open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Donkey

A **donkey** or **ass** (*Equus africanus asinus*) is a mammal of the Equidae family. 
The wild ancestor of the donkey is the African wild ass, *E. africanus*. The donkey has been used as a working animal for at least 5000 years. There are a number of other wild asses in different parts of the world. 

The name 'donkey' is correct for the domesticated animal. It is the tame animal that people use for transportation and other work, such as  a carriage or  a field.

Donkeys can have hybrid children with a common horse. The child of a female horse and a male donkey is called a *mule*. The child of a female donkey and a male horse is called a *hinny*. Mules are more common, and have been used for transportation. Most cannot reproduce.

## Description 
Donkeys, zebras and mules all look different from the common horses.  One difference is the ears. Donkey ears are much longer than horse ears.  The necks are straighter and the croup and rump are also a different shape. If they develop on the donkey, it will usually stay for its whole life. If the neck roll of fat gets too heavy, it will fall or "break over" to one side and never recover its balance again. This is why donkeys should not be fed too much. Many people do not like to work with donkeys. They think that donkeys are too  and will kick them. However, a donkey that is nicely trained can be as easily managed as other horses.

## References
Nepali language

The **Nepali language** is the official language of Nepal and a language in India. Besides Nepal it is spoken in India, Bhutan and parts of Burma. In the Indian states of Sikkim and  West Bengal also it is an official language. This language is also known as Gorkhali Language or Khaskura. It is believed to have originated from the ancient Sanskrit language from which it takes many words. It is written in Devanagari style of writing which is similar to Hindi. It is spoken throughout Nepal and is the mother tongue of more than half of the population. It is also used by the Government of Nepal for all official purposes. In Nepal it is compulsory to study Nepali language as a subject until Grade 10 (High School).

## References
Kathmandu

, Kathmandu Durbar Square, Pashupatinath Temple and Boudhanath]]

**Kathmandu** is the capital city of Nepal. It is the largest city of Nepal. The population of the capital city was 856,767 according to the 2021 census. It is a historical city and has many temples and palaces. 

## Climate 
Kathmandu experiences a subtropical highland climate with distinct seasons. Winters are cool and dry, with temperatures dropping near freezing. Spring is pleasant, marked by mild temperatures and blooming flowers. Summers are warmer with occasional heavy monsoon rains. Autumn offers moderate temperatures and clear skies. The city's elevation at approximately 1,400 meters influences its climate. While temperatures vary, understanding the seasonal patterns is essential for planning activities in this vibrant and culturally rich Nepalese capital. 

## Culture 
Kathmandu is home to several international and regional organizations.

International Buddhist Meditation Center operates in Kathmandu, the capital city of Nepal.

Kathmandu-Durbar Square-06-Mahavishnu-Kuh-Vishnu-Pratapamalla-Jagannath-2007-gje.jpg|Durbar Square
Kathmandu-Janbahal-12-Seto Machindranath-2013-gje.jpg|Buddhist temple
Kathmandu-Indra Chowk-Akash Bhairab-10-2013-gje.jpg|Hindu temple
Kathmandu-Hanuman Dhoka-Eingang-02-2014-gje.jpg|King's palace
Kathmandu-Pashupatinath-Tempel-01-1976-gje.jpg|Pashupatinath
Pashupatinath-Menschen-06-Saddhu-2013-gje.jpg|Sadhu in Pashupatinath
Kathmandu-Laden-24-Altstadt-Modepuppen-2007-gje.jpg|Puppets on a string
Kathmandu-Laden-40-Altstadt-Laden-2007-gje.jpg|Shop in Old Kathmandu
Kathmandu-Strassenhandel-86-mobiler Koch-2015-gje.jpg|Rolling restaurant
Kathmandu-Garden of Dreams-56-Brunnen-2013-gje.jpg|Garden of Dreams
Kathmandu Durbar Square, Maju Dega, Nepal.jpg
Kathmandu, Nepal, Life on the streets.jpg

## Related pages
* Kathmandu Valley
* Nepal
* Theravada

## References
Persian language

**Persian**, also called **Farsi**, is a Western Iranian language. It is one of the co official languages of Iran, Afghanistan and Tajikistan and is also spoken by some people in Pakistan and Uzbekistan.

## Related pages
* Dari
* Kurdistan
* Near East
* Caucasus
** Georgia
** Armenia
** Azerbaijan
* Tajik language
* History of Asia
* Parthian Empire
* Iranic languages
* Sassanid Empire
* Kurdish language
* Indo-Iranic peoples
* Achaemenid Empire
* Indo-European peoples
* Indo-European languages
* Persian Inscriptions on Indian Monuments

## References
11th century

The **11th century** was the century from 1001 to 1100.

## Decades and years 
Note: years before or after the 11th century are in *italics*.

## Related pages 
* Heian period
* Middle Ages
6th century

The **6th century** was the century from 501 to 600.

## Decades and years 
Note: the 6th century officially started in 501.

## Related pages
* Kofun period
* Asuka period
Zambia

The **Republic of Zambia** is a country in southern Africa. It shares its borders with the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the north, Tanzania to the north-east, Malawi to the east, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Botswana, and Namibia to the south, and Angola to the west. It used to be called Northern Rhodesia and it is currently named after the Zambezi River. Zambia is home to one of the seven natural wonders of the world,  Victoria falls. Zambia has at least 72 spoken languages.

The capital of Zambia is Lusaka, which is also the largest city in the country. Hakainde Hichilema is the current president. Its motto is *One Zambia, One Nation* and its national anthem is *Stand and Sing of Zambia, Proud and Free*. Its official language is English.

