open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Porto

**Porto** or **Oporto** () is the second-largest city in Portugal after Lisbon. 

The urban area of Porto, which extends beyond the administrative limits of the city, has a population of 2.4 million (2011) in an area of 389 km2 (150 sq mi), making it the second-largest urban area in Portugal and one of the major urban areas of the Iberian Peninsula. It is recognized as a global city.

## Location
Located along the Douro river estuary in Northern Portugal, Porto is one of the oldest European centres, and its historical core was proclaimed a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1996. The western part of its urban area extends to the coastline of the Atlantic Ocean. Its settlement dates back many centuries, when it was an outpost of the Roman Empire. Its combined Celtic-Latin name, Portus Cale, has been referred to as the origin of the name "Portugal", based on transliteration and oral evolution from Latin. In Portuguese, the name of the city is spelled with a definite article ("o Porto"; English: *the port*). Consequently, its English name evolved from a misinterpretation of the oral pronunciation and referred to as *Oporto* in modern literature and by many speakers.
## Attractions
One of Portugal's internationally famous exports, port wine, is named after Porto, since the metropolitan area, and in particular the cellars of Vila Nova de Gaia, were responsible for the packaging, transport and export of the fortified wine. In 2014 and 2017, Porto was elected *The Best European Destination* by the Best European Destinations Agency.

## Gallery

Porto-Praca da Ribeira-02-2011-gje.jpg|Praca da Ribeira
Porto-Avenida dos Aliados-08-Jugendstilhaus-2011-gje.jpg|Avenida dos Aliados
Porto-Almeida Garret-16-2011-gje.jpg|Almeida Garret
Porto-Igreja dos Congregados-06-2011-gje.jpg|Igreja dos Congregados
Porto-272-beim Hotel da Bolsa-2011-gje.jpg|Old city
Porto-310-Sao Francisco-2011-gje.jpg|Sao Francisco
Porto-Sandeman-02-2011-gje.jpg|Sandeman
Porto-Sandeman-20-Portweinglaeser-2011-gje.jpg|Port wine

## References
Siegen

**Siegen** is a city in the German state North Rhine-Westphalia. About 110,000 people live there and a university.

## Twin Towns 
It has been twinned with the borough of Spandau in Berlin since 1952. Other twin cities are:
* , Rijnsburg, since 1963, continuation of partnership with amalgamated town of Katwijk as of 2006
*United Kingdom Morley, since 1966 continuation of partnership with amalgamated City of Leeds as of 1974
*, Leeds, since 1974
* , Ypres, since 1967
* , Zakopane, since 1989
* , , Plauen, since 1990

## References
## Other websites
*
Cần Thơ

**Can Tho** is a city in the south of Vietnam.

Can Tho had a population of about 1.57 million in 2019. It is the biggest city in the Mekong delta. It is about 160 km away from Ho Chi Minh City and the capitol of the district of Can Tho, until 1975 named Hau Giang.
There is a university in Can Tho.

## Other websites
*Can Tho online community 
*Can Tho travel information at Wikivoyage
Dalat

**Dalat** (Vietnamese: Đà Lạt) is a city in southern Vietnam. It was built in the early 1900s to be a resort city for the French. Much of the buildings are European style. This is why it has the nickname "Little Paris".

The city is known for its much cooler climate than most of the rest of Vietnam. It is known for having high altitude, many pine trees, and being an excellent place to grow many different kinds of fruits, vegetables, and flowers.

It has about 120,000 inhabitants.

## References
Nantes

**Nantes** is a city in France, the prefecture of the Pays de la Loire region and the Loire-Atlantique department, on the Atlantic Ocean. From the 16th to the 19th centuries, it was the busiest slave trading port in France. Before 1941, Nantes was part of Brittany. The Gallo and Breton languages are spoken in the city. Jules Verne was a famous writer from Nantes.

Nantes has an oceanic climate (*Cfb* in the Koeppen climate classification).

## Education 
* Audencia Nantes School of Management
* École pour l'informatique et les nouvelles technologies
* Institut supérieur européen de gestion group
* E-Artsup
* Institut catholique d'arts et métiers
* Institut supérieur européen de formation par l'action

## Twin towns
Nantes has town twinning and cooperation agreements with:

### Friendship relations
The city has friendship relations with:
*  Guinea, since 1992.
*  St. Martinville, Louisiana, U.S., since 1993.
*  Jericho, West Bank, since 2001.
*  Desdunes and Petionville, Haiti, since 2005.
*  Nantes, Quebec, Canada, since 2009.

## Gallery

File:Cathedral nantes.jpg|The gothic cathedral
File:Marité.jpg|Port
File:Cathédrale Nantes arrière.JPG|Another view of the cathedral
File:Feydeau Nantes 1.JPG|Feydeau island
File:Museum Histoire Naturelle Nantes.JPG|Natural History Museum
File:Plan, profil et distribution du navire La Marie Séraphique de Nantes.jpg|La Marie Séraphique, a slave ship that traveled from Nantes

## References 
## Other websites 
* Nantes Tourist Office Official Website
Bordeaux

**Bordeaux** is a city in the Gironde department of France. It is on the Garonne River near the Atlantic Ocean. About 1,150,000 people live in the area around the city. Bordeaux has a temperate oceanic climate (Cfb in the Koeppen climate classification). It is famous for wines made in the region near the city. Bordeaux is also famous for its art.

Bordeaux is classified as a "City of Art and History". The city is home to 362 *monuments historiques*. Some buildings date back to Roman times. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

## History 
In about 300 BC Bordeaux was the settlement of a Celtic tribe.  They named the town **Burdigala**. 
The Romans began rule of the city around 60 BC. Later it became capital of Roman Aquitaine. In the 400s the city was looted by the Vandals, Visigoths, and Franks.

