open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Court

in Ottawa]]

:*For the court as the seat of a royal person see royal court*.
:*For the court as a space inside a building, see courtyard*.
A **court** in a law, is a part of the government in which people come together to decide how to apply the country's laws to a specific situation, especially when there is an argument over how to apply the law. Some disagreements a court may decide are whether a person is guilty of a crime, who is the legal owner of property, or who the children of two divorced parents should live with. The system of courts that interprets and applies the law is commonly known as the judiciary. A court is usually located in a special building called a courthouse.

Most countries have multiple courts to deal with different issues.  For example, civil courts deal with private disputes between people or organizations, while criminal courts deal with people who have been accused of crimes.

## Types of courts 
* Appellate court
* Court-martial
* Constitutional court
* International court
* Supreme court
* Trial court
Immunity (medical)

**Immunity** is the ability of the body to defend itself from 'foreign bodies'. This means rejecting infections, clearing up dust which gets in the lungs, and killing cancer cells. 

Immunity is of two types. Innate immunity protects the host against infection, but has no 'memory', and so gives no long-term immunity.

The second type is adaptive immunity, which does have a kind of 'memory'. It does give long-term protection against specific pathogens.

All animals, plants and fungi have some innate immunity. Vertebrates also have adaptive immunity.

People can be immunised from some diseases by having a vaccination 
(injection of some dead or weakened virus, or bacteria that causes the disease). Vaccination builds on the natural immune system to make a person resist certain diseases. By doing so, the body reacts more quickly to fight the virus/bacteria when it comes. 

## History of immunology
Immunology is a science that examines the structure and function of the immune system. The earliest known mention of immunity was during the plague of Athens in 430 BC. Thucydides noted that people who had recovered from a previous bout of the disease could nurse the sick without contracting the illness a second time.

In the 18th century, Pierre-Louis de Maupertuis made experiments with scorpion venom and observed that certain dogs and mice were immune to this venom.

This and other observations of acquired immunity was later exploited by Louis Pasteur in his development of vaccination and his proposed germ theory of disease. Pasteur's theory was in direct opposition to contemporary theories of disease, such as the miasma theory.

It was not until Robert Koch's 1891 proofs, for which he was awarded a Nobel Prize in 1905, that microorganisms were confirmed as the cause of infectious disease. Viruses were confirmed as human pathogens in 1901, with the discovery of the yellow fever virus by Walter Reed.

Immunology made a great advance towards the end of the 19th century.  Humoral immunity (antibodies) and cellular immunity (T cells and dendritic cells). were all recognised.

Particularly important was the work of Paul Ehrlich, who proposed the side-chain theory to explain the specificity of the antigen-antibody reaction; his contributions to the understanding of humoral immunity were recognized by the award of a Nobel Prize in 1908, which was jointly awarded to the founder of cellular immunology, Elie Mechnikov.

## Humoral immunity 
Humoral immunity is immunity that is done by macromolecules. Antibodies, complement proteins, and certain antimicrobial peptides are in extracellular fluids.

## Cell-mediated immunity 
This is an immune response which does not involve antibodies. Cell-mediated immunity is the activation of phagocytes, antigen-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, and the release of various cytokines in response to an antigen.

## References
Roman numerals

**Roman numerals** are a numeral system that was used by ancient Rome. Numbers in this system use letters from the Latin alphabet. Currently, it uses seven symbols:

The Europeans still used Roman numerals even after the fall of the Roman Empire. From the 14th century, the Europeans replaced Roman numerals with Arabic numerals. However, people still use Roman numerals to this day.

One place in which they are sometimes seen is on clock faces (the front of a clock). For example, on the clock of Big Ben, the hours from 1 to 12 are written as:

''''*

The  and  can be read as "one less than 5" (4) and "one less than 10" (9). On many clocks that use Roman numerals, however, 4 is written as .                                                                           There are also Roman numerals for fractions. They represent something over 12, for example, 8/12=S:

### Fractions 
The Romans also used fractions. The most common base for fractions was 1/12, which in Latin is called *uncia* (ounce).

### Large numbers 
A number of numeral systems are developed for large numbers that cannot be shown with , , , , ,  and .

#### Apostrophus 
One of the systems is the *apostrophus*, in which **D** is written as **IƆ** (500) and **M** is written as **CIƆ** (1,000). In this system, an extra **Ɔ** means 500, and multiple extra **Ɔ**s are used to mean 5,000, 50,000 etc.

#### Vinculum 
Another system is the *vinculum*, in which **V**, **X**, **L**, **C**, **D** and **M** are multiplied by 1,000 by adding an overline.

## Usage 
* In the Baltics and Russia, the days of the week are often written as Roman numerals, with **I** being Monday.
* When writing dates by hand, the month is sometimes written as a Roman numeral, especially for dates written in day-month-year sequence. For example: 26.**XI**.2014 or **XI**.26.2014 = 26 November 2014.
*Some video games use Roman numerals to indicate the game position in a series. The most famous examples are Final Fantasy games (Final Fantasy VII, Final Fantasy VIII, Final Fantasy X, etc...).
* When movies or books are published, the year of publication or year of copyright may be written as a Roman numeral.
* When people write about Monarchs or Popes, Patriarchs, or other leading figures, they are sometimes counted with Roman numbers, e.g. Queen Elizabeth II (of England), Pope John Paul II, Pope Benedict XVI, Patriarch Alexius II (of the Russian-Orthodox church)
* In France, the centuries are sometimes written with Roman numerals *(example : "XXe siècle" meaning "20th century", XVIIIe siècle = "18th century", etc...)''. 
* In Poland, roman numerals are used to show the month in dates and as a short method of writing ordinals (i.e.  instead of 6th).
* Unicode has a code block called Number Forms, which also contains representations of Roman numerals, at the positions U+2160 to U+2188.

