open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Pope Evaristus

**Pope Evaristus** is the fifth Pope of the Catholic Church, (the official title is Bishop of Rome).  There is very little information about him.  He served in Christianity during the years 97-105 C.E.

Author Charles A. Coulombe states that he was a Jew and came from a Jewish family from Antioch, Turkey.

Pope Evaristus is noted for further developing the parishes of the Catholic Church, a work started by Pope Anacletus.  He is also credited with ordering that all Churches be consecrated (blessed) by special ceremonies.  He created a method of choosing future bishops by the creation of a group which is now known as the College of Cardinals.

## References
Hans Georg Dehmelt

**Hans Georg Dehmelt** (9 September 1922 &ndash; 7 March 2017) was a German-born American physicist. He was awarded Nobel Prize in Physics in 1989, for co-developing the ion trap technique with Wolfgang Paul. They shared one-half of the prize (the other half of the Prize in that year was awarded to Norman Foster Ramsey). Their technique was used for high precision measurement of the electron g-factor.

Dehmelt died on 7 March 2017 in the Seattle, Washington from natural causes, aged 94.

## References
## Other websites
*Autobiography
*Nobel prize press release
*University of Washington home page
Carmen Salinas

**Carmen Salinas Lozano** (October 5, 1939 – December 9, 2021) was a Mexican actress, impressionist, comedian, politician and theatre entrepreneur. She was thought to be one of the first actress' in Mexico. She has appeared in over 100 movies.

She was known for her roles in *María Mercedes*, *Hombre en llamas*, *La rose de Guadalupe*, *La familia P. Luche*, *Mujeres Asesinas 2*, and in *Parodiando*. Salinas is known for her movie role in *Abrázame muy fuerte*.

Salinas was born on October 5, 1939 in Torreón, Coahuila, Mexico.

## Political and legislative career 
In an interview conducted with *El Universal* in March 2015, Salinas declared that she "had been a *priísta* ever since [she] had the use of reason".

In 2015, the PRI placed Salinas on its proportional representation list for election from the fourth electoral region, winning her a seat in the Chamber of Deputies for the LXIII Legislature of the Mexican Congress; Salinas served on the Gender Equality, Radio and Television, and Health Commissions. Salinas, who only completed primary school, had the lowest educational level of all the deputies in the legislature.

## Death
Salinas had a cerebral hemorrhage caused by hypertension on November 11, 2021 in Mexico City and was hospitalized while in a coma. She died a month later on December 9, 2021 at the age of 82.

## Awards and nominations
## References 
## Other websites
* 
* Biografía de Carmen Salinas
Footscray

**Footscray** is a suburb of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. It is 5&nbsp;kilometres from Melbourne's centre. About 13,000 people live in Footscray.

Footscray is built largely on the traditional lands of the Kulin nation. Footscray has been home to the Aboriginal Woiwurrung and Boonwurrung tribes of the Kulin nation for over 40,000 years.

The suburbs around Footscray are Seddon, West Footscray, Braybrook, Flemington, Maidstone,Yarraville, Kingsville and West Melbourne.

Footscray is famous as a multicultural meeting point. Footscray's 1300 people come from 135 different countries. It is at the centre of cultural life in Melbourne's west and the centre for new arrivals to Melbourne's west since the 1950s. The shopping areas around Footscray Station represent the diversity of migration to Australia. There are many Vietnamese, Ethiopian, Filipino, Indian, Somali, Afghani, Chinese, Burmese, South Sudanese restaurants and businesses as well as many others. Try T. Cavallaro & Sons which have been making Melbourne's best cannoli in Footscray for more than 50 years.

Footscray is home to two fresh food markets. There is the Footscray Market that is opposite the Footscray Train
Station. This market is open from Tuesdays to Saturdays. Footscray Market has
many butchers and fishmongers as well as some fresh fruit and vegetables. Go to
Footscray Market near closing time for bargains! There is also the Little
Saigon Market on Byron Street which is open everyday. Little Saigon is a wet
market where you can get fruits and vegetables at the cheapest prices in
Melbourne. Its noisy, busy and you can always try everything before you buy.

## References 
## Other websites 
* Footscray Historical Society
HMS Beagle

'*HMS *Beagle'''* was a *Cherokee*-class ship of the Royal Navy. It was launched on 11 May 1820 from the Woolwich Dockyard on the River Thames. It is best known for a voyage that carried Charles Darwin.

## First voyage (1826–1830)
On 22 May 1826, *Beagle'' left to survey bodies of water in Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego. One of the bodies of water found was named the Beagle Channel after the ship. During the voyage, Captain Pringle Stokes became depressed and shot himself. He died ten days later. Robert FitzRoy became the new captain. Beagle returned to England on 14 October 1830.

## Second voyage (1831–1836)
, painted by Conrad Martens who became ship's artist in 1833.]]

On 27 December 1831, the *Beagle* began her second voyage.

Captain FitzRoy did not want to have the stress and loneliness that led to the suicide of the first captain. He looked for someone to go on the voyage to keep him company. The person found was Charles Darwin.

On this voyage, the crew did surveys in South America. *Beagle* returned to Falmouth, Cornwall, England on 2 October 1836.

Darwin kept a diary of the things he saw and did on this voyage. He rewrote it as the book called *Journal and Remarks*. The book was published in 1839 as the third volume of the official account of the expedition. It was very popular. It was reprinted many times with different titles. It eventually became known as *The Voyage of the Beagle*.

