open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Microsoft Windows

**Microsoft Windows** is an operating system for computers made by the United States-based company Microsoft. Windows is the most popular operating system, being used by almost 51% of desktop and laptop computers. Versions are available all over the world especially in the European Union, United States, Canada, Australia, and the United Kingdom.

## History 
The first version of Windows, Windows 1.0, came out on November 20, 1985. The newest version, Windows 11, came out October 5, 2021. Most personal computers made after 2015 come with Windows 10. However, some older or cheaper personal computers may come with Windows 8.1 or Windows 7.

Windows makes it easier to run programs, also called applications, than MS-DOS did. DOS required typed commands to make the computer do something. However, DOS required correct syntax of each command. Making mistakes caused the computer to usually give an error message and do nothing.

## Design 
Users control their Windows computer by its graphical user interface (GUI). It only needs a keyboard or a mouse to work. In later versions, a touch screen works as well. However, using both a keyboard and a mouse makes many tasks easier. By clicking a few buttons on the screen, Windows helps keep your files safe, and easier to change and move. Versions of Windows after 2005 make it even easier for some users with disabilities because these versions have touch screens. For use of a touch screen, some mobile devices come with Windows. Tablet computers and smartphones such as Microsoft Surface and Microsoft Lumia use Windows.

## Programs 
The following programs are included with Windows:

* Notepad – to write simple documents, typically using words/text.
* Photos – to view and edit pictures.
* Microsoft Paint – to make simple drawings or change pictures.
* Microsoft Edge web browser – to use the Internet to look at web pages and download files.
* Windows Media Player – to play music, videos, and DVD's.
Windows has several kinds of applications available. Popular applications include games, word processors, or additional programs like Eudora. Adding new applications to Windows is called "installing". Applications can be bought or purchased on a CD or DVD. Applications can also be downloaded from the Internet. Some internet applications can be downloaded for free, and others can be bought using the internet.

## Versions 
## Criticism 
Many users complain that Windows makes problems for them. Some users complain that Windows made their computers slower when they changed from DOS. Many people also complain about problems that make their computer less safe to use, even though Microsoft tries to fix these problems. Many computer viruses are made to infect computers running Windows since it is such a popular operating system. Windows was the most popular operating system until recently (today mobile operating systems such as Android are more popular).

## References 
## Other websites 
* The Microsoft Windows website
* The Windows Team Blog – Official blog of the Windows Team at Microsoft
Window

]]
 Mahathir Mohamad and U.S. Secretary of State Mike Pompeo are looking out the window together]]
A **window** is an opening in a wall or roof of a building, in a car etc., to let air and light in. It is usually filled with a sheet of glass. There can be many different shapes and sizes, including rectangular, square, circular, or irregular shapes. Some windows include coloured glass. Windows are usually transparent so that people can see through them.

Before glass was used in windows, people in Asia used paper to fill the hole in the wall. The paper would let light in.

## Types of windows
There are different types of windows. They are:
### Cross-window
A cross-window is one that has a vertical mullion and a horizontal transom, that make a cross.

### Fixed window
A fixed window is one that cannot be opened. It is made to allow light to enter. The windows in churches are usually fixed.

### Single-hung sash
A single-hung sash window is a window that has one horizontal sash at the bottom that can move up and down.

### Stained-glass window
A stained-glass window is a window that is made up of pieces of coloured glass. The coloured glass can be transparent, translucent or opaque. It usually shows people or places. Usually, the glass in these windows is separated by lead rods. Stained-glass windows are very common in churches.

## How they are made
Different materials are used when making a window. For the frame of the window wood, polyvinyl chloride, composite, aluminium, steel, fiberglass are used.

Many windows have movable window coverings such as blinds or curtains.  They keep out light and add insulation. They also ensure privacy. Windows allow natural light to enter.  Too much can have bad effects such as glare and too much heat.

## References
Width

**Width** or **breadth** is the side-to-side length, measuring across the object at right angles to the height.

For example, the distance between the left side and right side of a chair is its width.

Objects have a length and a width in two dimensions or more. In shapes such as rectangles, multiplying the length and the width equals the area of the shape.

## Related pages
*Height
*Depth
Wine

**Wine** is an alcoholic drink. It is made from the juice of grape. 

If alcoholic drinks are made from the juice of other fruits (such as plums or blackberries) they may be called "wine". This article only deals with wine made from grapes.

## Different types of wine 
There are two main types of wine, red wine and white wine. Red wine is made using the skins of the grapes. The skins give the wine a dark color, and chemicals called tannins that taste slightly bitter. Red wine can be sweet or dry. "Dry" means low in sugar.

White wine is made without the grape skins at all, so it is usually less bitter and more acidic. Like red wines, they can be sweet or dry.

Rosé wine (a French word meaning "pink") is in between: it has some flavor and color from the skins, but not as much as a red wine. 

Wine with bubbles in it, called sparkling wine. Sparkling wine can be red, white, or rosé, but is usually white. It can be made in any country, but the best-known sparkling wines are champagne, which comes from France and (recently) southern England, *Prosecco*, from Italy.

Fortified wine is made by mixing liquor into the wine while it ferments.