After the Battle of Poitiers, Duke Eudes was able to hold only a small part of Aquitaine where Bordeaux was located. It became one of the last cities to fall under King Pepin the Short.

Bordeaux once again became an important city after the marriage of Duchess Eléonore of Aquitaine with Count Henri Plantagenet. He became King Henry II of England only months after their marriage. 

In 1653 Bordeaux was added to the Kingdom of France, when the army of Louis XIV entered the city.

In 1870 the French government moved to Bordeaux for a time. This was at the beginning of the Franco-Prussian war against Prussia. The temporary move happened again during World War I and again very briefly during the World War II.

## Education 
* École nationale supérieure d'électronique, informatique, télécommunications, mathématiques et mécanique de Bordeaux
* École pour l'informatique et les nouvelles technologies
* École spéciale de mécanique et électricité
* Institut supérieur européen de gestion group
* E-Artsup
* Institut supérieur européen de formation par l'action
* University of Bordeaux 1
* Kedge Business School

## Sister cities
Bordeaux is twinned with:

### Partnerships
## References
## Other websites
Montpellier

**Montpellier** is a city in south of France. About 280,000 people live there. It is the 8th largest city in France. It has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (*Csa* in the Koeppen climate classification).

## Education 
A campus of the École nationale de l'aviation civile (French civil aviation academy) is in Montpellier. The computer science school École pour l'informatique et les nouvelles technologies and E-Artsup are also in the city.

The University of Montpellier is one of the oldest in the world, as well as the Montpellier Business School.

## Transport 
* Montpellier – Méditerranée Airport

## Sister cities
Montpellier is twinned with:
Rennes

**Rennes** is a city in France, the prefecture of Brittany and the Ille-et-Vilaine department. Its name is «  » in the Breton language.

## Education
The Rennes agglomeration has a large student population (around 63,000) and 2 universities :
* University of Rennes 1 (26 000 students)
* University of Rennes 2 - Upper Brittany (22 000 students)

A campus of the computer science schools ''École pour l'informatique et les techniques avancées* and *École pour l'informatique et les nouvelles technologies'' , the university in electric energy and information sciences Supélec, the engineering school CentraleSupélec.
The business schools Rennes School of Business and Paris School of Business are also in Rennes.

## Twin towns – sister cities
**Within France**

**Pacts of cooperation**

**Sponsorship**

## Gallery

File:Rennes hôtels Lices.jpg|Some medieval houses, place des Lices.
File:Rennes remparts.jpg|Remains of the Gallo-Roman City wall.
File:Bus et métro station Poterie (5618280569).jpg|An elevated section of Metro
File:Porte Modelaise.jpg|The Mordelles Gates, built in 1440, by night.
File:La Vilaine à Rennes.JPG|The banks of the Vilaine.
File:Rennes old houses DSC08918.jpg|Other old houses in Rennes
File:Lac du parc Oberthür.jpg|Oberthür Park in Rennes
Lille

**Lille** is a city in the northern part of France with a population of about 226,800 inhabitants. It is the capital of the region Hauts-de-France and the Nord

department., and is not far from the border with Belgium, where in Dutch it is called . About two million people live in the urban area (*conurbation*) shared with Kortrijk and Tournai, which is the fifth largest in France behind Paris, Lyon, Marseille, and Toulouse.

## Climate 
Lille has an oceanic climate (*Cfb* in the Koeppen climate classification).
## Education 
* École pour l'informatique et les nouvelles technologies
* École spéciale de mécanique et électricité
* EDHEC Business School
* E-Artsup
* IÉSEG School of Management
* Institut catholique d'arts et métiers
* Institut supérieur européen de gestion group
* Institut supérieur européen de formation par l'action

 high-speed train at Lille-Europe station.]]

## Transport 
There are two big railway stations in Lille with many trains to and from different places around France and Belgium. Most of these serve  station and are operated by SNCF, including the TGV high-speed service. The other big station, , has Eurostar trains to and from Brussels, Paris, and St Pancras station in London via the Channel Tunnel to the United Kingdom.

Public transport in Lille is made up of buses, two metro lines, and two tram lines to the nearby towns of Tourcoing and Roubaix. The metro system is one of the first in the world that does not have drivers.

## Sister cities
Lille is twinned with:

## References
Reims

**Reims** is a commune in France, in the Marne departments in the Grand Est region. NEOMA Business School is in the city.

## Reims Cathedral 
Reims Cathedral (Cathédrale Notre-Dame de Reims) is famous for coronation of almost every king of France. The cathedral was destroyed by fire in 1914 (after an attack by the German army).
Le Havre

**Le Havre** is a city in Normandy. It is one of the most important ports in France. It is located on the right bank of the Seine river along the English Channel.

The city and port were founded by the King Francis I of France in 1517.

The city was bombed during World War II. The damaged area was rebuilt by Auguste Perret from 1945 to 1964. This section was named a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.

The École de management de Normandie is in the city.

## References
Orléans

**Orléans** is a city in France, the prefecture of the Centre-Val de Loire region and the Loiret department. It is on the Loire River and was formerly a busy port.

