open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
John Knox

**John Knox** (c. 1510 – 24 November 1572) brought the Protestant Reformation to Scotland and was one of the founders of the Presbyterian Church. Knox joined the movement to change the Roman Catholic Church in Scotland. He married twice and had five children. Knox preached until he died.

A  fight between Catholic France and Protestant England for Scotland began again because of the Reformation. Sometimes, France had more power. Other times, England had it. Knox spent many months as a galley slave. He also spent time in exile because of his Protestant beliefs. During a trip to Scotland, Knox's preaching helped the Protestant movement. Several Protestant noblemen came together and made a group called the Lords of the Congregation. When the group had more power, they invited Knox back to Scotland to stay.

In 1500 and 1561, the Scottish Parliament accepted the Reformed confession of faith made by Knox and other people.

Knox often debated with Mary, Queen of Scots. In his book *History of the Reformation in Scotland*, he writes about his five "conversations" with the Roman Catholic queen. In one of those conversations, Mary asked Knox what right he had to  the queen so directly and openly. Knox replied, "I am a worm of this earth, and yet a subject...but I am a watchman, both over the realm (land) and the Kirk [Church] of God...For that reason I am bound in conscience (it is my duty) to blow the trumpet publicly (openly)".

Mary's violent life finally made even many of her Catholic supporters abandon her. She gave up the throne, which allowed Knox to pass the Reformation in Scotland and form the Presbyterian Church.

## References
Affenpinscher

The **Affenpinscher** is a small breed of dog in the toy group. These dogs originally came from Germany. They are known to have existed since the 1600s. Their name comes from the German word "Affe," which means "monkey," because their faces remind people of monkeys. Originally, the dog was bred to be a "ratter," a type of dog that kills rats and mice in homes, farms, and stables. Now that mice are not so commonly found in the home, Affenpinschers are usually just kept as pets.

## Appearance 
The Affenpinscher is a very small kind of dog. It weighs between . Its height is between  at the shoulder. Their face is flat and "monkey-like." The most common and preferred colour of fur for this breed is black, but they can also come in grey, beige, and other colours. In the American Kennel Club, a good example of these dogs could be any colour. In the French and British Kennel Clubs they must only be black.

## Temperament 
Even though Affenpinschers were bred to hunt mice, they do not like to chase other animals, so they can happily live with other pets. They are playful but very stubborn. These dogs can be difficult to train, because they do not like to listen to instructions and often become bored. Affenpinschers are somewhat territorial (protective) when it comes to their toys and food, so they are not recommended for homes with very small children.

This dog is mostly quiet, and does not bark much. It can become very excited if attacked, and shows no fear. toward any aggressor.

## Health 
A small study showed that these dogs live an average of 11.4 years, which is not very long for a small dog (small dogs usually live 14–15 years). One of their most common health problems is bladder disease, which happens most often when the dogs are older (8 years and up.) Their short faces can make it difficult for them to breathe and exercise in hot weather. Like many kinds of dogs, Affenpinschers often get a disease called hip dysplasia which makes it difficult for them to run or walk.

## Extinct variant 
The Seidenpinscher (Silky coated Pinscher),  was bred from the Affenpinscher and the Maltese (dog) around 1800.
The dog had long, tousled, silky hair, a curly tail like the Maltese dog, a face like the Affenpinscher, and a size like an Affenpinscher or Maltese dog. All colors was allowed.

The Seidenpinscher is believed to have died out between the two world wars. A well-known painting is that of the Seidenpinscher Puss from 1863.

## References
1570s

The **1570s** was a decade that started on 1 January 1570 and ended on 31 December 1579.

It is distinct from the decade known as the ***158th decade*** which began on January 1, 1571 and ended on December 31, 1580.

## Events 
* Transition from the Muromachi to the Azuchi-Momoyama period in Japan
*Fourth War of Religion in France, including the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre.
*Vilcabamba, last independent part of the Inca Empire, is conquered by the Spanish.
*8.3 Ms Earthquake destroys the town of Concepción

## Births 
*Abbas I of Safavid dynasty, Shah of Iran 
*Juan Pujol, Catalan composer of music and organist
*Robert Catesby, English leader of the Gunpowder Plot

## Deaths 
*Tupac Amaru, last of the Inca kings
*John Knox, Scottish religious reformer
List of Nobel Prize winners in Literature

The **Nobel Prize in Literature** is one of many Nobel Prizes given in honor of Alfred Nobel. Every year, a writer is chosen by the Swedish Academy to receive the Nobel Prize in Literature. They choose someone who they think has written something that has great value. The prize was awarded the first time in 1901 to Sully Prudhomme of France.

## List of laureates 
List of Nobel Prize laureates (winners) in Literature from 1901 to the present date.

## Related pages 
* List of Nobel Prize winners by country
* List of Nobel Prize winners in Chemistry
* List of Nobel Prize winners in Economics
* List of Nobel Prize winners in Physics
* List of Nobel Prize winners in Physiology or Medicine
* List of Nobel Peace Prize winners

## References
## Other websites 
* The Nobel Prize in Literature - Laureates 
* Nobel Prize Winners in Literature
* The Nobel Prize
* Written in Stone  - Burial locations of literary figures.
1460s

The **1460s** was the decade that started on January 1, 1460 and ended on December 31, 1469. It is distinct from the decade known as the ***147th decade*** which began on January 1, 1461 and ended on December 31, 1470.

## Events 
*Sonni Ali, first Songhai king, conquers many of his African neighbors.
*Thirteen Years' War ends in eastern Europe.
*The Portuguese continue to explore the world.
*Chimú Empire taken over by soldiers of the Inca Empire in South America.

