open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Chapel Royal

The **Chapel Royal** is a department of the monarch's household in the United Kingdom. 

Incorrectly, the term is also used for the choirs of these chapels. The correct name for these choirs is the *Gentlemen of the Chapel*. They are a group of priests and singers who sing church services for the British monarch (king or queen). They are helped by young boy singers called choristers or *Children of the Chapel.* It is an old tradition.  

Today there are two consecrated buildings at St James’s Palace, near Buckingham Palace in London served by the Chapel Royal. These chapels do not belong to the diocese (group of churches in a district).  That is why they are called “royal peculiars” (“peculiar” in this sense does not mean “strange” but “special”). Services are held every Sunday except during August and September.  Members of the public are welcome to go to these services.  This is the only time that the public can go into the royal chapels. The choir also sing at special services, including one held every year on 6 January to celebrate Epiphany when offerings of gold, frankincense and myrrh are made on behalf of the queen.

## History 
The Chapel Royal dates back to the late 13th century.  At that time the priests and choir travelled with the king wherever he went.

In the 17th century the chapel had its own building in Whitehall, which burned down in 1698.  Since 1702 it has been based in St. James's Palace.

In the 16th and 17th centuries the choir was the best choir in England.  William Byrd and Thomas Tallis were both organists there during the reign of Elizabeth I.  Boy choristers from choirs outside London were sometimes made to join the Children of the Chapel if they had beautiful voices. These boys also took part in plays at the king or queen’s court.  Charles II liked musical instruments, so the choir were often joined by violins, lutes and viols. 

Some very famous composers were organists at the Chapel Royal.  These include: Thomas Tallis (c.1545-85), William Byrd (c.1572-c.1618), John Bull (1591-1613), Orlando Gibbons (1605-25), John Blow (1673/4-1708), Henry Purcell (1682-95), Jeremiah Clarke (1704-1707), William Croft (1708-27), and George Frideric Handel who was organist from (1723-59).  At the time Handel was appointed he was still German, not English, so he was not allowed to be a member.  Instead, he was given a special title: "Composer of Musick of His Majesty's Chappel Royal".

Today the Choir rehearses twice weekly at St James's Palace. The choir consists of six Gentlemen-in-Ordinary who are professional singers, and ten boys who have scholarships to go to the City of London School where they are called Queen's Scholars. 

The composer Sir Peter Maxwell Davies, who was Master of the Queen's Music, worked closely with the Chapel Royal, composing a new carol for them every Christmas.

The head of the Chapel Royal in Scotland is a Dean. Another Chapel Royal once existed in Ireland. 

## Other websites
* Chapels Royal, from the official site of the British Monarchy
Orlando Gibbons

**Orlando Gibbons** (born: Oxford, baptised 25 December 1583; died Canterbury, 5 June 1625) was an English composer and organist.  He was one of the most important composers of his day.  He is famous for his church music and organ music.  He lived in the late Tudor and early Jacobean periods.

Gibbons was born in Oxford where his father was a city wait.  The family moved to Cambridge and his brother Edward, who was 15 years older than Orlando, became Master of the Choristers at King’s College.   Between 1596 and 1598 Orlando sang in the choir of King's College, Cambridge where his brother was master.  He entered the university in 1598 and got the degree of Bachelor of Music in 1606. He married and had seven children.

James I made him a Gentleman of the Chapel Royal, where he was organist from at least 1615 until his death. In 1625 he became senior organist at the Chapel Royal, with Thomas Tomkins as junior organist. He was also keyboard player (mainly harpsichord) in the privy chamber of the court of Prince Charles (later King Charles I), and organist at Westminster Abbey.  He died an early death in Canterbury of apoplexy, and a monument to him was built in Canterbury Cathedral.

Gibbons wrote a lot of keyboard works, around thirty fantasias for viols, some madrigals (the best-known being *The Silver Swan*), and many popular anthems.  He was very good at writing counterpoint as well as lovely melodies.  His famous verse anthem *This is the record of John* is often sung by choirs at Advent. It has a lovely solo for a  countertenor who takes it in turns with the full chorus.  Gibbons wrote two settings of the Evensong service: a long one with several verses, and the *Short* service. His full anthems include *O Lord in thy wrath*, and the Palm Sunday setting of *O clap your hands together* for 8 voices.

## References
Waits

**Waits** or **waites** were British town musicians. From medieval times up to the early 19th century, every important British town and city had a band of waites. Some other countries in Europe also had waits.  They were called **Stadtpfeifer** in Germany and **Pifferi** in Italy.

The duties (things they had to do) varied in different towns and at different times in history.  One of their most important jobs was to play at certain times of day so that people knew what the time was.  They often played from the top of church towers.  Sometimes they were also guards, watching from the towers so that they could spot any danger.  They were like watchmen, making sure everything was all right (there was no police at that time).  They woke people up in the mornings by playing music in the streets.

The instruments they played also varied.  Mostly they were loud wind instruments such as the shawm.  It was a paid job.  The waits wore smart liveries and silver chains of office with the town's arms.

In Germany the Stadtpfeifer would also play at church services.  They would play shawms or  trombones on normal days, but trumpets and drums on feast-days.

In Britain there were no more waits after 1835. The name “waits” is still used in “Christmas Waits” (any group of people singing carols at Christmas).

