Mbili ya Afilika

Mbiri ya Africa yikamba na kuwoneka kwa ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa hominid, ŵanthu ŵakale na  vyaka pafupifupi 300,000 - 250,000 vyaka vyajumphapo. Mbiri yakwambilira iyo yikumanyikwa yikalembeka mu Eguputo wakale, ndipo pamasinda mu Nubia, Sahel, Maghreb, na ku Horn of Africa.

Pamanyuma pa kuzgoka kwa Sahara kuŵa mapopa, mbiri ya kumpoto kwa Africa yikakhwaskana na Middle East na Southern Europe apo banthu ŵakamba kufumako ku Cameroon (Central West Africa) mu vigaŵa vinandi vya sub-Saharan pakati pa 1000 BC na 1 AD.

Mu vyaka vyapakati pa 500 na 1500 C.E., chisopa cha Cisilamu chikamba kusazgikira kufuma ku Arabia m'paka ku Eguputo. Vyaru vinyake ivyo vikaŵako pambere charu chindambe kulamulira mu Africa vikaŵa Ufumu wa Ajuran, Ufumu wa Bachwezi, Ufumu wa D'mt, Ufumu wa Adal, Ufumu wa Alodia, Ufumu wa Dagbon, Ufumu wa Warsangali, Ufumu wa Buganda, Ufumu wa Nri, Chikhalidwe cha Nok, Ufumu wa Mali, Ufumu wa Bono, Ufumu wa Songhai, Ufumu wa Benin, Ufumu wa Oyo, Ufumu wa Lunda (Punu-yaka), Ufumu wa Ashanti, Ufumu wa Ghana, Ufumu wa Mossi, Ufumu wa Mutapa, Ufumu wa Mapungubwe, Ufumu wa Sine, Ufumu wa Sennar, Ufumu wa Saloum, Ufumu wa Baol, Ufumu wa Cayor, Ufumu wa Zimbabwe, Ufumu wa Congo, Ufumu wa Kaabu, Ufumu wa Ife, Ise, Carthage wakale, Numidia, Mauretania, na Ufumu wa Aksumite. Pa nyengo iyo caru ca Africa cikaŵa cakutowa comene, pambere ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵandambe kulamulira caru ici, ŵanthu ŵakaghanaghananga kuti mu Africa mukaŵa vyaru vyakupambanapambana 10,000 na magulu gha ŵanthu ŵakujiwusa ŵekha, awo ŵakayowoyanga viyowoyero na mitheto yakupambanapambana.

Kwambira kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1400, ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakamba kuguliska ŵazga. Mu vyaru ivi mukaŵa malonda gha ŵanthu ŵatatu. Pakwamba Ŵapwitikizi ŵakaguliskanga ŵazga, ndipo pamasinda ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito nkhaza. Ŵakatumanga ŵazga ŵa ku West, Central, na Southern Africa. Pamanyuma, ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakamba kuzunura charu cha Africa kufuma pa 10% (1870) kufika pa 90% (1914) mu nyengo ya nkhondo ya ku Africa (1881-1914). Ndipouli, pamanyuma pa kulimbana kwa wanangwa mu vigaŵa vinandi vya caru ici, kweniso kupeleŵera kwa caru ca Europe pamanyuma pa Nkhondo Yaciŵiri ya Caru Cose (1939-1945), caru cose cikamba kuzgoka caru ca Africa.

Vinthu vinyake nga ni kulemba mbiri ya ŵanthu, kusanda malulimi, kusanda vinthu vyakale, na sayansi ya majini, vikawovwira chomene kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu Africa ŵamanye umo vinthu vikaŵira kale.

## Mbili ya chiyamwaka

### Mbili yamu nyengo yachiyamwaka ya malibwe

#### Lower Paleolithic

Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakamanyikwa ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Africa. Kuyana na ivyo ŵasayansi ŵakuyowoya, viwangwa vya ŵanthu ŵakwambilira vikaŵa vyakuyana waka na vya gorila na chimpanzee. Ici cikaŵawovwira comene kuti ŵakhalenge mu nkhorongo kweniso mu malo ghambura makuni, nangauli mu nyengo iyi mu Africa mukaŵa vyakumera vinandi. Ivi vikwenera kuti vikachitika vyaka 10 m'paka 5 miliyoni ivyo vyajumpha, kweni ŵanthu ŵakususkana navyo chifukwa ŵasayansi ŵakuwona kuti ŵanthu ŵakaŵako vyaka 70,000 m'paka 200,000 ivyo vyajumpha.

Pafupifupi vyaka 4 miliyoni ivyo vyajumpha, mitundu yinandi ya vikoko vya mu vigaŵa vya kumwera, kumafumiro gha dazi, na ku Central Africa yikamba kuŵako. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito vinthu na kupanga vinthu. Ŵakasanga nyama ndipo ŵakaryanga vyose..

Pafupifupi vyaka 3.3 miliyoni ivyo vyajumpha, ŵanthu ŵakamba kugwiliskira ntchito visulo vya malibwe pakusanga nyama izo zikakomeka na vinyama vinyake. Pa nyengo ya ulovi, munthu uyu wakwenera kuti wakalimbananga na vinyama vikuruvikuru yayi. H. habilis wakwenera kuti wakibanga mazira mu viŵaya ndipo wakakozganga nyama zichoko waka na kuchepeska nyama zikuruzikuru. Vinthu ivi vikaŵa vya Oldowan.

Pafupifupi vyaka 1.8 miliyoni ivyo vyajumpha, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Homo ergaster ŵakalembeka kakwamba mu malibwe mu Africa. Kufuma ku Homo ergaster, Homo erectus wakasintha vyaka 1.5 miliyoni ivyo vyajumpha. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakwambilira ŵa mtundu uwu ŵakaŵa ŵachoko chomene mu wongo ndipo ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito visulo vya malibwe nga ni H. habilis. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, wongo ukakura chomene, ndipo H. erectus wakapangaso vinthu vinyake vyakuzirwa chomene. Munthu uyu ndiyo wakaŵa wakwamba kufumamo mu Africa, ndipo wakafika mu vyaru vinandi vya ku Africa na Eurasia. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti munthu wakwamba uyo wakaŵako kuwaro kwa Africa wakaŵa Homo georgicus, kweni ŵasayansi ŵanandi ŵakuti munthu wakwamba uyo wakaŵako kuwaro kwa Africa ni H. georgicus.

#### Middle Paleolithic

Vinthu vyakale ivyo vili kulembeka vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Homo sapiens (awo ŵakuchemekaso kuti "ŵanthu ŵa mazuŵa ghano" panji "ŵanthu ŵa mazuŵa ghano") ŵakakhalanga mu Africa vyaka 350,000 m'paka 260,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Vinthu vyakale chomene ivyo ŵanthu ŵakumanya kuti ni vinyama vya Homo sapiens ni Jebel Irhoud ivyo vili kufuma ku Morocco (pafupifupi vyaka 315,000 ivyo vyajumpha), Florisbad Skull wa ku South Africa (pafupifupi vyaka 259,000 ivyo vyajumpha), na Omo uyo wali kufuma ku Ethiopia (pafupifupi vyaka 233,000 ivyo vyajumpha). Ŵasayansi ŵakuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Homo sapiens ŵakamba kuŵako pakati pa vyaka 350,000 na 260,000 ivyo vyajumpha.

Ukaboni wa nkharo zakupambanapambana ukulongora kuti nkharo za ŵanthu zikamba mu nyengo ya malibwe iyo yikaŵa ku Africa. Mu nyengo iyi, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuwona vinthu vyambura kuwoneka makora, umo ŵanthu ŵakukhala makora, kweniso nkharo zinyake izo ŵanthu ŵakuchita mazuŵa ghano. Mwaciyelezgero, mu mphanji ya Blombos, ku South Africa, ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa comene cifukwa ca malibwe ghakututuŵa agho ghali na vithuzithuzi. Pakugwiliskira ntchito nthowa zinandi zakupimira vyaka, ŵakamanya kuti malo agha ghakaŵako vyaka vyapakati pa 77,000 na 75,000. Mu Diepkloof, South Africa, ŵakasangamo viŵiya ivyo vikaŵa na viwangwa vya tuyuni uto pakalembeka maukaboni agho ghakalembeka vyaka 60,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Vinthu vinyake vyakusongoneska vyakusangika ku Morocco ivyo vingaŵa kuti vili na vyaka 130,000. Kweniso, mu mphanji ya Hearths ku South Africa muli vinthu vinandi ivyo vikulongora kuti vikaŵa vyaka 50,000 ivyo vyajumpha.

Zida zapadera zakhala zikupezeka m'malo osiyanasiyana ku Middle Stone Age Africa, kuphatikizapo mafupa ndi mivi ya mivi ku malo a South Africa monga Sibudu Cave (pamodzi ndi singano yoyambirira ya mafupa yomwe inapezekanso ku Sibudu) kuyambira pafupifupi zaka 60,000-70,000 zapitazo, ndi ma harpoon a mafupa ku malo a Katanda ku Central Africa kuyambira pafupifupi zaka 90,000 zapitazo. Pali ukaboni wakuti malibwe gha silcrete ghakapangikanga mwakukhazikika kuti ghaŵe ghakutowa chomene, ndipo ghakamba kupangika vyaka 164,000 ivyo vyajumpha pa malo gha Pinnacle Point ku South Africa. Vinthu vyakwambilira ivyo ŵanthu ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito pakugwiliskira ntchito vilwero vya malibwe (viŵiya ivyo ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Homo sapiens ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito), ni viŵiya vya malibwe ivyo ŵanthu ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito pakugwiliskira ntchito mikondo, ndipo vikasangika mu 2013 ku Gademotta ku Ethiopia.

Mu 2008, ku Blombos Cave, South Africa, ŵakasanga malo agho ŵanthu ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito kupenta. Kufufuza uku kukulongora kuti mu viswaswa viŵiri ivi mukaŵa viswaswa vinandi ivyo vikaŵa na viswaswa vinandi. Ukaboni ukulongora kuti ntchito iyi yikaŵa yakusuzga chomene, nga ni kusanga na kusazga vinthu vyakufuma ku malo ghakupambanapambana (kulongora kuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵakamanyanga makora umo ŵangachitira), panji ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito vyakupangira mafuta kuti ŵafumiskemo mafuta mu viwangwa, ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito nthowa yinyake kuti ŵapangire munkhwala uwu, kweniso ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito viŵiya vyakupimira visulo pakusazga na kusunga kuti ŵazakawusange munthazi. Vinthu ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuchita mazuŵa ghano, nga nkhupangira tumabango, viŵiya, na vinthu vinyake vyamalibwe, vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito vinthu vyamalibwe vyaka 78,000 m'paka 67,000 ivyo vyajumpha.

Ŵanthu ŵakuwona kuti nkharo ya ŵanthu yikusintha chomene chifukwa cha kupenja nyama zinandi. Malo ghanandi ku South Africa ghakulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakamba kugomezga chomene visomba. Ku Pinnacle Point, ŵanthu ŵakamba kugwiliskira ntchito vinthu vya mu nyanja vyaka 120,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Mwaciyelezgero, para ŵanthu ŵakuthemba chomene visomba ivyo vili na visomba ivi, ŵangaleka kwendera lumoza na ŵanthu ŵanyake. Mphanji ya Blombos na malo gha 440 mu Sudan, ghose ghakulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakaloŵanga somba. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti visomba ivyo vikusangika mu mphanji ya Blombos vikaŵa vyamoyo. Ŵanthu ku North Africa (Nazlet Sabaha, Egypt) ŵakamanyikwanga kuti ŵakagwiranga nchito ya kujimira malibwe, vyaka 100,000 ivyo vyajumpha, kuti ŵapangire visulo vya malibwe.

Mu 2018, pa malo gha Olorgesailie, ku Kenya, pakaŵa ukaboni wakuti ŵanthu ŵakamba kuchita vinthu nga umo ŵakuchitira mazuŵa ghano. Awo ŵakalemba mabuku ghatatu gha mu 2018 ŵakayowoya kuti ukaboni wa nkharo izi ukusangika mu nyengo ya ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakaŵako mu Africa (nga ni awo ŵakaŵako ku Jebel Irhoud na Florisbad). Mu 2019, ukaboni unyake wakuti kukaŵa vilwero vyakugwiliskira ntchito futi ku Africa ukasangika ku Adouma, Ethiopia vyaka 80,000-100,000 ivyo vyajumpha.

#### Upper Paleolithic
Pakati pa vyaka 65,000 na 50,000 ivyo vyajumpha, ŵanthu ŵakamba kukhala mu vyaru vinyake. Kuzakafika mu 10,000 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Homo sapiens ŵakaŵa kuti ŵafika mu vigaŵa vinandi vya ku Africa na Eurasia. Kusakaza kwawo kukulongosoreka na maukaboni gha chiyowoyero, mitheto na majini. Kusama kwa ku Eurasia, comenecomene kusama kwa ku Western-Eurasia, kukayamba mu nyengo ya Holocene panji kale comene mu nyengo ya Paleolithic, nyengo zinyake pakati pa vilimika 30-15,000 ivyo vyajumpha, kulondezgana na kusama kwa nyengo ya Neolithic na Neolithic kufuma ku Middle East, comenecomene ku Northern Africa, Horn of Africa, na vigaŵa vikuruvikuru vya Sahel zone na East Africa.

Ukaboni wakwambilira wa umo vinthu vya mu mlengalenga vikachitikiranga ni kalendara ya mwezi iyo yikasangika pa chiwangwa cha Ishango icho chili pakati pa 23,000 na 18,000 B.C.E. mu charu icho sono chikuchemeka Democratic Republic of Congo. Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵakususkana na fundo iyi.

Ŵasayansi ŵakuti nkhondo yikaŵako yayi mu nyengo yakale chomene, ndipo yikafuma mu ndyali zakusuzga chomene chifukwa ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mwakufwasa yayi. Ndipouli, ivyo vikasangika pa malo gha Nataruk mu chigaŵa cha Turkana, ku Kenya, uko kukaŵa viwangwa vya ŵanthu 27 awo ŵakafwa cifukwa ca kuwukilika na gulu linyake vyaka 10,000 ivyo vyajumpha, vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakamba kale comene kulimbana.

### Emergence of agriculture and desertification of the Sahara

Pafupifupi mu 16,000 B.C.E., kufuma ku mapiri gha ku Nyanja Yiswesi m'paka ku mapiri gha kumpoto kwa Ethiopia, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuwunjika mphangwe, vyakumera, na vipasi kuti ŵarye. Kuzakafika mu 13,000 na 11,000 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵakamba kuwunjika vyakurya vyamuthengere. Ivi vikafika mu vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Asia, uko ŵanthu ŵakamba kulima tirigu na balere. Pakati pa 10,000 na 8000 B.C.E., kumpoto kwa Africa kukaŵa vyakurya vya tirigu na balere kweniso mberere na ng'ombe za ku Southwest Asia. Mu Africa, nyengo yakotcha yikapangiska mapiri gha ku Ethiopia kuŵa nkhorongo. Ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero cha Omo ŵakamba kukhala ku malo agha cha m'ma 6500-5500 B.C.E. Pafupifupi chaka cha 7000 B.C.E., ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vya mapiri vya ku Ethiopia ŵakamba kuzengera mbunda, ndipo mu 4000 B.C.E., mbunda zikafika mu vyaru vya kumwera kwa Asia. Ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga Cushitic, ŵakaleka kuliska ng'ombe, teff na chiŵegha pakati pa 5500 na 3500 BC.

Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵakamba kupanga viŵiya ku Africa, ndipo viŵiya vyakwambilira chomene vikafuma ku Mali. Nyengo yichoko waka, nthenda iyi yikathandazgika mu vigaŵa vyose vya kumwera kwa Sahara na Sahel. Mu vigaŵa vya mapiri gha Sahara na Sahel ku North West Africa, ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero cha Nilo-Saharan na ŵanthu ŵa Mandé ŵakamba kuwunjika na kuliska mphoza, mpunga wa ku Africa, na sorghum pakati pa 8000 na 6000 B.C.E. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, ŵanthu ŵakambaso kuvuna na kupwelelera viŵeto nga ni nkhaka, mphoza, mbuto za castor, na thonje. Ŵanthu ŵakamba kukora viŵeto vya mu thengere na kuviŵika mu viŵaya vyaminga. Mu milonga na nyanja zinandi izo zikaŵako cifukwa ca vula, ŵanthu ŵakaloŵanga comene pa somba. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Mande ndiwo ŵakamba kulima pafupifupi 4000-3000 BC.

Mu vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa, nkhorongo yikakura chomene kufuma ku Senegal m'paka ku Cameroon. Pakati pa 9000 na 5000 B.C.E., ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero cha Niger na Congo ŵakamba kulima makuni gha maolive na raphia. Vipambi viŵiri vya mbuto, viŵiya vya maso ghafipa na voandzeia (vipasi vya ku Africa), vikamba kulengeka, pamanyuma pake pakaŵa okra na kola. Pakuti vyakumera vinandi vikakuliranga mu nkhorongo, ŵanthu ŵa ku Niger na Congo ŵakamba kupanga vyakujinthamo malibwe kuti ŵajinyolore.

Mu vigaŵa vinandi vya kumwera kwa Africa, mukaŵa ŵanthu ŵakuchemeka pygmy na Khoisan awo ŵakakoperanga na kuvulura. Ŵanthu aŵa ndiwo ŵakalemba vinthu vinyake vyakale chomene.

Kwa vyaka vikwi vinandi, chipalamba cha Sahara chikusintha pakati pa mapopa na vyakumera vya mu savanna mu nyengo ya vyaka 41,000 chifukwa cha kusintha ("precession") kwa pasi apo likuzingilira dazi. Para nyengo ya mphepo ya ku North Africa yafika paheni chomene, mu chigaŵa cha Sahara mukuŵa vyakumera vinandi. Para vula ya ku North Africa njakukhora yayi, ndipo yikuchepa chaka chilichose, mbwenu vyakumera vikumara. Sahara ni mapopa kwa vyaka vikwi vinandi, ndipo ghakwenera kuzengekaso mu vyaka 15,000 (17,000 AD).

Pambere Sahara wandazgoke mapopa, ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga kumwera kwa Eguputo, mu charu icho sono ni Sudan, ŵakakhalanga mu nyengo ya Neolithic ndipo ŵakakhalanga mwakufwasa. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti malibwe ghakurughakuru agho ghakasangika ku Nabta Playa ni vinthu vyakwambilira ivyo ŵanthu ŵakagwiliskira ntchito pakusanda vya mu mlengalenga. Vinthu vyakupambanapambana ivyo vikachitika pa nyengo ya Nkhondo Yakwamba ya pa Charu Chose na mu nyengo ya Ufumu wakale wa Eguputo ndivyo vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaŵe na maghanoghano ghakupambanapambana. Kufika mu 5000 B.C.E., mu Africa mukaŵa chilangalanga, ndipo nyengo ya mu chigaŵa cha Sahara yikamba kukamuka. Ŵanthu ŵakafumanga mu chigaŵa cha Sahara ndipo ŵakendanga mu vigaŵa vyose, kusazgapo ku Dambo la Nayelo kusi kwa Dambo la Chiŵiri, uko ŵakakhalanga. Nyengo yikafika paheni comene, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti ku Central na East Africa kuleke kuwa vula zinandi.

### Central Africa

TVinthu ivyo ŵanthu ŵakufukura vinthu vyakale ŵali kusanga mu Central Africa vyaka 100,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Malo ghakukhala ŵanthu ghakasangika ku Zilum, Chad, pafupifupi makilomita 60 kumwera cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Nyanja ya Chad.

Ivyo ŵasanga vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa ku Sao, Kanem, Bornu, Shilluk, Baguirmi, na Wadai, ŵakalutilira kuŵa na umoyo uwemi chifukwa cha umo vinthu vikasinthira pa nkhani ya ulimi kweniso malonda.

Pafupifupi 1,000 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ŵakafika ku chigaŵa cha Great Lakes ku Central Africa. Pakati pajumpha vyaka 1,000, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ŵakamba kukhala kumwera kwa charu icho sono chikuchemeka Angola.

### Metallurgy

Ukaboni wakuti kale ŵanthu ŵakasungunuranga visulo ∙ lead, copper, and bronze ∙ ukafuma mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000 B.C.E.

Ŵaeguputo ŵakasungunuranga mkuŵa mu nyengo ya Ufumu wa Farawo. Nubia ndiyo yikapanganga mkuŵa na golide. Kugwiliskira nchito golide na siliva mu Eguputo kukamba mu nyengo ya ufumu wa ufumu wa Persia.

Mu mapiri gha Aïr mu charu icho sono chikuchemeka Niger, ŵanthu ŵakasungunuranga mkuwa kwambura kughanaghanira ivyo vikachitikanga mu dambo la Nayelo pakati pa 3,000 na 2,500 B.C.E. Ŵakagwiliskira ntchito nthowa yakupambanapambana iyo yikaŵa mu chigaŵa ichi, kulongora kuti luso ili likafuma kuwaro yayi.

Kuzakafika m'ma 1000 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵakamba kugwiliskira ntchito visulo ku Northwestern Africa, Egypt, na Nubia. Zangato na Holl ŵakalemba ukaboni wakuti mu Central African Republic na Cameroon mukaŵa visulo ivyo vikasongonoka kufuma mu 3,000 m'paka 2,500 B.C.E. Ŵaasiriya ŵakagwiliskira ntchito vilwero vyachisulo kuti ŵafumiske ŵanthu ŵa ku Nubia mu Eguputo mu 670 B.C.E. Kufuma apo, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamba kugwiliskira ntchito chisulo mu dambo la Nayelo.

Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuzomerezga yayi fundo yakuti chisulo chikafika ku vyaru vya ku Sub-Saharan Africa kwizira mu tawuni ya Meroe ku Nubia. Ku Africa kumanjiliro gha dazi, ŵanthu ŵakamba kugwiliskira ntchito visulo kwamba mu 2500 B.C.E. ku Egaro kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Mlonga wa Termit ku Niger. Ku Nigeria, ŵanthu ŵakamba kusungunula visulo mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000 B.C.E. Ku Central Africa kuli ukaboni wakuti ŵanthu ŵakagwiranga ntchito ya chisulo kwamba mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000 B.C.E. Kusungunula zitsulo kunayamba pakati pa Nyanja ya Chad ndi Nyanja za Great African pakati pa 1,000 ndi 600 BC, ndipo ku West Africa pafupi ndi 2,000 BC, kale kwambiri lusoli lisanafike ku Egypt. Pambere chaka cha 500 B.C.E. chindambe, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Nok mu Jos Plateau ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito kusungunula visulo. Malo gha Gbabiri (mu Central African Republic) ghakasangaso ukaboni wa vyakupangira visulo, kufuma ku ng'anjo yakuchepeskeramo visulo na malo ghakusoperapo ŵanthu; ndipo ghakafuma mu 896-773 BC na 907-796 BC.

## Antiquity
Mbiri yakale ya kumpoto kwa Africa yikukolerana na ya ku Middle East. Ivi ndivyo vikachitikanga chomene mu Eguputo na Nubia. Mu chigaŵa cha Horn of Africa, ufumu wa Aksum ukalamuliranga Eritrea, kumpoto kwa Ethiopia, na chigaŵa cha mumphepete mwa nyanja kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Arabia. Ŵaeguputo ŵakamba kukolerana na charu cha Punt mu 2350 B.C.E. Punt wakaŵa munyake wa Eguputo wakale ndipo ŵanthu ŵakugomezga kuti wakaŵa ku Somalia, Djibouti panji Eritrea. Misumba ya Ŵafoinike nga ni Carthage yikaŵako mu nyengo ya Mediterranean Iron Age kweniso mu nyengo yakale. Mu nyengo yira, vyaru vya ku Sub-Saharan Africa vikamba kujilongozga.

### Ancient Egypt

Para Sahara wazgoka mapopa, ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga chomene mu Dambo la Nayelo. Vyaru ivyo vikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene vikaŵa mu chigaŵa cha Nile Delta ku Lower Egypt, Upper Egypt, kweniso ku Dongola Reach ku Nubia. Ŵanthu ŵakasazgikiranga comene cifukwa ca kulima vyakurya vya kumwera ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Asia, nga ni tirigu na balere, kweniso kuŵeta mberere, mbuzi, na ng'ombe. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamba kuphalizgana kuti ŵatore malo gha kulima. Ŵakapanga mabungwe gha ŵalara ŵa visopa. Ufumu wakwamba na wankhongono comene ukaŵa wa Ta-Seti, uwo ukazengeka mu 3,500 B.C.E. Fundo yakuti ŵakaronga ndiwo ŵakalongozganga ŵanthu yikazara chomene mu Eguputo.

Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, ŵakaronga ŵakamba kukolerana mu vyaru vinandi mu Upper na Lower Egypt, ndipo Narmer (Menes) ndiyo wakapangiska kuti charu cha Egypt chiŵe chimoza mu chaka cha 3100 B.C.E. M'malo mwa kuwoneka nga ni mulongozgi wa cisopo, iyo wakaŵa fumu ya Ciuta. Chisopa chautesi, panji kusopa chiuta yumoza, icho chikachitikanga mu vigaŵa vya ku Upper na Lower Egypt, chikazgoka chisopa chautesi mu Eguputo. Mu nyengo ya mafumu gha Eguputo, maboma ghakaŵa na ŵamazaza, ŵakazembe, ŵakusonkheska msonkho, ŵalongozgi ŵa ŵasilikari, ŵantchito, na ŵantchito. Ŵakapokeleranga misonkho, ŵakanozganga ntchito zakovwira ŵanthu, ŵakazenganga maji, mapiramidi, matempile, na migelo. Mu nyengo ya muwuso wa muwuso wa ŵanayi (2,620-2,480 B.C.E.), malonda gha mtunda utali ghakacitika, na vyakumera vya ku Levant, na vya golide na vikumba vya ŵanthu vya ku Nubia, na vyakununkhira vya ku Punt, kweniso na vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Libya. Mu nyengo ya Ufumu Wakale, Eguputo wakapangiska vinthu vyakupambanapambana, maboma na mitheto, ndipo nyengo zose wakacitanga ivi kwizira mu boma la boma na Faro.