## Births 
*King Louis XII of France
*Emperor Go-Kashiwabara of Japan
*Erasmus, Dutch thinker
*Montezuma II, Aztec ruler of Tenochtitlán
*Pope Paul III
*Juan de Zumárraga, first bishop of Mexico

## Deaths 
*Prince Henry the Navigator, Portuguese explorer
*David of Trebizond, Byzantine Emperor
*Zhengtong Emperor of China
*Nicholas of Cusa, German mathematician and astronomer 
*Pope Pius II
*Skanderbeg, Albanian national hero
*Zara Yaqob, Emperor of Ethiopia
1460

## Events 
* The first Portuguese navigators reach the coast of modern Sierra Leone.
* March 5 – King Christian I of Denmark declares the unity of the two provinces of Schleswig and Holstein, who have been treated as one ever since (although under different national affiliations).
* March 6 – Treaty of Alcacovas – Portugal gives Castile the Canary Islands in exchange for claims in West Africa
* June – The Earl of Warwick and Edward, Earl of March, eldest son of the Duke of York, land in England with an army and seize London.
* July 18 – Battle of Northampton – Warwick and March defeat a Lancastrian army and seize King Henry. It is agreed that York will be Henry's heir, disinheriting the King's son Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales.
* December 30 – Battle of Wakefield – A Lancastrian army under Henry Beaufort, Duke of Somerset and Henry Percy, Earl of Northumberland defeats a Yorkist army under the Duke of York and his son, Edmund, Earl of Rutland. Both York and Rutland are killed, the latter murdered after the battle. York's son Edward becomes leader of the Yorkist faction.
1554

**1554** (MDLIV) was a common year starting on Monday in the Julian calendar.

## Events 
* January 5 – Great fire in Eindhoven, Netherlands.
* February – Thomas Wyatt surrenders to government forces in London.
* February 12 – After claiming the throne of England the previous year, Lady Jane Grey is beheaded for treason alongside her husband.
* March 17 – Princess Elizabeth imprisoned in The Tower.
* April 12 – Mary of Guise becomes Regent of Scotland.
* July 23 – 25 – Wedding of Queen Mary I of England and King Philip of Naples, only son of Emperor Charles V in Winchester, England.
* August 12 – Battle of Renty.  French forces led by Francis, Duke of Guise turn back an invasion of Picardy by Charles V.
* The French forces in Siena surrender to the Imperialists after a long siege.
* Mikael Agricola becomes the bishop of Turku.
* Jesuits establish São Paulo in Brazil.
1532

## Events 
* May 16 – Sir Thomas More resigns as Lord Chancellor of England.
* June 25 – Suleiman I leads another invasion of Hungary, which fails miserably.
* September 1 – Lady Anne Boleyn is created Marchioness of Pembroke by her fiancée, King Henry VIII of England.
* November 16 – Francisco Pizarro and his men capture Inca Atahualpa.
* Atahualpa wins Inca civil war over Huáscar
* *The Prince* is published five years after death of the writer Niccolò Machiavelli
* *Pantagruel* is published by François Rabelais
* Henry VIII grants the Thorne brothers a Royal Charter to found Bristol Grammar School.
Ben Nevis

**Ben Nevis** is the highest mountain in the British Isles at  high.  It is in Scotland, near Fort William. The mountain forms part of the Three Peaks Challenge and attracts an estimated 100,000 climbers per year,

The name comes from the Scottish Gaelic, Beinn Nibheis, which may mean poisonous or terrible. The highest point is marked with a large stone mound which sits an Ordnance Survey trig point.

The ruined walls of an observatory are also on the summit. An emergency shelter has been built on top of the observatory tower for people caught out by bad weather. The roof of the shelter is higher than the trig point by several feet, making it the highest man-made structure in the UK. A war memorial to the dead of World War II is next to the observatory.

On 17 May 2006, a piano that had been buried under one of the cairns on the peak was uncovered by the John Muir Trust, which owns much of the mountain. The piano is believed to have been carried up for charity by removal men from Dundee over 20&nbsp;years earlier.

The view from the UK's highest point can reach to over , and mountains such as the Torridon Hills, Morven in Caithness, Lochnagar, Ben Lomond, Barra Head and Knocklayd in County Antrim, Northern Ireland can be seen.

## References
1206

## Events 
* Temujin becomes Genghis Khan of the Mongol people, he started the Mongol Empire
* Qutb ud-Din starts the Mameluk dynasty in India, the first dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate.
* Livonian Brothers of the Sword in alliance with Semigallians beats Livs
* King Valdemar II and archbishop Andreas Sunonis made a raid to Saaremaa island, Estonia. The islanders were forced to give up and the Danes built a fortress there, but they found no volunteers to stay there. They burned it down themselves and left the island.

## Births 
* Béla IV of Hungary (died 1270)
* Güyük Khan

## Deaths 
* Ikhtiyar al-Din Muhammad Bin Bakhtiyar Khalji – Founder of Muslim rule in Bengal
* April 7 – Frederick I, Duke of Lorraine
* June 4 – Adèle of Champagne, queen of Louis VII of France
* Muhammad of Ghor, Persian conqueror and sultan (born 1162)
* Jamuqa, Mongol military and political leader
Snowdon

**Snowdon** is the highest mountain in Wales.  Its top is known as *Yr Wyddfa* (Old Welsh meaning "the grave").  The English name Snowdon comes from Saxon "Snow Dun", meaning "snow hill".

It is in Snowdonia National Park. As the highest mountain in Wales, Snowdon is one of three mountains climbed as part of the  Three Peaks Challenge.

