open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Martin Amis

**Sir Martin Louis Amis** (25 August 1949 – 19 May 2023) was a Welsh novelist. His best known novels include *Money* (1984), *London Fields* (1989), ''Time's Arrow* (1991) and *The Information'' (1995).
 
Affected by several writers including his father Sir Kingsley Amis, Amis's style of writing has affected a generation of writers. His later work looked at moral and geopolitical issues, including The Holocaust, Communist Russia, and the September 11, 2001 attacks and Islamism.

## Early life 
Amis was born in Swansea, South Wales. He was the middle of three children, with an older brother, Philip, and a younger sister, Sally. He went to many different schools in the 1950s and 1960s. The fame of his father's first novel *Lucky Jim* sent the Amises to Princeton, New Jersey, where his father lectured. Amis's parents, Hilly and Kingsley, divorced when he was twelve.

Amis graduated from Exeter College, Oxford. He graduated with a first-class degree in English. After Oxford, he got a job at *The Times Literary Supplement*. At age 27, he became literary  of *The New Statesman*.

## Early writing 
His first novel *The Rachel Papers* (1973) won the Somerset Maugham Award. It tells the story of a smart, self-centered teenager (which Amis says he based on himself) and his relationship with his girlfriend in the year before going to university.

*Dead Babies* (1975) has a typically 1960s plot. It has a house full of characters who  various substances. A movie version was made in 2000 which was unsuccessful.

*Success* (1977) told the story of two foster-brothers, Gregory Riding and Terry Service, and their good and bad . 

*Other People: A Mystery Story* (1981), about a young woman coming out of a coma.

## Later career 
*Money* (subtitled *A Suicide Note*) is a first-person narrative by John Self. He was an advertising man who wanted to be a movie director. The book follows him as he flies back and forth across the Atlantic looking for . The book was a huge success and is Amis's most highly regarded work.

*London Fields* is Amis's longest book. It show the encounters between three main characters in London in 1999, as a climate disaster draws near.

''Time's Arrow* is about a doctor who helped torture Jews during the Holocaust. It was written in the form of an autobiography. The story is unusual because time runs backwards during the entire novel.

The *Experience'' is mainly about his relationship with his father, Kingsley Amis. He also writes about finding long-lost daughter, Delilah Seale and of how one of his cousins, 21-year-old Lucy Partington, became a victim of suspected serial killer Fred West.

Amis was knighted in the 2023 King's Birthday Honours for services to literature, and the knighthood was  backdated to the day before his death.

## Personal life
He lived and wrote in London and Uruguay and was married to writer Isabel Fonseca, his second wife.

Amis died from oesophageal cancer at his home in Lake Worth Beach, Florida on 19 May 2023 at age 73.

## References
## Other websites 
*The Martin Amis Web 
*Martin Amis - Author Page (Guardian Books)
*Martin Amis interviewed by Ginny Dougary  (2006)
Food preservation

**Food preservation** is about the ways and means which help to preserve food. Food spoils from bacteria if it is not treated.

For thousands of years, humans have used methods of preserving food, so that they can store food to eat later. The simplest methods of preserving food, such as drying strips of fish or meat in the hot sun have been used for thousands of years, and they are still used today by indigenous peoples. The other ancient method is to use salt, and often drying and salting are done together. Salting is one of the earliest forms of refrigeration. 

Food spoils mainly by decomposition by microorganisms. There are five basic techniques which make food last longer:
# Killing the microorganisms, or preventing them from multiplying
# Contact of microorganisms with food is prevented
# Certain additives prevent or slow the growth of microorganisms; this is often called curing
Usually several of the techniques are combined.

## Methods of preserving food
 countries: food is heated and sealed in jars or cans]]
Common ways of preserving food are:

*Heating the food or baking it (a hard corn-flour biscuit stays edible much longer than a bowl of fresh corn)
*Pasteurization: Louis Pasteur found that simply heating food kills most microorganisms and makes it last longer. Liquids such as milk are commonly pasteurized. However, the heating has to be done precisely according to a procedure
*Converting the food into a longer-lasting form (for example, fresh goat's milk can be converted into cheese or yogurt, which lasts much longer than fresh milk)
*Pickling: putting vegetables, meat, or fish in salty water (brine). Salting the food:  Covering it with dry salt
** Putting the food in a jar with alcohol (ethanol) or vinegar is also called pickling
* Food processing
*Adding other preservatives such as sorbates (sorbic acid), sulfites and nitrites.
*Putting large amounts of sugar into the food (for example, as with jam or fruit jarred in sugar and water)
*Drying in the sun or in an oven
*Smoking the food with the smoke from burning wood. Usually, this is done to food that was salted first.
*Keeping the food cold or frozen, including freeze-drying
## Multiple methods
Many common methods use several of these approaches at the same time. For example, pickles preserved in a jar are heated then put in a mixture of vinegar and brine. Fruit jams and jellies are heated and mixed with a large amount of sugar. Some preserved fruit is heated and then mixed with alcohol (for example, Brandy) and a large amount of sugar. Smoked hams are cured in brine and then exposed to the smoke from burning wood chips.