## References
Tennis Court Oath

of the Tennis Court Oath. David later became a deputy in the National Convention in 1792 ]]

The **Tennis Court** **oath** was a pledge signed by 576 members (Joseph Martin-Dauch refused to take the oath) out of 577 of France's Third Estate and a few members of the First Estate on June 20, 1789 in a tennis court near the Palace of Versailles. 

The meeting hall of the Estates General had been locked accidentally, but the Third Estate thought that this was an invasion of their rights, and were very angry with the king. They stood in a nearby indoor tennis court. They made a solemn vow that they would not move until "the voice of the country was heard" and their requests were met. They were joined by the nobles and clergy.

The vote had always been taken by class, and usually, the nobility and the clergy voted to support whatever the king wanted, so the vote of the middle class did not matter. The middle class argued that voting should be "by poll" not by order, because they had more representatives than the first two estates combined. They also wanted the Estates General to meet as one body, so that voting would be by poll, rather than by class.

A week later , the king agreed and the Estates General met as the "National Assembly".

## Related pages
* French Revolution
Chart

.]]
A **chart** or **graph** is an image which summarizes data and presents it in an easy to understand way. Charts are often used to make it easier to understand the relationships of different aspects of the data. It is easier to read a chart than the raw data.

## Types of charts 
* A bar chart uses bars to show values for different categories.
* A pie chart shows percentage values as a slice of a pie.
* A flow chart shows the separate steps of a process.
Bar chart

A **bar chart** is a type of chart which shows the values of different categories of data as rectangular bars with different lengths. A histogram is a bar chart that shows how data is spread over its categories.

It is another one dimensional diagram also known as pillar diagram or column graph. These bars do not have any specific width but the height of the bar is proportionally to the value of an element. When the variations are small this method is very efficient. 

## References
Biographical Directory of the United States Congress

The ***Biographical Directory of the United States Congress*** is a biographical dictionary of all present and former members of the United States Congress. It also includes all members of the Continental Congress. It also includes delegates from territories and the District of Columbia and Resident Commissioners from the Philippines and Puerto Rico.

## Other websites
* Congressional Biographical Directory of the United States 1774–present 
* House Document No. 108-222 ,Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, 1774 - 2005
Teapot

.]]

A **teapot** is a container used to mix tea leaves with boiling water to make tea. Usually the tea leaves are in a tea bag when the tea leaves are put into the water. The tea can be poured from the teapot into cups.

## Further reading
*Steve Woodhead, "The Teapot Book" A.&C. Black, 2005 .
*Robin Emmerson, "British Teapots and Tea Drinking" HMSO, 1992 
*Garth Clark "The Artful Teapot"  Thames and Hudson 
*Edward Bramah "Novelty Teapots" Quiller Press 

## Other websites
*A history of teapots 
*Sparta Teapot Museum USA 
*A brief history of teapots from Stoke-on-Trent Museums
Le Monde

***Le Monde*** (English: *The World*) is a French daily evening newspaper.  It is among the newspapers most read in France. Its political opinion is slightly left-wing. In many countries outside France, this is the only French newspaper available.

The newspaper should not be confused with the monthly publication *Le Monde diplomatique*. *Le Monde* has 51% ownership of the monthly. Despite this, the monthly has a different editorial staff.

*Le Monde* was founded by Hubert Beuve-Méry. This was at the request of General Charles de Gaulle after the German army was driven from Paris during World War II. The newspaper took over the format of *Le Temps*, because the reputation of the latter had suffered during the Occupation of France. Beuve-Méry reportedly asked for total editorial independence as the condition for his taking on the project. Its first edition appeared on December 19, 1944. *Le Monde* has been available on the Internet since December 19, 1995. It is the main publication of Groupe Le Monde.

In 2004, *Le Monde* had a circulation of 371,803 copies.

## Notes
## References
## Other websites 
* Le Monde
Begging the question

**Begging the question** requires two or more ideas. Each of these ideas may or may not be true. The speaker of these ideas tries to show that one idea is true by saying a second idea proves it, but the second idea is true only if the first idea is true already.

Begging the question is commonly known as circular reasoning, though they are not exactly the same.

Begging the question is a fallacy.
  
## Examples 
* "If such actions were not illegal, then they would not be prohibited by the law." (The sentence means "If that wasn't okay, then it wouldn't be okay.")

## Modern usage 
"This begs the question" has recently been used to mean "this raises the question."  This usage is often  as .

## References
Pie chart

native speakers]]

A **pie chart** is a type of chart with the shape of a pie or circle. It presents the relationship of different parts of the data. One would easily see the biggest or smallest share of the total data, by simply looking at the pie chart.

## History
 in Asia, Europe and Africa before 1789]]
 for consumption in Paris (1858)]]

The earliest known pie charts were in William Playfair's *Statistical Breviary* of 1801, in which two are used.

This invention was not widely used at first. The French engineer Charles Joseph Minard was one of the first to use it. In 1858 he used them in maps to add information in a third dimension.
. Her diagrams are described as 'Nightingale rose diagrams', equivalent to a modern circular histogram]]

Some have said that Florence Nightingale invented it, but they were ignorant of Playfair's creation.