## Sister cities
Orléans is twinned with:
*  Dundee, United Kingdom
*  Treviso, Italy
*  Münster, Germany
*  Kristiansand, Norway
*  Wichita, United States
*  Tarragona, Spain
*  Saint-Flour, France
*  Utsunomiya, Japan
*  Lugoj, Romania
*  Parakou, Benin
*  Tyre, Lebanon
*  Perm, Russia

It has a partnership with:
*  Kraków, Poland

## Related pages 
* Capital of France
* Siege of Orleans
Straight edge

**Straight edge** (Often called **sXe**) is a lifestyle without drugs, tobacco, or alcohol. Some followers of *straight edge* also abstain from illegal or casual sex.

For some, no drug use includes caffeine which is a stimulant drug. Some will accept drugs such as codeine or morphine for medical reasons.
Some followers of straight edge will not use Ny-Quil or Day-Quil because they contain alcohol.
Those straight edgers who quit casual or illegal sex would not have one-night stands and will wait until they are in a committed relationship to have sex.

Some cities have associated straight edge as gang affiliation, but advocates call it a way of life such as being a vegetarian.

## References
Microcode

**Microcode** is the name for a number of instructions or data structures which are involved in implementing higher-level machine language in many processors, especially microprogrammed ones. Microcode is on memory that is very fast to access. When a machine level instruction needs to be executed, microcode tells the processor what electronic circuits should be used. When a new processor is designed, an engineer also writes the microcode for the instructions of machine language. This is called **Microprogramming**, the resulting code is called a **microprogram**. 

In early processors, each instruction was hard-wired. This has several drawbacks, the most obvious is that correcting an error in processor design means that the processor needs to be replaced. 

## Example
A processor should add two values, which are in registers A and B.

# Configure the ALU for addition
# Put the value of register A on one input of the ALU
# Put the value of register B on one input of the ALU
# After waiting a short time, to allow for the addition, the result needs to be copied into a register, which has not been used yet
# The value of that register needs to be copied to register A
# The next instruction needs to be fetched from memory

Items 1-3, as well as  5-6, can be coded as one instruction. It is also possible to hard-wire the logic needed for this operation. This has the benefit of being faster, but the drawback that it no longer allows changes that might be needed later on.  

The concept of microprogramming was developed by Maurice Wilkes in 1951, using diode matrices for the memory element.

## References
Computational complexity theory

**Computational complexity theory** is a part of computer science. It looks at algorithms, and tries to say how many steps or how much memory a certain algorithm takes for a computer to do. Very often, algorithms that use fewer steps use more memory (or the other way round: if there is less memory available, it takes more steps to do). Many interesting algorithms take a number of steps that is dependent on the size of the problem.

A way to assign the complexity of a problem is to see if the number of steps needed to solve it is bounded by some power of the problem's size. See P versus NP.

## Different classes of complexity 
### Constant Complexity 
Complexity theory also looks at how a problem changes if it is done for more elements. A problem of constant complexity class is the only class in which this is not true. A problem with constant complexity takes the same number of steps to complete no matter the size of the input or the number of elements it is computed on. Broadcasting a message can be thought of as a problem of constant complexity. No matter how many people need to receive a message, all can listen on to one single broadcast with no extra broadcasts needed. 

### Linear complexity 
Mowing the lawn can be thought of as a problem with linear complexity. Mowing an area that is double the size of the original takes twice as long. 

### Quadratic complexity 
Suppose you want to know which of your friends know each other. You have to ask each pair of friends whether they know each other. If you have **twice** as many friends as someone else, you have to ask **four** times as many questions to figure out who everyone knows. Problems that take four times as long when the size of the problem doubles are said to have **quadratic complexity**.

### Logarithmic complexity 
This is often the complexity for problems that involve looking things up, like finding a word in a dictionary. If the dictionary is twice as big, it contains twice as many words as the original to compare to. Looking something up will take only one step more. The algorithm to do lookups is simple. The word in the middle of the dictionary will be either before or after the term that needs to be looked up, if the words do not match. If it is before, the term needs to be in the second half of the dictionary. If it is after the word, it needs to be in the first half. That way, the problem space is halved with every step, until the word or definition is found. This is generally known as **logarithmic complexity**

### Exponential complexity 
There are problems that grow very fast. One such problem is known as the Travelling salesman problem. A salesman needs to take a tour of a certain number of cities. Each city should only be visited once, the distance (or cost) of the travelling should be minimal, and the salesman should end up where he started. This problem has **exponential complexity**. There are n factorial possibilities to consider. Adding one city (from n to n+1) will multiply the number of possibilities by (n+1). Most of the interesting problems have this complexity.
Rouen

**Rouen** is a commune. It is the prefecture of Upper Normandy and the Seine-Maritime department.

First settlements in that region were from the 6th century before Christ.
The Romans founded Rotomagus about 100 A.D..
Since 384 Rouen is the seat of a bishop.
In 841 the Vikings conquered Rouen. It became the capitol of the Duchy of Normandy.
In 1204 the Frensh king reconquered Rouen. 
In 1419 the English crown (Henry IV. of England) conquered the city in the 100-year War between France and England. On May, 30th of 1431 Jeanne D'Arc (the Virgin of Orleans) was burned in Rouen.
In 1494 the French got the city back.
In 1834 the railway connection Paris-Rouen was opened.
Rouen was occupied by the Germans in the Franco-German War of 1870 to 1873 and in both World Wars. In the World War II many buildings were destroyed.

Rouen has an oceanic climate (*Cfb* in the Koeppen climate classification). It has a great marine harbor 60&nbsp;km from the city. Tourism, transportation, the colleges and the university are most important economic factors.

The university of Rouen has about 40,000 students.

## Museums 
* The *Musée des beaux-arts* is the museum of art of the city
* The *Musée maritime fluvial et portuaire* is a museum about the history of the port of the city and the navigation

## Education 
* NEOMA Business School
Average

, median and mode of two different skewed  distributions.]]

