Gender inequality in the United States

Despite progress, **gender inequality in the United States** still exists in forms, including unequal political representation, occupational segregation, and an unfair division of household labor. Many laws continue to aim at reducing these disparities. As of 2021, the World Economic Forum ranked the United States 30th out of 149 countries for gender equality.
Gender inequality also affects men, transgender people, and non-binary or gender-nonconforming individuals. Transgender individuals often face discrimination in employment, higher rates of domestic violence and hate crimes, and greater police brutality compared to cisgender individuals. 
## History
Gender inequality in the United States has gradually declined throughout the country’s history. Major progress toward equality began in the early 1900s, marked by movements for women’s suffrage, workplace rights, and access to education. The 1920 ratification of the 19th Amendment, which granted women the right to vote, was a turning point. Since then, numerous laws and social movements have worked to reduce gender discrimination and expand opportunities for all genders. Efforts to promote equality have continued into the 21st century. 
## Current issues for women
### Social attitudes
Support for gender equality in the U.S. grew for decades but slowed in the mid-1990s, reaching its lowest point around 2006 before rising again after 2012. People with higher education tend to hold more egalitarian views, and each new generation is generally more supportive of equality than the last. 
These attitudes affect politics, as gender stereotypes and older generations’ beliefs still limit women’s political participation. Although more women are now active in politics, they remain less likely than men to run for office or be encouraged to do so. However, the presence of female candidates increases political interest and engagement among both women and men. 
Cultural attitudes like benevolent sexism—seeing women as needing protection—can restrict women’s ambitions and reinforce stereotypes. A modern example, mansplaining, reflects how gender bias continues to shape communication and political participation today. 
#### Sexual assault
Surveys show that about 1 in 5 women and 1 in 71 men in the U.S. experience rape in their lifetime. Despite false reports being rare, victims often face disbelief from law enforcement, leading to poor investigations and low conviction rates. Research also links sexist humor to higher levels of sexual aggression and tolerance for violence against women, helping sustain a culture of gender bias and inequality. 
### Political participation and ambition
As of 2013, women held 18.3% of congressional seats, 23% of statewide offices, and 24.2% of state legislature positions. Only 10 of the 100 largest U.S. cities had female mayors. Scholars suggest that women’s underrepresentation is due to social norms discouraging women from politics, domestic responsibilities, limited political experience, and party gatekeeping that restricts female candidates. 
Research shows that men outnumber women about 4 to 1 in key elected offices, and of over 12,000 people who have served in Congress, only 3% have been women. This imbalance reduces diversity in political priorities and weakens democratic representation. Studies also find that women politicians often focus more on healthcare, education, and family welfare, while men emphasize defense and the economy, creating policy gaps tied to gendered expectations. 
Having more women in politics provides symbolic and practical benefits—it changes public perceptions, challenges stereotypes, and encourages broader participation. However, U.S. political institutions still reflect male-centered structures, where women tend to prefer cooperation while men favor competition.   
#### Women Running for Congress
Women’s representation in Congress has grown from 18.3% in 2013 to 27% in 2021, showing gradual progress toward gender equality in government. Researchers attribute this rise to shifting social attitudes, feminist movements, and support networks that encourage women to run for office. However, barriers remain. Studies highlight election aversion, sexism, emotional and social pressures, and fundraising challenges—especially for women of color—as key obstacles. Despite these challenges, mentorship programs and public support for diversity continue to expand women’s political presence and influence.     
### Workplace inequality
In the workplace, the U.S. lags behind other Western nations in supporting women’s employment. By 2020, women’s labor force participation dropped to its lowest level since 1988. Experts link this to the lack of paid parental leave, limited flexible work policies, and insufficient family support systems. The U.S. remains the only industrialized nation without a national paid parental leave law, and only about 16% of employers offer fully paid maternity leave. 
#### Sex discrimination in employment
Support for the idea that men should be the sole earners in a household has declined—from 32% in 1972 to 21% in 1989—and only 15% of households are supported by a man’s income alone.

