open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Confusion and diffusion

In cryptography, **confusion** and **diffusion** are two properties of the operation of a secure cipher.

**Confusion** and **diffusion** were identified by Claude Elwood Shannon in his paper, "Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems" published in 1949. In Shannon's original definitions:
#**Confusion** refers to making the relationship between the key and the ciphertext as complex and as involved as possible
#**Diffusion** refers to the property that redundancy in the statistics of the plaintext is "dissipated" in the statistics of the ciphertext.

Diffusion is associated with the dependency of the output bits on the input bits. In a cipher with good diffusion, flipping an input bit should change each output bit with a probability of one half (this is termed the Strict Avalanche Criterion).

Substitution (a rule for replacing plaintext symbols by another) has been identified as a mechanism for primarily confusion (see S-box); on the other hand transposition using P-box (rearranging or swapping the order of symbols) is a technique for diffusion, although other mechanisms are also used in modern practice, such as linear transformations (e.g. in AES). Product ciphers use alternating substitution and transposition phases (rounds) to achieve both confusion and diffusion respectively.

## Related pages
* Substitution-permutation network

## References
* Claude E. Shannon, "Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems", Bell System Technical Journal, vol.28-4, page 656–715, 1949. http://netlab.cs.ucla.edu/wiki/files/shannon1949.pdf
Jeep

**Jeep** is a brand of American automobiles that is a division of FCA US LLC (formerly Chrysler Group, LLC), a wholly owned subsidiary of Fiat Chrysler Automobiles. The former Chrysler Corporation acquired the Jeep brand, along with the remaining assets of its owner American Motors, in 1987. Jeep's current product range consists solely of sport utility vehicles and off-road vehicles, but has also included pickup trucks in the past. 1941

The original Jeep was the prototype Bantam BRC. Willys MB Jeeps went into production in 1941 specifically for the military. Arguably that makes them the oldest four-wheel drive mass-production vehicles now known as SUVs. The Jeep became the primary light 4-wheel-drive vehicle of the United States Army and the Allies during World War II. It remained so in the postwar period. The term became common worldwide in the wake of the war. Doug Stewart notes:
:The spartan, cramped, and unstintingly functional jeep became the ubiquitous World War II four-wheeled personification of Yankee ingenuity and cocky, can-do determination."  

The first civilian models were produced in 1945. It inspired a number of other light utility vehicles, such as the Land Rover. Many Jeep variants serving similar military and civilian roles have since been designed in other nations. In 2007 Jeep began manufacturing crossover SUVs with its Compass and Patriot models. This led to the 2013 Jeep Cherokee midsize crossover.
## Current models
## Notes
## References 
## Other websites
Substitution box

In cryptography, a **S-Box** (*Substitution-box*) is a basic component of symmetric-key algorithms. In block ciphers, the S-Boxes are used to make the relation between the key and the ciphertext (coded text) difficult to understand–Shannon's property of confusion. The S-Boxes are carefully chosen to resist cryptanalysis (decoding).

In general, an S-Box takes some number of input bits, *m*, and transforms them into some number of output bits, *n*: an *m*&times;*n* S-Box can be implemented as a lookup table with 2*m* words of *n* bits each. Fixed tables are normally used, as in the Data Encryption Standard (DES), but in some ciphers the tables are generated dynamically from the key; e.g. the Blowfish and the Twofish encryption algorithms. Bruce Schneier describes IDEA's modular multiplication step as a key-dependent S-Box.

One good example is this 6&times;4-bit S-Box from DES (S5):

Given a 6-bit input, the 4-bit output is found by selecting the row using the outer two bits, and the column using the inner four bits. For example, an input "**0**1101**1**" has outer bits "**01**" and inner bits "1101"; the corresponding output would be "1001".

The 8 S-Boxes of DES were the subject of intensive studies for many years cause of a concern that a method of bypassing the DES cipher to obtaining access to the plaintext–a *vulnerability* (*susceptibility*) known only to its designers–might have been *planted* (inserted) in the cipher. In 1994, the S-Box design criteria were finally published by its designers after the public rediscovery of differential cryptanalysis, showing that they had been carefully tuned the design to increase resistance against differential cryptanalysis attacks. Other research had already indicated that even a very small modification to one of the 8 S-Box used by the DES could weaken it very much.

The design of good S-Boxes was the subject of a great amount of research; now much more is understood about their use in block ciphers than when the DES S-Boxes were released.

## Related pages
* Substitution cipher

## References
* 
* 
* 
* 

## Other websites
* A literature survey on S-Box design
* John Savard's "Questions of S-Box Design"
* Gargiulo's "S-Box Modifications and Their Effect in DES-like Encryption Systems"
Come as You Are (Nirvana song)

"**Come as You Are**" is a song by the American grunge band Nirvana. It was the second single from their second album, *Nevermind*, the first was the enormously popular "Smells Like Teen Spirit". It is one of the band's most famous songs. *Rolling Stone* magazine named it as the 445th on their list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time.

## Music video
There was a music video for the song. It has a lot of random scenes, such as Kurt Cobain sitting on a chandelier hanging from a ceiling, a handgun floating in a swimming pool, and a baby swimming in that pool (a reference to the cover art of *Nevermind*.)

## Release
After the single was released, the English post-punk band Killing Joke became angry at Nirvana for supposedly ripping off their song "Eighties".

Nirvana thought that "Smells Like Teen Spirit", the previous single from *Nevermind*, would not be very popular, and that "Come as You Are" would be a big hit. However, "Smells Like Teen Spirit" became the band's most famous song and one of the most famous songs ever, even though Come as You Are was also popular.