## History
Zambia originated from Northern Rhodesia. On 24 October 1964, Zambia became an independent country. The first president was Kenneth Kaunda, who ruled Zambia from 1964 to 1991. Zambia was a one party state. His United National Independence Party was the only legal party, and all other parties were banned.

After protests, democratic elections were held in 1991. Kenneth Kaunda lost the elections and gave away his power in an orderly manner to his successor Frederick Chiluba, a former union leader.

Zambia is now a multi-party democracy. It has had four democratic elections since 1991. The latest presidential election was in 2021, which was won by Hakainde Hichilema against Edgar Lungu.

## Economy 
In 1969, Zambia was making a lot of money because of the copper deposits that were mined in Copperbelt province. When copper became cheaper in the 1970s, the economy got worse because people in Zambia were not making as much money from selling copper.  Today, Zambia is a poor country. It does not have many industries. Copper is still its main export. Commercial farming in Zambia is starting to make more money.

## Provinces 
Zambia is divided into ten provinces. Each province is divided into several districts. There are 117 districts all together. The provinces are:

* Central
* Copperbelt
* Eastern
* Luapula
* Lusaka
* Muchinga
* Northern
* North-Western
* Southern
* Western

### Cities
The important places in Zambia are:

## Related pages
* List of rivers of Zambia
* Zambia at the Olympics
* Zambia national football team

## References
**Notes**
Nepali

**Nepali** could mean:
*Anything related to Nepal
*Nepali language or *Gorkhali* – the official language of modern Nepal as well as parts of India and Bhutan
*Nepal Bhasa or *Newari* – the literary language of the Kathmandu Valley and the old state of Nepal
1648

## Events 
* January/October: The Thirty Years' War ended with the Peace of Westphalia.
* October 24 –  Switzerland is recognized as an independent country by the other countries of Europe.
* Saint-Barthélemy was claimed by France.
* The Eighty Years' War between the Netherlands and Spain ended.

## Deaths 
* March 12 – Tirso de Molina, Spanish dramatist and poet (b. 1571)
Copenhagen

**Copenhagen** is the capital city of Denmark. It is also the largest city in Denmark. In 2014, 1,246,611 people lived in the urban area. Copenhagen is on the island of Zealand and the smaller island named Amager.

Founded as a Viking fishing village. Copenhagen was built in the 12th century A.D. and got City rights in 1254. A few years later, it was destroyed nearly completely. In 1443, Copenhagen became the capital of Denmark. In 1801, there were more than 100,000 inhabitants in Copenhagen for the first time. In the 1960s, more than 700,000 people lived in Copenhagen Municipality, and today there are 528,000 inhabitants in the municipality. Near the city centre there is the famous Freetown Christiania.

## Districts
Copenhagen is divided into 10 districts. The districts are:
*Indre By
*Christianshavn
*Vesterbro
*Nørrebro
*Østerbro
*Frederiksberg
*Amagerbro
*Hellerup
*Kastrup
*Bispebjerg

## Famous people
## References
## Other websites 
* Copenhagen Portal - Tourist & Visitors Guide to Copenhagen  
* Insider Travel Tips and Tourist Guides to Copenhagen 
* VisitCopenhagen.dk - Wonderful Copenhagen
* Copenhagen for Partiers - Tourist Guide 
* WorldFlicks in Copenhagen: Photos and interesting places on Google Maps  
* Official website of the city of Copenhaguen (Danish, English)
* Depiction of the City 1588 in *Civitates orbis terrarum*  
* Guide to information about Denmark, Sweden, Copenhagen, Malmö, and the Øresund region 
* Guide to popular attractions including Tivoli Gardens, Nyhavn, and Amalienborg Palace
William Hartnell

**William Henry Hartnell** (8 January 1908 – 23 April 1975) was an English actor. He best known for playing the First Doctor on *Doctor Who* from 1963 to 1966.

## Biography 
He was born in St Pancras, London. In 1932, he was in a movie called *Say It With Music*. He was in more than sixty movies. He usually played funny characters until 1944, when he was a sergeant in a movie called *The Way Ahead*. After that, he played a lot of policemen and soldiers. He was the main character in a movie called *Carry on Sergeant* in 1958. From 1957 to 1961, he appeared on a television show called *The Army Game* and in 1963, gave up movies and became the first Doctor in *Doctor Who*. *Doctor Who* was a new television show.

Hartnell was in *Doctor Who* for three years. In 1966, he got sick. He forgot some of his lines, and argued with the people who made the show. Then he left *Doctor Who*. Patrick Troughton became the new Doctor.

Hartnell's health got worse and in December 1974, he went to hospital. On 23 April 1975, he died in his sleep at the age of 67.

According to some of his colleagues on *Doctor Who*, he could be a difficult person to work with. Others, though, such as actors Peter Purves and William Russell, and producer Verity Lambert, spoke glowingly of him after more than 40 years. Carole Ann Ford, who played the Doctor's granddaughter Susan, has said she and Hartnell "got on terribly well", saying "It upsets me when I hear people saying he was difficult to work with, he was very sweet" Hartnell also adored Verity Lambert, and had great respect for Waris Hussein. Hartnell also admired singer Paul Robeson. In his *Desert Island Discs* interview, Hartnell stated that Paul Robeson was his hero and described him as having a voice like crushed velvet.

## References
Patrick Troughton

**Patrick George Troughton** (25 March 1920 – 28 March 1987) was a British actor. He played different sorts of characters and who was in a lot of movies. 

He is best known as the Second Doctor on *Doctor Who* from 1966 to 1969. He also appeared in *Jason & the Argonauts* (1963) and *The Omen* (1976). His grandson, Harry Melling plays Dudley Dursley in the *Harry Potter* series of movies.
Ribosome

**Ribosomes** are important cell organelles. They are micromolecular machines that make proteins. They do this through RNA translation, building proteins from amino acids using messenger RNA as a template. Ribosomes are found in all living cells, prokaryotes as well as eukaryotes.