An **average** is the "normal" number of a group of numbers made by mixing the group of numbers.

In math, an average is called a **mean**. It can be found by adding the numbers, then dividing the answer by the amount of numbers there were. There are different kinds of mean, and other things that are sometimes thought of as "average" such as median or mode (statistics).

## Sport 
In some sports, such as cricket and baseball, averages are used to tell how good a player is (such as batting average). Sporting averages have special rules for how to find them.
Romanization

**Romanization**, or **Latinization**, is how words from languages that normally do not use the Latin alphabet are converted into Latin letters. That allows people who do not know the original writing system to read the sounds of the language. Romanization is one way to show the pronunciation of the language's words.

There are often several ways to romanize a language. For the Russian language, the Soviet Union invented several systems, and the United Nations and the International Organization for Standardization invented two of the others. There are also several methods for Arabic, Japanese, and Chinese. Some romanization systems are based on the writing system of the original language, some are based on speech in the original language, and some are based on both. In other words, some romanization systems are based on transliteration, and others are based on transcription.

## Related pages 
* Romanization of Russian
* Romanization of Bulgarian
* Romanization of Japanese and Korean language.
* Pinyin and Zhuyin.

## Other websites 
* UNGEGN Working Group on Romanization Systems
* U.S. Library of Congress Romanization Tables in PDF format
* Java romanization app
* One of the few books with lists of romanizations is *ALA-LC Romanization Tables*, Randall Barry (ed.), U.S. Library of Congress, 1997, .
* Microsoft Transliteration Utility – A free tool for making and using transliteration systems from any alphabet to any other alphabet.
* G. Gerych. Transliteration of Cyrillic Alphabets. Ottawa University, April 1965. 126&nbsp;pp.
Diaspora

**Diaspora** (, literally, "a scattering or sowing of seeds") is used (without capitals) to refer to any people or racial or ethnic group living outside their traditional homelands, emigrating, being scattered in distant places and making a new community due to a multitude of reasons. It was first used in the Septuagint to mean the scattering of Jews after the capture of Jerusalem by the Babylonians in 586 BC.

## Definition 
In 1991, William Safran wrote that there is a diaspora when the people who emigrated share a collective memory of their homeland, they think about it as their true home, they want to go back and they are still influenced by it. He also wrote that the people have to be forced to emigrate in order for it to be a diaspora. However, Robin Cohen (1997) does not agree with Safran on the last point, because he believes there can be a diaspora even if the people wanted to emigrate.

In 2005, Rogers Brubaker wrote that there is a diaspora when a group of people live (because they were forced to or they wanted to) in a different place than they one their ancestors come from, when they identify with the same (real or not) homeland and when they keep a different cultural identity than the one of the place they currently live in.

## References 
## Related pages 
*Jewish diaspora
Toulon

**Toulon** is a city in the south of France. It has about 170,000 people. Toulon is the prefecture of Var. Toulon is the third biggest city of the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur after Marseille and Nice. It is the main base of the Mediterranean Sea fleet of the French Navy. It is  from the Italian border.

## Education 
* Kedge Business School

## More reading 
* *Le Chevallier à découvert*, Jean-Pierre Thiollet, Laurens Ed., 1998. 

## Other websites
Angers

**Angers** is a city in the west of France. Around 160,000 inhabitants live inside the city and 300,000 live in the metropolitan area.

It is the capital of the historical province called Anjou. Today, the name of Anjou is Maine-et-Loire. The inhabitants of Angers and of Anjou are called 'angevins'.

The city existed before the Roman Empire. After the Roman conquest, the city was called Juliomagus. Angers was an important French city during the Middle-Ages. There is one of the bigger castles of Europe in the city.

It is now the 16th city of France (for its population). It is an economic center, a touristic and cultural town. Many festivals happen every year in the city (film festival 'Premiers plans', street festivals 'Tours de scène' and the famous 'Accroches-coeurs'). It has many museums. The museum of Beaux-Arts (a famous Art museum) and "Apocalypse Tapestry" (the oldest and largest collection of medieval tapestries in the world) are very famous.

There are two universities. More than 17,000 students go to the 'Université d'Angers' (a state university) and 12,000 go to the 'Université Catholique de l'Ouest' (a private catholic university). The 'École supérieure des sciences commerciales d'Angers' is one of the most prestigious business school in France.

## Transport
* Road: Motorway A11 to Paris ~295&nbsp;km and to Nantes ~90&nbsp;km
* Railway: TGV (very quick train) from Angers-St Laud station to Paris in 92 minutes only
* International Airports: Angers-Marcé, Nantes-Atlantique

## Sister cities
Angers is twinned with:
*  Haarlem, Netherlands, since 1964
*  Osnabrück, Germany, since 1964
*  Bamako, Mali, since 1974
*  Pisa, Italy, since 1982
*  Wigan, United Kingdom, since 1988
*  Södertälje, Sweden, since 1998
*  Seville, Spain, since 2000
*  Yantai, China, since 2006
Grenoble

**Grenoble** is a French commune in the Alpine foothills. It is the prefecture of the Isère department in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region.

It has an oceanic climate  (*Cfb* in the Koeppen climate classification).

It is an important centre for scientific research in France.

## Education 
A campus of the École nationale de l'aviation civile (French civil aviation academy) is in Grenoble. Grenoble School of Management is also in the city, as well as the Université Grenoble-Alpes.