## Related pages 
* Arabic numerals
* Greek numerals

## References 
## Other websites 
* Roman Numerals (Totally Epic Guide) - Know The Romans 
* Roman Numeral Converter
Map

A **map** is an image of an area, usually of the Earth or part of the Earth. A map is different from an aerial photograph because it includes interpretation. Many maps are called "charts" such as star charts and nautical charts. Some maps are of distant worlds. Before the late 20th century almost all maps were on paper. Today, many maps are digital, and can be seen on smartphones and computers. However, physical items such as paper maps, charts, or drawings are still used.

The word "map" can **also** be used to talk about or show relationships between ideas, people, events, data, and many other subjects. This is why web developers call a list of web pages on a web site a site map.

 of a town (Marburg) in a valley. Map symbols: Green Colour is forest in this map, a blue line is a river. Meaning of a ▲ Triangle: Summit of a mountain or hill with its Elevation in m (meter) and the name of the mountain]]

Many maps today are made using GIS computer systems. These are database systems that are organized by location instead of named records. People who make maps are cartographers.

If a map is on a piece of paper or a computer screen, it has to be projected. This is because the Earth is round and paper and screens are flat. There are a lot of ways that use mathematics to make map projections. The only kind of map of the Earth that is not projected is one drawn on a sphere. This is called a globe.
Globe

A **globe** is most commonly, a scale model of the earth with the shape of a sphere. Globes can be scale models of the Earth (*terrestrial globes*) or of other planets. Globes can also be models of the celestial sphere (*celestial globes*). The English word "globe" comes from the , meaning round mass or sphere. 

Most globes are maps of the Earth. They have the advantage of avoiding the distortions of flat map projections. The most common types are political and physical. Political globes show countries. Physical globes show landscape like mountains and rivers. Some globes are star charts and some are maps of distant worlds.

**Global** as an adjective is used to mean the entire world rather than any special place on the Earth. It is also used in fields like computers to mean dealing with a whole larger system, rather than its individual little parts.

## History 
'' (gold coin) of the Roman emperor Carus, with a personification of Victory standing on a terrestrial globe]]

That the Earth is a sphere was established by Hellenistic astronomy in the 3rd century BC. The terrestrial globe appeared in that period. The first example of terrestrial globe known was the one the ancient Greek Crates of Mallus made in the middle of the 2nd century BC. The Greek geographer Strabo wrote about Crates's terrestrial globe during the early years of the Roman Empire.

A celestial globe from Classical Antiquity is in the Naples National Archaeological Museum, Italy. The globe is part of a sculpture – the globe is held up by a statue of Atlas, a Titan from Greek mythology. The ancient Romans made the globe and statue in the 2nd century AD. They may have copied the sculpture from Hellenistic art (art of the ancient Greek type) from the Hellenistic period (the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd centuries BC). The sculpture's name is the *Farnese Atlas*. Another example was the globe introduced to Beijing by the Persian astronomer, Jamal ad-Din, in 1267.

Martin Behaim designed a globe in 1492, in Nuremberg, Bavaria (Germany). Georg Glockendon was the artist who created the actual map drawings following Behaim's specifications. This globe is the oldest terrestrial globe still in existence.

## Manufacture 
, with polar disks, 1892]]
Mass-produced globes are typically covered by a printed paper map. The most common type has long, thin gores (strips) of paper. These strips narrow to a point at the North Pole and the South Pole. Then a small disk is used to paper over the irregularities at the poles. The more gores there are, the less stretching and crumpling is needed to make the paper map fit the sphere. 

From a geometric point of view, all points on a sphere are the same. One could select any point on the planet, and create a paper map that covers the globe with strips that come together at that point and the opposite point.

A globe that represents the Earth is usually mounted at a 23.5° angle on bearings.  This mounting represents the axial tilt of the spinning planet, in relation to the Sun.  This makes it easy to visualize how days and seasons change.

## References
Birth

ceramic vessel showing a woman giving birth. Larco Museum Lima]]

 after typical hospital birth]]

**Birth** (to be **born**) means when a baby animal comes out of its egg, or out of its mother after pregnancy. It is sometimes thought of as the beginning of life. It is also known as **calving** in livestock or **whelping** in meat-eating mammals. 

## Related medical words 
* Childbirth is the process at the end of a human pregnancy that results in a baby being born.
* Natural childbirth is the technique of minimizing medical intervention, particularly anaesthetics, during childbirth.
* Multiple birth is the birth of two (twins), three (triplets), four (quadruplets), etc., babies resulting from a single pregnancy.
* Birth pangs are the pains felt by the mother during labor
* Caesarean section or C-section is surgical birth through the wall of the abdomen.
* Afterbirth is the birth of the placenta following the birth of the baby.
* Birth canal is the term used for the vagina during birth
* Birth control is the prevention of pregnancy.
* Birth defect is a physical or mental abnormality present at the time of birth.
* Complications may cause a miscarriage or spontaneous abortion to occur.
* Infertility treatments are devices, medications, or behavior patterns to increase the probability of pregnancy.
* Premature birth is the birth of an infant before the full term of pregnancy.
* Stillbirth is the birth of a dead fetus or infant.