## Other versions of the song
On November 18, 1993, Nirvana played "Come as You Are" on their show on MTV Unplugged. The show contained mostly their unpopular songs and covers of other artists' songs; "Come as You Are" was the only hit they played.
Luduş

**Luduş** (German: *Ludasch*, Hungarian: *Marosludas*) is a town in Mureş County, Romania. It is the fourth biggest city in the county by population. The name of the town in Hungarian means "gooses at Maros"
2008 Yemen floods

The **2008 Yemen floods** took place on October 23, leaving 65 dead and 20,000 without shelter. The Yemeni governorates of Hadhramaut, Lahij, Al Mahrah and Ta'izz were affected the worst by the floods, and most of the deaths were in Hadhramaut.

## Details
 caused the flooding.]]
Before the flooding was several days of rain starting on October 23, as the remains of a tropical cyclone moved over the area. Rain continued, with weather systems coming in from neighbouring Saudi Arabia and northern Somalia, causing severe flooding in some areas of Yemen.

The Organisation of the Islamic Conference declared the situation a "national catastrophe" and started a drive on Saturday to collect funds for the relief of flood victims.  The rain also destroyed large amounts of farmland and killed large numbers of livestock.

## References
Lounge Act

"**Lounge Act**" is a song by the American grunge band Nirvana. It was the ninth song on their second studio album, *Nevermind*, which is credited with bringing grunge music to the mainstream. The song is much like the post-grunge songs that were very popular starting in the mid-1990s, after Nirvana broke up.

The title "Lounge Act" came from when the band thought it sounded like a song they would play in a lounge.

It is one of the songs in the soundtrack of the video game *Skate.*, a skateboarding video game from 2007 for Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3.
Alexander Ramsey

**Alexander Ramsey** (September 8, 1815– April 22, 1903) was an American politician. He was born near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania.

Ramsey was elected from Pennsylvania as a Whig to the U.S. House of Representatives and served in the 28th and 29th congresses from March 4, 1843 to March 3, 1847. He served as the first Territorial Governor of Minnesota June 1, 1849 to May 15, 1853 as a member of the Whig Party.

 in Saint Paul, Minnesota, 1960.]]
In 1855, he became the mayor of St. Paul, Minnesota. Ramsey was elected the second Governor of Minnesota after statehood and served from January 2, 1860 to July 10, 1863. Ramsey is credited with being the first Union governor to commit troops during the American Civil War (he happened to be in Washington, D.C. when fighting broke out). He resigned the governorship to become a U.S. Senator, having been elected to that post in 1863 as a Republican. He was re-elected in 1869 and held the office until March 3, 1875, serving in the 38th, 39th, 40th, 41st, 42nd, and 43rd congresses.

Ramsey served as Secretary of War from 1879 to 1881, under President Rutherford B. Hayes.

## Legacy 
The Minnesota Historical Society preserves his home as a museum. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1969. Alexander Ramsey Park, located in Redwood Falls, Minnesota, is the largest municipal park in Minnesota.  Ramsey County, Minnesota, Ramsey County, North Dakota, the city of Ramsey, Minnesota, the city of Ramsey, Illinois, Ramsey Park in Stillwater, Minnesota, and Alexander Ramsey Elementary School in Montevideo, Minnesota are also named for him.

## References
Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems

***Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems*** is a paper published by Claude Shannon discussing cryptography from the viewpoint of information theory. It is one of the *foundational treatments* (*primitives*) of modern cryptography. It is also a proof that all theoretically *unbreakable* (*un-crack-able*) ciphers must have the same requirements as the one-time pad encryption algorithm.

Shannon published an earlier version of this research in the classified report ***A Mathematical Theory of Cryptography***, Memorandum MM 45-110-02, Sept. 1, 1945, Bell Laboratories.

In 1948, Shannon published his great paper "A Mathematical Theory of Communication" which is considered one of the founding works of the field of information theory.

## Related pages
* Confusion and diffusion
* Product cipher

## References
* Shannon, Claude. "Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems", *Bell System Technical Journal*, vol.28(**4**), page 656–715, 1949.

## Other websites
* Online retyped copy of the paper 
* Scanned version of the published *BSTJ* paper
Xochiquetzal

, 16th century.]]
In Aztec mythology, **Xoːchiquetzal** () was a goddess of flowers, fertility, games, dancing and agriculture (planting and harvesting), as well as craftsmen and pregnant women.  She was first a moon and love goddess.
Tlatoani

***Tlatoani*** ( ; plural ''*, ) is the Nahuatl word for the ruler of an *altepetl*, a pre-Hispanic state. The word means "speaker", but may be translated into English as "king". A *'' () is a female ruler.

## References
Amazon basin

The **Amazon Basin** is the part of South America drained by the Amazon River and its branches. It is low-lying in relation to sea level.

The river has its origins high up in the Andes of Peru and Ecuador.  More than half of this drainage basin (54%) is in Brazil, including the lower part.  Other portions are tributaries from Colombia, Venezuela and Bolivia.     

The Amazon rainforest is the largest in the world, covering about  with dense tropical rain forest.  It is also known as Amazonia.  This is one of the world's most important ecosystems.
Upper class

**Upper class** is an idea in sociology. It refers to the group of people at the top of a society. They are the wealthiest group of society. Members of an upper class often have great power over resources and governmental policy in their area. They may have acquired these things by inheritance, for example by being monarchs or aristocrats, or by commerce. They may own much land or other valuable property, and may spend much of their income on luxury goods such as yachts and mansions.
## Related pages 
* Social class
* Elite
Chocolate bar

chocolate bar, broken in half]]

A **chocolate bar** is a confectionery made of cocoa beans, cocoa butter, sugar, and milk. There are many types of chocolate, including milk chocolate, dark chocolate, white chocolate, peanut butter chocolate, and many more. 

