open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Permanent

**Permanent** used as an adjective usually means that something will stay for a long time or forever. Its opposite is temporary. Permanent may also mean other things.

*Permanent is a mathematics function used in working with Matrix theory.
*A permanent wave is a hair .
*In the card game, Magic: The Gathering, a permanent is any card that is put into play and stays there.
List of pterosaurs

This is a **list of pterosaurs**.

## A 
**Aetodactylus*
**Angustinaripterus*
**Anhanguera*
**Anurognathus*
**Arambourgiania*
**Araripedactylus*
**Araripesaurus*
**Arthurdactylus*
**Austriadactylus*
**Avgodectes*
**Azhdarcho*

## B 
**Bakonydraco*
**Batrachognathus*
**Beipiaopterus*
**Bennettazhia*
**Bogolubovia*
**Boreopterus*
**Brasileodactylus*

## C 
**Cacibupteryx*
**Campylognathoides*
**Caulkicephalus*
**Caviramus*
**Cearadactylus*
**Chaoyangopterus*
**Coloborhynchus*
**Comodactylus*
**Criorhynchus*
**Ctenochasma*
**Cycnorhamphus*

## D 
**Darwinopterus*
**Dendrorhynchoides*
**Dermodactylus*
**Dimorphodon*
**Diopocephalus*
**Domeykodactylus*
**Dorygnathus*
**Dsungaripterus*

## E 
**Eoazhdarcho*
**Eopteranodon*
**Eosipterus*
**Eudimorphodon*

## F 
**Feilongus*

## G 
**Germanodactylus*
**Gnathosaurus*
**Gallodactylus*

## H 
**Haopterus*
**Harpactognathus*
**Hatzegopteryx*
**Herbstosaurus*
**Huanhepterus*
**Huaxiapterus*

## I 
**Istiodactylus*

## J 
**Jeholopterus*
**Jidapterus*

## K 
**Kepodactylus*

## L 
**Laopteryx*
**Liaoxipterus*
**Lonchodectes*
**Lonchognathosaurus*
**Longchengpterus*
**Ludodactylus*

## M 
**Mesadactylus*
**Montanazhdarcho*

## N 
**Nesodactylus*
**Noripterus*
**Normannognathus*
**Nurhachius*
**Nyctosaurus*

## O 
**Ornithocheirus*
**Ornithostoma*

## P 
**Parapsicephalus*
**Peteinosaurus*
**Phosphatodraco*
**Plataleorhynchus*
**Preondactylus*
**Pteranodon*
**Pterodactylus*
**Pterodaustro*
**Pterorhynchus*
**Puntanipterus*

## Q 
**Quetzalcoatlus*

## R 
**Rhamphinion*
**Rhamphocephalus*
**Rhamphorhynchus*

## S 
**Santanadactylus*
**Scaphognathus*
**Sinopterus*
**Siroccopteryx*
**Sordes*

## T 
**Tapejara*
**Tendaguripterus*
**Thalassodromeus*
**Tropeognathus*
**Tupandactylus*
**Tupuxuara*

## U 
**Unwindia*

## V 
**Volgadraco*
*Vectidraco

## W 
**Wukongopteryx*

## X 
**Xericeps*

## Y 
**Yikianopteryx*

## Z 
**Zhejiangopterus*
Linen

**Linen** is a material made from the fibers of the flax plant (*Linum usitatissimum*).  It is mainly used to make cloth, especially for light clothing and table coverings.

## History 
The flax plant is one of the plants humans have grown and used. Linen cloth was already made at least 6,000 years ago in Egypt and Mesopotamia. This makes linen one of the oldest fibers and cloths used by humans, besides wool and hemp. Linen and hemp were the most important fiber plants in Europe for a long time. Linen was for example also used to wrap Egyptian mummies.

In recent centuries linen has largely been replaced by cotton and synthetic materials, which are cheaper.

## Other websites
Sodium hypochlorite

**Sodium hypochlorite** is an unstable compound composed of sodium and hypochlorite ions. It is stable in solution, though. It is light green and has the chemical formula NaClO (or NaOCl). It is a strong oxidizing agent. It is used to disinfect (kill bacteria) and as a bleach to remove stains from clothing. It is not good for cotton because the sodium hydroxide normally contained eats away the clothing fibers. It reacts with acids to produce chlorine.

## Related pages
*Potassium chlorate
*Hypochlorite
Raisin

**Raisins** are dried grapes. They have a lot of sugar. Raisins are made in many parts of the world. Raisins can be eaten raw or as part of a recipe. They are well known for being a high protein snack with 500 milligrams of protein.

## Other websites 
* Cooking.com: Raisins 
* Natural Benefits and Curative Properties 
* The World's Healthiest Foods: Raisins 
* A close-up photo of a raisin 

## References
Hieroglyph

**Hieroglyphs**, or **hieroglyphics**, are a type of writing that uses ideogram, symbols or pictures to stand for sounds and words. The Egyptians, Luwians and Mayan cultures are among those who used hieroglyphs. They have also been found in Turkey, Crete, United States and Canada.

They are thought to have started when pictures were used to tell stories on pots and other artwork.  Over time, the pictures became letters.

The word *hieroglyph* comes from the Greek words ἱερός (hierós 'sacred') and γλύφειν (glúphein 'to carve' or 'to write'), and it was first used to mean Egyptian hieroglyphs. The Greeks who came to  Egypt saw the picture letters, which were often found carved on house walls, tombs and monuments.

