open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Hyaena

**Hyaenas** (sometimes ***Hyenas***) are mammals. They are the family **Hyaenidae**, in the order Carnivora. They live in Africa, and in west and south Asia. In the past they had a much wider distribution. Now there are two subfamilies with four species.

With only four species, it is the fourth-smallest family in the Carnivora, and one of the smallest in the class Mammalia. Despite their low diversity, hyenas are unique and vital components to most African and some Asian ecosystems.

Hyaena walk much like bears because their front legs are longer than their back. Except for the aardwolf, hyaenas are known to have one of the world's strongest bites. Its function is to crush bone.

## Relationships 
Hyaenas look much like canids, but they are actually in the Feliformia, with cats and mongooses. Although related to felines and viverrids, their life style is similar to canids. 

Convergent evolution has taken place. Both large hyaenas and canids are non-climbing, running hunters which catch prey with their teeth rather than claws. Both eat food quickly and may store it. Their calloused feet have large, blunt, non-retractable nails, good for running and making sharp turns. However, the hyaenas' grooming, scent marking, defecating habits, mating, and parental behaviour are similar to the behaviour of other feliforms. Spotted hyenas are matriarchal. This means that females dominate and males are inferior.

## Hunting 
Spotted hyaenas were long said to be cowardly scavengers, but they kill as much as 95% of the food they eat. They can drive off leopards or lionesses from their kills. Hyenas are mostly nocturnal animals, but may leave their lairs in the early morning. Except for the very social spotted hyaena, hyenas are generally not  animals, though striped and brown hyaenas may live in family groups and come together at kills.

Spotted hyaenas are intelligent creatures. They work together well and are cooperative. They have strategic hunting methods and work to steal and protect food it from other predators. Their main targets are zebra and wildebeest. Their main rival is the lion. Whether spotted hyaenas do or do not chase lions off their kills is mostly a matter of numbers.

## Taxonomy 
* Family **Hyaenidae**
** Subfamily **Hyaeninae**
*** Spotted hyaena (*Crocuta crocuta*)
*** Striped hyaena (*Hyaena hyaena*)
*** Brown hyaena, (*Hyaena brunnea*, formerly *Parahyaena brunnea*)
** Subfamily **Protelinae**
*** Aardwolf (*Proteles cristatus*)

## References
Buzz Aldrin

Dr. **Edwin Eugene "Buzz" Aldrin, Jr.**, retired Colonel (born January 20, 1930) is an American pilot and astronaut. He was one of the Apollo 11 astronauts and the second person to have ever walked on the moon.

## Early life
Aldrin was born in Glen Ridge, New Jersey. He earned a BSc in Mechanical Engineering from the military academy West Point in 1951. After postgraduate studies, he received a ScD in Astronautics from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1963. From his earlier activity as a fighter pilot in the Korean War he earned several medals, including the Air Force Distinguished Service Medal.

## Apollo 11 mission
Aldrin was the second person in history to set foot on the Moon (after Neil Armstrong, during the Apollo 11 mission).

The Lunar Lander Module landed on the Moon on July 20, 1969.

He was 39 when he set foot on the moon.

As a Presbyterian elder, Aldrin was the first and only person to hold a religious ceremony on the Moon. Using a kit given to him by his pastor, he took communion during his moon mission.

He received the Presidential Medal of Freedom and the NASA Exceptional Service Medal. After the death of Michael Collins in 2021, Aldrin became the last surviving member of the Apollo 11 crew.

## Later life 
Aldrin left NASA in March 1972. He has been married four times: to Joan Archer, to Beverly Zile, to Lois Driggs Cannon, and to Anca V Faur. He had three children with Joan, named James, Janice, and Andrew. He married Cannon on Valentine's Day, 1988. He is the oldest contestant on the television series *Dancing with the Stars*. He competed in 2010.

## References
American (word)

The word **American** is used to mean a person or a thing from the United States or any country in the Americas - North America, Central America, and South America. In English, the most common use of this word is to mean a person or a thing from the United States.

Even though the islands in the Caribbean Sea are close to the Americas, people who speak English do not usually use the word "American" for people or things from these islands.

Because the word 'American' can be unclear, some languages don’t use it to talk about people or things from the United States. Instead, they use more specific words, like *estadounidense* in Spanish, *usonano* in Esperanto, *yhdysvaltalainen* in Finnish, and *US-Amerikaner* in German. In English, people sometimes use the word 'Yankee', though this usually means someone from New England. The word *Usonian* (from Usonia) was suggested by architect Frank Lloyd Wright as another way to say 'American'.

A Native American is someone who is mostly descended from the people who lived in the Americas before the Europeans arrived. Native Americans are also called First Nations and *Indians*.

There is no language "American." Some important languages used in the Americas are English, French, Portuguese, and Spanish. Some people still use Native American languages. Quechua is the largest.
Grain

s, barley, and some products made from them]]

**Grain** is the seeds of some special kinds of grass. The main types of commercial grain crops are cereals. People grow different kinds of grain as food. The different kinds of grain are among the most important foods in the world. 

Some kinds of grain are:
*Barley
*Maize *or Indian corn (or simply as "corn")*
*Millet
*Oats
*Rice
*Wheat

87% of all grain grown by farmers around the world is maize. Grains contain carbohydrates that people can eat. In poorer countries, grains are a large part of the food supply. In richer countries, they are still important as food, but not as important as in poorer countries. Growing grain uses a lot of water. About 1,000 tons of water is needed to grow one ton of grain.