## Wine making 
Wine making begins with growing red or white grapes. Wine grapes have thicker skins and bigger seeds compared to grapes for eating. After the grapes are ripe, they are picked off the plants. There are different ways of picking (for example, using machines, or picking by hand, in the day, or at night). 

After harvest, the grapes are crushed to release their juice, which is very sugary. Before, this was done by people stomping on grapes with their bare feet. Today, machines are used, but people sometimes use their bare feet in festivals. The person making the wine also decides now if the wine will be red, white, or rose: 
* If the grape skins sit in the juice a long time, the wine will be red. 
* If the grape skins sit in the juice a short time, the wine will be rosé.
* If the grape skins do not sit in the juice at all, the wine will be white. 

Next, the sweet grape juice is fermented, by adding yeast. In a few days, the yeast turns the sugar into alcohol, and also releases carbon dioxide.

After fermenting, the wine is stored for a while (called "aging"). The person making the wine can make different choices, which will change the flavor of the wine. They can choose to store the wine in a steel container, or a barrel made of oak wood. If they choose wood, the wine will absorb some of the wood flavor, which wine drinkers call "oakiness". This process can take only a couple of weeks, up to several years, depending on what kind of flavor the wine maker wants.

Lastly, the wine is bottled and sent to a customer, restaurant or store to be enjoyed.

## Wine and people 
People have been making wine for at least 5000 years. The oldest evidence of ancient wine production has been found in Georgia from  BC (the earliest known traces of grape wine),

## Related pages
*Eucharist

## References
Want

A **want** is a  or a  for something. If a person would like to have something, but can choose not to have it, that thing is wanted or can be called a want. To want is not the same as to need, which is when someone *must* have something.

People often talk about needing a thing, when they really just want it. Wants can be for the same things as needs. For example, a person can *need* to eat food and can *want* to eat cake. If there is no cake then he or she may have to eat something else, perhaps bread. The need is no longer so important (the person is no longer hungry) although the want may still be there. If there is cake, then the person's needs and wants can both be met.

In economics, a want is about goods or services. Choice is how to satisfy a want, when there are different ways to do this.

Want can also be the idea of what it means to be poor, hungry or with no money. Charles Dickens wrote a famous book called *A Christmas Carol* in which there are two children, named Want and Ignorance.
Web browser

A **web browser** is a computer program or mobile application for visiting websites on the World Wide Web. Since the late 1990s, most personal computers, mobile phones and other mobile devices have supported web browsers.

Web browsers are used to browse websites on the Internet. The first web browser was created in 1990. Many web browsers are available for free. All web browsers are used for visiting websites, but some web browsers exist with certain purposes in mind. For example, some browsers focus on data security, privacy, and keeping computers safe from viruses. Other browsers focus on providing the fastest and most simple experience.

 Wikipedia page open on Flock browser.]]
Some popular web browsers include:

* Google Chrome 
* Mozilla Firefox
* Microsoft Edge, a more modernized version of Internet Explorer, included with Windows 10 and later
* Opera
* Safari, included on all Apple devices including iPhones, iPads, and Macs. Previously, Safari could be used on Microsoft Windows. Apple no longer supports using Safari on Windows.

Discontinued web browsers:
* Internet Explorer, included with Windows 10 and earlier, which is no longer supported

## Function 
A webpage is one area of a website.  Every web page has a unique web address, which is typically entered in a text input located at the top of the browser interface. When visiting a webpage, the browser downloads the website content, usually HTML documents, style information, JavaScript for website function, and any images or video required to display the webpage. Its browser engine then reads and translates the HTML file, and renders it on-screen in a visible format.

## Other websites 
* What is browser? Video by Google
* How browsers work
* Web Browser -Citizendium
Yiddish

**Yiddish** is a language spoken by some Jews. It is a dialect of German that Jews began speaking in 11th-century Europe. It is still used in the United States, especially in New York City, and other countries with surviving Jewish populations.

## Overview
Most Yiddish words come from German and Hebrew. Some Yiddish words come from Slavic languages (particularly Polish), Latin, French, Hungarian. Yiddish is often written in Hebrew alphabet and spoken by about 3,000,000 people worldwide, mainly Hasidic Jews. In Sweden and the Netherlands, Yiddish is protected by the *European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages*.

## English words of Yiddish origin
Some modern English words derive from Yiddish, including but not limited to:

## Related pages
* Ashkenazi Jews
* Ladino language

## References
Year

The **year** (symbol: **y** or **a**, also known as the **annum** or **annus**) is about 365 days (except in a leap year). It is the time it takes the Earth to go completely around (orbit) the sun once. A year is actually almost 365.25 days long, but the Gregorian and Julian calendar has 365 days, except in a leap year, which has 366 days.

The year starts on January 1 and ends on December 31 in the Gregorian and Julian calendar.  A fiscal year or a school year can start or end on a different day.

There are several ways used to measure the length of a year.