## Transport 
* Grenoble-Isère Airport

## Twin towns — Sister cities
Grenoble is twinned with:

## Other websites
Vinh

**Vinh** is a city in north-central Vietnam. About 230,000 people live there. Its name in the Vietnamese language does not have any s. It is also the kingdom of the Albino Gorillas, one of the rarest mammals in the world. They can only can be found in and around the city of Vinh. The most recent sighting of an Albino Gorilla was in 2004 by a college professor that was in Vinh studying many human cultures. Many important people of the Vietnamese revolution were born in or nearby Vinh, including Ho Chi Minh.
Amiens

**Amiens** is a city in Somme in the former province of Picardy in northern France. About 136,100 people live there. The Treaty of Amiens was signed there.

## Other websites 
* This town at the Historical Association for Joan of Arc Studies
 lit in colour for the 100th anniversary of Anzac Day in April 2015]]
Fluminense FC

**Fluminense Football Club** () or **Fluminense**, is a football club in the city of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, based in the neighbourhood of Laranjeiras since its foundation, in 1902, making it the oldest football club of Rio de Janeiro.

## Current Squad
## Notable Players 
*  Ademir Menezes
*  Assis
*  Branco
*  Carlos Alberto Torres
*  Castilho
*  Conca
*  Delei
*  Denílson
*  Didi
*  Edinho
*  Félix
*  Flávio
*  Gérson
*  Henry Welfare
*  Lula
*  Manfrini
*  Marco Antônio
*  Marcos Carneiro de Mendonça

*  Orlando
*  Oswaldo Gomes
*  Paulo César Caju
*  Pintinho
*  Preguinho
*  Renato Gaúcho
*  Ricardo Gomes
*  Rivelino
*  Romerito
*  Romeu
*  Samarone
*  Telê
*  Thiago Silva
*  Tim
*  Valdo
*  Washington

## Trophies 
### International
* Copa Rio Internacional: 1
** 1952
* Olympic Cup: 1
** 1949

### National
* Série A: 4
** 1970, 1984, 2010,2012
* Brazil Cup: 1
** 2007
* Campeonato Brasileiro Série C: 1
** 1999

### Regional
* Torneio Rio-São Paulo: 2
** 1957, 1960
* Taça Ioduran: 1
** 1919
* Zona Sul da Taça Brasil: 1
** 1960

### State
* Campeonato Carioca: 31
** 1906/1907/1908/1909, 1911, 1917/1918/1919, 1924, 1936/1937/1938, 1940/1941, 1946, 1951, 1959, 1964, 1969, 1971, 1973, 1975/1976, 1980, 1983/1984/1985, 1995, 2002, 2005, 2012
* Taça Guanabara: 8
** 1966, 1969, 1971, 1975, 1983, 1985, 1991, 1993, 2012
* Taça Rio: 2
** 1990, 2005
* Torneio Início: 9
** 1916, 1924, 1925, 1940/1941, 1943, 1954, 1956, 1965

## Other websites 
* Official Website
* Best Attendances 
* Ranking Carioca League 
* Matches 1902/2005 
* Canal Fluminense - Fluminense´s Daily News 
* Torcida Tricolor 

## References
Aix-en-Provence

**Aix-en-Provence** is a city in the south of France. Located in the Bouches-du-Rhône department, about 150,000 people live there.

## History 
Aix-en-Provence was founded by the Romans in 123 BC under the name of Aquae Sextiae. Since then, it stayed important as a crossroad between the Mediterranean Sea and Italy. The city used to be the capital of Provence, a historical French region.

Aix-en-Provence is known as the city of a thousand fountains. It is also home to one of France's oldest university, Aix-Marseille University, founded in 1409 by Louis II of Provence.

## Famous sites 
Some famous tourist attractions include

* Caumont Centre D'art
* Paul Cézanne's workshop
* Fontaine de la Rotonde
* Musée Granet
* Vieil Aix

## Famous people from Aix-en-Provence
*Paul Cézanne (d. 1906), painter

## Sister Cities 
This is a list of the sister cities of Aix-en-Provence.
* Ashkelon, Israel
* Baalbek, Lebanon
* Bamako, Mali
* Bath, United Kingdom
* Baton Rouge, United States
* Carthage, Tunisia
* Coimbra, Portugal
* Coral Gables, United States
* Granada, Spain
* Kumamoto, Japan
* Oujda, Morocco
* Pécs, Hungary
* Perugia, Italy
* Philadelphia, United States
* Tübingen, Germany

## References
*
;Attribution
*

## Other websites

*Aix en Provence Tourist office website 
*Official site of the town Aix-en-Provence
Nancy, France

**Nancy** is a commune. It is the prefecture of the Meurthe-et-Moselle department in the Grand Est region. It was formerly the capital of the old Duchy of Lorraine. 

Nancy has an oceanic climate (*Cfb* in the Koeppen climate classification).

## Education 
* École pour l'informatique et les nouvelles technologies
* ICN Business School

## Sister cities
Nancy is twinned with:
Tours

]]

**Tours** is a city on the Loire River in the centre of France. It has about 143,000 inhabitants. It is the prefecture (administrative headquarters) of the department of Indre-et-Loire and is one of the 22 French metropolis.

