open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Thomas Arne

**Thomas Arne** (born in London, baptized 28 May 1710; died in London, 5 March 1778) was an English composer and violinist.  He was the most famous musician in the theatre in England in the 18th century.  He wrote music for lots of plays.  He had a great gift for writing beautiful tunes.  Songs such as *Where the Bee Sucks* are still very popular.  His best known tune is *Rule Britannia* which is sung every year at the Last Night of the Proms.
Alphabetical order

**Alphabetical order** is a way to sort (organize) a list. It helps a reader to find a name or a title in the list. It is done by following the standard (usual) order of letters in an alphabet. Some lists in alphabetical order were used during the early Roman Empire. It became commonplace after the Renaissance. 

Sorting things in English is done using the Roman alphabet. Different languages have different rules for sorting. Note also, that there are different ways to sort numbers, and special characters.

* Option one: the letter with diacritics is treated the same way as the one without, ä is treated as a, ö as o and ü as u. (Known as DIN 5007-1, usually used for encyclopedias)
* Option two: the letter is treated the same as some replacement: ä is replaced by ae, ö be oe, ü by ue, and  ß by ss (Known as DIN 5007-2, used for phone books)

These may be different by language, such as letters with diacritics.  German, for example, has the letters ä,ö,ü, and ß.  Danish also has a letter ä, but sorts it after z, and not treated like a as in German.

## English 
A list of items like ***E**ric,* ***L**ydia*, ***A**ndrea*, and ***B**ob* is organized by their first letter.  *A* comes before *B*, and *B* comes before *E*, and *E* comes before *L* in the alphabet.  When alphabetical order is used:
***A**ndrea
***B**ob
***E**ric
***L**ydia

If many words have the same first letter, they are sorted by their second letters.
*L**a**rry
*L**e**onard
*L**i**nda
*L**y**dia

After that, the third and fourth letters are used until the whole list is sorted.

The words **a**, **an** and **the** are ignored.  Sometimes they are written at the end, after a comma.  Spaces and hyphens ( - ) are ignored, too.
**A* Long **D**ay's Journey Into Night
**The* Long **G**oodbye
*Long**h**and: A Writer's Notebook
**The* Long **R**oad Home
*Long **V**oyage Back
**The* Long **W**alk
A formula can be used to systematically ignore **a**, **an** and **the**. For Microsoft Excel, it would be:

:=IF(LEFT(A2,2)="A ",RIGHT(A2,LEN(A2)-2),IF(LEFT(A2,3)= "An ",RIGHT(A2,LEN(A2)-3),IF(LEFT(A2,4)="The ",RIGHT(A2, LEN(A2)-4),A2)))

That can also be listed like this:
*Long **D**ay's Journey Into Night, A
*Long **G**oodbye, The
*Long**h**and: A Writer's Notebook
*Long **R**oad Home, The
*Long **V**oyage Back
*Long **W**alk, The

Names are usually ordered by Family name, not given name.
*Gene **Hac**kman
*Tom **Han**ks
*Katharine **Hep**burn
*Jennifer Love **Hew**itt

Names are often written with the last names first.
*Hackman, Gene
*Hanks, Tom
*Hepburn, Katharine
*Hewitt, Jennifer Love

Numbers can be sorted in two ways.  Sometimes, they are listed in order from smallest to largest.  This is the normal way to sort numbers.
*1
*3
*9
*18
*27
*81

Other times, they can be sorted as if they were normal, spelled-out words.  This way is often used for numbers in titles.
***Eighte**en
***Eighty**-one
***N**ine
***O**ne
***Th**ree
***Tw**enty-seven
### Letters
*A
*B
*C
*D
*E
*F
*G
*H
*I
*J
*K
*L
*M
*N
*O
*P
*Q
*R
*S
*T
*U
*V
*W
*X
*Y
*Z
Bad Rodach

**Bad Rodach** is a German town in the north of Franconia. Next bigger cities are Hildburghausen and Coburg. Its population is about 7,000. Its mayor is Gerold Strobel.

## References
## Other websites
Kalki

**Kalki **is believed to be the final avatar or incarnation of the Hindu god Vishnu in Hinduism. Hindus believe that there are four stages of time. The stage of time we are in is called the Kali Yuga. In this stage of time, people are very bad. To restore Dharma in the world, Kalki will come to Earth, and will destroy the bad things and kill the bad people. People will change then, and become good people. A new stage of life will begin, called the Satya Yuga or the first stage of life. According to the mythology, Kalki will come when everybody on Earth would become very evil and cruel. Kalki comes after Buddha, his work is to punish people who have not changed their evil behaviour even after Buddha taught them the right way. Kalki is believed to come within this millennium and would take birth in India. 

Lord Kalki is expected to incarnate on the Shukla Paksha Dwadashi Tithi (12th day of the bright fortnight) in the Hindu month Vaishakha. According to some beliefs, he will appear at the end of this Kali Yuga which is about 432,000 years away.

The Shrimad Bhagwat Purana, a holy book in Hinduism, describes the incarnations of Lord Vishnu in detail. There is a description of Lord Kalki in the second chapter of the 12th wing of the same Purana. There it is said that Lord Kalki will be born as a son in the house of an ascetic Brahmin named Vishnu Yasha at a place called Shambhala. Lord Kalki will destroy the sinners from the world by riding on a horse or vehicle named Devadatta and re-establish peace and Dharma.

## References
Key (music)

Most music is in a particular **key**.  This means that one of the 12 notes (C, D flat, D, etc.) sounds like the “home note”.  When the piece finishes it normally comes to rest on this home note (also called: the “tonic”).  The piece will be built on the notes of the scale that starts on that note. There are two kinds of key (like there are two kinds of scale): major and minor.  Sometimes the key of a piece is in its title: "Minuet in C", "Sonata in F sharp major".  If the title does not say “major” or “minor” it is normally taken to be major. Major keys are normally said to sound happy or positive, and minor keys are said to sound sad, or sometimes creepy or angry. Some songs are exceptions to this general rule; for example "Happy" by Pharrell Williams is in a minor key, and "Tears in Heaven" by Eric Clapton is in a major key.

