open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Silicone

**Silicones** () are polymers that include any inert, synthetic compound made up of repeating units of siloxane. This is a functional group of two silicon atoms and one oxygen atom frequently combined with carbon and/ or hydrogen.  They are typically heat-resistant and rubber-like. Silicones are used in sealants, adhesives, lubricants, medicine, cooking utensils, and thermal and electrical insulation. Some common forms include silicone oil, silicone grease, silicone rubber, silicone resin, and silicone caulk. Silicone is also used for cosmetics. Silicones are compounds containing the element silicon (), but have very different properties from the pure element.

## References
ISO 3166-2

**ISO 3166-2** is part of the ISO 3166 standard. It was made by the International Organization for Standardization. For each country listed in ISO 3166-1, ISO 3166-2 defines its provinces with two or three letter codes, or numbers.

## Current codes
Below is a full table of the ISO 3166-2 codes for each country, with three columns:
* **Entry** &mdash; ISO 3166-2 entry for the country, indexed by its ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code
* **Country name** &mdash; English short country name used by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA)
* **Subdivisions assigned codes** &mdash; Subdivisions currently given codes in ISO 3166-2; if there are more than one level of subdivisions, the first-level subdivisions are shown in *italics*

## References
Notostraca

The order **Notostraca** has just two living genera in it. *Triops* and *Lepidura*. The two genera are considered 'living fossils', as they have not changed in outward form since the Triassic.

Notostracans, or **tadpole shrimps**, are omnivores living on the bottom of temporary pools and shallow lakes. They live in pools of water on every continent except Antarctica. They grow very quickly, and can reach adulthood in a week. *Triops* only live for a short time; a record-breaking female only lived to be 100 *days*. When their pools dry up,adult tadpole shrimp die. Their eggs, however, stop developing for a time. When they are in water again, they come to life, and new *Triops* are hatched. This is because of a state known as diapause, where eggs can lie dormant for up to twenty years before hatching again.

## Evolution and fossil record
The fossil record of Notostraca is extensive. They occur in a wide range of geological deposits, reaching back to the Carboniferous. The lack of major morphological change since 250 million years ago has led to Notostraca being described as living fossils.

The Notostraca abandoned filter feeding in open water, and took up a benthic lifestyle in muddy waters, taking up food from particles of sediment and preying on small animals.

Notostracans keep the ancient condition of having two separate compound eyes. These touch but do not become united, as does happens in other groups of Branchiopods.

## References
Diatom

**Diatoms** are a type of algae (tiny plant-like living things often found in water). Most are single cells, but some form chains or simple colonies. They usually live in the ocean, but are also found in some soils and waterways. 

## Characteristics 
### Cell walls 
Diatom cells have unique cell walls made of silica (SiO2). These walls (called "frustules") take many forms, some quite beautiful and ornate.  

The name "diatom" comes from the ancient Greek word *diátomos*, which means 'cut through.' Diatom cell walls are usually split (or 'cut through') into two sides. 

### Function 
Living diatoms comprise about 20 to 50 percent of the oxygen produced annually. They take in over 6.7 billion metric tons of silicon each year from the waters in which they live.

### Similar organisms 
Diatoms and coccoliths are the two great groups of single-celled organisms in the sea. They do not grow in the same places, because diatoms are silica and coccoliths are made of calcium carbonate. T.H. Huxley first discovered this on his voyage on *HMS Rattlesnake* in 18461850.

## Evolution 
Archeologists have found diatom fossils from as far back as the Lower Jurassic period, around 185 million years ago. However, molecular clock evidence suggests that they developed even earlier. 

Scientists have analyzed the entire genomes of two diatom species. The analysis revealed both species had hundreds of genes that came from bacteria.

Diatoms probably evolved some of their structure from red algae.

## Uses 
Diatoms have some practical uses. Scientists can study it to determine water quality, monitor environmental conditions like pollution, and understand what past environments were like.

Diatom communities are also of interest to nanotechnology.

## References
Decapitation

kings of ancient Kangleipak civilisation]]
**Decapitation** or **beheading** is the act of cutting off the head from the rest of the body of a living thing. *Beheading* usually means that the removal of the head is deliberate. It is generally done during an execution with an axe, sword, or guillotine. If the removal of the head is an accident or unintentional, it is called *decapitation*. It can happen because of an auto accident, explosion, factory accident, a mistake during a hanging or some other violent accident.

Decapitation is always fatal, that is, the result is always death. This is because it causes all other organs to stop receiving nervous signals from the brain that are needed to function, while the supply of blood, and therefore oxygen, to the brain itself is also cut off.

Decapitation can also describe the removal of a head from a body that is already dead. In these situations, the head is usually a trophy or a public display of warning.

Beheading was the usual means of death penalty in Scandinavian countries in the past. Noblemen were beheaded with a sword, commoners with an axe. The last execution by beheading in Finland occurred in 1822, when a farmhand Tahvo Putkonen was beheaded for murder. The last beheading in Sweden occurred in 1910, when Johan Andersson-Ander was guillotined for murder. Also Germany, France and Belgium favoured beheading in the past. In those countries was carried out by guillotine.

Last beheading in Europe occurred 1977, when a Tunisian murderer Hamida Djandoubi was guillotined in France. 

Some countries, especially Arab countries or former French colonies, still use beheading as the means of execution. In Saudi Arabia, the convicts are beheaded with a sword.

The executioner who performs beheadings is called a **headsman**.