Ribosomes are made of two parts: the large and small subunits. Each subunit is made of a mixture of protein and rRNA that are made in the nucleolus of a cell. After being made, ribosomes move from the nuclear envelope to the cytoplasm. Most ribosomes sit on the endoplasmic reticulum, but are also found throughout the cytoplasm. 

Human cells can have up to 10 million ribosomes in every cell. In order to create each ribosome, cells have many copies of rRNA genes. In humans, about 400 rRNA genes are inherited across five chromosomes.

s and assemble proteins out of amino acids bound to transfer RNAs.]]

## Structure 
Ribosomes are made out of two things: a small ribosomal subunit that reads the mRNA, while the large subunit joins amino acids to form a polypeptide chain. Each subunit is composed of one or more ribosomal RNA (rRNA) molecules and a variety of proteins.

Eukaryotes have 80S ribosomes, each consisting of a small (40S) and large (60S) subunit. Their small subunit has a 16S RNA sub-unit (consisting of 1540 nucleotides) bound to 21 proteins. The large subunit has a 5S RNA (120 nucleotides), a 28S RNA (4700 nucleotides), a 5.8S RNA (160 nucleotides) subunits and 46 proteins.

## Types of ribosome 
Ribosomes evolved as cells evolved. Prokaryote (bacterial) ribosomes have just a single RNA chain. Archaeal ribosomes are similar.

Only Eukaryotic ribosomes have the full gear, which is a total 80S ribosome with a small 40S unit plus a large 60S subunit.

## References
Jon Pertwee

**John Devon Roland Pertwee** (7 July 1919&nbsp;– 20 May 1996), better known as **Jon Pertwee**, was an English actor. He is best known for playing the role of the Third Doctor on *Doctor Who* from 1970 to 1974 and also the title scarecrow in the television children's comedy series *Worzel Gummidge*. His son is actor Sean Pertwee.

He was a cousin of actor Bill Pertwee who played Chief Warden Hodges in the comedy ''Dad's Army''.

## References
## Other websites
* 
* Jon Pertwee Biography – British Film Institute
* Jon Pertwee's career including The Navy Lark at http://www.kastria.net 
* *An Hour with Jon Pertwee*  Jon Pertwee reminisces, including time serving on the *Hood* – streaming audio (No longer available)
Tom Baker

**Thomas Stewart Baker MBE** (born 20 January 1934), who is known professionally by his credited stage name as **Tom Baker**, is an English character actor and writer. He is perhaps best known for his work by playing the Fourth Doctor in the long-running BBC science fiction television programme, *Doctor Who*.

## Early life
Baker was born in Liverpool. His father was a sailor, and was Jewish. His mother was Roman Catholic. Baker was not very academic and struggled at school. He failed the eleven plus exam. Baker became a monk when he was 15. When he decided to change his life, he first worked in the Royal Army Medical Corps, and then as a construction worker.  He took up acting first as a hobby, then professionally.

## Career
His first big part was as Grigori Rasputin in the 1971 movie, *Nicholas and Alexandra*. Baker is best known for playing the Fourth Doctor in the long-running science fiction television series *Doctor Who*. He played this role from 1974 to 1981. When he got the job, he was working on a building site, because it was hard to find work as an actor.

He is famous for playing the Doctor longer than any other actor. His version of the character is probably the best remembered by many people. As he thought of himself as a role model for children, he would always pretend to be the Doctor in real life, and sign autographs for them. He did not like to see too much violence in Doctor Who. He once changed the script so the Doctor threatened a character with a jelly baby instead of a knife.

He was a narrator for the comedy sketch show *Little Britain.*

Baker has had many jobs as a voiceover artist.  He is very recognized for his voice. In a 2005 survey of British adults, Baker's voice was the fourth most recognisable after the Queen, Tony Blair and Margaret Thatcher.

## Works
### Movies
### Television
### Video games
### Radio
## References
## Other websites
*
Dusty Springfield

**Dusty Springfield** (16 April 1939 – 2 March 1999) was an English singer. Her real name was '''Mary Isobel Catherine Bernadette O'Brien'*. Her musical career lasted from the late 1950s to the 1990s. She recorded over 200 songs during this time. She became one of the most successful female singers in Britain. She made soul music. Between 1963 and 1989, she had six top&nbsp;20 singles on the United States *Billboard'' Hot 100 chart and 16 on the United Kingdom Singles Chart. She is a member of both the US Rock and Roll and UK Music Halls of Fame. She is famous as a pop icon of the Swinging Sixties.

Springfield was born in London. She learned to sing at home. She liked American jazz music, and wanted to sound like that. In 1958, she joined her first professional group, The Lana Sisters. Two years later, she formed a singing trio, The Springfields. Her solo career began in 1963. Her first successful song was "I Only Want to Be with You". Other successful songs followed: "Wishin' and Hopin'" (1964), "I Just Don't Know What to Do with Myself" (1964), "You Don't Have to Say You Love Me" (1966), and "Son of a Preacher Man" (1968).

Later, she worked in Memphis, Tennessee on a soul album with Atlantic Records. The album was called *Dusty in Memphis*. It was released in 1969. It has been ranked among the greatest albums of all time by the magazine *Rolling Stone*, and in polls by VH1 artists, *New Musical Express* readers, and Channel 4 viewers. The album was also awarded a spot in the Grammy Hall of Fame.

Springfield was openly bisexual.

