open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Tunicate

buds within colonies and along margins of colonies.]]

**Tunicates** (**sea squirts** or **Urochordata**) are a subphylum of the Chordates. 

They are sea filter-feeders: they live mainly on plankton. They are called tunicates because the adult form is covered by a leathery tunic. This tunic supports and protects the animal. The adults are sessile, stuck to rocks.  

Many tunicates are colonial or semi-colonial in their adult stage. They are quite a large group, containing about 3,000 species. The adults live mostly on the sea floor, in the littoral zone.

## Feeding 
The sea squirt has two openings in its small body. One opening, called the *oral siphon*, sucks water into the animal; the other opening, called the *atrial siphon*, squirts water out of the animal. Inside is a little basket-like sieve which traps food: so these sea squirts are filter feeders. The Sea squirt can close the holes in its siphons, like a drawstring can close the opening in a bag. 

## Life cycle 
When in its larval state, it looks like a tadpole and is sometimes called a *tadpole larva*. Like many sea creatures, a sea squirt larva looks very different from an adult sea squirt. The larva swims for a short time and then attaches itself to something on the sea floor, like a rock, transforming into its adult form. It usually stays in one place for the rest of its life.

## Relationships 
Tunicates are more closely related to craniates (hagfish, lampreys, jawed vertebrates) than to lancelets, echinoderms, hemichordates, or other invertebrates.

## Discoveries 
Chemical substances which might help fight diseases like cancer or  various viruses have been found in some species. 

Scientists have also found out that some species can heal some damage done to them, over several generations. A similar process might be possible for humans.

## Related pages 
*Salp: these are noticed in the Southern Ocean near Antarctica. Their huge swarms may outnumber the krill.

## References
*Solomon E. Berg L. & Martin D. 2002. *Biology*. Brooks/Cole.
Massachusetts Bay Colony

The **Massachusetts Bay Colony** was a 17th-century British settlement founded by Puritans on the East Coast of North America.  Later called New England, the colony included the states of Massachusetts, Maine, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Connecticut.

The Massachusetts Bay Company, founded in 1628, brought around 20,000 people to the colony.  Early in the 1600s, Samuel de Champlain and John Smith mapped New England and the location of various tribes.

Living in the New World was very hard work for the first settlers. Many became ill and died though the cold winter.  There was not enough food, and many people in the group decided to return to England after a year.  For a while there was no more talk of settling people in the New World, although English ships did still come to the New England area to fish and trade with Native Americans.

### Plymouth Colony
In November 1620, a group of Europeans started the Plymouth Colony.  After nearby settlements failed, some of the group joined the Plymouth Colony or lived near it; others returned to England.

The people of Plymouth faced many problems during the colony's first years, and they could not pay back their investors.  In 1627 the companies left the colonists to take care of themselves.  

In 1622 two of the colony's leaders, Edward Winslow and William Bradford, published a booklet about the *Mayflower* and the colony they created. It was called  ''Mourt's Relation* (full title: *A Relation or Journal of the Beginning and Proceedings of the English Plantation Settled at Plimoth in New England''). Though the two men express differing opinions, the booklet's purpose was to encourage people to come and settle in the New World.

## References 
## References and further reading 
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List of elements

This page shows a list of all 118 chemical elements that have been identified.

## Legend

**Categories and subcategories in the metal&ndash;nonmetal range**

## List
## Notes :-
* The element does not have any stable nuclides, and a value in brackets, e.g. [209], indicates the mass number of the longest-lived isotope of the element. However, three elements, Thorium, Protactinium, and Uranium, have a characteristic terrestrial isotopic composition, and thus their atomic mass given.
* The isotopic composition of this element varies in some geological specimens, and the variation may exceed the uncertainty stated in the table.
* The isotopic composition of the element can vary in commercial materials, which can cause the atomic weight to deviate significantly from the given value.
* The isotopic composition varies in terrestrial material such that a more precise atomic weight can not be given.
* The atomic weight of commercial Lithium can vary between 6.939 and 6.996–analysis of the specific material is necessary to find a more accurate value.
* This element does not solidify at a pressure of one atmosphere. The value listed above, 0.95 K, is the temperature at which helium does solidify at a pressure of 25 atmospheres.
* This element sublimes at one atmosphere of pressure
* The transuranic elements 99 and above do not occur naturally, but some of them can be produced artificially.
* The value listed is the conventional value suitable for trade and commerce. The actual value may differ depending on the isotopic composition of the sample. Analysis of the specific material is necessary to find a more accurate value.
* Electronegativity on the Pauling scale. Standard symbol: χ

## References 
* (for atomic weights of elements with atomic numbers from 1–102)
*
*
* (for atomic weights of elements with atomic numbers 103–118)
*IUPAC (2016). "Elements 113, 115, 117, and 118 are now formally named nihonium (Nh), moscovium (Mc), tennessine (Ts), and oganesson (Og)"
Brigham Young University–Hawaii

**Brigham Young University Hawaii**, or *BYU-Hawaii* for short, is an undergraduate university that educates 2,400 students from Asia, the Pacific islands, the United States, and other parts of the world. 

The campus is in Laie, Hawaii. It is owned and operated by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. It was founded in 1955 by the President of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints - David O. McKay.
Georg Büchner Prize

The **Georg Büchner Prize** (German: Georg-Büchner-Preis) is the most important literary prize of Germany. It was created in 1923 in memory of German writer Georg Büchner and was only given to artists who came from or were closely tied to Büchner's home of Hesse. 

