open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Synesthesia

**Synesthesia**, or **synaesthesia**, is a condition where the brain mixes up the senses. People who have synesthesia are called **synesthetes**.

Synesthesia is usually inherited (called **congenital synesthesia**), but exactly how people inherit it is unknown.

Synesthesia is sometimes reported by people using psychedelic drugs, after a stroke, or during an epileptic seizure. It is also reported to be a result of blindness or deafness. Synesthesia that comes from events unrelated to genes is called **adventitious synesthesia**. This synesthesia results from some drugs or a stroke but not blindness or deafness. It involves sound being linked to vision or touch being linked to hearing.

Synesthesia was investigated a lot in the 19th and early 20th centuries, but in the middle of the 20th century, it was less studied. Only recently has it been studied again in much detail.

Some musicians and composers have a form of synesthesia that allows them to "see" music as colors or shapes. This is called chromesthesia. Mozart is said to have had this form of synesthesia. He said that the key of D major had a warm "orangey" sound to it, while B-flat minor was blackish. A major was a rainbow of colors to him. This may explain why he wrote some of his music using different colors for different music notes, and why much of his music is in major keys.

Another composer who had color-hearing was the Russian composer Alexander Scriabin. In 1907, he talked with another famous composer, Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, who had synesthesia, and they both found that some musical notes made them think of certain colors. Scriabin worked with a man named Alexander Mozer who made a color organ.

## Experiences
The same type of synesthesia may have different effects (pronounced and less pronounced) on different people.

Synesthetes often say that they did not know their experiences were  until they found out that other people did not have them. Others report feeling as if they had been keeping a secret their entire lives. but only a small number have been studied by scientists.
Some common types of synthesia include:
**Grapheme–color synesthesia*: Letters or numbers are seen to have colors of their own. 
**Ordinal linguistic personification*: Numbers, days of the week, and months of the year are felt to have their own personalities.
**Spatial sequence*: Numbers, months of the year, and/or days of the week are located in specific places in space. For example, 1980 may be "farther away" than 1990. Or a year may be seen three-dimensionally as a map.
**Visual motion → sound synesthesia*: Hearing sounds in response to seeing motion.

## References
Jack Nicholson

**John Joseph Nicholson** (born April 22, 1937) is an American retired actor, director, producer and writer. He started out as a writer and part-time actor. He became a star in 1969 when he had a small part in the movie *Easy Rider*. He has won three Oscars, for *As Good as it Gets*, ''One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest*, and *Terms of Endearment*. He is one of the fans for Los Angeles Lakers. Nicholson is one of only two actors who have been nominated for an Academy Award for acting in every decade from the 1960s to 2000s; the other is Michael Caine. Nicholson received the Cecil B. DeMille Award in 1999. He has won seven Golden Globe Awards. He received a Kennedy Center Honor in 2001. Nicholson dropped out from the remake movie *Toni Erdmann''.

## Early Life 
Nicholson was born at Jersey Shore University Medical Center in Neptune City, New Jersey, He is son of showgirl June Frances Nicholson.

## Personal life
Nicholson has been linked to many actresses and models, including Michelle Phillips, Bebe Buell and Lara Flynn Boyle. He had a intimate relationship with Anjelica Huston from 1973 to 1989. The relationship ended when the media reported Rebecca Broussard was pregnant with their child. Nicholson and Broussard had two children together, Lorraine and Raymond. Nicholson's other children are Jennifer (born with Sandra Knight) and Honey Hollman (born with Winnie Hollman). Susan Anspach says that her son, Caleb Goddard, was fathered by Nicholson. He is not sure that he is the father. Nicholson describes himself as a "lifelong Irish Democrat", although he says he supports every President, and he is staunchly pro-life. He is Roman Catholic. In 2020, Nicholson endorsed Bernie Sanders's second presidential campaign for the 2020 nomination.

## Filmography
'' (1960)]]
 ]]

## References
## Other websites 
* 
* Jack Nicholson Online
Kyoto Protocol

The **Kyoto Protocol** is a plan created by the United Nations for the *United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change* that tries to reduce the effects of climate change, such as global warming. The plan says that countries that adopt (follow) the Kyoto Protocol have to try to reduce how much carbon dioxide (and other "greenhouse gases" that pollute the atmosphere) they release into the air.
## Establishment
The full name of the Kyoto Protocol is the **Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change**. It is called the *Kyoto* Protocol because it was made in Kyoto, Japan. The Kyoto Protocol was officially put into "full force" on February 16, 2005. On February 16, Russia began to follow (ratify) the Kyoto Protocol and it was decided to be put into "full force". As of 2020, 192 countries have agreed to follow the Kyoto Protocol.
## Adoption status
There are still 29 countries which have not yet adopted it. Croatia and Kazakhstan have signed the treaty, but have not ratified it (made it a law they have to follow). Donald Trump and The United States of America has signed it but said that they will not ratify it. Australia has only recently ratified the Kyoto Protocol under the previous Prime Minister, Kevin Rudd. Both of these countries have said that the fact that China and India are using exceptions to the treaty (those countries believe parts of the treaty do not apply to them and they will not follow those parts) in the name of industrialization is unfair and that they will not ratify because of this, although it is believed that the U.S. and Australia are protecting their economic interests by not ratifying. The countries' leaders say that changing their use of greenhouse gases will make their people lose jobs. The twenty four other countries have neither signed nor ratified the treaty. 
## Related pages 
*Paris Agreement
## Other websites 
*The Kyoto Protocol
1860s

The **1860s** was the decade that began on January 1, 1860 and ended on December 31, 1869. It is distinct from the decade known as the  which began on January 1, 1861 and ended on December 31, 1870.

