open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Lâm-oaⁿ-chhī

**Lâm-oaⁿ-chhī** (Hàn-jī: 南安市), tòa leh Tiong-kok Hok-kiàn-séng tang-lâm iân-hái, Chìn-kang ê tiong-iû, sī Choân-chiu-chhī  ē-kha ê chi̍t-ê kōan-kip-chhī.

## Tē-lí
Lâm-oaⁿ-chhī ê cho̍at-tùi tē-lí ūi-tì sī: tang-keng 118°8′~ 118°36′, pak-úi 24°34′~ 25°18′. Tang-pō͘ chhām Chôan-chiu-siâⁿ saⁿ-óa, sai-pō͘ hām An-khoe-kōan sio-liâm, pak-pêng kiau Éng-chhun-kōan, Sian-iû-kōan kap chòe-chi̍t-ē; sai-lâm-pêng sī Ē-mn̂g ê Tâng-oaⁿ-khu, chiàⁿ-lâm sī Siâng-an-khu kah Kim-mn̂g.

Lâm-oaⁿ-chhī sio̍k-î lâm-a-jia̍t-tài hái-iû-hêng kùi-hong khì-hāu, chi̍t-nî sù-kùi, khì-hāu ūn-sûn, hō͘-chúi chhiong-chiok. Múi nî pêng-kun kàng-hō·-liōng ta̍t-kàu 1550 kong-lî. 

## Hêng-chèng khu-ōa
Lâm-oaⁿ-chhī ê chóng bīn-chek 2032 km², lóng-chóng kóan-ha̍t 23-ê hiuⁿ-tìn kah 3-ê koe-tō pān-sū-chhù ( kán-chheng "koe-tō-pān" ).

## Jîn-kháu
Lâm-oaⁿ-chhī chóng jîn-kháu chhiau-kè 150 bān ( 2002 nî ).

## Le̍k-sú
Lâm-oaⁿ chit-tah khai-hoat khah chá, liōng-kî-iok tī se-gôan 260 nî ê sî-chūn kiàn kōan. 1993 nî 5--ge̍h, kóe-chòe kōan-kip-chhī.

## Keng-chè
Chòe-kūn chit kúi-nî-lâi, Lâm-oaⁿ-chhī ê chong-ha̍p keng-chè si̍t-le̍k put-tōan leh thê-kôan, tī "chôan-kok keng-chè 100 kiông kōan-chhī" tang-tiong pâi-miâ khah óa thâu-chêng, che í-gōa, iū-koh liân-sòa kúi-nā-nî ji̍p-sóan "Hok-kiàn 10 kiông" hâng-lia̍t. Kun-kù thóng-kè, kàu-kah 2000 nî, Lâm-oaⁿ-chhī ê GDP chóng sán-ti̍t í-keng chhiau-kè 184 ek kho· ( Jîn-bîn-pē ), kang-gia̍p kah lông-gia̍p chóng sán-ti̍t beh kàu 320 ek kho·, chôan-chhī châi-chèng siu-ji̍p ta̍t-kàu 7.5 ek kho͘.

## Le̍k-sú jîn-bu̍t
Lâm-oaⁿ chit-ê só͘-chāi, chêng-kàu-taⁿ chhut bōe-chió gâu-lâng, pâi-chí lâng. Pí-lūn kóng:

*Tīⁿ Sêng-kong
*Au-Iông Chiam (歐陽詹): Tông-tiâu ê si-jîn
*So͘ Siōng (蘇頌): Sòng-tāi kho-ha̍k-ka
*Lí Chì (李贄): Bêng-tāi ha̍k-chiá
*Au-Iông Chhim (歐陽深): Bêng-tāi bú-chiòng
*Lí Kong-chiân

## Lú-iû-khu
*Koaⁿ-kiô Chhoà--sī Ko·-chhù (官橋蔡氏古民居)
*Tīⁿ Sêng-kong Bōng-hn̂g

## Hái-gōa hiong-chhin
Lâm-oaⁿ sī tù-miâ ê kiâu-hiong, Tâi-ôan-lâng ê chó͘-ke chit-it. Hôa-kiâu, Káng-Ò hiong-chhin chóng--ê beh óa 150 bān lâng. Hôa-kiâu hun-sòaⁿ tī Tang-lâm-a, Ji̍t-pún, Bí-kok, Canada, Ò-chiu kah Se-Au.

## Gōa-pō͘ liân-kiat
* Chôan-chiu Lú-iû Sìn-sek-bāng
Malcolm X

**Malcolm X** (1925 nî 5 goe̍h 19–1965 nî 2 goe̍h 21), pún-miâ **Malcolm Little**, āu--lâi mā hō-chò **El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz**, **Omowale**, sī 1-ūi Bí-kok o͘-lâng bîn-cho̍k ūn-tōng ê thâu-lâng, 1965 nî 2 goe̍h hông chhèng-sat sí-bông. I bat tam-jīm Islam-kok (Nation of Islam) ê hoat-giân-jîn, āu--lâi chhōa-thâu cho· Muslim Mosque, Inc. kap Hui-Bí Thoân-kiat Cho͘-chit (the Organization of Afro-American Unity) chiah-ê cho·-chit.
Chûn-chāi-chú-gī

**Chûn-chāi-chú-gī** chit-ê bêng-sû biô-siá se-hng tiat-ha̍k su-sióng tang-tiong ê chi̍t-kóa-á chú-tê. I kiông-tiāu 1-ê kò-jîn bīn-tùi 1-ê lí-sèng-siōng bē-liáu-kái-tit ê ú-tiū, tì-sú lâng tio̍h keng-giām in-ūi tī-teh só· bīn-tùi ê oân-choân ê soán-te̍k ê chū-iû. Chûn-chāi-chú-gī tùi "oa̍h" ê chōng-hóng kiaⁿ-hiâⁿ a̍h-sī kám-kak sèⁿ-miā móa-sī lī-keng. Bó·-chióng thêng-tō· chûn-chāi-chú-gī hoán-èng 1 khoán chêng-sū. I siāng hoat-ta̍t ê nî-kî sī tī Tē-jī-pái Sè-kài Tāi-chiàn liáu-āu. Chiàn-cheng ê keng-giām só· tòa--lâi ê sit-bōng (?) éng-hióng chi̍t-kóa-á Au-chiu tāi-lio̍k ê tì-sek hūn-chú.

It-poaⁿ jīn-ûi Søren Kierkegaard sī tāi-seng thê-chhut chûn-chāi-chú-gī ê su-sióng-ka.

Siong-koan ê tiat-ha̍k-ka, sîn-ha̍k-ka:

* Martin Heidegger
* Jean-Paul Sartre
* Karl Barth
* Paul Tillich
* Rudolf Karl Bultmann
* Karl Jaspers
Liû-hêng-sèng kám-mō͘

**Liû-hêng-sèng kám-mō͘** (流行性感冒), kám-chheng **liû-kám** (流感), sī 1 khoán kùi-cheh-sèng ê thoân-jiám-pēⁿ, pēⁿ-in sī orthomyxoviridae-kho ê 1-ê RNA pēⁿ-to̍k. Liû-hêng kám-mō͘ chi̍t-ē liû-hêng--khí-lâi tiāⁿ-tiāⁿ thàng kok-chè. I só͘ tòa--lâi ê keng-chè hū-tam put-chí-á siong-tiōng. Tī 20 sè-kí bat hoat-seng 3 pái sè-kài tōa liû-hêng, in-ūi án-ne lâi kòe-sin ê jîn-sò͘ kúi-nā-pah-bān. Sè-kài tōa liû-hêng hām pēⁿ-to̍k ê *[[gene]]* hoat-seng tōa piàn-hòa ū koan-hē.

## Liû-hêng-sú

## Chhiáⁿ chham-khó
* Kám-mō͘
* Khîm-liû-kám
Ludwig's Angina

**Ludwig’s Angina** sī ē-hâi-té khong-kan (*submandibular space*) kap chi̍h-té khong-kan (*sublingual space*) ê sè-khún kám-jiám, it-poaⁿ sī chhùi-khí khí-kin kám-jiám, pí-jû-kóng abscess, só· ín-khí.  Chú-iàu ê chèng-thâu sī thiàⁿ-thàng, nńg-cho·-chit chéng-tōa, hoat-sio, sin-thé hi-jio̍k, phî-lô, ì-sek bô·-hô· kap chhoán-khùi chhoán bē kòe.
Oscar Chióng

**Oscar Chióng**, chèng-sek miâ kiò chò **Ha̍k-īⁿ Chióng** (), sī Bí-kok siāng chhut-miâ ê tiān-iáⁿ chióng, pan-chióng tan-ūi sī Tiān-iáⁿ Gē-su̍t kap Kho-ha̍k Ha̍k-īⁿ chit-ê choan-gia̍p cho·-chit. Chū 1929 nî tē-1-kài kàu taⁿ í-keng pan-hoat 70-gōa pái ah.

*Oscar* chí pan hō· tio̍h-chióng-jîn ê hit sian kim-sek lâng-siōng.

## Chióng ê hāng-bo̍k
Chióng hun ē-kha chit kúi ê léng-he̍k:

* Oscar Choè-ka Iáⁿ-phìⁿ Chióng (*Academy Award for Best Picture*)
* Oscar Choè-ka Tō-ián Chióng (*Academy Award for Best Directing*)
* Oscar Choè-ka Lâm Chú-kak Chióng (*Academy Award for Best Actor*)
* Oscar Choè-ka Lú Chú-kak Chióng (*Academy Award for Best Actress*)
* Oscar Choè-ka Lâm Phoè-kak Chióng (*Academy Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role*)
* Oscar Choè-ka Lú Phoè-kak Chióng (*Academy Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role*)
* Oscar Choè-ka Kái-pian Kio̍k-pún Chióng (*Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay*)
* Oscar Choè-ka Goân-chhòng Kio̍k-pún Chióng (*Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay*)
* Oscar Choè-ka Tōng-oē-phìⁿ Chióng (*Academy Award for Best Animated Feature Film*)
* Oscar Choè-ka Kì-lo̍k-phìⁿ Chióng (*Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature*)
* Oscar Choè-ka Kok-chè Iáⁿ-phìⁿ Chióng (*Academy Award for Best International Feature Film*)
* Oscar Choè-ka Toán-phìⁿ Chióng (*Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film*)
* Oscar Choè-ka Kì-lo̍k Toán-phìⁿ Chióng (*Academy Award for Best Documentary Short Film*)
* Oscar Choè-ka Si̍t-kéng Toán-phìⁿ Chióng (*Academy Award for Best Live Action Short Film*)
* Oscar Choè-ka Liap-iáⁿ Chióng (*Academy Award for Best Cinematography*)
* Oscar Choè-ka Ho̍k-chong Siat-kè Chióng (*Academy Award for Best Costume Design*)
* Oscar Choè-ka chián-chi̍p Chióng (*Academy Award for Best Film Editing*)
* Oscar Choè-ka Hoà-chong kap Hoat-hêng Siat-kè Chióng (*Academy Award for Best Makeup and Hairstyling*)
* Oscar Choè-ka Goân-chhòng Im-ga̍k Chióng (*Academy Award for Best Original Score*)
* Oscar Choè-ka Goân-chhòng Koa-khek Chióng (*Academy Award for Best Original Song*)
* Oscar Choè-ka Gē-su̍t Chí-tō Chióng (*Academy Award for Best Production Design*)
* Oscar Choè-ka Im-hióng Chióng (*Academy Award for Best Sound*)
* Oscar Choè-ka Sī-kak Hāu-kó Chióng (*Academy Award for Best Visual Effects*)