## Ancient Egypt 
Ancient Egyptians used pictures to make a phonetic alphabet as in a rebus, so that each sound could be written with a picture-word, a *phonogram* or *pictograph*.

Hieroglyphs, like Japanese or Chinese characters, started out as ideographic characters, or writing made of pictures. The ancient writing has no vowels, and all sounds in the writing are consonants.

### Breaking the code
After the end of the Egyptian civilization in 30 BCE, people no longer knew how to read the hieroglyphs. When the French took over Egypt in 1798, French soldiers found a large stone. This is now called the Rosetta Stone. The Rosetta Stone had writing in three different languages: hieroglyphs, Ancient Greek and demotic (a simplified form of hieroglyphs). Jean François Champollion guessed that the writing on the stone was the same in three different languages. By using the Ancient Greek, he was able to work out the name of the ruler, Ptolemy V, in hieroglyphs. After many years of study, he was then able to work out how to read the other words.

## Cretan hieroglyphs
 showing Cretan hieroglyphs]]
A type of hieroglyphs was also used on Crete and the surrounding islands in the 2nd millennium BCE. This writing system developed into a script called Linear A. For some time, both writing systems were used. Of the 137 symbols are known, several resemble pictograms.  96 of the 137 known hieroglyphs occur in "words" and 32 seem to be logograms.

There are four numerals that represent 1, 10, 100 and 1000, respectively, and a symbol that looks like a small cross: it probably shows the beginning of the text. Because there are relatively few symbols, the writing is probably syllabic, much like Linear A. Most of the known texts are short: occur on sigils and clay shards.

## Related pages
*Rosetta Stone

## References
Calf

A **calf** can be:

*A word for the young of some animals, usually cows, but also whales, dolphins, giraffes, bison, hippopotamuses, rhinoceroses, yaks and elephants.
*A muscle in the lower leg.
Taste bud

**Taste buds** are small 'bumps' on the tongue. They are the sense organs which  the taste of things that go into the mouth. They are involved in detecting the five (known) elements of taste perception: salty, , bitter, sweet, and umami. 

## Other websites 
* Beyond the Tongue Map
* Taste Perception: Cracking the Code 
* Scientists Explore the Workings of Taste Buds from National Public Radio's *Talk of the Nation*, July 22, 2005
Nectar

]]
 feeding on a flower's nectar]]

**Nectar**, in botany, is a clear liquid made by the flowers of plants. It is sweet because it has sugar in it. Plants make nectar to attract pollinating animals. It is made in glands called nectaries. The nectaries are usually at the bottom of the perianth of the flower. This means the animal trying to get the nectar has to touch the parts of the plant that are used for reproduction. By doing this, the animal getting the nectar helps the plants reproduce.

Some plants make nectar outside the flower. These plants do it to attract predatory insects. These insects will eat both the nectar and any plant-eating insects found near the plant.

Nectar is economically important because it is where the sugar for honey comes from. It is also useful in agriculture and horticulture because the adults of many predatory insects, as well as hummingbirds, eat nectar. Some plants give off very rich scents.Plants need water warmth and sunlight 

## Extrafloral nectaries 
Extrafloral nectaries  (not in the flower) are specialised nectar-secreting plant glands. They develop outside flowers, and are not involved in pollination.

In contrast to floral nectaries, nectar produced outside the flower generally has a defensive function. The nectar attracts predatory insects which will eat both the nectar and any plant-eating insects around, they work as 'bodyguards'.

Extrafloral nectaries have been reported in over 3941 species of vascular plants belonging to 745 genera and 108 families, 99.7% of which belong to flowering plants (angiosperms). This is 1.0 to 1.8% of all known species. They are most common among eudicots, occurring in 3642 species (of 654 genera and 89 families). They often occur in rosids.

## References
Hunting dog

A **hunting dog** is any dog who helps humans in hunting. There are several types of hunting dogs.  The major categories of hunting dog include hounds, terriers, cur type dogs, and gun dogs.  These categories have smaller groups in them that are based on different things the dogs are good at doing. In different countries, different hunting dogs are popular. Especially England, Germany, Italy and Spain.

## Types of hunting dogs
.]]
### Hounds
There are two types of hounds, *sight hounds* and *scent hounds*. The difference between them is if they use sight or smell to find what they are hunting for. They are often used to hunt animals with fur. In America, raccoon, coyote, and large predators are hunted with hounds, and traditionally in Britain hounds were used to hunt the fox.

### Gun dog
These dogs are also called **bird dogs**. They are used by hunters who carry shotguns to hunt small animals.  Gun dogs come in three main classes. The classes are *retriever*s, *flushing spaniels*, and *pointing breeds* (although the pointers are as not as famous as their retriever and spaniel counterparts). 

.]]
### Retrievers
The main job of a retriever is to get the animal after the hunter shoots it. Retrievers are very good in the water and often used by hunters shooting ducks.

### Flushing spaniels
Flushing spaniels are used when birds being hunted are found in areas where they can hide, for example high grass. The spaniel will run through the grass. This makes the birds fly into the air so the hunter can shoot them. Spaniels stay close to the hunter so when the birds start to fly, the hunter is close enough to shoot them.

### Pointers
Pointers find birds then stand still and point at where the bird is. They often are farther away from the hunter than a spaniel would be. By pointing instead of flushing the bird out, they give the hunter time to get close enough to shoot the bird. They are also not as famous as other hunting dogs such as retrievers or spaniels.

 and one of the most unfamiliar types of all in popular culture.]]