Despite progress, women still face discrimination and unequal treatment in employment. Studies show that: 
* In academia, men with similar qualifications are more likely to receive tenure-track positions and full professorships than women, though some initiatives have given women advantages in STEM fields.
* Women are less likely than men to be offered high-paying service jobs, sometimes due to customer biases.
* Women in science and medicine often receive less institutional support and funding than men.
* Men are more likely to be hired for traditionally masculine roles (e.g., sales management), while women are steered toward feminine roles (e.g., receptionist). However, masculine personality traits benefit applicants of either gender, suggesting a preference for stereotypically male traits. 
Overall, gender biases in hiring, promotion, and institutional support continue to limit women’s opportunities in the workplace. 
#### Occupational segregation by gender
Occupational gender segregation exists in two forms: Horizontal segregation: unequal distribution of men and women across different jobs. Vertical segregation: men are overrepresented in higher positions within both male- and female-dominated fields. 
In 1990, 53% of women (or 47% of men) would need to change occupations for equal gender representation across all jobs. While women increasingly enter male-dominated professions, few men enter female-dominated roles, contributing to the gender pay gap. 
This segregation affects politics, government, and democracy, as unequal professional opportunities limit gender equality. Traditional gender norms can restrict women’s access to education and jobs, reinforce stereotypes, and perpetuate unequal treatment. However, younger generations show less bias against women in leadership roles. Despite progress, traditional socialization still influences career expectations, with women often receiving lower evaluations in professional settings compared to men. 
##### Housework
Women in the U.S. still do over twice as much housework as men and are far more likely to be primary caregivers.   Even when employed or earning more, women continue to handle most daily chores, while men usually do occasional tasks. This imbalance—known as the “second shift”—reflects traditional gender expectations that hold women responsible for home and family, limiting real progress toward equality. 
##### Childcare
Between 1970 and 1985, support for traditional gender roles and beliefs that working mothers harm child development declined.   However, inequality at home persists. Working mothers get less sleep than their husbands and still handle about 65% of childcare, being 2.5 times more likely to wake up at night for children’s needs. 
#### Pay gap
As of 2010, U.S. women earned about 81% of men’s wages. Although the gap has narrowed since the Equal Pay Act, progress slowed in the 1990s. Rising overall wage inequality has also made the issue more complex. 
Some studies argue that, after adjusting for factors like industry, job choice, hours, and benefits, the gap falls to about 5%, possibly linked to gendered expectations and negotiation differences. Others emphasize that discrimination and occupational segregation remain major causes, as women are often concentrated in lower-paying fields or earn less even in the same jobs. 
In medicine, female doctors earn less than male doctors despite evidence of equal or better quality of care. 
A related “family gap” shows that mothers earn 10–15% less than women without children, while men’s earnings often rise with marriage and fatherhood. 
The racial pay gap shows how women of different races earn unequal wages compared to white men — a problem that overlaps with the gender pay gap. 
Asian women earn about 87¢ for every $1 earned by white men — the highest among racial groups. 
White women earn about 81¢ per dollar compared to white men.  
Black women earn about 61¢, and Hispanic women earn only 53¢ per dollar earned by white men — the lowest of all groups. 
Native American women earn about 58¢ per dollar and would need to work 9 extra months to match white men’s annual income. 
These disparities are caused by factors such as occupational segregation, discrimination, limited access to childcare, and unequal opportunities for advancement. Many women of color are also primary breadwinners, making these gaps especially harmful.
### Education
In the United States, literacy and enrollment rates in primary and secondary education are equal between men and women, and women are overrepresented in higher education. However, there is noticeable gender segregation in field of study: “feminine” majors such as education and nursing are associated with lower incomes, while “masculine” majors like engineering lead to higher earnings. Since 1992, women have outnumbered men in tertiary education. Gender inequality persists in degree choices, graduate school expectations, representation at elite institutions, and faculty positions.   
### Health care
Gender inequality in U.S. health care persists. Women face higher misdiagnosis rates, slower diagnoses for autoimmune diseases, and receive less pain management and preventive care than men. Structural racism worsens these gaps—Black and Native American women have higher infertility, chronic disease, and maternal mortality rates, with deaths from pregnancy-related causes two to five times higher than among white women.   
