusayo. Kuwumthetho wesinqumo esimabhangqa esivame ukusetshenziswa ezigungwini ezithatha izinqumo, okuhlanganisa nezishayamthetho eziningi zezizwe zombusowabantu .
INtunge

**INtunge** iyinhlayiyana yechwe, enophawu  noma , enomlelesa ongachemi  (ongavumi noma ongaphiki), kanye nesisindo esingaphezudlwana kwesinelesi .
INuzi lechwe

**INuzi lechwe** liyingxenye encane emaphakathi ewugqinsi equkethe izinelesi nezintunge emnyombweni wechwe, lengxenye yavubukulwa ngowe-1911 ngu-Ernst Rutherford emva kwemigcanso eminingi. Emva kokuvubukulwa kwentunge ngowe-1932, izinongo zenuzi eyakhiwa izinelesi nezintunge zathuthukiswa ngokuphuthumayo ngu-Dimitri Ivanenko no-Werner Heisenberg. Ichwe lakhiwa inuzi elinomlelesa ovumayo, kanye nefu lezinzuba eziyizungezayo ezinomlelesa ophikayo, ezibhonqwe ndawonye isiphoqi somzuba. Cishe sonke isisindo sechwe sitholakala kuyo inuzi, kuyilapho ifu lenzuba linikela kancane kuso. Izinelesi nezintunge zibhonqwe ndawonye ukuze zakhe inuzi, zibhonqwa isiphoqi senuzi.

Ibangandilinga lenuzi limaphakathi kwama-fm angeli-1.70 kwihwanzi (okuyibangandilinga lenelesi eyodwa) kuya kwayi-11.7 kwishaqantuva. Lemiyinge mincane kakhulu kunebangandilinga lechwe ngokwalo (indeni + nefu lenzuba).

Igatsha lomchazandalo elinake ukufundwa nokuqondwa kwenuzi lechwe, okuhlanganisa nezakhiwo zayo kanye neziphoqi ezizibhonqa ndawonye, ubizwa ngokuthi umchazandalo wenuzi.
Ingoni

Ngokochazosimo sikaYuklidi, **ingoni** iyinto eyakhiwa imishwe emibili, ebizwa amacala wengoni, anesidli sisodwa, esibizwa incishi yengoni. Izingungube ezimbili lapho ziphambana, nazo ziyayichasisa ingoni.
Isisindo

**Isisindo** siyisigubo esingaphakathi kwendikimba. Kwakucatshangwa ukuthi isisindo sihlobene nezingabunjalo loTho endikimbeni, kwaze kwaba yilapho kuvubukulwa iChwe nezinhlayiyana zalo. Kwatholakala ukuthi amachwe ahlukene nezinhlayiyana eziyosiseko ezihlukene, ezinoTho olunenani elifanayo ngokomchachiso, zinezisindo ezihlukene. Isisindo ngkomchazandalo wanamuhla sinzincasiselo eziningana ezinezicabango ezihlukene, kodwana ezilinganayo. isisindo singachasiswa ngokomgcanso njengesilinganiso sengwevamdiki yendikimba, okusho ukuphikisa ukukhawuleza (uguquko lwesivinini) lapho kunesiphoqi esifuqayo. Isisindo sento ethile naso sinomthelela ezikhwepheni zokuheha komnyondo wayo ngokoqondene nezinye izindikimba.

Isilinganiso sesisindo saziwa ngokuthi ikhilogremi (kg). Kumchazandalo, isisindo asiyona into eyodwa nesinzima, ngisho noma isisindo sinqunywa ngokulinganisa isinzima sento kusetshenziswa umlinganiso we*spring*, esikhundleni somlinganiso we*balance* lapho kuqhathaniswa nezisindo ezaziwayo. Into eseNyangeni izoba nesinzima esincane kunalapho iseMhlabeni ngenxa yomnyondo omncane eNyangeni, kodwa isisindo sayo ngeke siguwuke. Lokhu kungenxa yokuthi isinzima siyisiphoqi, kuyilapho isisindo siyisigubo esikwazi (kanye nomyondo) ukunquma izikhwepha zalesi siphoqi.
Isidludlungi esimqoka

**Isidludlungi esimqoka** ( noma **isidludlungi** ), siyintandelo yamazuba egununda iziyalelo ezihlanganisa inhleleliso yesicikizi. Isidludlungi senza imigidingo yesibalonqangi, *logic*, ukulawula, nokugalela/ziphumo, okuyimigidingo ecaciswa iziyalelo zenhleleliso. Lokhu kuphambana nezigcoyi ezingaphandle ezifana nentandelo yenkumbulo, kanye nezidludlungi ezikhethekile ezifana nezidludlungi zemifaniso (GPUs).

