open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
List of football clubs in Portugal

These are some Portuguese football teams that now (2025-2026) playing in a professional category.

## Primeira Liga 
* F.C. Alverca
* F.C. Arouca
* AVS Futebol SAD
* S.L. Benfica
* S.C. Braga
* Casa Pia A.C.
* G.D. Estoril Praia
* C.F. Estrella da Amadora
* F.C. Famalicão
* Gil Vicente F.C.
* Moreirense F.C.
* C.D. Nacional
* FC Porto
* Rio Ave F.C.
* C.D. Santa Clara
* Sporting CP
* C.D. Tondela
* Vitória S.C.

## Liga Portugal 2 
* Académico de Viseu F.C.
* S.L. Benfica B
* G.D. Chaves
* S.C. Farense
* C.D. Feirense
* F.C. Felgueiras
* Leixões S.C.
* Lusitano G.C.
* C.S. Marítimo
* U.D. Oliverense
* F.C. Paços de Ferreira
* F.C. Penafiel
* Portimonense S.C.
* FC Porto B
* Sporting CP B
* S.C.U. Torreense
* U.D. Leiria
* F.C. Vizela

## References
*www.PortuGOAL.net The definitive Portuguese football site
Transport

**Transport**, or **transportation**, is moving people or things from one place to another place. Transport can be divided into *infrastructure*, *vehicles* and *operations*.

*Infrastructure* includes cableways, roads, railways, airports, canals and pipelines. The infrastructure is the network where things are carried. Infrastructure also includes airports, railway stations, bus stations and seaports (docks). Infrastructure is usually built by governments and paid for by taxes from the citizens of a country or region. Infrastructure such as roads and railways are designed by civil engineers and urban planners.

*Vehicles* or vessels travel on the infrastructure. Vehicles include cable cars, cars, trucks, trains, spaceships and airplanes. Vehicles are usually designed by mechanical engineers. Vessels include boats, ferries, and barges which travel on canals and use docks and seaports. In the same way that trains use train stations, airplanes use airports. In the same way that trains use railway lines (train tracks), airplanes use flight paths and then fly in the sky.

*Operations* control the system. Operations include traffic signals, railway signals and air traffic control. Operations also include the government policies (a policy is a plan of action to guide decisions and actions) and regulations (a set or group of laws and rules) used to control the system, such as tolls, fuel taxes, and traffic laws.

## Transport and communications 
Transport and communication can be used instead of each other (someone could telephone a person rather than visit them). Transport traffic also needs communication.  For example, air traffic control lets more airplanes fly. So, an increase of either transport or communication usually leads to an increase in the other one.

## Transport, energy, and the environment 
Transport uses a lot of energy. Trams, trolleybuses and trains use electricity and cycling is human-powered. Most transport uses hydrocarbons (oil and gas). This can create pollution. Environmental regulations (laws) and low-pollution fuels (for example liquified natural gas) can reduce pollution. But as more vehicles are used, more pollution is created.  Ethanol and biodiesel pollute less than petroleum.

## Kinds of transportation 
Transport can be by cable, land, water or air:
* Cable using cableways. e.g. cable cars and ski lifts etc.
* Land transport using walking, roads and railway tracks. by bicycles and other vehicles. e.g. buses, cars, trucks, trains, trams, bikes etc. 
* Water transport using ships and barges in canals, and in rivers and seas. e.g. ships, submarines, jet skis etc. 
* Air transport using airplanes and airports and helicopters. e.g. jets, aeroplanes etc. 
* Pipeline

## References
## Other websites
Hawaiian Islands

From west to east, Hawaii is made up of the following **Hawaiian Islands**:

The chain of islands stretches 2,400 km (1500 miles) in a southeasterly direction to the southern tip of the Island of Hawaii The hot-spot which formed them moved South-East in the Pacific Ocean. The hot-spot in the Earth's crust moved to where it is now, near the island of Hawaii, or, rather, the hot spot stayed where it was, and the plates of the Earth's crust moved, so creating the islands.

*Niihau
*Kauai
*Oahu
*Moloka'i
*Lana'i
*Kaho'olawe
*Maui
*Hawaii

Hawaii has been a U.S. state since 1959.

The Hawaiian islands, plus former islands now below sea level (guyots), make up the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain.
Mauna Kea

**Mauna Kea** is a dormant volcano on Hawaii Island, in the state of Hawaii, United States. It is the highest point in Hawaii at 4,205 meters. If measured from top to bottom, below sea level, it is 10,200 meters high and would be the tallest mountain in the world, even taller than Mount Everest when measured from base to top. It is around 1,000,000 years old. Mauna Kea means 'white mountain' because in winter it often has snow at the summit. 

## Astronomy 
Mauna Kea is an important site for astronomy. Many different countries or institutions have an observatory there, including the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan. The W. M. Keck Observatory with its 10-meter mirror is one of the most powerful in the world. Mauna Kea is an important site, especially for infrared astronomy, because of its height and clear skies.

High altitude is important because atmosphere causes an effect called seeing, which limits the quality of images by blurring them.  At high altitude, there is less atmosphere between the observatories and space and this lessens the effect.

## References
Mauna Loa

**Mauna Loa** is an active volcano on Hawaii Island, in the state of Hawaii, United States. It is considered to be the largest subaerial (from the bottom of the Pacific Ocean) volcano in the world and the tallest volcano in Hawaii.

