open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
UNtsikana

**[[UNtsikana]]** owazalwa ngo-1780-1821 wayeyimboni ngokukamoya, umvangeli kunye nombhali weengoma zenkolo yosentshona. Kwaye wayesaziwa njengomnye wabantu bokuqala ukuguqulela iimbono kunye neengcamango zenkolo yasentshona kumagama avakalayo kubaphulaphuli besiXhosa. 

## Imbali ngobomi bakhe
UNtsikana wazalwa malunga nonyaka nowe-1780 nguGaba, uceba wenkosi yamaRharhabe asentshona, uNgqika kunye nomfazi wakhe omncinci uNonabe kwintlambo yaseThyume, emantla eDikeni. UNtsikana owayengowesizwe sikayise, isizwe samaCirha, wakhuliswa phakathi kwezalamane zikanina de waba neminyaka emihlanu okanye emithandathu.  Uyise wamthumela ukuba eze kuye emva kokuba efumene amalungelo akhe ngokuhlawula isondlo ukususela ebuntwaneni. Umfazi kayise wokuqala, uNoyiki, owayenentombi kodwa engenanyana, wamkela uNtsikana owaba yindlalifa kaGaba. Ukususela ngeli xesha, uNtsikana waba nomhlaba omkhulu kwintlambo yaseThyume, emantla eDikeni kwikhaya lakhe.  Ukudibana kokuqala kukaNtsikana nenkolo yasentshsona kwahambelana nokuzalwa kwakhe kwesiXhosa ngo-1800. Ngo-1799, uJohannes van der Kemp, umvangeli weLondon Missionary Society, wafika phakathi kwamaXhosa asentshona kwaye wavunyelwa ukuba ahlale kufutshane nendawo yomhlaba wenkosi uNgqika. Kungekudala uVan der Kemp waba ngumntu omamelekayo kwaye enikisa umndla kumkani nakubantu bakhe, kwaye kunyaka awahlala phakathi kwabo bafumana amathuba amaninzi okumva eshumayela kwaye exoxa naye ngemfundiso yakhe entsha. Xa wayehamba ngo-1800 uVan der Kemp wayengenakukwazi ukubanga abantu abaguqukayo kodwa kusenokwenzeka ukuba wayenempembelelo kuNtsikana.  UNtsikana watshata namabhinqa amabini aselula, uNontsonta noNomanto, baza bahlala phakathi kwesithili saseKat River kunye nesithili sasePeddie ngo-1811. Emveni kwexesha, yena nosapho lwakhe bafudukela eGqore kwisithili saseKate River.  Emva kokuguqukela kwinkolo yasentshona, uNtsikana waqhawula umtshato nomfazi wakhe uNomanto. UNtsikana walandulela eli kwilal, iThwatwa ngonyaka ka-1821.
Skukuza

**Skukuza** ke Main Restcamp ephambili **Kruger National Park**.

Igama, ihlelwe ngokusuka isiZulu elithi *Sikhukhuza* yaba igama osisilo James Stevenson-Hamilton. Oku kuthetha ukuba ngomtshayelo entsha, njengoko indawo Stevenson-Hamilton wazisula kubathengisi abangenamvume kunye nezinye iintlobo zezikrelemnqa. Le nkampu yasekwa ngowe-1902, yaye kuqala eyaziwa ngokuba *Sabie Bridge* de wathiywa igama lokuba **Skukuza** ngowe-1936.

Ammognich
U-C (woku-programa ulwimi)

U-**C woku-programa ulwimi loku-**lulwimi loku-progama ikhompyutha olwenzelwa ukuba lwenze inkqubo yoku-programa  i-operating system UNIX kwaye ilulwimi lwe-imperative programming. U-C weenziwa ekuqaleni komnyaka ka-1970 ngu-Ken Thompson no-Dennis Ritchie. Ilulwimi olu-Ilulwimi olu-procedural, into ethetha okokuba abantu bangazibhala ii-programs zabo njengothotho lwemiyalelo ngokulandelelana kwayo. U-C lulwimi olu-compiled. 

Kuba imibono exhasa u-C isoloko igcinwe kufutshane kwi-design ye-compyutha, i-compiler (umakhi we-program) yiyo eyenza ezi-nstructions ze-khompyutha eyakusebenza ngokukhawuleza. Isizathu sokuba isebenze ngokukhawuleza kukuba yakha i-program kwikhowudi ye-matshini/ikhowudi yemveli. Oku kwenza i-C ibe lulwimi olulungileyo lokubhala i-operating systems. Ii-operating systems, ziquka i-Linux ne-UNIX, zi-programmed ezisebenzisa ulwimi. Ulwimi lona ngokwalo lunee-keywords ezimbalwa, kwaye izinto ezininzi zenziwa zenziwa ngokusebenzisa ii-libraries, eziyingqokolela yekhowudi zazo ukuze ziphinde zisetyenziswe. 

I-C ifumaneka kwiintlobo ntlobo zekhompyutha. Yiyo le nto u-C abizwa ngokuba y"i-portable" language. I-program ebhalwe ngo-C kwaye oko kuhlonipha imiqathango enokubekelwa iimeko ezahlukeneyo. 

I-syntax ka-C nayo ibenefuthe kwezinye iilwimi ze-programming ezininzi, ezifana ne-C++, i-C#, kunye ne-Java, kwanezinye iilwimi ze-programming ezininzi nesizisebenzisayo kweli xesha siphila kulo. 

## imizekelo yekhowudi
Nanku umzekelo we-program obhalwe ku-C. Xa usakha naxa uyisebenzisa, iyakubonisa u-"Hello world!", aze alandelwe ngumgca omtsha kwifestile yekhomputer.
```c
// This is a comment. It's for *people* to read, not computers. It's usually used to describe the program.

// This "includes" the Standard Input-Output tools in the program.
#include <stdio.h>

// The main function
int main(void) {
    // Prints "Hello world!" onto the screen, followed by a new line ("\n")
    printf("Hello world!\n");
    
    // Tell the computer that the program ran successfully
    return; //EXIT_SUCCESS
}
```


## amanye amaphepha anxulumene nala

## Ezinye ii-website
* C Programming Language in Hindi - सीखें आसानी से। (Hindi)
* Coding Programmer Page / C Library Reference and Examples (English)
* http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/C_(programming_language) C (programming language) -Citizendium)
Isarha

**Isarha** sisixhobo senkcenkce okanye se-metal esitshwezwe sabukhali nesisetyenziswa ukuze sisike yonke into.
Isikere

**Isikere** sisixhobo senkcenkce okanye se-metal esitshwezwe sabukhali nesisetyenziswa ukuze sisike. 

Isikere na ligoba ababini ukuba elidlulileyo omnye komnye ukushukuma nezibambo ezimbini wawavulayo ngesandla okanye ndithule kunokuba. Isetyenziswa ukugawula iphepha, ilaphu, iplastiki kunye nezinye izinto.
Ubunkokheli

**Ubunkokheli **ikukukhokhela iqela labantu okanye iqela lezilwanyana ukuze zikwazi ukuphumeza iinjongo ezithile.

## Amaphepha anxulumene neli
* I-Coach (sport)
* I-Political economy
* Inkosi
* I-Entrepreneur
* Igorha
* Umshumayeli
* Inkokheli egqibeleleyo

## Izalathiso

## Ezinye ii-website
* Leadership at the Open Directory Project
Umqeqeshi wezemidlalo

Kwimidlalo, umqeqeshi okanye umanejala ngumntu okhomb'indlela noqeqesha iqela lemidlalo okanye uba ngumntu wemidlalo. Ukuba kukho umahluko phakakthi komqeqeshi nomanejala, ingangulo:  
* umqeqeshi uyakuqeqesha abadlali
* umanejala yena uyakuqubisana nemiba yokwenza ibhizinisi.   
Iindawo ezenza ibhoda zizo ezikhetha iqela, zize zithenge abadlali abatsha.  