### Terriers
These dogs are almost always used to hunt mammals.  Terriers are used to find the den or living space of the animal. They will go into where the animal lives and either force it to run out or they will kill it. Many of the animals hunted with terriers are animals that cause damage, for example, ground hogs, fox and badger. Notable terrier breeds include the Scottie, the Pit Bull, and many others.

### Cur types
Curs are used in the same way as terriers but on larger animals. Curs are used to hunt boars, raccoon, cougars, and other large mammals. While they are not as famous as hounds, they have appeared a few times in popular culture, with one example of a breed called the Black Mouth Cur.

## References
Rib cage

]]
The **ribcage** is a part of the skeleton of humans and some animals. It is made up of curved bones called ribs. The rib cage is found in the chest area. It protects a person's internal organs from damage. Most humans have 12 pairs of rib bones with one from each pair on each side of the chest. Some people may have 11 or 13 pairs of rib bones. The bones are also filled with bone marrow. The bones that are connected to the sternum directly are called true ribs, and the bones that are connected to the sternum indirectly, through the seventh bone, are called false ribs (eighth, ninth, and tenth bones), and the bones which are not connected to the sternum, and is connected to the back bone, are called floating ribs. If these floating ribs were connected to the sternum, we could not breathe properly, as the chest needs space to expand and decrease. The rib cage is also called the thoracic cavity.
Founder

**Founder** could mean:
* Entrepreneur, in the sense of one who founds (starts) a company
* Laminitis, a horse illness in which "foundering" is a common symptom
* Founder Group, China's second-largest personal computer vendor
* Founder effect, a biological idea used to explain genetics in a small isolated population

**Founders** could mean:
* Founding Fathers, often called the "Founders", people who are important in starting an institution
* Founding Fathers of the United States, the political leaders who participated in the American Revolution as leaders of the Patriots
* Founders, a race of beings in the fictional Star Trek universe
Interview

.]]
An **interview** is a conversation where somebody is trying to get information from another person. The person asking questions is the interviewer and the person answering questions is the interviewee.  

Employers interview people trying to get a job to find out if they are a good person for the job. Researchers use an interview to ask people to find how they feel or what they know about something. Since the middle 19th century, interviews have often been used in journalism to get information for stories on news shows or in newspapers.  

Police interview witnesses to a crime to find out what happened. Military intelligence agents interview prisoners to learn about enemy plans and capabilities. These interviews are often called interrogation.

## References
Athelstan

**Athelstan** or  Æthelstan, (893/4–27 October 939), called **the Glorious**, was the first King of England. However, Sithric died only a year later, and Athelstan seized Northumbria. This move made him king of more land than any other before him, roughly the same as modern England. Therefore, he had united the four major English kingdoms, establishing him as the country's first true King. Historical records indicate that the other rulers in Great Britain accepted him as king at Bamburgh around this time.

Athelstan died at Gloucester in 939 and was succeeded by his half-brother, Edmund I.

He is said to have been buried in the town of Malmesbury, Wiltshire, which he himself described as "beloved". A tomb has been built (shown in the image) for him in Malmesbury Abbey, however, no one knows if it is his body that lies there, and the lid of the tomb has never been opened.

## References
Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor

]]
Saint **Henry II** (972 – 13 July 1024), called **the Holy** or **the Saint**, was the fifth and last Holy Roman Emperor of the Saxon or Ottonian dynasty.
Papyrus

]]

**Papyrus** is a kind of paper that was used in Ancient Egypt for writing. It was first made in the 3rd millennium BC. It was made from a kind of reed called *Cyperus papyrus*. 

This plant grows in marshy areas around the Nile river.  The Egyptians also used the papyrus plants to make boats, mattresses, mats, rope, sandals, and baskets. 

Specially cultivated papyrus, grown on plantations, was used to make the writing material. Papyrus was first used in Ancient Egypt, but it was later used elsewhere in the Mediterranean region.

## References 
## Other websites 
* 
*
Internet protocol suite

When computers connect and transmit data between each other on the Internet, they follow a set of rules to do so. These rules are universal; all computers throughout the Internet must follow them. Otherwise, the Internet would not function as computers would not be able to transmit data in a meaningful and useful way. These rules are called **protocols**. There are many different protocols, each for different purposes, and they all together are called the **Internet protocol suite**. The two most important protocols are the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP), which ensure data is delivered at the right place, and without errors, and is what computers use when they access servers (computers that have the data that is accessed on the Internet) on the World Wide Web, as well as for email, and the like. Other protocols include the Network Time Protocol, which ensures clock synchronisation in computers, and there are many others.

The TCP/IP model and other related protocols are maintained by the  Internet Engineering Task Force, whose parent organisation is the Internet Society, and which also cooperates closely with other standards bodies such as the W3C (World Wide Web Consortium) and ISO/IEC.

## Other websites 
* Internet History – Pages on Robert Kahn, Vinton Cerf, and TCP/IP (reviewed by Cerf and Kahn).
*  – Specification of Internet Transmission Control Program, December 1974 Version
*  A TCP/IP Tutorial – from the Internet Engineering Task Force (January 1991)
* TCP/IP FAQ
* The TCP/IP Guide – A comprehensive look at the protocols and the procedures/processes involved
* A Study of the ARPANET TCP/IP Digest
* TCP/IP Sequence Diagrams
* Daryl's TCP/IP Primer – Intro to TCP/IP LAN administration, conversational style
* A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication, Cerf & Kahn, IEEE Trans on Comms, Vol Com-22, No 5 May 1974
Copernicium

**Copernicium** (formerly Ununbium) is a chemical element in the Periodic Table. It is also named **eka-mercury**. It has the symbol **Cn**. It has the atomic number 112. It is a transuranium element.

