Ancient history of Pakistan

in the Gandhara art, art style that developed in the Gandhara region of Pakistan.]]
**Ancient history of Pakistan** covers the history of Pakistan from prehistoric times until the start of the Medieval period. Pakistan is located on a vast geographic region known as the **Greater Indus Region** or the **Greater Indus Valley**, which is a Geo-Cultural Cradle. It includes many different cultures, languages, social systems, and religions, creating a special and lasting cultural identity known for tolerance, variety, and adaptation. Since the beginning, the land of Pakistan has been shaped by the Indus River (Urdu: *Darya-i-Sindh*) and its tributaries, as well as the Himalayas, Karakoram, Pamir and Hindu Kush mountain ranges. Surrounded by the sandy Thar and Cholistan deserts, the rough hills and valleys of Balochistan, and the shiny Arabian Sea, Pakistan's land has been a place where people have lived since ancient times and is one of the oldest continuously inhabited land in the world. Pakistan has one of the oldest signs of humans outside Africa. Stone tools, over 2 million years old, were found in the Soan Valley.

The Ancient history of Pakistan is seen in its valuable archaeological heritage, covering thousands of years of human effort and creativity. Proof of early human settlements, going back over 2.2 million years, has been found along the Soan River, near Islamabad, showing that this area is one of the oldest places where people lived. The time known as the Neolithic period (6500–2500 BCE) saw the beginning of farming and the start of towns and cities, best seen in the old site of Mehrgarh in Sibi, where the earliest proof of farming and urban life in South Asia has been found. 
 from the Royal Cemetery of Ur, Mesopotamia (2600-2500 BCE) were probably imported from the Indus Valley in Ancient Pakistan.]]Throughout its history, the region of Pakistan has been a melting pot of civilizations and cultural sharing. The area saw the growth of the **Indus Valley Civilization** (c. 3000–1300 BCE), one of the earliest urban societies and civilisations in the world. This civilization had well-planned cities, standard ways of measuring things, and a written language (Harappan language) that still hasn't been fully understood, showing how organized and advanced its society and culture were. The cities of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa were important centers for trade, culture, and government. Later times saw the rise of the **Vedic Civilization** (c. 1500–500 BCE), started by the migration of Indo-Aryan tribes and the composition of the Vedas in Punjab, Pakistan. The influence of the Achaemenid Empire (c. 518–330 BCE) extended into parts of ancient Pakistan, shaping its political and cultural landscape, while the Hellenic Period witnessed the establishment of Greek kingdoms in the region, blending Greek and local traditions.
 from Ancient Pakistan. The Indus script still hasn't been decoded and understood.]]
The **Gandhara Civilization** (c. 1500 BCE–500 CE) in the northwest of Pakistan emerged as a significant cultural and religious center, known for its unique artistic traditions (Gandhara art) blending Hellenistic and indigenous styles. It became the second holy land of Buddhism after Magadha in Nepal and India. Gandharan monks from Ancient Pakistan were the first to spread Buddhism in Central Asia, China, Korea and Japan. Two of the world's major religions, Hinduism and Sikhism originated in modern-day Pakistan. The Mahayana, Vajrayana and Tibetan Buddhism have roots in the Gandhara region of Pakistan. The region of Pakistan has been known by various names throughout history, the oldest recorded name is *Meluhha* (Sumerian: 𒈨𒈛𒄩𒆠), the Mesopotamian name for the Indus country.

