open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
1253

## Events 
* July 6 – Mindaugas is crowned as King of Lithuania.
* July – William II, Count of Holland defeats the Flemish army at Westkapelle.
* A series of naval wars begins between the Italian city-states of Genoa and Venice, which will continue sporadically until 1371.
* King Henry III of England meets with English nobles and church leaders to reaffirm the validity of Magna Carta.
* Pope Innocent IV returns to Rome, having left nine years earlier in 1244 to depose Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, and being unable to return until after Frederick's death due to the agitation throughout Europe caused by that action.
* Having rebuffed the armed forces of Conrad IV of Germany, Pope Innocent IV offers Sicily to Edmund, son of King Henry III of England.
* Galicia becomes a vassal state to the expanding Mongol Empire.
## Deaths 
* January 19 – Dogen, Japanese founder of the Soto school of Zen Buddhism
* August 11 – Clare of Assisi, Italian follower of Francis of Assisi (born 1194)
* October 9 – Robert Grosseteste, English statesman and theologian
* Wenceslaus I, King of Bohemia
* Theobald IV of Champagne (born 1201)
* Saint Richard of Chichester
* King Henry I of Cyprus (born 1217)
* Amadeus IV of Savoy (born 1197)
Tirana

**Tirana** ( or *Tirana*) is the capital and largest city of Albania. It is located in the centre of the country, enclosed by mountains and hills with Dajti rising to the east and a slight valley to the northwest overlooking the Adriatic Sea in the distance. It is among the wettest and sunniest cities in Europe, with 2,544 hours of sun per year.

The origin of the city name is unknown. According to one of the versions, its name comes from Tyrkanos Castle, which was near the current location of Tirana.

## Notes
## References
John Nash

**John Nash** may mean

*John Forbes Nash, Jr. (1928 &ndash; 2015), American mathematician and economist. Was awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics for his work in game theory in 1994.
*John Nash (architect) (1752–1835) British architect.
John Forbes Nash Jr.

**John Forbes Nash Jr.** (June 13, 1928 &ndash; May 23, 2015) was an American mathematician who worked in game theory and differential geometry. He was born in Bluefield, West Virginia. He shared the 1994 Memorial Prize in Economics with two other game theorists, Reinhard Selten and John Harsanyi.

## Early life
Nash was born on June 13, 1928, in Bluefield, West Virginia. He studied at Princeton University and at Carnegie Institute of Technology.

## Career
The winner of a Westinghouse scholarship, he attended the Carnegie Institute of Technology, where he received both his bachelor's degree and his master's degree in 1948. From Pittsburgh he went to Princeton University where he worked on his equilibrium theory. He received a Ph.D. in 1950 with a dissertation on non-cooperative games. The thesis, which was written under the supervision of Albert W. Tucker, contained the definition and properties of what would later be called the Nash equilibrium. His studies on this subject led to three articles:
* "Equilibrium Points in N-person Games", published in the *Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences* (USA) (1950);
* "The Bargaining Problem" (April 1950) in *Econometrica*, and
* "Two-person Cooperative Games" (January 1953), also in *Econometrica*.

Nash also did important work in the area of manifolds (complex spatial structures):
* "Real algebraic manifolds", (1952) *Ann. Math.* 56 (1952), 405 – 421. (See also *Proc. Internat. Congr. Math.*, 1950, (AMS, 1952), pp.&nbsp;516 – 517.)

This work led to *Nash embedding theorem*: "Two real algebraic manifolds are equivalent if and only if they are analytically homeomorphic." http://mathworld.wolfram.com/NashsEmbeddingTheorem.html

## Personal life
He is best known in popular culture as the subject of the Hollywood movie, *A Beautiful Mind*, about his mathematical genius and his struggles with schizophrenia, with which he was diagnosed.

Nash married Alicia Lopez-Harrison de Lardé in 1957. They had one son. Nash had a first son out of wedlock to Elenor Stier.. In 1963, the couple divorced. They later remarried in 2001. Nash lived in West Windsor Township, New Jersey for a long time.

## Death
On May 23, 2015, Nash and his wife Alicia were killed in a car accident near Monroe Township, New Jersey. A taxi that they were riding in was struck by another vehicle and the pair was ejected from the taxi. Nash was 86 years old.

## References 
## Other websites 
* Autobiography at the Nobel Prize website
* Nash's home page at Princeton
* John Forbes Nash Jr Information 
* Nash FAQ  from Princeton's Mudd Library, including a copy of his dissertation in PDF format
* Beautiful mind, unconventional matter , a 2001 *Daily Princetonian* interview
* PBS documentary 
* John Nash speaks out about alleged bisexuality
Wooden spoon

A **wooden spoon** is a spoon made from wood. Wooden spoons are used for mixing food.  Wooden spoon is also a  term for last place in a sporting contest.

## Other websites
*Stuart King's collection of carved wooden spoons
Muteness

**Muteness** means not being able to speak. A person that cannot speak is called a **mute**. A mute keeps the ability to hear the speech of others. If not, the person would be a deaf mute.

Muteness is a type of speech  disorder. A person who chooses not to speak is said to be *silent* rather than mute. Slang for this (British English) is "keeping mum".

Originally, the common word **dumb** or *dumbness* used to mean "unable to speak," though was taken over to mean "*unwilling* to speak" or "unintelligent". So, people now prefer the term "muteness". "Dumb" is a much more common word, and might be used if it would not be misunderstood.

## Cause (eteliology) 
In general, someone who is mute may be mute for one of several different reasons: genetics, psychological, or trauma.