## History
The kingdom of Saudi Arabia has had centuries of public beheadings, but in 2013 is considering firing squads as an alternative means of execution.

## Famous people who have been beheaded 
 Blackbeard's head was displayed as a trophy after his death]]

### Biblical 
*Goliath
*John the Baptist in the Gospels
*Holofernes in the Book of Judith
*Apostle James, traditionally
*Apostle Paul, traditionally

### China 
*Guan Yu

### England 
*Anne Boleyn (1536)
*Catherine Howard (1542)
*Lady Jane Grey (1554)
*Mary, Queen of Scots (1587) 
*Sir Walter Raleigh (1618)
*Charles I, King of England and Scotland (1649)
*Blackbeard (1718)

### The Colonial Americas 
*Panama: Vasco Núñez de Balboa (1519)

### Frisia 
*Wijerd Jelckama

### French Revolution 
*Marie Antoinette
*Louis XVI of France
*Madame du Barry
*Maximilien Robespierre

### Iraq 
*Shosei Koda
*Kim Sun-il
*Kenneth Bigley
*Nick Berg
*Eugene Armstrong
*Jack Hensley
*Maher Kemal
*Barzan Ibrahim al-Tikriti

### Switzerland 
*Wildhans von Breitenlandenberg and 61 companions following the siege of Greifensee during the Old Zürich War (1444).

### Saudi Arabia 
*Paul Marshall Johnson, Jr.

## Related pages
*Execution
*Guillotine

## References
Oxfordshire

**Oxfordshire** (short **Oxon**, from the Latinised form *Oxonia*) is a county in the South East of England, bordering on Northamptonshire, Buckinghamshire, Berkshire, Wiltshire, Gloucestershire, and Warwickshire.

It is divided into five local government districts: Oxford, Cherwell, Vale of the White Horse (after the *Uffington White Horse*), *West Oxfordshire* and *South Oxfordshire*.

The county has a major tourism industry. The area is known for the concentration of motorsport companies and facilities. Oxford University Press has headed a concentration of print and publishing firms; the university is also linked to the concentration of local biotechnology companies.

The main centre of population is the city of Oxford. Other significant settlements are Bicester, Banbury, and Chipping Norton to the north of Oxford; Witney to the west; Thame and Chinnor to the east; and Abingdon, Wantage, Didcot and Henley-on-Thames to the south. Future population growth in the county is hoped to be concentrated around Banbury, Bicester, Didcot and Witney, near the South Midlands growth area.

The highest point of the county is Whitehorse Hill, in the Vale of White Horse, reaching 856&nbsp;feet (261m).

## History
The county of Oxfordshire was formed in the early years of the 10th century.

Historically the area has always had some importance, it has been good agricultural land resting between the main southern cities and Oxford (whose name came from Anglo-Saxon *Oxenaford* = "ford for oxen"). The area was part of the Cotswolds wool trade from the 13th century. The Great Western Railway reached Didcot in 1839. Morris Motors was founded in Oxford in 1912 and MG in Abingdon in 1929. The importance of agriculture as an employer has gone down in the 20th century; today less than one percent of the county's population are involved.

The Vale of the White Horse and parts of South Oxfordshire south of the River Thames were historically part of Berkshire, but were added to the administrative county in 1974.

## Towns and cities
* Abingdon (In Berkshire until 1974)
* Banbury
* Bicester
* Burford
* Carterton
* Chipping Norton
* Didcot (In Berkshire until 1974)
* Faringdon (In Berkshire until 1974)
* Henley-on-Thames
* Oxford
* Thame
* Wallingford (In Berkshire until 1974)
* Wantage (In Berkshire until 1974)
* Witney
* Woodstock

## Places of interest
*  Blenheim Palace — UNESCO World Heritage Site
*  Chinnor & Princes Risborough Railway — A heritage railway operated with steam and diesel locomotives
*  Cholsey and Wallingford Railway
* Cotswold Wildlife Park and Gardens
*  Didcot Railway Centre — Museum of the Great Western Railway
*
*  Kelmscott Manor — Home of William Morris
*   Oxford
*  River and Rowing Museum
*  River Thames
*  Rousham House and Gardens
*  Wallingford Museum

## Related pages
* University of Oxford (including links to the individual colleges).
* Oxford Canal
* Blewbury

## Other websites 
* Oxfordshire County Council 
* Results of the 2005 county council election 
* Thisisoxfordshire Oxfordshire news, sport & information
* Flags of Oxfordshire
Dmitri Mendeleev

**Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev** (born 8 February  (O.S. 27 January) 1834 near Tobolsk – 2 February (O.S. 20 January 20) 1907 in Saint Petersburg) was a Russian chemist who created the periodic table of elements. Many of the predictions made in his periodic table (such as the properties of elements undiscovered at the time) were later proved correct by experiments. Chemical element 101 was named Mendelevium in his honor.

## Life 
Mendeleev was born in the village of Verkhnie Aremzyani, near Tobolsk in Siberia,to Ivan Pavlovich Mendeleev and Maria Dmitrievna Mendeleeva (née Kornilieva). His grandfather was Pavel Maximovich Sokolov, a priest of Russian Orthodox Church from the Tver region. Ivan, with his brothers and sisters, got new family names while attending theological seminary. Later in life, he invented the periodic table of elements in the year 1861,

Mendeleev is thought to be the youngest of 14 siblings, but the exact number differs between sources. At the age of 13, after the death of his father and the destruction of his mother's factory by fire, Mendeleev attended the Gymnasium in Tobolsk.

