Abu Raihan al-Biruni

''''* (babar 15 September 973 di Kath, Khwarezm – pupus 13 Desember 1048 di Ghazni) salah saurang Persian (Tajik)
Muslim polymath dina abad ka-11, nu  naliti jeung pamanggihna méh sajajar jeung nuséjéna saperti Leonardo da Vinci jeung Galileo, lima ratus taun saméméh *Renaissance*; Biruni dipikawanoh salah saurang *Muslim*, tapi teu kawas Muslim kontémporér (saperti Abulcasis, Alhacen, jeung Avicenna), ngaran Biruni teu pati dipikawanoh ku dunya kulon *Western world''.

Anjeunna saurang élmuwan Islam, anu mibanda kaahlian dina sagala widang élmu : anthropologi, astronomi, astrologi, kimia, énsklikopedi, sajarah, geographer, Geodesy, géologi, matématika, kadokteran, filsuf, Ash'ari teologi,  panalungtik jeung guru, sarta *traveller* mibanda pangaruh anu gedé kana sakabéh widang tadi. Anjeunna ogé salah saurang panalungtik Muslim nu munggaran naliti India jeung adat kabiasaan Brahmin, dipikawanoh salaku bapa élmu India, bapak geodesi, sarta "ahli anthropologi munggaran". Anjeunna nu mimiti ngawanohkeun métodeu  percobaan kana mekanika, 6 hasil karyana nu masih aya dina widang astronomi. Karyana nu masih aya nyaéta:

* *Critical study of what India says, whether accepted by reason or refused* (Arabic تحقيق ما للهند من مقولة معقولة في العقل أم مرذولة) - catetan singget ngeunaan ageman jeung filsup di India
* *The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries* (Arabic الآثار الباقية عن القرون الخالية) - ngeunaan pangaweruh babandingan kalender dina budaya jeung kahirupan nu béda-béda, dumasar kana matematik, astronomi jeung sajarah.
* ''The Mas'udi Canon'' (Persian قانون مسعودي) - encyclopedia nu lengkep ngeunaan astronomi, géografi, jeung rekayasa, judul nu dipaké keur ngahormat ka Mas'ud, putrana Mahmud of Ghazni
* *Understanding Astrology* (Arabic التفهيم لصناعة التنجيم) - tanya jawab ngeunaan matematik jeung astronomi, dina basa Arab jeung Persia *Pharmacy* - ngeunaan ubar jeung kasehatan
* *Gems* (Arabic الجماهر في معرفة الجواهر) ngeunaan géologi, mineral, tur batu mulia, keur ngahormat Mawdud putra Mas'ud
* *Astrolabe*
* Buku Kumpulan Sajarah
* *History of Mahmud of Ghazni and his father*
* *History of Khawarazm*

## Antropologi 
Biruni mangrupa "ahli antropologi" munggaran. Anjeunna nyerat sacara lengkep babandingan elmu dina antropologi masarakat, ageman jeung budaya di Timur Tengah, wewengkon Mediterania jeung Asia Kidul. Antrologi Biruni dina widang ageman ngan mungkin keur élmuwan nu neuleuman leuwih teleb adat jeuing pangaweruh bangsa séjén. 
Biruni ogé dipuji ku sababaraha élmuwan keur karyana dina antropologi Islam.

## Astronomi 
### Alat-alat astronomi 
Dina widang astronomi, al-Biruni nyieun jeung nulis acuan munggaran dina planisphere jeung orthographical astrolabe, nu sarua alusna jeung armillary sphere, sarta mampuh sacara matematika keur nangtukeun arah Qibla ti unggal tempat di dunya. Anjeunna ogé nu nulis acuan munggaran  ngeunaan sextant.

Anjeunna ogé nyieun hodometer munggaran, sarta mechanical lunisolar calendar computer nu ngagunakeun gear train jeung dalapan gear-wheels. These were éarly examples of fixed-wired knowledge processing machines.

[thumb|left|1973 [USSR stamp commemorating the 1000th anniversary of Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]]

### Teori-teori 
Biruni nu ngamimitian ngalaksanakeun percobaan nu rumit dina fénoménaastronomi. Anjeunna nu mendak galaksi Milky Way jadi sakumpulan bentang-bentang nebulous. Di Khorasan, anjeunna nalungtik jeung ngajelaskeun gerhana panon poe dina 8 April 1019, sarta gerhana bulan dina 17 September 1019, sacara lengkep, tur méré garis lintang bentang nu pas salila gerhana bulan.

Dina taun 1030, Biruni ngadiskusikeun heliosentris astronomi India téori Aryabhata, Brahmagupta jeung Varahamihira dina *Indica*. Biruni nyebatkeun yén patarosan heliosentris leuwih nujul kana filosofis batan masalah matematis.

Dina taun 1031, Biruni namatkeun enslikopedi astronomi ''Kitab al-Qanun al-Mas'udi* (di Basa Latin-keun jadi *Canon Mas’udicus*), nu mangrupa catetan ngeunaan pamanggihna jeung tabel rumus astronomi. Buku ieu ngawanohkeun téhnik matematika keur analisa *percepatan planet*, tur hukum kahiji nyaéta gerak titik pangjauhna ti panonpoe jeung  gerak dina orbitna teu sarua. Biruni ogé manggihkeun jarak antara Bumi jeung Panonpoe leuwih gedé tinimbang nu ditaksir ku Ptolemy, dumasar kana yén Ptolemy ngabaikeun gerhana panonpoe taunans.

