open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Michael Jeffery

Major-General **Philip Michael Jeffery** (12 December 1937 &ndash; 18 December 2020) was the 24th Governor-General of Australia from 11 August 2003 until 5 September 2008. He was appointed by John Howard. Before this he was Governor of Western Australia. He quit the army in 1993 when he became Governor.

## Biography 
Jeffery was born in 1937 in Wiluna, Western Australia, and he was educated at Cannington, East Victoria Park State Schools, and Kent Street High School. When he was 16 years old, he left Perth to go to the Royal Military College, which was Duntroon. After he graduated there in 1958, he went to Malaya in 1962 for a special service with the 2nd and 3rd Battalions of the Royal Australian Regiment.

## References
Nanny

(2013).]]
A **nanny** is someone hired to take care of the children in a family.  They are usually female but there are also male nannies. Many nannies can begin their employment in their late teens. Many nannies live in their employers' home most of the days in the year. Some employers require their nanny/nannies to wear a uniform.

## Related pages
*Au pair
*Babysitter
IPod Mini

**iPod Mini** is a series of iPod by Apple. It was released on January 4, 2004. It was discontinued on September 7, 2005 in favor for the iPod Nano.

## References
Ben Chifley

**Joseph Benedict Chifley** (22 September 1885 – 13 June 1951) was the 16th Prime Minister of Australia. He won the leadership after the death of John Curtin in 1945. His government tried to take over of all Australia's banks. This was not popular and the High Court said that it would not be allowed. Opposition leader Robert Menzies said that Chifley and the Labor Party were not strict against Communism. This is one of the main reasons why Chifley lost the 1949 election. He died soon after losing the 1951 election to Menzies.
Frank Forde

**Francis Michael Forde** (18 July 1890 – 28 January 1983) was the 15th Prime Minister of Australia. He was Prime Minister for only a week after John Curtin died. He lost a leadership contest to Ben Chifley. He was prime minister for only eight days, less than any other Prime Minister from Australia. He also lived longer than any other Prime Minister, until Gough Whitlam, who passed Forde's age on January 21, 2009. He died at 92 years old.

Forde was from the Australian Labor Party. He was the Minister for Trade and Customs in the Scullin government (1929–1931). When Scullin retired in 1935, Forde tried to become the leader of the Labor Party, but he lost by one vote to John Curtin. When Labor won the 1941 elections and Curtin became Prime Minister, Forde was made Minister for the Army. On 5 July 1945 Curtin died; because he was Deputy Leader, Forde was then made Prime Minister until the Labor Party chose a new leader. At the leadership election on 13 July, Ben Chifley was voted leader, and Forde was made Deputy Leader again.

## References
Harold Holt

**Harold Edward Holt** (5 August 1908 – 17 December 1967) was the 17th Prime Minister of Australia. He became Prime Minister after the retirement of Robert Menzies. He supported the United States in the Vietnam War. He disappeared while swimming at a beach in Victoria in December 1967. His body was never found. Many urban Australian myths surround his disppearance. 

On the day of his disappearance, the guards at the gate of Point Nepean told Percy Cenulty, who held a camp that day at Point Nepean, that Harold Holt wasn't in the car that went through the gate. Theories state that Harold never went to the beach that day. The second night, the Springvale Necropolis was surrounded by military For the whole night. This has not happened ever before and since.    

## Early life and education 
Harold Edward was born on 5 August 1908 in Stanmore, Sydney. Holt completed his schooling from Nubba State School. After one year of schooling at Nubba State School he went to Abbotsholme College, a private school in Killara where he studied for three years. In 1920, Holt went to Wesley College, Melbourne. He won a scholarship in his final year and graduated second in his class.

## Related pages
*List of people who disappeared mysteriously: 1910–1990

## References 
.
Biosphere

composite of global oceanic and terrestrial photoautotroph abundance, from September 1997 to August 2000]]

The **biosphere** includes everything living on Earth. It is also known as **ecosphere**. Currently the biosphere has a biomass (or amount of living things) at around 1900 gigatonnes of carbon. It is not certain exactly how thick the biosphere is, though scientists predict that it is around 12,500 meters. The biosphere extends to the upper areas of the atmosphere, including birds and insects

In a general sense, biospheres are any closed, self-regulating systems containing ecosystems. This includes artificial biospheres such as Biosphere 2 and BIOS-3, and potentially ones on other planets or moons.

## Origin of the term 
The word "biosphere" was coined by geologist Eduard Suess in 1885 

Which he defined as a place on Earth's surface where life dwells.

## Biosphere of the Earth 
The earliest known evidence of life in Earth includes biogenic graphite dated as far as 3.7 Billion years old. Life is scattered all throughout the surface of the Earth, from the polar ice caps to the equator, exhibits a life of some kind.

## Extents of biological life 
Almost all parts of the planet contains a life of some kind. Recent advances in microbiology concluded that microbes can live deep beneath the Earth's surface.

## References 
## Other Page 
*Biosphere reserve - Project by UNESCO
Piccolo

piccolo]]
The **piccolo** is a small flute that plays one octave higher than the normal flute.  It sounds an octave higher than written.  It is the highest instrument in the orchestra. Sometimes it sounds like a birdcall. The name 'piccolo' comes from the Italian word meaning 'small'.
Double reed

**Double reeds** are a group of musical instruments in the woodwind family. Instead of a mouthpiece, the player blows air through a pair of reeds that vibrate against each other. 

Examples of double reed woodwinds are the bassoon, oboe and Cor anglais (English horn).
Alto flute

The **alto flute** is a flute that plays a fourth (half an octave) lower than the regular flute.  It is longer than the regular flute.  Some alto flutes have a curved head joint.