## References
Amazonas

**Amazonas** is the name of four places in South American nations:

* Amazonas (Brazil), a state in Brazil
* Amazonas Department, Colombia
* Amazonas Region, Peru
* Amazonas (Venezuela), a state in Venezuela

## Related pages
*Amazon
1740s

The **1740s** was a decade that began on 1 January 1740 and ended on 31 December 1749. It is distinct from the decade known as the ***175th decade*** which began on January 1, 1741 and ended on December 31, 1750.

## Events 
* The War of Austrian Succession (1740–1748)

## World leaders 
* Louis XV of France (king from 1715 to 1774)
* Afsharid dynasty of Persia 
** Nadir Shah, 1736–1747 
** Adil Shah, 1747–1748 
** Ebrahim Afshar, 1748 
** Shah Rukh, 1748–1750 
* George II of Great Britain (king from 1727 to 1760) 
* Philip V of Spain (king from 1700 to 1746) 
* Ferdinand VI of Spain (king from 1746 to 1759) 
* Pope Benedict XIV

## Births 
* Marquis de Sade, French writer
* Pope Pius VII
* Thomas Jefferson, third President of the United States (d. 1826)

## Deaths 
* Anna Maria Luisa de' Medici, the last of the Medicis 
* Alexander Pope, English writer 
* Jonathan Swift, Irish writer
Tocantins (state)

**Tocantins** is a state in central Brazil.  The state was made in 1988 out of the northern part of Goiás, and construction began on the capital, Palmas, in 1989.  Palmas is much newer than most cities in the area.

The state is the border between the Amazon Rainforest and Brazil's grassy flatlands.  The state is very important for raising and selling cows and other farm animals.

## References
1517

## Events 
*January 22 – Battle of Ridanieh. The Turkish forces of Selim I defeat the main Mamluk army in Egypt under Touman Bey.
*February 3 – Capture of Cairo by the Turks.
*First contact of organized western merchants with China.
*August 15 – Portuguese merchant Fernao Pires de Andrade met Chinese officials through an interpreter at Pearl River estuary and landed at Hong Kong.
*October 31 – Protestant Reformation: Martin Luther posts his 95 Theses on the door of the Wittenberg Castle Church.
*Conquest of Riazan by Grand Prince Vasili III of Muscovy.
*Selim I, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire conquers Palestine and Egypt, and declares himself Caliph.
*Third outbreak of the sweating sickness in England, especially bad in Oxford and Cambridge

## Births 
*Jacques Peletier du Mans, French mathematician (died 1582)
*Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, English aristocrat (died 1547)
*

## Deaths 
*
Manaus

opera house]]

**Manaus** is the principal city of the North Region of Brazil. It is the capital of Amazonas. Manaus had a great age when latex was discovered in the Amazon region.  Manaus developed economically and culturally.  After that great age, latex started to be produced in other countries, particularly Malaysia and Indonesia, where due the similar climate the plants start to grow even faster than in Brasil.

Manaus is considerated as the entrance door to the biggest ecological reservation in the planet: The Amazon rainforest.  Its name come from a tribe called Manaós that lived in this area and means "Mother of God". The colonization started on 1669, with a small fort, and around it grew a settlement.  In 1833 it became a village, with the name of Manaus.  On October 24th of 1848 it receive the name of city and became the Capital of the state.

Manaus is the site of the "encontro of the waters" where two big rivers Rio Negro (black river) and Solimoes River come together and for more than 10&nbsp;km "walk together but not mixed" because of their differing density, and then become the Amazon.

The American Charles Goodyear, inventor of vulcanization, developed a procedure to process the juice of the rubber tree into rubber. The city became rich, and India rubber barons paid for a big biggest luxury from Europe, a copy the Grand Paris Opéra - the TEATRO AMAZONAS. Other monuments from this time include the MERCADO MUNICIPAL, a copy of the famous market halls Les Halles in Paris, the arts centre RIO PALACIO NEGRO between fascinating Portuguese facades. 

Today Manaus is a foreign trade zone. Foreign enterprises pay here no import duties what guarantees a certain income for the city and the region. Electronics, wood industry and oil refineries have settled in the outskirts in industrial areas. The harbour is the most important trading centre for the care of the city with regional, national and international products.
About 1.5 million people live in Manaus.
It was nominated as one of the places for the Soccer World Cup 2014. the city is growing rapidly and start to prepare for the event that will bring a lot of people.
http://www.facebook.com/pages/Manaus-Brazil/Manaus/31744815753 Manaus in Facebook

The Opera house is the major cultural heritage of the Amazonas. It was inaugurated in 1896 during the rubber boom. In spite of the predominance of neoclassic elements, other styles were used, so the architecture is eclectic, with materials brought from Europe as well as artists like Domenico de Angelis, Giovanni Capranesi and Crispim do Amaral.  Preserved as a national heritage since 1965, today, with more than 100 years, it has room for 681 people including balconies and three floors of boxes. After the restauration made by the state government in 1990, the theater rescued its splendor, with performances of famous operas, national and international musicians.

## Other websites
Gosport

**Gosport** is a town in Hampshire, England. The population of Gosport is around 78,000 

## References
## Other websites
Indonesian language

**Indonesian language** (*Bahasa Indonesia*) is the national and official language of Indonesia and is used in the entire country. It is a form of the Malay language. It is the language of official communication, taught in schools and used for broadcast in electronic and digital media. Being the top multilingual (especially trilingual) country in the world, most Indonesians also speak their own ethnic or native languages, with the most widely spoken being Javanese and Sundanese which consequently give huge influence into the Indonesian language itself.

With huge speakers throughout the country as well as by the diaspora who live abroad, Indonesian language is listed as one of the most spoken languages worldwide. Indonesian language also officially taught and used in schools, universities, and institutions worldwide, especially in Australia, Netherlands, Japan, South Korea, Timor Leste, Vietnam, Taiwan, United States of America, United Kingdom, etc.