## The most important events 
* The Civil War in the United States

## Sports 
College football is first played in 1869.

## World leaders 
* Emperor Franz Josef (Austria-Hungary)
* Prime Minister Sir John A. Macdonald (Canada)
* Emperor Napoleon III (Second French Empire)
* King William I, German Emperor (Germany)
* King Victor Emmanuel II (Italy)
* Pope Pius IX
* Emperor Alexander II (Russia)
* Queen Isabella II (Spain)
* Queen Victoria (United Kingdom)
* Prime Minister Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston (United Kingdom)
* Prime Minister Edward Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby (United Kingdom)
* Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone (United Kingdom)
* President James Buchanan (United States)
* President Abraham Lincoln (United States)
* President Andrew Johnson (United States)
* President Jefferson Davis (Confederate States of America)
* President Ulysses S. Grant (United States)
* Nasser-al-Din Shah of Qajar dynasty (Persia)
* Emperor Kōmei (Japan)
* Emperor Meiji (Japan)
* Emperor Xianfeng (China)
* Emperor Tongzhi (China)
Moose

A **moose** (*Alces alces*; called **elk** in Europe) is a large deer. Some authorities put the American moose in a different species, *Alces americanus*.

A male moose is called a *bull*, a female moose is called a *cow*, and a young moose is called a *calf*. A group of moose is called a *herd*. The plural form of moose is "moose”.

Moose live in northern Europe, Asia, and in North America. Moose live mainly in the taiga forest, especially in areas with lakes, marshes and swamps. They also live in mountain ranges.

## Range 
Moose live in North America and also range from northern Europe to Siberia. In Europe they live in Finland, Sweden, Norway, Poland and the Baltic countries (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania). In North America they live in Canada, Alaska and northern parts of the United States. In 2008 they were re-introduced to Scottish Highlands from Scandinavia.

### Population 
There are about 115,000 moose in Finland, and about the same number in Norway. Alaska has about 200,000. Canada and Russia each have between 500,000 and one million. There are also some in the continental United States. The animal is widely distributed.

## Life 
Moose are active during the day. They live alone, but in winter they sometimes form small groups. Moose eat grass, leaves, twigs, willow, birch, maple shoots and water plants. After a pregnancy of 8 months, the female gives birth to one or two calves. Females can first become pregnant when they are between two and three years old. Young moose stay with their mother for a year; after one year they leave and live alone. Moose usually live to fifteen years old, but they can reach as old as twenty-seven years old. A mother moose will aggressively protect her young. Moose calves are hunted by bears and wolves.

## Predators 
 saddle from Siberia, depicting a moose being hunted by a Siberian tiger.]]

A full-grown moose has few natural enemies. Siberian tigers prey on adult moose. Wolves also pose a threat, especially to females with calves. Brown bears are known to prey on moose, although bears are more likely to take over a wolf kill or to take young moose than to hunt adult moose on their own. American black bears and cougars can take moose calves and can sometimes kill adult cows. Wolverine are most likely to eat moose as carrion but have killed moose, including adults, when the moose are weakened by harsh winter conditions. Killer whales are the moose's only known marine predator. They have been known to prey on moose swimming between islands off North America's northwest coast.

### Moose and humans 
Moose have been hunted by humans since the Stone Age.

Because of their dark coloured fur, moose are hard to see when they are crossing roads at night. They are sometimes hit by cars. In some countries like Canada, Finland; and Sweden there are moose warning signs on roads and motorways are fenced.

## References 
## Other websites 
* goMoose
*
Movie director

A **movie director** is a person who leads the making of a movie (or *film*). They take care of the artistic things in the movie. They give instructions to the actors and direct the people that work on the movie.

Directors give many of their responsibilities to other members of their movie-making team (called a movie crew).  For example, the person who is responsible for the lighting is told by the director what style of lighting he wants and he then creates the lighting for him. It is common for movie directors to work closely with a movie producer. Movie producers are people who control the non-artistic side of movie making. For example, they control all the money that is used for making the movie.

The amount of control a director has in creating their movie is different for each director. It is most common for directors to have some control, while the rest of the movie-making is controlled by the movie studio, and by the people who pay for making the movie. This was very common for American movies made in the 1930s to 1950s. There are a small number of directors who are given complete control over making their movies. For example, Stanley Kubrick, Jean-Luc Godard, Steven Spielberg and James Cameron all had a great amount of control in making their movie.

## Famous directors 
## References
Jubal Early

**Jubal Anderson Early**  (November 3, 1816 – March 2, 1894) was a Confederate general in the American Civil War.  He commanded a corps in Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia. He invaded the north in 1864.  After the war, he was one of the major defenders of the Confederate.

## References
1935

**1935** (MCMXXXV) was a common year starting on Tuesday in the Gregorian calendar.

## Events
* April 15 – Roerich Pact signed in Washington D.C.

## Births 
*January 8 – Elvis Presley, musician (d. 1977)
*January 22 – Saloma, Malaysian actress and singer, wife of P. Ramlee.
*February 5 – Hank Aaron, professional baseball player (d. 2021)
*March 31 – Herb Alpert, musician
*July 17 – Donald Sutherland, actor (d. 2024)
*August 30 - John Phillips, American guitarist (The Mamas & the Papas) (d. 2001)
*September 29 – Jerry Lee Lewis, musician (d. 2022)
*October 12 - Luciano Pavarotti, opera singer (The Three Tenors) (d. 2007)
*November 30 – Woody Allen, movie maker and actor

;People who were born in this year but their day of birth is unknown
* Mike O'Malley, English actor

## Death 
* November 9 - Santadasji Kathia Baba, Hindu Philosopher  (b. 1859)

## Nobel Prizes
*Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine won by Hans Spemann, a German doctor and zoologist.