## See also 
* Food preparation
* Processed food
Motile

An organism is called **motile** if it can move on its own. Most organisms are motile. Organisms that cannot move themselves are called *sessile*.
Maria Montessori

**Maria Montessori** was an Italian educator and doctor. She was born on 31 August 1870 in Chiaravalle, Italy. 

Maria Montessori created the first Montessori school. It was a method of education that respected the natural development of the child. Its main feature was to allow a maximal independence to every child. Another feature was to allow mixed ages in the same classroom. This was different from the formal classroom teaching used even for young children at the time. Maria Montessori started this method when she was in charge of a school for handicapped children. Maria Montessori also founded the first Casa dei Bambini ("Children's House") in around 1907 in San Lorenzo, a slum area of Rome. She died on May 6, 1952 from a Hemorrhagic stroke. 

## References
Nail (anatomy)

A **nail** is a hard part of the body at the tip of the fingers and toes, of which most people have ten. Toenails and fingernails are similar, except that toenails grow four times more slowly. Only certain mammals have nails: mostly, they are found in primates. They are made of the same kind of material (keratin) as the claws of other animals.

Like hair, nails never stop growing. They must be cut from time to time. It does not hurt when people cut their nails as they are not innervated.  The nails are made up of a protein called keratin which also makes up the main element of hair and skin. People paint their nails to make themselves look more attractive, usually females. On occasion nails can grow into the skin acting as a place of infection known as an ingrowing nail. They can hurt, so are often treated through medicine. The cutting and painting of the nails is called a manicure.

## Functions 
The functions of nails are not obvious. They include:

# Protecting the fingertip and the surrounding soft tissues from injuries. 
# Helping delicate movements of the fingertips by allowing counter-pressure on the pulp of the finger. The nail then acts as a counterforce when the end of the finger touches an object. This improves the sensitivity of the fingertip, even though there are no nerve endings in the nail itself. 
# The nail is a tool. For example, when a person pulls out a splinter in a finger. Also, it may be used for some cutting or scraping actions.
#Fingernails are a part of the body often used for display in females.
#Toenails are a part of the body often deemed ugly.

## Related pages 
*Nail art
*Manicure
*Body art
*Cosmetics
*Lipstick

## References
Portrait of Jacob de Gheyn III

**Jacob de Gheyn III** is a famous painting.

It was painted by Rembrandt in 1632 and is the most stolen painting in the world. It has been stolen and recovered from galleries  at least four times, making it the world's most stolen painting.

Every time the painting has been recovered anonymously and as a consequence nobody was accused of the theft. This painting by Rembrandt is so well known that it would be difficult for a thief to take it again.
 
Jacob de Gheyn III, also known as Jacob III de Gheyn (1596–1641), was a Dutch Golden Age engraver, son of Jacob de Gheyn II, canon of Utrecht (city), and the subject of a 1632 oil painting by Rembrandt. The portrait is half of a pair of pendent portraits. The other piece is a portrait of de Gheyn's friend Maurits Huygens, wearing similar clothing (ruffs and black doublets) and facing the opposite direction

As legend goes, a man by the name of Marcus Smith V was found in a gallery sneaking and slowly making his way toward the painting with intent to steal it. The ghost of Jacob de Gheyn III sneaked up behind him and killed him. the legend is most likely untrue because Smith was with a lover that night and was actually poisoned the next night.

## Past painting theft 
The painting has been given the name "takeaway Rembrandt" as it has been stolen four times since 1966 – the most recorded of any painting.

Between 14 August 1981 and 3 September 1981, the painting was taken from Dulwich Picture Gallery and retrieved when police arrested four men in a taxi who had the painting with them. A little under two years later, a burglar smashed a skylight and descended through it into the art gallery, using a crowbar to remove the painting from the wall. The police arrived within three minutes but were too late to apprehend the thief. The painting was missing for three years, eventually being found on 8 October 1986 in a luggage rack at the train station of a British army garrison in Münster, Germany.

The other two times, the painting was found once underneath a bench in a graveyard in Streatham, and once on the back of a bicycle. Each time the painting was returned anonymously with more than one person being charged for its disappearance.

## References
Fame

**Fame** or **Famous** may refer to:
* The condition of being a celebrity
* *Fame* (musical), a Broadway musical
* *The Fame*, a Lady Gaga album
* *F.A.M.E.* (album), an album by Chris Brown
Gran Colombia

**Gran Colombia** was a Centralist country formed after New Granada declared independence in 1819, initially made up of New Granada and Venezuela. The rebels, led by Simon Bolivar, defeated the Spanish Empire, but then fought among themselves. In 1831, Venezuela and Ecuador, being the eastern and southern part of the country, declared independence from Gran Colombia due to political differences. After that, the remaining territory was of New Granada. Decades later, Panama also became independent from Colombia with help from the United States.

Now, modern **Gran Colombia** consists of Venezuela, Colombia, Panama, Guyana, Ecuador, Amazonas, and Roraima which all are great places!

## Sources
Sun Tzu (mathematician)

:*This article is about the mathematician Sun Tzu. For the military strategist of the same name, see Sun Tzu.*

**Sun Tzu** or **Sun Zi** was a Chinese mathematician of the third century CE.

His interests were in astronomy.  He tried to develop a calendar and for this he investigated Diophantine equations. He is best known for authoring *Sun Tzu Suan Ching* (pinyin: *Sun Zi Suan Jing*; literally, "Sun Tzu's Calculation Classic"), which contains the Chinese remainder theorem.

