open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
1962

**1962** (MCMLXII) was a common year starting on Monday in the Gregorian calendar.

## Events 
* March 16 – Walter Cronkite becomes lead anchor on the *CBS Evening News*.
* June 11-12 – Three prisoners escape from Alcatraz.
* August 6 – Jamaica becomes separate from the United Kingdom.
* August 16 – The Beatles fire drummer Pete Best and replace him with Ringo Starr.
* October 16 – The Cuban Missile Crisis begins.
* Johnny Carson becomes host of *The Tonight Show*.

## Births 
* January 7 – Abigail Johnson, American businesswoman
* January 17 – Jim Carrey, Canadian actor and comedian
* February 6 – Axl Rose, American singer (Guns N' Roses)
* February 7 – Eddie Izzard, British actor and comedian
* February 10 – Cliff Burton, American bassist and songwriter (d. 1986)
* February 11 – Sheryl Crow, American singer
* February 22 – Steve Irwin, Australian animal expert and television personality (The Crocodile Hunter) (d. 2006)
* February 27 – Adam Baldwin, American actor
* March 2 – Jon Bon Jovi, American singer, songwriter, and actor
* March 4 – Lolo Ferrari, French actress (d. 2000)
* March 7 – Taylor Dayne, American singer
* March 21 – Rosie O'Donnell, American comedian, actress and talk show host
* March 25 – Marcia Cross, American actress
* April 23 – Hillel Slovak, American musician (Red Hot Chili Peppers) (d. 1988)
* May 17 – Alan Johnston, British journalist
* May 18 – Nanne Grönvall, Swedish singer
* June 3 – Susannah Constantine, English television presenter
* June 8 - Nick Rhodes, English keyboardist (Duran Duran)
* June 10 – Maxi Priest, English singer
* June 11 – Jack Irons, American musician (Red Hot Chili Peppers)
* June 19 – Paula Abdul, dancer and singer; *American Idol* judge
* July 3 – Tom Cruise, American actor
* July 31 – Wesley Snipes, American actor
* August 20 – James Marsters, American actor
* August 28  John Gebbia, American businessman
* August 30 – Alexander Litvinenko, British citizen and ex-KGB (d. 2006)
* September 17 – Baz Luhrmann, Australian movie director
* September 27 - Adolfo González, Mexican archer
* October 2 – Jeff Bennett, American actor
* October 16 – Flea, American musician (Red Hot Chili Peppers)
* October 17 – Mike Judge, American animator and producer
* October 19 – Evander Holyfield, American boxer
* November 1 – Anthony Kiedis, American singer (Red Hot Chili Peppers)
* November 11 – Demi Moore, American actress
* November 19 – Jodie Foster, American actress and director
* December 9 – Felicity Huffman, American actress
* December 22 
** Andres Cantor, Argentine/American sportscaster
** Ralph Fiennes, English actor

## Deaths 
### January 
### February 
### March 
### April 
* April 10 – Stuart Sutcliffe, English musician (The Beatles) (b. 1940)

### May 
### June 
### July 
* July 11 – Polly Adler, Russian writer (b. 1900)

### August 
* August 5 – Marilyn Monroe, American actress (b. 1926)
* August 9 – Hermann Hesse, German writer (b. 1877)

### September 
### October 
### November 
* November 7- Eleanor Roosevelt, First Lady of the United States, wife of Franklin D. Roosevelt (b. 1884)
* November 18 – Niels Bohr, Danish physicist (b. 1885)
### December
1937

**1937** (MCMXXXVII) was a common year starting on Friday in the Gregorian calendar.

## Events 
* American Ballet Theatre founded
* January 1 – Anastasio Somoza becomes President of Nicaragua
* January 11 – The first issue of *Look magazine* goes on sale in the United States.
* January 19 – Howard Hughes sets a new air record by flying from Los Angeles to New York City in 7 hours, 28 minutes and 25 seconds.
* January 23 – In Moscow, 17 leading Communists go on trial accused of participating in a plot led by Leon Trotsky to overthrow Joseph Stalin's regime and assassinate its leaders.
* January 31 – Ohio River floods
* January 31 – 31 people executed in the Soviet Union for "Trotskyism"
* March 18 – 300 students and teachers die after an exploson is a caused by a gas leak at the New London school in Texas.
* May 7 – the German zeppelin (airship) LZ 129 Hindenburg catches fire, while trying to land in New Jersey.
* October - Dominican Republic dictator Rafael Leonidas Trujillo Molina orders the execution of the Haitian population living within its borderlands with Haiti, resulting in the Parsley Massacre.
* December 21 – Walt Disney's first full length feature film *Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs,* is premiered at Carthay Circle Theater.

## Births 
*January 8 - Shirley Bassey, Welsh singer
*January 30 - Vanessa Redgrave, English actress
*February 21 - King Harald V of Norway
*March 20 – Jerry Reed, American musician (d. 2008)
*April 6 – Billy Dee Williams, American actor
*April 28 - Saddam Hussein, Iraqi leader (d. 2006)
*May 14 - Ferd Hugas, Dutch actor and screenwriter (d. 2025)
*July 18 – Hunter S. Thompson, American writer and journalist (d. 2005)
*December 21 – Jane Fonda, American actress
*December 30 - Gordon Banks, English footballer
*December 31 - Anthony Hopkins, Welsh actor

## Hit songs
* "Sweet Leilani" – by Harry Owens, from the movie *Waikiki Wedding*, won the Academy Award for the best song.
Bedfordshire

**Bedfordshire** is a county of England. Its county town is Bedford. It borders Cambridgeshire, Northamptonshire, Buckinghamshire (with the Borough of Milton Keynes) and Hertfordshire. The highest elevation point is 243 m (797 ft) on Dunstable Downs in the Chilterns. The county motto is "Constant Be", which is taken from the hymn *To Be A Pilgrim* by John Bunyan.

