open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Max Delbrück

**Max Ludwig Henning Delbrück** (September 4, 1906 – March 9, 1981) was a German-American biophysicist and Nobel laureate.

Delbrück was one of the most influential people in the movement of physical scientists into biology during the 20th century.

Delbrück's big idea was to explore genetics by means of the bacteriophage viruses which infect bacteria. This was important in the early development of molecular biology.

## Biography
Delbrück was born in Berlin, German Empire. Trained as a physicist, he got his Ph.D. in 1930. he traveled through England, Denmark, and Switzerland. He met Wolfgang Pauli and Niels Bohr, who got him interested in biology.

In 1937, he moved to the United States to pursue his interests in biology, taking up research in the Biology Division at Caltech on genetics of the fruit fly *Drosophila melanogaster*. While at Caltech Delbrück became acquainted with bacteria and their viruses (bacteriophage or 'phage').

Delbrück remained in the US during World War II, teaching physics at Vanderbilt University in Nashville while pursuing his genetic research. In 1942, he and Salvador Luria of Indiana University demonstrated that bacterial resistance to virus infection is caused by random mutation and not adaptive change. This research, known as the Luria-Delbrück experiment, was also significant for its use of mathematics to make quantitative predictions for the results to be expected from alternative models. For that work, they were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1969, sharing it with Alfred Hershey.

During the 1940s Delbrück developed a course in bacteriophage genetics at the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory to encourage interest in the field. In 1947, Delbrück returned to Caltech as a professor of biology where he remained until 1977.

## References
Displacement (psychology)

**Displacement** is a word used in Freudian psychology for an unconscious defence mechanism. Example: the mind redirects thoughts, emotions, desires from an object or person felt to be dangerous or unacceptable to an object or person felt to be safe or acceptable.

More generally, the substitute of one response by another, when the original response is blocked: displaced aggression.

## References
Ego depletion

**Ego depletion** is the idea that people get tired of making decisions because it is a neuro-chemical process that requires energy.

## References
Ubar

**Ubar** is a ruined city in Oman. English adventurer Ranulph Fiennes discovered the city in 1992. According to Nicolas Clapp, this probably is the lost city Iram of the Pillars the Qu'ran talks about. 

Today, ruins are left, which can be reached in a four-wheel drive. Part of the area forms the ceiling to underground vaults, which have collapsed. These vaults hold water supplies for a nearby settlement, which houses a small museum.
Salvador Luria

**Salvador Edward Luria** (Turin, Italy, August 13, 1912 – Lexington, Massachusetts, February 6, 1991) was an Italian microbiologist.

He won the 1969 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his pioneering work with Max Delbrück and Alfred Hershey on phages in molecular biology.

## Biography
Luria was born Salvatore Edoardo Luria in Turin, Italy to an influential Italian Sephardic Jewish family. He attended the medical school at the  University of Turin. There, he met two other future Nobel laureates: Rita Levi-Montalcini and Renato Dulbecco.

In Rome, he was introduced to Max Delbrück's theories on the gene as a molecule and began to formulate methods for testing genetic theory with bacteriophages, which are viruses that infect bacteria.

In 1938, he received a fellowship to study in the United States, where he intended to work with Delbrück. Soon after Luria received the award Benito Mussolini's fascist regime banned Jews from academic research fellowships.

Without funding sources for work in the U.S. or Italy, Luria left his home country for Paris, France in 1938. As the Nazi German armies invaded France in 1940, Luria fled on bicycle to Marseilles where he received an immigration visa to the United States.

## Phage research
Luria arrived in New York City on September 12, 1940 and soon changed his first and middle names. With the help of physicist Enrico Fermi, whom he knew from his time at the University of Rome, Luria received a fellowship at Columbia University. He soon met Delbrück and Hershey, and they collaborated on experiments at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory and in Delbrück's lab at Vanderbilt University.

His famous experiment with Delbrück in 1943, known as the Luria-Delbrück experiment, demonstrated that inheritance in bacteria follows Darwinian rather than Lamarckian principles and that mutant genes occurring randomly can still give viral resistance without the virus being present. The idea that natural selection affects bacteria has profound consequences, for example, it explains how bacteria develop antibiotic resistance.

From 1943 to 1950, he worked at Indiana University, Bloomington. His first graduate student was James D. Watson, who went on to discover the structure of DNA with Francis Crick. In January 1947, Luria became a naturalized citizen of the United States.

In 1950, Luria moved to the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. While investigating how a culture of *E. coli* was able to stop the production of phages, Luria discovered that specific bacterial strains produce enzymes that cut DNA at certain sequences. These enzymes became known as restriction enzymes and developed into one of the main molecular tools in molecular biology.

## References
Wavves

**Wavves** (pronounced "waves") is an American noise pop band based out of San Diego, California. They formed in 2008, and are currently signed to Fat Possum Records.

## Discography
### Albums
**Wavves* (Woodsist, 2008)
**Wavvves* (Fat Possum, Bella Union, 2009)
**King of the Beach* (Fat Possum, August 2010)  US #168
Coat of arms of Mexico

The flag of Mexico contains a **coat of arms** which is derived from an Aztec symbol depicting an eagle with a snake in its mouth.
.]].]] (Linear).]]
In the early 14th century, the Mexica people were a wandering tribe  looking for a permanent settlement in modern day central Mexico. They survived by hunting and gathering and were often hired to fight as mercenaries for the city-states scattered throughout the region. According to legend, their god, Huitzilopochtli, told them to establish a city of their own at a site where they would find an eagle eating a snake on top of a cactus. The legend relates that the people saw the eagle on a small, swampy island in the middle of the shallow Texcoco lake. The Mexica invented a resourceful system of gardening, called chinampas, which allowed them to grow small gardens, eventually drying out the lake. In 1325, they completed construction of a city there. That city, which they called Tenochtitlan, became the capital of the Aztec Empire, which dominated central Mexico until its destruction by Spanish Conquistadores led by Hernando Cortes.