In 1951, the prize changed to a general literary prize, given yearly by the *Deutsche Akademie für Sprache und Dichtung*. It goes to German language authors, and the annual speech by the recipient takes place in Darmstadt. Since 2002, the prize has been endowed with 40,000 Euros.

## Famous recipients of the literary prize, since 1951 
]]
*2004 Wilhelm Genazino (1943-2018)

*1998 Elfriede Jelinek (born 1946)

*1986 Friedrich Dürrenmatt (1921–1990)

*1973 Peter Handke (born 1942) 

*1972 Elias Canetti (1905–1994)

*1967 Heinrich Böll (1917–1985)

*1965 Günter Grass (1927-2015)

## Famous recipients 1923-1950
*1947  Anna Seghers (1900-1983)

## Other websites
* http://www.deutscheakademie.de/preise_buechner.html 
* *The spell of a tender eel*, on 2006 prizewinner Oskar Pastior
Australopithecus africanus

***Austalopithecus africanus*** (abbreviated *A. africanus*) is an extinct hominid. Based on current data, *A. africanus* existed between 3.03 and 2.04 million years ago.

## Discovery 
The first *A. africanus* fossil was discovered by Raymond Dart in 1925. He found the well-preserved skull of an australopithecine who was three to four years old. This skull is often called the Taung Child after Taung, South Africa, where it was found. It is perhaps the most complete skull of *A. africanus* known to exist. 

## Description 
*A. africanus* had a dish-shaped facial structure with teeth that were larger than modern humans'. While its front teeth were larger than its back teeth, the emphasis was on back tooth grinding. 

Males had a sagital crest on the tops of their skulls. Large muscles were attached to this ridge that helped to support the heavy jaw.

## Related pages
* Taung Child
* Human evolution

## References
Poverty in India

**Poverty in India** is an issue that has been important in India however the population of those in poverty has started to decrease.

The Government of India says that the poverty line for rural areas is **₹ 816** per month and **₹ 1000** per month in urban areas. This means that many people do not have enough money. India's proposed but not yet adopted official poverty line is ₹972 (US$14) a month in rural areas or ₹1,407 (US$21) a month in cities.

In India, the average calorie requirement of an average man is 2400 calories per day in Rural area and 2100 calories per day in Urban area.
, 2023]]
In 2012, the latest report by the Planning Commission of India (Tendulkar Committee) reported that 26% of all people in India fall below the international poverty line of US$1.25 per day. Over the last decade, poverty has been witnessed a consistent decline with the levels dropping from 37.2% in 2004-05 to 29.8% in 2009-10. The number of poor people is now estimated at 250 million.

## Analysis 
In 1947 the average income in India was similar to South Korea. South Korea became a developed country by the 2000s, but India did not.

For the first 40 years, India followed the Soviet-style economic planning, nationalization programs and government ownership of industry. Its economic growth averaged about 3.5%, while Asian economies such as South Korea grew on average more than twice that rate annually. Adjusted for population growth in India, its  income per head grew at 1.49% annually, while incomes of South Koreans - rich and poor - rose rapidly.

India's Soviet-style economy included the "Licence Raj": the elaborate licences, regulations and red tape needed to set up and run a business in India between 1947 and 1990. The License Raj was a result of India's decision to have a planned economy, where all aspects of the economy are controlled by the state. Licences were only given to a select few. Corruption flourished under this system. Under this system, the country created few jobs and little wealth. Widespread poverty remained.

## References
The Christian Community

**The Christian Community** (original German name: *Die Christengemeinschaft*) is a Christian denomination. It was founded in 1922 in Dornach (Switzerland) by a group of theologians and pastors, led by the Protestant pastor Friedrich Rittelmeyer. He was helped by Rudolf Steiner, the Austrian philosopher and founder of anthroposophy.

## Other websites
*The Christian Community in North America with extensive introductory articles
*The Christian Community in the UK and Ireland also with introductory articles
Homo

***Homo*** is a genus of upright primates that walk on two legs. The only living species in this genus is *Homo sapiens:* modern humans.

## Ancestry 
The genus began about 2.3 million years ago. Its ancestors were almost certainly some line of Australopithecine apes. Compared to them, species of *Homo* have:
#A larger brain (above 900ml)
#Improved walking and running ability.

## Evolution 
As the genus evolved, the forehead became more vertical, the skull became rounder, the teeth got smaller, the arms got shorter and the legs got longer. The skeleton became more delicate, particularly in our species. 

All *Homo* species used stone tools, but there is no evidence of when language developed. Human evolution remains a much-studied topic.

## Extinct species
* *Homo habilis*
* *Homo rudolfensis*
* *Homo ergaster*
* *Homo erectus*
* *Homo floresiensis*
* *Homo rhodesiensis*
* *Homo georgicus*
**Homo naledi*
* *Homo antecessor*
* *Homo cepranensis*
* *Homo heidelbergensis*
* *Homo neanderthalensis*
* *Denisovans*

## References
Vector graphics

**Vector graphics** (also called **graphical modeling**, or **object-oriented graphics**) is a type of computer graphics. Vector graphics uses geometrical objects, like points, lines, curves, and polygons to model the image. Mathematics can be used to describe the graphics. Most often vectors and matrices are used. The first major use of vector graphics was in the Semi-Automatic Ground Environment air defense system.

The other way to model computer graphics is to use raster graphics. Raster graphics model images as a collection of pixels. Unlike raster images, vector-based images can be scaled indefinitely without loss of quality. Vector graphics are most often used for diagrams, and other things that can be described using simple shapes. Photographs are most often raster images.