Chocolate has a lot of calories, so it can give a person energy.  However, most chocolate also has a lot of sugar.

Chocolate comes from the cacao tree.  Cocoa pods grow on these trees.  They get about as big as a melon.  Once they are ripe, they turn from green to orange.  Then workers can split them open and take out cocoa beans.  Factories use machines to break down the cocoa beans into cocoa butter and chocolate.  Then they add sugar and milk to make the chocolate taste better.

Cocoa farmers are some of the poorest people in the world.  Many of them earn very little money.

## References
Hurricane Dean

**Hurricane Dean** was the strongest tropical cyclone of the 2007 Atlantic hurricane season. It was also the strongest Atlantic hurricane since Hurricane Wilma of 2005. Also, it made the third strongest Atlantic hurricane landfall. Dean moved west-northwest from the eastern Atlantic Ocean through the Saint Lucia Channel and into the Caribbean Sea. It became into a very strong hurricane, reaching Category&nbsp;5 status on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale before moving south of Jamaica on August 20. The storm moved onto land on the Yucatán Peninsula on August&nbsp;21 as a Category&nbsp;5 storm. It moved across the peninsula and entered the Bay of Campeche, as a weakened storm, but still a hurricane. It strengthened for a short time before making a second landfall in Veracruz near Tecolutla, Mexico, on August 22. Dean slowly moved to the northwest, weakening into a low pressure area which dissipated over the southwestern United States.

The hurricane's strong winds, waves, rains and storm surge caused over 45&nbsp;deaths across ten countries and caused estimated damages of US$1.5&nbsp;billion. First impacting the islands of the Lesser Antilles, Dean's path through the Caribbean severely damaged agricultural crops, especially those of Martinique and Jamaica. When it reached  Mexico, Hurricane Dean was a Category&nbsp;5 storm, but it missed large cities and its exceptional Category&nbsp;5 strength landfall caused no deaths and less damage than in the Caribbean islands it passed as a Category&nbsp;2 storm. Because of the damage, the name *Dean* was retired, and will not be used again for a tropical cyclone in the atlantic basin and was replaced by Dorian which was also retired in 2019.

## Related pages
*2007 Atlantic hurricane season
*Tropical cyclone

## References
Veracruz City

The city of **Veracruz** is an important port city on the Gulf of Mexico in the Mexican state of Veracruz. It has a population of 444,438 in the city according to the 2005 census.

## References
Hans Sloane

**Sir Hans Sloane, 1st Baronet**, PRS (16 April 1660 – 11 January 1753) was an Ulster-Scot physician and . He donated his collection to the British nation. This collection became the beginning of the British Museum. He also created chocolate milk. Sloane Square in London is named for him.
Cocoa butter

**Cocoa butter**, also called **theobroma oil**, is the pale-yellow, pure vegetable fat of the cacao bean. It is used to make solid chocolate bars, and mixed with cocoa powder to make solid pieces of chocolate. Cocoa butter is removed from the cacao beans and can be used to make chocolate, pharmaceuticals, ointments, and toiletries. Cocoa butter has a mild chocolate flavor and smell. It is one of the most stable fats known.

## References
Pietro Longhi

, 1757.]]

**Pietro Longhi** (November 5, 1701 – May 8, 1785) was a Venetian painter of contemporary scenes of life.

## Related pages
* List of Italian painters
Bixa orellana

***Bixa orellana*** (also known as **achiote**) is a shrub or small tree from the tropical area of the American continent. The name comes from the Nahuatl word for the shrub, *achiotl*.  It is also known as **Aploppas**, and its first Tupi name *urucu*. It is grown there and in Southeast Asia, where it was brought by the Spanish in the 17th century. It is best known as the source of the natural pigment annatto, made from the fruit. The plant bears pink flowers and bright red spiny fruits which contain red seeds. The fruits dry and harden to brown capsules.
Alex Turner

**Alex Turner** (born 6 January 1986) is a British musician. He is the lead singer and guitarist of the Arctic Monkeys. He is also a member of The Last Shadow Puppets. He was born and raised in Sheffield. His father was a music teacher and his mother was a German teacher.

The Arctic Monkeys have released 7 studio albums. The first was ''Whatever People Say I Am, That's What I'm Not*. The second was *Favourite Worst Nightmare*. The third was *Humbug*. The fourth was *Suck It and See'', which was released late in 2011. The fifth was "AM", which was released in 2013. "Tranquillity Base, Hotel & Casino" was released in 2018, and “The Car” in 2022.

## References
Dodge

**Dodge** is an American automobile, SUV and truck maker. They are based in Auburn Hills, Michigan. Dodge was created by brothers Horace and John Dodge in 1900. 

Dodge was sold to Chrysler in 1928. In 2009 Dodge announced it would spin-off the Ram division making it its own brand.
## Current production models 
*

## Other websites
*Official American website 
*Global store locator
Arts and crafts

, children and their guardians partake in arts and crafts.]]

**Arts and crafts** describes a wide variety of activities involving making things with one's own hands.  Arts and crafts is usually a hobby. Some crafts (art skills) have been practised since preshistoric times, others are more recent inventions. William Morris, John Ruskin and others promoted an "arts and crafts" movement in the late 19th century, which popularized the phrase.

