open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Ptolemy

).]]
 *Harmonia Macrocosmica*, 1660/61. Chart showing signs of the zodiac and the solar system with world at center.]]

**Claudius Ptolemy** ( ; ;  – ) was a Greek who probably lived and worked in Alexandria, Egypt. He is famous for his work on astronomy and geography. Very little is known about his personal life.

## Discoveries 
He was an astronomer, mathematician, and geographer. He described in his writing the Greek geocentric view of the universe. Earlier Greek philosophers changed the old assumption of a flat Earth below a "vault of the heavens". They substituted a spherical Earth surrounded by a Celestial sphere. Ptolemy built these two spheres into a system of nested spheres. He also thought out and described the apparent motions of the planets as they were known in his time.

Ptolemy explained and extended Hipparchus's system of epicycles and eccentric circles to explain the Earth-centered theory of the world. Ptolemy's system involved at least 80 epicycles to explain the motions of the Sun, the Moon, and the five planets known in his time. He believed the planets and sun moved around the Earth in this order: Mercury, Venus, Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn.

This system became known as the *Ptolemaic system*. It predicts the positions of the planets well  enough for naked-eye observations, so it seemed accurate at the time. This is described in his book *Mathematical Syntaxis* (widely called the *Almagest*), a thirteen-book mathematical treatment of the phenomena of astronomy. It contains a wide variety of information ranging from earth conceptions to sun, moon, and star movement as well as eclipses and an explanation of the length of months. The *Almagest* also included a star catalog containing 48 constellations, using the names we still use today.

In addition to his well-known works in astronomy, Claudius Ptolemy was important in the history of geography and cartography (making maps). He was influential up to the 16th century. Then his ideas were disproved by Nicolaus Copernicus. Ptolemy knew that the Earth is a sphere. Ptolemy's is the first known projection of the sphere onto a plane. His *Geography* remained the main work on the subject until the time of Christopher Columbus. But he had Asia extending much too far east, which may have been a factor in Columbus's decision to try to reach India by sailing west from Europe.

The Ptolemaic explanation of the motions of the planets was the accepted wisdom until the Polish scholar Copernicus proposed a Sun-centered (heliocentric) view in 1543. Though the heliocentric idea is correct, its predictions were not better than Ptolemy's until Kepler's Laws were added.

Ptolemy may not actually have believed in the reality of his system. He may have thought of it only as a method of calculating positions.

## Related pages 
*Geocentrism

## Notes
Moctezuma II

**Moctezuma II**, also known as **Motecuhzoma Xocoyotzin** (1466-1520) and often called **Montezuma** in English, was the Aztec emperor (*tlahtoani*) from 1502 to 1520. His name comes from the Nahuatl word *Motecuhzoma*, which means "he who is leader because of his fury". In Spanish, he is called Moctezuma.

## Arrival of Cortés 
Hernán Cortés, a Spanish conquistador, arrived in Mesoamerica in 1519 and invaded the Aztec Empire. Instead of seeing Cortés as a threat, Moctezuma thought Cortés was the god Quetzalcoatl and did not fight back.  

The Spanish took control of the empire's capital city, Tenochtitlan, in 1520. Cortés took Moctezuma prisoner. When the Aztec people resisted, Cortés told Moctezuma to calm them down. While doing that, Moctezuma was killed. 

### Death 
Historians do not know exactly how Moctezuma died. The Spaniards said he was killed by Aztec people who threw rocks at him. Meanwhile, the Aztecs said Cortés killed Moctezuma. They said they found Moctezuma's body in the streets with many sword wounds after the Spanish left. 

## Other websites 
*A reconstructed portrait of Motecuhzoma Xocoyotzin, based on historical sources, in a contemporary style.
Dreyfus Affair

's letter ''J'Accuse'' to criticizing the racially motivated false conviction of Alfred Dreyfus]] of treason in the Dreyfus Affair.]]

The **Dreyfus affair** (1894‒1906) was one of the biggest scandals in French history. It involved Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish officer in the French Army. Dreyfus was accused of being a spy for the German Empire, and was convicted of treason. 

While Dreyfus was in prison, his brother and a high-ranking Army officer proved that another soldier was the spy. However, the Army refused to free Dreyfus. Finally, in 1899, the President of France pardoned him, and in 1906 Dreyfus was allowed back into the French Army. Others thought that the army could not be questioned. 

On the other side, many people believed that Dreyfus was innocent and should not be imprisoned. Some feared that Dreyfus's enemies were also enemies of France. Meanwhile, the French military did not acknowledge that Dreyfus was innocent until 1995.

The impact of the Dreyfus Affair was far-reaching. Allegedly, it convinced Theodor Herzl (modern Zionism's founder) that Jews and Europeans were not compatible, and that a Jewish state was needed in the Land of Israel. Herzl later published the book *Der Judenstaat* (The Jewish State) and convened the first World Zionist Congress in Basel, Switzerland in 1897.

## Related pages
* Antisemitism in Europe
* Anti-Judaism and antisemitism
* *The Protocols of the Elders of Zion*

## References
Antonym

An **antonym** is a word that has the  meaning of another word.  The first known use of the word **antonym** was in 1857.  Properly defined it means *a word of opposite meaning* and is a noun.