## Names 
)" written in Egyptian hieroglyphs on the Statue of Darius I, circa 500 BCE.]]
The region of Pakistan has been known by many different names throughout history. The Indus River, the national river of Pakistan, has shaped and is tied to much of Pakistan's ancient history. Ancient Pakistan was divided into many kingdoms and empires ruled by local or foreign dynasties, and different regions had different names. The name of ancient Pakistan is also known as far as the Achaemenid province of Egypt where it was written "𓉔𓈖𓂧𓍯𓇌 (*H-n-d-wꜣ-y*)" on the Statue of Darius I, circa 500 BCE. In Chinese sources, the region of Ancient Pakistan was referred to as “Shendu 身毒,” “Tiandu 天篤,” and “Tianzhu 天竺," specifically referring to the Indus Valley. The Greeks referred to the region as Indós (Greek: Ἰνδός), which came from the Achaemenid name "Old Persian: Həndu" for the Indus River. Another indeginous name for ancient Pakistan was '''Sapta Sindhu,'* meaning the land of seven rivers, specifically referring to the Punjab region. This name has been used in the Rigveda, which was composed in this region of Pakistan as well. In Zoroastrian Avesta it is mentioned as *'Hapta-Hendu'*, which also means the land of seven rivers. Ancient and medieval Pakistan was known to the Arab historians as "Biladu al-Sind بلاد السند", meaning the *Land of Sind (Indus)*, or simply *Sind*, which is also the name of modern-day Pakistani province of Sindh. The Mongols with Genghis Khan invaded the Indus Valley (Pakistan) in 1241 CE, they referred to the region as *Šin* (Sindh) and the Indus river as *Šin Müren*.

## Geography boundaries 
The geographical boundaries of the Greater Indus region, encompass a vast region extending from the Himalayas, Karakoram, Hindukush and the Pamirs in the north to the Makran coast along the Arabian Sea in the south. To the east, it includes the fertile plains along the Indus River, extending into the Thar Desert and up to the Aravalli Range, which since prehistory seperates it from the Gangetic plains. In the west, the boundaries stretch to the borders of Iran and Afghanistan, covering regions like Makran and parts of the Iranian Plateau. These boundaries are not only defined by geographical features but also by the cultural and historical interactions of ancient civilizations such as the Indus Valley Civilization, Gandhara, and Vedic cultures, and later influences from empires like the Mauryans, Greeks, Kushans, and Islamic dynasties.
 in (2600-1700 BCE) from modern-Pakistan.]]
Pakistan has historically maintained distinct cultural, geographical, and historical characteristics compared to the Gangetic plains of North India. The renowned Pakistani politician and author, Aitzaz Ahsan, writes that the historical boundaries and cultural distinctions between Ancient Pakistan and the Gangetic plains have been pronounced throughout history. It is noted that only in a period of 500 years, particularly during the periods of universal empires like the Mauryan, Mughal and British administrations, did significant cultural and administrative ties binded these regions together.

## Stone Age 
 from the Neolithic site of Mehrgarh, Pakistan; the first known object to have been made using lost-wax casting-a technique.]]
Evidence of the earliest human presence in Pakistan dates back more than a million years. The Soan Valley, located in the Pothohar Plateau of northern Pakistan, is one of the key sites for early human activities in the Greater Indus Valley. Stone tools such as hand axes and flake tools dating back 2.2 million years found in this area indicate the presence of Homo erectus, an early human ancestor.

The Paleolithic period in Pakistan is divided into the Lower, Middle, and Upper Paleolithic phases. The Lower Paleolithic (c. 2 million - 300,000 years ago) is marked by simple stone tools found in sites like the Soan Valley and Riwat.  These Acheulean tools, primarily used for hunting and processing animal carcasses, are associated with Homo erectus and early Homo sapiens. Modern humans (Homo sapiens) are believed to have arrived in Pakistan around 70,000 to 50,000 years ago, as evidenced by more sophisticated stone tools and symbolic artifacts. The Middle Paleolithic (c. 300,000 - 40,000 years ago) saw more refined tools, including flake tools and scrapers, from sites such as Sanghao Cave in the Mardan district and Kakul in the Abbottabad district. These tools suggest advanced hunting and gathering techniques by Neanderthals and early modern humans. The Upper Paleolithic (c. 40,000 - 10,000 years ago) introduced microliths and complex toolkits found in the Pabbi Hills (Punjab) and Dadu (Sindh), indicating a further advancement in technology and possibly symbolic behavior. feature well-planned cities with advanced drainage systems, granaries, warehouses, and brick houses, indicating a high level of urban planning and municipal governance. This era in the history of Pakistan is characterized by advanced urbanization, extensive trade networks, and remarkable cultural achievements. This period is further divided into three main phases: the *Early Harappan Phase* (3300-2600 BCE), *Mature Harappan Phase* (2600-1900 BCE), and *Late Harappan Phase'' (1900-1300 BCE).