After winning its independence from Spain in 1810, the newly created nation of Mexico–whose capital was built on the ruins of Tenochtitlan–adopted the symbol of the eagle and the snake to commemorate its Aztec heritage. The symbol can be found at the center of the Mexican flag.

## References
* http://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/45177.html
* http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/articles/article/Mexico/Mexican-Flag-Symbol/1074
Daniel Catán

**Daniel Catán Porteny** (3 April 1949 in Mexico City - 9 April 2011 in Austin, Texas) was a Mexican opera composer of Jewish descent. He is best known for turning the Italian movie, *Il Postino*, into an opera. He was working at the University of Texas at Austin on a new opera based on the Frank Capra movie, *Meet John Doe*.

## References
## Other websites
*Official Website of Daniel Catán
*Official Facebook Page of Daniel Catán
*G. Schirmer Inc.  Daniel Catán's Music Publisher
Omar Hassan Ahmad al-Bashir

**Omar Hassan Ahmad al-Bashir** (; born  1944) is the former President of Sudan. He came into power in 1989 and resigned in 2019 following massive anti-protests and a coup. In October 2004, Omar's government negotiated an end to the second Sudanese civil war, one of the longest-running and deadliest wars of the 20th century. However, there has been a violent conflict in Darfur that has resulted in a death toll between 200,000 and 400,000. During his presidency, there have been several violent struggles between the rebel groups such as the Sudanese Liberation Army (SLA) and the Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) in the form of warfare in the Darfur region. The civil war has resulted in over 2.5 million people being displaced, and the relations between Sudan and Chad are at a crisis.

## References
## Other websites
Central dogma of molecular biology

The **central dogma of molecular biology** is a phrase by Francis Crick, who proposed the double helix structure of DNA.
It means that information passes from DNA to proteins via RNA, but proteins cannot pass the information back to DNA.

Crick first wrote it in 1958, and repeated it in 1970.

The dogma is a framework for understanding the transfer of sequence information. 

There are 3 major classes of such biopolymers: DNA and RNA (both nucleic acids), and protein. There are 3×3 = 9 conceivable direct transfers of information that can occur between these. The dogma classes these into 3 groups of 3: 
*3 **general transfers** (believed to occur normally in most cells), 
*3 **special transfers** (known to occur, but only under specific conditions in case of some viruses or in a laboratory), and 
*3 **unknown transfers** (believed never to occur). 

The general transfers describe the normal flow of biological information: DNA can be copied to DNA (DNA replication),  DNA information can be copied into mRNA, (transcription), and proteins can be synthesized using the information in mRNA as a template (translation).

## References
Monday Night Football

** ESPN Monday Night Football** is a television show about the NFL which is broadcast on the channel ESPN and ABC and is on every Monday during the NFL season. Monday Night Football's first run was on September 21, 1970. It is currently airing.

## References
The Human League

**The Human League** is a British pop music band from Sheffield. The Human League has 3 members: Philip Oakey, Joanne Catherall, and Susan Ann Sulley. The band originally had 6 members. The other 3 members were Ian Burden, Jo Callis, and Philip Adrian Wright. They all left The Human League in the late 1980s.

The Human League started in 1977 and they had their greatest success during the 1980s. They continue to make new music today. Philip Oakey, the band's singer, is the only Human League member that has been with the band since it started. The other 2 members, Joanne Catherall and Susan Ann Sulley, joined The Human League in 1980.

The Human League has made 10 albums. Their newest album is called "Credo" and it was released in March 2011. Some of The Human League's hit songs are "Don't You Want Me", "Keep Feeling Fascination", "The Lebanon" and "Human".

## Albums
Below is a list of all the albums by The Human League.
* *Reproduction* (1979)
* *Travelogue* (1980)
* *Dare* (1981)
* *Fascination* (1983)
* *Hysteria* (1984)
* *Crash* (1986)
* *Romantic* (1990)
* *Octopus* (1995)
* *Secrets* (2001)
* *Credo* (2011)
STS-1

**STS-1** was the first flight of the space shuttle. It launched on April 12, 1981 and landed on April 14. It was launched 20 years after the first manned space flight. The space shuttle used was *Columbia*. Space Shuttle Columbia orbited the Earth 37 times in this mission.

## External tank
]]
STS-1 was the first of two missions with a painted external tank. The paint was put to protect the external tank from ultraviolet light when it was standing on the launch pad. After STS-2, the paint was removed
20/20 (American TV program)

***20/20*** is a television newsmagazine on ABC. It has been on ABC since June 6, 1978 and is currently airing. 20/20 is recently hosted by Chris Cuomo and Elizabeth Vargas, currently hosted by David Muir and Deborah Roberts.