## References 
## Other websites 
*
The Offspring

**The Offspring** is an American punk group formed in 1984 in Garden Grove, California. Their music has covered both punk rock and pop punk.

## Band members 
### Current members 
* Dexter Holland – lead vocals, rhythm guitar (1984–present)
* Noodles – lead guitar, backing vocals (1985–present)
* Todd Morse – bass, backing vocals (2019–present)
* Jonah Nimoy – rhythm guitar, keyboards, percussion, backing vocals (2023–present)
* Brandon Pertzborn – drums (2023–present)

### Former members 
* Greg K. – bass, backing vocals (1984–2018)
* James Lilja – drums, backing vocals (1984–1987)
* Ron Welty – drums (1987–2003)
* Atom Willard – drums (2003–2007)
* Pete Parada – drums (2007–2021)

## History 
The band was founded by Dexter Holland and Greg Kriesel after a concert of Social Distortion as "Manic Subsidal". As soon as Kevin "Noodles" Wasserman joined the band as their second guitarist in 1985, they changed their name to "The Offspring".

It would not be until ten years after forming that The Offspring saw its first piece of commercial success in its third album, *Smash*, which was released in 1994. Regarded by many as The Offspring's classic release, and Epitaph Records' best-selling album, *Smash* produced four successful hit singles: "Come Out and Play" (which reached #1 on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart), "Self Esteem", "Gotta Get Away" and the radio-only single "Bad Habit". From there, The Offspring became one of the most important punk bands of the 1990s, along with ALL, Bad Religion, Face to Face, Green Day, Guttermouth, Lagwagon, NOFX, Pennywise, Rancid, Social Distortion, The Vandals, and many others.

Their most recent album was released October 11, 2024.

## Discography 
* *The Offspring* (1989)
* *Baghdad* (1991, EP)
* *Ignition* (1992)
* *Smash* (1994)
* *Ixnay on the Hombre* (1997)
* *Americana* (1998)
* *Conspiracy of One* (2000)
* *Splinter* (2003)
* *Greatest Hits* (2005, compilation)
* *Rise and Fall, Rage and Grace* (2008)
* *Days Go By* (2012)
**Let the Bad Times Roll* (2021)
**Supercharged* (2024)

## References
Pineapple

The **pineapple** is a fruit. It is native to South America, Central America and the Caribbean. The word "pineapple" came from European explorers, who thought the fruit looked similar to a pine cone. The pineapple is a tropical plant and it must not be kept under 10 degrees. It takes a long time for the pineapple to grow. It mainly depends on the location and the growing conditions it gets. If the temperature is warm, the pineapple will grow faster. On average, it takes about two to three years to grow. If the fruit travels by boat, the fruit must be picked before ripening, since the trip takes a long time. Sometimes, pineapple has to travel by boat to be accessible to all. It is different for air travel. The pineapple can be picked when it is grown, since travel time is short. In most countries, pineapples are called *ananas*.

## Nutrition
A pineapple contains fiber and vitamin C. The stem of the pineapple has an enzyme having healing effects, anti-inflammatory effects and it may reduce edema. The enzyme from the pineapple is beneficial for a person who wants to go on a good diet. Pineapple contains a lot of manganese; the body needs manganese to build strong bones.

## Varieties
In the world, there are a lot of varieties of pineapples. In fact, there are more than one hundred varieties that grow in different sizes. Four of those are the main varieties:
***Sugarloaf pineapple**: It usually grows in Mexico and Venezuela. The flesh is white and there is no woodiness.
***English Pineapple**: It is found in Central America's countries. The yellow of this pineapple is pale and it has the shape of a square.
***Queen pineapple**: It grows in the Hluhluwe region of South Africa. It is less sweet, the flesh is rich and yellow. The flavor of this variety is mild.
***Smooth Cayenne pineapple**: This variety comes from Hawaii. It contains high sugar and acid content. The leaves are spineless and they have a cylinder shape.

## Symbolism 
Before the colonisation of North America, early Europeans commonly called any kind of fruit an "apple". The Spanish thought that the pineapples looked like pine cones. Even though pineapples have nothing to do with pine cones and apples, because of the similar shape between the pineapple and the pine cone, most people change its meaning into symbolism. Both have been used for symbolizing fertility. The pineapple symbolizes friendship and hospitality to the Caribbeans. These people usually hung pineapples outside their  to show they are welcome.

## References
Tomato

The **tomato** (*Solanum lycopersicum*) is a vegetable/botanical fruit, or specifically, a berry (but not a fruit as ordinary people use the word).

Tomatoes are shiny and smooth with many small seeds. They are very good for health. Most tomatoes are red, but are green when unripe. They slowly change color from green to red as they get ripe, and as they get ripe they get bigger and bigger. There are many different types of tomatoes. Some kinds of tomato are yellow or orange when they are ripe. Tomatoes are used a lot in Italian food. They are also used to make ketchup. Tomatoes are called fruit, because they contain seeds. Tomato seeds get spread around by being eaten by animals. After being eaten the seeds pass through the animal's digestive system.  Although tomatoes are really fruits, many people call them vegetables and treat them like vegetables when they cook. Tomatoes are a savory product.

## History
The tomato is native to western South America. Wild versions were small, like cherry tomatoes, and most likely yellow instead of red. The Spanish first introduced tomatoes to Europe, where they became used in Spanish and Italian food. The French and northern Europeans wrongly thought that they were poisonous as they are a member of the deadly nightshade family. The leaves and immature fruit contains tomatine, which in large amounts would be toxic. However, the ripe fruit contains no tomatine.