## Notable natives and residents 
* Honoré de Balzac 1799-1850, novelist
* René Descartes 1596-1650, scientist, mathematician and philosopher

## Sister cities
*  Mülheim an der Ruhr, Germany, since 1962
*  Segovia, Spain, since 1972
*  Parma, Italy, since 1976
*  Luoyang, People's Republic of China, since 1982
*  Springfield, USA, since 1984
*  Trois-Rivières, Canada, since 1987
*  Takamatsu, Japan, since 1988
*  Braşov, Romania, since 1990
*  Minneapolis, USA, since 1991

## Related pages 
* Capital of France
Le Mans

**Le Mans** is a commune. It is found in the Pays de la Loire region in the Sarthe department in the west of France.

**Le Mans** is a city in France. It has about 143,000 inhabitants. It takes about one hour to go to Paris by TGV.

## Sport
* Le Mans is the start of the seventh stage of the 2011 Tour de France.
* The city is well known for the 24-hour car race of Le Mans.

## Sister cities
Le Mans is twinned with:
*  Bolton, England, United Kingdom
*  Haouza, Western Sahara
*  Paderborn, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany
*  Rostov-on-Don, Rostov Oblast, Russia
*  Suzuka, Japan
*  Volos, Greece
*  Xianyang, Shaanxi, China
*  Alexandria, Egypt

## References
Exile on Main St.

***Exile On Main St.*** was one of The Rolling Stones albums. It was released in 1972 and includes the hit songs "Happy" and "Tumbling Dice".
Nice

**Nice** (pronounced "neece") is a city in southern France on the Mediterranean coast. It is a commune in the French department of Alpes-Maritimes. It has over 345,000 people living in the city as of 2012 (1,000,000 in its metropolitan area). It has many beaches. It has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (*Csa* in the Koeppen climate classification). Summers are hot, dry, and sunny; winters are mild with moderate rainfall.

From the late 18th century, wealthy British visitors came to Nice, with its beauty and its warm climate. Queen Victoria was amongst them: she made several visits. The city's main seaside promenade, the *Promenade des Anglais* owes its name to these visitors. The clear air and soft light appeals to painters. Marc Chagall and Henri Matisse spent years here and are well represented in  the city's museums, the *Musée Marc Chagall*, *Musée Matisse* and *Musée des Beaux-Arts*.

Nice has the second largest hotel capacity in the country and is one of its most visited cities. It gets 5&nbsp;million tourists every year. It also has the third busiest airport in France after the two main Parisian ones.

There is a local dialect, le nissard, nissart, or niçard. It is a variety of the regional language, Occitan. It is Italian in style, reminding that the area has been under different sovereignty in the past.

Over 70 people were killed in an attack on 14 July 2016.
## Parade

File:Bataille de fleurs. 2020-02-22 14-43-52.jpg
File:Bataille de fleurs. 2020-02-22 14-47-17.jpg
File:Bataille de fleurs. 2020-02-22 14-50-16.jpg
File:Bataille de fleurs. 2020-02-22 14-53-48.jpg
File:Bataille de fleurs. 2020-02-22 14-56-44.jpg
File:Bataille de fleurs. 2020-02-22 15-00-53.jpg
File:Bataille de fleurs. 2020-02-22 15-18-29.jpg
File:Bataille de fleurs. 2020-02-22 15-23-33.jpg
File:Bataille de fleurs. 2020-02-22 15-15-01.jpg

## Sister city
Nice is twinned with:
* Edinburgh, Scotland

## Education 
* EDHEC Business School
* École pour l'informatique et les nouvelles technologies
* Institut supérieur européen de formation par l'action
* Université Côte-d'Azur

## References 
## Other websites 
* Dances and traditional musics from Nice
* Information on Nice Airport
OpenGL

**OpenGL** (**Open Graphics Library**) is a programming interface for 3D graphics which helps computer programmers make their 3D graphics perform better and faster by running parts of their programs on a video card (GPU) rather than just the central processor (CPU). Programming interfaces like OpenGL are usually called an "API," which stands for "Application Programming Interface".

OpenGL is often compared to Direct3D, an API for 3D graphics on Windows. Programming for Direct3D is different in some ways because the APIs use different naming schemes for talking to a computer's graphics driver, which means that programmers need to write different code for OpenGL and Direct3D to do the same things.

OpenGL is owned by the Khronos Group. The Khronos Group writes the specification for OpenGL which describes how the API should interact with the GPU. It is then up to the manufacturers of GPUs to write code which matches this specification. Despite what the name suggests, OpenGL is not open-source.
## References
## Further reading
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 

## Other websites
* GLFW -- Library for creating OpenGL contexts.
* GLEW -- Extension wrangler library for newer OpenGL features.

* 
* OpenGL Overview and OpenGL.org's Wiki with more information on OpenGL Language bindings
* SGI's OpenGL website
* 
* Khronos Group, Inc.
* 

## Version history
Māori language

The **Māori language** (, shortened to **Te Reo**) is the language of the Māori and an official language of New Zealand. It is an Austronesian language.

Although it is an official language, not many people speak it fluently. In the 2013 census, about 149,000 people, (3.7% of the population) said that they could have a conversation in Māori about a lot of everyday things.

The language can be seen everywhere throughout New Zealand, as many of the placenames are Māori, such as Whangarei, Rotorua, and Timaru. Lots of government or city buildings use te reo on their signs as well as English, and most of the public schools have a Māori name as well as an English one. Some Māori people living in Australia also speak the language.

Te Reo Māori did not have a writing system until the Europeans arrived. In 1817, a Ngāpuhi chief, Tītori, and his relative Tui worked with Professor Samuel Lee and prepared a writing system for *te reo*. 

## References
Movie criticism

**Movie criticism** is the  of a movie. People who write their opinions about movies in newspapers and magazines or talk about movies on television, the Internet or on radio shows are called **movie critics**. Some movie critics also write books about movies and the history of movies.