Lūi-pia̍t:Tiān-iáⁿ
Lūi-pia̍t:Oscar Chióng
Teng-á-hêng éng-kiú chhek-mn̂g-khí

**Teng-á-hêng éng-kiú chhek-mn̂g-khí** (*peg-shaped permanent lateral incisor*) ê kīn-oán-sim (*mesiodistal*) chhioh-tō· khah sè, ùi khí-kún-pō· (*cervix*) kàu chhiat-toan (*incisal edge*) bān-bān piàn chiam. Teng-á-hêng téng-ham éng-kiú chhek-mn̂g-khí ē ûi-thoân, kap téng-ham éng-kiú chhek-mn̂g-khí sian-thian sòng-sit ê ûi-thoân ki-chè ū bi̍t-chhiat ê koan-hē. Chhek-mn̂g-khí ê teng-á-hêng kap sian-thian sòng-sit khó-lêng sī kāng-1-ê hián-sèng chū-thé ûi-thoân ki-in ê bô-kāng piáu-hiān. Teng-á-hêng téng-ham éng-kiú chhek-mn̂g-khí ê liû-hêng-lu̍t ùi sió-kóa khah-chió 1% kàu sió-kóa khah-chē 2%. Hoat-seng tī cha-bó ê pîn-lu̍t khah koân-kòe cha-po·, m̄-koh thóng-kè siōng bô hián-chù ê chha-pia̍t. I ū khó-lêng ko·-1-pêng hoat-seng, chú-iàu sī téng-ham tò-pêng, he̍k siang-pêng. I kah chéng-cho̍k bô koan-hē.  

Tī-liâu ê hoat-tō· ū 2-chióng:
*Bán-tiāu, iōng kiáu-chèng ê hoat-tō· kah kak-khí sóa-lâi pó·-ūi, koh kā siu-bôa chò chhek-mn̂g-khí ê khóan.
*Thò khí-long he̍k-chiá pó· ho̍k-ha̍p chhiū-chí chiâⁿ-chò chèng-siông ê chhek-mn̂g-khí ê gōa-hêng.
Nî-pô-lô

**Nî-pô-lô Liân-pang Bîn-chú Kiōng-hô-kok**, kán-chheng **Nî-pô-lô** (尼婆羅), sī Lâm-a ê lāi-lio̍k kok-ka.

## Hêng-chèng tan-ūi

Lūi-pia̍t:A-chiu kok-ka
Lūi-pia̍t:Nî-pô-lô
Bhutan

**Bhutan Ông-kok** sī Lâm-a ê lāi-lio̍k kok-ka, mā sī sè-kài tē-i̍t-ê kìm-chí chia̍h-hun ê kok-ka.
Gecko

**Gecko** sī 1-ê khai-hòng goân-má ê bāng-ia̍h liû-lám-khì pâi-pán iân-jín, iōng tī Mozilla hē-lia̍t, sin 1 tāi ê Netscape, kap kî-thaⁿ kúi-nā-ê sán-phín.  Gecko kiông-tiāu chi-oān khai-hòng-te̍k--ê Internet phiau-chún.  Thâu-khí-seng sī Netscape Communications Corporation ê nńg-thé-kiāⁿ, āu--lâi Netscape kā i kap siong-koan ê goân-má koan--chhut-khì, hiān-chú-sî iû Mozilla Ki-kim-hōe hoa̍t-lo̍h.  Siá-chok gí-giân iōng C++.

It-poaⁿ jīn-ûi Gecko sī tē-2-chē-lâng iōng--ê pâi-pán iân-jín; kî-thaⁿ chhin-chhiūⁿ KHTML, Presto (Opera), Tasman (Mac IE) téng-téng ê iân-jín pí-kàu-te̍k khah bô phó·-phiàn.  Chóng--sī Microsoft ê Trident iân-jín pí Gecko ke chin phó·-phiàn, in-ūi sī Windows-pán Internet Explorer ê iân-jín.

Gecko ì-sù sī "siān-thâng".  Mozilla liû-lám-khì ê ang-á-phiau (1 chiah sì-kha-chôa) tō sī tùi hia lâi ê.
Nauru

**Nauru Kiōng-hô-kok** (Nauru-gí: ) sī 1-ê tī Tāi-iûⁿ-chiu ê tó-kok. Nauru sī thong-sè-kài jîn-kháu siāng-kài chió, kok-thó· bīn-chek siāng-kài sè ê kiōng-hô-kok.

Nauru sī sè-kài ûi-it bô siat siú-to· ê kok-ka.

Lūi-pia̍t:Tó-kok
Dire Straits

**Dire Straits** sī Liân-ha̍p Ông-kok ê 1-ê iô-kún ga̍k-thoân, sêng-li̍p tī 1977 nî, lêng-hûn jîn-bu̍t sī gí-tah-chhiú kiam chhōa-chhiùⁿ Mark Knopfler.  Kî-thaⁿ ê sêng-oân pau-koah David Knopfler (*rhythm guitar*), John Illsley (*bass*), Pick Withers (kó·).  In ê hong-keh ē-sái kóng khah oá kū-sek ê iô-kún-ga̍k.  1980 nî-tāi tiong-kî sī in siāng chhèng ê nî-tāi; 1985 nî hit tiuⁿ *Brothers in Arms* te̍k-pia̍t tit lâng hoan-gêng.  Ga̍k-thoân ê miâ ("Hiám-kip Hái-kiap") biô-siá chá-kî keng-chè-siōng bô an-ún ê chōng-hóng.

1978 nî chhut ê tē-1-tiuⁿ choan-chi̍p piáu-hiān chhut 1 khoán un-jiû, chhin-bi̍t ê im-ga̍k hong-keh, hām hit tong-sî tng sî-kiâⁿ ê punk iô-kún chha chin chē.  In khoaⁿ-bān ê chhiùⁿ-hoat siū Bob Dylan éng-hióng.  Chit tiuⁿ choan-chi̍p oân-ná tián chhut Mark Knopfler tôaⁿ gí-tah ê kang-hu, khak-li̍p i sī LHOK siāng ū châi-chêng ê 1-ê gí-tah-chhiú.  Kî-tiong 1 siú "Sultans of Swing" tī keh-tńg-nî phah-ji̍p LHOK pâi-hâng-pńg tē-8-ūi, Bí-kok tē-4-ūi, kàu-taⁿ iû-goân chin chē lâng jīn-ûi sī in siāng iu-siù ê 1 tè koa.

## Chok-phín
### Choan-chi̍p
* 1978 Dire Straits 
* 1979 Communiqué
* 1980 Making Movies
* 1982 Love Over Gold
* 1983 ExtendeDancEPlay
* 1985 Brothers In Arms
* 1991 On Every Street

### Hiān-tiûⁿ lo̍k-im
* 1984 Alchemy
* 1993 On the Night
* 1995 Live at the BBC

### Ka-chok-chi̍p
* 1988 Money for Nothing
* 1998 Sultans of Swing: The Very Best of Dire Straits
Star Trek

***Star Trek*** sī Bí-kok-chè ê 1 cho· kho-hoàn sán-phín, pau-koah 6 thò tiān-sī iáⁿ-chi̍p, 10 chhut tiān-iáⁿ, kúi-nā-pah pún siáu-soat, tiān-chú game, kap kî-thaⁿ ê chiu-piⁿ sán-phín, choân hoat-seng tī kāng 1-ê sióng-siōng ê bī-lâi ú-tiū. Gene Roddenberry tī 1960 nî-tāi kò·-bô· chhut chit kui-thò sè-kài ê ki-pún hong-hiòng. Hiān-chú-sî *Star Trek* ē-sái kóng tī kīn-tāi kho-hoàn le̍k-sú tang-tiong ū it-tēng ê tē-ūi. Kò·-sū it-poaⁿ an-pâi kha-siàu tāi-piáu jîn-lūi chhiau-chhōe, pài-hóng gîn-hô kok-tē ê sin sè-kài, sin bûn-bêng. Jîn-lūi tiāⁿ-tiāⁿ sī poaⁿ koan-kiàn-sèng ê gōa-kau kak-sek, hòa-kái bûn-bêng chi-kan ê chhiong-tu̍t, chhiok-chìn hô-pêng. Roddenberry ê bī-lâi kheng-hiòng lo̍k-koan, tī hit ê sè-kí jîn-lūi lāi-pō· í-keng thiat-té kái-koat iau-gō, sàn-chhiah, chiàn-cheng, téng-téng ê siā-hōe būn-tê.

"Star Trek" chit-ê miâ bô kò·-tēng ê Hôa-gí hoan-e̍k.

## Tiān-sī iáⁿ-chi̍p
*Star Trek* thâu-khí-seng sī 1 chhut tiān-sī iáⁿ-chi̍p, tùi 1966 nî khai-sí hòng-sàng.

* The Original Series (1966-1969)
* The Animated Series (1973-1974)
* (Star Trek: Phase II)
* Star Trek: The Next Generation (1987-1994)
* Star Trek: Deep Space Nine (1993-1999)
* Star Trek: Voyager (1995-2001)
* Star Trek: Enterprise (2001-2005)

## Tiān-iáⁿ
* **Kin-kù ''Star Trek: The Original Series***:
** [[1979]]: *Star Trek: The Motion Picture*
** [[1982]]: *Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan*
** [[1984]]: *Star Trek III: The Search for Spock*
** [[1986]]: *Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home*
** [[1989]]: *Star Trek V: The Final Frontier*
** [[1991]]: *Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country*
* ***Star Trek: The Original Series'' thàu-lām ''Star Trek: The Next Generation***:
** [[1994]]: *Star Trek: Generations*
* *'Kin-kù *Star Trek: The Next Generation**':
** [[1996]]: *Star Trek: First Contact*
** [[1998]]: *Star Trek: Insurrection*
** [[2002]]: *Star Trek: Nemesis''

## Siong-koan ê bûn-chiuⁿ
* He̍k-chheⁿ Liân-pang

## Gōa-pō· liân-kiat
* Memory Alpha (Wiki)

Lūi-pia̍t:Kho-ha̍k siáu-soat iáⁿ-chi̍p
Lūi-pia̍t:Bí-kok tiān-iáⁿ
Lūi-pia̍t:Kho-ha̍k siáu-soat
Sek-an-chú-gī

**Sek-an-chú-gī** (錫安主義) sī Iû-thài-lâng ê 1-ê chèng-tī ūn-tōng, chú-tiuⁿ Iû-thài-lâng sī 1-ê bîn-cho̍k, ū koân-lī ū 1-tè ka-kī ê hiong-thó·. Sek-an-chú-gī tī 1897 nî chèng-sek khí-kiâⁿ. Chá-kî tùi chit tè hiong-thó· tó-ūi chhōe ū kok-chióng bô siâng ê ì-kiàn. 1917 nî liáu-āu bo̍k-phiau tēng tiàm Palestine chit tè tē khí-chō Iû-thài-lâng ê hiong-thó· he̍k-chiá sī kok-ka. 1948 nî Í-sek-lia̍t kiàn-kok liáu-āu, Sek-an-chú-gī kiông-tiāu chi-chhî kap pó·-hō· Í-sek-lia̍t-kok, kap kó·-lē Iû-thài-lâng î-bîn khì hia.