## Other websites 
* Sun Tzu at MacTutor
Sergey Karjakin

**Sergey Karjakin**  (born 12 January 1990 in Simferopol) is a Russian (formerly Ukrainian) chess grandmaster. 

He was a chess prodigy and holds the record for the youngest grandmaster in history, at the age of twelve years and seven months. 

On 25 July 2009 Karjakin adopted Russian citizenship and afterwards played for Russia.

He won Candidates Tournament 2016 and earned the right to challenge for the World Chess Championship. In November 2016, he lost the championship match to Magnus Carlsen in the rapid tiebreaks after drawing 6–6 in the classical games. He won the 2016 World Blitz Chess Championship. He played in the candidates tournament again in 2018, coming third.

## References
Ming Kipa

**Ming Kipa** is a Nepalese Sherpa girl who (as recorded in the 2009 Guinness Book of Records) was the youngest person to climb Mount Everest until 2010. She reached the summit on May 24, 2003 when she was 15 years old, with her brother Mingma Gyula and her sister Laphka. Nepalese law does not allow climbers under 16 to climb Everest, so Ming Kipa climbed from the Chinese side.

In 2010, her record was broken by 13-year old Jordan Romero.

## References
Malay language

**Malay** is an Austronesian language predominantly spoken by Malay people in northeastern of Sumatra to the Riau Islands and its surroundings; which includes Singapore and Malay Peninsula, as well as the western and northernmost coast of Borneo (especially in Pontianak and Brunei).

## Writing system 
Malay is normally written with the Latin alphabet called Rumi. But there is also a modified Arabic alphabet that is called Jawi. Rumi is official in Malaysia and Singapore, and the Indonesian language has a different official orthography that uses also the Latin script. Rumi and Jawi are both official languages in Brunei. Efforts are currently being undertaken to preserve Jawi script and to revive its use amongst Malays in Malaysia, and students taking the Malay language examination in Malaysia have the option of answering questions using Jawi script. But the Latin alphabet is still the most commonly used script in Malaysia, both for official and informal purposes. 

Historically, Malay has been written in various types of script. Before the introduction of Arabic script in the Malay region, Malay was written using Pallava, Kawi and Rencong script and are still in use today by the Champa Malay in Vietnam and Cambodia.

## References
Yusuf Islam

**Yusuf Islam** (born 21 July 1948) is an English singer. He sang many of his early songs when he called himself **Cat Stevens**. He was born as ** Georgiou** to a Swedish mother and Greek Cypriot father. He became a Muslim in 1977. After two years, he took the name of Yusuf İslam. He has sold over 60 million albums around the world since the late 1960s as Cat Stevens or Yusuf İslam.

As a waiter in his father’s cafe, he began writing songs "to escape the mundanity of it all". Chart success was followed by adulation, touring, drug use, confusion, tuberculosis and, in the early 1970s, Islam's changed outlook and an album called Tea For The Tillerman.

Stevens nearly drowned in an accident in Malibu in 1975. Stevens described the event in a VH1 interview some years later: "I suddenly held myself and I said, 'Oh God! If you save me, I'll work for you.'" He had looked into Buddhism; Zen and I Ching, numerology, tarot cards and astrology", but when his brother David gave him a copy of the Qur’an, Stevens began to convert to Islam.

In year 1977 he changed his name to Yusuf Islam upon becoming a Muslim. He stopped playing and recording pop music for almost 30 years, but started performing again in 2006.

He lives with his family in London, England.

## Albums 
As Cat Stevens:
*1967. *Matthew & Son*
*1967. *New Masters*
*1970. *Mona Bone Jakon*
*1970. *Tea for the Tillerman*
*1971. *Teaser and the Firecat*
*1972. *Catch Bull at Four*
*1973. *Foreigner in my yard*
*1974. *Buddha and the Chocolate Box*
*1974. *These silly imagrents*
*1975. *Numbers*
*1977. *Izitso*
*1978. *Back to Earth*
*2004. *Majikat*

As Yusuf Islam:
*1995. *The Life of the Last Prophet*
*1999. *Prayers of the Last Prophet*
*2000. *A Is for Allah*
*2001. *Bismillah*
*2003. *I Look I See*
*2005. *Indian Ocean*
*2006. *Footsteps in the Light*
*2006. *An Other Cup*
*2007. *Yusuf’s Cafe Session*
*2009. *Roadsinger*

## References
National Party of Australia

, Country Party founder and leader 1920–1921]]
.]]

The **National Party of Australia** is the third biggest political party in Australia. It was first called the **Country Party** when it started in 1920 and then became the **National Country Party** in 1975. In 1982 it became the National Party.

The National Party represents the interests of people who live in rural areas, that is, not in big cities. It normally joins together with the Liberal Party to form a coalition government. It has fewer people in Parliament than the Liberal Party. The current leader is David Littleproud. When the National Party is in a coalition government its leader is usually the Deputy Prime Minister.

The Party was quite powerful during the 1940s, 1950's and 1960s. Because it worked closely with the United Australia and later Liberal Party, three National leaders – Earle Page, Arthur Fadden and John McEwen – were Prime Minister for a short time. The Party is strongest in Queensland, where it has had several State Premiers. In 2008, the Liberal Party and National Party came together in Queensland and are now called the "Liberal National Party of Queensland".

The party's federal parliamentary leader since 2022 is David Littleproud. He replaced Barnaby Joyce following a leadership spill after the 2022 federal election.