]]
The element is named in honor of Nicolaus Copernicus.

Using periodic trends, people think that it will be a liquid metal like mercury. It is likely to be more volatile than mercury however.

## History 
Copernicium was first made on February 9, 1996 at the Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung (GSI) in Darmstadt, Germany. Copernicium was made by nuclear fusion of a zinc atom with a lead atom. The zinc nuclei was bombarded on to a lead  in a machine named a heavy ion accelerator.

The element was made in 2000 and 2004 at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Russia.

In May 2006 in the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research checked that it had been made using a different method. They identified the last atoms that were made from radioactive decay of copernicium.

In February 2010 IUPAC officially approved the name copernicium and symbol Cn.

Due to its short half-life it has no use but is being studied

## References 
## Other websites 
* WebElements.com - Copernicium
* Apsidium - Copernicium 
* Indication for a gaseous element 112 
* Element 112 is Named Copernicium
Otto the Great

**Otto I the Great** (23 November 912 – 7 May 973), son of Henry I the Fowler, king of the Germans, and Matilda of Ringelheim, was Duke of the Saxons, King of the Germans and Holy Roman Emperor from 962 until his death in 973. He was succeeded by his son Otto II. He won a big war against the Magyars (Hungarians) and later conquered northern Italy.

## Other websites
Ottonian dynasty

**Ottonian dynasty** was a dynasty of kings of Germany, named after its first emperor Otto I the Great. But it is also known as the **Saxon dynasty** after the origin of this family of noblemen. The family itself is also sometimes known as the **Liudolfings**, after its earliest known member *Liudolf* and one of its most common names. The Ottonian rulers are also regarded as the first dynasty of the Holy Roman Empire, as successors of the Carolingian dynasty and Charlemagne, who is commonly viewed as the original founder of a new (Frankish) Roman Empire.

Although he was never Emperor, Henry I the Fowler, Duke of Saxony, was the founder of this imperial dynasty, since his election as German king made it possible for his son, Otto the Great to take on the imperium. Since Otto I most of the German kings were also crowned Holy Roman Emperor. Under the reign of the Ottonian rulers, the kingdom of the Eastern Franks finally became Germany as the duchies of Lorraine, Saxony, Franconia, Swabia, Thuringia and Bavaria joined in one empire. 

After the end of the Ottonian dynasty (with the death of Henry II in 1024) the crown passed to the Salian dynasty. Luitgard, a daughter of Emperor Otto I had married the Salian Duke Conrad the Red of Lorraine. His great-grandson was Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor. 

**Ottonian Kings and Emperors:**
* Henry I the Fowler, King of the Germans and Duke of Saxony, died 936
* Otto I the Great, Holy Roman Emperor and Duke of Saxony, died 973
* Otto II, Holy Roman Emperor, died 983
* Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor, died 1002
* Saint Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor, died 1024

Some other famous members of the Liudolfing or Ottonian House:
* Liudolf, Count of Saxony, died 864/866
* Saint Altfrid, Bishop of Hildesheim, died 874
* Brun, Duke of Saxony, died 880
* Otto I the Illustrious, Duke of Saxony, died 912
* Gerberge of Saxony, died 954
* Henry I, Duke of Bavaria, died 955
* Liudolf, Duke of Swabia, died 957
* Hedwige of Saxony, died 965
* Bruno I, Archbishop of Cologne and Duke of Lotharingia, died 965
* William, Archbishop of Mainz, died 968
* Otto, Duke of Swabia and Bavaria, died 982
* Henry II, Duke of Bavaria, the Wrangler, died 995
* Bruno, Bishop of Augsburg, died 1029
Edward III of England

**Edward III** (13 November 1312–21 June 1377) was a King of England who ruled for 50 years. 

Edward was born on 13 November 1312 to Edward II and Isabella of France. He was the oldest of their five children. He had two younger brothers (Adam FitzRoy and John of Eltham, Earl of Cornwall) and two younger sisters (Joan of the Tower and Eleanor of Woodstock).

Edward made England the strongest military power during his reign. 

Edward was crowned when he was fourteen years old, after his father was forced to abdicate. After his victory against Scotland, he declared himself heir to the French throne in 1337, which started the Hundred Years' War. The war went very well for England, and the victories at the Battles of Crécy and Poitiers led to the Treaty of Brétigny by which he gained a lot of territory. When he became older, he was much less active, mostly a result of his bad health. He died of a stroke in 1377, aged 64.

Edward also established the Order of the Garter and developed legislature and government. However, during his reign was the Black Death. 

Edward and his wife, Philippa of Hainault, had many children, and as they travelled, the children were generally known by where they were born though the oldest son, Edward "of Woodstock," became known to later generations as Edward, the Black Prince. He died before his father Edward III, and his older son, Edward of Angoulême, had died a child and so younger son, Richard of Bordeaux, succeeded Edward III as Richard II of England. However, Richard was deposed by his cousin Henry IV of England, whose father, John of Gaunt, had married the heiress of Lancaster. His family, the House of Lancaster, fought the Wars of the Roses against the House of York, which was descended from the daughter of Edward III's son Lionel of Antwerp (who was older than John) over who was the rightful king. 

In his own time and for centuries afterward, Edward III was greatly praised, but Whig historians saw him as an irresponsible adventurer. That view has turned, and modern historians see what a good king he was.