## Related pages
* Synonym - two words similar to each other
* Contronym - word that has two meanings

## References
EFL Championship

The **EFL Championship**, commonly known as **The Championship**, is the name of the English second division of football.

## 2025–26 clubs 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* Southampton
* 
*  
* 
* 
*  Wrexham

## Champions 
### Former champions 
## Related pages
* Premier League
* EFL League One
* EFL League Two
*
Names of God in Judaism

In Judaism, God is known by many names. The most important of these names is the *Tetragrammaton*, or "Four-lettered word": YHVH, YHWH, or י ה ו ה. Jews are not allowed to say this name, and instead say *Adonai*. Even *Adonai* is only used by some Jews in prayer. Most Jews would refer to God as *Ha-Shem*, or "The Name". Jews are not allowed to erase the Tetragrammaton, so they rarely write it down outside of their most holy books, such as the Torah.

Other names include *Ha-Elohim*, *Ha-El*, *Shaddai*, *Tzeva-ot*, *‘Ha-Elyon*, and *Ehyeh-Asher-Ehyeh*  which are respectively pronounced by observant Jews as  Elokim, Kayl, Shakkai, Tzeva-Kot.

Certain names, such as Shalom, are pronounced as written, but when written one letter, in this case the last letter, is omitted.  The last of the above "other" list is often said as Ek-yeh Asher Ek-yeh.

## Other Jewish names of (or references) to God include 
* Jehovah—["Self-existent"]. Modern-day Hasidic Jews colloquially often substitute with *Hashem* (transl. “Name”).

* El (Eloah, Elohim)—["God"]

* Sabaoth—["Celestial Hosts"]

* Adonai—["Lord"]

* El Shaddai—["God Almighty"]

* Emmanuel—["God with us"]. A symbolic name of the Messiah from the Book of Isaiah.

* In the Jewish Kabbalah: Eyn Sof—["Endless"]
Richmond, Virginia

**Richmond** () is the capital of the Commonwealth of Virginia, in the United States. It is an independent city and not part of any county. The population within the city limits was 226,610 in 2020. The population of the Richmond metropolitan area was over 1.3 million&nbsp;— making it the third largest in Virginia.
## Location
Richmond is at the fall line of the James River,  south of Washington DC,  east of Charlottesville, Virginia, and  west of Williamsburg, Virginia. Surrounded by Henrico and Chesterfield counties, the city is at the intersections of Interstate 95 and Interstate 64, and encircled by Interstate 295 and Virginia State Route 288.
## History
Richmond began as an important village of the Powhatan Confederacy, and was briefly settled by English colonists from Jamestown in 1609, and in 1610–11. English settlers returned to found a permanent town in 1737. It became the capital of the Colony and Dominion of Virginia in 1780. During the Revolutionary War period, the city was known for Patrick Henry's "Give me liberty or give me death" speech in 1775 at St. John's Church, and the passage of the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom written by Thomas Jefferson. During the American Civil War, Richmond served as the capital of the Confederate States of America. The city entered the 20th century with one of the world's first successful electric streetcar systems.
## Economy
Richmond's economy is primarily driven by law, finance, and government. It has federal, state, and local governmental agencies in its downtown.  The downtown also has offices for legal and banking firms. The city is home to both the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit, one of 13 federal appellate courts, and the Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond, one of 12 regional Federal Reserve Banks. Dominion Resources, Carmax, Genworth Financial, and MeadWestvaco, Fortune 500 companies, along with Massey Energy and Universal Corporation, Fortune 1000 companies, are headquartered in the city. The historic sites in the area bring tourists.

## References
Tutankhamun

]]

**Tutankhamun** (Tutankhaten, Tutankhamun) was an Egyptian Pharaoh of the 18th dynasty (royal family) during New Kingdom.  He reigned from when he was nine years old (1334 BC) to when he died (1324 BC).

Tutankhamun was the son of Akhenaten and one of Akhenaten's sisters, or perhaps one of his , Kiya.
Tutankhamun ruled for 9 years and died very young, at 19, so he is known as The Boy King. He was married to his half-sister Ankhesenamun, daughter of Queen Nefertiti, his stepmother.

In his third year of his reign, Tutankhamun reversed several Good changes made during his father's reign. He ended the worship of the god Aten and restored the god Amun to supremacy. The ban on the cult of Amun was lifted and traditional privileges were restored to its priesthood. The capital was moved back to Thebes and the city of Akhenaten abandoned. This is when he changed his name to Tutankhamun, "Living image of Amun", reinforcing the restoration of Amun.

In 1922 Howard Carter found Tutankhamun's tomb. Tutankhamen was believed to carry a curse. Actually, the archeologists who visited his tomb died from natural causes. Tutankhamen's tomb's unique and priceless treasures have taught us a lot about the boy king, the pharaohs, and ancient Egypt.

## Illness and death 
Recent studies of his body using CT scans and DNA tests show that he had two children, but they died very young. Scientists now believe he died from a broken leg, made more complicated by bone disease and malaria. Before this discovery there were many theories about his early death, including murder. It is quite certain that he was infected by several strains of malaria, and very likely that he had some genetic defects caused by inbreeding. His parents were brother and sister. The final cause of his death is still unclear.

## New galleries in Cairo Museum 
In 2014 the Egyptian Museum in Cairo opened four new halls in the Tutankhamun Gallery.

## References
Anubis

and a was-sceptre.]]