Nightingale was one of the first to use graphics to get important statistics to the reading public.
The polar area diagram is similar to a usual pie chart, except sectors are equal angles and differ rather in how far each sector extends from the center of the circle.
The polar area diagram is used to plot cyclic phenomena (e.g., count of deaths by month).
For example, if the count of deaths in each month for a year are to be plotted then there will be 12 sectors (one per month) all with the same angle of 30 degrees each. The radius of each sector would be proportional to the square root of the death count for the month, so the area of a sector represents the number of deaths in a month.
If the death count in each month is subdivided by cause of death, it is possible to make multiple comparisons on one diagram, as is seen in the polar area diagram used by Nightingale.

## Limitations 
Pie charts are not the most accurate way to show data: that has been known for some time. Pie charts should be used only when the sum of all categories is meaningful, for example if they represent proportions.

Pie charts are rare in scientific writing. They are more common in business and economics. One reason for this may be that it is more difficult to compare the size of items in a chart when area is used instead of length. Stevens' power law says that it is harder to see small differences using visual area than when using length. This means that length is a better scale to use, because differences can be seen more easily.

This can be shown with the image to the right. The pie chart and the bar chart have the same data. Most people have difficulty putting the slices in the pie chart in order by size from biggest to smallest. When using the bar chart, it is much easier to tell the difference between bars that are very similar in size.

## Notes 
## References 
* Cleveland, William 1985. *The elements of graphing data*. Pacific Grove, California: Wadsworth. 
* Phillip I. Good and James W. Hardin. 2003. *Common errors in statistics (and how to avoid them)*. Wiley. 

## Other websites 
* Draw any pie chart
* Warning against using pie charts
* Polar area diagram
Tata Young

**Amita Marie "Tata" Young** (born December 14, 1980 in Bangkok) is a Thai singer, model and actress, partly from American descent. 

Young became a singer when she was 15. Her first album was called *Amita Tata Young* and it was very successful. It sold more than a million copies in less than 5 months. In 2004, she made an English album called *I Believe*. It sold many copies and made her famous in other countries as well.

In 2006, Young made her second English, *Temperature Rising*. It made her even more popular, especially in Asia. In 2008, Young released a Thai language album called "One Love".

Her most recent album *Ready for Love* was released in 2009.
Trip

**Trip** has several meanings:
* Trip (drink), a brand of juice in Finland
* TRIPs Agreement, the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights
* Transformation Induced Plasticity, a strain-hardening effect in steel
* *The Trip* (1967 movie), starring Peter Fonda
* *The Trip* (2002 movie)
* *The Trip* (TV series), a Channel 4 show
* The Trip, Italian rock band of the 1970s

**Trip** may also be:
* Travel
* Vacation
* Psychedelic experience with drugs
Practice

**Practice** or **practise** (a verb form in British English) is the act of repeating a behavior over and over, or doing an activity again and again.

It is a way to  things faster, by repeating them. For example, sport teams practice to prepare for real games, or a musician practices for some hours every day, so he can play perfectly in his concert.

A practice can also mean the way something is done, like in "medical practice".
Stimulus

A **Stimulus** (plural **stimuli**) is something which causes a response. It is used in various bodies:

*Stimulus (psychology): an input to a person's (or animal's) senses which causes a reaction or response. Especially used in classical conditioning and other kinds of behavioral experiments.
*Stimulus (physiology): a detectable change around an organism. Sensory receptors may then produce changes in the body's physiology. 
*Input to a digital system. A stimulus is often the first component of a homeostatic control system.
*Stimulus (economics): a code-word for using tax and credit changes to boost a country's economy. Includes other measures to increase the supply of money.
Stevens' power law

'''Stevens' power law''' is a proposed relationship between the magnitude of a physical stimulus and the intensity or strength that people feel.

Most people think that it describes a wider range of sensations than Weber-Fechner law. But critics argue that the validity of the law is not sure.

The theory is named after psychophysicist Stanley Smith Stevens (1906–1973).  Although the idea of a power law had been suggested by 19th century researchers, Stevens is credited with reviving the law and publishing a body of psychophysical data to support it in 1956.

The general form of the law is
:\psi(I) = k I ^a , \,\!
where  I is the magnitude of the physical stimulus, \psi is the psychophysical function capturing sensation (the subjective size of the stimulus), a is an exponent that depends on the type of stimulation and k is a proportionality constant that depends on the type of stimulation and the units used.

The table to the right lists the exponents reported by Stevens.

## References 
* Ellermeier, W., Faulhammer, G. (2000). Empirical evaluation of axioms fundamental to Stevens's ratio-scaling approach: I. Loudness production. *Perception & Psychophysics, 62,* 1505–1511.
* Green, D. M., & Luce, R. D. (1974). Variability of magnitude estimates: a timing theory analysis. *Perception & Psychophysics*, 15, 291–300.
* Luce, R. D. (2002). A psychophysical theory of intensity proportions, joint presentations, and matches. *Psychological Review, 109, *520–532.
* Narens, L. (1996). A theory of ratio magnitude estimation. *Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 40*,  109–129.
* Smelser, N. J., & Baltes, P. B. (2001). *International encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences*. pp. 15105–15106. Amsterdam; New York: Elsevier. .
* Steingrimsson, R., & Luce, R. D. (2006). Empirical evaluation of a model of global psychophysical judgments: III. A form for the psychophysical function and intensity filtering. *Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 50,* 15–29.
* Stevens, S. S. (1957). On the psychophysical law. *Psychological Review* 64(3):153–181. PMID 13441853.
* Zimmer, K. (2005). Examining the validity of numerical ratios in loudness fractionation. *Perception & Psychophysics, 67,* 569–579.
Plaza Mayor of Madrid

The **Plaza Mayor of Madrid** was built in the 1400's on the same location as the old **Plaza del Arrabal** (square outside the walls). It was used as a market in the Middle Ages. It is also called the **Plaza de la Constitución**.