## Movies released 
**The Turn of the Tide*

## Hit songs
* "Lullaby of Broadway" – by Al Dubin and Harry Warren, from the movie *Gold Diggers of 1935*, won the Academy Award for the best song.
Lewis Carroll

**Lewis Carroll** was the pen name of **Charles Lutwidge Dodgson** (Daresbury, Cheshire, 27 January 1832 – Guildford, Surrey, 14 January 1898). Dodgson was an Oxford don, a logician (mathematics expert), a writer, a poet, an Anglican clergyman, and a photographer. He is most famous for his story ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland* which he told to a young friend, Alice Liddell, when he took the girl and two sisters on a boat trip. Alice enjoyed the story and asked Dodgson to write it down. Carroll then wrote a second story about Alice called *Through the Looking-Glass*. Both stories are still popular all over the world.

Dodgson was a Fellow of Christ Church, Oxford, specialising in logic and mathematics. He wrote a number of books and pamphlets on the subject. He died of pneumonia in Guildford, Surrey.

## Works
### Literary works
* *La Guida di Bragia*, a ballad opera for the marionette theatre (around 1850)
* *Alice's Adventures in Wonderland* (1865)
* *Phantasmagoria*, and other poems (1869). A collection of poems. 
* *Through the Looking-Glass, and what Alice found there* (includes "Jabberwocky" and "The Walrus and the Carpenter") (1871)
* *Pillow Problems*
* *The Hunting of the Snark* (1876)
* *Rhyme? and Reason?* (1883) A collection of poems, including *Phantasmagoria* and *The Hunting of the Snark*
* *A Tangled Tale* (1886)
* *Sylvie and Bruno* (1889)
* *Sylvie and Bruno Concluded* (1893)
* *Three Sunsets and other poems*
* *What the Tortoise said to Achilles* (1895)

### Mathematical works 
* *A syllabus of Plane Algebraic Geometry* (1860)
* *The Fifth Book of Euclid treated algebraically* (1858 and 1868)
* *The Alphabet Cipher*.
* *An elementary treatise on determinants, with their application to simultaneous linear equations and algebraic equations*
* *Euclid and his modern rivals* (1879), both literary and mathematical in style
* *Symbolic Logic Part I*
* *Symbolic Logic Part II* (published posthumously)
* *The Game of Logic*
* *Some popular fallacies about vivisection*
* *Curiosa Mathematica I* (1888)
* *Curiosa Mathematica II* (1892)
* *The Theory of Committees and Elections*, collected, edited, analyzed, and published in 1958, by Duncan Black

 portrait by Herkhomer]]

## Further reading 
* Bowman, Isa 1899. *The Story of Lewis Carroll, told by the real Alice in Wonderland*. Dent, London
* Cohen, Morton N. 1995. *Lewis Carroll: a biography*. London: Macmillan. 
* Clark, Ann 1979. *Lewis Carroll: a biography*. London: J.M. Dent) 
* Collingwood, Stuart Dodgson 1898. *The Life and Letters of Lewis Carroll*. London: T. Fisher Unwin
* De La Mare, Walter 1932. *Lewis Carroll*. Faber & Faber, London.
* Dodgson, Charles L. *The Pamphlets of Lewis Carroll*, v.1 The Oxford Pamphlets (1993) ; v.2 The Mathematical Pamphlets (1994) ; v.3 The Political Pamphlets (2001) ; v.4 The Logic Pamphlets (2010) 
* Lennon, Florence Becker 1947. Lewis Carroll: a biography. Cassell, London. 
* Williams *et al* 1979. *The Lewis Carroll handbook''. Dawson, Kent. List of literature by and about Dodgson.

## References
Michael Landon

**Michael Landon** (October 31, 1936 - July 1, 1991) was an American actor. He is best known for his roles on the TV shows, *Bonanza*, *Little House on the Prairie*, and *Highway to Heaven*.

## Other websites 
*Little House Wiki: Michael Landon
Italian language

being read in Italian by a speaker from Milan]]

The **Italian language** is a Romance language spoken in Italy. Other countries that use Italian as their *official language* are San Marino, Vatican City and Switzerland.  Slovenia, and Croatia also use Italian as an official language, but only in some regions.  Italian is spoken by about 70 million people in several countries, including some parts of Monaco, Malta, Albania, Montenegro, Dodecanese (Greece), Eritrea, Libya, Ethiopia, Somalia, Tunisia. The standard version from Tuscany is used for most writing but other dialects are sometimes written.

## Spoken
It is mostly derived from Latin, with some words from Greek, Etruscan and elsewhere. It is called an inflected language - that means that the meaning of words can be changed by changing their endings. Italian nouns are either masculine or feminine in gender (these usually have little to do with natural genders).

Most singular masculine nouns end in -o, and most plural masculine nouns end in -i.

Most singular feminine nouns end in -a, and most plural feminine nouns end in -e.

So:
#  = male cat
#  = female cat
#  = male cats
#  = female cats

The ending of verbs are quite complicated because of conjugation. The endings depend upon the *tense* of the verb (past, present, future and so on) and on the *person* of the verb (I, you, they etc.). Because Italian grammar uses endings for these inflections, the personal pronoun is not always needed (in the following example it is in parenthesis).

So:
# (io) parlo = I speak
# (noi) parliamo = we speak
# (lui) parlava = he was speaking
# (loro) parlarono = they spoke
# (io) parlerò = I will speak
# parliamo! = let's speak!