In 1849, the now poor Mendeleev family went to Saint Petersburg, where he entered the Main Pedagogical Institute in 1850. After graduation, tuberculosis caused him to move to the Crimean Peninsula on the northern coast of the Black Sea in 1855. While there he became a science master of the Simferopol gymnasium №1. He returned with fully restored health to Saint Petersburg in 1857.

## Periodic Table 
Others in the 1860s suggested that elements group together. For example, John Newlands, published his Law of Octaves in 1865. The lack of spaces for undiscovered elements and the placing of two elements in one box were criticized and his ideas were not accepted. Another was Lothar Meyer, who published a work in 1864, describing 28 elements. Neither attempted to predict new elements. In 1863 there were 56 known elements with a new element being discovered at a rate of approximately one each year.

## Other achievements 
Mendeleev made other important contributions to chemistry. The Russian chemist and science historian L.A. Tchugayev called him "a chemist of genius, first-class physicist, a fruitful researcher in the fields of hydrodynamics, meteorology, geology, certain branches of chemical technology (explosives, petroleum, and fuels, for example) and other disciplines adjacent to chemistry and physics, a thorough expert of chemical industry and industry in general, and an original thinker in the field of economy". Mendeleev was one of the founders, in 1869, of the Russian Chemical Society. He worked on the theory and practice of protectionist trade and on agriculture.

## References
Millipede

**Millipedes** are a very long type of arthropod. Millipedes are segmented. Most have between 20 and over 100 segments, and have flattened bodies. Except for the first few segments, each segment has 2 pairs of legs, as a result of each segment being the fusing (coming together) of two.

So far, about 12,000 different species of millipedes have been described. with 10,000 identified, and there is an estimated 80,000 total species of millipede on Earth. The animals are detrivores, they eat what is left over from plants.

Most of the time, their food is decaying leaves and other dead plant matter. Millipedes are not poisonous, but many species have glands capable of producing irritating fluids that may cause allergic reactions in some individuals. This protects them from being constantly eaten because of their slow movement. Generally, they are not a pest, although young seedlings in greenhouses can be sometimes eaten by these creatures. *Xenobolus carnifex *is known for its common infestation of thatched roofs in India. Several species swarm houses and farms, causing damage.

Some millipedes have fangs that allow them to directly prey on plants.

The primary defense mechanism of millipedes is to roll up into a spiral-shaped circle, protecting their more delicate organs from being hurt by an armor-like skin. Millipedes can secrete liquids that can burn their predators for protection.

Bristly millipedes lack armor-like skin, and instead have bristles (small spiky hairs) that protect them from insects, like detaching a bristle when it goes through the body of an ant.

They can easily be told apart from centipedes because centipedes move faster, have only have one pair of legs per segment, and eat animals instead of just plants, although a very small amount of millipede species are omnivores, feeding on insects, earthworms, or snails.

Scientists who study millipedes are called diplopodologists, and the scientific study (like astronomy or biology) of millipedes is known as **diplopodology**.

A millipede species,* Pneumodesmus newmani,* was the first animal species to live constantly on land that lived 428 million years ago.

## Habitat 
Millipedes are the most common in temperate, wet deciduous forests, but are also often found in coniferous forests and high-altitude alpine environments, some species live in deserts, and even fewer in caves. Many live under stones, fallen leaves, and in woodpiles, plus other dark damp locations in forests.

Some species of bristly millipedes have been known to live in the common small cracks of tree bark. that they give out might cause minor irritation and burns on human skin. On the eyes, these can be much worse, and direct exposure can lead to serious medical issues.

They also appear in various folklore, remedies, and traditional usages around the world.

## References 
## Gallery

File:Pill_millipede.jpg|Pill Millipede, Western Ghats, India
File:Millipedes.jpg|A number of millipedes - found under a rock

## Other websites
*
Edward V of England

**Edward V** (2 November 1470 – 1483) was the King of England from 9 April 1483 to his  removal two months later, on 25 June 1483.
He is believed to have been murdered in 1483, possibly in August or September.

## Early life
Edward was born at Westminster while his father, King Edward IV of England, was in exile in Burgundy. King Henry VI said that his mother and his sisters would be safe if they stayed at Westminster Abbey.  When Edward IV came back and took over the throne again, Edward became his heir and was given the title "Prince of Wales". Edward IV thought it would be right for the Prince of Wales to rule Wales and so he sent little Prince Edward to live in Ludlow Castle, where the Council of Wales met.  The prince was helped by his uncle, Anthony Woodville, Earl Rivers, and began to learn how to be a ruler. His mother, Queen Elizabeth Woodville, was often with him, and his father, the king, also visited.

The prince spent most of his time at Ludlow until he was 12, when his father suddenly died. The prince had to go straight to London to take the throne, and his uncle, Earl Rivers, went with him. On the way, they were met by another of his uncles, Richard, Duke of Gloucester, who was a younger brother of Edward IV. Richard had been given the title of "Lord Protector" by Edward IV in the hope that he would look after Prince Edward until he was old enough to rule as king.

## Prisoner
Instead of arranging a coronation for the new king, Richard decided to take the throne for himself and became King Richard III. He sent Prince Edward to live in the Tower of London and to wait for his coronation. because Edward and his other brothers and sisters were declared illegitimate. After Edward IV's death, it was revealed that Edward had been engaged to a woman named Eleanor Butler and so his marriage to Elizabeth Woodville was seen as bigamy.