## Related pages
*Raster graphics
Ludwig Büchner

**Friedrich Karl Christian Ludwig Büchner** (29 March 1824 &ndash; 1 May 1899) was a German philosopher, physiologist and physician who became one of the exponents of 19th century scientific materialism. 

Büchner was born at Darmstadt, Germany, on 29 March 1824. From 1842 to 1848 he studied physics, chemistry, botany, mineralogy, philosophy and medicine at the University of Giessen. In 1852 he became lecturer in medicine at the University of Tübingen, where he published his great work *Kraft und Stoff: Empirisch-naturphilosophische Studien* (Force and Matter: Empiricophilosophical Studies, 1855). In this work, he sought to demonstrate the indestructibility of matter and force. The extreme materialism of this work excited so much opposition that he was compelled to give up his post at Tübingen. He retired to Darmstadt, where he practiced as a physician and contributed regularly to pathological and physiological magazines. 

He died at Darmstadt on 1 May 1899. 

Ludwig Büchner was the brother of Georg Büchner, a famous playwright.

## References
## Other websites
*Some brief excerpts from Büchner's *Force and Matter*
Goitre

A **goitre** or **goiter** (Latin: *struma*), also called a **bronchocele**, is a swelling in the neck (just below Adam's apple or larynx).  It happens when the thyroid gland gets larger (usually because the body is not getting enough iodine). Goitre and associated deaf-muteism was widespread in Switzerland until the 1920s, when iodised salt was introduced. 

## Classification 
Goitres are classified in different ways (put into different categories): 

* A *diffuse goitre* is a goitre that has spread through all of the thyroid.  A diffuse goitre can be a "simple goitre" or a "multi nodular goitre."
* *Toxic goiter* is a goitre with hyperthyroidism.  These most commonly caused by Graves disease, but they can also be caused by inflammation or a multinodular goitre.
* Any other type of goitre is called a *non-toxic goitre*.  These may be caused by lithium, some kinds of autoimmune diseases, or other problems.  People with non-toxic goiters have low thyroid levels (hypothyroidism) or normal thyroid levels.

## Causes 
Some of the causes of goitre include:
* Thyroid cancer
* Iodine deficiency (not having enough iodine in the body)
* Hashimoto's thyroiditis
* Graves-Basedow disease
* Congenital hypothyroidism (hypothyroidism that babies have when they are born, caused by errors in the way the body makes thyroid hormone)
* Thyroiditis (inflammation of the thyroid gland)
* Side effects of certain medications

New research says that some people may be more vulnerable to goitre (more likely to have goiters) because they inherited that vulnerability (it was passed down to them from their parents).

## Famous goitre sufferers 
* Within two years of each other, President George H. W. Bush and his wife Barbara Bush both were diagnosed with Graves disease and larger-than-normal thyroid glands.  President Bush's disease caused hyperthyroidism and cardiac dysrhythmia (irregular heart rate).

## Related pages 
* David Marine conducted substantial research on the treatment of goitre with iodine.
* Endemic goitre
* Struma ovarii—a kind of teratoma
* Thyroid hormone receptor

## References 
## Other websites 
* 
* 
* National Health Services, UK 
* Network for Sustained Elimination of Iodine Deficiency
* Network for Sustained Elimination of Iodine Deficiency  - alternate site at Emory University's School of Public Health
Josh Beckett

**Joshua Patrick Beckett** (born May 15, 1980) is an American former Major League Baseball starting pitcher. He has played for the Florida Marlins, Boston Red Sox, and the Los Angeles Dodgers.

## Other websites 
*
Silence (band)

**Silence** is a German rock - heavy metal band. It was founded in 1995 in Bavaria, Germany. Its founding members were Stefan Mueller (guitar), Holger Kronester (drums), and the brothers Bernd (guitar) and Marco Wolf (bass). They played a mix of rock and metal music. Their music always had a dark, depressive side.

The band's first successful album was *Enola*. It was listed as "Album of the month" in German Metal-Hammer. The album was released in 2000. Three years later they recorded *the p/o/u/r letters*. It got very good reviews all over Germany and Europe. In 2007 they released their 5 track EP *The Badtime Stories*. With this album they got a record deal with the German record label Biohazzard Records, a sublabel of Danse macabre.

In 2010 they released the follow-up full-length album to *the p/o/u/r letters*. It was titled *Life: Failed*. 

The today's members of the band consists of Stefan (singer), Bernd (guitar), Sebastian (keyboard), Bastian (guitar), Oliver (bass) and Bastian (drums).

## Discography 
* 1996 *Empty Souls* (Demo)
* 2000 *Enola*
* 2003 *The p/o/u/r letters*
* 2007 *The Badtime Stories*
* 2010 *Life: Failed*

## Other websites 
* Official website 
* Myspace-Site
Curt Schilling

**Curtis Montague (Curt) Schilling** (born November 14, 1966 in Anchorage, Alaska) is an American Major League Baseball starting pitcher. Schilling is a right-handed starting pitcher for the Boston Red Sox. He has won World Series championships in 2001 with the Arizona Diamondbacks and in 2004 and 2007 with the Red Sox. Schilling began his career on September 7, 1988 playing for the Baltimore Orioles.

On Wednesday, February 5, 2014 Schilling revealed that he has been diagnosed with and is being treated for cancer.

In 2016, Schilling announced that he is interested in running for President of the United States in the future if Hillary Clinton were to win.