## Other websites 
*The *Medieval Sourcebook*) has some good sources relating to the reign of Edward III:
** The Ordinance of Labourers, 1349 
** The Statute of Laborers, 1351 
** Thomas Walsingham’s account of the Good Parliament of 1376. 
* Man of War: Edward III, King of England  at myarmoury.com
Tropic of Capricorn

The **Tropic of Capricorn**, or **Southern tropic**, is one of the five major circles of latitude of a map of the Earth. It is 23° 26′ 22″ south of the Equator.

It marks the most southerly latitude at which the sun can appear directly overhead. This happens at the December solstice, when the southern hemisphere is tilted towards the sun to its maximum extent.

## Countries 
The Tropic of Capricorn goes through these countries, starting at the prime meridian and going west:

* Brazil
* Paraguay
* Argentina
* Chile
* French Polynesia - passing just south of Tubuai
* Tonga - passing just north of the Minerva Reefs
* Coral Sea Islands Territory (Australia) - passing just south of Cato Reef
* Australia
* Madagascar
* Mozambique
*South Africa
* Botswana
* Namibia

## History 
The Tropic of Capricorn is named because about 2000 years ago the sun was entering the constellation Capricornus on the December solstice. Now the sun appears in the constellation Sagittarius during the December solstice. The change is due to precession of the equinoxes. The word "tropic" comes from the Greek tropos, meaning *turn*. This refers to the fact that the sun appears to "turn back" at the solstices.

## Related pages
*Southern Hemisphere
*Eastern Hemisphere
*Western Hemisphere
*Seasons
*Solstice and equinox
*Equator
*Tropics
*Tropic of Cancer
*Northern Hemisphere
*Arctic Circle
*Antarctic Circle
Harold Wilson

**James Harold Wilson, Baron Wilson of Rievaulx**, KG, OBE, FRS, PC (11 March 1916 – 24 May 1995) was one of the most prominent British politicians of the 20th century. He was an MP from 1945 to 1983. He won more elections than any other 20th century Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (in 1964, 1966, February and October 1974)—three with a majority (1964,1966 and October 1974) and one where Labour was the largest party and formed a minority government (February 1974)

Wilson resigned as Prime Minister and Leader of the Labour Party in 1976. He died of colon cancer and Alzheimer's disease in 1995.

## Other websites 
* Wilson, Harold Chronology World History Database
Wicked Science

***Wicked Sciences*** is an Australian television series. It takes place in Sandy Bay. It tells the story of two teenagers who suddenly become science geniuses.

## Story
Toby Johnson is a normal student of Sandy Bay High School, juggling between school and the normal life of a teenager. Elizabeth Hawke is the teacher's pet. Nobody like her in the high school and she likes nobody, excepted Tony. She has liked Tony from her childhood. One day, Toby and her were in the laboratory of the school. They were hit by a strange blue ray and they become sciences geniuses. But they do not know why. The normal life of Sandy Bay is changed by the two geniuses.

## Details on the story
On the first school day at Sandy Bay High School, Toby and his best friend Russel met a new student, Dina Demeris. They quickly became friends. During science class, they were chatting. When they got caught, Dina was the one who was going to be punished, but Toby said that it was his fault. He was to be punished with Russ. The teacher, Mr. Tesslar showed the students the fossils he found during the summer. He started to scan them with a machine and asked who wanted to finish the work. Elizabeth accepted. That evening, Russ, Toby and Elizabeth were in the science laboratory. Toby and Russ had to clean the aquarium, and Elizabeth was scanning the stones. Russ had a bad idea. He tried to use his mouth to change the water. He ran to the restrooms and Toby and Elizabeth cleaned the ground. A frog got out of the aquarium and jumped on the keyboard of the machine. The device scanned a strange blue stone and made a blue ray which hit Toby and Elizabeth.

## Main characters
***Toby Johnson**: Toby is a regular student, but he is also a science genius. He tried to tell his adventure to Mr.Tesslar, but decided to keep it a secret. He has a crush on Bianca.
*'''Russel 'Russ' Skinner**: Russel is the best friend of Toby. He is afraid of Garth.
***Dina Demeris**:
***Elizabeth Hawke**:
***Garth King**:
***Verity McGuire**:
***Sacha Johnson''':

## Other websites 
*
Dissident

A **dissident** is a person who does not agree with an opinion, policy, or structure. There are also other types of dissidents like **social dissidents** who do not agree with popular social .

## Related pages
*Political prisoner
*List of Singaporean dissidents
Josiah

.]]
**Josiah** was a child king of Judah. He was born around 640 BC. Josiah started his rule as king at the age of 8 when his father, Amon, died. Josiah was thought of as a good king. He followed in the steps of his ancestor King David.

Josiah ruled for 31 years in Jerusalem and died in 609 BC. He was killed by King Necho of Egypt while Josiah was helping the king of Assyria fight off the attacks of the Egyptians. Josiah's son Jehoahaz became the new King of Judah.

## Other websites 
*Jewish Encyclopedia: Josiah
*Catholic Encyclopedia: Josias
Antarctic Circle

The **Antarctic Circle** is one of the five major circles of latitude that mark maps of the Earth.  It is the parallel of latitude at 66° 33′ 39″ south of the Equator, crossing mostly the Southern Ocean.

In the Antarctic Circle, all places have twenty-four hours of daylight on the Summer Solstice in December.  In June on the Winter Solstice all places have twenty-four hours of .  There is a minimum of one whole day that the sun does not set and one whole day that the sun does not rise.

The area south of this circle is named the Antarctic, and the zone to the north is the Southern Temperate Zone.