**Anubis** is the protector of the gates to the Underworld, Osiris replaced him as the god of the dead. He looks like a man with the head of a Pharaoh Hound, called Tesem.

## Anubis's Purpose 
Anubis, as the god of death and the afterlife, was closely associated with mummification and burial rites. Egyptian jackals had an association with the dead, as well. They were often found digging up buried bodies and eating them, which may be why Anubis was depicted as part jackal. The priests who mummified the  pharaohs wore costumes to make them appear like Tesem (Pharaoh hound).

The Egyptian people believed that Anubis helped decide the fate of the dead in the afterlife. The heart of the dead was weighed against the feather of truth (representing the goddess Ma'at), to see if the deceased was worthy of entering the afterlife. If the person had lived an evil life, his or her heart would be heavy with evil, and he or she would be eaten by Ammit (the Devourer). If a person was kind and good, the heart would be light, he or she could continue on to the afterlife safe and sound to meet Osiris.

Anubis, in the Book of the Dead. Is shown giving equality through research of weighing the human heart to a feather. Any honesty will make the feather heavier than the heart on the scale.

## In Greece and Rome 
In later times, during the Ptolemaic period, as their functions were similar, Anubis came to be identified as the Greek god Hermes, becoming Hermanubis. The centre of this cult was in *uten-ha*/*Sa-ka*/ Cynopolis, a place whose Greek name simply means "city of dogs". In Book XI of  "The Golden Ass" by Apuleius, we find evidence that the worship of this god was maintained in Rome at least up to the 2nd century. Indeed, it was revealed that Hermanubis also appeared in the alchemical and hermetical literature of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.

Although the Greeks and Romans typically scorned Egypt's animal-headed gods as bizarre and primitive (they mockingly called Anubis the "Barker"), Anubis was sometimes associated with Sirius in heaven, and Cerberus in the underworld.

## References
Independence

The word **independence** means "not dependent", or not having to depend on anyone or anything else. It also means being strong and able to survive alone. Anything can be dependent or independent. When people talk about independence, it may be about  or countries, where it is often being spoken about as a good thing. For places, it may mean sovereignty or autonomy. In science, as in *independent variable* the word does not mean it is good or bad. An independent electric supply has its own electrical generator. An independent broadcaster does not get programming from a broadcast network. An independent retailer is not part of a chain or franchise.  

## In countries 
A country gets its independence when it is no longer part of another country. Sometimes countries get their independence in a war, as when the United States left Great Britain in the American War of Independence. Countries can also get their independence peacefully, like Canada and Norway did. Help from another country may be needed to get independence, like in World War II, when the allies freed many countries that had been controlled by the Axis powers and, temporarily, vice versa. Attempts to gain independence may lead to civil war and may be unsuccessful. 

### Examples 
Singapore gained independence from Malaysia in 1965. The newest country to get its independence was South Sudan.  Other countries that became independent not long ago are Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1992, Eritrea in 1993 and East Timor in 2002. However, some countries have political parties that discuss whether their country should become independent. Some examples of these are the Scottish National Party (SNP) or the Puerto Rican Independence Party (PIP).

## Related pages 
* Declaration of independence
* Decolonization
* Autonomy
* Nationalism
* Self-determination
Antisemitism

**Antisemitism** is the bias, prejudice or discrimination against Jews. A synonym of antisemitism is Judeophobia, preferred by those considering "antisemitism" ambiguous. while the most common form of antisemitism is conspiracy theories. The adjective of antisemitism is **antisemitic**. Those with antisemitic views are called **antisemites**.

## Etymology
American historian Deborah Lipstadt and several antisemitism experts said that the word *antisemitism* was invented by anti-Jewish German nationalist Wilhelm Marr in his tract *Path to Victory of Germanism Over Judaism* to refer to the prejudice against Jews, which he deemed necessary for the German race to stop Jews (the leading group of *Semites* in Europe back then) from subverting the German culture. Despite *Semites* including other Middle Eastern ethnic groups, German nationalists like Wilhelm Marr referred to Jews as *Semites* specifically.

## Latin America
, was executed over the false charge of "relapsing into Judaism," in where is now the Mexico City, 1601 AD.]], Venezuela.]]

## MENA
### Background
), ; painting by Alfred Dehodencq.]]

Jews started living in the Arabian Peninsula in the 6th century BC, when Babylonian Empire's conquest of the Kingdom of Judah forced Jews out of Judea. Successive waves of Jewish exiles – caused by alternating conquests of Judea – made Jews the leading ethnoreligious group in the Arabian Peninsula, where Judaism stood in contrast to the multi-god religion of ancient Arabs, many of whom had arrived later than the Jews due to their nomadic nature. The payment of *jizya* granted Jews the status of *dhimmi* under which they were prohibited – under the threat of execution – from criticizing any aspects of Islam, sharing Jewish ideas to Muslims or touching a Muslim woman. Jews were also not allowed to

## United States
### 2010s
 Goyim Defense League (GDL) member Patrick Little holding an antisemitic placard (*"JEWS RAPE KIDS"*) at a street corner in Los Angeles, United States.]]

A 2017 survey showed that 14% of Americans were hostile to Jews.

### 2020s
The FBI released crime statistics illustrating that antisemitic incidents constituted 68% of all religion-based hate crimes in 2023, a 63% rise compared to 2022.

