open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Charitable organization

center]]
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A **charitable organization** is an organization that supports a cause by fundraising or through  and charity. The organizations arrange for all the distribution of any money to each cause.

There are many well-known charities all over the world. Two of the most well-known charities are UNICEF and the Red Cross.

In England the National Council for Voluntary Organisations is the umbrella body for charities and not-for profit organizations.   In Wales there is the Wales Council for Voluntary Action. In Scotland there is, the Scottish Council for Voluntary Organisations. In Northern Ireland there is the Northern Ireland Council for Voluntary Action.

## Related pages
* Donation
* Non-profit organization 
* Philanthropy
* Pro bono

## References
Southwest

with southwest highlighted]]
**Southwest**  is the direction halfway between south and west. It is the opposite of northeast.
Arrest

An **arrest** is when a person's liberty is removed by taking them into jail or the police station (custody). This is usually done after an investigation of a crime or in stopping a crime from taking place. The term comes from Anglo-Norman. It is related to the French word *arrêt*, which means "stop".
Police and some other organizations are allowed to arrest people. In many places, normal people can arrest others (a "citizen's arrest"). For example, in England and Wales, a citizen's arrest can be made on someone who has committed a serious crime, though there are rules as to when and how this can be done.

## Where the word comes from
The word "arrest" comes from Anglo-Norman. It is taken from the French word *arrêt*. Arrêt means 'to stop or stay'. There are many slang terms for being arrested in different countries. In British slang, the term "nicked" is often used to mean "arrested", and "nick" can also mean a police station. In the United States and France, "collared" is sometimes used. The term "lifted" is also used.

## The way arrest is done
### United States
When there is a good reason to think someone has committed a serious crime, the police usually handcuff an arrested person. The person will be taken to a police station or jail. There, they are subject to a booking process and they can be bailed or have their charge read out to them and asked how they plead. This is called an arraignment.

### India
Indian law says that arrests do not need to be . The arrest can be made by a normal citizen, a police officer or a Magistrate. The police officer needs to tell the person who is being arrested what they did wrong and that they can be let go on bail if the crime allows people to be bailed.

## Warnings
### United States
A Miranda warning is only needed when a person has already been arrested is being questioned. This warning tells the person who has been arrested that they can be silent, can have a counsel with them, and warns them that whatever they say can be used against them. Police also must tell the person who has been arrested about their Miranda Rights.

### United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom a person must be told that they are under arrest. They must also be told, in simple language that they can understand, the reasons for their arrest. A person must be 'cautioned' when they are arrested unless this can not be done, for example if the person being arrested is being violent or is drunk. The caution given in England and Wales is: You do not have to say anything, but it may harm your defence if you do not mention when questioned something which you later rely on in court. Anything you do say may be given in evidence.

This exact wording is not needed as long as the same information is given.

## Related pages 
* Arrest warrant
* House arrest

## References 
## Other websites 
* Being stopped, questioned or arrested by the police (Directgov, England and Wales)
Tobin tax

A **Tobin tax** is a tax on all trade of currency across borders. 

The first idea that it could be useful came from the economist James Tobin. The tax is meant to put a penalty on short-term speculation in currencies. The proposed tax rate would be low, between 0.1% to 0.25%. 

On August 15, 1971, Richard Nixon told that it would no longer be possible to  the US dollar to gold, so ended the Bretton Woods system. Tobin suggested a new system for international currency stability, and proposed that such a system include a charge on foreign-exchange transactions. Professor Tobin later received a Nobel Prize in Economics in 1981.

The idea was nearly forgotten for more than 20 years.  In 1997 Ignacio Ramonet, editor of *Le Monde Diplomatique*, started the debate around the Tobin tax again with an editorial titled "*Disarming the markets*". Ramonet proposed to create an association for the introduction of this tax, which was named ATTAC (Association for the Taxation of financial Transactions for the Aid of Citizens). The tax has then become an issue of the antiglobalization movement and a matter of discussion not only behind academic institutions but even in the streets and in parliaments around the world, such as the UK and France. 

## Tobin tax projects in the world
Since one country acting alone would find it very difficult to introduce this tax, many argue it would be best done by an international institution.  It has been proposed that having the United Nations manage a Tobin tax would solve this problem and would give the U.N. a large source of funding independent from donations by participating states. However, there have been initiatives of national dimension about the tax.

The Tobin tax idea was the subject of much discussion in Europe in the summer of 2001. On June 15, 2004, the Commission of Finance and Budget in the Belgian Federal Parliament approved a bill implementing the *Spahn tax* (a version of the Tobin tax proposed by Paul-Bernd Spahn). According to the legislation, Belgium will introduce the Tobin tax once all countries of the eurozone introduce a similar law.

## Other websites 
* ATTAC 
* Disarming the markets, editorial by Ignacio Ramonet, Le Monde Diplomatique 1997
* Tobin Tax Initiative 
* War on Want 
* coverage of the issue in HedgeWorld 
* The Guardian editorializes against the Tobin tax
* Currency Transaction Taxes - analysis from Global Policy Forum
* English version of James Tobin interview on Der Spiegel on Jubilee 2000 web site 
* ATTAC France's view on Tobin's interview (English version) 
* Website offering coverage of Tobin tax initiatives, as well as supportive and critical papers 
* JEEA article by Prof. Hau
Anti-globalization movement

**Anti-globalization** is used for people and groups who oppose certain aspects of globalization in its present form.

 graffiti in Lausanne. The writing reads: *La croissance est une folie* ("Growth is madness").]]