* a **Solar** year, also called **tropical year**, is based on the seasons.  The Gregorian calendar is based on a tropical year of 365.2425 days.  This is the time that the Sun takes to return to the same position in the cycle of seasons, as seen from Earth; for example, the time from vernal equinox to vernal equinox, or from summer solstice to summer solstice.  The word "tropical" in this sense comes from the Greek *tropical* meaning "turn".
* a **Lunar** year is based on the Moon and is 
* usually 12 Lunar months (29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes each) or 354 or 355 days long.
* a **sidereal** year measures the time between when a selected fixed star is highest in the  sky.
* an **anomalistic year** is the difference between the times when the Earth gets closest to the Sun.
* an **eclipse** year is the time between node passages. This is when the Sun moves through a part of the sky where it is possible for the Sun, Earth and moon to be in a line.  It is when eclipses can happen.

Solar and lunar years are used by different calendars for daily life. The other measurements are used by astronomers.

* **Ma** (for megaannum) — one million years.  The term "Ma" is often used in scientific disciplines such as geology, paleontology, and astronomy to signify very long time periods into the past or future.  The simpler term "**mya**" for "million years ago" is generally preferred on this wiki as being intuitively more simple for non-technical readers.

A specific calendar is provided for the liturgical year.

## References
Yard (disambiguation)

The **yard** is a unit of length.

**Yard** can also mean:
* Yard (land), an open space around a building.
* Yard (sailing), a spar on a traditional sailing ship
* Brickyard, a place where bricks are made or stored
Webpage

A **webpage** (or **web page**) is a document from the internet which can be seen with a web browser.  Web pages each have a URL or address, which is how a page is found, and is different for every page.  When a webpage is part of a larger group of pages managed by a company, person, or organization, it is part of a website.

Pages can have words, pictures, videos, and links. Links are ways to get to other web pages.

For example, this article is a webpage. It has the URL **https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Webpage**, and is part of the Wikipedia website.  It has words and links.  The links in this page are shown in blue and can be clicked to go to other webpages.

## Technology 
Web pages are usually stored in HTML code which describes what to show on the page like words or pictures. Web pages can also use two other types of code to tell the page how to work: 
# Cascading Style Sheets (or CSS) is a code used to tell the page how to look. 
# JavaScript (or JS) is used to change the words, style, or pictures on the page.
War

and Wijerd Jelckama fighting for the freedom of his people to help this country]]

**War** is a  or a period of fighting between countries or s of people. A war generally involves the use of weapons, a military organization and soldiers. War is a  in which a nation s its rights by using force. Not every armed conflict is a war. A fight between individuals, between gangs, drug cartels, etc. is not considered a war. However, most wars are called armed conflicts. International humanitarian law is a set of rules that tries to limit the effects of wars. International Humanitarian Law recognizes two kinds of wars. These are:
* "International armed conflicts" between two or more states.
* "Non-international armed conflicts" as being between a government and a group that is not a government or one that is between two such groups. Clausewitz viewed war as a political instrument. His book about military philosophy remains the most influential work on the history and strategy of war. An earlier authority on war was Sun Tzu. They have been fought over legitimacy (correctness) of particular laws. They have been fought to settle arguments about land or money, and many other issues. The reasons behind any war are often very complex. While a war can start for just about any reason, there is usually more than one cause.

## War and the beginning of nations 
From the earliest times, individual states or political factions have used war to gain sovereignty over regions. In one of the earliest civilizations in history, Mesopotamia, they were in a near constant state of war. Scipio Africanus (236-183 BCE) defeated Carthage leading Ancient Rome to begin a conquest of the known world. This started when diplomatic relations between the United States and the Soviet Union broke down. During the cold war, the major powers did not fight themselves, but often backed third parties in what was called a proxy war. The Vietnam War is often given as an example of a proxy war. It is generally agreed there are two things that make a war a civil war.

## Laws of war 
Only in the last 150 years or so, have states agreed on international laws to limit warfare. This has been mainly for humanitarian reasons. Collectively, these are usually called International humanitarian law (IHL). It became international law with the signatures of 100 countries.

## Statistical analysis 
The statistical analysis of war was started by Lewis Fry Richardson following World War I. More recent databases of wars have been assembled by the Correlates of War Project and Peter Brecke.

## Related pages
* Peace, the word which is its opposite meaning - where there is peace, this means that there is no war.
* Anti-war movement
* Conflict
* List of ongoing armed conflicts

## Notes 
## References 
## Other websites 
* Correlates of War Project
* War and Civilization - Episode 1: First Blood (History Documentary); YouTube
* History Channel Documentary - Sun Tzu The Art of War:YouTube
Zoology

**Zoology** is the science of studying animal life. It is part of biology*. *Animal life is classified into groups called *phyla*, of which there are at least thirty.