Isidludlungi esimqoka sigidinga ngokuthumela iziyabizo ukuze silawule ezinye izingxenye zesicikizi, ngendlela efanayo nokusebenza kobuchopho ekulawuleni umzimba.
IKhazi

**IKhazi** liyinhlwa yevanga enophawu **Pt** nenani lobuchwe elingama-78. Liyinkimbi ewugqinsi, egobekayo, elula, esabela kakhulu, eyigugu, enombala omhlophe sacwebe. Igama layo elithi *ikhazi* liqhamuka kubukhazikhazi bayo obucwebezelayo.

IKhazi liyilungu lezinhlwa eziyiqembu lekhazi neleqembu le-10 lezinhlwa zecansi lezinhlwa. Linezihlukombe *(isotope)* eziyisithupha ezingokwemvelo. Liyinhlwa eyivelakancane egobohleni lomhlaba. Litholakala likanye namadwala esiNimbi nawesokhele nokunye, ikakhulu eNingizimu Afrika, ekhiqiza ama-80 ekhulwini umhlaba wonke. Ngenxa yokuba ivelakancane egobohleni lomhlaba, kukhiqizwa amathani angamakhulu ambalwa kuphela, futhi ngenxa yokusebenzisa kwalo okubalulekile, libiza kakhulu futhi liyinkimbi ethengiswayo eyigugu kakhulu.
Umncwebe

**Umncwebe** uyisinqumela esiqukethe amachwe ( imizwayi noma izihonyo) ahlelenjwe ngesifanelo esiwuhlaka olusimoncinci. Imincwebe yakhiwa imitshoko ngenqubo ebizwa ukuncwebeka, ewuhlobo lokuguquka kwesimo. Ngokuvamile umtshoko kuba uketshezi, Kodwa imincwebe iyakheka nangohowo. Ngokwesibonelo, iqhwa liyimincwebe yamanzi ebunjwe kusuka emoyeni oqukethe umhwamuko wamanzi (amanzi ahwamukile). Ukuncwebeka kungenzeka ngokukhazeka *(freezing)* komtshoko olula. Ngezinye izikhathi umchadamezo nengcindezi kuyadingeka ukuze isiqa sibumbe imincwebe. Idayimani liwumncwebe womcalahle obumbeke ngaphansi komchadamezo nengcindezi. Imincwebe iyatholakala ngokwemvelo noma ingakhandwa. Isifundo senzululwazi semincwebe nokwakheka kwayo sibizwa ngokuthi umchazamincwebe. Umdludlungu wokwakheka komncwebe ubizwa ngokuthi ukuncwebeka noma ukushumanqa.
Isinqumela

**Isinqumela** noma **umkhumanqa** ungesinye sezimo zotho ezine eziyisisekelo (ezinye nguketshezi, uhowo nonyazani). Amachembe anqumile asuke agaqene ndawonye kakhulu futhi aqukethe inani elincane lesidlakathi somdiki. Umkhamanqa waziwa ngokuba nohlaka oluqatha nokumelana nesiphoqi esithinta ubuso bawo. Ngokungafani noketshezi, into emkhamanqa ayigelezi ukuze ifane nesimo segobongo wawo, futhi awunwebeki ukuze ugcwalise umthamo wonke osele njengohowo.
Ubumba

**Ubumba** luyisithako segcaki elincushuziwe esakheke lapho amatshe eqhephuka. Ubumba olumanzi luntibintibi futhi lungabunjwa lube yinoma isiphi isimo sokwenza amakhamba, izitini nezinye Izinto. Lapho kubunjwe into ngalo, luyashisw emphandwini *(kiln)* ukuze luqine, lube umkhiqizo wdongwe.

Ubumba luvame ukuqukatha amanzi ngoba amachembe wamanzi anamathela ezinhlamvukazini ezincane.
Isibhinyi

**Isibhinyi** siyisikhwaxi esinamazinyo ansonge esikwazi ukubopha noma ukuthungulula ngokusonta isihloko saso. Izibhinyi ziyafakwa ezimbotsheni zezingxenye ezibekiwe noma ziyakwazi ukuzenzela awazo amazinyo. Ukusetshenziswa okuvamile kwezibhinyi ukubamba ndawonye izinto kanti Kunezinhlobo eziningi zezibhinyi.