## Related pages
*circle of fifths
*tonality
*key signature
*transposing instrument
Themar

**Themar** is a town in the district of Hildburghausen, in the south of Thuringia, Germany. It is situated on the river Werra, 11 km northwest of Hildburghausen, and 14 km southwest of Suhl.

It was first named in 796 as *Tagamari* and today Themar consists out of the districts Wachenbrunn and Tachbach, with a population of about 2,900 inhabitants. The town church is the St Bartholomew's Church. 
The mayor of Themar since 2000 is Hubert Böse. 

## Main sights 
* St Bartholomew's Church
* St. John's Church
* defensive wall
* town hall
* market place

## Notable people
* Adam Werner (1462–1537), Humanist, teacher, poet, lawyer and professor of theology at the university in Heidelberg
* Johannes Haym (16th century), Cathedral vicar in Augsburg, author and publisher of hymns
* Joachim Zehner („Decimator“) (1566–1612), Founder of the „Zehnerschen Bibliothek“ in Schleusingen
* Johann Trier (1716–1790), Organist and composer
* Johann Friedrich Fuchs (1774–1828), Medical doctor
* Eduard Gottlieb Amthor (1820–1884), School principal, publisher, bookseller and writer
* Karl Pfauter (1905–1993), Diplomat
* Karl-Heinz Löffler (1927–2016), Soccer player
* Karl Blau (1930–1994), Politician in DDR
* Claus Oefner (1938–2017), Musician
* Gernot Güntherodt (* 1943), Professor for physics

## Sustainability
In the last 5 years Themar has invested in sustainable energy production systems. A small local heat network was installed with a cogeneration unit of 15 kW electric and 30 kW thermal energy. Also photovoltaics (6 kWp) and a heat pump (20 kW) which is using the water and thermal energy from the river Werra have been established. These renovations were completed in March 2019. In total Themar is saving carbon dioxide emissions of 14,200 kg per year.  

## References
## Other websites
M.I.A.

**Mathangi "Maya" Arulpragasam** (born 18 July 1975 in Hounslow, London) is an artist, movie graduate and musician. She is the daughter of a Tamil revolutionary. She is best known by her stage name **M.I.A.** Her music style contains elements of grime, alternative, hip-hop, dance, and electronic music. 

M.I.A. graduated from Central St. Martin's College of Art and Design with a degree in fine art, film and video. She has been noted for her idiosyncratic style in her music, her sense of fashion, and other artistic output. 

 and Evan Williams]]In 2000, she did the cover artwork for the album *The Menace,* by Elastica and directed the music video for their single "Mad Dog God Dam." She filmed a North American tour of the band. In 2002, she published a book of art inspired by the Tamil rebellion and her childhood in Sri Lanka. She met the musician Peaches who introduced M.I.A. to the Roland MC 505. M.I.A. wrote and recorded several songs on a demo using a 505, including the song "Galang."

"Galang" was initially released in 2003 on the white-label Showbiz Recordings. It became popular with DJs and garnered acclaim.

M.I.A. signed to XL Recordings in 2004. The song "Sunshowers" and "Galang" were re-released. Through 2004, file-sharing of the two singles and leaked promos of *Arular* on the internet increased anticipation for her debut album *Arular*.

One of the first artists to break on the internet, M.I.A. ended 2004 making *Piracy Funds Terrorism,* a mash-up mixtape of *Arular* tracks produced by herself and DJ Diplo.

## *Arular* 
in 2005, M.I.A. released her debut album, *Arular*, which is named for her father. It sold over 100,000 copies. The most popular song off the album was "Galang" which appeared in a Honda advertisement. On the album, there is a hidden track called "M.I.A.". The listener hears nothing for a minute or two, then a new track starts playing.

## *Kala* 
*Kala* is M.I.A.'s second album. Track listing as follows:
* *Bamboo Banga*
* *Bird Flu*
* *Boyz*
* *Jimmy*
* *$20*
* *Mango Pickle Down River*
* *World Town*
* *Paper Planes*
* *Come Around*
Otaku

district in Tokyo is a popular gathering site for the *otaku* subculture.]]
**Otaku** is a Japanese slang word, deriving from the honorific "お宅" (otaku), meaning "your house". It has come to mean someone who obsessively exerts time, money, and energy into a hobby. Otaku have a deep, complex knowledge around a particular subject or area of study It is oftentimes (esp. in the West) used to refer to avid consumers of anime and manga. The term can also be compared with Hikikomori*.*

In Japan, *otaku* is generally regarded as an offensive word, due to the negative cultural perception of withdrawal from society. However, the otaku philosophy of living has gained traction among Japanese youth and adolescents, likely as a reaction to the established culture of intense work and academic studies. Under 30’s have developed a neo-otaku identity with more positive associations of being a geek or nerd. In the West, the word usually describes an anime or manga "fanatic". It is not typically seen as derogatory.

## References
Lauscha

**Lauscha** is a German city in Thuringia. Next bigger cities are Sonneberg and Coburg. Its population is ca 4,000. Its mayor is Norbert Zitzmann.

Lauscha is in the middle of the Thuringian forest.

## References
## Other websites
Haddock

The **haddock** (*Melanogrammus aeglefinus*) is a saltwater ray-finned fish. It is from the family Gadidae, the true cods. 

The haddock is the only species in the monotypic genus *Melanogrammus*. It is found in the North Atlantic Ocean and the nearby seas. In these areas. the haddock is an important fish for fisheries. It is very important in northern Europe. In this area, it is sold fresh, frozen and smoked. Smoked varieties of the fish include the Finnan haddie and the Arbroath smokie.

