open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Columbia Pictures

**Columbia Pictures Industries, Inc.** is an American company that produces movies and at one time, television shows. It is now one of the "Big Five" American movie studios and the oldest, busiest and most well-known member of the **Sony Pictures Motion Picture Group**, which is owned by the Japanese company Sony. Sony Pictures also includes smaller studios like TriStar Pictures, Screen Gems, and Sony Pictures Animation. The studio buildings are located at the Sony Pictures Studios lot in Culver City, California.

## History
Formed in 1918 as **CBC Film Sales** by brothers Jack and Harry Cohn and their partner Joe Brandt, the studio started out very small. It eventually adopted the "Columbia" name in 1924 and became better known and successful under president Harry Cohn and film director Frank Capra making Western movies, comedy movies, and short films. After Harry Cohn died, the studio went under hard times in the 1960s and 1970s before being bought by the Coca-Cola Company in 1982. It created a side project with CBS and HBO that became TriStar Pictures and started making more successful films again such as the Ghostbusters movies and *The Karate Kid*.

Coca-Cola spun off Columbia into its own company again in 1987, which at that point had fully bought TriStar and other companies such as Merv Griffin's company, which was known for making *Wheel of Fortune* and *Jeopardy!*. In 1989, Sony Corporation decided to buy Columbia Pictures Entertainment, which included both Columbia and TriStar. Under Sony, Columbia moved into the former MGM studios after years of sharing space with Warner Bros. Columbia and TriStar continued making their own movies and TV shows before combining under the Sony name in 1999.

## Movies Columbia Pictures has made 
Columbia is known for making movies such as *Ghostbusters*, *The Karate Kid*, *Men in Black*, *Stuart Little*, *21 Jump Street*, *Zombieland*, *Bad Boys*, and several movies about The Three Stooges and Spider-Man. It has also helped make a few James Bond movies with MGM.

## TV studio 
At one point, one of the only ways that Columbia was still making money in the 1960s and 70s was through its TV department, which was originally the first version of Screen Gems and later renamed **Columbia Pictures Television**. TV shows that Columbia made through Screen Gems/CPT included *I Dream of Jeannie*, *Days of Our Lives*, *Seinfeld*, and *Walker, Texas Ranger*. The TV department was eventually renamed "Columbia TriStar Television" and is now known as Sony Pictures Television, and the "Columbia" name is now only tied to movies.

## References 
## Further reading 
* 

## Other websites 
* Official Sony Pictures website
** Sony Pictures Movies 
** SonyPictures.net
Islamism

**Islamism** is a group of ideologies believing that the Muslim world should be run by Sharia law. Generally, it is the idea that Islam should guide both society and politics, as well as people's personal lives.

## Select list of Islamist groups
* ISIS
* Taliban
* Hamas
* Houthis
* Al-Qaeda
* Hezbollah
* Al-Nusra Front
* Lashkar-e-Taiba
* Hizbul Mujahideen

## Related pages
## Footnotes
## References
Valence, Drôme

**Valence** is a city in the south of France, along the Rhône river. It is in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region in the Drôme department in France.

Kiosque_2004-09-18_009.jpg
MaisonDrapier-Valence.jpg
Valence-Fontaine.jpg
Côte_des_chapeliers.JPG
Côte_sous_la_cathédrale.JPG

## Sister cities
Valence is twinned with:
*  Asti, Italy, since 1966
*  Biberach an der Riss, Germany, since 1967
*  Clacton-on-Sea, United Kingdom, since 1969
*  Ijevan, Armenia, since 1996
*  Gedera, Israel, since 1997
Valence

**Valence** can stand for different things:

## Places
* Valence-sur-Rhône, a city in the south of France, capital of the Drôme department
* Valence-sur-Baïse, a city in the Gers region of France
* Villages in France:
** Valence (Charente), a village in Poitou-Charentes
** Valence (Tarn-et-Garonne) a village near Agen
** Valence-d'Albigeois, a village near Albi
** Valence-en-Brie, a village near Melun

## Science
* Valence (chemistry), a concept from chemistry
* Valence band, a concepts from Physics
* Valence quarks, a concepts from Physics
* Valence (biology), a concept from biology
Anvil

An **anvil** is a hard piece of metal which is used as a workbench when making things out of iron or steel. An anvil is used by a blacksmith when they need to hammer hot iron to bend it into the shape they want. A blacksmith can make new shoes for horses.

Anvils were known in the Bronze Age and possibly earlier. They were used in Ancient Greece and Ancient Egypt. They are still in use today, although not nearly as much as 100 years ago when there were many more horses. 

Anvils are extremely heavy. They are made in different sizes. The 17th century writer John Bunyan was a tinker (someone who mends pots and pans). He walked around the villages of Bedfordshire with a small anvil and a few tools on his back. His anvil was wedge-shaped, so that he could knock it into the ground when he needed to do a repair. His anvil is now in the John Bunyan museum in Bedford.

## Use as a musical instrument 
The anvil has sometimes been used as a percussion instrument because it makes a very loud sound when hit by the hammer. Usually musicians use a metal bar mounted on a sound-box. This sounds just as good as a real anvil (which would be very heavy to carry around).

Verdi wrote some famous music called the *Anvil Chorus* in his opera *Il Trovatore*. Wagner asked for 18 anvils in *Das Rheingold* in the scene which takes place below the earth where the Nibelungs are working at their forges. Albert Parlow wrote an *Anvil Polka*, Varèse used an anvil in *Ionisation*, Walton uses an anvil in *Belshazzar’s Feast* and there is an anvil in the orchestra in Howard Shore's music for *The Lord of the Rings* movie trilogy.

