open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Armenian Revolutionary Army

The **Armenian Revolutionary Army** (ARA) was a terror organization. Its last attack occurred in 1985.

## The Lisbon Five
5 Armenian gunmen  (known as "Lisbon Five") attacked the Turkish embassy in Lisbon in 27 July, 1983. The first Armenian was killed by security guards at the start of the attack. The wife and the son of Osman Ozturk, the Turkish chargé d'affaires, and a Portuguese policeman also died in the assault, 4 people were injured.  Portugal's Interior Minister Eduardo Perella said the government received intelligence information "that Armenian groups might attack Wednesday and beefed up security at diplomatic missions". 
The Armenian Revolutionary Army claimed responsibility for attack.

In a message dropped in the mailbox of The Associated Press office in Lisbon, the group said: "We have decided to blow up this building and remain under the collapse. This is not suicide... but rather our sacrifice to the altar of freedom". The group said the attack had been carried out because "Turkey and its allies refused to acknowledge the genocide of Armenians".

## References
* Armenians storm the embassy // "The Globe", 28/7/1983.
* Armenian Revolutionary Army at Tkb.org
Simputer

The **Simputer** is a small, cheap device, similar to a personal digital assistant (palmtop). The unique feature of this device is a smart-card interface which allows a single Simputer to be used by many users. User's private data can be kept on a cheap smart-card. This device was constructed by an Indian company- Simputer Trust. The name stands for "Simple computer".

## History
The Simputer project was invented during the organization of the Global Village, an International Seminar on Information Technology for Developing Countries  in October 1998. The discussion was about the big need for a low-cost mass access device which will bring local-language IT to the masses. Inventing a name for the new device, the purpose was to find a complex acronym Thus Simputer is a Simple, Inexpensive, Multi-lingual comPUTER. Later it was expanded to Simple, Inexpensive Multi-lingual People's compUTER. Now it is also called "computer for the masses".

## Features
It is similar to the Linux Advanced Radio Terminal and the Intel StrongARM reference platform. It has processor Intel StrongARM 200+ MHz, 64MB of RAM, 32MB Flash ROM. It can use cheap smart-cards with capacity 8KB. It has also USB connectivity and software modem so can connect to the internet. The 320x240 LCD interface in Simputer is with a touch panel overlay on liquid-crystal display. The operating system runs on a version of the Linux Kernel. The software used in Simputer is text-to-speech. This tool may use speakers and microphone because it has special jacks. It has also a built-in Infrared Data Association port. The device is powered by 3 AAA sized NiMH batteries.

## Licensees
The Simputer Trust has licensed manufacturers to produce devices based on the Simputer. These companies are: PicoPeta Simputers and Encore Technologies.

## Future prospects
The tool developed is very generic and has similar devices in many other countries. It is ideally suited for developing and under developed countries like: India, Azerbaijan, Mauritius, Mongolia, Ghana, Uzbekistan, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, Thailand or Vietnam.

## Sources
* http://www.simputer.org/simputer/history/ 
* http://www.itu.int/osg/spu/digitalbridges/materials/marwaha_paper.pdf  (International  Cooperation in the ICT Field: Bridging the Digital Divide)
* http://indic-computing.sourceforge.net/designaxes/analysis.html 
* http://www.simputer.org/simputer/about/ 

## Other websites
* http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/1535992.stm
* http://www.outlookindia.com/pti_news.asp?id=85140
* http://www.dmoz.org/Computers/Systems/Handhelds/Open_Source/Simputer/
* http://www.amidasimputer.com/ 
* http://www.picopeta.com/
* http://www.rediff.com/money/2001/apr/24spec.htm
* http://www.ncoretech.com/products/ia/simputer/index.html
Damage deposit

A **damage deposit** or **deposit** is a sum of money that is paid when one  rents an item. It is paid to ensure the owner that it is returned in good condition. It is very common with rented accommodation. There it may also be called a **tenancy deposit** or in some places a **tenancy bond**.

The owner of the item (the landlord in the case of accommodation) will take a sum of money from the person(s) renting the item (the tenant). If the item is returned in good condition at the end of the tenancy the owner should return the deposit. If the item is returned with damage the cost of repairing that damage may be charged against the deposit, and part (or none) of the deposit will be returned.

## Other websites
* Tenants' information guide on deposits from Shelter 
* Tenants' information guide on deposits  aimed at students, but useful for most types of tenants.
* Tenancy Deposit Scheme for Regulated Agents  - a scheme aiming to aid fairness in tenancy deposits.
Lodging

**Lodging** or **holiday accommodation** is a type of accommodation. People who travel and stay away from home for more than a day need **lodging** mainly for sleeping. Other purposes are safety, shelter from cold and rain, and to have a place to store luggage and being able to take a shower.

They do that in a hotel, hostel or hostal, a private home (for example, a bed and breakfast or guest house place), in a tent, or a caravan/camper (often on a campsite). 

Lodging may also refer to when cereal crops fall over, often due to wind or rain pressure, making grain harvest difficult.