## Name 
*Mauna Loa* is Hawaiian for "long mountain."

## Size
The volcano is at least  in volume and over 4 kilometers above sea level.  Measured from its base on the ocean floor, it reaches above 8 kilometers, making it the tallest mountain on Earth, but not the highest. That distinction is reserved for Mount Everest. 

Measured from sea level Mauna Loa is 4,169 meters high. It is also one of the largest volcanoes measuring 96 kilometers long and 48 kilometers wide.  

The world's biggest volcano is named Mauna Loa in Hawaii. Mauna Loa is part of the five volcanoes on Hawaii Island. The most recent time this volcano erupted was in 2022. It erupted 33 times in the last 170 years. Like all the other Hawaiian volcanoes, Mauna Loa was created by the movement of the Pacific tectonic plate which moved over the Hawaii hotspot in the Earth's mantle. It is a shield volcano. The largest recent eruption from Mauna Loa left a lava trail 51 kilometers long.

## References
Kilauea

**Kīlauea** is an active volcano in the Hawaiian Islands. It is a shield volcano. The volcano is 1,277 meters high. Kīlauea is a large lake of lava. The crater of Kīlauea is named Pu'u'O'o. The first eruption of Kīlauea is estimated as 300 to 600 thousand years ago. Its first recorded eruptions were in 1823. Its most recent eruption was April 7 2025. It is still erupting now. The Hawaiian name *Kīlauea* means "spewing" or "much spreading". It refers to the constant flow of lava. Kīlauea lies on the curve of volcanoes on the island of Hawaii that includes Mauna Loa and Kohala. The volcano of Kīlauea is one of the youngest and also is said to be the home of an ancient volcano goddess Pele. The oldest dated rocks are said to be about 23,000 years old. It has its own magma plumbing under the Earth that goes down under the Earths crust by 60&nbsp;km. Kīlauea has a basalt-based lava rock type hot-spot.

## May 2018 eruption 
In May 2018, the volcano erupted causing damage in nearby homes and streets. It also destroyed a freshwater crater lake called Green Lake.

## References
Luggage

People use **luggage** to carry their possessions when travelling. In the United States luggage is often called **baggage**.

## Types of luggage
*A **valise** is a small bag. It is usually for carrying clothes or accessories. Some other words for this size of luggage are *overnight bag*, *overnight case*, and *overnighter*
*A **suitcase** is a larger bag, most often for carrying clothes
*A **trunk**, also known as a **travelling chest** or **steamer trunk**, is a very large, rigid chest that was mostly used when moving across the ocean on a ship; they are much less common in the 21st century
Pan

**Pan** can mean:
* Pan (mythology), a god in Greek mythology
* Pan (moon), one of Saturn's moons
* Pan (genus), genus of apes
* A type of cookware, for example a frying pan
Pantograph

A **pantograph** is a machine. It is  used in drawing or planning. It makes it easy to copy diagrams. 

The device that an electric train uses to get its electricity is also called a pantograph, because it looks a bit like the drawing instrument.
Road

]]
]] A **road** is a piece of land which connects two or more places. Usually, a road has been made easy to travel on.  For example, by removing trees and stones so the ground is more level. Although, many roads are made of gravel and dirt, some are paved with concrete or bricks or stones, Roads, which are man-made paved or unpaved pathways for travel, exist primarily on Earth.

People have been making roads for a long time. Roman roads in Britain and the Inca road system are famous. Transport by boats on waterways was usually easier and faster than transport by road. In the industrial revolution, the railway was invented. A railway is a special type of road, using railway tracks. Roads are now usually made for wheeled vehicles, like cars, to travel on.

When traffic jams becomes a frequent problem, the road may be made wider or other roads built.

Road building and care is usually paid for by taxes.  Some roads are toll roads, where people pay to use the road.

## Other kinds of road 
* Bicycle path
* Tracks
* Trails
* Freeways
* Highways
Glow-worm

A **glow-worm** is an insect. Other names for it are "**fireworm**", "**lightning worm**" and "**lightworm**".

There are several insects given this name. Most are beetles, but one is a fly, *Arachnocampa*. They are nocturnal, active during the night. They have special organs that can produce light. This is used to find mates. The patterns in which the beetles flash is unique to each species.

The major families are
*Lampyridae (Fireflies). The adult female of this family has no wings. It is the glow worm of the literature.
*Phengodidae, insects found in North and South America. One species, the railroad worm features two colors.
*Arachnocampa,  insects found in Australia and New Zealand

## References
Palette knife

A **palette knife** is not actually a knife. It has a very flexible steel blade and no sharpened cutting edge. It is a tool.

## Uses
A palette knife is used for mixing paint colors. It may be used for mixing and applying a whole range of semi-fluid mixtures.
Foolscap

**Foolscap** is paper cut to the size of , sometimes . This was a traditional paper size used in Europe and the British Commonwealth, before the adoption of the international standard A4 paper, the most common standard size in the world. Foolscap was so called because, in the 18th century, folio-sized paper had the watermark of a fool's cap on it. Basically, it is taller than A4. 

In North America, foolscap is lined, legal-size paper. In some South American countries it is called "oficio", because it is or was used for official documents.