## Related pages
*Deaf-mute
*Aphasia
*Aphonia
*Autism
*Deafness
*Dysarthria
*Selective mutism

## References
Ping Pong

**Ping Pong** may refer to:

* table tennis: A kind of exercise.
* Ping Pong (manga): a Japanese cartoon of table tennis.
Filipino

**Filipino** might mean:

*Anything related to the Philippines
*Filipino language, a form of the Tagalog language
*Filipinos, a group of people from the Philippines
Mindanao

**Mindanao** is one of the three main island groups in the Philippines. It is the southernmost major island of the Philippines, and is the only island in the Philippines are predominantly Muslim people. Mindanao is northeast of Sabah. It may also refer to the main island in the group. 

## List of provinces of Mindanao state
## List of regions in Mindanao state
### Largest cities of Mindanao
## Related page
* Metro Davao
* Secession in the Philippines

## References
Knuckle

A **knuckle**, in anatomy, is where two bones join in the hands or feet. When talking about humans, knuckles most often refer to the joints in the fingers.

Animal knuckles, such as *pig knuckles* are sometimes sold as food.
Royal family

]]
A **royal family** is the family of a monarch (king or queen of a country). Or, it is someone who is related to a queen, king or a monarch. A royal family may be called "House of" something, as in "House of Habsburg". Some royal families such as the British Royal Family participate in various ceremonies and royal duties. As of 2021, there are 26 royal families in the world.

## Related pages 
*Dynasty
Phylum

A **phylum** (plural: **phyla**) is the third highest rank used in the biological taxonomy of all organisms. The second rank is kingdom and the highest is domain. Usually biologists count about 32 phyla of animals, about 14 of plants, and about 8 phyla of fungus, but definitions vary.

With genome analysis, groups of phyla have been put together based on evolutionary relationships. These are informal, not part of the standard classification.

The exact definition of a phylum is subject to debate, but most often it is either taken to mean a clade where a basic body plan/body structure is present in all its members or to mean a "grand"/"basic" grouping of life in which subsequent extinction has led to its representing a great amount of biodiversity, particularly because it is rare to find lifeforms not in any phylum (although this may be circular logic) except in the fossil record.

Botanists usually prefer the word *division* instead of *phylum*.

## Related pages 
*List of animal phyla
General election

A **general election** is an election in which all or most members of a given political body are chosen. The term is usually used to mean the elections held for a nation's primary legislative body. This is different from primary elections, by-elections or local elections. In the United Kingdom when Parliament is d every seat in the House of Commons becomes  and a general election is held.

## References
Conduction

**Conduction** in physics is about forms of energy, namely heat or electricity.

* Heat conduction takes place between two objects in contact with each other.  Heat energy moves from one to the other.  In heat conduction, the heat energy travels from the hot point to a cold point.  Eventually, the two materials will even out in temperature as the heat keeps on transferring until the temperatures are the same.  This is equilibrium.  For example, a pan of hot soup is taken off the oven and put on a table.  The area of the table under the pot gets hot.  Heat from the pot moved to the table top by conduction. 

* Electrical conduction is usually done through wires or cables. Something that electrons can easily move through is a good electrical conductor.  Metals are mostly  good conductors.  An insulator like rubber is a poor conductor.  Plastics are insulators.  Some materials, such as glass, are conductors for heat but not electricity.

Besides conduction, the other major ways of moving energy are by radiation and convection.

## Related pages
* electrical conductor
* heat conduction
* fiber optics
Dover (disambiguation)

**Dover** is a port town in Kent, in South East England.

**Dover** may also mean:
* Dover, Delaware, the capital of Delaware
* Dover, Arkansas, a city in Arkansas
* Dover, Idaho, a city in Idaho
* Dover, Kentucky, a city in Kentucky
* Dover, New Hampshire, a city in New Hampshire
* Dover, New York, a city in New York
* Dover, Pennsylvania, a city in Pennsylvania
* Dover-Foxcroft, Maine, a city in Maine
2005 United Kingdom general election

The **2005 United Kingdom general election** was an election held on May 5, 2005 to elect 646 members to the House of Commons of the United Kingdom. The three main candidates to become Prime Minister of the United Kingdom are shown to the right. 

The election resulted in the Labour Party and it's leader Tony Blair winning a majority in the House of Commons for the third time in a row. The Labour Party did lose 47 of their seats in parliament and the amount of votes they got dropped by 5.5% from the 2001 General Election. Many people believe the Labour Party lost support because of Labour Prime Minister Tony Blair's unpopular decision to send troops to Iraq in 2003.

## Results
* **Labour Party** (355 MP's, 35.2% of vote)
* **Conservative Party** (198 MP's, 32.4% of vote)
* **Liberal Democrats** (62 MP's, 22.0% of vote)
* UK Independence Party (0 MP's, 2.2% of vote)
* **Scottish National Party** (6 MP's, 1.5% of vote) - Scotland only
* Green Party (0 MP's, 1.0% of vote) - England and Wales only
* **Democratic Unionist Party** (9 MP's, 0.9% of vote) - Northern Ireland only  
* **British National Party** (0 MP's, 0.7% of vote)
* **Plaid Cymru** (3 MP's, 0.6% of vote) - Wales only
* **Sinn Féin** (5 MP's, 0.6% of vote) - Northern Ireland only
* **Ulster Unionist Party** (1 MP, 0.5% of vote) - Northern Ireland only
* **Social Democratic and Labour Party** (3 MP's, 0.5% of vote) - Northern Ireland only 
* **Respect Party** (1 MP, 0.3% of vote)
* Scottish Socialist Party (0 MP's, 0.2% of vote) - Scotland only
* Veritas (0 MP's, 0.1% of vote)
* Alliance Party of Northern Ireland (0 MP's, 0.1% of vote) - Northern Ireland only
* Scottish Green Party (0 MP's, 0.1% of vote) - Scotland only
* Socialist Labour Party (0 MP's, 0.1% of vote)
* Liberal Party (0 MP's, 0.1% of vote)
* English Democrats (0 MP's, 0.1% of vote) - England only

The constituencies of Blaenau Gwent and Wyre Forest elected Independent candidates. The seat of Glasgow East was won by the Speaker of the House of Commons Michael Martin, who is not considered to be of any political party.