“Anti-globalization” is considered by many to be a social movement, while others consider it to be several separate social movements. In either case, participants are united in opposition to the political power of large corporations, as exercised in trade agreements and elsewhere, which they say destroys the environment, human rights, labor rights for worker, national sovereignty, the third world, and more.  

Most people who are called "anti-globalization"  prefer instead to describe themselves as the **Global Justice Movement**, the **Movement of Movements** (a popular term in Italy), the "**alter-globalization**" movement (popular in France), and a number of other terms.

The groups and individuals that would come to be known as the "anti-globalization movement" developed in the late twentieth century to combat the globalization of corporate economic activity and the free trade with developing nations that might result from such activity.

## Other page 
*Anti-capitalism
## Other websites 
*The Scorecard on Development: 25 Years of Diminished Progress (CEPR) 
*About Globalization 
*Center for Economic and Policy Research
*International Monetary Fund
*World Bank Group
*World Economic Forum
*World Trade Organization
*Wobblies
*Economic Globalization and the Environment 
*Smygo  News & views for anarchists & activists
*Corporatewatch
*History of the G8 - UK government site
*YaleGlobal Online  - An online publication of the Yale Center for the Study of Globalization
*New World Disorder  - Feature website on the movement from RTÉ, the Irish national broadcaster. 
*"The ABCs of the Global Economy"  from Dollars & Sense Magazine
Bretton Woods system

The **Bretton Woods system** was the first system used to control the value of money between different countries. It meant that each country had to have a monetary policy that kept the exchange rate of its currency within a fixed value—plus or minus 1%—in terms of gold.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) was created to fight against temporary imbalances of payments. The Bretton Woods system was the first monetary order that organized monetary relations among independent nation-states. It set out the rules for commercial and financial relations among the world's major industrial states.

Plans to rebuild the international economic system after the end of World War II started before the war ended. 730 delegates from all 44 Allies of World War II came to Bretton Woods, New Hampshire for the *United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference*. The delegates discussed and then signed the **Bretton Woods Agreements** during the first three weeks of July 1944.

The planners at Bretton Woods set up a system of rules, institutions, and procedures to regulate the international monetary system. They started the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development  (now one of five institutions in the World Bank Group) and the *International Monetary Fund* . These organizations became active in 1946 after enough countries had ratified the agreement.

Until the early 1970s, the Bretton Woods system worked. It controlled conflict and achieved the common goals of the leading states that had created it, especially the United States. But in 1971, In the face of increasing strain, the United States decided not to allow the conversion of dollars to gold and the system collapsed.

## Other websites 
* The Gold Battles Within the Cold War (PDF)  by Francis J. Gavin (2002)
* International Financial Stability (PDF)  by Michael Dooley, PhD, David Folkerts-Landau and Peter Garber, Deutsche Bank (October 2005)
* "Bretton Woods System" , prepared for the *Routledge Encyclopedia of International Political Economy* by Dr.B.Cohen
* Bretton Woods Agreement  by Addison Wiggin Author of Empire of Debt
Jos Oehlen

**Jos Oehlen** (born March 12, 1953 in Tegelen) is a Dutch sculptor.

Jos Oehlen studied at the Academy of Tilburg and the "Rijksakademie voor Beeldende Kunsten te Amsterdam." Most of his sculptures are done in bronze but he has also created some sculptures in granite and marble. His most recent large sculpture is "The Pelican" in Uny, Hungary.

## Other websites 
*Official site 
*Article on Receiving and Giving Hands  (in Dutch)
;Images of Sculptures
*Dancer 
*Double Figure 
*The Pelican 
*Ontvangende En Gevende Handen  (Receiving and Giving Hands)
SAS

**SAS** can be:
*S.A.S., Special Air Service in the UK military
*Serial Attached SCSI
*Société par actions simplifiée
*Scandinavian Airlines, formerly Scandinavian Airlines System (SAS)
Treasurer

A **treasurer** is someone who looks after the money in a club, company, organization, association, or government. 

The treasurer of a government manages the annual budget of a state or country. The budget is used to give money to government departments and to pay for the debts or promises the government makes. This post is called Chancellor of the Exchequer in the United Kingdom. There is a treasurer of the United States, but the United States Secretary of the Treasury actually controls the department.
Cupuaçu

**Cupuaçu** (*Theobroma grandiflorum*), also spelled **Cupuassu** and **Copoasu**, is a tropical rainforest tree related to Cacao. Common throughout the Amazon basin, it is widely cultivated in the north of Brazil. The largest production occurs in  Pará, followed by Amazonas, Rondônia and Acre.

Cupuaçu trees usually are between  5 and 15 meters (16 to 50 feet) tall. Some trees can reach 20 meters (65&nbsp;feet). They have brown bark. Their leaves are 25–35&nbsp;cm (10–14&nbsp;in) long and 6–10&nbsp;cm (2–4&nbsp;in) across. These leaves have 9 or 10 pairs of veins. As they mature, their leaves change colour from pink-tinted to green. Eventually they begin bearing fruit. Cupuaçu fruits are , brown, and fuzzy, 20&nbsp;cm (8&nbsp;in) long, 1–2&nbsp;kg (2–4&nbsp;lb) in weight, and covered with a thick (4–7&nbsp;mm), hard exocarp.