Many different foods are made from different types of grain. The part of the grain that people can eat is called the grist, and the part they can not eat is called chaff. The grist is often ground into a powder called flour. Flour can be made into breads, cakes, or noodles.

Different kinds of beer are made from barley malt, wheat, and other grains.

Tortillas are made from a special flour of dried maize (corn) called *masa*.

## References
Tuberculosis

**Tuberculosis (TB)** is an infectious disease caused by bacteria. In the past, people called it **consumption** or the **white death**.

TB is caused by several types of mycobacteria, usually *Mycobacterium tuberculosis*.

Of every 100 people with TB, between five and ten people show symptoms. In these people, the disease is called active. Tuberculosis kills more than half of the people who are infected if they do not get treatment. TB affects a lot of people globally, but many do not show any symptoms.]]

## Detection and treatment
Diagnosis of active TB relies on radiology. Doctors often look at an X-ray of the chest. In addition, they check body fluids. These fluids have microbes in them, which are grown in a cell culture. The cell cultures are then analysed to see if the person is infected with TB.

If the patient has TB, but does not show symptoms, the disease is 'latent'. Doctors use a skin test, called the Mantoux test, to detect latent TB. They often do blood tests too.

There is a vaccine against some forms of tuberculosis. It is called the Bacillus Calmette&ndash;Guérin vaccine. 

TB used to be easily treated and cured with antibiotics. However, the bacterium is now highly resistant to most antibiotics. This resistance makes treatment difficult. Many different kinds of antibiotics need to be given over a long period of time. There is a form of tuberculosis that is resistant to all drugs.

## Symptoms 
Tuberculosis can have many symptoms. 

The most common include:
* A cough that does not go away, especially if the person is coughing up blood (this is called hemoptysis)
* Chest pain
* Not having any appetite
* Weakness
* Weight loss
* Chills
* Very pale skin
* Listless eyes
* Fever
* Sweating a lot at night
* Difficulty breathing
* Feeling very tired
* People are also more likely to get tuberculosis if they live close to other people who have TB. For example, TB can spread easily in homeless shelters, prisons, and immigrant communities  

## How common is TB?
Experts believe that one third of the world population is infected with *M. tuberculosis*. 

New infections occur at a rate of one per second. In 2010, about 8.8&nbsp;million new cases developed and nearly 1.5&nbsp;million people died from the disease, most of them in developing countries. The number of tuberculosis cases has been decreasing since 2006, and new cases have decreased since 2002.

People usually get tuberculosis because of a weakened immune system. Many people with HIV and AIDS can also get tuberculosis because it causes the person to become immunocompromised.

## References
## Other websites 
* Frequently asked Questions about TB at CDC.gov
* ExplainTB: Multilingual audiovisual information on tuberculosis
Clause

A **clause** is a part of a sentence. Each clause is made up of a subject (who or what the sentence is about) and a predicate (what happens in a sentence). Each predicate has only one main verb.

*I love you* is a sentence that has only one clause. *I love you and I will always love you* is a sentence that has two clauses: *I love you* and *I will always love you*. Both clauses are joined together by the word *and*, which is a conjunction. Clauses may be independent or dependent.

## In use 
Two clauses can be joined with a pronoun: *I live in London, which is in England*. Theere, *I live in London* is the first clause, and *which is in England* is the second clause. The word *which* is a pronoun that takes the place of *London* and joins the two clauses.

A sentence can contain many clauses, but sentences with fewer clauses are easier to understand.

## Dependent and independent clauses 
A simple sentence may also be called an independent clause. It may be a part of a compound or complex sentence, but it can also stand on its own as a simple sentence (or independent clause). 
A **subordinate clause**, also called a **dependent clause**, is one that cannot stand by itself because it does not express a complete thought. It contains both a subject and a verb. A subordinate clause always depends on a main clause.

The main clause is almost always an independent clause and so the main clause by itself makes sense and can stand on its own. However, the subordinate clause does not. For example, *I love you* makes perfect sense left on its own. However, *and always will* does not. A sentence can be made up of only dependent clauses only if it is joined by a correlative conjunction, a conjunction pair like "either/or", "neither/nor", and "not only/but also".

## References 
## Other websites 
* Clauses: the Essential Building-Blocks 
* Purdue Owl: Identifying Independent and Dependent Clauses
Sacred

The words **sacred** or **holy** are sometimes used interchangeably and are often misunderstood to mean "important" or "special"  instead of "set apart" and "pure."

According to Websters 1828 Dictionary (the more accurate definition given the spiritual context- Christian and beyond), sacred means "...separated from that which is common, vulgar, polluted, or open... or Holy." Holy, means "Properly, whole, entire or perfect, in a moral sense. Hence, pure in heart, temper or dispositions; free from sin and sinful affections. Applied to the Supreme Being, holy signifies perfectly pure, immaculate and complete in moral character..."

Most religions have sacred books that provide teachings or doctrines associated with the religion. These books are "set apart," from other books published and associated with the religion. There is a deeper connection to these books over the others.  

For Christians this book is called the Bible.  Muslim peoples have another book, they call the Qur'an. Jews call their book the Torah. Similarly, the Book of Mormon is also considered as a sacred book in Mormonism. 