The next election was held on May 6, 2010. See United Kingdom general election, 2010

## Related pages
*MPs elected in the UK general election, 2005
Flash memory

. The chip on the left (with *Samsung*)  contains the flash memory. The chip on the right is the controller chip]]
**Flash memory** is a memory storage device for computers and electronics. It is most often used in devices like digital cameras, USB flash drives, and video games. It was developed in the 1980s from the earlier and similar EEPROM.

Flash memory is different from RAM because RAM is volatile (not permanent). When power is turned off, RAM loses all its data. Flash can keep its data intact with no power at all. A hard drive is also permanent (non-volatile) storage, but it is bulky and fragile. Flash memory is one kind of non-volatile random-access memory. It is slower than RAM but faster than hard drives. It is often used in small electronics because of its small size and lack of moving parts.

The main weakness of flash memory is that it is more expensive than hard drives for the same amount of storage.  Another weakness is the number of times that data can be written to it. Data can be read from flash as many times as desired, but after a certain number of "write" operations, "write cycles", it will stop working. Most flash devices are designed for about 100,000 - 1,000,000 write cycles.

EEPROM has the same limitation that flash does: ones made in the 20th century could only survive about 100,000 write cycles, later increased to about a million. It is more expensive than flash, so it is rarely used for storage greater than 128kB. The main difference between EEPROM and flash memory is that most EEPROM devices can erase any byte of memory at any time. Flash memory can only erase an entire chunk, or "sector", of memory at a time. Both EEPROM and flash are subject to the limitation that only bytes in an 'erased' state can be written, which means that if the user wants to change only one byte of flash, the entire sector must be erased and re-written. This means that flash memory can wear out faster than EEPROM.  Some flash memory can store hundreds of gigabytes, or even terabytes.  Many are in the form of a pen drive.  

Flash memory is used in USB Drives, solid-state drives, computer RAM (occasionally), hybrid drives (small SSD + hard drive), graphics cards, and memory cards.

## Related pages
* USB flash drive
Puducherry (union territory)

**Puducherry**, which used to be called **Pondicherry** is a Union territory of India. Pondicherry is divided into four separate parts: Puducherry district, Karaikal district, Yanam district, and Mahe district. These four areas are under one name because they were all once ruled by the French. Chandranagore, the fifth former French colony 30 kilometers north of Kolkata, in West Bengal, India, is now outside this unconnected territory. 

When India took control of them, they took them in as one territory. Pondicherry is going through a name change to Puducherry, which means "new village" in the local language. It covers an area of 183 mi² or 474 km²; it is bigger than Andorra but smaller than Saint Lucia. 

Its a very nice tourist attraction. Its has many heritage buildings with old French architecture. The Boulevard is ellipse-shaped with two clock towers of the Small Market and the Big Market. The area of boulevards close to the Beach is called White Town. This was the area where initial French settlements were made. That's why it is called White town area.
Bottrop

**Bottrop** is a city in west central Germany, on the Rhine-Herne Canal, in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia (Nordrhein-Westfalen). Bottrop is in the Ruhr industrial area, It is next to Essen, Oberhausen, Gladbeck and Dorsten. The city had been a coal-mining and rail center. There are factories producing coal-tar derivatives, chemicals, textiles, and machinery. The population is currently 119,655. Bottrop grew as a mining center beginning in the 1860s and was chartered as a city in 1921. In 1975 it was put together with the unification with the neighbor communities of Gladbeck and Kirchhellen, but Gladbeck left in 1976.

## History 
The place is first heard of in 1150, as *Borthorpe*. This name means *village on the hillside*. In the year 1423, Bottrop is awarded the status of a market town. In 1786 the first cotton mill opens. Coal mining starts in 1856. The city gets town privileges in 1919. In 1953, the population passed 100.000 people for the first time.

## Popular persons 
* Josef Albers (1888–1976), artist and educator
* August Everding (1928–1999), opera director and administrator
* Theo Jörgensmann (1948–2025), jazz clarinet player and composer

## References 
## Other websites 
* Official city website
1048

## Events 
* The city of Oslo is founded by King Harald Hardrada of Norway.
* Battle of Pasinler – Seljuks defeat a force of Byzantines and Georgians.
* Pope Benedict IX is driven out of Rome, ending his third and final pontificate.
## Births 
* May 18 &ndash; Omar Khayyam, Persian poet and mathematician (died 1134)
* *date unknown*
** Michael IX Comneus, Byzantine emperor (died 1088)
** Pope Paschal II (died 1118)

## Deaths 
* Pope Damasus II (born 1000)
Terry Pratchett

Sir **Terry Pratchett** OBE (**Terence David John Pratchett**; 28 April 1948 &ndash; 12 March 2015) was an English author. He was known for his fantasy works, including the famous *Discworld* series. His first novel, *The Carpet People*, was published in 1971. He was the UK's best-selling author of the 1990s. He was born in Beaconsfield, Buckinghamshire, England.