## SSSIs 
There are forty Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs) in Bedfordshire, designated by Natural England. Thirty-five are listed for their biological interest, and five for their geological interest.

Three of the sites are also National nature reserves, twelve are in the Chilterns Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty, and eleven are managed wholly or partly by the Wildlife Trust for Bedfordshire, Cambridgeshire and Northamptonshire.

## References
The Ugly Duckling

"**The Ugly Duckling**" () is a literary fairy tale by Hans Christian Andersen. Andersen lavished great care on this story, spending a year perfecting it. It was first published in 1844 with "The Angel", "The Sweethearts", and "The Nightingale" in *New Fairy Tales*. The critics liked these stories. Andersen considered the story "a reflection of my own life." The moral of the tale: "it does not matter if you were born in a duck yard if you have lain in a swan's egg." The tale has been adapted to various media such as animated movies.

## Story 
A mother duck hatches six pretty little ducklings. A seventh bird is hatched. He is homely. The other ducks abuse him. He runs away. He is given a home by an old woman. Her cat and hen do not like him. He runs away again. Winter comes and a kind farmer gives him a home. The little bird almost dies. Spring comes. The "ugly duckling" has grown into a beautiful swan. The other swans welcome him as their own. They bow to him. He is happy for the first time in his life.

## Notes 
## References
* Wullschlager, Jackie. 2000. *Hans Christian Andersen*. Knopf.
Rutland

**Rutland** is the smallest county of England. It is surrounded by the counties of Leicestershire, Lincolnshire and Northamptonshire.

The main towns of Rutland are Oakham and Uppingham.

In the mid-1970s, it was the inspiration for Eric Idle's TV show, Rutland Weekend Television.
General relativity

**General relativity** is a theory of space and time. The theory was published by Albert Einstein in 1915. 

The main idea of general relativity is that space and time are two different parts of spacetime. In general relativity, gravity does not work the same way that Sir Isaac Newton said gravity worked. According to Einstein, gravity changes not only space, but also time (gravitational time dilation).

## Idea
An important idea in general relativity is the "principle of equivalence". An example is that two people, one on the surface of the Earth, and the other in an elevator in outer space but accelerating upwards at the speed of Earth's gravity will each observe the same behavior of an object they drop from their hands. The object will accelerate to the floor at the speed of Earth's gravity (9.8 m/s2) in either case.

This makes it impossible for either to tell whether or not they are at rest in a gravitational field or accelerating with no gravity. Other versions of this type of "thought experiment" were used to show that light would curve in an accelerating frame of reference.

In relativity, acceleration makes spacetime warp. Because gravity is the same as acceleration, spacetime warps around objects. This can be thought of as spacetime being a jello of some sort, curving into itself, so that a straight line ends up curving. The Sun and other objects with mass (and energy) curve four dimensional spacetime fabric. If there’s enough mass or energy in one place, a black hole is made, because the warping from acceleration becomes so extreme that future and inward swap places (according to what we know).

## Predictions
General relativity has predicted many things which were later seen. These include:
* As light gets closer to the Sun, it bends towards the sun around twice as much as classical physics predicts (the system used before general relativity). This was seen in an experiment by Arthur Eddington in 1919. When scientists saw his experiment, they started to take general relativity seriously.
* The perihelion of the planet Mercury rotates along its orbit more than is expected under Newtonian physics. General relativity accounts for the difference between what is seen and what is expected without it.
*Redshift from gravity. When light moves away from an object with gravity (going up), it is stretched into longer wavelengths. This was confirmed by the Pound-Rebka experiment. The reverse also happens: light going towards an object with gravity (going down) is shrunk into shorter wavelengths (blueshift).
* The Shapiro delay. Light appears to slow down when it passes close to a massive object. This was first seen in the 1960s by space probes headed towards the planet Venus.
* Black holes. They are what happens when too much mass or energy is put in a small space, so much that light cannot escape.
* Gravitational waves. They were first observed on 14 September 2015.

## Related pages
* Special Theory of Relativity

## References 
## Other websites
Adlai Stevenson I

**Adlai Ewing Stevenson** (October 23, 1835 – June 14, 1914) was an American politician. He was vice president of the United States under President Grover Cleveland. he ran for president and several other political offices but lost. He was also the first assistant Postmaster General and a member of the House of Representatives from Illinois.

Adlai Stevenson II, his grandson, was also a notable politician and writer who became the governor of Illinois and ran for president but lost. Another grandson, McLean Stevenson, was an actor. His other grandson was Illinois Senator Adlai Stevenson III.
The Carpenters

**The Carpenters** were an American musical duo. The members were Richard Carpenter and his sister Karen. Starting in 1969, the duo had many popular songs including "We've Only Just Begun", "Close to You", "Sing", "Rainy Days and Mondays", "Calling Occupants of Interplanetary Craft" and others. They continued until Karen's death in 1983 of Anorexia in Downey, California. They sold over 100 million albums. 