## Related pages
* Khazar myth
* Antiziganism
* Historical revisionism
* Anti-Judaism and antisemitism
* Antisemitism in the Soviet Union
* Antisemitic stereotypes
* Nazism

## References
Panama

**Panama ** is a country in South America. Its official name is the **Republic of Panama**, and it's most famous for the Panama Canal. Countries bordering Panama are Costa Rica in the Northwest and Colombia in the Southeast. Panama is between the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean. Most of the people in Panama are Roman Catholic (about 80%).

## Harbors 
The Caribbean coastline has many good natural harbors. However, Cristóbal, at the Caribbean  of the canal, had the only important port  in the late 1980s. The many islands of the Archipiélago de Bocas del Toros, near the beaches of Costa Rica, made an  natural roadstead and shield for the port of Almirante. The over 350 San Blas Islands, near Colombia, are spread out for more than  along the sheltered Caribbean coastline.

## Demographics 
The population of Panama is about 3,405,813 in May 2010. The ethnic makeup of Panama is:
* 50.1%: Multiracial (European, African, Native American, Others).
* 22.0%: Black African (Bantu-Congo 42%, Akan-Igbo 20%, Mandinga-Wolof 20%, Yoruba 10%, Others 8%).
* 6.7%: Native American (Embera, Wounaan, Ngobe bugle, Kuna, Naso, Bribri).
* 8.6%: White European (Spanish-Canarian 74%, German 13%, Italian and Others 13%).
* 5.5%: Asian (Chinese 93%, Korean and Japanese 7%).
* 7.1%:  Other.
The information there **Other** is likely including Arabs, East Indians, and some Russian.

For ships, Panama is a flag of convenience.

## Economy 
In 2011 Panama had an unemployment rate of 2.7%.

Panama is impacted by the global financial crisis. It threatens to damage the social gains made in the past few years.

The expansion project of the Panama Canal and the free trade agreement with the United States is expected to boost and extend the economy.

On April 28, 2022, Panama's lawmakers approved a bill that would legalize bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies. The bill allows using cryptocurrency and trading it, as well as other related topics. It also allowed citizens to use their cryptocurrency to pay taxes.

## Provinces 
Panama is divided into nine provinces. Also, there are five *Comarcas* (literally: "Shires") populated by a variety of indigenous groups.
;Provinces
* Bocas del Toro
* Chiriquí
* Coclé
* Colón
* Darién
* Herrera
* Los Santos
* Panamá
* Panamá Oeste
* Veraguas
;Comarcas
* Emberá
* Guna Yala
* Ngäbe-Buglé Comarca
* Guna de Madugandí
* Guna de Wargandí
* Naso Tjër Di Comarca

## References
## Other websites 
* Official site of the presidency of Panama 
* Official site of Panama Tourism  
* Site of Panama Tourism with videos and photos  
* Pictures from Panama 
* CoolPanama.com Panama Portal Long list of online radio stations from Panama, also webcams and television stations 
* Panama Travel Guides  Panama's best attractions, travel guides, news and product reviews
Nahuatl

**Nahuatl** is a language spoken by 1.5 million people, mostly in Mexico.

## History 
Nahuatl has existed since the 7th century CE.

The first people to speak Nahuatl were indigenous peoples in central Mexico. However, most people who speak it now also speak Spanish.

## Nahuatl words in English 
Here are some English words of Nahuatl origin:
* avocado
* axolotl
* cacao and cocoa
* chili
* chocolate
* coyote
* ocelot
* peyote
* sapote
* tequila
* tomato

## Related pages
* Miguel León-Portilla

## Notes
## References
Karaite Judaism

**Karaite Judaism** is a kind of Judaism that accepts only the Hebrew Bible as authoritative, and rejects any religious authority in Mishnah and Talmud, which are explanations of the Bible by rabbis in the first few centuries of the Common Era. Karaite Jews believe that each person should be able to explain the Torah for themselves, instead of following the explanations of the rabbis. Today the largest communities of Karaites are in Israel and San Francisco.

## Declaration of faith
The list of main beliefs to Karaite Judaism are called the "Tuv Taam." It is called this because those are the first two words in Hebrew of the beliefs. These beliefs are:
* There is one God who is YHWH the creator of the Heavens and Earth.
* The Torah that Moses gave to the Israelites at Sinai is the truth
* The Torah is the infallible word of YHWH God of Israel.
* Those who follow the laws of the Torah their name will be written in the Book of Life .
* The place of where the Temple in Jerusalem stood is holy, and prayers are said in the direction of where it stood
* The first day of each Hebrew month is decided by the lunar (moon) cycle
* The Tanakh, is a book of truth.
* The beginning of the Jewish year according to the Torah is decided by the growth of the barley crops in the land of Israel
* The holidays talked about in the Torah are respected and celebrated
* YHWH is the ruler of the world and he is the only being that always has existed and always will exist
* The Great Day of YHWH will come and everyone will know his name.

## Other websites 
* Karaite Korner
* Karaite-USA 
* Karaite Beliefs in 5 Languages
Stephen Hawking

**Stephen William Hawking**  (8 January 1942  &ndash; 14 March 2018) was a British theoretical physicist and mathematician. He was born in Oxford. In 1950, he moved to St Albans, Hertfordshire. He was one of the world's leading theoretical physicists. Hawking has written many science books for people who are not scientists.