## Changes in pelvis during human pregnancy 
In adult females the pelvis is shaped differently from males. The differences are connected with allowing the baby to pass through the birth canal successfully. Also, during pregnancy, a hormone called relaxin softens the ligaments in the pelvis area. This produces a little bit of extra space for the baby's head to get through.
## Legal meanings
* Birth certificate is a legal document describing details of a person's birth.
*Birthday is a day to celebrate that the person has lived a certain number of years. 
* In some countries a person is considered of illegitimate birth if the child is born of parents not legally married to one another.

## Spiritual meanings
*Born again -a term used primarily in Protestantism, is associated with salvation, conversion, and spiritual rebirth. See Gospel of John chapter 3.
* Rebirth is a belief that a person is born again after their death based on the karma of their previous births.
* Virgin birth of Jesus is the Christian doctrine that asserts that Jesus Christ was born to a virgin, and thus that his conception was carried out without an earthly father.

## Related pages
* Death
* Fertilisation
* Home birth
* Pregnancy

## References
1452

## Events 
* March – Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor becomes the last to be crowned in Rome.
* Portuguese navigator Diogo de Teive discovers Corvo Island in the Azores.
* 18 June – Pope Nicholas V issues the bull *Dum Diversas*, legitimising the colonial slave trade.
* October – English troops under John Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury, land in Guyenne, France, and retake most of the province without a fight.
* A major eruption of the South Pacific volcano Kuwae in Vanuatu has a subsequent global cooling effect (the eruption released more sulfate than any other event in the past 700 years).
* Battle of Bealach nam Broig, a Scottish clan battle.
* Murder of William Douglas, 8th Earl of Douglas by James II of Scotland at Stirling Castle.
* Revolt of Ghent: Forces of Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, clash multiple times with rebel militia from Ghent in the region around Ghent.

## Births 
* February 6 – Joana, Crown Princess of Portugal (d. 1490)
* March 10 – King Ferdinand II of Aragon (d. 1516)
* April 15 – Leonardo da Vinci, Italian artist and inventor (d. 1519)
* April 19 – King Frederick IV of Naples (d. 1504)
* July 10 – King James III of Scotland (d. 1488)
* July 27 – Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan (d. 1508)
* September 21 – Girolamo Savonarola, Italian religious reformer and ruler of Florence (d. 1498)
* October 2 – King Richard III of England (d. 1485)
* December 10 – Johannes Stöffler, German mathematician (d. 1531)

## Deaths 
* February 10 
** Svitrigaila, Grand Prince of Lithuania
** Michał Bolesław Zygmuntowicz, Prince of Black Ruthenia
* May 26 – John Stafford, Archbishop of Canterbury
* December 12 – Guillaume Huin d'Estaing, Catholic cardinal
* *date unknown*
** Nicholas Close, English bishop
** Gemistus Pletho, philosopher
** William Douglas, 8th Earl of Douglas
Ned's Declassified School Survival Guide

'''''Ned's Declassified School Survival Guide***, otherwise known as simply ***Ned's Declassified''''', is a TV show on Nickelodeon. It was created by Scott Fellows. 

From "A middle school full of bullies, insane teachers and gross school lunches" comes Ned's Declassified School Survival Guide, a show on Nickelodeon. The show stars Devon Werkheiser as Ned Bigby , a 12-15-year-old student at James K. Polk Middle School. Every episode is a group of tips to surviving a school based activity. The show is part of Nick's Sunday lineup. It first aired on September 12, 2004.

The show is very successful, it has had a promising start. The show also stars Daniel Curtis Lee and Lindsey Shaw as Simon "Cookie" Cook and Jennifer "Moze/Mose" Mosley/Mozely.

It also comes on Family Channel.

## References
VH1

**VH1 (Video Hits One)** is an American television network. It is a sister station to the groundbreaking MTV.

VH1 shows reality shows and reruns of sitcoms, whereas MTV's focus is on the current hits and also reality shows. VH1 also shows ''You're Cut Off!* on Mondays for 3 weeks and Wednesdays for 5 weeks. It started airing on . Casting has been renewed for a 2nd season.

## Related pages
* *You're Cut Off!''
* MTV

## References
## Other websites
* 
* VH1 Classic 
* VH1 Country
* VH1 Divas Live 
* VH1 Europe 
* VH1 Save The Music Foundation
* VH1 Soul 
* VH1 Latin America
* VHUno US Latin Channel
Cabinet

A **Cabinet** is a group of important people in a government, who normally represent the head of government. It is also known as the **Council of Ministers** or the Executive Council.  They are part of the executive branch of government. People in the cabinet are called ministers or secretaries, and they do different things, such as look after the environment. 

In most countries with parliamentary systems, the cabinet decides the government's policy.  In other countries, such as the United States, the cabinet has limited power, and is an advisor to the Head of Government. In some countries, cabinet members are given their jobs by those who are in the government.

Many years ago the cabinets were called Privy Councils. The cabinet of today came about during the time that George I and George II were Kings of England. 