## Missing boys
After a few months, the two boys disappeared, and what happened to them is still a  today.  Most people think that the two boys were murdered,a nd they have become known as the "Princes in the Tower". It is most likely they were killed by their uncle, Richard III. It is also possible that they were killed by Henry VII, who became king two years later.

In 1674, during building work in the Tower, a wooden chest was found under a staircase in the White Tower. It contained the bones of two young boys. It has never been proved that these are the missing princes, but King Charles II stated that they were, and he had the bones buried in Westminster Abbey. In 1933, the bones were looked at again by scientists, who believed that they were the two princes.

## References
Angevin Empire

The **Angevin Empire** was a collection of states ruled by the Angevin Plantagenet dynasty. The Plantagenets, Henry II of England, Richard I of England, and John of England, ruled over an area from the Pyrenees to Ireland during the 12th and early 13th centuries. Their empire was roughly half of medieval France as well as all of England and Ireland. The name *Angevin* came from the French region and town of Anjou which was the home of the Plantagenet family.

## References
Pyrenees

The **Pyrenees** (; , ; ; ; ) are a range of mountains in southwest Europe that form a natural border between France and Spain. They separate the *Iberian Peninsula* from France, and extend for about 430&nbsp;km (267&nbsp;mi) from the Atlantic Ocean (Bay of Biscay) to the Mediterranean Sea (Cap de Creus).

## Other websites 
*Great Routes: Pirineos , from a website of the Instituto de Turismo de España
* Official website  of ''France's Pyrenees National Park''
* Cycling the French High Pyrenees and Ariege Pyrenees photos and video by steephill.tv bike travelogue
* The Aude and Pyrénées-Orientales  Online resource for the Aude & Pyrénées-Orientales departments of the Languedoc-Roussillon.
Dartmoor

and Tower Bridge in London]]

**Dartmoor** is a national park in Devon, a county in England. Its highest point is High Willhays, 621 metres high. This is the highest point in the south of England. It has a large area of moorland, and is very hilly. There is much woodland on its lower slopes.

Dartmoor is famous for its tors—outcrops of rock on top of many of its hills. These are the remains of volcanic activity in the Carboniferous period. 

Animal life on Dartmoor includes birds such as the ring ouzel and dunlin, and the endangered marsh fritillary butterfly. Its bogs are home to many unusual plants such as the sundew - false information  

On 2 August 2023, the Royal Marines reported that they lost a standard-issue SA80 rifle during a training exercise. It has not been found. 

s]]

## Other websites 
*Dartmoor National Park Authority 
*Ten Tors Official Website
Seppuku

**Seppuku** is a old Japanese ritual suicide where a samurai kills himself by cutting into his belly. After one had done so, a second person would cut off his head. It was thought that seppuku was an honorable way to die. Sometimes, it is called **hara-kiri**, which is translated from Japanese as *belly-cutting*.

Seppuku first developed in the 12th century as a means for samurai to achieve an honorable death. Swordsmen performed the ritual to avoid capture following battlefield defeats, but it also functioned as a means of protest and a way of expressing grief over the death of a revered leader. Beginning in the 1400s, seppuku evolved into a common form of capital punishment for samurai who had committed crimes. In each case, it was considered an act of extreme bravery and self-sacrifice that embodied Bushido, the ancient warrior code of the samurai. 

There was even a female version of seppuku called “jigai,” which involved cutting the throat using a special knife known as a “tanto.”

## Overview 
Seppuku was a key part of bushido, the honor code of the samurai warriors. It was used by warriors so that they would not fall into enemy hands and be shamed. It was possible also that a samurai received an order from his master to commit seppuku.  

Because seppuku was an honorable act, a warrior who was caught by the enemy was sometimes given the choice between seppuku and being executed. If he chose seppuku, he could protect his honor. Samurai women had to ask for permission to commit seppuku.

This act could be performed either with a ritual, or quietly on the battlefield while other warriors fight the enemy.

The main weapon used was the samurai's knife called tantō or the short sword, called wakizashi. A samurai who wants to commit seppuku would take the weapon, open his kimono and stab the blade into his belly. He would make a deep cut from right to left. An assistant of the warrior committing seppuku (called *kaishakunin*) would immediately cut off his head.

Seppuku fell out of favor with the decline of the samurai in the late-19th century, but the practice did not disappear entirely. Japanese General Nogi Maresuke disemboweled himself in 1912 out of loyalty to the deceased Meiji Emperor, and many troops later chose the sword over surrender during World War II. Perhaps the most famous case in recent history concerns Yukio Mishima, a renowned novelist and Nobel Prize nominee who committed ritual seppuku in 1970 after leading a failed coup against the Japanese government.(Citations need)

## References
Spine

The **spine** is a column of vertebrae in the back part of the torso (upper body). It is also called the **backbone** or **vertebral column**. There is a spinal canal that runs through the length of the spine. Many vertebrates, including mammals, have intervertebral discs separating the vertebrae.

Inside the spinal canal is the spinal cord. Animals that have a spine are called vertebrates, and animals that do not have one are called invertebrates. Humans have a spine so they are vertebrates. Problems with the spine often cause back pain in humans. Back pain has been studied on animals such as dogs.