Pratchett died at his home in Broad Chalke, Wiltshire, England on 12 March 2015 from a severe chest infection with final complications from his Alzheimers, aged 66.

## References 
## Other websites 
*TerryPratchettBooks.com Official US site
*Transworld  Official UK, Europe and Canada site
*TerryPratchettBooks.org Fan site
1218

## Events 
* Damietta is besieged by the knights of the Fifth Crusade.
* Livonian Brothers of the Sword begin to conquer Estonia.
* Minamoto no Sanetomo becomes Minister of the Right (*udaijin*) of Japan.
* Alfonso IX of Castile founds a university in Salamanca.
1282

## Events 
* March 30 – The Sicilian rebellion known as the Sicilian Vespers begins
* March – Dafydd ap Gruffydd, brother to Prince of Wales Llywelyn the Last, attacks an English castle
* Holy Roman Emperor Rudolph I of Germany makes his sons Albert I of Germany and Rudolph II of Austria as rulers of the of Austria and Styria, thus founding the Habsburg dynasty in those territories.
* Floris V, Count of Holland defeats the Frisians at the battle of Vronen and retrieves the body of his father, who had been dead for 26 years.
Critic

A **critic** is a person who reviews things like movies, books, and food to see if they are any good and if other people would like them.  They write reviews about what they have seen or read. 

Critics may write about art, music, theatre, politics, movies, television, books, or anything in which good or bad is a matter of personal opinion.

Roger Ebert, Gene Siskel, Raymond Williams, Susan George, John Ruskin, Rene Ricard, John Amis, Vladimir Vladimirovich Kara-Murza, George Bernard Shaw, Robert Schumann and Pauline Kael are some famous critics of art, music, politics and movies. Most of them are professional. 

## Related pages
*Art critic
*Criticism
*Movie criticism
*Music critic
Søren Kierkegaard

**Søren Aabye Kierkegaard** (5 May 1813 – 11 November 1855), was a 19th-century Danish philosopher and theologian, and is usually thought of as the first existentialist philosopher.

He wrote many philosophical books about , existence, emotions, and feeling. He disliked people who tried to make Christianity political and people who tried to limit the single individual in favour of groups of many people. Many people have found his works interesting and have said that they were great works of philosophy. Ludwig Wittgenstein, a 20th-century philosopher, thought Kierkegaard was "by far, the most profound thinker of the nineteenth century".

## Life
He was born in Copenhagen, Denmark. He attended Copenhagen University and earned his master's degree in 1841. During this time, he met and fell in love with Regine Olsen in 1837. Although they were engaged for a time, Kierkegaard ended the engagement in 1841.

After breaking up with Regine, he spent much of his time writing book after book, in a highly dramatic yet  way. He also wrote some of his works using pen names, or pseudonyms. He died in Copenhagen. Although his works were not very popular during his lifetime, after his death they became influential in the 20th century.

## Works 
Books by Kierkegaard. *Either/Or* and *Fear and Trembling*, both published in 1843, are thought to be especially significant.

* (1841) *The Concept of Irony* (*Om Begrebet Ironi med stadigt Hensyn til Socrates*)
* (1843) *Either/Or* (*Enten - Eller*)
* (1843) *Fear and Trembling* (*Frygt og Bæven*)
* (1843) *Repetition* (*Gjentagelsen*)
* (1844) *Philosophical Fragments* (*Philosophiske Smuler*)
* (1844) *The Concept of Dread* (*Begrebet Angest*)
* (1845) ''Stages on Life's Way* (*Stadier paa Livets Vei*)
* (1846) *Concluding Unscientific Postscript to The Philosophical Fragments* (*Afsluttende uvidenskabelig Efterskrift*)
* (1847) *Edifying Discourses in Divers Spirits*
* (1847) *Works of Love* (*Kjerlighedens Gjerninger*)
* (1848) *Christian Discourses* (*Christelige Taler*)
* (1849) *The Sickness Unto Death*  (*Sygdommen til Døden*)
* (1850) *Training in Christianity* (*Indøvelse i Christendom'')

## Related pages
*List of Danish writers

## References
New York Yankees

The **New York Yankees** are a professional baseball team based in the Bronx, a borough of New York City, New York. They compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as part of the American League (AL) east division. 

The Yankees are one of two MLB teams based in New York City. The other is the National League's New York Mets. 

The team has won 27 World Series championships, more than any other team in the Major Leagues. Legendary Yankees include Babe Ruth, Joe DiMaggio, Casey Stengel, Mickey Mantle, Yogi Berra, Reggie Jackson,  Don Mattingly, Bernie Williams, Darryl Strawberry, Alex Rodriguez, Alfonso Soriano, Gary Sheffield and Derek Jeter.

## History 
From 1923 to 2008, the team's home was Yankee Stadium. Currently, they are playing at their new Yankee Stadium.

In 1921, the Yankees won their first pennant (the American League championships).

### Name 
"Yankee" is slang for "American". As with the more common use of the term "Yankee", the team is more often called "the Yanks". 

Their most commonly used "unofficial" nickname is "the Bronx Bombers", or simply "the Bombers". This nickname was given to them by the press a long time ago. It referred to their ability to hit a lot of home runs (a home run is sometimes called a "bomb"). 

A less used nickname is "the Pinstripers", for their well-known uniform style.

## Today 
As of December 21, 2022, team's captain is Aaron Judge. Derek Jeter was the previous team captain; he retired after the 2014 season.

The Yankees have a historic rivalry with the Boston Red Sox.

Currently, the Yankees' team manager is Aaron Boone, and its General Manager is Brian Cashman. The team's ace pitcher is Geritt Cole.