The alto flute is a transposing instrument.  This means that basic fingerings are the same for flute and alto flute, which makes it easy for someone who plays the flute to play on the alto flute.  The fingering for the note C on the flute will give a G on the alto flute.

Though the alto flute is less commonly played than the flute, there are many pieces written for the alto flute. Music written for alto flute includes music for alto flute alone, for alto flute and piano, for alto flute and mixed ensembles of many different instruments, and flute choir music. It appears occasionally in orchestral writing.  Maurice Ravel features alto flute in *Daphnis et Chloé*.  Igor Stravinsky used one in *The Rite of Spring*.  In *The Planets* by Gustav Holst there is a passage with three flutes and alto flute playing 4 part harmony.

The alto flute must not be confused with a bass flute which is even bigger and lower.

## Other websites
Governor-General of Australia

The **Governor-General of Australia** is the representative in Australia of Australia's head of state, Charles III. The current Governor-General is Sam Mostyn.

The Governor-General of Australia is a powerful person in the country. The Governor-General is leader of the Executive Council and Commander-in-Chief of the Australian Defence Forces.

## List of governors-general 
## Living former governors-general
 there are five living former governors-general of Australia. The most recently deceased governor-general, Bill Hayden (1989–1996), died on 21 October 2023.

## Other websites
* Governor-General of the Commonwealth of Australia

## References
Yu-Gi-Oh!

***Yu-Gi-Oh!*** is a manga series, two anime series, and a trading card game (the books came first, then the cards and then the series) based on the two anime series. The series follows the adventures of Yugi Mutou, a high school student who plays a game called Duel Monsters. It has a spin-off called *Yu-Gi-Oh! GX*. Japan has an exclusive anime based on the first seven volumes of the manga.

## Merchandise
"Yu-Gi-Oh cards" are a trading card game that uses monsters that Yugi and other characters on the show use. This trading card game is very popular with young children, teenagers, and even adults in Hong Kong and Taiwan.

## Plot
The series is about having hope and faith in for the characters and Duel Monsters on each cards. Yugi's grandfather Sugoroku Mutou (Solomon Muto) owns a game shop. One day, Yugi finds a strange puzzle at the back of the shop, and tries to solve it. He tries to solve the puzzle for 8 years. When he is 16, he solves it. When he finishes the puzzle, he gets an extra soul. The soul is Dark Yugi (Yami Yugi), an Egyptian Pharaoh. Yami Yugi successfully recovers his lost memory. Yugi defeats Dark Bakura (Yami Bakura), Dark Yugi's worst enemy. Yu-Gi-Oh; cards of Doom

## Related works
*Yu-Gi-Oh! Duel Monsters*
*Yu-Gi-Oh! Duel Monsters* is an animation based on Yu-Gi-Oh! comic. 
*Yu-Gi-Oh! GX* The spin-off of *Yu-Gi-Oh! Duel Monsters*. The story is set several years after the *Yu-Gi-Oh! Duel Monsters* story.
*Yu-Gi-Oh! 5DS* The story is set many years after the *Yu-Gi-Oh! Duel Monsters* story. A prominent new feature of the *Yu-Gi-Oh 5DS* series is the use of Synchro Monster. 
*Yu-Gi-Oh! Zexal* An anime series. Relevance of previous work is not declared. Xyz Monsters are introduced.

## References
Capacity

**Capacity** is the ability to hold something, very similar to volume.

**Capacity** may also mean:

* Capacity utilization, in economics, how much a company or a government uses its potential output
* Capacity (law), the legal ability to do certain things, such as making a contract
* Capacity of a set, in mathematics, one way of measuring a set's size
* Battery capacity, a measure of a battery's ability to store electrical charge
* Carrying capacity, in biology, the ability of an environment to sustain populations
* Channel capacity, in communications
* Combining capacity, in chemistry, number of chemical bonds formed by the atoms of a given element
* Heat capacity, in physics, the measure of how materials store heat as they change temperature
* Nameplate capacity, in power plants, the general number of Megawatts technically available
* Seating capacity, how many people can fit into in a sports venue

## Related pages
* Incapacity
Creditor

A **creditor** is a person who loans money to another person. The person who gets the loan is called the borrower. Creditors are sometimes called *moneylenders*. Creditors expect the borrower to pay the money back at a later time. The creditor usually gets extra money from the borrower. This extra money is called interest.
Cost

**Cost** may mean:
* The amount of money needed to buy something
* Something other than money that is used up.  Example: "Going to jail cost 5 years of my life".  This usage is a metaphor.
* Cost function
* Cost of living, the amount of money it costs just to live in a certain place. It includes food, housing, etc.
* Opportunity cost, the value of the next best thing you give up whenever you make a decision.
Neighbours

***Neighbours*** (also known as *Australian Neighbors* in the United States) is an Australian soap opera. The show ran since March 18, 1985 on the Seven Network, but they cancelled it the same year. Rival television network Network Ten decided to start making and broadcasting the show, and have done that since January 20, 1986. It was produced by Reg Watson. The show started with low ratings, and Network Ten did their best to get more people to watch. They got new characters, two of them were played by Kylie Minogue and Jason Donovan. These two characters became a couple known as "Scott and Charlene", and by the time they married in 1987, ratings were much higher.

The show is about the lives of people that live in a fictional street called Ramsay Street. Ramsay Street is in a fictional suburb, Erinsborough, in the real-life city Melbourne.

## List of actors/characters who appear on the show 
## Other websites 
*
Anno Domini

***Anno Domini*** (Medieval Latin : “in the year of the Lord”), shortened as **AD** or **A.D.**, is used to refer to the years after the birth of Jesus. AD is also a shorthand for **Christian Era**. Likewise, **Before Christ**, shortened as **BC** or **B.C.**, is used in English to refer to all years before our present time (AD or A.D.).