The continent of Antarctica is a land mass that is most of the area within the Antarctic Circle.  The South Pole is in the center of the Antarctic Circle.

There is no  population of persons south of the Antarctic Circle. There are research centers from some nations on Antarctica.  Teams of scientists live in the research centers for part of the year. In past centuries some whaling stations were set up on Antarctica and some of the whalers would live there for a year or more. At least three children have been born in Antarctica. It is one of the coldest places on earth.The lowest temperature ever recorded on earth was recorded in Antarctica (-129.3)

## Related pages
*Southern Hemisphere
*Northern Hemisphere
*Eastern Hemisphere
*Western Hemisphere
*Seasons
*Solstice and equinox
*Equator
*Tropic of Cancer
*Tropic of Capricorn
*Arctic Circle

## Other websites
*Antarctic Circle org
*Map
Bacteriophage

bacteriophage]]

 to defend against bacteriophages.]]

A **bacteriophage** is a virus that infects bacteria. The term is commonly shortened to **phage**.
Bacteriophages are among the most common and diverse entities in the biosphere. Like viruses that infect eukaryotes (plants, animals, and fungi) there are many different phage structures and functions.

The top of phages is made up of a dice-like shape which has 20 sides and 30 edges. Inside it contains the genetic information, which is its DNA. This dice-like shape often sits on a tail that has leg-like fibres.

Phages are typically made of an outer protein hull that has genetic material inside it. The genetic material may be single-stranded (ssRNA or ssDNA), or double-stranded (dsRNA or dsDNA). It may be between 5,000 and 500,000 base pairs long with either circular or linear arrangement. Bacteriophages are usually between 20 and 200 nanometers in size.

Phage genomes may code for as few as four genes, and as many as hundreds of genes. Phages have a life cycle that begins when the phage attaches to the bacterium. Then they inject their genome into the bacterium. The genome uses the parts of the bacterium to replicate inside it. When there are many phages inside the bacterium, they put enzymes in the bacterium that weaken the outer cell wall so they can burst through it to infect new bacterias.

Phages are everywhere there are bacteria, such as soils or the intestines of animals. They are very common in sea water: up to 9×108 virions per milliliter have been found in microbial mats at the surface, and up to 70% of marine bacteria may be infected by phages.

They have been used for over 90 years as an alternative to antibiotics in the former Soviet Union and Central Europe, as well as in France. However, it was not until the first phage was observed under an electron microscope by Helmut Ruska in 1939 that its true nature was established.

They are a possible therapy against antibiotic resistant strains of many bacteria. On the other hand, some phages complicate biofilms involved in pneumonia and cystic fibrosis. They shelter the bacteria from drugs and so prolong the infection.

## References
Georgia Institute of Technology

The **Georgia Institute of Technology** is a public university (school for after high school) in Atlanta, Georgia. It is also known as **Georgia Tech**. 

It focuses primarily on engineering, science and computer science, but also has schools of management, architecture, and liberal arts.

When it opened in 1885, the school's main focus was on practical experience (learning things by doing them); students spent half of their time in class, and half in the shop. 

It first admitted women in 1952.  

In 1961, it was the first university in the South to integrate (let people of different races go to school together) without a court order.

The school's colors are white and old gold (mustard yellow). Their mascot is Buzz, a Yellow Jacket (a kind of bee-like wasp). 

## References
*
Toaster

A **toaster** is a machine that toasts bread. The bread is put into the toaster and after a few minutes it pops up, toasted. This is because of the heating elements inside the toaster.

The pop-up toaster was invented by Charles Strite in 1921.

## Gallery 

File:OK. Toaster.jpg|A white plastic toaster
File:Black & Decker toaster oven.jpg|A toaster oven
File:Toaster-commercial-conveyor-radiant.JPG|A commercial conveyer style toaster

## References 
## Other websites 
*
*How Toasters Work (Howstuffworks.com)
Toast

**Toast** is bread which has been grilled until hot and crispy. A toaster, grill or open fire is used. Toasted bread is both darker in color and crunchier than normal bread. Toast can be eaten with a range of condiments spread on the surface, such as butter, jam, honey, and cheese to make cheese on toast, though these are optional as some people prefer their toast without condiments (dry toast).

Toast can also be used to make 'toasties', where a filling is compressed and heated between two slices of buttered bread in a toastie maker. Popular fillings include cheese, jam, peanut butter and chocolate spread.

## Preparation 
Before the invention of modern cooking appliances such as toasters and grills, bread has been produced in ovens for millennia.  Toast can be made in the same oven. 

Many brands of sliced bread are available, some specifically marketing their suitability for toasting.

## References
Swiss cheese

**Swiss cheese** is a name for a number of cheeses that are like Swiss Emmental cheese. This name is mostly used in the United States and Canada, and in most cases, the cheeses are made there and are not from Switzerland. Like it, they have holes, which are made by the bacteria that change milk into Swiss cheese. *Propionibacterium* uses the lactic acid that is made by other bacteria, and it gives off a gas called carbon dioxide. This slowly forms bubbles that become the holes. The holes in the cheese are called the "eyes", and a Swiss cheese that does not have holes is called a "blind" cheese.

Most often, Swiss cheeses with larger eyes have a better taste, as the same things that make the eyes bigger also make the taste of the cheese better. These include longer time and more warmth as the cheese is formed.

Emmental cheese has been produced in France, Germany, and Austria for a long time. This is why the names Emmental and Swiss Cheese can be used for kinds of cheese that are not made in Emmental in Switzerland but are made the same way. 