## Third voyage (1837–1843)
, shown here in an 1841 watercolour by Owen Stanley.]]
In 1837, *Beagle* went to survey the coast of Australia. Commander John Clements Wickham was in charge. They started with the western coast between the Swan River (modern Perth, Australia) and the Fitzroy River. They then surveyed both shores of the Bass Strait. In May 1839 they sailed north to survey the shores of the Arafura Sea opposite Timor. This voyage ended in 1843.

Many places around the coast were named on this voyage. Many of the places were named for important people or members of the crew. Wickham named Port Darwin in honour of Charles Darwin. A settlement there became the town of Palmerston in 1869, and was renamed Darwin in 1911.

During this survey, the Beagle Gulf was named after the ship.

## References
### Sources and references
* 
*
Saraiki language

**Saraiki** (sometimes spelled **Siraiki)**   Indo-Aryan language spoken in southern region of the Pakistani province of Punjab by the ethnic Saraiki people.  It is closely related to Sindhi and Punjabi, It belongs to the Western Punjabi group known as Lahnda. Saraiki is native to southern Punjab, while it is also spoken in parts of Balochistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in Pakistan; as well as by partition migrants and their descendants in India although it is dying out among partition migrants within India as it becomes replaced by the more mainstream Hindi.

It is generally considered a distinct language, but it is sometimes classified as a variety of Punjabi or Sindhi.

## Etymology 
The word Saraiki is probably derived from the Sindhi word Siraiki for its own dialect, which means dialect of Sero/Siro (Sauvīra) region in ancient Sindh. today the name of Siraiki dialect of Sindhi is changed to Siroli/Sireli to not create confusion.
## National day of  Saraiki 
National day of Saraiki culture is celebrated on November 22.

## References
Leo Esaki

**Reona Esaki** (江崎 玲於奈 *Esaki Reona*, born March 12, 1925), also known as **Leo Esaki**, is a Japanese physicist. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1973 with Ivar Giaever and Brian David Josephson. He won the prize for his discovery of the phenomenon of electron tunneling. 

He is known for his invention of the Esaki diode, which exploited that phenomenon. This research was done when he was with Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo (now known as Sony). He has also contributed in being a pioneer of the semiconductor superlattice while he was with IBM.

Esaki was born on March 12, 1925 in Higashiōsaka, Japan. He studied at the University of Tokyo.

## References
## Other websites
* Leo Esaki – Biography.  Retrieved Aug. 5, 2003 from http://www.nobel.se/physics/laureates/1973/esaki-bio.html 
* IBM record
* IEEE History Center – Leo Esaki. Retrieved Jul. 19, 2011 from http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/Leo_Esaki
* Sony History – The Esaki Diode.  Retrieved Aug. 5, 2003 from http://www.sony.net/Fun/SH/1-7/h5.html 
* Freeview video 'An Interview with Leo Esaki' by the Vega Science Trust
Persian Empire

The **Iranian/Caspian/Persian Empire** (شَاهِنْشَاهَى اىرَانْ,  Šâhanšâhi-ye Irân), refers to the dynastic states of Iranian origin that ruled Iran from the Median Medes to the Mazandarani Pahlavi period. "Persia" was the term used by outsiders; its people called the country as "Iran", and about 95% of them were not Persians. The ancient Greeks called all Iranians "Persians" because Pars was the empire's most important region, and other people followed the Greeks.

## Extent 
* Medes* (c. 727 BC–c. 549 BC) – Of Median origin.
* Achaemenid Empire (550 BC–330 BC) – Of Persian origin.
* Parthian Empire (247 BC–224 AD) – Of Parthian origin.
* Sasanian Empire (224–651) – Of Persian origin.
* Tahirids* (821–873) – The dynasty was of Persian origin, but they are culturally Arabized and nominally part of Abbasids.
* Saffarids (861–1003) – Of Persian origin.
* Samanids* (819–999) – Of Iranian origin.
* Buyids (934–1062) – Of Daylamite origin. 
* Safavids* (1501–1722/1736) – The dynasty was partly or wholly of Kurdish origin.
* Zands (1751–1794) – The dynasty was established by Karim Khan Zand, member of the Zand tribe, a branch of Lurs.
* Pahlavis (1925–1979) – Reza Shah, the founder of the dynasty, was of Mazanderani and Georgian descent.

## References 
## Sources 
*  
*  
*  
*  
*  
*  
*  
*  
*  
*  
*  
* 
*  
*  
* 
*
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
*
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
*

## Notes
Companion planting

s and onions next to each other is an example of companion planting.]]

In gardening and farming, **companion planting** is the  of different crops next to each other. It is done to help the crops grow and to use the space available as much as possible.

Depending on the crops chosen, companion planting may encourage processes that help the plants, such as pollination. Some companion plants may help stop pests, such as caterpillars or fungi, from damaging the crop. Some of these, called *trap crops* attract pests away from the crop. Other plants may serve as  for the crops.

Many of the basic principles of companion planting were used thousands of years ago in Mesoamerica. From about 8,000 years ago, Native American peoples grew squash, maize and common beans together. The stalk of the corn were there for the beans to climb, and the beans fixed nitrogen, helping the maize.

## Related pages 
* Intercropping
* Square foot gardening

## References
Aretino Records

**Aretino** was an American record label. It was in business from about 1907 to 1914. Aretino was started by Arthur J. O’Neill. He started many record and phonograph businesses in the Chicago area. O’Neill named this company in honor of Guido Aretino, an 11th-century Italian monk.

