open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Gujarati language

**Gujarati** is an Indo-Aryan language spoken primarily in the Indian state of Gujarat, but also in neighboring Pakistan. It is the 26th most widely spoken language in the world and  official language of Gujarat. With over 55 million speakers, it is one of the major languages of India. Gujarati is mostly written in the Gujarati script, which is derived from the Devanagari script and is used to write several other Indian languages as well.

Gujarati has a rich cultural heritage and is used in literature, poetry, songs, and everyday communication. The language has a long history, with some of its earliest literature dating back to the 12th century. It has also been influenced by several other languages, including Sanskrit, Arabic, and Persian, which has resulted in a unique and diverse vocabulary. Gujarati is an important language for the business community in India and is widely used in trade and commerce. It is also used in education and the media, making it a key component of the cultural identity of the people of Gujarat.

## Dialects
The Gujarati language has four main dialects. Surati stands among four major dialects along with Charotari, and Pattani, and Saurashtari.  

### Surati
Mainly spoken in Surat and southern Gujarat. Source speakers use this dialect through their distinctive speech patterns and relaxed speech functions. It is named after Surat district in southern Gujarat.  

### Charotari
Charotari also known as Bhili Charotari, is mainly spoken in the Anand and Kheda districts of central Gujarat, and this area is known as Charotar. Some rural parts of the Charotar region maintain archaic phonetic elements.

### Saurashtri
Saurashtri, which is also known as Kathiawadi, serves as the primary dialect for the Kathiawar peninsula found within the Saurashtra region. The dialect has a strong consonant system that creates exclaiming vowel tones. Rajasthani dialects have a major influence on dialect. Saurashtri has four additional subdialects.

#### Kutchi
Kutchi is a primary dialect of both Hindu Bhatias and Muslim trading communities of Kutch. The differences between Kutchi and Gujarati remain uncertain because they exhibits different grammatical patterns and lexicon. Sindhi influences the language, which contains distinguished phonetic characteristics that include implosive consonant sounds.

## References
Jammu and Kashmir (state)

**Jammu and Kashmir** was the northmost state of India. The state covered  and is mostly in the Himalayan mountains. Jammu and Kashmir used to be a British protectorate in 1860. Jammu and Kashmir borderd the states of Himachal Pradesh and Punjab to the south-east and south respectively. The other parts of state are administered by Pakistan as Azad Jammu and Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan. 

Jammu and Kashmir has been a subject of dispute between India and Pakistan since 1947, and China since 1962.

## Demographics
Jammu and Kashmir has a Muslim majority population. Though Islam is practiced by about 88% of the population of the state and by 97% of the population of the Kashmir Valley, the state has large communities of Sikhs, Hindus (inclusive of Meghwal).

Jammu and Kashmir consisted of three divisions: Jammu region, Kashmir Valley, and the Ladakh region. Srinagar is the summer capital, and Jammu its winter capital. The Kashmir valley, often called *paradise on Earth*, is famous for its beautiful mountainous landscape. Jammu's numerous holy shrines attracts millions of Hindu pilgrims every year from all over the India. Ladakh, also known as "Little Tibet", is renowned for its remote mountain beauty and Buddhist culture.

## References 
## Other websites 
* 
* Government of Jammu and Kashmir, India
Kaveri

**Kaveri** is a river, starting from Karnataka, and drains into the Bay of Bengal, in the state of Tamil Nadu.

The **Kaveri River**, also spelled Cauvery, is one of the most important rivers in South India. It flows through the Indian states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. The river gives water to millions of people and supports farming, drinking water and electricity. 

The Kaveri begins in the Western Ghats, in a place called Talakaveri, located in the Coorg district of Karnataka. It travels over 800 kilometers before reaching the sea. Along the way, it passes through cities like Mysuru, Srirangam and Tiruchirappalli.

Many farmers use the Kaveri River to grow crops such as rice and sugarcane. It is also used for irrigation with the help of big dams like the Krishna Raja Sagara Dam and the Mettur Dam.

The river is also holy in Hindu religion. People believe that taking a bath in the Kaveri washes away sins. Many festivals and prayers happen near the river, especially during the Kaveri Pushkaram.

## References
Bhopal

**Bhopal** is the capital of Madhya Pradesh, India, and the second largest city of the state, after Indore. Bhopal is also called the City of Lakes. It is the headquarters of Bhopal District. It is in the central part of India.

The city is believed to have first been called Bhojpal, named after the King of Bhoj. According to this theory, it was later changed to Bhopal.

Bhopal has an average elevation of 499 metres (1637&nbsp;ft). 

## Bhopal Disaster 
In 1984 a poisoned gas was leaked from a private chemical factory at night when a worker was cleaning out a clogged pipe connected with a  containing gas. The tank had 42 tons of methyl isocyanate (MIC) that was leaked at midnight and leaving more than 5,000 people and animals dead. Many people also became sick and they are still suffering from deadly diseases. This has been called as "World's worst industrial disaster".

## References
## Other websites
Dialect

A **dialect** is a form of a language spoken by a group of people. People who live in the same place may share a dialect; this is called a "regiolect". People who are similar in some other way, such as social class, may share a dialect. 