## Anchors
* Harold Hayes (1987)
* Robert Hughes (1978)
* Hugh Downs (1978–1999)
* Barbara Walters (1979–2004)
* Diane Sawyer (1998–2000)
* Charles Gibson (1998–2000)
* Sam Donaldson (1998–2000)
* Connie Chung (1998–2002)
* Jack Ford (2000–2001)
* John Miller (2002–2003)
* John Stossel (2003–2009)
* Elizabeth Vargas (2004–2018)
* Chris Cuomo (2009–2013)
* David Muir (since 2013)
* Amy Robach (since 2018)

## Other websites
* Official ABC News website
* 
* 
*
Mesoamerican ball game

The **Mesoamerican ball game** is a sport that people in Mesoamerica have played since about 1,400 B.C.E.  It was the first team sport in history, as far as historians know.

The Olmecs, who lived from 1,200 B.C.E. to 400 B.C.E., played the Mesoamerican ballgame.  The ancient Mayans played the game; they called it **pitz** in Classical Maya.

In some parts of Mexico, indigenous people still play a more modern version of the game, called *ulama*.  The Mesoamerican ballgame was also the first sport in history ever to use a rubber ball. The ball, called an *ulli*, was made out of rubber.  It weighed about , Since getting the ball through the hoop was uncommon, a team could also score points by hitting one of six markers alongside the edges of the court.

## Gambling 
Gambling played a large part in the culture surrounding the ballgame.  People could bet nearly anything on which team would win the game.  Some ancient people bet things like beautiful feathers. Others bet children or even their own lives. The losers sometimes sold themselves into slavery just so they could pay off their debt.p.&nbsp;97

## Religious importance 
The Mesoamerican ballgame also held a very important religious meaning. In Aztec culture, for example, the game was meant to represent the combat that happened every day on the "ball court" in the underworld, where the sun fought with the night to get across.  However, Mayan art suggests that Mayan ballplayers, maybe team captains, were sacrificed too.

The Aztecs also sacrificed losing teams (or, according to some historians, winning teams) after some games.  The ancient Aztecs believed that without human sacrifice, the sun would stop and the earth would be plunged into darkness.  Sometimes, ancient Aztecs would decorate the ball court with the skulls of people who had been sacrificed.  The ball itself was a symbol of a sacrificed person's head.  Sometimes, the actual head or skull of a sacrificed person was used as a ball in the game.

## Modern version 
In modern times, the Aztec ballgame changed into *ulama.*  People still play this game in a few communities in the Mexican state of Sinaloa.

Ulama uses  courts, made by drawing thick lines in the dirt. There are three different ways to play ulama. In the different versions of the game, players may use their hips, forearms, or  to hit the ball.

## References
Hit the Road, Jack

**"Hit the Road Jack"** is a rhythm and blues song from the 1960s.

## History
Percy Mayfield wrote and sang "Hit the Road, Jack" in 1960. 

Ray Charles made the song famous. Ray Charles's song was number 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 in fall of 1961. 

The song is ranked #377 on the Rolling Stone magazine's list of *The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time*.

The first recording was a cappella. Ray Charles did it with his lover, Margie Hendrix. The song uses what is known as Andalusian cadence. 

Today, there are many versions. Richard Anthony did a version in French, Monica Zetterlund one in Swedish. 

## Lyrics
The chorus of the song is:
:Hit the road, Jack, and don't you come back no more, no more, no more, no more.
:Hit the road, Jack, and don't you come back no more.

The words of this song are not standard English. In standard English, the words could be "Hit the road, Jack, and don't come back again" or "Hit the road, Jack, and don't come back anymore"

In this context, "hit the road" is an idiom meaning "get lost," as the following words indicate.

## Recording Details
For the most popular recording
* Title: "Hit the Road Jack"
* Artist: Single by Ray Charles
* B-side: "The Danger Zone"
* Released: September 1961
* Format: 7", 45rpm
* Genre: R&B
* Length: 2:00
* Label: ABC
* Writer(s): Percy Mayfield
Texas Motor Speedway

**Texas Motor Speedway** is a racetrack in Fort Worth, Texas. It hosts two races a year in the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series. It first opened in 1996. Its layout is similar to the track layout of Atlanta Motor Speedway and Charlotte Motor Speedway (which used to be known as Lowe's Motor Speedway).

## NASCAR Sprint Cup Series Statistics
### NASCAR Sprint Cup Series Records
(As of 11/7/10)

 from minimum 10 starts.

### NASCAR Sprint Cup Series Race Winners
*An asterisk (*) indicates that the race was extended beyond the scheduled distance due to the green-white-checker finish rule

## Other websites
*Texas Motor Speedway Official Site
*Texas Motor Speedway Page  on NASCAR.com
Little Caesars

**Little Caesars** is a pizza company in the United States. It is the 4th biggest pizza company in the United States. It was founded on May 8, 1959 in Garden City, Michigan by Mike Ilitch. It is a subsidiary of Ilitch Holdings, Inc.

## References
## Other websites
*Official website
Sunny Day Real Estate

**Sunny Day Real Estate** is an American rock band from Seattle, Washington. Sunny Day Real Estate formed in 1992 when they were originally called *Empty Set*. They broke up in 1995 because Goldsmith and Mendel were leaving to join Dave Grohl's band, the Foo Fighters. They reunited in 1997 and disbanded again in 2001. They reunited once again in 2009.

## Discography
### Albums 
* Diary (1994)
* Sunny Day Real Estate (1995)
* How It Feels to Be Something On (1998)
* The Rising Tide (2000)

## Other websites 
*Sunny Day Real Estate's Official website
Volbeat

**Volbeat** is an Danish heavy metal band from Copenhagen. Volbeat formed in 2001 when singer Michael Poulsen formed a death metal band called Dominus. He became tired of the death metal genre and left the band. He then formed a new band called Volbeat with other members of Dominus.