The white pulp of the cupuaçu is uniquely fragrant. It contains theacrine (1,3,7,9-tetramethyluric acid) instead of the xanthines (caffeine, theobromine, and theophylline) found in cacao. Cupuaçu can replace cocoa in many day-to-day foods, especially for children, such as chocolate milk. It is frequently used in desserts, juices and sweets. Cupuaçu seeds can be made into cupulate, which looks and tastes just like chocolate but is cheaper and more resistant to heat. Asahi Foods, a Japanese company, once tried to patent the production and use of Cupuaçu seed fat, but they failed.

The wood is also commonly used for timber.

## References 
## Other websites 
**Theobroma grandiflorum* 
*http://www.rain-tree.com/cupuasu.htm : More detailed information
Yorkshire

**Yorkshire** is a county in England.  In general speaking, its name is still used. 

It covers a large area of the Pennines and its East coast borders the North Sea. The River Humber separates Yorkshire from Lincolnshire & Southern England, while the River Tees and Pennines mountain range separates Yorkshire from County Durham, Lancashire and the North of England.

## Main places
The main towns and cities of Yorkshire are Leeds, York, Sheffield, Bradford, Middlesbrough, and Hull. It is the largest county in the United Kingdom. It covered just under  with a population of over 5.7 million people. Not all Sheffield is in Yorkshire.

 
## History
Yorkshire is split up into three parts known as the East, North, and West Ridings during and after the 7th century Norse settlement, while the county town York is in the middle. In the local government reorganization of England in 1974 the council areas of West Yorkshire, North Yorkshire, South Yorkshire were established but did not replace Yorkshire, or its Ridings. Humberside Council included the former East Riding and Cleveland included part of the former North Riding.

## Rome 
The Roman emperor, Constantine the Great, was crowned in the city of Eboracum, modern day York.

## References
Array data structure

In programming languages, an **array** is a way of storing several items (such as integers).
These items must have the same type
Tierce de Picardie

In music a **Tierce de Picardie** (meaning *Picardy third*) is a major chord at the end of a piece of music in a  minor key.

In the 16th to 17th centuries this was a very common way to end a piece in a minor key. This is because music in the minor sounds melancholy or disturbed in comparison to the major because the third note of the scale is flattened (lowered by a semitone). In the harmonic series this minor third is the 7th harmonic which sounds dissonant against the fundamental (first note of the scale).  This means that ending in the major gives a sense of relief after the tension of the minor.  In a piece in A minor, for example, where the third note of the scale is C natural, in a Tierce de Picardie the final chord will include a C sharp, changing the chord from A minor to A major.

The term was introduced in 1767 by Rousseau in his "Dictionnaire de musique" (Dictionary of Music).  “Tierce” means “third”, but no one knows why he called it “Picardie” (Picardy is an area in the north of France).

As the hymn tune Picardy is attributed to a 17th century French carol, and this tune traditionally ends with a Tierce de Picardy, this might be the origin.

Johann Sebastian Bach used it fairly often in his music.  The first movement of the "Concerto for Two Violins and Orchestra" is a good example.  In his "Fantasia and Fugue in G minor BWV542" the fugue ends with a Tierce de Picardie and, in some editions, the Fantasie as well.  It is possible that Bach would have finished the Fantasie with a major chord only if he was playing it on its own (without the fugue), but we cannot be sure of this.  Another good example of the Tierce de Picardie is the end of Cantata No. 82 "Ich Habe Genug", which is extremely effective. Another famous piece that ends in a Tierce de Picardie is Greensleeves.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau

**Jean-Jacques Rousseau**, (28 June 1712 – 2 July 1778) was a famous French-speaking philosopher. He was born in Geneva, Switzerland

## Early life 
Rousseau lived in the 18th century during the Age of Enlightenment. His political ideology influenced the French Revolution and aided the development of nationalism and socialist theories. 

## Career 
Rousseau was also a composer, writing numerous books about music theory. Rousseau authored *Confessions*, an autobiography, one of the first of its kind. Many later philosophers were influenced by him. He wrote a novel *Julie, ou la nouvelle Héloïse*, which was a best-seller and influenced 19th century writers of romanticism.

Rousseau believed that men were born good and innocent, and that corruption and sadness happened because of life experiences and experiences in society.  He believed that if society were gone, man would be happy and pure once again.

Rousseau is most famous for his social contract ideology, which is often compared to the social contract of John Locke. This ideology is stated in Rousseau's book, *The Social Contract.*

## References
Linear search

**Linear search** or **sequential search** is a method to find an item in a list. It is a search algorithm.

## Algorithm 
Start out with a list, `L` which may have the item that we want to look for.
# If the list `L` is empty, then the list has nothing. The list does not have the item that we are looking for, so we stop here.
# If the list `L` is not empty, we look at all the elements in the list.
# For each element:
## If the element equals the item that we are looking for, the list **has** the item in question, so we will stop here and return the position in the list that has the element that we are looking for.
## If not, we will go on to the next element.
# When we reached the end of the list and still have not found the element that we are looking for, then the list does not have the item that we want.