## Related pages
*Forge
*Iron
*Steel
*Blacksmith
*Silversmith
Inca Empire

, "the Lost City of the Incas," now an archaeological site]]

The **Inca** were a pre-Columbian country and empire in the Andes of South America. The word 'Inca' can also mean the emperor or king of the Inca people. The Inca Empire was called ''''* in Quechua, which means "four regions".  

It was the largest empire in the Americas, and was large even by world standards. It existed shortly before Christopher Columbus arrived in the Americas. It lasted for 100 years, until it was conquered by Spanish soldiers in 1532 AD.  

## Overview 
The Inca were ruled by an Emperor known as the *Sapa Inca*. Their main language was Quechua, but since there were many different groups in the Empire, there were probably many different languages as well.  

The Empire was supported by an economy based on the collective ownership of the land. 

## Location 
The Inca ruled along the western coast of South America for a little over 100 years, until the Spanish invasion in the 16th century. 

The empire was centered around the city of Cuzco, or Qosqo, in what is now southern Peru. This was the administrative, political and military center of the empire. In later years, it became centered around Quito. 

## History 
### Growth 
The Inca Empire began around Lake Titicaca in about 1197. From 1438 to 1533, the Incas used conquest and non-violent assimilation to gain a large portion of western South America. Their empire centered on the Andean mountain ranges. It included large parts of what is now Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina and Chile.

### Road network 
Throughout their empire, they built a network of roads and rope bridges to make travel between their communities easy.

### Beginning of Spanish rule 
In 1533, Atahualpa, the last sovereign emperor, was executed by the conquistador Francisco Pizarro. That marked the beginning of Spanish rule in South America. 

## Also see 
* Inca road system
* Inca rope bridge
* Inca Civil War

## References 
## Bibliography 
*Popenoe, Hugh *et al* 1989. *Lost crops of the Incas*. Washington DC: National Academy Press.
*De la Vega, Garcilaso 1961. *The Incas: the royal commentaries of the Inca''. New York: The Orion Press.
*McNeill, William H. 2006. How the potato changed the world's history.  *Social Research* **66** 1.

## Other websites 
* Conquest of Peru, Prescott, 1847  Full text, free to read and search, a definitive history of the Incas.  One of the most readable and engaging history books of all time.  Humankind lost a civilization of impressive societal value.
* Inca Land by Hiram Bingham (published 1912–1922)
* Inca Artifacts, Peru, and Machu Picchu  360 degree movies of inca artifacts and Peruvian landscapes.
* Inca civilization and other ancient civilizations by Genry Joil.
* Inca stone cutting techniques: theory on how the Inca walls fit so perfectly.
* Ancient Civilizations - Inca  Great research site for kids.
* Incan Ice Mummies NOVA site based on their series about the 1996 expedition that discovered Incan ice mummies.
* Incan Religion
Pre-Columbian era

The **pre-Columbian** era means the history and prehistory of the Americas before there were important European influences on the American continent.

The word pre-Columbian refers to the era before Christopher Columbus, but sometimes it can include the history of American indigenous cultures as they continued to develop after the Christopher Columbus' first landing in 1492, until they were conquered or influenced by Europeans, even if this happened decades or even centuries after the arrival of Columbus.

Pre-Columbian can also mean cultures of any one of the great native civilizations of the Americas, such as those of Mesoamerica (the Aztec and Maya) and of the Andes (Inca, Moche and Chibcha).

Image:Yaxchilan 1.jpg|An image of one of the pyramids in the upper level of Yaxchilán
Image:Telamones Tula.jpg|Atlantes at Tula, Hidalgo
Image:Uxmal-mexico.jpg|Maya architecture at Uxmal

## Related pages
*Native American
*Columbian Exchange

## References 
*Sorenson, John L. and Johannessen, Carl L. (2006) "Biological Evidence for Pre-Columbian Transoceanic Voyages." In: *Contact and Exchange in the Ancient World*. Ed. Victor H. Mair. University of Hawai'i Press. pp.&nbsp;238–297. 

## Other websites 
* Central Andes Prehistoric Sequence
Complementary color

**Complementary colors** are pairs of opposite colors.  What is meant by *opposite* can be different between color science, art, and printing.

## Color science 
In color science, "complementary colors" are colors opposite to each other on the color wheel.  Primary colors and secondary colors are paired in this way:

*red and cyan (&nbsp;red&nbsp; &nbsp;cyan&nbsp;), where cyan is the mixture of green and blue
*green and magenta (&nbsp;green&nbsp; &nbsp;magenta&nbsp;), where magenta is the mixture of red and blue
*blue and yellow (&nbsp;blue&nbsp; &nbsp;yellow&nbsp;), where yellow is the mixture of red and green

Along with these pairs, there is another pair of complementary colors: the basic color and the tertiary color made by mixing two other complementary colors.
*black and white (&nbsp;black&nbsp; &nbsp;white&nbsp;), where white is the mixture of red, green, and blue

## Afterimages
If a person stares at a single color for about a minute then looks at a white surface, an afterimage of the complementary color will appear. This is because of *eye fatigue*. For example, if the person stares at a red color, the photoreceptors (cells in the eye which catch colored light) for red light in the retina (the back part of the eye) become fatigued.  When photoreceptors are fatigued, they are less able to send information to the brain. If the person then looks at white light, all photoreceptors will send information.  Because the photoreceptors for red light are fatigued, the information they send will not be as strong as the information about the other colors, and the illusion of seeing the complementary color, cyan, is made.