There is no absolute difference between a dialect and a language. British English and American English are different standard dialects of English. They differ slightly in spelling, pronunciation, and vocabulary. However, they are "mutually intelligible", which means people who speak either variety understand the other.

Deciding if something is a language or a dialect is sometimes a political decision as a way to make minority groups assimilate or become part of a nation's larger culture.  The linguist Max Weinreich once joked that "a language is a dialect with an army and a navy."

## Examples 
Japanese and the Okinawan language are related, as they are Japonic languages, but they are not mutually intelligible. When Japan took over Okinawa during the Meiji Era, the Japanese government called the Okinawan language a dialect of Japanese. This was used to forbid Okinawans from speaking Okinawan and to force them to Japanese.

Catalan and Galician used to be considered as dialects of Spanish but are now recognized as languages. They are about as near to Portuguese and to Occitan, respectively, as they are to Spanish.

Hindi and Urdu are called different languages today, but they used to be the same language, Hindustani. After Pakistan became separate from India, Hindustani became called Urdu in Pakistan and Hindi in India. However, speakers of both can understand each other if they are using everyday speech. The two languages use different writing systems, but writing systems are not an accurate way to decide if languages are related.

English is definitely a language, but it once was Anglo-Saxon, a dialect of Old Saxon.

Chinese is called a language, but has hundreds of dialects, such as Mandarin, Cantonese, Wu, and Hokkien. Many of them are not mutually intelligible.

In past times, travel was difficult and so dialects developed in quite small regions. In Britain, there were dialects in the different parts of the country, and traces can stiill be heard today. The Romance languages were dialects of Latin that separated in that way.

Differences in dialects can be:

* words: people in England to *church*, but in Scotland, people go to *kirk.*
*Pronunciation: the *r* of *letters* is silent in most of England but is pronounced by most of the United States.
*grammar: instead of *I dived*, some people say *I dove*.
In India, there are scores of dialects of Hindi language like Rajasthani, Bhojpuri, Chhattisgarhi, Magadhi, Haryanvi and others. Moreover,people whose native language is Hindi, may or maynot treat it as their mother tongue.

## Animal dialects 
With certain kinds of birds, people have noticed that their singing is different in different geographical areas. They have called these variations dialects. Similar observations have been done with Orcas. 

## Related pages 
*Lect
Punjabi language

**Punjabi** (Punjabi: ਪੰਜਾਬੀ, پَنْجَاْبِیْ) is an Indo-Aryan language. It is native to Punjab region of Indian Subcontinent, which includes Pakistani province of Punjab and Indian state of Punjab. It is the first language of about 230 million people in the world. It is also spoken in Haryana, Himachal Pradesh states of India and in capital Delhi. It is spoken by the largest ethnic group in Pakistan at 58%.

Punjabi developed from the ancient language of Prakrit developed simultaneously with Sanskrit.

Punjabi is written in two different scripts, called Gurmukhī and Shahmukhī. Punjabi is the main language spoken by the Sikhs. Most parts of the Guru Granth Sahib use the Punjabi language written in Gurmukhī, though Punjabi is not the only language used in Sikh scriptures. The *Janamsakhis*, stories on the life and legend of Guru Nanak (1469–1539), are early examples of Punjabi literature.

## Dialects
Punjabi language has many dialects. The dialects are similar to each other that speakers can understand most of the dialects that are related to theirs. Some major dialects of Punjabi include Majhi, Puadhi, Malwai, Pothwari, Shahpuri, Jhangvi, Jatki, Bilaspuri, Jangli, Jhagvi, Ghebi, Doabi among others.

Majhi is Punjabi's standard dialect because it forms the  for writing in Panjabi. It is spoken in the centre of Panjab, including the districts of Lahore, Sheikhupura, Kasur, Okara, Nankana Sahib, Faisalabad, Gujranwala, Sialkot, Narowal, Gujrat, Pakpattan, Hafizabad and Mandi Bahauddin. In India it is spoken in Amritsar, Tarn Taran Sahib and Gurdaspur districts.

Other dialects of Panjabi include Rachnavi, Chenavari, Chhachi, Jandali. The relation of several dialects to languages other than Punjabi creates problems in assigning them to one or another "language".

## Distribution
Over 95% of people who speak Punjabi as their first language live in Pakistan and India. It is the most widely spoken native language in Pakistan. It is spoken as a first language by over 65% of Pakistanis. There were 145 million Panjabi speakers in Pakistan in 2023. In India, Punjabi is spoken as a native language by 4% of the population. This was about 70 million in 2023. It is the official language of the Indian states of Panjab, Haryana, Delhi, Chandigarh, Himachal Pradesh and additional official in Uttarakhand,   Kashmir and Rajasthan.

|

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In the United Kingdom, it is the second-most-commonly used language. In Canada, it is the third-most-spoken language. There were 6 million Panjabi speakers in the US in 2023. and 3 million in the UK in 2023. 

## Phonology
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|}

## Writing system
There are three ways to write Punjabi: Gurmukhi, Shahmukhi, and Takri. In the Punjab province of Pakistan, the script that is most used is Shahmukhī. The Majhi dialect is the written standard for Punjabi in both parts of Punjab.

Doabi dialect is the purest dialect of Panjabi.