## Albums 
* Offering/Ticket to Ride (1969)
* Close to You (1970)
* Carpenters (1971)
* A Song for You (1972)
* Now & Then (1973)
* Horizon (1975)
* A Kind of Hush (1976)
* Passage (1977)
* Christmas Portrait (1978)
* Made in America (1981)

### Posthumous releases 
* Voice of the Heart (1983)
* An Old-Fashioned Christmas (1984)
* Lovelines (1989)
* As Time Goes By (2004)

## Other websites
*Official site
Jerry Reed

**Jerry Reed** (March 20, 1937 – September 1, 2008) was an American country music singer and actor.  Best known for his songs "Amos Moses", "When You're Hot You're Hot" and "Eastbound and Down", he also acted in several movies including *Smokey and the Bandit* and *The Waterboy*. He was born in Atlanta, Georgia. He died in Nashville, Tennessee due to complications from emphysema.
## Related pages
*List of country musicians from Georgia (U.S. state)

## Other websites 
*
Bee Gees

**The Bee Gees** was a British musical group. For most of its history, the band consisted of three brothers all of whom were born on the Isle of Man, a British Crown dependency and grew up in Queensland, Australia. The  brothers, **Barry Gibb** (born 1 September 1946), and twins **Maurice Gibb** (22 December 1949 – 12 January 2003) and **Robin Gibb** (22 December 1949 – 20 May 2012), started singing at a young age when living in Manchester. In the late 1960s, the band briefly expanded to include Australian born Vince Melouney and Colin Petersen. When the band reformed after splitting in 1969, Australian born Geoff Bridgford briefly became a member. The Bee Gees existed for almost 40 years They are most famous for their album, *Saturday Night Fever*, the soundtrack for the movie of the same name. They stopped performing after Maurice died. The two other brothers reunited as a duo in 2009. In 2012 Robin died. They had a younger brother, Andy Gibb (1958–1988), who was also a singer.

## Group history
The Gibb brothers were born on the Isle of Man, then lived in Manchester, England, before moving to **Australia** in 1958. It was in Australia that the Bee Gees' band was formed. In January 1967, the Gibb brothers returned to England where their band the Bee Gees started to become internationally famous. In 1967, Colin Petersen and Vince Melouney joined the band but by the end the decade both had left and the brothers themselves had briefly gone their separate ways, only to reform in 1970. Between 1970 and 1972, Geoff Bridgford was a member of the Bee Gees. In 1975, the brothers relocated to the United States.

## Other websites
*
*Hear the Bee Gees on the Pop Chronicles
Improverts

The **Improverts** are an improvised comedy group based in Edinburgh, Scotland. They are a part of the Edinburgh University Theatre Company. Their home is the Bedlam Theatre. It has been their home since they were created 18 years ago. The group is similar to ''Who's Line is it Anyway?'', Comedy Store Players, and Keith Johnstone in that they use short improvised games. 

They have taken part in the Edinburgh Fringe Festival almost every year since they were formed. Also they have played every Friday night during the school year (as their main audience is Edinburgh University students). 

Because they are always in Bedlam Theatre, the theatre technicians improvise the sounds, music and lights along with the scenes the performers are doing. The sounds can be loud and annoying at times. The technicians show off their very big iTunes library of songs and sound effects. British 80's children's programmes' themes  are a favourite of theirs.

Past players have gone on to many different things. They have created an improv group in London, joined the Stand Players' "Who's Lunch is it anyway" free improv show at Edinburgh's The Stand comedy venue and become successful stand up comedians. Some have starred in British sitcoms, television dramas, movies and popular children's programmes 
## Other websites 
*Official website : - Reviews/extra gig information and a list of past players and crew
1946

**1946** (MCMXLVI) was a common year starting on Tuesday in the Gregorian calendar.

## Events 
* January 10 – First meeting of the United Nations.
* August 16 - Muslim League began "Direct Action Day" Riot That killed 10,000 people from Kolkata.
* December 19 - The First Indochina War begins.
### Date unknown 
* AIESEC starts.

## Births 
* January 3 - John Paul Jones, English bass guitarist (Led Zeppelin)
* January 19 – Dolly Parton, American country singer
* January 22 – Malcolm McLaren, music manager (d. 2010)
* March 8 - Randy Meisner, American singer-songwriter and musician (Eagles) (d. 2023)
* March 12 – Frank Welker, American actor
* May 10- Donovan, Scottish musician
* June 14 - Donald Trump, American politician and businessman, forty-fifth and forty-seventh President of the United States 
* July 6 – George W. Bush, American politician, forty-third President of the United States
* July 15 - Linda Ronstadt, American singer
* August 19 – Bill Clinton, American politician, forty-second President of the United States
* August 23 - Keith Moon, English drummer (The Who) (d. 1978)
* September 1 – Barry Gibb, Singer/Songwriter (Bee Gees)
* September 5 — Freddie Mercury, British Singer/Songwriter (Queen) (d. 1991; AIDS)
* October 29 - Peter Green, English singer-songwriter and guitarist (Fleetwood Mac) (d. 2020)
* November 4 – Laura Bush, 45th First Lady of the United States
* November 24 - Ted Bundy, American serial killer (d. 1989; executed)
* December 16 - Benny Andersson, Swedish pianist (ABBA)
* December 28 – Edgar Winter, Albino pop musician (The Edgar Winter Group)
* December 30 – Patti Smith, American singer and poet

## Deaths 
* June 27 – Wanda Gág
* August 13 – H.G. Wells
* December 25 – WC Fields
Sergio Aragonés

**Sergio Aragonés Domenech** (; born September 6, 1937) is a popular cartoonist. He was born in Spain and grew up in Mexico. He is most famous for his cartoons for *MAD Magazine* and the comic book *Groo the Wanderer*.