Some religious people deem specific  sacred because of their mention in the sacred books. Jerusalem is seen as sacred by Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Mecca is sacred in Islam, and Ise Grand Shrine in Mie Prefecture is sacred in Japanese Shinto. In Hinduism the river Ganges is seen as holy.

## Related pages
*Pilgrimage
*Icon

## Other websites
*Holiness in the Bible
Translation

**Translation** means to copy writing or speech from one language into a different language.

The people who do translation are called translators. A translator who is copying a book into another language may use a language dictionary to find out how a word is written in another language. A translator who works with the spoken word is also called an interpreter. Translators can work independently as freelancers or by being hired by translation agencies. People who translate poetry, novels, drama, or short stories are called literary translators. 

In computer technology, translation from a programming language to a machine language is called compiling.

There are free translators on the internet. A notable example of this is Google Translate.

## Related pages 
*Bible translations
*Concept
*Compiler
*Machine translation

**Useful resources related to the subject:**

* The Impact of Translation in New York City 
* Choosing the Perfect Translation Agency for your Company 
* Adapt your Translation for a better Understanding of Inter-culture
Astronaut

using a space suit outside the United States'  in 1984.]]
An **astronaut** or **cosmonaut** is a person who goes into outer space. The Soviet Union and countries that it controlled used the word cosmonaut. Western countries including the United States said astronaut. Astronauts are also called "taikonauts" in China or "spationaute" in France.

The first person to go into space was a Russian from the Soviet Union. His name was Yuri Gagarin. This happened on April 12, 1961. The first and second people to walk on the Moon were the Americans Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin. This happened on July 20, 1969. No astronauts have gone to the moon since 1972. No people have visited any other planets yet.

Astronauts used to go into space using many different ways, but now they can only go on the American Dragon 2, the American Starliner, the Russian Soyuz, or the Chinese Shenzhou. Several countries have worked together to build an International Space Station where people stay and work in space for long periods of time.

A few countries and companies are trying to make more ways to get people into space. The United States is building a very big rocket called the Space Launch System. A United States company called SpaceX is also building a very large rocket called "Starship" that is fully reusable and could take people to Mars and further. Some American companies, for example Boeing, Lockheed Martin and SpaceX, are being paid by the United States to make ways for people to go to space.

## Related pages 
* Spaceflight
Hacker

A **hacker** is someone who tries to get into another person's computer using computer software. The computer software could be Trojan horse programs, computer viruses, and worms. It used to mean someone who likes to do new things with computers.  The correct name for a person doing these illegal things was *cracker*, but many news stories used the word *hacker* even though it was in error. Another meaning of *hacker* is someone who can change or program something, like how people can change or program a Furby to say something insulting or humorous.

A person doing something illegal with a computer belonging to someone else without asking for permission from the owner is also called a hacker.

In the recent years computers were becoming increasingly more complex. This also means that people with bad intentions have more opportunities to use them for criminal purposes. Computer engineers are not always able to find vulnerable places in the computer code. Hackers find such places, and use them.

There are also hackers who use the same skills for good purposes. Such hackers are called *white hat* hackers. They help computer engineers to find vulnerable places and correct problems.

A lot of skills are often required to be a hacker. A hacker should be able to find problems or solutions that most other people cannot find.

## References 
## Related pages 
*Cyberattack
Bolshevik

**Bolshevik** was a Russian communist in the early 20th century. They are also called the Bolshevik Communists. The majority of the Russian Social Democratic Workers Party was a Marxist political party.
 

At the party congress in 1903, members disagreed with each other. The party divided into two groups, the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks. They were called Bolsheviks because it means "those who are more." Vladimir Ilyich Lenin was the leader of the Bolshevik group. The more moderate group, the Mensheviks (meaning "those of the minority") were led by Julius Martov. Although the Bolsheviks were called "those who are more", before 1917 there were more Mensheviks. Many of Lenin's opponents were afraid that he liked to control things too much.

In 1905 the Bolshevik group became a separate political party, the **RSDLP(B)** the 'b' in brackets standing for 'Bolshevik'.

## Revolution 
After the February Revolution, some of the Mensheviks took positions in the Russian Provisional Government. Lenin said socialists must oppose the Provisional Government. The government began to weaken and Lenin started to have more authority. Because of this, many Mensheviks joined the Bolsheviks.

The Bolsheviks led the October Revolution in Russia in 1917. They said they created the world's first Workers' State. The Mensheviks opposed the government led by the Bolsheviks. Many ended up in prison or were killed. After that, they opposed the Bolsheviks from outside Russia, in exile. 

After the Revolution, the Bolshevik Party was called the **Russian Communist Party**.
List of traditional star names

This is a **list of traditional names for stars**, mostly from Arabic and Latin.

To find out more about any of these stars, look them up in the SIMBAD international database:
* SIMBAD online

__NOTOC__

## A 
## B 
## C 
## D 
## E 
## F 
## G 
## H 
## I 
## J 
## K 
## L 
## M 
## N 
## P 
## R 
## S 
## T 
## U 
## V 
## W 
## Y 
## Z 
## Related pages
* List of stars

## Other websites 
* Jim Kaler's star page
Leninism

**Leninism** is a way of thinking about how the communist party should be organized. It says it should be a dictatorship of the proletariat (meaning the working class holds the power). 