Isibhinyi *sinesihloko* eceleni elilodwa esidinga ukuba sijikiswe ngesibhinyelo, noma isiphinyazi. Isihloko sivame ukuba sikhulu kunomzinba wonke, okuyinto esiza ukuba isibhinyi singangeni sonke embotsheni enkulu kunaso. Bese kuthi ingxneye engaphansi kwesihloko kuya esidlini yona ibizwa ngokuthi *umsuka*; ivame ukuba enamazinyo ngokugcwelw noma ingxenye.

Iningi lezibhinyi zikhingwa ngomshwilelamuva, oshwilela ubheke emuva noma kwesokhohlo.

Lobu bunguxelo besibhinyi buyingxenye yezinguxa ezilula eziyisithupha zasendulo:

## Imithombo
Umxingovu

**Umxingovu** noma **imixingovu** iqembu lemidlalo yoqwembe yeqhingasu, yabadlali ababili ehilela ukunyakaza okumalungangoni kwezinkomo ezifanayo kanye nokuthumba okuyisibopho okwenzeka ngokweqa izikomo zomufo
Ixingovu

.

**Ixingovu** yisifanelo semigqa ehleliww ehlanganisa imigqa evundlile neqondile enqamulayo eyakha amagcagcane. Lesi sifanelo sivame ukuba nemibala emibili lapho igcagcane elilodwa lizungezwe ngamanye amanye wombala ohlukile ngendlela exingovile.
Lesi sifanelo sivame ukufakwa ezindangwini, futhi sitafakwa nasezingubeni ezigqokwa ukuphawula isiko elithile.
Ukudludlunga ulimi lwemvelo

**Ukudludlunga ulimi lwemvelo** (noma **DLM**) kuwumkhakha oyingxenye yezolimi, inzululwazi yesicikizi, nohlakahlisombulu onake ukwenanana okuphakathi kwezicikizi nolimi olukhulunywa ngabantu, ikakhulukazi ekuhleleliseni izicikizi ukuze zidludlunge futhi zihlaziye amanani amakhulu wemininingo yolimi lwemvelo. Impokophelo iwukuba nesicikizi esikwazi "ukuqonda" isiqikili semibhalo, kuhlanganise neminingilizo yomongo yolimi ekuyo. Lobuchwepheshe bungakwazi ukugqoba ukwaziswa nemibono equkethwe emibhalweni futhi bukwazi ukujinja futhi buhlelembe imibhalo ngokwabo.

Izinselele zokudludlunga ulimi lwemvelo zivame ukubandakanya ukuhlonza izwi, ukuqonda ulimi lwemvelo, nokuphehla ulimi lwemvelo.

## uMlando

Ukudludlunga ulimi lwemvelo kwaqala eminyakeni ye-1950, lapho u-Alan Turing eshicilela isibhalwa esinisehloko esithi "IziNguxa zokuCikiza nobuHlakani"  *"Computing Machinery and Intelligence"*, esaphakamisa lokho namuhla olwaziwa ngovivinyo luka-Turing njengenkomba yobuhlakani, nakuba ngaleso sikhathi kwakungavezwa njengenkinga ehlukile kuhlakahlisombulu. Isivivinyo esasiphakanyiswa sasihlanganisa umsebenzi obandakanya ukuhlakahla okuhlelelekiwe nokuphehlwa kolimi lwemvelo.

### i-DLM engokomfanekiso (1950s – ekuqaleni kwe-1990s)
Isiphakamiso sokudludlunga ulimi lwemvelo (DML) okungokomfanekiso safinyezwa kahle kakhulu ngumgcanso wegumbi laseSahyina ka-John Searle othi: Uma uneqoqo lemithetho (isb. incwadi yemisho yesiShayina, enemibuzo nezimpendulo zayo), isicikizi sizolingisa ukuqonda ulimi okongokwemvelo (noma eminye imisebenzi ye-DLM) ngokusebenzisa leyo mithetho eminininingweni esibhekana nayo.

## IziNdlelasu: imithetho, izibalomniningo, amaxhoxho wezinzwa
Ezinsukwini zokuqala, iningi lezimiso zokudludlunga ulimi zaziklanywe ngezindlelasu ezingokwezimpawu, okusho ukuthi, ngezinguqukezelo zesandla eziyiqoqoq lemithetho, ezintshiqwe namazwi esichazamazwi: ezifana nokuloba ubhalomagama noma imithetho yesiqu sezwi.
INguqulo Yezimboni

**INguqulo yeziMboni** ichazwa ngokuthi ukushintshela ezinqubweni ezintsha zokukhiqiza e-Great Britain, ezwekazini laseYurophu, naseMelika, okwenzeka phakathi nenkathi eqala cishe ngowe-1760 kuya cishe kowe-1820 kuya kowe-1840. Lolu shintsho lwaluhlanganisa ukusuka ekukhiqizeni ngesandla kuya ekukhiqizeni ngezinguxa; izinqubo zokukhiqiza ngesiqa nokukhiqiza ngensimbi; ukusetshenziswa kwamandla wamanzi namandla womusi okukhulayo; ukuthuthukiswa kwamathuluzi enguxa; nokuqonga kwezinhlelo zomkhando ezifakwe izinguxa. Iziphumo zakhula kakhulu, futhi umphumela kwaba ukuqonga okungalindelwe lwamanani wabantu nokwezinga lokukhula kwenani labo.