Paper of the size is now very rarely used, being superseded by A4 (297 x 210). However, some ring binders, lever arch files, suspended files, and other filing related things still use the size.
Medium

**Medium** might mean:

* **Medium**, a size between small and large
* Medium (spirituality), a person who claims to communicate with the dead
* Interstellar medium, the matter between stars
* Optical gain medium
* Storage medium, a device for storing information
* Transmission medium, a solid, liquid, gas, or plasma that can transmit energy
* Growth medium, a solid or liquid material in which an organism can grow.

## Entertainment
**Medium* (TV series), a television series that starred Patricia Arquette
**The Medium*, a 1946 opera by Gian Carlo Menotti

## Related pages
*Media, the way information is sent or received
Polymer

and polypropylene]]

A **polymer** is a molecule, made from joining many small molecules called monomers. The word "polymer" can be broken down into "poly" (meaning "many" in Greek) and "mer" (meaning "unit"). This shows how the chemical composition of a polymer consists of many smaller units (monomers) bonded together into a larger molecule. A chemical reaction bonding monomers together to make a polymer is called **polymerization**.

Some polymers are natural and made by organisms. Proteins have polypeptide molecules, which are natural polymers made from various amino acid monomer units. Nucleic acids are huge natural polymers made up of millions of nucleotide units. Cellulose and starch (two types of carbohydrate) are also natural polymers made up of glucopyranose monomer bonded together in different ways. Rubber is a mixture of polymers. Plastics are man-made polymers. Many fibers are made of polymers.

If the "units" called monomers in a polymer are all the same, then the polymer is called a "homopolymer". Homopolymers are named by adding the prefix **poly-** before the monomer name from which the polymer is made. For example, a polymer made by bonding styrene monomer molecules together is called polystyrene.

 molecules join to make a polystyrene molecule. The squiggly lines at both ends of the polymer mean that just a short section of a long molecule is shown here. ]]

If the monomers are not all the same, the polymer is called a "copolymer" or a "heteropolymer".

Many polymer molecules are like *chains* where the monomer units are the links. Polymer molecules can be straight-chain, have *branching* from the main chain, or *cross-linking* between chains. As an example of cross-linking, sulfhydryl (-S-H) groups in two cysteine amino acid units in polypeptide chains can bond together to make a disulfide bridge (-S-S-) joining the chains together.

In the same way how large hydrocarbon molecules in crude oil can be broken down in smaller molecules e.g. ethylene by applying heat (a process called cracking), the monomer ethylene can then be turned into the polymer polyethylene by applying pressure and adding catalysts. Polyethelene is the basis of many plastic objects.

## Related pages 
* Macromolecule
* Synthetic fabric
Phrase

A **phrase** is a group of words that adds meaning to a sentence. A phrase is not a sentence because it is not a complete idea with a , verb and a .

English has five different kinds of phrases, one for each of the main parts of speech. In a phrase, the main word or the word that is that is the subject of the phrase is called the **head**. In the following examples, it is printed in **bold**. The other words in the phrase do the work of changing, or modifying the head.

In a **noun phrase**, one or more words work together to give more information about a noun.

* all my dear **children** 
* the information **age** 
* seventeen hungry **lions** in the rocks

In an **adjective phrase**, one or more words work together to give more information about an adjective.

* so very **sweet** 
* **earnest** in her desire
* very **happy** with his work

In a **verb phrase**, one or more words work together to give more meaning to a verb. In English, the verb phrase is very complex, but a good description of its many forms can be found here.

In an **adverb phrase**, one or more words work together to give more information about an adverb.

* especially **softly** 
* **formerly** of the city of Perth
* much too **quickly** to see clearly

In a **prepositional phrase**, one or more words work together to give information about time, location, or possession, or condition. The preposition always appears at the front of the phrase (preposition = pre-position).

* **after** a very long walk
* **behind** the old building
* **for** all the hungry children
* **in case** it should happen again
Preposition

**Prepositions** often describe the position of something, the time when something happens or the way in which something is done. The prepositions "of", "to" and "for" have other functions.  

Prepositions may sometimes be used to end sentences. For example, "What did you put that there for?" (better English is the alternative: "Why did you put that there?") Example 2: "A pen is a device to write with" (better English is "A pen is a writing device"). In general, because they are links, prepositions belong in the middle of sentences, rather than at the end.

The table below shows some examples of how prepositions are used in sentences.

## List of common prepositions 
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*  
*onto 
*
*: unusual in needing two words, e.g. "The bat flew *out of* the cave".
*Over
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*Towards
*
*
*
*
*
*
*

## References
Adverb

An **adverb** is a word used to tell more about a verb, and it almost always answers the questions *how?*, *when?*, *where?*, *how often?*, and *in what way?*. Words like *slowly*, *loudly*, *carefully*, *quickly*, *quietly* or *sadly* are all adverbs. Adverbs usually, but not always, end in *-ly*.

Examples of adverbs in a sentence (with the adverb in italics):
* How did the man walk? The man walked *slowly*. 
* How did the dogs bark? The dogs barked *loudly*.

An adverb can also modify (describe) an adjective or another adverb

Examples:
*Adverb modifying a verb He writes well
*Adverb modifying another adverb: He writes very well
*Adverb modifying an adjective: He is very well

In the first two examples the word 'well' is an adverb. In the last example, it is an adjective. This is one example in which the same word can be both an adjective and an adverb but not in the same sentence. 