Aretino is an odd type of record because the hole in the center is very large compared to the normal size.  It is the largest ever for a record that was made for people to use in their houses. Like many of O'Neill's other companies, Aretino was run as a premium scheme. A phonograph (record player) was offered for not much money. However, this record player could only play Aretino records because it came with a 3-inch spindle. The music was recorded on them by Leeds & Catlin. and Zonophone.  Of all Aretino records, these are the most common.  Most records from this time period have a diameter of 10&nbsp;inches.  Columbia also made a group of records for Aretino that are 12&nbsp;inches in diameter.  These are very hard to find.  They have catalog numbers with the letter "A" at the beginning. Aretino stopped making anything after the year 1914.
 
The music on the Aretino label was like most music from those years.  Some artists on Aretino are Henry Burr, William F. Denny, Byron G. Harlan, Ada Jones, Billy Murray, Vess Ossman, Steve Porter, Cal Stewart, and Bert Williams.

## References
Nuclease

A **nuclease** is an enzyme which cuts the bonds between the nucleotide subunits of nucleic acids, which are the building blocks of DNA and RNA. These enzymes act like molecular scissors, cutting the phosphodiester bonds that hold nucleotides together in these genetic molecules. Nucleases are essential in various cellular processes, including DNA repair, replication, and gene regulation. Well known nucleases are deoxyribonuclease and ribonuclease.

## Kinds of nuclease 
Nucleases may have the prefix "endo" or "exo" added to the name.  **Endonucleases** break nucleic acid chains in a specific place between two nucleosome units. **Exonucleases** remove nucleotides from the ends of DNA molecules.

A restriction endonuclease does a specific job. It scans the length of a DNA molecule. Once it finds a particular sequence, it binds to the DNA molecule and makes a cut in each of the two sugar-phosphate backbones.

Different endonucleases cut in different places, but one endonuclease will always cut a palindromic base sequence the same way, no matter what DNA molecule it is acting on. Once the cuts have been made, the DNA molecule breaks into fragments. In fact, more than 900 restriction enzymes, some sequence specific and some not, have been isolated from over 230 strains of bacteria since their discovery.

There are two types of cuts and the result can be sticky or the blunt end of the palindromic sequence. This division is based on the way each restriction enzyme cuts through the DNA double strand.

These enzymatic tools were important to scientists who were gathering the tools needed to "cut and paste" DNA molecules. They needed a tool to cut DNA at specific sites, rather than at random sites along the length of the molecule. This way they could cut DNA molecules in a predictable way.

This whole field of research started many years ago with the Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment.

## References
2nd century BC

The **2nd century BC** was a century that started on the first day of 200 BC and ended on the last day of 101 BC. It is considered part of the Classical period of history.

 at the end of the 2nd century BC.|alt=100 BC|left]]After having won the Second Punic War, the Roman Republic continued expanding by conquering neighbouring territories. It eventually made Greece part of its empire. It also took the coast of North Africa after destroying the city of Carthage at the end of the Third Punic War. In the east, the Seleucid Empire was forced to make concessions to Rome in order to avoid war. Rome came to dominate the Mediterranean Sea during this period. By the end of the century, its army changed from conscription to a voluntary professional force. These changes were known as the Marian Reforms.

In East Asia, China became very successful under the Han Dynasty. Its empire extended from Korea in the east to Vietnam in the South and, to the borders of what is today Kazakhstan in the west. The Han also try to get help in fighting the Xiongnu from the Yuezhi people in the west. It is also during this century that the first paper was made in China.

In Europa, the Second Macedonian War fought between Macedon, led by Philip V of Macedon, and Rome (200–197 BC) marked a significant stage in increasing Roman intervention in the affairs of the eastern Mediterranean, which would eventually lead to Rome's conquest of the entire region. In 203-191 the Boii were submitted by the Romans and their territory became part of Galia cisalpina. In 192-190 Rome wages war against the king Antiochus III the Great. Cato the Elder, is elected censor in 184, an try to oppose Hellenism. The Third Macedonian War (171-168) against Perseus of Macedon won by the Romans. After the Third Punic War (149-146), Carthage is taken and destroyed by the Romans. Between 133 and 121, the Gracchi brothers advocate for social reform but are both killed. Gallia Narbonensis is conquired by the Roman Republic in 125–121. 
Together with the Teutones and the Ambrones, the Cimbi fight the Roman Republic between 113 and 101 BC during the Cimbrian War. The Cimbri were initially successful but they were decisively defeated at the Battle of Vercellae by Gaius Marius

## References
Norman Foster Ramsey Jr.

**Norman Foster Ramsey, Jr.** (August 27, 1915 – November 4, 2011) was an American physicist. He was awarded the 1989 Nobel Prize in Physics with Hans Georg Dehmelt.

Ramsay was born on August 27, 1915 in Washington, D.C.. He studied at Columbia University and at the University of Cambridge.

He was a physics professor at Harvard University for most of his career, Ramsey also held several posts with such government and international agencies as NATO and the United States Atomic Energy Commission.  Among his other accomplishments are helping to found the United States Department of Energy's Brookhaven National Laboratory and Fermilab.

Ramsay was a Democrat. Ramsay died on November 4, 2011 in Wayland, Massachusetts from natural causes, aged 96.