## References 
## Other websites
* Official website
Euzebiusz Smolarek

**Euzebiusz Smolarek** (born 9 January 1981) is a Polish football player. He plays for ADO Den Haag and Poland national team.

In 2004, he came to Dortmund with Bert van Maarwijk, who is his trainer. Before that, he played for Borussia Dortmund and under van Maarwijk with Feyenoord Rotterdam. He is also in the Poland national team.

## Club career statistics
|-
|2000/01||rowspan="5"|Feyenoord Rotterdam||rowspan="5"|Eredivisie||25||3
|-
|2001/02||19||2
|-
|2002/03||0||0
|-
|2003/04||21||7
|-
|2004/05||3||0

|-
|2004/05||rowspan="4"|Borussia Dortmund||rowspan="4"|Bundesliga||15||3
|-
|2005/06||34||13
|-
|2006/07||30||9
|-
|2007/08||2||0

|-
|2007/08||Racing Santander||La Liga||34||4

|-
|2008/09||Bolton Wanderers||Premier League||12||0

|-
|2009/10||Kavala||Super League||15||3
68||12
81||25
34||4
12||0
15||3
210||44
|}

## International career statistics
|-
|2002||1||0
|-
|2003||0||0
|-
|2004||2||0
|-
|2005||7||3
|-
|2006||11||4
|-
|2007||6||6
|-
|2008||11||2
|-
|2009||5||4
|-
|2010||4||1
|-
!Total||47||20
|}

## References
## Other websites
* Euzebiusz Smolarek 90minut.pl Info
Prairie

A **prairie** is a type of habitat with mostly grasses, but also flowering plants and occasional shrubs or isolated trees. This type of habitat can be found around the world, but it goes by different names, such as steppes in Asia. What attracts tourists is the golden grass in prairie grassland. The word 'prairie' generally means grasslands in North America. There are often many animals on a prairie. They either prefer a prairie or can only live in a prairie. Well-known are the American bison (also called the buffalo) and the pronghorn antelope. Birds include the bobolink and the meadowlark.

, USA]]

## Tall grass prairie 
A *tall grass prairie* has plants and grasses that typically grow three to seven feet (one to two meters) high, with occasional plants growing higher.  This type of prairie grows in areas with a good amount of rain.  Illinois (the *prairie state*), Indiana and Iowa are good examples of where a tall grass prairie would be.  This type of habitat usually has rich soil and is very good for farming.  Much of the original prairie has been changed into crops or lost to brush and trees.

Trees can grow in this area, but most were stopped by fires that swept through. Some oaks and hickories could survive a prairie fire. If there are scattered trees, it is called a savanna, and an area in a prairie where trees grew closer together is called a grove. In the last century, fires have been stopped, and trees and brush that once did not grow in prairies are taking over. Some of these invasive species were accidentally introduced from Europe or elsewhere. In Illinois, less than 0.01% of the original prairie still exists. For this reason, conservationists in this area practice prairie restoration to keep the prairie in good condition.

## Short grass prairie 
*Short grass prairie* is in drier areas, and is usually one to two feet (0.3 to 0.6 meters) high and has more space between plants. The *American West* (from central Texas up into Canada, east of the arid semi-desert) is all short grass prairie. Much of this area is converted to pastures for grazing cows and sheep. Areas near rivers are irrigated for crops. Some of the original native plants are still widespread.

## Mixed grass prairie
Mixed grass prairie is found between the short grass prairie and the tall grass prairie and contains more species than either the short grass prairie or the tall grass prairie.

## Related pages 
*Prairie dog
## References
Rink

in Ottawa is the largest ice rink in the world. ]]
**Rinks** are places for sports. There are several types of rinks:

* "Ice rinks" are also called ice skating rinks. Ice rinks have ice on the floor if they are inside, and on the ground if they are outside. Ice rinks are places for people to play ice hockey and to go ice skating.

* "Curling rinks" also have ice on the floor if they are inside, and on the ground if they are outside. A sport called "curling" is played at curling rinks. Teams of people slide heavy stones with handles down the ice toward targets under the ice.

* "Roller rinks" are also called Roller Skating Rinks. Roller rinks usually have wood on the floor if they are inside, and on the ground if they are outside. People go roller skating at roller rinks.

* "Challenge rinks" are a lesser-known variant of curling rinks. They can usually be found around or on areas with an elevation of at least 510 meters above sea level.
Trading post

A **trading post** is a place where trade takes place. The path to a trading post, or between trading posts, is known as a trade route. 

Trading posts were common places in Canada and the United States when they were both new countries. People used trading posts to trade fur and other things. 

Trading posts are also used in many campsites across the United States and Canada as places to buy snacks and other things.

The clerk was in charge of a trading post and a fur trader owned the trading post.
María Capovilla

**María Esther de Capovilla** (September 14, 1889 – August 27, 2006) was an Ecuadorian supercentenarian. She was the world's oldest living person between May 29, 2004, aged 114 years 258 days, and her death from pneumonia on August 27, 2006, aged 116 years 347 days. Following Capovilla's death, Elizabeth Bolden became the world's oldest person.

She was the last living person who was born in the 1880s and also she is still all-time record-holder of the oldest person who was born in Ecuador and the oldest person who was died in Ecuador. She remained the oldest validated South American and Latin American person ever until Francisca Celsa dos Santos of Brazil surpassed her age in October 2021 one day before her death who's final age was 116 years 349 days.