## Ezinye ii-websites
* Coaching Certification.
I-Analog

I-**Analog** okanye i-**analogue** zingabhekisa koku kulandelayo:
* I-signal ye-Analog, ngumxube we-signal oqhubela phambili ngokwexesha nomgama ohanjwe ngelo xesha,  oku ke kuphikisana ne-signal ye-digital okanye neye-discrete:
* I-Analog, kwinto, isigama okanye imeko nethi ngenye indlela imele imeko eyahlukileyo:  
** I-Analogy, xa sithetha ngayo kulwimi, kuxa kuthelekiswa isigama 
* *I-Analog Science Fiction and Fact*, yi- magazine esuka kwi-*Astounding Stories*
Ukulogga kwe-keystorke

I-**keylogger** yintwana ye-spyware okanye ye-computer hardware eshicilela ii-keystrokes fumana iinkcukacha zee-passwords nezee-credit card. Ngamanye amaxesha urhulumente usebenzisa ii-keyloggers xa eqhekeza i-encryption naxa efuna ukujonga abenzi bobubi okanye abo bamoshayo.
I-keyboard

**Ibhodi ekuchwethezwa kuyo (i-Key-board) ** sisixhobo sokufaka ulwazi (y-input device) ngokuthi sivumele umntu akwazi ukufaka ekhompyutheni iimpawu okanye iisimboli ezifana noonobumba kunye namanani. Le bhodi sesona sixhobo sibaluleke kakhulu ekufakeni ulwazi kwiikhompyutha ezininzi.  

## Intlobo ze keyboard
Ii-keyboards zizintlobo ngentlobo, kwaye namaqhosha azo zibekwe alandelelaniswa  ngeendlela ezahlukeneyo.  Olona hlobo lwaziwayo lolulusisakhiwo esiyi- lwe-QWERTY, nolusekwe kwibhodi yamaqhosha ekhompyutha yokubhala ngokuchwetheza.  

Uhlobo lwe-QWERTY yeenziwa ngolu hlobo ukuze oonobumba abasoloko besetyenziswa bangaxingi kumatshini wokuchwetheza. Kungoku nje abakho abanye abachwethezi  kodwa lona olu hlobo lusekho kuba abantu babesele beluqhelile.  Ibhodi enamaqhosha okuchwetheza i-ergonomic iyenzelwe ukuba kubelula ukuba isetyenziswe ngabantu, ngaphandle kokuba bazenzakalise ezandleni okanye kwiingalo zabo.  

Ibhodi enamaqhosa okuchwetheza ingabhala ngokuchwetheza oonobumba, amanani kunye neziphawuli eziziziphumlisi, ize ikwenze ukwazi ukulawula ikhompyutha, usebenzisa amaqhosha awodwa ashe ngeqhosha elithi QALISA (START), kunye namaqhosha okwalatha.  Ibhodi yamaqhosha ekhompyutha i-Dvorak lolunye uhlobo olungasetyenziswa endaweni yolu.  

## Ii-Feature ze keyboard
I-Keystroke yoku-logga inqakula ukushicilelwa kweqhosha ngalinye elithe lacofwa. I-Keystroke yokulogga ingasetyenziswa ukhangela okanye ukumenta iintshukumo zabasebenzi.   Ii-Hackers nazo zisenokusebenzisa i-keystroke yokulogga. Iingcali zaafumanisa okokuba uninzi lwezitshixo zebhodi yekhompyutha zikhupha i-electromagnetic radiation enokusetyenziswa ukuze zintame amaqhosha acofiweyo. Iimpukane eziluhlaza zingabona okokuba yintoni na eye yachwethezwa ngobhulisa loo maqhosha zikuloo ndawo zikuyo.   

## Ii-Virus
Abaphandi bafunda bekwaphicotha into yokokuba ingaba amaqhosha ebhodi yephompyutha angazisasaza na izifo zekhompyutha ezikumila kunje. amanye amaqhosha ebhodi yekhompyutha aafunyanwa eneentsholongwane ezingaphezulu ngokuphindaphindwe kahlanu kunezo zikwisihlalo sendlu yangasese. 

## Iimpawu,manani & zandi
Iimpawu ezikhoyo kwibhodi yekhompyutha zezo zolwimi lwengingqi ngokubanzi, nangona iimpawu ze-ASCII zinento yokuba zibekho kuyo yonke indawo.  

Iimpawu ezikwibhodi yolwimi lwesiNgesi zezi:  1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,0,-,=,q,w,e,r,t,y,u,i,o,p,[,],a,s,d,f,g,h,j,k,l,;,',#,\,z,x,c,v,b,n,m,.,/,!,",£,$,%,^,&,*,(,),_,+,Q,W,E,R,T,Y,U,I,O,P,{,},A,S,D,F,G,H,J,K,L,:,@,~,|,Z,X,C,V,B,N,M,,? kwaye amanye amaqhosha akenzelwanga ezi mpawu.  

## Amaphepha anxulumene nala

## References
I-Spacecraft

I-**spacecraft** y-inqwelo ethwala [//simple.wiktionary.org/wiki/people abantu] nee-cargo izisusa ngaphandle kwe-Eatmosphere yomHlaba, loo nto ziyenza nge-space zibasa kwezinye ii-planetary, izitishi ze-space, okanye kwii-orbits zize ziphinde zibabuyisele ekhaya kwakhona.  Izi-Spacecraft ezenzelwe kumphezulu we-planethi zibizwa ngokuba ziinqwelo ziinqwelo ze-launch akwaye zidla ngokuncothuka kwii-launch pads ekwi-spaceports. 

Inkoliso yee-spacecraft namhlanje zinyanzeliswa ziimoto ze-rocket, eziphokozela impongo yemisi kwelinye icala elichasene neli zihamba ngalo. Ezinye iindlela zokwenza intshukumo zisetyenziswa xa kufanelekile. I-Spacecraft ezingaphelelwayo kumandla amakhulu e-gravity ingasenebzisa ii-ion thrusters okanye ezindle iindlela ezinefuthe. 

Ngenxa yamandla namakhulu afunekayo kwii-Spacecraft ukuze kube lula ukuba mazishiye i-gravithi yomhlaba, kudla ngokuba duru kakhulu ukuzakha, ukuzibeka ngokusesikweni, kunye nokuzisebenza. Izicwangciso zee-spacecraft zexa elizayo zigxile ekunciphiseni ezi ndleko ukuze babebaninzi abantu abanokuthatha inxaxheba kwi-space. kodwa kwezi ntsuku siphila kuzo, amaxabiso asephezulu kakhulu,  kwaye kutsha nje, zonke ii-spacecraft bezixhaswa ngurhulumente kazwelonke. 

## Iinqwelo ze-spaceflight  nekuzinqwelo zabantu
Eyonanto yakhe yaduru kakhulu kunazo zonke izinto kukuthumela abantu kwi-space, ngenxa yokuba kaloku abantu kufuneka betyile, kufuneka bephefumlile, kufuneka behleli endaweni, kukwafuneka bekhuselekile, kwaye abantu kufuneka belawuliwe. Abantu abathatha inxaxheba elolu hlobo banamagama awodwa:   AmaMelika azibiza ii-astronauts; <br>
AmaRhashiya wona azibiza ii-cosmonauts; AmaTshayina azibiza ii-taikonauts.
* Isebe laseMelika i-NASA laasebenzisa uphehleleo lweenqwelo olubizwa ngokuba si-Space Shuttle. Kungoku nje, ziya e-Soyuz nge-cosmonauts.
* Isebe laseRhashiya i-RFSA lisebenzisa uphehlelelo lwenqwelo ebizwa ngokuba yi-Soyuz.
* Isebe le-Ukrainian i-UASA lisebenzisa uphehlelelo lwenqwelo ebizwa ngokuba yi-Zenit. 
* Isebe lamaTshayina i-CNSA lisebenzisa uphehlelelo lwenqwelo ebizwa Shenzhou.
* Ifem yomntu i-Virgin Galactic yakha ikwaphehlelela inqwelo ebizwa ngokuba yi-SpaceShipTwo.