Mu vyaka vya m'ma 400 B.C.E., Eguputo wakamba kulamulira ŵasilikari na ndyali kumwera na kumanjiliro gha dazi. Kuzakafika mu 2200 B.C.E., ufumu wakale ukaŵa kuti ulije mtende chifukwa cha kulimbana pakati pa ŵalongozgi ŵa mitundu yinyake awo ŵakasuskanga mazaza gha mafaro. Nyengo Yakwamba Yakupambana ya Ndyali yikamba.

Ufumu wa pakati wa Egypt ukawuka apo Mentuhotep II wa muwuso wa 11 wa Egypt wakambaso kuwungana pakati pa 2041 na 2016 BC kwambira na kuwukira kwake muwuso wa 10 mu 2041 BC. Ŵanthu ŵakambiraso kuzenga mapiramidi, malonda ghakaŵa kutali chomene, ndipo msumba wa Memphis ukaŵa ku Thebes. Ŵakakhozga ubwezi wawo na vigaŵa vya kumwera kwa Kush, Wawat na Irthet. Kufuma apo, pakaŵa nyengo yaciŵiri, apo Ŵaigupto ŵakamba kuwukira caru cawo na magileta ghakuyegheka na mahaci na vilwero vya mkuŵa. Nyengo yichoko waka, magileta agho ghakotekanga na mahachi ghakafika ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Sahara na North Africa. Ŵaiguputo ŵakatondeka kusunga malo ghawo, ndipo ŵakamba kukolerana nawo. Ivi vikapangiska kuti paŵe ufumu uphya wa Eguputo (1,580-1,1080 B.C.E.) uwo ukaŵa na muwuso wa muwuso wa muwuso wa muwuso wa muwuso wa muwuso wa 18. Ŵaeguputo ŵakaŵa na mazaza pa Nubia na Yudeya, kweniso ŵakalamuliranga ŵanthu ŵa ku Libya na ŵa ku Mediterranean.

Nga umo vikaŵira kale, Ufumu Uphya ukamara apo ŵakaronga ŵa ku Libya ŵakiza kufuma ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi. Kwamba na Shoshenq I, Ufumu wa Ufumu wa Mafumu 22 ukaŵako. Wakawusa kwa vilimika vinandi.

Kumwera, ŵanthu ŵa ku Nubia ŵakambaso kujiyimira paŵekha. Ivyo vikachitika apa vikapangiska kuti Nubia wapoke charu cha Eguputo, icho chikamba na Kashta ndipo chikamara na Piye (Pianhky, 751-730 B.C.) na Shabaka (716-695 B.C.). Ici cikaŵa kwamba kwa muwuso wa ufumu waciŵiri na cinayi wa Egupto. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Nubia ŵakayezga kuwezgerapo mitheto ya ku Eguputo. Ŵakawusa Eguputo kwa vilimika 100. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Asiriya ŵakanjira mu msumba uwu, ndipo Taharqa wakawona nkhongono zose za vilwero vya ku Asiriya. Farawo wa ku Nubia, Tantamani wakaŵa waumaliro wa muwuso wa ufumu wa 25.

Apo Ŵaasiriya na Ŵanubia ŵakafumako, ufumu uphya waciŵiri na citatu ukafuma mu Sais. Ukalutilira m'paka mu 525 B.C.E., apo Ŵaperesiya ŵakanjira mu Eguputo. Mwakupambana na Ŵaasiriya, Ŵaperesiya ŵakakhalako. Mu 332 C.E., Alexander Mukuru wakathereska Eguputo. Ici cikaŵa kwamba kwa muwuso wa Ptolemy, uwo ukamara apo Ŵaroma ŵakathereska caru mu 30 B.C.E. Eguputo wa Farawo wakamara.

### Nubia
 

Pafupifupi 3,500 B.C.E., ufumu wakwamba uwo ukaŵa ku Nile ukaŵa wa Ta-Seti, uwo ukaŵa kumpoto kwa Nubia. Ta-Seti wakaŵa ufumu wankhongono uwo ukaŵa mu Dambo la Nayelo pa nyengo ya 1 na 2 C.E. Ufumu uwu ukaŵa na mazaza pa ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga kufupi na msumba uwu. Ta-Seti wakaguliskanga vinthu mu vyaru vya Siriya na Palestina kweniso ku Eguputo. Ta-Seti wakatumanga golide, mkuŵa, nthenga za mbunda, makuni gha ebony, na njovu ku Ufumu Wakale. Kuzakafika m'ma 200 B.C.E., tawuni ya Ta-Seti yikamba kunangika. Pamanyuma pakuti Narmer wakakolerana na Eguputo mu 3,100 B.C.E., Farawo Hor-Aha wa mu muwuso wakwamba wakawukira tawuni ya Ta-Seti. Ta-Seti wakukolerana na gulu la ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya vya mipukutu yakale..

Maufumu ghachoko waka ghakaŵa mu chigaŵa cha Nubian cha Nile kwa vyaka vinandi kufuma mu 3,000 B.C.E. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 2000 C.E., maufumu ghakupatulika ghakakolerana chomene. Ufumu wa Sai ukaŵa kumwera kwa Eguputo, ndipo ufumu wa Kerma ukaŵa ku chigaŵa chachitatu. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700 B.C.E., Ufumu wa Kerma ukathereska Ufumu wa Sai, ndipo ukaŵa mulwani wa Eguputo. Kerma wakaŵa mu chigaŵa icho chikaŵa kufuma ku chiziŵa chakwamba m'paka apo Mlonga wa Blue Nile, White Nile, na Atbarah ukukumana. Pakati pa 1575 na 1550 B.C.E., mu nyengo ya muwuso wa ufumu wa 17 wa ufumu wa Peresiya, ufumu wa Kerma ukawukira Eguputo. Ufumu wa Kerma ukakolerana na Ŵaigupto awo ŵakambukira ku Eguputo.

Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, ufumu wa Eguputo ukaweleraso ku nkhongono mu nyengo ya muwuso wa ufumu wa nambara 18 ndipo ukathereska ufumu wa Kerma panji Kush. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Kush ŵakamba kuzgoka Ŵaeguputo mu nyengo iyi. Kuzakafika mu 1100 B.C.E., Ŵaeguputo ŵakafumako ku Kush. Malo agha ghakaŵaso ghakujiyimira payekha ndipo ghakaŵaso na kakhaliro kawemi. Kush wakazenga cisopa ciphya kuzingilizga Amun ndipo wakapanga Napata kuŵa malo ghake ghauzimu. Mu 730 B.C.E., ufumu wa Kush ukawukira Eguputo, ndipo ukatoranga msumba wa Thebes na kwamba ufumu wa Nubia. Ufumu uwu ukafumanga ku Palestina m'paka apo Mlonga wa Blue Nile, White Nile, na Atbara ukukumana.

Mu 664 B.C.E., Ŵaasiriya ŵakachimbizga Ŵakushi mu Eguputo. Pamanyuma, msumba ukuru wa boma ukafumako ku Napata na kuluta ku Meröe, uko kukaŵa ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Nubian. Pakwamba, ŵanthu ŵa ku Mero ŵakaŵa na mikhaliro yakuyana na ya Ŵaeguputo. Nubia yikaŵa malo ghakupangira visulo na salu za thonje. Ŵaeguputo ŵakamba kulemba vilembo vya Meroitic. Ciuta wa nkharamu, Apedemak, wakasazgikako ku ŵachiuta ŵa Ŵaegupto. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakendanga mu Nyanja Yiswesi, ndipo Nubia wakendanga na Greece. Mu msumba uwu muli vinthu vinandi vyakupambanapambana, nga ni vithuzithuzi vya nkhalamu, viyuni vya mu nkhorongo, nkhalamira, na zovu. Paumaliro, apo msumba wa Aksum ukakura, malonda gha Nubia ghakamara ndipo charu ichi chikamba kunangika chifukwa cha kudumulika kwa makuni. Mu 350 C.E., Fumu Ezana ya ku Aksum yikamara kuwusa Meröe.

### Carthage

Vinthu vyakuzirwa nga ni mkuŵa, golide, tini, na sulefure vikaŵa vinandi. Ŵakamba kukhala mu vigaŵa vya mumphepete mwa nyanja ku North Africa, ndipo ŵakamba kuchita malonda na ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber. Mu 814 B.C.E., Ŵafenikiya ŵakufuma ku Ture ŵakakhazikiska msumba wa Carthage. Kufika mu 600 B.C.E., msumba wa Carthage ukaŵa kuti wazgoka msumba wakuzirwa chomene pa nkhani ya malonda mu Meditereniyani. Pakuti Carthage yikaŵa na vinthu vinandi, ufumu wa Berber, wa Numidia, na Mauretania ukakura. Pafupifupi 500 B.C.E., msumba wa Carthage ukawovwira chomene ŵanthu kuti ŵaguliskane vinthu na ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber awo ŵakendanga na ŵanthu ŵa ku Sub-Saharan Africa, ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito viŵeto pakuguliska vinthu. Ŵagaramantes ŵa ku Fez ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵakofya comene. Ŵakasanganga golide, ŵazga, ngale, na mino gha zovu.

Ŵanthu ŵa ku Carthage ŵakaŵa ŵalwani ŵa Ŵagiriki na Ŵaroma. Carthage wakarwa Nkhondo za Punic, nkhondo zitatu na Roma: Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Punic (264 mpaka 241 BC), pa Sicily; Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Punic (218 mpaka 201 BC), umo Hannibal wakawukira Europe; na Nkhondo Yachitatu ya Punic (149 mpaka 146 BC). Carthage wakataya nkhondo ziŵiri zakwambilira, ndipo mu nkhondo yacitatu yikabwangandulika, ndipo yikazgoka cigaŵa ca Romu ca ku Africa. Ŵaegupto ŵakatenge ŵanthu ŵa kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Nile, awo ŵakaŵa ŵasekuru ŵa ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber, ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Libya. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Libya ŵakaŵa ŵalimi nga ni ŵanthu ŵa ku Maur ku Morocco na ŵa ku Numidia ku Algeria. Ŵakaŵaso ŵakwendendeka, ŵakendanga pa mahachi, ndipo ŵakakhalanga mu malo ghakomira na mu mapopa nga umo ŵakachitiranga Ŵagaetuli. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu mapopa ŵakakolerananga na ŵalimi ŵa ku mizi.

Ŵafenikiya ŵakaŵa ŵakwendeska ngalaŵa ŵa ku Meditereniyani awo ŵakendanga pa nyanja nyengo zose na ufumu wa Berber wa Numidia uwo ukawovwiranga Roma. Chigaŵa cha Africa icho chikaŵa pasi pa ufumu wa Roma, ndicho chikapelekanga tirigu, maolive, na mafuta gha maolive ku ufumu wa Roma. Pakati pajumpha vilimika 200, ufumu wa Roma ukamba kulamulira maufumu gha ku Numidia na Mauretania. Mu ma 420 C.E., Ŵavanda ŵakawukira kumpoto kwa Africa ndipo Roma wakataya vigaŵa vyake.

Chikhristu chikamba mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 C.E. ku Alexandria mu Africa, ndipo chikafika mu vyaru vya kumpoto cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa. Kuzakafika mu 313 C.E., pamoza na dango la ku Milan, caru cose ca kumpoto kwa Africa cikaŵa Cikhristu. Ŵaeguputo ŵakatora Chikhristu cha Chiphwitikizi na kwamba mpingo wakuchemeka Coptic Church. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber ŵakamba kugomezga cisopa ca Donat. Magulu ghose ghaŵiri ghakakana kuzomera mazaza gha Tchalitchi la Katolika.

#### Role of the Berbers

Apo ufumu wa Carthage ukakuranga, ŵanthu ŵa ku Carthage nawo ŵakakhwaskika. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber ŵakaŵa kale pa nyengo iyo kulima, kupanga vinthu, malonda, na ndyali vikawovwiranga vyaru vinandi. Vinthu vikamba kwenda makora pakati pa Carthage na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Berber awo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vya mukati, kweni chifukwa cha kusazgikira kwa vigaŵa, ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakazgoka ŵazga panji ŵasilikari. Kuzakafika kuuyambiro wa vyaka vya m'ma 400 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber ŵakaŵa ŵanandi chomene mu ŵasilikari ŵa ku Carthage.

Mu Nkhondo ya Ŵasilikari ŵa Nkhondo (241-238 B.C.E.), ŵasilikari ŵa ku Carthage na ŵa ku Africa awo ŵakaŵa ŵabwezi ŵawo ŵakambiska chigaluka. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Berber nawo ŵakachitako nkhondo iyi chifukwa chakuti ŵakapokera malipiro yayi. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber ŵakathereska vigaŵa vinandi vya kumpoto kwa Africa, ndipo ŵakapanga ndalama izo zikaŵa na zina lakuti Libyan. Boma la Carthage likamara chifukwa cha kutondeka kwa Ŵaroma mu Nkhondo za Punic. Mu 146 B.C.E., msumba wa Carthage ukaparanyika. Apo ŵasilikari ŵa ku Carthage ŵakamba kuchepa, ŵalongozgi ŵa ku Berber ŵakamba kuŵa na mazaza pa ŵanthu ŵa ku Carthage. Kuzakafika mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 B.C.E., maufumu ghanandi gha Ŵaberi ghakaŵa kuti ghababika. Vinyake viŵiri vikaŵa ku Numidia, kuseri kwa malo gha mumphepete mwa nyanja agho ghakaŵa pasi pa Cartagena. Kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Numidia kukaŵa Mauretania, uwo ukafika pa mlonga wa Moulouya ku Morocco m'paka ku Nyanja ya Atlantic. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber ŵakamba kuŵa na chitemwa chikuru chomene m'paka apo ŵa Almohad na Almoravid ŵakaŵirako. Masinissa wakati wafwa mu 148 B.C.E., maufumu gha Ŵaberi ghakagaŵikana na kuwungana kanandi waka. Mzere wa Masinissa ukakhala m'paka mu 24 C.E., apo chigaŵa cha Ŵaberi icho chikakhalako chikapokelereka na Ufumu wa Roma.

### Macrobia and the Barbari City States
 

Macrobia ukaŵa ufumu wakale uwo ukaŵa ku mphanji ya Africa (sono ni Somalia). Likayowoyeka mu vyaka vya m'ma 400 B.C.E. Herodotus wakayowoya kuti Themba la ku Peresiya, Cambyses II, likati lakora Eguputo (525 B.C.E.), likatuma mathenga ku Makroba kuti ghazakamupe vyawanangwa vinandi. Fumu ya Macrobiya, iyo yikasoleka cifukwa ca msinkhu wake, yikamuzgora mwa kumucenjezga kuti waŵike uta wake mu woko lake: Usange Ŵaperesiya ŵangakwaniska kuwukoma, ŵangaŵa na wanangwa wa kuwukira caru cake. Kweni m'paka pa nyengo iyo, ŵakwenera kuwonga ŵaciuta cifukwa cakuti Macrobiya ŵakakana kuwukira ufumu wawo.

Ŵanthu ŵa ku Macrobian ŵakaŵa ŵankhongono comene ndipo ŵakamanyikwanga cifukwa ca luso lwawo lwa kuzenga na usambazi wawo wa golide.

Pamanyuma pakuti Macrobia wabwangandulika, misumba yinandi yakale nga ni Opone, Essina, Sarapion, Nikon, Malao, Damo na Mosylon kufupi na Cape Guardafui yikafuma mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 B.C.E. 500 C.E. kuti yikwane na ŵanthu ŵa ku Saba, Parthians na Axumites pa nkhani ya malonda gha Indo-Greco-Roman. Ŵakaŵa na malonda ghakurughakuru mu chigaŵa icho chikachemekanga Barbaria.

### Roman North Africa

Buku linyake likati: "Chifukwa chakuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakhalanga mu matawuni ghakurughakuru kweniso malo ghakurughakuru ghakasakazikanga apo Ŵaroma ŵakalamuliranga, ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber ŵakasuzgika chomene. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mwakufwasa ŵakaŵavya wanangwa wakuchita vinthu paŵekha kweniso ŵakaleka kukolerana na charu. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber ŵakasuskanga comene Ŵaroma. Themba la Ŵaroma zina lake Trajan likakhozga mphaka kumwera mwa kuzingilizga mapiri gha Aurès na Nemencha na kuzenga vigongwe kufuma ku Vescera (lero ni Biskra) m'paka ku Ad Majores (Henchir Besseriani, kumwera kwa Biskra). Malo agha ghakafika m'paka ku Castellum Dimmidi (lero ni Messaâd, kumwera ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Biskra). Ŵaroma ŵakamba kukhazikika mu msumba wa Sitifis (sono ni Sétif) mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 C.E., kweni kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa msumba uwu, Ŵaroma ŵakamba kwenda mu misewu yikuru ya ŵasilikari.

Ŵasilikari ŵa Romu ku North Africa ŵakaŵa ŵachoko chomene, ŵakaŵa na ŵasilikari pafupifupi 28,000 mu Numidia na vigaŵa viŵiri vya Mauretanian. Kwambira mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 C.E., ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakakhalanga ku malo agha.

Padera pa Carthage, ku North Africa kukaŵaso ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakhalanga na ŵasilikari ŵankhondo awo ŵakaŵako mu nyengo ya Claudius (uyo wakawusa mu 41-54), Nerva (96-98), na Trajan (98-117). Ku Algeria, ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakhalanga ku Tipasa, Cuicul panji Curculum (lero ni Djemila, kumpoto cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Sétif), Thamugadi (lero ni Timgad, kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Sétif), na Sitifis (lero ni Sétif). Mu misumba yinandi vinthu vikendanga makora chifukwa cha ulimi. Ku North Africa, uko kukachemekanga kuti "malo ghakusungiramo vyakurya gha ufumu wa Roma", ŵanthu ŵakendangamo chomene na vyakurya. Vyakurya vinyake vikaŵa vipambi, vikuyu, mpheska, na nyungu. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 C.E., mafuta gha maolive ghakaŵa ghakuzirwa chomene kuluska vyakurya vinyake.

Ufumu wa Ŵaroma ukamba kuchepa ku North Africa. Ndipouli, pakaŵa ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakagalukira boma. Mu 238 C.E., ŵeneco ŵa caru ŵakagalukira boma la ufumu. Kufuma mu 253 m'paka mu 288, mu nyengo ya suzgo ya mu vyaka vya m'ma 300 C.E., mu mapiri gha Mauretanian mukaŵa viwawa vya mafuko. Matawuni agha ghakaŵa na masuzgo gha vya cuma, ndipo nchito ya kuzenga yikakhala pacoko kuti yimare.

Mu misumba ya ku North Africa uko kukaŵa Ŵaroma, mukaŵa Ŵayuda ŵanandi. Ŵayuda ŵanyake ŵakachimbizgika mu Yudeya na Palestina mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 na 200 C.E. chifukwa cha kugalukira boma la Ŵaroma. Ŵanyake ŵakaluta ku malo agha na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Punic. Kweniso mafuko ghanyake gha Ŵaberi ghakazgoka Ŵayuda.

Christianity arrived in the 2nd century and soon gained converts in the towns and among slaves. More than eighty bishops, some from distant frontier regions of Numidia, attended the Council of Carthage (256) in 256. By the end of the 4th century, the settled areas had become Christianized, and some Berber tribes had converted *en masse*.

Mu 313 C.E., Ŵakhristu ŵa ku North Africa ŵakamba kugaŵikana. Ŵadonatisti ŵakayowoyanga chomene vya utuŵa wa tchalitchi ndipo ŵakakana kuzomera mazaza gha awo ŵakapeleka malemba apo ŵakakanizgika na Fumu Diocletian (iyo yikawusa mu 284-305). Kweniso ŵakasuskanga ivyo Constantine Mukuru (uyo wakawusa mu 306 m'paka 337) wakachitanga.

Nkhondo iyo yikaŵapo pakati pa ŵa Donatist yikamanyikwa kuti yikaŵa pakati pa ŵakususka na ŵakukhozgera boma la Ŵaroma. Augustine, bishopu wa ku Hippo Regius, ndiyo wakadandawura chomene na chisambizgo cha ŵa Donatist. Augustine wakayowoya kuti usange munthu ni muteŵeti wambura kwenelera, ndikuti sakaramenti ndakwenelera yayi cifukwa Yesu Khristu ndiyo wakaŵa muteŵeti wawo nadi. Mu nkhani zake na mabuku ghake, Augustine, uyo wakuwoneka kuti wakulongozga visambizgo vya Cikristu, wakalongosora kuti ŵalongozgi ŵa Cikristu caunenesko ŵali na wenelero wa kugwiliskira nchito nkongono kwimikana na ŵakugaluka. Nangauli nkhani iyi yikamara mu 411 C.E., kweni mu Carthage mukaŵa wupu uwo ukaŵa na mazaza pa nkhani iyi.

Chifukwa chakuti malonda ghakamara, Ŵaroma ŵakaleka kulamulira. Mu vigaŵa vya mapiri na mu mapopa mukaŵa maufumu ghakujiyimira, misumba yikaparanyika, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber awo ŵakasuzgikanga na Ufumu wa Roma ŵakawelera.

Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo ya Ŵananda, Belisarius, mulara wa ŵasilikari ŵa themba la Byzantine Justinian I, uyo wakakhalanga ku Constantinople, wakafika ku North Africa mu 533 C.E. pamoza na ŵanalume 16,000. Ndipouli, apo boma la Byzantine likamba kulamulira chigaŵa ichi, pakajumpha vyaka 12, ndipo apo ufumu wa Roma ukaŵa na mazaza pa chigaŵa ichi, ukaŵa nga ni mfwiri waka. Nangauli ŵakazenga vigongwe vinandi, kweni boma la Byzantium likasuzgika chifukwa cha vimbundi, ukavu, ukavu wa ŵasilikari, na kuleka kupwelelera nkhani za ku Africa. Ntheura, mizi yinandi yikawelera ku boma la Ŵaberi.

### Aksum
 

The earliest state in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia, Dʿmt, dates from around the 8th and 7th centuries BC. D'mt traded through the Red Sea with Egypt and the Mediterranean, providing frankincense. By the 5th and 3rd centuries, D'mt had declined, and several successor states took its place. Later there was greater trade with South Arabia, mainly with the port of Saba. Adulis became an important commercial center in the Ethiopian Highlands. The interaction of the peoples in the two regions, the southern Arabia Sabaeans and the northern Ethiopians, resulted in the Ge'ez culture and language and eventual development of the Ge'ez script. Trade links increased and expanded from the Red Sea to the Mediterranean, with Egypt, Israel, Phoenicia, Greece, and Rome, to the Black Sea, and to Persia, India, and China. Aksum was known throughout those lands. By the 5th century BC, the region was very prosperous, exporting ivory, hippopotamus hides, gold dust, spices, and live elephants. It imported silver, gold, olive oil, and wine. Aksum manufactured glass crystal, brass, and copper for export. A powerful Aksum emerged, unifying parts of eastern Sudan, northern Ethiopia (Tigre), and Eritrea. Its kings built stone palatial buildings and were buried under megalithic monuments. By 300 AD, Aksum was minting its own coins in silver and gold.

In 331 AD, King Ezana (320–350 AD) was converted to Miaphysite Christianity which believes in one united divine-human nature of Christ, supposedly by Frumentius and Aedesius, who became stranded on the Red Sea coast. Some scholars believed the process was more complex and gradual than a simple conversion. Around 350, the time Ezana sacked Meroe, the Syrian monastic tradition took root within the Ethiopian church.

In the 6th century Aksum was powerful enough to add Saba on the Arabian peninsula to her empire. At the end of the 6th century, the Sasanian Empire pushed Aksum out of the peninsula. With the spread of Islam through Western Asia and Northern Africa, Aksum's trading networks in the Mediterranean faltered. The Red Sea trade diminished as it was diverted to the Persian Gulf and dominated by Arabs, causing Aksum to decline. By 800 AD, the capital was moved south into the interior highlands, and Aksum was much diminished.

### West Africa
 

Mu vigaŵa vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Sahel, ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa ivi cifukwa ca kulima mphoza na mphoza. Ŵanthu awo ŵakufukura vinthu vyakale ŵakulongora kuti mu vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa mukaŵa ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakhalanga mu matawuni. Ubwezi wa malonda uwo ukaŵako pambere malonda gha pakati pa Sahara na Sahara ghandambe, ukaŵako chifukwa cha umo vyakumera vya kumpoto na kumwera vikupambanirana. Ŵalimi ŵakapokeranga mchere kufuma ku ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu mapopa. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu mapopa ŵakasanganga nyama na vyakurya vinyake ku ŵaliska ŵa viŵeto na ŵalimi ŵa mu malo ghakuliskako viŵeto kweniso ku ŵalovi ŵa mu Mlonga wa Niger. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu nkhorongo ŵakapelekanga weya na nyama.

Dhar Tichitt na Oualata mu Mauritania sono ni malo ghakumanyikwa chomene mu misumba yakwambilira, iyo yikaŵako m'ma 2000 B.C.E. Mu chigaŵa icho kale chikachemekanga Sahara muli malo gha malibwe pafupifupi 500. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu msumba uwu ŵakaloŵanga somba na kulima mphoza. Augustin Holl wakawona kuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Soninke awo ŵakakhalanga ku Mandé ndiwo ŵakazenga malo agha. Pafupifupi 300 B.C.E., chigaŵa ichi chikaŵa chakomira chomene ndipo ŵanthu ŵakamba kuchepa, ndipo panyake ŵakasamukira ku Koumbi Saleh. Ukaboni wa vyakuzengeka na kuyaniska vyakuzengeka vikulongora kuti Dhar Tichitt wakaŵa mu ufumu wa Ghana. Djenné-Djenno (uko sono ni Mali) wakakhalanga ŵanthu pafupifupi 300 B.C.E., ndipo msumba uwu ukaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene ŵa mu nyengo ya Iron Age. Vinthu vyamoyo vikazengeka na mathipa agho ghakawomira pa dazi. Kufika mu 250 B.C.E., Djenné-Djenno wakaŵa kuti wazgoka msumba ukuru wa msika.