## Art and design 
. Opposite colors are called complementary.]]
Because of the limited range of colors that was available throughout most of the history of art, many artists still use a traditional set of complementary pairs, including:

* red and green
* blue and orange
* yellow and purple

The complement of each primary color (red, blue, or yellow) is roughly the color made by mixing the other two in a subtractive system (red + blue = purple; blue + yellow = green; red + yellow = orange). When two complements are mixed, they produce a gray or brown.

The use of complementary colors is an important aspect of art and graphic design. This also extends to other fields such as contrasting colors in logos and retail display. When placed next to each other, complements make each other appear brighter. On an artistic color wheel, complementary colors are placed opposite one another.  Although these artistic complements are not complements under the scientific definition, most artistic color wheels are laid out roughly like the HSV color wheel.

## References
Duct tape

]]

**Duct tape**, sometimes called **duck tape**, is a very strong adhesive tape with a cloth backing . Usually duct tape is grey or black, but it is made in other colors including transparent, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple, flames, zebra stripe, leopard spot, tye dye, and others. People use duct tape to repair many things, for example a broken handbag or a broken chair.

Duct tape was designed during World War I. It was first used to keep water out of ammunition cases. It was found to work so well that people started using it to fix many other things. Duct tape was also called "100 mph tape" by the military because it is said the tape will still stick in winds at speeds of 100 miles per hour. Duct tape got its name from its use on heating and air conditioning ducts but oddly enough, that is the one use that the tape is not very good for. It is illegal in California to use duct tape on ducts and most professional builders in the United States are not allowed to use it either.

In the United States, people use duct tape in many action movies and television shows. Strips of duct tape can be used to tie a person up because it is very hard to get them off.

Duct tape is also great for making things like wallets, purses, clothes, and sometimes even sculptures. The use of it as an art medium is fairly new, though.
Valency

:*This article is about the chemical concept of valence, or valency. Other meanings are at valence.*
: has twice the valence of hydrogen, so a molecule of H2O requires twice as many hydrogen atoms as oxygen atoms.]]

In chemistry, **valency** or **valence** is the number of chemical bonds that an atom of a certain element can form.

For a long time, people thought that this number was a fixed property of the element in question. They thought that carbon always has four bonds, oxygen always has two, and hydrogen always has one. The problem was seen only later. For example, phosphorous sometimes behaves as if it had three bonds, a valence of three. At other times, though, it seems to have five bonds. 

IUPAC saw this problem, and proposed oxidation numbers. This means there is one number per chemical element. The problem with this approach is that it leaves aside most chemical properties of the elements in question.

A **valence band** is the highest occupied molecular orbital normally occupied by valence electrons for a given solid at absolute zero temperature.

## Related pages 
* Valence electron

## Other websites 
*"Valence" from the IUPAC *Gold Book* (PDF file)
Text editor

A **text editor** is a program that is run on a computer that can create and change text.  The text can be saved into a file that is called a "text file".  Text editors can be used for a lot of things.  Many people use them to write s.  Some people write code (like HTML or C++) using a text editor. 

Some text editors can edit *rich text*.  Rich text allows **bold text**, *italic text*, and other things.  This is why rich text is different form "text file" which do not have **bold text** or *italic text* properties.

Most text editors today support "search and replace". A computer will quickly find some text the user wants. The user can tell the computer to replace the found text with something else. This can be in part or all of the document.

Copy, cut and paste are other common options in text editors.  Copy allows users to instantly add a copy of text in one place to another place.  Cut and paste are similar, except that the text is moved from one place to another instead of being copied.  This is very useful when a writer wishes to put his paragraphs in a different order, for example.

Sometimes users make mistakes, or need to do the same thing over and over without getting bored. This is what the undo and redo features do. Users can reverse their mistakes, or quickly repeat their actions. Some text editors allow many mistakes in a row to be reversed; others allow only one or two.

## Related pages 
* Hex editor
* Integrated development environment
* Word processor
* WYSIWYG
* WYSIWYM
Valence (Tarn-et-Garonne)

:*This article is about a village in the french department Tart-et-Garonne. Other meanings are at Valence*

**Valence** is a village in the Occitanie region of France. It is in the department Tarn-et-Garonne. In 1999, about 4800 people lived there. Together with 23 other, similar villages, it formed the *Communauté de communes des Deux Rives*. In that structure (that is, in all the villages together) there are about 15.500 people. 

Valence is located 25&nbsp;km from Agen, 45&nbsp;km from  Montauban, 60&nbsp;km from Cahors,  90&nbsp;km from Toulouse and 160&nbsp;km from  Bordeaux
Valence-d'Albigeois

:*This article is about a village near Albi. Other meanings are at Valence*

'''Valence-d'Albigeois''' is a village in the department of Tarn, in French region Occitanie. It is near Albi. In 1999, 1142 people lived there.
Valence-en-Brie

:*This article is about a village near Melun. Other meanings are at Valence*

**Valence-en-Brie** is a village in the Île-de-France region in France. It is located near Melun in the department Seine-et-Marne. In 1999, 583 people lived there.
Valence-sur-Baïse

:*This article is about the medieval bastide near Condom-en-Armagnac. Other meanings are at Valence*

**Valence-sur-Baïse** is a city in the Gers department of the Midi-Pyrénees region in France. It is near Condom-en-Armagnac. It was founded in 1274 by Gerald V, Count of Armagnac, and the Cistercian Abbey of Flaran as a Bastide (a fortified city). In 1999, 1151 people lived there. There is an old cisercian abbey at the place. Today the abbey serves as a cultural center. There is also a public washing basin, and a port, where ships can land.
Suspension bridge

A **suspension bridge** is a type of bridge that has been made since ancient times as early as 100 AD. Some simple suspension bridges, for use by pedestrians and livestock, are still constructed, based upon the ancient Inca rope bridge.  