## Discography
### Albums 
* The Strength / The Sound / The Songs (2005)
* Rock the Rebel / Metal the Devil (2007)
* Guitar Gangsters & Cadillac Blood (2008)
* Beyond Hell/Above Heaven (2010)
* Outlaw Gentlemen & Shady Ladies (2013)
* Seal the Deal & Let's Boogie (2016)
* Rewind, Replay, Rebound (2019)
* Servant of the Mind (2021)

## Other websites 
*Volbeat's Official website
Ole von Beust

**Carl-Friedrich Arp Ole Freiherr von Beust**, generally called **Ole von Beust**, born 13 April 1955, in Hamburg, Germany, was Ole von Beust First Mayor of the Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg () from 31 October 2001 to 25 August 2010, serving as President of the Bundesrat from 1 November 2007 on for one year. He was followed as mayor by Christoph Ahlhaus.

## Life and work
He is the son of Achim Helge Freiherr von Beust and Hanna, née Wolff, who was considered half Jewish in Nazi Germany. Through his father he is a descendant of Saxon and Austrian statesman Count Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust.

In 1971 von Beust became member of the conservative Christian Democratic Union (CDU). In 1973, after finishing high school, he worked for the CDU group in Hamburg's city-state parliament ("Bürgerschaft"), a position he held until he started to study law in 1975 at the University of Hamburg. Beust in turn stated that Schill threatened to make his alleged liaison with Kusch public under the premise that Beust intermingled public and private affairs. He said he had no sexual relationship with Kusch, that they merely knew each other for 25 years and were good friends, and that Beust was Kusch's landlord. "This is all – absolutely all", according to Beust.

His unprepared statement to the press quickly earned Schill an homophobic reputation. A popular radio-station broadcast a song calling him "Mega-Proll" (mega redneck) and gay and lesbian associations protested vocally. Schill however later affirmed Beust's version of the story, except for the accusations of blackmail, saying that he warned Beust to stay clear of nepotism, and that this had nothing to do with Beust's sexual orientation. He stated "I have nothing against homosexuals".

In a later interview, Beust's father confirmed that his son is indeed homosexual. Beust himself considers his sexual orientation a private matter; when asked directly he usually ironically refers the interviewer to his father.

The Hamburg elections of 29 February 2004, ended with an unprecedented landslide victory for Ole von Beust and the CDU, with the party achieving absolute majority in the city-state's parliament. However, since the CDU lost its absolute majority, it formed a coalition government with the Greens.

On 18 July 2010 Ole von Beust declared his resignation effective 25 August. He was a finalist for the 2010 World Mayor prize.

## Notes
## References
## Other websites
* Ole von Beust - CDU-Hamburg site 
* City Mayors profile
Alfred Hershey

**Alfred Day Hershey** (December 4, 1908 – May 22, 1997) was an American Nobel Prize-winning bacteriologist and geneticist.

He was born in Owosso, Michigan and received his B.S. in chemistry at Michigan State University in 1930 and his Ph.D. in bacteriology in 1934, taking a position shortly thereafter at the Department of Bacteriology at Washington University in St. Louis.

He began doing experiments with bacteriophages with Italian-American Salvador Luria and German Max Delbrück in 1940. He found that when two different strains of bacteriophage have infected the same bacteria, the two viruses may exchange genetic information.

He moved with his wife Harriet to Cold Spring Harbor, New York, in 1950 to join the Carnegie Institution for Science's Department of Genetics. There he performed the famous Hershey-Chase blender experiment with Martha Chase in 1952. This experiment provided additional evidence that DNA, not protein, was the genetic material.

He became director of the Carnegie Institution in 1962 and was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1969, shared with Luria and Delbrück for their discovery on the replication of viruses and their genetic structure.

## Other websites
*Nobel biography
*Biographical Memoir: Alfred Day Hershey by Franklin W. Stahl for the National Academy of Sciences
*Key Participants: Alfred D. Hershey  - *Linus Pauling and the Race for DNA: A Documentary History*
Lemmy

**Ian Fraser** "**Lemmy**" **Kilmister** (24 December 1945 &ndash; 28 December 2015), commonly known by **Lemmy**, was a British musician, singer-songwriter and actor. He was best known as the bassist of the heavy metal band Motörhead.

## Early years 
Lemmy was born in Burslem, Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire, England. He went to school at Ysgol Syr Thomas Jones in Amlwch, Wales. At age 16 he attended a concert by The Beatles in the Cavern Club. Lemmy liked the sarcastic attitude of the Beatles, especially John Lennon. Around that time he began playing guitar in small local bands like The Sundowners.

In mid-1960, he played guitar in bands like The Rainmakers, then The Motown Sect, playing clubs in the north. In 1965, he joined the band The Rockin 'Vickers, and signed a contract with CBS. The band released three single albums and toured Europe. In 1967, he moved to London and got a job as a roadie on The Jimi Hendrix Experience. In 1968, he recorded an album titled *Escalator* with the band Sam Gopal. After that, Lemmy met Simon King in a shopping centre in Chelsea and then joined the band Opal Butterfly for a short period.

Lemmy joined the Ladbroke Grove rock band Hawkwind as a bassist and vocalist. He gained experience as a bassist, because until then he had only worked as a guitarist. Lemmy was also lead vocals on several songs for the band.