The official fight song for the Yankees is "Here Come the Yankees".

After every home game, they play Frank Sinatra's "New York, New York".

## Titles & honors 
The Yankees have retired the numbers of 22 players, more than any other teams in MLB. (This is a sign of honor and means that no team member will ever use those numbers again.) Among those 22 players are baseball legends like Babe Ruth, Joe DiMaggio, Casey Stengel, Mickey Mantle, Yogi Berra, and Derek Jeter.

Major League Baseball also retired the number 42, which Jackie Robinson wore when he broke the color barrier.

The Yankees were the last team to win back-to-back World Series championships. They won three straight titles from 1998 to 2000.

The Yankees won the American League pennant in 2024, and faced the Los Angeles Dodgers in the World Series.

## Rivalries 
In 1919, the Yankees started there the biggest rivalry to date with the Boston Red Sox. The rivalry started after the former pitcher, Babe Ruth, was traded to the Yankees.

## References 
## Other websites
* Official website of the New York Yankees
* New York Yankees Home Uniform - American League (AL) - Chris Creamer's Sports Logos Page - SportsLogos.Net

## Further Reading
*Pinstripe Pride* by Marty Appel
Despotism

**Despotism** is a form of government that is controlled by one person or a small group of people. The person who controls the state is called a *despot*. They have no elections, or the elections are rigged. The despot has complete control of the state, like a dictator or tyrant. 

In history, the pharaohs of Egypt were despots in the sense that they ruled Egypt. But their rule was usually passed on to a relative, so that is rather like a monarchy. There is evidence that if they ruled badly, they were opposed or deposed. 

The word *despot* is thought to come from the Ancient Greek word *despotes*, which means "the master". According to Montesquieu, the difference between absolute monarchy and despotism is as follows. In the case of the monarchy, a single person governs with absolute power by fixed and established laws, whereas a despot governs by his or her own will and caprice.

The importance of the idea of despotism is that today it is a very common type of dictatorship or direct rule. Ruling monarchies are today few in number.

Even when there are elections, as there are for the Russian presidency, opposition candidates are at such a disadvantage that they are rarely, if ever, successful.

Despotism has always been associated with Eastern rather than Western states. Of the former Soviet Union, it is only the new states to the west which have attempted, with difficulties, to build genuine democracies (such as Moldova and Ukraine). Former Yugoslavia is an interesting case because its collapse has left several communities which regard themselves as separate, and are indeed ethnically different, yet none is as stable as the former Yugoslavia.

## References
1667

## Events 
* January 20 – Poland cedes Kyiv, Smolensk, and eastern Ukraine to Russia in the Treaty of Andrusovo that put a final end to the Deluge, and Poland lost its status as a Central European power.
* April 27 – The blind, impoverished John Milton sells the copyright of *Paradise Lost* for £10.
* June 12-17 – In the Raid on the Medway, a Dutch fleet under admiral Michiel de Ruyter burns Sheerness, sails up the River Medway, raids Chatham dockyards and escapes with the royal barge *The Royal Charles*.
* June 15 – The first human blood transfusion is administered by Dr. Jean-Baptiste Denys. He transfuses the blood of a sheep to a 15-year-old boy. (Though this operation is a success, a later patient dies from the procedure and Denys is accused of murder).
* June 20 – Dutch troops attack Royal Navy ships in London and Chatham and burn them.
* July 31 – Second Anglo-Dutch War ends: The Treaty of Breda ends the war. The treaty also recognizes Acadia as a French possession.
* October 18 – Brooklyn is chartered under the name **Brueckelen** by Mathias Nicolls, Governor of New Netherland.
* November 25 – Devastating earthquake rocks Caucasia, killing 80,000 people.
* Suleiman I becomes Shah of Persia.
* The Mogul Emperor Aurangzeb buys off the bandit Shivaji by making him a Rajah and allowing him to collect taxes.
* Robert Hooke demonstrates that the alteration of the blood in the lungs is essential for respiration.
* The War of Devolution begins, France invades Flanders and Free County.
* Louis XIV of France abolishes the Livre Parisis (Paris Pound) in favor of the much more widely used Livre Tournois (Tours Pound). He also designates Gabriel-Nicolas de la Reynie as first chief of "police" of Paris.
* French army uses grenadiers.
* Yohannes succeeds his father Fasildos as Emperor of Ethiopia.

## Births 
* August 11 - Anna Maria Luisa de' Medici, Tuscan princess
* November 30 - Jonathan Swift, Irish writer
1399

**1399** (MCCCXCIX) was a common year starting on Wednesday in the Julian calendar.

## Events 
* February 3 – death of John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster
* September 30 – Accession of Henry IV of England
* October 13 – Coronation of Henry IV of England
* November 1 – Accession of John VI, Duke of Brittany

## Deaths
* February 3 – death of John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster
Calisthenics

.]]**Calisthenics** is a  series of exercises used to develop strength, power and balance or a repeated rhythmical exercise that uses the weight of the body as resistance or the systematic exercises for attaining strength-gracefulness or the practice of calisthenic exercises.

The name calisthenics is Greek in origin, a combination of the words 'beauty' and 'strength'.

Calisthenics is recommended for general good health, light exercises designed to promote general physical fitness.

## Related pages
* Equilibrioception
* Flexibility training
* Jogging
* Training
* Weight training
Lakshadweep

**Lakshdweep**, formerly known as the **Laccadive, Minicoy and Aminidivi Islands** are a group of islands in the Arabian Sea. They belong to India. Their capital is Kavaratti. It covers an area of . Eleven of the 36 coral atoll islands of Lakshadweep are inhabited. Lakshadweep is known for its exotic and sun-kissed beaches and lush green landscape. The name Lakshadweep in Malayalam and Sanskrit means 'a hundred thousand islands'.