Having a long-established historical ties with European countries since the colonialism era, some of Indonesian terms has absorbed into some European languages, mainly the Dutch and English. Indonesian language itself also has numerous loanwords which derived from the European languages, mainly from the Dutch, Portuguese, Spanish, and English. Indonesian language also has loanwords derived from Sanskrit, Chinese, and Arabic which diffused in Indonesian due to the trade and religious-based activities that had been done since ancient times within the Indonesian archipelago region.

## References
Saint (disambiguation)

**Saint** can mean different things:

## Religion
Different religions & groups use the term *saint* differently. The word comes form Latin *Sanctus*, which means holy. In general, saints are believed to be good examples of how people should live, or what people should do. Saints are synonymous, or are associated, with holiness. In the Roman Catholic Church, to become a saint, you have to go through a process called canonization, which is performed by the Pope.
*In the New Testament, the term Saint is used to refer to any member of the Church of Christ.
*In the Roman Catholic Church, a saint is someone who lives a very holy life and loves others. Catholics believe that anyone who is in heaven is already a saint. However, to be declared an official saint by the Church, someone must be canonized. 
*In Mormonism, a saint is someone who is of Mormon line.
*In Protestant churches, a saint is anyone who is baptized and lives their faith.

## Sports teams
**Southampton F.C.* is the nickname for an English football team based in the city of Southampton.
**The New Saints* are a League of Wales football club representing the Welsh town of Llansantffraid-ym-Mechain and the nearby English town of Oswestry.
*Northampton *Saints* are a rugby union club.
*The *New Orleans Saints* are a professional American football franchise of the National Football League.
*St Kilda Football Club in the Australian Football League is known as *The Saints*.

## Entertainment
*"The Saint" is a character created by Leslies Charteris.  The Saint has appeared in a number of books, movies and TV shows, including 
**The Saint, a 1997 movie starring Val Kilmer
*Saint is the title of a novel by Ted Dekker
**Saint (Heavy Metal)*,  a Christian heavy metal band.
*For the pioneering Australian punk band, see The Saints. 
*There are also two actresses by the name of *Saint*: Eva Marie Saint and Silvia Saint. 
* *When the Saints Go Marching In* is a popular tune also known as "The Saints".

## Other
* Saint is a type of pigeon
* *Saint* can be used to describe a really loving or caring person.
Sons and Daughters of Saint Lucia

"**Sons and Daughters of Saint Lucia**" is the national anthem of Saint Lucia. The song has been used since the country became independent in 1979. 

## Lyrics 
### English lyrics
:Sons and daughters of Saint Lucia,
:Love the land that gave us birth.
:Land of beaches, hills and valleys,
:Fairest isle of all the earth!
:Wheresoever you may roam,
:Love, oh love, our island home.

:Gone the times when nations battled,
:For this Helen of the west.
:Gone the days when strife and discord,
:Dimmed her children's toil and rest.
:Dawns at last a brighter day,
:Stretches out a glad new way.

:May the good Lord bless our island,
:Guard her sons from woe and harm.
:May our people live united,
:Strong in soul and strong in arm.
:Justice, Truth and Charity,
:Our ideal forever be!

### French translation
:Fils et filles de Sainte-Lucie,
:aime la terre qui nous a donné naissance.
:Terre de plages, de collines et de vallées,
:la plus belle île de toute la terre!
:Partout où vous pouvez errer,
:Amour, oh amour, notre île à la maison.
:Fini le temps où les nations se battaient
:Pour cette Hélène de l'ouest.
:Fini le temps où les conflits et la discorde
:atténué le travail et le repos de ses enfants.
:Lève enfin un jour plus lumineux,
:s'étend d'une manière nouvelle et heureuse.
:Que le bon Dieu bénisse notre île,
:protège ses fils du malheur et du mal.
:Que notre peuple vive uni,
:fort dans l'âme et fort dans le bras.
:Justice, vérité et charité,
:notre idéal soit pour toujours!
1590s

The **1590s** was a decade that started on 1 January 1590 and ended on 31 December 1599.

It is distinct from the decade known as the ***160th decade*** which began on January 1, 1591 and ended on December 31, 1600.

## Events 
**1590**
* March 14 – Battle of Ivry – Henry IV of France again defeats the forces of the Catholic League under the Duc de Mayenne.
* May–August – Unsuccessful siege of Paris by Henry IV of France. Henry is forced to raise the siege when the Duke of Parma comes to its relief with a Spanish army.
* May 17 – Anne of Denmark is crowned queen of Scotland.
* August 18 – John White, the governor of the Colony of Roanoke, returns from a supply-trip to England and finds his settlement deserted.
* September 15 – Pope Urban VII succeeds Sixtus V.
* December 5 – Pope Gregory XIV succeeds Urban VII.
* Coptic Pope Gabriel VIII succeeds Yoannis XIV.
* Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria Meletius I succeeds Silvester.
* Japan is united by Toyotomi Hideyoshi
* Seven-Year War – Japan invades Korea in 1592 and 1597.
* Journey to the West first appears in China.
794

## Events 
*Kyoto becomes the Japanese capital. Begin of the Heian period.
*Council of Frankfurt – oldest known mentioning of Frankfurt.
537

## Events 
*Pope Silverius deposed by Belisarius at the order of Justinian, who appoints as his successor Pope Vigilius.
*Battle of Camlann between Arthur and Mordred. (traditional date)
*December 27 – Construction of the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople is completed.
1580s

The **1580s** started on 1 January 1580 and ended on 31 December 1589.

It is distinct from the decade known as the ***159th decade*** which began on January 1, 1581 and ended on December 31, 1690.