## Overview
In past centuries, AD came before the year but after a century or millennium in written documents. For example, a person would write AD 2014 but 21st century AD or 3rd millennium AD. There is no zero year in this system. This means that the year A.D. 1 follows the year 1 B.C.

Some people mistakenly interpret “A.D.” as “after death.” The shorthand “A.D.” was originally placed before the year number (e.g. A.D. 145), while “B.C.” was often placed after the year number (e.g. 145 B.C.). Nowadays, it is more usual to put both shorthands after the year numbers (e.g. 145 AD; 145 BC). Such dating system was meant to signal the year of Christ's birth, but some modern scholars said that Jesus was born a few years earlier than commonly believed.

## History
### Classical antiquity
The system for working out the years was invented by Dionysius Exiguus in around AD 525. He fixed the point Anno Domini, which is used to number the years of both the Gregorian calendar and the Julian calendar. He used it to identify the several Easters in his Easter table. He did not use it to date any historical event.

When he devised his table, Julian calendar years were identified by naming the consuls who held office that year — he himself stated that the “present year” was “the consulship of Probus Junior [Flavius Probus]”, which he also stated was 525 years “since the incarnation [coming in bodily form] of our Lord Jesus Christ”.

How he arrived at that number is unknown. He invented a new system of year numbering to replace the Diocletian years that had been used in an old Easter table because he did not wish to continue the memory of a tyrant who persecuted Christians.

### Middle Ages
The Anno Domini calendar era became dominant in Western Europe only after it was used by the Venerable Bede to date the events in his *Ecclesiastical History of the English People*, completed in 731. The French emperor Charlemagne made it popular in continental Europe. The Anno Domini system was not used in certain parts of Europe until the 15th century. For instance, Portugal used a different system called the *Spanish era* until 1422.

### Related pages
* Common Era (CE)
* *Anno Mundi* (AM)
* *Anno Hegirae* (AH)
* Calendar

## References
John McEwen

**Sir John McEwen** (29 March 1900 – 20 November 1980) was the 18th Prime Minister of Australia. He was leader of the Country Party when Harold Holt disappeared in 1967, and so was appointed Prime Minister until the Liberal Party elected a new leader. The Party elected John Gorton as the leader, and Gorton took over as Prime Minister on 10 January 1968. McEwen then served as Deputy Prime Minister until 1971.

## References
William McMahon

**Sir William McMahon** (23 February 1908 – 31 March 1988) was the 20th Prime Minister of Australia. He was elected to the Australian parliament in 1949, and stayed as Member for Lowe, in Sydney, for 33 years. He challenged John Gorton for the leadership of the Liberal Party of Australia in 1971 and won. He was 63 years old. He lost the next election in December 1972 to Gough Whitlam of the Australian Labor Party. This made him the first Prime Minister not to win an election since Labor's Ben Chifley (who lost in 1949). McMahon was married to (Lady) Sonia McMahon from 1965 until his death from cancer. Actor Julian McMahon is their son.

The Liberal party had won lots of elections since 1949, but had some popularity problems by 1971. Australian soldiers were still in the Vietnam War. McMahon replaced John Gorton, then made him defence minister, but soon after made him resign for talking about problems in the Liberal Party. McMahon's government was the first to have a Minister for Aboriginal Affairs. Aboriginal land rights were an important topic of debate at this time. On foreign affairs, McMahon said the Opposition leader, Gough Whitlam, was wrong to visit communist China in 1972 - but soon after U.S. President Richard Nixon visited China and McMahon was embarrassed. The economy was not looking too good when the government went to the 1972 election.

## References
Nightshade

The **nightshades** (**Solanaceae**) are a family of flowering plants. 

Many members of the family contain strong alkaloids, and some are very toxic. Well-known members of this family are chili peppers, petunias, deadly nightshade, mandrakes, potatoes, tomatoes, aubergines (eggplants) and tobacco.

Because it is thought that nightshades can cause or increase swelling and pain, many people do not eat them. The poisons in the plants are defence against animals that might eat them.
Text

**Text** may mean:

## Writing
* a piece of writing  
* Textual criticism, the study of changes in books or manuscripts. 
*Text message

## Books
* a book, a set of printed sheets of paper held together between two covers. 
* a textbook, a book used for the study of a subject. People use a textbook to learn facts and methods about a certain subject. 
* Subtext
* e-text or e-book

### Unit Of Study
* hermeneutics
* philology, the study of language in historical writings
* literary theory, anything with a semiotic component 
* cultural studies, the unit of discourse

## Computing
* character (computing) or string data, as opposed to binary data
* a text segment of a program in memory 
* Plaintext, the information which the sender want to transmit to the receiver(s)
* Text-based, comprised of characters 
* Boilerplate text

## Other
* TEXT, an avant-garde band

## Related pages
* Letter
Twin Dragons

***Twin Dragons*** (1992) (also known as ***Brother vs. Brother*** and ***When Dragons Collide***)

Identical brothers, separated at birth, end up as a criminal and a U.S. pianist, then cross paths years later in Hong Kong.

## Cast
*Jackie Chan
*Maggie Cheung
*Nina Li Chi
*Anthony Chan
*Philip Chan
*Sylvia Chang
*James Wong
*Lai Ying Chow
*Kirk Wong
*Ringo Lam Ling-tung
*John Woo
*Tsui Hark
*Director(s): Tsui Hark, Ringo Lam Ling-tung, Ringo Lam
*Producer(s): Ng Sze Yuen, Teddy Robin Kwan.
*Language: Cantonese (Dubbed in English in North America)

## Other websites 
*
*
Motorola

**Motorola** was an American company that made cell phones and other electronics. The company was based in Schaumburg, Illinois, a small town just outside of Chicago, Illinois. After losing $4.3 billion from 2007 to 2009, Motorola was divided in two separate companies on January 4, 2011; Motorola Mobility and Motorola  Solutions.