## Training
Some movie critics studied movie or movie history in a university before becoming a movie critic. Other movie critics are people who have experience making movies, for example as a movie director or screenwriter. Some movie critics studied other subjects in university that are related to movie, such as English Literature or theatre.

## Related occupations
* Movie theorists study the way stories are told in movies, and examine how movie directors, screenwriters, and cinematographers use images and sounds on the movie screen. Movie theorists usually work in universities, in movie studies or media departments. Some movie theorists, such as Francois Truffaut are also involved in other movie-related jobs, such as being a movie critic and a director.
* Movie historians study the history of different aspects of movie production and distribution.
* Television critics write their opinions about television shows in newspapers and magazines or talk about television shows on television or on radio shows. Some television critics also write books about television and the history of television shows. Movie critics Roger Ebert and Gene Siskel once hosted a successful movie review show called *At the Movies*. 
* Television scholars study the impact of television shows on culture.

## Awards
Roger Ebert became the first movie critic to win a Pulitzer Prize. After his win, many other critics were awarded with this honor.

## Notable movie critics
* Roger Ebert
* Gene Siskel
* Gene Shalit
* A. O. Scott
* Kenneth Turan
* Steven Rea
* Anthony Lane
* Peter Travers
* David Denby 
* Rex Reed
* Joe Morgenstern
* Joe Siegel
* Andrew Sarris 
* Vincent Canby
* Michael Phillips
* Jonathan Rosenbaum
* Colin Covert
* Leonard Maltin
* Richard Roeper
* Armond White
Gonorrhea

**Gonorrhea** is a STD (sometimes called STI), transmitted by having sex. It is among the most widespread of these sexually transmitted disease.  Gonorrhea is also sometimes called "the clap."  Gonorrhea can be cured using antibiotic medicine but the entire course of antibiotics must be used.  

Its presence was found up to 700 years ago. At that time, this disease was described by coming from the "Le Clapiers" part of the city of Paris. This part of the city was known to be where prostitutes lived.

In 2023 there had been an increase in the number of people affected all over England and Wales.  The diagnosis rate for England had risen from 80.6 per 100,000 people in 2017 to 146.1 per 100,000 people in 2022. The disease is common among black (or African Americanmen or women.

## Synovial fluid analysis 
## Treatment and prevention 
It is caused by a bacterium, *Neisseria gonorrheae*. Since it is caused by a bacterium, it can be treated with antibiotics. The use of latex style condoms when having sex can prevent it from spreading. Sometimes antibiotics do not cure gonorrhea. This is because the bacterium is becoming immune or resistant to the medicine. When this happens, the infection is more difficult to cure.

## References
Cichlid

**Cichlids** (pronounced 'sick-lids') are fishes from the family **Cichlidae**, in the order Cichliformes.

It is a very large family of fish made up of more than 2500 species.
Cichlids come in many different sizes, from 2.5 centimeters to almost a meter long. All cichlids have some form of parental care for their eggs and fry. That parental care may come in the form of guarding the eggs and fry or it may come in the form of mouthbrooding. Cichlids are famous for their speciation in East African lakes.

## References
McCarthyism

**McCarthyism** was a period of intense anti-communist suspicion in the United States. It began after the Cold War's start in the late 1940s and lasted until the mid-to-late 1950s. The term gets its name from U.S. Senator Joseph McCarthy, a Republican from Wisconsin. The period of McCarthyism is also referred to as the Second Red Scare (the First Red Scare happened after the Bolsheviks took power in Russia during the October Revolution of 1917 and lasted from the late 1910s to the late 1920s).

McCarthyism was caused by increased fears of communist influence on American institutions, espionage by Soviet agents such as the Rosenbergs, heightened tension from the Soviet control over Central and Eastern Europe, and the communist successes during the Chinese Revolution (1949) and the Korean War (1950-1953). The play *The Crucible* by Arthur Miller is about the Salem Witch Trials but also hints at McCarthy.
Battle of Hastings

**The Battle of Hastings** (14 October 1066) was a  between the Anglo-Saxon English and an invading Norman army. It lasted a day and ended in the death of the Anglo-Saxon king, Harold Godwinson, and a decisive victory for the Normans. 

William, the Duke of Normandy, was crowned as King William I of England ten weeks later. The Norman conquest was a major turning point in English history.

## Background 
In 1002 Ethelred, the King of England, married Emma, the sister of Richard II, Duke of Normandy. The alliance formed by the marriage had far-reaching effects. Harold Godwinson was in Normandy in 1065 and promised Duke William that he would support William as successor to the English throne. 

On 5 January 1066, Edward died, but Harold did not respect his oaths to William. The next day, the funeral occurred, amd Harold was crowned King of England. but the news of the king's death and of Harold's taking the throne must have been a surprise. and made plans to gather a large army from all over France. He hired and paid soldiers from many parts of Europe. William asked for and got the support of the pope, who gave him a banner to carry into battle. While Duke William was planning his , Harald Hardrada of Norway was planning another. Harold knew that both would be coming but kept his ships and forces in southern England, where William might land. 
  
William may have had as many as 1,000 ships in his invasion fleet. They had favourable winds to leave Normandy on the night of 27 September 1066. William's ship, the *Mora*, was a gift of his wife, Matilda, Harold also received news that William had landed at Pevensey and went south as quickly as he could. Harold rested at London for a few days before he took his army to meet William and his French forces. called Senlac Hill. It found the Norman army marching up the valley in front. Harold had more soldiers, but they were tired from the forced march from London. However, they were attacking uphill and could not gain any speed. Harold's front line simply stood fast and fended off any attacks. 