## References
## Books
* 
* 
*

## Other websites
*Photograph, Biography and Bibliographic Resources, from the Office of Scientific and Technical Information, United States Department of Energy
*Group photograph  taken at *Lasers* '93 including (right to left) Norman F. Ramsey, Marlan Scully, and F. J. Duarte.
*"Norman Ramsey and the Separated Oscillatory Fields Method". Office of Scientific and Technical Information, U.S. DOE. Retrieved on 2 March 2009.
*Norman Ramsey, an oral history conducted in 1995 by Andrew Goldstein, IEEE History Center, New Brunswick, NJ, USA.
Russo-Turkish war

**Russo-Turkish War** refers to one of these wars between the Russian and Ottoman Empires:

*Russo-Turkish War (1568–1570)
*Russo-Turkish War (1676–1681)
*Russo-Turkish War (1686–1700)
*Pruth River Campaign
*Russo-Austrian-Turkish War (1735–1739)
*Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)
*Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792)
*Russo-Turkish War (1806–1812)
*Russo-Turkish War (1828–1829)
*Crimean War
*Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)
*Russo-Turkish War (1914–1918), commonly called World War I
Shotgun Sports

**Shotgun Sports** is a competitive shooting sport involving shotguns.  Shotgun Sports include several different events, each with different rules.  The general goal of a shotgun event is to break a clay target, but the targets are thrown in different manners depending on the game.

## Sporting Clays 
In sporting clays, a shooter will walk through a course generally consisting of ten stations.  Each station will have two targets that are thrown as a true pair or as a report pair(one thrown on pull command and one thrown on gun fire).  Sporting clay courses are generally scored out of a 100.

## Trap
Trap is another clay target event.  A game of trap is scored out of 25, and a full trap event generally consists of 4 trap games, or 100 targets.  In this event, a team of 5 shooters lines up behind a trap house.  Inside the trap house is a pivoting arm that throws a clay out at a random direction when 'pull' is called.  To vary the difficulty of this game, shooters can stand farther back from the house.

## Skeet
In the skeet shooting event, a shooter moves around a field in a semi circle.  Skeet, like Trap, is also a 25 target game, with skeet events generally consisting of four games.  There are 8 stations on the field.  On one end of a field is a high house, and on the other end of the field, there is a low house.  On station 1, 2, 6, and 7 a high single, low single, and double are shot.  On stations 3, 4, and 5 a high single and low single are shot.  Station 8 is in between the high and low house.  At this station, the shooter faces the high house, shoots a high single, then turns and faces the low house to shoot a low single.  This totals 24 targets.  The last target, to make 25, comes from what is referred to as the option.  The option is a target that is shot after the first target that is missed.  If the shooter misses the high bird on station 1, the high bird is shot again.  If the shooter makes it all the way around the field without missing a bird, a second low single is shot on station 8, totaling a perfect 25.  

## Related pages 
*Gun

## Other websites
Chr

In computing, **chr** is a type of file format commonly used for graphics (i.e. 3D Max Characters and Homebrew NES Dev Graphics) and character sets.

## chr Files In NES Dev
### Usage
chr files are used to draw 8x8 tiles for homebrew NES development. To draw graphics for the NES such as backgrounds or sprites, they must be pieced together using 8x8 pixel tiles constrained to 4 colors.
### Contents
The contents of a chr file can be summed up as multiple lines of bit strings. For example, take the first line of the chr file for the game Super Mario Bros.

```c
000000000011000011110001111100010000000011110001110000100100001000000110011001100000000000000000000000000000000000000000000111110000001111110011111101111111
```

When reading the file, it is interpreted as 2 equal length bit strings, such as

```c
String 1 = 0000000000110000111100011111000100000000111100011100001001000010011001100110
String 2 = 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000011111001111110011111101111111
```

The position of these 2 bit strings represent a pixel in an 8x8 tile, going in row-column order. The color of the pixel can be found out using a simple formula:

The color is irrelevant because it is chosen through the code by the programmer with the attribute table, so it is the bit combination that is significant and there is no storage of color values
Ryan Malgarini

**Ryan Timothy Malgarini** (born June 12, 1992) is an American actor, and comedian. He is known for his role as Harry Coleman in *Freaky Friday*.

## Movies
* *Freaky Friday* (2003)
* *The United States of Leland* (2004)
* *The Polar Express* (2004)
* *Go Figure* (2005)
* *How to Eat Fried Worms* (2006)
* *The Young Kieslowski* (2014), winner of an audience award at the 2014 Los Angeles Film Festival

## References
## Other websites
*
Monty Hall

**Monte Halparin**, OC, OM (August 25, 1921 &ndash; September 30, 2017), known as **Monty Hall**, was a Canadian television producer, actor, singer, comedian, and sportscaster. He was best known as host of the television game show ''Let's Make a Deal''.

## Early life
Hall was born **Monte Halparin** in Winnipeg, Manitoba on August 25, 1921. He studied at St. John's High School.  

## The Monty Hall problem
Since Hall was on ''Let's Make a Deal,'' Hall's name is used in a probability puzzle known as the "Monty Hall problem", which examines the counter-intuitive effect of switching one's choice of doors, one of which hides a prize, if "Monty" reveals an unwanted item behind a door the player did not choose.

## Personal life
Monty married Marilyn Plottel in 1947. They had three children. Plottel died on June 5, 2017.

### Death
On September 30, 2017, Hall died from heart failure at his home in Beverly Hills, California at the age of 96.

## References
## Other websites
* 
* Monty's Bio  at letsmakeadeal.com
* CBC Digital Archives profile of Monty Hall (1970)
Lars Andreas Larssen

**Lars Andreas Larssen** (27 March 1935 &ndash; 29 January 2014) was a Norwegian stage, movie and television actor. His career began in 1957 when he starred in the movie *Nine Lives*. In 1959, Larssen starred in a bigger role in the movie *The Master and His Servants*.