## Related pages
* Homelessness
* Hostel
* Tourism

## Other websites
* Simply translated accommodation portal available in 14 languages: Residenzo
* The Lodging Wiki at Hospitality-411 
* World Lodging Guide 
*VEHICALL, a worldwide free service for holiday rentals

## References
Accommodation

**Accommodation** can mean:

*Accommodation (in British usage) or accommodations (in American usage) is lodging in a house or similar living quarters for travellers in hotels or on cruise ships, or prisoners, etc.
* Accommodation (religion), a theological principle linked to divine revelation within the Christian church
* Accommodation (law), a term used in United States contract law
**Accommodation Bill, a bill of exchange
* Accommodation (eye), the sense in ophthalmology
* Accommodation (physiology), changes in bodily function due to repeated exposure to drugs or toxins
* Accommodation (psychology), how existing mental structures and behaviors are modified to adapt to new experiences according to Jean Piaget (see also assimilation)
* Communication Accommodation Theory, how which people change their language behavior to be more or less similar to that of the people with whom they are interacting.
* Accommodation is a linguistics term meaning grammatical acceptance of unstated values as in Accommodation of presuppositions
* Biblical Accommodation is the adaptation of text from the Bible to signify ideas different from those originally expressed.
* Accommodation (education) are changes in the classroom to assist a learner with a disability
Republic of Venice

The **Most Serene Republic of Venice** (, ), was a state where modern Venice is now. It existed for one thousand one hundred years, from the late 7th century until the late 18th century (1797, when it was conquered by Napoleon). It was an great economic and trading power which was ruled by a leader called the Doge.

Venice was, at its height, the most powerful trading state in Europe.
It was based in the lagoon communities of the historically prosperous city of Venice. It held property in many places. This property was known as the *Stato da Màr*. 

There were conflicts with the Catholic Church in Rome, and with Austria. War with their enemies brought the plague in 1630. In 16 months 50,000 people died in Venice, one third of the population. War with Turkish pirates
drained their strength. In 1714 the Turks declared was on Venice, and captured islands of the Peloponnese which had belonged to Venice.
The Republic of Venice declined in the 18th century.

## References
Royal Mail

**Royal Mail** is a postal service company in the United Kingdom and Northern Ireland. It was established as early as 1516. The British Government formerly owned it and since 2013 own 30% of it. 

The Universal Service Obligation says the company must deliver letters to all 32 million UK addresses six days a week, Monday to Saturday. It has put up the price of postage stamps because the number sent has dropped.  They say the network was built for 20 billion letters but is  now only delivering seven billion.  In 2024 people got two letters a week on average.  It lost  £419 million in 2023. 

## Related pages 
* Mail
* Royal Mail Ship

## References 
## Other websites 
* 
* royalmailgroup.com

## References
US Open (tennis)

stadium before a match.]]
The **US Open** is one of the four Grand Slam tennis tournaments. It is played in Queens, New York City in the USA. It is run by United States Tennis Association. The tournament has been played on three different surfaces:
* Grass (1881-1974)
* Har-Tru (a type of clay court, 1975-1977)
* Decoturf (a type of hard court, 1978-present)

The tournament was first played in 1881 for men, and 1887 for women. In 2006, the U.S. Open became the first Grand Slam to use Hawk-Eye. Hawk-Eye is a machine that can give a virtual replay of the shot that has just been played - this is useful for seeing if the ball was in or out. When a player does not agree with the umpire, they can ask to use Hawk-Eye. As of 2007, the other three Grand Slams use this machine too.

The US Open is the final Grand Slam of the year and is played over two weeks, in late August and early September.

## Champions 
### Past champions 
*Men's Singles
*Women's Singles
*Men's Doubles
*Women's Doubles
*Mixed Doubles
*Singles Finals

### Current champions 
## Records 
* Men - Jimmy Connors, Pete Sampras, and Roger Federer have won 5 times.
* Women - Chris Evert has won 6 times.

## Other websites 
* US Open official site
* US Open - All winners and runners-up. Reference book
Mobile device

A **mobile device** is an electronic device which its user can easily carry with them. Typical examples are a mobile phone and handheld game consoles or tablets. Mobile devices do not need an external power supply to work. Usually, they have a battery to hold electricity to work without electric wires.  A user can change, send and move data by connecting to a modem or cable, or more often wirelessly. Mobile devices can be tracked by using mobile radio signals between different mobile signal towers by using GNSS.

Uses for these devices include reading and writing e-mails, surfing in the internet and listening to music. Smartphones, tablets and similar complicated mobile devices can run computer programs including computer games, and have many subordinate functions of a desktop PC.

## Examples of mobile devices 
)]]]]
* Palmtop
* PDA - Personal digital assistant
* Cell phone
* Pocket PC
* Smartphone
* Tablet computer
* Smartwatch
* Bluetooth headset

## Categories 
Mobile devices can be classified by size and capabilities:
* With small, text-screen. May be used to write short messages. 20th century mobile phones were like this.
* With medium screen and runs mobile operating system. Examples: Smartphone, E-reader.
* With big screen and runs desktop operating system. Examples: laptops, some tablets.

## References 
## Related pages 
* Mobile operating system
* Symbian
* Windows Phone
* Android
* iOS
BDD (disambiguation)

**BDD** is an abbreviation. It may mean:
* Binary decision diagram, a data structure in computer science
* Body dysmorphic disorder, a mental disorder
* Behavior driven development, a software design method
* Business-driven development, a software development method focusing on business requirements
* BostonDirtDogs.com, a blog-style website focusing on the Boston Red Sox
* Business Desktop Deployment, a free set of tools by Microsoft to manage desktop deployment projects
Bob Cobb

**Bob Cobb** can mean:
*The real name of the Maestro in the sitcom Seinfeld
*Robert H. Cobb, the creator of the Cobb Salad
*Robert W. Cobb, a government official
Bed and breakfast

A **bed and breakfast** is a private home in which someone can stay when travelling abroad.