## Ii-Satellites
Inxalenye yee-spacecraft ezibalulekileyo namhlanje zii-satellites ezenziweyo. Ii-satellite ezenziweyo zinganeno ngobukhulu,  kwaye zii-spacecraft ezingenabantu ngaphakathi kuzo. Ezinye zazo zihamba kwi-Low Earth orbit ukuze zijonge emhlabeni okanye zihamba kule ndawo ngezinye iinjongo.  Ezinye zithunyelwa kwi-geostationary orbit ukuze zithumele ii-radio signals ezisuka kwindawo ethile emhlabeni zisiya kwenye indawo, okanye zijonge okwenzeka ezantsi emhlabeni zikwenza oko ziphezulu.   Uqhagamshelwano lwe-satellite lubaluleke kakhulu kumabonakude nakwezinye iindlela zoqhagamshelwano, kwaye eainye ii-satellites zinceda kuqikelelo lwemozulu   nakweminye imisebenzi
I-digital

Inkqubo yohlobo lwe-**digital** yinkqubo egcina ulwazi ngendlela eyodwa. Inkqubo echasene nale yeye-analogue, yona iqhubela phambili  wngalaa ndlela bekuqhutywa ngayo. Ngokwesiqhelo, iinkqubo ze-digital zilugcina  ngendlela ye-binary ulwazi; oko kuthetha ukuthi, yonke intwana yolwazi ayinakuba na-value eyenye ngaphandle ko-*zero* (ivalwe) okanye u-*[[1]]* (ivulwe). Ulwazi oluthe xaxe lugcinwa luluthotho lwezi ntwana zolwazi, oko kuththa okokuba ingqokolela yoo-0 neyoo-1 inika intsingiselo kulw nkqubo.  

Igama elithi *digital* lixhaphakile kwi-computing nakwi-electronics.

## Ukusetyenziswa
* I-Compact Disc
Umsonto owenza ukhuni

**Imisonto eyenza ukhuni **yenziwe nge-cellulose ezyifumana kwimithambo ye-xylem efumaneka kwizityalo, ingakumbi emithini. 

Izinto ezenziwa ngemisonto yemithi ibandakanya iphepha, i-straw, i-bamboo, i-cotton, i-hemp, umoba. into nganye kwezi ifumaneka kwisityalo ehambelana naso.
Orphan

**Ngokwesilungu, Inkedama **ngumntwana ongenabazali.  Oku ke kungabangwa kukuba abazali bakhe baasweleka okanye baamlahla/ abamfuni. Ngenxa yezi meko iinkedama zihlala kwikhaya lazo ekuthiwa ngumzi weenkedama, okanye i-orphanage, kulapho abantwana abangenabazali bahlala khona.  Abantwana abaninzi abahlala kweli khaya lee nkedama bakhuliswa ngumntu okanye ngabantu ababini. 

## Unobangela
Ngamanye amaxesha abazali bayagula bade bafe babe abantwana babo bona besebancinane, kuze kuthi ke xa kungekho sizalwane sabo sizimisele ukubakhulisa, zibe zingenakho kwaphela ukwenza oko, bakhuliswe kwikhaya leenkedama abantwana. Xa beliqela abantwana, umzekelo, oodade nabanakwabo beshiyeke beziinkedama, ngokwesiko lesilungu bayohlulwa; omnye umntwana asiwe kolunye usapho; ngeli lixa omnye eshiyeka kweli khaya leenkedama.  

Maxa wambi basenokungabhubhi abazali, ntonje bangabinamisebenzi  namali, baze ke ngoko ngokwesiko lesilungu, babalahle abantwana babo kuba bengenakukwazi ukubakhulisa. Abazali bangafikelela kwisigqibo sokokuba ukuba kungakho mntu wumbi onokubakhulisa aba bantwana, mhlawumbi bangatsho babenekamva eliqaqambileyo kwixa elizayo.  

## UKunceda iinkedama
Kumazwe maninzi athwaxwa yindlala  iinkedama zisoloko zibonwa zidwakasa  zicela zicela amalizo e-mali nokutya; abaninzi basenokungayi nasesikolweni. Akukho nzame zingakanani ezenziwayo zokubanceda kula mazwe angathathi ntweni.   

Kodwa kumazwe ekuhluthwayo kuwo,   imibutho kwanamaziko amaninzi ayazinceda iinkedama  aze aphinde ancede abazali ngonyango xa begula okanye mhlawumbi xa behluphekile, ukuze bangabalahli abantwana babo. Imibutho enje ngeecawa neenkonzo zasekuhlaleni, ziyabancedisa.  

## Imbali yeenkedama
Abalinganiswa abaninzi kwiincwadi nakwimidlalo bhanya-bhanya, bebesoloko bedlala indima yeenkedama,  imidlalo efana no-Oliver Twist, u-David Copperfield, u-Annie, u-Batman, kunye no-Harry Potter.

## Imithombo
I-diffusion

**I-diffusion** eyenzeka ngokweenkqubo ezimbini: e-chemical ne-biological, ii- molecules zihamba zingumthombo zisuka kwinto okanye kwindawo ethile , esingathi  (ngamanye amagama apho kuqhuma khona) yi-high [//simple.wiktionary.org/wiki/concentration concentration] (apho zininzi khona ezi- molecules) zisiya kwindawo echazwa ngokuba i-low concentration (apho ke zimbalwa khona ezi molecules).

I-diffusion idla ngokwenzeka nge-gas okanye nge-liquid. Kuyenzeka okokuba uyibone i-diffusion isenzeka xa ii-liquids ezimbini zixutywe kwizitya ezi-[//simple.wiktionary.org/wiki/transparent transparent]. Ichaza intshukumo yee-particles emi eyenzeka ndawonye kuzo zonke ii-liquids kwanakwii- gases.ezi particles ziyabula zigqibe yonke indawo ekwesi sitya zide ziman'ukungqubana. I-diffusion ingasebenza kwii-gases nakwii-liquids.
Nantsi inxalenye yemizekelo ye-diffusion:
* umcu weswekile ushiywe kwikomityi yamanzi ixesha elide.  
* Ivumba le-ammonia lithe saa ukusuka entla kwigumbi lokufundela ukuya phaya emva.  
* Ivumba elimnandi lesiqholo livakala kakhulu lisuka kwibhotile yesiqholo xa kususwe isiciko sayo.  
* Ukutya okumbejembeje okufakwe kwisitya kuthi saa kweso sitya.  
Ii-Molecules zithanda ukuhamba zisuka kwindawo apho zisuka okanye zininzi khona ezo ndawo ke sithi zii-high places concentration, ziye kwiindawo ezingekho kuzo nekuthiwa zii-low places of concentration, ngokuzihambela nje kwazo zingalawulwa nto. Umzekelo, kukho i-oxygen ethe chatha emphungeni xa kuthelekiswa naleyo isegazini, ngoko ke ii-molecules ze-oxygen ziyakuthanda ukuhamba zisiya egazini. Ngokunjalo, zingaphezulu ii-molecules ze-carbon dioxide egazini xa kuthelekiswa nezo zisemphungeni, ngoko ke ii-molecules ze-carbon dioxide ziyakuthanda ukuhamba ziye kungena emphungeni.  .

Apho kukho ingxinano enkulu, ngenxa yokuyabula kwee-molecules ezingamanzi, ziyakuthanda ukuthi saa kuloo nto de zibe azisenako ukuhamba.  