## Related pages 
* List of fish common names

## References
Schalkau

**Schalkau** is a German town in the south of Thuringia. Schalkau is in the district of Sonneberg, in Thuringia, Germany. It is  west of Sonneberg, and  north of Coburg.

The population of Schalkau is about 3,500. The mayor of the city is Rheinhard Zehner.

The former municipality Bachfeld was merged into Schalkau on 31 December 2019.

## References
## Other websites
Kristallnacht

**Kristallnacht**, also known as the **Reichskristallnacht** or **Reichspogromnacht**, was a two-day pogrom against Jews in Nazi Germany, Austria and the Sudetenland, parts of the then-Czechoslovakia. It occurred on November 9‒10, 1938. The name *Kristallnacht* means "Night of Broken Glass" in English. Kristallnacht was an important event leading up to the Holocaust. Various Nazi organizations participated, including the *Schutzstaffel (SS)*, *Sturmabteilung (SA)*, and *Hitlerjugend* (Hitler Youth). Many ordinary Germans joined in, motivated by antisemitism.

The consequences to Jews were severe. At least a thousand were killed. Thousands more had their property looted or destroyed. Another 30,000 were deported to concentration camps after the pogrom. Fire departments and police stood by and watched.

## Name
The word "Kristallnacht" means "Night of Crystal" or "Night of Broken Glass" in English.

## Assassination of Ernst vom Rath
On November 7, 1938, Ernst Eduard vom Rath, a diplomat at the German Embassy in Paris, was shot by a 17-year-old Polish Jew named Herschel Grynszpan. Two days later, vom Rath died from his injuries, and Kristallnacht began. This included Grynszpan's family, which had been living in Germany since the early 1920s. When French police arrested him after the shooting, he said: Hitler was furious, but unlike on Kristallnacht, he did not allow the Nazis to take revenge against Jews. He wanted the upcoming 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin to be good propaganda for Nazi Germany. Scenes of violence, he worried, might cause other countries to boycott the Olympics. Many others were beaten or assaulted.

### Arrests and deportations
More than 30,000 Jewish men were arrested during Kristallnacht and imprisoned in Nazi concentration camps (primarily Dachau, Buchenwald, and Sachsenhausen). Many died there.

When Jews who had lost property received insurance payments, the Nazis seized them. It marked Nazi Germany's change from discriminating against Jews to systematically persecuting and deporting them. 

## Gallery

File:Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1988-078-07, Herschel Feibel Grynszpan.jpg|*Kristallnacht* started after Herschel Grynzpan (above) shot Ernst vom Rath
File:Ernst-vom-Rath.jpg|Grynzpan was angry that Ernst vom Rath (above) had let his family be deported
File:Destroyed Ohel Yaaqov Synagogue.jpeg|The Nazis destroyed many synagogues, like this one in Munich
File:0254 HM Monson Collection Vienna 1938 01 49 45 00.webm|Home movie from Vienna showing how Jewish stores were destroyed
File:Synagogue Eisenach burning- Nov 1938.jpg|A ruined synagogue in Germany
File:Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1982-174-27, Nürnberg, Ausweisung polnischer Juden.jpg|Polish Jews being forced to leave their homes in Germany, 1938

## Related pages
* Iași pogrom
* Lviv pogroms
* Jedwabne pogrom
* Szczuczyn pogrom

## References
990s

The **990s** was a decade that began on 1 January 990 and ended on 31 December 999. It is distinct from the decade known as the ***100th decade** which* began on January 1, 991 and ended on December 31, 1000.

## Events
* Sei Shonagon writes *The Pillow Book*, a compilation of her daily observations, thoughts and feelings as an attendant to Empress Sadako in Japan's Imperial Court.
Clear

**Clear** might mean:

* Transparency
* Clear (Scientology), how you are when you have understood your mind
* In financial terms, the process of making good on an obligation, such as transferring the funds from the writer of a cheque to the receivor of the cheque
* To remove from current memory previous numbers or results in an adding machine
* An acronym for Citizen Law Enforcement Analysis and Reporting, a software system used by the Chicago Police Department

## Related pages
* Clearing
Sertoli cell

A **Sertoli cell**  is a  cell found in the testes. Its main function is to help the developing sperm cells through the stages of spermatogenesis - the process of turning stem cells into sperm. It was also called the "mother cell." The cell also helps in the creation of stem cells.

## Name
Sertoli cells get their name from Enrico Sertoli, an Italian physiologist. He discovered them while studying medicine in the University of Pavia, Italy. He published a description of this cell in 1865.  As of 2006, two textbooks have been published that are almost entirely about the Sertoli cell.
1330

**1330** was a year in the **Julian calendar** starting on a Monday. It was the 30th year of the 14th century.
## Births
*June 15 &ndash; Edward, the Black Prince, first Prince of Wales and first son of King Edward III of England (died 1376)
*date unknown
**John Wycliffe, English scholar (died 1382)
**William V of Holland, Count of Holland, Dutch nobleman
## Deaths
*Roger de Mortimer, 1st Earl of March, English nobleman and politician (born 1287)
1300

**1300** (MCCC) was a leap year starting on Friday in the Julian calendar.  It wasn't a leap year in the Proleptic Gregorian calendar.

## Events 
* Wenceslas II of Bohemia becomes King of Poland.
Pogrom

burns during Kristallnacht, a Nazi pogrom against Jews (1938)]]
A **pogrom** is a form of riot that targets an ethnic or a religious group.

In a pogrom, rioters attack a group of people, usually Jews, because of that group's ethnicity or religion.  In a pogrom, the local authorities such as the police do not arrest the rioters and do not help the victims.  

Rioters destroy the homes, businesses, and places of worship of the target group. People of the target group are physically attacked and usually some are murdered. A second pogrom followed in the city in October 1905.