The islands are the only coral atolls in India. The people living there are Malayalam and Mahl people, who have been influenced by Arab traders. Lakshadweep is a Muslim region just like the neighbouring Maldives, where tourism is strictly regulated. Lakshadweep has the largest percentage of Muslims - 98%, even larger percentage than Jammu and Kashmir and is the only Muslim-majority Indian administrative division entirely within India. 

Apart from the emerging tourism, government jobs, fishing and coconut production are the mainstays of the Lakshadweep economy.

## Territorial symbols of Lakshadweep

Image:Sterna fuscata.JPG|Provincial bird of Laksahdweep
Image:Bep chaetodon decussatus.jpg|Provincial animal of Laksahdweep
Image:Uru-tahiti1.jpg|Provincial tree of Laksahdweep
Image:|Provincial flower of Laksahdweep

## Other websites
Daman and Diu

**Daman and Diu** was a union territory in India. It covers an area of . The area is bigger than Saint Helena but smaller than Wallis and Futuna. It was made of two districts, Daman and Diu.

The territory used to belong to Portugal. In 1961, Indian soldiers and air fighters took control of the territory. In 2020, it merged with Dadra and Nagar Haveli to make a new union territory, Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu.

## References
Dadra and Nagar Haveli

**Dadra and Nagar Haveli** was a union territory in India. It covers an area of 188 mi² or 487 km², it is bigger than Andorra, but smaller than Saint Lucia.

In 2020, it merged with Daman and Diu to make a new union territory, Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu. Dadra and Nagar Haveli is now a district of this territory.

## References
Yi I

**Yi I** (1536 – 1584) was a Korean Confucian . His mother was a famous calligraphist, Shin Saimdang. He was very intelligent as a child, learning to read at three and being very bright at his studies. He was also devoted to his parents: when his mother was sick, he prayed to his ancestors to heal her; and when his father was sick, he cut his own finger with a knife and let his father drink his blood (at that time, people thought human blood was very good medicine).

 note]]

## Works 
* Seonghakjipyo (성학집요 聖學輯要)
* Gyeokmongyogyeol (격몽요결 擊蒙要訣)
* Donghomundap (동호문답 東湖問答)
* Gijasilgi (기자실기 箕子實記)
* Gyeongyeonilgi (경연일기 經筵日記)
* Suneon (순언 醇言)
Romanian

**Romanian** could mean:
*Anything related to the country of Romania
*Romanians, the people of Romania
*The Romanian language
Sunrise (company)

**Sunrise** is a Japanese animation company. The staff uses the name **Hajime Yatate** in all their productions by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, but this is not a real person--it is a name that all the people who work for the studio use for themselves. 
Some cartoons made by the company are:
**Argentosoma* (also "Argento Soma, and "Argent Soma")
**(The) Big O*
**Blue Comet SPT Layzner*
**Brain Powerd* (also "Brain Powered")
**Brave Raideen* (勇者ライディーン; *Yuusha Raidiin*) (co-production with Tohoku Shinsha)
**City Hunter*
**Cowboy Bebop* (Co-production with Tokyo Movie Shinsha)
**Cyborg 009 (1979 color series; co-production with Toei Animation)
**Crest of the Stars* (星界の紋章; *Seikai no Monshō*)
**Dirty Pair*
**Future GPX Cyber Formula* (新世紀ＧＰＸサイバーフォーミュラ; *Shin Seiki GPX Saibaa Fohmyura*) (literally "New Century GPX Cyber Formula")
**Gasaraki*
** Infinite Ryvius (無限のリヴァイアス; *Mugen no Ryvius*)
**InuYasha* (犬夜叉)
**My-HiME* (舞-HiME)
**My-Otome*
**Mobile Suit Gundam* (機動戦士ガンダム; *Kidō Senshi Gandamu*) co production with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer 
**Outlaw Star* 
**Overman King Gainer*
**Planetes*
**Scryed*
**The Ultraman* (co-production with Tsuburaya Productions)
**The Vision of Escaflowne* (天空のエスカフローネ; *Tenkuu no Esukaforohne*) (literally "Escaflowne of the Heavens")
**Witch Hunter Robin*
**Yakitate!! Japan* (焼きたて!! ジャぱん)
**Yoroiden Samurai Troopers* (鎧伝サムライトールパー) (*Ronin Warriors*)
X-ray

X-radiation is a kind of electromagnetic radiation. **X-rays** are waves of X-radiation. They have a shorter wavelength, and therefore more energy, than ultraviolet radiation. X-rays have a much shorter wavelength than visible light (the light that we can see). Radiation with shorter wavelengths (more energy) than the X-ray is called Gamma radiation (γ-rays). These are all parts of the electromagnetic spectrum.

The wavelength of X-rays covers a wide range. Most X-rays have a wavelength in the range of 0.01 to 10 nanometres. This corresponds with frequencies in the range 30 petahertz to 30 exahertz (3×1016 Hz to 3×1019 Hz) and energies in the range 100 eV to 100 keV.

X-rays can go through many solid materials. For this reason, taking photograms with X-rays is used in medicine in order to see bones and other things inside the body. Sometimes the term "X-ray" means these pictures instead of the radiation that makes them.

What these images show will depend on three things: Rayleigh scattering,  Compton scattering and photoabsorption. The images show bone because it is dense enough that X-rays are not able to pass through it. Instead, the X-rays are either absorbed or scattered. The images do not show skin and muscle, however, because these tissues are transparent enough for the X-rays to pass through them without being absorbed too much. To detect tumors, other imaging devices are used; such as magnetic resonance imaging. A computed tomography scanner combines an X-ray machine and computer to construct a three dimensional (3D) picture. This has some ability to see other things besides bone.