## References
Lisa Bonet

**Lisa Bonet** (born **Lisa Michelle Bonet**; November 16, 1967), also known as **Lilakoi Moon**, is an American actress and model. She is best known for her roles as Denise Huxtable on the NBC television series, *The Cosby Show* and *A Different World*. She was also married to singer Lenny Kravitz from 1987 to 1993. She is of African American and Ashkenazi Jewish descent.

## References
## Other websites 
*
Tobacco

, Australia]]
 tobacco leaves drying in the sun at Pomak village in Xanthi, Greece]]

**Tobacco** is a product prepared from the leaves of the tobacco plant by curing them. The plant is part of the genus *Nicotiana* and of the Solanaceae (nightshade) family. It is used as a drug, mostly by inhaling the smoke of, but also by using snuff or chewing. People use cigarettes, cigars, and pipe to make tobacco smoke. Tobacco contains the chemical nicotine, which causes pleasure as a stimulant drug. It also causes addiction &mdash; after people start using nicotine, it is difficult to stop. Tobacco use can cause diseases, such as many types of cancer.

## History
Native Americans used tobacco before Europeans arrived in the Americas.  The earliest know use of tobacco comes  from  nicotine residue from a  pipe in the Southeastern United States.  It is Radiocarbon dated  at  1685-1530 BC.  Europeans in the Americas began to smoke and brought it back to Europe, where it became fashionable. At that time tobacco was usually smoked in a pipe. 

The Europeans who moved to America started to farm tobacco so that they could sell it in Europe. This became one of the main causes of the African slave trade. In 1610 a European man called John Rolfe arrived in the American state of Virginia and set up a tobacco farm which made him very rich. Rolfe was the first  non-native farmer to use *nicotiana tabacum*, which is the type of tobacco most commonly smoked today. 

In the 17th and 18th centuries tobacco made farmers very rich and towns quickly grew in the states of Virginia, North Carolina and South Carolina. In 1883 one third of United States tax money came from tobacco.

In 1864 the first American tobacco factory opened to produce 20 million cigarettes annually. By 1964 the cigarette contained over 500 added chemicals. Today tobacco manufacturers are still not required by law to list the 500+ ingredients.

## Tobacco and health
Tobacco users (especially those who inhale) and people around them (with passive inhalers) risk many very serious and often deadly illnesses, such as cancer, strokes, heart disease, and lung disease. The United States' Centers for Disease Control and Prevention describes tobacco use as "the single most important preventable risk to human health in developed countries and an important cause of premature (early) death worldwide". There are over 4800 chemicals in tobacco, including arsenic. Sixty-four of them are known to cause cancer. Smoking can also make men lose erections, and make their penises a bit smaller. Tobbaco however has been used as a cure for Alzheimer's and the nicotine in tobacco has been used to treat ADHD.

## Countries that grow tobacco
## References
Rocky Mountains

The **Rocky Mountains**, often called **The Rockies**, are a range of mountains in the western United States and Canada. They stretch from the northernmost part of British Columbia, in Western Canada, to New Mexico, in the Southwestern United States. Part of the mountain range in Colorado is a national park, called Rocky Mountain National Park. The Rocky Mountains are more than 3,000 mi (4,800 km) long. The highest point in the Rocky Mountains is Mount Elbert, at 14,433 feet (4,401 m).

The Rocky Mountains are relatively new and were formed from 55 million to 80 million years ago during the Laramide orogeny. North America began to move westwards as Pangaea broke up. A number of tectonic plates began to slide under the North American plate. The angle of subduction was shallow and resulted in a broad belt of mountains running down western North America. Since then, further tectonic activity and erosion by glaciers have sculpted the Rockies into dramatic peaks and valleys. 

The rocks in the Rocky Mountains had been formed long before the mountains were raised. The oldest rock is Precambrian metamorphic rock, which forms the core of the North American continent. There is also Precambrian sedimentary argillite, dating back to 1.7 billion years ago. During the Paleozoic, western North America lay underneath a shallow sea, which deposited many kilometers of limestone and dolomite.

In the southern Rocky Mountains, near present-day Colorado, the ancestral rocks were disturbed by mountain building about 300 million years ago, during the Pennsylvanian. The mountain building produced the ancestral Rocky Mountains. They consisted largely of Precambrian metamorphic rock forced upward through layers of the limestone. The limestone had been laid down in a shallow sea. The mountains eroded throughout the late Paleozoic and early Mesozoic, leaving extensive deposits of sedimentary rock.

## References
Brooklyn

**Brooklyn** is one of the five boroughs of New York City. It also covers the same area as **Kings County**. Brooklyn is New York City's second-largest borough in land area (after Queens). As of 2020, about 2.7 million people live there. This is more than in any of the other four boroughs.

Brooklyn is the west end of Long Island. The East River separates it from Manhattan in the north. Brooklyn's only land boundary is with Queens in the east.  Jamaica Bay separates Brooklyn from Rockaway in the south. The Narrows separate Brooklyn from Staten Island in the west. 

Coney Island is at the south end of Brooklyn. The Brooklyn Museum is near the middle of Brooklyn, near Prospect Park.

## History 
Brooklyn is named after a Dutch town called "Breukelen". Dutch people were the first people from Europe to live in the area. When they got there, there were already some Native American people living there called the Lenape. The Dutch started the town in 1634 as part of the colony of New Netherland.

During the 19th century, Brooklyn expanded and filled Kings County. It remained a separate city before the people there voted to join New York City in 1898.