Kristallnacht was a 1938 pogrom that affected tens of thousands of Jews in Nazi Germany. It was a major event leading up to the Holocaust.

## Related pages
* Terrorism
* Iași pogrom
* Odessa massacre
* Jedwabne pogrom
* Antisemitism in Europe

## Footnotes
## References
UPN

**UPN** (which originally stood for the **United Paramount Network**) was a television network in over 200 places in the United States. UPN was owned by CBS Corporation, which also owns the larger CBS network. UPN shut down on September 15, 2006, and was replaced with The CW, a joint venture between CBS Corporation and the Warner Bros. division of Time Warner, which owned The WB before that network was also shut down in 2006 and merged with UPN to create The CW.

## Programming
## References
1363

## Events 
* Magnus IV, King of Sweden, is deposed by Albert of Mecklenburg.
* Bosnian nobles revolt against the occupying Serbs.
New

**New** or **NEW** can mean:
*Harry Stewart New (1858–1937), U.S. journalist and political figure.
*the IATA airport code for New Orleans Lakefront Airport
*the ISO 639 language code for the Nepal Bhasa language, also known as Newari.
**New* a box office hit Tamil movie released in 2004
***new** is a built-in operator in the C++ programming language.
1109

## Births 
* King Afonso I of Portugal (died 1185; birthdate disputed)

## Deaths 
* Anselm of Canterbury, Archbishop of Canterbury
PBS

**Public Broadcasting Service** (stylized as PBS) is an American public broadcaster and non-commercial, free-to-air television network based in Crystal City, Virginia. PBS is a publicly funded nonprofit organization and the most prominent provider of educational programs to public television stations in the United States.

## PBS stations
* KERA-TV Dallas, TX
* WFWA Fort Wayne, IN
* WGBH Boston, MA
* WMPB Baltimore, MD
* WNED Buffalo, NY
* WNET Newark, NJ
* WBGU-TV Bowling Green, OH
* WQED (TV) Pittsburgh, PA
* KCTS 9 Seattle WA
* WTTW Chicago, IL
* WETA-TV Washington, DC
* WBRA-TV Roanoke, VA
* WETP-TV Sneedville, Tennessee

## Student reporting labs 
PBS Student Reporting Labs (SRL) is an educational program operated by the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) in the United States. It aims to engage and connect high school students with public media stations to develop journalism skills. Its Student Advisory Team (SAT) includes notable students across the United States, including Mark Leschinsky and others.

## References
## Other websites
* Official site
* Anti-Semitism on PBS?
Tokyo Tower

**Tokyo Tower** is a tower in Shiba Park, Minato-ku, Tokyo, Japan.

Tokyo Tower is 333&nbsp;m (1093&nbsp;ft) tall. It the world's highest self-supporting steel tower and the tallest structure in Tokyo.

The highest number of visitors was about 5.2 million a year (1959), about 710 thousand a month (1959.8), about 40 thousand a day (1960.3.30).

The cost for lighting is about 24 thousand yen to 25 thousand yen a day. It seems to be two-tone of red and white, but actually the colors are international orange and white. The color cannot be changed to other colors because the color is decided by the law.

In 2009, the Tokyo Tower was  as one of the 100 Landscapes of Japan which best show  Japan and its culture in the Heisei period.

## References
1383

## Events 
* January 22 – Marriage of King Richard II of England and Anne of Bohemia.
* May 17 – King John I of Castile and Leon marries Beatrice of Portugal
* July 7 – Death of the childless James of Baux, ruler of Taranto and Achaea and titular Latin Emperor.
** Charles III of Naples becomes ruler of Achaea (now southern Greece).
** Otto, the widower of Joan I of Naples, becomes ruler of Taranto (now eastern Italy).
** Duke Louis I of Anjou inherits the claim to the Latin Empire (now western Turkey) but never uses the title of Emperor.
* October 22 – King Fernando I of Portugal dies and is succeeded by his daughter, Beatrice of Portugal. A period of civil war and anarchy, known as the 1383-1385 Crisis, begins in Portugal due to Beatrice being married to the King John I of Castile and Leon.
* The Teutonic Knights recommence war against pagan Lithuania.
* Rao Chanda succeeds Rao Biram Dev as Rathore ruler of Marwar (now in western India).
* Löwenbräu beer is first brewed.
* Wat Phrathat Doi Suthep temple is built in present-day Thailand by King Kuena of Lanna.
* Construction of the Bastille is completed in Paris.

## Births 
* Amadeus VIII of Savoy (died 1451)
* Yolande of Aragon, regent of Anjou (died 1443)
* Pope Eugene IV (died 1447)
* Anne of Gloucester, English noblewoman (died 1438)

## Deaths 
* March 1 – Amadeus VI of Savoy (born 1334)
* June 5 – Dmitry Konstantinovich, Russian prince (b. 1324)
* June 8 – Thomas de Ros, 5th Baron de Ros, English Crusader (born 1338)
* June 15 – John VI Cantacuzenus, former Byzantine Emperor
* October 22 – King Fernando I of Portugal (born 1345)
Vuelta Ciclista a España

The '*** (also ****, or simply **Vuelta*') is a long-distance bicycle race. The first race was in 1935. The Tour de France and Giro d'Italia were both very successful, and both run by newspaper companies. A newspaper called '''' in Spain decided to start a similar race in Spain. It is now one of the three "Grand Tours" of Europe and, after the  and the , is the third most important road cycling stage race in the world.

The leader of the race wears the red jersey. This is the same as the yellow jersey in the Tour de France. The leader of the combination classification wears a white jersey. The leader of the mountain climbers' competition wears a white jersey with blue polka-dots. The leader of the sprinters' competition wears a green jersey.

The race was run in the spring until 1995. Since 1995 it has been run in September.