## References 
* Sakach, Deborah Edwards, *Bed & Breakfasts and Country Inns* (American Historic Inns, Inc., 16th edition, 2004) 
* Jan Stankus, *How to Open and Operate a Bed & Breakfast* (Globe Pequot Press, 7th edition 2003) 
* Martha Watson Murphy and Amelia Rockwell Seton, *How to Start and Operate Your Own Bed-And-Breakfast/Down-To-Earth Advice from an Award-Winning B&B Owner* (Owlet, 1994) 
* Mary Davis, *So-You Want to Be an Innkeeper: The Definitive Guide to Operating a Successful Bed-And-Breakfast or Country Inn* (Chronicle Books, 1996) 
* Susannah Craig and Park Davis, ''Complete Idiot's Guide to Running a Bed and Breakfast* (Alpha Books, 2001) 
* Cheryl Verstrate, *Homestay 101 for Hosts'' (Start and Run a Successful Homestay), 1st edition,2006 
* Sandee Wright, Owner & Innkeeper of Timberwolf Creek, Maggie Valley NC, Founder of CAIK (Caucus of American InnKeepers)
Camper

**Camper** can mean:

* A trailer or vehicle accessory used for camping, see recreational vehicle, travel trailer or camper shell.
* A Campervan - a self-powered van converted for camping.
* a person who engages in camping.
* a reference to the alternative rock band named Camper Van Beethoven.
* in online games, a player who stays in one area of the game world, see camping (computer gaming).
* Camper, a shoe company from Majorca, Spain.
* a camper can be a term for one who stays in their vehicle for a long period of time.
* Petrus Camper, a Dutch anatomist.
Accommodation (eye)

of the lens changes.]]

**Accommodation** is the way the eye increases optical power (the degree to which the lens  or  light). This is necessary to produce a clear image (focus) on an object when it draws near the eye. A lens that is more convex( fatter in the middle) would refract more light rays than a less convex lens (thinner lens). The lens can change shape because the cells of the lens contain an elastic crystalline protein. The young human eye can change focus from distance to seven centimeters from the eye in 350 milliseconds. 

The eye focuses on a given object by changing the shape of the eye lens through accommodation.  This is controlled by ciliary muscle,which surrounds the lens. 

## Other websites 
* pupilEyes - Learn about accommodation of the eye
Focus (optics)

In geometrical optics, a **focus** (also called an **image point**) is the point where light rays that come from a point on the object converge (come together).

In reality the focus is never a point but a small spot called the *blur circle*.

An image, or image point or region, is ***in focus*** if light from object points is converged almost as much as possible in the image, and ***out of focus*** if light is not well converged.

## References
Mindroling Monastery

**Mindroling Monastery** is one of the six major monasteries of the Nyingma school in Tibet. It was founded by Rigzin Terdak Lingpa in 1676. Tendrak Lingpa's lineage is known as the *Nyo* lineage. *Mindroling* in Tibetan means "Place of Perfect Freedom". It is near Lhasa on the south side of the Tsangpo river.

Mindroling was damaged in 1718 by the Dzungar Mongols from East Turkistan.
It was built again during the life of the Seventh Dalai Lama, Kelzang Gyatso (1708-1757).

Mindroling Monastery has a university. Nyingma scholars and yogis from all over Tibet studied there. The students studied Buddhist scriptures, astronomy, Tibetan lunar calendar, calligraphy, rhetoric, and Traditional Tibetan medicine. Monks studied thirteen major *sutra* and *tantra* texts of the Nyingma. They also learned from found teachings called *terma*. The head of the school was very important in Tibet. 

At the time of the 1959 revolt against Chinese Communist rule in Central Tibet, there were around 300 monks at Mindroling. In the years after 1959, the monastery again was damaged, but not as badly as other monasteries such as Ganden. Now, the monastery is still being rebuilt .

In 1965, His Eminence Khochhen Rinpoche and a small group of monks started a new Mindroling monastery located near the hill town of Dehra Dun in Uttarakhand state, India. It now contains Ngagyur Nyingma College, one of the largest Buddhist institutes in India.

## Related pages
* List of Tibetan monasteries

## Other websites 
*Website of the new Mindroling Monastery in India
Jenkem

**Jenkem** is an alleged drug that was supposedly invented in poor parts of Africa.

## Appearance 
When it is ready to be used, it is a gas. It is created from feces left in a container to ferment for a long time.

## Effects
When breathed in, Jenkem makes the person see crazy things. It is like a crazy dream, the person imagines things happening that are not really happening. The person may also hear sounds that are not really there. This is called a hallucination. Jenkem is also used to make a person happy. Because it is made out of fermented waste (or old feces), it is also very stinky.

Some say it is as if you have a curtain in front of you.

## Dangers
Because Jenkem is human waste and is inhaled (huffing), the person can get an infection because of the dirt and germs in the waste.
Jenkem also contains methane, which is explosive and flammable.
Tor (software)

**Tor** is a group of computer servers that keep users anonymous on the Internet. It works by moving data across a few random Tor servers, called "nodes". Information sent across Tor is hard to trace.

**Tor** is also the name that some people give to the web browser used to access the Tor server, the **Tor Browser Bundle**. The browser is a special version of Mozilla Firefox designed to make all users blend together, making it even harder to track a single person.

## Operation
Information sent across Tor goes through three separate Tor servers before going to its destination. These servers are:
# The **entry guard**. Entry guards know who is sending information, but not what the information is. Entry guards send the information to a middle relay.
# The **middle relay**. Middle relays don't know what the information is or who originally sent it. Middle relays send the information to an exit relay.
# The **exit relay**. Exit relays know what the information actually is, but they don't know who originally sent it. Exit relays send the information to its destination.

If the destination is an ordinary website, the information is not protected by Tor after the exit relay sends it away. To fix this, special websites called hidden services can be created. Information sent between users and hidden services never leaves the Tor network. Hidden services can only be used on browsers that use the Tor network; browsers like Google Chrome won't work.

Hidden services use Onion addresses as their URLs. Onion addresses look like a bunch of random letters and numbers, with a `.onion` at the end. For example, the Onion address for the DuckDuckGo search engine is `duckduckgogg42xjoc72x3sjasowoarfbgcmvfimaftt6twagswzczad.onion`.