They were listed in the New York Stock Exchange as MOT .

The company began with the name Galvin Manufacturing Corporation in 1928, and then later adopted the 'Motorola' name in 1947. They were the first developers of the walkie-talkie in World War II.

On August 15, 2011, Google said that it would buy Motorola Mobility for $12.5 billion.

On October 30, 2014, Lenovo finalized its purchase of Motorola Mobility from Google.

## References
Small solar system body

A **small Solar System body** (**SSSB**) is a term defined in 2006 by the International Astronomical Union to describe solar system objects which are not planets or dwarf planets:

::*All other objects orbiting the Sun shall be referred to collectively as "Small Solar System Bodies" ... These currently include most of the Solar System asteroids, most Trans-Neptunian Objects (TNOs), comets, and other small bodies.*

Therefore, it refers to these objects that can be further grouped based on their orbit or what they are made of:
* all known minor planets that are not dwarf planets, *i.e.*
** the classical asteroids (except the largest one, 1 Ceres);
** the Centaurs and Neptune Trojans;
** the smaller Trans-Neptunian Objects (except dwarf planets such as Pluto and Eris);
* all comets;
* It is not yet clear whether there will be a lower bound on the group of small solar system bodies, or if it will encompass all material down to the level of meteoroids.

Some of the larger "small Solar System bodies" may be reclassified in future as dwarf planets, pending further examination to determine whether or not they are in hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly-round shape).

## References
Shawn Lane

**Shawn Lane** (March 21, 1963 – September 26, 2003) was an American musician. He was a solo guitarist.

At the age of 4, he began taking vocal lessons, cello lessons and piano lessons. By age ten, he picked up a guitar and found out he was better with a guitar than his other instruments. He joined a band at the age of fifteen and played in bars and clubs.

A few years later he started playing shows again. He began to tour with his own band, playing guitar and keyboard. In February 2003, Lane accomplished one of his lifelong dreams and toured over India with his band. When they left India, they were called "true rock heroes" by the people. In September 2003, when getting ready to make an album with the Swedish bassist Jonas Hellborg and drummer Ginger Baker, Lane had bad breathing problems. He was told by doctors that he would have to remain on medical oxygen for the rest of his life. On Friday, September 23, 2003, he died.

## Other websites 
*Official site 
*Official discography 
*Fan forum
Frankenstein

***Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus*** is a gothic novel written by Mary Shelley. It is about a creature produced by a strange scientific experiment. Shelley started writing the story when she was nineteen. It was published when she was twenty-one. The first edition was published anonymously in London in 1818. Shelley's name appears on the second edition, published in France in 1823.

Shelley had travelled in the region of Geneva, Switzerland, where much of the story takes place. Ideas about occultism were topics of conversation among her travelling companions, especially her future husband, Percy Bysshe Shelley. Mary, Percy, Lord Byron, and his doctor John Polidori decided to have a competition to see who could write the best horror story. After thinking for weeks about what her possible storyline could be, Shelley dreamt about a scientist who created life and was horrified by the result. She then wrote *Frankenstein*.

Since publication of the novel, the name "Frankenstein" is often used to refer to the monster itself. This usage is sometimes considered erroneous, but usage commentators regard the monster sense of "Frankenstein" as well-established and an acceptable usage. In the novel, the monster however is called "creature", "monster", "fiend", "wretch", "vile insect", "daemon", "being", and "it". Speaking to Victor Frankenstein, the monster refers to himself as "the Adam of your labors", and elsewhere as someone who "would have" been "your Adam", but is instead "your fallen angel."

## Plot 
Victor Frankenstein is a scientist who wants to create life itself. He stitches together parts from the dead bodies. He brings his creation to life during an electrical storm. The monster scares Frankenstein. He runs away.  The monster spends years looking for a place in the world.  Mostly, other humans are afraid of him. The monster decides to go back to Frankenstein to ask him to make another monster to be his wife.  Frankenstein chases the monster to the Arctic, and dies pursuing the creature. The monster vanishes into the fog.

## Related pages 
*Frankenstein's monster

## References
Advance Australia Fair

- on the J. Verbeeck fairground organ.]]
"**Advance Australia Fair**" is the official national anthem of Australia. 

Peter Dodds McCormick (–1916) wrote the music and the words for the song. It was first performed in 1878, but it only became Australia's official anthem in 1984.

Between 1878 and 1984, the song was used inside of Australia as a patriotic song. For a time the song announced the news from the Australian Broadcasting Commission. When Australia became a Federation in 1901, the song was sung by a choir of 10,000 people.

In 1977 there was a vote for the national anthem between four songs during the 1977 Australian referendum. The other three songs were:
* *God Save the Queen*, which was then the official national anthem
* *Waltzing Matilda*, often regarded as the unofficial anthem
* *Song of Australia*.
*Advance Australia Fair* received 43.29% of the vote, defeating the three alternatives: *Waltzing Matilda* (28.28%), *Song of Australia* (9.65%), and the existing national anthem *God Save the Queen* (18.78%). However, it was not until 1984 that the national anthem was changed to reflect the popular vote.

Other songs and marches have been influenced by Advance Australia Fair, such as the Australian Vice-Regal salute.

## Lyrics
While the original lyrics are in English, because Australia is a very multicultural and multilingual nation, the lyrics have been unofficially translated into many other languages, including Chinese, Arabic, Vietnamese, Italian, Greek, Spanish, Korean, German, French and Polish. It has also been translated into many Australian Aboriginal languages, most famously Dharug but also others such as Pitjantjatjara, Warlpiri, Nyungar and Yugambeh-Bundaljung.