## Winners of the Vuelta a España
Seminiferous tubule

**Seminiferous tubules** are long thread-like tubes found in each of the testicles where sperm is produced. The inner lining of the tubule contains Sertoli cells.

## Other websites 
* Image 
* Diagram
Television network

in Tokyo, Japan.]]
A **television network** is a network to provide television programming to many television stations. It is almost always a large company. Until the mid-1980s, television programming in most countries of the world was mainly done by a small number of broadcast networks. Many early television networks (for example, the RPN, NHK General TV, Canal Once, CBS, ABC, Channel 4, PTV, CBC, BBC and PBS) began as radio networks.

A television network may broadcast many **television channels**. For example, the BBC is a television network. It broadcasts its programs on many different channels, including BBC One, BBC Two, BBC Parliament, BBC News, BBC World News, CBeebies, BBC Four and CBBC. Each channel will often have a group of programs that are similar in some way. CBBC broadcasts children's programs, for example. The individual companies that create the content are **television studios**. A studio is often an **affiliate** of a network. For example, WAVY is a station in Hampton Roads, Virginia. It is an affiliate of the NBC network. WAVY is also the name of the channel that the studio creates and broadcasts locally on channel 10. It is called WAVY10.
Seminal vesicles

The **seminal vesicles** are a pair of "tube-like" glands. They are found behind the bladder of males. They make about 70% of the content of semen (also called seminal fluid).

## Anatomy 
Both vesicles are about 5 cm in length, but they are curled up. Each gland makes a ball shape on the wall of each vas deferens. There is a tube linking the seminal glands which opens into the vas deferens and prostate gland.

From inside to out, the layers making the vesicles are:
* Mucosa - folded to increase surface area
* Muscle
* Connective tissue

## Use 
The seminal vesicles make most of semen, but during ejaculation, most of the ejaculate has sperm rather than semen in it. The use of seminal fluid is not known, since sperm do not move or survive well in semen. Some think that it acts as a fluid to stop sperm from another male impregnating the female so that the children of only one male can survive.

Seminal fluid has proteins, enzymes, fructose, mucus, vitamin C and flavins. The fructose gives sperm energy and 'food'.

## Gallery 

 Image:Illu repdt male.jpg|Male reproductive system
 Image:Gray1136.png|Male organs seen from right side
 Image:Gray1152.png|Bladder with the seminal vesicles
 Image:Gray1156.png|Vertical section of bladder, penis, and urethra

## Other websites 
*  - "The Male Pelvis: The Urinary Bladder"
*  - "The Male Pelvis: Structures Located Posterior to the Urinary Bladder"
1141

## Births 
* Malcolm IV, King of Scotland (d. 1165)
* Nizami Ganjavi, Persian poet (d. 1209) (Maybe 1140 or 1142)

## Deaths 
* February 11 &#x2013; Hugh of Saint Victor, Saxon philosopher, theologian and mystic (b. c. 1078)
* February 13 &#x2013; Béla II, King of Hungary and Croatia (b. c. 1109)
* April 12 or April 13 &#x2013; Engelbert, Duke of Carinthia
* May &#x2013; Aubrey de Vere II, Lord Great Chamberlain of England (b. 1062)
* June 10 &#x2013; Richenza of Northeim, German empress (b. c. 1087/89)
* October 18 &#x2013; Leopold, Duke of Bavaria (b. c. 1108)
* Sheikh Ahmad-e Jami, Persian Sufi writer, mystic and poet (b. 1048)
* Judah Halevi, Sephardi Jewish philosopher and poet (b. c. 1075)
* Alberich of Reims, Archbishop of Bourges (b. 1085)

## References
1042

## Events 
* Edward the Confessor becomes King of England.

## Births 
* Pope Urban II (died 1099)

## Deaths 
* Michael V, Byzantine Emperor (b. 1015)
Second person

**Second person** can refer to the following: 

*A grammatical person, *you*, *your*, and *yours* in the English language
*Second-person narrative, a perspective in storytelling
*God the Son, the Second Person of the Christian Trinity

## Related
*First person (disambiguation)
*Third person (disambiguation)
390s

The **390s** was a decade which ran from January 1, 390 to December 31, 399.
## Events 
* Gildonic revolt in Africa Province (397–398)
Charge

**Charge** could mean:
* Electric charge, the charge in electricity
* to take charge, or being in charge means to take or have authority and responsibility for decisions
* In firearms, to charge a weapon is to load it  and ready it for firing
* Charge (engine), the air or fuel/air mixture being fed into the intake in an internal combustion engine. Charge air usually refers to air that has not had fuel mixed with it.
* During the European Middle Ages, a charge (youth) often meant an underage person placed under the supervision of a nobleman
* Charge (warfare), a manoeuvre in battle where soldiers rush towards their enemy to engage in close combat
* In context of wartime operations, to charge with certain rights, such as guaranteeing persons held in custody are allowed those rights
* In money, a charge is what someone has to pay, such as a charge for using an automatic teller machine, entering a museum, being late with a payment, etc.
* In basketball, a charge is an foul, called when an offensive player with the ball makes illegal contact with a defensive player who has legally established his position
*CHARGE syndrome, birth defects in children
*Charge card, similar to a credit card
* A pen spinning trick where the pen makes conic rotations between two fingers

In **law**:
*A criminal charge is an indictment before a court by a prosecuting authority
*A jury charge is are jury instructions given by a judge to a jury concerning the law applicable to the case under consideration
*An equitable charge is a security interest similar in effect to a mortgage
60s

:*Note: Sometimes the **60s** is used as shorthand for the 1960s, the 1860s, or other such decades in various centuries*

## Events and trends 
*Rebellion in Roman Britain led by Boudica (60 or 61)
*Great fire of Rome, 64
*Great Jewish Revolt against Roman occupation begins (66–73)
*The suicide of Roman Emperor Nero leaves the throne vacant. Several candidates for the throne emerge resulting in a year of civil war known as the Year of the four emperors (68–69).
*Batavian rebellion in the Roman province of Germania Inferior (69–70).
*The Gospels of Mark, Matthew and Luke are being written.