Larssen was born on 27 March 1935 in Hadsel, Norway. He studied acting at the Folketeatret. Larssen was diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease in 2003 and was forced to retire due to his illness. He lived in Oslo during his last years with his wife Monna Tandberg. Larssen died on 29 January 2014 in Oslo from the disease, aged 78.

## References
## Other websites
* 
* Lars Andreas Larssen på sokkel . Larssen's bust unveiled in Melbu (2008).
Vince Carter

**Vincent Lamar Carter** (born January 26, 1977) is an American professional basketball player. He played as a shooting guard or small forward for the Toronto Raptors of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He has also played for the Atlanta Hawks, New Jersey Nets, Orlando Magic, Memphis Grizzlies, Phoenix Suns, and Dallas Mavericks. He was inducted to the NBA Hall of Fame in 2024.

After being drafted in 1998 as the fifth overall pick, Carter quickly emerged as a league star.

Carter is an eight-time NBA all-star. In 1999, he won the NBA Rookie of the Year Award. In 2000, he won the famous Slam Dunk Contest at the NBA All-star Weekend.

His talent for slam-dunks earned him nicknames such as "**Vinsanity**," "**Air Canada**," and "**Half-Man, Half-Amazing**.". Vince led his first team, the Toronto Raptors to their first three playoff appearances. Despite his notability as an exceptional basketball player, he has yet to win a championship.

On November 2, 2024, the Toronto Raptors retired Carter's #15 jersey number. This was the first jersey number to be retired in Raptors franchise history. Since 2025, he is a studio analyst for NBA Showtime on NBC.

## References
## Other websites
*
Phil Crane

**Philip Miller "Phil" Crane** (November 3, 1930 &ndash; November 8, 2014) was a former American politician. He was a Republican member of the United States House of Representatives from 1969 to 2005. He was representing the 8th District of Illinois in the northwestern suburbs of Chicago. At the time of his defeat in the 2004 election, Crane was the longest-serving Republican member of the House.

Crane was born in Chicago, Illinois on November 3, 1930. Crane died of lung cancer at the home of his daughter, Rebekah, in Jefferson, Maryland on November 8, 2014, aged 84.

## References
## Other websites
Pat Buchanan

**Patrick Joseph** "**Pat**" **Buchanan** (; born November 2, 1938) is an American conservative political commentator, author, columnist, politician, and broadcaster.

Buchanan was a senior advisor to three Presidents of the United States. They were Richard Nixon, Gerald Ford, and Ronald Reagan. Buchanan was an original host on CNN's *Crossfire*. He ran for president for the Republican presidential nomination in 1992 and 1996. He ran on the Reform Party ticket in the 2000 presidential election.

Buchanan was born in Washington, D.C. on November 2, 1938.

## References
## Books
* .
* .
* .
* .
* .
* .

## Other websites
* .
* .
* 
* 
* 
* .
* *In Depth* interview with Buchanan, May 2, 2010
Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania

The **Perelman School of Medicine** (Penn Med), is the medical school of the University of Pennsylvania. It is an Ivy League school located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Opened in 1765, Penn Med is the first and oldest medical school in the United States. Today, the Perelman School of Medicine is a chief place of biological and medical research and education. It is one of the country's top medical schools. The school ranks among the highest recipients of the National Institutes of Health research awards.

## History 
John Morgan earned a Bachelor of Arts degree from the College of Philadelphia (now called the University of Pennsylvania. He then earned Doctor of Medicine (MD) from the University of Edinburgh Medical School in Scotland. In 1765, after five years training in Edinburgh and touring Europe, Dr. Morgan returned to Philadelphia. There he opened the United States' first medical school at the University of Pennsylvania. He planned for the school to be one of the best medical schools in the country and the world. Dr. Morgan copied many teaching methods from his medical school.

The School of Medicine's professors were known internationally. Some of these were: Benjamin Rush, Philip Syng Physick, Robert Hare, William pepper, and Joseph Leidy. In 1847, a convention of medical doctors started the American Medical Association. The first President was Nathaniel Chapman, a professor at the School.

## References
Mixed-breed dog

/Labrador Retriever mix]]
A **mixed-breed dog** is a dog that is of more than one breed. For example, a Labradoodle is a dog with genes of both Labrador Retriever and poodle.

Other words for a mixed-breed dog are mongrel or mutt.
Inline skating

**Inline skating** is a kind of . It involves a person moving across land using shoes that have wheels on the bottom. It is similar to roller skating, except that the wheels are smaller and are in a single line. Inline skating is also called **rollerblading,** after the *Rollerblade* brand of skates. .

Inline skates usually have between 2 and 5 polyurethane wheels. These wheels are arranged in a single line. This allows for faster speeds than roller skates.
The Voyage of the Beagle

's draughtsman, Conrad Martens. Painted during the survey of Tierra del Fuego, it depicts the *Beagle* being hailed by native Fuegians.]]

***The Voyage of the Beagle*** is the usual title of the book written by Charles Darwin. He first published it in 1839 as his ***Journal and Remarks***.

The title refers to the second survey expedition of the ship HMS *Beagle*. The ship set sail from Plymouth Sound on 27 December 1831 under the command of Captain Robert FitzRoy R.N.

The expedition was originally planned to last two years, but it lasted almost five. The *Beagle* did not return until 2 October 1836. Darwin spent most of this time exploring on land (three years and three months on land; 18 months at sea). The ship dropped him off at various places and picked him up later.