Both children and adults enjoy arts and crafts. Children in schools may learn skills such as woodworking, wood carving, sewing, or making things with all sorts of material. Many community centres and schools have evening or day classes and workshops where one can learn arts and craft skills 

## Crafts involving textiles 
* Banner-making
* Calligraphy
* Cross-stitch
* Crocheting
* Embroidery
* Felting
* Knitting
* Lace-making
* Macramé
* Millinery
* Needlepoint
* Patchwork
* Quilting
* Rug making
* Sewing
* Shoemaking
* Spinning (textiles)
* String art
* Tapestry
* Weaving
* T-shirt art

## Crafts involving wood, metal or clay
* Metalworking
* Jewelry
* Pottery
* Sculpture
* Woodworking
* Cabinet making
* Marquetry
* Lacquerware
* Wood burning
* Woodturning

## Crafts involving paper or canvas
* Bookbinding
* Calligraphy
* Cardmaking
* Card Modelling
* Collage
* Decoupage
* Embossing
* Iris Folding
* Marbling
* Origami
* Papercraft
* Papier-mâché
* Parchment craft
* Quilling or Paper Filigree
* Scrapbooking
* Stamping (with a rubber stamp)
*  Sketching

## Crafts involving plants
* Basket weaving
* Corn dolly making
* Floral Design
* Pressed flower craft
* Straw marquetry

## Other crafts
* Balloon animal
* Beadwork
* Doll making
* Dollhouse construction and furnishing
* Egg decorating
* Etching
* Glassblowing
* Lapidary
* Mosaics
* Stained glass
* Toy making
* Polymer clay
Ordered pair

In mathematics, an *ordered pair* is a collection of two objects, where one of the objects is first (the *first coordinate* or *left projection*), and the other is second (the *second coordinate* or *right projection*). An ordered pair where the first coordinate is a and the second coordinate is b is usually written (a,b) (sometimes it is written \langle a,b\rangle). If a is different from b, then the ordered pair (a,b) is different from the ordered pair (b,a) - this is why it is called *ordered*.

## Properties 
If (a_1,b_1) and (a_2,b_2) are two ordered pairs, then the *characteristic* or *defining* property of ordered pairs is:
:(a_1,b_1) = (a_2, b_2) \leftrightarrow a_1 = a_2 \and b_1 = b_2.

This means that two ordered pairs are equal if and only if: the first coordinates of the pairs are equal, and also the second coordinates of the pairs are equal.

## Definition 
There are many mathematical definitions of *ordered pair* which have this property. The definition given here is the most common one:

:(a,b) = \{\{a\}, \{a,b\}\}.

Kazimierz Kuratowski was the first person to make this definition.
Ijaz-ul-Haq

**Muhammad Ijaz-ul-Haq** (, born 20 February 1952) is a prominent Pakistani politician and former Federal Minister for Religious Affairs of Pakistan.

Haq joined the Pakistan Army in 1971. He entered Pakistani politics following the 1988 death of his father, the military dictator and self-appointed President of Pakistan General Zia-ul-Haq.
Zille Huma

**Zille Huma** () is the daughter of the late Melody Queen Madam Noor Jehan and the only one of her four daughters to follow in her mother's footsteps. Today, she is a popular Pakistani pop singer.

## References
Sonya Jehan

**Sonya Jehan** is a French-Pakistani  Bollywood actress. Jehan's first movie was *Taj Mahal: An Eternal Love Story* in 2005. Her original name was **Sonya Rizvi**.  She changed it to Jehan to honor her grandmother, Noor Jehan, who is a legendary singer and Lollywood actress. 

## References
Aga Khan III

Sir **Sultan Muhammed Shah,** known as **Aga Khan III**, (Urdu: اُغَا خَانْ تِىسِرَا) GCSI, GCMG, GCIE, GCVO, PC (2 November 1877–11 July 1957) was the 48th Imam of the Nizari Ismaili sect of Shia Islam. 

He was one of the founders and the first permanent president of the All-India Muslim League (AIML). He was nominated to represent India at the League of Nations in 1932 and served as President of the League of Nations from 1937 to 1938.

He was born in Karachi during the British Raj in 1877. He was given a religious education. After Eton College, he went on to study at the University of Cambridge. 

The distinction of Knight Commander of the Indian Empire (KCIE) was conferred upon him by Queen Victoria in 1897. In 1934, he was made a member of the Privy Council. The Aga Khan travelled to distant parts of the world to receive the homage of his followers, with the objective either of settling differences or of advancing their welfare through financial help and personal advice and guidance. During his 72 years of Imamat (1885–1957), the community celebrated his Golden (1937), Diamond (1946), and Platinum (1954) Jubilees. To show their appreciation and affection, the community weighed their Imam in gold, diamonds, and, symbolically, platinum, respectively, the proceeds of which were used to further develop major social welfare and development institutions in Asia and Africa. Schools were set up in the remote northern areas of what is now Pakistan.

## His choice of successor 
Aga Khan III was succeeded as Aga Khan by his grandson Karim Aga Khan, who is the present Imam.