## Significant people 
*Nero, Roman Emperor (54–68).
*Servius Sulpicius Galba, Roman Emperor (68–69).
*Marcus Salvius Otho, Roman Emperor (69)
*Aulus Vitellius, Roman Emperor (69)
* Titus Flavius Vespasianus, Roman Emperor (Vespasian, 69–79).
*Paul of Tarsus, Christian evangelist
*Boudicca, rebellious British queen
*Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, Roman general
*Julius Civilis, rebellious Batavian prince
Population pyramid

for 2005 shows a young and rapidly growing population.]]
 for 2005 shows an older population that won't grow so much.]]
A **population pyramid** is a graph. It has two back-to-back bars. These bars show the population in groups of ages, with women on one side and men on the other side.

The pyramids show the age distribution of the place, which can help in understanding and predicting the development of a country.

There are three types of population pyramids:
*Stationary pyramid shows a constant population, with equal birth rate and death rate
*Expansive pyramid shows a growing population
*Constrictive pyramid shows a shrinking population

In this type of graph, a wide base means a very high birth rate and a narrow base means a low birth rate.
To

**To** may mean:

* .to, the country code top-level domain for Tonga
* "Metropolis" in Japan (都); Tokyo is a metropolis
* "Province" in Korea (도; 道: *to* is the McCune–Reischauer spelling of *do*); see Provinces of Korea
* Romanisation of the Japanese kana と and ト.
* Terrell Owens, a professional football player in the NFL
And

**And** or **AND** may be any of the following:
* Logical conjunction, a two-place logical operation used in logic and mathematics
* Bitwise AND, a binary operator used in computer programming
* AND gate, a digital logic gate used in electronics
* The 3-letter and NATO country code for Andorra

## Other 
* The standard abbreviation for the constellation Andromeda
Glans penis

The **glans penis** (or just *glans*) is the sensitive tip of the penis. It is also called the "head" of the penis. 

Slang names include "helmet" and "bell end". Usually, the glans is covered by the foreskin, except in men who have been circumcised.

## Diseases 
The glans can become irritated or infected which occurs in a small number of males. It is more common in males who have poor hygene or are uncircumcised.

The opening of the urethra is at the tip of the glans. In children who have been circumcised and wear diapers, the opening of the penis has no protection. This can cause the urethra to get very  in a small amount of boys which can need surgery to reopen later.

The skin on the glans of an uncircumcised penis is very sensitive, and washing it too much with soap can cause dermatitis.

Circumcised men have a dry and wider glans that is leathery to the touch. There are special Moisturizer that a circumcised man can use on his glans to provide softer.

## Anatomy 
The glans penis is a cap around the corpus spongiosum. It is attached to the Corpus cavernosum penis and at the tip of the glans is the urethra opening. The foreskin helps keeps the glans moist. In males who have been circumcised, the glans is dry.

## Related pages
* Corpus cavernosum
* Foreskin
* Penis
* Clitoris
* Frenulum
* Circumcision

## Additional images

File:Corona of glans penis comparison.png|Uncircumcised and circumcised glans
File:Flared glans penis comparison.png|Flaring the glans
File:Pearly penile papules before and after treatment.jpg|Before and after treatment for pearly penile papules
File:Penis head.jpg|Uncircumcised penis head out from the foreskin
File:Skin bridge glans.jpg|Skin bridge glans

## References 
## Other websites 
*  - "The Male Perineum and the Penis: The Corpus Spongiosum and Corpora Cavernosa"
*  - "The Male Pelvis: The Urethra"
490s

The ***490s*** was the decade that began on January 1, 490. and ended on December 31, 499. It is distinct from the decade known as the ***50th*** which began on January 1, 491 and ended on December 31, 500.

## Events 
*Possible timing of King Arthur's victory over the Saxons.
*493 – Death of Saint Patrick.
*494 – Pope Gelasius I delineates the relationship between church and state.
*494 – An earthquake devastates Latakia.
*494 – Under Emperor Xiaowen the capital of Northern Wei, a state in China capital is moved from Datong to Luoyang, a city long acknowledged as a major center in Chinese history.

## Births 
* 495 - Amalasuntha

## Deaths 
* 496 – Pope Gelasius I
Soxhlet extractor

path **4:** Thimble **5:** Solid **6:** Siphon top **7:** Siphon exit **8:** Expansion adapter **9:** Condenser **10:** Cooling water in **11:** Cooling water out]]

A **Soxhlet extractor** is a kind of laboratory equipment. It is made of glass. Franz von Soxhlet invented it in 1879.  It has a flask, an extraction chamber, and a condenser. It can be used for solid-liquid extractions. 

In this discontinuous extraction process, the extraction solvent inside the boiling flask is evaporated and re-condensed in the distillation column above. It then falls down onto the solid material requiring extraction. The chamber containing the solid material is connected to the boiling flask below by a syphoning mechanism seen in the Pythagorean cup, which allows the chamber to fill to a point, at which it will empty its contents and start to fill again and the extracted compounds will accumulate in the boiling flask below.

## Uses 
Chemists use it to remove a material from a solid. It is useful when removing materials that do not dissolve well in any solvent. Chemists use a solvent such as ether or alcohol in the extractor. The Soxhlet extractor applies the solvent repeatedly to the solid until enough of the material dissolves.