There are very many of these endings to learn - it is one of the more difficult parts of the Italian Grammar. But pronunciation is simple - there are just a few rules to learn, and hardly any difficult sounds.

Many Italian words for food have entered the English language, such as: pizza, spaghetti and ravioli. Many technical words in music are Italian, such as forte and allegro. Many musical instrument names are also Italian, such as cello and tuba. Mafia and vendetta come from the darker side of Italian culture. 

Pidgin versions of the Italian language were developed in the colonies of Italy: the most important were in Eritrea, Somalia and Libya.

Map Italophone World - updated.png|Where italian is spoken in the world
Corsivo- come scriverlo a mano in italiano, schede didattiche con alcuni esempi di Paolo Villa (prima edizione commons wikimedia org)-Letters-characters in italics-cursive- how to write it by hand in Italian.pdf|How handwrite cursive at Italian school
Idioma%20italiano.png|Where Italian is born

## Further reading 
* 
* 
* 

## References 
## Other websites 
* Italian grammar and interactive course
* Italian proverbs
* Italian Learning Tips 
* Italian Grammar Primer 
* Italian Online Dictionaries and Glossaries 
* A dictionary of Italian orthography and pronunciation
* English-Italian Dictionary and English-Italian Dictionary on http://www.wordreference.com/
The Velvet Underground

**The Velvet Underground** was an American rock band from New York City. It was formed in 1964. 

The original line-up was Lou Reed, John Cale, Sterling Morrison and Maureen Tucker. They were discovered by the famous artist Andy Warhol, who produced and designed the cover for their first album *The Velvet Underground and Nico*, which paired them with another discovery of his: German model and singer Nico. The album was never really a hit when it was released, but it is now considered a classic. 

Later, the group broke up with Warhol and Nico after being a part of Warhol's Factory for a while. The group released several more albums, *White Light/White Heat* (1967), *The Velvet Underground* (1969) and *Loaded* (1970), before finally breaking up. Lou Reed later had a successful solo career and is considered one of the founders of the "punk" movement.

The group got back together for a reunion tour in the 1990s.

## Discography
;Studio albums
* *The Velvet Underground & Nico* (1967)
* *White Light/White Heat* (1968)
* *The Velvet Underground* (1969)
* *Loaded* (1970)
* *Squeeze* (1973)
* *Scepter Studios Sessions* (2012)

## References
1659

## Events
* February 16 &ndash; The first known cheque (400 pounds) is written.
* May 21 &ndash; The Kingdom of France, the Commonwealth of England and the Dutch Republic sign the Treaty of The Hague.
* Thomas Hobbes publishes *De Homine*.
* Drought occurs in India.
* Christiaan Huygens writes *Systema Saturnium*.

* Abel Tasman, Dutch explorer

## References
Black comedy

**Black comedy** (also known as **dark comedy** or **dark humor**) is getting humor (something funny or comical) from something serious. It is known for its use of very sensitive subjects, such as war, tragedy, disease,  death and suffering of the innocent. Black comedy is also a form of satire that uses irony and mocking. It may cause a wide variety of emotional reactions.

The term *black humor* (from the French *humour noir*) was coined by the surrealist André Breton in 1935.

Some famous examples of black comedy include South Park, Waiting for Godot, Happy Tree Friends, Charles Addams' cartoons, Catch-22, Dr. Strangelove, Harold and Maude, and plays by Joe Orton, the novel film and early TV episodes of M*A*S*H, Itchy and Scratchy from The Simpsons, cartoons by John Callahan, Lasagna Cat, It's Such a Beautiful Day, SuperMarioLogan, SMG4, Moral Orel, Don't Hug Me I'm Scared, etc.

## References
Elliott Gould

**Elliot Gould** (born as **Elliott Goldstein** on August 29, 1938) is an American actor. He was born in Brooklyn, New York City. He is mostly known for his roles in many films including *M*A*S*H* (1970), *Bob & Carol & Ted & Alice* (1970), and ''Ocean's Eleven* (2001). He has also made guest appearances on many television such as Jack Geller in *Friends''.

Gould's parents were Jewish; Gould says he has a very deep Jewish identity. He married singer and actress Barbra Streisand in 1963. The couple separated in 1969 and divorced in 1971. Their son is actor Jason Gould (born 1966).

## References 
## Other websites 
*
Equation

A mathematical **equation** is a mathematical object containing two or more expressions connected by equals signs (=). The equals sign says that all of the expressions describe the same mathematical object.

An equation should not be confused with an expression. An expression is one piece of an equation, and does not have the equals sign. Equations are the most common type of formula.

There are two kinds of mathematical equations:
* The kind of equation that is either true or false; these are also called identities. For example: 
:2\cdot(x+4)=2x+8\rightarrow\text{true}
* The kind of equation that is only true for certain values of the variable(s). The equation is only true if the variable(s) have that value. For example:
: 2\cdot x=8\rightarrow x=4

The second kind is often used to solve problems in which finding the value of some variables is involved. For example, if
: 2x=8, x=\frac82=4

## Types of equations 
Equations can be classified by the types of operations and quantities involved. For example:
* An algebraic equation is an equation in which both sides are polynomials. These are further classified by degree:
** Linear equation for degree one
** Quadratic equation for degree two
** Cubic equation for degree three
** Quartic equation for degree four
** Quintic equation for degree five
* A Diophantine equation is an equation where the unknowns are required to be integers
* A differential equation is a functional equation involving derivatives of the unknown functions, which include:
** Ordinary differential equation
** Partial differential equation