## Implementation 
In the Java programming language, linear search looks like this. This method has two parameters: an array of integers and the item we are looking for (also an integer). It says the location in the array if it finds the item. If it does not find it, it says -1.

```java
public int linearSearch(int[] list, int item) {
    for (int i = 0; i < list.length; i++) {
        if (list[i] == item) {
            return i;
        }
    }

    return -1;
}
```

Implementing a linear search in .NET (C#) would look like this:

```csharp
static int LinearSearch(int[] list, int item)
{
  for (int i = 0; i < list.ToString().Length; i++)
  {
    if (list[i] == item)
    {
      return i;
    }
  }
  return -1;
}

var searchContext = new[]
{
    1,
    2,
    3
};

var example = LinearSearch(searchContext, 3);

Console.Write($"What you've searched for has returned '{searchContext[example]}'");
Console.Write($", at list index {example}.");
```

## Related pages 
* Binary search
* Breadth-first search
* Depth-first search
Theodoric the Great

**Theodoric the Great** (454–August 30, 526), known to the Romans as **Flavius Theodoricus**, was king of the Ostrogoths (488–526), ruler of Italy (493–526), and regent of the Visigoths (511–526). He united several German tribes and encouraged Arianism. 

## Other websites 
* Theodoric the Great at MiddleAges.net
* New Advent
Pumpkin Studios

**Pumpkin Studios** was a video game studio founded in 1996 in Bath, England that is infamous for only developing a single game. Their game: *Warzone 2100,* is a real-time strategy game developed for PC and PlayStation. The game used many ideas that were new at the time such as machines that use radio waves to find other objects (radar technology) and machines that shoot objects (artillery). The game also used movies to tell the story to the player. These movies are called full motion videos, better known in the gaming community as cutscenes. Not much else is known about the company as they disbanded not long after their formation in March of 2000.

## Other websites 
*Pumpkin Studios, MobyGames
*Pumpkin Studios website  (no longer used)
*Warzone 2100 website
Real-time strategy

**Real-time strategy** (**RTS**) is a genre of computer and video games. In real-time strategy games, every player has an army to attack the other player(s). Every player has a military base and  or vehicles (these are called units). The player also has money to create new units or to build new buildings. These buildings can allow the player to do things, such as creating units or to use new technology. Usually, the player that destroys the base and the units of the other player(s) wins. In Esports, if the game has a time limit, the player with the higher points win.

In real-time strategy games, everything the player does, happens right away: there's no time between doing something (like telling a unit to move) and seeing it happen. This is different in turn-based strategy where the players take turns to do things. Under the RTS genre, there is a Real-Time Tactics sub-genre (battlefield focused). The *Total War (video game series)* is an example of RTT game.

## God game vs. Simulation
Most RTSs are God game, that is, the player does not control a single member or unit while playing, but controls all aspects of the game: direct the units, their tactics, improvements and attacks, and direct the planning and Construction of the base, its improvements and the quantity of resources and production.

While in simulation, the player controls a member of the faction, being a collector, soldier, spy, producer, diplomat or leader of the faction itself. Example is the Ark: Survival Evolved in its "Hunger Games" mode.

## Examples of real-time strategy games
* Age of Empires series
* Command & Conquer series
* StarCraft, Warcraft and Dota 2
* Total Annihilation
* Supremacy 1914
* Ark: Survival Evolved
* Empire Earth series
* Rise of Nations 
* Stronghold (2001 video game)
* Clash Royale
* Pikmin 4
Raw material

**Raw materials**, also called **feedstock**, are materials that have not been . They are in the form in which they are found in nature without any thing done to them.  Raw materials are made into other things.

Raw materials usually come from:

* A plant or tree
* An animal
* A mine

Examples of raw materials:

* Grains such as wheat and rice
* Vegetables such as carrots and onions
* Meat such as beef and chicken
* Wood from a tree
* Honey from a bee's nest
* Minerals or metal from a mine
* Crude oil
* Raw hair, a type of hair extensions that has not been processed

Things that are not raw materials because they have been processed

* Bread and pasta
* Toothpaste and soap
* Sausages
* Furniture such as chairs and tables
* Machines such as cars
* Jewelry
* Clothing and shoes
* Gasoline
* Oil that goes in cars
* Refined coal (coke)
Lublin

**Lublin** is a city in eastern Poland. It's in the Lublin Voivodeship. It has an area of 147.5 km2. About 354,000 people live in Lublin.  It is the largest Polish city east of the Vistula River.  The Bystrzyca river, a tributary of the Wieprz river, passes through the city and divides it into two parts: western, with a more varied relief with loess gorges, and eastern, which is flat. In the southern part of the city there is the artificial Zemborzyce Lake created by damming Bystrzyca. It is on the route between Vilnius and Kraków.

It was started in the 6th or 7th century. City walls were built in the 1340s. The Lublin Parliament session of 1569 led to the  union between  the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania which became  the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.  It was  an important national centre of Arianism.  it was ruined in the wars of the 17th century.

The National Museum, Lublin is now in the Lublin Castle which was started in the 12th century.