## References 
## Other websites 
* Official Curt Schilling's Blog 
* 
* Curt Schilling  - Official Red Sox Web Site
Flag of Kurdistan

]]
The **Flag of Kurdistan** (Kurdish: *Alaya Kurdistanê*) has three colours and are placed horizontally. The top colour is red, the middle is white and the bottom is green. In the middle of the white is a sun with 21 rays. The 21 rays represent Navruz.
Cincinnati Reds

The **Cincinnati Reds** are a Major League Baseball team from Cincinnati, Ohio, are the oldest team in professional baseball, established in 1869. The team was known as the Cincinnati Red Stockings until 1878, when the team changed the name to the current Cincinnati Reds. The Reds joined the National League in 1876 The Reds have won World Series championships in 1919, 1940, 1975, 1976 and 1990. The strong Reds teams of the 1970s were nicknamed "The Big Red Machine".  From 1912 to 1970, the Reds home stadium was Crosley Field, from 1970-2002 home games were played at Riverfront Stadium. Since 2003 the Reds have played home games at Great American Ball Park.

## Other websites
*Official Website
Wheel of Fortune

**Wheel of Fortune** could mean a popular TV game show:
**Wheel of Fortune* (US game show), the current, syndicated US version.
**Wheel of Fortune* (US daytime game show), the former, daytime US version.
**Wheel of Fortune* (UK game show)
**Wheel of Fortune* (Australian game show)
**Wheel of Fortune 2000*, a kids' version of the series
**Wheel of Fortune* in different countries
*Video game versions of the show

**Wheel of Fortune** could also mean:
**Wheel of Fortune* (1952), an older, unrelated American television series
*The Wheel of Fortune, a religious/philosophical motif
**Hence, the Wheel of Fortune (Tarot card)
*"Wheel of Fortune" (song), recorded by Kay Starr
*"Wheel of Fortune" (Ace of Base song)
*"Wheel of Fortune" (*Dead Zone*), the pilot episode of *The Dead Zone*
*Big Six wheel, a gambling game
*Wheel of Fortune House, a historic building in Kent County, Delaware, United States.
Erbil

**Erbil** (also written **Arbil** or **Irbil**) is the capital of Kurdistan Region. In Kurdish, the city is called ***Hewlêr***. 1,190,251 people live there, mostly Kurds. The city is 80 kilometers (50 miles) east of Mosul.

## References
Postscript

**PostScript** (**PS**) is a programming language. It was developed by Adobe, in 1984. It is a standard used by many computer printers. There are three different versions of it, Postscript Level 1, Level 2, and Level 3.

The Portable Document Format is another standard, also from Adobe. It is better adapted to printing. Many things computer languages have, have been dropped to develop PDF.

## "Hello world"
And finally, a Hello World program, the customary way to show a small example of a complete program in a given language, might look like this in Postscript:
 %!PS
 /Courier findfont
 20 scalefont
 setfont
 72 500 moveto
 (Hello world!) show
 showpage

or if the output device has a console

 %!PS
 (Hello world!) =
Raster graphics

**Raster graphics** is one of the two different kinds of computer graphics. Raster graphics are also called bitmap graphics.

With raster graphics, images are made of many tiny dots. The dots are called pixels.

The individual pixels of a raster image each has its own color.

The problem with raster graphics is that they can look blurry when zoomed in on. Therefore, there is another type of graphics called Vector graphics that work differently.

A computer monitor is a good example of a raster image because it is made of pixels. The number of pixels it has is called the resolution of the monitor. Another example is photographs, which are normally raster images. in the top left corner is a raster image. When zoomed in, it might look like the bigger smiley face. Every square stands for a pixel. Looking even closer, you can see the three different pixels at the bottom. Their colors made by adding up the amounts of red, green and blue in each one.]]
Many printers today use computer languages like Postscript or PCL. These languages are usually based on the other type of computer graphics, called vector graphics. 

But to be printed, these images need to be translated into raster graphics first. 

This is done by a part called a Raster Image Processor. Most modern printers have those processors inside the printer. Some printers use a special piece of software on the computer to do that job.
## References
Horse chestnut

:*The other kind of chestnut is called sweet chestnut. It is not related to this tree*

A **horse chestnut** (*Aesculus hippocastanum*), also known as the **horse-chestnut**, **buckeye**, **conker tree**, or **Spanish chestnut**, is a large deciduous tree. It is native to southern Europe, in the Balkans. It is often grown in temperate climates. It can grow up to 36 metres tall.  The name of the tree (and the whole genus of similar trees) is because its fruit, the conker, was used to treat horses against cough and some parasite worms. 

Humans cannot eat horse chestnuts. The trees are not closely related to sweet chestnuts.

Baden-Baden-Aesculus hippocastanum-74-Rosskastanie-Blatt-Bluete-2012-gje.jpg
Baden-Baden-Aesculus hippocastanum-84-Rosskastanie-Bluete-2012-gje.jpg
Baden-Baden-Aesculus x carnea-20-Rotbluehende Rosskastanie-Bluete-2012-gje.jpg
Baden-Baden-Aesculus hippocastanum-96-Rosskastanie-Frucht-2012-gje.jpg
Bingo

**Bingo** or **Housie** is a game where people try to match numbers drawn at random with numbers on a card. When someone does this, they call "BINGO!" or "HOUSE!" very loud so everyone playing can hear.

The game was invented in Italy in the 1500s. The game slowly moved to other countries like France, Great Britain, and other parts of Europe. Bingo originates from the Italian lottery, Il Gioco del Lotto d'Italia. In Paris the game was known as Le Lotto, played by the rich part of French society. Since then the game become popular all over the world and today Charitable Bingo in US is worth $3 Billion.

 and New Zealand]]In the United Kingdom, the game is played by marking a card. The card has 27 squares in 3 rows of 9. 15 squares have a numbers between 1 and 90. 5 numbers on each row. The winner is the first player to mark the 5 numbers in one line or all fifteen numbers on the card.