X-rays are made by hitting metal with fast-moving electrons. They are photons, tiny packets of energy that can move atoms and change chemicals in the body. They are ionizing radiation but the things they do depend on the wavelength of the X-rays (or how much energy they have). X-rays with smaller energies ("soft" x-rays) cause the photoelectric effect. Mid-level energies cause Compton scattering. High-level energies ("hard" X-rays) cause pair production. X-rays used for making pictures of people have low to medium energy. Radiation therapy that treats cancer uses Compton scattering and sometimes Pair production.

There are small amounts of X-rays in the air. Like other energy in the air, X-rays can change living cells. Exposing the human body to high doses of X-rays for a long time is dangerous. It can cause cancer. However, cancer cells are hurt more easily, so X-rays are sometimes used to kill them.

## Related pages
* X-ray crystallography
* Interventional Radiology
* Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) 

## References
Hanoi

**Hanoi** () is the capital of Vietnam. It is also the second most populated city in the country. In 2023, about 5,253,000 people lived in the city. It has been the capital of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) since 1945 and the capital of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (all of Vietnam) since 1976. Before that, it was the capital of the country now called Vietnam for most of the time from at least the 11th century until 1802. The city is on the right of the Red River, and the city's name translates to English as "inside the river". Things made there include machine tools, plywood, textiles, chemicals and handicrafts. Hanoi is at 21°2' North, 105°51' East, 1,760&nbsp;km north of Ho Chi Minh City (formerly Saigon). Popular tourist sites in the city include Ho Chi Minh's Mausoleum, Hoa Lo Prison, and the Palace of Literature. Nearby Hanoi is also where pho, Vietnamese beef noodle soup, was first created.

## References
Danish

**Danish** can mean:
*Something of or about Denmark, a country in Europe
*Danish language
*Danish people, a group of people that is born in Denmark
*Danish pastry, often called just *Danish*
*Danish Taimoor, Pakistani actor
Birthday

A **birthday** is the day when a person was born. In many places, on a person's birthday, he or she celebrates with friends and family at a party, where they eat cake or other foods, and get gifts. It is a common use to offer gifts in packages decorated for the occasion and accompanied by greeting cards.

## Customs 
Not everyone celebrates birthdays, including Jehovah's Witnesses.

In much of the English-speaking world people sing the song "Happy Birthday to You" to the person celebrating her or his birthday.  There are similar songs in other languages.

A birthday cake is usually decorated and covered with candles.  Sometimes the number of candles is the same as the age of the birthday person.

## Coming of age 
Children usually reach their age of majority on a birthday.

* birthday cake]]In the United States of America and also in many other countries a person can vote and become a legal adult at age 18.
*In Judaism, boys have a bar mitzvah around the time they become 13. Girls sometimes have a bat mitzvah around their 12th or 13th birthday.
*In Latin America, a quinceañera party marks a girl's 15th birthday.

## Astrology 
A person's astrological sign is based on his or her birthday.

## Symbolism 
### Birthstones
A birthstone symbolizes the month of birth. In 1912, the Jewelers of America agreed on a list of birthstones:

## References
1323

## Events 
* Canonization of Saint Thomas Aquinas
* Vilnius becomes capital of Lithuania
* The Treaty of Nöteborg between Sweden and Novgorod (Russia) is signed, deciding on the border for the first time
* Pharos of Alexandria Lighthouse (one of the Seven Wonders of the world) is destroyed by many earthquakes
1718

## Events 
* July 21 – Treaty of Passarowitz signed
* November 22 – Off the coast of Virginia, English pirate Edward Teach (best known as "Blackbeard") is killed in battle when a British boarding party cornered and then shot and stabbed him more than 25 times.
* November 30 – After the death of Charles XII, Ulrika Eleonora becomes Queen of Sweden.
* December 17 – Austria, Great Britain, and France declare war on Spain, launching the War of the Quadruple Alliance.
* The Funj warrior aristocracy deposes the reigning mek and places one of their own ranks on the throne of Sennar. (History of Sudan (Coming of Islam to the Turkiyah))

## Births 
* March 31  -  Mariana Victoria of Spain, queen regent of Portugal (d. 1781)
* November 3  -  John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich, English statesman (d. 1792)

## Deaths 
* May 7  -  Mary of Modena, queen of James II of England (b. 1658)
* July 30  -  William Penn, American settler, founder of Pennsylvania (b. 1644)
* November 22  -  Blackbeard, English pirate (b. c. 1680)
* November 30  -  King Charles XII of Sweden (b. 1682)
* December 10  -  Stede Bonnet, the "gentleman pirate"
Bonfire

A **bonfire** or **balefire** is a large controlled outdoor fire made from bales of straw or wood. The word is believed to come from "bone fire". In the time of the Celts, there were midsummer festivals where animal bones were burnt to ward off evil spirits. 

## What it means in Great Britain
In Great Britain, bonfires are particularly associated with *Guy Fawkes Night*. This night is  also known as *fireworks night* or *bonfire night*. On this night, people celebrate that the Gunpowder Plot  was discovered. This discovery took place on 5 November 1605. They do this celebration each year. (It is called an *annual celebration*.)

In Northern Ireland, *bonfires* are associated with celebrations on the anniversary of the Battle of the Boyne.

## What it means in Japan
In Japan, large fires called bon-bi are set to welcome the return of the spirits of the ancestors.  Though the two terms are not etymologically or historically related, they serve similar purposes and indicate the universal importance of large fires.