Suspended from two high locations over a river or canyon, simple suspension bridges follow a shallow downward arc and are not suited for modern roads and railroads.  

The design of the modern suspended-deck suspension bridge was developed in the early 19th century. It can cross a longer span than other kinds of bridges. 

The Akashi Kaikyō Bridge is the world's longest suspension bridge. 

## References 
## Other websites 
* Sructurae, Suspension Bridges
* Bridgemeister, Suspension Bridges
Arcade

:*This is about an architecture. For the game arcade, check Video arcades.*
In architecture, an **Arcade** is a passage or a walkway that is covered by arches or vaults. It can also be a covered walkway with arches (towards a  or a street).
## Images 

Image:Alsterarkaden.wmt.jpg|Arcades on the Alster in Hamburg
Image:Casa-peso.jpg|The casa peso, which was an money exchange office during fairs at Medina del Campo, Spain
Image:Pasajul Macca 2.jpg|An arcade in Bucharest
Image:DirkvdM havana gallery.jpg|A sunlit arcade in a school in Havana, Cuba
Image:Acueducto2 Lou.jpg|The roman Aqueduct in Segovia, Spain
Image:MuensterPrinzipalmarkt09.JPG|The market place in Münster, Germany

Image:Münzhof-München.jpg|Arcades giving on a cosed square. This is the Münzhof in Munich
Camouflage (disambiguation)

**Camouflage** can mean:
* Camouflage: protective colouration of living things
* Military camouflage used for uniforms, vehicles and ships
* Camouflage (band), a German synth-pop band
* *Camouflage (book)*, a science fiction novel by Joe Haldeman
* *Camouflage (TV series)* short-lived U.S. game show on TV from 1961 to 1962
* A song by Stan Ridgway from 1986 ("I was a PFC on a search patrol hunting Charlie down...")
Military camouflage

**Military camouflage** is a type of clothing, fabric covering, or painted pattern used by militaries and armies to make it harder to see soldiers and weapons such as artillery guns and military vehicles. Camouflage clothes, fabric coverings, and paint use a colored pattern of several colors that is designed to blend in with the surroundings. Camouflage patterns are also used for hunting clothes.

## Types of camouflage patterns 
Camouflage patterns used in desert areas, are beige and light brown. Camouflage patterns used in forested areas, mix different green and brown colors. Camouflage patterns used in urban areas mix grey, white, and black colors. Camouflage for snowy areas use white colors to blend in with the snow.

## History 
Camouflage became an important part of modern military tactics when the accuracy of rifles and cannons improved at the end of the 1800s. But armies continued to use bright colours and designs until the 20th century. During World War II camouflage became a common feature in military uniforms. As well, many military vehicles such as planes and trucks were painted with camouflage patterns.

Different countries use different types of military camouflage patterns.

## References
*Alan Raven - The Development of Naval Camouflage 1914 – 1945
*Roy R. Behrens - Art and Camouflage: An Annotated Bibliography 
*U.S. Army manual FM 21-76 on camouflage 
*Guy Hartcup - Camouflage: A History of Concealment and Deception in War (1980)
*WWII War Department Field Manual FM 5-20B: Camouflage of Vehicles (1944)
*
*
*
*History of British Military Uniforms. 

## Other websites
*Henrik Clausen 
*Kamouflage.net
*Crye Precision's Multicam multi-environment pattern
*Roggenwolf digital camouflage 
*Hyperstealth Biotechnology fractal camouflage
SketchUp

**SketchUp** is a 3D modelling program made for architects, engineers, and movie-makers. It is easier to use than most programs used for three dimensional drawings. SketchUp was created by the company @Last Software and released in August 2000. In 2006, @Last Software was bought by Google. They released SketchUp6 in January 2007. SketchUp6 can use add-ons that let things that were built with the program be made into files that can be used with Google Earth. In 2012, SketchUp was bought by Trimble Navigation. 

## Other websites 
*SketchUp official website
Coulomb

The **coulomb** (symbol: **C**) is the SI unit of electric charge. It is named after Charles-Augustin de Coulomb.

The coulomb is a quantity of electric charge. The movement of electric charge is called current in an electric circuit. For example, a flashlight bulb that has a current of one ampere will pass one coulomb of charge every second. So in ten seconds, ten coulombs have passed through the light bulb.

In an electric wire the charge that moves is in a particle called the electron. Each electron has a very small electric charge of negative one elementary charge. The elementary charge is the smallest electric charge found in a stable particle. A coulomb is equal to 6,241,509,629,152,650,000 elementary charges. The coulomb was named in honor of Charles-Augustin de Coulomb who worked on understanding electric charge in the late 1700s.

There are many SI prefixes that can be used with the coulomb. Some examples prefixes used with the coulomb are the femtocoulomb (fC) and the megacoulomb (MC).