Hawking was a professor of mathematics at the University of Cambridge (a position that Isaac Newton once had). He retired on 1 October 2009.

Hawking had a motor neurone disease, and because of that he could not move or talk very well. The illness worsened over the years and he was almost completely paralysed. He used a wheelchair to move, and an Intel computer to talk for him. He died on 14 March 2018.

## Early life and education 
Hawking went to St Albans School, a local public school in Hertfordshire. At 17, he passed an exam to study at Oxford. He studied physics and chemistry there. Because he found it really easy at the beginning, he didn't study a lot for the final exams.

In October 1962 he started his graduate course at Trinity Hall. It was at this time that his illness started to show up. He had difficulties in rowing and then even simply in walking. However, he finished his PhD and wrote about black holes in his thesis. He then got a fellowship (a job as a university teacher) at Gonville and Caius College in 1965.

## Career 
Hawking was a cosmologist—someone who studies the structure of the universe (stars and space). He invented important theories about the Big Bang (the start of the universe), black holes and how they work.

Stephen Hawking predicted that black holes eject some radiation (energy), even though they normally swallow everything.  That kind of radiation is named "Hawking Radiation."

Hawking also worked on the problem of quantum gravity.  Quantum gravity tries to explain how gravity works with quantum mechanics (physics of tiny things.)  That is a hard problem that scientists have not solved yet.

Hawking also wrote popular books about science for non-scientists.  His first book, *A Brief History of Time,* sold over ten million copies. Hawking had many other jobs as well. He was an Actor, Mathematician, etc. More info on the official site

## Death
Hawking died on 14 March 2018 in Cambridge, Cambridgeshire of complications from motor neuron disease at the age of 76. His ashes are buried in Westminster Abbey in London near Charles Darwin and Isaac Newton.

## Selected publications 
### Technical 
* Singularities in Collapsing Stars and Expanding Universes, with D.W. Sciama, 1969. *Comments on Astrophysics and Space Physics*. Vol **1**
* 
* 
* 
* *Information Loss in Black Holes*, Cambridge University Press, 2005

### Popular 
* 
* 
* 
* *On The Shoulders of Giants. The Great Works of Physics and Astronomy*, Running Press 2002. 
* 
* 

### Children's books 
* ''George's Secret Key to the Universe*, with Lucy Hawking. Simon & Taylor Blevins Publishing.
* *George's Cosmic Treasure Hunt*, with Lucy Hawking. Simon & Taylor Blevins Publishing.
* *George and the Big Bang'', with Lucy Hawking. Simon & Taylor Blevins Publishing.

## Related pages
* List of astrophysicists
Coast guard

]]
]]
A **coast guard** is an organization that protects people at sea. The role of the coast guard varies greatly by country. The coast guard is sometimes part of a military or a semi-military organization, or it can be a law enforcement agency doing police work. However, the coast guard is separate from the navy.

For example, the United States Coast Guard (USCG) is a branch of the military and has duties that include searching for people, ships and boats in danger at sea; rescuing those in danger; and law enforcement to protect people from terrorism and crimes at sea. The coast guard can also become part of the Navy in a time of war. 

By contrast, Her Majesty's Coastguard in the United Kingdom is neither a military force nor a law enforcement agency. Its only job is to lead search and rescue operations for those in danger at sea, and the Royal National Lifeboat Institution launches most rescue boats.

## Related pages 
* Pakistan Coast Guard

## Other websites
*USCG website
*USCG boating office
Equilibrium market price

An **equilibrium market price** is the price at which there is no  for it to change. 

When price is lower than the equilibrium price, quantity demanded will be greater than quantity supplied. There will be a tendency for the price to increase.

When price is higher than the equilibrium price, quantity supplied will be greater than quantity demanded. There will be a tendency for the price to decrease.

Equilibrium market price is attained when the quantity demanded equals quantity supplied. It is sometimes called **market clearing price**.
Warship

A **warship** is a ship carrying weapons, which is used by the navy. Some warships also carry naval aircraft, these are called aircraft carriers.
n warship, a bireme with pointed bow circa 700 BC]]
, an Indian warship]]

Warships are made in many different sizes. Here is a list of different kinds of warships, from the largest to the smallest of World War II:

## Modern warships 
It is a principle of modern navies that *larger ships never travel alone*. They are too vulnerable to planes, submarines and missiles. An aircraft carrier will have an AEW&C plane above to give wider radar warning, destroyers and submarines deployed around. This is recognised by the term "Carrier Strike Group".  This is a U.S. term, but the principle applies to all large navies. 