## Funda nanga amanye amaphepha
Usapho (lwakwa Bayoloji)

Kwa-bayoloji, **usapho lukukulandelelana kwama**manqwanqwa, okanye i-taxon kwelo nqwanqwa kuthethwa ngalo. Usapho ngalunye lune-genera enye nangaphezulu. Inqwanqwa elilandelayo ngokubaluleka lele-order. Okuqhelekileyo, yinto yokokuba kwizilwanyana, igama losapho ligqibela ngo-"idae", lize ke elezityalo ligqibele ngo-"*aceae*". ngamatye amaxesha kubakho ii-subfamilies kunye nee-superfamilies. Ii-Subfamilies ziphela ngo-"inae" okanye ngo-"*oideae*".

ngesiLatini, usapho yi-"familia". 

Umzekelo, zombini i-walnuts (eyi-genus *Juglans*) ne-hickories (eyi-genus *Carya*) ziphantsi kosapho lwe-walnut (eyi-*Juglandaceae*).
IPoland

IPoland lelinye lamazwe aseYurophu. Ikomkhulu: Warszawa.

## Demography

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  bar:1582 from:0 till: 7500000
  bar:1634 from:0 till: 11000000
  bar:1800 from:0 till: 9000000
  bar:1921 from:0 till: 27177000
  bar:1938 from:0 till: 34849000 
  bar:1946 from:0 till: 23930000
  bar:1960 from:0 till: 29776000
  bar:1978 from:0 till: 35061000
  bar:1995 from:0 till: 38610000
  bar:2009 from:0 till: 38167329
 

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  bar:1800 at: 9000000 text: 9,000,000 shift:(0)
  bar:1921 at: 27177000 text: 27,2 shift:(0)
  bar:1938 at: 34849000 text: 34,8 shift:(0)
  bar:1946 at: 23930000 text: 23,9 shift:(0)
  bar:1960 at: 29776000 text: 29,8 shift:(0)
  bar:1978 at: 35061000 text: 35,1 shift:(0)
  bar:1995 at:  38610000 text: 38,6 shift:(0)
  bar:2009 at: 38167329 text: 38,167,329 shift:(0)
I-Habitat (indawo ekuphila kuyo izilwanyana nezityalo)

I-**habitat** yindawo esikhulele kuyo isilwanyana, isityalo, osohlobo oluthile, okanye olunye uhlobo lwe-organism. natural eyindawo enjalo ngokwendalo yayo apho isidalwa sihlala khona, okanye yindawo yendalo ejikeleze uluntu.

## Indawo eziphila kuzo izilwanyana
Uninzi lwezilwanyana luhlala kuhlobo olunye lwe-environment kuba kuzezona zingqinelana nazo. Sithi zi-'adapted' kwi-environment'. Umzekelo, izilwanyana ezifana namasele, ii-newts, namadada, zinoobhaxa beenyawo ezizinceda zitsho zikwazi ukudada emanzini.  Ziziintlobo ngeentlobo ke ii-habitats kwaye zikwaziintlobo-ntlobo iindawo ezikwazi ukuphila kuzo.  

Ukuba kuyenzeka itshintshe indawo yazo, ayisayikuzilungela izilwamyana nezityalo ukuba ziphile apho. Ngenxa yokokuba kaloku izilwanyana nezityalo zingayiqhelanga loo ndawo intsha lube nonxulumano phakathi kwazo nale ndawo intsha luluncinane, oku kungabanga amakhwiniba ngamakhwiniba.   Ukuguquka kwemozulu ikwenza okokuba ezinye iindawo ezihlala kuyo izilwanyana neentaka zibeshushu,noko kunezo ziziqhelileyo ibe ke iintlobo ntlobo ezininzi zezilwanyana zifudukela kwiindawo ezipholileyo.   Nangona kunjalo, ezinye iintlobo zezilwanyana azikwazi ukufuduka zitsho ke ngoku zingandi ziye zincipha ngokuncipha. Ingcali zenzululwazi zicinga okokuba 10% yezi ntlobo ekhulwini zingahamba zihambe ziphele ngenxa yolu tshintsho.  Ezinye iindawo zokuhlala izilwanyana nezokukhulela izityalo zilungiselelwe ukuba zihlale efama. Umzekelo ophilayo ngowase-Australia, ama-80% amahlathi e-eucalypt aagawulwa ukuze kwenziwe ifama kwiminyaka engaphaya kwa-210 eminyaka egqithileyo.  Oku kungachaphazela ubukho bamahlathi ekuphila kuwo izilwanyana ezinje nge-koala.

## Plant habitats
Kanye njengezilwanyana xa ziqhelene nendawo eziphila kuzo, kunjalo ke nakwityalo. Izityalo ziqhele ukumila zikhule kakuhle kwiintlobo ngeentlobo zeendawo.  . Kangangokuba, isityalo ngasinye sinnepawu ezithile.  Ezinye ziqhele ukuphila emhlabeni, ngeli lixa ezinye ziqhele ukuphila emanzini. Izityalo ezikhula emhlabeni zidla ngokuxhaswa ziziqu eziqinileyo ukuze zikhule kakuhle zibheke phezulu, ngelo xesha ezi zikhula emanzini zidla ngokuba neziqu ezizintswazana nje kuba kaloku zona zixhaswa ngamanzi. 

Izityalo ezikhula kwimozulu engani mvula njengasentlango zinamagqabi ambalwa, angangabikho kwa ukubakho loo magqabi kwezinye izityalo, kwaye angazigcinela amanzi xa imvula ikhe yana. Uqhelana  kwazo nomhlaba othile kunciphisa ukungabikho kwamanzi. Izityalo ezikhula kwiindawo ezinomthunzi zinamabhakubhaku amagqabi atsho athi ngokotha ilanga akhongozele imitha yelanga kangoko anakho, okanye akekelele ngaselangeni. 

## Amanye amaphepha anokufundwa
I-Molecule

**I-molecule** yintwana encinane eyi-khemikal enokufumaneka. Ukuba i-molecule le ibinokucukucezwa ngaphezu kokuba incinane kangako ibezizicukwana, ibizakuba yenye into eyahlukileyo.  

Ii-molecules zenziwe ngee-atoms ezithi zincamathelane zitsho zimile ngandlela ithile. Akuyiyo yonke imixube yee-atoms eqhelekileyo; ii-atoms zithanda ukumila ngohlobo oluthile, kodwa akunjalo kwezinye ii-atoms.  Kananjalo, zithanda uhlobo lwezicwagciso oluthile. Umzekelo, ii-atoms ze-oxygen (engumongo-moya ngesiXhosa) iyakusoloko inee-bonds ezimbini nezinye ii-atoms,  kanti zona ii-atoms ze-carbon ziyakusoloko zinee-bonds ezine nezinye ii-atoms, kanti nee-atoms ze-nitrogen ziyakusoloko zinee-bonds ezintathu nezinye ii-atoms.  

Kwii-gases ezifana nomoya, ii-molecules ziyazibhabhela nje.  Kanti ke kwizinto ezilngamanzi lezifana noqobo lwamanzi, ii-molecules ziqumbana ndawonye kodwa ke zisenokwenza intshukumo.  Kwizinto ezi-solids njengeswekile, ii-molecules zingasuke zi-ngcangcazele. Kukwakho nenye imo yento eyaziwa ngokuba yi-plasma apho ii-molecules zibhabha zijikeleze ngokukhawuleza ngokungathi ziphambene kunaxa zisemoyeni. nge-molecular formula, ungawabhala onke amanani ee-atoms ezikwi- molecule. Umzekelo, i-molecular formula ye-glucose ithi-C6H12O6. Oko kuthetha ukuba i-molecule enye ye-glucose yenziwe zii-atoms ze-carbon atoms ezintandathu, zii-hydrogen atoms ezilishumi elinambini kwanee-oxygen atoms ezintandathu.  