Next, William used something new. His attacks by knights and soldiers had been separate movements, but he now used them together. They had lost their king but were still trying to reorganise. William rested his army for five days before he moved toward London.
 
Sometime later, the battle was pictured on a series of panels called the Bayeux Tapestry. William's victory at Hastings gave him the nickname by which he has been known ever since: 'William the Conqueror'.

## Notes 
## References
Dozen

s]]
A "**dozen"** (commonly abbreviated **doz** or **dz**) is a unit of measurement. It means twelve (12) items of something. The term goes back to *duodecim*, which means 12 in  Latin. Humans might have started to count on a base 12 because there are approximately 12 cycles of the moon in one cycle of the sun. In other words, a solar year has 12 months. The first to have used the unit were probably the Mesopotamians.

12 dozen  (144 items) are a **gross**. 12 gross (1728 items) are called a *great gross*. 
A great hundred is 120 or ten dozen (a dozen for each finger on both hands).

The dozen is convenient because its multipliers and multiples are convenient: 12 = 3 &times; 2 &times; 2, and 360 = 30 &times; 12. The French word *douzaine* means "about twelve" and is part of a family of words with similar meanings, e.g. *vingtaine* – "about 20"  *centaine* – "about 100"  etc. A '''baker's dozen**, also known as a **long dozen''', is thirteen.

Examples:

I have a dozen doughnuts 

There is a dozen members in a team
The Little Mermaid

"**The Little Mermaid**" is a literary fairy tale by Hans Christian Andersen. It was first published in Copenhagen, Denmark in 1837 in the third volume of *Fairy Tales Told for Children* with "The Emperor's New Clothes".  The tale glorifies suffering and self-denial. There is a statue of The Little Mermaid in the harbor of Copenhagen. The story has been adapted to opera and animated movies.

## Story 
A Beautiful mermaid princess , red hair delicate white skin and blue eyes swims to the surface of the sea. 
As it happens, she sees a human prince and falls in love with him. She wants to meet him again; however, she is a mermaid, and her father, who is the king of the sea, would not let her do so. She wants to find a way to win the prince's love, so she goes to the sea witch's cave. She will get an immortal soul if she wins the love of a human. She sacrifices her voice and her tail to the sea witch for two human legs. The prince becomes her companion. But, he falls in love with another person. The mermaid has the chance to return to the sea. She must kill the prince to go back, and so she refuses. She dies, and is transformed into a daughter of the air. She will receive an immortal soul if she does good deeds for three hundred years.

## Adaptations 
In 1957, Germaine Tailleferre wrote a three act opera with the subject. In 1968, there was a Soviet animated movie. In 1976, a co-production of the Soviet Union and Bulgaria resulted in a live-action movie. In 1989, The Walt Disney Company also made an animated movie. In 2008, Studio Ghibli made a movie inspired by the story called Ponyo.

## Notes 
## References 
* Zipes, Jack. 2000. *The Oxford Companion to Fairy Tales*. Oxford UP.

## Other websites 
* *Den lille Havfrue* Original text in Danish from the Danish Royal Library website.
* *The Annotated Little Mermaid*  by Heidi Anne Heiner, Paull's translation, with scholarly annotations, scans from six illustrated editions, bibliography.
Reading, Berkshire

**Reading** (pronounced: "Redding") is a large town in Berkshire in England. It is the largest settlement in Berkshire. It is home to about 230,000 people. Reading is found in South East England, between London and Bristol. The River Thames goes through the town. Reading replaced Abingdon as the county town of Berkshire in 1867.

## History 
There is a large statue of a lion in Forbury Gardens, and local legend has it that the sculptor killed himself by jumping off the top because he had sculpted the legs wrong. The lion is a memorial to soldiers from Berkshire who were killed in Maiwand, (Afghanistan) in a war in 1880.

Reading is the home of a school which used to be a Hospital in World War I and World War II. It is named Redlands Primary School. 

Madejski stadium is home to the Reading Football Club whose nickname is "The Royals". They are also known as the "Biscuit Men". The stadium was opened on 22 August 1998. 

Reading is the largest town in England. Of course, there are larger cities in England but Reading has not been granted city status and it doesn't have a cathedral. Also, Reading is home to the Oracle, a huge shopping centre and a large university named University of Reading.  

Reading began life as a Saxon Settlement. Reading was originally called Reada Ingas, which means people of Reada. Reada was a Saxon leader in the area with his tribe in the 6th century.    

The Normans built a  wooden castle in Reading. It was later replaced by a stone castle. The king then demolished the castle in 1152 fearing it might come into the hands of his enemies.    

Reading was an important centre in the medieval period, as the site of Reading Abbey, a monastery with strong royal connections    

The Huntley and Palmer's biscuit factory was the biggest in the world in 1914 and one factory was built on Kings Road by George Palmer in 1846.  

"The Blade" in central Reading is the tallest building in Reading. It is 86 metres tall. It is visible from many places in the town.  

Palmer Park was founded by George Palmer and it has a statue of George Palmer in it. Palmer Park was built for his workers to rest and people still enjoy using the park today.   

There is a very famous hospital called The Royal Berkshire Hospital. It was opened in 1839.  

Lots of schools in Reading took part in "Beat The Street" in 2015.

## Notable people 
TV presenter Chris Tarrant (*Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?*) and comedian Ricky Gervais are from Reading, and also actress Kate Winslet, who has a road named after her. Musician Mike Oldfield is also from Reading. Tony Sullivan (local legend) is also a resident in the town. The town has two universities and is famous for its rock festival. Reading is home to Championship football and rugby teams.

## Related pages
* Reading railway station
* Great Western Railway

## References 
## Other websites