## Events 
* Khorasan Wars were fought between Abbas the Great and his father king Mohammed Khodabandeh in 1580
* The beginnings of the 'Golden Age' of Literature in England
* The Gregorian calendar is introduced in 1582.
* Sir Humphrey Gilbert claims Newfoundland as England's first overseas colony in 1583
* Francis Drake had come back from going around the world, bringing back with him many treasures.

## Deaths 
* Mary, Queen of Scots (b. 1542)
1583

**1583** (MDLXXXIII) was a common year starting on Saturday in the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Tuesday in the Julian calendar.  The Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar 

## Events 
* Newfoundland claimed by England.
* University of Edinburgh started.

## Births 
* January 8 &ndash; Simon Episcopius, Dutch theologian (d. 1643)
* March 3 &ndash; Edward Herbert, 1st Baron Herbert of Cherbury, English diplomat, poet, and philosopher (d. 1648)
* April 10 &ndash; Hugo Grotius, Dutch philosopher and writer (d. 1645)
* June 16 &ndash; Axel Oxenstierna, Lord High Chancellor of Sweden (d. 1654)
* June 20 &ndash; Jacob De la Gardie, Swedish soldier and statesman (d. 1652)
* July 2 &ndash; Dodo Knyphausen, German soldier (d. 1636)
* September &ndash; Girolamo Frescobaldi, Italian composer (d. 1643)
* September 24 &ndash; Albrecht von Wallenstein, Austrian general (d. 1634)
* November 24 &ndash; Juan Martínez de Jáuregui y Aguilar, Spanish poet (d. 1641)
* December 17 &ndash; Robert Bertie, 1st Earl of Lindsey, English adventurer and soldier (d. 1642)
* December 25 &ndash; Orlando Gibbons, English composer (d. 1625)
* *date unknown*
** Hendrick Jacobszoon Lucifer, Dutch pirate and buccaneer (d. 1627)
** Johann Heinrich Alting, German divine (d. 1644)
** John Beaumont, English poet (d. 1627)
** Bonaventura Elzevir, Dutch printer (d. 1652)
** Stanisław Lubomirski, Polish nobleman (d. 1649)
** Philip Massinger, English dramatist (d. 1640)
** Hayashi Razan, Japanese neo-Confucianist scholar (d. 1657)
* *probable*
** Alexander Henderson, Scottish theologian (d. 1646)
** Nzinga, warrior queen of Ndongo and Matamba (d. 1663)
** Aurelian Townshend, English poet (d. 1643)

## Deaths 
* March 18 &ndash; King Magnus of Livonia (b. 1540)
* April &ndash; Lucas David, Prussian historian (b. 1503)
* May 6 &ndash; Zacharias Ursinus, German theologian (b. 1534)
* June 6
** Nakagawa Kiyohide, Japanese military commander (b. 1556)
** Shibata Katsutoyo, Japanese military commander (b. 1556)
* June 9 &ndash; Thomas Radclyffe, 3rd Earl of Sussex, Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland (b. 1525)
* June &ndash; Oda Nobutaka, Japanese samurai (b. 1558)
* July 1 &ndash; Sakuma Morimasa, Japanese samurai and warlord (beheaded)
* July 6 &ndash; Edmund Grindal, Archbishop of Canterbury (b. 1519)
* September 9 &ndash; Humphrey Gilbert, English explorer (born c. 1537)
* September 16 &ndash; Catherine Jagiellon, queen of John II of Sweden (b. 1526)
* November 11 &ndash; Gerald Fitzgerald, 15th Earl of Desmond, Irish rebel
* November 24 &ndash; René de Birague, French cardinal and chancellor (b. 1506)
* December 14 &ndash; Ivan Fyodorov, Russian printer
* December 31 &ndash; Thomas Erastus, Swiss theologian (b. 1524)
* *date unknown*
** Shibata Katsuie, Japanese military commander (b. 1530)
** Andrei Kurbskii, Russian writer (b. 1528)
1810

## Events 
* January 10 – Marriage of Napoleon and Josephine is annulled
* January 20 – Tyrolean rebel leader Andreas Hofer executed
* March 11 – Napoleon marries Marie-Louise of Austria
* April 19 – Venezuela achieves home rule: Emparan, Governor of the Captaincy General is removed by the people of Caracas and a Junta is installed.
* May 10 – Revolutionary occupation of Buenos Aires town hall.
* May 25 – Armed citizens of Buenos Aires expel the Viceroy from Spain and establish a provincial government for Argentina.
* June 8  – Birth of Robert Schumann, German composer.
* June 23 – John Jacob Astor forms the Pacific Fur Company.
* July – Napoleon annexes the Kingdom of Holland.
* July 20 – Colombia declares independence from Spain.
* August 6 – City of Mompos in modern-day Colombia is declares independence from the Spanish Empire
* September 8 – The *Tonquin* sets sail from New York Harbor with 33 employees of John Jacob Astor's newly created Pacific Fur Company on board. After a six-month journey around the tip of South America, the ship will arrive at the mouth of the Columbia River and Astor's men will establish fur-trading town of Astoria.
* September 16 – *Dieciséis de septiembre*, the Mexican War of Independence of the Republic of Mexico
* September 18 – Chile forms the National Junta, which is their first passage towards independence.
* September 26 – A new Act of Succession is adopted by the Riksdag of the Estates and Jean Baptiste Bernadotte becomes heir to the Swedish throne.
* October 12 – First Oktoberfest: The Bavarian royalty invites the citizens of Munich to join the celebration of the marriage of Crown Prince Ludwig of Bavaria to Princess Therese von Sachsen-Hildburghausen.
* October 27 – United States annexes West Florida from Spain
* November 10 – the Berners Street Hoax – Theodore Hook manages to attract dozens of people to 53 Berners Street in London
* King George III of the United Kingdom recognized as insane
* Amadou Lobbo initiates his jihad in present-day Mali.
* Russia acquires Sokhumi through a treaty with Abkhazian dukes, and declares a protectorate over the whole of Abkhazia.
* Macon's Bill No. 2
* First steamboat on the Ohio River
1730s

The **1730s** was a decade that began on 1 January 1730 and ended on 31 December 1739. It is distinct from the decade known as the ***174th decade*** which began on January 1, 1731 and ended on December 31, 1740.