Some historians say that Leninism is one of the first steps towards socialism (where the workers own the factories and other means of production). It is one part of Marxism–Leninism, which emphasizes the transition from capitalism to socialism.

## Beliefs
Vladimir Lenin was a Russian Marxist. He had a set of ideas based on Marxism. Lenin's development of Marxism has become known as **Leninism**. These ideas include:

* Democratic Centralism, also known as an idea of the vanguard party.  Like other communists,  Lenin wanted to see a socialist revolution led by the working class.  But he thought the workers needed strong leadership in the form of a Revolutionary Party based on Democratic Centralism.  Lenin wanted Communist political parties in every country to lead the revolution.  He thought the vanguard party would need to have strong discipline, or it would fail.
* The idea that capitalism is the cause of imperialism (empire-building). He thought that imperialism was the "highest stage" of capitalism.
* Accepting the idea that the oppressed ethnic minorities (smaller groups of people) should get to have nationalism and decide how they should be governed.
* Teaching the proletariat (the working class) about politics, especially Marxism.

## Related pages 
* Vladimir Lenin
* Marxism-Leninism
* Communism

## References 
## Other websites 
### Books by Vladimir Lenin 
* *What Is To Be Done?*.
* *Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism*.
* *The State and Revolution*.
* "The Lenin Archive".
* "First Conference of the Communist International".

### Other similar links 
* "Marcel Liebman on Lenin and democracy" .
* "An excerpt on Leninism and State Capitalism from the work of Noam Chomsky".
* Rosa Luxemburg. "Organizational Questions of the Russian Social Democracy".
* Karl Korsch. "Lenin's Philosophy".
* "Cyber Leninism".
* "Leninist Ebooks" .
* Anton Pannekoek. "Lenin as a Philosopher".
* Paul Mattick. "The Lenin Legend".
* Paul Craig Roberts. "Dead Labor: Marx and Lenin Reconsidered".
List of tectonic plates

This is a list of the biggest **tectonic plates** on Earth. Including small ones, there are about a hundred  tectonic plates. These are only few of them.

## Primary plates 
These seven plates make up most of the seven continents, and the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans.

* African plate
* Antarctic plate
* Indo-Australian plate 
* North American plate
* Pacific plate
* South American plate
* Eurasian plate

## Secondary plates 
These plates are generally shown on major plate maps, with the exception of the Arabian and Indian plates, which are smaller than the others.

*Arabian plate
*Caribbean plate
*Cocos plate
*Juan de Fuca plate
*Indian plate
*Nazca plate
*Philippine Sea plate ( also known as the Filipino plate)
*Scotia plate
* Somali plate
*Panama Plate

## Tertiary plates 
These are parts of major plates, and bits and pieces of ancient plates that became broken up. 

* Agean plate

## Related pages
*Plate tectonics

## Other websites 
*Bird, P. (2003) An updated digital model of plate boundaries  also available as a large (13 mb) PDF file
Anarchism

**Anarchism** is an idea and philosophy that says no one should be forced into any kind of hierarchy. For example, anarchism says that the government and capitalism are harmful and not needed. It also says that people's actions should never be forced by other people. It is usually described as a libertarian type of socialism.

The word "anarchism" is from the Greek word "αναρχία", which means "no rulers" or "no government", but that does not have to mean no rules at all. People often use the word "anarchy" to mean  and crime, but anarchists usually do not want this. They say anarchy is just a way of relations between people. They believe that once put into place, those relations work on their own. Anarchists are usually opposed by the systems they wish to remove.

## Principles 
Individual freedom, voluntary association, and opposition to the state are important beliefs of anarchism. There are also big differences between anarchist philosophies on things like whether violence can be used to bring about anarchy; the best type of economy; the relationship between technology and hierarchy; the idea of equality; and the usefulness of some organization.

The word "authority" is not clear, but anarchists are against not some types of authority (such as the authority of someone skilled in self-defence over someone that wants to learn self-defence) but only control by force.

## Examples 
## Related pages 
* Anti-capitalism
* Anti-fascism
* Self-ownership

## References
List of oil fields

This **list of oil fields** includes major fields of the past and present.

(Amounts in parentheses are estimated reserves, in barrels.)

* China
** Daqing Field, Heilongjiang (40 billion)
* Brazil
** Campos Basin
* Iran
** Aghajari Field (14 billion)
** Ahwaz Field (17 billion)
** Gachsaran Field (15 billion)
** Marun Field (16 billion)
* Iraq
** Kirkuk Field (16 billion)
** Rumaila Field (20 billion)
* Kazakhstan
** Tengiz Field (15-26 billion)
** Kashagan Field, Caspian (~50 billion)
* Kuwait
** Burgan Field (66-72 billion)
* Mexico
** Cantarell Field
** Chicontepec Field
* Nigeria
** Niger Delta Field (34 billion)
* Russia
** Samotlor Field (20 billion)
** Romashkino Field (16-17 billion)
* Saudi Arabia
** Abqaiq Field (12 billion)
** Berri Field (12 billion)
** Faroozan-Marjan Field (10 billion)
** Ghawar Field (75-83 billion)
** Manifa Field (11 billion)
** Safaniya-Khafji Field, Neutral Zone (30 billion)
* United Arab Emirates
** Zakum Field, Abu Dhabi (12 billion)
* United States
** Prudhoe Bay, Alaska (10 billion)
** Wilmington Oil Field, California (0.3 billion)
* Venezuela
** Bolivar Coastal Field
Forests in the United Kingdom

This is a list of **forests in the United Kingdom**.