## Sound file
## References
2006 Winter Olympics

in the biathlon]]
The **2006 Winter Olympics**, officially known as the XX Olympic Winter Games, were held in Turin, Italy from 10 to 26 February 2006. This was the second time Italy hosted the Olympic Winter Games. The first time was the 1956 Winter Olympics in Cortina d'Ampezzo. Italy also had the 1960 Summer Olympics in Rome.

The President of Italy, Carlo Azeglio Ciampi, opened the ceremony.  Stefania Belmondo was the torch-bearer.   The official motto of the XX Olympic Winter Games was "Passion lives here".

## Medals won by each nation
## Venues
 in Turin.]]

### Olympic areas
Olympic events were mainly held in Turin. Other events such as skiing and snowboarding had to be held in mountain areas.

#### Turin
Many venues were located in the Olympic District in central Turin, including:
* Oval Lingotto – Speed skating
* Torino Esposizioni – Ice hockey
* Palasport Olimpico – Ice hockey (final)
* Stadio Olimpico – Opening and closing ceremonies
* Palavela – Figure skating, short-track speed skating
* Olympic Village

#### Other locations
* Bardonecchia – Snowboarding
* Cesana Pariol – Bobsleigh, Luge, Skeleton
* Cesana San Sicario  – Biathlon
* Pinerolo – Curling
* Pragelato – Nordic combined (ski jumping), Ski jumping
* Pragelato Plan – Cross-country skiing, Nordic combined (cross-country skiing)
* San Sicario Fraiteve – Alpine skiing (women's combined (downhill), downhill, and super-g)
* Sauze d'Oulx – Freestyle skiing
* Sestriere Borgata – Alpine skiing (men's combined (downhill), downhill, super-g)
* Sestriere Colle – Alpine skiing (combined (slalom), giant slalom, slalom)

### Olympic villages
* Bardonecchia
* Sestriere
* Turin

## References
1665

## Events
* March 4 &ndash; The Second Anglo-Dutch War begins.

## Births
* February 6 &ndash; Anne, Queen of Great Britain (d. 1714)
1702

**1702** (MDCCII) was a common year starting on Sunday in the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Thursday in the Julian calendar.  The Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar as of the start of this year.  It remained in localized use until 1923.

## Events
* March 8 &ndash; King William III of England dies. His sister-in-law, Anne, becomes queen.
**date unknown*
**Delaware becomes a separate colony.
1631

## Events
* May 18 &ndash; In Massachusetts, John Winthrop takes the oath of office and becomes the first Governor of Massachusetts.
1635

## Events
* February 22 &ndash; The *Académie française* in Paris is founded as the national academy for the preservation of the French language.
* July 31 &ndash; The Royal Mail service is made available to the public by King Charles I of England.
* August 25 &ndash; The Great Colonial Hurricane strikes Narragansett Bay as a possible Category 3 hurricane, killing over 46 people.

### Date unknown
* Dominica is claimed by France.
1760

## Events
* March 20 &ndash; The Great Fire of Boston, Massachusetts, destroys 349 buildings.
* October 25 &ndash; King George II of Great Britain dies; his grandson George III becomes king.
1670

## Events
* April 29 &ndash; Pope Clement X succeeds Pope Clement IX as the 239th pope.
* July 18 &ndash; Spain recognises Jamaica and the Cayman Islands as English possessions by the Treaty of Madrid.
1673

## Events
* August 9 – Dutch forces under Admiral Cornelis Evertsen de Jonge recapture New York City from the English (regained by the English in 1674).
1674

## Events
* February 19 &ndash; England and the Netherlands sign the Treaty of Westminster. Part of the agreement transfers the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam to England, which renames it New York.
1629

## Events
* February 11 &ndash; The Pilgrims leave England for North America to settle the Massachusetts Bay Colony.

## Births
* March 9 &ndash; Czar Alexis I of Russia (d. 1676)
* April 14 &ndash; Christiaan Huygens, Dutch scientist (d. 1695)
1678

## Events
* January 27 &ndash; The first fire engine company in what will become the United States goes into service.
* February 18 &ndash; John Bunyan publishes his Christian allegory ''The Pilgrim's Progress'' in London.
1722

## Events 
* April 5 (Easter Sunday) &ndash; Dutch admiral Jakob Roggeveen lands on what is now Easter Island.
1729

**1729** (MDCCXXIX) was a common year starting on Saturday in the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Wednesday in the Julian calendar.

## Events 
* The Treaty of Versailles is signed
1662

## Events
* February 20 - Survivors of a shipwreck eat the last Dodo bird.

## Births
*April 30 – Mary II of England, Scotland and Ireland, monarch (d. 1694)
1663

## Events 
* March 4 – The Prince Edward Islands in the subantarctic Indian Ocean are discovered by Dutch explorer Barent Barentszoon Lam.
1669

## Events
* March 11 &ndash; Mount Etna erupts, destroying the town of Nicolosi and killing 20,000 people.
* July &ndash; The Hanseatic League, 400 years after it was formed, holds its last official meeting in Lübeck.

### Date unknown
* Phosphorus is discovered by Hennig Brand.
* Antonio Stradivari makes his first violin.

## Deaths
* December 9 &ndash; Pope Clement IX (b. 1600)
1523

## Events
* June 6 &ndash; Gustav Vasa is elected king of Sweden, finally establishing its full independence from Denmark, ending of the Kalmar Union.
1506

**1506** (MDVI) was a common year starting on Thursday in the Julian calendar.

## Events
* January 22 &ndash; The Swiss Guard arrives at the Vatican, to serve as permanent ceremonial and palace guards under Pope Julius II.

## Births
* April 7 &ndash; Francis Xavier, Spanish Jesuit saint (d. 1552)
1693

## Events
* January 11 &ndash; 1693 Sicily earthquake: Mount Etna erupts, causing a devastating earthquake that affects parts of Sicily and Malta.
* February 8 &ndash; The College of William and Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, is granted a Royal charter from King William III and Queen Mary II of England.