In the 1560s, King Philip II and his architect, Juan de Herrera planned to create a proper square for the Courts. The first part to be finished was the **Casa de la Panaderia** (bakery) in 1590. Gómez de Mora gave it the rectangular form. The ground is still cobbled. It finally opened in 1620 under the rule of King Philip III.

The statue in the middle is King Philip III on horseback made by Juan de Bologna. The statue was moved from the **Casa de Campo** to the Plaza Mayor in 1848.

In the 1700's, it was used for the crowning of kings, bullfights, carnivals and even executions. People watched from the balconies around the square. 

The Plaza has been  by three fires. Juan de Villanova had the plaza built again in 1853 and that is what is seen today. People can enter the plaza through nine different arches.

## References
## Other websites 
* Casa de la Panaderia. High resolution photo 
*360° view of Plaza Mayor, Madrid
*Plaza Mayor, description and pictures 
*Plaza Mayor Information and photos.
*Plaza Mayor in English  Visitor and student information, history, present day uses and photos.
Logic gate

A **logic gate** is an electronic component that can be used to conduct electricity based on a rule. The **output** of the gate is the result of applying this rule to one or more "**inputs**".  These inputs may be two wires or the output of other logic gates.

Logic gates are digital components. They normally work at only two levels of voltage, a positive level and  zero level. Commonly they work based on two states: *On* and *Off*. In the On state, voltage is positive. In the Off state, the voltage is at zero. The On state usually uses a voltage in the range of 3.5 to 5 volts. This range can be lower for some uses. 

Logic gates compare the state at their inputs to decide what the state at their output should be. A logic gate is *on* or active when its rules are correctly met. At this time, electricity is flowing through the gate and the voltage at its output is at the level of its On state.

Logic gates are electronic versions of Boolean logic. Truth tables will tell you what the output will be, depending on the inputs.

## AND logic gate 
AND gates have two inputs. The output of an AND gate is on only if **both inputs are on**. If at least one of the inputs is off, the output will be off. 

Using the image at the right, if *A* and *B* are both in an On state, the output (out) will be an On state. If either *A* or *B* is in an Off state, the output will also be in an Off state. *A* **and** *B* must be On for the output to be On. 

## OR logic gate 
OR gates have two inputs. The output of an OR gate will be on if **at least one of the inputs are on**. If both inputs are off, the output will be off. 

Using the image at the right, if either *A* **or** *B* is On, the output (*out*) will also be On. If both *A* and *B* are Off, the output will be Off. 

## NOT logic gate 
The NOT logic gate has only one input. If **the input is On then the output will be Off**. In other words, the NOT logic gate changes the signal from On to Off or from Off to On. It is sometimes called an inverter.

## XOR logic gate 
XOR ("exclusive or") gates have two inputs. The output of a XOR gate will be true only if **the two inputs are different from each other**. If both inputs are the same, the output will be off.

## NAND logic gate 
NAND means not both. It is called NAND because it means "not and." This means that it will always **output true unless both inputs are on**.   

## NOR logic gate 
NOR means not either. The **output of the NOR gate will be false unless both inputs are false.**

## XNOR logic gate 
XNOR means "not exclusive or." This means that it will only output **true if both inputs are the same**. It is the opposite of a XOR logic gate.     

## References
Puerta del Sol

The **Puerta del Sol** (*Sun Gate*) is known as 'Spain's belly button'. In the 1400s, it was the gate or entrance of the east side of the city. Since the sun rises in the east, it got the name Puerta del Sol. It is now the center of 'kilometer 0' of Madrid. All roads are measured from this point.

It was rebuilt in 1854. The statue of King Carlos III is in the middle of the square. The red brick building there is the former post office. The famous Oso y el Madroño (bear eating madroños) statue can also be found here. The Puerta del Sol is also famous for its New Year's celebration which has been broadcast on television since December 31, 1962.

## Gallery

File:El oso y el madroño de la Puerta del Sol, Madrid.jpg|Statue of El oso y el madroño
File:MadridPuertaDelSol Km0.jpg|The kilometer zero on the pavement in front of the House of the Post Office
File:Black and white photograph taken at Puerta del Sol in Madrid.jpeg|Post Office - Puerta del Sol, Madrid.
File:Puerta del Sol in Madrid - black and white photograph.jpeg|Puerta del Sol, Madrid. - Statue of Carlos III
File:Casa_de_Correos_001.jpg|Post office
File:Puerta del Sol in Madrid, Spain ' Tio Pepe Neon Advertisment ' photographed at Sunset.JPG|Puerta del Sol in Madrid, Spain ' Tio Pepe Neon Advertisement ' photographed at Sunset
File:Monumento a Carlos III (Madrid) 03.jpg|Statue of Carlos III
Royal Palace of Madrid

The **Palacio Real de Madrid** (**Royal Palace of Madrid**) is the official home of the King of Spain. It is located in Madrid, Spain. It is one of the largest palaces in western Europe.