## England
### Cumbria 
*Whinfell Forest - Center Parcs

### Derbyshire 
*Darwin Forest

### Hampshire 
*New Forest

### Norfolk 
*Thetford Forest

### Nottinghamshire 
*Sherwood Forest

### Staffordshire 
*Cannock Chase

### Sussex 
*Ashdown Forest

### Warwickshire 
*Forest of Arden

### Worcestershire 
*Wyre Forest (part in Shropshire)

### West Midlands 
*Black Country Urban Forest

### To be classified 
*Bracknell Forest
*Epping Forest
*Forest of Avon
*Forest of Mercia
*Kielder Forest
*Mersey Forest
*National Forest
*Royal Forest of Dean

## Scotland
### Dumfries and Galloway 
*Forest of Ae

### Fife 
*Tentsmuir Forest

### To be classified 
*Arecleoch Forest
*Argyll Forest Park
*Carrick Forest
*Carsphairn Forest
*Changue Forest
*Corriedoo Forest
*Craik Forest
*Dalbeattie Forest
*Dundeugh Forest
*Fleet Forest
*Laurieston Forest
*Mabie Forest
*Penninghame Forest
*Rowardennan Forest
*Queen Elizabeth Forest Park
*Strathyre Forest
*Tairlaw Forest
*Wauchope Forest

## Wales 
*Clocaenog Forest

## Northern Ireland 
*Ballypatrick Forest Drive
*Castlewellan Forest Park
*Drum Manor Forest Park
*Ely Lodge Forest
*Florence Court Forest Park
*Glenariff Forest Park
*Gortin Glen Forest Park
*Gosford Forest Park
*Lough Navar Forest Drive
*Tollymore Forest Park
List of publishers

This is a **list of publishers** in English.

## A 
*Anvil Press Poetry
*Arcade Publishing
*Ardis Books Homepage
*Athlone Books
*Atlas Press
## B 
*Basic Books
*Belknap Press of Harvard University Press
*Bison Books
*Black Sparrow Books
*Bloodaxe Books
*Bloomsbury.com - Home page
*Borzoi Reader Classics
## C 
*Calder Publications
*Cambridge University Press
*Carcanet
*Carroll and Graf
*Catbird Press
*Central European University Press
*City Lights Publishers
*Columbia University Press
*CompanionGuides.com
*Continuum - Athlone
*Copper Canyon Press
*Counterpoint Press
*Creation Books
## D 
*Da Capo Press
*Dalkey Archive Press
*Dedalus Books
*Detritus.com
*Dover Publications
*Duckworth Online
## E 
*Ediciones Altovolta
*Exact Change

## F 
*Farrar
## G 
*Glas New Russian Writing
*Godine Publishing
*Grove Press / Atlantic Monthly Press
## H 
*Hackett
*HarperCollins Publishers
*Harvard University Press
*Harvill Press at Random House
*Hesperus press

## I 
*iBooks, Inc.
*Indiana University Press
*Inpress Books UK
*Intellect 
*Interlink Publishing Online
*Ivan R. Dee

## J 
*Johns Hopkins University Press

## K 
*Kessinger Publishing
*Kodansha
## M 
*Malton House Press
*Marion Boyars Online
*Methuen
*MIT Press
*Modern Library
## N 
*New Directions Publishing
*Northwestern University Press
*NYRB Classics
## O 
*Oomf, Inc.
*Open Court
*Open Court Book
*Overlook Press
*Oxford University Press - UK
*Oxford University Press - US

## P 
*Pan Macmillan
*Pantheon Books at Random House
*Pathfinder Books
*Paulist Press
*Penguin Classics
*Penguin Group (USA)
*Penguin UK
*Peter Owen Publishers
*Phaidon Press
*Phoenix Press history reprints
*Picador UK
*Picador USA
*Pimlico Books at Random House
*Princeton University Press
*Prometheus Books
## R 
*Random House UK
*randomhouse.com (US)
*Routledge

## S 
*Schocken Books
*Scholastic Inc.
*Shambhala Publications
*Shanti Sadan Publications
*Smith and Kraus Publishers
*Stanford University Press
*Station Hill Press
*Steerforth Press
*Stone Bridge Press
*Sun & Moon
*SUNY Press

## T 
*TASCHEN Books
*Thames & Hudson (UK)
*Thames & Hudson (USA)
*The New Press
*Tuttle Publishing
*Twisted Spoon Press
## U 
*University of California Press Books
*University of Chicago Press
*University of Minnesota Press
*University of Nebraska Press
*University of Toronto Medieval Texts
## V 
*Vedanta Press and Catalog
*Verso Books
*Vintage (US)
*Vintage Books at Random House (UK)
## W 
*W.W. Norton & Company
*Welcome to Random House
*Wisdom Publications
*Wordsworth Editions Website
## Y 
*Yale University Press
## Z 
*Zephyr Press
List of countries by area

with the 30 largest countries and territories by area.]]

The **list of countries by area** is the list of the world's countries and their territories by total area.

## Overview
The inputs are realized according to the ISO 3166 standard which includes sovereign states and dependent territories. The 193 Members of the United Nations and the two observer states are numbered. 