## Marriages 
*He married on November 2, 1896, in Pune, India, Shahzadi Begum.
*He married in 1908, Cleope Teresa Magliano (1888–1926). They had two sons: Prince Giuseppe Mahdi Khan (d. February 1911) and Prince Aly Khan (1911–1960). She died in 1926, following an operation on December 1, 1926.
*He married on 7 December 1929 (civil), in Aix-les-Bains, France, and 13 December 1929 (religious), in Bombay, India, Andrée Joséphine Carron (1898–1976). A co-owner of a dressmaking shop in Paris, she became known as Princess Andrée Aga Khan. By this marriage, he had one son, Prince Sadruddin Aga Khan (1933–2003). The couple was divorced in 1943. 
*He married on October 9, 1944, in Geneva, Switzerland, Yvonne Blanche Labrousse. She had been his social secretary. 

## Mausoleum 
The Aga Khan's mausoleum is near the Nile at Aswan, Egypt.
Chrysler (brand)

**Stellantis North America,**  (officially **FCA US, LLC**) and also known historically **Chrysler Corporation** is a car manufacturer based in the United States. They are one of the oldest car manufacturers in the world. They own other car companies such as Dodge, Jeep, and Ram Trucks. 1925

Chrysler Corporation was created by Walter P. Chrysler in 1925 when he renamed the Maxwell Motor Company. From 1998 to 2007, Chrysler was part of DiamlerChrysler, a large German company. Then it was owned by Cerberus Capital Management. Chrysler declared Chapter 11 Bankruptcy on August 30, 2009. In 1978 Lee Iacocca left Ford Motor Company to become president and CEO of Chrysler Corporation in 1978. In 1979 Lee Iacocca added the title of chairman, until his retirement in 1992. In 1979, Chrysler Corporation had financial problems. They got 1.5 billion dollars from the U.S. government. Then, Chrysler Corporation created the K-car platform, invented the minivan, and sold many trucks to the army. Chrysler Corporation acquired American Motors in 1988, and rebranded the auto company as Eagle. They slowly recovered. Chrysler is currently owned by Italian automotive Fiat, the two companies merged forming Fiat Chrysler Automobiles or FCA for short. FCA in 2020 merged with the PSA group to form Stellantis. The company still trades as Chrysler in the United States.

At its peak, Chrysler owned Dodge, Jeep, Plymouth, DeSoto, Valiant, Imperial, and Eagle (AMC). Only Chrysler, Dodge, and Jeep survived. In 2010 Chrysler announced it would spin the Ram Trucks off into its own division and Dodge would focus on performance status.

## Brand 
## Current production vehicles 
;Notes

## Former production vehicles 
### United States 
### Global 
;Notes

## Concept cars 
## Websites 
* http://www.chrysler.com/en/ 
* http://www.dodge.com/en/ 
* http://www.jeep.com/en/
Substitution-permutation network

In cryptography, an **SP-network**, or **substitution-permutation network** (**SPN**), is a series of linked mathematical operations used in block cipher algorithms such as AES.

These networks consist of S-boxes and P-boxes that transform blocks of input bits into output bits.  

S-boxes substitute or transform input bits into output bits.  A good S-box will have the property that changing one input bit will change about half of the output bits.  It will also have the property that each output bit will depend on every input bit. P-boxes permute or rearrange bits across S-box inputs. In addition, at each *round* the key is combined using some group operation, typically XOR.

## Related pages
* Feistel cipher
* Product cipher
* Square (cipher)
* International Data Encryption Algorithm

## References
* Jonathan Katz and Yehuda Lindell, "Introduction to Modern Cryptography". CRC Press, 2007.
Grand Trunk Road

The **Grand Trunk Road** (commonly abbreviated to GT Road) is one of South Asia's oldest and longest major roads. For several centuries, it has linked the eastern and western regions of the Indian subcontinent, running from Bengal, across north Republic of India, into Peshawar in Pakistan.

It was built by Sher Shah Suri and is also known as  "*Sadak E Sher Shah" named* after him.
Permutation box

In cryptography, a **permutation box** (or **P-box**) is a  of bit-shuffling used to permute or transpose bits (rearrange or swap the order of bits) across S-boxes inputs, maintaining diffusion while transposing.

In block ciphers, the S-boxes and P-Boxes are used to make the relation between the plaintext and the ciphertext difficult to understand (see Shannon's property of diffusion).

## Related pages
* S-box
* Substitution cipher

## References
Square (cipher)

In cryptography, **Square** (sometimes written **SQUARE**)  is a block cipher invented by Joan Daemen, Enrique Peña Nieto and Vincent Rijmen. The design was published in 1997.

**SQUARE** is a predecessor to the **Rijndael** algorithm, which was adopted in 2001 as the Advanced Encryption Standard by the U.S. government. 

Square was introduced together with a new form of cryptanalysis discovered by Lars Knudsen, called the "Square attack".

The structure of Square is a substitution-permutation network with eight rounds, operating on 128-bit block size and using a 128-bit key size.

Square is not patented.

## References
* 

## Other websites
* SCAN's entry for Square
Joe Kinnear

**Joseph Patrick Kinnear** (27 December 1946 &ndash; 7 April 2024) was a football player. He played for the Republic of Ireland national team. He also coached football.

## Death
In 2021, it was announced that since 2015 he had been living with dementia. Kinnear died on 7 April 2024 from problems caused by vascular dementia at the age of 77.