The Early Harappan phase (3300-2600 BCE) represents the formative period of the Indus Valley Civilization, featuring early settlements that laid the groundwork for urbanization. Notable archaeological sites from this phase include Mehrgarh in Baluchistan, which continued from the Neolithic period with developments in pottery, metallurgy, and long-distance trade. Early Harappan ceramics and copper tools have been discovered here. Rehman Dheri in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa is one of the earliest urban centers with evidence of planned streets and brick structures. Kot Diji in Sindh is characterized by fortified structures and distinctive pottery styles, indicating social complexity and technological advancements.
, with the Great Bath in the foreground and the granary mound in the background.]]
The Mature Harappan Phase (2600-1900 BCE) represents the peak of urban development, with well-planned cities such as Harappa in Punjab and Mohenjo-daro in Sindh, the largest city of the IVC. These cities featured advanced drainage systems, granaries, warehouses, and brick houses, indicating a high level of urban planning and municipal governance. Artifacts from this era include a variety of pottery, tools, ornaments, and seals. The seals, typically made of steatite, depict animals, human figures, and an undeciphered script (Indus script), suggesting a complex communication system. The iconic 'Dancing Girl' bronze statuette found at Mohenjo-daro exemplifies the artistry and metallurgical skill of the Indus people. Agriculture played a crucial role in the economy, with evidence of wheat, barley, peas, cotton and sesame cultivation, along with the domestication of animals such as cattle, sheep, and goats. The use of irrigation and water management systems supported large-scale agriculture, which in turn facilitated urban growth.
 Beads.]]
Trade was another vital aspect of the Indus Valley Civilization, with archaeological findings suggesting extensive networks extending to Mesopotamia, Oman, and Central Asia. Goods such as lapis lazuli, carnelian, and shells indicate both inland and maritime trade routes. 

The Late Harappan phase (1900-1300 BCE) signifies the gradual decline of the Indus Valley Civilization, characterized by the abandonment of major urban centers and a shift towards rural settlements. Chanhudaro in Sindh continued occupation with a focus on craft production, particularly bead-making and shell-working. Pirak in Baluchistan shows evidence of continuity in agricultural practices and the introduction of new crops like rice and sorghum. Sutkagen Dor on the Makran Coast highlights the extensive maritime trade network of the IVC with regions such as Mesopotamia and the Arabian Peninsula. The decline of the Indus Valley Civilization remains a subject of debate among historians and archaeologists, with theories suggesting a combination of factors, including climate change, river course shifts, and possibly invasions or internal social upheavals.

The Bronze Age in Pakistan is marked by significant technological and cultural advancements, including the use of copper and bronze for tools, weapons, and ornaments. The discovery of copper furnaces and smelting sites indicates advanced metallurgical techniques. Extensive trade networks linked the Indus Valley with Mesopotamia, Central Asia, and the Persian Gulf, evidenced by the presence of Indus seals and artifacts in distant regions. The development of the Indus script, still undeciphered, found on seals, pottery, and other artifacts, suggests a complex system of administration and communication. Sophisticated urban planning with grid layouts, standardized brick sizes, and advanced drainage systems reflect a high level of social organization and engineering skills.

Graphical timeline of the six cradle of civilization in the world:

### Timeline of the Indus Valley Civilization 
### Transition from Late Bronze Age to Iron Age 
The transition from the Late Bronze Age to the Iron Age in Ancient Pakistan marks a period of significant cultural, technological, and social changes across the region. This era encompasses the coexistence and transformation of several distinct cultures, including the Cemetery H Culture and the Gandhara Grave Culture, and witnesses the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC).