Kumwera, pakati pa Nigeria, cha m'ma 1500 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Nok ŵakamba kukhala ku Jos Plateau. Ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga pamoza. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Nok ŵakapanganga vithuzithuzi vya ŵanthu, njovu, na vinyama vinyake. Kuzakafika mu 500 B.C.E., ŵakaŵa kuti ŵakusazgapo chisulo. Mu 200 C.E., ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Nok ŵakafwa. Chifukwa cha kuyana kwa kalembedwe ndi ma terracotta a Nok, ziboliboli za mkuwa za ufumu wa Yoruba wa Ife ndi za ufumu wa Bini wa Benin tsopano zikukhulupirira kuti ndizopitilira miyambo ya chikhalidwe choyambirira cha Nok.

### Bantu expansion

Ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakamba kusama chifukwa cha kupanikizgika kwa ŵanthu ŵa ku Bantu. Ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga viyowoyero vya ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu (mu banja la Niger na Congo) ŵakamba kuyowoya viyowoyero ivi mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000 B.C.E. Kufuma ku Cameroon kuya kumafumiro gha dazi kukafika ku chigaŵa cha Great Lakes. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 B.C.E., viyowoyero vya ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu vikafika ku vigaŵa vya kumwera na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa. Gulu linyake likaluta kumwera ku chipalamba cha Zambezi mu vyaka vya m'ma 200 B.C.E. Kufuma apo, ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga Chibantu ŵakaluta kumanjiliro gha dazi ku vigaŵa vya ku Angola, ndipo ŵakaluta kumafumiro gha dazi ku Malawi, Zambia, na Zimbabwe mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 C.E. Cinthu caciŵiri ico cikapangiska kuti maji gha mu Nyanja Yikuru ghafuluke cikaŵa ca kumafumiro gha dazi, vyaka 2,000 ivyo vyajumpha, ndipo ghakafika mu nyanja ya Indian Ocean, Kenya, na Tanzania. Paumaliro, gulu la ŵanthu ŵakumafumiro gha dazi likakumana na ŵanthu ŵakumwera kufuma ku Malawi, Zambia, na Zimbabwe. Magulu ghose ghaŵiri ghakalutilira kulazga kumwera, ndipo magulu gha kumafumiro gha dazi ghakalutilira kulazga ku Mozambique na kufika ku Maputo mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 C.E., ndipo ghakafika m'paka ku Durban.

Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 C.E., ŵanthu ŵakamba kwenda mu chigaŵa cha Great Kei River, icho sono ni South Africa. Vipambi ivi vikaŵa vya ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu, ndipo vikakuranga makora yayi mu nyengo ya chiwuvi ku Namibia na ku Western Cape. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoisan ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vinyake vya kumwera kwa Africa.

## Medieval and Early Modern (6th to 18th centuries)

### Central Africa

#### Sao civilization

Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Sao ŵakakhalanga ku Central Africa kwambira m'ma 500 B.C.E. m'paka m'ma 1500 C.E. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Sao ŵakakhalanga mumphepete mwa Mlonga wa Chari kumwera kwa Nyanja ya Chad, mu caru ico pamasinda chikazgoka caru ca Cameroon na Chad. Ŵanthu aŵa ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵakwambilira kusangika mu charu cha Cameroon. Mazuŵa ghano, ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana ŵa kumpoto kwa Cameroon na kumwera kwa Chadi, chomenechomene ŵa Sara, ŵakuti ŵali kufuma ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Sao. Vinthu vya ku malo agha vikulongora kuti ŵakaŵa ŵaluso pakupanga mkuŵa, mkuŵa, na chisulo. Vinthu ivi ni vithuzithuzi vya ŵanthu na vinyama, ndalama, viŵiya vyakusungiramo ŵakufwa, viteŵetero vya pa nyumba, majuda, viŵiya vya dongo vyakutowa chomene, na mikondo. Vinthu vikuruvikuru ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Sao ŵakabowozga vikusangika kumwera kwa Nyanja ya Chad.

#### Kanem Empire

Ufumu wa Kanem ukaŵa ku Chad. Ufumu uwu ukaŵa wa Kanem kwambira m'ma 900 C.E. m'paka mu 1893. Pa nyengo iyo nkhondo iyi yikaŵa yankhongono chomene, yikaŵa mu charu cha Chad pera yayi, kweniso mu vigaŵa vinyake vya kumwera kwa Libya, kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Niger, kumpoto kwa Nigeria, kumpoto kwa Cameroon, vigaŵa vinyake vya South Sudan, na Central African Republic. Mbiri ya Ufumu wa Roma yikumanyikwa chomene na buku la Royal Chronicle panji Girgam ilo likasangika mu 1851 na Heinrich Barth uyo wakaŵa mulendo wa ku Germany. Kanem wakawuka mu vyaka vya m'ma 700 C.E. mu chigaŵa cha kumpoto na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Nyanja ya Chad. Ufumu wa Kanem ukamba kunangika, ndipo mu vyaka vya m'ma 14 C.E., ukawombokwa na ŵalwani ŵa Bilala ŵakufuma ku chigaŵa cha Nyanja ya Fitri.

Mu vyaka vya m'ma 900 C.E., ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero cha Kanuri ndiwo ŵakambiska ufumu wa Kanem. Kanem wakababika cifukwa ca malonda gha mu Sahara. Ŵakapelekanga mahachi kufuma ku vyaru vya kumpoto kwa Africa kuti ŵagulire ŵazga. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1100, Humai (Hummay) ibn Salamna ndiyo wakambiska ufumu wa Asilamu wa Sayfawa. Ufumu wa Sayfawa ukawusa kwa vilimika 771, ndipo ukaŵa umoza mwa mafumu agho ghakatora nyengo yitali comene mu mdauko wa ŵanthu. Kanem wakafika pachanya chomene mu muwuso wa Mai (themba) Dunama Dibalemi ibn Salma (1210-1248). Ŵanyake ŵakuti ufumu uwu ukaŵa na ŵasilikari 40,000, ndipo ukafumanga ku Fezzan kumpoto m'paka ku Sao kumwera. Chisilamu chikakhazikika mu ufumu wa Roma. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakalutanga ku Mecca, ndipo ku Cairo kukaŵa nyumba za ŵalendo izo ŵakasungirangamo ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku Kanem.

#### Bornu Empire

Ŵanthu ŵa Kanuri awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Sayfuwa ŵakasamukira kumanjiliro gha dazi na kumwera kwa nyanja, uko ŵakakhazikiska ufumu wa Bornu. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1500 C.E., ufumu wa Bornu ukaŵa kuti wasanuzga na kupoka vigaŵa vinyake vya Kanem ivyo vikaŵa kuti vyatoleka na Bulala. Boma la Bornu likaŵa na chigaŵa cha Damagaram kumanjiliro gha dazi na cha Baguirmi kumwera kwa nyanja ya Chad.

Pafupifupi chaka cha 1400, ufumu wa Sayfawa wakasamuskira msumba wake ukuru ku Bornu, msumba uwo ukaŵa kumwera cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Nyanja ya Chad. Cifukwa ca kuryamo viŵeto vinandi, malo ghakuliskako viŵeto gha mu Kanemu ghakaŵa ghakomira comene. Mwakusazgirapo, mphindano za ndyali pakati pa mbumba ya Bilala zikaŵa zikuru comene. Pakuti ufumu uwu ukasamukira ku Bornu, ukaŵa na mwaŵi wa kuchita malonda na ŵanthu ŵa mu caru ca Sahara. Kweniso ŵakamba kukolerana na vigaŵa vya Hausa, ndipo ŵakapelekanga mahachi na mchere kufuma ku Bilma. Mai Ali Gazi ibn Dunama (c. 1475 1503) wakathereska Bilala, ndipo wakambaso kuwusa Kanem. Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1500, muwuso wa Sayfawa ukakhozga mazaza ghake pa ŵanthu ŵa ku Bornu. Mu hafu yaumaliro ya vyaka vya m'ma 1500 C.E., Mai Idris Alooma wakasintha ŵasilikari ŵake. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Turkey ndiwo ŵakasambizganga ŵasilikari. Ufumu wa Sayfawa ndiwo ukaŵa wakwamba kumwera kwa Sahara kunozga vilwero. Ufumu uwu ukaŵa na mazaza pa vigaŵa vyose vya Sahel kufuma ku Darfur kumafumiro gha dazi m'paka ku Hausaland kumanjiliro gha dazi. Ŵakaŵa paubwezi na Ufumu wa Ottoman kwizira mu Tripoli. Ŵana ŵa Mai ŵakapelekanga vyawanangwa kwa themba la Ottoman.

Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1600 na 1800, tikumanya vinandi yayi vya Bornu. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, msumba uwu ukazgoka malo ghakusambizgirako chisopa cha Cisilamu. Ndipouli, ŵasilikari ŵa Bornu ŵakaŵa kuti ŵafwa cifukwa ca kuleka kunozga vilwero viphya, ndipo Kamembu nayo wakamba kuchepa. Nkhondo iyi yikamba chifukwa cha chilangalanga na njara, kugaluka kwa ŵanthu ŵa ku chigaŵa cha kumpoto, nkhongono ya Hausa, kweniso ŵasilikari awo ŵakizanga na vilwero. Mu 1841, mai waumaliro wakathereskeka, ndipo ufumu wa Sayfawa ukamara.Mu malo ghake, muwuso wa al-Kanemi ukayamba kuwusa.

#### Ufumu wa Shilluk

Ufumu wa Shilluk ukaŵa ku South Sudan kwambira mu 15th century kufuma ku chigaŵa cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Mlonga wa Nile, kufuma ku Lake No kufika ku 12° north latitude. Msumba wa Fashoda ndiwo ukaŵa likuru la ufumu uwu. Ufumu uwu ukazengeka pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1500 C.E. na Nyikang, uyo wakaŵa fumu yakwamba. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, Ufumu wa Shilluk ukamba kunangika chifukwa cha nkhondo izo Ufumu wa Ottoman ukambiska kweniso chifukwa cha ufumu wa Britain na Sudan.

#### Baguirmi Kingdom

Ufumu wa Baguirmi ukaŵako mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500 na 17 C.E., kumwera kwa Nyanja ya Chad. Baguirmi wakafuma kumwera kwa kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Ufumu wa Kanem ̇ Bornu. Fumu yakwamba ya ufumu uwu yikaŵa Mbang Birni Besse. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, ufumu wa Bornu ukathereska caru ici na kucizgora kuŵa cigaŵa cake.

#### Wadai Empire

Ufumu wa Wadai ukaŵa ku Chad na Central African Republic kwambira mu ma 1700. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Tunjur ndiwo ŵakambiska ufumu wa Wadai kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Bornu mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700, ŵanthu ŵa Maba ŵakagaluka ndipo ŵakambiska ufumu wa Ŵasilamu.

Pakwamba, Wadai wakapeleka msonkho ku Bornu na Durfur, kweni mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, Wadai wakaŵa wakujiyimira yekha ndipo wakawukira ŵazengezgani ŵake. Wose ŵaŵiri ŵakanjira mu ufumu wa Sokoto mu nyengo ya nkhondo ya Fulani ya mu 1805, iyo yikasuzga Bornu.

#### Luba Empire

Pakati pa 1300 na 1400 C.E., Kongolo Mwamba (Nkongolo) wa fuko la Balopwe wakakolerana na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana ya Luba, kufupi na Nyanja ya Kisale. Wakayambiska ufumu wa Kongolo, uwo pamasinda Kalala Ilunga wakawuparanya. Kalala wakasazgirako ufumu wake kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Nyanja ya Kisale. Ndondomeko yiphya ya ndyali ya mathemba ghauzimu (balopwe) na wupu wa ŵalongozgi ŵa vigaŵa na ŵalongozgi ŵa vikaya. Mulongozgi uyu ndiyo wakadumbiskananga na mizimu ya ŵasekuru. Vyaru ivyo vikathereskeka vikaŵanga na ŵimiliri mu nyumba ya themba. Muwuso wa mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari ukaŵa wauzimu yayi. Ŵasilikari ŵakaŵa ŵachoko chomene. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Luba ndiwo ŵakendeskanga malonda gha mu vigaŵa ivi na kupokera mithulo. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakambiska boma ili ŵakayowoya kuti ŵali kufuma mu fuko la Luba. Gulu la Luba likafika mu vigaŵa vyose vya Central Africa, kumwera kwa Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, na kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Congo. Maufumu ghaŵiri ghakuru agho ghakayowoya kuti ghakafuma ku Luba ghakaŵa gha Lunda na Maravi. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bemba na Basimba awo ŵakukhala kumpoto kwa Zambia ŵali kufuma ku ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Luba awo ŵakiza ku Zambia mu vyaka vya m'ma 1600.

#### Lunda Empire
 

Mu ma 1450, munthu munyake wakuchemeka Luba uyo wakaŵa wa mbumba yacifumu, zina lake Ilunga Tshibinda, wakatora fumukazi ya Lunda, zina lake Rweej. Mwana wawo Mulopwe Luseeng ndiyo wakalutilira kuwusa. Mwana wake Naweej wakalutilira kusazgirako ufumu wake ndipo wakumanyikwa kuti ni themba lakwamba la Lunda, ndipo wakaŵa na zina lakuti mwato yamvo (mwaant yaav, mwant yav), fumu ya njoka. Ndyali za ku Luba zikalutilira, ndipo ŵanthu awo ŵakathereskeka ŵakaŵamo. Mwato yamvo wakapelekanga cilool panji kilolo (muteŵeti wa themba) na wakusonkheska msonkho ku boma lililose ilo likathereskeka.

Vyaru vinandi vikayowoya kuti vikafuma ku Lunda. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Imbangala awo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vya mukati mwa charu cha Angola ŵakatenge mbana ŵa Kinguri, mukuru wa Fumukazi Rweej, uyo wakatinkhanga muwuso wa mulopwe Tshibunda. Kinguri wakaŵa zina la mafumu gha vyaru ivyo vikazengeka na mukuru wa Fumukazi Rweej. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Luena (Lwena) na Lozi (Luyani) ku Zambia nawo ŵakugomezga kuti mbana ŵa Kinguri. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700, mulongozgi wa Lunda zina lake Mwata Kazembe, wakambiska ufumu wa Lunda kumanjiliro gha dazi mu dambo la Luapula. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Lunda ŵakamba kuthandazgikira kumanjiliro gha dazi, ndipo Ŵakayaka na Ŵapende nawo ŵakayowoya kuti mbana ŵawo. Lunda wakayaniskanga pakati pa Africa na malonda agho ghakacitikanga ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi. Ufumu wa Lunda ukamara mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 apo ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Chokwe awo ŵakaŵa na vilwero, ŵakiza na kuwukira.

#### Kingdom of Kongo

Mu vyaka vya m'ma 15 C.E., ŵanthu ŵa ku Bakongo awo ŵakaliskanga viŵeto (ba ndiyo yikaŵa chiŵelengero chikuru) ŵakakolerananga mu Ufumu wa Kongo. Msumba uwu ukaŵa wa M'banza-Kongo. Cifukwa cakuti ŵakaŵa na ndondomeko yiwemi, ŵakathereskanga ŵazengezgani ŵawo na kupokera msonkho. Ŵakaŵa ŵaluso pakupanga visulo, viŵiya, na kuluka salu za raffia. Ŵakawovwiranga ŵanthu kuti ŵaguliskane vinthu pakati pa vigaŵa vyawo. Pamanyuma, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuguliska vyakurya nga ni chimanga na manioc ku malo agha. Vipambi ivi vikawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu chigaŵa ichi na vigaŵa vinyake vya mu Africa ŵasazgikirenge, ndipo mbuto iyi yikanjira mu malo mwa mphoza.

Kuzakafika m'ma 1500, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa manikongo ŵakaŵa na mazaza kufuma ku nyanja ya Atlantic kumanjiliro gha dazi m'paka ku mlonga wa Kwango kumafumiro gha dazi. Mu cigaŵa cilicose mukaŵa mani-mpembe (kazembe wa cigaŵa) uyo wakapika na manikongo. Mu 1506, Afonso I (1506-1542), uyo wakaŵa Mkhristu, wakamba kuwusa. Apo Afonso wakathereskanga ŵanthu, malonda gha ŵazga ghakalutilira kukura. Mu 1568 m'paka 1569, Ŵagaga ŵakanjira mu charu cha Kongo, ndipo ŵakaparanya ufumu wose. Mu 1574, Manikongo Álvaro I wakawezgekeramo mu ufumu wake na wovwiri wa ŵasilikari ŵa ku Portugal. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1660, Ŵapwitikizi ŵakayezga kuti ŵambe kulamulira charu cha Kongo. Manikongo António I (1661-1665), pamoza na ŵasilikari 5,000 ŵa ku Congo, ŵakaparanyika na ŵasilikari ŵa Afro-Portuguese pa Nkhondo ya Mbwila. Ufumu uwu ukagaŵikana mu vigaŵa vichokovichoko, ndipo ŵanthu awo ŵakakoleka ku nkhondo ŵakaguliskikanga ku wuzga.

Boma la Kongo likapoka ŵanthu ku ufumu wa Ndongo. Ndongo yikawusikanga na mtundu wa ngola. Kweniso Ndongo wakaguliskanga ŵazga na Ŵapwitikizi. Ufumu uwu ukaŵapokeleranga makora yayi Ŵapwitikizi nga umo ŵakachitira Ŵakenani. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1500 C.E., Ŵapwitikizi ŵakayezga kupoka charu cha Ndongo, kweni Ŵambundu ŵakaŵathereska. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Ndongo ŵakasuzgika comene cifukwa ca kuthereskeka kwa ŵazga. Ŵalongozgi aŵa ŵakakhazikiska boma linyake ku Matamba, ilo likaŵa la Fumukazi Nzinga. Ŵapwitikizi ŵakakhalanga mumphepete mwa nyanja kuti ŵaguliskenge vinthu. Mu vyaru vinyake, ŵazga ŵakasuzganga ŵanthu, ndipo boma likamba kurwa nkhondo kuti liŵatore. Mbumba ya Imbangala ndiyo yikaŵa na boma la Kasanje, ilo likaŵa na ŵazga ŵanandi mu vyaka vya m'ma 1600 na 1800..

### Horn of Africa

#### Somalia

Cifukwa cakuti cisopo ca Ciislamu cikababika kufupi na nyanja ya Somalia, ŵamalonda ŵa ku Somalia na ŵakwendeska ngalaŵa awo ŵakakhalanga mu caru ca Arabia ŵakamba kulondezga cisopa ici. Mu vyaka vyakwambilira vya Chisilamu, mbumba za Chisilamu zikaluta ku Somalia, ndipo mu vyaka vyakulondezgapo, ŵanthu ŵa Chisilamu ŵa ku Somalia ŵakasintha mitima yawo kuti ŵaŵe Ŵasamariya. Msumba wa Mogadishu ndiwo ukamanyikwanga na zina lakuti Msumba wa Cisilamu ndipo ndiwo ukendeskanga malonda gha golide ku East Africa kwa vyaka vinandi.

Nyumba ya Ufumu ya Almnara, Mogadishu.

Mu nyengo iyi, mafumu gha ufumu nga ni Ajuran Empire na Mogadishu Sultanate, na ma republics nga ni Barawa, Merca na Hobyo pamoza na vipata vyawo vikakura ndipo vikaguliskanga vinthu ku vyaru vinyake. Vasco da Gama, uyo wakajumpha mu Mogadishu mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, wakati msumba uwu ukaŵa ukuru chomene ndipo ukaŵa na nyumba zakukwana vigaŵa vinayi panji vinkhondi.

Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, Duarte Barbosa wakalemba kuti ngaraŵa zinandi izo zikafumanga ku ufumu wa Cambaya, uwo sono ni India, zikalutanga ku Mogadishu na salu na vyakununkhira. Barbosa wakayowoyaso za unandi wa nyama, tirigu, balere, mahachi, na vipasi ivyo vikasangikanga mu misika ya mumphepete mwa nyanja. Mogadishu, msumba uwo ukaŵa pakati pa vyakupangira vinthu vya ku Eguputo na Siriya, pamoza na Merca na Barawa, ukaŵa malo ghakwendakwenda gha ŵamalonda ŵa Chiswahili ŵakufuma ku Mombasa na Malindi. Ŵamalonda Ŵachiyuda ŵakufuma ku Strait of Hormuz ŵakizanga na vyakuvwara vyawo vya ku India na vipambi ku Somali kuti ŵaguliske tirigu na nkhuni.

Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuguliska malaya, ambergris, na porcelain. Ŵakaŵaguliskanga ku Ufumu wa Ming ku China, uko ŵamalonda ŵa ku Somalia ndiwo ŵakendeskanga malonda pakati pa Asia na Africa. Ŵamalonda ŵa Chihindu ŵakufuma ku Surat na ŵa ku southeast Africa ŵakufuma ku Pate, ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito virwa vya Merca na Barawa ku Somalia (ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa mazaza gha maboma ghaŵiri agha) kuti ŵaguliskenge vinthu kwambura suzgo.

#### Ethiopia
 

Ufumu wa Zagwe ukawusa vigaŵa vinandi vya Ethiopia na Eritrea kufuma mu 1137 m'paka 1270. Zina lakuti dy nasty likufuma ku lizgu la Cushitic lakuti Agaw, ilo likuyowoyeka kumpoto kwa Ethiopia. Kwambira mu 1270 C.E. m'paka vyaka vinandi, ufumu wa Solomoni ndiwo ukalamuliranga ufumu wa Ethiopia.

Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1400, Etiyopiya wakayezga kukolerana na maufumu gha ku Europe. Kalata iyo Themba Henry IV la ku England likalembera Fumu ya ku Abyssinia yilipo m'paka sono. Mu 1428, Fumu Yeshaq I yikatuma mathenga ghaŵiri kwa Alfonso V wa ku Aragon.

Ubwezi wakwamba na caru cinyake ca ku Europe ukamba mu 1508 na ufumu wa Portugal, uwo ukaŵa pasi pa muwuso wa Lebna Dengel. Ici cikaŵa cinthu cakuzirwa comene, cifukwa apo ufumu ukawukiranga na mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari ŵa Adal, Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi (uyo wakacemekanga "Grañ", panji "wa woko lamazere"), caru ca Portugal cikamovwira fumu ya Ethiopia mwa kutuma vilwero na ŵanalume 400, awo ŵakawovwira mwana wake Gelawdewos kuti wathereske Ahmad na kwambaso kuwusa. Nkhondo iyi yikaŵa yimoza mwa nkhondo zakwambilira izo Ufumu wa Ottoman ukachitanga.

Apo Fumu Susenyos yikang'anamukira ku Cikatolika mu 1624, pakacitika viwawa na vivulupi ivyo vikakoma ŵanthu ŵanandi. Ŵamishonale ŵa cisopo ca Jesuit ŵakakhuŵazga cisopa ca Orthodox ca ŵanthu ŵa ku Ethiopia, ndipo pa Juni 25, 1632, mwana wa Susenyos, Emperor Fasilides, wakapharazga kuti cisopa ca boma ni Cikhristu ca Ethiopian Orthodox ndipo wakacimbizga ŵamishonale ŵa cisopo ca Jesuit na ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa ku Europe.

### North Africa

#### Maghreb
 

Yahya ibn Umar na munung'una wake Abu Bakr ibn Umar, ŵana ŵa fumu ya ku Lamtuna, ŵa Almoravid ŵakazenga ufumu uwo ukafumanga ku Sahel m'paka ku Mediterranean. Abdallah ibn Yassin na Yahya ibn Umar ŵakati ŵafwa, Abu Bakr wakagaŵa ufumu pakati pa iyo na Yusuf ibn Tashfin, cifukwa ukaŵa ukuru comene kuti munthu yumoza ndiyo wawusenge. Abu Bakr wakatora kumwera kuti walutilire kurwa nkhondo na Soninke, ndipo Yusuf ibn Tashfin wakatora kumpoto, expMu 711 AD, Umayyad Caliphate wakathereska North Africa yose. Kuzakafika mu 100 C.E., ŵanthu ŵanandi ku North Africa ŵakaŵa Ŵasilamu.

Kuzakafika m'ma 900 C.E., umoza uwo ukaŵako cifukwa ca kuwukira kwa Cisilamu ku North Africa na kuthandazgika kwa cisopa ca Cisilamu ukamara. Pakaŵa mphindano yakuti ni njani wakeneranga kunjira mu malo gha nchimi iyi. Pakwamba, ŵa Umayyads ndiwo ŵakalongozganga ufumu wa Caliphate, ndipo msumba wawo ukaŵa ku Damaseko. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, Ŵababasi ŵakamba kuwusa msumba wa Baghdad. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber, ŵakaŵa ŵakujiyimira pawekha ndipo ŵakasuskanga ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake kuti ŵaleke kunjilirapo pa vinthu vyawo kweniso kuti Ŵaarabu ndiwo ŵekha ŵaŵe na mazaza pa chisopa cha Orthodox, ntheura ŵakasankha Chisilamu cha Shi'ite na cha Kharijite. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 800 na 900 C.E., maufumu ghanandi gha Kharijite ghakiza na kuwa. Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1000 C.E., gulu la Ŵasilamu ŵakufuma ku Siriya, awo ŵakatenge ŵali kufuma kwa mwana mwanakazi wa Muhammad, zina lake Fatimah, ŵakambiska ufumu wa Fatimid ku Maghreb. Kuzakafika mu 950, ŵakaŵa kuti ŵathereska caru cose ca Maghreb, ndipo mu 969, Eguputo yose. Mwaluŵiro ŵakafumamo mu Baghdad.