## As food
The tomato is grown and eaten around the world. It is used in many ways, such as raw in salads or in slices, stewed, a part of a wide variety of dishes, or processed into ketchup or tomato soup. Unripe green tomatoes can also be breaded and fried, used to make salsa, or pickled. Tomato juice is sold as a drink, and is used in cocktails such as the Bloody Mary.

Tomatoes contain many nutrients but is highest in vitamin C and potassium. A medium tomato contains approximately 15 grams of vitamin C and 290 grams of potassium.

## Related pages
* List of fruits

## References
## Other websites 
* "Is a tomato a fruit or a vegetable?"
* Tomato history and nutrition
* Tomato Nutrition Facts
Pear

The term **pear** may refer to a number of fruits produced and consumed around the world, growing on a tree and harvested in the Northern Hemisphere in late summer into October. Its shape is a teardrop, the flavor of pears is best when they are cool. They are juicy. Pears do not ripen well on trees. They can be soft in the center. They can be baked, canned, frozen, or eaten fresh. They can be made into jams, jellies or juice. They can also be made into pies and put into salads or baby food. They are eighty three percent water. It has a green, red, yellow, or brown skin. The pear originated from Europe, Africa and Asia. Pear trees grow in heavy soil. 

Pears are in the subfamily Maloideae with apples. It is a subfamily of  the family *Rosaceae*.

## Description
The pear comes from the tree Pyrus communis, also called the common pear tree. The tree can be  high. They live an average of 65 years. It starts as a pyramid-shaped tree. As it grows becomes rounded. It ends up becoming oval. This tree has gray bark covered with cracks. Its leaves are dark green and  long. The flowers are pink or white and up to  long.

The pear needs soil that is neither too dry nor too wet. It grows best in temperate and humid climates. 

According to Pear Bureau Northwest, about 3000 known varieties of pears are grown worldwide.

## History
The pear comes from Eastern Europe and Western Asia. It grew during the Neolithic era. Its standard form is the result of different hybridizations from wild specimens.

The pear was also cultivated by the Romans, who ate the fruits raw or cooked, just like apples.

## Images

Pera.williams.red.bartlett.JPG|Pear cut open
Wild Pear Flowers detail.JPG|Pear Blossoms

## Related pages
* List of fruits

## References
Raspberry

from top left: Boulder raspberry, Korean raspberry, Australian native raspberry, West Indian raspberry]]

A **raspberry** is an aggregate fruit, meaning it has many parts joined together. It is similar to a blackberry, but the fruit is hollow on the inside. There are many different species of raspberry plants, but only a few of them have fruit that are sold in stores. Leaves of the raspberry plant are also used fresh or dried in herbal teas. The raspberry is red when ripe, and is also a source of nectar for juices. Raspberries are a popular fruit in some parts of the world.

## Plants
A raspberry plant typically grows in fields or in forest clearings where fire or wood-cutting has produced open space. As a cultivated plant in moist temperate regions, it is easy to grow. It has a tendency to spread unless cut back.

Two types of raspberry plants can be bought in stores: the older summer-bearing type and double- or "ever"-bearing plants. Raspberry plants make stalks each year. The fruit grows on these stalks. These stalks last for 2 years. Both the summer and everbearing plants create the fruit in the summer of the second year of the stalk. The stalks of the everbearing plant also creates fruit in the fall of the first year.

## Species
The raspberry fruit that are sold in stores come from plants that are hybrids between two species, *Rubus idaeus*, European red raspberry, and *Rubus strigosus*, American red raspberry. Fruit from *Rubus occidentalis*, black raspberry, are sometimes available, and hybrids with red fruit exist. These three species are in the same subgenus, *Rubus* subgenus *Idaeobatus*.

Other raspberry species in *Rubus* subgenus *Idaeobatus* include:
* *Rubus crataegifolius* (Korean raspberry)
* *Rubus gunnianus* (Tasmanian alpine raspberry)
* *Rubus leucodermis* (Whitebark or Western raspberry, Blue raspberry, Black raspberry)
* *Rubus parvifolius* (Australian native raspberry)
* *Rubus phoenicolasius* (Wine raspberry or Wineberry)
* *Rubus rosifolius* (West Indian raspberry)
* *Rubus ellipticus* (Yellow Himalayan Raspberry)
* *Rubus strigosus* (American raspberry)

Other raspberry species that are not in *Rubus* subgenus *Idaeobatus* include:
* *Rubus arcticus* (Arctic raspberry)
* *Rubus deliciosus* (Boulder raspberry)
* *Rubus nivalis* (Snow raspberry)
* *Rubus odoratus* (Native Flowering raspberry)
* *Rubus sieboldii* (Molucca raspberry)
Melon

and canary melons.]]
 in India.]]
A **melon** is any kind of , fleshy fruit in the Cucurbitaceae family. Many different cultivars have been produced, especially of muskmelons. Botanically speaking, the melon is a fruit, but some kinds are often considered vegetables. Most melons belong to the genus *Cucumis*, but there are also some that belong to *Benincasa*, *Citrullus* and *Momordica*. The muskmelon belongs to *Cucumis*, while the watermelon belongs to *Citrullus*.

The word *melon* comes from the Latin '**, which itself comes from the Greek  (**').

## History
Melons come from Africa and southwest Asia. They gradually began to appear in Europe toward the end of the Roman Empire. Melons were introduced to America by early settlers, who grew honeydew and casaba melons as early as the 1600s.

## Nutrition
Melons are a nutritious food. The seeds of cantaloupe were used in China to moderate fevers and the digestive system. Elsewhere, seeds were ground into a powder and used to treat tuberculosis. Cantaloupes are particularly beneficial to people with heart disease, as they have large of amounts of an anticoagulant known as adenosine. They also have high levels of potassium, which benefits those with high blood pressure. Due to their high water content, all melons are considered diuretics.