## Uncamathelwano
Ukuze ikwazi ukubakho i-molecule, ii-atoms kufuneka zincamathelane.  oku ke kwenzeka xa ii-atoms ezimbini zisabelana ngee-electrons. Endaweni yokujikelezisa le atom inye kuphela, i-electron ngoku ijikeleza zibe mbini. oku ke kubizwa ngokuba luncamathelwano. Ii-electrons ekwabelwana ngazo zibizwa ngokuba zii-'bonds'. Ngamany'amaxesha, ziba mbini nangaphezulu ii-electrons ekwabelwana ngazo. Xa zisanda ii-electrons ekwabelwane ngazo, i-bond nayo iya isomelela kwaye kungona ukuncamathelana kwee-atoms kusiya kusomelela.  

Ii-bonds zingaqhekezwa zohlukaniswe. Kuba ke inkoliso yee-bonds ifuna amandla ukuze zenzeke, zikwakhupha amandla xa zophuliwe. Kodwa phambi kokuba uninzi lwee-bonds luqhekeke, kufuneka zitshiswe ii-molecules.  Ii-atoms ziqale zishukume, zize zithi zakushukuma kakhulu, yophuke i-bond.  Ii-Molecules ezifuna amandla anganeno ukuze zikwazi ukuqhekeza kunalawo ziwafuna xa sele ziqhekekile zibizwa ngokuba zii-fuels. Umzekelo, ikhandlela lingabekwa phaya kungabikho nto yenzekayo. Kodwa xa uqhwitha ngematshisi ulilayite, liyakuvutha ixesha elide. Imatshisi izisa amandla ukuze iqhekeze ii-bond zokuqala, ezikhulula amandla awoneleyo ukuze ziqhekeze ii-bonds ezingaphantsi kuzo, de libe ikhandlela livuthe laphela.  

## Imithombo

## Ezinye ii-websites
* Molecule of the Month - School of Chemistry, University of Bristol
* Antibody Molecule - The National Health Museum
* Data Book of Molecules - Home Page for Learning Environmental Chemistry
Warszawa

**Warszawa** — iDolophu, ikomkhulu ePoland.  
## Population

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 bar:2010 at: 1720 text: 1720,4 shift:(-14,5)
 bar:2014 at: 1732 text: 1735,4 shift:(-14,5)


## External links
* Warszawa 

## iReference
I-nonmetal

I-**Nonmetal** okanye i-**non-metal** yi-chemical element engenazimpawu za-nkcenkce. Isenokuba zii-gases okanye ibe zizinto ezingabonakali ngathi ziyinkcenkce.   Imizekelo yezinto ezi-gaseous nazi:   i-hydrogen, i-helium, i-oxygen, i-nitrogen, i-fluorine, i-neon, okanye i-radon, zezimbalwa esizibizileyo apha. Umzekelo we-solid eyi-nonmetal yi-sulfur. Iqanda ngombala kwaye ayimenyezeli kwaphela.  Umzekelo we-liquid eyi-nonmetal yi-bromine. Ibomvu ngombala. I-nonmetal ikwalungele i-insulator xa kushushu naxa kubanda.  I-gases okanye ii-brittle solids zizinto ezi-non-metals. Ii-elements ezikwi-periodic table zingathathwa ngokuba zi-metal, zi-semimetal, okanye zi- non-metal.

Uninzi lwee-elements ziyinkcenkce ngokuphindwe kahlanu ngaphezu kwezo zizii- nonmetals. Ezimbini kuzo ii-nonmetals—i-hydrogen ne-helium—zenza ngaphaya kwama-99 ee-per cent ye-Universe, ebonakalayo kwaye inye—i-oxygen—yenza phantse ihafu ye-Earth's crust, i-oceans kunye ne-atmosphere. Izinto eziphilayo phantse zonke zenziwe ngoninzi lwezinto ezizii- nonmetals, kwaye ii-nonmetals zenza ezinye ezininzi ii-compounds kunezo zenziwa zii-metals.
Kraków

**Kraków** — iDolophu ePoland.  
## Population

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  bar:1975 at: 684600 text: 684,6 shift:(0)
  bar:1995 at: 744987 text: 744987 shift:(0)
  

## External links
* Kraków 

## iReference
I-Concentration

Kw-ikhemestri, **i-concentration** ithetha okokuba into (i-substance) egalelwayo okanye exutywayo ingaba  ixutywe kangakanani na kuloo nto (substance) ixutywa kuyo.  

I-substance okanye into e-nyibilikileyo (iboniswe ngedayi ebomvu kule mizekelo) yaziwa ngokuba sisinyibiliki. Into leyo isinyibiliki sinyibilika kuyo (umzekelo waso kwezi glasi ngamanzi)  saziwa ngokuba  sisinyibilikisi.

Ukwenza ukuba umxube,u-concentr-eythe  umntu makongeze isinyibiliki (i-solute) esiyidayi ebomvu kulo mzekelo, okanye aphungule isinyibilikisi (i-solvent) esingamanzi ngokwalo mzekelo. Xa **kungxengwa ** umxube, makongezwe isinyibilikisi esithe xaxe, okanye kuphungulwe isinyibiliki.  

## Amaphepha azalana nala
IFinland

**IFinland** lelinye lamazwe IYurophu. Iilwimi ezisemthethweni zaseFinland sisiFinnish nesiSwedish. 

IFinland ingumda weSweden ukuya emantla-ntshona, iNorway ukuya emantla, kunye neRashiya ngasempuma, kunye neGulf of Bothnia ngasentshona kunye neGulf of Finland emazantsi, ngaphesheya kwe-Estonia. IFinland ithatha indawo ye-338,145 square kilometers (130,559 sq mi) enabemi abazizigidi ezi-5.6. IHelsinki yeyona dolophu inkulu kunye neyona dolophu inkulu.

Indawo ngoku eyiFinland yazinziswa, mva nje, malunga ne-8,500 BC ngexesha leStone Age ukuya ekupheleni kwexesha lomkhenkce lokugqibela. Izinto zobugcisa abahlali bokuqala bazishiya ngasemva iimpawu zangoku ezabelwana ngazo nezo zifumaneka e-Estonia, eRashiya naseNorway. Abantu bokuqala babengabazingeli-abaqokeleli, besebenzisa izixhobo zamatye.

IFinland ibikade iyinxalenye yeSweden ngokwembali. Ukuqala kwexesha lexesha akucaci, kodwa laphela ngo-1809. Emva koko, iFinland yaba yinxalenye yeRashiya de kwangowe-1917 xa iFinland yakhululekayo.

Imfazwe yamakhaya yaseFinland yenzeka ngowe-1918. Kwalwelwa ubunkokeli nolawulo lwelizwe phakathi kweWhite Finland kunye neFinnish Socialist Workers’ Republic (iRed Finland) ngexesha lokutshintsha kwelizwe lisuka kwisikhululo soBukhosi baseRashiya lisiya kwilizwe elizimeleyo. Olu ngquzulwano lwenzeka phantsi kombhodamo welizwe, wezobupolitika nowentlalontle owabangelwa yiMfazwe Yehlabathi I (Eastern Front) eYurophu. Imfazwe yaliwa phakathi kwabalindi abaBomvu, ekhokelwa licandelo le-Social Democratic Party, kunye nabalindi abaMhlophe, abaqhutywa yi-senate kunye nabo bachasa i-socialism ngoncedo lwasemva kwemfazwe yi-German Imperial Army ngesicelo se-Finnish. urhulumente woluntu. Amajoni aRed Guard, awayeyilwe ngabasebenzi bemizi-mveliso nabezolimo, ayelawula izixeko namaziko emizi-mveliso akumazantsi eFinland. Amajoni amhlophe amajoni, awayequka abanini-mhlaba nabo bakudidi oluphakathi nophezulu, ayelawula amaphandle asemaphandleni nomntla weFinland, yaye ayekhokelwa nguNjengele C. G. E. Mannerheim.