## Related pages 
* Equation solving
* Formula
* Rate equation
* System of linear equations

## References
1783

## Events 
*February 3 – American Revolutionary War: Spain recognizes the independence of the United States.
*February 4 – American Revolutionary War: the Government of the United Kingdom formally declares that it will cease hostilities with the United States of America.
* February 4 – Earthquake in Calabria, Italy – 50.000 dead
*March 5 – Last celebration of Massacre Day.
* May 18 – Saint John, New Brunswick, Canada– First United Empire Loyalists reach Parrtown.
* June 5 – The Montgolfier brothers publicly demonstrate their *montgolfière* (hot air balloon) in Annonay, France.
* June 8 – The volcano Laki, in Iceland, begins an eight-month eruption which kills 9350 people and starts a seven-year famine. Eruption causes deaths of livestock when they eat contaminated grass and also widespread crop failure.
* July 16 – Grants of land in Canada to American loyalists announced.
* August 5 – Mount Asama erupts, causing turmoil in Edo period Japan.
* September 3 – American Revolutionary War ends: Treaty of Paris –  the United States and the United Kingdom of Great Britain sign a treaty in Paris, ending the war.
* November 2 – In Rocky Hill, New Jersey, American general George Washington gives his "Farewell Address to the Army".
* November 21 – In Paris, Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier and François Laurent, marquis d'Arlandes, make the first untethered hot air balloon flight (flight time: 25 minutes, Maximum height: 5* miles).
* November 25 – American Revolutionary War: The last British troops leave New York City three months after the signing of the Treaty of Paris.
* December 4 – At Fraunces Tavern in New York City, US general George Washington formally bids his officers farewell.

*City of Sevastopol founded;
*United Empire Loyalists flee to Canada from the new United States;
*Treaty of Versailles signed, ending hostilities between the Franco-Spanish Alliance and  the United Kingdom of Great Britain.
* Loyalists from New York settle Great Abaco in the Bahamas.

## Births 
* January 23 – Stendhal, French writer (d. 1842)
* March 8 – Hannah Van Buren, First Lady of the United States (d. 1819)
* April 3 – Washington Irving, American writer (d. 1859)
* April 10 – Hortense de Beauharnais, Queen of Holland and mother of Napoleon III of France (d. 1837)
* July 24 – Simón Bolívar, Venezuelan patriot, revolutionary leader and statesman (d. 1830).
* September 17 – Samuel Prout, English painter (d. 1852)
1809

## Events 
## Births 
* January 4 – Louis Braille, French teacher of the blind (d. 1852).
* January 15 – Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, French anarchist (d. 1864)
* January 19 – Edgar Allan Poe, American  writer (d. 1849)
* February 3 – Felix Mendelssohn, German composer (d. 1847)
* February 12 – Abraham Lincoln, sixteenth President of the United States (d. 1865)
* February 12 –  Charles Darwin, British naturalist (d. 1882)
* February 15 – Cyrus McCormick, American inventor (d. 1884)
* March 31 – Nikolai Gogol, Russian writer (d. 1852)
* April 15 – Hermann Gunter Grassmann, Prussian mathematician (d. 1877)
* June 4 – Columbus Delano, American statesman  (d. 1896)
* June 4 – John Henry Pratt, English clergyman and mathematician (d. 1871)
* June 8 – Richard Wigginton Thompson, American politician (d. 1900)
* August 6 – Alfred Lord Tennyson, British poet (d. 1892)
* August 8 – Heinrich Abeken, German theologian (d. 1872)
* August 27 – Hannibal Hamlin, American politician, fifteenth Vice President of the United States (d. 1891)
* August 29 – Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr., American physician and writer (d. 1894)
* October 22 – Volney E. Howard, American politician (d. 1889)
* December 24 – Kit Carson, American frontiersman (d. 1868)
* December 29 – William Ewart Gladstone, British politician (d. 1898)

## Deaths
Jyväskylä

**Jyväskylä** (; ) is a city and municipality in Finland in the western part of the Finnish Lakeland. It is located about 150&nbsp;km north-east from Tampere, the third largest city in Finland; and about 270&nbsp;km north from Helsinki, the capital of Finland. The Jyväskylä sub-region includes Jyväskylä, Hankasalmi, Laukaa, Muurame, Petäjävesi, Toivakka, and Uurainen. Other border municipalities of Jyväskylä are Joutsa, Jämsä and Luhanka.

Jyväskylä is the largest city in the region of Central Finland and in the Finnish Lakeland; as of , Jyväskylä had a population of .
when in 1940, there were only 8,000 inhabitants in Jyväskylä. Since 2009, Korpilahti became a part of Jyväskylä.

Elias Lönnrot, the compiler of the Finnish national epic, the *Kalevala*, gave the city the nickname "Athens of Finland". This nickname refers to the major role of Jyväskylä as an educational centre. The works of the most famous Finnish architect Alvar Aalto can be seen throughout the city. The city hosts the Neste Oil Rally Finland, which is part of the World Rally Championship. It is also home of the annual Jyväskylä Arts Festival.

## References
## Other websites
* Jyväskylä page, *english* 
* Jyväskylä page, *finnish*
Canteen

A **canteen** can be:

* Canteen (bottle), an object for carrying water
* Canteen (place), a small restaurant
Olivine

**Olivine** (or chrysolite) is a silicate mineral made of magnesium iron silicate with the formula .

It ranges in colour from chartreuse green to pale olive.  In its gem form, it is called peridot.