**Zoologists** are scientists who study animals. They may work in laboratories, or do field research. The methods are many and various. At the heart, they cover the structure, function, ecology and evolution of animals. The structure is investigated by dissection, and microscopic examination. The function is investigated by observation and experiment. Palaeontology gives information about extinct animals. Zoologists may have jobs in zoos, museums, universities, and/or non-profit organizations.
## Select zoologists 
* Aristotle
* John Ray
* Julian Huxley
* Ernst Haeckel
* Jennifer Clack
* Charles Darwin
* Conrad Gessner
* Richard Dawkins
* Stephen Jay Gould
* Henry Walter Bates
* Thomas Henry Huxley
* John Gould (ornithology)
* Theodosius Dobzhansky 
* Dian Fossey (primatology)
* Jane Goodall (primatology)
* Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire
* Fritz Müller
* Gilbert White
* James D. Watson
* August Weismann
* John Maynard Smith
* Alfred Russel Wallace
* Konrad Lorenz (ethology)
* Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck
* Louis Leakey (palaeoanthropology)
* Louis Agassiz (malacology, ichthyology)
* Carolus Linnaeus (father of systematics)
* Richard Owen (Natural History Museum)
* Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon
* E.O. Wilson, (entomology, founder of sociobiology)

## Related pages
*Cell
*Botany
*Physics
*Ecology
*Cytology
*Genetics
*Evolution
*Chemistry
*Biophysics
*Biochemistry
*Louis Pasteur
*Gregor Mendel
*Molecular biology
*List of animal phyla
*Classical mechanics
*Quantum mechanics
*Mendelian inheritance

## References
## Other websites 
*
Zebra

**Zebras** are mammals of the family *Equidae*. Zebras are African horses. They are in the same genus as the common horse, *Equus caballus*, and donkeys. Zebras are known for having many black and white stripes. There are three main species of zebra, Grevy's Zebra, the Plains Zebra, and the Mountain Zebra.

## Species
* Genus *Equus*
** Grevy's Zebra (*Equus grevyi*)
** Plains Zebra (*Equus quagga*)
***Crawshay’s Zebra (*Equus quagga crawshaii*)
***Selous' Zebra (*Equus quagga borensis*)
***Grant’s Zebra or Boehm's Zebra, (*Equus quagga boehmi*)
***Chapman's Zebra (*Equus quagga chapmani*)
***Burchell's Zebra (*Equus quagga burchellii*)
***Quagga (*Equus quagga quagga*)
** Mountain Zebra (*Equus zebra*)

## Appearance
All zebras have very short fur because they live in hot areas. Their fur has black and white stripes. The main part of the body has mostly vertical stripes, and the legs have horizontal stripes. They also have a dark line directly down their spine. Each of the different zebra species has different types of stripes. Each zebra has a unique pattern.

Despite many attempts, we do not really know what the advantage is of having those characteristic stripes. There are different species and sub-species of zebra, and they all have stripes, so scientists think it must be important.

## Life
Zebras are social animals that spend time in herds, they graze together and sometimes even groom each other. They can have babies (foals) when they are about five years old and can have one every year. Zebras mainly eat grass. They always live near water and are an endangered species. 

Zebras live in Africa, south of the Sahara desert. 

## References
Zoo

, was founded in 1752 and is the oldest still existing zoo.]]
A **zoological garden**, **zoological park**, or **zoo** is a place where many different species types of animals are kept so that people can see and watch them.

Modern zoos try not only to be for people's entertainment, but for education, research, and the conservation and protection of animals. Many zoos are centers where rare animals are preserved when they are in danger of dying out. These modern zoos also want to give the animals a natural life, so that they are healthy and behave normal. This is done for the animals, but also that people can see the animals as if they were in nature, and not in a zoo.

Zoos cost money. They educate the public on the biological diversity that makes up the world. They help people and wildlife successfully coexist. They pursue continuing research and education for people. They preserve crucial natural resources.  They work to provide the most natural environment possible for wildlife in their care.  Without enough money they cannot do these things.

Many zoos are not like the modern type of zoo. There the animals are held in bad conditions. They are kept in small cages. They get bored. They also get sick.  Animals can also get very stressed in zoos.

## Types
There are different types of zoo all over the world. They are:]]

* In a safari park visitors can drive their own vehicles or ride in vehicles given by the park to see the animals. Sometimes, visitors can feed the animals through the car windows.  The first safari park was Whipsnade Park in Bedfordshire, England. It was opened by the Zoological Society of London in 1931.

]]

* A public aquarium has many aquatic animals and plants for people to see. Most public aquariums have very large tanks. They may also have smaller tanks. The first public aquariums were made in the mid-19th century.

* A petting zoo has domestic animals and some wild animals that are very calm so that the visitors can touch and feed them. Most petting zoos feature very calm herbivorous domesticated animals, such as: donkeys, goats, pigs, ponies, rabbits or sheep, to feed and touch them safely. Few petting zoos have wild animals (such as pythons or big cats) touch. These are rare and usually found outside Western countries.

* An animal theme park is a combination of a theme park and a zoo. It mainly built for entertainment, amusement, and commercial reasons. Many animal theme parks combine theme park elements, like entertainment and amusement rides, with zoo elements such as live animals kept inside cages so that visitors can see them.

## Pictures

Image:Giraffa camelopardalis Schoenbrunn01.jpg|Giraffes in the Tiergarten Schönbrunn, Vienna.
|
Image:04-01-05 London Zoo 148.JPG|Penguins at London Zoo.
Image:Panda enclosure at Chiang Mai zoo-KayEss-2.jpeg|Giant Pandas in Chiang Mai Zoo.
Image:Ramphastos toco in the Bronx Zoo.jpg|Toucans at Bronx Zoo.