On 10 February 2004, Capovilla surpassed Australian Christina Cock to become the oldest person ever from the Southern Hemisphere. Capovilla was named the World's Oldest Person by Guinness World Records on 9 December 2005, thus superseding both Hendrikje van Andel-Schipper of the Netherlands thought to be the world's oldest person from 29 May 2004 to 30 August 2005, when she died, and Elizabeth Bolden of the United States, thought to be the world's oldest person from 30 August 2005 to 9 December 2005.

## Sources
Mall

, in Dubai]]
 in Toronto, Canada]]

A **mall** or **shopping center** is a large building that is full of many smaller shops and stores.  It is different from earlier markets or bazaars because most of the shops are not little booths or stalls in one big open area.  Each store has its own space with walls.  Most of their entrances face a central walking area inside the building.

People visit the stores in the mall to shop.  Most malls have parking lots (places to park cars).  Most malls also have roofs so people can shop inside.  Most malls have a food court where people buy food.  Some malls have movie theatres.

## Name 
"Mall" is the most common name for these buildings in America, and "shopping center" is the most common name for them in the United Kingdom. The name "shopping center" is also sometimes used in America. Malls are also sometimes called **plazas**.

## Famous malls 
* West Edmonton Mall, in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, is one of the largest malls in the world.
* The Mall of America in Bloomington, Minnesota is one of the largest malls in the world.
* Ala Moana is the largest outdoor mall in the United States.
Transparency

with water in it.]]

 is a star.]]

In optics, **transparency** is the property of allowing light to pass through something.  

An  that is transparent can be seen through. The image you see through a transparent object is similar to the image you see without it.  However, the object may be changed if the transparent object behaves like a lens or like an optical filter; this could change the size, shape, or color of the image. The opposite of transparency is opacity.

Some animals are transparent, so predators cannot see them so easily. An example of a transparent animal is the jellyfish. Transparency works better in places with a small amount of light than in places with lots of light.

## Translucency 
If some light can be seen through an object but some of the detail of the image is lost, it is a **translucent** material.  

Light passes through a translucent object, but you cannot see objects behind it. The light passes through but the material scatters the light, so you cannot see the object, only its shadow.

Examples of **translucent** materials are frosted glass, thin paper, and some types of amber.
Punjab region

**Punjab** is a region in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent. It is divided by the Radcliffe Line: the western part is in the eastern part of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan; the eastern part is in the north western part of the Republic of India. It is in a plain, with the River Indus flowing through the western part. The soil is very fertile. It lives from agriculture. Main religions in the region are Islam, Sikhism and Hinduism. Today Panjab region is divided in 8 parts: Punjab (Pakistan), Islamabad Capital Territory (Pakistan), Punjab (India), Haryana (India), Himachal Pradesh (India), Chandigarh (India).

## Related pages
* Punjab (Pakistan)
* Punjab (India)
* Punjab (British India)
* Doab
Human papillomavirus

The **human papillomavirus** (HPV) is a virus that can infect the skin or mucous membranes (like the genitals, or inside the mouth) of humans. They cause warts. Some of them may cause cancer. There are over 100 different virus types in this group. About 40 virus types can be transmitted sexually. About 12-15 can cause cancer. 

Most cases of HPV can be prevented by a vaccine, which also would stop the HPV from causing cancer. Most cases of cervical, oral and throat cancer are caused by HPV. The HPV immunisation programme has almost fully stopped cervical cancer happening in women born in England since September 1995. Prophylaxis (prevention) of HPV by vaccine is done with the HPV vaccine. 

A first step in treatment is the use of salicylic acid. This is available in pharmacies, usually without a prescription. If this does not help, the wart can be frozen and  or a laser can be used to destroy it. If this still does not help, different methods of chemotherapy can be used.

## References
## Other websites 
* Human Papilloma Virus (HPV)  from University of California, Santa Barbara's SexInfo
* hpv-centrum  - Video and info from the HPV, hpv centrums in Hungary
* CDC fact sheet - HPV fact sheet from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
Hepatitis

**Hepatitis** is a disease of the liver. In hepatitis, the liver is inflamed. There can be several reasons why the liver is inflamed. For this reason there are several kinds of hepatitis. The most common forms are **Hepatitis A**, **Hepatitis B** and **Hepatitis C**.  

## Hepatitis A
Hepatitis A can spread through personal contact, eating raw seafood, or drinking water with the hepatitis A virus in it. This happens mostly in third world countries. Strict personal hygiene and avoiding raw and unpeeled foods can help prevent an infection. 

Once a person has hepatitis A, their immune system makes antibodies to fight the virus. This will make them immune against future infection. 

People with hepatitis A should rest, drink a lot of water and avoid alcohol. The time between the infection and the start of the illness can run from 15 to 45 days. About 15% of people with hepatitis A have symptoms from six months to a year after the first diagnosis. Infected people excrete the hepatitis A virus in their stool two weeks before and one week after the appearance of jaundice. 

There is a vaccine for hepatitis A. It will protect against hepatitis A for life. 

## Hepatitis B
Hepatitis B is not spread by food or casual contact. Instead, hepatitis B is spread by blood or body fluids from an infected person. A baby can get it from its mother during childbirth, and it can also be tramitted by sexual intercourse (an STI), use of street drugs, and unsafe medical care.   