Pakukhumba kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu mtundu wa Sanhaja ŵaŵe na chisopa cha Chiisilamu chakutowa, Abdallah ibn Yasin wakambiska gulu la Almoravid ku Mauritania na Western Sahara. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Sanhaja Berber, nga ni Soninke, ŵakasopanga visopa vyawo pamoza na Chislamu. Abdallah ibn Yasin wakasanga ŵanthu ŵakunozgeka kuzgokera ku Chiyuda ku Lamtuna Sanhaja, uko kukaŵa ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Soninke kumwera na ŵa mtundu wa Zenata kumpoto. Mu ma 1040, ŵanthu wose ŵa ku Lamtuna ŵakazgoka ŵa Almoravid. Wakaŵawovwira kuti ŵalute ku Spain. Abu Bakr wakati wafwa mu 1087, ŵanthu ŵakakolerana yayi ndipo nkhondo yikasazgikira kumwera. Ici cikapangiska kuti Soninke wasanuzgikeso. Nyengo yinyake ŵanthu ŵakatenge ŵa Almoravid ndiwo ŵakaparanya Ufumu wa Ghana mu 1076, kweni sono ŵanthu ŵakugomezga yayi fundo iyi.

Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 m'paka mu 1300, Ŵabedouin ŵanandi ŵakafumako ku Arabia. Pafupifupi mu 1050, ŵanthu ŵakukwana 250,000 ŵa ku Eguputo ŵakasamukira ku Maghreb. Awo ŵakalondezganga mumphepete mwa nyanja ŵakamanyikwanga kuti Banu Hilal. Awo ŵakendanga kumwera kwa mapiri gha Atlas ŵakaŵa ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Banu Sulaym. Ivi vikapangiska kuti chiyowoyero cha Chiarabic chikure luŵiro chomene, kweniso kuti chiyowoyero cha Chiberberber chikhalenge makora yayi. Pamanyuma, gulu linyake la ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber ilo likachemekanga kuti Hawwara, likaluta kumwera ku Nubia, kujumpha mu Eguputo.

Mu 1140 C.E., Abd al-Mu'min wakapharazga kuti ŵa Almoravid ŵazamukomeka, ndipo wakaŵapa mulandu wa uheni na vimbundi. Wakakolerana na Ŵaberi ŵa kumpoto kuti ŵarwe na Ŵalmoravid, ndipo wakaŵathereska na kupanga ufumu wa Almohad. Mu nyengo iyi, ŵanthu ŵa ku Maghreb ŵakamba kusopa chisopa cha Chisilamu ndipo ŵakamanya kuŵazga na kulemba, kusanda malemba gha algebra, na kugwiliskira ntchito manambara gha zero na decimals. Kuzakafika m'ma 1300, ufumu wa Almohad ukagaŵikana mu vyaru vitatu. Ufumu wa Chikhristu wa Castile, Aragon, na Portugal ndiwo ukaparanya chomene visopa vyautesi. Mu 1415, charu cha Portugal chikapoka msumba wa Ceuta, ndipo mu vyaka vyakulondezgapo, charu cha Spain na Portugal vikapoka misumba yinyake ku North Africa. Mu 1492, ku umaliro wa Nkhondo ya Granada, Spain wakathereska Ŵasilamu ku Granada, ndipo ici cikamara muwuso wa Ŵasilamu uwo ukaŵa kuti waŵa na vilimika mahandiredi ghankhondi na ghatatu kumwera kwa Iberia.

. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Tripoli ŵakaguliskanga mahachi, vilwero, na vyakuvwara vya nkhondo na mafumu gha ufumu wa Bornu.

Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500 C.E., ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Saadi, awo ŵakatenge mbana ŵa mwana mwanakazi wa Muhammad, ŵakathereska charu cha Morocco na kuchikolerana. Ŵakatondeska Ufumu wa Ottoman kufika ku nyanja ya Atlantic ndipo ŵakachimbizga Portugal kufuma ku Morocco. Ahmad al-Mansur ndiyo wakawovwira kuti ufumu uwu uŵe wankhongono chomene. Mu 1591, wakawukira msumba wa Songhay kuti wawuskepo malonda gha golide agho ghakendanga ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700, ufumu wa Morocco ukamara kulamulira msumba wa Songhay. Mu 1603, pamanyuma pa nyifwa ya Ahmad, ufumu ukagaŵikana mu vigaŵa viŵiri, Fes na Marrakesh. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, Muley al-Rashid, uyo wakambiska ufumu wa Alaouite (1672-1727) wakawovwira kuti msumba uwu uŵeso wakukolerana. Mubali wake Ismail ibn Sharif (1672-1727), wakakhwimiska kukolerana kwa caru ici mwa kwiza na ŵazga kufuma ku Sudan kuti ŵakhozge ŵasilikari ŵake.

#### Nile Valley

##### Egypt
 

In 642 AD, the Rashidun Caliphate conquered Byzantine Egypt.

Mu nyengo ya ufumu wa Fatimid, caru ca Eguputo cikaŵa cakutowa comene. Ŵakakhozga madamu na migelo, ndipo ŵakamba kupanga tirigu, balere, lineni, na thonje. Ŵaeguputo ndiwo ŵakapanganga salu zinandi za salu yiwemi. Malonda ghake ghakasazgikiranga mu nyanja ya Meditereniyani na Nyanja Yiswesi. Ŵaeguputo ŵakapangaso ndalama ya golide yakucemeka dinari ya Fatimid, iyo ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito pa malonda. Ndalama zinandi zikafumanga ku msonkho uwo ŵakaŵanga nawo ŵalimi (fellahin). Ŵasilikari awo ŵakachitako nkhondo ya ku Fatimid mu 969 C.E., ndiwo ŵakaguliskanga misonkho. Ŵakaronga ŵakapelekanga chigaŵa ku ŵalongozgi ndipo ŵakasunganga ivyo vyakhalapo. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, ŵakazgoka ŵenecho ŵa malo ndipo ŵakakhalanga makora.

Kuti ŵasilikari aŵa ŵafike pa msinkhu uwu, ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito ŵasilikari ŵa ku Turkey awo ŵakaŵa ŵazga ŵa Mamluk. Ŵanthu ŵakufwatuka ŵa ku Berber nawo ŵakalembeka. M'ma 1150, ndalama za misonkho izo ŵanthu ŵakasanganga ku minda zikakhira. Ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakagaluka na kunanga vikaya, ŵakalekeska malonda, kweniso ŵakatimbanizga mazaza gha ŵasilikari ŵa Fatimid.

Mu 1160 C.E., Ŵaeguputo awo ŵakaŵa Ŵafatisimu ŵakaŵa pafupi kuparanyika. Cifukwa ca suzgo ili, mulara wa ŵasilikari ŵa ku Kurdish zina lake Ṣalāḥ ad-Dīn Yūsuf ibn Ayyūb (Saladin), pamoza na ŵasilikari ŵanyake, ŵakamba kuvikilira Ŵasilamu. Saladin wakathereska Ŵakhristu awo ŵakalutanga ku nkhondo ku mphaka za Eguputo ndipo wakapoka Yerusalemu mu 1187. Mu 1171, apo Al-Adid wakafwa, Saladin wakaŵa fumu ya Eguputo. Mu nyengo ya muwuso wake, Ŵaeguputo ŵakawelera ku chisopa cha Sunni, Cairo likazgoka malo ghakuzirwa ghakusambizgirako chisopa cha Chiarabu, ndipo ŵazga ŵa Mamluk ŵakatolekera ku Turkey na kumwera kwa Russia kuti ŵateŵetere usilikari. Ŵasilikari ŵakapelekanga msonkho ku ŵasilikari.

Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, ŵasilikari awo ŵakaŵa ŵazga ŵa Mamluk ŵakazgoka ŵanthu ŵankhongono chomene, ndipo ŵakamazga muwuso wa Ayyubid mu 1250 na kwambiska muwuso wa Mamluk. Ŵa Mamluk awo ŵakaŵa na mazaza ŵakamanyikwanga na zina lakuti amirs. Kwa vilimika 250, Mamluk ghakaŵa na mazaza pa Eguputo yose. Eguputo wakambiska nkhondo ya ku Siriya na Palestina, ndipo wakathereska ŵalwani ŵa Ŵaeguputo. Ŵaeguputo ŵakamba kuwona Ŵaamamuleki kuti mbakuvikilira chisopa cha Cisilamu, Medina, na Mecca. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, gulu la ŵasilikari la iqta likamba kuchepa ndipo likagomezgeka yayi. Ŵa Mamluks ŵakamba kuwona kuti iqta yawo njakulondezgana na umo ŵanthu ŵakukhala mu misumba. Vipambi vikamba kuchepa, ndipo madamu na migelo vikamba kunangika. Maluso gha ŵasilikari ŵa Mamluk ghakapambana na gha futi na futi.

Ufumu wa Ottoman ukati wamba kuwusa, Eguputo wakathereskeka. Mu 1517, pamanyuma pa nkhondo ya Ottoman-Mamluk, Eguputo wakaŵa chigaŵa cha Ufumu wa Ottoman. Boma la Istanbul likawezgerapo ndondomeko ya iqta. Ŵanthu ŵakambiraso kwenda mu Nyanja Yiswesi, kweni chifukwa chakuti Ŵapwitikizi ŵakendanga chomene mu nyanja ya Indian Ocean, ŵakamanyanga yayi uko ŵakendanga. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1600 na 1800, Ŵamamluk ŵakambaso kulamulira. Ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa na zina lakuti Beys ŵakaŵa Ŵamamuleki. Ŵalongozgi ŵa boma ŵakimiranga waka boma la Istanbul, ndipo ŵakachitanga vinthu mwakujiyimira. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵasilikari ŵa Pasha ŵakamba kulamulira. Boma likaŵa lambura nkhongono ndipo likaŵa lambura urunji.

Mu 1798, Napoleon wakawukira Eguputo. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku malo agha ŵakatondeka kulimbana na Ŵafarisi. Kweni mu 1801, ufumu wa Britain na Ufumu wa Ottoman ukawuskapo Ŵafarisi. Ivi ndivyo vikapangiska kuti mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵa Anglo-Franco ŵambe kulimbana na Ŵaeguputo.

##### Sudan

#### Christian and Islamic Nubia
 

Ezana wa ku Aksum wakati wapoka msumba wa Meroe, ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga ku Ballana ŵakasamira ku Nubia kufuma kumwera ca kumanjiliro gha dazi ndipo ŵakambiska maufumu ghatatu: Makuria, Nobatia, na Alodia. Ŵakawusa vyaka 200. Malo agha ghakaŵa pachanya pa malo ghachitatu, mumphepete mwa Dongola Reach. Nobadia wakaŵa kumpoto na msumba wake wa Farasi, ndipo Alodia wakaŵa kumwera na msumba wake wa Soba. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, Makuria wakawukira Nobadia. Ŵanthu ŵa mu chigaŵa ichi ŵakazgoka Ŵakhristu mu 500 m'paka 600 C.E. Pakwamba tchalitchi likamba kulemba mu Chicoptic, kufuma apo mu Chigiriki, ndipo paumaliro mu Chi-Nubian chakale, chiyowoyero cha ku Nilo-Sahara. Tchalitchi ili likakolerananga na Tchalitchi la Coptic la ku Eguputo.

Mu 641, ufumu wa Rashidun ukathereska Eguputo. Ici cikapangiska kuti Ŵakhristu ŵa ku Nubia na Aksum ŵaleke kwendera visopa vyautesi. Mu 651-652, Ŵaarabu ŵakufuma ku Eguputo ŵakanjira mu Nubia. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Nubia ŵakathereska ŵalwani. Pakajumpha nyengo yitali kufuma apo pakalembeka phangano la Baqt (panji Bakt), ilo likazomerezga Chikhristu ku Nubia na kwendeska malonda. Phangano ili ndilo likawovwira kuti Ŵakhristu ŵa ku Nubia na Ŵaeguputo ŵalutilire kukolerana kwa vyaka pafupifupi 600.

Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1200 C.E., caru ca Nubia cikamba kunangika. Tchalitchi na ŵanthu ŵakuchindikika ŵakachepeskanga mazaza gha ufumu. Ŵabedouin ŵa ku Arabia ŵakamba kunjira mu Nubia, ndipo ŵakambiska masuzgo ghanyake. Ŵanthu ŵakugomezgeka awo ŵakasopanga visambizgo vya Chisilamu ŵakafika mu Nubia. Kuzakafika mu 1366, caru ca Nubia cikaŵa kuti cagaŵikana mu vigaŵa vicoko comene apo cikapokelereka na Ŵamamuleki. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1400, ŵanthu ŵa ku Arabia ŵakamba kwiza ku Nubia. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Arabia awo ŵakakhalanga ku malo agha ŵakamba kusambira chiyowoyero cha ku Arabia. Kuzakafika m'ma 1500 C.E., Makuria na Nobadia vikaŵa kuti vyazgoka vya Chisilamu. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, Abdallah Jamma wakalongozga gulu la Ŵaarabu ilo likaparanya msumba wa Soba, uwo ukaŵa msumba ukuru wa Alodia. Pamanyuma, Alodia wakaŵa pasi pa ufumu wa Funj.

Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, ŵaliska ŵa viŵeto ŵa ku Funj ŵakaluta kumpoto ku Alodia na kukhalamo. Pakati pa 1504 na 1505, ufumu uwu ukathandazgika, ndipo ukafika pachanya chomene. 1644 – 1680). Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1500, ŵanthu ŵa ku Funj ŵakazgoka Ŵasilamu. Ŵakatumizga ufumu wawo kumanjiliro gha dazi ku Kordofan. Ŵakafika kumafumiro gha dazi, kweni Etiyopiya wakaŵakanizga. Ŵakaŵa na mazaza pa Nubia m'paka ku Cataract Yachitatu. Vinthu vikendanga makora chifukwa cha ŵalwani awo ŵakakoleka na ŵamalonda awo ŵakendanga mu Sennar. Mu nyengo ya Badi IV (1724-1762), ŵasilikari ŵakagalukira fumu, ndipo yikaŵa nga ni munthu uyo wakuwoneseska. Mu 1821, Funj ŵakathereskeka na Muhammad Ali (1805-1849), Pasha wa ku Egypt.

### Southern Africa

Ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero cha Bantu ŵakakhalanga kumwera kwa Mlonga wa Limpopo m'ma 400 C.E. Ŵakaŵa ŵalimi na ŵaliska ŵa viŵeto awo ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito visulo. Ŵakamba kusamira kumwera, ndipo ŵakugomezga kuti visulo vyakwambilira vya ku KwaZulu-Natal vikaŵako cha m'ma 1050. Gulu la kumwera chomene likaŵa ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Xhosa, awo chiyowoyero chawo chikukolerana na chiyowoyero cha ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa mtundu wa Khoi-San.

#### Great Zimbabwe and Mapungubwe
 

Ufumu wa Mapungubwe ukaŵa wa ku Southern Africa, ndipo msumba wake ukaŵa ku Mapungubwe. Boma ili likaŵako mu vyaka vya m'ma 1200 C.E. Chuma chake chikafuma ku malonda gha njovu kufuma ku Limpopo Valley, mkuwa kufuma ku mapiri gha kumpoto kwa Transvaal, na golide kufuma ku Zimbabwe Plateau pakati pa milonga ya Limpopo na Zambezi, pamoza na ŵamalonda ŵa Swahili ku Chibuene. Pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1200 C.E., msumba wa Mapungubwe ukakhala waka.

Mapungubwe wakati wagumuka, Great Zimbabwe yikakwera pa Zimbabwe Plateau. Zina lakuti Zimbabwe likung'anamura nyumba yakuzengeka na malibwe. Great Zimbabwe ndiyo yikaŵa msumba wakwamba ku Southern Africa ndipo yikaŵa likuru la ufumu uwo ukakhozga maboma ghachoko gha Shona. Nyumba za malibwe zikafuma ku Mapungubwe. Ŵanthu ŵakamba kuzengera mu msumba wa Great Zimbabwe, uwo ukaŵa nga ni linga la Great Enclosure. Kweniso ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito malibwe ghakupangira nyumba kuti ŵazenge nyumba zichoko. Charu cha Zimbabwe chikakura chomene chifukwa cha malonda agho chikachitanga na ŵanthu ŵa ku Swahili. Kuwuka kwa Great Zimbabwe kukukolerana na kuwuka kwa Kilwa. Mu charu cha Zimbabwe, golide likasangikanga chomene. Ŵanthu ŵa mu nyumba yake ŵakakhalanga makora, ŵakavwaranga salu za ku India, ŵakavwaranga vinthu vya mkuŵa na golide, ndipo ŵakaryanga vyakurya vyakufuma ku Peresiya na China. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1420 na 1430, caru ca Zimbabwe cikamba kunangika. Mu 1450, msumba uwu ukalekeka. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti cifukwa ca kuchepa kwa vinthu ivi nchakuti msumba wa Ingombe Ilede ndiwo ukakura comene.

Ivi vikapangiska kuti nkhani ya Ŵashona yambe kujintha. Nyatsimba Mutota, fumu ya kumpoto kwa Shona ya Karanga, yikaŵa pa nkhondo. Iyo na mwana wake Mutope ŵakathereska chigaŵa cha Zimbabwe Plateau, ndipo ŵakenda kujumpha mu Mozambiki m'paka kumafumiro gha dazi kwa charu ichi. Ŵakacemanga ufumu wawo kuti Wilayatu 'l Mu'anamutapah panji mwanamutapa (Fumu ya Vyaru Vyakupokeka), panji Ufumu wa Mutapa. Monomotapa ndiyo yikaŵa vimbundi vya ku Portugal. Ŵakazenga nyumba za malibwe yayi; Ŵashona ŵa kumpoto ŵakaŵa na mitheto ya kuzenga na malibwe yayi. Matope wakati wafwa mu 1480, ufumu uwu ukagaŵikana mu vigaŵa viŵiri: Torwa kumwera na Mutapa kumpoto. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Shona, Changa na Togwa, ŵakakwesananga na mbumba ya mwanamutapa. Changa wakathereska chigaŵa cha kumwera, ndipo wakazenga ufumu wa Butua uwo ukaŵa na msumba ukuru ku Khami.

Ufumu wa Mutapa ukalutilira kumpoto pasi pa muwuso wa mwenemutapa. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500 C.E., Ŵapwitikizi ŵakakhazikiska misika mu Mlonga wa Zambezi kuti ŵambe kulamulira Mutapa. Ŵakaŵa ŵakukondwa. Mu 1628, nkhondo yikuru yikaŵawovwira kuti ŵaŵike mwanamutapa munyake zina lake Mavura, uyo wakalemba mapangano agho ghakaŵapa wanangwa wakupeleka vinthu ku Ŵapwitikizi. Ŵapwitikizi ŵakamazga muwuso wa mwanamutapa na kunanga malonda. Kuzakafika mu 1667, Mutapa wakaŵa kuti wanangika. Ŵalongozgi ŵakakanizganga ŵanthu kugura golide chifukwa cha kopa kuti Ŵapwitikizi ŵibenge, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakamba kuchepa.

Ufumu wa Butua ukalamuliranga na changamire, zina ilo likwiza cifukwa ca uyo wakambiska, Changa. Pamanyuma pake ukazgoka Ufumu wa Rozwi. Ŵapwitikizi ŵakayezgayezga kuti ŵafike ku malo agha, kweni Changamire Dombo wakaŵachimbizga mu 1693. Caka ca m'ma 1600 cikaŵa ca mtende na cimwemwe. Ufumu wa Rozwi ukaparanyika mu ma 1830 chifukwa cha kuwukira kwa Nguni kufuma ku Natal.

#### Namibia

Kuzakafika mu 1500 C.E., vyaru vinandi vya kumwera kwa Africa vikaŵa kuti vyamba kulamulira. Ku mpoto ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Namibia, ŵanthu ŵa fuko la Ovambo ŵakalimanga, ndipo ŵa fuko la Herero ŵakaliskanga viŵeto. Apo viŵeto vikasazgikiranga, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Herero ŵakasamira kumwera ku Namibia kuti ŵakasange malo ghakuliskako viŵeto. Gulu linyake la ŵanthu ŵakuchemeka Ovambanderu, ŵakamba kukhala ku Ghanzi, kumpoto cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa charu cha Botswana. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Nama, awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero cha Khoi, ŵakaliskanga mberere ndipo ŵakaluta kumpoto ndipo ŵakakumana na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Herero. Boma la Lozi likathereska ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Mbukushu, Subiya, na Yei, ndipo ŵakaluta ku Botei, Okavango, na Chobe, kumpoto kwa charu cha Botswana.

#### South Africa and Botswana

##### Sotho–Tswana

Kukula kwa maiko gha Sotho na Tswana agho ghakaŵa kumwera kwa Mlonga wa Limpopo, kukamba mu 1000 C.E. Nkhongono za mulongozgi zikathembanga pa viŵeto na kukolerana na ŵasekuru ŵake. Ici tingaciwona mu mizi iyo yili pa Toutswemogala Hill, kumpoto kwa mapiri na kumwera kwa Mlonga wa Vaal. Kumpoto cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Mlonga wa Vaal kukaŵa vyaru vyakwambilira vya Tswana ivyo vikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene. Para pawuka mphindano, ŵanthu ŵakambanga kupanga maboma ghawo.

##### Nguni peoples
Kumwera cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa mapiri gha Drakensberg kukakhalanga ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero cha Nguni. Iwo nawo ŵakachitanga mulimo wa kuzenga maufumu, ndipo maufumu ghaphya ghakawukanga chifukwa cha mphindano, kupambana maghanoghano, na suzgo la ŵanthu. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, nkhondo, kuzenga boma, na kusama vikamanyikwa kuti Mfecane (Nguni) panji Difaqane (Sotho). Cinthu cikuru ico cikapangiska kuti vinthu viŵe nthena nchakuti Ufumu wa Ŵazulu ukakhazikika. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakagwiranga nchito ya kusona visulo, kulima mpunga, na kuliska viŵeto.

##### Khoisan and Boers

Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoisan ŵakakhalanga kumwera ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa chigaŵa cha Cape, uko kuli vula zinandi. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa ichi ŵakaŵa ŵa mtundu wa Bantu, nga mba Sotho na Nguni, kweni chigaŵa ichi chikamara apo kukaŵa vula. Viyowoyero vinyake vya ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu vili na lizgu la chiyowoyero cha Khoisan. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoisan ŵakaguliskanga ng'ombe, mberere, na nyama. Ŵazengezgani ŵawo awo ŵakayowoyanga Chibantu ŵakaguliskanga mkuŵa, chisulo, na hona.

Kuzakafika m'ma 1500 C.E., kampani ya Dutch East India Company yikakhazikiska malo ghakusungira maji ku Table Bay kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Khoikhoi ŵagulire maji na nyama. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoikhoi ŵakapokeranga mkuŵa, chisulo, hona, na mphete. Kuti ŵamanye mtengo wa nyama na viŵeto, kweniso kuti ŵagwirenge makora ntchito, Ŵachidachi ŵakakhazikika ku Table Bay mu 1652. Ŵakalimanga vipasi na vipasi ndipo ŵakazenga chipatala cha ŵasilikari ŵalwari. Kuti ŵasazgireko vyakurya, Ŵachidachi ŵakaghanaghana vya kusazgirako minda mu Table Bay mwa kukhozga ŵanthu ŵakuchemeka kuti mba burgher boers (ŵalimi) pa malo agho pakwamba ŵakagwiranga nchito ŵazga ŵa ku West Africa. Malo agha ŵakaghafumiskapo ku malo ghakuliskako viŵeto gha Khoikhoi, ndipo agha ndigho ghakacitiska nkhondo yakwamba ya Khoikhoi na ŵa Dutch mu 1659. Pakaŵavya uyo wakathereska, kweni Ŵachidachi ŵakamba kupoka chigaŵa chose cha Cape. Mu nkhondo zinandi izo ŵakachitiranga Khoikhoi, ŵa Boer ŵakatora malo ghose gha Khoikhoi na kutora viŵeto vyawo vyose. Nkhondo yachiŵiri ya Khoikoi na Dutch (1673-1677) yikaŵa nkhondo ya viŵeto. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mtundu wa Khoikhoi ŵakafwa na matenda gha ku Europe.

Kuzakafika m'ma 1800, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakhalanga ku Cape, ndipo ŵazga ŵakizanga kufuma ku Madagascar, Mozambique, na Indonesia. Kweniso malo agha ghakamba kusazgikira kumpoto, kweni ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoikhoi ŵakamba kulimbana na ŵasilikari, ndipo nkhondo ya ŵasilikari yikapangiska kuti malo agha ghaleke kusazgikira mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800. Ŵaburu awo ŵakamba kuliska viŵeto ŵakachemekanga kuti trekboers. Ŵana ŵacekuru awo ŵakakoleka pa nyengo ya kuwukira ndipo ŵapapi ŵawo ŵakakomeka ndiwo ŵakagwiranga nchito mu vikaya vya Trekboer.

### Southeast Africa

#### Prehistory
Kuyana na fundo yakuti ŵanthu ŵa mazuŵa ghano ŵali kufuma ku Africa, ŵanthu wose ŵali kufuma ku South-East Africa panji ku Horn of Africa. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 C.E., ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vya Nilotic na Bantu ŵakanjira mu chigaŵa ichi..

#### Swahili coast

Pamanyuma pa kusama kwa Bantu, mu vigaŵa vya mumphepete mwa nyanja ku South East Africa, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ŵakamba kukolerana na Ŵasilamu ŵa ku Arabia na Ŵaperesiya, ndipo ŵakamba kuzgoka misumba ya ku Arabia, Peresiya na Swahili. Chikhalidwe cha Chiswahili chomwe chinachokera ku kusinthana uku chikuwonetsa zikhalidwe zambiri zachiarabu ndi Chisilamu zomwe sizikuwoneka mu chikhalidwe cha Bantu, monga momwe zimakhalira ndi anthu ambiri a Afro-Arab a Bantu Swahili. Chiyowoyero cha Bantu cha Swahili chili na mazgu ghanandi gha mu Chiarabu agho ghakusangika mu vigaŵa vya mumphepete mwa nyanja vya Tanzania (makamaka Zanzibar) na Kenya.

Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vya kumwera kwa Kenya na Tanzania awo ŵakakumana na ŵanthu ŵa ku Arabia na Peresiya ŵakamanyikwa kuti ŵakaŵa ŵanthu ŵa ku Rhapta, Azania, na Menouthias. Vinthu ivi vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ndiwo ŵakamba kukhala mu vyaru vinyake.