## Regions 
The vertebral column has five *regions*. These regions from top to bottom are:
* Cervical - Shown in red, this region supports the head. It is made up of 7 vertebrae. The first two, called the atlas and axis, connect the spine to the skull.
* Thoracic - Shown in blue, this region supports the ribs. It is made up of 12 vertebrae.
* Lumbar - Shown in yellow, this region is located in the lower back. It is made up of 5 vertebrae.
*Sacral - Shown in green. It is made up of 5 vertebrae that are fused together.
*Coccygeal - Shown in purple. It is made up of 3 to 5 vertebrae.

## Spinal canal 
The spinal column has an opening called spinal canal and this opening is used for nerves. The part of the central nervous system in the spinal column is called spinal cord.

## Images 
 vertebra viewed from above. The unlabeled hole in the middle will form the Spinal canal]]
 of the human spine. The part in blue is the spinal canal. It also shows that one vertebra has been broken (L-3), which means that the spinal cord is compressed at one point (L-3,L-4 impingement) .|alt=]]

## Other websites 
* North American Spine Society is a multidisciplinary medical organization that advances quality spine care through education, research and advocacy.
* Spinal anatomy and back pain
* Spine anatomy illustrations
* Spine anatomy 
* Vertebral column basics
Lou Pearlman

**Louis Jay Pearlman** (June 19, 1954 - August 19, 2016) was an American record producer and fraudster. He was born in Flushing, Queens, New York City. He was a first cousin of the musician Art Garfunkel. He used to live in Orlando, Florida.  He was the person behind many successful 1990s boy bands, having formed and funded the Backstreet Boys. After their massive success, he then developed NSYNC. 

In 2006, he was accused of running one of the largest and longest-running Ponzi schemes in United States history, leaving more than $300 million in debts. After attempting to evade capture, Pearlman was caught in Bali, Indonesia in June 2007. He pled guilty to conspiracy, money laundering, and making false statements during a bankruptcy proceedings.

In 2008, Pearlman was convicted and sentenced to up to 25 years in prison. He died of a stroke in prison in Texarkana, Texas.

## References
## Other reading 
* 
*  Cited as Henderson 2006.
*  Cited as Pearlman 2002.

## Other websites
*officialloupearlman.com 
*
Thirteen Colonies

The **Thirteen Colonies** were colonies in British North America in what is now the Eastern Seaboard of the United States. They were founded for different reasons. Some people thought that they would make a lot of money in new goods in America that could not be found in Europe, such as tobacco. Others left to find freedom of religion or just to make a new start. Some wanted to be in charge and to change things that they did not like back at England.

The first colony was Virginia, which was started in 1607 at Jamestown. The last colony of the thirteen to be started was Georgia in 1732.

The Thirteen Colonies (listed from north to south):
#New Hampshire
#Massachusetts
#Rhode Island
#Connecticut Colony
#New York
#New Jersey
#Pennsylvania
#Delaware
#Maryland
#Virginia Colony
#North Carolina
#South Carolina
#Georgia 

The colonies are often divided into three groups. The northern group was called New England and included New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut.

There were four Middle Colonies: New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware.

The South had five colonies: Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia.

New England had small farms and focused on fishing, forestry (trees and lumber), shipping, and small industry to make money.

The South had large plantation farms that grew tobacco and later cotton. Plantations were farmed first by indentured servants, who would work for a period of years in return for their passage to America and land. They were later replaced by slaves.

The Middle Colonies had medium-sized farms. They also had people from many different cultures with many different beliefs. 

All three regions were tied to the "Atlantic economy". Colonists built merchant vessels, and merchants traded slaves, agricultural goods, gold, fish, lumber, and manufactured goods between America, the West Indies, Europe and Africa.

After the French and Indian War, Great Britain made new taxes and other laws that angered some people in the colonies. That led to a war between Great Britain and its former colonies: the American Revolutionary War.

The colonies said why they wanted to become independent of Great Britain on July 4, 1776 at the Declaration of Independence and became known as the United States of America.

## References
Jamestown

**Jamestown** may refer to:

## Places
### Australia
*Jamestown, South Australia

### Barbados
*Holetown, Saint James, Barbados; sometimes called its founding name, Jamestown

### Canada
*Mount Olive-Silverstone-Jamestown, a neighbourhood of Toronto, Ontario

### Ghana
*Jamestown, Ghana, a district of the city of Accra

### Ireland
*Jamestown, County Laois
*Jamestown, County Leitrim

### New Zealand
* Jamestown, New Zealand

### Saint Kitts and Nevis
*Jamestown, the name of a former town on the edge of Morton Bay on Nevis in the late 17th century

### South Africa
*Jamestown, South Africa

### United Kingdom
*Jamestown, Rossshire, Scotland
*Jamestown, West Dunbartonshire, Scotland
*Jamestown, Fife, Scotland

#### Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha
*Jamestown, Saint Helena, a harbour and the capital of Saint Helena

### United States
* Jamestown, California
* Jamestown, Colorado
* Jamestown, Indiana, in Boone County
* Jamestown, Elkhart County, Indiana
* Jamestown, Kansas
* Jamestown, Kentucky
* Jamestown, Louisiana
* Jamestown, Missouri
* Jamestown, New York, the largest American city bearing the name
* Jamestown, North Carolina
* Jamestown, North Dakota, the second largest city bearing the name
* Jamestown, Ohio
* Jamestown, Oklahoma
* Jamestown, Pennsylvania
* Jamestown, Rhode Island
* Jamestown, South Carolina
* Jamestown, Tennessee
* Jamestown, Virginia, the first permanent English settlement in what is now the United States
** Jamestown Settlement, the living history museum reconstruction of the town
** Historic Jamestowne, the archaeological site of the original town
* Jamestown S'Klallam Indian Reservation, Washington
* Jamestown, West Virginia
* Jamestown, Wisconsin
* James Town, Wyoming
* Jamestown Township, Steuben County, Indiana
* Jamestown Charter Township, Michigan
* Jamestown Township, Blue Earth County, Minnesota
* Jamestown Dam, a dam in North Dakota