The Brooklyn Bridge is old and famous. It goes over the East River and connects Downtown Brooklyn to Lower Manhattan. The longest bridge in New York, the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge in Bay Ridge, connects Brooklyn to Staten Island.

## References
Welsh

**Welsh** could mean many different things:
* Of or relating to Wales
* The Welsh language
* The Welsh people

**Welsh** could also mean:

**Places** in the United States (US)
*Welsh, Louisiana
*Welsh, Arkansas
*Welsh, Ohio

**People**
*Ben Welsh, an Australian Icon
*Harry Welsh, a US paratrooper in World War II
*Irvine Welsh, a Scottish author
*Matty Welsh, an Australian swimmer
*Matthew E. Welsh, a US politician and governor of Indiana
*John Welsh (footballer), a player for Hull City, England
Cornish language

**Cornish** (Cornish: Kernewek) is a very old language from Cornwall, in the south-west of Great Britain. A Celtic language, Cornish is very similar to Welsh and also is related to Gaelic, all three of which Brythonic languages. Cornish is less closely related to the Goidelic languages: Irish, Manx and Scottish Gaelic.

## History 
The words 'Cornwall' and 'Cornish' are derived from the Celtic Cornovii tribe, which inhabited modern-day Cornwall prior to the Roman conquest. 

Cornish started to diverge from Welsh towards the end of the 7th century AD. and the earliest known examples of written Cornish date from the end of the 9th century. They were in the form of glosses that were scribbled in the margins of a Latin text 

A long time ago, Cornish was the only language spoken in Cornwall, but more and more people began to speak English instead. In 1550, when the Book of Common Prayer was written in English, instead of Latin, the Cornish people got angry, and there was a rebellion.  

By 1800, only a few people  could speak Cornish.

People say that a woman called Dolly Pentreath  was the last person who could speak Cornish and not English. That is not quite true since she was one of the last people.

## Revival 
Some people  relearned Cornish by travelling around talking to people who could still speak it and by reading old plays and books.  Some people  wanted to learn the language and speak it and so in 1904, a learned man, Henry Jenner, wrote a book to help people.  Some people  then began to learn the language and to speak it again. 

No one knows how many Cornish-speakers there are now.  It is estimated that about 300 people speak Cornish.  Some young people  have grown up speaking it. Most people in Cornwall know a few sentences or words in Cornish.  In 100 years, Cornish has grown from having almost no speakers to having many thousands 

## Sample phrases 
* Kernowek: Cornish
* Kernow: Cornwall
* Den: Man
* Benyn: Woman
* Gorthugher da: Good afternoon
* Dydh da!: Good day!
* Duw genes!: Goodbye!
* Onen hag oll: One and all.
* Fatla genes!:  How's it going with you

## References 
## Other websites 
* Ferdinand, Siarl (2013). Brief History of the Cornish language, its revival and its current situation. *E-Keltoi*,  **2**, 199–227
Watergate scandal

A United States President, Richard Nixon, was running for election against Democrat George McGovern. Afterwards, Frank Wills, a security guard, discovered clues that former FBI and CIA agents broke into the offices of the Democratic Party and George McGovern months before the election. They secretly listened to phone lines and stole several important documents. 

When these men were found, they were discovered to have been associated with Nixon. He had helped them cover all the evidence of the scandal, and may have even hired the men to begin with. *The Washington Post* was a newspaper which played a big role in exposing the misdoings, specifically aided by reporters Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein. This showed the public that Nixon was not as trustworthy as he seemed.

Nixon chose to resign from office on August 9, 1967 because he wished not to be impeached. This means that he might have been charged with crimes. The U.S. Congress could not impeach him if he resigned. After this, Gerald Ford became his vice-president because Spiro T. Agnew (Nixon's first vice-president) had to resign as well after unrelated charges of accepting bribes and avoiding taxes. Ford then became the President by default of Nixon using his power under the 25th Amendment to the U.S Constitution. Ford pardoned Nixon for all of his crimes later on. The name "Watergate" comes from the hotel in Washington, D.C. where the first crime and break in took place, and is often associated with political scandals.

## Other resources
*Brittanica
Cyan

**Cyan** is the color halfway between blue and green on the color wheel.  It is one of the primary (main) colors of ink in an inkjet printer, along with black, yellow and magenta.

Cyan is a secondary color of light, along with magenta and yellow. The primary colors of light are: blue, red and green. Cyan is made by mixing green and blue light.

Cyan is the opposite of red and is halfway between blue and green.

## Meaning of cyan
* Cyan is associated with making someone feel better and protection, as well as being associated with good health from getting exercise by going swimming.  This is because the water in a swimming pool is usually colored cyan from having a plaster white bottom that reflects the blue sky.  The tiles of a swimming pool are often colored cyan, which makes the cyan color of the water in a swimming pool even more intense.
* Cyan is a restful, calming color that symbolizes relaxation, especially that shade of cyan known as *bright turquoise* (shown below) which can be the color of the water in lagoons in tropical countries where people go swimming on their vacation.
* The shade of Cyan called *medium aquamarine* (shown below) is used for the uniforms of nurses and surgeons and also used to paint rooms in hospitals because it is regarded as a color that calms and relaxes the patients.

## Tones of the Cyan color comparison chart 
## Related pages
* List of colors
* Aqua
* Aquamarine
* Blue-green
* Electric blue
* Teal
* Turquoise
* Viridian
La Liga Filipina

**La Liga Filipina** was a political group created by Doctor Jose Rizal on July 3, 1892 in the Philippines. The aims were:

*To unite the whole archipelago into one society with equality for Filipinos and Spaniards in the Philippines.
*Mutual protection in every want and need;
*Defense against all violence and injustice;
*Encouragement of instruction, agriculture, and commerce; and
*Study and application of reforms.