Technical Definition:

1 coulomb is the amount of electric charge carried by a current of 1 ampere flowing for 1 second. 
: 1 \ \mathrm{C} = 1 \ \mathrm{A} \cdot 1 \ \mathrm{s}
Valence (Charente)

:*This article is about a village in Poutou-Charentes, other meanings of the word are at Valence*
**Valence** is a village in France, in Poitou-Charentes. It is near Angoulême. In 1999, 240 people lived there.
Belgrade Philharmonic Orchestra

The **Belgrade Philharmonic Orchestra** is an orchestra based in Belgrade, Serbia.  It was founded in 1923. Its founder was Stevan Hristić, one of the most important Serbian composers and conductors. The  first concert of the Belgrade Philharmonic Orchestra took place on  April 28, 1923 with Hristić conducting.

The orchestra was the best orchestra in Yugoslavia.  By the 1960s it had become one of the best orchestras in Europe.  Then, during the 1990s there were wars in the areas which made up Yugoslavia.  For a time the orchestra were not allowed to play abroad.  It was a difficult time for them, and many players left.

In 2000, with Belgrade now the capital city of Serbia, the orchestra was built up again.  Many new players from other countries joined the orchestra, most of them were young.  Their concert hall was rebuilt.  They have worked with famous people such as Zubin Mehta, Sarah Chang and Nigel Kennedy.

However, the orchestra are facing difficult times again.  They need more money.  In 2009 they advertised in the city's newspapers that they were available to play at weddings, funerals, baptisms, divorces and saints' days.  Some people thought the advertisement was not the right thing for the orchestra to do, but it has attracted support from many young people.

## References
Futrono

of Futrono.]]
 of Futrono.]]
**Futrono** is one of the 12 municipalities in the province of Valdivia, in the region of Los Lagos of Chile. It is located on the north side of the Ranco lake, but the town of Futrono is not on the shore.

This place was a territory of mapuches indigenous. They called this town, *Futronohue*. Then, it becomes a port used to transport things to Puerto Nuevo, and after that to La Unión. In 1941, the municipality was created and that made it grow in population.

Now, Futrono has much more activity, for example; agriculture, tourism and high quality furniture companies.
Tigranes the Great

**Tigranes II**, more commonly known as **Tigranes the Great** (Armenian: Տիգրան Մեծ, *Tigran Mets*; Ancient Greek: Τιγράνης ὁ Μέγας *Tigránes ho Mégas*; Latin: *Tigranes Magnus*) was an Armenian king, from between 95 and 55 BCE. Tigranes's period, Kingdom of Armenia became, for a short time, most strongest and super power state to Rome's east. He was a member of the Artaxiad dynasty.

Tigranes was born around 140 BCE and was the son or nephew of Artavasdes I or Tigranes I.

Tigranes the Great represented the Artaxiad Royal House.

He was involved in many battles during his reign. He had battles against the Parthian, Seleucid, and Roman empires.

## Related pages 
* Kingdom of Armenia (Antiquity) (Expanded lands massively)

## References 
## Sources 
* 
*
George Canning

**George Canning** PC, FRS (11 April 1770 &ndash; 8 August 1827) was a British statesman and politician who was Foreign Secretary and, briefly, Prime Minister.

## Entry into politics 
Stratford Canning was a Whig and would introduce his nephew in the 1780s to prominent Whigs such as Charles James Fox, Edmund Burke, and Richard Brinsley Sheridan. George Canning's friendship with Sheridan would last for the remainder of Sheridan's life.
Chester city walls

The **Chester city walls** are big intact defensive walls around an important English city of Chester. The city has been defended with walls since the foundation of the Deva Victrix fort on the site in 79.

## History
The first walls were built to help the Roman fort in 79, although these were replaced by stronger stone walls between the 1st and 3rd century. The walls enclosed a far smaller area than the modern walls, with the south-western corner much farther from the River Dee.
Physicalism

**Physicalism** is the view that everything in the universe is made out of physical matter. Physicalism does not believe in gods, spirits, or other things that are not made of physical material.  A person who believes in physicalism is a physicalist. Materialism and physicalism are very similar concepts, because physicalism was a response to materialism. Physicalism is against idealism, which states that everything comes from mental processes.

## References
Herd

]]

A **herd** is a large group of animals. The term is used for mammals, particularly hoofed animals. Herding is a good example of collective animal behavior. Other terms are used for similar types of behavior in other types of animal. For example, a large group of birds is usually called a *flock* (this may also refer to certain mammals as well) and a large group of carnivores is usually called a *pack*. 

In addition, special collective nouns may be used for particular cases: for example a flock of geese, if not in flight, is sometimes called a gaggle. However, in theoretical discussions in behavioural ecology, the term "herd" is used for all these kinds of assemblage. A herd may also refer to one that tends and cares for such groups (e.i. shepherds tend to sheep, and goatherds tend to goats, etc.).

When an association of animals (or, by extension, people) is described as a "herd", that means that the group tends to act together (for example, all moving in the same direction at a given time), but that this does not occur as a result of planning or co-ordination. Rather, each individual is choosing behaviour that corresponds to that of the majority of other members, possibly through imitation or possibly because all are responding to the same external circumstances. A herd can be contrasted with a co-ordinated group where individuals have distinct roles. Many human groupings, such as an army detachments or sports teams, show such co-ordination and differentiation of roles, but so do some animal groupings such as those of eusocial insects, which are co-ordinated through pheromones and other forms of animal communication. Conversely, some human groupings may behave more like herds.