## References
Simple English

**Simple English** might mean:
* Simple English Wikipedia gives information about a certain subject using fewer words and simpler grammar than the normal English Wikipedia.
**Simple English Wiktionary
* Basic English, created by Charles Kay Ogden, which only contains 850 words
* Learning English, by the Voice of America broadcasting service
**Special English: the Voice of America form  of simple English used for public radio news items for a large audience.
*Specialized English SPOTLIGHT word list for broadcasting in a controlled version of the English language.
*Plain English Campaign: a commercial advocate for the use of simple ("plain") English to communicate with the public.
*Simplified English word list of ASD Simplified Technical English. This is for the European Association of Aerospace Industries (AECMA, now ASD www.asd-europe.org).
Jail

A **jail** (also spelled **gaol**) is a protected place where people are locked up. The police or other, similar groups, who are meant to protect people, are in charge of it.

Some of the people locked in jails are:

*People who might have done something against the law (doing this is a crime) and have not yet been to court (where whether or not they did it is found out for sure), or who cannot pay the bail amount set by the court, or who the court thinks are too dangerous to be let out.
*People whose court trial is still happening.
*People who have returned from prison to appeal their prior court trial; or,
*People who have been convicted of a lesser (often misdemeanor) crime with a sentence of usually less than a year.

## Related pages
* County jail
* Prison
Atlantic Ocean

, Massachusetts]]

The **Atlantic Ocean** is the world's second largest ocean. It covers a total area of about , about 20 percent of the Earth's surface. 

It is named after the Ancient Greek god Atlas, the Titan in Greek mythology.

## Geologic history 
The Atlantic formed when the Americas moved west from Eurasia and Africa. This began sometime in the Cretaceous peiod, roughly 135 million years ago. It was part of the break-up of the supercontinent Pangaea. and the Pacific Ocean is shrinking because the sea floor is subducting, or folding under itself, into the mantle.

## Geography
The Atlantic Ocean is bounded on the west by North and South America. It connects to the Arctic Ocean through the Denmark Strait, Greenland Sea, Norwegian Sea, and Barents Sea.

In the southwest, the Drake Passage connects it to the Pacific Ocean. The Panama Canal links the Atlantic and Pacific.

The Atlantic Ocean is the largest ocean after the Pacific and had an area of . The volume of the Atlantic, along with its bordering seas, is 354,700,000&nbsp;cubic kilometres.  Water gets heated by the sun in the Caribbean Sea and then moves northeast toward the North Pole, which makes France, the British Isles, Iceland, and Norway, all in Europe, much warmer in winter than Newfoundland and Nova Scotia, both in Canada. The ridge extends from Iceland in the north to about 58° south.

## References
## Other websites 
*LA Times special Altered Oceans 
*Oceanography Image of the Day, from the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
*National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 
*NOAA In-situ Ocean Data Viewer  Plot and download ocean observations
*
*
*
*www.cartage.org.lb 
*www.mnsu.edu
Mercury

**Mercury** may mean:

*Mercury (mythology), the Roman god
*Mercury (planet), the first planet from the Sun in our solar system
*Mercury (element), the chemical element or atom
*Project Mercury, the first human spaceflight program by the United States' NASA
*Mercury (programming language), a programming language
*Mercury automobile, a make of car owned by the Ford Motor Company
*Mercury, France, a local government in the Savoie *département* of France

*Bristol Mercury, a 9-cylinder aircraft engine
*Freddie Mercury, a singer of the group Queen
*Symphony No. 43 (Haydn), a piece of music sometimes called *Mercury*
Butter

**Butter** is a dairy food. It is made by moving the milk from whole cream for a long time. The fat in the cream separates from the liquid. The fat is butter.

Butter is often used on bread, as a main ingredient in biscuits, as a shortening agent in some baking and cooking recipes, and for frying foods.

Often, butter is made from cows' milk. However, it can be made from the milk of other mammals, like sheep, goats, bison, and yaks. Salt, flavorings and  are sometimes added to butter.

Many people use butter in their foods instead of oil.

It has a melting point of about .

There are 717 calories in  of butter.

## Types 
**Cultured butter** is made from fermented cream. **Sweet cream butter** is made from pasteurized fresh cream. **Raw cream butter** is made from fresh or cultured unpasteurized cream.

## References 
## Other websites
*
Mainland China

is Mainland China.]]

**Mainland China**, also called the **Chinese Mainland**, is the part of China not including the Republic of China controlling Taiwan, Kinmen, Matsu, and the Pescadores.  The term also excludes Hong Kong and Macau. 

In the Qing Dynasty (Manchu Dynasty), all of Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan, Kinmen, Matsu, the Pescadores, and Mongolia were part of the Manchu Empire. Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macau were colonized by foreigners for some years (Taiwan to the Japanese, Hong Kong to the British, and Macau to the Portuguese).

By the end the Qing Empire, China became Nationalist China (the Republic of China) and it got Taiwan back in 1945. After the Communists (the People's Republic of China) took over most of China, the Nationalists kept only Taiwan, Kinmen, Matsu, and the Pescadores.  Mongolia became an independent state later.