## Related pages
* Emmental cheese

## References
Saint-Fons

**Saint-Fons** is a French city next to Lyon. About 15.000 people live there. The name of the city does not come from a saint. It is because there are many fountains near the city. Originally the place name was *Cent Fonts* ( 100 sources), which was changed into the current city name. The city split from Vénissieux in the middle of the 19th century. The main reason for splitting was because of the chemical industry in the spot.
Incidental music

**Incidental music** is music which has been written for a play.  It is not like opera where there is usually music all the way through.  Incidental music will be used between scenes or for particularly important moments in the play or for songs sung by the actors.  It is called “incidental” because the music is not as important as the play.

Incidental music dates as far back as Ancient Greece.  It was used in the 16th and 17th centuries, especially in the plays of Shakespeare whose characters often sing songs.  At this time incidental music was used more often for comedies than for tragedies.  Tragedies were about important people who were busy ruling their country and having wars.  In the plays they spoke in verse and were too noble to sing.  People thought that comedies were more suitable for including music.  The songs were often sung by actors playing the parts of shepherds, nymphs or clowns.

In later centuries music was used for all types of serious drama.  Sometimes large orchestras were used.  Many famous composers wrote music to be played by an orchestra during plays.  A famous example is the incidental music for Shakespeare’s “A Midsummer Night's Dream” composed by Felix Mendelssohn in 1842.  Other composers worked with living poets such as Goethe and Schiller.  Beethoven wrote music for Goethe’s play *Egmont*.  This music is very closely linked to what happens in the story: the overture describes the harshness of the Spanish oppression of the Netherlands which is what the play is about.  Schubert’s famous *Rosamunde* overture comes from a play called *Die Zauberharfe* (*The Magic Harp*).  Schumann’s music for *Manfred* is different: it was never intended to be performed with the play, it was just inspired by Schumann’s imagination.  Many other composers wrote incidental music, e.g. Sibelius (for Maeterlinck’s play *Pelléas et Mélisande*) and Grieg (for Ibsen’s play *Peer Gynt*).

In all these examples the music is now usually heard at concerts, not as part of the original play.  Most of them have overtures (music played before the play starts) and these overtures are often performed separately, very often at the start of concerts.

Incidental music was not used so much during the 20th century although the plays of Brecht, which are often about political propaganda, needed a new kind of popular music.  Brecht worked with composers like Weill and Eisler who understood the kind of message that he wanted in his plays.  Their music for Brecht’s plays is similar to cabaret music.

Nowadays electronic music is often used in plays.
Canoe

A **canoe** is a small boat, usually powered by paddling, but sometimes sailed. Canoes are pointed at both ends and usually open on top, but can be covered. Canoes are known as "Paddle boats" in some small towns in the south of Australia.

The canoe is propelled by the use of paddles, with the number of paddlers depending on the size of the canoe (most commonly 2). Paddlers face in the direction of travel, either seated or kneeling. In this way paddling a canoe can be contrasted with rowing, where the rowers face away from the direction of travel. Paddles may be single-bladed or double-bladed.

## Gallery 

Image:Canoe 8179.jpg|Aluminum canoe, Upper Klamath Lake
Image:Dugout canoe Rennell.jpg|A dugout canoe of pirogue type in the Solomon Islands
Image:PaulKane-HuntingFish-ROM.jpg|*Spearing Salmon By Torchlight*, an oil painting by Paul Kane 
Image:Pf026012.jpg|Ojibway women in canoe on Leech Lake. 

## Related pages
*Canoe racing

## Other websites 
* International Canoe Federation Homepage
* Canadian Canoe Museum 
* Wooden Canoe Heritage Association
* Canoe
Paddle

around 6.200 B.C.)]]

A **paddle** is a tool used for pushing against liquids, either for propulsion in a boat or for mixing liquids.

Paddles commonly used in canoes consist of a wooden, fibreglass or metal rod (the *shaft*) with a handle on one end and a rigid sheet (the *blade*) on the other end. Paddles for use in kayaks are longer, with a blade on each end, and usually no handles.

## Related pages 
* Oar
Mahdi

The **Mahdi** or **Mehdi** ('the rightly-guided one') is Islam's messiah or savior. It is said that he and the Prophet Jesus will change the world for the better, bringing God in all hearts, before Yawm al-Qiyamah (*Day of the Resurrection*). 

In particular, the Sudanese tribal leader Muhammed Ahmed proclaimed himself as the Mahdi, appointed by Allah to free his country. He defeated the forces of the Khedive of Egypt and the British, only to die suddenly six months later.

## Other websites 
* Who are Mahdavis? 
* The Promised Mehdi
* Syed Mohammad AlMahdi AlMow'ood
Propulsion tools

**Propulsion** is the use of force to make movement.

For **ground propulsion** the first instrument was the wheel.

For **water propulsion** pole, paddle, oar and sail have been used.  Nowadays the most common types are underwater propellers.  Sails are still common, and historically represented the most important form of early propulsion for large ships. 

For **air propulsion**, the most common types are propeller and jet engine.  Others have been used experimentally.

## References
Drama

**Drama** is a type of literature. A drama can be in the form of a novel, television show, movie, play or dance. Although drama is a Greek word meaning "action", most dramas focus more on the relationships between people than on the actions. Dramas usually have a serious feel to them. Drama is considered the opposite of comedy, but drama and comedy can be used at the same time. Drama is full of sensational action, dialogue, incidents etc.  