## Unlawful use 
The Tor network can be used for illegal activities because of its anonymity. This can be criticizing leaders of state, P2P sharing of copyrighted files, moving child pornography, or buying and selling illegal drugs.

## References
## Other websites
* The Tor Project
James Cotton

**James "Jimmy" Cotton** (July 1, 1935 &ndash; March 16, 2017), was an American blues harmonica player, singer, and songwriter. He was an orphan.

## Career 
Cotton first became interested in playing music when he heard Sonny Boy Williamson on the radio. He left his home to find Sonny Boy Williamson, and when he found him (in West Helena, Arkansas), Williamson took him in and raised him. Blues singer Bobby Bland was his half-brother.

### First band 
Cotton first began playing the blues harp in Williamson's band, called Howlin Wolf's. After one gig, Sonny Boy quit the band to live with his wife in Milwaukee. He left the band in Cotton's hands. Cotton said, "He just gave it to me. But I couldn't hold it together 'cause I was too young and crazy in those days an' everybody in the band was grown men, so much older than me."

### Later career 
Cotton started working with the Muddy Waters Band in 1955. He performed songs like "I Got My Mojo Working" and "She's Nineteen Years Old". After leaving Muddy's band in 1966, Cotton toured with Janis Joplin. Alone, Cotton wrote  songs like "Cotton Crop Blues", "Rocket 88" and "Hold Me In Your Arms".  He formed the James Cotton Blues Band in 1967. They performed all of Cotton's classics and more.

## Death 
Cotton died at a medical center in Austin, Texas from pneumonia on March 16, 2017 at the age of 81.

## Awards 
Cotton played harmonica on Muddy Water's Grammy Award winning 1977 album *Hard Again*. James Cotton's band would also get nominated for two Grammy Awards. The first one was for his 1984 release, *Live From Chicago: Mr. Superharp Himself!*. His second for *Take Me Back*. 

## Performances 
Cotton played with the following people:
* Big Mama Thornton
* Janis Joplin
* Sonny Boy Williamson
* Howlin' Wolf
* Muddy Waters
* Led Zeppelin
* Freddie King
* Steve Miller
* Santana
* B.B. King
* The Grateful Dead
* Willie "Big Eyes" Smith
* Johnny Winter
* Jimmie Vaughan
* Todd Rundgren

## Albums 
* *Chicago/The Blues/Today!* vol. 2
* *Take Me Back*
* *3 Harp Boogie
* *Live from Chicago Mr. Superharp Himself*
* *High Compression*
* *100% Cotton
* *Live & On the Move*
* *Cut You Loose!*
* *Mighty Long Time*
* *Fire Down Under the Hill*
* ''Baby, Don't You Tear My Cloths*
* *Deep in the Blues*
* *Living the Blues*
* *35th Anniversary Jam

## References
## Other websites 
* All Music Guide
* James Cotton discography from Music City 
* His official website
*Review of Breakin' It Up Breakin' It Down CD
Ludiano

**Ludiano** was a municipality of the district Blenio in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. On 1 April 2012, the former municipalities of Ludiano, Malvaglia and Semione merged to form the new municipality of Serravalle.

## References 
## Other websites
Lugaggia

**Lugaggia** was a municipality of the district Lugano in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. On 20 April 2008, the former municipalities of Bidogno, Corticiasca and Lugaggia joined together and became the municipality of Capriasca.

## References 
## Other websites 
*
Vich, Switzerland

**Vich** is a municipality in Nyon in the canton of Vaud in Switzerland.

## Economy
The Plainisphare record label is in Vich.

## History
Vich once had a paleolithic village (which are about 2.5 million years old) on it. There are also clues that it was lived on during the Bronze Age. There is also a Roman paved road running through it from Nyon to Orbe.

### Control 
Vich was controlled by many people. It belonged to the lords of Besançon to Cossonay,  Prangins and Savoy.

In 1536 the canton of Vaud was taken by the Bernese who kept it until 1798 when the canton was freed by the French revolutionary troops. In 1803, Vich joined the Swiss Confederation.

## References 
## Other websites 
* Official website (French)
* Aerial photographs on swisscastle.ch
Lugano

**Lugano** (Latin language: *Luganum*) is a city of the district Lugano in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland.

## History 
Lugano has existed as a town since at least 984. The territory of Lugano was fought over by Milan and Como throughout the Middle Ages. The city joined Switzerland in 1513. In 1956, Lugano hosted the first ever Eurovision Song Contest.

## Municipalities 
Since 2004 the former municipalities of Breganzona, Cureggia, Davesco-Soragno, Gandria, Pambio-Noranco, Pazzallo, Pregassona and Viganello were incorporated into the city. In 2008, they were followed by Barbengo, Carabbia and Villa Luganese. In 2013 the former municipalities of Bogno, Cadro, Carona, Certara, Cimadera, Sonvico and Valcolla were incorporated into the city.

## Gallery 

Lugano prokudin.jpg|Picture by Prokudin-Gorskii of Lugano ca. 1905-10, view from foot of Monte San Salvatore
Luganoimproved.jpg|Another Prokudin-Gorskii photograph of Lugano ca. 1905-10

## References
## Other websites 
*
*
* Official website 
* Lugano Tourism 
* Lugano Monte Brè
Lumino

**Lumino** is a municipality of the district Bellinzona in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland.

## References 
## Other websites 
* Official website
Memphis, Egypt

**Memphis** was the ancient capital of the first nome of Lower Egypt, and of the Old Kingdom of Egypt from its foundation until around 2200 BC and later for shorter periods during the New Kingdom. It was an administrative centre throughout ancient history.