## References
## More reading
* Bhatia, Tej (1993 and 2010) *Punjabi: a cognitive-descriptive grammar*. London: Routledge. Series: Descriptive grammars.
* Singh, Maya (1895) The Panjabi dictionary. Lahore: Munshi Gulab Singh & Sons.
* Ethnologue: Languages of India  and Pakistan
Lozi

**Lozi** could mean:
*The Lozi language
*The Lozi people
*Lozi (Homeland)  (Bantustan) in South West Africa
Thanjavur

**Thanjavur** or **Tanjore** is a city in Tamil Nadu, India. It was the capital of earlier Chola Kingdom. It is called the *Rice Bowl* of Tamil Nadu. Kavery river flows through Thanjavur.

## References
Meghalaya

**Meghalaya** () is a state within the Republic of India. Occupying an area of 8,660 mi² (22,429 km²), bigger than the State of Israel but smaller than Belize.  Its capital is Shillong.  Meghalaya's population is 2,318,822.  The population of Shillong was 314,610 in 2001. There are problems in Meghalaya arise from the divide between tribals and non tribal settlers, identity issues and growing corruption besides the fear of being reduced to minority by native tribals. The activity status is classified as active. In traditional Indian geography it falls under the North-east Indian zone.

## Provincial symbols of Meghalaya

File:Beo-2.jpg|Provincial bird of Meghalaya
File:Clouded leopard.jpg|Provincial animal of Meghalaya
File:Gmelina arborea bark I IMG 3543.jpg|Provincial tree of Meghalaya
File:Pinkslipper.jpg|Provincial flower of Meghalaya

## References 
## Other websites 
* Meghalaya Website
Copperbelt

**Copperbelt** is a province in the northern part of Zambia. It is named after the copper reserves. It has an area of 31,328&nbsp;km2. It occupies the upper portion of the Kafue river basin on the central plateau of southern Africa, 900 to 1,500 m above sea level.

It is one of the Zambia's ten provinces and the hub of the country.

## Sources
Levy Mwanawasa

**Levy Patrick Mwanawasa** (September 3, 1948 – August 19, 2008) was a Zambian politician and lawyer. He was the President of Zambia from January 2002, until his death of a stroke in 2008.

## References
Oman

**Oman**, officially the **Sultanate of Oman**, is a country in the southwestern part of Asia, on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula. It borders the United Arab Emirates to the northwest, Saudi Arabia to the west, and Yemen to the southwest. The coast is formed by the Arabian Sea to the south and east, and the Gulf of Oman to the northeast. The capital is Muscat, Oman has a total area of 322,731 km² which makes it slightly bigger than Ivory Coast. 

Oman is the land of culture and beautiful homes. Hospitality is showcased in every form by the demeanor of its residents. 

The country is a  Absolute monarchy, ruled by a Sultan, and the people are called Omanis. Right now, the sultan is Haitham bin Tariq Al Said. For a long time, the British have supported the sultans of Oman. In the 1960s and 1970s, some Omanis started a revolution to overthrow the sultan and end oppression, but the sultan defeated them with the help of Great Britain.

## Divisions
Since 28 October 2011, Oman is divided into **Eleven Governorates** (**Muhafazah**):
***Ad Dakhiliyah Governorate**
***Ad Dhahirah North Governorate**
***Al Batinah North Governorate**
***Al Batinah South Governorate**
***Al Buraimi Governorate**
***Al Wusta Governorate**
***Ash Sharqiyah North Governorate**
***Ash Sharqiyah South Governorate**
***Dhofar Governorate**
***Muscat (Masqat) Governorate**
***Musandam Governorate**
Below the governorates, Oman is divided into 63 provinces.

## Climate
Oman has a warm climate and very little rainfall. Annual rainfall in Muscat averages , falling mostly in January. **Dhofar** is subject to the southwest monsoon, and rainfall up to  has been recorded in the rainy season from late June to October. While the mountain areas receive more rainfall, some parts of the coast, particularly near the island of **Masirah**, sometimes receive no rain at all within the course of a year. The climate generally is very hot, with temperatures reaching around  (peak) in the hot season, from May to September.

## Related pages
* List of rivers of Oman
* Oman at the Olympics
* Oman national football team

## References
## Other websites
*
1420s

The **1420s** was a decade that began on 1 January 1420 and ended on 31 December 1429. It is distinct from the decade known as the ***143rd decade*** which began on January 1, 1421 and ended on December 31, 1430.

## Events and trends 
*Masaccio and Masolino paint the Brancacci Chapel, in Florence, Italy.
*Brunelleschi designs the church of Church of San Lorenzo, Florence. 
*Joan of Arc leads the army of France.
*May 21: Treaty of Troyes With the Burgundian faction dominant in France, King Charles VI of France acknowledges Henry V of England  as his heir, and as virtual ruler of most of France
*June 2: Catherine of Valois marries King Henry V of England 
*September 1:   a 9.4 MS-strong earthquake shakes Chile's Atacama Region causing tsunamis in Chile as well as Hawaii and Japan.

## References
Cherokee

The **Cherokee** (Cherokee: ᎠᏂᏴᏫᏯᎢ, romanized: *Aniyvwiyaʔi* or *Anigiduwagi*) are Native American tribes. 

When Europeans first arrived in the 16th century, the Cherokee lived in the modern-day eastern and southeastern United States. However, the United States government forced most to move to the Ozark Hills. 