## Religion
* Some members of the Anabaptist movement in Switzerland splits from the group to start the Amish.

## Births
* February 7 – Empress Anna I of Russia (d. 1740)
* March 7 &ndash; Pope Clement XIII (d. 1769)
* March 24 – John Harrison, English clockmaker (d. 1776)
ESPN

**ESPN** is an American sports television network owned by ESPN, Inc., a joint venture between The Walt Disney Company which owns 72%  Hearst Corporation which owns 18% and the National football League which owns 10%. *ESPN* is an acronym for **Entertainment and Sports Programming Network**. The channel is headquartered in Bristol, Connecticut with other studios in Los Angeles and New York City. ESPN shows sporting events and games. It also has programs for news and highlights of sporting events, as well as talk shows on sports topics. The network has also shown games or events other than sports, such as poker.

In 2018, ESPN launched ESPN+ as an additional streaming service subscription that did not require cable TV.

In 2019, ESPN bought the rights to show games from the German Bundesliga as part of a six year deal beginning in 2020, with many games appearing on ESPN+.

In August 2025, ESPN launched the ESPN Unlimited streaming service, making all of its content available in a streaming subscription that did not require cable TV.  The new service is also included in many cable TV packages, and as a bundle with FOX One. ESPN+ was renamed ESPN Select and continued to be available with more limited content.

In December 2025, ESPN shut down its digital extension channel ESPN3 that was available as part of some TV packages.

## The ESPN family of networks
### Television
* ESPN (1979–present)
* ESPN on ABC (2006-present, replacing ABC Sports)
* ESPN International (1989–present)
* ESPN2 (1993–present)
* ESPNEWS (1996–present)
* ESPN Classic (1997–2021)
* ESPN PPV (1999–present)
* ESPNU (2005–present)
* ESPN Deportes (2004–present)
* ESPNHD (2003–present)
* ESPN2HD (2005–present)
* SEC Network (2014–present)
* ESPN+ (2018–present)

### Internet
* ESPN Motion (2003–present)
* ESPN 360 (2005–present)

### Radio
* ESPN Radio (1992–present)
* ESPN Deportes Radio (2005–present)

## Films
* *Ultimite X* with Touchstone Pictures

## References
## Other websites 
* Official website
1731

**1731** (MDCCXXXI) was a common year starting on Monday in the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Friday in the Julian calendar.

## Events 
* Benjamin Franklin starts the Library Company of Philadelphia.
1764

## Births 
* March 13 – Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1845)
* September 25 – Fletcher Christian, leader of the Mutiny on the Bounty (d. 1793)

## Deaths 
* April 15 – Madame de Pompadour, mistress of King Louis XV of France (born 1721)
* November 20 – Christian Goldbach, Prussian mathematician (born 1690)
1570

**1570** (MDLXX) was a common year starting on Sunday in the Julian calendar and a common year starting on Thursday in the proleptic Gregorian calendar.

## Events
* February 8 &ndash; A magnitude 8.3 earthquake occurs in Concepción, Chile.
* February 25 &ndash; Pope Pius V excommunicates Queen Elizabeth I of England with the bull *Regnans in Excelsis*.
* July 14 &ndash; Pope Pius V issues *Quo Primum*, promulgating the 1570 edition of the Roman Missal.
1692

: Battle of La Hougue.]]

## Events 
### January&ndash;June 
* March 1 &ndash; The Salem witch trials begin in Salem Village, Massachusetts Bay Colony, with the charging of 3 women with witchcraft.
* June 8 &ndash; During a famine in Mexico City, an angry mob torches the Viceroy's palace and ignites the archives; most of the documents and some paintings are saved by royal geographer Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora.
* June 10 &ndash; Salem witch trials: Bridget Bishop is hanged for witchcraft. 

### July&ndash;December 
* September 8 &ndash; An earthquake in Brabant of scale 5.8 is felt across the Low Countries, Germany and England.
* September 14 &ndash; Diego de Vargas leads Spanish colonists in retaking the city of Santa Fe, New Mexico, after a 12-year exile, following the Pueblo Revolt of 1680.
* Salem witch trials:
** September 19 &ndash; Giles Corey is pressed to death, in an attempt to coerce a confession from him of witchcraft.   By the end of September, 14 women and 5 men have been hanged.
** September 22 &ndash; The last of those convicted of witchcraft in the Salem witch trials are hanged; the remainder of those convicted are all eventually released.
* October 21 &ndash; In Barbados, a slave revolt is crushed.

## Births
]]
* June 28 &ndash; Louisa Maria Teresa Stuart, Princess of England, Scotland, and Ireland
* August 18 &ndash; Louis Henri, Duke of Bourbon, Prime Minister of France (d. 1740)
* October 25 &ndash; Elisabeth Farnese, queen of Philip V of Spain (d. 1766)

## Deaths
* July 19 &ndash; Rebecca Nurse, accused Massachusetts witch (b. 1621)

## References
1530

## Births 
* Filippo Azzaiolo (d. 1569), Italian composer

## Deaths
* 29 November – Thomas Wolsey (born between 1471 and 1476), English statesman and archbishop
Dracula

***Dracula*** is a horror gothic novel written by the Irish writer Bram Stoker. Bram Stoker published the novel in England in 1897. The character 'Dracula' may have been based in part on Sir Henry Irving (who was an actor and friend of Bram Stoker) and on Vlad III the Impaler (a Romanian king). The story is about a vampire called Dracula. A vampire is a kind of monster associated with death and the Devil.