**Dunite** contains (or has) over 90%+ olivine in it.  Dunite and other peridotite rocks are major constituents of the Earth's mantle above a depth of about 400 kilometers. Dunite is rarely found on land, except where slabs of mantle rock from a subduction zone have been thrust onto continental crust. 
Olivine has also been found at several extraterrestrial locations, such as the moon and many passing space rocks - as well as the outer layers of dust orbiting young stars.

Chryso*lit*e should not be confused with chryso*til*e, which is a form of asbestos.

File:Peridot in basalt.jpg|Light green olivine crystals in peridotite xenoliths in basalt from Arizona
File:Lunar Olivine Basalt 15555 from Apollo 15 in National Museum of Natural History.jpg|Olivine basalt from the Moon, collected in 1971 by the crew of Apollo 15
File:Forsterite-158776.jpg|Bright green olivine from Pakistan
File:Lava - Olivine - Azores.jpg|Olivine in lava from the Azores
File:Olivine in polarizing light.jpg|Olivine in cross-polarized light
30 BC

The year **30 BC** was either a common year starting on Wednesday, Thursday or Friday or a leap year starting on Thursday. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Octavian and Crassus**.

## Events 
### Roman Republic 
* Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian becomes Roman Consul for the fourth time. His partner is Marcus Licinius Crassus the Younger.
* Octavian leads his army to the Dardanelles. He marches into Syria. Herod the Great sends him vows of loyalty and troops to help.
* Gaius Cornelius Gallus arrives in Cyrene and occupies Paraetonium. 
* Mark Antony retreats with his army to Egypt.  He learns that Pelusium opened its gates to Octavian without resistance.
* Octavian Caesar captures Alexandria. This marks the official annexation of Ancient Egypt to the Roman Republic.
* Cleopatra  to Berenice on the west coast of the Red Sea. King Malchus of Nabatea attacks from the desert and burns the Egyptian ships.
* The children of Cleopatra are spared by Octavian. Octavia Minor raises Alexander Helios, Cleopatra Selene and Ptolemy Philadelphus in her house in Rome.

### Asia 
* Common date given for Thiruvalluvar to write the *Tirukkuṟaḷ*
* First possible date for the invention of the wheelbarrow

## Births 
* Maroboduus, king of the Marcomanni (d. AD 37)

## Deaths 
* Mark Antony, Roman consul and general  (b. 83 BC)
* Marcus Antonius Antyllus, son of Mark Antony and Fulvia (b. 47 BC)
* Hyrcanus II, king and high priest of Judea until 40 BC
* August 12 &ndash; Cleopatra VII, last queen of Ptolemaic Egypt (b. 69 BC)
* August 23 &ndash; Ptolemy Caesar, son of Julius Caesar and pharaoh of Egypt (b. 47 BC)
Economy

An **economy** is a system of making and trading things of value. It is usually divided into goods (materials and objects) and services (things people do). An economy assumes that there is a medium of exchange, which, in the modern world, is called 'finance'. This makes trade possible. The alternative  systems of barter – exist only on a very small scale.

To better understand how the economy works, it can be discussed in three sections:
* The primary sector which covers raw products from farming, fishing, and mining, and so on.
* The secondary sector which covers manufacturing of goods.
* The tertiary sector which covers a range of services, provided to people and companies.

The term 'real economy' is sometimes used to mean the part of the economy concerned with goods and services. This is contrasted with the 'paper economy', the financial side of the economy, which buys and sells on the financial markets.

The word 'economy' comes from the Greek word '''οἰκονόμος'''. This means 'person who manages the house'.

## Related pages 
* Economics
* Political economy

## References
Steam

beam  engine, used in Netherton at the ironworks of M.W. Grazebrook. Re-erected on the A38(M) in Birmingham, England]]
**Steam** is the name given to water when it is in a gas form.  Steam is sometimes thought of as a cloud of translucent mist, however that is only the result of the steam condensing in the air, forming water vapor. Actual hot steam is invisible.
## Introduction
When the pressure of the atmosphere is 1013 mbar – average pressure for a place which is at sea level – water will boil to become steam at 100 °C.  This is the boiling point.  Boiling happens in a boiler. 100 °C is the same temperature as 212 °F, 80 °R and 373.15 Kelvin. Steam is mainly used for powering up steam engines. A steam engine is a heat engine performing mechanical work using steam as its working fluid.

## Heating food
Steam gets sometimes used for heating food. In a pressure cooker, some water turns into steam, and some steam gets released (or let out) thru a valve.

There are other ways to steam food.

## Other websites
* Steam -Citizendium
Steering wheel

A **steering wheel** is a circular object used by the driver of a car or boat to change the direction it is moving. 

The earliest known use of a steering wheel can be traced back to 1894 when Alfred Vacheron used one on his custom four-horsepower Panhard to participate in the Paris-Rouen race. That race in France in 1894 is one of the earliest known instances of a wheel-shaped device being used to steer a car. 

In 1898 the French manufacturer introduced a steering wheel in all its models. Other manufacturers followed suit – and the steering wheel became a set part of automotive design. Early on, carmakers also began installing bulb horns on steering wheels, for as traffic increased, it became necessary to warn other drivers as well as pedestrians and cyclists. 

For about two decades thereafter, steering wheels were incredibly simple: wooden circles directly connected to the wheel axis. They served no other task and could be extremely hard to turn, especially at low speeds or when stationary. Though power steering patents were circulating as early as the steering wheel itself, it was quite a long time before these systems were used. In the 1920s, an engineer named Francis W. Davis wanted to make truck driving a little easier and invented the first power steering system to be fitted into a vehicle, which was inspired by earlier work on power steering systems used in ships. 