Some people just have hepatitis B for a little while and then suppress the infection. Others can be infected for life, usually with few or no symptoms for many years. Hepatitis B sometimes damages the liver severely, and can cause cancer and cirrhosis.  

There is a vaccine that can prevent hepatitis B. There is no cure for hepatitis B, but there is treatment.

## Hepatitis C
Hepatitis C is not spread by food or casual contact. It is spread in ways that are similar to hepatitis B, in bodily fluids. People with hepatitis C who drink alcohol greatly increase their risk for liver damage.

There is no vaccine and the treatment is somewhat unpleasant. 

## Hepatitis D 
Hepatitis D is a type of viral hepatitis caused by the **hepatitis delta virus (HDV)**, a small particle like a viroid (a plant virus) or virusoid. HDV is considered to be a "defective" and a satellite virus because on its own it is harmless, but when hepatitis B virus (HBV) is present it causes symptoms. Hepatitis D causes liver cirrhosis and liver cancer. It is prevented with the HCV vaccine, which protects against hepatitis C, preventing hepatitis D from causing damage at the same time. 

## References
## Other websites 
* International Community : Viral Hepatitis Community
Dewey Decimal System

The **Dewey Decimal System** is a way to put books in order by subject. It is often used in public libraries and schools in the United States and other countries. It places the books on the shelf by subject using numbers from 000 to 999. It is called "decimal" because it uses numbers to the right of the decimal point for more detail (e.g. 944.1 for History of Brittany). Each subject has its own group of numbers. The system was created by Melvil Dewey in 1876. It is also called the **Dewey Decimal Classification**. The classification has been changed many times. The latest change is number 23 in 2011. There is also a smaller one for small libraries called "Abridged Dewey". 

Each subject is broken up into 10 smaller, more specific categories.

Here is a list of some sections in it:
* 000 – Computer science, information, and general works
* 100 – Philosophy and psychology
* 200 – Religion
* 300 – Social sciences
* 400 – Language
* 500 – Science
* 600 – Technology
* 700 – Arts and recreation
* 800 – Literature
* 900 – History and geography

## Related pages
*Literature
*Reading
*Book

## More information
*Full, 2011
*Abridged 2014
Change (money)

**Change** is the money returned after paying for something with more money than it costs. For example, if someone buys a 25-pence sweet bar with 1 pound (100 pence), they will get 75 pence back.

Change can also mean any kind of money in coin form. To have *exact change* means to have the exact cost of the item. In the United States, buses require people riding the bus to have *exact change*. The bus does not give money back. They must pay exactly what the cost is, they can not pay more.
Rhombus

A **rhombus** is a unique geometric shape characterized by having four sides of equal length. The word *rhombus* comes from the Greek word *rhombos*, meaning "spinning top". While the angles within a rhombus are not always 90 degrees, one important property is that opposite angles are always equal. This gives the rhombus a certain symmetry, even though it differs from a square, which has four 90-degree angles. The diagonals of a rhombus, which are the lines that connect opposite corners, cross each other at a 90-degree angle. Additionally, these diagonals not only intersect at right angles but also bisect (or split) the angles of the rhombus in half, creating smaller, equal angles at each corner.

## Finding the Area of a Rhombus 
The area of a rhombus can be easily calculated using the following formula:

\text{Area} = \frac{d_1 \times d_2}{2}

Here, (d_1) and (d_2) represent the lengths of the two diagonals. Since the diagonals bisect each other at right angles, they essentially divide the rhombus into four right-angled triangles, and this formula reflects that division.

## Differences 
Although a rhombus and a square both have four sides of equal length, there are key differences between the two. In a rhombus, the angles are not necessarily 90 degrees, whereas a square has four right angles. In fact, while a square is a special case of a rhombus (where all angles are 90 degrees), not all rhombuses are squares. This distinction makes the rhombus a more flexible shape, with a wider range of applications.

## Applications 
Rhombuses are often used in design, art, and architecture due to their symmetry and aesthetic appeal. The shape’s equal sides and distinctive angles can be seen in various patterns, tiles, and decorative elements in buildings. The fact that the diagonals bisect the angles at right angles adds to the visual interest and symmetry, making the rhombus a popular choice in many creative fields.

## References
Homework

**Homework**, or a **homework assignment**, is a set of tasks assigned to students by their teachers to be completed outside the classroom. Common homework assignments may include required reading, a writing or typing project, mathematical exercises to be completed, information to be read before a test, or other skills to be practiced.  

The effects of homework are debated, since it lowers self esteem. It also may not actually help students since everyone learns differently. Generally speaking, homework does not help young children. Homework may help older students, especially low-achieving students. However, homework also creates stress for students and parents, and reduces the amount of time that students can spend in other activities. 

Homework dates back to the 1900s, though it may have existed from earlier.  

 homework]]

## References
Nuclear

**Nuclear** means relating to a nucleus.  It may be about:
* Atomic nucleus
* Radioactive decay
* Naval reactors
* Nuclear engineering
* Nuclear fallout
* Nuclear fuel
* Nuclear fuel cycle
* Nuclear navy
* Nuclear reaction
* Nuclear physics
* Nuclear power
* Nuclear power plant
* Nuclear reactor
* Nuclear warfare
* Nuclear weapon
* Mutual Nuclear Deterrence
* Radioactive waste
* Nuclear Proliferation

In mathematics:
* Nuclear space
* Nuclear operator

In sociology:
* Nuclear family
Stanford University

The **Leland Stanford Junior University**, often called **Stanford University** (or simply **Stanford**), is a private university next to Palo Alto in California, in the middle of Silicon Valley,
about  southeast of San Francisco and about  northwest of San José, in Santa Clara County. Leland and Jane Stanford opened the university on 1 October 1891. They named the university after their son, Leland Stanford Jr., who died at young age.