Kale, ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakhalanga kumpoto kwa Kenya na kumwera kwa Mlonga wa Ruvuma ku Mozambique. Ŵanalume ŵa ku Arabia ŵakacemanga mphepete mwa nyanja ya Swahili kuti ni caru ca zanji (ŵachibulumutira). Template:Sfnp

Nangauli kale ŵanthu ŵakagomezganga kuti ŵanthu aŵa mbana ŵa Ŵaperesiya, kweni sono ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakusanda mdauko, ŵavisopa, na ŵasayansi ŵakuwona kuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa Ŵabantu awo ŵakenderananga na ŵamalonda Ŵachisilamu, kwambira m'ma 700 C.E. m'paka m'ma 800 C.E.

Maufumu gha ku Swahili agho ghakaŵako mu nyengo yakale ghakaŵa na vipata vya malonda pa virwa, ivyo ŵanthu ŵakulemba mbiri Ŵachigiriki ŵakavizunura kuti "vigaŵa vikuruvikuru". Ŵanthu ŵa ku China awo ŵakendanga pa sitima za pa maji nga ni Mombasa, Zanzibar, na Kilwa, ŵakamanyikwanga na ŵanthu ŵa ku China awo ŵakendanga pa sitima za pa maji nga ni Zheng He kweniso ŵanthu ŵa ku Middle Ages awo ŵakamanyanga vya Chisilamu nga ni Abu Abdullah ibn Battuta. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Swahili ŵakaguliskanga chomene zovu, ŵazga, na golide. Ŵakachitanga malonda na ŵanthu ŵa ku Arabia, India, Peresiya, na China.

Ŵapwitikizi ŵakiza mu 1498. Pakukhumba kuti ŵazakaŵe na ndalama zinandi kweniso kuti ŵazakaŵe Ŵakhristu, Ŵapwitikizi ŵakamba kuwukira msumba wa Kilwa mu 1505. Cifukwa cakuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Swahili ŵakasuskanga, Ŵapwitikizi ŵakatondeka kucita malonda. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1600, Ŵapwitikizi ŵakamba kuchepeskako mazaza ghawo pa chigaŵa cha Swahili. Na wovwiri wa Ŵaarabu ŵa ku Oman, mu 1729 Ŵapwitikizi ŵakafumapo. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, chigaŵa ichi chikazgoka chigaŵa cha ufumu wa Oman. Vinthu vikamba kwenda makora, kweni vikaŵa nga ni kale yayi.

#### Urewe

Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Urewe ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa cha Nyanja ya Victoria mu Africa. Vinthu vyakwambilira ivyo ŵanthu aŵa ŵakalemba vili mu chigaŵa cha Kagera ku Tanzania, ndipo vikafika m'paka ku chigaŵa cha Kivu ku Democratic Republic of Congo, Nyanza na Western ku Kenya, kweniso kumpoto kwa Uganda, Rwanda na Burundi. Malo agho ghakasangika mu nyengo ya Urewe ghakafuma mu nyengo ya Iron Age, kufuma mu vyaka vya m'ma 500 B.C.E. m'paka mu vyaka vya m'ma 500 C.E.

Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Urewe ŵakamba kukhala ku Cameroon. Kafukufuku wakukhwaskana na ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa mu nyengo ya Iron Age ku sub-Saharan Africa, wakuchitika pamoza na kafukufuku wakukhwaskana na chiyowoyero cha ku Africa. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Urewe ndiwo ŵakayowoyanga viyowoyero vya ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu. Pakudanga waka kuwona, ŵanthu ŵa ku Urewe ŵakuwoneka nga mbanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu nyengo yakale. Kuyana na umo tikumanyira vinthu mazuŵa ghano, palije ico cikuwoneka kuti chasintha kwa vyaka pafupifupi 2,000. Ndipouli, vinthu vinyake vya ku malo agha vikupambana.

Urewe ni zina la malo gha ku Kenya agho ghakamanyikwa comene mu 1948 cifukwa ca ivyo Mary Leakey wakasanga. Wakalongosora za nyengo yakwambilira ya vyaka vya Iron Age mu chigaŵa cha Great Lakes ku Central East Africa kuzingilizga Nyanja ya Victoria.

#### Madagascar and Merina

Ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero cha Austronesian ŵakamba kukhala ku Madagascar pambere vyaka vya m'ma 500 C.E. vindafike. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Austronesia ndiwo ŵakamba kulima banane na mpunga. Mu ma 1000 C.E., ŵanthu ŵa ku Arabia na ku India ŵakamba kwenda kumpoto kwa charu cha Madagascar kuti ŵaguliske vinthu vya mu nyanja ya Indian Ocean. Kuzakafika m'ma 1400, ŵamalonda ndiwo ŵakambiska Chisilamu pa chirwa ichi. Mu nyengo ya ku mafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa, charu cha Madagascar chikaŵa nga ni dowoko la ŵanthu awo ŵakendanga mu misumba yinyake ya ku Swahili nga ni Sofala, Kilwa, Mombasa, na Zanzibar.

Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, maufumu ghanandi ghakaŵako: Ufumu wa Sakalava (wa m'ma 1600) ku nyanja ya kumanjiliro gha dazi, Ufumu wa Tsitambala (wa m'ma 1700) ku nyanja ya kumafumiro gha dazi, na Merina (wa m'ma 15) ku chigaŵa chapakati cha mapiri. Kuzakafika m'ma 1800, Merina wakaŵa na mazaza pa cirwa cose ici. Mu 1500, Ŵapwitikizi ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵanthu ŵakwamba ŵa ku Europe kufika pa cirwa ici.

Ŵanandi ŵakafuma ku Britain ndipo pamanyuma ŵakafuma ku France. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1600, ŵankhungu ŵakendanga chomene mu charu cha Madagascar. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, Radama I (1810-1828) wakachema ŵamishonale kuti ŵize ku Yerusalemu. Fumukazi Ranavalona I "Wakusuzga" (1828-1861) yikakanizga Ŵakhristu mu ufumu wake, ndipo Ŵakhristu pafupifupi 150,000 ŵakafwa. Mu muwuso wa Radama II (1861-1863), charu cha Madagascar chikaŵa pasi pa mazaza gha Ŵafarisi. Mu 1895, mu Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya ku France na Hova, Ŵafarisi ŵakanjira mu charu cha Madagascar, ndipo ŵakamba kulamulira chigaŵa cha Antsiranana (Diego Suarez).

#### Lake Plateau states and empires

Between the 14th and 15th centuries, large Southeast African kingdoms and states emerged, such as the Buganda and Karagwe Kingdoms of Uganda and Tanzania.

##### Empire of Kitara

By 1000 AD, numerous states had arisen on the Lake Plateau among the Great Lakes of East Africa. Cattle herding, cereal growing, and banana cultivation were the economic mainstays of these states. The Ntusi and Bigo earthworks are representative of one of the first states, the Bunyoro kingdom, which oral tradition stipulates was part of the Empire of Kitara that dominated the whole Lakes region. A Luo ethnic elite, from the Babito clan, ruled over the Bantu-speaking Nyoro people. The society was essentially Nyoro in its culture, based on the evidence from pottery, settlement patterns, and economic specialization.

The Babito clan claim legitimacy by being descended from the Bachwezi clan, who were said to have ruled the Empire of Kitara.

##### Buganda
 

Ufumu wa Buganda ukapangika na Kato Kimera mu vyaka vya m'ma 1400 C.E. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Kato Kintu ŵakwenera kuti ŵakasamukira kumpoto cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Nyanja ya Victoria mu 1000 B.C.E. Boma la Buganda likalamuliranga na kabaka uyo wakaŵa na bataka. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, Kabakas ŵakamba kuchepeska mazaza gha Bataka, ndipo Buganda yikazgoka ufumu wakulamulira. Kuzakafika m'ma 1500 C.E., charu cha Buganda chikamba kusazgikira chomene, kweni pakaŵa munthu munyake uyo wakakhumbanga kuti chiŵe na mazaza pa charu ichi. Kuzakafika mu ma 1870, charu cha Buganda chikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi. Kabaka wakawusanga na Lukiko wake. Boma la Buganda likaŵa na ngalaŵa zakukwana 100 ndipo ngalaŵa yiliyose yikaŵa na ŵanthu 30. Boma la Buganda ndilo likaŵa lakuzirwa chomene mu chigaŵa ichi. Kweni kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, charu cha Buganda chikaŵa pasi pa boma la Britain.

##### Rwanda

Kumwera kwa Bunyoro, kufupi na Nyanja ya Kivu, ku mphepete kwa mphepete kwa nyanja, kukaŵa ufumu wa Rwanda. Ŵaliska ŵa viŵeto ŵa mtundu wa Tutsi (BaTutsi) ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵankhongono chomene, ndipo themba lawo likachemekanga mwami. Ŵahutu ŵakaŵa ŵalimi. Wose ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero chimoza, kweni ŵanthu ŵakakanizgikanga kutengwa na kuchezga. Mwakuyana na ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya, Ufumu wa Rwanda ukaŵako mu nyengo ya Mwami Ruganzu II (Ruganzu Ndori) (c. 1600 1624), ndipo likuru lake likaŵa kufupi na Kigali. Vikatora vyaka 200 kuti Ufumu wa Mwami Kigeli IV (Kigeri Rwabugiri) uŵepo. Chikaŵa chakusuzga chomene kuwusa Ŵahutu kuluska Ŵatutsi. Mulongozgi waumaliro wa Ŵatutsi wakajipeleka kwa Mwami Mutara II (Mutara Rwogera) (1802-1853) mu 1852, kweni chigaŵa chaumaliro cha Ŵahutu chikathereskeka mu ma 1920 na Mwami Yuhi V (Yuli Musinga) (1896-1931).

##### Burundi
 

South of the Kingdom of Rwanda was the Kingdom of Burundi. It was founded by the Tutsi chief Ntare Rushatsi ( – 1705). Like Rwanda, Burundi was built on cattle raised by Tutsi pastoralists, crops from Hutu farmers, conquest, and political innovations. Under Mwami Ntare Rugaamba ( – 1852), Burundi pursued an aggressive expansionist policy, one based more on diplomacy than force.

#### Maravi

The Maravi claimed descent from Karonga (*kalonga*), who took that title as king. The Maravi connected Central Africa to the east coastal trade, with Swahili Kilwa. By the 17th century, the Maravi Empire encompassed all the area between Lake Malawi and the mouth of the Zambezi River. The *karonga* was Mzura, who did much to extend the empire. Mzura made a pact with the Portuguese to establish a 4,000-man army to attack the Shona in return for aid in defeating his rival Lundi, a chief of the Zimba. In 1623, he turned on the Portuguese and assisted the Shona. In 1640, he welcomed back the Portuguese for trade. The Maravi Empire did not long survive the death of Mzura. By the 18th century, it had broken into its previous polities.

### West Africa

#### Sahelian empires and states

##### Ghana
 

Ufumu wa Ghana ukwenera kuti ukaŵako mu vyaka vya m'ma 700 C.E., ndipo ukazengeka na Dinge Cisse. Ghana wakazunulika kakwamba na Al-Farazi, uyo wakaŵa Muarabu. Mu Ghana, ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu matawuni na ku mizi. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu matawuni agha ŵakaŵa Ŵasilamu awo ŵakaŵa ŵalongozgi ŵa ufumu uwu, kweniso themba la Ghana ilo likachitanga chisopa chaunenesko. Kukaŵa matawuni ghaŵiri, limoza uko kukaŵa ŵalongozgi ŵa chisopa cha Cisilamu na Ŵaarabu. Ŵanthu ŵa ku mizi ŵakakhalanga mu vikaya, ndipo ŵakakolerananga na maboma ghanyake agho ghakalayizga kuti ghaŵenge ghakugomezgeka ku Ghana. Ŵanthu ŵakamuwonanga kuti ni Ciuta, ndipo ŵanthu wose ŵakamuwonanga kuti wali makora. Ghana wakazgoka Muislamu cha m'ma 1050, wakati wapoka Aoudaghost.

Ufumu wa Ghana ukaŵa na ndalama zinandi chifukwa cha kukhomeska msonkho pa malonda agho ghakaŵa pakati pa Tiaret na Sijilmasa. Ghana ndiyo wakawoneseskanga malo gha golide gha ku Bambouk, kumwera kwa Koumbi Saleh. Ŵakatoranga mchere na golide ivyo vikendanga mu caru cawo. Ufumu ukacitangako yayi kupanga vinthu.

Kuzakafika m'ma 1100, caru ca Ghana cikamba kunangika. Nyengo yinyake ŵanthu ŵakaghanaghananga kuti chifukwa chake chikaŵa chakuti Ŵaberi ŵakathereska msumba wa Koumbi Saleh mu 1076. Ici nchakuzomerezgeka yayi. Pali vifukwa vinandi ivyo ŵanthu ŵakughanaghanira. Cifukwa cimoza nchakuti malonda gha golide ghakasamukira kumafumiro gha dazi ku Mlonga wa Niger na ku nthowa ya Taghaza, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti Ghana uleke kwenda makora. Cifukwa cinyake ico ŵakuzunura nchakuti ndyali zikuŵa zambura kukhazikika cifukwa ca mphindano pakati pa maboma ghakupambanapambana. Ufumu uwu ukamara mu 1230, apo Takrur, kumpoto kwa Senegal, ndiyo wakapoka msumba ukuru.

##### Mali
 

Ufumu wa Mali ukamba mu 13th century AD, apo mulongozgi wa Mande (Mandingo), Sundiata (Lord Lion) wa fuko la Keita, wakatonda Soumaoro Kanté, fumu ya Sosso panji Soninke wakumwera, pa Nkhondo ya Kirina mu c. 1235. Sundiata wakalutilira kuwusa kufuma ku nkhorongo na ku Dambo la Niger, kumafumiro gha dazi kukafika ku Niger Bend, kumpoto kukafika ku Sahara, na kumanjiliro gha dazi kukafika ku Atlantic Ocean. Sundiata wakaŵa na zina lakuti mansa. Wakazenga msumba ukuru wa ufumu wake ku Niani.

Nangauli malonda gha mchere na golide ghakalutilira kuŵa ghakuzirwa ku Ufumu wa Mali, kweni vyakurya na viŵeto navyo vikaŵa vyakuzirwa. Kulima mpheska, mpunga, na mpunga kukaŵa kwakuzirwa comene. Ku mphaka za kumpoto kwa Sahel, viŵeto vya ng'ombe, mberere, mbuzi, na ngamila vikaŵa vyakuzirwa comene. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Mande ŵakakhalanga mu mizi na malo. Mu mizi iyi mukaŵa ŵanthu ŵakuchemeka kafu, ndipo ŵakalamuliranga na famu. Famu iyi yikapeleka chawanangwa ku fumu. Gulu la ŵasilikari ŵakwenda pa mahachi na ŵasilikari ŵakwenda pasi ŵakalongozgekanga na themba. Usange mphakukhumbikwa, ŵasilikari ŵankhongono ŵangasangika mu vigaŵa vya mumphepete mwa nyanja.

Munthu wakang'anamukiranga ku Cisilamu pachokopachoko. Nkhongono ya mansa yikathembanga pa kukolerana na vigomezgo vya ŵanthu ŵa mu nyengo yakale kweniso pa nkhongono zauzimu. Pakwamba, Sundiata wakakananga chisopa cha Ciisilamu. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Mansa ŵakaŵa Ŵasilamu awo ŵakasopanga chomene Chiuta, kweni ŵakalondezganga mitheto na viphikiro ivyo vikaŵa vyakuzirwa chomene ku ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Mande. Chisilamu chikazgoka chisopa cha ku nyumba ya themba mu muwuso wa mwana wa Sundiata, Uli I (1225-1270). Mansa Uli wakaluta ku Mecca, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakamumanya. Pa nyumba yacifumu iyi, pakaŵa Ŵasilamu awo ŵakaŵa ŵalembi na ŵalembi. Munthu munyake wa chisopa cha Cisilamu, zina lake Ibn Battuta, wakalemba vinthu vyakukhwaskana na ufumu uwu.

Mali yikafika pa msinkhu wa nkhongono zake mu vyaka vya m'ma 1400, apo Mansa Musa (1312-1337) wakacita ulendo wake wakucemeka Hajj ku Mecca na ŵazga 500. Ulendo wa haji wa Mansa Musa ukapangiska kuti golide lileke kukhumbikwa mu Eguputo kwa vyaka 10. Wakakondweska comene ŵanthu ŵa mu caru ca Cisilamu na ŵa ku Europe. Wakacemera ŵasambizgi na ŵakuzenga nga ni Ishal al-Tuedjin (al-Sahili) kuti ŵalutilire kunjizga Mali mu caru ca Cisilamu.

Ufumu wa Mali ukakura chomene pa nkhani ya kusambira na kulemba. Mu 1285, muzga wakufwatuka zina lake Sakura, wakawukira ufumu. Munthu uyu wakachimbizga ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Tuareg mu msumba wa Timbuktu na kuwuzgora msumba wa masambiro na malonda. Kuguliska mabuku kukakura comene, ndipo kukopera mabuku kukazgoka nchito yakuzirwa ndiposo yakovwira comene. Timbuktu na Djenné vikazgoka malo ghakuzirwa ghakusambilira visambizgo vya Chisilamu.

Pamanyuma pa muwuso wa Mansa Suleyman (1341-1360) charu cha Mali chikamba kunjira mu suzgo. Ŵasilikari ŵa Mossi ŵakawukira mphaka ya kumwera. Ŵa Tuareg ŵakasuzganga ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga kumpoto kwa charu ichi kuti ŵapoke Timbuktu. Ŵafulani (Fulbe) ŵakathereska mazaza gha Mali kumanjiliro gha dazi mwa kukhazikiska boma lakujiyimira palekha la Futa Toro, ilo likapokelera ufumu wa Takrur. Ubali wa Serer na Wolof ukamara. Mu 1545 m'paka 1546, Ufumu wa Songhai ukatora Niani. Pamanyuma pa 1599, ufumu uwu ukaleka kusanga golide ku Bambouk ndipo ukagaŵikana.

##### Songhai
 

Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Songhai ŵali kufuma ku ŵalovi awo ŵakakhalanga mu Mlonga wa Niger. Ŵakazenga msumba wawo ukuru ku Kukiya mu vyaka vya m'ma 900 C.E. na ku Gao mu vyaka vya m'ma 1200 C.E. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Songhai ŵakuyowoya chiyowoyero cha ku Nilo na Sahara.

Sonni Ali, uyo wakaŵa wa fuko la Songhai, wakamba kuwukira msumba wa Timbuktu mu 1468. Wakafika kumpoto, mu mapopa, wakambiska ufumu wa Mossi kumwera kwa Niger, na kufika ku Djenne. Ŵasilikari ŵake ŵakaŵa na ŵapamahachi na maboti. Sonni Ali wakaŵa Musulumani wakugomezgeka yayi, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber-Arab ŵakamulongosoleranga viheni, comenecomene cifukwa ca kuwukira Ŵasilamu ŵa ku Timbuktu pamanyuma pakuti waŵavikilira na kuŵaponoska ku Ŵatuareg. Pamanyuma pa nyifwa yake mu 1492, muhaliri wake wakatoleka na muzukuru wake Askia Mohammad I, mwana wa Kassey, mudumbu wa Sonni Ali.

Muhammad Ture (1493-1528) ndiyo wakambiska ufumu wa Askiya. Wakakhozga vinthu ivyo Sonni Ali wakathereska. Chisilamu chikagwiliskirika nchito kuti wasazgireko mazaza ghake mwa kuphalira ŵanthu ŵa ku Mossi kuti ŵacite nkhondo, kwambaso malonda mu caru ca Sahara, kweniso kuti Khalifa wa ku Cairo uyo wakaŵa "mu mfwiri" wa Ŵababasi, wamuphalire kuti waŵe Khalifa wa ku Sudan. Wakakhazikiska msumba wa Timbuktu kuŵa malo ghakusambizgirako chisopa cha Cisilamu. Muhammad Ture wakalutilira kusanuzga ufumu wake mwa kusunkhunya ŵa Tuareg kumpoto, kuwukira Aïr kumafumiro gha dazi, na kuwukira tawuni ya Taghaza iyo yikaŵa na mchere. Wakaŵagwiliskira nchito mu malonda gha Songhay. Wakalutilira kusora ŵateŵeti ŵakugomezgeka na mbumba zawo kuti ŵaŵe ŵalaŵiliri na kuŵapa maudindo mu vigaŵa ivyo wakapoka. Ŵakaŵa na udindo wa kuzenga magulu gha nkhondo. Pakuti Songhay yikaŵa malo ghakukhala ŵanthu ŵanandi, yikaŵa yakukhora chomene nanga ni apo pakaŵa mphindano. Leo Africanus wakalongosora makora ufumu wa Askiya Muhammad. Askiya Muhammad wakathereskeka na mwana wake mu 1528. Pamanyuma pa kulimbana kukuru, mwana waumaliro wa Muhammad Ture, Askiya Daoud (1529-1582) wakatora ufumu.

Mu 1591, Morocco wakawukira ufumu wa Songhai mwakulongozgeka na Ahmad al-Mansur wa fuko la Saadi kuti wapoke malo gha golide gha ku Sahel. Pa Nkhondo ya ku Tondibi, ŵasilikari ŵa Songhai ŵakathereskeka. Ŵaroma ŵakathereska msumba wa Djenne, Gao, na Timbuktu, kweni ŵakatondeka kupoka chigaŵa chose. Askiya Nuhu na ŵasilikari ŵa Songhay ŵakakumanaso ku Dendi mu mphepete mwa chigaŵa cha Songhai, uko gulu la ŵasilikari likapoka katundu wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Morocco. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700, charu cha Songhai chikagaŵikana mu vyaru vinandi.

Morocco wakawona kuti mulimo wake ukaŵa wambura phindu. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ndiwo ŵakaguliskanga golide. Ntheura malonda ghanandi agho ghakacitikanga mu caru ca Sahara ghakafika ku Bornu. Vinthu vyakudura ivyo ŵakagura na golide vikeneranga kutumizgika ku mapiri gha mu Sahara. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Morocco awo ŵakakhalako ŵakatorana na ŵanthu ŵa mu caru ici ndipo ŵakacemekanga Arma panji Ruma. Ŵakajiŵika mu Timbuktu nga ni gulu la ŵasilikari ilo likaŵa na vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana. Pakati pa vivulupi ivi, magulu ghanyake ghakamba kujikhwimiska, kusazgapo Ŵafulani ŵa ku Futa Tooro awo ŵakiza kufuma kumanjiliro gha dazi. Ufumu wa Bambara, umoza mwa maufumu agho ghakafumako ku Songhai, ukaparanya Gao. Mu 1737, ŵa Tuareg ŵakakoma ŵanthu ŵa ku Arma.

##### Sokoto Caliphate

Ŵafulani ŵakaŵa ŵanthu ŵakusamukira kunyake. Ŵakafuma ku Mauritania na kwamba kukhala ku Futa Tooro, Futa Djallon, na ku vyaru vinyake vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa. Kuzakafika mu vyaka vya m'ma 14 C.E., ŵakaŵa kuti ŵamba kusopa Ciislam. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500 C.E., ŵakafika ku Macina, kumwera kwa Mali. Mu ma 1670, ŵakaŵaphalira kuti ŵachitenge jihad ku ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa Ŵasilamu yayi. Nkhondo izi zikawovwira kuti paŵe vyaru vinandi nga ni Futa Toro, Futa Djallon, Macina, Oualia, na Bundu. Boma lakuzirwa comene pa maboma agha likaŵa la Sokoto Caliphate panji Ufumu wa Fulani.

Mu tawuni ya Gobir, Usman dan Fodio (1754-1817) wakasuska ŵalongozgi ŵa Hausa kuti ŵakulondezga chisopa chautesi cha Chisilamu kweniso kuti mbambura kwenelera. Mu 1804, wakambiska Nkhondo ya Fulani, iyo yikaŵa nkhondo ya chigaluka pakati pa ŵanthu awo ŵakakwenyelera chifukwa cha misonkho yikuru kweniso ŵakakondwa yayi na ŵalongozgi ŵawo. Ku Northern Nigeria kukaŵa nkhondo ya Jihad, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Fulani na Hausa ŵakakolerana nayo chomene. [Pakukhumbika ukaboni apa] Usman wakapanga ufumu uwo ukaŵa na vigaŵa vinyake vya kumpoto kwa Nigeria, Benin, na Cameroon, ndipo msumba wake ukuru ukaŵa Sokoto. Wakaleka nchito yake ya kusambizga na kulemba ndipo wakapeleka ufumu kwa mwana wake Muhammed Bello. Ufumu wa Sokoto ukakhala m'paka mu 1903, apo ŵa ku Britain ŵakapoka kumpoto kwa Nigeria.

#### Forest empires and states

##### Akan kingdoms and emergence of Asante Empire

Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Akan ŵakuyowoya chiyowoyero cha Kwa. Ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga viyowoyero vya Kwa ŵakagomezgeka kuti ŵakafuma ku East/Central Africa, pambere ŵandafike ku Sahel. Kuzakafika m'ma 1200 C.E., Ufumu wa Akan wa Bonoman (Bono State) ukaŵako. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1200 C.E., apo migodi ya golide mu Mali yikamba kumara, boma la Bonoman na maufumu ghanyake gha Akan ghakamba kutchuka chomene pa nkhani ya malonda gha golide. Ufumu wa Bonoman na maufumu ghanyake gha Ŵaakan nga ni Denkyira, Akyem, na Akwamu ndiwo ghakaŵa pakwamba, ndipo pamanyuma pake ufumu wa Ashanti ukababika. Nyengo na umo Ashante wakafikira ku malo agha vikususkana. Icho tikumanya nchakuti mu ma 1700, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Akan ŵakamanyikwa kuti ŵakakhalanga mu cigaŵa ca Kwaaman. Malo agha ghakaŵa kumpoto kwa Nyanja ya Bosomtwe. Ndalama izo boma likasanganga zikafumanga ku malonda gha golide na kola, kweniso kuzenga makuni kuti ŵabase yamsungwi. Ŵakazenga matawuni pakati pa milonga ya Pra na Ofin. Ŵakapangana kuti ŵajivikilire na kupeleka msonkho ku charu cha Denkyira. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500 C.E., ŵanthu ŵa ku Ashante ŵakamba kusintha chomene, kusazgapo ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu charu ichi chifukwa cha kulima vyakumera vya mu charu chiphya nga ni manicure na chimanga.

Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1600 C.E., Osei Kofi Tutu I (c. 1695 1717), na wovwiri wa Okomfo Anokye, ŵakakolerana na mtundu wa Ashante. Osei Tutu wakalutilira kusazgirako chigaŵa chake. Wakazenga gulu la ŵasilikari la Ashante ilo likajintha pa boma la Akwamu, wakambiska gulu liphya na kuzgora gulu la ŵasilikari kuti liŵe la nkhondo. Mu 1701, ŵanthu ŵa ku Ashante ŵakathereska charu cha Denkyira, ndipo ŵakamba kuchita malonda na ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe, chomenechomene ŵa ku Dutch. Opoku Ware I (1720-1745) wakalutilira kusazgirako ufumu wake na kusazgirako vyaru vinyake vya kumwera kwa Akan. Wakazgokera kumpoto na kusazgako Techiman, Banda, Gyaaman, na Gonja, vyaru ivyo vili mumphepete mwa Black Volta. Pakati pa 1744 na 1745, Asantehene Opoku wakawukira chigaŵa chakumpoto cha Dagomba, ndipo wakawusa nthowa zakuzirwa zakwendamo mu charu cha Niger. Kusi Obodom (1750-1764) ndiyo wakatora malo gha Opoku. Wakakhozga vyaru ivyo wakaŵa kuti wapoka. Osei Kwadwo (1777-1803) wakapangiska vyakuti ufumu wake wendenge makora na kulutilira kukura. Osei Kwame Panyin (1777-1803), Osei Tutu Kwame (1804-1807), na Osei Bonsu (1807-1824) ŵakalutilira kukhozga na kusazgirako vigaŵa vyawo. Ufumu wa Ashante ukaŵa na chigaŵa chose icho sono chikuchemeka Ghana na vigaŵa vinandi vya Ivory Coast.

Ashantehene wakapokera udindo wake kufuma kwa anyina. Ku Kumasi, msumba ukuru wa charu ichi, wakaŵanga na gulu la ŵanthu awo ŵakamanyanga chomene malonda, ndyali, na usilikari. Ŵanalume ŵakufuma ku Arabia, Sudan, na Europe ndiwo ŵakagwiranga nchito mu boma, ndipo wose ŵakimikikanga na Ashantehene. Mu msumba ukuru na mu matawuni ghanyake, ŵapolisi ŵapadera ŵakagwiranga nchito nga mbalinda ŵa Ashantehene, nga ni awo ŵakamanyanga vinthu, ndiposo kuti ŵamazge kugaluka. Mu ufumu wose uwu mukaŵa misewu iyo yikendanga kufupi na nyanja m'paka pakati pa Niger.

Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, Ufumu wa Ashante ukaŵa wankhongono chomene. Mu 1900, ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵakawukira msumba uwu..

##### Dahomey
 

Ufumu wa Dahomey ukaŵako mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700, apo ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Aja ŵa mu ufumu wa Allada ŵakasamira kumpoto na kukhala na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Fon. Pakati pajumpha vilimika vicoko waka, ŵakamba kuwusa. Ntheura ŵakambiska ufumu wa Dahomey, uwo ukaŵa na msumba ukuru ku Agbome. Fumu Houegbadja (c. 1645 ‡ 1685) yikapangiska Dahomey kuŵa ufumu wankhongono. Wakayowoya kuti malo ghose nga themba ndipo ghakeneranga kupelekeka msonkho. Ŵakaŵaso na mazaza gha kuwusa nga ni ŵana ŵakwamba. Pakaŵa "kusopa ufumu". Chaka chilichose, ŵazga ŵakeneranga kupelekeka sembe kuti ŵachindike ŵasekuru ŵa themba. Mu ma 1720, boma la Dahomey likapoka vigaŵa vya Whydah na Allada, ivyo vikawovwira kuti Dahomey wasange ŵanthu awo ŵakaguliskanga ŵazga. Themba Agadja (1708-1740) likayezga kumazga malonda gha ŵazga mwa kusunga ŵazga pa malo agho ŵakagwiranga nchito ya kupanga mafuta gha makuni gha maolive, kweni vyandulo ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakasanganga na ŵazga kweniso umo Dahomey wakagomezgekeranga ku vilwero vikaŵa vikuru comene. Mu 1730, mu nyengo ya Themba Agaja, Ufumu wa Oyo ukathereska Dahomey, ndipo Dahomey wakeneranga kupeleka msonkho. Ŵazga ŵakaŵapelekanga msonkho mu viŵiya vya viŵeto. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, mafuta gha makuni gha maolive ghakaŵa ghakukhumbikwa chomene pa malonda. France yikathereska Dahomey mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya ku France na Dahomey (1892-1894) ndipo yikakhazikiska boma la vyaru vinyake. Ŵanandi mwa ŵasilikari awo ŵakarwa nkhondo na Dahomey ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Africa.

##### Yoruba
 

Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Yoruba ŵakajiwonanga kuti mbanthu ŵa mu ufumu umoza, mwakupambana na umo vinthu viliri mazuŵa ghano. Zina ili likufuma ku lizgu la Chihausa ilo likung'anamura Ufumu wa Oyo. Boma lakwamba la Ŵayoruba likaŵa la Ile-Ife, ilo likayowoyeka kuti likazengeka cha m'ma 1000 C.E. na munthu munyake wauzimu, zina lake Oduduwa. Ŵana ŵa Oduduwa ndiwo ŵakambiska misumba yakupambanapambana ya Ŵayoruba, ndipo ŵana ŵake ŵasungwana ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵamama ŵa ma obas, panji mafumu gha Ŵayoruba. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, misumba ya Yoruba yikaŵa na wupu wakulongozga. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, misumba iyi yikamba kuŵa na mazaza, ndipo ma obas ghawo ghakamba kuŵa na mazaza pa vyauzimu. Ŵanthu ŵa mu misumba iyi ŵakamba kupindana chomene.

Ufumu wa Oyo ukayamba kulamulira mu ma 1500. Mu 1550, ufumu wa Nupe ukathereska boma la Oyo, ilo likaŵa na ŵasilikari ŵa pa mahachi. Themba la Oyo likatolekera ku caru cinyake. Wakati wawerako ku nkhondo, Alafin Orompoto (c. 1560-1580) wakazenga ŵasilikari awo ŵakaŵa na vilwero vikuruvikuru. Ici cikaŵapangiska kuti ŵaleke kutonda nkhondo mu vipalamba vya kumpoto na mu nkhorongo. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1500 C.E., Oyo wakasazgirako chigaŵa cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Niger ku mapiri gha Togo, Yoruba ku Ketu, Dahomey, na Fon.

Wupu wakulongozga ndiwo ukaŵa na mazaza pa ufumu. Chigaŵa chilichose icho ŵakapanga chikaŵa na mulongozgi. Mbumba zinyake zikateŵeteranga nga ni mafumu. Oyo wakaŵa ufumu wa ku mpoto kwa Yoruba, ndipo wakendeskanga malonda pakati pa kumpoto na kumwera kwa charu ichi. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Yoruba ŵakapanganga vyakuvwara, vyakupangira visulo, na vyakupangira viŵiya, ndipo ŵakaguliskanga mchere, vikumba, na mahachi kufuma ku Sudan kuti ŵalutilire kuŵa na ŵasilikari. Oyo wakalutilira kuŵa wankhongono kwa vilimika 200. Mu 1888, charu ichi chikaŵa pasi pa boma la Britain, ndipo pamanyuma chikagaŵikana. Boma la Oyo likamara kuwusa mu 1896.

##### Benin
 

Ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero cha Kwa Niger na Congo awo ŵakakhalanga ku Edo ŵakakhazikiska ufumu wa Benin m'ma 1500. Kufuma waka pakwamba, boma ili likalutilira kusazgikira ndyali. Mu nyengo ya Themba Ewuare (c. 1450 - 1480 C.E.), boma likaŵa lakunozgekera kuwukira. Wakakhozga mazaza gha boma na kwamba nkhondo ya vilimika 30 na ŵazengezgani ŵake. Wakati wafwa, ufumu wa Benin ukafika ku Dahomey kumanjiliro gha dazi, ku Niger Delta kumafumiro gha dazi, mumphepete mwa nyanja ya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa, na ku misumba ya Ŵayoruba kumpoto.

Muzukuru wa Ewuare, Oba Esigie (1504-1550), wakathereska mazaza gha uzama (bungwe la boma) na kusazgirako malonda na ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe, chomenechomene Ŵapwitikizi awo ŵakapanga mkuwa kuti uŵawovwire pa nyumba ya themba. Ŵanalume aŵa ŵakalongozgekanga na Uzama, uyo wakaŵa mulongozgi wa mbumba zakukhora kweniso mulongozgi wa tawuni. Pamanyuma pake, mazaza ghake ghakacepa cifukwa ca kuŵika ŵamazaza. Ŵanakazi ŵakaŵa na mazaza. Fumukazi iyo yikababa oba, yikaŵa na mazaza ghanandi.

Buku la Alan Ryder lakuti Benin and the Europeans likulongora kuti caru ca Benin cikaguliskanga comene ŵazga yayi. Kuuyambiro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, msumba uwu ukaparanyika cifukwa ca nkhondo za ufumu na za mukati. Ndipouli, likambaso kuŵa na nkhongono mu nyengo ya Themba Oba Eresoyen na Themba Oba Akengbuda. Mu ma 1500 C.E., ŵanthu ŵa ku Benin ŵakatumizganga vyakurya nga ni phura, njovu, gemu, na salu ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Portugal na Dutch. Mu 1897, ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵakapoka msumba uwu.

##### Niger Delta and Igbo
Chigaŵa cha Niger Delta chikaŵa na misumba yinandi iyo yikaŵa na maboma ghanandi. Malo agha ghakavikilirikanga na maji na vyakumera vinandi. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700, ŵanthu ŵakamba kwenda mu chigaŵa ichi. Vyaru ivyo vikaŵa mu chigaŵa ichi vikaŵa nga ni vya ŵanthu ŵa ku Swahili ku East Africa. Ŵanyake, nga ni Bonny, Kalabari, na Warri, ŵakaŵa na mafumu. Vinyake, nga ni Brass, vikaŵa vyaru ivyo vikaŵa na maparamendi ghachoko, ndipo ku Cross River na Old Calabar, ŵamalonda ŵa Ekpe ndiwo ŵakalamuliranga. Wupu uwu ndiwo ukendeskanga malonda ndipo ukapanganga malango gha ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga nawo. Nyumba zinyake nga ni izo ŵakazenganga ku Bonny, zikamanyikwanga chomene ku America na ku Europe.

ŴaIgbo ŵakakhalanga kumafumiro gha dazi kwa dambo la Nile (kweni pamoza na ŴaAnioma kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Mlonga wa Niger). Ufumu wa Nri ukaŵako mu vyaka vya m'ma 900 C.E., ndipo Eze Nri ndiyo wakaŵa mulongozgi wake. Chikaŵa chigaŵa cha ndyali icho chikaŵa na vikaya, ndipo chikaya chilichose chikaŵa na chigaŵa na zina lake. Mu mizi mukaŵanga mazaza gha ŵanalume, ndipo nyengo zinyake ŵanakazi ndiwo ŵakalongozganga. Mu malaro gha ku Igbo-Ukwu (800 C.E.) mukaŵa vinthu vya mkuŵa ivyo vikapangika ku malo agha kweniso magalasi ghakufuma ku Eguputo na India.

## 19th century

### Southern Africa

Kuzakafika m'ma 1850, ŵamishonale na ŵamalonda ŵa ku Britain na Germany ŵakanjira mu Namibia. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Herero na Nama ŵakakwesananga pa nkhani ya futi na vilwero. Ŵajeremani ŵakaŵa ŵakukhora comene kuluska ŵa ku Britain mu cigaŵa ici. Kuzakafika mu 1884, Ŵachijeremani ŵakayowoya kuti chigaŵa cha mumphepete mwa nyanja kufuma ku Mlonga wa Orange m'paka ku Mlonga wa Kunene, ntchigaŵa cha Ŵachijeremani. Ŵakachitanga vinthu mwaukali kuti ŵasazgireko malo gha ŵazungu. Ŵakacita nthena cifukwa ca mphindano pakati pa Ŵanaama na Ŵaherero.

TŴaherero ŵakakolerana na Ŵachijeremani, ŵakaghanaghananga kuti ŵangaŵawukira. Ŵachijeremani ŵakakhazikiska msasa mu msumba ukuru wa Herero ndipo ŵakamba kupeleka malo gha Ŵaherero ku ŵanthu ŵatuŵa, kusazgapo malo ghawemi chomene ghakuliskako viŵeto mu chigaŵa chapakati. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Herero na Ovambanderu ŵakagaluka, kweni ŵakathereskeka. Mu vyaka vya pakati pa 1896 na 1897, nthenda ya nthenda ya ng'ombe yikasuzga chomene ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Herero na Nama. Ŵachijeremani ŵakalutilira na ndondomeko yawo ya kuzgora Namibia kuŵa malo ghakukhalamo ŵazungu mwa kupoka malo na viŵeto vyawo, kweniso ŵakayezga kutolera ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Herero ku South Africa.

Mu 1904, Ŵaherero ŵakambaso kugaluka. Lothar von Trotha, mulara wa ŵasilikari ŵa Germany, wakambiska nkhondo ya Waterberg, iyo yikachimbizga ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Herero kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa mapopa gha Kalahari. Paumaliro wa 1905, pakaŵa ŵanthu 16,000 pera ŵa mtundu wa Herero. Mu 1907, gulu la Nama likathereskeka. Viŵeto vyose vya Nama na Herero na malo vikaŵa vya ŵanthu ŵachoko chomene, ndipo Nama na Herero awo ŵakakhalapo ŵakaŵa pasi pa ŵanthu aŵa. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Ovambo ndiwo ŵakeneranga kugwira nchito.

### Nguniland

Mu nyengo ya Mfecane, panji kuti "kuswa", kukaŵa vivulupi vinandi kumwera kwa Africa. Ufumu wa Nguni wa kumpoto wa Mthethwa, Ndwandwe, na Swaziland ndiwo ukambiska nkhondo iyi chifukwa cha kusoŵa kwa vyakurya na njara. Dingiswayo wa ku Mthethwa wakati wafwa, Shaka wa ku Zulu ndiyo wakatora ufumu. Wakakhazikiska ufumu wa Zulu, ndipo wakawusa Ŵandwandwe na kusunkhunya Ŵaswazi kumpoto. Ŵandu ŵa ku Ndwandwe ni ŵa ku Swazi ŵajinjile m'cilambo capasi, mwantheura ŵa Mfecane ŵakamba kuthandazgika. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1820, Shaka wakasazgirako ufumu wake mu vigaŵa vyose vya ku Drakensberg. Wakasinthiska ŵalongozgi ŵa vyaru ivyo ŵakathereskeka na kuŵika induna. Wakaŵa na ŵasilikari ŵakugomezgeka, ŵakugomezgeka, na ŵamahara, awo ŵakamanyikwanga yayi mu chigaŵa ichi.

Mu 1828, Shaka wakakomeka na munung'una wake Dingane, uyo wakaŵavya mahara gha nkhondo na maluso gha kulongozga nga ni Shaka. Mu 1838, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Voortrekkers ŵakayezga kupoka caru ca Ŵazulu. Mu myezi yakwambilira ŵakathereskeka, kweni awo ŵakapona ŵakawungana pa Mlonga wa Ncome na kuthereska Ŵazulu. Ndipouli, Ŵavoretker ŵakaŵavya cikanga kuti ŵakhale mu caru ca Ŵazulu. Dingane wakakomeka mu 1840 pa nyengo ya nkhondo. Mubali wake Mpande ndiyo wakatora ufumu na kukhozga vigaŵa vya Ŵazulu kumpoto. Mu 1879, Britain yikawukira ufumu wa Zulu kuti yikawuse caru cose ca South Africa. Ufumu wa Zulu ukathereska nkhondo ya Isandlwana, kweni ukathereskeka ku Ulundi.

Limoza mwa vyaru vikuru ivyo vikafuma mu Mfecane likaŵa Ufumu wa Ŵasotho uwo ukazengeka ku Thaba Bosiu na Moshoeshoe I pakati pa 1821 na 1822. Wakaŵa wupu wa maboma ghakupambanapambana uwo ukazomera mazaza gha Moshoeshoe. Mu ma 1830, ufumu uwu ukacemanga ŵamishonale kuti ŵize na vilwero na mahachi ku Cape. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, boma la Orange Free State likalutilira kunanga ufumu uwu, kweni likamalizga yayi kuwuthereska. Mu 1868, Moshoeshoe wakapempha kuti Ufumu wa Sotho uŵikike mu mawoko gha Britain kuti waponoske awo ŵakakhalako. Malo agha ghakazgoka malo ghakulongozgeka na Britain gha Basutoland.

### Sotho-Tswana

Ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga Chitswana ŵakamba kuwusa chigaŵa ichi (kwambira ku Mlonga wa Vaal m'paka ku Botswana). Malo ghakurughakuru agha ghakakhalanga makora m'paka mu 1300 C.E. Ŵanthu wose aŵa ŵakendanga mu nthowa za malonda izo zikendanga kufuma ku Limpopo River m'paka ku Indian Ocean. Mabuku ghakwambilira ghakulongosora vya charu cha Botswana ghakalembeka mu 1824. Ivyo vikalembeka apa vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bangwaketse ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵankhongono comene mu cigaŵa ici. Mu muwuso wa Makaba II, ŵanthu ŵa ku Bangwaketse ŵakasunganga viŵeto vinandi mu malo gha mu mapopa agho ghakaŵa ghakuvikilirika. Pa nyengo iyi, mafumu ghanyake gha mu chigaŵa ichi ghakaŵa na ŵanthu 10,000 ndipo ghakaŵa na vinthu vinandi. Mu nyengo ya Mfecane, mu 1823-1843, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku South Africa ŵakanjira mu charu ichi. Nangauli Ŵangwaketse ŵakathereska ŵasilikari ŵa Bakololo mu 1826, kweni nyengo yikati yajumphapo, ŵasilikari wose ŵa ku Botswana ŵakaŵawukira, ŵakaŵatimbanizga, na kuŵasuzga. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Bakololo na Amandebele ŵakaŵawukiranga kanandi waka, ndipo ŵakatora ng'ombe zinandi, ŵanakazi, na ŵana kufuma ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Batswana. Kweni pamanyuma pa 1843, apo Ŵamandebele ŵakasamukira kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Zimbabwe, suzgo ili likamara. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1840 na 1850, ŵamalonda awo ŵakaguliskanga vinthu ku Cape Colony ŵakamba kwenda na ŵanthu ŵa ku Batswana. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Bakwena, Bangwaketse, Bangwato, na Batawana ŵakagwilira lumoza ntchito yakuguliska njovu, ndipo ndalama izo ŵakaguliskanga ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito pakuguliska mahachi na futi. Mu 1880, vinthu vikasintha chomene, ndipo Ŵabatswana ŵakamba kulamulira ŵanthu ŵa ku Bushmen, Bakalanga, Bakgalagadi, Batswapong, na mitundu yinyake. Pamanyuma pa ulendo uwu, ŵanthu ŵa ku Cape Colony ŵakamba kukhala ku mphaka za Botswana mu chigaŵa cha Transvaal. Mu 1852 gulu la mafumu gha ku Tswana ilo likaŵa na Sechele I, likathereska Ŵafrika, ndipo pamanyuma pa vyaka 8, ŵakafika pa phangano la mtende ku Potchefstroom mu 1860. Kufuma waka pa nyengo iyi, ŵakazomerezga kuti paŵe mphaka pakati pa South Africa na Botswana, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa ku Afrika na ŵa ku Batswana ŵakaguliskana vinthu na kugwira ntchito pamoza mwamtende. Mu ma 1820, ŵanthu ŵakuchimbira kwawo awo ŵakafuma ku charu cha Zulu awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Shaka, ŵakakumana na ŵanthu ŵa Basotho awo ŵakakhalanga ku mapiri. Mu 1823, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Kololo ŵakasamira kumpoto, kujumpha mu chipalamba cha Okavango na kujumpha mu mlonga wa Zambezi. Mu 1845, Ŵakololo ŵakapoka caru ca Barotseland.

Pa nyengo yeneyira, Ŵaburu ŵakamba kunjira mu caru ca Basotho. Nkhondo za Napoleon zikati zamara, charu cha Cape Colony chikapelekeka ku Britain.

Pa nyengo iyi, Moshoeshoe I wakayamba kuwusa maufumu gha Basotho gha kumwera kwa Highveld. Ŵanthu ŵakamulumba comene cifukwa ca luso lake na maluso ghake. Ulongozgi wake ukawovwira kuti mtundu wake upone ku ngozi na viyezgo ivyo vikaŵapo mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800.

Mu 1822, Moshoeshoe wakimika msumba wake ukuru ku Butha-Buthe, phiri ilo likaŵa mu mapiri gha kumpoto kwa Drakensberg. Pamanyuma, likuru lake likasamukira ku Thaba Bosiu.

Kuti waŵawovwire, Moshoeshoe wakaciskanga ŵamishonale ŵa ku France kuti ŵacite uteŵeti wa umishonale mu ufumu wake. Ŵamishonale awo ŵakatumika na Paris Evangelical Missionary Society ŵakapeleka ulongozgi ku Themba pa nkhani za vyaru vinyake na kovwira kuti liŵe na vilwero vyamazuŵa ghano.

Padera pa kuŵa ŵalaŵiliri ŵa boma, ŵamishonale (ŵanandi ŵakaŵa Casalis na Arbousset) ŵakawovwira chomene pakulongosora kalembero ka Chisotho na kusindikizga mabuku gha Chisotho pakati pa 1837 na 1855. Baibolo lakwamba mu Chisotho likafuma mu 1878.

Mu 1868, wakati wataya vigaŵa vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Boers mu nyengo ya Nkhondo za Basotho; Moshoeshoe wakapempha Fumukazi Victoria kuti yipharazge kuti Lesotho (iyo yikachemekanga Basutoland) yikaŵa boma la Britain ndipo boma la Britain likaŵa ku Maseru, uko kukaŵa msumba ukuru wa Lesotho. Ŵalongozgi ŵa vigaŵa ivi ndiwo ŵakaŵa na mazaza pa vinthu vya mukati, apo Britain ndiyo wakalamuliranga vyakuthupi na kuvikilira charu. Mu 1869, ŵa ku Britain ŵakanozga vyakuti ŵamanye mphaka za Basutoland. Nangauli mafuko ghanandi ghakaŵa na vigaŵa mukati mwa Basutoland, kweni ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakayowoyanga Chisotho ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa ivyo vikapelekeka ku Orange Free State.

### Voortrekkers

Mu ma 1830, ŵanthu ŵa ku Boer ŵakamba ulendo wawo wa kupanjilira kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Mlonga Ukuru wa Somba mu Zuurveld. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵachemanga kuti "Ŵa Voortrekkers". Kuzakafika m'ma 1800, vigaŵa vinandi vya Khoikhoi vikaŵa pasi pa mazaza gha Ŵaburu. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoikhoi ŵakataya wanangwa wawo pa nkhani za ndyali na za cuma, ndipo ŵakazgoka ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Boer. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Boer ŵakayowoyanga ciyowoyero ca ciAfrikaans, ico cikafuma ku ciyowoyero ca ku Dutch. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa mtundu wa Khoikhoi ŵakagwiranga nchito nga ni ŵasilikari ŵa boma pa kuwukira ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoikhoi na ŵa Xhosa. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoi, ŵazga, na ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakachemekanga kuti Cape Coloured, nawo ŵakaŵako. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoikhoi awo ŵakakhalanga kutali na mphaka ŵakaŵa Kora, Oorlams, na Griqua. Mu 1795, ŵa ku Britain ŵakapoka malo agha ku ŵa ku Dutch.

Mu ma 1830, ŵanthu ŵa ku Boer ŵakamba kusama, kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Mlonga Ukuru wa Somba na kunjira mu Zuurveld. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵachemanga kuti "Ŵa Voortrekkers". Ŵakazenga vyaru vya Transvaal na Orange Free State, comenecomene mu vigaŵa ivyo vikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵachoko comene. Mwakupambana na Khoisan, ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vya Bantu ŵakathereskeka yayi na Ŵafrika chifukwa cha unandi wa ŵanthu. Kweniso ŵakamba kujipangira vilwero ivyo ŵakaguliskanga ku Cape. Mu vigaŵa vinyake, nga umo vikaŵira pa Nkhondo za Xhosa na Boer, ŵanthu ŵa ku Boer ŵakafumiskikanga mu vyaru vya Xhosa. Pakakhumbikwanga ŵasilikari ŵa ufumu kuti ŵathereske ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu. Mu 1901, caru ca Boer cikathereskeka na Britain mu Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Boer. Kuwina uku kukakoma maboma ghanandi gha Transvaal na Orange Free State, chomenechomene mu vigaŵa ivyo vikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵachoko chomene. Mwakupambana na Khoisan, ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vya Bantu ŵakathereskeka yayi na Ŵafrika chifukwa cha unandi wa ŵanthu. Kweniso ŵakamba kujipangira vilwero ivyo ŵakaguliskanga ku Cape. Mu vigaŵa vinyake, nga umo vikaŵira pa Nkhondo za Xhosa na Boer, ŵanthu ŵa ku Boer ŵakafumiskikanga mu vyaru vya Xhosa. Pakakhumbikwanga ŵasilikari ŵa ufumu kuti ŵathereske ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu. Mu 1901, caru ca Boer cikathereskeka na Britain mu Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Boer. Kweni ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Afrika ŵakakomeka cifukwa ca kutondeka.