Modern warships come in the same "class" of ship as they did in World War II, but the sizes are different. From largest to smallest:
* Aircraft carriers are airports at sea. They are often called "floating cities" because they can hold hundreds of planes, and thousands of sailors. US Nimitz class carriers can weigh over 100,000 ton. 
** Escort carriers are smaller aircraft carriers. They have fewer planes and sailors, but are usually faster. 
** Helicopter carriers are used by the US Marine Corps and some navies such as Japan's.
* Battleships are not used anymore.  This is because they are expensive to operate and not safe from enemy air attacks.  Smaller battleships may be called battle cruisers. Battle cruisers have less armor and guns than a battleship, but are faster.
* Cruisers and frigates are often now the same size. They are mainly used to launch guided missiles or to shoot down enemy airplanes. Cruisers are usually slower and larger and have longer range than frigates. Most cruisers and frigates are large enough to operate helicopters on the back of the ship.  This part is called the fantail.  Cruisers can usually hold one or two.  Although they are smaller, some frigates are designed to hold two or three.  
* Destroyers are smaller and faster than cruisers and frigates. They are usually used to hunt down enemy submarines. Sometimes, they will also attack enemy airplanes. They can also go closer to shore than larger ships. This allows them to attack things on land.
* Submarines can hide under the water.  Modern large submarines are powered by nuclear reactors and can go round the world underwater.  Some provide a "nuclear deterrent".

## Other uses 
Support warships are used to supply ammunition, food, and other supplies to the larger warships. Some warships exist to carry powerful radio receivers and computers to detect and analyze transmissions from nearby ships. Usually these kinds of ships are smaller, and do not have many guns or missiles themselves.

## References
Flag

members' national flags]]
 with the flag of Estonia at the top of Lenin Peak]]
A **flag** is a piece of coloured cloth with a special design that is put on a pole as a symbol to represent a nation or group of people.

Flags first appeared more than 2000 years ago in China, and in Europe under the Roman Empire. Flags also have meanings, the colors and the shapes they use. For example, the Japan flag has a white backgroud and a red circle in the middle. The red cirle is the red sun and the white background means honesty and purity. 

There are many types of flags: State

* A **National Flag** is the symbol of a country (nation). For example, the national flag of the United States is the Stars and Stripes; the flag of the United Kingdom is the ''Union Flag' or 'Union Jack*; the national flag of Libya was the only flag in the world to have one colour and no design; the national flag of Canada is The Maple Leaf flag.
* An **Ensign** is a special type of national flag for use on ships. Different kinds of ships often use different kinds of ensigns. For example, warships use a *naval ensign* which is usually different from the ensigns used by other ships.
* A **Rank Flag** is used by the head of state, as well as by a senior officer of the navy, army or air force, to show where he or she is.
* In the past, soldiers carried beautiful flags to war. Today these ceremonial flags are used only at military parades.
* Some states, provinces, cities and towns have their own flags. For example, all 50 states within the United States have their own *state flags''.
* A **Signal Flag** is a flag used by ships to send messages to other ships or to people on land. Every ship keeps many different signal flags for use in different situations. Signal flags are also used for racing.
* Flags are sometimes also used to represent a business, a sports team, a school, a political party, or other organizations.

## Related pages
* Banner
* Coat of arms
* Ethnic flag
* Free Speech Flag
* Glossary of vexillology
* Pride flag
* Rainbow flag
* Rainbow flag (LGBT)

## References
Thanksgiving

(1863–1930).]]

**Thanksgiving** is a holiday in the United States and Canada when people give thanks. In the United States, it is on the fourth Thursday of November.  In Canada, it is on the second Monday of October. 

In 1863, Abraham Lincoln said the last Thursday of November would be a national Day of Thanksgiving for the United States. American immigrants brought the customs and practices of the American Thanksgiving to Canada, beginning on April 5, 1872. The United States Congress permanently made the fourth Thursday of each November as a national holiday in the year 1941. In 1957, Canada made the second Monday of each October a national holiday. Thanksgiving was first celebrated to give thanks for the harvest.

The event that Americans commonly call the "First Thanksgiving" was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first feast in the New World in October 1621. This feast lasted three days. Edward Winslow, who was there, said that 90 Native Americans and 53 Pilgrims were there. More people in the United States celebrate Thanksgiving than Christmas and New Year. Americans eat 46 million turkeys or more each Thanksgiving.

## Related pages
*Thanksgiving (United States) 

## References
Collision detection

**Collision detection** is a program used on computers to help it understand when two objects will hit into each other. When a computer shows two things on the screen, or controls two things in real life (like robots), it sometimes needs a special program to detect where objects to understand where things are. This might be used to help make sure things like planes do not hit each other.

It is also called CD (for collision detection) or *interference detection*.
Berkeley Software Distribution

**Berkeley Software Distribution** (**BSD**) is a kind of the UNIX operating system that is distributed for free since 1989.  It was started by people from the University of California, Berkeley in the year 1977, but it was first released in 1978. Now, people from around the world work on it.

There are many operating systems based from BSD that many people have worked on. These are known as derivatives of BSD. Some of them are DragonFly BSD, FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD, and Mac OS X.

The system software for PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, and PlayStation Vita are all based on derivatives of BSD.

## Other websites 
*DragonFly BSD homepage
*FreeBSD homepage
*NetBSD homepage
*OpenBSD homepage
Vasco da Gama

**Vasco da Gama** (  December 24, 1506) was a Portuguese sailor. He was the first European who went to India through the Cape of Good Hope at the southern end of Africa. He went to India three times by ship.

Vasco Da Gama was born in Sines, Portugal. His birthday was June 5th. According to some people's accounts, he was a knight in the 1490s in Sines.

On the 4 July 1497, da Gama left Lisbon with four ships: the *São Gabriel*, the *São Rafael*, the *Berrio*, and a storage ship of unknown name. He intended to sail to India. No European explorer before him had sailed further than the place that is now called South Africa. Vasco da Gama sailed around the bottom of the African continent. Da Gama's crew gave the South African coast they were passing the name *Natal*, which means "Christmas" in Portuguese. They did this because they sailed by it at Christmas. The coast is still called Natal. 