## Related pages
* Solubility
Italia (disambiguation)

**Italia** may mean
*Italy, the modern country
*Italia (Roman province), the Roman province on the Italian peninsula
Base

**Base** can mean: 
*as a noun:
**In **mathematics**:
***Base (mathematics), or *radix*, the number of digits in a numeral system, e.g. *base 10*
***Base (geometry), the bottom of a triangle.
**In **sport**:
***Base (baseball), the 3 canvas bags and home plate
**In **architecture**:
***The bottom of a building or other structure
***A part of some types of column, below the shaft
***A pedestal, supporting a statue or other item
**A defined area that contains shelter, equipment, and resources:
***a place which helps people live in a hostile environment, such as a Moon base or a base in Antarctica
***a Military base, which provides shelter, military equipment and personnel
**Other uses:
***In a transistor, the base is the controlling connection to the junction.
***Islamic Extremist group Al-Qaeda is literally translated into English as 'The Base.'
***Base (chemistry), the "opposite" of acid, sometimes known as an alkali

*as a verb
**Made from the ideas of... Developed from... First known as...
**In **sport**:
***BASE jumping - jumping with a parachute from a fixed place like the top of a building or a bridge
Corpus cavernosum penis

A **corpus cavernosum penis** (singular) (from Latin, characterised by "cavities/ hollows" of the penis, : **corpora cavernosa**) is one of two sponge-like sections of tissue in the male penis. They contain most of the blood during an erection in the penis of several animals during an erection. The term literally means "cave-like body"

It is homologous to the corpus cavernosum clitoridis in the female.

## Process 
The corpus cavernosum are placed along the length of the penis. They are found along the penis shaft, from the pubic bones to the head of the penis. The spongy tissue fills with blood. The blood comes from arteries down the length of the penis. The blood fills the corpora cavernosa. This causes it to swell. When swollen, it holds 90% of the blood involved in an erection. This increases both the length and circumference of the penis.

Blood can leave only through a system of veins around the outside wall of the corpus cavernosum. The expanding tissue constricts these veins. This preventing blood from leaving. The penis becomes rigid as a result.

## Medical procedures 
To reverse an erection that has gone on too long (such as when using viagra, the corpus cavernosum can be used to lower the penis by drawing blood out from it. This is done with a needle. If it fails to lower the penis, then sterile saline water is sometimes injected into the penis on one side with a needle on the other, which takes the water back out.

## References
## Other websites
*  - "The Male Perineum and the Penis: Penis"
Frenulum

]]
A **frenulum**  or **frenum**  is a small fold of tissue that prevents an organ in the body from moving too far.

## Insect anatomy 
*Frenulum* as a term in zoology is dealt with under wing coupling.
The word **frenulum** also refers to a bristle present at the root of the hindwing of most moths which engages with a small hook or tuft on the forewing (the retinaculum) to join the wings together.

## Human anatomy 
There are several frenula in the body, including several in the mouth, some in the digestive tract, and some connected to the external genitalia. 

### Oral tissue 
Frenula of the mouth are found under the tongue and inside the upper and lower lip. These can easily be torn by blows to the face or mouth. A torn frenulum is sometimes a warning sign of physical abuse.

### Vulvar tissue 
In the female, genital frenula can be found in the clitoris and where the labia minora meet at the back.

### Penile tissue 
The word frenulum on its own is often used for the *frenulum preputii penis*. This is an elastic band of tissue under the glans penis that connects to the prepuce, or foreskin to the vernal mucosa. It helps the prepuce return to cover the glans. It may be removed during circumcision.

It is possible for the frenulum of the penis to tear during sexual activity. This does not cause a great deal of pain  but can cause an alarming amount of blood loss. This is not a medical emergency. The frenulum will heal by itself after the bleeding has stopped.

The name is latin: *frēnulum*, "little bridle", the diminutive of *frēnum*

## Related pages
* Circumcision
* Foreskin
* Wing coupling

## References
Bulbourethral glands

A **bulbourethral gland** (or '''Cowper's gland''') is one of two small glands found in the reproductive system of human males. They are like Bartholin's glands.

## Anatomy 
Bulbourethral glands are found near the urethra at the base of the penis, between the two layers of the fascia. The bulbourethral glands are about the size of a pea. They appear to slowly get smaller as a person gets older. 

They are made of several lobules held together by a fibres.

## Uses 
During sexual arousal each gland makes a clear liquid known as pre-ejaculate (pre-cum). This fluid helps to lubricate the urethra for sperm to pass through. It also helps clean out any urine or dirt. Despite the uses it has, it is a neglected gland that often goes overlooked.

## Gallery

 Image:Gray1156.png|Section of bladder, penis, and urethra.

## References
Quarry

A **quarry** is a type of open pit mine that is used to get rocks and minerals from the ground. Quarries are often used to cut stone from the ground in large pieces or blocks. These are called dimension stones. They are used for building things. Some quarries fill with water to make small lakes when they are no longer being used for mining.

The largest granite quarry in the world is run by Rock of Ages Corporation in Vermont, USA..

Naxos Marble.JPG|A quarry for marble, in Greece.
Stoneworkers in the Central African Republic 1.jpg|Stoneworkers in the Central African Republic.
0 Carrières du Hainaut à Soignies (3).JPG|Stone quarry in Belgium.

## Related pages
* Mineral
* Mining
* Stone

## References
Torchwood

***Torchwood*** is a British science fiction television programme. It is about a secret organisation protecting the Earth from aliens. It has been shown on TV channels in Britain including BBC One, BBC Two, and BBC Three. It can be viewed on Netflix and is sometimes shown on American TV channels including Starz . The show is a spin off of the British television series *Doctor Who*. It follows the Cardiff, Wales section of a secret group called the Torchwood Institute. The Torchwood Institute examines things that aliens cause to happen on Earth. They also  alien  to use.

The series is set in Cardiff, Glamorgan, Wales. Series 1 takes place after *Doctor Who* Series 2. Series 2 takes place in between Doctor Who Series 3 and Series 4. Because the shows are science fiction and some characters live forever, it is hard to track down the exact times in which *Doctor Who* and *Torchwood* overlap.