Chá-kî ê Sek-an-chú-gī ū kiông-lia̍t ê chó-phài sek-chhái, kiông-tiāu siā-hōe-chú-gī a̍h-sī hui-thóng-tī-chú-gī.

Sek-an (*Zion*) pún-té chí Ia-lō·-sat-léng hù-kīn ê Sek-an-soaⁿ, āu--lâi chí Ia-lō·-sat-léng iah-sī Siōng-tē Ún ê Tē.
Sri Lanka

**Sri Lanka**, a̍h-sī **Su-lí-lân-khah**, Ìn-tō͘-iûⁿ lāi-bīn ê hái-tó kok-ka, tī Ìn-tō͘ ê lâm-pêng. 

Sri Lanka tī 1972 nî í-chêng ê kū-miâ sī **Ceylon**, e̍k-chò **Sek-lân** (錫蘭).

2004 nî ê Ìn-tō͘-iûⁿ tōa tē-tāng, chō-sêng Sri Lanka chiâⁿ-toā ê sńg-hāi, sí-bông ia̍h-sī sit-chong ê lâng chhiau-kòe 50,000.

## Chham-khó chu-liāu

Lūi-pia̍t:Tó-kok
Ko-san-chèng

**Ko-san-chèng** chèng-chōng pau-koah chhiah-sim, áu-thò·, sim-thiàu piàn-kín, ì-sit kái-piàn, kóng-ōe tî-hoán, kap kiâⁿ-lō· kha-pō· bōe-ún téng-téng. Nā-bô kóaⁿ-kín kái-siān lâi î-chhî náu-pō· ê sng-sò͘ kiong-èng chèng-siông, sûi-sî ē o·k-hòa piàn-sêng náu-chúi-chéng kap hì-chúi-chéng, chòe-āu in-ūi khoat-ió·ⁿ tì-sú sim-hì-soai-kiat lâi sí-bông. 

Hái-poat 1500 kong-chhioh kàu 2400 kong-chhioh chi-kan, lî-hoān hì-pō· kap sim-chōng chit-chióng bān-sèng chit-pēⁿ ê hoān-chiá tio̍h ū khó-lêng in-ūi oāⁿ-khì pîn-lu̍t cheng-ka lâi hoat-seng ko-san-chèng ê chèng-chōng. Ah-nā chèng-siông ê lâng tāi-iok tī 2400 kong-chhioh kàu 4000 kong-chhioh chi-kan tio̍h ū khó-lêng ín-hoat. 

## Gōa-pō· liân-kiat

* Altitude.org
Pak A-chiu

**Pak-a**, Pak A-chiu, A-chiu tāi-lio̍k ê Pak-pêng tē-tāi. Bīn-chek iok-lio̍k sī A-chiu tāi-lio̍k ê saⁿ-hūn-it.

Pak-a tio̍h-sī Siberia, ia̍h-tio̍h-sī Lō͘-se-a ê A-chiu pō͘-hūn, ū-sî-chūn Bông-kó͘ ma chhiâⁿ-chò͘ Pak-a ê chi̍t-pō͘-hūn.
Tiong A-chiu

縮圖|300x300像素|Tiong-a ê chéng-tī tē-tô͘
Tiong-a (Eng-gí: *Nations with the surname [[Tân_(sèⁿ)|Tan]]*), A-chiu tāi-lio̍k ê tiong-iong tē-tāi.

Ē-kha ê kok-ka tī Tiong-a:

* Kazakhstan
* Uzbekistan
* Tajikistan
* Turkmenistan 
* Kyrgyzstan 

Ē-kha ê kok-ka ū-sî-chūn hông tòng-chò Tiong-a ê pō͘-hūn:

* Bông-kó͘ 
* Tiong-hôa Jîn-bîn Kiōng-hô-kok ê Se-chōng, Chheng-hái, Sin-kiong
* Lō͘-se-a, Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan ê chi̍t-pō͘-hūn
Sai A-chiu

**Sai-a**, (**Se-a**, 西亞) ia̍h kiò **Sai-lâm-a** (**Se-lâm-a**, 西南亞), A-chiu tāi-lio̍k ê sai-lâm-pêng tē-tāi. Europa-lâng chheng-ho· sī Tiong-tang. 

Ē-kha ê kok-ka tī Sai-a:

* Afghanistan
* Armenia
* Azerbaijan
* A-la-pek Liân-ha̍p Thâu-lâng-kok
* Bahrain
* Ku-pí-lō͘
* Ai-ki̍p (Sinai Poàn-tó)
* Gruzia
* Iran
* Iraq
* Í-sek-lia̍t
* Iok-tàn
* Kuwait
* Lī-pa-lùn
* Oman
* Pakistan
* Palestine Kok
** Gaza Tē-tāi (Eng-gí: Gaza Strip)
** Cisjordan/Cis-Iok-tàn (Eng-gí: West Bank, "Sai-hōaⁿ")
* Qatar
* Saudi A-la-pek
* Su-lī-a
* Yemen
Láu-o

**Láu-o** (,  *Lāo*), mā thang hoan-e̍k chò **Láu-choa** ia̍h-sī **Liâu-kok** (), choân-chheng **Láu-o Jîn-bîn Bîn-chú Kiōng-hô-kok** (; ), Tang-lâm-a ê lāi-lio̍k kok-ka.

## Hêng-chèng-khu

## Siong-koan ê bûn-chiuⁿ
* Tang-lâm-a Kok-ka Cho͘-ha̍p

Lūi-pia̍t:A-chiu kok-ka
Lūi-pia̍t:Láu-o
Pat-kòa

:*Khu-pia̍t: Kāng-miâ ê tōng-bu̍t, chhiáⁿ khoàⁿ [[Pat-kòa (tōng-bu̍t)]]*

**Pat-kòa** sī *[[E̍k-keng]]* lāi-té ê 8 khoán hû-hō.

## Pat-kòa

## Koh khoàⁿ

*Thài-ke̍k

Lūi-pia̍t:Tō-kàu
*
Lūi-pia̍t:E̍k-keng (bûn-su)
Afghanistan

**Afghanistan Islam Thâu-lâng-kok** (Pashto-gí:), Sai-a ê lāi-lio̍k kok-ka. M̄-ko ū-lâng jīn-têng Afghanistan sī Tiong-a he̍k-chià-sī Lâm-a ê kok-ka.
Bûn-lâi

**Bûn-lâi** ( ia̍h ), choân-miâ **Bûn-lâi Darussalam Kok** (; ), sī Tang-lâm-a ê 1 ê kok-ka.

## Hêng-chèng-khu

*Belait
*Brunei-Muara
*Temburong
*Tutong

## Siong-koan ê bûn-chiuⁿ
* Tang-lâm-a Kok-ka Cho͘-ha̍p
Kià-seⁿ-á

**Kià-seⁿ-á** sī Anomura ē-ba̍k ê 1 chióng cha̍p-kha kah-khak-tōng-bu̍t.  In hām sio̍k-tī Brachyura ē-ba̍k ê chin-hē ū khu-pia̍t.  Tōa pō·-hūn ê kià-seⁿ-á ē khioh piān--ê hái-lê khak lâi am in ê sin-khu, thèng-hó pó-hō· nńg-nńg ê pak-tó·-pêng.  Bo̍k-chêng chai-iáⁿ choân sè-kài iok-lio̍k ū 500 chióng kià-seⁿ-á, tōa pō·-hūn tòa chúi-lāi.  Ū kúi-ê chéng pàng-sak phāiⁿ khak ê hêng-sek, in ê gōa-hêng sêng chin-hē.  Kî-thaⁿ ê chéng sè-hàn sî-chūn tòa khak, sêng-se̍k liáu-āu tō hòng-khì.  Pat-kòa sī siāng chú-iàu ê lē.
Tiong-tang

**Tiong-tang** it-poaⁿ sī kóng Sai-lâm-a kap Pak-hui, m̄-koh bô khak-tēng ê tēng-gī, ì-sù kap "Kīn-tang" chha-put-to.

## Siong-koan bûn-chiong
* Kīn-tang
* Oán-tang
Iâ-á

: *Lēng-gōa ū khun-thiông hō-chò [[ia̍h-á]].*
**Iâ-á** (**iâ-chhiū**; ha̍k-miâ: *Cocos nucifera* L.) sī Arecaceae-kho ê 1 hūn-chú.  I sī î-it 1-ê sio̍k-î Cocos-sio̍k ê chéng.  Iâ-chhiū tōa châng, siāng koân kàu 30 m, hio̍h-sìⁿ (*pinnate*) 4–6 m tn̂g, *pinnae* 60-90 cm tn̂g.

Iâ-á ê kóe-chí hō-chò *iâ-chí*.
Ha̍k-miâ

Seng-bu̍t kho-ha̍k iōng 1 thò **ha̍k-miâ** hē-thóng lâi hō seng-bu̍t bu̍t-chéng ê miâ. Siāng ki-pún ê hē-thóng hō-chò "siang-bêng-hoat". Chit-ê hē-thóng kin-kù Au-chiu ha̍k-kài ê thoân-thóng iōng La-teng-bûn hō-miâ. Múi-1-ê miâ ū 2-ê pō·-hūn: sio̍k kap chéng. Sio̍k thâu-chêng jī tiāⁿ-tio̍h tōa-siá; chéng oân-choân sió-siá. Khó-pí kóng lâng kiò *Homo sapiens* ("chai ê lâng"):

Thoân-thóng ha̍k-su̍t keh-sek sī iōng chhu-thé ia̍h-sī ka té-sòaⁿ (Homo sapiens) piáu-sī. Nā-chún bu̍t-chéng lóng kāng 1-ê sio̍k, ūi beh phiah-bián têng-ho̍k, ē-sái kan-taⁿ lia̍h sio̍k ê thâu-chêng jī chò sok-siá (*H. sapiens*). 