As a rule, the same word can play different roles but not in the same sentence. It all depends on what the word is doing in the sentence. It could be a noun, an adjective, an adverb, a verb, etc. Example: take the word 'cool'. In the sentence, "he walks cool", the word 'cool' is an adverb. In the sentence, "cool the hot dish", the word 'cool' is a verb. In the sentence, "it is a cool evening", the word 'cool' is an adjective. In the first example, "he walks cool", the word 'cool' really means 'coolly' as in "play it cool" (do not get excited; be calm).

## Adverb form 
Most adverbs are formed by adding **ly** to the end of an adjective. To see 100 adjectives used in Basic English, click here ---> : adjective
Sunday

]]
**Sunday** is one of the seven days of the week. It is part of the weekend, along with Saturday. Sunday is the Sabbath or day of worship for most Christians (for example, Easter is celebrated on Sunday). Sunday is the beginning of the week in the United States, but is the end of the week in the United Kingdom.
Pronoun

A **pronoun** is traditionally a part of speech in grammar, but many modern linguists call it a type of noun. In English, pronouns are words such as *me, she, his, them, herself, each other, it, what*. 
 
Pronouns are often used to take the place of a noun, to avoid repeating the noun. For example, instead of saying 
****Tom*** has a new dog. ***Tom*** has named ***the dog*** Max, and ***Tom*** lets ***the dog*** sleep by ***Tom****s bed.
it is easier to say 
***Tom** has a new dog. **He** has named **him** Max and **he** lets **him** sleep by **his*' bed.

When a pronoun replaces a noun, the noun is called the antecedent. For example, in the sentence: *The dog **that** was walking down the street*, the relative pronoun is the word **that** referring back to the antecedent, the word 'dog'.  In the sentence *The spy who loved me*, the relative pronoun is the word 'who' and its antecedent is the word 'spy'.

## Differences and similarities to nouns
Pronouns are different from common nouns because pronouns normally do not come after *article*s or other *determiner*s. For example, people do not say "the it". Pronouns rarely come after adjectives. They are also different because many of them change depending on how they are used. For example, "we" is a 'subject' in grammar, but the word changes to *us* when used as an object.

Pronouns are the same as nouns because they both change for number (singular & plural), case (subject, object, possessive, etc.), and gender (male, female, animate, inanimate, etc.) Nouns and pronouns can be used in almost all the same places in sentences, and they name the same kinds of things: people, objects, etc. Even though they can not normally come after determiners, or adjectives, neither can proper nouns.

## Kinds of pronouns
There are different kinds of pronouns: personal, reciprocal, interrogative, and relative.

### Personal pronouns in English
This table shows all the personal pronouns in English that are commonly used today.

A subject pronoun can replace a noun that is the subject of a sentence. Refer to the table above; the subject pronouns are: **I**, **You**, **He**, **She**, **It**, **We**, **They**. An object pronoun can replace a noun that is the object of a sentence. A possessive pronoun shows who or what a noun  to.  

Another type of personal pronoun is called the 'reflexive pronoun'. Reflexive pronouns are the words ending in '-self' or '-selves', such as: *myself, itself, themselves*. One of the primary functions of reflexive pronouns is for situations in which a single agent is both the doer of the action and the receiver of the action. For example, if I cut my finger, we don't typically say "I cut me." in English; we use the reflexive pronoun and say "I cut myself." 

"It" and its other forms "its", and "itself" only refer to objects, not people. "They" and its other forms "them", "their", and "theirs" can be used as a singular, for a person whose gender is unknown at the time, or for a person who does not identify with either the "she/her" or "he/him" pronouns. For example: "The patient will be told how much *they* will be required to pay." 

## References
News agency

A **news agency** is a kind of company. It supplies information to newspapers, radio and television.
## Examples
In the United Kingdom and some other countries a **news agency** or newsagent is a shop which sells newspapers, magazines and cigarettes.

Although there are many news agencies around the world, three global news agencies, Agence France-Presse (AFP), Associated Press (AP), and Reuters have offices in most countries of the world, cover all areas of information, and provide the majority of international news printed by the world's newspapers.

## References
## Other websites
* Brainpix  - Portugal/Brasil
*Agentia
*1EnGoogle
Mudguard

A **mudguard**, **fender** or **wing** is a part covering the wheels of a vehicle to stop it from throwing off mud, water or objects from the road. It protects people and property from dirtiness, dampness, and damage. 

Mudguards protect in several ways:
# They protect brakes and lights.
# They protect the bicycle from getting rusted by mud and water.
# They protect clothes from being dirty.
# They protect from injuries.
Para rubber tree

A **Para rubber tree** (or simply, **rubber tree**) is the tree which naturally produces rubber. It is native to tropical areas from South America, in the Amazon (Brazil), but was spread by European farmers to the Far East.

Para Rubber trees belong to the Euphorbiaceae family. In the wild they may reach heights of 100 to 125 ft (30-38 m) with large cylindrical trunks with or without buttresses. Crop trees reach a width of about 20 in. (50 cm), usually with a short bole, and with a sloped taper. 