## Career statistics
## Managerial statistics
:Source:

## Honours
### Player
**Tottenham Hotspur**
*FA Cup: 1966–67
*Football League Cup: 1970–71, 1972–73
*FA Charity Shield: 1967 (shared)
*UEFA Cup: 1971–72

### Manager
**Nepal**
*South Asian Games runner-up: 1987

**Luton Town**
*Football League Third Division runner-up: 2001–02

**Individual**
*LMA Manager of the Year: 1994
*Premier League Manager of the Month: September 1993, March 1994, April 1994, September 1996

## References
Bilawal Bhutto Zardari

**Bilawal Bhutto Zardari** () (born 21 September 1988) is co-chairman of the Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP), and the eldest child and only son of the late Pakistani politician and former Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto and her husband Asif Ali Zardari, the former President of Pakistan. Chairman Bhutto Zardari is also the grandson of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, a former Prime Minister of Pakistan. After completing his studies from the United Kingdom in 2013, Bilawal took over the formal charge of the PPP and made changes in it.  

In the 2018 general election, he ran for Prime Minister of Pakistan but ended in third place losing to Imran Khan.
Space-time tradeoff

In computer science, a **space-time** or **time-memory tradeoff** is a way of solving a problem or calculation in less time by using more storage space (or memory), or by solving a problem in very little space by spending a long time. Most computers have a large amount of space, but not infinite space. Most people are willing to wait a little while for a big calculation, but not forever. So if a problem is taking a long time but not much memory, a space-time tradeoff would  use more memory and solve the problem more quickly. 

The most common condition is an algorithm using a lookup table. This means that the answers for some question for every possible value can be written down. One way of solving this problem is to write down the entire lookup table, which will find answers very quickly, but will use a lot of space. Another way is to calculate the answers without writing down anything, which uses very little space, but might take a long time.

A space-time tradeoff can be used with the problem of data storage. If data is stored uncompressed, it takes more space but less time than if the data were stored compressed (since compressing the data decreases the amount of space it takes, but it takes time to run the compression algorithm). 

Larger code size can be used to increase program speed when using loop unwinding. This technique makes the program code longer for each iteration of a loop, but saves the computation time needed for jumping back to the beginning of the loop at the end of each iteration. 

In the field of cryptography, using space-time tradeoff, the attacker is decreasing the exponential time required for a brute force attack. Rainbow tables use partially precomputed values in the hash space of a cryptographic hash function to crack passwords in minutes instead of weeks. Decreasing the size of the rainbow table increases the time required to iterate over the hash space. The meet-in-the-middle attack attack uses a space-time tradeoff to find the cryptographic key in only 2^{n+1} encryptions (and O(2^n) space) compared to the expected 2^{2n} encryptions (but only O(1) space) of the normal attack. 

Dynamic programming is another example where the time of solving problems can be decreased by using more memory.

## Other websites
* Philippe Oechslin: Making a Faster Cryptanalytic Time-Memory Trade-Off. 
* Once Upon a Time-Memory Tradeoff.
Brett Emerton

**Brett Michael Emerton** (born 22 February 1979) is an Australian former professional footballer who played for Sydney Olympic, Sydney FC, Feyenoord Rotterdam, Blackburn Rovers and the Australia national team.

## Career statistics
### Club
### International
:''Scores and results list Australia's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Emerton goal.''

## Honours
**Feyenoord**
*UEFA Cup: 2001–02

**Australia**
*OFC U-17 Championship: 1995
*OFC U-20 Championship: 1997
*OFC Nations Cup: 2000, 2004

**Individual**
* NSL U21 Player of the Year: 1997–98
* Australian Sports Medal: 2000
* Oceania Footballer of the Year: 2002
* A-League All Stars: 2013

## References
## Other websites
* 
* Oz Football profile
* Socceroo profile
* 
*
Coat of arms of Azerbaijan

The **Coat of arms of Azerbaijan** mixes traditional and modern symbols. The focal point of the emblem is the fire symbol. This symbol comes from the fact that Azerbaijan has many everlasting fires which also gives the name "land of eternal fire".
The colors used in composing the emblem are taken from the national flag. These colors are found in the background behind the eight pointed star (۞ Rub El Hizb) upon which the flame is shown. The star itself stands for the eight branches of the Turkic peoples, and between each point of the star, there is a smaller eight pointed star found. 

Like other post-Soviet republics whose arms do not predate the October Revolution, the current arms retains some components of the Soviet one. At the bottom of the emblem is a stalk of wheat, representing the main agricultural product of the nation, which was also part of the earlier arms. The other plant represented at the bottom is oak.

## References
Roquefort-la-Bédoule

:*For other uses, see* Roquefort (disambiguation)

**Roquefort-la-Bédoule** is a commune of 5,016 people (2006). It is in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Flag of Azerbaijan

The **flag of Azerbaijan** () is one of the national symbols of Azerbaijan and consists of three equal horizontal bands, from top: blue, red, and green; a white crescent and an eight-pointed star are centered in the red band. The official colours and size were adopted on February 5, 1991. The flag is used on land as the civil, state and war flag, and at sea as the civil, state and naval ensign and naval jack. The specific shades of the national flag were laid out in a 2004 law.

The Cyan blue color at the top of the flag stands for Azerbaijan’s Turkic heritage, the red in the middle stands for Azerbaijan’s desire to create a modern society and the green at the bottom of the flag symbolizes Azerbaijan’s Islamic civilization.  The eight point star on Azerbaijan’s flag stands for the eight original Turkic peoples - the Azerbaijani’s, Ottomans, Jagatais,  Tatars, Kazakhs, Kipchaks, Seljuqs and the Turkmen.

## History 
The Azerbaijani flag was first created by the Azerbaijani nationalist Alī bay Huseynzada. He originally used it to promote Azerbaijani independence from the Tsarist Russian Empire.  He exhorted his followers to “Turkify, Islamicize and Europeanize” in order to emphasize ethnic pride, religious devotion and modernization. The flag was first adopted by his Musavat party in 1917. The modern Azerbaijani flag was first adopted in 1918 and served as the flag of Azerbaijan from 1918 until the Bolshevik conquest of Azerbaijan in 1920.