### European trade, exploration and conquest

Pakati pa 1878 na 1898, vyaru vya ku Europe vikagaŵikana na kupoka vigaŵa vinandi vya Africa. Kwa vilimika 400, vyaru vya ku Europe vikagwiranga waka nchito mu malo gha malonda agho ghakaŵa mumphepete mwa Africa. Ŵanandi awo ŵakaŵako pa nyengo iyi ŵakathereskeka ndipo ŵakawelera ku nyanja. Vinthu vinyake ivyo vikapangika pa nyengo iyi vikawovwira kuti suzgo ili lileke kuŵapo. Yimoza mwa nthowa izi yikaŵa ya kupanga futi izo zikang'anamulikanga, izo zikanyanyekanga luŵiro kuluska futi. Ŵanthu ŵakamba kugwiliskira nchito comene futi. Mu 1885, Hiram S. Maxim wakapangiska futi yakuchemeka Maxim, iyo ni ciyerezgero ca futi ya mazuŵa ghano. Vyaru vya ku Europe vikasunga vilwero ivi pakati pawo pakukana kuguliska vilwero ivi ku ŵalongozgi ŵa ku Africa.

Matenda gha ku Africa ghakatora umoyo wa ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Europe ndipo ghakatimbanizga ŵanthu kuti ŵaleke kukhazikika mu vyaru ivi. Matenda nga ni yellow fever, nthenda ya kugona, nthenda ya yaws, na vyoni ghakacitiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵaleke kuzgoŵera kuluta ku Africa. Ulwari wakukoma comene ukaŵa maleriya, uwo ukazara comene mu vyaru vya mu Africa. Mu 1854, ŵanthu ŵakasanga quinine na vinthu vinyake ivyo vikovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu Africa ŵambe kuwusa charu.

Ŵakaŵa na vifukwa vyakupulikikwa vya kuwukira caru ca Africa. Vinthu ivi vikaŵa vyakukhumbikwa pa mafakitale gha ku Europe. Ku Europe, kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, vinthu vikasintha chomene. Ŵakaŵa na mtima wa kutemwana na ŵanthu ŵa mu caru cawo. Para ŵanthu ŵa mu Africa ŵatoranga vyaru vinyake ŵakalongoranga ŵalwani ŵawo kuti mtundu wawo ngankhongono. Vinthu ivi ndivyo vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵambe kulimbana na ŵasilikari ŵa ku Africa.

Ŵanthu ŵakamba kumanya vinandi vya mu Africa. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Europe ŵakamba kusanda charu ichi. Munda wa Mungo ukambukanga Mlonga wa Niger. James Bruce wakenda mu Ethiopia ndipo wakasanga uko kukafuma mlonga wa Blue Nile. Richard Francis Burton wakaŵa munthu wakwamba wa ku Europe kufika pa Nyanja ya Tanganyika. Samuel White Baker wakasanda Mlonga wa Nayelo. John Hanning Speke wakasanga maji gha mu Mlonga wa Nayelo pa Nyanja ya Victoria. Ŵalendo ŵanyake ŵa ku Europe ŵakaŵa Heinrich Barth, Henry Morton Stanley (uyo wakalemba mazgu ghakuti "Dark Continent" (Dark Continent) pakuyowoya za Africa mu buku linyake la mu 1878), Silva Porto, Alexandre de Serpa Pinto, Rene Caille, Friedrich Gerhard Rohlfs, Gustav Nachtigal, George Schweinfurth, na Joseph Thomson. Munthu wakumanyikwa comene uyo wakaluta ku Africa ni David Livingstone. Ŵalendo ŵa ku Europe ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito ŵalongozgi na ŵateŵeti ŵa ku Africa, ndipo ŵakendanga mitunda yitali.

Ŵamishonale awo ŵakayezga kupharazga Cikhristu ŵakasazgirako kumanya vinthu vya ku Africa. Pakati pa 1884 na 1885, vyaru vya ku Europe vikakumana pa ungano wa ku Berlin ku West Africa kuti viphalirane umo vyaru vya mu Africa vigaŵikenge. Ŵakakolerana kuti ŵeneco ŵa ku Europe ŵamanyenge kuti ŵali na mazaza pa vigaŵa vinyake vya mu Africa pekha para ŵa ku Europe ŵacita nchito yawo. Mu nyengo ya 1890 na 1891, pakaŵa mapangano ghanandi agho ghakaŵa na mphaka ya vyaru. Vyaru vyose vya ku Africa kumwera kwa Sahara vikaŵa vya ŵamazaza ŵa ku Europe, kupaturako Ethiopia (Abyssinia) na Liberia.

Maufumu gha ku Europe ghakakhazikiska maboma ghakupambanapambana mu Africa. Mu vigaŵa vinyake, nga ni vigaŵa vinyake vya ku Britain ku West Africa, ufumu wa Britain ukaŵa na mazaza ghachoko waka ndipo ukaŵa na chilato chakuti ŵanthu ŵasange ndalama, ŵachitenge vinthu mwamahara, panji kuŵa na pulani ya nyengo yitali. Mu vigaŵa vinyake, ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakachiskikanga kuti ŵakhalenge mu vyaru vinyake. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakiza mu vigaŵa vichoko waka. Mu vyaru ivyo vikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵa ku Britain, mukaŵa vyaru vya East Africa (ivyo sono ni Kenya), Northern na Southern Rhodesia (Zambia na Zimbabwe), na South Africa, uko kukaŵa kale ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru ivi. France wakakhumbanga kuti charu cha Algeria chiŵe na ŵanthu ŵanandi ndipo paumaliro chiŵe chigaŵa cha France. Pakuti charu cha Algeria chikaŵa pafupi na Nyanja ya Meditereniyani, ŵanthu ŵakakhumbanga kupanga mapulani ghanthena agha.

Mu vigaŵa vinandi, maboma ghakaŵa na ŵanthu yayi panji vinthu vyakukhumbikwa kuti ghalamulire malo agha. Gulu linyake likagwiliskiranga ntchito fundo iyi kuti liŵe na mazaza mu vyaru vyawo. Cinthu cimoza ico Terence Ranger wakacema kuti "kupangiska maluso". Kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu vigaŵa ivi ŵamanye kuti ŵali na mazaza pa ŵanthu ŵa mu vigaŵa vyawo, ŵakachitanga viphikiro panji kuchita vinthu vinyake ivyo vikulongora kuti ŵali na mazaza. Cifukwa ca ici, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakasuzgika cifukwa ca ndondomeko yiphya.

Pamanyuma pa Nkhondo ya ku Africa, maboma ghanandi ghakaŵikapo mtima kuti ghaleke kugwiliskira ntchito ŵazga. Paumaliro wa nyengo ya ukoloni, ŵakamba kuchita makora chomene, nangauli mu Africa mukaŵa wuzga.

### France versus Britain: the Fashoda crisis of 1898

Pakuŵa cigaŵa ca Nkhondo ya ku Africa, caru ca France cikaŵa na cilato cakuti cikhazikiske mphepo ya kumanjiliro gha dazi na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa, mwakupambana na mphepo ya kumpoto na kumwera kwa Britain. Mu Africa, mphindano pakati pa Britain na France zikafika paheni comene. Mu vigaŵa vinandi nkhondo yikaŵa yakuti yingacitika, kweni yikacitika yayi. Cakucitika cikuru comene cikaŵa ca Fashoda Incident ca 1898. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku France ŵakayezga kupoka chigaŵa ku Southern Sudan, ndipo ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵankhongono comene ŵakiza kuti ŵaŵawukire. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku France ŵakaŵaphalira kuti ŵafumemo mu msumba uwu. Pa nyengo iyi, boma la France ndilo likaŵa na mazaza pa caru ca Morocco, kweni likathereskeka.

### European colonial territories

**Belgium**

* Congo Free State and Belgian Congo (today's Democratic Republic of the Congo)
* Ruanda-Urundi (comprising modern Rwanda and Burundi, between 1916 and 1960)

**France**

* French West Africa:
** Mauritania
** Senegal
** French Sudan (now Mali)
** French Guinea (now Guinea)
** Ivory Coast
** Niger
** French Upper Volta (now Burkina Faso)
** French Dahomey (now Benin)
* French Algeria (now Algeria)
* Tunisia
* French Morocco
* French Somaliland (now Djibouti)
* Madagascar
* Comoros
* French Equatorial Africa:
** Gabon
** Middle Congo (now the Republic of the Congo)
** Oubangi-Chari (now the Central African Republic)
** Chad

**Germany**

* German Kamerun (now Cameroon and part of Nigeria)
* German East Africa (now Rwanda, Burundi and most of Tanzania)
* German South West Africa (now Namibia)
* German Togoland (now Togo and eastern part of Ghana)

**Italy**

* Italian North Africa (now Libya)
* Eritrea
* Italian Somaliland (now part of Somalia)

**Portugal**

* Portuguese West Africa (now Angola)
** Mainland Angola
** Portuguese Congo (now Cabinda Province of Angola)
* Portuguese East Africa (now Mozambique)
* Portuguese Guinea (now Guinea-Bissau)
* Cape Verde Islands
* São Tomé e Príncipe
** São Tomé Island
** Príncipe Island
** Fort of São João Baptista de Ajudá (now Ouidah, in Benin)

**Spain**

* Spanish Sahara (now Western Sahara)
** Río de Oro
** Saguia el-Hamra
* Spanish Morocco
** Tarfaya Strip
** Ifni
* Spanish Guinea (now Equatorial Guinea)
** Fernando Po
** Río Muni
** Annobón

**United Kingdom**

* Egypt
* Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (now Sudan)
* British Somaliland (now part of Somalia)
* British East Africa:
** Kenya
** Uganda Protectorate (now Uganda)
** Tanganyika (1919–1961, now part of Tanzania)
* Zanzibar (now part of Tanzania)
* Bechuanaland (now Botswana)
* Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe)
* Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia)
* British South Africa (now South Africa)
** Transvaal (now part of South Africa)
** Cape Colony (now part of South Africa)
** Colony of Natal (now part of South Africa)
** Orange Free State (now part of South Africa)
* The Gambia
* Sierra Leone
* Nigeria
* Cameroons (now parts of Cameroon and Nigeria)
* British Gold Coast (now Ghana)
* Nyasaland (now Malawi)
* Basutoland (now Lesotho)
* Swaziland

**Independent states**

* Liberia, founded by the American Colonization Society of the United States in 1821; declared independence in 1847
* Ethiopian Empire (Abyssinia) had its borders re-drawn with Italian Eritrea and French Somaliland (modern Djibouti), briefly occupied by Italy from 1936 to 1941 during the Abyssinia Crisis;
* Sudan, independent under Mahdi rule between 1885 and 1899. It was then under British rule from 1899 to 1956.

## 20th century
Mu ma 1880, ŵamazaza ŵa ku Europe ŵakagaŵikana pafupifupi charu chose cha Africa. Ŵakawusa m'paka Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose yikati yamara apo mtima wa kutemwa caru ukakura comene. Mu ma 1950 na 1960, vyaru ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa maboma agha vikazgoka vyaru vyakujiyimira. Nangauli nyengo iyi yikaŵa yamtende, kweni pakaŵaso nkhondo zinandi zakukhora na zakuthiska ndopa, nga ni izo zikacitika ku Algeria, Kenya, na kunyake. Mu vyaru vinandi vya mu Africa, ŵanthu ŵakamba kutemwa vyaru vyawo cifukwa ca maluso agho ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru ivi ŵakasambira ku ŵasilikari ŵa Britain, France, na ŵasilikari ŵanyake. Ivi vikapangiska kuti paŵe mawupu agho ghakaŵa pasi pa mazaza gha ŵakoloni yayi. Magulu gha ŵanthu ŵakutemwa caru ghakamba kulimbana na vyaru ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa muwuso wa ŵasilikari ndipo pamasinda ŵakavileka. Ŵalongozgi ŵa vyaru vinyake ŵakamba kuwusa apo boma la ku Europe likafumako. Ŵanandi ŵakalutilira kuwusa kwa vyaka vinandi. Vinthu ivi ni ndyali, masukulu, visopa, na mawupu ghanyake. Mu virimika vyasonosono apa, vyaru vinandi vya mu Africa vyathereskeka cifukwa ca mtima wa kutemwera caru, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti boma lileke kuŵa na mazaza.

### World War I

Pakuti chigaŵa chikuru cha charu ichi chikaŵa pasi pa maboma gha ku Europe, Nkhondo za Caru Cose zikaŵa vyakuzirwa comene mu mdauko wa Africa. Mu Africa mukaŵa nkhondo zinandi ndipo nkhondo zose ziŵiri zikacitikanga. Kweni chakuzirwa chomene ntchakuti mu vigaŵa vinandi, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Africa ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru ivyo vikaŵa pasi pawo. Mu Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose, ku Africa kukacitika nkhondo zinandi, kusazgapo nkhondo ya ku Togo, nkhondo ya ku Kamerun, nkhondo ya ku South West Africa, na nkhondo ya ku East Africa. Pa nkhondo yiliyose iyi, ŵasilikari ŵa vyaru vinyake, comenecomene ŵa ku Britain, kweniso ŵa ku France, Belgium, South Africa, na Portugal, ŵakayezga kufumiska Ŵajamani mu vyaru ivyo ŵakaŵa. Mu vyaru vyose ivi, ŵasilikari ŵa Germany ŵakaŵa ŵacoko comene, ndipo cifukwa cakuti  ŵa Germany ŵakathereska vyaru vyose ivyo vikaŵa pasi pawo. Ŵasilikari ŵa Germany ku East Africa ŵakaleka kujipeleka mu nkhondo yose iyi, nangauli ŵakathereska vigaŵa vinyake mu 1917. Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose yikati yamara, caru ca France, Belgium, na Britain vikamba kulamulira vyaru ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa Germany.

Vinthu vyakuthupi na vya ndyali mu Africa mu 1929

Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose yikati yamara, maboma agho ghakalamuliranga caru ca Africa ghakalutilira kukhozga mazaza ghawo pa vyaru vyawo. Mu vigaŵa vinyake, comenecomene kumwera na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa, ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru vinyake ŵakakhozga kuti boma liŵawovwire, ndipo ŵakaŵachema kuti "ŵanthu ŵa mu nyumba zawo". Mu vyaru vinandi, ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru ivi ŵakaŵasuzganga chomene ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa, ndipo ŵakaŵawonanga kuti mbanthu awo ŵangapoka mazaza gha ndyali. Nkhondo iyi yikakhwaska chomene chuma cha mu Africa, icho chikagwiranga ntchito pa malonda gha ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi. Apo unandi wa vyakurya ukakuranga m'ma 1930, chuma cha mu Africa nacho chikakwera.

Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1930, caru ca Africa cikaŵa cimoza mwa vyaru ivyo Ŵafasisi ŵakambiska. Italy wakayezga kuti wapoke Ethiopia mu vyaka vya m'ma 1890, kweni ŵakamukana mu Nkhondo Yakwamba ya ku Italy na Ethiopia. Ethiopia yikaŵa pakati pa vyaru viŵiri ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa Italy, ivyo ni Somaliland na Eritrea. Mu Meyi 1936, ŵasilikari ŵa Italy ŵakanjira mu Addis Ababa, msumba ukuru wa charu ichi. Ethiopia na vyaru vinyake ivyo ŵakakhalanga vikasazgika pamoza na Italy mu East Africa.

### World War II: Political

Africa yikaŵa caru cikuru comene ico cikaŵa pa malo ghakwenelera nkhondo. Ku North Africa ndiko kukacitika nkhondo yikuru ya Britain na America kwimikana na Italy na Germany. Malo agha ghakaŵa ghakutowa chomene ndipo ghakaŵa na nthowa zikuruzikuru zakwendamo. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakendanga pa nyanja kuzingilira charu cha South Africa, nangauli ŵakeneranga kwenda mazuŵa ghanyake 40 kuti ŵajumphe mu Suez. Kanandi katundu uyo Lend Lease wakizanga nayo ku Russia wakendanga mu nthowa iyi. Mu vyaru vinyake, misewu iyo yikaŵa kutali na misewu ya njanji yikawovwira kuti ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵachitenge makora nkhondo. Boma la South Africa likaŵa na mazaza pa charu chose ndipo likajilamuliranga lekha. Ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵakathereskanga ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy. Charu cha Belgian Congo, na vyaru vinyake viŵiri ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa Belgium, vikaŵa vyaru vikuru ivyo vikaguliskanga vyakurya. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Britain ŵakaŵa ŵanandi chomene ndipo ŵakaŵa na chuma. Ŵakaŵa na mazaza pa vigaŵa vya Africa ivyo vikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵa boma ŵakayezgayezga chomene kunozga vinthu vya mu Africa, kukhozgera ulimi, kusazga vyaru vya mu Africa na vya mu caru cose, na kusanga ŵasilikari ŵakujumpha hafu ya miliyoni.

Pambere nkhondo iyi yindambe, caru ca Britain cikaŵa na mapulani ghacoko comene ghakwendeskera vyaru vya ku Africa, kweni cikakhazikiska mwaluŵiro maofesi gha ŵalongozgi. Gulu la ŵasilikari la ku West Africa likakhazikiska gulu la ŵasilikari 200,000. Mu Seputembala 1941, boma la East Africa Command likapangika kuti liwovwire ŵasilikari ŵa Middle East. Wakapeleka ŵanalume ŵanandi comene, ŵakujumpha 320,000, comenecomene ŵa ku Kenya, Tanganyika, na Uganda. Boma la South Africa ndilo likaŵa na mazaza pa boma ili. Wupu wa Royal Navy ukakhazikiska ofesi ya South Atlantic Command ku Sierra Leone, iyo yikaŵa malo ghakuru ghakusonkhanira magaleta. Gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa nkhondo la Royal Air Force (RAF) ilo likalamuliranga vyaru vya mumphepete mwa nyanja (Coastal Command) likagwiranga ntchito yikuru ya kupenja sitima za pasi pa nyanja (submarine hunting) mu vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa, apo gulu linyake likagwiranga ntchito ya kupenja sitima za pasi pa nyanja (submarine hunting) mu nyanja ya Indian Ocean. Ntchito yikuru ya ŵasilikari ŵa ku Western Desert Air Force yikaŵa yakuyegha ndege kufuma ku North America na Britain. Kweniso ŵasilikari ŵachoko ŵakaŵanga na mawoko ghaŵiri.

Pambere chaka cha 1939 chindafike, ŵasilikari ŵakaŵa ŵachoko chomene mu Britain, ndipo ŵanandi ŵakaŵa ŵazungu. Nkhondo yikati yamba waka, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Africa ŵakambiska magulu gha nkhondo. Kanandi awo ŵakasangikanga ŵakaŵa ŵakujipeleka ndipo ŵakateŵeteranga lumoza na ŵalongozgi ŵa mafuko. Pa nyengo ya nkhondo, ŵasilikari ŵakapokeranga ndalama zinandi chomene kuluska izo ŵanthu ŵa mu charu ichi ŵakapokeranga. Ŵasilikari ŵanandi ŵakaŵa mu magulu ghakuzenga agho ghakachemekanga kuti ŵapayiniya, ndipo ŵakaŵa 82,000. Ŵasilikari ŵa nkhondo na ŵasilikari ŵa nkhondo nawo ŵakacitanga vinthu vinyake. Ŵabali na ŵadumbu 80,000 ŵakateŵetera ku Middle East. Ŵakaŵikapo mtima comene kuti ŵaleke kususka mazaza gha ŵazungu, comenecomene pambere nkhondo yindambe. Nangauli vikaŵa nthena, kweni ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakasambizgika na kulondezga fundo za ku Europe, ŵakaphalirika vinthu vinandi vyautesi, kweniso ŵakasambira umo ŵangacitira vinthu mwamahara na umo ŵanganozgera vinthu. Ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha ŵakakwiyapo pachoko, kweni pakaŵavya suzgo. Kweni mu 1939, Jan Smuts, uyo wakaŵa Mufurikaner, uyo wakaŵa wakutemwa chomene Ufumu wa Britain, ndiyo wakanjira mu malo gha nduna yikuru ya Afrika. Boma lake likakolerana comene na boma la London ndipo likaŵawovwira ŵanthu 340,000 awo ŵakajipeleka (190,000 ŵakaŵa ŵazungu, panji pafupifupi cigaŵa cimoza pa vigaŵa vitatu vya ŵanalume ŵazungu awo ŵakaŵa ŵakwenelera).

#### French Africa
Kukwambilira kwa 1857, ŵa ku France ŵakakhazikiska magulu gha ŵasilikari ŵafipa mu vyaru vya kumwera kwa Sahara. Ŵakacitako nkhondo mu caru cose ico cikalamuliranga, kusazgapo ŵasilikari 171,000 mu Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose na 160,000 mu Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose. Ŵanthu pafupifupi 90,000 ŵakakoleka wuzga ku Germany. Ŵakaŵawovwira comene pa nkhondo iyo yikacitika ku France.

Ŵalaraŵalara ŵa boma ku West Africa ŵakaphalira boma la Vichy kuti ŵathembenge boma la Vichy, nga umo ŵakacitira ŵasilikari ŵa boma la French Gabon. Mu Novembala 1940, Gabon wakathereskeka na ŵa Free France, kweni vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa vikaŵa pasi pa Vichy m'paka mu Novembala 1942. Ŵasilikari ŵa Vichy ŵakayezga kuti ŵaleke kuwukira ŵasilikari ŵa ŵasilikari ŵa ku North Africa mu Novembala 1942. Mwamabuci Admiral François Darlan wa ku Vichy wakasintha gulu ndipo nkhondo yikamara. Ŵalwani ŵakamupa Darlan mazaza pa ŵasilikari ŵa ku France ŵa ku North Africa kuti waŵawovwire. Vichy sono yikaŵa kuti yindacitikepo mu Africa. Mu Disembala, Darlan wakakomeka, ndipo magulu ghaŵiri gha Free French, agho ghakalongozgekanga na Charles de Gaulle na Henri Giraud, ghakamba kulimbana kuti ghaŵe na mazaza. Paumaliro De Gaulle wakathereska.

### World War II: Military
Pakuti ku Germany kukaŵavya vyaru vinyake ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa Africa, Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose yikatora malo gha ku Africa. Pa Juni 25, charu cha France chikati chawa, maboma gha Vichy ghakamba kulamulira vyaru vinandi ivyo vikaŵa kumpoto na kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa. Pamasinda pakuti caru ca France cawa, caru ca Africa ndico cikaŵa cimoza pera ico ŵakalwerapo nkhondo mpaka apo ŵa ku Italy ŵakanjilira mu Greece mu Okutobala. Mu nyengo ya nkhondo ya ku Western Desert, ŵasilikari ŵa Italy ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵanjire mu Eguputo. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Italy ŵakathereska malo ghanyake gha ku Britain agho ghakaŵa ku Somaliland na ku Kenya. Apo Italy yikayezgayezga kuti yipoke Eguputo na Sudan, ŵakasoŵa nthowa yakwendeskera vyakurya ku Italy. Mu 1941, ŵasilikari ŵa Britain na South Africa ŵakathereska charu cha Italy ku East Africa. Ku North Africa, Mwaluŵiro ŵa Italy ŵakapempha wovwiri ku ŵa German awo ŵakatuma ŵasilikari ŵanandi pasi pa muwuso wa Jenerale Rommel. Na wovwiri wa ŵa German, ŵasilikari ŵa Axis ŵakambaso kuwusa, kweni ŵakatondeka kuthereska ŵasilikari ŵa Britain pa El Alamein. Kuumaliro wa 1942, ŵasilikari ŵa ŵasilikari ŵa vyaru vinyake, comenecomene ŵa ku America na ku Canada, ŵakanjira mu vyaru vya ku France ivyo vikaŵa ku North Africa. Nkhondo yaciŵiri yikasuska ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ku Egypt awo ŵakamba kusunkhunyika kumanjiliro gha dazi kuti ŵakumane na ŵasilikari ŵa Torch. Mu May 1942, ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵakanjira mu charu cha Madagascar, icho chikaŵa pasi pa France. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku France awo ŵakaŵa ku Madagascar ŵakajipeleka mu Novembala 1942.

### Post-war Africa: decolonization

Mu 1951, charu cha Libya ndicho chikamba kusuzga ŵanthu kuti ŵafumemo mu vyaru vyawo. Vyaru vinandi vikamulondezga mu vyaka vya m'ma 1950 na 1960, ndipo mu 1960 vikaŵa na chaka cha Africa, apo vyaru 17 vya mu Africa vikapharazga kuti vyafwatuka. Vyaru vinandi ivyo vikakhalako vikapokera wanangwa mu m'ma 1960, nangauli ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru vinyake (mwakudumura Portugal) ŵakakhumbanga yayi kuleka mazaza ghawo, ntheura nkhondo zikamara. Vyaru vyaumaliro vya mu Africa ivyo vikajiyimira pavyekha ni Guinea-Bissau (1974), Mozambique (1975) na Angola (1975) kufuma ku Portugal; Djibouti kufuma ku France mu 1977; Zimbabwe kufuma ku United Kingdom mu 1980; na Namibia kufuma ku South Africa mu 1990. Mu 1993, charu cha Eritrea chikapatuka ku Ethiopia.

#### East Africa

Nkhondo ya Mau Mau yikacitika mu Kenya kufuma mu 1952 mpaka mu 1956 kweni yikakomeka na ŵasilikari ŵa ku Britain na ŵa ku malo agha. Boma likapeleka dango lakuti paŵe vyenjezgo mpaka mu 1960. Mu 1963, charu cha Kenya chikamba kujiwusa chekha, ndipo Jomo Kenyatta ndiyo wakaŵa pulezidenti wakwamba.

Kukwambilira kwa m'ma 1960, kukaŵa nkhondo yikuru pakati pa Ŵahutu na Ŵakututsi mu Rwanda na Burundi. Mu 1994, ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 800,000 ŵakakomeka ku Rwanda.

#### North Africa

Mu ma 1930, ŵanthu ŵa ku Morocco ŵakamba kutemwana chomene. Mu 1953, themba la Morocco, Mohammed V, likapempha kuti charu ichi chijiyimire paŵekha. Pa Malichi 2, 1956, charu cha Morocco chikamba kujiyimira paŵekha. Mohammed V wakaŵa fumu ya Morocco.