In some European countries, the term "cabinet" is used to mean the assistants of an important politician.

In the UK and some Commonwealth countries, the Shadow Cabinet are the leaders of the main opposition party in a parliament.

## Related pages 
* Cabinet of the United States
* Cabinet of the United Kingdom
*Shadow cabinet
Newspaper

A **newspaper** is a publication printed on paper and issued regularly, usually once a day or once a week. It gives information and opinions about current events and news.  Usually people like to read them to stay informed about their local city, state or country.  Newspapers can be delivered to one's home, by subscription.  One also can buy a newspaper at a store or at a newsstand.  Recycling of paper is common.  It may be converted to new paper, for example. 

Newspapers usually have many topics.  They usually include political events, crime, business, sports, and weather news.  Newspapers use photographs to illustrate stories; and also often include comics and other entertainment, such as crosswords and horoscopes.  Many have opinion sections.  These sections print the opinions of people who work for the newspaper.  The opinions, which are usually on stories in the news, are called *editorials*.  Opinion sections usually also print short letters from people who read the newspaper.

Newspapers started as handwritten newsletters distributed to a few merchants. In the 17th century they began being printed and sold to anyone who paid for one.

## Categories
## Format
## Advertising
## Journalism
## Related pages 
* Media studies

## References
## Other websites 
* Newspapers  from List of Newspapers - Online Newspapers Directory
1833

## Events 
*January 3 – Britain invades the Falkland Islands in the South Atlantic.
*March 2 – United States President Andrew Jackson signs the Force Act, which authorizes him to use troops to enforce federal law in South Carolina.
*March 4 – Ayya Vaikundar incarnated from the sea of Thiruchendur as the avatar of Kali Yukam.
*June 6 – U.S. President Jackson becomes the first President to ride a train.
*May 11 – French-American farmhand Antoine le Blanc murders family of three.
*September 29 – The infant Isabella II becomes Queen of Spain, under the regency of her mother, Maria Cristina of Bourbon-Two Sicilies.  Her uncle Don Carlos, Conde de Molina challenges her claim, beginning the First Carlist War.
*December 14 – The assassination of Kaspar Hauser, who dies three days later on December 17.
*Charles Babbage described his analytical engine. (see also history of computing hardware)
*The dawn of biochemistry: discovery of the first enzyme, diastase, by Anselme Payen.
*The British Parliament passes the Slavery Abolition Act giving all slaves in the British Empire their freedom.
*Heard Island and the McDonald Islands discovered.
Births

August 20 - Benjamin Harrison, twenty-third President of the United States (d. 1901)
Noah

of Noah sending the dove]]

**Noah** (meaning rest or comfort) is a man in the Abrahamic religions. He was the son of Lamech, and the father of sons, Shem, Ham, and Japheth. Noah and his ark are in the Book of Genesis, which also describes Noah as the 'first man to plant a vineyard' (chapter 9). Several other parts of the Bible mention him, as does the Quran.

## The Ark 
As described in the Book of Genesis, Noah and his family kept believing in God in a time when most people did not. Knowing this was true, God told Noah he was going to flood the world, so he could drown out evil. He told Noah to build a boat called an *ark*. Noah was to put himself, his family and two (a male and a female) of every kind of animal that wasn’t clean on it but seven of every kind of animal that was clean on it. People laughed at Noah, but they were killed by the flood. Noah and his family stayed on the ark until they reached land. To find land Noah sent out a dove, which returned with an olive branch. After the flood, God made a rainbow as a promise to say that he would never destroy the Earth by flood again. When they were able to walk on dry land, the animals were released and they were able to repopulate the earth.

## References
Public domain

**Public domain** is a phrase that describes something that belongs to all people in general: the . The public domain contains works (such as books, films, or paintings) that are not under copyright protection.

The *opposite* of "public domain" is copyrighted material, which is owned either by the creator of the work or their estate.  The term *public domain* is only used to describe things that can be copyrighted, such as photographs, drawings, written articles, books or plays, or similar works of art.  As a general rule, all intellectual property works, after enough time has gone by, will become part of public domain. Examples include the works of Leonardo da Vinci, William Shakespeare and Ludwig van Beethoven, and the books of Isaac Newton.

A work can enter the public domain in many ways.
:*The copyright expires, many years (usually 50 or 70 years) after its creator dies.
:*The work's creator may legally give up all claims to the material.
:*The creator does not renew the work's copyright (for works before 1963).
:*The work may have been created by agencies of certain governments, in which case it was in the public domain from the time of its creation.
:*The work is made by an animal.
:*The copyright notice is missing an owner, year or copyright symbol (for works before 1989).

In some cases, if a work enters the public domain after copyright expiration, anyone using the work may still be required to note who created the work.  Even if some works are in the public domain due to not being copyrighted, there may be still non-copyright usage restrictions. For examples, even though the design of national currencies may be ineligible, or be unsuitable, for copyright, counterfeiting them for fraud is widely a very serious crime. Another example are logos and images that only have text or simple shapes. These logos aren't copyrighted in the United States, but they are often protected by trademarks.

## Related pages 
*Copyleft
Child

A **child** (the plural is **children**) is a person below the age of puberty (biologically) or, at least in English-speaking countries, below the age of majority or in other contexts below the age of consent. A person can be called his or her parent's child, regardless of the person's age. Another word for "child" is "kid".