Jose Rizal tried very hard to make it a peaceful group. But the Spanish authorities considered it dangerous. On the night of July 7, 1892, Rizal was secretly arrested four days after its creation. The following day, Governor-General Eulogio Despujol ordered Rizal to be deported to Dapitan.

After Rizal's arrest, La Liga Filipina became inactive. Then it was reorganized by Domingo Franco and Andres Bonifacio. The society broke apart into two separate groups: the Cuerpo de Compromisarios which promised to continue supporting the La Solidaridad in Spain and the Katipunan in the Philippines.
1865

## Events 
* William Booth creates the Salvation Army.
* The American Civil War ends.

## Births 
* October 22 – Paul Raud, Estonian painter (d. 1930)
* November 2 - Warren G. Harding, twenty-ninth President of the United States (d. 1923)
* December 8 – Jean Sibelius, Finnish composer (d. 1957)
* December 30 – Rudyard Kipling, English writer and poet (d. 1936)

## Deaths 
* April 15 – Abraham Lincoln, 56, sixteenth President of the United States, assassinated (b. 1809) 
* April 26 – John Wilkes Booth, 26, the man who killed United States President Abraham Lincoln (b. 1838)
Date of shooting: April 14
Elton John

**Sir Elton Hercules John**  (birth name **Reginald Kenneth Dwight**, born 25 March 1947) is an English singer, songwriter, pianist and composer. He started his music career immediately after leaving school. Elton John was the biggest music star of the 1970s.

## Early life 
Reginald Kenneth Dwight was born at 55 Pinner Hill Road, Pinner, Middlesex. He is the eldest child of Stanley Dwight and Sheila Eileen. He was educated in Pinner.

## Career
John became famous in the early 1970s when he and lyricist Bernie Taupin wrote several songs which he performed and recorded. John became a huge star, not only for his musical abilities, but for his  stage personality. He composed several musicals. He also composed the music for the animated movies *The Lion King* (1994) and *The Road to El Dorado* (2000). He is active in charity work. In 1997, in honor of Diana, Princess of Wales, John co-wrote and released a version of his hit *Candle in the Wind*. That became the world's best-selling single of all time. It sold 37 million copies within two months.

Outside of music, John has raised millions of pounds for people living with HIV and AIDS through the *Elton John AIDS Foundation*.

## Awards
John has received the following awards:

### Academy Awards
* 1995: Best Original Song for "Can You Feel the Love Tonight" from *The Lion King*
* 2020: Best Original Song for “(I’m Gonna) Love Me Again” from *Rocketman*

### Grammy Awards
* 1987: Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal for "That's What Friends Are For", performed by Dionne Warwick & Friends (award shared with Dionne Warwick, Gladys Knight & Stevie Wonder)
* 1991: Best Instrumental Composition for "Basque", performed by James Galway
* 1995: Best Male Pop Vocal Performance for "Can You Feel the Love Tonight" 
* 1997: Best Male Pop Vocal Performance for "Candle in the Wind 1997"
* 1999: Grammy Legend Award
* 2001: Best Musical Show Album for ''Elton John & Tim Rice's Aida* (award shared with Guy Babylon, Paul Bogaev & Chris Montan (producers), Tim Rice (lyricist) and the original Broadway cast with Heather Headley, Adam Pascal, and Sherie Rene Scott)

### Tony Awards
* 2000: Best Original Musical Score for *Aida''

## Personal life
John has had treatment for alcoholism, drug abuse and bulimia nervosa. In 1984, he was married to Renate Blauel.
In 2005, John entered a civil partnership with David Furnish. They had been together for over 16 years.  On 21 December 2014, John and Furnish married. Guests at their wedding included English former footballer David Beckham along with his wife Victoria Beckham and their younger sons and their daughter. Their eldest son, who is also John's godson, was not present.

## Discography
;Studio albums

## References
The Who

**The Who** are an English rock band formed in 1964. The main lineup from 1964 to 1978 was guitarist Pete Townshend, vocalist Roger Daltrey, bassist John Entwistle and drummer Keith Moon. They became known for their high energy live shows. The Who have sold about 100 million records. Many people think that The Who are the greatest live band of all time.

The Who rose to fame in the United Kingdom with a series of top ten hit singles including: "I Can't Explain", "The Kids Are Alright", "My Generation", "Who Are You", and "Love Reign O'er Me". The albums "My Generation", "A Quick One" and "The Who Sell Out" followed. Their fame grew with memorable shows at the Monterey Pop and Woodstock music festivals. "Tommy," released in 1969, was the first in a series of top ten albums in the United States.

Keith Moon died in 1978. The band released two more studio albums with drummer Kenney Jones before disbanding in 1983. They re-formed at events such as Live Aid and for reunion tours such as their 25th anniversary tour and the Quadrophenia tours of 1996 and 1997. In 2002 planning for recording an album of new material was put on hold after John Entwistle's death at the age of 57. Townshend and Daltrey continued to perform as The Who and in 2006 they released the studio album titled "Endless Wire."

The Who were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1990.