The Cherokee were named one of "Five Civilized Tribes."

## History 
Cherokee people did not live in tepees. They lived in houses made from wood. 

In the 19th century, a man named Sequoyah introduced a form of writing the Cherokee language. For this, he was awarded a medal.The Cherokee tribe had two chiefs, a red and white chief. When the tribe was at war, the red chief would lead, and when there was peace within the tribe, the white chief would lead.  

Chief John Ross was the leader of the Cherokee tribe from 1818 until 1867. He lived in Georgia before being forced to move to the place now called Oklahoma. 

## Tribes today 
The U.S. government officially recognizes three Cherokee tribes:
# Cherokee Nation in Oklahoma.
# United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians in Oklahoma.
# Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians in North Carolina.

## References
Soup

soup with croutons and herbs]]
A **soup** is a kind of food. People make soups by boiling things in water. Then they put the things they boiled into a bowl and eat them. Vegetables are in most soups. You can also put meat in soups. Soups that are thicker than normal, with more meat or vegetables, are stews. The liquid in soup is broth.

Traditionally, soups are classified into two main groups: clear soups and thick soups. The traditional French types of clear soups are bouillon and consommé. Thick soups are classified by the type of thickening agent used. Purées are vegetable soups thickened with starch. Bisques are made from puréed shellfish or vegetables thickened with cream. Cream soups may be thickened with béchamel sauce; and veloutés are thickened with eggs, butter, and cream. Other ingredients commonly used to thicken soups and broths include egg, rice, lentils, flour, and grains. Most soups include carrots and potatoes. Some of the most common soups are chicken soup, tomato soup, pumpkin soup, and sopa de fideos.

Canned soup can be condensed, which requires adding water (or sometimes milk), or it can be "ready-to-eat," which requires no additional liquid before eating. Condensed soup (invented in 1897 by Campbell Soup Company chemist John T. Dorrance) allows soup to be packaged in a smaller can and sold at a lower price than other canned soups.  The "ready-to-eat" variant of soup can be prepared by simply heating the contents of the can on a kitchen stove or in a microwave oven. Soups like these can be used as a side dish. Soups are usually warm and crisp and can be accompanied with many things such as toast, bread and more. A popular British and American dish is tomato soup with grilled cheese. 

## Related pages 
* List of soups
Manmohan Singh

**Dr. Manmohan Singh** (Punjabi:ਮਨਮੋਹਨ ਸਿੰਘ;Hindi:मनमोहन सिंह; 26 September 1932 &ndash; 26 December 2024) was the 13th Prime Minister of India. A famous economist, he was the first Prime Minister since Jawaharlal Nehru to return to power after completing a full five-year term, and the first Sikh to hold the office.

## Early life
Singh was born on 26 September 1932 in Gah, Punjab, British India, into a Sikh family. After the partition of India they moved to Amritsar. He studied at Panjab University, Chandigarh, at St John's College, Cambridge, and at Nuffield College, Oxford. Singh married Gursharan Kaur in 1958.

## Prime Minister of India
In 2004, when the Congress-led United Progressive Alliance came to power, its chairperson Sonia Gandhi stepped down as leader of the India National Congress and supported Singh to replace her. His first ministry passed many important legislations and projects, including the National Rural Health Mission, Unique Identification Authority, Rural Employment Guarantee scheme and Right to Information Act. In 2008, many members of parliament were against a historic civil nuclear agreement with the United States. They voted in a vote of no confidence which nearly caused Singh's government to fall. India's economy grew faster during his term.

The 2009 general election saw the UPA return with an increased power, with Singh remaining as prime minister. Over the next few years, Singh's second ministry government were accused of corruption over the organisation of the 2010 Commonwealth Games, the 2G spectrum allocation case and the Indian coal allocation scam. After his term ended, he decided not to return as prime minister during the 2014 Indian general election.

Singh was never a member of the Lok Sabha but served as a member of the Rajya Sabha, representing the state of Assam from 1991 to 2019 and Rajasthan from 2019 to 2024.

## Death
Singh died on 26 December 2024 at the All India Institute of Medical Sciences in New Delhi, India from heart disease at the age of 92.

## References
## Other websites
* Prime Minister Manmohan Singh *official website*
* Profile & Curriculum Vitae
* List of current Union Ministers
Indira Gandhi

**Indira Gandhi** (19 November 1917 – 31 October 1984) was an Indian politician. She was The Prime Minister of India from 1966 to 1977. She was the daughter of Jawaharlal Nehru, who was also The Prime Minister of India. Her son, Rajiv Gandhi, later became The Prime Minister of India. She married Feroze Gandhi, who was in fact, not related to the civil rights leader, Mahatma Gandhi.

Indira Gandhi was the first woman prime minister of India. In 1938, Indira joined the Indian National Congress Party. After the death of Lal Bahadur Shastri in 1966, Indira Gandhi served as prime minister until India held the next election. She won that election in 1967 and became one of the first women elected to lead a democracy.

Indira Gandhi was Prime Minister of India twice. She served the first time between 1966 and 1977 and the second time between 1980 and 1984. She also studied at the University of Oxford.

## Death 
On October 31, 1984, Indira Gandhi was gunned down by her bodyguards, both of whom were Sikh extremists seeking retribution for the events at the temple.