In the 1950s it became popular to line steering wheels with real or artificial leather, which gave drivers a better grip. 

## References
Netball

**Netball** is a sport played in two teams of seven. It is like basketball except that bouncing the ball is not allowed. The player cannot step with the ball either, nor hold it for more than three seconds. The game proceeds by players throwing (passing) the ball to each other until one attempts to throw it through the hoop, known as a "shot". 

There are 7 fixed positions on the court, which restrict the places where each player is allowed to go:
* C - Centre
* WA - Wing attack
* WD - Wing defence
* GA - Goal attack
* GD - Goal defence
* GK - Goal keeper
* GS - Goal shooter

There are many rules in netball some of which are these:
* If a shooter attempts to shoot the ball but misses the hoop without it touching, then the shooter must wait until another player touches the ball first or until the ball bounces before she can touch the ball again.
* A player can only hold the ball for three seconds - held ball
* No stepping with the ball - stepping
* When defending, a player must be 3 feet from the player with the ball - otherwise it is called obstruction
* A player may not bounce the ball to herself - replay
* A player may not contact another player - contact
* A player may not enter a part of the court where her position is not allowed - offside
* When shooting or defending, a player may not use the pole as support - free pass to the other teams.
*No player is allowed to shoot from outside the semi circle or pass over a third.

## Playing court 
A netball court is 30.5m long and 15.25m wide. The longer sides are called the side lines and the shorter sides the goal lines. The court is divided into three equal parts, a centre third and two goal thirds. These sections are marked by two transverse lines parallel to the goal lines. Each third measures 10.167m wide.

The goal circle is a semi‑circle 4.9m in radius and its centre is the midpoint of the goal line. The centre circle is 0.9m in diameter and is marked in the centre of the court.

All lines are part of the court and  50mm wide, preferably white. It is recommended that they are a textured, water‑based acrylic, straight and have clean, crisp edges.
Atomic number

The **atomic number** (symbol: **Z**) of an atom is the number of protons in the nucleus of the atom. The atomic number of an atom identifies which element it is. In a neutral atom, the atomic number is equal to the number of electrons orbiting the nucleus. The elements of the periodic table are listed in order of increasing atomic number.

Atomic number is not the same as:  
* **atomic mass** (symbol: *m*a), which is the mass of a single atom, commonly expressed in unified atomic mass units  
* **mass number** (symbol: **A**), which is the sum of the number of protons and number of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom  
* **relative atomic mass** (also called **atomic weight**;** **symbol: *A*r), which is the ratio of the average mass per atom of an element from a given sample to 1/12 the mass of a carbon-12 atom.

The atomic number of the periodic table directly corresponds to the number of protons which is in the atom. Once another proton is added, it is no longer the same element. The same cannot be applied to when another neutron or another electron is added. Adding more electrons will give the atom a negative charge and removing electrons will give the atom a positive charge. Metals tend to lose electrons, which creates a positive charge. Non-metals tend to gain electrons, forming a negative charge. Electrons are the foundation for determining how compounds are formed among atoms.

Adding or removing neutrons within an atom changes its isotope. As an example, carbon-12 is the most stable isotope for a carbon atom. However, we can add two more neutrons and carbon-12 is now carbon-14, a less stable isotope of carbon. The number of an isotope directly correlates to the atomic mass of an element.  The amount of neutrons in any given atom by subtracting the atomic number from the atomic mass.

For example, oxygen has 8 protons. The atomic number is the number of protons an element has.  So, if an unidentified element has 8 protons, then it is oxygen. This is because each element has a certain number of protons.  If an element had 9 protons, it would not be oxygen, but an element can have 8 protons, and 9 neutrons and still be considered oxygen; we call this an isotope.

## References 
## Related pages 
*Henry Moseley
Cardinal number

**Cardinal numbers** (or **cardinals**) are numbers that say *how many* of something there are, for example: one, two, three, four, five, six. They are sometimes called **counting numbers**.

The **cardinality** of a set is the cardinal number that tells us, roughly speaking, the size of the set.

In mathematics, people also study infinite cardinal numbers. The first infinite cardinal number was named \aleph_0 (pronounced "Aleph null", "Aleph-zero" or "Aleph-naught") by Georg Cantor. \aleph_0 is the number of numbers that are in the group 0, 1, 2, 3, ... (which goes on forever). Both the set of natural numbers and the set of rational numbers are of size \aleph_0 (that is, they are both countable). 

Another infinite cardinal number is the number of numbers in the set of real numbers, and is represented by the symbol \aleph_1 (or \mathfrak{c}, the cardinality of the continuum). Cantor proved that there are many different infinite cardinal numbers that are bigger than \aleph_0. A famous theorem of Cantor is that the cardinality of the real numbers is larger than the cardinality of the natural numbers. The continuum hypothesis is the statement that there is no middle cardinal number strictly between that of natural numbers and real numbers.

## Related pages
*Cardinal numeral
*Ordinal number
*Names for ordinal numbers

## References
Merchant marine

**Merchant marine** is a term used in many places to talk about commercial ships and crews. A country's merchant marine is made up of all the ships owned by companies or individuals in that country which are used to make money. Most of a country's merchant marine is usually made of ships that carry things from place to place, like oil tankers and freighters. Other ships, like cruise ships and ferries, are also included because they are used to make money. When a country is at peace, its merchant marine works independently. Some countries, though, require merchant ships to work for their armed forces in times of war.

In the United States, "Merchant Marine" has a different meaning. The United States Merchant Marine (USMM) is a part of the military which is controlled by the government in both peace and war. When the United States is at war, the USMM is used to carry military supplies. In World War II, nearly one out of every twenty-six American merchant mariners was killed, a higher portion of men than in the Army, Navy, or even the Marines.