## Plot
A young solicitor (a type of lawyer) Jonathan Harker goes to Transylvania to sell a house in England to a nobleman named Dracula. After living in the castle for a week, he realizes that Dracula is a vampire. Dracula traps Harker in his castle with three other vampire women (who are called his brides) and goes to England, by hiding on a ship and killing the crew. When he gets to England, he bites a young woman called Lucy Westenra and turns her into a vampire. Lucy is then killed by Abraham van Helsing (a medical doctor) and the other characters in the book. Then Dracula bites Jonathan's wife Mina. Because of this, the other characters try to defeat Dracula, by chasing him back to Transylvania and killing him.

## Ideas for the story 
People have written about where Stoker got his ideas for the Dracula story.  It has been said that Stoker's mother Charlotte telling him of the events of the terrible cholera plague in Sligo, Ireland may have given him some ideas.  These included:
* Doctors trying to stop people dying and then being killed.

Ideas for the person of *Dracula* may have been taken from Henry Irving.  Stoker worked for Irving at the Lyceum Theatre in London for 30 years.

## Most famous adaptations of Dracula
* 1922, ''* (*Nosferatu, a Symphony of Horror''). First adaptation of the novel. Directed by F. W. Murnau. Max Schreck has the role of Count Orlok. The movie director could not get permission to use the actual story from Stoker's widow, who ordered many copies of the movie to be destroyed after its release.
* 1931, *Dracula*. Horror, directed by Tod Browning and starring Béla Lugosi as Dracula.
* 1958, *Horror of Dracula*. Horror, stars Christopher Lee as Count Dracula.
* 1979, *Dracula*. Horror, stars Frank Langella as Dracula.
* 1979, *Love at First Bite*. Comedy, stars George Hamilton as Count Vladimir Dracula.
* 1992, ''Bram Stoker's Dracula*. Horror, directed by Francis Ford Coppola and starring Gary Oldman as Dracula.
* *Dracula: Dead and Loving it.* Comedy, directed by Mel Brooks and starring Leslie Nielsen as Count Dracula.
* *Van Helsing* is a 2004 movie that has Hugh Jackman as the title character (Gabriel Van Helsing) and Richard Boxburgh as Count Vladislaus Dracula.
*2014, *Dracula Untold'', directed by Gary Shore

## Online texts
* http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/45839
* Bram Stoker Online Full text and PDF versions of this novel.

## References
1708

## Events
* July 11 – War of the Spanish Succession: Allied forces commanded by John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough defeated the French at the Battle of Oudenarde.
* August 18 – War of the Spanish Succession: The British capture Minorca, Spain.
1534

## Events
* Jaques Cartier explored Quebec and Montreal.

## Births 
* Joan Waste (d. 1 August 1556), English woman burned to death because she would not stop being a Protestant
* 10 February – Song Ik-phil (d. 8 August 1599), Korean politician
* 23 June – Oda Nobunaga (d. 21 June 1582), Japanese daimyo
* 1 July – Frederick II of Denmark (d. 4 April 1588), King of Denmark-Norway
* 24 September – Guru Ram Das (d. 1 September 1581), fourth of the Ten Gurus of Sikhism

## Deaths
* 26 May – Pope Clement VII (born 26 May 1478), 220th Pope of the Roman Catholic Church
1586

## Events
* Simon Stevin, a Flemish mathematician, demonstrates that two objects of different weight fall with the same speed.
1576

## Events
* August 11 &ndash; English navigator Martin Frobisher, on his search for the Northwest Passage, enters the bay now named after him.
1477

## Events
*The University of Tübingen was founded in Tübingen, Baden-Württemberg, Germany

## Births 
* January 25 – Anne of Brittany (d. January 9, 1514), Duchess of Brittany
1551

## Births 
* 19 September – Henry III of France (d. 2 August 1589), King of France and of Poland
* 8 October – Giulio Caccini (d. 10 December 1618), Italian composer and singer

## Deaths
* 17 May – Shin Saimdang (b. 29 October 1504), Korean artist, poet, writer, and scholar
United States Air Force

The **United States Air Force** (**USAF**) is the aerial warfare branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the eight uniformed services. It was part of the U.S. Army until September 18, 1947.

The Air Force is the largest air force in the world and considered one of the most technologically advanced. It has thousands of aircraft in service. including bombers, fighter aircraft, and transport, and hundreds of intercontinental ballistic missiles. Hundreds of thousands of men and women are on active duty in the Air Force and others are in the Reserves and the United States National Guard.

## Officer ranks
### Warrant officers
The Air Force warrant officer ranks, while authorized by law, are not used.

### Enlisted personnel
## References 
## Other websites
*Find a grave memorial of a World War II "WASP" {Women Air Service pilot}
1470

## Events 
* March 12 &ndash; Wars of the Roses in England &ndash; Battle of Losecoat Field: The House of York defeats the House of Lancaster. 
* July 12 &ndash; The Ottomans capture Euboea.
* October 3 &ndash; Warwick releases Henry VI of England from the Tower of London, and restores him to the throne.

## Births 
* June 30 &ndash; Charles VIII of France (d. 1498)
* November 2 &ndash; King Edward V of England, one of the princes in the Tower (d. c. 1483)
Annular hurricane

.]]

An **annular hurricane** is a term used in the north Atlantic Ocean and northeastern Pacific Ocean east of the International Dateline. An annular hurricane is a rare type of hurricane that has a big, circular eyewall, and thick, deep convection around it with no spiral rainbands. This structure allows the hurricane to maintain its strength for longer durations, and in worse conditions than typical hurricanes.
1320s

The **1320s** was the decade that started on January 1, 1320, and ended on December 31, 1329. It is distinct from the decade known as the ***133th decade*** which began on January 1, 1321 and ended on December 31, 1330.