#### Cemetery H Culture 
The *Cemetery H Culture* flourished in the Punjab region from around 1900 BCE to 1300 BCE. It is regarded as a regional variant of the Late Harappan phase of the Indus Valley Civilization, alongside the Jhukar culture of Sindh. It is named after a cemetery found in "Area H" at Harappa. Remains of the culture have been dated from about 1900 BCE until about 1300 BCE. This culture represented a shift from the urbanized patterns of the earlier Harappan civilization to more localized settlements and cultural practices. According to the archaeologist, Mohammad Rafique Mughal, the Cemetery H culture developed out of the northern part of the Indus Valley civilization around 1700 BCE, being part of the Punjab Phase, one of three cultural phases that developed in the Localization Era or "Late Harappan phase" of the Indus Valley Tradition. According to Kenoyer, the Cemetery H culture "may only reflect a change in the focus of settlement organization from that which was the pattern of the earlier Harappan phase and not cultural discontinuity, urban decay, invading aliens, or site abandonment, all of which have been suggested in the past." According to Kennedy and Mallory & Adams, the Cemetery H culture also "shows clear biological affinities" with the earlier population of Harappa.

The distinguishing features of this culture include:

* The use of cremation of human remains. The bones were stored in painted pottery burial urns. This is completely different from the Indus civilization where bodies were buried in wooden coffins. The urn burials and the "grave skeletons" were nearly contemporaneous.
* Reddish pottery, painted in black with antelopes, peacocks etc., sun or star motifs, with different surface treatments to the earlier period.
* Expansion of settlements into the east.
* Rice became a main crop.
* Apparent breakdown of the widespread trade of the Indus civilization, with materials such as marine shells no longer used.
* Continued use of mud brick for building.

#### Jhukar Culture 
 period (c. 2800–2600 BC), Ancient Pakistan.]]
The *Jhukar culture* of Sindh in Ancient Pakistan was a phase of the Late Harappan culture in that continued after the decline of the mature Indus Valley civilisation in the 2nd millennium BC. It was contemporaneous with the Cemetery H culture of Punjab and shares similarities with it in terms of pottery styles and cultural developments. The Jhukar phase is named after the archaeological site called *Jhukar* in Sindh, Pakistan. This phase, in turn, was followed by the Jhangar phase. Jhukar and Jhangar phases are collectively also called *Jhukar and Jhangar culture* (1900 - 1500 BCE).

The Jhukar culture, like other late Harappan cultures, witnessed changes in urban planning, trade networks, and possibly climatic shifts, contributing to its eventual decline by around 1300 BCE. The pottery of this phase is described as "showing some continuity with mature Harappan pottery traditions." During this phase, urban features of cities (such as Mohenjo-Daro) disappeared, and artifacts such as stone weights and female figurines became rare. This phase is characterized by some circular stamp seals with geometric designs, although lacking the Indus script which characterized the preceding phase of the civilization. Script is rare and confined to potsherd inscriptions. There was also a decline in long-distance trade.

#### Gandhara Grave Culture 
 Urn with Lid from Swat Valley, Pakistan, Gandhara Grave Culture, circa 1200 B.C.]]
The *Gandhara Grave Culture* of Pakistan, predominantly found in the middle Swat River valley and surrounding regions, represents a significant protohistoric period from approximately 1200 BCE to 800 BCE. The Italian Archaeological Mission to Pakistan (MAIP) holds that there are no burials with these features after 800 BCE. More recent studies by Pakistani scholars, such as Muhammad Zahir, consider that these protohistoric graves extended over a much wider geography and continued in existence from the 8th century BCE until the historic period. This culture was characterized by its distinctive burial practices. The core of the Gandhara Grave Culture was situated in the middle Swat River valley, extending into neighboring valleys such as Dir, Kunar, Chitral, and Peshawar.

The Gandhara Grave Culture is distinguished by its burial practices, which evolved over time. Early phases (c. 1400-1100 BCE) primarily featured single burials with bronze objects and pottery, including *Burnished Grey Ware* and *Burnished Red Ware*. The pottery often includes simple dot designs, while terracotta figurines of humans are also common grave goods.