## References
## Other websites 
* The Marine Society 
* International Merchant Marine Community  
* United States Merchant Marine Academy
* Canadian Merchant Navy: Second World War 
*Official database of deceased Canadian Merchant Mariners 
* SwissWorld: The Swiss Merchant Navy 
*Photos of the Merchant Marine Memorials in London
FreeBSD

**FreeBSD** is an operating system for many different kinds of computers. This means that if the user has a computer around the house and want to run FreeBSD on it, the user probably can. Computers that run Microsoft Windows will also run FreeBSD. It is based on BSD, the version of UNIX developed at the University of California, Berkeley.

## Open source 
FreeBSD is open source. This means that anyone can download the source code and change, or learn from it. The people who work on FreeBSD do not usually get paid. They keep working on it because they enjoy it or want to become more experienced programmers.
Most open source software that runs on Linux will run natively on FreeBSD without the need for any compatibility layer.

### Operating systems based on FreeBSD 
There are a lot of operating systems, which are based on FreeBSD.

#### Operating systems with a GUI 
Several projects created an operating system, based on FreeBSD, which has a GUI by default.

Examples for that kind of operating systems are:
* DesktopBSD
* GhostBSD
* PC-BSD

## Related pages
* DragonFly BSD
* OpenBSD
* NetBSD

## Further reading
* 
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## Other websites 
* FreeBSD
* FreeBSD software
* Other interesting information about FreeBSD including One Floppy FreeBSD MP3 and CD Player 
* mdoc.su — short manual page URLs, a URL shortener written in nginx
* BXR.SU — FreeBSD source code search
* FreeBSD 9.1 - Announcement of FreeBSD 9.1
Garry Marshall

**Garry Marshall** (November 13, 1934 &ndash; July 19, 2016) was an American writer, producer, director and actor. 

## Career
Marshall wrote for comedians Joey Bishop and Phil Foster. Soon he moved on to writing for television series, including *The Dick Van Dyke Show* and *The Tonight Show*. In 1970, he adapted the Neil Simon play and 1968 movie *The Odd Couple* into a popular television series starring Tony Randall and Jack Klugman.

It was very successful. Marshall worked on *Happy Days*, *Laverne and Shirley* (which co-starred his sister Penny), and *Mork and Mindy*. Both of there were spin-offs from *Happy Days* and just as successful and well-known. He directed and acted in several movies including *Pretty Woman* and *Runaway Bride*.

Marshall also ran and works out of a local community theatre house in Los Angeles, The Falcon Theatre.

## Death
On the morning of July 19, 2016, Marshall, aged 81, died at a hospital in Burbank, California, due to complications of pneumonia after suffering a stroke.

## Filmography
### Animation
* *BoJack Horseman* - Abe
* *Father of the Pride* - Bernie
* *Penn Zero: Part-Time Hero* - Soda Jerk
* *Pinky and the Brain* - Mr. Itch (The Devil)
* *Rugrats* - Fred
* *The Looney Tunes Show* - Dr. Weisberg
* *The Simpsons* - Larry Kidkill, Sheldon Leavitt

### Live action
* *Happy Days* - Drum Player, Prom Drummer
* *Laverne & Shirley* - Drummer
* *The Naked Truth* - Garry Marshall
* *The Odd Couple* - Walter Madison

### Films
* *A League of Their Own* - Walter Harvey
* ''Can't Be Heaven* - Pawn Shop Broker
* *Chicken Little* - Buck Cluck
* *Finding Bliss* - Garry Marshall
* *Hocus Pocus* - Devil (Husband)
* *Orange County* - Arthur Gantner
* *Pretty Woman* - Bum Tour Guide
* *Race to Witch Mountain* - Dr. Donald Harlan
* *Runaway Bride* - First Baseman in Softball
* *Scooby-Doo and Kiss: Rock and Roll Mystery* - Manny Goldman
* *The Strangest Rugrats Adventure'' - Garry Marshall

## References
## Other websites 
*
Johnny Weissmuller

**Johnny Weissmuller** (June 2, 1904 – January 20, 1984) was a Austrian-American swimmer and actor. He was born in Timisoara, Austria-Hungary to German parents.

He was one of the world's best swimmers in the 1920s. He won five gold medals and set five then-Olympic records in swimming competitions at the Olympics in 1924 and 1928, and a bronze medal in water polo at the 1924 Olympics.

He later played Tarzan in a series of movies in the 1930s and became a movie star. This made him a character actor. He then had trouble getting parts in other movies because of this.

## Death 
On January 20, 1984, Weissmuller died of pulmonary edema. He was 79. He was buried in Acapulco, Mexico, where he was living when he died.  At his funeral, a sound recording of the *Tarzan yell* he had made famous in the movies was played three times, at his request.

## References
## Other websites 
*
1756

## Events 
* Mme Jeanne-Marie Leprince de Beaumont revises *Beauty and the Beast*.

## Births 
* January 27 – Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Austrian composer (d. 1791)
* February 6 &ndash; Aaron Burr, American politician, 3rd Vice President of the United States (d. 1836)
* March 3 &ndash; William Godwin, English journalist (d. 1836)
* May &ndash; John Macadam, Scottish engineer, invented Tarmac for the roads (d. 1836)

## Deaths 
*
*
1715

## Events 
*There are riots against King George I.
*Jacobite rising of 1715

## Deaths 
* September 1 – Louis XIV of France dies and his great-grandson, Louis XV of France becomes king even though he is just five years old.