Bingo cards are normally printed in strips of six. A strip of six cards has every number between 1 and 90. Many people buy only 4 cards, so that the other two cards were usually wasted.  Edward Thompson and Company, the largest printer of bingo tickets in the UK found a way to print strips of 12 so that there would be less waste, and so that any 6 tickets had all of the numbers 1 to 90.

In the UK, all money used to buy the bingo ticket must be given back in prize money. The owner of a bingo club is allowed to charge an entrance fee and also a "participation fee" (a fee to be allowed to take part in the bingo game).

In the United States, the game is played by a group of people. All of the group has cards and tokens. When a number is called that you have on your card, you place a token on that spot. The first person to make a line of 5 tokens up or down, across, or diagonally wins the game. This game is played for prizes usually.

## References
9 (number)

**9** (**nine**) is the Arabic number which comes after 8, before 10, and two before eleven. It is an odd number, and is the highest single-digit number.  It is also a square number. In Roman numerals, nine can be written as **IX**.

The number also looks like an inverted *6*. To tell the difference between the two, they are often underlined.

## Mathematics 
The number nine (9) takes the shape of an upside-down six (6), is a multiple of 3, and the third square number after 4.

Nine is also a composite number, having the factors: 1, 3 and 9 itself. Nine is the first odd composite number
6 (number)

The number **six** is a natural number that comes after the number five, before the number seven, and two before eight. 

Six is also the first perfect number which means that the sum of its factors (1, 2 and 3) are equal to the number itself (6). The next perfect number is 28. In Roman numerals, it is **VI**.

The number six is an even number.

The number 6 (six) is half a dozen.
4 (number)

## Mathematics 
In mathematics, the number four is an even number and the smallest composite number. Four is also the second square number after one.
A small minority of people have four fingers on each hand and four toes on each foot. Four squared is 16, and four doubled is 8.

In geometry, quadrilaterals or tetragons are a kind of shapes called polygons have four sides and vertices, to which squares are quadrilaterals with sides of same length and vertices of the same wideness.
Hurling

**Hurling** (in Irish, *iománaíocht* or *iomáint*) is an Irish outdoor team sport that is similar to hockey and is played by two teams of 15 people.

The object of the game is for players to use a wooden axe-shaped stick, called a hurley (in Irish a "camán", pronounced kam-awn) or a hurl, to hit a small ball, called a sliotar (pronounced slith-er), between the opponents' goalposts either over the crossbar for one point, or under the crossbar into a net guarded by a goalkeeper for one goal, which is equivalent to three points.

The ball may be caught in the hand and carried for not more than four steps, struck in the air, or struck on the ground with the stick. It may be kicked or slapped with an open hand (the hand pass) for short-range passing. A player who wants to carry the ball for more than three steps must bounce or balance the ball on the end of the stick, and the ball may be handled only twice while in the player's possession.

## Statistics 
 Camán agus sliotar)]]

* A team has 15 players, or "hurlers."
* The hurley or hurl (hurl), or *camán*, is generally 70–100&nbsp;cm (32–36 inches) long.
* The goalkeeper's hurley usually has a *bás* (the flattened, curved end) twice the size of other players' hurleys to provide some advantage against the fast moving sliotar.
* The ball, known as a *sliotar*, has a cork center and a leather cover; it is between 23 and 25&nbsp;cm in circumference and has a mass between 100 and 130 g.
* A good strike with a hurley can propel the ball up to 150&nbsp;km/h (93&nbsp;mph) and 100&nbsp;m (305&nbsp;ft) .
* A ball hit over the bar is worth one point. A ball that is hit under the bar is worth three points, which is called a goal.

## Playing field 
 Hurling is played on a pitch approximately 137&nbsp;m long and 82&nbsp;m wide The goals at each end of the field are formed by two posts, which are usually 6&nbsp;m high, set 6.4&nbsp;m apart, and connected 2.44&nbsp;m above the ground by a crossbar. A net extending in back of the goal is attached to the crossbar and lower goal posts.

## Related pages
* Shinty

## Other websites 
* Rules 
* Official website of the Gaelic Athletic Association
* 'An Fear Rua - The GAA Unplugged!' 
* Video introductions to hurling: Part One , Part Two , Part Three . 
* The Continental Youth Championships 
* A Brief History of the Argentine Hurling Club 
* Hurling in Australia and New Zealand 
* Gaelic Football, Hurling are Irish Passions, National Geographic News
* The First Hurling Match in the United States 
* Sliotar Hurling & Camogie Magazine 
* Selection of hurling photos 
* Seamus J. King, author website
* What is Hurling, youtube
8 (number)

The number **eight** is a natural number that comes after the number seven, before the number nine, and two before ten. In Roman numerals, it is **VIII**.

## Mathematics 
In mathematics, the number eight is an even number and a composite number. Eight is also a power of two, being 2 times itself 3 times.
Donatello

, a politician]]

**Donatello** (born **Donato di Niccolò di Betto Bardi**, c. 1386 – 13 December 1466) was an Italian sculptor during the Renaissance. He lived in Florence. He worked in stone, bronze, wood, clay, and wax  with several assistants. His reputation as a great artist was stated by Vasari, and has always stood well. He worked in Rome, Sienna and Padua as well as Florence, and worked for the Church, for Cosimo de' Medici, and for various city authorities.