In later phases (c. 1000-800 BCE), the burial traditions became more elaborate, incorporating cremation urns adorned with human-like face designs. These urns were placed in circular pits along with bronze, gold objects, and pottery, indicative of a flourishing artistic and metallurgical tradition. The introduction of iron technology during this period marks a significant technological advancement, concurrent with the emergence of urban centers like Taxila and Charsadda in the Gandhara region.

Scholars debate the origins and cultural affiliations of the Gandhara Grave Culture. Some suggest it may be linked to the Indo-Aryan migrations into the Subcontinent, as evidenced by cultural similarities with the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC) and the Cemetery H Culture of Punjab. Others argue for local cultural continuity, emphasizing connections with earlier Bronze Age cultures of the Greater Indus Valley. Its burial traditions and artistic achievements laid the foundation for subsequent cultural developments in the region, including the integration of Indo-Aryan elements with indigenous cultures, shaping the early historical and archaeological landscape of the South Asia.

## Timeline 
, original kept in the National Museum of Pakistan, Islamabad.]]
Following is the timeline of history of Pakistan from the Prehistoric times until the medieval period. It covers the different cultures, groups, civilizations, kingdoms and empires that existed during that time in Ancient Pakistan:

### Stone Age 
* Riwat culture (c. 2,000,000 BCE – 1,000,000 BCE)
* Soanian culture (c. 500,000 – 250,000 BCE)

### Neolithic 
* Mehrgarh (c. 7000 – c. 3000 BCE)
 in the Gandharan style from Ancient Pakistan, in the Lahore Museum.]]

### Bronze Age 
* Indus Valley Civilisation (c. 3300 – c. 1700 BCE)
** Cemetery H culture (c. 1900 –1300 BCE)
** Jhukar and Jhangar culture (1900 – 1500 BCE)
** Rangpur culture (c. 1900 –1300 BCE)
* Gandhara Civilization (c. 1500 BCE – c. 1000 CE)
* Vedic Civilization (c. 1500 – c. 500 BCE)
* Painted Grey Ware culture (c. 1200 or 700–300 BCE)
* Achaemenid Empire (c. 550 – c. 330 BCE)
** Gedrosia (c. 542 – c. 330 BCE)
** Gandhara (c. 518 – c. 330 BCE)
** Arachosia (c. 518 – c. 330 BCE)
** Hindush (c. 517 – c. 330 BCE)
** Sattagydia (c. 516 – c. 330 BCE)
* Ror dynasty (c. 489 – c. 450 BCE)
* Macedonian Empire (c. 329 – c. 323 BCE)
** Arachosia (c. 323 – c. 312 BCE)
** Gedrosia (c. 323 – c. 312 BCE)
** Paropamisadae (c. 323 – c. 312 BCE)
** Porus (c. 323 – c. 312 BCE)
** Taxiles (c. 323 – c. 312 BCE)
* Mauryan Empire (c. 322 – c. 200 BCE)
* Seleucid Empire (c. 312 – c. 63 BCE)
* Greco-Bactrian Kingdom (c. 190 – c. 140 BCE)
* Indo-Greek Kingdom (c. 170 – c. 50 BCE)
* Indo-Scythian Kingdom (c. 110 BCE – c. 95 CE)
** Apracharajas (c. 25 BCE – c. 50 CE)
** Paratarajas (c. 120 – c. 300 CE)
, Pakistan.]]

### Classical Pakistan 
* Parthian Empire (c. 90 BCE – c. 25 CE)
** Indo-Parthian Kingdom (c. 25 – c. 80 CE)
* Kushan Empire (c. 60 – 345 CE)
* Sasanian Empire (c. 250 – 655 CE)
* Indo-Sasanians (c. 240 – 410 CE)
** Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom (c. 240 – 410 CE)
* Gupta Empire (c. 345 – c. 455 CE)
* Rai dynasty (c. 415 – 644 CE)
* Hephthalite Empire (c. 450 – 560 CE)
** Brahman dynasty (c. 641 – 725 CE)
* Zhangzhung (c. 500 BCE - 624 CE)
* Patola Shahis (c. 6th - 8th centuries CE)
* Tibetan empire (c. 618 - 842 CE)

## Notes 
## References