Since then, Communist China only includes the part on the continent (mainland) and some small islands that are very near (the largest communist island is Hainan). This region is Mainland China.

Later Hong Kong and Macau were returned to the government of China, but because the government calls them "special administrative regions" under a "one country, two systems" idea, they are still not thought of as part of Mainland China.
Climate

**Climate** means the usual condition of the temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, rainfall, and other meteorological patterns in an area of the Earth's surface for a long time. In simple terms, climate is the average condition for about thirty years. Climate and weather are different: weather is the day to day conditions in the atmosphere.

**The types of climates are**: Tropical, Desert/dry, Temperate, Polar, Mediterranean. 
* Polar climate (also called boreal climate), has long, usually very cold winters, and short summers. For example, near the north and south poles.
* Temperate climates have four seasons. Some of the countries which have a temperate climate are: most of the European countries.
* Deserts are very dry. They just have one or two seasons such as: Saudi Arabia and many African countries.
* Tropical climates have warm temperature and only two seasons; wet and dry. An example of a place with a tropical climate is the Amazon Rainforest in Brazil.
* The Mediterranean climate is usually hot and dry in summer, and is cool and wet in winter. An example of a country with a Mediterranean climate is Spain.

The latitude, ground, and height can change the climate of a location. It is also important to note if oceans or other large bodies of water are nearby. Climates are most commonly classified by temperature and precipitation. The most commonly used classification was the Köppen climate classification, first made by Wladimir Köppen. The Thornthwaite system, which was used from 1948, not only uses temperature and precipitation information, but evapotranspiration too. This makes it useful for studying how many different kinds of animal species there are, and about the things that could happen when climates change. The Bergeron and Spatial Synoptic Classification systems focus more on where the air masses which help make climates come from.

Climates can change after a long time. Nowadays people are making the world warmer in many places, but not in all: 12/2023 "Beijing shivers through coldest December on record" (BBC). North Korea and Japan are also unusually cold, Decenber 2023.

## Related pages 
* Climatology
* Köppen climate classification

## References
Fold (geology)

, Australia]]
, Poland (Variscan orogeny)]]
, California, United States]]

A **fold** is rock that is bent, instead of being broken, by its deformation. The term is used in geology when one or a stack of surfaces that were originally flat and level, such as sedimentary strata, are bent or curved as a result of high pressures and temperatures. The basic cause is likely to be some aspect of plate tectonics. 

When two forces act towards each other from opposite sides, rock layers are bent into *folds*. Folds are formed by compression, known as **folding**, which is an endogenetic process (it takes place within the Earth's crust). 

Folds in rocks vary in size from microscopic crinkles to mountain-sized folds. They occur singly as isolated folds and in extensive fold trains of different sizes on a variety of scales. A set of folds distributed on a regional scale is a *fold belt*, a common feature of orogenic zones. 

There are large-scale and small-scale folds. Large-scale folds are found mainly along a collision boundary between two tectonic plates.

## Structure of a fold  
The upfold is called an anticline. The downfold is called a syncline.

The imaginary line joining the highest points along the upfold is called the crest line. 

The flanks of a fold are known as the limbs.

The central line from which the rock strata dip away in opposing directions is called the axis of fold.

According to the degree of folding of the layers, folds can be classified into five main types.
* Symmetrical fold: two limbs are of equal steepness
* Asymmetrical fold: one limb is steeper than the other
* Overfold: one limb is pushed over the other
* Recumbent fold: two limbs are nearly parallel
* Overthrust fold: the compressional force is so great that the rock strata are broken and slide over one another.

## Formation of a fold mountain 
Large depressions called geosynclines form between plates. Seas filled the geosynclines and rivers flowing into them carried sediments (sand and silt) which build up on the sea bed.

Over millions of years, the sediments were compressed by their own weight into sedimentary rocks: sandstone, limestone, etc.

## Landforms formed by folding 
Large-scale folding develops parallel ranges of round-top mountains along destructive plate boundaries, which are known as fold mountains. 

Examples of fold mountain ranges:
* Alps
* Andes
* Himalayas
* Rocky Mountains
Volcanism

**Volcanism** (or **vulcan activity**) is the eruption of magma onto the surface of the Earth. 

Magma under the crust is under very great pressure. When folding and faulting occur, cracks or fractures appear. These are lines of weakness. 

When these lines of weakness develop downward in the crust and reach the magma, they will release the pressure in the magma. This allows magma to rise up along the lines of weakness and intrude into the crust. Some magma may even reach the Earth's surface as lava.

## Volcanoes    
Volcanoes are the places where magma reaches the earth's surface. The type of volcano depends on the location of the eruption and the consistency of the magma.

## Intrusions 
 was created via intrusion.]]

Intrusive volcanism is when magma is forced into the rocks that make up the Earth's crust.   When it cools and become solid while still underground, different features called plutons are formed. The rock formed is intrusive igneous rock.

These plutons will be exposed at the surface of land when the overlying rocks are removed after a long time of denudation (laid bare by erosion).