He was born in Florence. He was the son of Niccolo di Betto Bardi. His mother's name is not known. When Donatello was older, he studied with Filippo Brunelleschi the architect. He also helped the sculptor Lorenzo Ghiberti to make statues for the Battistero di San Giovanni.

Donatello's work was inspired by ancient sculpture. He was the first sculptor of his time to celebrate the human body, an idea that had died out after Greek and Roman times. His life-size statue of David is his best-known work. The David is the first known free-standing nude statue made since antiquity. Much of his work was done for display in grand churches. Between 1415 and 1426, he made five statues for the Florence Cathedral, also known as the Duomo.

Donatello was a realist: an artist whose sculpture showed the subjects as real people. Naturalism and the showing of human feelings are his influences.

## Related pages 
* Italian Renaissance art

## References
7 (number)

The number **seven** is a natural number that comes after six, before eight. In Roman numerals, it is **VII**.

## Mathematics 
In mathematics, the number seven is an odd number and a prime number.
It is also a Mersenne prime.
### Divisibility Rule
* To test if an integer is divisible by 7 or not,
# Take off the last digit and multiply it by 2. 
# Subtract that product from the root number (the integer without the last digit).
# Repeat the second step again and again until it is clear that the number is divisible by 7 or not.
**Example**

918785
# 5**×**2**=**10, 91878**-**10**=**91868
# 8×2**=**16, 9186**-**16**=**9170
# 0×2**=0**, 917**-**0**=**917
# 7**×**2**=**14, 91**-**14**=**77
77 is divisible by 7, so the original number 918785 is also divisible by 7.

**Proof**:
Pretend a is the root number and b is the last digit. Then 10a+b is the whole number.
If the whole number (10a+b) is divisible by 7, 3a+b is also a multiple of 7. And (3a+b)-7b= 3a-6b is also a multiple 7. That proves 3a-6b is divisible by seven, since 3 and 6 are both multiples of 3. So a-2b is also divisible by 7.

## In the world
*There are seven colours in the rainbow.
*The atomic number of nitrogen.
*The number of horizontal rows of elements in the periodic table.
*The seven sacraments of the Catholic church.
*The number of completion and fullness (HOLY BIBLE - Genesis 1; 2:1-2 - God is described to have created the Heavens and the Earth in six days, and rested on the seventh).
*Seven gates of heaven (QUR'AN - 15th chapter AL-HIJR verse 44)915:44).
*Seven days in a week.
*Seven seas and seven continents.
*The Wonders of the World (seven each in different segments of our world, such as cities, nature, underwater, and space)
*Portuguese football player Cristiano Ronaldo wears the number 7, widely known as CR7.
*“007”, is the codename for James Bond, a fictional MI6 spy (the “00” prefix signifying a “license to kill” and the “7” identifying Bond as the seventh agent in the 00 section of MI6).
*The seven dwarfs in Walt Disney’s ‘Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs’ (1937).
*The number 7 is often considered as luck in Western culture.

## References
Adam Dunn

{{Infobox MLB player
| name        = Adam Dunn
| image       = File:D-Backs Adam Dunn 2.jpg
| width       = 250
| caption     = Adam Dunn with the Arizona Diamondbacks
| team        = 
| number      = 32
| position    = First baseman / Outfielder / Designated hitter
| birth_date   = 
| birth_place  = Houston, Texas
| bats        = Left
| throws      = Right
| debutdate   = July 20
| debutyear   = 2001
| debutteam   = Cincinnati Reds
|statleague = MLB
| stat1label  = Batting average
| stat1value  = .237
| stat2label  = Hits
| stat2value  = 1,631
| stat3label  = Home runs
| stat3value  = 462
| stat4label  = Runs batted in
| stat4value  = 1,168
| stat5label  = Strikeouts
| stat5value  = 2,379
| teams       = 
* Cincinnati Reds (2001–{2008)
* Arizona Diamondbacks (2008)
* Washington Nationals (2009–2010)
* Chicago White Sox  (2011–(2014)
* Oakland Athletics (2014)

| awards      = 
*All-Star selection (2002)
}}
**Adam Troy Dunn** (born November 9, 1979, in Houston, Texas), nicknamed **"Big Donkey"**, is an American retired Major League Baseball first baseman, outfielder, and designated hitter. He played for the Cincinnati Reds, Arizona Diamondbacks, Washington Nationals, Chicago White Sox and Oakland Athletics. He batted left-handed and throws right-handed. Dunn retired after the 2014 season.

## References
## Other websites
*Official Facebook
* *JockBio.com* profile
5 (number)

The number **five** is a number that comes after four, followed by six, then seven. In Roman numerals, it is **V**. 

## Mathematics 
Five is the third prime number, after two and three, and before seven. The number five is also an odd number.

Most  have five fingers (including one thumb) on each hand and five toes on each foot.

Numbers ending in five are always divisible by 5

The number 5 exists

## Creation 
It is not known for  who and how the shape of the number five was created, but most people think it was made by the Brahmin Indians.
Sliotar

A **sliotar** (or **sliothar**) is a hard solid sphere slightly larger than a tennis ball, consisting of a cork core covered by two pieces of leather stitched together. Sometimes called a "puck" or "hurling ball", it resembles an American baseball with more pronounced stitching.  It is used in the Gaelic games of hurling, camogie, rounders and shinty.

Early sliotars used various materials, depending on the part of the country:

* hollow bronze
* wood and leather
* wood, rope and animal hair.
Camogie

**Camogie** (in Irish, *camógaíocht*) is an Irish team sport, organised by the *Camogie Association of Ireland*, the women's variant of hurling. The rules are almost identical to hurling with a few exceptions.