The book is a vivid and exciting travel memoir as well as a detailed scientific field journal. It includes biology, geology, and anthropology. Darwin's observations were written at a time when Western Europeans were exploring and charting the whole world. Although Darwin revisited some areas during the expedition, for clarity the chapters of the book are ordered by places and locations rather than by date.

Darwin's notes made during the voyage include comments illustrating his thinking. Looking at the plants, animals, rocks and fossils, he ran across questions which he could not answer at the time. On his way back, ideas began in his mind which he developed later as his theory of evolution by natural selection. The second edition of 1845 includes some suggestion of this.

Later, he realised he had made a big mistake in not noting which islands some specimens from the Galapagos Islands were found on. He knew this was a mistake because he had sensed how islands were rather like the higher parts of mountains, which also have many unique species. The idea we now know as geographical speciation was beginning to form in his mind. Darwin opened his secret 'transmutation' notebook (Notebook 'B') in July 1837, less than a year after the *Beagle* returned to England.

## Bibliography 
*Darwin, Charles 1839. *Voyages of the Adventure and Beagle, volume III – Journal and remarks, 1832–1836*. London: Henry Colburn. This is the first edition.
*Darwin, Charles 1845. *Journal of researches into the natural history and geology of the countries visited during the voyage of H.M.S. Beagle round the world, under the Command of Capt. Fitz Roy, R.N*. London: John Murray. This is the second edition.

## References 
## Other websites 
*Darwin Online: R.B. Freeman's bibliographical introduction to the book: http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Freeman_JournalofResearches.html
*
Palm oil

**Palm oil** is a vegetable oil. Natural palm oil is red, but the red part is usually removed before the oil is used. It is made from the fruit of the African Oil Palm tree. Some comes from the American Oil Palm. Palm oil is used in many different products, like ice cream, toothpaste, chocolate, and candy. Most palm oil is made in West Africa and Southeast Asia on plantations.Palm oil is criticised for being one of the leading causes of deforestation, and for the use of slavery by many plantation owners to extract palm oil and profit off of it.

## References
Candy floss

**Candy floss** is sugar that is  with air. It is also called **cotton candy** or **fairy floss**. It is spun in machines. When spun, a small amount of sugar creates a much larger serving of candy floss. This is because it is mostly air. It is usually served on a stick or in a bag. Food colouring is sometimes used to change the natural white colour. Flavour is also sometimes added. Candy floss is often sold at fairs or circuses.

Candy floss was first made in Europe in the 18th century. At that time, spun sugar was expensive. The average person could not afford it. Machines to spin the sugar were invented in 1897 by William Morrison and John C. Wharton. They introduced it at the World's Fair in 1904, under the name *Fairy Floss*. It was very successful. They sold 68,655 boxes at 25 cents each box (equivalent to US$6 per box today). In UAE it sold in 5 AED.

## References 
## Other websites 
* 
* Cotton Candy Machines and Marketing Today at Howstuffworks.com
Movement (disambiguation)

**Movement** is the action of changing something's position.

**Movement** can also mean:

* Social movement, a co-ordinated group focused on a social issue
* Political movement, a co-ordinated group focused on a political issue
* Art movement, a style in art followed by a group of artists
* Movement (music), a large division of a musical composition
* Bowel movement
Columbian mammoth

The **Columbian mammoth** (*Mammuthus columbi*), or Imperial mammoth, was a species of mammoth which lived late in the Pleistocene period. Its remains have been found in Canada, the United States, Nicaragua and Mexico.

The Columbian mammoth went extinct at the end of the ice ages about 11,000 years ago. It shared the fate of many other large mammals, whose extinction is attributed to hunting and climate change.

DNA studies show that the Columbian mammoth was a hybrid between woolly mammoths and another lineage descended from steppe mammoths. This hybridization happened more than 420,000 years ago.

These mammoths did not live in the Arctic regions of Canada, where the woolly mammoth lived. The ranges of the two species may have overlapped, and genetic evidence suggests that they interbred. Several sites have the skeletons of more than one Columbian mammoths. Maybe they died in incidents such as a drought, or perhaps these places were natural traps where individuals tended to die.

## References
Juan Orlando Hernández

**Juan Orlando Hernández Alvarado** (; born 28 October 1968) or **JOH**, is a Honduran former politician and lawyer who served as the 38th president of Honduras from 2014 to 2022.

On 7 February 2022, Hernández was being investigated for corruption and drug trafficking. The U.S. government requested an extradition against him for his involvement with narcotics on 14 February. After issuing an extradition warrant, Hernández decided to surrender to US authorities on February 15, 2022. A day later, Hernández was arrested at his home in Tegucigalpa. 

On 21 April 2022, Hernández was extradited to the United States. On 8 March 2024, Hernández was convicted of three counts of drug trafficking and weapons conspiracy and faces mandatory minimum sentence of 40 years in prison. 

On June 26, 2024, Juan Orlando Hernández, was sentenced to 45 years in prison and fined $8 million for drug trafficking and firearms offenses in a US federal court. Hernández was released from prison on 2 December 2025 after being pardoned by President Donald Trump during the 2025 election.

## References
## Other websites
*Biography by CIDOB
Bed (geology)

In geology a **bed** is the smallest division of rock or deposit. It is a geologic formation or stratigraphic rock series marked by well-defined divisional planes (**bedding planes**) separating it from layers above and below. 