Iningi locandululo lobuchwepheshe nolwezakhiwo lwalungolwamaNgisi. Maphakathi nekhulu le-18, elamaNgisi kwakuyizwe eladonsa phambili kwezentengiselwano, futhi lalilawula umbuso wembulunga kwezohwebo nezindawo eliziqonele eMelika eseNyakatho naseziqhingini zaseCarribean, futhi lalichachaza kwezempi nakwezombangazwe. Intuthuko kwezohwebo nokuvuka kwemihwebo kwakuyisisusa esikhulu seNguqulo yezimboni. Iziphumo kwezomthetho ezifana nokushaywa komthetho ovuna amalungelo empahla. zalekelela inqugulo. Umoya wokuhweba nenguqulo kubashwabadeli kwasiza ekwenzeni leli zwe ukuphehla izimboni.

## Izinkomba
Inkathi yokwaziswa

**Inkathi yokwaziswa** (eyaziwa nangokuthi **iNkathi yesiCikizi**, **iNkathi yezezibhangqiwe** noma  **isiKhathi seziNsizakusakaza**) iyinkathi yomlando eyaqala phakathi kwekhulu lama-20. Lenkathi yaziwa ngokugudluka kusuka ezimbonini ezazijwayelekile, ezasungulwa ngesikhathi seNguqulo yeziMboni, kuya emnothweni ogxile ebuchwephesheni bokwaziswa. Isileke seNkathi yokwaziswa sixhunyaniswa nokuthuthukiswa kwesiqhebanzuba *(transistor)* ngowe-1947, isiqongisi senxoza ngowe-1957, kanye ne-*Unix time*, okwaqala mhla zi-1 ngoMasingana 1970, futhi isebenza njengesiseko sesiKhathi sendawoyonke esixhunyaniswayo *(Coordinated Universal Time)* kanye neGumelo lesiKhathi soXhoxho *(Network Time Protocol)*. Lezi ntuthukiso zezobuchwepheshe zibe negalelo elikhulu endleleni yokudludlunga nokufufukisa ukwaziswa.

NgokoXhoxho lwezokuPhatha Sobala lweNhlangano yeZizwe, iNkathi yokwaziswa yakheka ngokusebenzisa izimpucuko zokuncuncukisa isiCikizi *(computer microminiaturization)*, okuyinto eyaholela ekwenzeni izimiso zokwaziswa zihambisane nezikhathi nasekutheni ukuxhumana ngoxhakaxholo kube yesiphoqi sokuthubeka komphakathi.

## Isifinyezo sentuthukiso yokuqala

### Ukwanda koMtapowolwazi noMthetho kaMoore
Ukwanda koMtapowolwazi kwaqaqululwa ngowe-1945 nguFremont Rider ukuthi kuzoba lukhonko ngokomthamo njalo ngeminyaka eyi-16 lapho kunesikhala esanale. Washoshozela ukwenana imisebenzi eshicilelwe eyizinzema nebuhlayo ngaleyo eyizakhincinci ezincuncukisiwe zezithombe zenzuko, okuzobalula ukuyiphinda ngokwesidingo kubasebenzisi bomtapolwazi nabezinye izikhungo.

Kodwana, uRider wabikezela ngobuchwepheshe bezezibhangqiwe obabuzofika emashumini eminyaka ezayo ukuzokwenana izakhincinci *(microforms)* zenzuko ngalezo zemifanekiso yezeIbhangqiwe, ukuqoqonga kwezezibhangqiwe, nezinsizakusakaza zokufufukisa,..