## Other uses
* Jamestown (horse), American Champion racehorse
* The Indian massacre of 1622, often referred to as the Jamestown Massacre, in the Virginian town of Jamestown
* Jamestown (video game), a video game developed and published by Final Form Games.
Arizona Cardinals

The **Arizona Cardinals** are a professional American football team in the National Football League (NFL). They are based in the Phoenix suburb of Glendale, Arizona. They are the oldest continuous professional American football club in the United States, founded in 1899 in Chicago, Illinois. They moved to St. Louis, Missouri in 1960 before moving to Phoenix in 1988. The head coach of the team is Mike LaFleur. As of 2019, their starting quarterback is Kyler Murray. Drew Stanton is currently the number 2 quarterback.

## References 
## Other websites 
*Official Site
Totnes

**Totnes** is a town in South Devon, South West England. 7,800 people live there. It has many old buildings dating back to Tudor times, and it has the remains of a Norman castle. The town stands on the River Dart, at the highest point reached by the tide.

Totnes is well known in Britain for its large New Age community, although some of these people are moving away from the town. The town has many interesting shops selling health food and books, and there are also many art and craft shops.

A local legend says that Totnes was begun by Brutus of Troy after the Trojan war. There is a stone in the high street called the Brutus Stone. This is where people say he first stepped on British soil.

## Other websites 
* Tourist information 
* Totnes Museum
* Totnes Community Magazine
Chiffon cake

A **chiffon cake** is a type of sponge cake. It is a cake that is made using vegetable oil instead of butter. This gives the cake a foam-like texture. Because there is no butter in the cakes, they are more healthy but have less flavor. Chiffon cakes are usually served by soaking the cake layer in a cake syrup (which is nothing more than 2 parts water to 1 part sugar) to provide it with moisture since it's dry in nature.

## History
The chiffon cake was invented in 1927 by Harry Baker, a California insurance salesman turned caterer. Baker kept the recipe secret for 20 years until he sold it to General Mills. At this point the name was changed to "chiffon cake" and a set of 14 recipes and variations was released to the public in a Betty Crocker pamphlet published in 1948.
Three Character Classic

The **Three Character Classic**, **Trimetric Classic** or **San Zi Jing** (三字經, 三字经) is a written work from China. Many people believe that Wang Yinglin wrote it during the Song Dynasty. It is named Three Character Classic because each line has three Chinese words, which are called "characters." It is often used to teach children how to say words.

## Other websites 
* Song dynasty Chinese text with English translation.
* The Three Character Classic in Chinese with the Herbert Giles English Translation. 
* Another English translation.
Stillbirth

A **stillbirth** happens when a fetus (unborn baby) dies while still inside the mother or dies during delivery (childbirth). It is said that the delivered baby is *stillborn*. Stillbirth is different from a miscarriage because a stillbirth happens after the baby has been living inside its mother 20 to 24 weeks (depending on the country). It is called a miscarriage if the baby lived inside the mother for less time.

## Causes 
The causes of many stillbirths are unknown, even when special tests are done to learn the cause.
*nicotine, alcohol, or drugs taken by the mother during pregnancy
*physical trauma
*radiation poisoning
*Rh disease
*umbilical cord problems

## Occurrence 
The number of stillbirths in the United States is about 1 in 115 births, which is about 26,000 a year, or one every 20 minutes. In developing countries, where medical care is not as advanced or good, the number of stillbirths is higher. 

In Australia, England, Wales, and Northern Ireland, the rate is about 1 in 200 babies.

## After stillbirth 
The death of the baby is usually treated like the death of an older baby.  The family may have a funeral. The body of the dead baby can be buried or cremated (burned).  In some places, there are special places for putting the bodies or the ashes of stillborn babies.

The mother may be ill.  Her body may be hurt from having the baby.

## Legal definitions of stillbirth 
### United Kingdom 
In the UK, any baby that leaves its mother's body after 24 weeks and does not show any signs of life is called a *stillbirth*. The mother or father must tell the government about the baby. A Stillbirth Certificate is given to the family. 

### Australia 
In Australia, any stillborn fetus that weighs more than 400 grams and lived in the mother for more than 20 weeks must be reported to the government.

### United States 
The United States does not have a formal definition of *stillborn* babies.  All pregnancies are legally called either: *live birth*, *fetal death*, or *induced termination of pregnancy* (abortion). The law does not have a difference between a stillbirth and a miscarriage. However, it is recommended to register infants who weighed over 350 grams or who lived over 19 weeks inside the mother before dying.

## Related pages
*Fetus
*Childbirth
*Abortion

## Footnotes and references 
*Pregnancy Institute  founded by Dr. Jason H. Collins, OB/GYN specializes in umbilical cord research 
*March of Dimes: Quick reference and fact sheet 
*Investigating perinatal death: a review of the options when autopsy consent is refused. 
*Stillbirth at h2g2 - written by a bereaved mother

## Other websites 
*The Wisconsin Stillbirth Service Program (WiSSP), a branch of the University of Wisconsin-Madison's Clinical Genetics Center.  One of the foremost authorities on the causes of stillbirth and responsible for many stillbirth evaluation protocols, including the widespread use of the Kleihauer-Betke test in deciding whether Rh disease is to blame for a stillbirth.
* First-person story of one woman's journey through stillbirth
Ishmael

.|236x236px]]
**Ishmael** (,  ʾIsmāʿīl) was the first son of Abraham and Hagar, an Egyptian servant. 