In almost all countries, it is legally required that children be educated either at school or by homeschooling. Small children may go to nursery school, preschool or kindergarten. Playing and using imagination is a beneficial part of child development. But in poor areas, especially in third world countries, children may be forced to work long and hard and be used for child labor, such as in the poorest areas of India, South America, or Africa.

When people marry and one (or both) of them have children with someone else before this marriage, that child is known as a stepchild by the child's stepparent. If both people had children, the children of the other parent are *stepbrothers* or *stepsisters* of each other. Children with no parents are referred to as orphans. Children who are adopted and live with non-biological parents are referred to as adoptive (or foster) children. 

## Related pages
* Adolescent
* Parent
* Sibling (a brother or sister)
Cannes

**Cannes** () is a commune and the prefecture of Alpes-Maritimes.

It is most famous for the Cannes Film Festival, which takes place every summer.  Many famous people come to the movie festival from around the world to promote their movies and to see other peoples' movies.

## Other websites
Factor

A **factor** can be:

* Factor (social), a circumstance in the social sciences 
* Factor (mathematics), a number in mathematics
* Factor (biochemistry) in science
* Factor (Dungeons and Dragons), a character in the game Dungeons & Dragons
Ferrocement

**Ferrocement** is both a method and a material used in building or sculpting with cement, sand, water and wire or mesh material. It is often called the thin shell. Thin shell ferrocement offers strength and economy and can be used in many ways including: building homes, creating sculptures, or building boats and ships.    

## Related pages 
* Reinforced concrete

## Other websites 
* FerroBoats.com
* Ferrocement.com (multi-lingual)
* Ferrocement Educational Network 
* Water Storage book by Art Ludwig, includes Ferrocement Tanks & Excel Water Tank Calculator
* Water Tank Design  Water Tank Design information
Theodore Roosevelt

**Theodore Roosevelt Jr.** (October 27, 1858 – January 6, 1919), also known as **Teddy** or **T.R.**, was an American politician who served as the 26th president of the United States from 1901 to 1909. Before becoming president, he served as the 25th vice president under President William McKinley for six months in 1901. Roosevelt is often ranked as one of the greatest presidents in American history. He earned the Nobel Peace Prize in 1906, making him the first president and the first American to do so, for settling the Russo-Japanese War.

## Early life 
Theodore Roosevelt Jr. was born on October 27, 1858, in New York City. As a child he was curious and so he took up studying animals and took up boxing. He went to college at Harvard. He married twice, first to Alice Hathaway Lee and later to Edith Kermit Carow. He had six children: Alice, Theodore Jr., Kermit, Ethel, Archie, and Quentin.

## In politics 
After spending time in North Dakota, Roosevelt was elected into the New York State Legislature, and served, as a Civil Service Commissioner and New York City police commissioner (a non-police officer who is in charge of making the police department run smoothly). In 1897, he was appointed Assistant Secretary of the Navy but gave up on that to fight in the Spanish-American War.

Roosevelt became Governor of New York and then Vice-President. After William McKinley was shot and killed, he became President of the United States.

## Soldier
Roosevelt joined the United States Army in the Spanish-American War. He was a Lieutenant Colonel in the 1st U. S. Volunteer Cavalry. The horsemen were called the "Roughriders."

For his actions during the war, Roosevelt was recommended for the Medal of Honor.

In 2001, Roosevelt became the first President to receive the Medal of Honor.

Two US Navy ships are named after him:
* *USS Theodore Roosevelt* (SSBN-600), a submarine that was in commission from 1961 to 1982
* *USS Theodore Roosevelt* (CVN-71), an aircraft carrier that has been in the Atlantic Fleet since 1986

## References 
**Notes**

## Other websites 
* Theodore Roosevelt's White House biography
Camera lens

lens) and normal lens]]

A **camera lens** is the part of a camera that directs light to the film or, in a digital camera, to a computer chip that can sense the light. Many cheap lenses are plastic but better ones are made from glass. The lens makes an image by focusing the light.

The majority of cameras only have one lens that users cannot change or take out. This is called a *fixed lens* design. More expensive cameras usually have lenses that come off, so anyone can take out one lens and put in another. A lens may be simple, or may actually be made of several lenses.

Photographers can use different lenses (objectives) to make different kinds of pictures. For example, a telephoto lens can take a picture of something far away. A wide-angle lens is the opposite. A zoom lens is more versatile; it can do both. There are many kinds of lenses.

The study of lenses and how they work is called optics.

Lenses for large sheet film cameras are especially difficult to design. Cameras and their lenses have been made since the 19th century. Some from before World War II, are still usable today. Computers now let engineers make better lenses, though, because they can calculate the way that light goes through the lens and find the best design for each task. Together with lenses, filters, macro lenses, teleconverters, wide-angle and tele attachments are used.
Boy

]]
 boy eating an orange]]
A **boy** is a young male human, either a child or teenager.  Little boys still have the body of a child.  It is not until they reach puberty (adolescence) that their bodies start to mature and they become a man.
The word “boy” was used a long time ago in Anglo-Saxon English. The opposite of a boy is a girl.