## Motörhead 
In 1975, Lemmy founded a new band called Bastard with guitarist Larry Wallis and Lucas Fox on drums. Later, Lemmy changed the name of the band to Motörhead. Wallis and Fox left the band and were replaced by the guitarist Eddie Clarke and drummer Phil "Philthy Animal" Taylor. This new formation would begin Motörhead's success in live performances. In 1977, the band recorded their first album, *Motörhead*, released 24 September 1977. The second album, titled *Overkill*, contained two songs that would become Motörhead classics: "Louie Louie" and "Overkill". The peak of the band was 1980 and 1981 with a series of chart hits in the UK, including the classic single "Ace of Spades", one of the biggest hits of the band. 

Motörhead's members changed throughout the band's career, but Lemmy remained on bass and vocals from their start 1975 until his death in December 2015.

## Acting career 
Lemmy's career as an actor began by playing small roles in low-budget UK films *Eat the Rich* (1988) and *Hardware* (1990). His credits include *Terror Firmer* (1998), *Frezno Smooth* (1999), and *Citizen Toxie: The Toxic Avenger IV* (2000).

## Death 
On 28 December 2015, Lemmy died of prostate cancer, cardiac arrhythmia and congestive heart failure at his home in Los Angeles, California at the age of 70.

## References
## Other websites 
* Motörhead official website
* Lemmy: The Movie Official website 
* 
*Interview with Lemmy Kilmister in REVOLUTIONART Magazine 22
* The Rockin' Vickers 
* Myspace profile for Lemmy's new band The Head Cat
* Lemmy interview with BIZARRE magazine 
* Gallery of Lemmy with Motorhead 
*Lemmy Interview  in SPIN
* Lemmy Interview  on the Jekyll and Hyde Show, 106FM Jerusalem
Whataburger

**Whataburger** is a fast food restaurant that specifically makes hamburgers. It was founded in 1950 in the city of Corpus Christi, Texas. The restaurant chain was completely on portable stands until the first permanent store was built in 1961.

## References
## Other websites 
*Official website
Sports Illustrated Stadium

**Sports Illustrated Stadium**, known before December 2024 as **Red Bull Arena**, is a soccer stadium in Harrison, New Jersey in the United States. It is home to two teams that each play in the top level of American soccer—the New York Red Bulls, a men's team playing in Major League Soccer, and Gotham FC, which plays in the National Women's Soccer League.

The construction started in 2006, but through differences of the clubowner and the state of New Jersey there was a delay. After the former Metro Stars were bought by the Red Bull company, the stadium was opened on March 20, 2010 with a friendly match of the NY Red Bulls versus FC Santos from Brazil. One week later the first league match was held in the new stadium versus Chicago Fire. The stadium has 30 luxury suites and 1,000 premium seats. The design is customized to the design of the owner company, Red Bull.

On December 11, 2024, the Red Bulls announced that the stadium would be renamed Sports Illustrated Stadium. The renaming is part of a partnership between the team and Sports Illustrated Tickets, an online ticketing platform that licenses the name of the famed magazine from the magazine's owner.

## Footnotes
## References
## Other websites
*Red Bull Arena Homepage 

*See also:Red Bull Arena (Salzburg)
Night terror

A **night terror**, also known as a sleep terror, is a sleep disorder that causes extreme terror and a temporary inability to regain full consciousness. The person having the night terror wakes up suddenly, usually gasping, moaning, or screaming while waking. It is often impossible to wake up the person fully because they are so concentrated on waking, and after the terror the subject normally settles back to sleep without waking. A night terror can rarely be recalled by the subject. They typically occur during non-rapid eye movement sleep.

## Other websites
*Night Terror Resource Center 
*eMedicine Health: Night Terrors 
*National Institutes of Health, Medline Plus: Night Terrors
*National Library of Medicine - Medical Subject Headings: Night Terrors
David Hubel

**David Hunter Hubel**  (February 27, 1926&nbsp;– September 22, 2013) was a Canadian neurophysiologist noted for his studies of the structure and function of the visual cortex. He was co-recipient with Torsten Wiesel of the 1981 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (shared with Roger W. Sperry), for their discoveries concerning information processing in the visual system.  He was a Professor of Neurobiology Emeritus at Harvard Medical School.

## Career 
For much of his career, Hubel was the John Franklin Enders University Professor of Neurobiology at Harvard Medical School. In 1978, Hubel and Wiesel were awarded the Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize from Columbia University.

Hubel was co-recipient with Torsten Wiesel of the 1981 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discoveries about information processing in the visual system. The prize was shared with Roger Sperry for his independent research on the cerebral hemispheres.

He was elected a foreign member of the Academia Europaea in 1994.

Hubel died of renal failure.

## Nobel award 
Hubel and Wiesel received the Nobel Prize for two major contributions:
# Their work in the 1960s and 1970s on how the visual system developed. They worked on parts of the visual cortex of the brain which get signals from the right or left eye.
# Their work describing how signals from the eye are processed by the brain to generate edge detectors, motion detectors, stereoscopic depth detectors and colour detectors. These are building blocks of the visual scene.

## Some details 
### Cells detect features 
In one experiment, done in 1959, they inserted a microelectrode into the primary visual cortex of an anesthetized cat. They then projected patterns of light and dark on a screen in front of the cat. They found that some neurons fired rapidly when presented with lines at one angle, while others responded best to another angle. Some of these neurons responded differently to light patterns than to dark patterns.  Hubel and Wiesel called these neurons 'simple cells'.

Still other neurons, which they called 'complex cells', detected edges regardless of how they were placed in the visual field, and could detect motion in certain directions.  These studies showed how the visual system constructs complex pictures of visual information from simple stimulus features.