## Discography
;Studio albums
* *My Generation* (1965)
* *A Quick One* (1966)
* *The Who Sell Out* (1967)
* *Tommy* (1969)
* ''Who's Next* (1971)
* *Quadrophenia* (1973)
* *The Who by Numbers* (1975)
* *Who Are You* (1978)
* *Face Dances* (1981)
* *It's Hard* (1982)
* *Endless Wire* (2006)
* *TBA'' (2015)

## Other websites
*Hear the Who on the Pop Chronicles.
Led Zeppelin

**Led Zeppelin** was an English rock band. The group was started in 1968 and broke up in 1980. The members were Robert Plant (vocals), Jimmy Page (lead guitar), John Paul Jones (bass), and John Bonham (drums). Led Zeppelin ended in 1980 after the accidental death of John Bonham. After Bonham's death, the band believed that nobody could take his place and decided not to continue. The band played together again in a tribute concert in London on 10 December 2007 with Jason Bonham, John's son, playing the drums. The band is one of the most influential rock bands of all time and one of the most successful music artists in history, selling 300 million albums around the world.

## Discography
;Studio albums
**Led Zeppelin* (1969)
**Led Zeppelin II* (1969)
**Led Zeppelin III* (1970)
**Led Zeppelin IV* (1971)
**Houses of the Holy* (1973)
**Physical Graffiti* (1975)
**Presence* (1976)
**In Through the Out Door* (1979)

;Filmography
**The Song Remains the Same* (1976)
**Led Zeppelin (DVD)* (2003)
**Mothership (DVD)* (2007)

## Other websites
* Led Zeppelin: Official Site
* Led Zeppelin at MySpace
* Rock and Roll Hall of Fame bio
* Rolling Stone Magazine bio 
* BBC interview with Robert Plant about the Led Zeppelin reunion
* 1971 interview with Led Zeppelin
* Heart-Led Zeppelin Stairway to heaven-kennedy center honors
Closed source

**Closed source** (or proprietary software) are computer programs whose source code is not published.  The source code is not shared with the public for anyone to look at or change.  Closed source is the opposite of open source. 

Most companies who sell their software make it closed source so that people cannot easily change it or copy it for free. Even some who give their software for free do not show the source code, because they think it looks bad, or that somebody will change the authors' names to their own (a kind of plagiarism) without making the program better.  Some programs called “freeware” are given away for free, but they are not the same as free software that anyone can change any way they please.

It is almost impossible to know what a closed source software exactly does unless its binary code is reversed engineered which is very difficult and time-consuming. For instance, a closed source software could be siphoning your data without letting you know. This is particularly the case for mobile phone apps, whose known functionality could mostly be achieved through a web browser without the need to download any app.
Vulture

**Vultures** are large birds of prey that usually feed on the carrion (dead or dying animals). Vultures use their large wings to soar in the air for many miles without having to flap. Vultures are also called buzzards.

*Vultures* from the Old World (Europe, Asia, and Africa) are not related to the vultures of the New World (North and South America). They look quite similar, though. Both have heads and necks with no feathers. 

*Old World vultures* are related to eagles and hawks and use sight to find their food. *New World vultures* use their sense of smell to find their food. Vultures symbolize death in literature.

King vultures use rocks to open eggs, they pick up a rock with their beak and simply drop or throw the rock onto the egg and breaks it.

New World vultures is a name which is used for a number of species in the Americas. The best known of these are probably the Andean condor and the black vulture.

## References
Falcon

**Falcons** are small to medium-sized birds of prey related to hawks, eagles, and vultures. They usually have pointed wings and long tails. 

Most falcons eat small mammals. Some species hunt other birds, which they take in flight. Like hawks, most falcons have dark gray or brown backs and wings, with white undersides.

The peregrine falcon is found over most of the world and is famous for hunting birds by diving down on them at 320 km/h (200 mi/h). It was nearly wiped out in North America by the use of pesticides, but has since made a recovery. 

In some countries falcons are used in falconry. This means people catch the birds and make them hunt for them. Long ago this was a way for people to get more food but today it is a sport.

## Winter larder
On the Moroccan island of Mogador, falcons seem to imprison small birds by trapping them in crevasses, presumably saving them to eat later.

Mogador has the ruins of a fortress, a mosque and a prison. Today the island is a nature reserve, where Eleonora's falcons nest among the ruins. They hunt migrating warblers, hoopoes and other birds. 

Researchers came across small birds trapped in deep cavities, their flight and tail feathers removed. The birds were unable to move their wings or use their dangling legs. Eleonora's falcons have been seen building up larders of up to 20 dead birds during migration season, when prey is plentiful. But "storing snacks that are still alive could be a unique behaviour" said an expert.

## References
Islington

**Islington** is a district in north London, in the United Kingdom. The area usually called Islington is only part of the London Borough of Islington. It is a fashionable area and has with large well-built houses and is close to the City of London.

## References
## Other websites 
* Islington Council
* Weather forecast for Islington
Sirindhorn International Institute of Technology

**Sirindhorn International Institute of Technology (SIIT)** () is an institute of technology in Thammasat University, Thailand. It was established in 1992.

SIIT offers education in science, technology, engineering, and management. Every education programs are "international program", all classes are in English language. Its graduates receive degrees from Thammasat University.

Although it is part of Thammasat University, its financial and administration system are separate from the central university system.