Sui-jiân hō miâ ê hêng-sek taⁿ ū chi̍t khoán, tī bô-kâng lūi-hêng seng-bu̍t ū ka-tī ê hō-miâ kui-tēng, pí-lūn Kok-chè Tōng-bu̍t-ha̍k Hō-miâ Kui-iok kap Kok-chè Si̍t-bu̍t-ha̍k Hō-miâ Kui-io̍k.
Bahrain

**Bahrain Ông-kok** (), Sai-a ê hái-tó kok-ka, oá Pho-su-oan ê chio̍h-iû chhut-sán-kok.

## Tē-lí

Lūi-pia̍t:Tó-kok
Ecuador

**Ecuador Kiōng-hô-kok** tī Lâm Bí-chiu sai-pak-pêng. Pak ū Colombia, tang/lâm ū Perú, sai ū Thài-pêng-iûⁿ. Niá-thó͘ pau-koah Thài-pêng-iûⁿ Galápagos Kûn-tó (lī tāi-lio̍k 965 km hn̄g). Chhiah-tō keng-kòe Ecuador, chit-ê miâ tī Se-pan-gâ-gí ê ì-sù tō sī "chhiah-tō".

## Chham-khó

## Gōa-pō͘ liân-kiat
* Ecuador
Polynesia

**Polynesia** (**To-tó**) sī Thài-pêng-iûⁿ tiong/lâm tē-tài ê 1 cho· tó-sū, sò·-liōng chheng-gōa-ê. Tē-lí-siōng Polynesia sī 1-ê saⁿ-kak-hêng, kak-á hun-pia̍t sī Hawaiʻi (pak), Aotearoa (Sin Jia̍t-lân-jia; lâm), Rapa Nui (Koh-oa̍h-cheh-tó; tang). Saⁿ-kak-hêng lāi-bīn tiōng-iàu ê tó-sū kap chèng-tī tan-ūi: Samoa, Tonga, Marquises Kûn-tó, Hoat-kok léng Polynesia. Bûn-hòa-siōng Polynesia ê tó ū in kiōng-tông ê te̍k-sek; chit ê kiōng-tông-sèng hoán-èng in si̍t-bîn Thài-pêng-iûⁿ ê le̍k-sú.

*Polynesia* ê sû-kin lâi-chū Hi-lia̍p-gí *poly* (chē) kap *nesi* (tó), "chē-chē-tó" ê ì-sù (pí-kàu *Austronesia*/Lâm-tó).

## Tē-lí hun-pò·

Jia̍t-tài, a-jia̍t-tài

Tang-lâm-a Lapita bûn-hòa → Rapa Nui

## Bûn-hòa

Polynesia ê bu̍t-chit bûn-hòa pō·-hūn sêng Tang-lâm-a. Koàn-sì chèng-choh ê si̍t-bu̍t ū kin-chio, han-chî, ō·-á, kam-chià téng-téng ê jia̍t-tài si̍t-bu̍t. Ke kap ti sī chú-iàu ê cheng-seⁿ-á.

Polynesia gí-giân sio̍k-î Lâm-tó-gí-hē ê 1-ê hun-ki. Ha̍k-chiá kā Polynesia pun chò 2 cho·: Sai Polynesia kap Tang Polynesia. Sai Polynesia pau-koah Tonga, Samoa, kap Polynesia Gōa-ûi. In hoat-tián chhut khah ha̍h chē jîn-kháu ê hun-in, su-hoat, hòe-pè, kap bé-bē chè-tō·. Cook Kûn-tó khah tang ê bûn-hòa hoat-tián chhut khah sek-ha̍p sè-lia̍p tó ê siā-hōe keng-chè hē-thóng, te̍k-pia̍t chù-tiōng chèng-chhân, thó-hái, khì-siōng ū-chhek, chè-chûn kap kiâⁿ-chûn ki-su̍t. Phâng-hái-chiá tī siā-hōe te̍k-pia̍t tit lâng chun-kèng.

Thoân-thóng ê chèng-tī cho·-chit sī thâu-bo̍k chè-tō·. Ta̍k-ê tó ū kúi-nā-ê thâu-lâng kap in chū-chú ê chèng-tī tan-ūi kap léng-thó·. Kan-taⁿ Rapa Nui ū 1-ê tē-ūi khah koân kî-thaⁿ thâu-lâng ê tōa thâu-lâng. Thó·-tē tùi tó ê tiong-sim ūi-tì ǹg hái hun-koah, só·-í ta̍k-ê thâu-lâng-kài (*chiefdom*) ū ka-kī ê 1 liâu soaⁿ, chúi-goân, hái-hōaⁿ, téng-téng.

## Ki-su̍t

## Kûn-tó

* New Zealand
* Bí-kok léng Samoa
* Cook Kûn-tó
* Hawaiʻi
* Hoat-kok léng Polynesia
* Niue
* Koh-oa̍h-cheh-tó
* Rotuma
* Samoa
* Tokelau
* Tonga
* Tuvalu
* Wallis kap Futuna
Koh-oa̍h-cheh-tó

**Koh-oa̍h-cheh-tó**, chāi-tē ê goân-chū-bîn kiò i chò **Rapa Nui** (goân-miâ **Te pito o te henua**), sī 1-ê tī tang Thài-pêng-iûⁿ ê ko͘-tó, siāng kīn koh ū tòa lâng ê lio̍k-tē sī Pitcairn Kûn-tó (2,075 km hn̄g), lī Lâm Bí-chiu tāi-lio̍k 3,515 km hn̄g. Che sī Polynesia lâng siāng tang ê si̍t-bîn-tē. Se-pan-gâ miâ kiò-chò **Isla de Pascua** (**Koh-oa̍h-cheh-tó**), chèng-tī-siōng Rapa Nui sio̍k-î Chile Isla de Pascua séng, . 

Koh-oa̍h-cheh-tó ê kī-hêng chio̍h-tiau (*moai*) sè-kài chhut-miâ.

## Tē-lí

Koh-oa̍h-cheh-tó tī 27°09′ S 109°25′ W, bīn-chek 163.6 km², sī 1-ê saⁿ-kak-hêng, múi-1-ê kak sī 1-ê tùi hái-té thóng--chhut-lâi ê hóe-soaⁿ niá-thâu, miâ hō Poike (tang-lâm kak), Rano Kau (sai-lâm kak), Terevaka (pak kak). Poike siāng kó͘, Terevaka siāng sin. Terevaka tī 20-bān nî-chêng po̍k-hoat, lâu--chhut-lâi ê ko khàm kòe piáu-bīn 95% ê bīn-chek. Lâng iáu-bōe si̍t-bîn Rapa Nui chìn-chêng chiah-ê hoé-soaⁿ tō í-keng tiāⁿ--khì.

Koh-oa̍h-cheh-tó tē-hêng bô chhiūⁿ Hawai‘i a̍h-sī chi̍t-kóa-á Polynesia si̍t-bîn-tē ū ko-soaⁿ ū soaⁿ-kok. Ūn-su lī-piān.

## Seng-thài

Hiān-tāi ê Koh-oa̍h-cheh-tó piáu-bīn bē-su 1 tè chháu-po͘, téng-bīn hán-tit ū chhiū-á. Chāi-tē iá-seng ê si̍t-bu̍t kan-taⁿ ū 48 chióng, kî-tiong siāng tōa-châng--ê sī *toromiro*-chhiū (*Sophora toromiro*), chhun--ê chú-iàu sī chháu-á lūi. Hoe-hún hun-sek chèng-bêng kó͘-chá-kó͘-chá tó-siōng ū 1-phiàn a-jia̍t-tài sim-lîm, pau-koah hiān-chāi tó-siōng bô-tè-chhōe--ê tōa-châng chhiū (*palm*, *Alphitonia* cf. *zizyphoides*, *Elaeocarpus rarotongensis* téng-téng). Hiah-ê chhiū āu--lâi chhò-tiāu chè-chō chûn-á, chò jiân-liāu, téng-téng.

Khó-kó͘ hoat-hiān éng-kòe ū 6 chióng í-siōng ê chāi-tē lio̍k-tē chiáu-á kap 25-gōa-chióng hái-chiáu. In-ūi Rapa Nui pún-té oân-choân bô thian-jiân ê lia̍h-chia̍h tōng-bu̍t, tó-siōng ê khoân-kéng tùi chiáu-lūi chin iú-lī. Kīn-hái ê hî bô chē.

Lâng āu--lâi tòa ke, niáu-chhí lâi kàu tó-siōng. Sui-bóng niáu-chhí sī bô-tiuⁿ-tî chài--kòe-lâi-ê, āu--lâi mā chiâⁿ-chò tong-tē ê chia̍h-mi̍h chi-it.

## Le̍k-sú

## Jîn-kháu

Hiān-tāi ê Koh-oa̍h-cheh-tó jîn-kháu 3,791 ê (2002 ke-kah), chú-iàu tī hú-siâⁿ Hanga Roa.  Kīn-lâi tùi tāi-lio̍k lâi ê Chile-lâng jú lâi jú chē.  Le̍k-sú-siōng chāi-tē jîn-kháu piàn-tōng chin chē.  Gōa-tē-lâng tòa--lâi ê thoân-jiám-pēⁿ bat kúi-nā-pái ín-khí tōa chai-lān.

## Kó͘-chek

300 ê *ahu*.

## Chham-khó chu-liāu
* Diamond, Jared. *Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed.* Penguin Books: 2005. ISBN 0-14-303655-6.

## Gōa-pō͘ liân-kiat

Lūi-pia̍t:Thài-pêng-iûⁿ ê tó-sū

Lūi-pia̍t:Tāi-iûⁿ-chiu ê i-lāi-tē
Galápagos Kûn-tó

**Galápagos Kûn-tó** (Se-pan-gâ-gí: *Islas Galápagos*; koaⁿ-hong miâ-chheng: *Archipiélago de Colón*, **Colón Kûn-tó**) sī 1-cho͘ tī Thài-pêng-iûⁿ ê kûn-tó, lī Lâm Bí-chiu sai-hōaⁿ iok-lio̍k 1,000 km hn̄g, chèng-tī-siōng sio̍k-î Ecuador koán-hat. Kûn-tó pau-koah 13-lia̍p hóe-soaⁿ-tó kap kî-thaⁿ khah sè ê sió-tó. Hiah-ê hóe-soaⁿ iáu ū oa̍h-tōng. Galápagos Kûn-tó in-ūi Charles Darwin ê chìn-hòa-lūn tōa chhut-miâ.

## <small>Galápagos ê ku (''Chelonoidis nigra'')</small>

File:Galapagos giant tortoise Geochelone elephantopus.jpg|
File:Gigantic Turtle on the Island of Santa Cruz in the Galapagos.JPG|
File:Side angle shot of a gigantic galapagos turtle on the island of santa cruz.JPG|
File:A gigantic galapagos tortuga on the island of santa cruz.JPG|
File:Gigantic galapagos turtle on the island of santa cruz.JPG|
File:Galápagos tortoise - Chelonoidis nigra on the Santa Cruz Island - Galapagos.jpeg|
File:The Galápagos tortoise or Galápagos giant tortoise (Chelonoidis nigra) - Santa Cruz Island.jpeg|
Che Guevara

**Ernesto Guevara** (1928 nî 5 goe̍h 14 – 1967 nî 10 goe̍h 9) sī La-teng Bí-chiu ê 1-ê Marx-chú-gī kek-bēng-ka, gōa-kài chheng-ho· i hō-chò **Che Guevara**. I tī Cuba Kek-bēng tang-tiong tam-jīm tiōng-iàu ê kak-sek.