There are five public universities:

* Maria Curie-Sklodowska University 
* John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin
* Medical University of Lublin
* University of Life Sciences in Lublin
* Politechnika Lubelska

Lublin Airport (Port Lotniczy Lublin) (IATA: LUZ) is about 10 km (6.2 miles) SE of Lublin.  Trains go from Lublin Główny railway station to the major cities in Poland. There are local trains.   It is one of only four towns in Poland to have trolleybuses.

## References
Pasta

**Pasta** is a food made from flour, starch and water. It is usually cooked in hot water before being eaten. Pasta has been very popular in Italy and has also been eaten in many parts of Asia for a long time.
According to history, however, pasta's earliest roots begin in China, during the Shang Dynasty (1700-1100 BC), where some form of pasta was made with either wheat or rice flour. Pasta also appears to be a feature in the ancient Greek diet in the 1st millennium BC.

Pasta is often noodles. It is usually eaten in sauce, fried or in soup. Pasta is usually made from either wheat flour or rice flour, but it can be made with other types of flour. Pasta sometimes has eggs in it. Pasta comes in many different shapes and sizes.

Long pasta is named noodles. it has different names for each width. the name also changes if the edge is wavy. 

Short pasta comes in many shapes, each with a different name. they are named after what they look like. one common example is "bow-ties".

## Types of pasta 
*Spaghetti
*Macaroni
*Tortellini
*Linguini
*Tagliatelle
*Ravioli

## Other websites 
* www.archimedes-lab.org :: Pasta shapes – history and a pasta shapes list
* www.food-info.net :: Pasta shapes – a well-illustrated list
* www.lifeinitaly.com :: History of Pasta  – includes pictures of how pasta is made.
* Information about Italian Pasta 

 

## References
Boston Tea Party

that was on the British tea ships into Boston Harbor on December 16, 1773.|219x219px]]
The **Boston Tea Party** was a protest by American colonists (called "patriots") against King George III's rule in colonial America. It happened on December 16, 1773. 

Specifically, the Boston Tea Party was a protest against the British colonial government's Tea Act. This was one of several new taxes the British government had imposed on the American colonies. In protest, the colonists threw 342 chests of tea imported by a British company into Boston Harbor. 

## Taxation without representation 
Because they had no one to speak for them in the British government, the colonists were paying taxes but had no part in how the government was run. They argued that there should be "no taxation without representation" - meaning they should not have to pay taxes when they did not have a representative in the government. 

The taxes also reduced merchants' profits. Colonists began purchasing smuggled goods, which were much cheaper.

## Events 
On the evening of December 16, 1773, several ships in Boston Harbor were holding tea imported from the British East India Company. Anyone who bought this tea would have to pay the new British tax. In protest, the Sons of Liberty**,** led by Samuel Adams, boarded the ships and dumped the boxes of tea into the harbor. They disguised themselves as Native Americans for the protest.  

## Reaction 
The British government was enraged.  Parliament passed even stricter laws for the colonies, later called the Intolerable Acts.  One of these laws, the Boston Port Act, closed Boston Harbor until the colonists paid for all the tea they dumped. Another, the Massachusetts Government Act, took away Boston's right to govern itself.

The Boston Tea Party was one of the main events that started the American Revolutionary War.

David Kinnison (1764[?]-1852), who served briefly in the American Revolution,  claimed to have been at the Boston Tea Party. However, he would have been only 9 years old at the time. 

## References 
## Other websites 
* Boston Tea Party -history.com
* The Boston Tea Party Historical Society
Pixel

.]]
A **pixel** (short for **pic**ture **el**ement) is a single point in a picture. On the monitor of a computer, a pixel is usually a square. Every pixel has a color and all the pixels together are the picture. The color of a pixel can be stored by using a combination of red, green and blue (RGB) but other combinations are also possible, such as cyan, magenta, yellow and black (CMYK).

## The word "pixel" 
The word "pixel" was first used in a paper by Frederic C. Billingsley in 1965. He did not create the word himself. He got it from Keith E. McFarland but Keith does not know where he got it from. Keith said that the word was in use in those days.

The word "pixel" uses "pix" as a shorter word (an abbreviation) for "picture". The word pix was first used in 1932 in Variety, a magazine. It was an abbreviation for "pictures" or movies. By 1938 the word "pix" was also used for pictures that did not move (still pictures).

The word "picture element" is even older. For example, the German word *Bildpunkt* (which means "picture point") was used in a 1888 patent of Paul Gottlieb Nipkow.

## Related pages
* Display resolution
* Raster graphics
Chocolate chip

**Chocolate chips** are small pieces of chocolate.  They are used to make desserts, usually in baking.  Chocolate chips are most common in cookies.  Chocolate chips are also used in some cakes and other desserts.

## Origin
Chocolate chips were invented in 1937 when Ruth Graves Wakefield of the Toll House Inn added cut-up chunks of a semi-sweet Nestlé chocolate bar to a cookie recipe. Lots of people liked the new cookies, and Wakefield made an agreement in 1939 with Nestlé to put her recipe on the chocolate bar's packaging. In return, Nestlé gave Wakefield a lifetime supply of chocolate. 