## Burial 
Gandhi's body was taken in a gun carriage through Delhi roads on the morning of 1 November to Teen Murti Bhavan, where her father stayed and where she lay in state. She was cremated with full state honors on 3 November near Raj Ghat, a memorial to Mahatma Gandhi, at an area named Shakti Sthal. Her eldest son and successor, Rajiv, lit the pyre.

## References 
## Other websites 
* Official website of Indira Gandhi 
* Indira's timeline
* Indira's Milestone
Phobos

**Phobos** (Greek for "fear", is the root word of *phobia*) is one of the sons of Ares and Aphrodite in Greek mythology and the twin brother of Deimos. He is known as the god of fear, panic, flight and battlefield rout. He went with his father into battle, driving his chariot and spreading fear in his path. As a son of Aphrodite, goddess of love, each twin also represented the fear of loss.

The larger and innermost of Mars' two moons was named after him, and the other was named after Deimos.
Krakatoa

**Krakatoa** (Indonesian name: *Krakatau*) is an active volcano in the Sunda Strait, Indonesia. There are many different ways the name has been spelled. The volcano has erupted repeatedly in known history. The best known of these events occurred in late August 1883.

On 22 December 2018 the central cone collapsed and caused a tsunami in the Sunda Strait. More than 400 people were killed.

## The 1883 eruption 
The 1883 eruption ejected more than six cubic miles (25 cubic kilometers) of rock, ash, and pumice,  and made the loudest sound ever recorded by human beings. The sound was heard as far away as Perth in Australia (3,500&nbsp;km; 2,200&nbsp;miles), and the island of Rodrigues near Mauritius (4,800&nbsp;km; 3,000&nbsp;miles). Many thousands of people were killed and injured by the eruption, mostly in the tsunami (giant wave) which followed the explosion.

The pressure wave from the final explosion was recorded on barographs around the world, which continued to register it up to 5&nbsp;days after the explosion. The recordings show that the shock wave from the final explosion reverberated around the globe seven times.

The eruption destroyed two-thirds of what was then the island of Krakatoa. New eruptions at the volcano since 1927 have built a new island, called *Anak Krakatau* (child of Krakatoa).

## Related pages 
* List of volcanos
* Dormant volcano
* Extinct volcano

## References 
## Other websites 
* Cascades Volcano Observatory Krakatoa page 
* More information, including map showing location of Krakatoa in Indonesia
Premature ejaculation

**Premature ejaculation** (also known as **PE**) is a condition affecting many men. It is when during sexual intercourse (sex) the male cannot stop himself from ejaculating after starting sex.  The usual time from starting sex until ejaculation is about 4 to 8 minutes.

## Treatment exercises 
The condition is usually curable, or at least treatable with exercises. (There are more exercises than these, however, these are the most common.)

### Stimulation treatment 
One exercise is to create an erection and begin to lose it, then stimulate it again. This exercise is best done alone at first and then with a partner. Thrusting should not be used with a partner until very near the end of treatment. This treatment may take several weeks to fully cure the problem if it is used properly.

### Muscular treatment 
Another treatment involves using the muscle which stops urine. To locate the muscle, simply begin urinating and stop quickly before emptying the bladder. Doing that will demonstrate how to use the muscle. Then whenever convenient use the muscle. You do not need to be urinating to use the muscle and it is suggested you are not. After a few weeks of both these treatments, the PE will become more like traditional ejaculation and after about one and a half to two and a half months, it should be absolutely normal.

### Notes
1210s

The **1220s** decade ran from January 1, 1210, to December 31, 1219. It is distinct from the decade known as the ***122th decade*** which began on January 1, 1211 and ended on December 31, 1220.

## Events and trends 
* 1210
** Emperor Tsuchimikado ends his reign as Emperor of Japan
** Emperor Juntoku begins to rule Japan
* 1212 Battle of Navas de Tolosa.
* 1214 July – Battle of Bouvines; Philip II of France defeats Otto IV of Germany
* 1215
** Fourth Council of the Lateran
** Otto IV deposed as King of Germany, replaced by Frederick II
** Magna Carta adopted
** Beijing captured by Mongols; the Yuan Dynasty in China begins this way.
Jan Hus

]]
**Jan Hus**, or **John Huss** ( 1370 - 6 July 1415) was born in Husinec, Bohemia (now Czech Republic). He was a Bohemian religious thinker and reformer who started a religious movement that was strongly influenced by the beliefs of the English scholar John Wycliffe.

Hus studied at the University of Prague. Around 1400, he became a Catholic priest and soon accepted a position of preaching in Czech, the language that is spoken in Bohemia. While preaching, he studied Wycliffe’s writings and came to agree with them, especially because of how real they were.

In 1403, Hus asked the church to undo the ban on Wycliffe's writings, and he translated them into Czech. The church, led by Archbishop Zbynek Zajíc, refused. In 1410, Zajíc ordered for Hus's writings be burned and foe Hus and his followers, the **Hussites**, to be forced out of the church. Hus was excommunicated in 1411, condemned by the Council of Constance, and burned at the stake on 6 July 1415 in Konstanz, Germany.

When Hus was killed, his followers revolted and fought against the Catholics but were defeated in 1431.