Guevara chhut-sì tī Argentina 1-ê tiong-sán kai-kip ê ka-têng. I-ha̍k-īⁿ pit-gia̍p chìn-chêng i lī-khui Buenos Aires khì Lâm Bí-chiu kok-tē lí-hêng; chit-ê keng-giām tùi i ê jîn-seng sán-sêng chiâⁿ tōa ê éng-hióng. I khì kah Cuba chham-ka Fidel Castro chhōa--ê "7 goe̍h 26 Ūn-tōng", in tī 1959 nî sêng-kong chiáng-ak tio̍h chèng-koân. I tī sin chèng-hú lāi-bīn tam-jīm kòe kúi-nā-ê ko-chân ê chit-ūi, chóng--sī soán-te̍k tī 1966 nî lī-khui Cuba khì kàu tē-saⁿ-sè-kài kok-ka chi-oān chó-phài kek-bēng. Thâu-khí-seng khì tī Congo Bîn-chú Kiōng-hô-kok, āu--lâi tī Bolivia. Tī hia Bí-kok Tiong-iong Chêng-pò-kio̍k tàu siat-kè 1-ê kun-sū hêng-tōng sêng-kong lia̍h tio̍h i, liáu-āu chiong i thâi--sí.

I kòe-sin liáu-āu miâ-siaⁿ ná lâi ná tōa, ē-sái kóng sī chē-chē siā-hōe-chú-gī kek-bēng ūn-tōng ê eng-hiông. Sīm-chí tī chi̍t-kóa-á tāi-ha̍k hāu-hn̂g mā bat sî-kiâⁿ tah i ê hái-pò.

## Gōa-pō· liân-kiat

* Che, Guía y Ejemplo
Khí-pún-chit

**Khí-pún-chit** (齒本質; *dentin*) koh kiò-chò **chhiūⁿ-gê-chit** (象牙質) sī chhùi-khí ê chú-iàu pō·-hūn, i-ê lāi-bīn-pêng sī khí-chhòe-khiuⁿ, tī khí-koan i-ê gōa-bīn-pêng sī khí-iū-chit, tī khí-thâu i-ê gōa-bīn-pêng sī khí-kut-chit. Khí-pún-chit ê kài-hòa têng-tō· kap ngē-tō· pí khí-iū-chit khah-kē, sek-tī khah n̂g, bô thàu-bêng, inorganic sêng-hun tāi-iok 70%, chú-iàu sī hydroxyapatite. Khí-pún-chit bi̍t-pò·  pêng-hêng pâi-lia̍t ê khí-pún-chit sió-kńg (dentinal tubule), ùi tiong-sim ê khí-chhóe-khiuⁿ hiòng-gōa hok-siā. Khí-pún-chit sió-kńg lāi-bīn ū ùi khí-chhóe-khiuⁿ lâi ê odontoblast ê process, odontoblast ū kám-kak sîn-keng sè-pau ê process hun-pò·, só·-í khí-pún-chit ū sîn-keng kám-kak, tùi gōa-lâi ê sio-léng, hòa-ha̍k he̍k-chiá bu̍t-lí-ha̍k chhì-khek ē-ū hoán-èng.
Bolivia

**To Bîn-cho̍k ê Bolivia Kok** tī Lâm Bí-chiu. Tang kap pak ū Pa-se, lâm ū Paraguay kap Argentina, sai ū Chile kap Perú. Bô hái-hōaⁿ.

## Keng-chè
Bolivia sī Lâm Bí-chiu siōng sàn ê kok-ka. Kok-lāi siōng hó-gia̍h ê tē-khu sī tang-pêng ê Santa Cruz, hit-tah oân-ná sī pe̍h-lâng hiō-tāi ê chèng-tī tiong-sim.

Bolivia ê thian-jiân-khì chu-goân sī Latin Bí-chiu tē 2 toā--ê (pâi toà Venezuela āu-piah). Sán-gia̍p tiong-sim tī Santa Cruz.

## Jîn-kháu
Bolivia sī Latin Bí-chiu chió-sò͘ goân-chū-bîn pí kî-thaⁿ cho̍k-kûn khah chē ê kok-ka (lēng-goā 2 kok sī Guatemala kap Perú). Cho̍k-kûn pí-lē iok-ki-liōng sī 30% Quechua, 25% Aymara, 30% Mestizo (pe̍h-lâng lām goân-chū-bîn), 15% Au-chiu hiat-thóng. Iū-koh ū chió-sò͘ ê kî-thaⁿ goân-chū-bîn -- Chiquitano (180,000) kap Guaraní (125,000) -- kap î-bîn.

## Hêng-chèng

Bolivia pun 9 ê hun-khu (*departamentos*):

* Chuquisaca (Sucre)
* Cochabamba (Cochabamba)
* Beni (Trinidad)
* La Paz (La Paz)
* Oruro (Oruro)
* Pando (Cobija)
* Potosí (Potosí)
* Santa Cruz (Santa Cruz de la Sierra)
* Tarija (Tarija)

Ē-kha koh-chài pun chò séng (*provincias*), kūn (*cantones*), kap tìn (*municipalidades*).

## Chham-chiàu
Khí-chhoé

**Khí-chhóe** (齒髓; *dental pulp*) sī chhùi-khí  siāng tiong-sim ê cho·-chit, pau-koah ū hoeh-kńg, sîn-keng-chhiam-ûi, odntoblast, kap kî-thaⁿ ê sè-pau chham connective tissue. Khí-chhóe só·-chāi ê khong-kan kìo-chò **khí-chhóe-khiuⁿ** 

## Khí-chhóe ê te̍k-sek

* Khí-chhóe sì-pêng hō· ngē-cho·-chit pau-ûi, só·-í siū-siong hoat-iām ê sî-chūn bô-hoat-tō· phòng-tōa. Khí-chhóe tùi ap-le̍k ê kái-piàn chiok bín-kám.
* Khí-chhóe khiàm-khoat chhek-hong-hun-ki ê hoeh-sio̍h-sûn-khoân, siū-siong siu-pó· ê lêng-le̍k in-chhú khah-kē. 
* Khí-chhóe khó-kóng-sī chiâⁿ kán-tan ê connective cho·-chit, koh i-ê chiu-ûi oá-tah khí-pún-chit sī 1-têng chiâⁿ cheng-bi̍t ê sè-pau, kìo-chò odontoblast. Chèng-siông ê chêng-hêng chi-hā, odontoblast ē sán-seng kè-seng-sèng khí-pún-chit (*secondary dentin*), lia̍p-chek tī khí-chhóe-khiuⁿ sī-pêng piah-bīn jú-chē, khí-chhóe ê hoeh-sio̍h-sûn-khoân tio̍h jú-bái, án-ne tùi kám-jiám he̍k-chiá gōa-siong té-khòng-la̍t tio̍h jú-bô-hó. 
* Khí-chhóe ê sîn-keng hun-pò· koh kán-tan koh ho̍k-cha̍p. Kán-tan sī-kóng i kan-taⁿ sī iû-lî ê sîn-keng chhiam-ûi boat-toan (*free nerve endings*); ho̍k-chha̍p sī-kóng chhun-ji̍p khí-pún-chit sió-kńg ê odontoblast processes chiok bín-kám, ē-tit thoân-tó sio-lêng kap hòa-ha̍k ê chhì-khek hō· sîn-keng chhiam-ûi boat-toan, sòa--lo̍h-lâi thôan-ji̍p tiong-su-sîn-keng ê thiàⁿ-thàng-chiap-siū-khu.
Khí-iū-chit

**Khí-iū-chit** (齒釉質;*dental enamel*) koh kiò-chò **hoat-lông-chit** (琺瑯質), sī chhùi-khí khí-koan siāng-gōa-têng ê cho·-chit, i-ê ē-kha sī khí-pún-chit. Khí-iū-chit sī iû e̍h-e̍h-kheh-kheh ê hydroxyapatite chiⁿ-thé, enamel prism, kap chiok chió-liōng ê interprismatic substance lâi cho·-sêng, sī lán sin-khu siāng tēng-ngē ê cho·-chit, pí kut-thâu koh-khah tēng-ngē. I-ê inorganic salt sêng-hun chiàm 96%, chú-iàu sī calcium phosphate kap calcium carbonate téng-téng. Khí-iū-chit ê sek-tī pe̍h-bū-pe̍h-bū, sió-kóa thàu-bêng, i-ê piáu-bīn kim-kim-ku̍t-ku̍t, mô·-kńg-khang chiâⁿ-chió.
Su-lī-a

**Su-lī-a** (, iah-sī kiò **Sū-lī-a** ()), chèng-sek hō-miâ **Su-lī-a A-la-pek Kiōng-hô-kok** (A-la-pek-gí: ), Sai-a ê kok-ka. Su-lī-a ê hái-hoāⁿ oá Tē-tiong-hái.

## Tē-hō-miâ
Su-lī-a chit-ê hō-miâ khah ti̍t-chiap ê lâi-goân sī Hi-lia̍p-gí ê *Suría* (Συρία). Herodotos kā chit jī ēng lâi piáu-sī Cappadocia. Goân Hi-lia̍p ēng-hoat lāi-bīn, Su-lī-a kap Assyria (Ασσυρία) sī kâng ì-sù--ê, m̄ koh Lô-má Tè-kok kā nn̄g jī siat hō͘ nn̄g ūi bô-kâng ê tē-hng hō-miâ.

## Le̍k-sú
Tī Chêng 10,000 nî chó-iū ê sî, Su-lī-a sī khó-kó͘-ha̍k siōng só͘ hō--ê Chiân-hûi-khì Sin-chio̍h-khì A (*Pre-Pottery Neolithic A*; PPNA) bûn-hòa ê tiong-sim chi it, in sī sè-kài siōng só͘ chai-iáⁿ siāng chá chhut-hiān lông-gia̍p ê bûn-hòa. Sòa--lo̍h-lâi koh sī PPNB bûn-hòa sî-kî, tong-sî Mureybet bûn-hòa í-keng ū sì-hong khoán ê chhù.

Siāng chá ū kì-lio̍k tī Su-lī-a tē-khu ê goân-seⁿ bûn-bêng sī tāi-iok Chêng 3500 nî kiàn-li̍p ê Ebla Ông-kok, só͘-chāi óa tī kin-á-ji̍t pak-pō͘ ê Idlib.

## Chham-khó

Lūi-pia̍t:Mesopotamia
Peru

**Peru Kiōng-hô-kok** (Se-pan-gâ-gí: ) tī Lâm Bí-chiu sai-pêng. Pak ū Ecuador kap Colombia, tang ū Pa-se kap Bolivia, lâm ū Chile. Sai sī Thài-pêng-iûⁿ. Inca Tè-kok (*Tawantinsuyu*) ê hoat-goân-tē.