One is that goalkeepers wear the same colours as outfield players and a player in camogie can handpass a score, which is not allowed in the men's game. All games last 60 minutes (senior inter-county hurling games last 70), and dropping the camogie stick to handpass the ball is allowed. The All-Ireland Final is held every year in Croke Park during September, usually the week between the hurling final and Gaelic football final. There are two main competitions; the National League which is staged during the winter-spring months and is used as a warm-up to the All-Ireland Championships during the summer.

The reigning champions are Cork.

## The name "camogie"
Camogie/hurling is unique in that it uses a different name for the version played by men and women. The reason is complicated: men play using a curved stick called in Irish a *camán*. Women would use a shorter stick, called by the diminutive form *camóg*. The suffix -*aíocht* was added to both words to give names for the sports: *camánaíocht* (which became *iománaíocht*) and *camógaíocht*. When the Gaelic Athletic Association was founded in 1884 the English-origin name "hurling" was given to the men's game. When an organisation for women was set up in 1904, it was decided to Anglicise the Irish name *camógaíocht* to *camogie*.

### Clubs 
* Tara Camogie Club, London
* Kilcoole Camogie Club, Kilcoole Co. Wicklow
* Green Isle Camogie Club London 

## References
## Other websites
* Camogie.ie  Official Camogie Association Website
Rounders

**Rounders**  is a sport which originated in Great Britain and Ireland. The game is regulated by the *Gaelic Athletic Association* (GAA) in Ireland and the *National Rounders Association* (NRA) in the UK.  Both have different, although broadly similar, game-play and culture.  Competitions are held between teams from both traditions, often with one version being played in the morning and the other being played in the afternoon.

Game-play centers around innings where teams act at turns being batters and fielders.  A maximum of nine players are allowed to play in fielding positions at one time. Points ("rounders") are scored by the batting team by completing a circuit around the field through four bases/posts without being put 'out' - for example, by a ball they batted being 'caught-out' or touching a tagged base/post.

The earliest nationally formalised rules of play were devised by the GAA in Ireland in 1884. 

Although it is generally considered a school game, rounders is played at international level as well. Currently, teams from Canada, England, Ireland, the Isle of Man, Scotland and Wales compete against each other. 
Some theories on the origin of baseball claim that baseball is based on rounders. Rounders is a sport played with a bat and ball when the ball is thrown to you the ball is meant to be hit with the bat.

## Other websites
* Gaelic Athletic Association
** Rounders Council of Ireland 
* National Rounders Association 
* Schools Rounders
* DMOZ - Rounders 
* Welsh Baseball Union 

**Official rules of rounders:**
* Ireland: GAA Rules for Playing Rounders 
* England: NRA Simplified Rules  (and information on purchasing official rule books)
Innings

A cricket match is divided into phases known as **innings** (the same spelling is used for both singular and plural) and, depending on the type of match, there may be two or four innings, as defined in Law 13 of *The Laws of Cricket*. In each innings, while one team is batting, the other is fielding, and a key member of the fielding team is bowling. Throughout an innings, all eleven members of the fielding team are on the field, but only two batters. When the batting team's innings has been completed, the teams reverse roles for the next innings, the fielding team becoming the batting team, and *vice-versa*. The match ends when all innings have been completed.

An innings ends when ten of the eleven batters are out: i.e., the team is "all out". One batter remains but cannot play alone and so is "not out". In a first-class match, the innings can end early if the captain of the batting team decides to declare the innings closed for tactical reasons before his batters are all out. In limited overs matches, the innings ends after the prescribed number of six-ball overs have been bowled.

## Overs
Throughout an innings, the fielding team utilises its bowlers to bowl the ball to the batters. The bowlers take it in turns to bowl, and the length of each turn, known as an **over**, is six successive deliveries. The name is derived from the umpire's call of "Over!" when the ball is out of play following the bowler's sixth delivery. If the bowler does not concede any runs in the over, that over is termed a "maiden" and the bowler is credited with these in his match and career statistics. On completion of an over, the fielding team changes ends and the two umpires swap roles.

The next over begins with a different bowler operating from the other end of the pitch, and bowling to the batter who was the non-striker at the end of the previous over. A bowler cannot operate from both ends consecutively, but will usually bowl every other over from the same end through several overs until he/she completes a "spell", and the captain replaces them with another bowler. It follows that two bowlers are often deployed in tandem. When a bowler completes an over, they stay on the field to become one of the fielders until bowling again.

Six deliveries is now the standard length of an over. Historically, the four-ball over and the eight-ball over have been used. It is believed that the four-ball over had always been deployed until 1889, when a five-ball over was temporarily used in English cricket. The six-ball over was introduced in 1900. Australia was the main proponent of the eight-ball over, in use from 1936 to 1979.

## Super Over 
A **Super Over** is a tiebreaker in which both teams get extra innings with a maximum of 6 legal deliveries. If the teams are still tied after the Super Over, more Super Overs are played until one of the teams scores more runs than its opponents.

One notable time a Super Over happened was during the 2019 Cricket World Cup Final.

## References
Rounders (movie)

***Rounders*** is a 1998 movie about the underground world of high-stakes poker. The movie was directed by John Dahl and starred Matt Damon and Edward Norton. It follows two friends who need to quickly earn enough cash playing poker to pay off a huge debt. The term “rounder” refers to a person whose sole means of earning a living is by playing cards.

The movie opened to mixed reviews and only made a modest amount of money. However, with the growing popularity of Texas hold 'em and other poker games, *Rounders* has become a cult hit.