Major features formed by intrusive volcanicity include: batholith, laccolith, dyke, pipe and sill.
* Batholiths: Have large scale magma that has been solidified at the base of the mountain.
* Dyke: Is a small scale magma cooled within the earths crust that stands vertically to the existing rocks.
* Sill: Is a small scale magma cooled near the earths surface that lies horizontally to the existing rocks.
* Laccolith: A small scale magma that pushes the overlying layers of rocks to form a dome shaped structure.

## Extrusions 
The molten magma under great pressure forces its way through the fissure of underground rocks and reaches the Earth's surface to form "igneous extrusion". 
Major extruded materials include gas, liquid and solid.

* Gas - sulphur, hydrogen, carbon dioxide and hot steam (geysers). When uprising magma decreases in pressure suddenly, gases within magma explode to the Earth's surface and cause destruction.
* Solid - pyroclast. Mainly composed of: country rock, fragments of solidified lava and fine materials (volcanic ash and dust). It can be classified by size into volcanic bombs, volcanic blocks, lapilli, volcanic ash and volcanic dust. 
* Liquid - lava, hot springs.

Features formed are:
* Caldera: a large depression in a former volcanic site. When it is filled with water it is called a 'caldera lake'. 
* Composite cones: a large volcanic mountain formed by solidified lava on the surface.
* Geysers: eruption of hot water and steam shooting into the air at regular intervals.
* Hot springs: springs of hot water that flow out continuously without shooting up into the air.

## Notes 
## Other websites 
*
Pacific Ocean

es and oceanic trenches.]]
The **Pacific Ocean** is the largest ocean and covers one third of the surface of the entire world. The body of water is between Asia and Australia in the west, the Americas in the east, the Southern Ocean to the south, and the Arctic Ocean to the north. It joins the Atlantic Ocean at a line drawn south from Cape Horn, in Chile andArgentina, to Antarctica, and it joins the Indian Ocean at a line drawn south from Tasmania, in Australia, to Antarctica.

As the Atlantic is slowly getting wider, the Pacific is slowly shrinking by folding the sea floor towards the centre of the Earth in what is called subduction. The bumping and grinding is so hard that there are many earthquakes and volcanoes when the  builds up and is quickly released as large explosions of hot rocks and dust. When an earthquake happens under the sea, the quick jerk causes a tsunami. That makes tsunamis more more common around the edge of the Pacific than anywhere else in the world. Many of the Earth's volcanoes are islands in the Pacific or on continents within a few hundred kilometers of the ocean's edge. Plate tectonics is another reason for the Pacific to be shrinking.

## Other websites
* EPIC Pacific Ocean Data Collection Viewable on-line collection of observational data
* NOAA In-situ Ocean Data Viewer  plot and download ocean observations
* NOAA PMEL Argo profiling floats Realtime Pacific Ocean data
* NOAA TAO El Niño data Realtime Pacific Ocean El Niño buoy data
* NOAA Ocean Surface Current Analyses – Realtime (OSCAR) Near-realtime Pacific Ocean Surface Currents derived from satellite altimeter and scatterometer data
Indian Ocean

The **Indian Ocean** is the world's third-largest ocean, at . It is surrounded by Asia to the north, Australia and the Pacific Ocean to the east, the Southern Ocean to the south, and Africa and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. It is named for the Indian subcontinent which projects into it. The Bay of Bengal, the Arabian Sea, the Persian Gulf, and the Red Sea are all parts of the ocean. 

The deepest point in the Indian Ocean is in the Java Trench, near the Sunda Islands, in the east, at . The ocean's average depth is . The majority of the ocean is in the southern hemisphere.         

## Other websites 
* Maps of the indian Ocean
* Océan Indien in easy French
* NOAA In-situ Ocean Data Viewer  Plot and download ocean observations
* The Indian Ocean in World History: Educational Website Interactive resource from the Sultan Qaboos Cultural Center
* The Regional Tuna Tagging Project-Indian Ocean with details of the importance of Tuna in the Indian Ocean.. 
* Detailed maps of the Indian Ocean
* The Indian Ocean Trade: A Classroom Simulation 
* CIA - The World Factbook, Oceans: Indian Ocean
Basket

A **basket** is a container. It is usually light in weight.

Basket makers use a wide variety of materials to create a basket, such as bark, willow rods, leaves, wire, plastic, paper, and rope.  There are three basic kinds of baskets—coiled, twined, or woven.  A woven basket is made of spokes and weavers:  the spokes run up and down and the weavers go over and under the spokes. A coiled basket is made by sewing rings of a fibrous material to the previous ring. Twined baskets have flexible weavers that are twined around the spokes in a variety of patterns. 

Basketmaking is a very old practice; it features in myths from various cultures. Baskets were often used to carry fruits, berries, and other things to be gathered. Nowadays, baskets are less practical but still common. Ancient baskets can be found in many cultures. Basket weaving is one of these activities, either for practical use or fun. In Native American culture, basket weaving is a common activity. 

----

In basketball, the basket is an open net fixed to a metal ring in which players try to throw the ball.
Software

Writer, an example of software.]]

