幽灵图

**幽灵图**（）是由鬼魂、恶魔和其他鬼神為題材的日本繪畫流派。而幽灵图也被认为是日本的风俗画，于19世纪末的幕末时期最為盛行。

## 幽灵的定義
幽灵可包括、妖怪、（亡灵（）等。信仰超自然生物是日本的一项悠久传统。幽灵的来源包括佛教，道教和中国民间传说。最显着的影响，是日本神道的泛灵论，它指出我们的物质世界是由800万无所不在的鬼神所组成。

日本的鬼魂基本上是从地府中为了完成一个优秀的使命而“请假”外出。而日本的灵魂（）则是那些枉死、死無葬身之地、或死后有着强烈的怨念、以及無主孤魂。而他们的“灵魂”实现了愿望后，则可以转世。根据糅合佛教及民間信仰的思想，从現世（）到靈界（）需要七七四十九天，而在中陰身，他们可以在這段期間解决现世未解决的问题。而个人一生的痛苦程度与他们在前世的惡行严重程度有密切的关系。虽然幽灵们的意图并不总是邪恶的，但他们的行动的结果却几乎总是对人类有害。而有信仰认为，鬼魂只能通过一名在世的人的祈祷来得到释放，他的灵魂才能被允许进入冥界。

## 历史背景

存在于日本画卷的幽灵形象，以及血腥和怪诞的场景轴可以追溯到平安時代，而这个传统一直持续到近几个世纪以来， 例如“幽灵画”在19世纪后期达到流行巅峰状态，与幽灵相关的“歌舞伎”以及与幽灵相关的怪談。学术机构“persistent popularity”认为这种神秘物是在“不稳定的社会条件”的江户后期盛行，其中包括普遍存在压迫的德川幕府政权、西方的入侵以及一些自然灾害。

## 幽灵图及戏剧

日本的鬼故事有着悠久的民俗传统，在江戶時代初开始便成為戲劇題材。至于歌舞伎在18世纪后开始流行，也创作出了很多以幽灵为题材的戏剧。

## 审查
德川政权试图恢复其封建农业基础，于1842年开始进行天保改革（），改革涉及到日常生活的许多方面。除了经济、军事、农业、宗教外，還包括艺术。改革的目的是从根本上稳定物价和令人民忠於政權，而在艺术领域的改革使得如艺妓、花魁等妓女和歌舞伎題材作品被禁止。1842年老中水野忠邦下令禁買賣歌舞伎伶人、遊女和艺妓等被認為是有傷風化版画。促使了浮世繪轉向非現實題材發展。

## 参见
* 覺

* 日本妖怪列表

## 脚注

## 参考资料
* Addis, Stephen. “Conclusion: The Supernatural in Japanese Art.” In *Japanese Ghosts and Demons: Art of the Supernatural*, edited by Stephen Addis, 177-179. New York: George Braziller Inc., 1985.

* Art History Reference. "Maruyama Okyo (1733-1795)." Accessed September 14, 2013. http://arthistoryreference.com/a1/54567.htm 

* Bell, David. *Ukiyo-e Explained*. Kent, UK: Global Oriental, 2004.

* Chiappa, J. Noel and Levine, Jason M. "Yoshitoshi's 'One Hundred Ghost Stories of China and Japan(1865)." Yoshitoshi.net. 2009. Accessed September 17, 2013. http://www.yoshitoshi.net/series/100ghosts.html 

* Chin Music Press. "The Ghost of Oyuki." Accessed September 13, 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20131008080519/http://store.chinmusicpress.com/product/the-ghost-of-oyuki-chapbook

* Davisson, Zack. "What is the White Kimono Japanese Ghosts Wear?"  April 2012. Hyakumonogatari Kaidankai. Accessed September 2013. http://hyakumonogatari.com/2012/04/04/what-is-the-white-kimono-japanese-ghosts-wear/ 