With one of the largest university campuses in the United States, the university includes the Schools of Engineering, Law, Medicine, Education, Business, Earth Sciences, and Humanities and Sciences. Stanford also hosts volunteer programs and a teaching hospital.

## History
Leland Stanford Jr. died in Europe in 1884. His parents, Leland and Jane Stanford, were rich and influential Californians. They chose to turn a farm they already owned into a large university as a memorial to their curious son. Stanford had early trouble, as the school ran low on money, and was hurt by the 1906 San Francisco Earthquake.

Herbert Hoover, who later became the US President, helped the school improve its operations, and later university leaders pushed students and alumni to develop the surrounding area. By the 1950s, cities around Stanford University were filling with technology companies, starting what became Silicon Valley.

## Campus
Stanford has many special areas. In honor of Stanford graduate and US president Herbert Hoover, Stanford hosts a large think tank and archive called the Hoover Institution. Many former students, like the founders of HP, donate lots of money and have buildings named after them. A large radio telescope called "The Dish" sits on the hills above Stanford.

## Student Body
Stanford has about 7,000 undergraduate students, and a larger number of students working on advanced degrees. Few high school students who apply to Stanford are accepted - over the last several years, only four out of every hundred students who applied were offered a spot.

## People who worked at or graduated from Stanford University
People who graduated from Stanford University are:
* Nicolas Sadirac (1989), founder and current head of the ''École pour l'informatique et les nouvelles technologies''

People who have worked at Stanford are:
* Mary Sheldon Barnes
## Related pages
* Volunteers in Asia - American non-profit organization closely related to Stanford

## References
Beta (disambiguation)

**Beta** can mean one of the following:
*Beta (letter), the second letter of the Greek alphabet
*Beta version, a version of software given to users for testing
*Beta particle, a subatomic particle
*Beta, a brand of recording tape that used to be used in electronic videocassette recorders (VCRs)
Ice skating

, England.]]
**Ice skating** is skating on ice as a sport, entertainment or pastime. Ice skates, a special type of boot with metal blades on the bottom, are worn to skate on ice. Figure skating and speed skating are the sport forms of ice skating. Hockey is also played on ice, with players wearing ice skates. The International Skating Union (ISU) is the international governing body for figure skating and speed skating.

## History 
Ice skating probably began in Scandinavia as early as 1000 BCE, as a way to travel in the winter. The sport of skating started in the Netherlands. Since the Middle Ages, people in the Netherlands have skated on canals. The first skating club was created in Scotland in 1742. In 1850, Edward Bushnell created steel-bladed skates which allowed skaters to make difficult turns and movements on the ice. Figure skating was included in the Olympics in 1908. It was the first winter sport included in the Olympics. Today, ice skating is a popular pastime. Ice shows, like Ice Follies and Ice Capades, are a popular form of entertainment.

## Equipment 
Modern figure skates have two edges on the blades and a toothed toepick on the front of the blade. The toepick is used for jumps and spins. Figure skating boots are made of leather. Ice hockey skates also have two edges, but no toepick. Speedskating ice skates have a single edge on the blade.

## References
Glaze

. New York Metropolitan Museum of Art.]]
 resting on a couch, black-figure side of a vase by the Andokides Painter, *circa* 520/510 BC. Munich: Staatliche Antikensammlungen]]

**Glaze** is a layer or coating used on pottery or ceramics. It may be called vitreous enamel or porcelain enamel. Powdered glass is fused onto ceramics by firing to between 750 and 850 °C (1,380 and 1,560 °F). The powder melts, flows, and then hardens to a smooth, lasting vitreous coating on metal, or on glass or ceramics. This is done in a kiln. 

There are many different types of glaze, some are used for decoration and some are used to make pottery watertight so it can hold liquids. Glaze serves to colour, decorate, strengthen or waterproof an item.

Glazing is important for earthenware vessels as otherwise they would leak water. Glaze is also used on stoneware and porcelain. In addition to the functional aspect of glazes, they can form a variety of surface finishes, including degrees of gloss and matte and colour. Glazes may also enhance an underlying design or texture. 

Glaze is used on building materials. The Iron Pagoda, built in 1049 in Kaifeng, China, of glazed bricks is an example.

Ceramic glaze raw materials generally include silica, which forms glass when fired. Metal oxides, such as sodium, potassium and calcium, act as a "flux" to lower the melting temperature. Alumina, often derived from clay, stiffens the molten glaze to prevent it from running off the piece. Colour comes from iron oxide, copper carbonate or cobalt carbonate. Tin oxide or zirconium oxide make the glaze opaque.

## References 
 side of the vase illustrated above, same subject]]
Personal care

**Personal care** items are toiletry items. These are products used by people to look after their bodies, and to improve their appearance.  They are usually sold in chemist shops and supermarkets. Many celebrities use beauty products.

## Products
Personal care includes products as diverse as  cleansing pads, bandages, colognes, cotton swabs, cotton pads, deodorant, eye liner, facial tissue, hair clippers, lip gloss, lipstick, lotion, makeup,  nail files, pomade, perfumes, razors, shaving cream, moisturizer, talcum powder, toilet paper, toothpaste, and wet wipes.