At first, Nestlé put a small chopping tool in the chocolate bar package. In 1941 Nestlé and one or more other chocolate bar companies started selling the chocolate in chip (or "morsel") form. The Nestlé brand Toll House cookies is named after Toll House Inn.

## References
Encephalopathy

**Encephalopathy** means *problem of the brain*. Most of the time, it is used by medical doctors, to speak about changed brains and thus changed thinking or changed behavior.

## Related pages
*Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy
Guru Nanak Dev

**Guru Nanak Dev** (15 April 1469 &ndash; 22 September 1539) was the founder of Sikhism and is regarded as its first Guru.

## Life 
Guru Nanak was born in Rāi Bhoi Dī Talvaṇḍī , in Punjab. This is now part of Pakistan. 

Guru Nanak came from a Hindu landowning family, with his father known as Mehta Kalu and his mother as Mata Tripta. When Guru Nanak was a child he refused the *upanayana* (holy thread) to initiate him into the Hindu religion. Later in his life he married Mata Sulakhani with whom he had two sons. They were called Sri Chand and Lakshmi Das. According to the Sikh religion, one day he was bathing in the river and god took him up to heaven. His family members were very worried as they had thought he died. After three days, he returned with the message of god. He gave up his job to spread the message on how to be a good person. 

Guru Nanak died in Kartarpur.

## References 
## Other websites
* Eternal Glory of Sri Guru Nanak Ji
* Sikh-History.com
* Max Arthur MacAuliff, *The Sikh Religion, Vol 1, (The Life of Guru Nanak Ji)*, Oxford University Press, 1909.
* Satguru Nanak Ji (for Children) - eBook
* *Sufis, Philosophers, and Nanak* 
* A short video documentary summarizing the life of Satguru Nanak Ji
Flour

and rye flour.]]
]]
**Flour** is grains that have been dried and ground into powder. It is usually made of wheat, but can also be made from many other grains, nuts and other substances. Flour is used to make many foods.

## Uses 
Flour is an important part of bread, pasta, cookies, cakes, and tortillas. Flour is made in a flour mill, where the grain is put between two stones or steel wheels which are rubbed together to make the grains into powder.

## Types 
The main kinds of flour used in cooking are all-purpose flour, self-raising flour and cake flour. Self-raising flour contains a leavening agent. This makes the food rise (expand) during baking. It produces lighter and softer baked foods by creating small bubbles. Flour that does not have a leavening agent is called all-purpose flour, or plain flour.

### Homemade flour 
Some people like to make flour at home because when flour comes from the factory, the outer shells of the grains have usually been removed. The outer shells have fiber, which people need to eat for good health. 

Flour has many nutrients that are good to eat. People can also make flour with things like pumpkins, pumpkin seeds, brown and white rice, and wheat.

## History 
Around 6000 BC, humans discovered that wheat seeds could be crushed between simple millstones to make flour. 

The Romans were the first to grind seeds on cone mills. Most mills were driven by wind (windmills) or water. Later, they were driven by steam. 

In the 1930s, some flour began to be enriched with iron, niacin, thiamine and riboflavin. In the 1940s, mills started to enrich flour and folic acid was added to the list in the 1990s.

## Related pages 
* Kinako
* Wheat flour

## References 
## Other websites 
*
Sea of Japan

The **Sea of Japan** is a sea in the western Pacific Ocean. It is bordered by Korea to the west, Russia to the north and Japan to the east and south.

South Korea calls it the **East Sea**, while North Korea calls it the **East Sea of Korea**.

## Geography
The Sea of Japan is a sea in the north-western edge of the Pacific Ocean. It is separated from the ocean by the Japanese Archipelago, including Sakhalin, Hokkaidō and Honshū. It is surrounded by these islands and the Eurasian Continent. 

The Sea of Japan has a shallow area in its center, called the Yamato Bank. Water here is less than 1,000 meters deep. One of them is the Tsushima Current, which is a warm current from the Korean Straits to the north-east direction along the shore of the Japanese Archipelago and mainly considered to be the branch of the Kuroshio Current. The deep sea water of the Sea of Japan tends to stay longer in the bottom of the sea than other deep sea water. The deep sea water is about eighty percent of the water in this sea.

## Name
The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) decided to call this area the "Sea of Japan" in 1929.

Since 1992, South Korea has asked the world to use the names "East Sea" or "Sea of Korea" instead of "Sea of Japan".
South Korea argues that this sea has been called "East Sea" since early times. It is also a Korean belief that the name "East Sea" was eliminated from maps of the world in the early 20th century while South Korea was under the rule of Japan.

However, Japan says that the name "Sea of Japan" has been used more widely than "East Sea" in Europe and America since before the 18th century. Japan also argues that if there were no Japan, there would be no sea.

Now, most international maps and documents use the name Sea of Japan only. However, in some cases, the name East Sea is included along with the name Sea of Japan.

## References
Natural environment

city. However, termites are not people, so this city is a natural environment.]]

The **Natural environment** means all living and non-living things occurring naturally. It does not include human activity. The universe is natural, but often the term "natural environment" only means nature on Earth.   

Two aspects are usually included::
* Ecological units which are natural systems without much human interference.  These include all vegetation, microorganisms, soil, rocks, atmosphere, and natural events. 
* Universal natural resources and physical phenomena which lack clear-cut boundaries. These include climate, air, water,  energy, radiation, electric charge, and magnetism. 