## Events 
* The Great Awakening – A Protestant religious movement active in the British colonies of North America 
* Octant invented (probably around 1730) independently by John Hadley in Great Britain and Thomas Godfrey in the American colonies

## World leaders 
* Louis XV King of France (king from 1715 to 1774)
* Shahs of Persia (Safavid dynasty and Afsharid dynasty)
# Tahmasp II, 1723–1732
# Abbas III, 1732–1736
# Nadir Shah, 1736–1747 (Began the Afsharid dynasty)
* George II King of Great Britain (king from 1727 to 1760)
* Philip V King of Spain (king from 1700 to 1746)
1730

**1730** (MDCCXXX) was a common year starting on Sunday in the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Thursday in the Julian calendar.

## Events 
* Pope Clement XII elected
* September 17 – Change of emperor of the Ottoman Empire from Ahmed III (1703-1730) to Mahmud I (1730-1754)
* Anna Ivanova (Anna I of Russia) became czarina
Tampico

:*This article is about a city in Mexico. For the birthplace of U.S. President Ronald Reagan, see Tampico, Illinois.*

**Tampico** is the main city in the state of Tamaulipas, Mexico.

It was the site of an incident called the Tampico Affair during the Mexican Revolution in the early 20th century that led to armed conflict between Mexico and the United States. About 80 years earlier Tampico was part of a less serious conflict between the two countries, called the Tampico Expedition.
1600s

The **1600s** was the decade that began on 1 January 1600 and ended on 31 December 1609. It is distinct from the decade known as the ***161th decade*** which began on January 1, 1601 and ended on December 31, 1610

## Events 
* November 5, 1605 – The Gunpowder Plot to blow up the British Parliament.
* 1607 – John Smith of Jamestown enters Virginia and meets the princess, Pocahontas.
* September 2, 1609 – Henry Hudson enters New York Bay.
* Galileo popularized the astronomical use of the telescope.
* Breast baring is a popular fashion amongst the women of England and the Netherlands.
1754

## Events 
* June 19 – The Albany Convention of New England Colonies proposes an American Union
* July – Columbia University founded as King's College by royal charter of King George II of England.  The college was originally in Lower Manhattan.  Instruction was suspended in 1776 and the school would be reopened in 1784 as Columbia College.  With the college's growth in the 19th Century, it would be renamed Columbia University in 1896.
* Change of emperor of the Ottoman Empire from Mahmud I (1730-1754) to Osman III (1754-1757)
* Beginning of the French and Indian War in North America.
* Britain and its colonies adopted a new Marriage Act that formulated many of the rules of modern marriage.

## Births 
* September 9 – William Bligh, Captain of the Bounty, Governor of New South Wales (d. 1817)
1601

**1601** (MDCI) was a common year starting on Monday in the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Thursday in the Julian calendar.  It was the 1st year of the 17th century.  

## Events 
* February 8 – Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, rebels against Queen Elizabeth I of England – his revolt is quickly crushed
* February 25 – Robert Devereux's head is chopped off as a punishment
* Jesuit Matteo Ricci arrives in China
* A bad harvest in Russia due to rainy summer
* Dutch troops chase Portuguese from Málaga
* Start of Siege of Kinsale, in Ireland – the siege started in the Autumn of 1601, and ended in the Battle of Kinsale on 3 January 1602 according to the Gregorian Calendar used today.  This calendar was already being used by the Irish and Spanish forces in the battle, but for the English side, who were still using the old Julian Calendar, the date of the battle was 24 December 1601.
705

## Events 
*February 20 – In a coup d'état, Chinese Chancellor Zhang Jianzhi murdered the Zhang brothers and restored Emperor Zhongzong. This marks the end of the short-lived Zhou Dynasty in China
*Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik succeeded by al-Walid I ibn Abd al-Malik.
*Beginning of a long period of fighting between Trebizond and the Arabs
*Pope John VII succeeds Pope John VI.

## Births 
* Amoghavajra, Chinese translator and Buddhist

## Deaths 
* January 11 – Pope John VI
* November &ndash; 武則天
314

## Events 
* January 11 – Pope Miltiades ends his reign as the Catholic Pope.
* August 30 – Council of Arles, which confirmed the pronouncement of Donatism as a schism, and passed other canons.
* Synod of Ancyra: consulting a magician is declared a sin earning five years of penance.
* Pope Silvester I succeeds Pope Miltiades.
* Alexander becomes Bishop of Byzantium.
1500

**1500** (MD) was a leap year starting on Wednesday in the Julian calendar.  The year was not a leap year in the proleptic Gregorian calendar.  It was the last year of the 15th century.

The year was seen as being important by many Christians in Europe.  They thought it would be the start of the end of the world.  Their belief was based on the phrase "half-time after the time" when the apocalypse was due to occur.  This phrase appears in the Book of Revelation and was seen as referring to 1500.  This time was also just after the Old World's discovery of the Americas in 1492.  And it was greatly influenced by the New World.  

Historically, the year 1500 is often seen as the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the Modern Era.