Countries which enjoy limited recognition forming part of the international community and not found in ISO 3166 are also included in the list, but their areas also generally count with the areas of other widely recognized states which claim the following territory.

## Areas
The areas claimed by individual countries, such as the areas of Antarctica, are not realized as well. The list doesn't include supranational entities such as the European Union. The entry includes three subfields:

* **Total area** is the sum of all land and water areas delimited by international boundaries and coastlines.
* **Land area** is the aggregate of all surfaces delimited by international boundaries and/or coastlines, excluding inland water bodies (lakes, reservoirs, rivers)
* **Water area** is the sum of the surfaces of all inland water bodies, such as lakes, reservoirs, or rivers, as delimited by international boundaries and/or coastlines. Coastal internal waters may be included. Territorial seas are not included unless otherwise noted. Contiguous zones and Exclusive Economic Zones are not included.

Make sure that there are many country size comparisons which would not match all these countries area. The areas that appear in the table for each country are taken from the United Nations Statistics Division unless otherwise noted.

## Map 
, with all countries and territories based on its respective area]]

### Countries and territories by area
## Graphical charts 
The following charts are based on the CIA World Factbook, of which these charts will show how big is the area. For the love of god, sovereign states are green while territories are grey. Territorial claims in Antarctica are not shown.

### Countries greater than 1.5 million km² 
## Related pages
* List of countries and dependencies by population
* List of countries and dependencies by population density

## Notes
## References
## Other websites
*CIA World Factbook*
List of countries and dependencies by population

This is a **list of countries and dependencies by population**. It includes sovereign states, inhabited dependent territories and in some cases, constituent countries of sovereign states, with the list being primarily based on the ISO standard ISO 3166-1. For instance the United Kingdom is considered a single entity. In addition this list also includes certain unrecognized states not found in ISO 3166. The number shows how many people live in each country. Countries with the most people are at the top of the list. Countries with the fewest people are at the bottom.

## Method
Figures based on our charts are estimates or projections taken from our national census, where national data are available.

Where national data are not available, figures are based on the population estimates of the United Nations.

Areas that form integral parts of sovereign states, such as the countries of the United Kingdom are counted as part of the sovereign state concerned. Not included in the list are organizations such as the NATO.

Other territories that are marked with an asterisk (*) are territories that do not have permanent population, such as the British Indian Ocean Territory or United States Minor Outlying Islands.

## Sovereign states and dependencies by population
Note: All 193 Members of the United Nations plus the two observer states are assigned a numbered rank. Dependent territories or constituent countries that are parts of sovereign states are not assigned a numbered rank. In addition, sovereign states with limited recognition are also included, but not assigned a number rank.

## Related pages
*List of countries by population (United Nations)

## References
e
* CIA, 9 August, 2005.
**Notes**
Luke McCormick

**Luke McCormick** (born 15 August 1983) is a former English football player. He was born in Coventry, England. He is a goalkeeper. He plays for the English football team Swindon Town.

In the 2003–04 season, McCormick played when Romain Larrieu could not. Larrieu injured his knee. McCormick played instead. Plymouth Argyle beat Stockport County on 24 January 2004. The score was 2-0. In this match McCormick set a new club record of seven *clean sheets* in a row. A clean sheet is a game where the other side gets no goals.

McCormick was voted the most promising player of the 2003–04 season by Plymouth Argyle fans.

On 7 June 2008. McCormick was arrested on suspicion for killing two people by dangerous driving. Subsequently, he was released by Plymouth Arygle and was jailed for seven years on 6 October 2008. He was let out of prison in June 2012.

## Club career statistics
|-
|2000-01||rowspan="5"|Plymouth Argyle||rowspan="2"|Third Division||1||0||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||1||0
|-
|2001-02||0||0||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||0||0
|-
|2002-03||rowspan="2"|Second Division||3||0||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||3||0
|-
|2003-04||40||0||1||0||colspan="2"|-||41||0
|-
|2004-05||League Championship||23||0||colspan="2"|-||1||0||24||0
|-
|2004-05||Boston United||League Two||2||0||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||2||0
|-
|2005-06||rowspan="3"|Plymouth Argyle||rowspan="3"|League Championship||1||0||colspan="2"|-||2||0||3||0
|-
|2006-07||40||0||5||0||1||0||46||0
|-
|2007-08||30||0||2||0||3||0||35||0
140||0||8||0||7||0||155||0
140||0||8||0||7||0||155||0
|}

## References
Ivory Coast

**Ivory Coast** or '''Côte d'Ivoire**, officially the **Republic of Côte d'Ivoire''', is a country in West Africa.

The capital of Côte d'Ivoire is Yamoussoukro but its biggest city is Abidjan. Other cities can be found at List of cities in Côte d'Ivoire.

## Geography
It borders the Gulf of Guinea to the south and five other African nations. Liberia is to the southwest, Guinea to the northwest, Mali to the north-northwest, Burkina Faso to the north-northeast, and Ghana to the east.

## Districts 
Ivory Coast is divided into 12 districts and 2 district-level cities. The districts were created in 2011.

## Related pages
*Côte d'Ivoire at the Olympics
*Côte d'Ivoire national football team
*List of rivers of Côte d'Ivoire

## References 
**Notes**
Signature

]]
. It contains the word KAROLVS.]]
A **signiture** is a special way that people write their name to let others know that they understand or approve of something that was written. A signature is often used to sign a contract, a cheque, a petition or a treaty.