Its ancient Egyptian name was **Ineb Hedj** ("The White Walls"). The name "Memphis" () is the Greek  of the Egyptian name of the pyramid of Pepi I (6th dynasty), which was **Men-nefer**, and became **Menfe** in Coptic. The modern cities and towns of Mit Rahina, Dahshur, Saqqara, Abusir, Abu Gorab, and Zawyet el'Aryan, south of Cairo, all lie within the administrative borders of historical Memphis ().

Memphis was also known in Ancient Egypt as **Ankh Tawy** ("That which binds the Two Lands") because of the strategic position of the city between Upper and Lower Egypt.

The ruins of Memphis are 20&nbsp;km (12 miles) south of Cairo, on the west bank of the Nile.

In the Bible, Memphis is called Moph or Noph.

## References 
## Sources 
* Baines & Malek *Cultural Atlas of Ancient Egypt*, 2000. 

## Other websites 
*On the Memphis Theology
*Memphis site (Windows Live Local)
Egyptian pyramids

The **Pyramids of Egypt** are among the largest structures ever built and are one of the most important examples of Ancient Egyptian civilisation. Most were built during the Old and Middle Kingdom periods. 

The pyramid were mostly made of limestone. The top layers were casing blocks of especially good white limestone laid on top of the main blocks. Each casing block was then trimmed so that the outer surface of the pyramid would be smooth and white. Some capstones were covered with metal leaf.

The casing blocks from the Great Pyramid of Giza were all removed in the 14th and 15th  centuries A.D. and used to build the city of Cairo. Some casing blocks still remain on the top of the pyramid next to Khufu's (belonging to Khafra). 

The ancient Egyptians built pyramids as tombs for the pharaohs and their queens. The pharaohs were buried in pyramids of different sizes from before the beginning of the Old Kingdom to the end of the Middle Kingdom.

Three small pyramids were built on the eastern side of the great pyramid. These pyramids were built for Khufu's queens.

A small satellite pyramid was built near the queens' pyramids. Some experts believe that this may have been built as a symbolic tomb for Khufu's ka (spirit).

Surrounding the pyramid there are several hundred mastaba tombs of nobles. The nobles wanted to be buried close to their pharaoh so that they would stay close to him in the next life.

## Construction dates 
There are about eighty pyramids known today from ancient Egypt. The three largest and best-preserved of these were built at Giza in the Old Kingdom.  The best-known of these pyramids was built for the pharaoh Khufu. It is known as the 'Great Pyramid'.

The following table lays out the dates of construction of most of the major pyramids. Each pyramid is identified by the pharaoh who ordered it built, their approximate reign and its place.

## Related pages
* Pyramid
* Giza Necropolis

## References 
## Other websites 
* Old Kingdom Pyramids of Egypt - Aldokkan
* Pyramids of Egypt – Comprehensive site by an Egyptian archaeology enthusiast that includes spectacular photographs of dozens of pyramids.
* Ancient Authors – A site that quotes descriptions of the "Labyrinth" of Amenemhet III's pyramid at el-Lahun by various ancient authors.
* Ancient Egyptian History - A comprehensive & consise educational website focusing on the basic and the advanced in all aspects of Ancient Egypt
* ANCIENT EGYPT - History & Chronology – A site detailing the major pyramid sites of ancient Egypt and Nubia (Sudan).
* www.great-pyramid.info  –  Photographs and information on Egyptian pyramids.
* Pyramids of Giza colour satellite imagery  (Wikimapia - Google maps)
* Pyramids in relation with the Noble Quraan (Quran) 
* diagram of an ancient pyramid from bbc.co.uk 
* Great Pyramid of Giza -Citizendium
* Pyramids of Egypt  
* Pyramids of Giza color satellite imagery
Andy Murray

**Sir Andrew Barron Murray**  (born 15 May 1987) is a British professional tennis player from Scotland, known as **Andy Murray**. He was ranked as the number one British tennis player from 2006 to early 2018. From 7 November 2016 to 20 August 2017 Murray was number 1 in the world rankings.

Murray represents Great Britain in his sporting activities and is a three-time Grand Slam tournament winner, two-time Olympic champion and Davis Cup champion.

Murray was born in Glasgow. His brother is tennis player Jamie Murray.

## Career 
As a junior, Murray won the US Open and reached the semifinals of the French Open. Murray turned professional in 2005.

Murray was given a Wild Card to Wimbledon and the US Open in 2005, where he reached the third round to David Nalbandian at Wimbledon; and the second round at the US Open. Murray claimed his first title in 2006 at the SAP Open as he beat Lleyton Hewitt in the final. He has appeared in 11 Grand Slam finals, winning three. The first time was in the 2008 US Open. The second time was in the 2010 Australian Open. Both times he lost to Roger Federer. The third time was in the 2011 Australian Open, when he lost to Novak Djokovic. The fourth time was in the 2012 Wimbledon Championships, when he lost to Roger Federer again. Murray won a gold medal in the singles of the London 2012 Summer Olympics, beating Federer in straight sets. Murray won the US Open singles later in 2012, defeating Novak Djokovic. In 2013, Murray won the Wimbledon singles, beating Djokovic 6–4, 7–5, 6–4. In 2016, he won the Wimbledon singles again, beating Milos Raonic 6–4, 7–6(7–3), 7–6(7–2) in the final. In August 2016, he won the gold medal in the singles at the 2016 Summer Olympics.

## Grand Slam record 
This table shows Murray's performance in each Grand Slam tournament in singles.

## References
Smog

's painting of  London smog in 1904. It was mainly caused by burning coal in homes and trains]]

**Smog** is a type of air pollutant; the word "smog" is a combination of smoke and fog. Classic smog results from large amounts of coal burning in an area and is caused by a mixture of smoke and sulfur dioxide.

London is where it first happened. Coal fires are now illegal in London, and trains are driven by other fuels. In cities like Los Angeles it is the exhaust fumes of cars which cause the smog.  