## Culture
The way boys are brought up will vary a lot between different cultures. Boys are tougher than girls.  It is their job to do work that is physically hard, including fighting in the army when they are grown up.  However, people’s attitudes are changing and nowadays many girls like to do the same things as boys. In Western cultures boys traditionally wear trousers (pants) while girls wear dresses or skirts.    However, many girls also wear trousers these days, like boys, especially when dressed informally.  Boys often have shorter hair than girls, although this can vary a lot according to quickly changing fashions.

Traditionally boys like rough games (such as soccer or rugby) and enjoy playing with mechanical things such as toy cars and trains.  People today have long discussions about whether this is because they are born like that, or because that is the way society expects them to behave.

The traditional color for a boy is blue.  For girls, it is pink.  When a baby is born in a hospital it usually gets a blue or pink tag on its wrist or ankle, according to whether it is a boy or a girl.

## Names
Some names are boys’ names, others are girls’ names. There are some names that can be for boys and girls (although they may be spelled differently, e.g. “Lesley” for a boy and “Leslie” for a girl).

In some countries such as Britain an “old boy” means a grown-up who used to be a pupil at a particular school (e.g. “He is an old boy of Cransbury High School”).   The expression can also be used in a very informal, friendly way, e.g. “Nice to see you, old boy!”.

## Related pages
*Man
*Boyfriend
Company clerk

army clerks at work in France during WW 1, painted by Arthur Streeton]]
**Responsible for performing clerical and administrative duties in an office setting**. Assists executive assistants and secretaries by sorting mail, filing, answering phones, greeting clients, scheduling meetings, and restocking supplies.
Afrikaner people

**Afrikaners** are white South Africans who speak Afrikaans as mother tongue and follow the Afrikaans culture. Most of them have Dutch ancestors, but some of them have German or French Huguenot ancestors. They are also called Boers, Voortrekkers and Burghers, although under slightly different contexts. 

In South Africa, there are about three million white people with Afrikaans as mother tongue.  They are assumed to be Afrikaners if they chose to follow the Afrikaans culture.  They began arriving at the Cape of Good Hope when the Dutch East India Company started Cape Town in 1652. 

Until 1994, Afrikaners dominated South Africa's politics as well as the country's commercial agricultural sector.

## References
Invention

with phonograph. Edison is considered one of the most prolific inventors in history, holding 1,093 U.S. patents in his name]]

An **invention** is a new thing that someone has made. The computer was an invention when it was first made. We say when it was "invented". New things that are made or created are called inventions. Cars and plastics are inventions that everyone knows. Inventions are made by inventors. Many inventions are patented.

Ideas are also called inventions. Writers can invent characters, and then invent a story about them.

## Inventing 
Over time, humans have invented objects which make life easier for themselves. Because of this, a quote "necessity is the mother of invention", was written. The quote means that a lack of something should inspire someone to create something to fill that empty space. However, not all people believe that this is true. They think that too much of something can lead to an invention.
Many inventions are just a variation of something that already exists.

## Other websites 
* List of PCT (Patent Cooperation Treaty) Important Inventions  (on the WIPO web site)
Genocide

from victims of the Armenian Genocide (1915).]]
 with victims of the Nanjing Massacre (1937 or 1938)]]
 at a memorial site about the Rwandan genocide (1994)]]
 (1995) are exhumed]]
During a **genocide**, a group (often a government, army, or paramilitary) tries to destroy another group because of their ethnicity, race, nationality, and/or religion. Genocide is always an  act - never an accident.

In a genocide, the targeted (victim) group is killed in large numbers. However, genocide also involves other methods. These include preventing the group from being able to survive (for example, by starving them); forcing them to assimilate; destroying their culture; and/or stopping them from having children. 

In 1933 Lemkin spoke at a League of Nations conference on international criminal law in Madrid. He delivered an essay called the *Crime of Barbarity.* On 11 August 1933, a group of Assyrians were massacred in Iraq. This reminded Lemkin of the Armenian Genocide during World War I.

Between 1915-1917, the Young Turks in the Ottoman Empire committed the Armenian Genocide. During this genocide, most Armenians were deported, assimilated, forced to convert to Islam, and/or killed.

### World War II
The word *genocide* was first used to describe the Holocaust,

The Ustase of Croatia also committed genocide during World War II. They killed about a million Serbs in death camps, especially Jasenovac. 

In the 1937-1938 Nanjing Massacre, the Imperial Japanese Army attacked, raped, tortured and murdered hundreds of thousands of people in Nanjing, China during the Second Sino-Japanese War.

### After World War II
Between 1975 and 1979, the Khmer Rouge (led by Pol Pot) killed 1.5 million to 2 million ethnic minorities and religious groups in the Cambodian Genocide. This was a quarter of Cambodia's 1975 population.

The 1994 Rwandan Genocide is another well-known example. In a short time, Hutu people killed about a million Tutsi people (along with Hutus who were against the genocide).

During the Bosnian Genocide in 1992-1995, The Bosnian Serb Forces killed around 100,000 ethnic Bosniaks in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The largest killing happened in the village of Srebrenica, in what is called the Srebrenica massacre. Over 8,000 were killed in that massacre alone.

## Laws today 
In 1948 the United Nations passed the Genocide Convention, which defined genocide and made it a crime against international law.

Today, the International Criminal Court has the power to judge anyone who has participated in a genocide.

## Related pages
* Ethnic cleansing
* Genocidal massacre
* Historical revisionism
* Crimes against humanity
* Holocaust uniqueness debate

## References
Coast

The **coast** is wherever land meets the sea. 