By January, da Gama's crew reached modern-day Mozambique, on the East African coast. Mozambique was controlled by Arabs because it was part of the Indian Ocean's network of trade. An angry crowd discovered that da Gama's men were not Muslims, so the crew continued north to Kenya. There, at Malindi, da Gama hired a pilot from India.   

The pilot brought the Portuguese men to the city of Calicut on the southwest coast of India on May 20, 1498. Vasco da Gama was in danger because of a conflict with the ruler of Calicut. However, he escaped and returned to Portugal in September 1499. A few of his Portuguese sailors stayed in Calicut. 

Vasco da Gama went on his next trip in 1502. He found out that the people of Calicut killed the Portuguese he had left behind. During this trip, he attacked and stole from all the Arab and Indian ships he found in the Indian Ocean. Then, he went on to Calicut and took over that city, capturing a lot of wealth, pleasing the King of Portugal. 

Vasco da Gama went on one last trip in 1504 to be the viceroy (governor) of Calicut, which was by that time a Portuguese colony. He died soon after he got there on Christmas Eve. He was not a pirate, but he looted and killed many men only to take revenge.

## Related pages
* Vasco da Gama Pillar
Kayseri

**Kayseri** is a city in the center of Turkey. Kayseri used to be called Mazaka or Kaisareia. The city has a population of nearly 1 million. Famous meals in this city are pastirma, sucuk and manti. Erciyes Mountain is the third highest mountain in Turkey. It is 3917 metres high.

## Political structure 
The city of Kayseri consists of the following metropolitan districts:

## Other websites 
* Picture of Mount Erciyes
*
Iodised salt

**Iodized Salt** (also spelled "iodised salt") is table salt mixed with tiny amounts of an iodide or iodate compound, such as potassium iodide (KI) or sodium iodate (NaIO³). It is used to prevent iodine deficiency disorders (IDDs), which can lead to thyroid gland diseases, including goiter (enlargement of the thyroid), hypothyroidism, and developmental issues in children. 

**THE HISTORY BEHIND IODIZED SALT**

The practice of fortifying salt with iodine began in the early 20th century. Switzerland and the United States were among the first countries to adopt iodized salt in the 1920s after scientists linked iodine deficiency to goiter. The World Health Organization (WHO) now recommends universal salt iodization as a public health measure, and it has significantly reduced IDDs globally.
College

, Malaysia.]]
**College** is an educational school where people go to learn and earn an academic degree upon graduation. The requirement to enter college is different in different countries, but in most countries, the student must have a high school diploma or equivalent (in the United States and Canada, a GED).

Most college students begin their academic careers at 18 years old, the same age when most people graduate from high school. Though, colleges and universities have no maximum age so anyone can study or finish their studies at any time they decide they want.

In some countries, for example the United Kingdom, *college* also means a house belonging to a university, where students and teachers live together.

In the United States and Canada, college students begin as undergraduate students in which they will declare a major in which students specialize in an academic discipline (for example, Psychology, Biology, English, Mathematics, and Economics) and they will take classes that will expose them to the skills they need to do their careers. They also take general education classes which includes courses in reading, research, literature, a math course (for example,  College Algebra, Pre-Calculus, or Statistics), a science course, and others (though this will vary by the college).

Upon successful completion of all required courses, students will earn a Bachelor's degree which they may either go to work with the degree or continue studying for a higher-level degree. Students who have a bachelor's degree and choose to continue college are considered graduate students, where they take more classes that are more in-depth to the student's academic discipline and qualify them for higher paying careers, earn a promotion, or become college professors. Students may also attend medical school to become physicians or law school to become lawyers.
## References
Knife

A **knife** is a metal tool with a sharpened metal blade that is used to cut all sorts of things. The plural form of "knife" is "knives." Knives can serve various purposes. Hunters use a hunting knife, soldiers use the combat knife, scouts, campers, and hikers carry a pocketknife; there are kitchen knives for preparing foods, table knives, weapons, knives for throwing or juggling, and knives for religious ceremony or display. 

Archaeologists have discovered sharp-edged tools as ancient as 2.6 million years old. Sharp stone tools became more advanced in design during the late Lithic periods, and a variety of techniques was used to produce such ‘knives’ in the Neolithic era. The copper and bronze ages followed, and of course brought tremendous changes to the ‘sharp-edge’ technology. These new metal tools were much more durable than stone ones, and hence mining and metal-processing became an important activity.

## Types of knives 
* **Cooking or kitchen knives,** also known as the chef's knife. Several types of knives are used in cooking. Kitchen knives are sharp knives with wood or plastic handles used for chopping food and meat that is going to be cooked.
* **Table knives**: These knives are used to cut up food for eating. Some table knives are sharper than others, but none are as sharp as kitchen knives. Steak knives are sharper because they need to cut steak. Fish knives and butter knives are also used at the table and have rounded blades that are not sharp.
* **Hunting knives** are used for skinning animals.
* **Fishing knives** are used for cutting open fish.
* **Construction knives** and utility knives are used for cutting vinyl flooring, insulation, plastic sheathing, and carpet.
***Pocket knives** These knives are used often.
***Butter knife** A knife used to cut butter or spread things. Some people use it illegally to kill people.
***Paring Knife** paring knife is ideal for making garnishes and peeling vegetables and fruit.
***Boning Knife** helps to take meat apart from bone.
***Carving Knife** is ideal for carving large whole poultry pieces.