Delhi is supposed to be the most polluted city on Earth. Smogs cause lung diseases and increase the death rate. According to one estimate, air pollution causes the death of about 10,500 people in Delhi every year.

Peking (Beijing) is another city where air pollution is serious. Car emissions and coal burning are the main reasons for their pollution. They also get pollution from some neighbouring regions, due to the pattern of air movement in the area.

## References
Old Kingdom of Egypt

The **Old Kingdom** is the name for Egypt during the 3rd millennium BC when  the civilization of Egypt had its first peak. It was the first of three so-called "Kingdom" periods, which mark the high points of civilization in the lower Nile Valley (the others being Middle Kingdom and the New Kingdom of Egypt).

Old Kingdom was the best by the Third Dynasty through to the Sixth Dynasty (2686 BC – 2134 BC). Many Egyptologists also include the Memphite Seventh and Eighth  Dynasties in the Old Kingdom as a continuation of the administration centralized at Memphis. The Old Kingdom was followed by a period of disunity and relative cultural decline that is called the First Intermediate Period by Egyptologists.

The royal capital of Egypt during the Old Kingdom was Memphis. During the Old Kingdom era the great pyramids were built to be burial tombs for the Pharaohs. Because Pharaohs were believed to be given authority from heaven, they wished to walk to Ra, their Sun-god, after death. King Zoser's adviser Inhotep designed the pyramid, hoping to easily reach Ra. The tombs were built on the west bank of the Nile where the sun seemed to set. For this reason, the Old Kingdom is sometimes called "The Age of the Pyramids."

Khufu, called Cheops, was the Pharaoh who built the Great Pyramid at Giza, near Cairo. He believed his soul never died, so they stored food, clothes, and things he owned in the rooms of the pyramid. The Great Pyramid is one of the Seven Wonders of the World: tall as a forty-story building, it took a hundred thousand men twenty years to build. With only ramps and physical energy, they had to move and lift into place 2,300,000 blocks of limestone that were about two and one-half tons apiece. Slaves, farmers, and gangs of men had to work on the Great Pyramid, and were paid with valuable things, not coins (Egyptians had no coins).
To guard the pyramids, a huge stone statue called the Great Sphinx was created and placed nearby. The Great Sphinx has a man's head and a lion's body, with paws 50&nbsp;ft (15 m) long.

At last, the priests overthrew the Pharaohs. Then the nobles and priests ruled.

## Further reading 
*Jaromir Malek, *In the Shadow of the Pyramids: Egypt During the Old Kingdom*, University of Oklahoma Press, 1986. 
**Egyptian Art in the Age of the older set of Pyramids*, New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1999.  (catalogue for travelling exhibition of the same name)
* The Fall of the Egyptian Old Kingdom

## Other websites
* Middle East on the Matrix: Egypt, The Old Kingdom  – Photographs of many of the historic sites dating from the Old Kingdom
*Old Kingdom of Egypt- Aldokkan
Island Records (disambiguation)

**Island Records** may refer to the following music industry record labels:
*Island Records founded in Jamaica in 1959, and its subsidiary labels:
**Island Masters 
**Island Reggae Greats
**Island Blue Records
*The Island Def Jam Music Group, the name of the Island Records group after its merger with Def Jam Music
Cataracts of the Nile

The **cataracts of the Nile** are areas between Aswan and Khartoum where the water is shallow and flows quickly. The surface is broken by numerous small boulders and stones that lie on the river bed, as well as many small rocky islets. These features create rapids or "white water," making it treacherous to travel. 

River cataracts often go with a rapid down-drop of the river. They block the waterway, since boats cannot safely carry cargo through.

The six first cataracts of the River Nile were the main obstacles for boats sailing on the Nile in antiquity. Counted upstream (from north to south), the First Cataract is in modern Egypt; the rest are in Sudan.

* The First Cataract is near Aswan 
* The Second Cataract (*or Great Cataract*) was in Nubia and is now submerged in Lake Nasser 
* The Third Cataract is around Tombos  / Hannek 
* The Fourth Cataract is in the Manasir Desert and will be flooded by the Merowe Dam from 2006 onward 
* The Fifth Cataract is near the confluence with the Atbara River 
* The Sixth Cataract is where the Nile cuts through the Sabaluka pluton near Bagrawiyah 

The word cataract comes from the Greek word *Katarakhtes* meaning "waterfall".

In ancient times, Upper Egypt extended from the Nile Delta to the first cataract. Further upstream, in what is modern Sudan, the land was later controlled by the Kingdom of Kush.

The cataract faces north, not south, because the river flows north, from Lake Victoria in the south.

The 1899 book *The River War* by Winston Churchill explains each of the cataracts. 

## References 
## Other websites
* The Cataract Nile and the Great Bend  -University of Texas

;Photo links

* Second Cataract: Second Cataract Second Cataract
* Third Cataract: Third Cataract Third Cataract  Third Cataract 
* Fourth Cataract: Fourth Cataract
* Fifth Cataract: Fifth Cataract 
* Sixth Cataract: Fifth Cataract Fifth Cataract
Nome (Egypt)

A **Nome** (from , “district”) was an administrative part of ancient Egypt. Nome is a Greek name, used late in Egypt's history; the Egyptian name was "sepat".

The division of ancient Egypt into nomes happened before 3100 BC.  These nomes began as autonomous city-states, but later began to join together. According to ancient tradition, the ruler Menes finally joined all the nomes into a single kingdom.

The nomes remain in place for more than 3,000 years.