## Tē-lí
Argentina

**Argentina**, mā thang kiò chò **A-kun-thêng** (阿根廷) ia̍h-sī **A-ní-jiân-teng** (亞爾然丁), choân-miâ **Argentina Kiōng-hô-kok**, tī Lâm Bí-chiu lâm-pêng. Pak ū Paraguay kap Bolivia, tang-pak ū Pa-se kap Uruguay, sai ū Chile. Tī Andes soaⁿ-me̍h kap lâm Tāi-se-iûⁿ tiong-kan.

## Tē-lí

## Hêng-chèng-khu
Khí-tái

**Khí-tái** (齒滓; *dental calculus, tartar*) koh kiò-chò **khí-chio̍h** (齒石), sī chhùi-khí sé bô chheng-khì, khí-siôⁿ, chhùi-nōa, kap khòng-bu̍t-chit sio-kap chò-tīn kài-hòa ê kiat-kó. Khí-tái ê piáu-bīn chho·-chhò kāu mo·-kńg-khang, gâu chu-seng sè-khún, ín-khí khí-chiu-pēⁿ he̍k chiù-khí. Khí-hōaⁿ téng-kôan hêng-sêng ê khí-tái sī n̂g-sek--ê, khí-hōaⁿ ē-kha--ê sī o·-sek--ê. Khí-tái bô-hoat-tō· ēng khí-bín-á lù-tiāu, ài gê-i-su ēng chhiau-im-pho sé-khí-ki (超音波洗齒機; *ultrasonic scaler*) chiah ū-hoat-tō· khe-tiāu.
Chhùi-noā

**Chhùi-nōa** (*saliva*) sī chhùi-nōa-sòaⁿ (*salivary gland*) hun-pì-bu̍t kap khí-gîn sìm-chhut-sio̍h (*gingival fluid exudate*) ê hūn-ha̍p-bu̍t, bô-sek thàu-bêng sió-kóa-á sng-sng, koh ū-sî ko-ko. I hâm-ū 99.42 % ê chúi kap 0.58 % ê kò·-thé; pí-tāng (*specific gravity*) 1.003; pH 6.35-6.85; 24 tiám-cheng ê hūn-pì-liōng sī 1500 ml. Bû-ki ê sêng-hun pau-koah chloride, bicarbonate, kap sodium í-ki̍p calcium, sulfate, kap phosphate. Iú-ki ê sêng-hun pau-koah amylase, mucin, kap khah chió-liōng ê nn̄g-pe̍h-chit, urea, glucose, lactic acid, phosphatase, kap carbonic anhydrase.

Jîn-lūi chhùi-nōa ê hun-pì siū-tio̍h tōa-náu phôe-chân ê khòng-chè, iah-mā siū-tio̍h chia̍h-si̍t, khoân-kéng, nî-hòe, sim-chiâⁿ, kap chhùi-nōa-sòaⁿ chit-pēⁿ téng-téng ê éng-hióng.

Chhùi-nōa ê chú-iàu kong-lêng sī sip-jūn chia̍h-mi̍h kap chhùi-khiuⁿ liâm-mo̍k, lī-piān chia̍h-mi̍h lia̍p-kô· (*bolus*) thong-kòe chia̍h-tō (si̍t-tō; *esophagus*); koh-lâi-ê kong-lêng sī chhùi-nōa ê amylase siau-hòa hun-kái tiān-hún (*starch*) kap dextrins piàn-sêng be̍h-gê-thn̂g (*maltose*). I mā-ū chheng-kiat kap tām-po̍h-á sat-khún (*bactericidal*) ê kong-lêng. 

Chhùi-nōa ē-tàng the̍h-lâi kiám-cha sin-thé ê chit-pēⁿ, pí-jû-kóng AIDS, gâm-chèng. Tú hun-pì chhut--lâi ê chèng-siông ê chhùi-nōa sī bô sè-khún téng-téng pēⁿ-goân-thé--ê , mā-koh lâi-kàu chhùi-khiuⁿ siū-tio̍h u-jiám tio̍h khai-sí chham-lām chiok-chē sè-khún.
Khí-hoāⁿ

**Khí-hōaⁿ** (*gingiva*) koh kiò-chò **khí-gîn**, ūi-tī chhùi-khí khí-kún-pō· ê sì-piⁿ, kap khí-chô-kut ê gōa-bīn. Khí-hōaⁿ hō·-lâng jīn-ûi sī phôe-hu ê 1-chióng, keng-kòe gián-hòa chiâⁿ-chò liâm-moh (*mucous membranes*). Khí-hōaⁿ ki-pún-siōng sī thàu-bêng--ê, in-ūi hiat-e̍k-sûn-khoân sú-tit i hián-sī chò hún-âng-sek. Khí-hōaⁿ sio̍k-î khí-chiu-cho·-chit (*periodontium*) ê 1-pō·-hūn, ū pó-hō· khí-thâu ê kong-lêng. Chhùi-khiuⁿ ōe-seng nā-sī chò-liáu bô sè-jī, ē-tit ín-khí khí-hōaⁿ-iām he̍k khí-chiu-iām téng-téng ê khí-chiu-pēⁿ.
Uruguay

**Uruguay Tang-kîⁿ Kiōng-hô-kok** (Se-pan-gâ-gí: ) tī Lâm Bí-chiu lâm-pêng. Pak ū Pa-se chit kok, sai ū Argentina. Tang kap lâm sī Tāi-se-iûⁿ.

Uruguay sī Lâm-bí tē-2-sè ê kok-ka; sī chèng-tī, keng-chè siāng ún-tēng ê 1 kok.

## Hêng-chèng-khu

* Artigas Séng
* Canelones Séng
* Cerro Largo Séng
* Colonia Séng
* Durazno Séng
* Flores Séng
* Florida Séng
* Lavalleja Séng
* Maldonado Séng
* Montevideo Séng
* Paysandú Séng
* Río Negro Séng
* Rivera Séng
* Rocha Séng
* Salto Séng
* San José Séng
* Soriano Séng
* Tacuarembó Séng
* Treinta y Tres Séng
Qatar

**Qatar** () sī Sai-a ê kok-ka.

Qatar sī tī A-la-pek poàn-tó téng-koân ê sió poàn-tó. Qatar lâm-pêng pen-kài oá Saudi A-la-pek , hái-hoāⁿ oá Pho-su-oan. Qatar chhut-sán chio̍h-iû.

## Tē-lí
Pa-se

**Pa-se** (巴西), ia̍h-sī kiò chò **Peh-la̍t-se-ní** (伯剌西爾), choân-miâ **Pa-se Liân-pang Kiōng-hô-kok** (), sī Lâm Bí-chiu siāng tōa ê kok-ka, tī Lâm-bí tāi-lio̍k ê tang-pak-pêng. Tû-liáu Ecuador kap Chile í-gōa, kî-thaⁿ ê Lâm-bí kok-ka lóng ū piⁿ-kài hām Pa-se sio-tú.

## Tē-lí

## Hêng-chèng-khu
Biān-chek

**Biān-chek**, a̍h-sī **bīn-chek** sī 1-ê gia̍h, thang piáu-ta̍t 1-ê pêng-bīn ê tōa-sè. Piáu-bīn biān-chek sī 1-ê mi̍h-kiāⁿ gōa-bīn ê biān-chek chóng ha̍p--khí-lâi ê gia̍h.

## Tan-ūi

* Pêng-hong Tâi-chhioh =?≈ 0.091827 m²
* Pêng-hong kong-chhioh (m², kin-kù SI tan-ūi)
* Phêng =?≈ 3.30582 m²
* Kong-bó· = 100 m²
* Kah =?≈ 9699.32 m²
* Kong-khéng = 10,000 m²
* Pêng-hong kong-lí = 1,000,000 m²
Koaⁿ-hong gí-giân

**Koaⁿ-hong gí-giân** chí 1-ê chèng-tī tan-ūi thàu-kòe hoat-lu̍t, chèng-lēng, a̍h-sī kî-thaⁿ ê chèng-tī-la̍t chè-tēng kap thui-kóng tī koaⁿ-hong léng-he̍k sú-iōng ê gí-giân. Chèng-tī tan-ūi ē-sái sī kok-ka, kok-ka liân-bêng (Au-chiu Liân-bêng), kok-chè cho͘-chit (chhin-chhiūⁿ Liân-ha̍p-kok), bô kok-ka tē-ūi ê chèng-tī-thé (chhin-chhiūⁿ i-lāi-tē), a̍h-sī kok-ka ē-kha siat ê jīm-hô 1-chân hêng-chèng tan-ūi (séng, kōan, hiong-tìn téng-téng). Kàu-io̍k chèng-chhek chí-tēng sú-iōng ê kàu-ha̍k gí-giân tiāⁿ-tiāⁿ pau-koah chāi-lāi.

Koaⁿ-hong gí-giân hām kok-gí, bîn-cho̍k gí-giân bī-pit sio-siâng. 1-ê chèng-tī tan-ūi bô it-tēng kan-taⁿ 1-ê koaⁿ-hong gí-giân nā-tiāⁿ. Koaⁿ-hong gí-giân mā bī-pit sī chí-tēng hoān-ûi lāi siāng thong-hêng ê gí-giân; tī chi̍t-kóa-á kok-ka (chhin-chhiūⁿ Éire), koaⁿ-hong gí-giân ê siōng-teng ì-gī khah tōa si̍t-chè-siōng ê sú-iōng.

Koaⁿ-hong gí-giân ê chè-tēng mā ū khó-lêng pau-koah bûn-jī. Khó-pí kóng Tiong-hôa Bîn-kok koaⁿ-hong kap kàu-io̍k-kài pēng-bô kó͘-lē in ê kok-bîn iōng kán-thé Hàn-jī hām kong-ka ki-koan (pau-koah ha̍k-hāu) chih-chiap. Tī su-jîn léng-he̍k tō bô koán-chè.

Lūi-pia̍t:Giân-gú
Lūi-pia̍t:Chèng-tī
Chhùi-khiuⁿ oē-seng

**Chhùi-khiuⁿ ōe-seng** (*oral hygiene*) kán-tan kóng tio̍h-sī chhùi-lāi pó-chhî chheng-khì. Khí-khiuⁿ ōe-seng hun-chò kò-jîn ta̍k-kang kap khí-kho tēng-kî 2 hong-bīn. Kò-jîn ta̍k-kang chò-hó chhùi-khiuⁿ ōe-seng sī ī-hông chiù-khí, khí-hōaⁿ-iām, khí-chiu-iām, kap kî-thaⁿ chhùi-khí chit-pēⁿ siāng-hó ê mê-kak. I mā ē-tàng ī-hông chhùi-chhàu (*halitosis*).  Chhùi-khiuⁿ ōe-seng sī ta̍k-ê-lâng ta̍k-kang ài-chò ê khang-khòe. Ū hāu-lu̍t ê chhùi-khiuⁿ ōe-seng khì-tû chhùi-khí piáu-bīn ê khí-khún-pan hō· lán ū kiàn-khong ê chhùi-khí kap khí-hōaⁿ. 