Most rubber plantations are in South Asia and Southeast Asia. When trees reach 5-6 years old, they are harvested. Their trunks are cut just deep enough to tap the vessels without harming the tree's growth, and the sap is collected in small buckets. This process is known as rubber tapping. Older trees produce more latex, but they stop producing it after 30-40 years.  It was first collected in para district of brazil. Sri henry Wickham brought the seeds of para rubber from Brazil to India and Sri Lanka through the kew botanical garden in 1876. At first, the plantation was done in Malayasia and Sri Lanka and later in Java, Sumatra, India and parts of Indonesia.
Ottawa

**Ottawa** is the capital of Canada and is part of the province of Ontario. It is south of the Ottawa River. In 2004, there were about 808,391 people in the city. The region has about 1,146,790 people. The mayor of the city today (since November 2022) is Mark Sutcliffe. Ottawa is in the Ottawa Valley on the border with the province of Quebec which is divided by the Ottawa River. Ottawa is the fourth largest city in Canada and the second largest city in Ontario (after Toronto). Ottawa is the only officially bilingual city in Canada, where the English language has good status.

When people talk about Ottawa, they are sometimes using the name as an eponym meaning the highest government in Canada, and not its local government or the city.

The cities of Ottawa, Kanata, Nepean, Gloucester and Vanier and the villages of Manotick and Rockcliffe Park joined in the year 2000 to form the new city of Ottawa. Ottawa also includes Orléans, which joined at that same time.

The city began with the name Bytown and became the city of Ottawa in 1855. The Rideau Canal ends in Ottawa.

Ottawa has many museums, many buildings for the government of Canada and many parks. There is a market area downtown.

There are many festivals during the year including Winterlude in February, The Tulip Festival in May, and BluesFest in the summer. There is also a large celebration on July 1st for Canada Day.

The Ottawa Senators of the National Hockey League (NHL) play ice hockey in an arena called Canadian Tire Centre. The Ottawa Redblacks of the Canadian Football League (CFL) also play in the city.

## Television 
## Radio 
### AM stations 
### FM stations 
## Climate 
Ottawa has a hot-summer humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification: *Dfa*).
### Rain and snow 
The average yearly rain and snow in Ottawa is 943 millimetres.

2017 was a record year in Ottawa because there was rain and snow of 1,213 millimetres during the first ten months of the year. The old record was in 1972, when the rain and snow was 1,174 millimetres.

## Related pages 
* List of bridges in Ottawa
* List of Ottawa neighborhoods

## References
Paperback

A **paperback** is a type of book. It has a cover of thick paper or thin cardboard. Paperback book covers can bend and be folded. The covers are laminated (have layers), and some of the methods are more durable (lasting) than others. Another name for paperback is *soft cover*.  

Paperback books may be glued or held by sewing. If the pages are held only by adhesive, the book will eventually come apart. The quality of the paper also varies. It is generally less white than bound hardback books because it is less bleached.

Usually, paperback books cost less money than hardback books. In the middle 20th century a "mass market" type of paperback became commonplace, having a standard size, fitting a standard display rack, and glued.
List of football clubs in Austria

These are the Austrian football teams and the leagues they played in for the 2025-2026 season.

## Admiral Bundesliga (First Division)
*SC Rheindorf Altach from Altach
*FK Austria Wien from Vienna
*F.C. Blau-Weiß Linz from Linz
*Grazer AK from Graz
*TSV Hartberg from Hartberg
*LASK from Linz
*SK Rapid Wien from Vienna
*SV Ried from Ried im Innkreis
*FC Red Bull Salzburg from Salzburg
*SK Sturm Graz from Graz
*WSG Tirol from Wattens
*Wolfsberger AC from Wolfsberg, Carinthia

## 2. Liga
The champion of the league promotes to the Austrian Bundesliga.

* Admira Wacker from Mödling
* SK Austria Klagenfurt (2007) from Klagenfurt am Wörthersee
* SC Austria Lustenau from Lustenau
* Sportverein Austria Salzburg from Salzburg
* Schwarz-Weiß Bregenz from Bregenz
* First Vienna FC from Vienna
* Floridsdorfer AC from Vienna
* FC Hertha Wels from Wels
* SV Kapfenberg from Kapfenberg
* FC Liefering from Salzburg
* SK Rapid Wien II from Vienna
* SKU Amstetten from Amstetten
* SKN St. Pölten from Sankt Pölten
* SV Stripfing from Weikendorf
* SK Sturm Graz II from Graz
Spade

In gardening, a **spade** is a tool for digging. It is similar to a shovel. It has a straight handle, usually of wood and a blade, usually of steel. 

For some purposes the difference between a spade and a shovel is important. For example, spade more easily digs in hard soil; a shovel more easily moves gravel. 

In card games a **spade** is one of the four shapes or "suits" of cards.
Shovel

A **shovel** is a tool used for moving loose material.  Shovels have a flat bottom head which is angled slightly from the handle to enable scooping and moving of material. 

Although a shovel can be used for digging, it is much less efficient than a spade. Spades are straight, and transmit force straight downwards. Shovels move loose material, such as coal, snow, gravel etc. They are usually made of metal at the bottom, and wood is sometimes used for the handle.

## References
Ladder

]]
A **ladder** is a tool which is made for people to climb up or down. Ladders have two vertical supports that go along the whole length of the ladder. Between these supports are the horizontal rungs. The rung is what the climber can put his foot on. The climber can use his hands to hold on to the rungs above him, or to the supports at the side.

Some ladders are made in one piece. They can be carried around and made to lean against something such as the wall of a house. There should be a good distance between the bottom of the ladder and the wall so that the ladder is not too vertical, otherwise the ladder might fall backwards and the climber would fall off. Sometimes these ladders are extension ladders. Extension ladders are made in two or more sections so that the ladder can fold up to make it easier to carry about and to store. To open up the ladder, each section slides up almost to the top of the next section.