King Felipe V had the palace built to replace the Alcazar that was burned down. It is made of limestone and granite. It was supposed to look a little like the Palace of Versailles in France. Juan Bautista Sachetti was in charge of building the palace. They started to build it in 1738. Carlos III moved into the palace in 1764. It took a hundred years to decorate all the rooms.

Spanish kings lived there until 1931 when King Alfonso XIII was forced to leave Spain. The Royal Palace is still used for special ceremonies. Letizia was supposed to walk on a red carpet from the Royal Palace to the cathedral for the wedding with Prince Felipe but it rained so she was taken in car.

Fifty of the rooms in the palace are open for public visits. Visitors enter the palace from the Plaza de la Armería. Some of the rooms that can be seen are: the 'porcelain' room, 'throne' room and 'clock' room. There is a royal army museum in the palace.

## Location
The Almudena Cathedral is nearby the palace.

The Royal Alcazar of Madrid was originally on the site. 

## References
Puerta de Alcalá

The **Puerta de Alcalá** (Alcalá Gate) is a monument in the Plaza de la Independencia ("Independence Square") in Madrid, Spain. Francisco Sabatini created the monument in 1778 for Carlos III when he arrived in Madrid.  It is the gateway to the Court.  It is built of granite and limestone.  It has three big arches that have lion's heads on top made by Robert Michel.  There are two smaller arches on the sides.  At the very top of the monument, there are angels, trophies and the coat of arms which were all made by Francisco Gutiérrez.

## Other websites 
* A site with some more information about the monument 
* Puerta de Alcalá at Google Maps
* High resolution photos
Plaza

, Spain, a typical Spanish plaza]]

**Plaza** is a Spanish word related to "field" which describes an open public space in a city, such as a city square. In Spanish America, the **plaza mayor** of each city had three things: the cathedral, the *cabildo* or administrative center, and the *audiencia* or law court. The plaza might be large enough to serve as a military parade ground. At times of crisis or fiesta, it was a space where many people could be together at once. Similar to Italian piazzas, plazas are still a center of community life, like the market-place.

Most colonial cities in Spanish America were planned around a square *plaza de armas*, where troops could gather.

A *plaza de toros* is a bullring.

## Shopping center
The first shopping center in the United States, opened in Kansas City, Missouri in 1922, was called "Country Club Plaza" and had Spanish-style architectural details. More recently, *plaza* has been used to describe a shopping center, similar to a shopping mall. Calling a shopping center a *plaza* is to give the idea of a center of cultural life. 

## Related pages
*Plaza Mayor of Madrid
Transduction (physiology)

In physiology, **transduction** is the change of a stimulus from one form to another. 

Transduction in the nervous system means synaptic events where an electrical signal is converted into a chemical one by the release of neurotransmitters. 

In sensory transduction a chemical or physical stimulus is transduced by sensory receptors into an electrical signal.

For example, in the visual system, sensory cells called rod  and cone cells in the retina change the physical energy of light signals into electrical impulses that travel to the brain. The light causes a change in a protein called rhodopsin. 

In mammals, more light hitting the receptor results in the transduction of a signal into fewer electrical impulses. In invertebrates, more rhodopsin activation results in increased frequency of neuron firing.

## Related pages 
*Signal transduction

## References
Resource

A **Resource** is something that can be used for a purpose. For example, tools and materials are resources. There are many kinds of resource:
* Resources
* Resource (Types and Developments), any natural or human wealth that can be used for satisfying human needs
* Resource (economics), properties and opportunities which are used in the process of producing goods, including:
** Natural resource, something that is valuable in its relatively natural form
** Human resources (HR) or human capital, valuable human work power
** Resource (project management), economic resources used in planning of tasks
* Resource (computer science), files which contain data (like icons or images) to be used by a computer program, including
** Resource (Web)
***Uniform Resource Identifier
***Uniform Resource Locator
** Resource (Macintosh), data associated with a Mac OS file
** Resource (Windows), data embedded in EXE and DLL files
** Resource (Java), application data
Royal Palace

**Royal Palace** can mean:

* The Royal Palace of Madrid
* The Royal Palace of Aranjuez
* The Royal Palace of Turin
* The Royal Palace in Oslo
Harlem Renaissance

The **Harlem Renaissance** is the name for a movement in African-American culture in the 1920s and 1931 which has had a big influence  on African-American literature, philosophy and music. The *Harlem Renaissance* is also called the "Black Literary Renaissance", '"The New Negro Movement" and "The flowering of Negro literature". 

The movement began in Harlem, New York after World War I. In 1925 a book was published called "The New Negro", edited by Alain Locke. This book was a collection of writing by African-Americans which looked at their people's lives experiences since the Civil War. From 1925 onwards, there was a movement called the "New Negro Movement", named after the book. 

The movement began to affect the thinking of many African-American writers and artists of all sorts. They challenged the thinking of many white Americans towards black Americans. They refused to be treated as if they were not equal. They refused to just copy the sorts of writing, art and music that white Americans did. They wanted to celebrate the fact that their African culture had survived through the terrible years of slavery, and was being "reborn". (The word "Renaissance" means "rebirth" and is generally used for a time from 1400 to 1600 in Europe.)