There is also evidence that suggests that eating melons can lower the risk of cancer. USDA researchers discovered that melons have lycopene, an antioxidant found in a select group of fruits and vegetables. Lycopene treats and prevents cancer by trapping free-radicals in cells.

## References
## Other websites
* 
* 
* . List of photographed varieties of melons.
*
Plum

A **plum** is a sweet fruit that grows on a **plum tree**. The scientific name for the tree is *Prunus* *domestica*. When the fruit is dried, it is called a prune. The color "plum" takes its name from the fruit.

***Prunus domestica*** is the **European plum**. Most of the plums we eat are grown on varieties of this tree. Greengages and damsons are varieties of plum.

The plant is usually  a large shrub  or a small tree. It has attractive white blossom in spring. The branches often have thorns. The fruit can be up to 8&nbsp;cm across, and is usually sweet (dessert plum).  Some varieties are sour and require cooking with sugar. The fruit  has a single large seed inside.

Some plum trees need another plum tree growing nearby to fertilise the flowers. Without this the plum tree may not produce any fruit.

Plum colored plums are called *purple plums* and are a deep purple color; other plums are reddish purple. Some other plums can be yellow, red, green or even white. The fruit has a groove running down one side, and a smooth stone (seed). The flesh of the fruit is brownish and is very juicy. The skin can be eaten. It can also be used to make jam and the juice can be used to make wine. It is closely related to the apricot.

Plums contain many nutrients but is highest in vitamin C and potassium. A single plum contains approximately 6 grams of vitamin C and 100 grams of potassium.

## Cultivation 
There are many cultivars of plum. 
Plums come in a wide variety of colors and sizes. Some are much firmer-fleshed than others, and some have yellow, white, green or red flesh, with equally varying skin color. These are some of the best-kown:
* Damson (purple or black skin, green flesh, clingstone, astringent) 
* **Greengage** (firm, green flesh and skin even when ripe)
* **Yellowgage** or golden plum (similar to greengage, but yellow)
* **Victoria plum** (yellow flesh with a red or mottled skin)
* Satsuma plum (firm red flesh with a red skin)
* Mirabelle plum (dark yellow, mostly grown in northeast France)

## Related pages 
* Plum (color)
* Fruit trees

## References
## Other websites 
Plum Nutrition Facts
* *Prunus americanum* images at bioimages.vanderbilt.edu
Peach

The **peach** is a species of the *Prunus persica*, and is a fruit tree of the rose family *Rosaceae*. They grow in the warm regions of both the northern and southern hemispheres.

## Description 
Peach blossoms are small to medium-sized. The tree is sometimes up to 6.5 m (21 feet) in height. When it is grown by people, the height it is usually kept between 3 and 4 m (10 and 13 feet) by pruning. Its leaves are green and pointy. They usually have glands that make a liquid to  insects.

Peaches are also called stone fruits because they have a shell of hard wood around their seed, called a stone or a pit. The skin of a peach is an orange or yellow color, and it is covered in small hairs called *peach fuzz*. A peach without the fuzz is usually called a **nectarine**. The inside of a peach is a golden color. It tastes sweet and . Because of this, peaches are often part of desserts.

## Symbolism 
The **peach** first came from China. It has been grown from at least since 1000 B.C.E.

## Pests 
### Brown rot 
*Brown rot* is a very dangerous kind of peach disease. It can attack the blossoms and stop the fruit from developing. If it is not stopped quickly, good quality fruit can not be produced from the peach tree.

### Peach leaf curl 
*Peach leaf curl*, which is another very serious disease, makes the leaves curl up and begin to die in spring. It can be stopped if it meets fungicide.

### Bacterial spot 
*Bacterial spot* gives harm to the leaves, twigs and fruit. By the time the disease is recognized, it is often too late to stop it. However, some kind of sprays may be used early in the next season to protect the peach tree.

### Cankers 
*Cankers* is a kind of disease that infects the twigs and branches. They make large amounts of amber-colored gum spill out from the infected branch. Later, the bark will crack open completely and the tissue of the twig turns black. Cankers can be removed by pruning.

### Insects 
There are several kinds of insect pests that can be great trouble to the peach. The Oriental fruit moth can make the peaches filled with worms and young growing tips may die. The plum curculio lays its eggs on the fruit, and makes them drop off or become filled with worms. Insects like the tarnished plant bug and the stink bug eat up the fruit that is still developing. Borers attack the base of the trunk and the branches.

## Gallery 

image:Flameprince peaches.jpg|Peaches
image:Peach dessert.jpg|A peach dessert

## References
Grapefruit

**Grapefruit** is a citrus fruit grown in sub-tropical places. It is bigger than an orange and is often more sour, but many types of grapefruit have other flavors. The fruit can grow 10-15cm in diameter.

In 2007, there were about 5,061,023 tons of grapefruits made worldwide, most of the tons coming from the U.S. There are many different kinds of grapefruits with different color pulp. The most popular colors are red, white and pink. There are also a wide range of flavors, from highly acidic and bitter to sweet.

The tree which the grapefruit grows on is normally 5-6 meters tall but can reach up to 15 meters tall. It has dark green leaves that measure up to 150mm and has white flowers that grow 5cm in length.