A bed is the smallest lithostratigraphic unit. It ranges in thickness from a centimetre to several metres. It can be distinguished from beds above and below it by rock or mineral type and particle size. The term is usually applied to sedimentary strata, but may also be used for volcanic flows or ash layers.

In a quarry, **bedding** is a term used for a structure occurring in granite and similar rocks which allows them to split in well-defined planes horizontally or parallel to the land surface.

## Engineering 
In geotechnical engineering a bedding plane often forms a discontinuity that may have a large influence on the mechanical behaviour (strength, deformation) of soil and rock masses. This is important in, for example, tunnel, foundation, or slope construction.

## Related pages 
* Strata
Bohuslav Sobotka

**Bohuslav Sobotka** (born October 23, 1971 in Telnice) is a Czech politician. He served as chairman of the Czech Social Democratic Party (ČSSD) since 2011. He was nominated to be the Prime Minister of the Czech Republic on 17 January 2014 by President Miloš Zeman. He was soon chosen as Prime Minister on 29 January 2014. His term ended on 6 December 2017

## References
## Other websites
Dési Bouterse

**Desiré Delano "Dési" Bouterse** (13 October 1945 &ndash; 23 December 2024) was a Surinamese politician. He was the President of Suriname from 2010 to 2020. From 1980 to 1987 he was Suriname's *de facto* leader when the country was under military rule.

On February 25, 1980, the government of Suriname underwent a military coup led by Bouterse. Though the Suriname Presidency was retained, Bouterse was the nation's ruler until his resignation in 1988.

Bouterse is held responsible for the numerous human rights violations committed under his dictatorship, such as the murder of 15 people known as the December murders, and the massacre in the village Moiwana.

On July 19, 2010, he was elected as President of Suriname with 36 of 50 parliament votes.

In 2023, he was sentenced to twenty years' imprisonment for the 1982 murders of fifteen political dissidents. He was reported missing by the Surinamese authorities in January 2024 after refusing to report to prison. He was considered a fugitive until his death.

Bouterse died on December 23, 2024 from liver failure while in hiding at the Copi Nature Reserve at the age of 79.

## References
Savannah monitor

The **savannah monitor** (or Bosc's monitor) is a medium-sized monitor lizard from Africa. Its scientific name is *Varanus exanthematicus*.

Its range extends throughout sub-Saharan Africa, from Senegal east to Sudan and south almost to the Congo River and Great Rift Valley. 

Information about the diet of Savannah monitors in the wild has been recorded in Senegal  and Ghana. It feeds almost exclusively on arthropods and molluscs.

## References
Toots and the Maytals

**Toots and the Maytals**, originally called **The Maytals**, are a Jamaican musical group. They are one of the best known ska and rock steady vocal groups. They were formed in the early 1960s when ska was popular. They had a reputation for having strong, well-blended voices. Front man Hibbert's soulful style led him to be compared to Otis Redding.

## Studio albums
Mog (Judith Kerr)

**Mog**, is the main character in a series of books for children. The author is Judith Kerr. In the series Mog was well loved by Mr and Mrs Thomas (Mog's owners) and their two children Nicky and Debbie. In the books Mog, a cat, would often get into a difficult situation with a new character or event.

Mog died of old age in the final book, *Goodbye, Mog* and goes to heaven. It was published in 2002.  It is not usual for a pet to die in stories for young children just learning to read. Kerr said ""I don't think it was so much about killing off Mog, as rather doing something about dying...and being remembered."

## New book for charity 
In November 2015, Mog came back as a CGI character for the 2015 Christmas video advert for the supermarket, Sainsbury's. In ''Mog's Christmas Calamity'' Mog accidentally starts a fire in her house after having a bad dream. She saves her family by calling firefighters by running across the telephone and dialing the emergency number. She is a hero for saving her owners, and is later given an egg as a treat. A special plush Mog and book version of the story were sold at Sainsbury's, with all profits being donated to Save the Children's child literacy work.

## References
Maher El-Beheiry

**Maher El-Beheiry** () (born March 17, 1943) is an Egyptian judge, and the former Chairman of the Supreme Constitutional Court of Egypt (SCC). He became Chairman on 1 July 2012.

## References
Riedlingen

**Riedlingen** is a town in the German federal state of Baden-Württemberg. About 10,000 people live there. It is near the Danube.

## History 
Riedlingen is over 1,000 years old. Its foundation is dated back to the 13th century. Documents mention it as early as 835. In 1806, it became part of the Kingdom of Württemberg. In 1973 it became part of the District of Biberach.

## Politics 
Riedlingen's current mayor is Marcus Schafft (CDU).

## References 
## Other websites 
* Official website
Winfried Kretschmann

**Winfried Kretschmann** (born May 17, 1948 in Spaichingen) is the Minister-President of the Southwest German federal state of Baden-Württemberg. He is the first Minister-President of the Green Party.

Kretschmann is born to Catholic parents. He went to school in Riedlingen (District of Biberach). His parents wanted him to become a priest. Instead he joined a school for teaching education and became teacher for Biology, Chemistry and Ethics.

## Political career 
Kretschmann started his political career at the Communist League of West Germany in 1973. He later changed his view and is now part of the more conservative Green party.

In 1979/80 he was a co-founder of the Green Party in Baden-Württemberg. He was leader of the Green Party in Baden-Württemberg from 1983 to 1984 and 2002 to 2011. In 2011 he became ninth Minister-President of Baden-Württemberg. He was President of the Bundesrat from 2012 to 2013. 

In the parliamentarian of the Baden-Wuerttemberg state parliament election 2016 he was reelected.