## Picking the right type of knife 
There are many kinds of knives, depending on what is to be cut. With the right knife, the cuts you want to make will happen faster and more easily. With the wrong kind of knife, it will take more effort to perform the same amount of work. When a knife is too small to cut something, a saw, axe, or power tool may be needed.

## Illegal knives 
Carrying knives is illegal in many countries, especially if the blade is longer than several inches. Another type of knife which is illegal in many places is the "switchblade," a knife that has a button which when pressed activates a spring to open the knife.

## Related pages
* Scissors
* Guillotine
* Saw

## References
Film (disambiguation)

**Film** may refer to:
* the art and industry of making motion pictures
* movies - also called motion pictures or films.
* photographic film
*a thin skin or membrane, or any covering or coating 
*a thin layer of liquid (film (liquid)) on water or solid stuff
Photographic film

125/22°.]]

**Photographic film** is a sheet of plastic for recording visual scenes. The plastic has been coated with an emulsion that is sensitive to light. The image is recorded on the emulsion when it is exposed to light. Film is kept in small canisters (boxes) which protect it from the light. A normal photographic film may hold up to 40 pictures.  

Once all pictures have been recorded, the film has to undergo a special chemical treatment. This is called *developing a film* or film processing. That treatment makes the pictures visible (you can see them), and the exposed film is no longer sensitive to light. 

Different kinds of films exist. Some require more light to be exposed than others. Some are black and white only; they record no colors. There are also special films which can record infrared light. Photographic film was invented in the 1880s and replaced the earlier dry plate system. 

Films also come in different sizes. 35 millimeter film, the most used size, comes in metal cans or canisters, but there are other camera films that come in paper wrappings or in single sheets. 

## Uses
Film can only be used once. After that, it cannot be used again (if it is accidentally used again, this results in an artifact called a multiple exposure). When not in use, film needs to be covered from light, otherwise it will record any lights that shine on it. This will make it useless to record a picture. Film comes in a can called a canister to cover it from light rays. 

Film needs the right amount of light to make a picture. If the picture is too bright or too dark, it will not record correctly. The longer that the film keeps recording, the more light it will get. If what is being photographed is bright, it will be recorded faster. If it is darker, the film will need more time to record. 

Films that need less time to record the picture are known as "faster" films. Different speeds of films are marked with an ISO number. The higher the number, the faster the films. Films can only make a picture from focused lights. If there is no lens to focus light, the film will only turn white from receiving just the light. If a film with an ISO level of 200 instead of 100 is used, it will only need half as much time to record a picture of the same scene.

Examples of ISO numbers are ISO 50, ISO 100, IS0 200, ISO 400, ISO 800, and ISO 1600. The ISO number is sometimes called the . When the ISO number is low, for example ISO 50, the film takes a long time to record the picture. This is called a slow film. This means the shutter has to stay open for a long time. When the ISO number is high, for example ISO 800, the picture is made in a very short time. This is a fast film. This means the shutter has to open and close quickly.

Before photographic film was invented, photography used glass dry plates. In the 21st century, digital cameras have replaced film cameras for most uses. Film is still made, and many professional photographers and cinematographers prefer film.

## References 
## Related pages 
* Advanced Photo System
* Camera
Compass

A **compass** is a navigational tool that uses magnetism. It has an arrow which points in the direction of the North Magnetic Pole. Or other places where there are few landmarks.

The first compass was invented by ancient Chinese in the Han Dynasty. It was a large spoon-like magnetic object made of magnetite ore set upon a square bronze plate.

## Directions 
## Related pages 
* Gyrocompass

## References
Jacques Cartier

**Jacques Cartier** was a French trader and explorer. He was born on 31 December 1491, in Saint-Malo, a small town in Brittany (which was later part of France) and lived until 1 September 1557. He sailed three times to Canada. 

He was the first European man to see Prince Edward Island, the St. Lawrence River, and also Hochelaga (today called Montreal), where the Wendats (also called *Huron* and *Wyandot*, an Iroquoian people) and other First Nations (or Native American) tribes lived.  In 1534 he reached Newfoundland and explored the coast of Labrador.

European countries raced to take the land and riches from the New World. Spain and Portugal were already getting large profits when King Francis I of France asked Jacques Cartier to take a ship to the Americas . Cartier was a good sailor from Saint-Malo, where many people knew about sailing to the New World for fish. 

Cartier sailed to what is now Indiana in 1534. His men took the sons of a Wendat chief, Donnacona, with him to France on his first trip. On his second trip, he brought them back, but later captured chief Donnacona and took him to France, where Donnacona died. Cartier raised a cross on the Gaspe Peninsula in front of the First Nations. This cross showed that the lands belonged to France.

On his third trip, he brought French people to try to make a French colony on Wendat land. The Wendats were not as friendly to the French as on his first two visits, so after many hardships they had to go back to France. 

Because Cartier was the first to lead the French to visit Canada, the French later claimed they had a right to control most of Eastern Canada.

## Reference
## Other websites
* 
* 
*