## Hus' teachings 
*The (Catholic) Church is made of all those meant to be saved (*ecclesia est universitas praedestinatorum*). It is not made of the hierarchy of priests.
*Christ is the head of the Church, not the Pope. It is therefore not necessary to obey the pope to be saved.

Many of his teachings were later taken up by Martin Luther.

## References
Konstanz

**Konstanz** (English often **Constance**) is a university town with a population of around 80,000. It is on the shore of Lake Constance, in the south-west corner of Germany, near Switzerland.

The history of the city goes back to Ancient Rome. In the 15th century, the Council of Constance was held there and ended the Western Schism. Jan Hus was burned as a heretic at the council.

## References
## Other websites
Panther

, also known as black panther]]**Panther** can mean
* A **black panther** or **white panther**, which is a name for a leopard or jaguar with black or white fur.
* Any animal which belongs to the genus **Panthera** (e.g. lion) or the subfamily **Pantherinae**.
* In different regions different felines are also called *panther*: the leopard in Asia and Africa, the jaguar in South America, and the puma in North America (especially the ones that live in Florida, USA). All these animals belong to the Felidae family.
## Related pages
* Felines
* Jaguars
* Canidae
* Mammals
* Oligocene
AOL

**AOL Inc.** (previously **America Online**) is a U.S.-based online service provider and Internet service provider. It has been in business since 1985. Important services in the early years were online chat and online games. Most connections were dial-up. In 2001 AOL bought Time Warner. In 2009 after a spin-off from Time Warner they changed their name to **AOL Inc.** It was announced in May 2015 that Verizon Communications purchased AOL.

AOL Instant Messenger was a service which allowed users to communicate with any user currently online. AIM had millions of users worldwide. There were also other computer programs that could be used to talk with your AIM account, for example Trillian, Pidgin, Digsby, and AIM+. AIM was shut down on December 15, 2017.

Other AOL products are AOL Spyware Protection, AOL Safety and Security Center, ICQ, AOl Computer Check-Up, AOL Explorer, AOL TopSpeed, AOL Dialer, AOL One-Click Fixes and AOL Openride.

## References
## Other websites
* AOL US and headquarters
* AOL in other countries
Mailman

depicting a Russian Empire mailman, with an inscription in Russian "Hello from Kharkov"]]
A **mailman** or **mail carrier** or **postman** is a person who brings people their postal mail. Normally he works for the post office of the respective country. Of course, there are also women doing this job. They are called **mailwomen**. For a layman, this occupation is called "letter carriers". 

Fictional mailmen are traditionally shown as acting afraid of dogs, even to the point of shock.

## Related pages 
* Despatch rider
* Persian couriers
Refugee

)]]
.]]
In 1951, the United Nations (UN) law called Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, said a **refugee** was a person who is forced to leave their country due to natural disasters or war and conflict.

owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group, or political opinion, is outside the country of their nationality, and is unable to or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail him/herself of the protection of that country.

In 1967 the Conventions’ 1967 protocol and regional conventions in Africa and Latin America were added to include persons who had fled war and violence in their country. A person who is seeking to be recognized as a refugee is an **asylum seeker**. In the United States a recognized asylum seeker is known as an **asylee**.

A **refugee** is a person who has to leave his or her country. This can be because of different reasons:

* It is no longer safe to stay, due to natural disaster such as flood or famine, war, or civil unrest
* Persecutions may be going on.
* The person may be unable to sustain himself or herself economically.
* The person might have been expelled
* The person might have to leave for religious reasons

## References
## Other page
* Political asylum
* Refugee camp
West Bank

boys in the West Bank.]]
The **West Bank** is a territory in the Middle East. The State of Palestine claims the West Bank, including East Jerusalem. However, Israel and some other nations disagree and claim the West Bank is an Israeli territory. 

The West Bank, known as Judea and Samaria by Israelis, has been under Israeli sovereignty since 1967. Since 1990, the Israeli government and the Palestinians have had many talks about what will happen in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip in the future.

Most people in the West Bank are Palestinians, but there are also many Jewish settlers in settlements. The international community considers Israeli settlements in the West Bank to be illegal under international law. Palestinians living in the West Bank, despite living under occupation by Israel are not allowed to vote in Israeli elections.  

## Geography 
The West Bank borders Israel to the west and Jordan to the east. It touches the Dead Sea and the River Jordan. 

Hills or desert make up most of its landscape. Summers are hot and dry, while winters are cooler and rainy.

## Regions 
The West Bank is divided into 165 Palestinian enclaves that are under partial Palestinian rule. The rest of the West Bank, including 200 Israeli settlements, is under full Israeli control.

## Laws 
Israeli settlers and civilians living in the West Bank (or traveling through it) are subject to Israeli law, and are represented in the Knesset. On the other hand, Palestinian civilians (who are mostly stuck in or confined to scattered enclaves), are subject to martial law and are not permitted to vote in Israel's national elections.

## Names 
The occupied West Bank is called *"Judea and Samaria"* by some right-wing Israeli settlers.

## Related pages 
* Human rights in West Bank
* LGBT rights in West Bank
* Israeli occupation of the West Bank

## Other websites 
*IMEMC
*Jerusalem Post

## Notes 
## Sources
Theorem

has at least 370 known proofs.]]
A **theorem** is a proven idea in mathematics. Theorems are proved using logic and other theorems that have already been proved. A minor theorem that one must prove to prove a major theorem is called a lemma. Theorems are made of two parts: hypotheses and conclusions. 