### Flexibility of visual cortex 
They did important work in the study of cortical plasticity (flexibility).

By depriving kittens from using one eye, they showed that columns in the primary visual cortex receiving inputs from the other eye took over the areas that would normally receive input from the deprived eye.

These kittens did not develop areas receiving input from both eyes, a feature needed for binocular vision. Hubel and Wiesel's experiments showed that ocular dominance (dominance of one eye is normal) develops early in childhood development, and cannot be reversed. Several childhood vision problems were understood better after this work.

## Related pages
* List of biologists

## References
Machair (TV series)

***Machair*** was a Scottish Gaelic television soap opera produced by Scottish Television Enterprises between January 1993 and April 1999.

*Machair* was written in English and translated into Gaelic, then given English subtitles and broadcast during primetime.  At first, critics thought this process would not work, but when the show aired it got lots of praise from reviewers.  Kenneth Roy, television critic of Scotland on Sunday, described it as *"A credit to the company (Scottish Television) and a smack in the face to those of us who were doubtful"* and after a few episodes said *"It is even better than it looked at first glance quite simply the best thing to have happened to television in Scotland for a long time."* Audiences liked the show too. *Machair* got 30% audience share and made it into the Top Ten of programmes viewed in Scotland, even though fewer than 2% of the Scottish population can speak Gaelic.  It was nominated for awards for production and writing from *The Celtic Film Festival* and Writers Guild of Great Britain.

## References
## Other websites
*
Roger Wolcott Sperry

**Roger Wolcott Sperry** (August 20, 1913 – April 17, 1994) was an American neurobiologist and Nobel Prize winner. 

He shared the 1981 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel. In 1989, Sperry also received the National Medal of Science.

Before Sperry's experiments, some research evidence seemed to indicate that areas of the cerebral cortex were largely interchangeable. In his early experiments, Sperry showed that the opposite was true: after early development, circuits of the brain are largely hardwired. That is, they are set with a particular function.

Sperry's work was on 'split-brain' research. In his Nobel-winning work, Sperry tested ten patients who had undergone an operation developed in 1940 by William Van Wagenen, a neurosurgeon in Rochester, NY.  

The surgery, designed to treat epileptics with *grand mal* seizures, severed (cut) the corpus callosum, the area of the brain used to transfer signals between the right and left hemispheres.  

Sperry and his colleagues tested these patients with tasks that were known to be dependent on specific hemispheres of the brain and demonstrated that the two halves of the brain may each contain consciousness.  In his words, each hemisphere is

This research contributed greatly to understanding how each cerebral hemisphere works. 

Some activities, such as naming objects or putting blocks together in a particular way, can only be done when using one side of the brain or the other. It seems the left hemisphere usually specializes in language processes and the right is dominant in visual-construction tasks.

## References
Oil refinery

), on the north end of March Point southeast of Anacortes, Washington]]

An **oil refinery** or **petroleum refinery** is an industrial plant where crude oil is made into useful petroleum products by fractional distillation and other processes. Products include gasoline, diesel fuel, asphalt base, heating oil, kerosene, and liquefied petroleum gas.

## References 
## Other websites 
* Searchable United States Refinery Map 
* Interactive map of UK refineries 
*Complete, detailed refinery description
*Petroleum Refinery Planning and Optimization Using Linear Programming 
*Student's Guide to Refining 
*Global refinery shortage shifts power balance
*Ecomuseum Bergslagen  - history of Oljeön, Sweden
*Detailed refinery description 
*Fueling Profits: Report on Industry Consolidation (publication of the Consumer Federation of America)
*Price Spikes, Excess Profits and Excuses (publication of the Consumer Federation of America)
*Refinery study
*2011 NACS Annual Fuels Report 
*Basics of Oil Refining Overview of crude oil refining process
*Basics of Oil Refining  Overview of crude oil refining process with focus on Canadian crude oil
*Refinery Animations & Videos  Oil Refinery Process Animations,Videos & 360 Degree Views
*Chicago Bridge & Iron: Virtual Refinery 
*Encyclopaedia of Hydrocarbons, ENI and Treccani ed., 5 volumes
Traveler's cheque

A '''traveler's cheque** (also **traveller's cheque**, **travellers cheque**, **traveller's check** or **traveler's check''') is a preprinted  cheque for a fixed amount.  The person who buys it must sign it and then sign it again when he "cashes" it.  It is a good way for a traveller to take money when going on holiday.  If a traveler's cheque is stolen it can be replaced so long as the person still has a receipt to prove that he bought it.

Traveler's cheques were a large part of the business of American Express.  Since 2005 the American Express have been issuing "American Express Travelers Cheque Cards".  These can be used in stores like a credit card.

## Other websites
* American Express Traveler's Cheques merchant site
Catscratch

***Catscratch*** is an American animated television series. It was broadcast on Nickelodeon and Nicktoons Network from 2005 to 2007.
Nabarlek

The **nabarlek** (*Petrogale concinna*), also known as the **pygmy rock-wallaby** or the **little Rock-wallaby**, is a small marsupial, a type of wallaby from northern Australia. Nabarleks are small kangaroos. They can hop and jump with their powerful legs, and balance on their long tail.