**Step ladders** are useful in the home or the garden to reach things that are not too high, e.g. ceilings or the tops of hedges. They have two parts which are joined by a hinge, so that they are shaped like an upside down V. There is usually a platform at the top to stand on, but this can be dangerous unless great care is taken that the ladder will not wobble or fall down.

Some ladders are vertical (they go straight up or down). These are fixed onto something. Examples are: ladders in a swimming pool for climbing in and out of the water, small ladders to climb up to a top bunk bed, ladders at the side of a big boat or at the side of a canal lock or of any other high or low construction where workmen may need to get up or down to do repairs.

.]]
Fire engines always have ladders. They often have a **turntable ladder** which makes it possible for the ladder to be facing in any direction.

**Rope ladders** can be folded away easily. They may be used for climbing trees or for rock climbing or in caves.

## References
Oral history

**Oral history** is history that is told rather than written down. It is given through talking rather than reading a book. It is usually passed from generation to generation in order to explain events that have occurred. 

Though today oral history is not as popular as written history, it is still used in many places as a way of transferring knowledge about the past.
Generation

A **generation** means any group that is sorted by the time they were born.

In a family, a generation means all the people on one level of a family tree.  For example, your brothers, sisters and cousins are in the same generation as you.

In populations of people, a “generation” means groups of people born in different periods of time. Each generation lasts for the average amount of time between the birth of parents, and the birth of their children.

Examples of generations:
*Generation Beta: 2025 to 2039
*Generation Alpha: 2013 to 2024
*Generation Z: 1997 to 2012
*Millennials: 1981 to 1996
*Generation X: 1965 to 1980
*Baby boomer: 1946 to 1964
*Silent Generation: 1928 to 1945
*Greatest Generation: 1901 to 1927
*Lost Generation: 1883 to 1900

## Generational theory 
The sociologist Karl Mannheim (d. 1947) wrote about a theory of generations in his 1923 essay *The Problem of Generations*. 

*One of the ideas, is  the "romantic-historical". In periods of rapid social change a generation would be much more likely to develop a cohesive character.

## References
Safety lamp

A **safety lamp** is a miner's lamp with a covered flame that used to be used in coal mines.

## Types of safety lamps
The first safety lamp was invented by William Reid Clanny. It used bellows and water to separate gasses. Later, two newer designs were invented. One newer design was the Geordie lamp, made by George Stephenson, and the other was the Davy lamp, made by Sir Humphry Davy. In 1815, Davy discovered that if a flame was in a lamp, it would not ignite the flammable gases in mines. 

## How it works
Coal mines are dangerous because of flammable gasses like methane that can accumulate (gather together). A lamp with a naked (exposed) flame might make these flammable gasses catch fire, causing an explosion, which could kill people. The safety lamp prevents the hot flame of the lamp touching the flammable gasses, reducing the chance of an explosion.

## References
Homophone

**Homophones** are words that sound the same as another word but have a different meaning, and often a different spelling.

Examples include:
* one, won
* pail, pale
* fore, four, for
* it's, its
* there, their, they're
* Knight, night
* which, witch
* pore, pour
* pear, pair, pare
* see, sea, C
* high, hi
* wear, where
* hare, hair
* air, heir, err
* whether, weather
* too, to, two
* ate, eight
* no, know
* by, buy, bye
* flour, flower
* right, write
* be, bee
* week, weak
* rains, reins
* higher, hire
* fare, fair
* prince, prints
* pause, paws
* clause, Claus, claws

## Related pages
* Homonym
* Homograph
* Polysemy
* Synonym -a different word for the same or very similar meaning

## References
Precipitation

**Precipitation** is the falling of water from the atmosphere. It is a term in meteorology, and includes rain, snow, sleet, ice pellets, dew, frost, and hail. These form by condensation from atmospheric water vapor, and fall under gravity.

Fog and mist are not precipitation but suspensions. In that case, the water vapor does not condense sufficiently to precipitate. 

If liquid, precipitation can be measured using a rain gauge. The most common form of solid precipitation is snow. Snow is made when temperatures are so cold that water vapor changes directly to solid crystals. Frozen rain is hail or ice pellets.

## Related pages
*Water cycle
Condensation

condenses into a liquid after making contact with the surface of a cold bottle.]]

**Condensation** is how gas changes into a liquid when it touches a cooler surface. Condensation is part of the water cycle. It is the opposite of evaporation. 

## Process 
Condensation of water is when water changes from gas to a liquid or crystal shape.  Any gas can condense, either because the temperature is dropping or the pressure is increasing.  In either case the pressure of the condensing gas is higher than the vapor pressure of the gas/evaporation, at that temperature.

During condensation, the molecules in the matter slow down. Heat energy is taken away, causing the state of matter to change. Condensation is exothermic.  This means that condensation makes the temperature go **up**.  Evaporation is the opposite and causes a temperature **loss**.

It is a useful . One use is in distillation. The gas made from a boiling liquid mix is sent to a condenser, where the different parts condense differently. This can purify a liquid, such as alcohol or water. The condensing liquid makes heat, which must be removed for the condensation to continue.