When it comes to signature's there are many ways to write a signature, and signatures may look different depending on your location. In the United States, many people have a signature which is made from writing their name in their own handwriting, often in cursive. Some signatures may be written in a different style than normal writing, which may make it difficult to read. Some people practice autographs, or fancy signatures that are hard to copy. 

Hundreds of years ago some people used sealing wax to make a copy of their signet rings next to or instead of a signature. This was called their "seal. This is where the term "seal of approval" comes from. Some formal documents still use an official wax seal, such as a coat of arms.

## Types of signatures 
**Wet signature:-** A wet signature, ink signature, or wet ink signature is the physical marking a person makes to sign their name on a physical document, usually with a pen.

Wet signatures are the most common kind of signatures and have been used for centuries as a unique marking to indicate agreement and prevent fraud. Physical signatures have been used since 3500 B.C. in the form of seals, but it was in the 1600s when signatures written on paper became widely used and legally valid.

Although wet signatures can be forged by skilled people, they were the norm until the beginning of the 21st century, when online signatures started to become legally binding.

**Electronic signature or E-signature:-** Software programmes allow an electronic representation of a signature to be used that's been created by the software.

**Digital signature:-** A digital signature is a signature created by the authoriser such as copying, pasting and embedding a copy of their signature or a signature created using a stylus pen.

## References
Auction

at Christie's. ]]
 auction, print from 1885. Also shows tea being weighed and tasted.]], in Japan]]
s. Guide Price: £150,000 - £200,000."]]
An **auction** is a method by which goods or services can be sold and bought. In an auction, the price of an item is not fixed in advance. People wanting to buy the item say how much they are willing to pay for it. This is called their *bid*. In each round, the bids are evaluated. If certain criteria are met, the auction is stopped and one bidder will buy the item at the specified price. Alternatively, the auction can continue for another round. If certain conditions are met, the auction will stop, and the item will not be sold. There are different kinds of auctions, with different rules.

Auctions usually happen within a given timeframe. When the time expires, the bid that best matches will win, or the item will not be sold.

There are companies that specialize in doing auctions. These companies will charge fees for doing the auction; they may also get a commission that depends on the price the item is sold at.

Auctions can be done online, or they can be done offline. Sometimes, bids are placed by telephone, or over the internet.

## Most common kinds of auction 
The most common kinds of auction are:
* *English auction*: the highest bidder wins. The auction starts at the lowest price the seller is willing to sell at, and the price goes up as long as someone is willing to pay a higher price.
* A *Dutch auction* goes the other way round: The auction starts at a high price, and goes down until someone is willing to buy. Before the auction, the seller sets the lowest price they'll sell the item for, and if the auction reaches that price without anyone buying, the auction is stopped without selling the item.
* *Sealed first-bid auction*: All the bids are submitted at the same time, without any of the bidders knowing each other's bids. The bidder with the highest bid wins.
* *Vickrey auction* (or *sealed-bid second-price auction)* : This kind of auction works the same as the sealed first-bid auction, but the bidder only pays the second-highest price. This kind of auction is very important in economic theory, but isn't used as much in real life. 

## The mechanisms why auctions work 
Auctions work because of information asymmetry: The seller wants to sell at the highest possible price, and the buyers want to pay as little as possible.But the seller does not know the prices the buyers are willing to pay: Setting a price that is too hight means that there will be no sale, setting a price that is too low means that there will be less profit. Each buyer knows how much he is willing to pay, but does not know the price the other buyers are willing to pay. So buyers influence each other. The theory that models these phenomena is called auction theory. It is based on game theory and microeconomics.

## Related pages 
*Paul Milgrom
Blitzkrieg

**Blitzkrieg** is a German word that means "lightning war" and refers to the high speed of a lightning bolt.

In *blitzkrieg*, the attacking motorized infantry armies move quickly and are helped by tanks and aircraft. Slower-moving enemy units are overrun or surrounded and often captured with little fighting. The slower units often become disorganized and are not ready to fight when they are captured.

The combined arms tactics of *blitzkrieg* were developed in the 1920s and 1930s, especially in the German Wehrmacht. They seldom used this word, however.

This method worked well early in World War II during the invasions of Poland and France and was mostly successful during Operation Barbarossa. Later in the war, the Allies learned to defeat German *blitzkrieg* attacks by defence in depth and by attacking the flanks of the attackers with reserve forces.

**The Blitz** refers to the German bombing of Britain, particularly London, during World War II. It destroyed over a million homes, killed over 40,000 people and was supposed to destroy industry and morale quickly to make the British pressure their government to end the war. The Blitz started in September 1940, in response to the British bombing of German cities by the Royal Air Force and continued until May 1941.
Edinburgh

]]
 viewed from Princes Street]]

**Edinburgh** (Scottish Gaelic: *Dùn Èideann*) is the capital city and second largest city in Scotland. Edinburgh lies on the east coast, where the River Forth flows into the sea. 

The central part is Edinburgh Castle, at the top of a steep hill. The castle has a military display every year, called a *tattoo*, where soldiers show their skills at marching and competitions, and there are brass bands and bands of bagpipes. 

Edinburgh has a very large festival every year, where thousands of performers come to put on shows. The Edinburgh International Festival takes place in August and September. At the same time there is the Edinburgh Fringe. The shows are of all kinds, and range from large ones with famous people, to very small ones by new or unknown actors.