## References
Matthias Grünewald

]]
**Mathias Grünewald** (c. 1470 in Würzburg, died 31 August 1528) was a German painter and artist. Today he is seen as one of the important German artists of the Renaissance. His real name was *Mathias Gothart* or *Mathias Neidhardt*, his first name is also spelled *Mathis*. Sometimes he is called **Mathias of Aschaffenburg**. Today, only ten paintings and 35 drawings survive. At first many of his works were attributed to Albrecht Dürer, even though Dürer's style of paining is completely different. All the surviving works have religious motifs.
American Airlines Center

The **American Airlines Center** (also known as the **AAC** and **The Hanger**) is an indoor multi-purpose sports arena. It is in the Victory Park neighborhood, near downtown Dallas, Texas. It is currently used by the Dallas Stars and the Dallas Mavericks. It is also used for concerts and entertainment.

## References
## Other websites
*Official Site
Torsten Wiesel

**Torsten Nils Wiesel** (born June 3, 1924) is a Swedish neuroscientist.

He and David Hubel won the 1981 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, for their discoveries of information processing in the visual system. The prize was shared with Roger Sperry for his independent research on the cerebral hemispheres.

After serving as president of the Rockefeller University, he is now director of the Shelby White and Leon Levy Center for Mind, Brain and Behavior at the same institution. He is also an advisor to several countries and organizations, mainly helping young scientists do research. He is a member of the President's Council of University of the People.

He was elected a member of the Academia Europaea in 1995.

Torsten was married to American editor Jean Stein from 1995 until they divorced in 2007.

Wiesel turned 100 in June 2024.

## References
Yi Jun-yong

**Yi Jun-yong** (or **Lee Junyong**, , hanja: , June 25 1870  March 22, 1918) was a Korean politician. He was a member of the Joseon Dynasty royal family. He was the grandson of Heungseon Daewangun, and elder nephew of Emperor Gojong of the Korean empire. He was rival of his uncle Kojong 1874 to 1907. His title was 'Prince Yeongseon' ().

## References 
## Other websites 
* http://terms.naver.com/entry.nhn?docId=536044
* http://100.naver.com/100.nhn?docid=128028
Keine Sorgen Arena

The **Keine Sorgen Arena** ("No Worries Arena") is a football stadium in Ried, Austria. It is the homeground of SV Ried. The stadium is named after a slogan used by one sponsor of SV Ried, an upper Austrian insurance company. Since 2018 it is called Josko-Arena. Josko is another sponsor of SV Ried.

The stadium replaced the former stadium of SV Ried which had only 1 100 places and was a multipurpose stadium with a running track. The new stadium is only used for football and has 7 700 seats of whom 120 are a VIP-area. The weststand and the awaystand offer only standingroom.
Orlen

**Orlen S.A.** (formerly *Polski Koncern Naftowy Orlen S.A*., *PKN Orlen*) is a Polish oil and gas company. It has a lot of petrol stations in Poland, Germany, Czech Republic, Lithuania and Slovakia. It is the biggest company in Poland and one of the biggest oil and gas companies in Europe.

## History
Orlen was founded in People's Repubic of Poland. In 1999, it was privatized.

## Brands of Orlen Group
* Basell Orlen Polyolefins
* Petrochemia Płock
* UniPetrol
* Benzina
* Solino
* Anwil
* Orlen KolTrans
* Orlen Lietuva
* Polkomtel
* Orlen Transport
* Orlen Oil
* Orlen Gaz
* CPN
* Bliska
* Star
* Benzina Plus
* Ventus
* Orlen Petrocentrum
* Orlen Wir
* Orlen Medica
* Orlen Budonaft
* Spolana
* Orlen International Exploration and Production Company
* Orlen Upstream

## Other websites
Asseco

**Asseco Poland S.A.** is a Polish company in the technology sector, the biggest in Warsaw Stock Exchange.

Its headquarters are in Rzeszów, Poland.

## History
It was founded in 1991.

The company works in Poland, Slovakia, the Czech Republic, Austria, Lithuania, Germany, Romania, Hungary, Spain, United States, Israel, Japan, Turkey and the Balkans.

## References
Richard Roberts

**Sir Richard John Roberts** FRS (born 6 September 1943, Derby) is a British biochemist and molecular biologist.

He was awarded the 1993 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Phillip Sharp for "the discovery that genes in eukaryotes are not contiguous strings but contain introns, and that the splicing of messenger RNA to delete those introns can occur in different ways, yielding different proteins from the same DNA sequence".

Roberts has worked at Harvard University, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory and New England Biolab. He was knighted in the 2008 Birthday Honours.

## Work 
It used to be thought that each gene on DNA coded for a single protein in a continuous strip. Roberts and Sharp independently found out that the genes in adenovirus (which causes the common cold), were split into segments that were combined later in RNA processing.

In 1997 Roberts proved that in the adenovirus coding DNA is separated by stretches of DNA which are non-coding. The coding sections are ***exons***, and the non-coding sections are ***introns***.

Furthermore, it turned out that this structure occurs in all higher organisms. The discovery that a gene in could be present in the genetic material as several distinct and separate segments was revolutionary.

The second part of Robert's work was in gene-splitting and gene splicing. This means to cut pieces out of, and add pieces to, a coding sequence. This creates a protein which works differently from the original version. This is now used in genetic engineering.
, removes introns from a transcribed pre-mRNA segment. This process is referred to as **splicing**.]]

### Suggested effect on evolution 
This kind of structure may allow more flexible responses to environmental change, and so speed up evolution. The structure may also be responsible for a number of inherited genetic defects.