## Drug interactions 
While they were doing research for a drug against high blood pressure in 1989, scientists found that its effectiveness was worse in people who had eaten grapefruit. Two years later, at the start of 1991, they published their findings in the scientific journal The Lancet. Since then, several substances that are present in the grapefruit and grapefruit juice have been identified, which cause side-effects in certain drugs. That is because grapefruit acts on enzymes in the liver, like the cytochrome CYP3A. like:
* rhabdomyolysis (skeletal breakdown)
* myelotoxicity (less bone marrow)
* nephrotoxicity (damage to the kidneys)
* abnormal heart rhythm called torsade de pointes
* hypotension (low blood pressure)
* gastrointestinal bleeding
* dizziness
* respiratory depression (failing to breathe)

Another effect is that grapefruit compounds may inhibit the absorption of drugs in the intestine. If a drug is not absorbed, then not enough of it is in the blood to have a therapeutic effect. Each affected drug has either a specific increase of effect or decrease.One whole grapefruit or a glass of  of grapefruit juice may cause drug overdose toxicity. Very often, the fact that a drug has interactions with grapefruit or grapefruit juice is indicated on the packaging, or the usage instructions.

## Related pages 
* Bananas
* Liver (anatomy)

## References
Blackberry

The **blackberry** is a black berry made by any of several species in the *Rubus* genus of the Rosaceae family. The blackberry is black, shrub is called "bramble" in Britain, but in the western U.S. "caneberry" is the term is used for both blackberries and raspberries. 

It is a widespread and well known group of over 375 species which reproduce by apomixis. They are native all over the temperate Northern hemisphere and South America. The blackberry grows to about 3 m in height. It makes an edible black fruit, known by the same name. The plant tolerates poor soil very well. 

The plant down its strong suckering roots amongst garden hedges and shrubs. It will grow fast, taking over uncultivated spots very quickly. In some parts of the world, such as in Australia, Chile, New Zealand, and the Pacific Northwest of North America, some blackberry species are regarded as weeds.

## Gallery

Image:blackberries_in_june.JPG|Blackberry bush in late June in the UK
Image:Blackberry fruits05.jpg|Ripening blackberry fruit (Blue-Violet, Magenta Pink)
Image:Spines on blackberry.jpg|Thorns

## Notes
Lychee

A **lychee** (pronounced LIE-chee) is a tropical fruit in the genus *Litchi*. It is grown in some parts of India like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar apart from southern China. Lychees from India are distinctly different from the ones grown in China–apart from being larger and juicier, their outer shell is reddish unlike the brown color lychees in China. Since it is tropical, it will only grow in a warm, wet climate. 

The inside of a lychee is a clear, pinkish-white color. The outside of the fruit is a hard spiky shell. Its seed is brown in color and very hard. The seeds are poisonous and should not be eaten. The lychee has a sweet taste, and may be frozen, made into sauces, jam, puree, or preserves. When frozen, the lychee tastes similar to sorbet.

## References
2. Off season production of litchi in South India for crop diversification and income enhancement of farmers - Indian Institute of horticulture research.
Cherry

A **cherry** is a fruit that grows on a tree or a bush. It belongs to the genus *Prunus*. It is red in color, with a seed in the middle. It tastes slightly sour, and is often used to flavour cakes and ice cream, or is baked in a pie or cobbler. Cherries are also a good source of Vitamin B.

In Japan, Yamagata is top producer of cherries.

## Commercial production
Top Cherry Producing Nations - 2009
(in thousand metric tons)

**Turkey** 417.7

**USA** 390.7

**Iran** 225.0

## References
*
Date

The word **date** can mean:
* A date is a day on a calendar. It is now Thursday**, [[]] October 24, ** (UTC). That means that today's date is * , *, or *  *.
* A date is the fruit of the date palm.
* When  talk about a date, they can also mean that they are meeting with another person — dating. That person might be their boyfriend or girlfriend. People might go out with their partner to have a meal, or they might go to entertain themselves.
Blackcurrant

The **blackcurrant** (*Ribes nigrum*) is a small, bitter-tasting fruit. It can be found in central and northern Europe and northern Asia.

Blackcurrant has a lot of vitamin C in it. Blackcurrant gets its name from its dark color. It is also used to make jelly, ice cream, and cordial. Blackcurrant is a popular flavor in the United Kingdom. Blackcurrants are also used in salads and in baking, similar to raisins. Blackcurrant also has a slight bitter flavor due to the high concentration of vitamin C.
Cherimoya

The **Cherimoya** (*Annona cherimola*), also called the **custard apple**, is a sweet fruit that comes mostly from Peru, Ecuador, Colombia and Bolivia. The inside of a cherimoya is soft, and it is white in color. The skin of the cherimoya fruit is green when it is ripe, and brown if it becomes too ripe. The cherimoya has large, black seeds. The cherimoya is special because it can be grown in high places.

In India, especially in North India, this fruit is known as *sitafal* (named after Sita). In Sri Lanka it is known as "Wali Anoda (වැලි අනෝදා)". 
It is grown in Reggio Calabria as well.
Date palm

]]
The **date palm** (***Phoenix dactylifera***) is a species of palm tree. It has been cultivated for a very long time because of its fruit. The tree is between  high. It has long leaves that look like feathers. Such leaves are called pinnate. The leaves can grow to  in length. The leaves have visible spines. There are about 150 leaflets. Each leaflet can be up to  in length and  in breadth. The full span of the crown of the tree is .

The tree has one or more trunks. All the trunks come from a single system of roots.

## Production 
World production of dates was approximately 6.7 Mio tonnes in 2004 (FAO statistics). The major producers are:
* Egypt: 1,100,000 t (16.2% of world production)
* Iran: 880,000 t (13.0%)
* Saudi Arabia: 830,000 t (12.3%)
* United Arab Emirates: 760,000 t (11.2%)
* India: 710,000 t (10.6%)
* Pakistan: 650,000 t (9.6%)
* Algeria: 450,000 t (6.6%)
* Sudan: 330,000 t 
* Oman: 240,000 t 
* Libya: 140,000 t 
*Tunisia: 150,500 t
* Others: 1,140,000 t
* Iraq used to be a major producer of dates but in recent years production and exports have fallen considerably.
* Kuwait
The First International Date Conference was held in Tripoli in 1959.  In that conference, it was decided to develop a special program under the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations to promote the commercial use of substandard or physically defective dates.
Mark Hoppus

**Mark Allan Hoppus** (born March 15, 1972) is an American musician, singer-songwriter, record producer, and former television personality

He was born March 15, 1972 in Ridgecrest, California. He is known for being a member of the pop punk band Blink 182. 