* Dolan, Ronald E. and Worden, Robert L., editors. *Japan: A Country Study.* Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1994. Accessed September 16, 2013. http://countrystudies.us/japan/21.htm 

* Encyclopaedia Britannica. "Maruyama Ōkyo." Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc. 2013. Accessed September 14, 2013. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/367211/Maruyama-Okyo 

* Encyclopaedia Britannica. "Tempō Reforms." Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc. 2013. Accessed September 17, 2013. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/586929/Tempo-reforms 

* Fensom, Sarah E. “Lucid Dreams & Nightmares.” Art & Antiques Worldwide Media, LLC. October 2012. Accessed September 17, 2013. http://www.artandantiquesmag.com/2012/10/japanese-woodblock-prints/ 

* Harris, Frederick. *Ukiyo-e: The Art of the Japanese Print*. Tokyo: Tuttle, 2010.

* Iwasaki, Michiko and Barre Toelken. *Ghosts and the Japanese Cultural Experience in Japanese Death Legends*. Logan, Utah: Utah State University Press, 1994.

* Japan Echo. "Beauty and the Ghosts: Young Painter Takes Japan's Art World by Storm." June 22, 2006. Web Japan. Accessed September 14, 2013. http://web-japan.org/trends/arts/art060622.html 

* Jesse, Bernd. "The Golden Age of the Utagawa School: Utagawa Kunisada and Utagawa Kuniyoshi." In *Samurai Stars of the Stage and Beautiful Women: Kunisada and Kuniyoshi Masters of the Color Woodblock Print*, edited by Stiftung Museum Kunstpalat, Gunda Luyken and Beat Wismer, 93-101. Düsseldorf: Hatje Cantz Verlag, 2012.

* Jordan, Brenda. “Yūrei: Tales of Female Ghosts.” In *Japanese Ghosts and Demons: Art of the Supernatural*, edited by Stephen Addis, 25-33. New York: George Braziller Inc., 1985.

* Liddell, C.B. “Nihonga to Nihonga: Young, Fresh and Traditional Artists.” *Japan Times*. March 9, 2006. Accessed September 14, 2013. http://www.japantimes.co.jp/culture/2006/03/09/culture/young-fresh-and-traditional-japanese-artists/#.UjUVUNJJ6s0 

* Meyer, Matthew. "Artwork: Japanese Yokai." Matthew Meyer. 2012. Accessed September 16, 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20140903055358/http://matthewmeyer.net/artwork/japanese-mythology/

* Monstrous.com. "Japanese Ghosts." 2011. Accessed September 17, 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20131110081630/http://ghosts.monstrous.com/japanese_ghosts/all_pages.htm
 
* Richie, Donald. “The Japanese Ghost.” In *Yoshitoshi’s Thirty-six Ghosts*, edited by John Stevenson, 6-9. New York: Blue Tiger, 1983.

* Rubin, Norman A. "Ghosts, Demons and Spirits in Japanese Lore." Asianart.com. Accessed Sept. 9, 2013. http://www.asianart.com/articles/rubin/ 

* Stevenson, John. *Yoshitoshi’s Thirty-six  Ghosts*. New York: Blue Tiger, 1983.

* Schaap, Robert. *Heroes and Ghosts: Japanese Prints by Kuniyoshi 1797-1861*. Leiden: Hotei Publishing, 1998.

* Tenmyouya, Hisashi. "天明屋 尚 [Tenmyouya Hisashi]." Accessed September 15, 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20130531054002/http://www3.ocn.ne.jp/~tenmyoya/biography/biography.html

* The Fitzwilliam Museum. "Luxury and Censorship." Fitzwilliam Museum Kunisada and Kabuki Web Site. Accessed September 17, 2013. http://www.fitzmuseum.cam.ac.uk/gallery/japan/gallery/info%20kun.htm 

## 外部链接
* http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JnveMIhKnSA  -  link to YouTube video of interview with Mizuki Shigeru on Japan's ghosts