## Personal life 
Kretschmann is married and has three children.
François Cavanna

**François Cavanna** (22 February 1923 &ndash; 29 January 2014) was a French author and satirical newspaper editor.
He helped create the *Hara Kiri* and *Charlie Hebdo*. He wrote in many of genres including reportage, satire, essays, novels, autobiography and humor. He also translated six books about famous cartoonists.

Cavanna was born on 22 February 1923 in Nogent-sur-Marne. his father was Italian. Cavanna died on 29 January 2014 in Créteil, France from Parkinson's disease, aged 90.

## References
## Other websites
Tlatelolco (Mexico City)

**Tlatelolco** ('''') is an area in the Cuauhtémoc borough of Mexico City. It is centered on the Plaza de las Tres Culturas.
Poi

**Poi** or **POI** can mean several things:

* Poi (food), a Polynesian basic food
* Poi spinning, a Māori performance art
* *Poi*, the Tibetan name for Tibet
* Product of Inertia
* President of India
Primark

**Primark** is an Irish clothing retailer founded by Arthur Ryan. The company operates in Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Ireland (38 stores branded as **Penneys**), Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, Italy, Slovakia and the United States. The company's headquarters are in Dublin. Primark is a subsidiary of British food processing company ABF. Primark first opened in June 1969 in Mary Street (Dublin). All of the company's merchandise is made specifically for the company. Primark has its own brand names. It sells clothing at the budget end of the market.

## References
Solid geometry

**Solid geometry** is the geometry of three-dimensional Euclidean space. It includes the measurements of volumes of various **solid figures** (three-dimensional figures). These include pyramids, cylinders, cones, spheres, and prisms.

It is Euclidean geometry, but not plane geometry. Points are defined as a defined position on a sphere. A "staight line" is the shortest path between two points which stays on the surface of the sphere. 

Euclid's account of spherical geometry is in his Elements volumes XIXIII containing solid geometry, and in his lesser-known work the *Phaenomena*, which includes 25 geometric propositions. The actual discoveries were often made by others. 

The Pythagoreans dealt with the regular solids, like the cube and the sphere. The pyramid, prism, cone and cylinder were not studied until the Platonists. Eudoxus proved the pyramid and cone have one-third the volume of a prism and cylinder on the same base and of the same height.

The equations for areas and volumes in two and three dimensions was proved by Archimedes. One of Archimedes' works was called *On the sphere and the cylinder*. He asked that a carving of the two solid figures be placed on his tomb. He specified a "right circular cylinder with height equal to its circumference" because he had used this in his proof. 

People use solid geometry for many purposes including engineering and the calculation of perspective.  

## References
Chesterton Community Sports College

**Chesterton Community Sports College** is a school in Newcastle-under-Lyme. It has received very good GCSE results. There are 5 periods in a day, all one hour each way. Break time is fifteen minutes. Lunch is fifty-five minutes.

## Other websites 
*
Ralph Hall

**Ralph Moody Hall** (May 3, 1923 &ndash; March 7, 2019) was an American politician. He was a United States representative from Texas from 1981 through 2015.

He was the dean of the Texas congressional delegation. He was also the former chairman of the House Committee on Science, Space and Technology from 2011 to 2013.

He is also a member of the Committee on Energy and Commerce. Originally a member of the Democratic Party for more than fifty years, in 2004 he switched to the Republican Party.

He was the last of two World War II veterans serving in Congress, the other being Michigan Congressman John Dingell.

Hall was born on May 3, 1923 in Fate, Texas. He studied at Southern Methodist University. Hall married Mary Ellen in 1944. They had three children. Ellen died in 2008. Hall died at his ranch in Rockwall, Texas, a suburb of Dallas on March 7, 2019 from cardiac arrest, aged 95.

## References
## Other websites
*Ralph Hall for Congress
*Profile  at SourceWatch
Not proven

**Not proven** is a type of verdict in Scottish law. Out of the country, the "not proven" verdict may be referred to as the **Scottish verdict**, and in Scotland itself it may be referred to colloquially as the **bastard verdict**, which was a term coined by Sir Walter Scott, who was sheriff in the court of Selkirk.

Scottish law is distinct from English law, and this is one of the differences. Juries may convict with a guilty verdict or they may acquit (see below)). A criminal case jury consists of 15 jurors, and make their decision by a simple majority vote: eight votes are necessary and sufficient for the verdict *"guilty"*, which has replaced the older verdict *"proven"*.

In Scotland there are two forms of acquittal:
*Not guilty means the accused is innocent, in the opinion of the jury.
*Not proven means the prosecution has failed to prove their case, but the jury has disagreed as to the innocence of the accused.

## References
Bettringen

**Bettringen** is a village in southwest Germany. About 9,000 people live there. It is part of the town of Schwäbisch Gmünd. It is near Stuttgart.

## History 
The village is about 800 years old. It was founded in 1218. In the 15th century, the names *Oberbettringen* (upper Bettringen) and *Unterbettringen* (lower Bettringen) are found in documents. In 1464, it first became part of Schwäbisch Gmünd. Later it became independent again.

In 1870, more than 500 people lived in Bettringen. Some other villages were part of it.

In 1959, it became part of Schwäbisch Gmünd. That was before the area reforms of Baden-Württemberg.

## Politics 
The city council has eight members of the CDU, four members of the SPD, three members of the Green Party and one seat for the FDP.

## Religion 
Bettringen is mainly Catholic.

## Transport 
### Road 
The L1160 and L1161 roads pass through the village. The B29 road bypasses the village.