Lower Egypt, from the Old Kingdom capital Memphis to the Mediterranean Sea, had 20 nomes. The first was based around Memphis, Saqqara, and Giza, in the area occupied by modern-day Cairo.  The nomes were numbered in a more or less orderly fashion south to north through the Nile delta. The numbering started in the west, and continued with the higher numbers in the east. Alexandria was in the Third Nome; Bubastis was in the Eighteenth.

Upper Egypt was divided into 22 nomes.  The first of these was centered around Elephantine close to Egypt's border with Nubia at the First Cataract – the area of modern-day Aswan.  From there the numbering progressed downriver in an orderly fashion along the narrow fertile strip of land that was the Nile valley.  Waset (ancient Thebes or contemporary Luxor) was in the Fourth Nome, Amarna in the Fourteenth, and Meidum in the Twenty-First.

## List of nomes 
The nomes are listed in separate tables for Upper and Lower Egypt

### Lower Egypt
### Upper Egypt
## References
Alan K. Bowman (1990).  *Egypt After the Pharaohs*.  Oxford University Press.

## Other websites
*Details of the nomes
*Archaeological survey of the nomes
Smog (disambiguation)

**Smog** may also rmean:
* Smog a form of air pollution
* SMOG or Simple Measure of Gobbledygook, a measurement of how difficult text is
* (Smog) or Bill Callahan, a music artist

## Related pages
* Smaug, a dragon  in *The Hobbit* by J. R. R. Tolkien
Paul Gray

**Paul Dedrick Gray** (April 8, 1972 – May 24, 2010)  was an American musician and bassist for Nu Metal band Slipknot. He was born in Los Angeles, California and moved to Slipknot's home town when he was just a baby.

He was the only member of Slipknot who was not from Des Moines, Iowa.

## Death
On May 24, 2010, *The Des Moines Register* said that Gray had been found dead in a hotel room in the TownePalace Suites hotel in Urbandale, Iowa. 

An autopsy performed on June 21, 2010 showed that Gray died of an accidental overdose of morphine and fentanyl. It also showed that he had signs of a "significant heart disease".

His physician Daniel Baldi was charged with involuntary manslaughter in September 2011. Baldi was accused of continuing to write high-doses of prescription drugs for Gray even though it was known that Gray was a known drug addict. He was also charged with the deaths of seven others and pleaded not guilty when he faced charges.

## References
Island Records

**Island Records** is a Jamaican-British record label that was founded by Chris Blackwell in Jamaica. It was based in England for many years, but is now owned by Universal Music Group of the United States, and is operated through The Island Def Jam Music Group.

## Labels
This list is probably incomplete, and some of the dates are uncertain.
* Al's Records (1996–1997)
* Aladdin Records (UK) (mid-1960s)
* Antilles Records (1972–1998)
* Apollo Recordings (2006–2007)
* Black Swan Records (1963-1965 and mid-1970s)
* Blue (1999–2001)
* Blunted (1993–1996)
* Brown Brigade (2003-present)
* Europa Recordings (2006–2007)
* Fallout Records (UK division)
* 4th & Broadway (1982–1997)
* Gee Street Records (1990-1997)
* Great Jones (1988–1994)
* Island Black Music (1995–1998)
* Island Jamaica (1995–1996)
* Island Jamaica Jazz (1996)
* Island Masters (1980s–1990s; reissues)
* Island Reggae Greats (1985, compilation series; re-issued in several forms)
* Island Trading Company (importer; 1982–mid-1990s; still exists)
* Island Urban Music (2007)
* Island Visual Arts (1985)
* Manga Entertainment (1991-1997, moved to Chris Blackwell's Palm Pictures, then was sold to Starz Media)
* Mango Records (1972–1997)
* Mango Street (1989–1992)
* MonarC Entertainment (2002)
* Sense ("Sense of Island"; 1990–1991)
* Stiff Records (1984–1986 only)
* Sue Records (UK division)
* Surprise Records (mid-1970s)
* Trade 2 (1996–1997)
* Trojan Records (1967–1968 only)
* Tuff Gong (UK Division 
*

## Other websites
* Island Records (U.K.) — official web site (UK)
* Island Records (U.S.) — official web site (US)
* Island Records label gallery at collectable-records.ru
* *Island Book 1962–1977* — Just out! Island Records collectors guide - limited edition, numbered and signed
* Island Records Listing with picture sleeves and label design at collectable-records.ru
* Island Records (UK)  and Island Records (US)  sections of black-music-collectors.com
* [Island Records (UK)](http://www.discogs.com/label/Island+Records+(UK)) and [Island Records (US)](http://www.discogs.com/label/Island+Records+(US)) sections of Discogs.com
* Island Records research  — Island research wiki for Discogs.com
Fiction Records

**Fiction Records** is a record label that was founded in 1976 by Chris Parry as a home for The Cure. Other notable acts to release on Fiction around this time were the Purple Hearts, Back To Zero, Associates, Alberto y Lost Trios Paranoias and Eat (band). The label's first #1 record was *Wish* by The Cure in 1991, going #1 in the United Kingdom. The band left the record label in 2001, signing to Geffen at the end of the year.

After a period of several years, the label was then re-started in 2002 by Joe Munns, Paul Smernicki and Jim Chancellor as a Polydor imprint. The first release of this record label was a single by Snow Patrol.

## Related pages
* List of record labels

## Other websites 
*Fiction Records Official Website
Polydor Records

**Polydor Records** is a record label currently based in the UK, and is a subsidiary of Universal Music Group. 

## Polydor UK
Though Polydor's American branch is gone, in the United Kingdom, however, Polydor continues to sign chart-topping acts and remains one of the strongest imprints in the country — with artists such as Klaxons, Sophie Ellis-Bextor, Take That and Kaiser Chiefs. 

It also acts as the UK label for American-based acts under Interscope-Geffen-A&M like Eminem and Gwen Stefani.