## Related pages 
* Desalination

## References 
## Other websites 
* International Consortium of Advanced Technologies and Security at SDSU 
* [ScienceDirect - Heat transfer and evaporation in geothermal desalination units](https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0306-2619(99)00071-9)
* Condensation (phase transition) -Citizendium
Dichlorphenolindophenol

**DCPIP** (its full name is *2,6-dichlorophenolindophenol*) is a blue chemical used as a dye because when it is oxidized it is blue.  Once DCPIP is reduced (by addition of electrons) it does not have a color anymore. This reaction can be reversed, and the colourless DCPIP will turn blue again, when it is oxidized.

## Purpose 
DCPIP is often used to measure the electron transport chain in plants. It has a higher redox potential (electron affinity) than the Fe-S complex in cytochrome b and will therefore "steal" electrons from it. This means that cytochrome c does not  receive them. The process cuts off the electron supply of  photosystem I. A common way to illustrate this change is by the addition of vitamin C solution. This reduces the 'jelly' by transforming it to a colourless mass. This experiment can be carried out to illustrate the effect of changing cell sizes on SA/V (surface area:volume ratio). This is known as Titration.

## References 
*Mathews, Ahern, Van Holde, *Biochemistry*, Addison Wesley Longman Inc., 2000 pp534–5
Healthy diet

A       **healthy diet** or **balanced diet**       is a diet that contains the right amounts of all the food groups. It includes fruits, vegetables, grains, dairy products, and protein. It does not include too much or too little of any kind of food. Eating wrong amounts of a food group, whether it be too much or too little, is called an 'unhealthy diet' or an 'imbalanced diet'. A healthy diet is one that includes more foods that come from plants, animals and fewer convenience foods.

## Basic nutrition 
What is known about nutrition and diet keeps changing as more is learned. However, basic nutrition remains much the same. Drink fewer Soft drinks, energy drinks and sports drinks which usually have sugar. Carbohydrates are one of the three macro-nutrients in the human diet (fat and protein are the other two). Eating healthy, along with physical exercise and practicing moderation, can lead to better health in the long run.

## Special diets 
There are some diets made for people with some diseases. Here are some examples:

*DASH diet (Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension)
* Gluten-free diet (Coeliac disease)
* Ketogenic diet (Epilepsy) 

## Related pages 
*Diet (nutrition)
*Food pyramid
*Fast food

## References
Dye

**Dye** is a substance used to color materials. It is often used to color the fabric used to make clothing. It has low solubility. A pigment will not do this because it will not stick to the fibers of the fabric and color them. A dye can be natural, usually made from plant material such as berries, or a dye can be artificial, meaning that it is made by humans from chemicals such as petrochemicals.

Most natural dyes are gotten from different parts of a plant like the roots, fruits, bark, leaves, wood, fungi and lichens. Most dyes are synthetic and are made from petrochemicals.

## Classification
Dyes can be classified based on their solubility and chemical properties. 

* Acid dyes can dissolve in water.  They are used on fibers such as silk, wool, nylon.  Most food coloring that are made by man are acid dyes.  Examples of acid dye are Alizarine Pure Blue B, Acid red 88, etc.
* Basic dyes can dissolve in water.  They are mainly used on acrylic fibers.  They may also be used on wool and silk.  Basic dyes are also used to make paper colourful.

## Related pages 
*Pigment
*Food coloring#Natural food dyes
*Hair coloring

## References
Imagination

**Imagination** is the ability to form images of things or events in one's mind. When someone *imagines* something, they are trying to picture something in their mind that they are not experiencing at the moment or that is not really happening.

## Related pages 
*Fiction
*Science fiction
*Fantasy
Calorimeter

and Pierre-Simon Laplace, to measure the heat generated by chemical changes.  The calculations were based on Joseph Black’s discovery of latent heat.  These experiments started thermochemistry.]] 
A **calorimeter** is a tool that measures the amount of thermal energy contained in a substance, or released in a reaction. A commonplace use is to measure heat of combustion.
Literature

depicting a stack of books on which are inscribed the names of great German writers.]]
]]
**Literature** is a group of works of art that are made of words. Most are written, but some are shared by word of mouth. Literature usually means a work of poetry, theatre or narrative. There are many different kinds of literature, such as poetry, plays, or novels. They can also be put into groups by their language, historical time, place of origin, genre, and subject.

Most of the earliest works were epic poems. Epic poems are long stories or myths about adventures, such as the Epic of Gilgamesh from ancient Mesopotamia. *Ramayana* and *Mahabharta*, two Indian epics, are still read today. The Iliad and *Odyssey* are two famous Greek poems by Homer. They were shared over time through speaking and memory and were written down around the 9th or 8th century BCE.

Literature can also mean imaginative or creative writing, which is read for its artistic value. Literature is also related to people and community. According to Sangidu (2004) as quoted by Arfani et.al (2023), "literature is a part of society, a fact that inspires authors to involve themselves in the life order of the community where they are and try to fight for the position of the social structure and the problems face in society". 

## Related pages
*English literature
*French literature
*Italian literature
*German literature
*Japanese literature
*American literature
*Spanish literature
*Modernist literature

## References
Bolus

In biology, a **bolus** (from the Latin word for *ball*), is a ball-shaped living thing.

In medicine, a *bolus* is a large amount of a drug given to patients to raise the blood level before treatment.