## Related pages 
*Collective animal behaviour
Ungulate

**Ungulates** (meaning roughly "hoofed animal") are several groups of mammals. Most of them use the tips of their toes, usually as hooves, to support their body weight while moving.  

As a descriptive term, "ungulate" normally excludes cetaceans (whales, dolphins, porpoises), because they do not have most of the typical morphological characteristics of ungulates. However, recent discoveries show that the Cetacea were descended from early artiodactyls. 

Ungulates are typically herbivorous and many use specialised gut flora to digest cellulose. Some modern species, such as pigs, are omnivorous. Some prehistoric species, such as the Mesonychia, were carnivorous.

Ungulates include odd-toed ungulates such as horses, rhinoceroses and tapirs, and even-toed ungulates such as cattle, pigs, giraffes, camels, sheep, deer, and hippopotamuses. Cetaceans are also even-toed ungulates although they do not have hooves. 

## References
## Related pages
* Even-toed ungulate
* Odd-toed ungulate
Herd (disambiguation)

A herd is a large group of animals.  **Herd** may also refer to:

In **zoology**:

* Bachelor herd, gatherings of juvenile male animals who are still sexually immature
* Herding, the act of bringing individual animals together into a group
* Herding dog, dog that either has been trained in herding or that is a member of a breed developed for herding

In **sports**:

* David Herd (footballer), Scottish former football player
* Fred Herd, Scottish professional golfer from St Andrews
* Sandy Herd, Scottish professional golfer from St Andrews

In **psychology**:

* Herd behavior, situations in which a group of individuals react coherently without there being any co-ordination between them
* Herding instinct, social tendency in humans to identify with and model many behaviors and beliefs after a larger group of individuals with whom they identify

In **music**:

* The Herd (album), the self-titled first album from the Australian hip hop band
* The Herd (band), Australian hip hop outfit from the suburbs of Sydney
* The Herd (UK band), English pop group

In **other fields**:

* David Herd (anthologist), Scottish anthologist
* Herding Cats, phrase
* Richard Herd, American character actor in television and film
* Herd (film), a short film directed by Mike Mitchell (director)
Aylesbury

**Aylesbury** is the county town of Buckinghamshire in south central England. It had a population in 2001 of 65,173. Aylesbury is near London. Aylesbury was a major market town in Anglo-Saxon times. Aylesbury replaced Buckingham as the county town of Buckinghamshire in 1529 by order of King Henry VIII.

It is home to the Roald Dahl Children's Gallery and, since 2010, the 1,200 seat Waterside Theatre. 

It is a popular London commuter town, thanks to its easy access to the A41, directly leading to the M25. As well as this, it is easy to take the train directly from Aylesbury to London to marleybonne

## References
Landsberg Prison

** Landsberg Prison** is a prison in the town of Landsberg am Lech in the southwest of the German state of Bavaria. It is about  west of Munich.

## History
The Landsberg Prison was built around 1910 on the town's western edge. Its most noted prisoner was Adolf Hitler. Hitler was there in 1924 after being found guilty of treason for his part in the Beer Hall Putsch. It was during his time at Landsberg that Hitler wrote his book *Mein Kampf* (*My Struggle*) with help from Rudolf Hess. During the occupation of Germany by the Allies after World War II, the US Army named the prison as "War Criminal Prison No. 1". They held many Nazi war criminals there. Executions of war criminals were also done at Landsberg. The last of these executions happened on June 8, 1951. These were the last executions in the Federal Republic of Germany, then commonly known as West Germany.

## Related pages
* Beer Hall Putsch

## References
## Other websites
* Landsberg "The Hitlertown": The City of Youth
Augusta, Georgia

**Augusta** is a city in the state of Georgia. As of 2020, the population was 202,081. In 1996, the governments of the City of Augusta and Richmond County combined to form the *Augusta-Richmond County*. The consolidated city-county is today simply known as "Augusta, Georgia". The area that makes up the city of Augusta includes almost all of Richmond County, except for the towns of Hephzibah and Blythe. These towns have their own governments separate from that of Augusta.

Augusta is on the Georgia/South Carolina border. It is about 150 miles east of Atlanta. It is the second largest city and second largest metropolitan area in the state. Augusta is the birthplace of the Southern Baptist denomination. It is also the location of Springfield Baptist Church, the oldest African-American Baptist church in the United States. The city is famous for its golf course, the Augusta National Golf Club which is home to the first major golf tournament of each year, The Masters.

The city was named for Augusta, Princess of Wales, daughter-in-law of King George II of Great Britain and mother of King George III of Great Britain. It was the second state capital of Georgia from 1785 until 1795

Augusta's official nickname is *The Garden City*. It is also known as *Masters City*, because of the Masters golf tournament.

## References 
## Other websites 
* City of Augusta Homepage
* Augusta Metropolitan Convention and Visitors Bureau
Midi-Pyrénées

**Midi-Pyrénées** ( or *Mieidia-Pirenèus*) is a former administrative region of France. It is now part of the administrative region of Occitanie. It is part of the historical region of Occitania.

The name of the region is not based on any old name, like in most other regions, but on the geography of the region, **Midi** (meaning "southern France") - **Pyrénées** (Pyrenees mountains that are the highest mountains in the region). The French adjective and name of the people living in the region is *Midi-Pyrénéen*.