Theorems use deduction, in contrast to theories which are empirical.

Some theorems are trivial, since they directly follow from the propositions. Other theorems are called "deep", because their proof is long and difficult. Sometimes, such proofs involve other areas of mathematics or show connections between different areas. A theorem might be simple to state and yet be deep. An excellent example is Fermat's Last Theorem, and there are many other examples of simple yet deep theorems in number theory and combinatorics (among other areas). 

There are other theorems for which a proof is known, but cannot be easily written down. Among the best examples are the four color theorem and the Kepler conjecture. Both of these theorems are only known to be true by reducing them to a computational search which is then verified by a computer program. At first, many mathematicians did not accept this form of proof, but it has become more widely accepted over the years. The mathematician Doron Zeilberger has even gone so far as to claim that these are possibly the only nontrivial results that mathematicians have ever proved. Many mathematical theorems can be reduced to simpler computations, including polynomial identities, trigonometric identities and hypergeometric identities.

## Related pages 
* Proposition

## References
## Books
* 
* 
*
Chinese postman problem

The **Chinese postman problem** is a mathematical problem of graph theory. It is also known as **route inspection problem**. Suppose there is a mailman who needs to deliver mail to a certain neighbourhood. The mailman is unwilling to walk far, so he wants to find the shortest route through the neighbourhood, that meets the following criteria:

* It is a closed circuit (it ends at the same point it starts).
* He needs to go through every street at least once.

If the graph travelled has an Eulerian path, this circuit is the ideal solution.

Alan Goldman of the U.S. National Bureau of Standards first coined the name 'Chinese Postman Problem' for this problem, as it was originally studied by the Chinese mathematician Mei-Ku Kuan or Meigu Guan   in 1962.

## Other websites 
*Chinese postman problem (at MathWorld)

## References
Genus

A **genus** is a rank in the biological classification (or taxonomy). It is above species, and below families. A genus can include more than one species. When biologists talk about a genus, they mean one or more species of animals or plants that are closely related to each other.

As with other taxa, the plural is different from other English words because it is a Latin word. 'Genus' is the singular, and 'genera' is the plural form of the word.

When printing the scientific name of an organism, the name is *always in italic*. A name of species has two parts, with the genus first. For example, in "*Felis silvestris*", *Felis* is the genus. The genus name always begins with a capital letter. In "*Felis silvestris catus*", the third word is the subspecies, which is not often used.

## As a common word 
In writing, genus names in Latin may be 'anglicised' to form a common name. For example, the genus *Pseudomonas* is "pseudomonad" (plural: "pseudomonads"). In practice, most really common animals and plants already have a common name. So instead of saying 'felids', or 'felines', one says 'cats' both for the family pet, and for all the cat family (Felidae).
Border

between Val Formazza in Italy and Val Bedretto in Switzerland]]
The **border** between two regions is a line, where one region is next to the other. If the regions are countries, the border can only be crossed at certain points. To cross the border, a passport or a visa might be necessary; such as the Wagah border between Pakistan and the Republic of India.
Cretaceous

, made of Jurassic and Cretaceous chalk limestone]]
, a giant marine reptile of the Cretaceous.]]

The **Cretaceous** period is the ninth and longest period in the Phanerozoic eon, lasting 80 million years from 145 to 65 million years ago (mya). It followed the Jurassic period, and is the third and last period of the Mesozoic era. After it came the Cainozoic era. 
The Cretaceous period has just two very long epochs:
* Upper Cretaceous 100.5 million years ago (mya) to 65 mya
* Lower Cretaceous 145.5 mya to 100.5 mya.
The Lower Cretaceous at ~45 million years, is the longest epoch in the Phanerozoic eon.

Though famous for its land fauna, the Cretaceous sea level rose much higher than today. North America was partly covered by an epicontinental inland sea, and half of Britain was under water. One account goes as follows: "During the Late Cretaceous (94–64 mya) sea level was up to 650 metres higher than at the start of the Albian, when it was perhaps about the same as it is today... The peak transgressions (sea levels) can be seen world-wide. There were rises of sea level of about 10–90 metres per m.y." 

In the Upper Cretaceous, chalk, a type of limestone, was laid down in warm shallow seas. Chalk is 95% to 99% made up of coccoliths, the calcium carbonate (CaCO3) plates which tiny single-celled algae (coccolithophorids) produce.
At its end came the famous meteorite strike which, with the volcanic flood basalts spewed out in the Deccan Plateau (India), ended so many of the dominant life-forms: see K/T extinction event.

## References
Textbook

*textbook*]]
A **textbook** is a book used for the study of a . People use a textbook to learn facts and  about a certain subject. Textbooks sometimes have questions to test the knowledge and understanding of the learner.

A workbook is a type of textbook that has only practice questions and exercises. Workbooks are designed not to teach but to provide practice and to highlight areas which need more learning. A revision guide is a type of textbook that is used to remind the learner about the subject and give him/her extra practice, especially before an examination.

A textbook is usually lent to students by a school to accompany a course the school is teaching. Sometimes, especially at university, students have to buy the textbooks they need themselves or borrow them from a library.