There is also the built environment, which is not natural. There, man has changed landscapes and natural environment to make cities and agricultural land.

## Etymology 
* EEA multilingual environmental glossary 
* EU Environment Directorate-General
* Rehbar Development Foundation  — Development Foundation/Organization working on Environment, Education and Health

## Related pages 
*Biodiversity
*Ecosystem
*Environmentalism
*Habitat
*World Environment Day
Natural capital

**Natural capital** is a metaphor for the mineral, plant, and animal formations of the Earth's biosphere when viewed as a means of production of oxygen, water filter, erosion preventer, or provider of other ecosystem services.  

In a traditional economic analysis of the factors of production, natural capital would usually be understood as "land" and therefore something else than "capital" in its original sense.  

At the beginning of reflection about economics "land" was seen as something natural, but "capital"  as man-made goods only.  

But the benefits which humans have from nature are many. 17 of them were closely looked at by Robert Costanza.  These benefits are in some ways similar to those that owners of "capital" have as their capital produces more goods, e.g. a factory which produces automobiles just as an apple tree produces apples.

This is an approach to ecosystem valuation, an alternative to the traditional view of all non-human life as passive natural resources. But human knowledge and understanding of the natural environment is never complete, and therefore we cannot yet know what *natural capital* means exactly.

## Related pages
*Natural resource
*Nature's services
*Ecosystem services
*Environmental economics

## References 
*Amory B. Lovins, L. Hunter Lovins and Paul Hawken: *A Road Map for Natural Capitalism * (Pdf), in: Harvard Business Review May-June 1999, p.145-157

## Other websites 
*Natural Capital indicators for OECD countries 
*Natural Capitalism
*Ecosystem Valuation - US DA
Parkhead

**Parkhead** () is a suburb in the east end of Glasgow, Scotland. It is the home of the Glasgow Celtic football club.

## References
Prevention

**Prevention** could mean:
* Preventative medicine
* *Prevention* (magazine), a magazine about health in the United States 
* Crime prevention
Oswaldtwistle

**Oswaldtwistle** is a town in Lancashire county near Accrington in North West England.

Many years ago, Oswaldtwistle had a running textile mill, which is a presentation today.
## Other websites 
*Life and Times of Oswaldtwistle 
*Rhyddings Business and Enterprise School, Oswaldtwistle 
*Melbourne Street Church, Oswaldtwistle
Turf

**Turf** could mean:

* Lawn, an area of grass maintained for decorative or recreational use
* Sod, the surface layer of ground consisting of a matt of grass and grass roots, sometimes used as a construction material.
* AstroTurf, or any variety of artificial turf made to resemble grass.
* A colloquialism for the world of horse-racing.
* Slang for territory claimed by a gang. See also: turf war
* Slang for the area of jurisdiction or influence exercised by a unit within a bureaucracy.
* Slang for disposing or getting rid of something.
* Peat used for fuel.
* The Turf, a public house in Oxford, England.
* T.U.R.F The Upper Room Fellowship
Blue Angels

The **Blue Angels** are a group of special pilots who work for the US Navy.  They fly F/A-18 fighter jet airplanes that are painted to look different from regular Navy planes.  They are very famous.  Almost every American has heard of them.  The pilots of the **Blue Angels** are very good at what they do.  They are able to fly very close to each other and do very difficult tricks.  They are most famous for the flyovers they do at many American sporting events.

## Other websites 
* Explore the Navy: Blue Angels  official website.
Olomouc

**Olomouc** is the sixth largest city in the Czech Republic. It is in the center of the historical region Moravia. In the past, Olomouc was a capital city of Moravia. The city has about 102,000 residents. Its larger urban zone has a population of about 480,000 people.

There are many churches and historical buildings. There is beautiful *Holy Trinity Column* in the centre. UNESCO has this column on the list of World Heritage Sites. There is a nice astronomical clock.

 College building) with the so-called "Jewish Gate", which is part of the original fortification.]]

Its university is the oldest in Moravia and second oldest in the Czech Republic. The university was founded in 1573 as part of effort to reestablish Roman Catholicism in the country. Roughly nine out of ten people of the Czech Crown lands were Protestants at the time. 

Image:Olomouc (CZE) - location map.svg|The red star is where Olomouc is in the Czech Republic
Image:Olomouc panorama.jpg|View over Olomouc
Image:Holy Trinity Column.jpg|Holy Trinity Column in Olomouc
Image:Orloj in Olomouc.jpg|Astronomical clock in Olomouc

## References
Means of production

**Means of production** (abbreviated MoP; German: *Produktionsmittel*), also called **means of labour** are the materials, tools and other instruments used by workers to make products. This includes: machines, tools materials, plant and equipment, land, raw materials, money, energy, and anything else labor needs to make things.

The means of production can be owned by different people in different ways in different societies. Capitalism is when the means of production are owned privately. A capitalist society has a market, where things can be sold and bought. Capitalism also has wage labor. Other societies can be socialist, meaning the means of production are owned in common, either by the workers themselves or by the state. A socialist society may also have a market, depending on the variation of socialism.