*Torchwood* stars John Barrowman as Captain Jack Harkness, the leader of the Cardiff Torchwood Institute. Barrowman also played Harkness in Series 1, Series 3 and Series 4 of the current *Doctor Who* (2005). Eve Myles plays Gwen Cooper, a policewoman who joins the group. Gareth David-Lloyd stars as Ianto Jones, a person who helps out and is a love interest of Jack. Jack Harkness, Ianto Jones, and Gwen Cooper are the central cast members. Also, Naoko Mori plays scientist Toshiko Sato. Burn Gorman plays Doctor Owen Harper.

Because the show is set in and around Cardiff, many of the local attractions like the Millennium Centre and Cardiff Bay are shown in the series. Country settings around Glamorgan are also used many times in the series.

The programme is aimed at adults and older teenagers.

The third series is a five episode long story named *Children of Earth*. *Children of Earth *has returning cast members John Barrowman as Captain Jack Harkness, Eve Myles as Gwen Cooper, and Gareth David-Lloyd as Ianto Jones.

The fourth series is a ten episode story named *Miracle Day. Miracle Day* has returning cast members John Barrowman as Captain Jack Harkness and Eve Myles as Gwen Cooper.

## List of episodes 
### Series 1 episodes (2006-2007) 
### Series 2 episodes (2008) 
### Children Of Earth episodes (2009) 
### Miracle Day Episodes (2011) 
## References
## Other websites 
* BBC - Torchwood
* BBC - Torchwood on Twitter
* BBC - Torchwood on Facebook
* BBC - Torchwood on YouTube
Rugby

**Rugby** could mean:

The sport of rugby football, which may be played in many different forms or ways:
*Rugby union - (often referred to as **Rugby** or **Union**)
*Rugby sevens - (often referred to as **Sevens**)
*Rugby League football - (often referred to as **League**)
*Touch rugby - (often referred to as **Touch**)
*Wheelchair rugby
**Places**:
*Rugby, Warwickshire, England, United Kingdom
**Rugby (borough)
**Rugby and Kenilworth  constituency
**Rugby constituency - Former constituency
*Rugby, New South Wales, a small town in Australia
*Rugby, Cape Town, South Africa
*Rugby, North Dakota, United States
*Rugby, Tennessee, United States
*Rugby, Brooklyn, United States
*Rugby Park, Scotland (stadium of Kilmarnock F.C.)
*Rugby Park Stadium, rugby stadium in New Zealand

**Other meanings**:
*Rugby School
*Rugby (automobile)
*Rugby railway station
*Rugby Ralph Lauren, a brand from Ralph Lauren
Boson

A **boson** is a particle which carries a force. It has a whole number spin (*spin* is a property of subatomic particles).  Bosons carry energy. 

A photon is an example of a boson as it has a spin of 1 and carries electromagnetism. Mesons are also bosons as they carry nuclear force.

Bosons are different from fermions, which are particles that make up matter, because bosons obey Bose-Einstein statistics. (This means that you can put two of them in the same place at the same time; the Pauli exclusion principle does not apply.) 

Gauge bosons carry fundamental forces. There are three known gauge bosons, which are elementary particles.  For example, the photon carries the electromagnetic force. The three types of gauge bosons are: photons for electromagnetism, gluons (eight kinds) for strong force, and W and Z bosons (three kinds) for weak force. Other theoretical gauge bosons are predicted, such as gravitons for gravity. The Higgs boson is another fundamental particle of a type called a scalar boson.

Paul Dirac named this class of particles "bosons" in honor of a famous Indian scientist called Satyendra Nath Bose.

The bosons include the photon, the gluon, the Z boson, W boson and the Higgs boson. The Higgs boson also might be classified by itself. Since none of them have a charge, the antimatter version of them will also not have any charge.
Fermion

A **fermion** is a category of elementary particles. They are very small and very light. Fermions can be thought of as the building blocks of matter because atoms are made up of fermions. Paul Dirac named them fermions in honor of the famous scientist Enrico Fermi.

An electron (a charged particle) is a fermion, but a photon (the particle of electromagnetic radiation) is not.  The spin numbers of fermions are 1/2, 3/2, 5/2, etc. Because their spin is not a whole number, they follow the Pauli exclusion principle: no two fermions can share a quantum state (which includes position in space), if they have the same quantum numbers, such as spin. In other words, fermions can collide with each other. This behavior is not in the other class of elementary particles called bosons: you can have many bosons, for example photons, in the same place at the same time. The motion of fermions follows the Fermi-Dirac statistics.

Most well known fermions have spin of 1/2. An example of a type of fermion with a spin of 1/2 is the electron. The electron belongs to a group of fermions called leptons.

Fundamental fermions (fermions that are not made up of anything else) are either quarks or leptons. There are 6 different types of quarks (called "flavours") and 6 different types of leptons. These are their names:
* Quarks — up, down, charm, strange, top, bottom
* Leptons — electron, muon, tau, electron neutrino, muon neutrino, tau neutrino

Each of these fermions also has an anti-particle associated with it, so there are a total of 24 different fundamental fermions. The anti-particle is similar to the original particle, but with opposite electrical charge. The "up", "charm", and "top" quarks have electrical charge of +2/3. Their anti-particles have charge -2/3 (anti-up, anti-charm, anti-top). The other three quarks (down, strange and bottom) have charge -1/3, and their anti-particles have charge +1/3. The electron, muon, and tau leptons all have charge of -1, and their anti-particles (anti-electron or "positron", anti-muon, anti-tau) have charge +1. All the neutrinos and anti-neutrinos have charge 0. The main difference between quarks or leptons with the same charge is their mass.

The supersymmetric counterpart of any fermion is called a "sfermion."