## Events 
* Europe's population was about 60 million.
* January 5 – Duke Ludovico Sforza recaptures Milan, but is soon driven out again by the French.
* January 26 – Vicente Yáñez Pinzón becomes the first European to discover Brazil.
* April 21 – Portuguese navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral officially discovers Brazil and claims the land for Portugal.
* November 11 – Treaty of Granada – Louis XII of France and Ferdinand II of Aragon agree to divide the Kingdom of Naples between them.
* Emperor Go-Kashiwabara ascends to the throne of Japan.
* Battle of Hemmingstedt: The Danish army fails to conquer the peasants' republic of Dithmarschen.
* Second Battle of Lepanto – The Turkish fleet of Kemal Re'is defeats the Venetians.  The Turks proceed to capture Modon, Lepanto, and Koron.
* The Luo, a Nilotic people from modern Sudan, settle the Cwezi states, establishing the state of Buganda. (approximate date)
* Diogo Dias is the first European to see Madagascar.
1609

## Events 
* September 2-Henry Hudson enters New York Bay
* Lake Champlain was named for the French explorer Samuel de Champlain.
Goalkeeper

in goal for England vs Italy, European Championship 2012]]

A **goalkeeper** is someone who protects a team's goal. There are goalkeepers in sports like football (soccer) and ice hockey, for example. The goalkeeper's mission is to prevent the opposing team from scoring a goal. Goalkeepers normally wear more protective gear than other players on the team but this is not always true.

## Football 
A goalkeeper's kit (or *uniform*) consists of shin guards and gloves to protect his hands from the impact of the ball when he catches it.

Historically, however, until the 1960s goalkeepers would wear no hand protection. 

Until the early 20th century, the goalkeeper would often wear the same coloured strip as his teammates, with the only different item of clothing being his cap. However, in 1909, the Scottish Football Association took steps to ensure the goalkeeper would wear a different colour from the outfield players. This was to show his different role, as the only player allowed to handle the ball.

## Ice hockey
 goalie]]
The goalkeeper in ice hockey (a *Goalie*) uses thicker padding than the other players on the team. This is to prevent damage caused by being hit by the puck. The hockey stick of the goalie is much wider than the stick of other players. The bottom edge is also longer and flatter. The goalie has a very large leather glove on one hand. This glove has a large area to help catch the puck. Goalies normally wear masks that give protection to the entire face and head as well as the neck.

## Field hockey
In field hockey, the goalkeeper stands in the goal net, and stops the other team scoring. Goalkeepers need a lot of kit to protect them from the hockey balls that are hit at them. here is a list:

* Helmet - Protects the head and face
* Neck guard - Protects the neck
* Breastplate - Protects the body, and sometimes back
* Elbow pads - Protect the arms. Sometimes breastplate and elbow guards combine to form *all-in-one*
* Smock - An extra large shirt that covers the breastplate and elbow pads, or the all-in-one
* Gloves - Protect the hands. Right glove has a hole in it to hold the stick
* Box - Protects the groin
* Shorts - Protect the thighs and upper bottom
* Shin guards - Protect the lower legs
* Kickers - Protect the feet
* Stick - Acts as an extra reaching tool for dives

Goalkeepers are the only position in hockey allowed to kick the ball. If another player kicked the ball it would be a foul.

## Images

Image:Roughnecks goalie.jpg|Lacrosse goalie
Image:M060519 vit vipers-dragons 0071.JPG|Field hockey goalie with a goalies stick
Image:Goalkeeper handball penalty shot.jpg|Handball goalkeeper (in black)
Image:JamesRichardSpensley.jpg|An early football goalkeeper - James Spensley founder of Genoa FC
Image:Kirill Chvalko.jpg|Bandy goalkeeper from Russia

## Other websites
* The Museum of Goalkeeping  Charting goalkeeping throughout the history of football.
1245

## Events 
* Rebellion against king Sancho II of Portugal in favor of his brother Alphonso.
* The rebuilding of Westminster Abbey is started.
* Pope Innocent IV sends two missions to the Mongol Khan, suggesting that the Mongols convert to Christianity.
1780

## Events 
*January 16 – American Revolutionary War: Battle of Cape St. Vincent
*February – Armed Neutrality of the North alliance formed between Denmark, Sweden, and Russia.
* March 26 – The *British Gazette and Sunday Monitor*, the first Sunday newspaper in Britain
* April 16 – The University of Münster in Münster, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany is founded
* May 12 – American Revolutionary War: Charleston, South Carolina is taken by  British forces.
* May 29 – American Revolutionary War: Loyalist forces under Col. Banastre Tarleton kill surrendering American soldiers in the Waxhaw Massacre.
* August 16 – American Revolutionary War: Battle of Camden – The British defeat the Americans near Camden, South Carolina.
* September 25 – Benedict Arnold flees to British-held New York
* October 2 –  American Revolutionary War: British spy John Andre is hanged by American forces.
* October 10-16 – Great hurricane flattens the islands of Barbados, Martinique and St. Eustatius
* November 29 – Maria Theresa of Austria dies and her Habsburg dominions pass to her ambitious son, Joseph II, who has already been Holy Roman Emperor since 1765.

*Britain attacks the United Provinces before it can join the Neutral Alliance, because of its support for the American uprising.
* First Epsom Derby horse race run at Epsom Downs, Surrey, England.
* Emperor Kokaku ascends to the throne of Japan
* In Ireland, Lady Berry, who is sentenced to death for the murder of her son, is released when she agrees to become an executioner (retires 1810)
* Good grain and wine harvest in France
* 35th and last volume of Diderot's *Encyclopédie* published
Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park

**Hawaii Volcanoes National Park** is a national park in the U.S. state and island of Hawaii. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.  The park was created in 1916. It includes The Mauna Loa, which is the Earth's biggest volcano, and Kilauea, the Earth's most active volcano.