## Kò-jîn ê khang-khòe

Siāng-tiōng-iáu ê ke-si:
*Khí-bín kap khí-sòaⁿ: Hó-liâu-á ū khí-bín lù-chhùi-khí kap ū khí-sòaⁿ chheng chhùi-khí-phāng phang-chān khì-tû khí-khún-pan kap ī-hông khí-tái ê seⁿ-sêng. Phó-thong lâi-kóng, ta̍k-ê-lâng ta̍k-kang ài sé 1-kái chhùi-khí, kap sú-iōng 1-kái khí-sòaⁿ. Te̍k-sû ê chêng-hêng pí-jû chò chhùi-khí kiáu-chèng ê lâng ta̍k-kái chia̍h mi̍h-kiāⁿ tio̍h-ài liâm-mi sé-chhùi kap sú-iōng khí-sòaⁿ. Ká-sú m̄-chāi án-chóaⁿ sé-chhùi kap sú-iōng khí-sòaⁿ, tio̍h-ài chhéng-kàu gê-i-su.

Kî-thaⁿ hú-chō· ê ke-si:
*Khí-thok: Ē-sái î-tû chhùi-khí-phāng ê chhài-iù-á kap bah-iù-á.
*Tiān-tōng khí-bín: Sek-ha̍p chhiú-pō· bô lī-piān ê lâng.
*Chhùi-khí chúi-chhiâⁿ (*water irrigation*): Thâu-seng lâi chang-cháu pn̄g-chhài-iù-á. 
*Hâm-fluoride ê lo̍k-chhùi-chúi he̍k khí-ko: Ē-sái tn̂g-kî sú-iōng lâi kiám-chió chiù-khí ê ki-lu̍t.
*Hâm sat-khún he̍k ek-khún seng-hun ê lo̍k-chhùi-chúi: Tī gî-i-su chí-tō chi-hā té-kî sú-iōng, ē-tàng kiám-chió khí-khún-pan ê seⁿ-sêng. 
*Tùi-khòng chhùi-khí sng-nńg ê khí-ko
*I-poaⁿ sêng-hun ê khí-ko

Lēng-gōa ài chù-ì ê tāi-chì:
Oa̍h-chô ké-chhùikhí, khí-lia̍t kiáu-chèng ê oa̍h-tōng chong-tī (*removable appliance*) mā-ài ta̍k-kang iōng khí-bín kah chheng-chúi (m̄-bián khí-ko) lù hō· chheng-khí, kú-kú-á iōng chheng-kiat-chē chheng-kiat 1--ê.

## Khí-kho ê chiàu-kò·

Kò-jîn ê ōe-seng khang-khòe chò-liáu ū làu-kau ê só·-chāi, kú-á tio̍h-ē seⁿ-chhut khí-tái, sīm-chí chiù-khí kap khí-chiu-pēⁿ. Tēng-kî khì gê-i-su hia chò kiám-cha, ē-tàng thê-chá chhōe-chhut kap kái-koat būn-tê. Choan-gia̍p ê khí-kho siāng ki-pún pau-koah ū chhiau-im-pho sé-khí-ki khe-tû khí-tái, [chiù-khí thiⁿ-pó·]], kin-kńg tī-liâu, chiù-khí bán-tû téng-téng. 

## Gōa-pō· liân-kiat
*''NIH site on Oral Hygiene''
Khí-hoāⁿ-iām

**Khí-hōaⁿ-iām** (*gingivitis*) he̍k **khí-gîn-iām** sī chhùi-khiuⁿ ōe-seng chò-liáu bô-hó tì-sú chhùi-khí sì-chiu ê khí-hōaⁿ hoat-iām. Chit-ê hoat-iām ê chêng-hêng sī ē siau-sit--ê, chí-iàu chhùi-khiuⁿ ōe-seng chò hō· hó-sè. Sú-iōng khí-bín lù chhùi-khí, kap sú-iōng khí-sòaⁿ chheng khí-phāng, sī ûi-hō· chhùi-khiuⁿ ōe-seng siāng-hó ê hoat-tō·. 

### Goân-in
Khí-hōaⁿ-iām siang-chāi sī chhùi-khí sè-liáu bô chheng-khì só· ín-khí. Chhùi-khí nā sé bô chiâu-choân,  khí-khún-pan lia̍p-chek, kiat-kó chhì-khek khí-hōaⁿ. Khí-khún-pan ê sè-khún kap i sán-seng ê to̍k-sò· (*toxin*) ín-khí khí-hōaⁿ chéng-tōa, hoeh-sio̍h-sûn-khoân chēng-ka, sek-chúi piàn âng, téng-téng hoat-iām ê chèng-thâu. Khí-hōaⁿ-iām mā-ū-khó-lêng hō· kòe-tō· lù-chhùi-khí he̍k sú-iōng khí-sòaⁿ bô sè-jī lâi ín-khí. Thn̂g-jiō-pēⁿ (*diabetes mellitus*) khòng-chè liáu bô-hó kap cha-bó-lâng ū-sin (*pregnancy*) ho-lu-bong sit-tiâu ē sú-tit khí-hōaⁿ piàn bín-kám, kēng-ka gâu hoat-iām. Chheng-chhun-kî (*puberty*) ê ho-lu-bong kái-piàn mā-ē hō·-lâng khah-gâu-ū khí-hōaⁿ-iām.  Chhùi-khí pâi-lia̍t bô-chiàⁿ, thiⁿ-pó·-bu̍t chho·-chhò ê pian-iân, bô-ha̍h-su he̍k bô chheng-khì ê ké-chhùi-khí lóng-ē chēng-ka khí-hōaⁿ-iām ê hûi-hiám.  Phenytoin kap pia̍h-ūn-io̍h (*birth control pills*), mā-ē ín-khí khí-hōaⁿ chéng-tōa.

### Chèng-chōng
Khí-hōaⁿ-iām ê chèng-chōng pau-koah ū:
*Khí-hōaⁿ chéng-tōa
*Chhùi-pòa
*Khí-hōaⁿ hoán chhim-âng
*Khí-hōaⁿ kim-ku̍t
*Khí-hōaⁿ bong--tio̍h ē thiàⁿ, bô bong bē thiàⁿ.
*Khí-hōaⁿ gâu lâu-hoeh, liân kheng-kheng sé-chhùi mā-ē. 

### Ī-hông
Khí-hōaⁿ-iām ē-tit thàu-kòe ta̍k-kang ê chhùi-khiuⁿ ōe-seng khang-khòe lâi ī-hông, pau-koah lù-chhùi-khí kap sú-iōng khí-sòaⁿ.

### Tī-liâu
Gê-i-su ē thè lí sé-chhùi-khí chheng-tû khí-tái kap chheng-kiat khí-hōaⁿ, put-jî-kò, kò-jîn ta̍k-kang ê chhùi-khiuⁿ ōe-seng khang-khòe chò-ū hó-sè chiah-sī tiōng-tiám, chiah ē-tàng ī-hông khí-hōaⁿ-iām ê koh-hoat-seng. Ū sa̍t-khún he̍k e̍k-khún kong-hāu ê  lo̍k-chhùi-chúi kan-taⁿ kiàn-gī tī te̍k-sû ê chōng-khóng chi-hā té-chiām kî-kan lâi sú-iōng, bô kiàn-gī pêng-siông-sî--á lâi tn̂g-kî sú-iōng.
Lī-pa-lùn

**Lī-pa-lùn Kiōng-hô-kok** () , Sai-a ê kok-ka, hái-hoāⁿ oá Tē-tiong-hái.

## Tē-lí

## Chong-kàu
Chú-iàu ê chong-kàu: Islam-kàu ê Sunni kap Shia-phài, Druze, Ki-tok-kàu ê Maronite kap Hi-lia̍p Chèng-thóng.

## Chèng-tī
Sui-bóng Lebanon ê Ki-tok-kàu jîn-kháu bô kàu 1 pòaⁿ, in ê chóng-thóng tiāⁿ-tio̍h sī Ki-tok-kàu pōe-kéng ê lâng tam-jīm.

## Hêng-chèng-khu

# Akkar Séng
# Pak-pō͘ Séng
# Baalbek-Hermel Séng
# Beirut Séng
# Keserwan-Jbeil Séng
# Lī-pa-lùn San Séng
# Beqaa Séng
# Lâm-pō͘ Séng
# Nabatieh Séng
Pêng-hong kong-lí

**Pêng-hong-kong-lí** (kì-chò **km²**), kin-kù Kok-chè Tan-ūi Hē-thóng (SI) ê 1-ê ki-pún tan-ūi (m) tō--chhut-lâi ê bīn-chek tōa-sè.

1 km² siong-tong sī:
* lióng-pêng lóng-sī 1 kong-lí tn̂g ê chiàⁿ-sì-kak-hêng. 
* 1,000,000 m²
* 100 kong-khéng
* 302500 Phêng
* 0.386102 pêng-hong-mai
* 247.105 381 Eng-bó· (*acre*)

Tò-sǹg tńg-lai:
* 1 m² = 0.000001 km² 
* 1 kong-khéng = 0.01 km² 
* 1 Phêng = 0.0000033058 km² 
* 1 pêng-hong-mai = 2.589988 km²
* 1 Eng-bó· ≈ 0.004047 km² 

## Siong-koan ê bûn-chiuⁿ

* Tan-ūi ê oāⁿ-sǹg-pió
Kong-lí

**Kong-lí**, Tâi-oân mā ū kóng **khí-lo·h** ( *kiro*), kì-chò **km**, sī tn̂g-tō· ê Kok-chè Tan-ūi Hē-thóng (SI tan-ūi). 

## Tan-ūi Ōaⁿ-sǹg
1 km siong-tong sī:
* 1,000 kong-chhioh (m)
* 0.621 eng-lí (mile)
* 1,094 bā (yard)
* 3,281 eng-chhioh (ft)

## Chù-kha
Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva

**Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva** (1945 nî 10 goe̍h 27 ji̍t chhut-sì) sī Pa-se 1-ê chó-phài chèng-tī jîn-bu̍t. I tāi-piáu Kang-lâng-tóng (*Partido dos Trabalhadores*) chham-ka 2002 nî ê chóng-thóng soán-kí, kiat-kó ū tiâu. 2003 nî 1 goe̍h 1 chiū-jīm.

Koaⁿ-hong chu-liāu kì-chài i ê seⁿ-ji̍t sī 10 goe̍h 6, m̄-koh i pún-lâng kin-kù in lāu-bú ê kì-tî jīn-ûi èng-kai sī 27 hō.

Lūi-pia̍t:Pa-se Chóng-thóng
Chhùi

**Chhùi** (, ia̍h siá-chò "嘴"; ) loē-pō͘ khong-kan kiò **chhùi-khiuⁿ** (*oral cavity*, ia̍h "káu-khiuⁿ"), sī jîn-lūi he̍k-chiá tōng-bu̍t chia̍h mi̍h-kiāⁿ tē-1 ê ji̍p-kháu thong-tō, i-poaⁿ sī ūi-tī thâu-pō͘. Tāi-pō͘-hūn ê tōng-bu̍t ū 1-thò ho̍k-cha̍p ê siau-hòa hē-thóng, ū siang-ê khui-chhùi: ji̍p-kháu sī chhùi, chhut-káu sī kha-chhng (*anus*). Mā-koh iah-ū tōng-bu̍t kan-taⁿ ū 1-ê khui-chhùi, chia̍h-ji̍p kap pâi-chhut sī kāng-1-ê. 