He was a son of Abraham, descendant of Arpachshad, son of Shem, son of Noah, grandson of Methuselah and coming from line of Seth, son of Adam and Eve, first human.

## In the Book of Genesis 
When Abraham (then called Abram) was married to Sarai for ten years without having any children, Sarai told Abram to marry her Egyptian servant Hagar and he did. After getting pregnant, Hagar became arrogant so Sarai treated her badly and she ran away. Then an Angel convinced Hagar to go back and said her son would be called Ishmael. Hagar gave birth to a son and Abram named him Ishmael. 

When Abram was circumcised, G-d changed his name to Abraham. And Ishmael was also circumcised and was thirteen years old at the time. One year later, Sarai whose name was now Sarah gave birth to a son while she was 90 years old and Abraham was 100. Abraham circumcised the boy eight days later and named him Isaac. When Sarah saw how Ishmael played with his half-brother Isaac, she told Abraham “cast out this slave woman and her son from before me” but Abraham didn’t want to do that so G-d told Abraham to listen to Sarah. So Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with water. Then Ishmael got sick so Hagar gave him all the water and then looked for more so an Angel showed her a well. Hagar gave Ishmael water and he got better. Ishmael went to Egypt, married an Egyptian woman and became the father of twelve sons and one daughter.

## Death of Abraham 
After Abraham died, Isaac and Ishmael buried him in the Cave of Machpelah in Hebron next to his wife Sarah

## Basemath 
After Ishmael died, his daughter Basemath married Esau, who was one of Isaac’s sons.

## Sale of Joseph 
When Judah and his brothers sold Joseph into slavery, they sold him to the Ishmaelites, who were Ishmael’s grandchildren.

## Islam 
In Islam, Ishmael is believed to be the ancestor of the Arabs, while Isaac is the ancestor of the Jews.

## *Moby-Dick* 
In *Moby-Dick* by Harman Melville, the narrator Ishmael is named after the Hebrew Bible.

## References
Plain

]]
In geography, a **plain** is a large area of land with no hills or mountains. Plains mostly are more suitable for farming than plateaus or mountains.

List of famous plains:
* Canterbury Plains, New Zealand
* Gangetic Plains of India, Bangladesh, North India,Nepal
* Great Plains, United States
* Indus Valley Plain, Pakistan
* Kantō Plain, Japan
* Nullarbor Plain, Australia
* Khuzestan Plain, Iran
* Mazandaran Plain, Iran
* Pannonian Plain, Central Europe
* Salisbury Plain, England

## Related pages
* Landform
* Floodplain
* Grassland
* Meadow
* Pasture
* Plateau
* Prairie
* Rangeland
* Savanna
* Steppe
Mint

**Mint** can mean different things:
* Mentha, a genus of plants called *mint*
*Mint (candy), a sweet food made with the flavor of *mentha*
* Mint (money), a factory that makes currency
Steppe

in early spring]]

In physical geography, a **steppe** is a plain without trees (apart from those near rivers and lakes). The term comes from “flat grassy plain” in Russian. It is similar to a short-grass prairie, although a prairie is generally considered as North America, and the steppe is in eastern Europe and central Asia. Sometimes the short-grass prairie in North America is also called a steppe. Similar places in Africa are called savanna. The world's largest steppe, sometimes called The Great Steppe, is in Russia.

The Mongolian Steppe, also known as the Eastern Steppe, is located in northern Mongolia. It is between the Altai Mountains in the west and the Greater Khingan Region in the east.

## Climate and Landscape
It may be semi-desert, or covered with grass or shrubs or both, depending on the season and latitude. It is the sort of climate that is in regions too dry for a forest, but not so dry that there are only deserts. The soil is too moist for a desert, but too dry for normal forest life. Steppes receive slightly more rain than deserts do. The climates in steppes are usually temperate. They are pretty dry because there is very minimal rain.

## Culture
This is an open area, and often there were long distances between places with good water. People who lived in this type of area were often nomads, often traveling by horses. Genghis Khan was a great warrior from Mongolia who lived on the steppe. The majority of people in the steppe are nomads. Families in Mongolia live in "gers" which is a large portable tent. Mongolians are also master horse riders so many families own many horses that roam the steppe. The people in the steppe interact with the steppe with using the animals there for there food and drink. They also have a very prominent musical culture with a wide variety of traditional Mongolian songs.

In the United States, the cowboy herded cattle in the steppe, moving from place to place by horse. During the Dust Bowl in the 1930s in North America, farmers who had recently settled on the land and started farms suddenly found themselves without food. Many of them left. Eventually they learned to plow differently and plant crops that survived a drought better, and to plant trees in rows called windbreaks.

## Related pages
*Eurasian Steppe

## References
Ural Mountains

The **Ural Mountains** (), also known simply as the **Urals**, is a mountain range that runs roughly north and south through western Russia.

## Geography 
The Urals stretch 2,500&nbsp;km from the Kazakh steppes along the northern border of Kazakhstan to the coast of the Arctic Ocean. The island of Novaya Zemlya forms a further continuation of the chain. Geographically this range marks the northern part of the border between Asian and European sections of the Eurasian continent. Its highest peak is Mount Narodnaya (Poznurr, 1895 m). 