The coast also means the land next to the sea, which can also be called the shore, or sea-shore. However, **coast** is not used to describe where rivers or lakes meet the land - it is only used to describe the sea meeting the land. 

If a house is near to the coast we say it is "on the coast". When we talk about a long part of the coast we call it "the coast-line". 
Sometimes, 'coast' can be part of a place name or the description of a large area. For instance, the East Coast of the United States describes the all of the Eastern side of the United States that is next to the Atlantic Ocean. 

In some countries like England or Australia the people sometimes use the word sea-side for the coast.

Coasts often have many living things living there and provide habitat for many animals and plants.

An example of a coast in Great Britain is the Holderness Coast near Bridlington. This is one of Europe's fast eroding coasts.

## Related pages
*Shore
Note (disambiguation)

**Note** has several meanings.

*Note, a short letter or piece of writing
*Note (music), a pitch
*Banknote, a piece of paper money
*Footnote, a note on the bottom of a page
*Samsung Galaxy Note, a line of phones by Samsung.
Ravi Shankar

**Ravi Shankar** (7 April 1920 – 11 December 2012) was one of India's most famous musicians. Shankar was one of the first to bring aspects of traditional Indian music into  Europe and United States|American culture in the 1960s. He was a major influence on George Harrison, who was a member of The Beatles. Shankar is famous for playing the sitar, an Indian stringed instrument. He performed until his death. In 2005 he played at The Proms. His daughters Norah Jones and Anoushka Shankar are also well-known musicians.

## References
James Joyce

]]

**James Augustine Aloysius Joyce () ** (2 February 1882 – 13 January 1941) was an Irish writer and poet of the modernist movement. He was from Dublin, Ireland. He wore an eyepatch, because of eye damage. He could not see well.

His books are written in a special style. At first he wrote in a way which describes very accurately how life is, in the short story collection called *Dubliners*.  In his next book, called *A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man*, he started a new style.  It is called stream of consciousness, which is writing all the thoughts that a character has. His work influenced many other writers in the 20th century.

Some books that Joyce wrote are:
* *Dubliners* (1914)
* *A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man* (1916)
* *Ulysses* (1922)
* *Finnegans Wake* (1939).

## Early life 
James Joyce was the oldest of ten children. He went to a boarding school called Conglowes Wood College and later to Belvedere College.  (College here refers to secondary school not to university as it can in the U.S.) Conglowes was run by Jesuit priests.

When he was very young, his family was rich. Later his father lost most of their money so he had to change schools and go to Belvedere College, which was cheaper.

## Family life 
Joyce met Nora Barnacle in 1904 and they began to have a long relationship until his death in 1941. The couple moved out of Dublin to Zürich in 1904, then to Trieste, Paris then back to Zürich. They married in 1931. They had a son and a daughter. Their daughter had a mental illness later in her life. Because he was smart, his parents wanted him to go to college. He studied modern languages at University College Dublin.

Joyce became a very famous writer after he published *Ulysses*.  He also began to have a lot of problems with his eyes and his family. But he completed his last book, *Finnegans Wake* by 1939. He died in Zurich.

## References
Sentence

A **sentence** is a group of words that are joined together to mean something. It is the basic unit of language and expresses a complete thought. It does so by following the grammatical basic rules of syntax: *Ram is walking*.

A complete sentence has at least a **subject** and a **main verb** to state (declare) a complete thought: *She walks*. A subject is the noun (name) that does the main verb. The main verb is the activity that the subject does. 

In English and many other languages, the first word of a written sentence has a capital letter. At the end of the sentence there is a punctuation mark depending on whether it is a statement, a question, a command, a request or an exclamation.

## Phrases and clauses 
A *phrase* or *clause* is part of a sentence.p773–777

This is an example of a sentence:
* *The dog is happy.*
In this sentence, *The dog* is the subject, and *is* is the verb.

This is an example of a phrase:
* *The happy dog*

There is no verb and so we do not know anything about what the happy dog is doing. Therefore, it is not a sentence.

A clause is a sentence within a sentence:
* *They milked the cows, and then they made cheese and butter*. This sentence has two co-ordinate (equal) clauses, linked by *and*.p220

## Types of sentence
* A **simple sentence** has only one clause and one independent variable: *The cat is sleeping*.
* A **compound sentence** has two or more clauses, which are joined with conjunctions, punctuation, or both: *The dog is happy, but the cat is sad*.
* A **complex sentence** has one clause with a relative clause: *The dog, which is eating the bone, is happy*.
* A **complex-compound sentence** (or compound-complex sentence) has many clauses, at least one of which is a relative clause: *The dog, which is eating the bone, is happy, but the cat is sad*.

Sentences have different purposes:
* A **declarative sentence**, or declaration, is the most common type of sentence. It tells something. It ends with a full stop **.** (*The dog is happy*.)
* An **interrogative sentence**, or question, asks something. It ends with a question mark **?** (*Are you happy?*)
* An **exclamatory sentence**, or exclamation, says something out of the ordinary. It ends with an exclamation mark **!** (*That dog is the happiest dog I have ever seen!*)
* An **imperative sentence**, or command, tells someone to do something. It ends with a full stop **.** (*Give the dog a bone.*)

## Basic English sentences 
Here are some sentences written in Basic English:

The sky is blue.