The park shows the results of millions of years of volcanism, and evolution. These processes produce bare land from the sea, and with complex and unique ecosystems, a distinct Ancient Hawaiian culture.  Kīlauea, one of the world's most active volcanoes, and Mauna Loa is the biggest, it offers scientists with insights on the birth of the Hawaiian Islands, and can give visitors views of the dramatic volcanic landscapes.
 
In recognition of its outstanding natural values, Hawaii Volcanoes National Park has been designated as an International Biosphere Reserve in 1980 and a World Heritage Site in 1987.

## Recent events
On March 19, 2008, there was a small explosion in Halemaumau crater, the first explosive event since 1924 and the first eruption in the Kīlauea caldera since September 1982. 

Debris from the explosion was scattered over an area of . A small amount of ash was also reported at a nearby community. The explosion covered part of Crater Rim Drive and damaged Halemaumau overlook. The explosion did not release any lava, which suggests to scientists that it was driven by hydrothermal or gas sources.

This explosion event followed the opening of a major sulfur dioxide gas vent, greatly increasing levels emitted from the Halemaumau crater.

In 2008, Hawai'i Volcanoes National Park and Jeju Volcanic Island and Lava Tubes became sister parks.

## Gallery

File:Lava HI 2005.jpg|Walking across the cooled lava
File:Puu Oo cropped.jpg|Lava erupting from the vent at Halemaumau 

## Related pages 
*List of World Heritage Sites in the United States

## References 
## Other websites
Pertussis

**Pertussis**, also known as **whooping cough**, is a highly contagious respiratory infection (of the lungs and breathing tubes) caused by the bacterium Bordetella pertussis. In 2018, there were more than 151 000 cases of pertussis globally. 

Pertussis spreads easily from person to person mainly through droplets in the breath put out by coughing or sneezing. The disease is most dangerous in infants, and is a significant cause of disease and death in this age group. The disease usually infects younger people, as they are more prone to diseases. 

People with pertussis are most contagious up to about 3 weeks after the cough begins, and many children who contract the infection have coughing spells that last 4 to 8 weeks. Antibiotics are used to treat the infection. There is a vaccine that can prevent it, so most cases of it are in places where people cannot afford, cannot get, or refuse to get the vaccine. 
However, this vaccine does not work forever. The three-dose primary series diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis (DTP3) (- containing) vaccines lower the risk of severe pertussis in infancy. In 2018, 86% of the global target population had received the recommended three doses of DTP-containing vaccine during infancy. There is also a 6-in-1 vaccine which includes this infection for babies at 8, 12, and 16 months. WHO recommends that the first dose of the 3-in-1 vaccine is administered as early as 6 weeks of age; with the next doses given 4-8 weeks apart, at age 10-14 weeks and 14-18 weeks. A booster dose is recommended, best during the second year of life. Based on local epidemiology, further booster doses may be warranted later in life.

Vaccination of pregnant women is effective in preventing disease in infants too young to be vaccinated.
 
The first symptoms generally appear 7 to 10 days after infection. The disease lasts about 6 weeks (or 3 weeks after the cough begins), and symptoms include vomiting from coughing up thick mucus, and other flu-like symptoms (mild fever (high temperature is uncommon), runny nose, cough). In typical cases the cough gradually develops into a hacking cough followed by whooping (hence the common name of whooping cough). Infants may have a problem breathing and turn blue or grey. Adults commonly become red in the face. Pneumonia is a relatively common complication, and seizures and brain disease occur rarely. 

Petussis can be dangerous. Babies under 6 months old with whooping cough have an increased chance of having problems such as:
*dehydration
*breathing difficulties
*pneumonia
*seizures (fits)

Whooping cough is less severe in older children and adults but coughing may cause problems including:
*sore ribs
*hernia
*middle ear infections
*urine leaking out because of coughing (urinary incontinence)

## References
## Other websites 
* *Pertussis: new insights in diagnosis, incidence and clinical manifestations*, F.G.A. Versteegh, Thesis, 2005
Qazi Muhammad

**Qazi Muhammad** (1893 – 1947) was the Nationalist and religious Kurdish leader and the Head of the Republic of Mahabad, the second modern Kurdish state in the Middle East (after Republic of Ararat). He acted as the president of the Russian backed Republic of Mahabad, in Kurdistan of Iran (Eastern Kurdistan) in 1946. He was also the founder of the Kurdish Democratic Party of Iran. A year later, the Kurdish national movement (Komeley Jiyanewey Kurd) that he helped organize was crushed by Iran's central government. The Iranian military court sentenced him to death, and he was hanged in Chuwarchira Square in the center of city of Mahabad at 30 March 1947. Mustafa Barzani, the father of nationalist Kurdish movement in Iraqi Kurdistan (Southern Kurdistan), was the defence minister in his cabinet. One of his sons Ali Qazi is today an active member in the Kurdish movement.

## Literature
*Archie Roosevelt, Jr., "The Kurdish Republic of Mahabad" ,Middle East Journal, no. 1 (July 1947), pp.&nbsp;247–69
Brine

**Brine** is water that has more than 5% salt in it. It is used for preserving food. For this it is much like vinegar or sugar. Brine is also used to transport heat. Adding salt to water lowers the freezing point of the water. The solubility of salt in water depends on temperature. At 15.5°C, a saturated solution of brine can hold 26.4 % salt by weight. At 0°C, it can hold 23.3% salt.

Brines also have some pharmaceutical properties, which can be used to treat people, especially those with diseases of the skin, allergies and common colds.

## Related pages
*Salinity
*Salt water

## References