## Other websites 
* Five parts of the Ural Mountains
Champagne (wine)

in the Champagne region; photo taken in late August.]]
**Champagne** is a French sparkling wine. It is named after the Champagne wine region in Grand Est. This is a region in France with many vineyards that grow grapes and make wine.  Note that this region is not identical to the French region of Champagne-Ardenne, nor the historical province Champagne. Champagne contains carbon dioxide. One of the features of Champagne wine is that this carbon dioxide originates from a second fermentation in the bottle, and is not added.  

Many people call all sparkling wines *champagne* but according to trade laws, only sparkling wine from the Champagne region can be called champagne. 

## Kinds of champagnes 
Champagnes must be made from certain kinds of grapes. They can be made from white Chardonnay grapes, or red Pinot Noir or Pinot Meunier grapes. Even if red grapes are used, most champagnes look white or sometimes pink (rosé).

Champagnes have different names depending on how much sugar is added. Here is a list of kinds of champagnes from least sweet (called "dry") to most sweet (called "wet"/"doux"):
* *brut zéro* or *brut natural* - no sugar is added
*extra brut
* *brut*
* *extra-dry*
* *sec*
* *demi-sec*
* *doux*

*Brut* is the most common type of champagne.

## Features 
Champagne, like all sparkling wines, is carbonated. Because of all the bubbles, champagne is sometimes called *bubbly* (ex. "We're going to have *bubbly* at our wedding.")

Champagne can be opened in a way that the cork "pops" out and the champagne sprays out in a bubbly foam. Usually this is done only at celebrations. It can be achieved by shaking the bottle before opening it. Normally, care should be taken when opening champagne bottles so that it does not make a mess. When done correctly, the cork will come out quietly, more like a sigh than a pop.

Champagne is usually served in a champagne flute (a tall, narrow glass). The shape of the glass helps keep the bubbles for a longer time.

Champagne is always served cold (chilled). The best temperature is 7 to 9&nbsp;°C (43 to 48&nbsp;°F). Often the bottle is chilled in a bucket of ice before and after opening.

## How to say it 
In English it is pronounced like "shampain" (). In French is sounds more like "shampanye" ().

## References 
* Guy, Kolleen. *When Champagne became French: Wine and the Making of a National Identity*. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003.
* Robinson, Jancis (Ed.) *The Oxford Companion to Wine*. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, second edition, 1999.
* Prial, Frank J. *Decantations*. New Yrk: St. Maritin's and grifin Publishers, 2001, p.&nbsp;24.

## Other websites 
* Champagne reviews and tasting notes
Lorca

**Lorca** is a municipality in the Region of Murcia, in Spain.

It has an area of 1,675 km² and a population of 95,726 people.
Porphyria

**Porphyria** is the name for a group of certain medical conditions or diseases. They have been known since the days of Hippocrates. Another name for porphyria is the **madness of King George disease**.     

They are seen by either attacks of severe pain (acute porphyrias) or light sensitive skin problems (cutaneous porphyrias), never with cutaneous (skin) light sensitivity in acute.  

Porphyrias are a group of uncommon disorders that are caused when there are problems with the production of chemicals called porphyrins in the body. Porphyrins are the chemical building blocks of haem, which form haemoglobin, the component of red blood cells that allows oxygen to be carried around the body. An increase in the amount of a specific porphyrin or a porphyrin precursor results in symptoms of porphyrias. Porphyrias are often separated into those that cause acute attacks and those that cause skin damage, although some disorders can have both types of symptoms. 

The disease is most common in European countries. 

## Cause
The condition is usually caused by a genetic deficiency, but is can happen (in about 28% of cases) without family history (called de novo mutations). Chemicals which affect metabolism may also cause it. Arsenic is one example. It can be triggered by various drugs or by some environmental conditions. 

## Symptoms
The disease causes skin problems, or some diseases of the nervous system, or both. Severe pain is often present. Medications are available that can at least treat the symptoms. It is most common in people between the ages of 18 to 40 years old. 

### Acute
Acute attacks are *Acute Intermittent Porphyria* (AIP), *Hereditary Coproporphyria* (HCP), *Variegate Porphyria* (VP) and *ALA dehydratase deficiency porphyria* (ADP). 

These tend to cause attacks in adults and the main symptoms can include:
*gastrointestinal symptoms such as 
**abdominal pain, nausea and vomiting
* cardiac symptoms such as 
**changes in blood pressure, increased heart rate
*motor symptoms such as 
**muscle weakness, paralysis
*psychiatric symptoms such as
**anxiety, confusion or hallucination
*or central nervous system (CNS) symptoms:
**seizures. 
HCP and VP can also cause cutaneous symptoms.

### Cutaneous porphyrias
These are *Porphyria Cutanea Tarda* (PCT), *Congenital Erythropoietic Porphyria* (CEP), *Erythropoietic Protoporphyria* (EPP) *and X-linked dominant Protoporphyria* (XLDPP).

Skin porphyrias cause skin-related signs and symptoms, typically causing one of two types of symptoms:
* photosensitivity leading to pain straight away upon exposure to sunlight (e.g. EPP)
* blistering and fragility of the skin in areas exposed to sunlight (e.g. PCT).
When someone is affected by porphyria they will start to lose their hair about two weeks after having an attack. There is no cure for the hair loss. However, there is medication available to help prevent attacks.

## References