ISoviet Union yaqalisa iMfazwe yaseBusika nge-30 kaNovemba 1939 ngeenzame zokuthimba iFinland.

Umongameli wangoku we-FInland ngu Sauli Niinistö.

Apha ngezantsi kukho uluhlu lwaso sonke idolophu kunye nedolophu yaseFinland
I-element

*Disambiguation page*
* Ikhemikhali, yinto engenakucalucaluleka ibengamacuzwana ekhemical amancinane 
* *I-element okanye *imozulu
* ezona elements zinkulu nazi; yi-mysticism, i-alchemy, i-mythology kunye ne-fantasy fiction - Fire, amanzi, umoya akunye nomhlaba
* Into eyigcina indawonye i-set. 
* incwadi ebhalwe ngu-Euclid ebizwa ngokuba yi-Euclid's Elements. kule ncwadi u-Euclid uthetha nge-geometry.
I-Vacuum

I-**vacuum** yindawo engena-matter. Isandi asinakuhambela ndawo kwi-vacuum, Oumphandle we-space iakuyovacuum igqibeleleyo, kuba kukho iqela lee-particles apho. 

## Ii-vacuums zoshishino
I-vacuum ifuneka kwiintlobo ezithile zokwenza imveliso zoshishino. Iimpompo ze-vacuum zisetyenziselwa ukumpompa umoya ziwukhuphela ngaphandle kwi-vacuum. apha ekuhlaleni i-100% akunto enokufane yenzeke, kodwa inkoliso yeempompo ze-vacuum ziyakwazi ukwenza i-vacuum eyi-99.9999%.  le ke ibizwa ngokuba y"ivacuum eyomeleleyo".  Inkoliso yeenjongo zoshishino azifuni vacuum iqinileyo; eyi-0.001% ilunge ngokwaneleyo.  

Ii-vacuums zoshishino zisetyenziswa kuphela :  
# kushishino ngokutya
# kushishino nge-Electronics 
# kwi-Packaging
# kwi-Manipulation
# kwi-Coating and degasing
Ii-vacuum chambers zikwasetyenziswa kwimisebenzi emininzi yasez-ilaboratories. Eminye yale misebenzi ikwifiziki nakwi-Khemestri nyona ifuna ivacuum eyomeleleyo. 

## Eminye imisebenzi
Ivacuum yokucoca isebenzisa amandla amakhulu evacuum ukuze ikwazi ukufunxa uthuli nokungcola, icoce umgangatho wendlu.  

## funda naga amanye amaphepha
* Industrial vacuum information
I-solvent extraction

I-**Solvent extraction**, ikwaziwa ngokuba yi- **Liquid–liquid extraction** okanye i-**partitioning**, yindlela yokwahlula i-compound eyenziwe ku-mxube owezinto zayo. Oku kwenziwa ngokusebenzisa ii-liquids ezimbini ezingadibaniyo, umzekelo,  ngamanzi kunye neosinyibilikisi esi-organic.

I-Solvent extraction isetyenziswa xa kusenziwa ii-perfumes, i-vegetable oil, okanye i-biodiesel. Ikwasetyenziswa ukubuyisela i-plutonium ephuma kumafutha kumafutha e-rradiated nuclear, inkquba ebizwa ngokuba yi-nuclear reprocessing. I-plutonium ethe yafunyaniswa ingaphinda isetyenziswe kwakho njenge-nuclear fuel.

Kule nkqubo enye yee-components zemixube inyibilika kwi-liquid ethile nakwezinye ii-components ezinye ii-components zahlulwe njengentsalela eshikele xa bekuhluzwa.
Ukucaca

Kwi-optics, ukukhanya yinxalenye yezinto aezenza okokuba ukukhanya kugqobhozele ngaphakathi kwinto ethile, sitsho sibone okokuba yintoni na le ikulento.  

I-[//simple.wiktionary.org/wiki/object object] ekhanyayo ungabona ngaphaya kwayo. Oko kuthetha okokuba, into engaphaya kwayo kungalula ukugqobhoza kuyo utsho uyibone into engaphaya kwayo.   I-nto ebonakalayo ngaphaya kwento ekhanyayo ifana nqwa nento onokuyibona ungakhange ude ube ugqobhozela kwenye into. Isenokutshintshwa ukuba loo nto ikhanyayo isebenza nje ngee-lens.  Oko ke kunokubutshintsha ubungakanani nendlela emi ngayo loo nto.  

## I-Translucency
Ukuba ukukhanya kwento kubonakala luzizi  ngokuthi nangona amehlo ekwazi ukugqobhoza abone ngaphaya kwento leyo ikhanyayo, kodwa akakwazi ukubona zonke iinkcukacha zaloo nto agqobhozele kuyo; loo nto kuthiwa i-**translucent**.  

Ukukhanya kunqumla ngento e-translucent, kodwa akunakubona nto ngaphaya kwako.  Ukukhanya kudlula kule kodwa into le kunqumla kuyo kuyakungqubaza ukukhanya ukuze ungabinakuyibona into, ubone  isithunzi 

Imizekelo yezinto ezi-**translucent** zi-igilasi, amaphepha, kunye nenzinye iintlobo ze- amber.
Boerewors

**Boerewors** ibandakanya ambu namanqatha ingxengelelwe imifuno netyuwa, kongomisiweke eka esiqhubekayo ukulungele esiphekiweyo okanye yokubhaka yethumbu. Ekuqaleni amathumbu neegusha ezisetyenziselwa inshorensi, kodwa namhlanje phantse kuphela ukusebenzisa amathumbu eyenziweyo. Oku ethandwayo ingakumbi eMzantsi Afrika namazwe angabamelwane.

Incwadi yomlibo sausage ekrwada.

Kanye barbeque ilizwi, nkqiyoyo ilizwi aziguqukanga IsiNgesi kunye noninzi iilwimi Southern African zibandakanyiwe.

## Bona kwakho
*Tshisa nyama
IsiHlangu

A **yezihlangu** luhlobo izihlangu, weqweqwe elikhusela iinyawo ukusuka zikhwelwe amatye okanye iglasi ezibukhali, ingqele, ukungcola zosulelo ulusu.

Neembadada kakhulu kwi isithende wayisithelisa kuphela unyawo, kodwa kukho iintlobo ezininzi kunye nezimbo leyo kwakhona kuxhomekeke kwi fashoni.


File:Buty_Chełmek.jpg|Isibini izihlangu
File:Kinderschoenen.jpg|Kid's shoes
File:Geta.JPG|Traditional Japanese wooden shoes
File:Bristol.zoo.crocshoes.arp.jpg|Shoes made from crocodile leather
File:Red High Heel Pumps.jpg|Red high heel pumps for the misses
File:SuperUgg.JPG|Uggs
Leishmaniasis

I-**Leishmaniasis**, ekwapelwa njengo-**leishmaniosis**, isi sifo sibangelwa yi- protozoan parasite yohlobo lwe- *[[Leishmania]]* kwaye isasazwa kukutyiwa ziindidi ezithile ze-sandflies. Isifo singabakho ngeendlela ezintathu ezintathu eziphambili: i-cutaneous, i-mucocutaneous, okanye i-visceral leishmaniasis. Uhlobo lwe-cutaneous luzisa izilonda zesikhumba, ngelixa uhlobo lwe-mucocutaneous luzisa izilonda zesikhumba, zomlomo, nezempumlo, lona uhlobo lwe-visceral luqala ngezilonda zezikhumba luze kamva luzise umkhuhlane, iiseli ezibomvu zegazi eliphantsi, kwakunye nodakada nesibindi esandileyo.