## Related pages  
* Social care
Rhythm and blues

**Rhythm and blues** (also known as **R&B** or **RnB**) is a popular music genre combining jazz, gospel, and blues influences, first performed by African American artists. It is now performed worldwide by people of many cultures and ethnic groups.

## Contemporary R&B
During the 1960s, James Brown and Sly & the Family Stone had used parts of psychedelic rock and other styles in their music. Funk became a big part of disco music. In the early 1980s, funk and soul had become sultry and more sexual with the work of Prince and others. The modern style of *contemporary R&B* came to be a major part of American popular music.

R&B today defines a style of African-American music. It combines elements of soul music, funk music, pop music, and (after 1986) hip hop in what is now called *contemporary R&B*.

It is sometimes called "urban contemporary" or "urban pop".

### R&B in the 2000s
By the 2000s, the only big difference between a record being a hip hop record or an R&B record is whether its vocals are rapped or sung. R&B started to focus more on solo artists than groups. By 2005, the most famous R&B artists include Usher, Beyoncé (formerly of Destiny's Child), Ashanti, Ciara, Amerie and Mariah Carey.

Soulful R&B continues to be popular, with artists such as Alicia Keys, R. Kelly, John Legend, and Toni Braxton. Some R&B singers have used parts of Caribbean music in their work.

## Related pages
* Blues
* Disco
* Funk
* Gospel music
* Hip hop music
* Rock and roll
* Soul music

## Other websites
*
Arc

An **arc** is a part of a circle. An arc is a curved line. The curve of an arc is constant and does not change (that is, an arc has constant curvature). It sometimes is portrayed as a dotted line.

In a circle, the arc from point A to point B is written as \overset{\frown}{AB}. We call the length of an arc an arc length. For an arc on a circle with radius *r* subtended by an angle \theta, its arc length is precisely r\theta.

## Related pages 
* Arcsecond
* Meridian arc

## References
Sine wave

A **sine wave** is a curve, a continuous function with this shape: 

This is a picture of a sine wave.

All waves can be made by adding up sine waves. The sine wave has a pattern that repeats. The length of this repeating piece of the sine wave is called the wavelength. The wavelength can be found by measuring the length or distance between one peak of a sine wave and the next peak. The wavelength can be found in many other ways too. 

## Waves made of Sine Waves 
Waves are found everywhere in the natural world. Examples of waves:
* sound 
* light
* water waves
* earthquake waves
All of these waves are the sum total of many signals.

## Properties of Sine Waves 
Sine waves have a "length" called a wavelength. There are other properties of waves and sine waves, such as their frequency, amplitude, phase, and speed.

Sine waves repeat over time, so this makes them periodic. The time it takes for a part of the sine wave (one cycle) to travel before it repeats itself is called the period, represented by the letter **T**. The frequency of a sine wave is the number of oscillations it makes in one second. This is measured in Hertz, which have units of s-1. The frequency can be found by dividing 1/T (this is also called taking the reciprocal). 

The amplitude of the wave corresponds to how powerful the signal is. For example, a higher amplitude in a sound wave means it is louder.
Tungsten

s of tungsten in a glass vial.]]

**Tungsten** (sometimes named **wolfram**) is a chemical element on the periodic table. It has the chemical symbol **W** and it has the atomic number 74. It is a steel-gray to white colored metal.  Tungsten’s electron shell formula is: 2, 8, 18, 32, 12, 2. In chemistry, it is placed in a group of metal elements named the transition metals. Tungsten is found in several ores, including wolframite and scheelite.

Tungsten has a higher melting point than any other non-alloy that exists. The pure form (only tungsten) is mainly used in electrical equipment. Its compounds and alloys are used for many things, the most well known being its use in electrical filaments for light bulbs.  It is also used in the filament and target in most X-ray tubes, superalloys, and in glass-to-metal seals.

Tungsten's density and hardness have many uses. In the military, for example, tungsten has been used in armor-piercing artillery. It is also used in machine tools.

Tungsten's density is almost the same as gold. Gold-plated tungsten ingots have been fraudulently passed off as solid gold.
Collingwood Football Club

**Collingwood Football Club**, the Magpies, is a club which plays Australian rules football in the AFL. It comes from Collingwood, a suburb of Melbourne in Victoria. In the AFL/VFL, it has won 16 premierships, which is a joint league record with Essendon and Carlton.

## History 
The Collingwood Football Club was formed in February 1892.  Collingwood played its first game in the Victorian Football Association on 7 May 1892, against Carlton.  In 1902, Collingwood won its first premiership against the Essendon Football Club.

The Victorian Football League (VFL) formed in 1897.  Collingwood was one of the original teams (along with Fitzroy, Melbourne, St Kilda, Carlton, Essendon, South Melbourne and Geelong).  In the early years of the VFL, Collingwood was the most successful team; it won 11 premierships in the first 40 years. They won the most recent AFL premiership against Brisbane in 2023.

## Club song 

*Good old Collingwood forever,*
*They know how to play the game.*
*Side by side, they stick together,*
*To uphold the Magpies name.*
*See, the barrackers are shouting,*
*As all barrackers should.*
''Oh, the premiership's a cakewalk,*
*For the good old Collingwood.''

## References
## Other websites
* Football Club website