Today is Monday.

Tomorrow is Tuesday.

The baby is smiling.

Sheila is reading a book.

This is the road to take.

Read a book about the history of America.

There are beautiful flowers growing in the garden.

The cushions are new and I feel the comfort they give me.

They are playing in the grounds.

## Related pages
* Phrase
* Punctuation
* Word

## References 
## Other websites
*TYpes of sentences worksheet
Composer

A **composer** is someone who writes (composes) music. Some composers work by writing music down on paper; this is called 'written notation'. Classical music writers work this way. Writers for TV and movie music also usually write this way, so that an orchestra or other players can read the music and play it.

Some musicians are very good at improvisation. This means that they think up (invent) the music as they play it. Some church organists are good at improvising. During a service they may need to play some organ music to fill in the gaps while people are collecting money or taking communion. Jazz musicians are usually excellent at improvising. Improvisation is not written down, so each time it is different.

Popular and rock or soul music writers are often not able to read and write music down. Many pop and rock composers compose their songs on a guitar or piano. Cole Porter and Irving Berlin usually composed at the piano.

Many songs are written by two or more people. It is common for two people to work together to write songs. Sometimes, one person writes the music and one writes the words (the lyrics). Some songs such as folk songs were composed many years ago and no one knows who wrote them.

## Related pages
* Composition
Meal

A **meal** is a serving of food eaten by human beings. Meals usually include several different types of food, such as grains, vegetables, fruit, and in some cases, meat. Meals have different names by time they are taken or by the type of food that is eaten.

## Types
In North America and in Europe, people usually eat three meals a day. The morning meal is called breakfast. It usually includes foods made from grain (cereal, porridge, or bread), fruit (apple, banana, or an orange), and milk products (milk, yogurt, or cottage cheese). Many people drink coffee or tea with their breakfast.

Around noon, people eat their lunch. People who are working at jobs are given a break to eat their lunch. The lunch meal includes foods such as a sandwich, soup, vegetables, fruit, and milk.  In some countries, such as Italy, people serve an alcoholic drink with lunch. In England, some people have a glass of beer with their lunch.

In the evening, people eat their supper or dinner. Dinners are different in different countries. Usually dinners include a "main course" such as roast beef, a grain (such as rice or pasta), a vegetable (such as carrots or cauliflower) and a dessert (called a "sweet" or "pudding" in England).

In some cases, a starter or appetizer is served before the dinner. Appetizers are a small serving of food such as olives, cheese, or bread. In many countries, people serve an alcoholic drink with dinner, such as wine or beer.

## Related pages
*Fish and chips - United Kingdom
*Staple food
Poznań

]]
]]
**Poznań** (German name: *Posen*) is the biggest city and capital of Greater Poland Voivodeship in Poland, one of the oldest and the biggest cities in Poland. Its population is about 560,000 and its area is 262 square kilometers.
Poznań was one of the 4 Polish cities where the UEFA European Football Championship matches were played in 2012. Poland co-hosted the championship together with Ukraine.
Cartoonist

A **cartoonist** is a person who draws cartoons. Cartoons can be pictures on a printed page (also called comics or comic strips) or moving pictures on film (also called animation). Both kinds of cartoons can be found on the internet. Examples of some famous cartoonists are:

*Walt Disney (Mickey Mouse, Donald Duck)
*Terry Gilliam (Monty Python)
*Tex Avery (Looney Tunes, Droopy)
*Chuck Jones (Looney Tunes, How the Grinch Stole Christmas, Tom and Jerry)
*Pat Sullivan (Felix the Cat)
*Don Martin (MAD Magazine)
*Bil Keane (Family Circus)
*Jim Davis (Garfield, U.S. Acres)
*Matt Groening (Life in Hell, The Simpsons, Futurama)
*Robert Crumb (Fritz the Cat, Keep on Truckin')
*Al Capp (Lil' Abner)
*Hanna-Barbera (The Flintstones, Tom and Jerry, Scooby Doo)
*Max and Dave Fleschier (Koko The Clown, Betty Boop, Popeye)
*Gary Larson (Far Side)
*Mike Judge (Beavis and Butthead, King of the Hill)
*Chester Gould (Dick Tracy)
*Jay Ward (Rocky and Bullwinkle, George of the Jungle)
*Don Bluth (American Tail, The Land Before Time)
*Bill Watterson (Calvin and Hobbes)
*Ub Iwerks (Mickey Mouse)
*Garry Trudeau (Doonsbury)
*Jack Kirby (Marvel Comics)
*Charles Schulz (Peanuts)
*Sergio Aragonés (MAD Magazine, Groo the Wanderer)
*Dave Berg (MAD Magazine)
*John Kricfalusi (The Ren and Stimpy Show, Ripping Friends)
*Mort Walker (Beetle Bailey)
*Scott Adams (Dilbert)
*Carl Barks (Scrooge McDuck)
*Peyo (The Smurfs)
*Bob Clampett (Looney Tunes, Beany and Cecil)
*Bob Kane (Batman, Coragous Cat and Minute Mouse, Cool McCool)
*Todd McFarlane (Spawn)
*Seth McFarlane (Family Guy, American Dad)
*Charles Addams (The Addams Family, The New Yorker)
*Friz Freling (Looney Tunes)