Chiâⁿ-chē ê tōng-bu̍t chhùi-lāi koh-ū chhùi-kì (*mouthparts*) lâi pō͘-kā chia̍h-mih he̍k chù-siā to̍k-sio̍h.
Tī jîn-lūi, chhùi ê gōa-bīn ū téng-koân kap ē-kha 2-phìⁿ chhùi-tûn, in ū kóng-ōe (*speech*), gân-bīn piáu-chêng (*facial expression*), sio-chim (*kissing*), khip-ún (*sucking*) téng-téng kong-lêng. 

Jîn-tiong (*philtrum*) sī téng-koân chhùi-tûn tiong-hng 1-tiâu khiā-ti̍t ê lap-o͘, sī phoe-thai hoat-io̍k kî-kan nasomedial kah maxillary thêng-sū sio-kap chò-hóe ê hûn-jiah. Nā-sī bô oân-choân sio-kap sêng-kong, tio̍h chhut-hiān khih-tûn, khih-chhùi he̍k Cleft palate ê chêng-hêng. 

Tī jîn-lūi, chhùi-lāi iah-ū chhùi-khí, chhùi-chi̍h, khí-hōaⁿ kap liâm-mo̍h ê khì-koan he̍k cho͘-chit.

## Kái-phò

Chhùi-khiuⁿ (*cavum oris*) ê tâu-chêng sī chhùi-tûn, bóe-āu sī chhùi-ian (*oropharynx*), lāi-té ū chhùi-khí, khí-chô kap chhùi-chi̍h, sì-bīn-pia̍h pau-hok chhùi-khiuⁿ liâm-mo̍h (*oral mucosa*). Í chhùi-khí he̍k bû-khí-chiah (*edentulous ridge*) chò hun-kài, chhùi-khí chìn-chêng ê chhùi-khiuⁿ sī chhùi-khiuⁿ chiân-têng-khu (*vestibulum oris*), koh ē-tàng iù-siù kā hun-chò tûn-chiân-têng-khu (*labial vestibule*) kap giap-chiân-têng-khu (*buccal vestibule*). Chhùi-khí he̍k bû-gê-chiah ê āu-bīn sī chiàⁿ-chhùi-khiuⁿ (*cavum oris proprium*), chhùi-chi̍h tī chia--nih. 

Chhùi-khiuⁿ liâm-mo̍h ū 2-lūi, 1-lūi sī kak-hòa siōng-phôe, lēng 1-lūi sī hui-kak-hòa siōng-phôe. Chhùi-chi̍h ê téng-koân piáu-bīn, hard palate kap chhùi-khí piⁿ-á kúi-ê mm ê khí-hōaⁿ sī kak-hòa siōng-phôe, kî-thaⁿ só͘-chāi sī hui-kak-hòa siōng-phôe. Chhùi-khiuⁿ liâm-mo̍h ê sek-tī ki-pun-siōng sī âng-sek--ê, kak-hòa siōng-phôe ê sek-tī khah chhián-sek, bōng--khí-lâi khah tēng-ngē, chhin-chhiūⁿ bē tín-tāng; hui-kak-hòa siōng-phôe sek-tī khah chhim-sek, khah jiû-nńg, gâu tín-tāng, bî-hoeh-kńg khòaⁿ khah bêng-hián.
Khí-bín

**Khí-bín** () sī the̍h-lâi sé-chhùi lù chhùi-khí ê ke-si. Tī kó·-chá, sè-kài kok-tē tio̍h-ū lâng the̍h chhiū-á ê iù-ki, pō· tī chhùi lâi lù chhùi-khí, koh-ū the̍h baking soda he̍k chio̍h-chi (chalk, pe̍h-thô͘) lâi tàu lù--ê. 

Kīn-kù Bí-kok Khí-kho Hia̍p-hoē (American Dental Association), tē-1 ki ê khí-bín sī hoat-hiān tī 1498 nî Tang-hong ê Tiong-kok, he sī sú-iōng ti-chiah ê chang-mo· tàu-tī tōng-bu̍t kut-ki chò--ê. Tī Se-hong, ài kàu 17 sè-kí chiah chhut-hiān ū khí-bín, kàu 19 sè-kí chiah tauh-tauh sî-kiâⁿ--khí-lâi (tī Au-chiu, Lô-má sî-tāi tio̍h-ū khai-sí sú-iōng chho·-pò· lù chhùi-khí ê kì-lo̍k). Tī 1938 nî, DuPont kong-si sú-iōng jîn-kang ha̍p-sêng ê châi-liāu (it-poaⁿ sī na̋i-lóng) chhú-tāi tōng-bu̍t chang-mo· lâi chè-chō khí-bín, tē-1 ki na̋i-lóng chang-mo· ê khí-bīn tī 1938 nî, 2 goe̍h 24 khai-sí chiūⁿ-chhī hoàn-bē. 

Tâu-1 ki tiān-tōng khí-bín miâ-kiò "*Broxodent*", sī Squibb Pharmaceutical tī 1959 nî Bí-kok Khí-kho Hia̍p-hoē ê 100-chiu-nî sî thui-chhut. 

Sú-iōng khí-bín sî siang-chāi ē sūn-soah sú-iōng khí-ko, che chí-sī koàn-sì, m̄-sī it-tēng ài-ū. 
 
Chòe-kīn siāng-sin hêng ê khí-bín sī im-pho khí-bín (*sonic toothbrush*).

## Gōa-pō· liân-kiat

* Footnote of History: The Toothbrush
Khí-go̍k kiáu-chèng-ha̍k

**Khí-go̍k kiáu-chèng-ha̍k** (*orthodontics*) sī Gê-i-ha̍k 1-ê choan-kho, gián-kiù kap tī-liâu chhùi-khí pâi-lia̍t bô-chiàⁿ ê būn-tê. **Khí-go̍k kiáu-chèng i-su** (*orthodontist*) ê lîm-chhn̂g khang-khòe chú-iàu sī **khí-lia̍t kiáu-chèng** (bô khan-sia̍p tio̍h go̍k-kut) he̍k **khí-go̍k kiáu-chèng** (khan-sia̍p tio̍h go̍k-kut). Chhùi-khí kiáu-chèng it-poaⁿ sī ūi-tio̍h hó-khòaⁿ (*aesthetic*) ; mā-koh i ia̍h-sī 1-chióng i-liâu khang-khòe.
Hông-hú-che

# chia̍h-mi̍h
# iû-chhat, chhâ, téng-téng

## Chia̍h-mi̍h

### [[Khòng-seng-sò·]]
*Lō·-iōng:  ī-hông seⁿ-ko·
*Iōng tòa:  kó-chiap, *cheese*, pháng, chúi-kó-koaⁿ
*Lē:  Na/Ca propionate, sorbic acid, tetracycline (khîm-lūi, hî-bah, koàn-thâu)

### Khòng-ióng-hòa-sò·
*ī-hông pûi/iû ióng-hòa (); 
*BHT (butylated hydroxytoluene)

### Pó-chúi-che
*ū kâm chúi-hun ê lō·-iōng, ī-hông ta-sò; 
*glyceryl monostearate ("anti-staling agent")

### Bí-koan
*ní-sek, kháu-kám; 
*Lē:
**sodium nitrate/nitrite (tì-gâm?), iōng tī há-muh, bacon (hō· in khoàⁿ--khí-lâi âng-âng ū-chhiⁿ ê kám-kak); 
**Borax (硼砂, sodium borate, sodium tetraborate):  chia̍h--khí-lâi khah khiū, hái-sán (hê-á, hî-oân, hoat-kóe, bah-chàng, iû-tiâu) khoàⁿ--khí-lâi pe̍h-pe̍h; kang-gia̍p-iōng--ê, chin to̍k.

Lūi-pia̍t:Chia̍h-mi̍h-ha̍k
Lūi-pia̍t:Hòa-ha̍k
Í-sek-lia̍t

**Í-sek-lia̍t-kok** (, Hi-pek-lâi-gí: ; A-la-pek-gí: ) , Sai-a ê kok-ka, chú-iàu ê hái-hoāⁿ oá Tē-tiong-hái, lēng-gōa lâm-pō͘ chi̍t-sió-pō͘-hūn ê hái-hoāⁿ oá Aqaba-oan. Í-sek-lia̍t ê siú-to͘ sī Iâ-lō͘-sat-léng, m̄-koh ūi-tio̍h an-choân kap phiah-bián cheng-gī, tāi-pō͘-hūn ê kok-ka lóng chiong tāi-sài-koán siat-tiàm Tel Aviv, Í-sek-lia̍t chē-chē ê chèng-hú tan-ūi mā siat-tiàm chiā.

Palestine ê Gaza Tē-tāi kap Iok-tàn Hô Sai-kîⁿ (Cisjordan) hiān-chú-sî sī Í-sek-lia̍t só͘ khòng-chè.

## Hêng-chèng-khu

# Pak-pō͘-koān
# Haifa Koān
# Tiong-pō͘-koān
# Tel Aviv Koān
# Jerusalem Koān
# Lâm-pō͘-koān

## Siong-koan ê bûn-chiuⁿ
* Sek-an-chú-gī
Pêng-hong kong-chhioh

**Pêng-hong-kong-chhioh** (kì-chò **m²**), iah-sī **hè-beh** (tùi Ji̍t-gí  *hêbê* (pêng-bí) lâi--ê), kin-kù Kok-chè Tan-ūi Hē-thóng (SI) ê 1-ê ki-pún tan-ūi (**m**) tō--chhut-lâi ê bīn-chek tōa-sè.

1 m² siong-tong sī:
* lióng-pêng lóng-sī 1 kong-chhioh tn̂g ê chiàⁿ-sí-kak-hêng. 
* 0.000001 km²
* 0.0001 kong-khéng
* 0.01 Kong-bó· 
* 10000 cm²
* ≈ 0.3025 Phêng
* ≈ 0.002471Eng-bó· (*acre*)

Tò-sǹg tńg-lai:
* 1 km² = 1,000,000 m² 
* 1 kong-khéng = 10,000 m² 
* 1 kong-bó· = 100 m² 
* 1 Eng-bó· ≈ 40,470 m² 
* 1 Phêng ≈ 3.3058 m² 
* 1 cm² = 0.0001 m² 

## Siong-koan ê bûn-chiuⁿ

* Tan-ūi ê oāⁿ-sǹg-pió
Suriname

**Suriname Kiōng-hô-kok** sī Lâm Bí-chiu siāng sè ê kok-ka, tī tāi-lio̍k pak-pêng. Tang ū Hoat-kok léng Guiana, sai ū Guyana, lâm ū Pa-se, pak sī Tāi-se-iûⁿ. Kū miâ kiò hō-chò *Hô-lân léng Guiana*.

## Hêng-chèng-khu