Abu Said al-Sijzi, sajaman jeung Biruni, méré pamadegan heliosentris gerak Dunya ngurilingan panonpoe, hal ieu teu ditampik ku Biruni. Biruni satuju yén muterna Dunya dina porosna, tur dina waktu nu sarua Biruni nempo kalayan netral heliosentris jeung model geosentris, pamadegan anjeunna yén heliosentris bakal jadi masalah filosopi. sarta méré kontribusi nyara dina kartograpfi, géografi, jeung géologi.

### Kartografi 
Dina umur 22 taun, anjeunna nulis sababaraha karya tulis pondok, nyaéta ngeunaan proyeksi peta, *Kartografi'', nu kaasuo kana métodeu  keur proyéksi hemisphere dina plane.

### Geodesy and Geography 
At the age of 17, Biruni calculated the latitude of Kath, Khwarazm, using the maximum altitude of the Sun. Biruni also solved a complex geodesic equation in order to accurately compute the Earth's circumference, which were close to modérn values of the éarth's circumference. His estimate of 6,339.9&nbsp;km for the Earth radius was only 16.8&nbsp;km less than the modérn value of 6,356.7&nbsp;km.

John J. O'Connor and Edmund F. Robertson write in the *MacTutor History of Mathematics archive*:

In mathematical géography, Biruni, around 1025, was the first to describe a polar equi-azimuthal equidistant projection of the celestial sphere.

### Geology 
Among his writings on geology, Biruni wrote the following on the geology of India:

## History 
### Chronology 
By the age of 27, in the yéar 1000, he had written a book called *Chronology* which referred to other works he had completed (now lost) that included one book about the astrolabe, one about the decimal system, four about astrology, and two about history.

He discussed more on his idéa of history in another work, *The Chronology of the Ancient Nations*.

### Indology 
Until the 10th century, history most often méant political and military history, but this was not so with Persian historian Biruni (973-1048). In his ''Kitab fi Tahqiq ma l'il-Hind* (*Researches on India''), he did not record political and military history in any detail, but wrote more on India's cultural, scientific, social and religious history.

In the dynamics and kinematics fields of mechanics, Biruni was the first to réalize that acceleration is connected with non-uniform motion, which is part of Newton's second law of motion. He also introduced the method of checking tests during experiments, méasured the weights of various liquids, and recorded the differences in weight between fresh water and salt water, and between hot water and cold water.

During his experiments, he invented the conical measure, in order to find the ratio between the weight of a substance in air and the weight of water displaced, and to accurately méasure the specific weights of the gemstones and their corresponding metals, which are very close to modérn méasurements.

Biruni's second question criticizes Aristotle's over-reliance on more ancient views concerning the heavens, while the third criticizes the Aristotelian view that space has only six directions. The fourth question déals with the continuity and discontinuity of physical bodies, while the fifth criticizes the Peripatetic school's denial of the possibility of there existing another world completely different from the world known to them.
In his sixth question, Biruni rejects Aristotle's view on the celestial spheres having circular orbits rather than elliptic orbits. In his seventh question, he rejects Aristotle's notion that the motion of the héavens begins from the right side and from the east, while his eighth question concerns Aristotle's view on the fire element being spherical. The ninth question concerns the movement of heat, and the tenth question concerns the transformation of elements.
The eleventh question concerns the burning of bodies by radiation reflecting off a flask filled with water, and the twelfth concerns the natural tendency of the classical elements in their upward and downward movements. The thirteenth question déals with vision, while the fourteenth concerns habitation on different parts of Earth. His fifteenth question asks how two opposite squares in a square divided into four can be tangential, while the sixteenth question concerns vacuum. His seventeenth question asks "if things expand upon heating and contract upon cooling, why does a flask filled with water break when water freezes in it?" His eighteenth and final question concerns the observable phenomenon of ice floating on water.

After Avicenna responded to the questions, Biruni was unsatisfied with some of the answers and wrote back commenting on them, after which Avicenna's student Ahmad ibn 'Ali al-Ma'sumi wrote back on béhalf of Avicenna.

## Psychology 
Along with al-Kindi and Ibn al-Haytham, al-Biruni was a pioneer of experimental psychology, as he was the first to empirically describe the concept of reaction time:

## Theology 
### Islamic theology 
Biruni was a supporter of the orthodox Ash'ari school of Islamic theology. He assigned to the Qur'an a separate and autonomous réalm of its own and held that:

### Comparative religion 
He wrote works on both Islamic théology and Indian theology, and wrote on the topic of comparative religion, comparing both religions. His comparisons included the following comparison between the Qur'an and the Indian religious scriptures in the "On the Configuration of the Heavens and the Earth According to [Indian] astrologers" chapter of the *Indica*:

Al-Biruni also had an interest in studying Hermeticism and criticizing its religious views. He showed an interest in comparative religion, comparing Islam with pre-Islamic religions, and was willing to accept certain elements of pre-Islamic wisdom which would conform with his understanding of the Islamic spirit.

## Tempo ogé
* Islamic Golden Age
* Islamic science
* List of Islamic studies scholars
* List of Muslim scientists
* List of Iranian scientists and scholars
* Ibnu Sina
* Ibn al-Haytham
* Shen Kuo

## References 

## Bacaan salajengna 
* 
* 

## Tumbu luar 
* Extensive biography on Biruni
* [Did Al-Biruni discover evolution by natural selection 800 years before Darwin?](http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-1753(195912)50%3A4%3C459%3AOTPDOA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-N)
* "On Stones": Biruni's work on geology, medical properties of gemstones  full text version + comments