The city is served by Edinburgh Airport, and Haymarket and Waverley railway stations.

## Old and New towns 
The Old Town of Edinburgh is the oldest part of the city, and with the 18th-century New Town, it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It has preserved its mediaeval plan and many Reformation-era buildings. The Old and New Towns are known locally simply as "Town". It is the city centre. The main part of the Old Town is a complex of streets called the Royal Mile while Princes Street is the main business area of the New Town.

## Sport 
The city's main football teams are Heart of Midlothian F.C. and Hibernian F.C. Murrayfield stadium in the city is the home of the Scottish national rugby team and Edinburgh Rugby. The nearby Murrayfield Ice Rink is home to the city's ice hockey team, the Edinburgh Capitals. See also Leith Athletic F.C.

## Buildings 
Edinburgh has lots of important buildings. The Balmoral Hotel was opened in 1902 and designed by W. Hamilton Beattie. Saint Giles' Cathedral was built in Mediaeval times. There was a big fire there in 1385. The Royal Museum was designed by architect Francis Fowke and built between 1861 and 1888. Its sister museum, the Museum of Scotland, was designed by Benson and Forsyth in 1998. 

Holyrood Palace was once the home of the Scottish kings, and is open to the public. It now serves as the King of Britain's Scottish residence. The Scottish Parliament is located next to Holyrood Palace.

## Governing 
Edinburgh is one of the 32 local government areas of Scotland. It has its own council which is led by the Lord Provost (similar to a mayor). The city is divided into 17 "wards" which elect their councillors.

## Famous people from Edinburgh
* Sir Walter Scott, who wrote many historical stories.
* Alexander Graham Bell, who invented the telephone, was born in Edinburgh.
* Sir Arthur Conan Doyle who wrote the Sherlock Holmes stories.
* Robert Louis Stevenson who wrote *Kidnapped*, *Treasure Island*, *Doctor Jekyll* *and Mr Hyde* and many other stories.
* Muriel Spark, who wrote *The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie* and many other stories.
* Sean Connery, who acted as *James Bond* in films.

## Twin Towns 
Edinburgh is twinned with:

*  Florence
*  Dunedin
*  Nice
*  Kraków
*  San Diego
*  Aalborg
*  Kyiv
*  Kyoto
*  Xi'an
*  Vancouver
*  St. Petersburg
*  Munich

## References
2. Map of Edinburgh
Head of state

The **head of state** is the leader of a country/sovereign state. The powers of a head of state may vary depending on the country. The head of state is usually the highest-ranking official in the country.

## Titles 
In most republic countries, the head of state is called the president and is usually elected by the people. 

In countries that are monarchies, the head of state is a monarch (such as a king), who gets the position through inheritance. There are many titles that a monarch could have, but they all have the same role as a head of state.

## Types of heads of state 
### Executive 
Sometimes a head of state has an executive role. This means that they take part in leading the government. In these systems, the head of state is also the head of government. For example, the President of the United States is both the head of state and head of government of the US. There are many republics that operate like this but some monarchies still have a king who runs the government.

### Ceremonial 
In other countries, the head of state may be a separate person from the head of government. In this system, the head of state has the role of representing the nation and being a neutral non-political leader while the head of government takes care of the executive. This system is used in many modern monarchies such as the United Kingdom. However, some republics such as the Republic of Ireland follow this system.

## Related pages 
*Pope
*Supreme Leader of Iran
Rectangle

In geometry, a **rectangle** is a shape with four sides and four corners. The corners are all right angles. It follows that the pairs of sides opposite each other must be parallel and of the same length.

People make many rectangular things, including most tables, boxes, books, and papers. The word comes from Latin words meaning "right" and angle".

A rectangle whose four sides have the same length is called a square.

## Formulas 
If a rectangle has length \ell and width *w*, then*:*
* It has area K = \ell w.
* it has perimeter P = 2\ell + 2w = 2(\ell + w)\,.
* Each diagonal has length d=\sqrt{\ell^2 + w^2}.
* it has an aspect ratio of \ell : w.
* When \ell = w\,, the rectangle is a square.
* When \ell / w is equal to the golden ratio, the rectangle is called a golden rectangle.

## Related pages 
* Matrix (mathematics)
* Quadrilateral
* Rhombus

## References
Zaza language

**Zaza language**, also called **Zazaki**, **Kirmanjki** and **Dimli**, is an Iranian language mainly spoken in eastern Turkey by the Zazas. It belongs to the northwest-Iranian group of Iranic languages. The Zaza language is related to Sangsarī, Māzandarānī, Tātī (Herzendī), Semnānī, Tāleshī, Kurdish, Persian and Balōchi. The number of Zaza speakers is not known exactly. Many people consider the Zaza language to be a dialect of Kurdish. But it has been shown that Zaza has is more similar to other Iranic languages such as Mazandarani than to Kurdish.

## Other websites 
* Zaza-Gorani &#124; Ethnologue Ethnologue on Zazaki (language)
* http://zazasiteler.tr.gg/  (Weblinks of Zaza people)
* Zazaki.de zazaki dimili zaza  Academic Research Center of Zazaki
* http://www.zazakikozmos.org/  Only Zazaki news
* http://www.zazaki-institut.de/  Zazaki Institute

## References