## Events 
* In North America, after arriving in different areas in Mexico, the Aztec settle in a swampy area near Lake Texcoco, and found the city of Tenochtitlan.
20s

The **20s** was a decade that started on 1 January 20 and ended on 31 December 29.
:''Note: Sometimes the '**20s** is used as shorthand for the 1920s, the 1820s, or other such decades in various centuries''
:

## Significant people 
*Tiberius, Roman Emperor (14–37).
1465

## Births 
* Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar (d. 1524), Spanish soldier, conquered and governed Cuba for Spain
1545

## Births 
* Lady Mary Grey (d. 20 April 1578), sister of Lady Jane Grey
* 8 July – Carlos, Prince of Asturias (d. 24 July 1568), son of King Philip II of Spain

## Deaths
* 18 October – John Taverner (b. about 1490), English composer and organist
1675

## Events
* April &ndash; The South Atlantic Ocean island of South Georgia is discovered.
* June 24 &ndash; King Philip's War starts in North America.
* August 10 &ndash; Construction starts on the Royal Greenwich Observatory.

## Births
* March 31 &ndash; Pope Benedict XIV (d. 1758)
1340s

The **1340s** was a decade that began on 1 January 1340 and ended on 31 December 1349. It is distinct from the decade known as the ***135th decade*** which began on January 1, 1341 and ended on December 31, 1350.

## Deaths 
* 1346, March 15 – Shah Jalal of Bengal (b. 1271)

## Events and trends 
* The Black Death spreads across Europe.
* The Battle of Sluys is fought between the ships of the navy of the Kingdom of England and those of the Kingdom of France.
* August 26, 1346: Edward III of England defeats Philip VI of France at the Battle of Crécy. This battle is famous for the destruction of the French cavalry by English longbowmen. This was also the first time cannons were used in battle.
1511

## Births 
* February 8 – Giorgio Vasari (d. 1574), Italian painter, architect and writer

## Deaths
*January 9 &ndash; Demetrios Chalkokondyles, Greek classical scholar (b. 1424)
*February 11 &ndash; Henry, Duke of Cornwall, eldest son of Henry VIII of England
*June 6 &ndash; Ahmad ibn Abi Jum'ah, Islamic scholar, author of the Oran fatwa
*July 2 &ndash; Şahkulu, leader of the Şahkulu Rebellion
*August 2 &ndash; Andrew Barton, Scottish naval leader (b. c. 1466)
*September 6 &ndash; Ashikaga Yoshizumi, Japanese shogun (b. 1481)
*October 18 &ndash; Philippe de Commines, French-speaking Fleming in the courts of Burgundy and France (b. 1447)
* *date unknown*
**Nicolás de Ovando (born 1460), Spanish soldier, governor of Hispaniola
** Diego de Nicuesa, Spanish conquistador and explorer
** Johannes Tinctoris, Flemish composer and music theorist (b. c. 1435)
** Matthias Ringmann, German cartographer and humanist poet (b. 1482)
** Yusuf Adil Shah, founding leader of the Adil Shahi dynasty
* *probable* &ndash; Antoine de Févin, French composer (b. c. 1470)
1646

## Events
* February 16 &ndash; First English Civil War: The Battle of Great Torrington, Devon, the last major battle of the conflict, is fought.
* December 21 &ndash; Temperatures around the world start to decline as part of the Little Ice Age.

## Deaths
* December 22 &ndash; Peter Mogila, Orthodox Metropolitan of Kiev and Galicia (b. 1596)
1110s

The **1110s** was a decade that began on 1 January 1110, and ended on 31 December 1119. It is distinct from the decade known as the ***112th decade*** which began on January 1, 1111 and ended on December 31, 1120.

## Events and trends 
* 1111 Henry V is crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Paschal II
* 1112 The people of Laon, France, proclaim a commune and murder their bishop
* 1113 Pierre Abélard opens his school in Paris
* 1119 Knights Templar Order established in Jerusalem
1300s

The **1300s** was a decade that began on 1 January 1300 and ended on 31 December 1309. It is distinct from the decade known as the ***131th decade*** which began on January 1, 1301 and ended on December 31, 1310.

## Events and trends 
* 1308 – Avignon Papacy established, which splits and weakens the Roman Catholic Church
1100s

The **1100s** was a decade that began on 1 January 1100, and ended on 31 December 1109. It is distinct from the decade known as the ***111th decade*** which began on January 1, 1101 and ended on December 31, 1110.

## Events and trends 
* The Ancient Pueblo Peoples culture rises (approximate date).
* The great Buddhist centre of learning at Nalanda is destroyed by invaders.
* The city of Cusco, Peru is founded.
* Emperor Huizong of Song starts to rule in China.
* 1102 Bolesław III becomes duke of Poland.
* The Hohenbaden castle is built in Baden-Baden, Germany.
* 1104 The volcano Hekla erupts in Iceland, destroying settlements.
* 1107 Emperor Toba ascends the throne of Japan.
1200

**1200** (MCC) was a leap year starting on Saturday in the Julian calendar.  In the proleptic Gregorian calendar, it was a century leap year.

## Events 
* University of Paris received charter from Philip II of France
* The Kanem-Bornu Empire was established in northern Africa around the year 1200
* Mongol victory over Northern China — 30,000,000 killed

## Births 
* Al-Abhari, Persian philosopher and mathematician (died 1265)
* Ulrich von Liechtenstein, German nobleman and poet (died 1278)
* Adam Marsh, English Franciscan (approximate date; died 1259)
* John Fitzalan, Lord of Oswestry
* Matthew Paris, English Benedictine monk and chronicler (approximate date; died 1259)
* Rabbi Isaac ben Moses of Vienna (died 1270)
* Dogen Zenji, founder of Soto Zen (died 1253)

## Deaths 
* Joscelin III of Edessa
* Zhu Xi, Chinese philosopher (born 1130)
* Gilbert Horal, 12th Grand Master of the Knights Templar

## References