Hoppus played the bass guitar and sang. After Blink 182 broke up, he started another band, called "+44", with Blink 182's drummer, Travis Barker. When he was younger he played in bands called Pier 69 and the Attic Children. He has a wife named Skye and a son named Jack. Today he continues to play for Blink 182 alongside Travis Barker & Tom DeLonge.

In June 2021, Hoppus was diagnosed with stage-4 lymphoma.

## References
Skull

'']] 

A **skull**, or **cranium**, is a set of bones that make up the head of a vertebrate and keep in place all body parts in the head. It supports the structures of the face and forms a protective cavity for the brain.

As well as protecting the brain, the skull fixes the distance between the eyes and between the ears. This allows stereoscopic vision, and helps the brain judge direction and distance of sounds. In some animals, the skull also has a defensive function (e.g. horned ungulates). The frontal bone is where horns are mounted.

The skull is made of a number of joined (fused) flat bones. In humans, the adult skull is normally made up of 28 bones.

## Structure
Skulls can be classified based on fenestras which are window or opening in a skull. There are 5 types of fenestras which are:
* Antorbital fenestra
* Mandibular fenestra
* Quadratojugal fenestra
* Subsquamosal fenestra
* Temporal fenestra

## References
## Other websites
* Skull Module (California State University Department of Anthology)
* Human skull base
Malmö

**Malmö** is the third largest city in Sweden. About 333,633 people lived there in 2017. It is in the south west part of Sweden, by the sea. The Öresund bridge goes from Malmö to Copenhagen. In the 15th century, Malmö was one of Denmark's largest cities.

Malmö has the biggest Middle Eastern community in Sweden. It is warm in the summer. In winter it is not quite as cold as in other parts of Sweden.

## Twin Cities 
 Newcastle upon Tyne (UK)

## References 
## Other websites
1856

## Births 
* April 5 – Booker T. Washington, American inventor, educator, and writer (d. 1915)
* July 10 – Nikola Tesla, Croatian physicist (d. 1943)
* July 26 – George Bernard Shaw, Irish writer (d. 1950)
* August 3 – Alfred Deakin, 2nd Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1919)
* December 28 – Woodrow Wilson, twenty-eighth President of the United States, Nobel Peace Prize recipient (d. 1924)
Lewinsky scandal

The **Clinton-Lewinsky scandal** was an American political sex scandal in 1998. United States President Bill Clinton was said to have had oral sex with 22 year old Monica Lewinsky. 

Lewinsky said that she had sex with Bill Clinton nine times from November 1995 to March 1997. According to her published schedule, First Lady Hillary Clinton was at the White House for some of the time on seven of those days. The scandal happened after Linda Tripp leaked the secret phone calls between Clinton and Lewinsky.

Clinton did not admit his affair until the annual White House prayer on September 11, 1998, in the presence of several ministers, priests and his wife, Hillary Clinton, in his "I have sinned" speech. The speech was hand-written by Clinton himself and was delivered on the day of publication of the first report by Independent Counsel Ken Starr, which threatened to impeach President Clinton on the grounds of perjury and his sexual affair with former White House intern, Monica Lewinsky. Clinton was eventually impeached, but not removed from office.

## References
Console

**Console** can mean:
* Video game console
* Computer console
** Command Line Interface
** A console where programs show information using text characters.
323

## Events 
* July 3 – In the Battle of Adrianople, Constantine the Great defeats Licinius, who flees to Byzantium.
Stage name

A **stage name** is a name an entertainer (such as a movie star or a musician) uses instead of their real name. Famous examples include actress Marilyn Monroe, singer Lady Gaga and rapper Nicki Minaj.

takes in the place of their real or birth name, they might like this name better than their real one or it's easier for people to remember. Professional wrestlers use stage names also, in their case it is called a "ring name".

Actors and actresses choose stage names for a variety of reasons. Their real names may be the same as or similar to those of other people, or they may be difficult to say or spell.

## Examples
## Related pages
* Pen name
Sandstone

Old Red Sandstone layers forming capping over conglomerate layer and older vertically bedded Silurian greywacke rocks.]]

**Sandstone** is a sedimentary rock. It is a rock made of compacted sand. Sand is small grains of rocks and minerals (such as quartz and feldspar). These are the most common minerals in the Earth's crust.

Sandstone which is resistant to weathering is used for building in many countries. It can be a hard rock. For example, paving slabs can be made out of hard sandstone.

Sandstone is converted into quartzite through heating and pressure. This happens when rocks are squeezed and heated under a mountain chain.

Sandstone is most likely to be deposited from fast pacing water such as rivers.

## Origin 
Sandstone forms in two stages. First, layers of sand build up as sediment, either from water or from air (as in a desert).

Then sand particles are compacted by pressure of overlying deposits, and cemented ('glued' together). The 'cement' is either calcite (calcium carbonate), quartz (silica), or clay. Iron oxide often makes sandstone a reddish color.

## Related pages 
* Old Red Sandstone was laid down in marine conditions. It is a sort of dirty dark red. Devonian period.
* New Red Sandstone was laid down in desert conditions. It is a rock which is fairly bright orange-red in color. Permian period.

## Notes