ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵓⴷⵔⵜ

**ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵓⴷⵔⵜ** (ⵙ ⵜⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵜ: **biology**), ⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⵉⴽⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ βίος *bios* "ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ", ⴷ -λογία *-logia* "ⴰⵣⵔⴰⵡ", ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵣⵔⵔⵓⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓⵔⵏ. ⵜⴰⵎⵓ ⵜⵓⵥⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰⵏⵜ, ⵜⵉⵣⵉⴳⵣⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵔⵓⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵉⵎⵢⴰⴳⴳⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⵛⵜⵉⵡⴰⵏⵏ, ⵜⵉⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵣⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵏⴼⴽⴽⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵍⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣⵜ. ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⵡ ⵢⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵓⴳⵔⴰⵏ.

## ⴰⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⴷⵔⵜ
thumb|ⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵖⵉⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵛⵡⴰⵏ, ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵔⵙⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ, ⵜⵉⵢⵓⴷⵓⵔ ⵛⵡⴰⵏ.

### ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵇⴱⵓⵔⵏ
ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⵔⵉⵢ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣ ⵉⵇⴱⵓⵔⵏ. ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⴱⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵎⵉⵚⵕ, ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ, ⵍⵀⵏⴷ, ⴷ ⵛⵛⵉⵏⵡⴰ. ⵎⴰⵛⵛ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ, ⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴳⵜⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⵉⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ. ⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵕⵉⵚⵟⵓ (384–322 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ) ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⴷⵔⵜ. ⵉⴳⵍⵎ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 500 ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⴳⵜⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⵔⵓⵔⵉ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵖⵙⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⴼⵍⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵓⴳⴳⵉ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ. ⵉⵎⴰ ⵜⵢⵓⴼⵔⴰⵙⵜⵓⵙ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵉⵚⵟⵓ, ⵢⵓⵔⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵍⵉⵙⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵎⵖⵉⵜ (botany) ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵖⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵙⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵎⵖⵉⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ.

### ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣ ⵉⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵏⵙⵍⵎ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵔⵖ
ⴳ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣ ⵉⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⴳⵎⵉ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵔⵓⴼⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⵛ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵙⵍⵎ ⵉⵥⵕⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵍⵉⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⴹⴰⴼⵏ. ⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵍⵎⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵊⴰⵃⵉⴹ (776–869) ⵖⴼ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵎⵏⵣⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ. ⵢⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⴱⵏ ⵙⵉⵏⴰ ⴰⴷⵍⵉⵙ "ⴰⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵊⵊⵉⵜ", ⵍⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⵖⵓⵍⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵙⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⴰⵎⵙⵏⵉⵊⵊⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵕⵓⴱⴱⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵏ. ⴳ ⵓⴼⵍⴰⵢ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⴱⵏ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⴼⵉⵙ (1213–1288) ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⵍⵎⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵎⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵉⵏ (pulmonary circulation) ⵙ ⵓⵏⵖⴰⴷ.

### ⵜⴰⵏⴽⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⵏⵜ
ⵜⵉⵡⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴽⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵡⵕⵓⴱⴱⵉⵜ ⴰⵏⵏⵣⴳⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵖⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ. ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⴰⵏⴷⵔⵢⴰⵙ ⴼⵉⵣⴰⵍⵢⵓⵙ ⵜⴰⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵍⴰⵢ. ⵉⴳⵍⵎ ⵡⵉⵍⵢⴰⵎ ⵀⴰⵔⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵎⵎⵏ ⴳ 1628. ⵉⵕⵥⵎ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵥⵉⵥⵕⵉ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 17 ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ. ⵉⵙⴼⵓⴽⴽⵔ ⵔⵓⴱⵉⵔⵜ ⵀⵓⴽ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴳ 1665, ⵉⴳ ⴰⵏⵜⵓⵏⵉ ⴼⴰⵏ ⵍⵉⵡⵏⵀⵓⴽ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ.

### ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 19: ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ
[thumb|ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1842, ⵢⵓⵔⴰ [ⵜⵛⴰⵔⵍⵣ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ|ⵜⵛⴰⵍⵣ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⴽⵉⵜⵛ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ "ⴰⵙⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ".]]

ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 19, ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ. ⵢⵉⴳⵓⵜ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵎ "ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵓⴷⵔⵜ". ⵜⴳ ⵜⵥⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵉ ⵛⵍⴰⵢⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵛⵡⴰⵏ ⴳ 1838-1839, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵢⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ. ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵛⴽⴰ ⴷ ⴷ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵛⴰⵔⵍⵥ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ , "ⴰⵙⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ", ⴳ 1859. ⵜⴼⴽⴰ ⵜⵥⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵢⵉⵡⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ.

## ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵍⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ
ⵜⴱⴷⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵖⴼ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⵉⵡⵏⵏ: ⵜⵉⵥⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ, ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣⵜ, ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵊⵉⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵙ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⴰⵏ.

### ⵜⵉⵥⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ
ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵜⵥⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓⵔⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ. ⵜⴳ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵥⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵖⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓⵔⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ, ⴷ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵜⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⴹⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ. ⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴰⵍⵎⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵖⵔⴰⵙⴰⵏ, ⴰⵙⵉⵜⵓⴼⵍⴰⵥⵎ, ⴷ ⵜⵏⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵊⵉⵏⵜ (DNA). ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵔⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ: ⵜⵉⵔⵖⵢⴰⵢⵉⵏ (ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵔ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ) ⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵖⵢⴰⵢⵉⵏ (ⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ).

thumb|ⵜⵓⵥⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵓⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ
thumb|ⵜⵓⵥⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵖⵉⵜ

### ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣⵜ
ⴰⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵏⴼⵍⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵜⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ. ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵙⴼⵔⴰⵡ ⵜⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣⵜ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵏⵥⵕⵕⴰ. ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵔⴷⵓ ⵜⵥⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣⵜ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓⵔⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵙ ⴰⴷ ⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵔⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵙⴳⵉⵙ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ. ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵎⵔ ⵜⵛⴰⵕⵍⵥ ⴹⴰⵕⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵣⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣⵜ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵡⵓⴼⵔⵉⴷⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵖⴰⵔⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵍⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵖⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴼⴼⵓⴽⵜⵉⵏ.

### ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵊⵉⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵙ.ⵎ.ⴽ. (DNA)
ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵙⵏⵊⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⵣⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ, ⵜⴰⵢⵙⵉ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓⵔⵏ. ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⵜⵉⵢⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵙⵉ, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵙ.ⵎ.ⴽ. (ⴰⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵎⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⴽⵙⵓⴽⵙⵉⵔⵉⴱⵓ), ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵏⵛⵜⵉⵡⵜ ⵢⵓⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⵓⵛⵛⵍⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵏⴼⵍⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵖⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵓⵙ (ⴰⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓⵔ). ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⵎⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵏⴳⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵊⵉⵏⵜ. ⴳ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵖⵢⴰⵢⵉⵏ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⴰⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵙ.ⵎ.ⴽ. ⴳ ⵓⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ. ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴳⵔⵉⴳⵓⵔ ⵎⴰⵏⴷⵍ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 19 ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵉⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵊⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ.

### ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵙ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⴰⵏ
ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵙ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵓⵕⵥⵉⵎ, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵓⴷⵓⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓⵔ, ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⴳⵏⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵃⴹⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⴳⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵖⴰⵎⴰⵏ. ⵉⴳ ⵓⵢⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵖⵜⴰⵙⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ. ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵃⴹⵓⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴰⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵖⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⴰ, ⵜⴰⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⵎⵉ (pH), ⴷ ⵉⵏⵏⵓⵎⵎⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴽⵯⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵉⴷⴰⵎⵎⵏ. ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵍⵓⴳⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵜⵣⵉⴳⵣⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵔⵓⴽⵔⵓⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵏⵣⵍⵓⵎⵉⵏ.

## ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⴷⵔⵜ
ⵜⴱⴹⴰ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵖⴼ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵜⵏ, ⴳⵉⵙⵏ:

*   ⵜⴰⴷⵔⵓⴽⵔⵓⵔⴰ: ⴷⴰ ⵜⵣⵔⵔⵓ ⵜⵉⵣⵉⴳⵣⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵔⵓⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ.
*   ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵛⵜⵉⵡⴰⵏⵜ: ⴷⴰ ⵜⵣⵔⵔⵓ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⴳⴳⴰⵜⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵏⵛⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵏⵓⴷⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵙ.ⵎ.ⴽ. (DNA), ⵙ.ⵎ.ⵔ. (RNA), ⴷ ⵉⴼⵕⵓⵟⵉⵏⵏ.
*   ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ: ⴷⴰ ⵜⵣⵔⵔⵓ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵜⴰⵢⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ, ⵙ ⵜⵓⵥⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵖⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ.
*   ⴰⴼⵍⴰⵢ: ⴰⵣⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵥⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵓⵙⵏ.
*   ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴼⴽⴽⴰ: ⴰⵣⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵖⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵣⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ.
*   ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ: ⴷⴰ ⵉⵣⵔⵔⵓ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⴳⴳⴰⵜⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ.
*   ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵉⵎⵖⵉⵜ: ⴰⵣⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⵉⵢⵏ.
*   ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵎⵓⴷⵔⵜ: ⴰⵣⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ.
*   ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣⵜ: ⴷⴰ ⵜⵣⵔⵔⵓ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ.

## ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵙⵏ
ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⵔⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ, ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⴷⴰⵔⵙ ⵜⵣⵔⵉⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵖⴼ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ. ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵔⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ, ⵜⴰⴽⵔⵣⴰ, ⴰⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔⵏ. ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵏⵖⴱⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏⵏⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵊⵊⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵟⵟⴰⵏⵏ, ⴰⵙⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵜⵛⵓ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ.

ⴳ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵊⵊⵉⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⴰⵡⵙ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵟⵟⴰⵏⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ. ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⴷⵔⵓⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵓⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⴳⵣⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⵓ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵓⴱⵖⵉⵔⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵏⵙⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⴳⵣⵣⴰⵢⵉⵏ. ⴳ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⴰⵡⵙ ⵜⵙⵏⵊⵉⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴼⵓⵍⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴱⴷⵓ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ, ⵉⵙⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⵣⴱⴰⵢⵜ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⴰⵟⵟⴰⵏⵏ. ⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵙⵏⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵙⵏⵓⴷⵔⴰⵏ.

## ⵉⵙⴰⵖⵓⵍⵏ

ⴰⵙⵎⵉⵍ:ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴳⴰⵎⴰ
ⴰⵙⵎⵉⵍ:ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ
ⴰⵙⵎⵉⵍ:ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