## Related pages 
* Communism
* Capitalism
* Factors of production
* Labor
* Marxism
* Socialism

## References
Lawn

A **lawn** is an area of land planted with grass, and sometimes clover and other plants. Lawns are cut to a low, even height using a lawnmower. Lawns are used for aesthetic (for their beauty) and recreational purposes. Other words used to describe them are turf, pitch, field or green may be used, depending on the sport and the continent. They are often found around buildings, making them a type of yard.

Lawns are generally composed only of grass species, subject to weed  and pest control, maintained in green colour, and are regularly maintained to ensure an acceptable length. Lawns are used around, apartments, houses, commercial buildings and offices. Approximately 80% of all homes in the United States have grass lawns. This has resulted in a $40 billion per year industry, with American grass lawns using more water than is used to grow all the wheat and corn in the United States.  In that sense, by water consumption, grass is the United States’ leading “crop” by far, with the Environmental Protection Agency estimating that about 1/3 of all public water is used to water grass, with that number rising as high as 70% in some of the more dry regions of the United States.

The earliest mention of lawns comes from France during the 1500s. Lawns (as opposed to fields) found their way to England in the 1700s.

* Initial costs: $10,000 to $50,000
* Monthly costs: $1,000 to $5,000 

The initial costs typically include equipment, supplies, insurance, marketing, and licensing expenses. The monthly costs usually include operating expenses,  such as fuel, maintenance, and payroll.

## History 
In the 16th Century Renaissance, lawns were deliberately cultivated by the wealthy in both France and England, though they were more likely planted with chamomile or thyme than with grass. Both of these ground covers make excellent alternatives to grass in modern lawns.

Closely shorn grass lawns first emerged in 17th century England at the homes of large, wealthy landowners. While sheep were still grazed on many such park-lands, landowners increasingly depended on human labor to tend the grass closest to their homes.  Only the rich could afford to hire the many hands needed to scythe and weed the grass, so a lawn was a mark of wealth and status.

## Lawns around the world 
In many parts of the United States lawn care is an important part of home . a poorly kept up lawn can hurt the value of a home.  Families do many things on their lawn.  Neighborhood cookouts, birthday parties and outdoor games are just some of the uses.
* One of the most famous lawns in France surrounds the Eiffel Tower. It is part of the Champ de Mars. 
* The south lawn of the White House is a world famous lawn in Washington, D.C..
* The greens of Wimbledon, London where the Wimbledon Championships are played is the only major tennis tournament played on a grass court.
* Shinjuku Gyoen in Tokyo has large areas of lawns and gardens. It has some 1,500 cherry trees.

## References
Year 2000 problem

The **Year 2000 problem** (also known as the **Y2K problem**, the **millennium bug**, **Y2K Bug**, and **Y2K**) was a computer problem that affected lots of computer systems. It happened because of the way in which some early computer programs were made to handle only years containing two digits (for example '92 instead of 1992). This meant that the computer could confuse the year 2000 with the year 1900, because both would be written as 00. People started fearing that date-related processing would happen incorrectly for dates and times after December 31 1999. It caused concerns that many industries (such as electricity or financial) and government functions would stop working at exactly midnight, January 1 2000. People were panicked by press coverage and media speculation, as well as corporate and government reports. Companies and organisations around the world had to check and upgrade their computer systems to avoid the bug. The preparation for Y2K had a significant effect on the computer industry. No big computer failures occurred when the year changed to 2000.

## Similar bugs 
* Year 100 problem
* Year 2038 problem
Biodiversity

## The term 
The term **biological diversity** was used first by wildlife scientist and conservationist Raymond F. Dasmann in 1968, where he advocated conservation. It was widely adopted only in the 1980s.

The term **biodiversity** first appeared in a publication in 1988 when entomologist E. O. Wilson used it as a title. Since then, the term has often been used by biologists, environmentalists, political leaders, and citizens. A similar term in the United States is "natural heritage." It predates the others and is more accepted by the wider audience interested in conservation. Broader than biodiversity, it includes geology and landforms.

## Definitions 
Biologists most often define biodiversity as the "totality of genes, species, and ecosystems of a region". An advantage of this definition is that it seems to describe most circumstances. There are three levels at which biological variety can been identified:

*species diversity
*ecosystem diversity
*genetic diversity.

## Threats 
The idea can be used for tackling practical problems in conservation, for example:
*loss of species
*destruction of habitats
*introduced and invasive species
*genetic pollution
*over-exploitation
*effect of climate change

## References 
## Related pages 
*Biodiversity Convention
*Conservation biology
*Endemism
*Neurodiversity

## Further reading 
*Levin, Simon A. 2013. *Encyclopedia of biodiversity*. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-384719-5
*Wilson E.O. 2016. ''Half-Earth: our planet's fight for life''. Liveright. ISBN 978-1631490828
Aberdeen, Washington

**Aberdeen** is a city in the American state of Washington. Aberdeen was founded by Samuel Benn in 1884. In 2020, 17,013 people lived in Aberdeen. Aberdeen is sometimes called the "Gateway to the Olympic Peninsula". It is also called the "Birthplace of Grunge" because musician Kurt Cobain is from Aberdeen. Other notable musicians from Aberdeen include The Melvins. Aberdeen is also the hometown of professional wrestler Bryan Danielson, better known as Daniel Bryan.

## References