Izifo ezosulelayo ezisebantwini zibangelwa ziintlobo ezingaphezulu kwama-20 ze-*Leishmania*. Iimeko zomngcipheko ziquka intlupheko, ukungondleki, ukupheliswa kwamahlathi, kunye nokwenziwa kweedolophu. Zonke ezi ndidi zingaxilongwa ngokubonwa kwezifunxi-gazi ngaphantsi kwemayikhroskophu. Ngokongezelelekleyo, isifo se-visceral singaxilongwa ngokuvavanywa kwegazi.

I-Leishmaniasis ingathintelwa ngokuyinxenye ngokulala phantsi kweenethi ezinyangwe nge zibulala-zinambuzane. Amanye amanyathelo aquka ukufefezwa kwezibulala-zinambuzane ukubulala ii-sandflies kwanokunyanga abantu abanesifo kwangoko ukuthintela ukusasazeka kwaso ngakumbi. Unyango oludingekayo luqondwa ngendawo esifumaneke kuyo isifo, iintlobo ze-Leishmania, kwakunye nohlobo lwesifo esosulelayo. Amanye amachiza anokusetyenziselwa isifo se-visceral aquka i- liposomal amphotericin B, umdibaniso we- pentavalent antimonials ne- paromomycin, ne-miltefosine. Kwisifo se-cutaneous, ingasebenza i-paromomycin, i- fluconazole, okanye i-pentamidine.

Ngabantu abamalunga nezigidi ezili-12 abosulelekileyo kungoku nje  kumazwe athile angama-98. Ziimeko ezintsha ezimalunga nezigidi ezi-2  kwaye kwenzeka ukufa okuphakathi kwamawaka angama-20 nama-50 ngonyaka ngamnye. Ngabantu abamalunga nezigidi ezingama-200  abaseAsiya, eAfrika, eMzantsi nakuMbindi weMelika, nakumazantsi eYurophu abahlala kwiindawo apho sixhaphake khona esi sifo. I-World Health Organization ifumene izaphulelo kwamanye amachiza okusinyanga esi sifo. Esi sifo sinokwenzeka nakuthotho lwezinye izilwanana, ukuquka ii-izinja kunye ne-zikrekrethis.

## Imithombo
I-substance

**I-Substance** [*sub'-stuns*] yinto eyenziwe ngenye into ebonakala ngamehlo, okanye *y[[i-matter]]*, yento ethile ekwenziwe ngayo loo nto yenziweyo. **Ii-Substances** zizinto eziphatheka ngesandla nezibonakala ngamehlo, okanye kusenokwenziwa umlinganiselo wazo. Zenziwe ngamalungu ee-elements amabini nangaphezulu. I-Iron, i-aluminium, amanzi kunye nomoya yimizekelo yee-substances.

## ingxaki zokuchaza igama elithi ''into'' okanye 'substance'

eyona ngxaki inkulu ekufumaneni eyona nkcazo iyiyi malunga nokokuba iyintoni na **substance** yeyokokuba, ukuba ngaba, umzekelo, asithatheli ngqalelo ihlabathi (eliyi-cosmos) kuphela, izinto eziphilayo nezingaphiliyo, kananjalo yonke into gabalala, kuyakuvela umbuzo othi, "yintoni eyona yona iluphawu lokwenene nesekelwe kuyo le nto kuthiwa y'into', nekuyinto eyakuba nazo zonke izinto ezikwi-(matter), ingqondo, iindlela zokuva, i-space, umphefumlo, njalo njalo).

## Imbali nemvelaphi yegama elithi ''substance''

Igama lesiLatini elithi substantia - linguqulelo yegama lesiGrike elithi essence (ousia), kwaye ngesiLatini lichaza umdla wokusebenzisa igama elithi essentia. KwiFilosofi yamandulo, igama elithi substance lithathwa njengegama elibhekisa kwindawo ekufumaneka kuyo izinto zendalo,isiseko sokuqala sayo yonke into (umzekelo, "ngamanzi" eThales, ng*umlilo* we-Heraclitus). 

Kungoku nje, igama lee-substance lithathwa njengegama kwaye ligcwele wonke umhlaa. umbono wokuqala unxulumene nolwazi nge-substance oluvela nkokwe-ontoloji, iintsika zolu lwazi ngoo- (Francis Bacon, Benedict Spinoza, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz). Elona candelo lemetaphysics kwi-substance yefilosofi yaziwa ngokuba yileyo inoThixo nendalo kwaye ithathwa nje ngezidalileyo (i-Latin causa sui). Ezona mpawu ze-substance zivela ku-Benedict Spinoza kwaye ziyacinga ziphinde zistretch-e. Ngokwe-analogy, ngefilosofi ye-substance ka-Benedict Spinoza ibonwa ngokwesigama sika-René Descartes no-Leibniz. I-substance yokuqala kukudibana kwento leyo yenzayo (i-subject) kunye naloo kwenziwa kuyo into (i-object), eyesibini - ii-toms ezifanayo zizinto nje ezingasanwabulukiyo, kodwa zifumana iimpawu eziziiaspirations (Fr. appetition) kunye no-kwanda.Siyabulela, i-substance ye-Leibniz iqala ukunxulumana ne-matter.

Inqaku lesibini ngokumalunga nombono onge-substance - yindlela  e-epistemological eliqondwa ngayo eli gama lithi substance, iizinto elinokukwazi ukuzisingatha kwakunye nemfuneko yolwazi ngobunzululwazi, (uJohn Locke, David Hume). U-Immanuel Kant ukholelwa kwinto yokokuba umthetho naphantsi kwaluphi na utshintsho oluthi lwenzeke kwinto yesiganeko eso kwaye nenani lezinto elithi lizigcine kulo ngokwendalo ziyinto efanayo, zingahlonyelwa k"mava afanayo." U-Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel uyichaza i-substance njengesidima sotshintsho, ukuguquka kwezinto, njengolona "tshintsho lukhulu xa kusiya kukhula umnqweno." Ngokuka-Arthur Schopenhauer i-substance - i-matter ngokukaDavid Hume - imbali engeyiyo inyaniso, the izinto ezibekho ngaxesha nye. 

## Amanye amaphepha azalana neli
* Chemical substance
Intsholongwane i-Zika

**Umkhuhlane i-Zika** (ekwaziwa **njengesifo sentsholongwane i-Zika**) isisigulo esibangelwa yintsholongwane i-Zika. Kwiimeko ezininzi ayinazo iimpawu, kodwa xa zikhona zidla ngokuba ngaphakathi kwaye zingafana nomkhuhlane i-dengue. Iimpawu zingaquka umkhuhlane, amehlo abomvu, ukuqaqanjelwa ngamalungu omzimba, intloko ebuhlungu, kwanerhashalala ye-maculopapular. Iimpawu zithatha ngaphantsi kuneentsuku ezisixhenxe. Akukabikho kufa kuxeliweyo ngexesha lokuqalisa kosuleleko. Usuleleko lwayanyaniswa ne-Guillain–Barré syndrome (GBS).

Umkhuhlane i-Zika idla ngokusasazeka ngenxa yokulunywa ziingcongconi zohlobo lwe*[[Aedes]]*. Isenokubangelwa lulosuleleko lwezifo zesondo ezihanjiswa ngesondo ukusuka emntwini ukuya kumntu atshate naye kwaye zikwanokusasazwa kukutsalwa kw(ama)egazi. Izifo ezosulelayo kubafazi abakhululweyo nazo zingalosulela usana kwaye oku kudityaniswa  nokuphuma kwezisu kunye ne-microcephaly. Uxilongo lungokuvavanya igazi, umchamo, okanye amathe ukuqonda ubukho bentsholongwane ye-Zika RNA xa umntu egula.