A *bolus* can also refer to a ball of food after it has been chewed. It passes down the oesophagus by peristalsis.
Poetry

**Poetry** is written, spoken or sung language that is used in stronger or more original ways than prose is used. Poetry uses the *meanings* of words as prose does; but it also uses the *sounds* of words as if they were music, especially rhymes, other repeating sounds, and rhythms (beats or meters).

Poetry arranges words and groups of words to make repetitions and parallelisms. Poetry uses figures of speech, ellipses and delayed identification to suggest that there is more meaning in the language.

Some people believe that poetry began when language began. They think it is probably "as old as history and older, present wherever religion is present."

The English words "poetry," "poet," and "poem" first appeared in English in the 14th century. They come from the Latin word *poeta*, which itself probably comes from *poiein*, a Greek word that means "to make."

There are three major kinds of poetry: lyric, narrative, and dramatic.

* Lyric poetry tends to be brief and is often about emotions.
* Narrative poetry tells a story with a plot.
* Dramatic poetry can be performed as a play.

A poem can be as short as a few words or as long as a book. A one-line poem is called a monostich. A poem that is as long as a book is an epic.

Poems are often printed on the page as lines and groups of lines called stanzas.

There are many different "poetic forms" or ways to shape a poem on the printed page or in the ear of the person who hears it. Some forms are: the sonnet, haiku, the ballad, the stev, the prose poem, the ode, free verse, blank verse, limerick, and nursery rhymes.

## Related pages 
* Acrostic
* Anthology
* Sonnet 
* Poet
* Free verse
* Digital Poetry

## References
Oesophagus

The **oesophagus** (or **esophagus**) is also called the **gullet**. It is the part of the gastrointestinal system between the mouth and the stomach. It connects the pharynx and the stomach. It is about  long.

The oesophagus is lined with muscle, and is lubricated. Its muscle pushes food down into the stomach. The oesophagus can contract or expand to allow for the passage of food. The muscular movement that pushes the food down the oesophagus is called peristalsis. At the entrance to the stomach there is a ring of muscle called a sphincter. This is usually closed, but relaxes as food approaches, allowing it to enter the stomach. In the stomach, the food is churned until it turns into a soupy mixture called chyme.

## Fetal development 
The airways and intestines form as the same tube in embryonic development. It starts forming at the belly button (foregut).

## Related pages 
* Respiratory system
* Histamine

## References
Protease

A **protease** is a digestive  enzyme. It breaks down long chains of  proteins into shorter amino acids. Proteases have evolved a number of times. We know this because different kinds of protease can do the same reaction in completely different ways. Proteases are found in animals, plants, bacteria, archaea and viruses.

Now more than 50 types of protease are known. Each is a separate evolutionary origin of proteolysis.

Protease can be divided into 6 types :
*serine proteases
*threonine proteases
*cysteine proteases
*aspartate proteases
*metallo proteases
*glutamic acid proteases

## References
Dental floss

**Dental floss** is a special type of thread. It is used for cleaning spaces between teeth which cannot be reached by toothbrushes. It is important to floss before brushing teeth and to floss at least once a day.  Tooth brushing will not clean food that is packed between teeth. This 'food packing' can lead to unhealthy teeth and gums. Bacteria grow in this 'packed food' between teeth. These bacteria cause the surface of teeth (enamel) to break down. Then the teeth and gums and sometimes even the jaw can become seriously diseased. 

These bacteria that come from the food on the teeth and between the teeth are called "plaque" or "bacterial plaque" and also can cause the gums to become less healthy. "Gingivitis" which means gum disease is one type of disease that flossing helps to prevent. Very serious diseases can start on the teeth and move to the bone of the jaw, damaging the jaw badly. Flossing your teeth reduces the danger of these serious diseases of the jaw bone. These hard-to-cure jaw bone diseases are called "periodontal disease". 

Food that is trapped between the teeth can be uncomfortable and even cause pain. Some food is hard, for example meat, apple. Ground meat is soft and so is apple sauce. Chicken and turkey meat are hard and full of fibres and very often get trapped between the teeth. When hard food is trapped between the teeth it can cause discomfort and sometimes pain. When hard food is pressed by the teeth against the gum it can cause pain. Some people use toothpicks to try to remove trapped food from between the teeth and other people use dental floss to do this.

Dental floss can do most things that a toothpick can do but dental floss is much thinner than a toothpick and can thus get to places that most toothpicks cannot reach. So floss presumably does a better job at getting bits of food out from between the teeth, relieving discomfort and pain quicker.

When a person first starts flossing, bleeding can happen. This is normal and happens because teeth and gums that are not flossed are less healthy. It will stop as the teeth and gums get healthier with flossing.
Bile

**Bile** or **gall** is an alkaline, green-yellow fluid. It is secreted from the liver of most vertebrate animals, and is often stored in the gall bladder. Bile helps digest fat.

The components of bile are, in descending order of composition, the following:
* Water 
* Cholesterol
* Bile pigments
* Bile salts

The name *gall* comes from the Greek word *cholè* meaning green or yellow. These colours come from the bile pigments. One of them is green and the other is yellow. When they are mixed together, they make feces brown. The term cholesterol and the illness cholera were named after gall.

Bile is also stored in bile ducts. Often after liver transplants, bile comes out of the body.

Bile increases fats' total surface area to volume ratio so their digestion is easier and faster. Hence, more fats and fat-soluble vitamins like vitamins A, D, E and K can be absorbed. This keeps fat out of feces so they are brown instead of white, grey or greasy.