Shakespeare influenced the theatre industry by showing what could be done with plot and language.
Ribes

: Still life with red currants (1900)]]

***Ribes*** is a genus of about 150 species of flowering plants. They are native throughout the temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. It is the only genus in the family **Grossulariaceae**.  Seven subgenera are recognized.

Sometimes *Ribes* is instead put in the family Saxifragaceae. A few taxonomists place the gooseberry species in a separate genus of *Grossularia*.

## Cultivation
The genus *Ribes* includes the edible currants (blackcurrant, redcurrant, white currant), gooseberry, and several hybrid varieties. It should not be confused with the dried currant used in cakes and puddings, which is a cultivar of small grape (Zante currant). *Ribes* gives its name to the popular blackcurrant cordial Ribena.

The genus also includes the group of ornamental plants collectively known as the flowering currants, for instance *R. sanguineum*.

## References 
current affairs 2020
Kayak

seal hunter in a kayak, armed with a harpoon.]]

A **kayak** is a small boat that is driven by manpower.  It typically has a covered deck, and a cockpit covered by a spraydeck.  It is propelled by a double-bladed paddle by a sitting paddler.  The kayak was used by the native Ainu, Inuit,  Aleut and Eskimo hunters in sub-Arctic regions of northeastern Asia, North America and Greenland.  Modern kayaks come in a wide variety of designs and materials for specialized purposes.

Kayaks typically are built for one, two or occasionally three paddlers who sit facing forward in one or more cockpits below the deck of the boat.  The spray skirt or similar waterproof garment attaches securely to the edges of the cockpit, so that no water from waves or spray may enter the boat. Therefore, in most styles the boat can roll upright again without it filling with water or ejecting the paddler.

Kayaks differ distinctly in design and history from canoes, which are craft propelled by single-bladed paddles by a kneeling paddler, although some modern canoes may be difficult for a non-expert to distinguish from a kayak.  Kayaks are often called canoes in Great Britain and Ireland.

## Other websites 
*USA Canoe and Kayak The National Governing Body of Kayaking in the USA
*WaveTalk.com  A collection of articles about traditional and modern kayak design, ergonomics and biomechanics of kayaking and various kayak applications.
*Kayak design  A series of articles about kayak and paddle design.
*The Kayaking Journal
*Qajaq USA, A non-profit committed to promoting Greenland style kayaking
*British Canoe Union The National Governing Body of Kayaking in the UK
*Wikipaddle  - kayak and canoe wiki - focus is on places to paddle.
*KayakWiki  - A wiki focused primarily on kayak techniques and construction
*International Human Powered Vehicle Association website - information on peddle kayaks
Mast

The **mast** of a sailing ship is a tall vertical pole which supports the sails. Larger ships have several masts, with the size depending on the style of ship.

Until the 20th century, a ship's masts would be wooden spars, originally constructed from a single straight tree trunk. As ship sizes increased, taller masts were constructed by lashing up to three spars together. 

## Other websites 
*http://www.bluewatersailing.com/shipclass.php 
*http://www.hms-trincomalee.co.uk/virtual/rigging/sails.htm 
*http://tallships.sailtraining.org/sailrigs.htm 
*http://boatdesign.net/articles/mast-materials/
*Glossary of Nautical terms, sailing and boat parts
Ziziphus

***Zizhiphus*** is a type of tree that grows fruit. The species *Z. mauritianis* is known as the Indian jujube, and the species *Ziziphus jujuba* is known as the red date. They are mostly found in Asia. The leaves of a zizhiphus are believed to have healing powers in many cultures.

## Sources
Trunk (botany)

trunk]]

The **trunk** is the main stem or "main woody axis of a tree".  In the lumber trade a severed trunk is a log. In botany it means the main structural member of a tree that is directly connected to the roots and which supports the branches.  The trunk is also often called the **bole**.  The trunk is covered by the bark, which protects the tree against damage and often differs markedly from the bottom of the trunk to the top, depending on the species.  The trunk, or bole, is the most important part of the tree for timber production. The tree trunk can be separated into five different layers: the heartwood, the sapwood, the vascular cambium, the inner bark, and the outer bark.

## Related pages
*Wood

## Reference 
*10 Major Differences between Stem and Trunk | Core Differences 

## Other websites 
*Inside a tree trunk  from University of the Western Cape
Cayenne pepper

The **cayenne pepper** is a type of chili pepper.  It is very hot and is used as a spice. Cayenne pepper is the basis for the hot sauce known as Tabasco, as well as being an ingredient in many other  made hot sauces, such as Frank's Red Hot and Cholula. It can also be used in a dried powder form.

## References
## Other websites
* The Chilli King - Advice on growing and cooking with chillies 
* PepperCenter.com Your Complete Chili Pepper Community 
* Cayenne Pepper
Tsaagan

***Tsaagan*** meaning "white" is a dinosaur related to *Velociraptor*. It is in the family Dromaeosauridae. It lived in Asia about 75 million years ago. It was discovered in the Djadokhta Formation of the late Cretaceous of Mongolia.

When it was discovered, it was thought to be a species of *Velociraptor*. After a CAT-scan in 1998, scientists found  that it represented a new genus. In 2010 it was discovered that it was closely related to *Linheraptor*. They are probably in the same genus.
Oar

An **oar** is a tool used to move a boat through water. Oars have a flat blade at one end, and the oarsmen grasp the other end. The difference between oars and paddles is that paddles are held by the paddler, and are not connected with the vessel, whereas oars generally are fastened to the vessel. The use of oars is called rowing. An oar used at the stern (rear) of a boat to steer is called a **steering oar**.

## References