The departments in the region were Ariège, Aveyron, Haute-Garonne, Gers, Lot, Hautes-Pyrénées, Tarn, and Tarn-et-Garonne. Its capital was Toulouse.

## Geography
The Midi-Pyrénées region is the largest region of Metropolitan France. It had an area of . It bordered to the south with Spain and Andorra. It also bordered four French regions: Aquitaine to the west, Limousin to the north, Auvergne to the northeast and Languedoc-Roussillon to the east.

The region can be divided into three landscape zones:
* The south is dominated by the high mountains of the Pyrenees.
* The north-east and the north are part of the highlands of the Massif Central
* The central and north-western parts of the region, however, are flat. This zone is dominated by the Garonne river and its tributaries, which drains most of the region to the Atlantic Ocean.

The Pic Vignemale (), at , is the highest point of the Midi-Pyrénées region; it is on the border with Spain. The Vignemale is in the Pyrénées National Park.

The main rivers of the region are the Garonne river, that flows through the Haute-Garonne, Hautes-Pyrénées and Tarn-et-Garonne departments; and the Adour river, that flows through the Hautes-Pyrénées and Gers departments.

## Departments
The Midi-Pyrénées region was formed by eight departments:

## Demographics
In 2012, The Midi-Pyrénées region had a population of 2,926,592. Its population density was  inhabitants/km2.
]]

The 10 most important cities in the region were:

## Gallery

File:Massif de Tabe 280.jpg|Massif of Tabe, Ariège
File:Vioulou2.jpg|Vioulou stream, Aveyron
File:FR-32-Landscape6.JPG|Sunflowers in Gers
File:Le Salat à Roquefort-sur-Garonne 1.jpg|Salat river, Haute-Garonne
File:Lac du Milieu de Bastan Hautes Pyrénées 02 BLS.JPG|Middle Lake of Bastan, Hautes-Pyrénées
File:Le Lot Cahors 2.jpg|Lot river in Lot
(Albi) Cité épiscopale d'Albi - Le palais de la Berbie et la cathédrale Ste Cécile.jpg|Albi, Tarn
File:Montauban - le Pont Vieux.jpg|Montauban, Tarn-et-Garonne

## References
## Other websites
* Regional Council of Midi-Pyrénées official website  
* france.fr - Official website of France 
* About-France.com: MIDI-PYRENEES - a short guide
Alsace

**Alsace** (Alsatian and Alemannic German: *Elsàss*, pre-1996 German: *Elsaß*) is an administrative region of France. In 2021, the departments of Bas-Rhin and Haut-Rhin, in France's Grand Est  administrative region, were combined to form the current **European Collectivity of Alsace**. The new entity is a territorial collectivity with all of the powers of a standard department, plus some of the powers of a French region. Alsace is on the eastern border of France, on the west bank of the Upper Rhine, next to Germany and Switzerland. 

Before the region merged with Champagne-Ardenne and Lorraine in 2014, data from INSEE stated that about 1.8 million people lived there as of 2013. Its capital was Strasbourg, the largest city. It changed hands between France and Germany many times. Language, cuisine, music, dress and customs were Germanic, and very close to the Swabian ones across the Rhine. The overall culture was generally more German than French, being somewhere between German and French.  

Alsace was part of the Holy Roman Empire and was still inhabited by people speaking a dialect of Upper German.  In the 17th century, all of Alsace was annexed (in steps) under King Louis XIV of France. He made it one of the provinces of France. 

The Treaty of Verdun had divided the empire of Charlemagne in the 9th century, eventually causing Alsace to be frequently mentioned in conjunction with Lorraine, because the possession of these two *régions* (as *Alsace-Lorraine*) was often contested in the 19th and 20th centuries. 

## References
## Other websites
Lorraine

**Lorraine** () is a former administrative region in the northeast of France. It is now part of the administrative region of Grand Est. In 2012, the population was 2,356,600.

Lorraine's capital was Metz.

The most important population centres were Nancy and Metz, with about 300,000 people each, followed by Thionville, with about 130,000. Other important cities were Epinal and Bar-le-Duc.

The departments in the region were Meurthe-et-Moselle, Meuse, Moselle, and Vosges.

## Other websites
Regions of France

France is divided into 18 administrative **regions** (*regions*). These regions are a kind of local government.

Thirteen regions are in Metropolitan France (the part of the country that is in Europe). Each region contains a few of the Departments of France. Corsica has a different status than the other 12 metropolitan regions. It is called *collectivist territorial*. Five regions are overseas.

The Law of Decentralization in 1982 created 27 regions. In 2016, some regions were combined and there are now 18. 

 

## References
Melun

**Melun** is a city in France. It is the capital of the Seine-et-Marne department, in the Île-de-France region of France. The city is about 40&nbsp;kilometres southeast of Paris, in a bend of the river Seine. Between Brie and Gâtinais. It is between 37&nbsp;metres and 102&nbsp;metres of above the sea. At the last count in 1999, 37.500 people lived there.

The city is home to the production of the Brie de Melun, a saltier variant of the Brie de Meaux. A school for police officers has been in the city since 1945. Other than that there are pharmaceuitical and aviation industries and a prison complex in the city.

The first historical mention of the city is in 52BC, as *Melodunum*. The modern name of the city comes from the name it had in the 6th century, *Meluneum*. Clovis I makes a duchy out of the city. He also has fortifications built. The city gains new importance. The city is also prone to raids of the vikings, most notably those in 852 and 866.

When the département Seine-et-Marne was formed on the 4th March 1790, Melun became its capital.