Mu 1954, charu cha Algeria chikapangika na gulu la National Liberation Front (FLN). Ivi vikapangiska kuti paŵe Nkhondo ya ku Algeria, iyo yikatora nyengo yitali m'paka mu 1962, apo charu cha Algeria chikapokera wanangwa. Muhammad Ahmed Ben Bella wakasankhika kuŵa purezidenti wa Algeria. Ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 1 miliyoni ŵa ku France, comenecomene ŵa mtundu wa Pied-Noirs, ŵakafumamo mu caru ici, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti ndalama zileke kwenda makora.

Mu 1934, chipani cha "Neo Destour" (Bungwe Liphya) chikapangika na Habib Bourguiba uyo wakakhumbanga kuti charu cha Tunisia chiŵe na wanangwa. Mu 1955, charu cha Tunisia chikamba kujiyimira paŵekha. Muwusi wawo wakathereskeka ndipo Habib Bourguiba wakasankhika kuŵa pulezidenti wa Tunisia.

Mu 1954, Gamal Abdel Nasser wakawuskapo muwuso wa ufumu wa Eguputo mu 1952 ndipo wakamba kuwusa. Muammar Gaddafi ndiyo wakalongozga boma la Libya mu 1969 ilo likathereska Idris wa ku Libya. Gaddafi wakalutilira kuwusa mpaka apo wakafwira mu nkhondo ya ku Libya mu 2011.

Eguputo wakarwa nkhondo zinandi na Israyeli ndipo wakakolerana na vyaru vinyake vya Ŵaarabu. Cakwamba cikaŵa Nkhondo ya Ŵaarabu na Ŵaisrayeli ya mu 1948, pamanyuma pakuti boma la Israyeli lasangika. Mu 1967, Eguputo wakambaso nkhondo ya mazuŵa 6 ndipo Israyeli wakataya chigaŵa cha Sinai. Ŵakaweleraso ku nkhondo ya Yom Kippur mu 1973. Mu 1979, pulezidenti wa ku Eguputo Anwar Sadat na nduna yikuru ya ku Israyeli Menachem Begin ŵakasazga mapangano gha Camp David Accords, agho ghakawezgera chigaŵa cha Sinai ku Eguputo. Mapangano agha ghacali kugwira nchito lero. Mu 1981, Sadat wakakomeka na ŵanthu ŵa mu gulu la Islamic Jihad la ku Eguputo ilo likawusikanga na Khalid Islambouli. Awo ŵakamukoma ŵakaŵa ŵa chisopa ca Ciislam awo ŵakakhumbanga kukoma Sadat cifukwa ca kulemba mapangano agha..

#### Southern Africa

Mu 1948, boma la South Africa likamba kulamulira ŵanthu ŵa mtundu unyake. Ivi vikaŵa vyakukolerana na ndondomeko iyo yikaŵapo kale; kweni pakaŵa mphambano pakati pa ndondomeko ya "kusintha kwapadera" (Apartheid). Apo ndyali izo zikaŵapo kale zikaŵa zakupambanapambana pakuyezgayezga kugwiliskira nchito ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mu Africa, Apartheid yikaŵa visambizgo vya ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana, ndipo yikapangiska kuti paŵe kugaŵikana pakati pa ŵanthu.

Mu 1994, apartheid yikamara, ndipo Nelson Mandela wa African National Congress wakasankhika kuŵa purezidenti pamanyuma pa mavoti gha ku South Africa mu 1994, mavoti ghakwamba gha caru ici agho ghakaŵa gha ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambana.

#### Central Africa

Malo gha pakati pa Africa ghakaŵa pakati pa Kilwa na mlomo wa mlonga wa Zambesi. Chifukwa chakuti malo agha ghali kutali chomene na nyanja, ŵanthu ŵakumanya vya mdauko wa ku Africa ŵakughanaghanirapo viŵi yayi vya malo agha. Kweniso yikaŵa na umoza mwa vyaru vyakupambanapambana ivyo vikaŵa na ŵasilikari ŵa ku Europe, kusazgapo Germany ku Cameroon, Britain ku Northern Cameroons, Belgium ku Congo, na France ku CAF. Cifukwa ca malo ghake, pakati pa vyaru vyakucemeka kuti Central Africa pali vyaru ivyo vikwenda mu malo gha vyaru vyakututuka. Kwambira mu 1982, suzgo likuru comene mu Central Africa ndakuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Ambazonia ŵakukhumba kujipatura. Nkhondo ya pakati pa Cameroon na Ambazonia yikakura comene mu 1992 apo Fon Gorji-Dinka wakazenga mulandu wa pa caru cose kwimikana na Cameroon, wakati caru ici cikukhala mu malo gha Ambazonia kwambura kuzomerezgeka. Pakati pajumpha vilimika 15, suzgo ili likakura comene apo boma la Abmazonia likamba kujilongora kuti ni Federal Republic of Ambazonia.

#### West Africa

Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose yikati yamara, mu vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa mukawuka vyaru vinyake, chomenechomene mu Ghana. Mu 1957, charu cha Ghana ndicho chikaŵa chakwamba kujiyimira paŵekha kufuma ku vyaru vinyake. Kwambira apo vyaru vinandi vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa vikapokera wanangwa wawo, vikatimbanizgika na vimbundi na vinthu vyambura kwenda makora. Vyaru vinandi vikutondeka kukura nangauli vili na vinthu vinandi vyakuthupi.

## Mbiri ya Kuzenga kwa ku Africa

## History of science and technology in Africa

## Economic history of Africa

## Military history of Africa

## Genetic history of Africa

## Historiography

### Historiography of British Africa
Kafukufuku wakwamba wakulongosora mdauko mu Cingelezi wakacitika mu ma 1890, ndipo wakalondezga nthowa zinayi. 1) Kanandi nkhani ya chigaŵa yikalembeka na msilikari panji wantchito wa boma uyo wakawonanga chomene ivyo wakawona. 2) "Apologia" yikaŵa nkhani izo zikalongosoranga umo boma la Britain likenderanga. 3) Awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵamanye unenesko ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵamanye unenesko. 4) Compendia yikapangika kuti yikolerane na masambiro gha ku yunivesite. Pafupifupi mu 1900, ŵanthu ŵakamba kusambira vya bizinesi, ndipo kanandi ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito mabuku gha boma na mabuku ghanyake.

Mu ma 1930, ŵanthu ŵakamba kugwiliskira ntchito nthowa iyi kuti ŵalongosore umo vinthu vyasinthira mu vyaka 50 ivyo vyajumpha. Mu 1935, William L. Langer wakafumiska buku lakuti The Diplomacy of Imperialism: 1890~1902, ilo lichali kuzunulika comene. Mu 1939, pulofesa wa ku Oxford, Reginald Coupland wakalemba buku linyake lakucemeka The Exploitation of East Africa, 1856-1890: The Slave Trade and the Scramble.

Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose yikapangiska kuti ŵasayansi ŵanandi ŵaghanaghanirenge chomene vya nkhondo.

Mu ma 1950, ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵanandi ŵa ku Africa ŵakasambiranga ku yunivesite za ku Britain, ndipo ŵakakhumbanga masambiro ghaphya, ndipo nawo ŵakamba kughapeleka. Yunivesite ya Oxford yikazgoka likuru la masambiro gha vya mu Africa, kweniso ku Cambridge University na London School of Economics. Ŵalongozgi ŵa boma la Britain na ŵantchito awo ŵakagwiranga ntchito mu vyaru vinyake ŵakamba kutemwa chomene vinthu vya ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha, chomenechomene vya kusankhana mitundu. Ivyo Ronald Robinson na John Andrew Gallagher ŵakachita vikovwira chomene pa nkhani ya malonda mu Africa. Mu 1985, buku la The Oxford History of South Africa (2 vols.) likalembeka, ndipo likayezga kupangiska mabuku agho ghakaŵapo. Mu 2013, ŵakafumiska buku la Oxford Handbook of Modern African History.

### Historiographic and Conceptual Problems
Kumwera kwa Sahara ku Africa. Pakuti golide ndilo likawovwira kuti Ŵasaidi ŵanjire mu Ufumu wa Songhai, ichi chikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu Ufumu uwu ŵambe kuwona ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Black nga mbanthu ŵa ku Africa. Chifukwa cha kusintha kwa kachitiro ka ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵa khungu lakuda, ŵanthu ŵa ku Maghrebi ŵa khungu lakuda ŵakaŵakoleka mwankhongono mu gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa Ismail Ibn Sharif nga ni Black Guard, chifukwa ŵakayowoyanga kuti ŵakafuma ku ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa ŵazga. Suzgo likuru ilo Mohamed (2010/2012) wakalongosora pa nkhani ya masambiro gha ku Africa ni chisopa, chisopa cha ku Orientalis, na ufumu wa ku Africa. Ŵasayansi ŵa ku Africa na ku America nawo ŵali na udindo wakukhozga fundo iyi.

Pakulondezga fundo izo Leo Africanus na Hegel ŵakayowoya za Africa, ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakagaŵa Africa kuŵa vigaŵa viŵiri. Charu cha Sub-Saharan Africa, nga ni malo ghakusankhana mitundu, ni chigaŵa cha "Africa proper", "Africa noire", panji "Black Africa". Ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vinyake vya mu Africa ŵakuwonekaso kuti mbanthu ŵa mtundu umoza na ŵa mu vyaru vya ku Sub-Saharan Africa. Kumpoto kwa Africa kuli chigaŵa cha "Afurika wa ku Europe" icho chili kutali na vyaru vya ku Sub-Saharan Africa, ndipo chili pafupi na Middle East, Asia, na Islamic world.

Chifukwa cha kusankhana mitundu na kupatukana kwa vyaru vya mu Africa, ŵanthu ŵa ku North Africa awo ŵakukhala ku Maghreb kwa nyengo yitali, nga ni ŵanthu ŵa ku Haratin, awo ŵakukhala kumwera kwa Sahara yayi, ŵali kutali chomene na ŵanthu ŵa ku North Africa. Nangauli zina lakuti "Haratin" likamba kumanyikwa makora yayi, kweni likwenera kuti likafuma mu nyengo ya m'ma 1700 C.E. ndipo ŵanthu ŵa ku Maghreb awo ŵakaŵa na khungu lakufipirwa ndiwo ŵakalizunuranga. Pambere ŵanthu ŵandambe kugwiliskira ntchito lizgu lakuti Haratin kuti ŵamanyiske ŵanthu, ndipo ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito lizgu lakuti bidan panji bayd (mutuŵa), sumr/asmar, suud/aswad, panji Sudan/sudani (mufipa/swesi) nga ni lizgu la Chiarabu ilo ŵanthu ŵa ku Maghreb ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito kuti ŵamanyiske ŵanthu ŵa khungu lakufipa. "Haratin" ni lizgu ilo ŵanthu ŵa ku Maghreb ŵakuliwona kuti likukhuŵazga. Mwachiyelezgero, ŵanthu ŵa ku chigaŵa cha kumwera kwa Morocco ŵakuliwona kuti ndakukhuŵazga. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakususka kuti Haratin ni mtundu wa ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana, kweni ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti charu cha Africa chiŵe na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana ŵakugwiliskira ntchito lizgu lakuti Haratin.

Ŵanthu ŵa ku Maghreb awo ŵakaŵa na khungu lakufipirwa ŵakakolerananga na ŵanthu ŵa ku Saadi. Ŵakusanda mdauko ŵa Shurafa ŵa mu nyengo yasono ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito vyakucitika ivi mu nkhani zakukhwaskana na kufwatulika kwa ŵazga ŵa "Hartani" (mazgu ghambura kupulikikwa, agho ghakukhumbikwira kulongosoreka makora, ndipo mbukaboni wakuti mbukaboni wakuti vinthu vikacitika nadi. Nkhani izo ŵanthu ŵa ku Shurafa ŵakalemba, zikati zamara, zikaŵa nga ni nkhani za ku America (nga ni za malonda gha ŵazga gha ku Sahara, ŵazga ŵa ku Sub-Saharan West Africa, ŵanthu ŵakufwatuka ŵa ku Maghreb awo ŵakaŵa na khungu lakufipirwa) izo ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakuchita mazuŵa ghano.

M'malo mwa kupangika na kafukufuku wa pa malo, kuyana kwa ivyo vikuchitika mazuŵa ghano mu charu cha Europe, uko kukupatura ŵanthu ŵa ku North Africa awo ŵali na khungu lakufipa, na ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa awo ŵali na khungu lakufipa mu charu chose cha Chisilamu. Chifukwa chake, mbiri yodalirika, mosiyana ndi mbiri yakale yofananira, yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda. Chigaŵa chinyake cha malemba ghakusambizga kuti munthu wakuŵa na thupi lakufipirwa para wababa muteŵeti. Chiphunzitso cha ku Europe cha ku Africa chikugwiliskira ntchito fundo iyi pakuzenga nthano za ŵanthu ŵa ku North Africa awo ŵakaŵa na khungu lakufipa (mwachiyelezgero, ŵazga ŵakufuma ku Africa kumwera kwa Sahara). Ŵanthu ŵa ku North Africa awo ŵakukhala mu vyaru vya Chisilamu ŵakuŵa na khungu lakufipirwa, ndipo nkhani zinyake izo zikulembeka zikuyowoya za malonda gha ŵazga agho ghakachitikanga mu charu cha Sahara. Ŵanthu ŵa ku North Africa awo ŵakukhala mu vyaru vya ku North Africa awo ŵali na khungu lakufipa chomene (nga ni ŵanthu ŵa ku Maghreb awo ŵali na khungu lakufipa chomene kweniso awo ŵali na khungu lakufipa chomene), ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa awo ŵakukhala mu vyaru vya Chisilamu awo ŵali na khungu lakufipa chomene, na awo ŵakuguliska ŵazga mu charu cha Sahara, wose ŵakaŵa ŵazga.

Kuguliska ŵazga mu charu cha Trans-Saharan, ni nthowa iyo ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira ntchito pakulemba nkhani izo zikulongosora umo ŵanthu ŵa ku North Africa ŵakambira. Ŵanthu ŵakuyaniska magaleta na ngalaŵa za ŵazga, ndipo ŵakuyowoya kuti unandi wa ŵazga ŵa ku Africa awo ŵakatolekera ku caru ca Sahara ukuyana waka na unandi wa ŵazga ŵa ku Africa awo ŵakatolekera ku nyanja ya Atlantic. Ivyo ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuyowoya vikususkana na ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku North Africa ŵakuyowoya. Mu nyengo yakale, ku Eguputo kukaŵaso minda. Cinthu cinyake ico ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya pa nkhani iyi nchakuti ŵanthu ŵa ku vyaru vya kumafumiro gha dazi ŵakughanaghana kuti Ŵamoabu, ŵanakazi ŵankhondi, na ŵanalume ŵantchito ndiwo ŵakugonana comene. Ŵanakazi awo ŵakugonana na ŵanakazi ŵa ku Maghreb awo ŵali nga mbana ŵa ŵanthu ŵa ku Maghreb awo ŵakukhala mu vyaru vinyake ndiwo ŵakugwiliskirika ntchito. Ŵalinda aŵa ŵakalindanga nyumba izi. Nkhani iyi yikukolerana na fundo yakuti ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa ku Maghreb ŵakaŵa Ŵaberi, awo ŵakazgoka ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake chifukwa cha kupambaniskana mitundu na ŵanakazi ŵa mitundu yinyake. Nkhani ya chisopa iyo yikulongosora masuzgo agho Ŵakhristu ŵa ku Europe ŵakakumana nagho chifukwa cha malonda gha ŵazga gha ku Barbary, yikukolerana na nkhani ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa awo ŵakaŵa ŵazga.

Nangauli nkhani za chisopa izo zikalembeka mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, zikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambana ŵakukolerana yayi na ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakuyowoya. Nkhani za chisopa izo ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 ŵakayowoyanga za ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa na ŵa ku Africa (nga ni nkhani zakukhwaskana na chisopa) zikukhalilira waka chete, kweni zikulutilira kusungika. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kugonana na ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi, ŵakaghanaghananga kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Mowabu awo ŵakaŵa na nkharo iyi ŵakafuma mu Baibolo. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti vinthu vileke kunangika mu nyengo ya Ŵakhristu ŵakwambilira, ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito fundo za mu Baibolo. Cingaŵa kuti cilato ca mabuku agha cikaŵa cakuti ŵanthu ŵamanye kuti Baibolo ndakuluska Koran, kweniso kuti ŵamanye maghanoghano gha awo ŵakaŵazganga mabuku agha. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti vinthu vileke kunangika mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 ŵakamba kuyowoya vya chisopa chawo chifukwa cha ivyo ŵakalemba. Kuyowoya za ŵanakazi awo ŵakutemwa kugonana chomene na ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi awo ŵakutemwa kugonana chomene na ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵambura kutemwana na ŵanakazi awo ŵakuchemeka kuti Ŵamoabu, nkhwakuyana waka na umo ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakachitiranga mu nyengo ya Ŵakhristu ŵakwambilira.

Chifukwa cha kusowa kwa chitukuko mu kafukufuku wa m'munda wokhudzana ndi ukapolo m'magulu a Chisilamu, izi zapangitsa kuti mtundu wamakono wa ku Ulaya wa ku Africa uzidalira malingaliro osadalirika a malonda a akapolo a Trans-Saharan. Ndipouli, cifukwa ca kupeleŵera kwa vinthu, ŵanthu ŵakulutilira kugwiliskira nchito fundo za ku Europe izo zikovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵaŵe ŵakukondwa. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Maghreb, chomenechomene ŵa ku Morocco, ŵakukwiya chomene na umo ŵasayansi ŵakuŵalongolera lusungu. M'malo mwa kulutilira kugomezga pa ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakuchita mazuŵa ghano, Mohamed (2012) wakuchiska kuti ŵasinthe na kunozga ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakuchita sono (nga nkhusanda uko kukafuma ulendo wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Sahara; kughanaghaniraso ivyo vikupangiska kuti malonda gha ŵazga gha mu Sahara ghaŵe ghakupambana na malonda gha ŵazga gha mu Atlantic; kughanaghanirapo ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Maghreb awo ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa ivi ŵakuchita).

### Conceptual Problems
Merolla (2017) wakalongosora kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ndiwo ŵakasambira vya vyaru vya ku Sub-Saharan Africa na North Africa, ndipo ivyo ŵakasambira vikulongora kuti vyaru vya ku North Africa vikukolerana na vyaru vya Middle East na vyaru vya ku Arab. Ndondomeko ya kupatukana kwa Africa mu vigaŵa viŵiri ndiposo umo ŵanthu ŵakughanaghanira vya umo vinthu viliri mu vigaŵa vya ku Sub-Saharan Africa yikulutilira m'paka sono. Ndipouli, cifukwa cakuti suzgo ili likulutilira kumanyikwa, ŵanthu ŵakamba kudumbiskana za umo ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vya ku Africa ŵaliri ŵakupambana.

Charu cha Sahara chili nga ni malo agho ŵanthu ŵa mu Africa ŵakukhala. Awo ŵakulemba mabuku ŵakufuma mu vyaru vyakupambanapambana (nga ni Algeria, Cameroon, Sudan) mu Africa ŵakususka fundo yakuti Sahara ni chigoti cha vigaŵa, ndipo ŵakususka fundo izo zikulongora kuti Africa yikukolerana. Mu vigaŵa vinandi, mazgu ghakuti "Africa" ghakung'anamura "Africa ya ku Black Africa", "Africa South of the Sahara", na "Africa Sub-Saharan". Kumpoto kwa Africa kuli "mafumiro gha dazi" ndipo kuli kupatukana na vyaru vya ku Sub-Saharan Africa. Nangauli umo vinthu vikaŵira vikamba kuwoneka mu nyengo yitali, kweni umo vinthu vikaŵira (nga ni umo vikaŵira, umo vikaŵira) vikalongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambana pa nkhani ya kusankhana mitundu.

Pa nkhani ya mabuku gha mu Africa na mu viyowoyero vya ku Berber, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakumanya yayi umo mabuku agha ghakalembekera. Para ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya Chingelezi na Chifurenchi ŵakuwona kuti charu cha Africa chili kutali chomene na charu cha Africa, ŵakughanaghana kuti charu cha Africa chili kutali chomene na charu chawo. Apo ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya Chingelezi ŵakulondezga chomene fundo yakuti charu cha Africa chipatukane, ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya Chifurenchi ŵakuchita vinthu mwakupambanapambana. Pakuti ŵanthu ŵa ku North Africa ndiwo ŵakamba kusambira vya chiyowoyero ichi, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukana kuti chiyowoyero cha Chiarabu chikaŵa cha ku Africa. Pa kafukufuku uyo wakachitika mu vyaru ivyo vikuyowoya Chifurenchi, ŵanthu ŵakukana panji kuchepeska ivyo vikuchitika pakati pa vyaru vya kumpoto kwa Africa na vyaru vya kumwera kwa Sahara, apo ŵanthu ŵa ku Middle East na kumpoto kwa Africa ŵakukana panji kuchepeska ivyo vikuchitika pakati pa vyaru ivi. Mu vyaru vya ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya Chifurenchi, vyaru vya ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana, nga ni Black Africa (Afirika ŵa ku Sub-Saharan) na White Africa (Afirika ŵa ku North, nga ni Berbers na Ŵaarabu), navyo vili kukura.

Nangauli ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito mazina gha ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana mu Africa (nga ni North Africa, Sub-Saharan Africa) kuti ŵakanizge mazina gha ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana, kweni ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito mazina gha ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana ya ku North Africa kuti ŵakanizge mazina gha ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana ya ku Arabia na Islamu. Nangauli masambiro gha chi Berber ghakukhumba chomene kukhozga ubwezi pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber na kumpoto kwa Africa na Ŵaarabu na Middle East, Merolla (2017) wakalongora kuti milimo ya kukhozga ubwezi pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber na kumpoto kwa Africa na ŵanthu ŵa ku Sub-Saharan Africa na Sub-Saharan Africa yayamba sonosono apa.

## Wonaniso

* Economic history of Africa
* African historiography
* Historians of Africa
* List of history journals#Africa
* List of kingdoms in pre-colonial Africa
* List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Africa
* Outline of Africa#History of Africa
* Africa-Europe relations
* Africa-United States relations
* Africa–China relations
* Soviet Union-Africa relations

## Ukaboni


## Mabuku

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*  Looks at the slave trade, the adaptation of Africans to new conditions, their struggle for freedom and equality, and the establishment of a "black" diaspora and its local influence around the world; covers 1430 to 2001.
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## Further reading

* Byfield, Judith A. et al. eds. *Africa and World War II* (Cambridge UP, 2015).
* Clark, J. Desmond (1970). *The Prehistory of Africa*. Thames and Hudson
* Davidson, Basil (1964). *The African Past*. Penguin, Harmondsworth
* Devermont, Judd. "World Is Coming to Sub-Saharan Africa. Where Is the United States?" (Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), 2018) online.
* Duignan, P., and L. H. Gann. *The United States and Africa: A History* (Cambridge University Press, 1984)
* Fage, J.D. and Roland Oliver, eds. *[[:en:The_Cambridge_History_of_Africa|The Cambridge History of Africa]]* (8 vol 1975–1986)
* Falola, Toyin. *Africa*, Volumes 1–5.
* FitzSimons, William. "Sizing Up the 'Small Wars' of African Empire: An Assessment of the Context and Legacies of Nineteenth-Century Colonial Warfare". *Journal of African Military History* 2#1 (2018): 63–78. 
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* Freund, Bill (1998). *The Making of Contemporary Africa*, Lynne Rienner, Boulder (including a substantial "Annotated Bibliography" pp.&nbsp;269–316).
* Herbertson, A. J. and O. J. R. Howarth. eds. *The Oxford Survey Of The British Empire* (6 vol 1914) ; 550pp; comprehensive coverage of South Africa and British colonies
* July, Robert (1998). *A History of the African People*, (Waveland Press, 1998).
* Killingray, David, and Richard Rathbone, eds. *Africa and the Second World War* (Springer, 1986).
* Lamphear, John, ed. *African Military History* (Routledge, 2007).
* Obenga, Théophile (1980). *Pour une Nouvelle Histoire* Présence Africaine, Paris
* Reader, John (1997). *Africa: A Biography of the Continent*. Hamish Hamilton. 
* Roberts, Stephen H. *History of French Colonial Policy (1870–1925)* (2 vols., 1929)  also ; comprehensive scholarly history
* Shillington, Kevin (1989). *History of Africa*, New York: St. Martin's.
* Thornton, John K. *Warfare in Atlantic Africa, 1500–1800* (Routledge, 1999).
* UNESCO (1980–1994). *[[:en:General_History_of_Africa|General History of Africa]]* . 8 volumes.
* Worden, Nigel (1995). *The Making of Modern South Africa*, Oxford UK, Cambridge US: Blackwell.

### Atlases

* Ajayi, A.J.F. and Michael Crowder. *Historical Atlas of Africa* (1985); 300 color maps.
* Fage, J.D. *Atlas of African History* (1978)
* Freeman-Grenville, G.S.P. *The New Atlas of African History* (1991).
* Kwamena-Poh, Michael, et al. *African history in Maps* (Longman, 1982).
* McEvedy, Colin. *The Penguin Atlas of African History* (2nd ed. 1996). excerpt

### Historiography

* Boyd, Kelly, ed. *Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writers* (Rutledge, 1999) 1:4–14.
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* Philips, John Edward, ed. *Writing African History* (2005)

## Vigaŵa vya kuwaro

* "Race, Evolution and the Science of Human Origins" by Allison Hopper, *[[:en:Scientific_American|Scientific American]]* (5 July 2021).
* Worldtimelines.org.uk – Africa The British Museum. 2005
* The Historyscoper.
* The Story of Africa BBC World Service.
* Wonders of the African World, PBS.
* Civilization of Africa by Richard Hooker, Washington State University.
* African Art Metropolitan Museum of Art.
* African Kingdoms, by Khaleel Muhammad.
* Mapungubwe Museum at the University of Pretoria
* Project Diaspora.
* Kush Communications | Media Production Company London.