Uthintelo luquka ukunciphisa ukulunywa ziingcongconi kwimimandla apho senzeka khona isifo kunye nokusetyenziswa ngokufanelekileyo kweekhondom. Imizamo yokuthintela ukulunywa iquka ukusetyenziswa kwezigxothi-zinambuzane, ukugquma ubuninzi bomzimba ngesinxibo, iinethi zeengcongconi, kunye nokususa amanzi awomileyo apho zinokuzala khona ngokutsha iingcongconi. Alukho olusebenzayo ugonyo. Abasebenzi bezempilo bacebisa ukuba abafazi abakwimimandla echaphazelwa 2015–16 uqhambuko lwe-Zika bakhe bathi xhaa ngokumitha kwaye abafazi abamithiyo bangatyeleli kule mimandla. Ngelixa kungekho lunyango luthile, i-paracetamol (acetaminophen) inganceda ngeempawu. Ukulaliswa esibhedlele akuyo mfuneko ixhaphakileyo.

Intsholongwane ebangela esi sifo yaqala ukubekelwa bucala ngo-1947. Uqhambulo lokuqala ukubhalwa phakathi kwabantu lwenzeka ngo-2007 kwi-Federated States of Micronesia. , esi sifo besisenzeka kwingingqi ezingamashumi amabini zaseMelika. Sikaziwa kwakhona ngokwenzeka eAfrika, eAsiya, nakwiPasifikhi. Ngenxa yoqhambuko olwaqala eBrazil ngo-2015, i-World Health Organization yakubhengeza oku njenge-Public Health Emergency of International Concern ngoFebruwari 2016.

## Imithombo
I-Schistosomiasis

I-**Schistosomiasis**, ekwaziwa njenge-**snail fever**, isisifo se-helminthiasis esibangelwa yi-parasitic flatworm ekuthiwa yi-schistosomes. Indlela yomchamo okanye amathumbu anokosuleleka. Imiqondiso neempawu zingaquka ubuhlungu besisu, urhudo, ilindle elinegazi, okanye igazi elisemchameni. Abo bosulelekileyo ixesha elide bangafumana umonakalo wesibindi, ukungasebenzi kwezintso, ukungaqhameli inzala, okanye umhlaza wesinyi. Ebantwaneni, inokubangela ukungakhuli kakuhle kunye ukufunda nzima.

Isifo sisasazeka ngokudibana namanzi ahlaziyekileyo angcoliswe zizifunxi-gazi. Ezi zifunxi-gazi zikhutshwa ziinkumba zamanzi ahlaziyekileyo asulelekileyo. Isifo esiqheleke ngokukodwa ebantwaneni abakumazwe asakhasayo njengoko kuqhelekile ukuba badlale kumanzi angcolileyo. Amanye amaqela asemngciphekweni omkhulu aquka amafama, abalobi beentlanzi, kunye nabantu abasebenzisa amanzi angacocekanga imihla ngemihla. Iyeyeqela le- izifo ezosulelayo ze-helminth. Uxilongo lungokufumana amaqanda esifunxi-gazi kumchamo okanye kwilindle lomntu. Isenako nokuqinisekiswa ngokufumana izilwa-buhlungu ezisegazini ngokuchaseneyo nesifo esisegazini.

Iindlela zokuthintela isifo ziquka ufikelelo kumanzi acocekileyo kunye nokunciphisa inani leenkumba. Kwimimandla apho sixhaphakileyo esi sifo, ichiza eliyi-praziquantel linganikezwa kube kanye ngonyaka kwiqela lonke. Oku kwenzelwa ukunciphisa inani labantu abosulelweyo kunye, nokulandelayo, nokusasazeka kwesifo. I-Praziquantel isekwalunyango olunconywayo yi-World Health Organization (WHO) kwabo baziwa bengabosulelekileyo.

I-Schistosomiasis ichaphazele abantu abaphantse babe zizigidi ezingama-210 ehlabathini jikelele ukusukela ngo-2012. Kuqikeleleka ukuba ngabantu abali-12,000 ukuya kuma-200,000 ababulawa yiyo kunyaka ngamnye. isifo sifunyanwa ngokuqheleke kakhulu eAfrika, kwanaseAsiya nakuMzantsi Melika. Ngabantu abazizigidi ezingama-700 million, kumazwe angaphezulu kwangama-70, abahlala kwimimandla apho esi sifo sixhaphake khona. Kumazwe etropiki, i-schistosomiasis iyeyesibini kwimalariya phakathi kwezifo zezifunxi-gazi ezinefuthe elikhulu kwezoqoqosho. I-Schistosomiasis idweliswe njengesifo setropiki esingahoywanga.

## Imithombo
I-Onchocerciasis

I-**Onchocerciasis**, ikwaziwa njenge-**river blindness** ne-**Robles disease**, isisifo esibangelwa  lusuleleko lwentshulube esisifunxi-gazi i-*[[Onchocerca volvulus]]*. Iimpawu ziquka ukurhawuzelelwa ngamandla, iingongoma ezingaphantsi kwesikhumba, kunye  nobumfama. Ingunobangela wesibini oxhaphakileyo wobumfama obubangelwa sisifo esosulelayo, emva kwe-trachoma.

Intshulube esisifunxi-gazi isasazwa ngokutyiwa yi-black fly yohlobo lwe-*[[Simulium]]*. Ukutyiwa kaninzi kudla ngokwenzeka phambi kolosuleleko. Ezi mpukane zihlala kufuphi nemilambo, kungeso sizathu le nto sibizwa ngeli gama esi sifo. Zakuba ngaphakathi emntwini, iintshulube ziyila imibunguethi iziyele esikhumbeni. Apha zingosulela i-black fly elandelayo ethi ilume umntu. Kukho iindlela ezininzi zokwenza uxilongo eziquka: ukubekwa  zesikhumba kwi-placing kovavanyo lwezicwili zesikhumba kwi- normal saline kunye nokujongwa kokuphuma kombungu, ukujongwa elihlweni lemibungu, kunye nokujongwa ngaphakathi kweengongoma eziphantsi kwesikhumba zeentshulube ezindala.

Alukho ugonyo oluchaseneyo nesi sifo. Uthintelo lungokubaleka ukubethwa ziimpukane. Oku kungaquka ukusetyenziswa kweyeza lokugxotha izinambuzane kunye nesinxibo esifanelekileyo. Amanye amalinge aquka lawo okunciphisa isininzi seempukane ngokufefeza  izibulala-zinambuzane. Asaqhubeka amalinge okuphelisa isifo ngokunyanga onke amaqela abantu kabini ngonyaka kuthotho lweendawo zasehlabathini. Unyango lwabo bosulelweyo lungechiza eliyi-ivermectin rhoqo ukusuka kwiinyanga ezintandathu ukuya kwezilishumi elinambini. Olu nyango luyawubulala umbungu kodwa alikwazi ukwenza njalo kwiintshulube ezindala. Ichiza eliyi- doxycycline, elibulala intsholongwane eyi-associated ekuthiwa yi-*[[Wolbachia]]*, ibonakala izithomalalisa iintshulube kwaye iyanconywa ngabanye kananjalo. Ukususwa kweengongoma ezingaphantsi kwesikhumba ngotyando nalo lungenziwa.

Ngabantu abamalunga nezigidi ezili-17 ukuya kwezingama-25 abosulelwe yi-river blindness, nabasondele kwisigidi se-0.8 abanentwana ethile yokulahlekelwa kukubona. Inkoliso yokosuleleka okuninzi yenzeka kwiAfrika engaphantsi kweSahara, nangona nezinye iimeko zixeliwe eYemen nakwiindawo ezimbalwa ezikukuMbindi nakuMzantsi weMelika. Ngo-1915, ugqirha uRodolfo Robles waqala ukumanyanisa le ntshulube nesifo samehlo. Sikwadweliswe yi-World Health Organization njengesifo setropiki esingahoywanga.

## Iireferensi