## Featured cast
* Matt Damon as Mike McDermott
* Edward Norton as Lester 'Worm' Murphy
* John Malkovich as Teddy KGB

## Other websites 
* HomePokerGames review
*
Cricket (insect)

**Crickets**, family **Gryllidae** (also known as **true crickets**), are insects that are closely related to katydids or bush crickets (family Tettigoniidae). They have somewhat flattened bodies and long antennae. There are about 900 species of crickets. They tend to be nocturnal. Crickets are often confused with grasshoppers, which they are also related to, because they have a similar body structure including jumping hind legs.

## Cricket chirping 
Crickets are known for their chirp (which only male crickets can do; male wings have ridges or "teeth" that act like a "comb and file" instrument). The left forewing has a thick rib (a modified vein) which bears 50 to 300 "teeth". The chirp is made by raising their left forewing to a 45 degree angle and rubbing it against the upper hind edge of the right forewing, which has a thick scraper (Berenbaum 1995). This sound producing action is called "stridulation" and the song is species-specific. There are two types of cricket songs: a calling song and a courting song. The calling song attracts females and repels other males, and is fairly loud.

### Jurassic chirp reconstructed 
Night-time in the Jurassic included the sound of chirping bush crickets. This is according to scientists who have reconstructed the song of a cricket that chirped 165 million years ago. "A remarkably complete fossil of the prehistoric insect enabled the team to see the structures in its wings that rubbed together to make the sound".

## References 
## Other websites 
* Intro on house crickets
* How to raise your own crickets
* Crickets in the Classroom
* Intro Information
 drawings and activities
* http://www.insecta-inspecta.com/crickets/field/index.html 
* The cricket   suicide (video) 
* Singing Insects of North America  An online field guide
Gaelic Athletic Association

The **Gaelic Athletic Association** (**GAA**) (Irish: *Cumann Lúthchleas Gael*) is an organisation which is mostly focused on promoting Gaelic Games - traditional Irish sports, such as hurling, camogie, Gaelic football, handball, and rounders. The organisation also promotes Irish music and dance, and the Irish language. It is the largest and most popular organisation in Ireland with some 800,000 members out of the island's population of almost 6 million.

Gaelic football and Hurling are the main and most popular activities promoted by the organisation.

Gaelic football is a contact sport that combines the skills of soccer, basketball, and some of the skills of volleyball in a high-scoring game in which players punch or kick the ball over the crossbar  for one point, or kick the ball into a  net on the bottom for three points.  The game also has similarities with Australian Rules Football (see below).

Hurling is a stick-and-ball game that combines many of the skills of field hockey, lacrosse, and baseball but pre-dates all three.  Players can catch the ball and use a hurley (Irish: *camán*) to hit a ball (sliotar) between the goalposts using the same scoring system as in Gaelic football and on the same size of field.  It is not to be confused with the Scottish game of shinty.

## Bibliography
* The GAA: A History by Marcus de Burca, Gill & MacMillan, 1984 & 2000, 
* Illustrated History of the GAA, by Eoghan Corry, Gill & MacMillan, 2005, 
* The GAA Book of Lists, by Eoghan Corry, Hodder Headline, 2005, 
* The Gaelic Athletic Association And Irish Nationalist Politics 1884-1924 by W F Mandle (Gill & MacMillan and Christopher Helm 1987). 240pp 
* Michael Cusack and The GAA by Marcus De Burca, Anvil, 1989, 192pp,  
* Micheal Ciosog by Liam P O Cathnia, Clochomhar Tta, 1982. 
* Croke Of Cashel by Mark Tierney, Gill And MacMillan, 1976.
* Maurice Davin (1842-1927) First President Of The GAA by Seamus O'Riain, Geography Publications, 1994, 
* *Croke Park* by Tim Carey, Collins Press, 2004, 
* God and the Referee: Unforgettable GAA Quotations, by Eoghan Corry, Hodder Headline, 2005, 
* History of Hurling, by Seamus King, Gill & MacMillan, 2005, 
* Sceal Na hIomana by Liam P O Cathnia, Clochomhar Tta, 1980.
* Caman, 2000 Years Of Irish Hurling by Art O Maolfabhail, 1973.
* Gaelic football, by Jack  Mahon, Gill & MacMillan, 2002 & 2006, 
* Bairi Cos In Eirinn by Liam P O Cathnia, Clochomhar Tta, 1984.
* Legends of the Ash, by Brendan Fullam, Wolfhound Press, 1998, 

## References
## Other websites 
*GAA official website
*Rules and Regulations Part 1 
*Rules and Regulations Part 2 
*An Fear Rua: The GAA Unplugged!  - analysis, discussion forums, satire and humour on GAA topics.
*Hogan Stand
*National GAA Results and Fixtures on Aertel
*Local GAA Results and Fixtures on Aertel
*GAA World  by *The Irish News*
*Index of GAA club sites 
*Squareball - The First GAA Fashion Brand 
*GAA News Results and Fixtures from Sports.ie 
*GAA Results 
*Hurling Blog - News, analysis, stats and opinion on hurling 
*Michael Cusack Visitor Centre
Gaelic handball

**Gaelic handball** is a game where two players use their hands to return a ball against a wall. The game is similar to American handball; Gaelic handballers play against their US counterparts.

## Other websites 
*HandballCity.com 
*Colorado Handball Association in USA
*www.handball.ie 
*Irish Handball Results
*www.gaa.ie 
*United States Handball Association
*Collegiate Handball in Ireland 
*World Pro Handballl
*handballvideo.com
*Handball Social Network