## Important writers and musicians of the Harlem Renaissance
### Novels
* Jessie Redmon Fauset – *There is Confusion* (1924), *Plum Bun* (1928), *The Chinaberry Tree* (1931), *Comedy, American Style* (1933)
* Rudolph Fisher – *The Walls of Jericho* (1928), *The Conjure Man Dies* (1932)
* Langston Hughes – *Not Without Laughter* (1930)
* Zora Neale Hurston – ''Jonah's Gourd Vine* (1934), *Their Eyes Were Watching God* (1937)
* Nella Larsen – *Quicksand* (1928), *Passing* (1929)
* Claude McKay – *Home to Harlem* (1927), *Banjo* (1929), *Gingertown* (1931), *Banana Bottom* (1933)
* George Schuyler – *Black No More* (1930), *Slaves Today* (1931)
* Wallace Thurman – *The Blacker the Berry* (1929), *Infants of the Spring* (1932), *Interne* (1932)
* Jean Toomer – *Cane* (1923)
* Carl Van Vechten – *Nigger Heaven* (1926)
* Eric Walrond – *Tropic Death* (1926)
* Walter White – *The Fire in the Flint* (1924), *Flight'' (1926)
*Paul Laurence Dubar - The Old Cabin (1905)

### Drama
* Charles Gilpin, actor
* Eugene O'Neill, playwright–*Emperor Jones*, ''All God's Chillun Got Wings*
* Paul Robeson

### Poetry
* Langston Hughes, poet
* Jessie Fauset, editor, poet, essayist and novelist
* Countee Cullen, poet – *The Black Christ and Other Poems'' (1929)
* Claude McKay, poet
* James Weldon Johnson, poet
* Arna Bontemps, poet
* Richard Bruce Nugent, poet

### Musicians/Composers
*Nora Douglas Holt Ray
*Billie Holiday
*Duke Ellington
*Count Basie
*Louis Armstrong
*Eubie Blake
*Bessie Smith
*Fats Waller
*Aretha Franklin
*Ella Fitzgerald

### Popular entertainment
*Cotton Club
*Apollo Theater
*Black Swan Records
*Small's Paradise
*Connie's Inn
*Speakeasies
*Rent party
Judicial review

**Judicial review** is the power of a court to decide whether a law or decision by the government is constitutional. This power was established in the United States in the Supreme Court case Marbury v. Madison.

Countries that have judicial review are: India, Ireland, Malaysia, the Philippines, England, Scotland, Spain, Switzerland, and the United States.

## Related pages
* Constitution
* Constitutional economics
Lyrics

**Lyrics** are the words to a song. A person who writes lyrics is called a lyricist.

The lyrics of a song will usually have a meaning. Some times the meaning is easy to find but other times it can be very  to know what the lyrics mean. Some lyrics are so strange that it is nearly impossible to understand them. In such cases, people tend to look more at the form, articulation, meter, and symmetries of the lyrics instead of looking at their meaning.

There are many websites that have the lyrics to songs. This may be a bad thing since many web sites include copyrighted lyrics without permission from the copyright holder. The United States Music Publishers' Association (MPA), which represents sheet music companies, created a campaign against such sites in December 2005. MPA president Lauren Keiser said that the sites are "completely illegal" and that he wanted to see some site operators put in prison.

## Etymology and usage
"Lyric" is from the Greek; a **lyric** was originally a song sung with a lyre.

A **lyric poem** is one that expresses a subjective, personal point of view.
:: *I would be the Lyric*
:: *Ever on the lip,*
:: *Rather than the Epic*
:: *Memory lets die.*
::: –Thomas Bailey Aldrich

The word *lyric* was used for the "words of a popular song" about 1876 http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=lyric for the first time. The plural *lyrics* was used only in referring to the words of several songs. That it is used for the words of a single song as its *lyrics* became increasingly common (probably because of the association between *lyrics* and the plural form *words*), and is common in modern usage of today's society. Use of the singular form *lyric* is still grammatically acceptable.

## References
Asian Dust

**Asian Dust** (also **yellow dust**, **yellow sand**, **yellow wind**, or **China dust storms**) is a weather occurrence that happens each year. It affects much of East Asia during the spring. The dust comes from deserts in Mongolia, northern China, and Kazakhstan. The dust comes from surface winds and dust storms in the desert. The wind carries the clouds eastward to China, Japan, Eastern Siberia, and the Koreas. Smaller particles in the clouds can travel much farther to places like the United States. In the last ten years, these dust storms have become a serious problem because they have picked up industrial pollutants.

## Other websites
* Asian Dust in Korea 
* Ostapuk, Paul Asian Dust Clouds
* Szykman, Jim et al.Impact of April 2001 Asian Dust Event on Particulate Matter Concentrations in the United States
* Kwon Ho-Jang et al.Effects of the Asian Dust Events on Daily Mortality in Seoul, Korea 
* Carbon Monoxide Measurements in the Mongolian Desert Dust Cloud at Boulder 
* The Bibliography of Aeolian Research
Aden Adde

**Aden Abdulle Osman Daar** (**Aaden Cabdulle Cusmaan Daar**) (9 December 1908 – 8 June 2007), was a Somali politician. 

In February 1944, he joined the Somali Youth Club (later called the Somali Youth League). The group was a nationalist party that wanted independence for Somalia. Daar became a member of the party's steering board. In 1946, he was appointed as the secretary of one section of the party. He was chairman of the Somali Youth League from 1954 to 1956, and again from 1958 to 1959. In 1956, he was elected chairman of the Legislative Assembly.