Most textbooks are only published in printed format. However, some are now available online as electronic books.
Axiom

An **axiom** is a concept in logic. It is a statement which is assumed to be true without question, and which does not require proof. It is also known as a postulate (as in the parallel postulate). The axiom is to be used as the premise or starting point for further reasoning or arguments, usually in logic or in mathematics.

This means it cannot be proved within the discussion of a problem. So inside some discussion, it is thought to be true. There are many reasons why it has no proof. For example,
# The statement might be obvious. This means most people think it is clearly true. An example of an obvious axiom is the principle of contradiction. It says that a statement and its opposite cannot both be true at the same time and place.
# The statement is based on physical laws and can easily be observed. An example is Newton's laws of motion. They are easily observed in the physical world.
# The statement is a proposition. Here, an axiom is any mathematical statement that serves as a starting point from which other statements are logically derived. This means the emphasis is on what *happens* if the axiom is true. Whether the proposition is empirically true is not the goal of logic. This is a more modern definition of an axiom.

Logic can be used to find theorems from the axioms. Then those theorems can be used to make more theorems. This is often how math works. Axioms are important because logical arguments start with them.

## Euclid's axioms 
Euclid of Alexandria was a Greek mathematician. Around the year 300 BC, he made the earliest list of axioms which we know of. The following are just a few of them:
# Two numbers that are both the same as a third number are the same number.
# If A and B are two numbers that are the same, and C and D are also the same, A+C is the same as B+D.
# If A and B are two numbers that are the same, and C and D are also the same, A-C is the same as B-D.
# Two shapes that fill exactly the same space are the same shape.
# If you divide a number by anything more than 1, the quotient (result) will be less than the original number.

## Related pages 
* Axiom of choice, an axiom in set theory

## Notes
Maldives

The **Maldives** are a group of islands in the Indian Ocean. They are southwest of India. They are made up of the Maldive and Suadive archipelagos, with over 1,200 islands. These islands are a part of 26 atolls. And they are divided to 20 administrative atolls. People live on about 200 of the islands. It has more than 1126 coral reefs. It is the flattest country in the world. The highest point in the Maldives is only  high above the level of the sea.

Malé is the capital, with a population of 150,000 people. Its official religion is Islam.

## Climate
 island]]

The Maldives has a tropical monsoon climate (Am) under the Köppen climate classification, which is affected by the large landmass of South Asia to the north. Because the Maldives has the lowest elevation of any country in the world, the temperature is constantly hot and often humid. The presence of this landmass causes differential heating of land and water. These factors set off a rush of moisture-rich air from the Indian Ocean over South Asia, resulting in the southwest monsoon. Two seasons dominate Maldives' weather: the dry season associated with the winter northeastern monsoon and the rainy season which brings strong winds and storms.

The shift from the dry northeast monsoon to the moist southwest monsoon occurs during April and May. During this period, the southwest winds contribute to the formation of the southwest monsoon, which reaches Maldives in the beginning of June and lasts until the end of August. However, the weather patterns of Maldives do not always conform to the monsoon patterns of South Asia. The annual rainfall averages  in the north and  in the south.

The monsoonal influence is greater in the north of the Maldives than in the south, more influenced by the equatorial currents.

The highest temperature ever recorded in Malé was 39.6&nbsp;°C (103.3&nbsp;°F) on 1 January 2000 and the lowest was 20.4&nbsp;°C (68.7&nbsp;°F) on 20 March 1989 and 21 January 2017.

## References
## Other websites
Prime Minister of Australia

is the current Prime Minister]]
The **prime minister of Australia** is the head of the executive branch of the government of Australia. The prime minister leads the cabinet of Australia and is the highest ranking minister of the Crown in the federal parliament. The prime minister is appointed by the monarch, who is advised by the governor-general.

The current prime minister of Australia, since May 2022, is Anthony Albanese.

## Prime ministerial power and roles
* The prime minister can choose his or her own ministers;
* Can choose election dates;
* Represents the country;
* Spokesperson for the government, both domestically and internationally;
* Advisor to the Governor-General;
* Create bills in parliament

## List of prime ministers
## Former prime ministers
As of , there are seven living former Australian prime ministers.

## References 
## Other websites
* Australia's Prime Ministers  / National Archive of Australia
* Biographies of Australia's Prime Ministers  / National Museum of Australia
* Official website of the Prime Minister of Australia
Demo

**Demo** may mean one of the following:
*Demo (software), a demonstration version of a software program
*Demo (music), the first version of a song or album in music
Manama

**Manama** is the capital city of Bahrain. It is also the largest city in Bahrain, having almost 150,000 residents. 

## History 
Manama has been a city since at least the 1300s, when it was mentioned in Islamic books. It was owned by Portugal from 1521 to 1602, by Persia from 1602 to 1783, and by the Al-Khalifa family for a long time after that. In 1971, Manama became the capital city of Bahrain.

## Areas of Manama 
The city is divided into a few parts: 
* The **Diplomatic Area** has most of the banks and government offices. This area is very important, because most of Bahrain's economy is connected to banks. 
* **Gudabiya** is the oldest area of the city, and it has the building where the parliament meets. 
* **Hoora** is where most visitors go. There are many parties in the clubs here at night.