## Current issues for men
Overall, men experience disadvantages in education outcomes, legal treatment, and occupational safety, while also facing higher risks of homelessness, suicide, and violent encounters with law enforcement.  Other papers have confirmed the hypothesis that women get significantly more lenient sentences than men in the criminal justice system. 
### Education
Over the past decades, girls have surpassed boys in grades and college completion rates, though men still perform slightly better on standardized tests and dominate high-paying STEM fields. Women now make up 58% of college students, while men are 42%.
### Selective Service
All men must register for the Selective Service at 18 or face penalties, while women are exempt. 
### Suicide
Men are 3–5 times more likely to die by suicide than women,  often due to social pressures, reluctance to seek help, and economic stress.  The risk rose notably during the COVID-19 pandemic. 
### Homelessness
70–85% of the homeless population are men. 
### Workplace Safety
Men are overrepresented in dangerous jobs—93% of occupational deaths involve men.  
### Police Violence
Men, especially Black and Hispanic men, are far more likely to be victims of police brutality. 
### Criminal Justice
Men receive sentences about 63% longer than women for the same crimes, even after controlling for race, education, and income. 
## Current issues for transgender people
### Visibility, awareness, and public attitudes
Transgender inequality largely stems from limited public understanding. Many Americans hold misconceptions about gender identity, though most support anti-discrimination laws. Belief in strict binary genders often leads to negative attitudes, and awareness events like Transgender Awareness Week help promote education and acceptance. 
### Legal rights
Transgender people are disproportionately affected by the criminal justice system due to systemic oppression and poverty.  Many face major challenges updating their legal documents, with only a small percentage able to change all their IDs.  The process often requires invasive proof of surgery, and mismatched documents can lead to discrimination. Some state courts still refuse to legally recognize gender changes, and transgender individuals have lost custody or had marriages invalidated because of their gender identity. 
### Work life and economics
Transgender individuals face widespread employment discrimination—up to half report being fired, denied jobs, or harassed due to their gender identity. Unemployment rates are twice the national average, and four times higher for transgender people of color. About 90% experience workplace mistreatment. Economically, most earn very low incomes: 64% make under $25,000 a year,  and they are nearly four times more likely to earn below $10,000.  After transitioning, transgender women’s wages drop by about one-third, while transgender men’s increase slightly. 
### Social life
Because many public spaces are gender-segregated, transgender people often face discrimination or violence in places like bathrooms and locker rooms, especially if their IDs don’t match their gender identity. About 71% hide their gender, and 57% delay transitioning to avoid mistreatment. 
### Education
Transgender students face high levels of school harassment—78% report bullying, 35% physical assault, 12% sexual violence, and 6% expulsion. About 15% are forced to leave school due to mistreatment. They also encounter barriers in higher education, such as being denied admission to gender-specific institutions if not legally recognized as their identified gender. . 
### Health and violence
Transgender people, particularly transgender women, face high risks of domestic abuse, sexual and physical assault, and barriers to accessing shelters and medical care due to transphobia and legal exclusion. Many are denied or harassed in healthcare settings, with half reporting they had to educate their doctors about transgender health. HIV rates are four times higher than among cisgender people.  Over half of anti-LGBTQ homicide victims are transgender women, who also face higher rates of police violence. Mental health disparities are severe—around 19–25% of transgender individuals have attempted suicide. 
## Rankings
In global gender equality rankings, the U.S. performs moderately well but lags behind many nations. In 2012, it ranked 22nd on the World Economic Forum’s Gender Gap Index—scoring highest in education (1st) but lower in political empowerment (55th).  The UN’s 2017 Gender Inequality Index ranked the U.S. 13th in human development with 19% inequality. Despite progress, women’s representation in U.S. politics remains far behind that of many countries using gender quotas or proportional systems.  The World Bank ranks the U.S. 15th globally for women’s economic opportunities and legal protections.

## References