## Imithombo
INguqulo yeziMboni yesibili

**INguqulo yeziMboni yesibili**, eyaziwa nangokuthi **inguqulo yezobuchwepheshe**, kwakuyisigaba semivubukulo yenzululwazi esisheshayo, ukufakwa endinganisweni, ukukhiqiza ngenala nokwanda kwezimboni kusuka ekupheleni kwekhulu lwe-19 kuya ekuqaleni kwekhulu lama-29. INguqulo yeziMboni yokuqala, eyaphela maphakathi nekhulu le-19 yakhawulwa ukugqoza kweziqambo ezibalulekile ngaphambi kweNguqulo yeziMboni yesibili ngowe-1870. Nakuba kunezenzakalo ezaziwayo zocandululo nokukhiqiza, ezifana nokusungulwa kwemboni yamathuluzi enguxa, ukuthuthukiswa kwezindlelasu zokukhiqiza izingxenye, kanye nokuqanjwa kwenqubo ka-Bessemer yokukhiquza inqimbi, iNguqulo yeziMboni yesibili ngokuvamile ibalwa eminyakeni we-1870 kuya kowe-1914 (ekuqaleni kweMpi yoMhlaba I).
INguqulo yezezibhangqiwe

**INguqulo yezezibhangqiwe** (eyaziwa nangokuthi **INguqulo yezeMboni yesithathu** ) iwukugudla kusuka  ebuchwephesheni besizubisi senzuko nobuchwepheshe benguxa kuya ezizubisini zezezibhangqiwe ezaqala engxenyeni yokugcina yekhulu lama-20, lapho kwamukelwa futhi kwanda izicikizi zezezibhangqiwe nokugcinwa kweziqoshwa zezezibhangqiwe , okuqhubeka kuze kube namuhla. Ngesinyelela, leli bizo libuye libhekisele nasoshintshweni olukhukhula kwasani olwalethwa ukucikiza kwezezibhangqiwe nezobuchwepheshe zokuxhumana kuleyo nkathi. Kusuka kwiNguqulo yezoLimo (emva kwenkathi yeTshe) kanye neNguqulo yeziMboni yokuqala (1770-1840), INguqulo yezezibhangqiwe yaohawula ukuqala kwenkathi yoKwaziswa.

Okumqoka kulenguqulo ukukhiqizwa ngobuningi nokusetshenziswa kabanzi komhluza wezezibhangqiwe *(digital logic)*, iziqhebanzuba ze-MOS, amazubela wentandelo edidiyelwe, nobuchwepheshe obususelwa kuzo, kuhlanganisa nezicikizi, izidludlungincinci *(microprocessors)*, omakhalekhukhwini bezezibhangqiwe, noxhakaxholo. Lolu candululo lwezobuchwepheshe seluguqule ukukhiqizwa okwamukelwe nobuchule bokuhweba.

INguqulo yeziMboni yesithathu izolandelwa INguqulo yeziMboni yesine.
UMary Morrissey

**UMary Morrissey** (owazalwa ngo-1949) ungumbhali waseMelika   futhi eyisishoshovu sokungabi nabudlova kwamanye amazwe.  Ungumbhali wencwadi ethi *Yakha Insimu Yakho Yamaphupho,* exoxa ngemizabalazo nezifundo zikaMorrissey kusukela esemncane.   Uphinde abe ngumbhali wencwadi ethi *No Less Than Greatness,* incwadi ekhuluma ngokuphulukisa ubudlelwano.   Ngo-2002 waqoqa futhi wahlela incwadi ethi *New Thought: A Practical Spirituality.* 

Umlobi waseMelika uWayne Dyer wambiza ngokuthi "omunye wothisha abacabangela kakhulu besikhathi sethu." 

Esebenza kusukela emsebenzini wakhe wokuqala wokusiza abantu emhlabeni wonke, uMorrissey wasungula i-Association for Global New Thought ngo-1995 futhi wayengumongameli wayo wokuqala.  

Ngo-1997 wahlanganyela nomzukulu ka -Mahatma Gandhi, u-Arun Gandhi, ekusunguleni ''Isizini Yamazwe Ngamazwe Yokungenzi Udlame'' .   Kusukela ngoJanuwari 2019, *iSikhathi Sokungabi Nodlame* sagujwa emhlabeni wonke njengethuba "lokuhlanganisa imiphakathi, ukuyinika amandla okucabanga nokusiza ukudala umhlaba ongenalo udlame." 

## Ukugxekwa
Encwadini yakhe ethi, *I-Shadow Medicine: The Placebo in Conventional and Alternative Therapies,* uJohn S. Haller uxwayisa ngokuthi ezinye izindlela zokwelapha, ezinikezwa nguMary Morrissey, akufanele zithathwe njengengxenye yemithi evamile. 

## I-Bibliography

* *Ukwakha Inkambu Yakho Yamaphupho*, uMary Morrissey, Random House, 1996.  

* *Akukho Ngaphansi Kobukhulu*, uMary Morrissey, I-Random House, ngo-2001.  

* *Umcabango Omusha: Ingokomoya Elisebenzayo*, uMary Morrissey (umhleli), uPenguin, 2002. 

## Amanothi