## Use of bonfires for rituals
Bonfires were also used for rituals. The idea was that the fire would purify. It was used to consecrate things, or people, that is to make them sacred, in some way. In ancient times, cattle were important symbols of wealth and status. Such cattle were led through the smoke of a bonfire. Couples who were to be wed on May Day would leap through the flames of the bonfire to seal their vows. Coals from a bonfire would be taken home to light the fires in family hearths.  This practice was thought to bring good fortune. People also believed that the residents of the Faery realm were incapable of producing fire themselves; embers of bonfires would be carried to the underworld and tended there.

## Neopagan and Wiccan beliefs
Along with the Maypole, the bonfire is an important component of the Wiccan and Neopagan celebration of Beltaine, also known as May Day.

Nine woods are placed into a traditional Wiccan balefire.  These woods are rowan, dogwood, elder, poplar, oak, juniper, holly, cedar, and apple.  Occasionally, pine is also used instead of holly or elder, as are a handful of other woods.  In some regions, superstition, religious belief, or tradition prohibits the cutting of certain trees.

## Pictures
## Related pages
*Walpurgis Night
*Pyre

## Other websites
*Dancing May Day Through History
Walpurgis Night

**Walpurgis Night** (*Valborgsmässoafton* in Swedish, *Vappu* in Finnish, *Volbriöö* in Estonian, *Valpurģu nakts* or *Valpurģi* in Latvian, *Walpurgisnacht* in German, *Čarodějnice* in Czech) is a holiday celebrated on April 30 or May 1, in Finland, Sweden, Bohemia (Czech Republic), Estonia, Latvia and Germany.

## Origins
The festival is named after Saint Walburga (known in Scandinavia as "Valborg"; alternative forms are "Walpurgis", "Wealdburg", or "Valderburger"), born in Wessex in 710 a niece of Saint Boniface. According to legend, she was a daughter to the Saxon prince St. Richard. Together with her brothers she travelled to Württemberg, Germany where she became a nun and lived in the convent of Heidenheim, which was founded by her brother Wunibald. Walburga died on 25 February 779 and that day still carries her name in the Catholic calendar. However she was not made a saint until 1 May in the same year, and that day carries her name in the Swedish calendar.

Historically the Walpurgisnacht is derived from Germanic Pagan spring customs, where the arrival of spring was celebrated with bonfires at night. Their fertility celebrations took place around April 30 and due to Walburga being declared a saint at that time of year, her name became associated with the celebrations. Walburga was worshipped in the same way that the Germanic Pagans had celebrated spring, and as it spread throughout Europe, the two dates became mixed together and created the Walpurgis Night celebration.

## Germany
In Germany, **Walpurgisnacht**, the night from April 30 to May 1, is the night when allegedly the witches hold a large celebration on the Blocksberg and await the arrival of Spring. When the travel to that mountain is too far, they may also chose another hill in the region they live.  

''"Walpurgis Night (in German folklore) the night of April 30 (May Day's eve), when witches meet on the Brocken mountain and hold revels with their Gods..."* 

*"Brocken the highest of the Harz Mountains of north central Germany. It is noted for the phenomenon of the Brocken spectre and for witches' revels which reputably took place there on Walpurgis night. 
The Brocken Spectre is a magnified shadow of an observer, typically surrounded by rainbow-like bands, thrown onto a bank of cloud in high mountain areas when the sun is low. The phenomenon was first reported on the Brocken."'' 

—Taken from Oxford Phrase & Fable.
Fasting

**Fasting** is a kind of abstinence. It is when someone does not eat or drink for some specified period of time. It is only the case if the person does so of his or her own will. Fasting is usually done for one of three reasons:

* Some people use fasting to lose weight, improve heart health, and boost thinking and memory
* In some cases, people use fasting as a religious ritual
* In some cases, people use fasting as a way of protest. This is usually called hunger strike

When it is done for religious reasons, certain groups of people are usually excluded:

* People who are ill, or who are recovering from a disease
* Pregnant women, or women with small children (who need to be breastfed)
* Children
* Old people

It may also be that the person only eats and drinks certain kinds of food. Most often, fasting is done for religious reasons. Depending on the tradition, fasting practices may forbid sexual intercourse, (or any sexual desire), masturbation, as well as refraining from eating certain types or groups of food (e.g. meat).

Fasting for religious and spiritual reasons has been a part of human custom since pre-history. It is mentioned in the Qur'an, in the Mahabharata, in the Upanishads, and in the Bible, in both the Old and New Testament. In Buddhism it is also taught as a way to getting Nirvana.

## Dry fasting 
This is a form of fasting when a person totally abstains from eating any food or drinking water.

In 2019, a Zambian pastor Brighton Samajomba died from malnutrition 10 days before completing a 30-day dry fasting.

Early in 2023, the BBC reported that a Mozambican pastor Francisco Barajah also lost his life in a similar way after he did a 25-day dry fasting, but his initial plan was to complete a 40-day dry fasting just like Jesus Christ.
Later in 2023, a Nigerian pastor Victor Great was reported to have done a 21-day dry fasting; at the end of which he could not walk and several church workers assisted him from his car to the altar.

## Politics 
Fasting as a form of protest is called a hunger strike.

## Intermittent fasting 
Timed fasting is known as Intermittent fasting. According to The New York Times, it is sometimes used for weight loss.

There are different ways to time your fast. You can:

* Not eat for 16 hours
* Not eat for 20 hours
* Not eat for one day and feast on the next day and repeat
*Eat one meal a day

## References