When Somalia gained its independence on July 1, 1960, Daar was elected as the first president of Somalia. He was beaten in the 1967 presidential election against Abdirashid Ali Shermarke. He finished his term as president on June 10, 1967.

Daar died in hospital on 8 June 2007 at a hospital in Nairobi, Kenya at the age of 98.

## References
Gran Vía

The **Gran Vía** (The Great Way) is one of the most important shopping areas in Madrid, Spain.  It also has hotels and large movie theaters.

Many of the buildings on the Gran Vía are decorated with fancy sculptures.  One of the more impressive buildings on the Gran Vía is the Edificio Metropolis.  It was built in 1907 by Jules and Raymond Février.  It has a statue of the winged Roman goddess, Victoria, on the top.  Madrid's first skyscraper, Telefonica's Head Office, is also on the Gran Vía.

The Gran Vía was planned in the 1850s.  They did not start building the road until 1904 and finished it in 1929.  People laughed at the plan because it took so long to get started.  As a joke, they called it the 'gran vía' or 'great road'.

## Other websites 
*A View On Cities - Gran Via, Madrid
Bandidos

**Bandidos** is a motorcycle club with a worldwide membership. The club was formed in 1966 by Don Chambers in Texas. Its slogan is *"We are the people our parents warned us about"*. Bandidos is estimated to have 2 400 members in 195 chapters, located in 14 countries.

## Other websites 
*Bandidos MC
Hells Angels

**Hells Angels** is a motorcycle club with a worldwide membership. The club was formed in 1948 in Fontana, California. One of the best known members is Ralph 'Sonny' Barger, the *"Godfather of the Hells Angels"*.

## Other websites 
*Hells Angels MC 
*Ralph 'Sonny' Barger homepage
*Hells Angels World Links
Outlaws Motorcycle Club

The **Outlaws Motorcycle Club** is an American motorcycle club. It was formed in Mc Cook, Illinois in 1935. The club has chapters in USA, Canada, Australia, Asia and Europe.

## Other websites 
*Outlaws MC
Service of worship

A **service of worship** is a religious meeting where people of a church come together, in order to worship God. They often meet in a church building made for the purpose, but may do it in some other building or outdoors. The meeting may also be called a **church service** or **prayer service** or just **service**. It is the usual term used in the Christian religion for such a meeting. The term is also used sometimes in Judaism, although *prayer service* or just *service* are more common.

## Christianity
In the Christian churches services are normally held on Sundays, although there may be services on other days as well, especially in large churches or cathedrals.

In the Protestant church services are usually led by a pastor, although sometimes they may be led by laymen (people who are not priests). In Catholic churches and some others, they are called "Mass". 

Services often include Holy Communion or Eucharist.  Matins is a morning service which does not include communion.  An evening service is called Evensong.

Church services are also held for weddings, funerals, or other special occasions.

Services may include prayers, singing, sermons (preaching) and readings from the Bible.

## Judaism
In Judaism, each prayer service is built around two main elements:  **Shema** and **Amida**. Three prayers are required for each day.

The three daily prayers in Judaism are **Shaharit** (Shacharit) for morning prayer, **Minha** (Mincha) for afternoon prayer and **Arvit or Maariv** for evening prayer.  The basics of each prayer consist of the **Shema** (although the afternoon prayer does not require Shema), and the **Amida** (standing prayer) which is the definitive prayer of each service.  Fundamentally, when a Jew says "prayer", he or she means Amida.  Everything else (which is largely *Psalms*) is just detail.
#'*The *Shema.'''* The *Shema'' includes three paragraphs from the Torah:  , , and .  These three paragraphs include the most basic ideas about Judaism, God, and God's relationship with the Jewish people.
#*The text of the *Shema* says it should be said "when you go to bed" and "when you wake up".  Because of this, *Shema* is said at the morning and evening prayer services, but not the afternoon service.
#'*The *Amidah.'''* The *Amidah* ("standing prayer") is a group of blessings about everything in the relationship between God and Jews.  After the Temple in Jerusalem was destroyed, prayer became a substitute for sacrifices.   Because of this, *Amidah* is said at the same time of day as sacrifices:
#*Morning and afternoon every day, at the time of the daily *burnt-offering''
#*Evening every day, at the time when remaining pieces of the day's sacrifices were burned
#****Musaf.*** Late morning on Shabbat, Rosh Chodesh (day of new Jewish month) and major Jewish holidays, because additional sacrifices were offered then
#*'''''Ne'ilah.'''* Late afternoon at the end of Yom Kippur
Jewish prayer services are held whenever the *Amidah* prayer is said.  In the morning and evening, they also include *Shema.''