In spring 2006, Polydor launched Fascination Records, a music label dedicated to pop music. Both Girls Aloud and Sophie Ellis-Bextor transferred to the new label.

## Related pages
* Polydor Records artists
* List of record labels

## Other websites
* UK official site
Foals (band)

**Foals** are a dance-punk band from Oxford who play a mixture of Indie, techno and Math-Rock. The band work with Transgressive Records.

## TV Appearances 
In August 2007, the band appeared in a mini episode of *Skins*, which aired on Myspace.

The band appeared on the 16th November 2007 episode of Later With Jools Holland playing their songs 'Balloons' and 'Red Socks Pugie'.

The band have also appeared on T-Mobile's Transmission on Channel 4 where they performed the song Hummer.

## Discography 
### Albums 
* *Antidotes*, 2008
* Total Life Forever, 2010
* *Holy Fire*, 2013
* *What Went Down*, 2015
* *Everything Not Saved Will Be Lost – Part 1*, 2019
* *Everything Not Saved Will Be Lost – Part 2*, 2019
* *Life Is Yours*, 2022

### EPs 
* *Live EP* (Transgressive Records, 26 February, 2007)

### Singles 
**Try This On Your Piano / Look At My Furrows Of Worry* (Try Harder' April 03 2006)
**Hummer / Astronauts And All* (Transgressive Records, April 23 2007)
**Mathletics / Big Big Love (Fig #1)* (Transgressive Records, August 20 2007) UK #109
**Balloons / Brazil is Here! (CD only) / Dearth (7" only) / Balloons Produced by Kieran Hebden (Limited edt. etched 12" only)* (Transgressive Records, December 10 2007)  UK #39

## References 
## Other websites 
* Foals Official Web Site
* Foals MySpace page
* Foals Fansite
Fascination Records

**Fascination Records** is a Polydor sub-label that launched in spring 2006. The record label is managed by former TOTP Magazine editor Peter Loraine.

As part of Polydor Records UK, the label will concentrate on a small number of pop acts and will complement the re-activated Fiction rock imprint.

## Main artists
*Girls Aloud
*Sophie Ellis-Bextor
*The Saturdays
*Tokio Hotel
*Paul Steel
*Connie Fisher
*Lee Mead
*Popjustice

## Related pages
* List of record labels

## Other websites
* Official site
* New artist search 
* UK Top Connie Fisher
* Pop Justice
Lists of record labels

File:Alvinoreyguitarboogie.jpg
File:AmMusicBunk78.jpg
File:Bingola1011b.jpg

**Lists of record labels** cover record labels, brands or trademarks associated with marketing of music recordings and music videos. The lists are organized alphabetically, by genre, by company and by location.

## Alphabetical
*List of record labels: 0–9
*List of record labels: A–H 
*List of record labels: I–Q
*List of record labels: R–Z
Laura Marling

**Laura Marling** (born 1 February 1990) is a British folk singer-songwriter. Marling won Best Female Solo Artist at the 2011 Brit Awards.

## Early life
Marling was born in Hampshire. She went to Leighton Park School. When she was 16 she moved to London.

## Career
Marling has toured with a number of well-known indie artists in the UK including Jamie T, who personally invited her on tour with him in 2010 after he attended her second-ever gig.

She performed at this summer's 02 Wireless Festival
http://www.wirelessfestival.co.uk/london/artist_info.aspx?aid=11db9749-0183-4929-903e-4c095b9748c4  
and also performed at the first Underage Music Festival in August 2007 at Victoria Park, East London. She has also performed at Electric Gardens Music festival in Kent http://www.electricgardensfestival.com/viewArtistInfo.aspx?artistID=273&eventID=2.

Her debut single came out on WayOutWest Records, with a new single coming out soon on Virgin Records. 

She appeared on Later with Jools Holland where she performed the song *New Romantic*. Marling's first album "Alas I Cannot Swim" was released on 4 February 2008. Her single Ghosts was out on 15 January 2008.

Marling's second album *I Speak Because I Can* was released in 2010.

In 2011 her third album ''A Creature I Don't Know'' was released.

In 2013 Marling's fourth album *Once I Was An Eagle* was released. It got good reviews. It reached number three in the UK Album Chart. Marling was nominated for Best British Female at the 2014 Brit Awards.

## Singles
*My Manic and I
*New Romantic
*Ghosts
*Cross Your Fingers
*Night Terror
*Goodbye England (Covered in Snow)
*Devil's Spoke
*Rambling Man
*Blues Run the Game
*Sophia
*The Beast
*Master Hunter

## EPs
*London Town EP
*My Manic and I EP
*iTunes Live: London Sessions
*Cross Your Fingers

## Albums
*Alas I Cannot Swim
*I Speak Because I Can
*A Creature I Don't Know
*Once I Was An Eagle

## Other websites
*MySpace page
*Official website
*BBC London article
*Later with Jools Holland: Watch Laura Marling perform My Manic and I 
*Later with Jools Holland: Watch Laura Marling interview, Nov 2007 

## References
List of record labels: 0–9

This is a **list of notable record labels** starting with numbers.

## Characters
*+1 Records
*-ismist Recordings

## 0–9
## Other websites 
* AllRecordLabels.com  very extensive site with links to over 22,000 current record labels

]
Reproduction (disambiguation)

**Reproduction** may mean:

*Biological reproduction
**Asexual reproduction
**Sexual reproduction
*Self-replication, mechanical, memetic and other form of self-replication
*Reproduction (economics), in Marxian economics, recurrent (or cyclical) processes by which the initial conditions necessary for economic activity to occur are constantly re-created
*Reproduction (album), a 1979 album by British electronic band The Human League
*Reproductions (album) - a 2007 album by singer Charlotte Martin
*Reproducibility

## Related pages
*Copy