**Computer software,** also called software, is a set of instructions and documentation that tells a computer what to do or how to perform a task. Software includes all different programs on a computer, such as applications and the operating system. Applications are programs that are designed to perform a specific operation, such as a game or a word processor. The operating system (e.g., macOS, Microsoft Windows, Android and various Linux distributions) is a type of software that is used as a platform for running the applications, and controls all user interface tools including display and the keyboard.

The word software was first used in the late 1960s to emphasize on its difference from computer hardware, which can be physically observed by the user. Software is a set of instructions that the computer follows. Before compact discs (CDs) or development of the Internet age, software was used on various computer data storage media tools like paper punch cards, magnetic discs or magnetic tapes.

The word firmware is sometimes used to describe a style of software that is made specifically for a particular type of computer or an electronic device and is usually stored on a Flash memory or ROM chip in the computer. Firmware usually refers to a piece of software that directly controls a piece of hardware. The firmware for a CD drive or the firmware for a modem are examples of firmware .

Today, software has become an important part of our lives. Software is used everywhere. Software engineers are responsible for producing fault-free software, which has become an essential part of our daily lives.  and  are two of the main  of software design. There are also different processing models for designing software including Build and Fix, Waterfall and Agile software processing design methods.

## Types of Software 
The  different types of software can be put into categories based on common function, type, or field of use. There are three broad classifications:
# *Application software* are the computer programs for performing user tasks, such as word processing and web browsers.
# *System software* is used to start and run computer systems and networks. This includes operating systems.
# *Computer programming tools* (also known as *development software*) are used to create application and system software. This is done by translating and combining computer program source code and libraries into executable RAMs. These include compiler and linker.

## Related pages
* Computer program
* Free software
* software engineering
* Concepts of Programming Languages  
* Cloud Computing Companies in USA 

* Software Models
Container

A **container** is an  used for holding something.  People put things in a container. The use of shipping containers is called Containerization.

## Types of container
* Bottle
* receptacle
* Box
* Can
* Tin
* Jug (container)
* Jar
* Pan
* Tub
* Carton
* Packet
* Barrel
* Vessel
* Crate
Asia

**Asia** is the largest continent on Earth by area and number of people. It is mainly in the northern hemisphere. Asia is connected to Europe in the west and Africa on the south, and separated from North America at the east. Sometimes Asia and Europe are combined to form a larger continent called Eurasia. Some of the oldest human civilizations began in Asia, for example Sumer, China, and Pakistan. Asia was the birthplace of many religions, for example Hinduism, Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Jainism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism, Christianity, Islam, and Sikhism. It was also home to some large empires, for example the Persian Empire, the Mughal Empire, the Byzantine Empire, the Mongol Empire, and the Ming Empire. Asia has 48 countries. Georgia, Russia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Turkey, and Greece have territory in both Europe and Asia.

## Area 
 area of Asia]]
Asia includes a large amount of land. Covering about 30% of the world's land area, it has more people than any other continent, with about 60% of the world's total population. Stretching from the icy Arctic in the north to the hot and steamy equatorial lands in the south, Asia contains huge, empty deserts, as well as some of the world's highest mountains and longest rivers.

Asia is surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea, the Black Sea, the Arctic Ocean, the Pacific Ocean, and the Indian Ocean. It is separated from Europe by the Pontic Mountains and the Turkish Straits. A long, mainly land border in the west separates Europe and Asia. This line runs north–south down the Ural Mountains in Russia, along the Ural River to the Caspian Sea, and through the Caucasus Mountains to the Black Sea.

## Regions 
* East Asia
* Southeast Asia
* South Asia
* Central Asia
* West Asia
* North Asia

## List of countries in Asia 
* 
* 
*  (geographically in Europe and Asia)
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
*  (geographically in Europe and Asia)
* 
*  (geographically in Asia and Oceania)
* 
* 
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* 
* 
*  (geographically in Europe and Asia)
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
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*  (geographically in Europe and Asia)
* 
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* 
Some countries are in both Europe and Asia, for example Russia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, and Turkey.

## Related pages
* Asia Minor
* Asian Games

## References
Bed

(1893)]]

A **bed** is an item of furniture that people sleep on. It normally has a soft mattress on a bed frame. Many beds also have bed sheets to cover the mattress and additional sheets for the people to sleep under. People also use a pillow under their heads.  A bed comes in many different sizes including a single, double and king size.

## History
In August 2020 archaeologists reported the discovery of the oldest grass bedding from Middle Paleolithic (at least 200,000 years ago). This was much older than the oldest previously known bedding. 

They found insect-repellent plants and ash layers beneath the bedding. This would have made a dirt-free, insulated base which helped to keep away insects. Early beds like these were little more than piles of straw or some other natural material (e.g. a heap of palm leaves, animal skins, or dried ferns).

Here's an example of what they said: "Several cultures have used ash as an insect repellent because insects cannot easily move through fine powder. Ash blocks insects' breathing and biting apparatus, and eventually dehydrates them. *Tarchonanthus* (camphor bush) remains were on top of the grass from the oldest bedding in the cave. This plant is still used to deter insects in rural parts of East Africa".

## References