## Academics
### Schools
SIIT has five schools and one department for undergraduate and graduate students.
; School of Bio-Chemical Engineering and Technology : hosts chemical engineering and environmental technology programs
; School of Civil Engineering and Technology : hosts civil engineering and infrastructure planning programs
; School of Information, Computer and Communication Technology : hosts information technology, computer science, and Electronics and communication engineering programs
; School of Management Technology: hosts management technology and engineering management programs
; School of Manufacturing Systems and Mechanical Engineering : hosts mechanical engineering and industrial engineering programs
; Department of Common and Graduate Studies

## Campuses
SIIT has two campuses (as of 2013), *Rangsit* and *Bangkadi campus*. Both are in Pathum Thani province.
The area is known for "Technology Clusters of North Bangkok".
* *Rangsit campus* is 42 kilometers north of Bangkok (the capital city of Thailand). It is near Thailand Science Park, national research centers, industrial estates, and universities. 
* *Bangkadi campus* is in Bangkadi industrial park. It is near Software Park Thailand.
* There is a plan to open a new campus in *Lampang*. Lampang is a province in northern part of Thailand.

## Other websites 
* SIIT official website
* SIIT International Office 
* SIIT.NET  community
* List of SIIT websites  (Open Directory Project)

## References
Ainu people

The **Ainu people** are the native population of northern Japan and the eastern part of Russia, mostly in the Amur river region, Sakhalin, the Kuril islands and on the Kamchatka Peninsula. The term is also used for their culture and language in the Ezo region (Hokkaido).

## History 
The majority of their ancestors, the Jōmon people, arrived in Japan about 30,000 – 15,000 years ago from Central Asia and southern Siberia. They were largely replaced by the proto-Japanese which arrived from southeastern China about 2,000 years ago. The Ainu have strong similarities with Palaeolithic Europeans and people of the Middle East as well as with Native American groups of the northwestern coastal culture area in North America. Some scholars think they were related to the Emishi of northern Honshu.

During and after the Yayoi period they were attacked by the early Japanese people. The Ainu and related tribes lost most of their land in Honshū, many were killed or enslaved by the Yayoi-Japanese. After the rise of the Yamato, few Ainu were left in Honshu. After the Meiji restoration in the late 1800s, the Japanese began to colonize Hokkaido, sending their own people to live there.  They forced the Ainu to leave the warm coast of Hokkaido and try to live in the mountains in the middle of the island.  The Ainu were not allowed to fish for salmon or hunt deer. The Ainu were required to speak Japanese and use Japanese names.  Japanese scientists and treasure hunters would dig up Ainu graves and steal the bodies and artifacts.

The Ainu in Russia had more luck and lived their traditional life until the Second World War, when they were forced to act like other Russians.

In April 2019, the Ainu became recognized as native population of northern Japan, and the rest of Japan has started to think of their culture as good and valuable.

## Culture 
Their culture is based on the ancient Jōmon culture of northern Japan and eastern Russia. Their native folk religion has some similarities to early Shinto. Their gods are named *kamuy*, similar to the Japanese *Kami*. They practiced agriculture but were also hunter-gatherers. The Ainu are famous for their woodwork and art.

The Ainu lived in villages called *kotan* and were often built along rivers or lakes. Every villages consisted of at least four to seven families, sometimes more than ten. The traditional house was called *cise* or *cisey*.

## Language 
They speak the Ainu language. The Ainu language is classificated as language isolate, although there exist several theories about a genetic relation. Some linguists suggest a relation to Altaic languages while others suggest a link to Indo-European languages. Some similarities also exist with northern native American languages.

## References
## Other websites 
* The Ainu Museum 
* Smithsonian Institute
* Nippon Utari Kyokai
* Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Ainu
* Ainu-North American cultural similarities 
* Spirit Cave Man May Rewrite Continent's History
* Foundation for Research and Promotion of Ainu Culture 
* Ainu Lineage
* The Boone Collection
Iliad

The ***Iliad***  is the oldest surviving work of Greek literature. It was an oral epic poem. People spoke it without reading it. It was written in the 8th century BC. It is an epic (or very long) poem with 24 chapters written in hexameter. The poem includes early Greek myths and legends. It may have been based on a Bronze Age attack on the city Troy. People usually say that Homer wrote the *Iliad*.  However, scholars are not sure that only one person really wrote the whole poem.

The story happens during the Trojan War, some time around 1200 BC. It talks about the confrontations of the warrior Achilles and King Agamemnon. The story is only about a few weeks at the end of the war, but it also talks about many of the Greek myths about the war. It tells the story from the wrath of Achilles, to the death and funeral of Hector and the siege of Troy.

Together with another of Homer's poems, the *Odyssey*, it is one of the two major Greek epic poems.

Some important characters in the *Iliad* are Achilles, Odysseus, Agamemnon, Menelaus, Priam, Hector, Paris, and Helen.

## Plot 
The poem starts with the god Apollo sending a plague to the Greeks, because they captured the daughter of one of his Trojan priests. Agamemnon is forced to give the daughter back. So that he has a girl of his own, Agamemnon takes the captured Trojan girl Briseis from her owner Achilles. Achilles is angry and refuses to fight in the war. When Achilles' friend Patroclus is killed by Hector, Achilles starts to fight again and kills Hector in a duel. Later, Hector's father Priam comes in secret to Achilles to take back his favorite son's body to give it a proper funeral, which Achilles allows him to do. The poem ends with the funeral of Hector.

## Related pages
* Trojan War
* *Odyssey*

## References 
## Sources
*Fagles, Robert (transl) 1990. *The Iliad*. Introduction and notes by Bernard Knox. Penguin. . Winner of the Academy of American Poets 1991 London translation award.

## Other websites
**Iliad* , online version of the work by Homer (English). Pope translation.
**Iliad* in Ancient Greek: from the Perseus Project (PP), with the Murray and Butler translations and hyperlinks to mythological and grammatical commentary; via the Chicago Homer , with the Lattimore translation and markup indicating formulaic repetitions