The flag then became popular again in early 1989, as a way of protesting against the failure of the soviet government to protect them from Armenian attacks on their territory. The flag was officially readopted on February 5, 1991 - it continued in use after Azerbaijan’s independence on August 30th, 1991.

Note - both the 1st and 2nd Azerbaijani republics used the Turkish flag briefly

## References
David Rocastle

**David Carlyle Rocastle** (2 May 1967 – 31 March 2001) was an English professional footballer who played as a midfielder in the roles of a playmaker and a winger.

## Career statistics
## Honours
**Arsenal**
*Football League Centenary Trophy: 1988
*Zenith Data Systems Challenge Trophy: 1989

**Leeds United**

**Sabah**
*Piala FA: runner-up 1998

**England youth**
*Toulon Tournament: runner-up 1988

**Individual**
*PFA Team of the Year: 1986–87 First Division, 1988–89 First Division
*Barclays Young Eagle: 1987 & 1989

## References
Le Rove

**Le Rove** is a commune of 5,205 people (2022). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Sénas

**Sénas** is a commune. It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

## Related pages
* Communes of the Bouches-du-Rhône department

## Other websites
*
Matt Busby

**Sir Alexander Matthew Busby** was a Scottish footballer and football manager. He played for Scotland national team. Busby managed Manchester United and led them to great success. Many people believe that Busby is one of the greatest football managers of all time.

As a player, Busby played for Manchester City and Liverpool. After his playing career, he went to manage Manchester United and built a great team called the Busby Babes. Eight of those players died in an airplane accident in Munich. This accident was called the Munich air disaster. But Busby again built a winning team after the disaster. He spent 25 years with Manchester United and won 13 trophies.

## Career statistics
### Playing career
### Managerial career
1Does not include matches for which Jimmy Murphy served as acting manager following the Munich air disaster.

## Honours
### Player
**Manchester City**
* FA Cup: 1933–34

### Manager
**Manchester United**
* First Division: 1951–52, 1955–56, 1956–57, 1964–65, 1966–67
* FA Cup: 1947–48, 1962–63
* FA Charity Shield: 1952, 1956, 1957, 1965 (shared), 1967 (shared)
* European Cup: 1967–68

### Individual
*PFA Merit Award: 1980
*English Football Hall of Fame (Manager): 2002
*European Hall of Fame (Manager): 2008
*ESPN 7th Greatest Manager of All Time: 2013
*France Football 11th Greatest Manager of All Time: 2019
*World Soccer 36th Greatest Manager of All Time: 2013

### Orders and special awards
*Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (CBE): 1958
*Knight Bachelor: 1968
*Knight Commander of the Order of St. Gregory the Great (KCSG): 1972

## References
Venelles

**Venelles** is a commune of 8,156 people (2006). It is in Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in south France.
Alphonse Daudet

**Alphonse Daudet** (13 May 1840 – 16 December 1897) was a French novelist. He was the father of Léon Daudet and Lucien Daudet. Outside France he is probably best known for his novel *Tartarin de Tarrascon*. Daudet died of syphilis.
Roquefort

**Roquefort** can refer to:
*Roquefort cheese, a type of cheese named after the French communes of Roquefort-sur-Soulzon.

It is also the name of many different French communes:
*Roquefort, Gers,  in the Gers department
*Roquefort, Landes, in the Landes department
*Roquefort, Lot, a former French commune in the Lot department
*Roquefort, Lot-et-Garonne, in the Lot-et-Garonne department
*Roquefort-de-Sault, commune in the Aude department
*Roquefort-des-Corbières, commune in the Aude department 
*Roquefort-la-Bédoule, commune in the Bouches-du-Rhône department 
*Roquefort-les-Cascades, commune in the Ariège department
*Roquefort-les-Pins, commune in the Alpes-Maritimes department
*Roquefort-sur-Garonne, commune in the Haute-Garonne department
*Roquefort-sur-Soulzon, commune in the Aveyron department
*Rocquefort, commune in the Seine-Maritime department
Gustave Flaubert

**Gustave Flaubert** ( in French) (12 December 1821 – 8 May 1880) was a French writer. He is known especially for his first published novel, *Madame Bovary* (1857) and a historical novel *Salmmbô* (1862). He was very devoted to what he did, and always looked for the word that would best fit the context. He died of a cerebral hemorrhage.

## Important works
* ''Rêve d'enfer*, 1837
* *Memoirs of a Madman* (1838; *Mémoires d’un fou*)
* *November* (1842)
* *Madame Bovary* (1857)
* *Salammbô* (1862)
* *Sentimental Education* (1869; *L'Éducation sentimentale*)
* *Le Candidat* (vaudeville), 1874
* *The Temptation of Saint Anthony* (1874; *La Tentation de saint Antoine*)
* *Three Tales* (1877; *Trois contes*). "A Simple Heart", "Saint Julian" and "Herodias"
* *Le Château des cœurs* (play), 1880
* *Bouvard et Pécuchet* (1881)
* *Dictionary of Received Ideas* (1911; *Dictionnaire des idées reçues*)
* *Souvenirs, notes et pensées intimes (1838–1841)*, 1965
* *Album*, annoté par Jean Bruneau et Jean A. Ducourneau, 1972
* *Bibliomanie et autres textes 1836–1839'', 1982
Roquefort, Gers

:*For other uses, see* Roquefort (disambiguation)
**Roquefort** is a commune of 230 people (1999). It is located in the region Occitanie in the Gers department in the southwest of France.
Lookup table

In computer science, a **lookup table** is a data structure, usually an array or associative array, used to replace a runtime computation (calculation) with a simple array indexing operation. The main purpose is in saving run time since retrieving a value from memory is often faster than undergoing a time consuming computation (see Space-time tradeoff). Lookup tables are also used to validate input values by matching against a list of valid (or invalid) items in an array.