## References
Torrance

**Torrance** is the name of several places:
*Torrance, California, United States
*Torrance, Pennsylvania, United States
*Torrance, Ontario, Canada
*Torrance, East Dunbartonshire, Scotland
*Torrance, South Lanarkshire, Scotland

People:
*Chris Torrance, poet
*Ellis Paul Torrance (1915-2003), American psychologist
*Jack Torrance, fictional writer in Stephen King's *The Shining*
*Jared Sidney Torrance (1852-1921), real estate developer
*Marco Torrance, musician
*Robert Torrance, Professor Emeritus at University_of_California, Davis
*Sam Torrance, golfer
Blood and Honour

**Blood and Honour** is a Neo-Nazi music promotion network. The group organises concerts and distributes records by Rock Against Communism bands. Ian Stuart Donaldson, singer of the band Skrewdriver, was the founder of Blood and Honour. The name Blood and Honour is taken from the motto of the Hitler Youth, *Blut und Ehre*.
## Other websites 
* Blood & Honour International 
* Blood & Honour UK 
* Blood & Honour UK - Central Division 
* Blood & Honour Radio 
* Blood & Honour USA
* Blood & Honour Australia 
* Blood & Honour Croatia 
* Blood & Honour Finland 
* Blood & Honour Greece 
* Blood & Honour Netherlands 
* Blood & Honour Hungary 
* Blood & Honour Vlaanderen 
* Blood & Honour Ukraine
Wieluń

**Wieluń** is a city in the central part of Poland in Łódź Voivodeship. Around 27,000 people live here. The city was started in 1283.

## Twin towns 
Wieluń is twinned with:
*  Adelebsen, Germany
*  Osterburg, Germany
*  Ochtrup, Germany
*  Letterkenny, Ireland

## Other websites 
*Official city webpage
Baruch Spinoza

**Baruch Spinoza** also known as Benedict Spinoza (24 November 1632 in Amsterdam – 21 February 1677 in The Hague) was a Dutch philosopher of Portuguese Jewish origin. He is considered to be one of the great Rationalist philosophers of the 17th century. Other famous rationalists include Gottfried Leibniz and René Descartes.

## Life 
Spinoza's ideas were not cherished by the Jewish community in Amsterdam of the time, and Spinoza was excommunicated in 1656.

## Key ideas 
An important idea in Spinoza's philosophy is that God and Nature (meaning everything that exists) are the same thing. Opposing dualism and free will as a determinist, Spinoza said that the body and the mind (soul) are two of God's infinite attributes. 

There is no good or evil in Nature, and that these words only have meanings for human beings. For a person, an event that leads to happiness is good, and an event that leads to suffering is bad. 

Spinoza describes two types of thoughts, or emotions:

* When a person acts from his own nature, he is said to be *Active*. The more you understand your actions, the more active you become. Active emotions lead to happiness and an understanding of God, as well as to Freedom. 
* When a person is being influenced by another person, or a thing, he is said to be *Passive*. 

The goal of every person is to intellectually love God (that is, understand Nature as much as humanly possible).

## References 
* Jewish Encyclopedia
Style guide

:*For the Wikipedia style guide, see Wikipedia:Manual of Style.*
A **style guide** (also known as **style manual**) is a set of  for language usage and  of documents (records). Some style guides are about things related to graphic design, such as arranging words and white space on a page. Website style guides often help with visual or technical things. Literary style guides help with choosing the best words, common errors in grammar, punctuation and spelling; and help for how to express ideas in a precise, fair and forceful way.

Some modern style guides are for use by all people. These are usually more about language than about how it should look.

Style guides do not stop a writer from using his own unique style, but some writers believe style guides are too restrictive.

Like language itself, many style guides change as time passes. For example, the Associated Press stylebook is updated every year.

## Online style guides 
* The ABC Style Guide, about.abc.net.au
* BBC News Style Guide, bbc.co.uk
* English English Style Guide | European Commission, ec.europa.eu
* Grammar and Style Guide, agu.org
* Interinstitutional Style Guide, publications.europa.eu
* NCBI Style Guide, ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
* New Zealand Style Guide, styleguide.nz
* OECD Style Guide, oecd-ilibrary.org
* Style Manual, stylemanual.gov.au
* University of Oxford Style Guide , ox.ac.uk
Nasjonal Samling

**Nasjonal Samling** (Norwegian for "National Gathering" or "National Unity") was a fascist party in Norway, active in the period 1933–1945. The party was founded by Vidkun Quisling and a group of sympathisers. The party's paramilitary wing was called *Hirden* (the Hird) and the party's youth wing was the Nasjonal Samling Ungdomsfylking.
Retina

.]]
The **retina** is the thin neural tissue that contains light sensitive neurons called photoreceptors (rods and cones) that interact with secondary and tertiary neurons inside the eyeball in humans and in many animals. Its  role is to sense the light which gets into the eye and send information about it to the brain.

Most information about light images that leaves the retina travels through the optic nerve, and is used by the brain to create visual sensations.  Information about light which travels through the *retino-hypothamalic tract* is for adjusting circadian rhythms to the 24-hour day. 

The center of the human retina, called the *fovea centralis*, or just *fovea*, has the most [cone cells] for sensing bright colors and fine detail of a viewed object. Even though the fovea takes up only 1.5 square millimeters, it plays the most important role in vision.  It is only around 1% of the human retina, but the fovea sends about as much information to the visual cortex as the rest of the retina combined. 

## Additional images 

File:Three Main Layers of the Eye.png|The structures of the eye labeled
File:Three Internal chambers of the Eye.svg|Another view of the eye and the structures of the eye labeled
File:Retinal Image.png|Illustration of image as 'seen' by the retina independent of optic nerve and striate cortex processing

## References