Here's a key part of the Nobel presentation speech by Professor Bertil Daneholt of the Nobel Assembly of the Karolinska Institute:

:"Earlier it was believed that genes evolve mainly through the accumulation of small discrete changes in the genetic material. But their mosaic gene structure also permits higher organisms to restructure genes in another, more efficient way. This is because during the course of evolution, gene segments - the individual pieces of the mosaic - are regrouped in the genetic material, which creates new mosaic patterns and hence new genes. This reshuffling process presumably explains the rapid evolution of higher organisms".

## References
Etta Baker

**Etta Baker** (March 31, 1913 – September 23, 2006) was an American blues guitarist and singer from North Carolina, United States. She played in the Piedmont blues style.

Baker was born **Etta Lucille Reid** in Caldwell County, North Carolina of African American, Native American, and European American origin. Since the age of three she played 6- and 12-string guitar and Banjo. She was thought by her father, who was also a Piedmont blues musician. She did her first recording in 1956, when folk singer Paul Clayton was asked by her father to listen to his daughter. She played "One Dime Blues" and Clayton was very impressed. Next day he did some recordings with his taperecorder in Etta Bakers home.

Over the years she played with different musicians like Bob Dylan, Taj Mahal, and Kenny Wayne Shepherd. Etta Baker had nine children, one of them died in the Vietnam War. She died at the age of 93 in Fairfax, Virginia, while visiting a daughter who had suffered a stroke.
## Honours
*North Carolina Folk Heritage Award from the North Carolina Arts Council (1989)
*National Endowment for the Arts' National Heritage Fellowship (1991)
*North Carolina Award (2003)
*North Carolina Folklore Society's Brown-Hudson Folklore Award (1982 - together with her sister Cora Philips)

## Discography
* 1956 : *Instrumental Music From the Southern Appalachians* (1956, Tradition Records; reissued 1997)
* 1990 : *One Dime Blues*
* 1998 : *The North Carolina Banjo Collection* (various artists) (1998, Rounder)
* 1999 : *Railroad Bill*
* 2004 : *Etta Baker with Taj Mahal* (Music Maker 50)
* 2005 : *Carolina Breakdown*  with Cora Phillips (Music Maker 56)
* 2006 : *Knoxville Rag* with Kenny Wayne Shepherd (CD Title: "10 Days Out- Blues From The Backroads", it also includes a DVD that shows Kenny & Etta playing guitar in her kitchen), Reprise Records, 2006
Susumu Tonegawa

**Susumu Tonegawa** (born 6 September 1939) is a Japanese scientist who won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1987.

He discovered the genetic mechanism that produces antibody diversity. Although he won the Nobel Prize for his work in immunology, Tonegawa is a molecular biologist by training. In his later years, he has turned his attention to the molecular and cellular basis of memory.

Tonegawa is best known for elucidating the genetic mechanism in the adaptive immune system. If each antibody was coded by one gene, it would take millions of genes to protect against antigens.

Instead, as Tonegawa showed in a landmark series of experiments beginning in 1976, genetic material can rearrange itself to form the vast array of available antibodies. The main mechanism is called RNA splicing.

Antibodies have a 'variable region' in their structure. Tonegawa compared the DNA of B cells (a type of white blood cell) in embryonic and adult mice. He found that genes in the mature B cells of the adult mice are moved around, recombined, and deleted to make the many versions of the variable region of antibodies.

## Early life and education
Tonegawa was born in Nagoya, Japan and attended Hibiya High School in Tokyo. While a student at Kyoto University, Tonegawa became fascinated with operon theory after reading papers by François Jacob and Jacques Monod, whom he credits in part for inspiring his interest in molecular biology.

## The critical work 
The critical work was started in Basle, Switzerland, and later at MIT. "Our work resolved the long held debate on the genetic origin of antibody diversity. It turned out that this diversity is generated by somatic recombination of the inherited gene segments and by somatic mutation".

## Related pages 
* List of Nobel Prize winners by country

## References
Edexcel

**Edexcel** is a UK examination board. It is one of England, Wales and Northern Ireland's five main examination boards. Edexcel is owned by the private-sector Pearson PLC.  The company offers many qualifications including A levels and GCSEs. Edexcel's name is from the words *education* and *excellence*.
Chamber pot

A **chamber pot** (also a **chamberpot**), a **piss pot**, a **potty**, a **po**, a **gazunder**, or a **thunder pot**) is a container with a handle, usually used as a urinal at night. It is kept in a bedroom under a bed or in a nightstand.

During Victorian times, some chamber pots were built into a cabinet with a closeable cover. 

## History
The chamber pot was originally designed for females. Called the *Bourdaloue*, it allowed women to urinate squatting or sitting without accidents. It was supposedly named after the French Catholic priest Louis Bourdaloue, whose sermon were so long that women brought *Bourdaloue* so they could urinate without having to leave.

In the 19th century, water closets started to be more common than chamber pots, but chamber pots were still used until the mid-20th century. Today, they are used in countries that have no indoor plumbing.

In North America and the UK, "potty" refer to the toilets made especially for potty training. These toilets are similar to chamber pots.

In the Philippines, chamber pots are used as urinals and are commonly called "Arinola" in Philippine languages like Tagalog and Cebuano.

In Korea, chamber pots are referred to as **yogang** (**요강**). Currently, they are still used in some country regions in the North.

## Related pages
SimCity 2000

***SimCity 2000*** is a city building computer game released in 1994. It is the sequel to *SimCity*. It had a lot of new things such as more power plants, hills and mountains, subways, water pipes, prisons, schools, libraries, museums, and hospitals. There were also roads, highways, and other buildings.

The game also had different scenarios.