*Table (information)
Roquefort-de-Sault

:*For other uses, see* Roquefort (disambiguation)

**Roquefort-de-Sault** is a commune of 113 people (1999). It is in the region Occitanie in the Aude department in the south of France.
Roquevaire

**Roquevaire** is a commune of 8,299 people (2005). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

## Other websites
Roquefort-les-Pins

**Roquefort-les-Pins** is a commune of 6175 people (2007). It is located in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Alpes-Maritimes department in the southeast of France.
Roquefort, Lot-et-Garonne

**Roquefort** is a commune in the Lot-et-Garonne department in south-western France.

## Related pages
*Communes of the Lot-et-Garonne department

## Other websites
BBC Radio 1Xtra

**BBC Radio 1Xtra** (also known as **1Xtra**) is a digital British contemporary black music station from the BBC. The station was launched at 6pm on 16 August 2002. It was called *Network X* during the planning period. It is the complement station to Radio 1 and is broadcast from the same building as Radio 1 - Yalding House in central London. This is part of the BBC's massive Broadcasting House complex of radio studios and other offices.

## Music policy
The playlist generally includes British, Caribbean, African and North American hip hop, grime, bassline, garage, dubstep, funky, drum and bass, bashment, soca, reggae, gospel music, bhangra, soul and R&B. It is available on digital radio (DAB), digital satellite television, digital terrestrial television (Freeview), and the Internet. It has its own news team: 1Xtra News.

## Audience profile
1Xtra's audience is usually aged between 15 and 30 years old. The upper age range is deliberately lower than sister station Radio 1 which is closer to 35.

According to the "Submission to the Secretary of State's review of digital channels" in March 2004, 1Xtra "provides music output 24 hours a day, punctuated by bespoke BBC 
news bulletins and other speech output designed specifically to be pertinent to the 
audience."

## References
*

## Other websites
*BBC 1Xtra at bbc.co.uk
*BBC 1Xtra - UK Music Podcast  at bbc.co.uk
*
Barrel

**Barrel** is an old English word for a big holder of liquids, such as petrol, beer, wine or oil. Barrels are most commonly made of either wood or metal but many are plastic

Barrels are used to age wine, and other beverages such as whisky and beer. Most of those are made of oak wood.

A barrel is also used to measure liquids. One barrel of oil is 158.987 litres (42 US gallons). It is shortened as "bbl". This use may have come from the early Pennsylvanian oil fields where wooden barrels were used to store and move oil around. In 1866, the people of West Virginia started using it regularly. At this time, the amount was set to 42 American gallons. It was later world-wide for measuring amounts of oil and pricing it. Today, oil is rarely stored or transported in actual barrels, but the term "barrel" is still used to mean a 42-gallon measurement.

A barrel can also be used to measure dry goods. For example, a barrel can mean 196 pounds (about 89 kilograms) of flour.

## Different sizes
The size of some standard barrels is not the same in all countries. Some countries have different sizes for different liquids.
*In the United Kingdom, there is a standard barrel for beer. It is 36 imperial gallons (163.659 litres).
* In the United States, a standard barrel for liquids is 31.5 US gallons (about 119.2 litres). For beer, the standard barrel is 31 US gallons (117.348 litres), because of tax laws.
* A physical metal barrel for oil or chemicals usually holds 55 US gallons (208.198 litres), but the word "barrel" used as a measurement refers to a 42-gallon measurement.

## History
The first people to start using barrels were the Celts about 350 BC. The Roman Empire started using barrels after trading with the Celts. Barrels remained popular for shipping items until the 20th century.
Claudio Ulpiano

**Claudio Ulpiano** (1932-1999) was a Brazilian philosopher and expert on the work of Gilles Deleuze. He taught at the Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro and Universidade Federal Fluminense.

## Bibliography
*Do saber em Platão e do sentido nos estóicos como reversão do platonismo. Dissertação de Mestrado.
*O Pensamento de Deleuze ou a Grande Aventura do Espírito . Tese de Doutorado.
*Mundo Próprio - Primeiro Movimento

## Other websites
*www.claudioulpiano.org.br
Roquefort-sur-Soulzon

]]
**Roquefort-sur-Soulzon** is a commune of 691 people (2007). It is in the region Occitanie in the Aveyron department in the south of France. It is famous for its cheese (named after the village).

## References
## Other websites
Andy McKee

**Andy McKee** is a fingerstyle guitarist from Topeka, Kansas. He became famous through his YouTube videos in 2006.

## Discography
* *Nocturne*, 2001
* *Dreamcatcher*, 2004
* *Art of Motion*, 2005
* *Gates of Gnomeria*, 2007
* Split DVD with Antoine Dufour, 2007
* *The Thing That Came From Somewhere* with Don Ross, 2008

## Other Websítes
* McKee's Personal Website
* Andy McKee's MySpace
* McKee @ Candyrat Records 
* Interview @ InstruMentalCase
* Profile from honesttune.com.