## Education 
A campus of the École nationale de l'aviation civile (French civil aviation academy) is in Melun.

## Transports 
* Melun Villaroche Aerodrome

## Images

File:SEINE A MELUN 3.jpg|The river Seine at Melun
File:Almontmelun.jpg|The river Almont flows into the Seine at Melun
File:Melun - Hôtel de ville - 20051111.jpg|City hall
File:Staspais melun.jpg|St. Aspais quarter
File:PRIEURE SAINT SAUVEUR A MELUN.jpg|Priory St. Sauveur
File:Ile st etienne melun 2006.jpg|Ile St. Etienne
File:Astrolabe et paris 1.jpg|Branch of the university of Paris I, in Melun
Lower Normandy

**Lower Normandy** (called *Basse-Normandie* in French) is a former  administrative Regions of France.  It is now part of the region of Normandy. The capital city was Caen. In 2007 about 1.4 million people lived there.

Lower Normandy became a region in 1956. The old region of Normandy was split into Lower Normandy and Upper Normandy. The departments in the region were Calvados, Manche, and Orne.

The economy is centered on agriculture. Cider is made there and livestock is farmed. There is a bit of textile industry as well. It was the first region of France when it comes to producing butter, cheese and horses. The west part of the region is used mainly for farming, because of the prairies. Camembert, Pont-l'évêque and Livarot cheeses come from this region.
Assyrian genocide

The **Assyrian genocide**, also known as the **Sayfo**, was a genocide led by the Ottoman Empire with the help of allied Kurdish tribes, where 250,000 to 300,000 Assyrians were killed.

## Etymology
The Assyrians call the Assyrian genocide *Sayfo*, the Aramaic word for *sword*.

## Background
### History of Assyrians
#### Ancient times
Since ancient times, during their conquest by the Babylonians, the Assyrians have not have had their own nation and have had a diaspora that has spread over the world to many different countries. 

#### Ottoman Empire
The Ottomans oppressed the Assyrians, took away their independence and forced them to assimilate to their empire. Those who have survived keep their common unity, especially in their deep Christian faith. Many Assyrians were considered "impure" by the Ottoman Turks and were massacred for refusing to renounce Christianity to become Muslims. 

Assyrians lost their homes and possessions to the Red Sultan, Abdul Hamid II. Even before the genocide, they had been persecuted and forced to pay high taxes. Most killings happened between 1915 and 1917. The Assyrian population of northern Mesopotamia included the Van, Siirt, Tur Abdin and Hakkari regions of present-day southeastern Turkey and the Urmia region of present-day northwestern Iran. 

The Assyrians were forcibly relocated and massacred by Ottoman and Kurdish forces between 1914 and 1920 under the regime of the Young Turks. Under leadership of Djevdet Bey, the Ottoman governor, at least 55,000 Assyrian Christians were martyred. He is considered responsible for the massacres of Armenians and Assyrians in and around Vilayet of Van province.

## Death toll
Scholars have placed the number of Assyrian victims from 250,000 to 300,000.

## Concurrent genocides
The Assyrian genocide took place in the same context and period as the Armenian and Greek genocides. But unlike the last two, no official national or international recognition of the Assyrian genocide has been made, and many accounts discuss the Assyrian genocide only as a part of the larger events subsumed under the Armenian genocide.

## Related pages
* The Holocaust
* Bosnian genocide
* Assyrian continuity
* Rwandan genocide
* Cambodian genocide

## Footnotes
## References
Alternative rock

**Alternative rock**  is a type of rock music that started between 1979-1981 and popular by the early 1990s rock is made up of various subgenres that have come out of the indie music scene since the 1980s, such as grunge, indie rock, Britpop, gothic rock, and indie pop.  

These genres are sorted by their collective types of punk, which laid the groundwork for alternative music in the 1970s. 

Examples of alternative rock bands include R.E.M., Nirvana, Radiohead, Oasis, Coldplay, and Imagine Dragons.

## Artists
* Default
* Three Days Grace
* Sun Kil Moon
* Creed
* Story of the Year
* Kutless
* Secondhand Serenade
* The Red Jumpsuit Apparatus
* Deep Blue Something
* Counting Crows
* Sixpence None the Richer
* The Verve Pipe

## References
Poitou-Charentes

**Poitou-Charentes** is a former administrative region of France. It is now part of the administrative region of Nouvelle-Aquitaine. It was in the west, bordering the Atlantic. Its capital was Poitiers. In 2007 about 1.7 million people lived in the region.

The departments in the region were Charente, Charente-Maritime, Deux-Sèvres and Vienne.

The region is well known for making wines. It is better known for its spirits, such as Cognac and Pineau. There is also some tourism and a little agriculture.

## Other websites
* A short guide to the Poitou Charentes region
Nord-Pas-de-Calais

**Nord-Pas-de-Calais** (sometimes also **Nord-Pas de Calais**)  used to be an administrative region of France. It is now part of the administrative region of Hauts-de-France. Its prefecture was Lille. In 2012, four million people lived there (365,000 in the urban area of Lille).

The two departments in the region were Nord and Pas-de-Calais.

The local economy was based on carbon, steel and textiles. The secondary sector (industry) employed 33.8% (of an 28.9% national average). Unemployment was at 12.9 per cent (9.8% national average). Structural investment in the TGV and the Channel Tunnel has shown some improvement though. The tourism industry does well thanks to the border with Belgium and closeness to England.

## Other websites