open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Pound (mass)

A **pound** (usually abbreviated as **lb**, plural **lbs**) is a unit used to measure the mass of something. It is used in the imperial system and the United States customary system. It is related to the Pound (force). There are a number of different definitions. The most commonly used definition today is the international avoirdupois pound. This is equal to , and is divided into 16 avoirdupois ounces.

The abbreviation **lb** is for the Latin word *libra*, meaning *weight.*

## Avoirdupois pound 
The avoirdupois pound (abbreviation **lb.**, plural **lbs.**) is the most common unit. This type is used for all purposes except the uses of the troy pound. Most people from the United States, United Kingdom, Ireland, Canada, Liberia and Burma use this as their standard measure of their personal mass.

## Troy pound 
The troy pound (abbreviation **t lb.**, plural **t lbs.**) is generally not used anymore. It was used in England by apothecaries and jewellers. A troy pound contains 12 troy ounces. The troy ounce is still used to measure the mass of precious metals and gems.

## Metric pound 
In some European countries, a metric pound is an informal term for half a kilogram (500 grams). In the Netherlands, however, the metric pound () used to be equal to 480 grams, but nowadays a Dutch pound equals 500 grams. A Dutch 'ons' (ounce) is equal to 100 grams, and it is often said that 5 ons is 1 pond.

## Comparison 
## References
Aqua regia

**Aqua regia** (*Royal water* in Latin) is a very strong acid. It is made by mixing one part concentrated nitric acid and three parts concentrated hydrochloric acid. The acid was named by alchemists because it can dissolve the noble metals gold and platinum. Tantalum, iridium and a few other metals are not dissolved by it.

## History 
Aqua regia first appeared in the De inventione veritatis ("On the Discovery of Truth") by pseudo-Geber (after c. 1300), who produced it by adding sal ammoniac (ammonium chloride) to nitric acid . In the Middle Ages it was one of the ways that alchemists tried to find the philosopher's stone.  

When Germany invaded Denmark in World War II, the Hungarian chemist George de Hevesy took the Nobel Prize medals of Max von Laue and James Franck to keep them safe. De Hevesy dissolved the medals, which were made of gold, into aqua regia. He did this so the Nazis would not steal them. He placed the jar that held the solution of aqua regia and gold on a shelf in his laboratory at the Niels Bohr Institute. The jar looked the same as hundreds of other jars in the laboratory, so the Nazis thought that all the jars had normal chemicals in them. After the war, de Hevesy returned to the lab, found the jar with the solution, and removed the gold from it. He returned the gold to the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and the Nobel Foundation used the gold to make new medals for Laue and Franck.

## Uses 
Aqua Regia is used in metal etching and scientific analysis. It is also used to clean certain lab machines from tiny metal particles. It is particularly used in the extraction and purification of gold and platinum. Users mix it immediately before use so it won't decompose.

## References
White genocide

**White Genocide** (Armenian: Ճերմակ or սպիտակ ջարդ, Jermag or Spitag Chart) is the word Western Armenians use to describe assimilation in the West. 

## Background
Armenians were forcibly deported from their homeland in Anatolia during the Armenian Genocide in 1915-1918, and never allowed to return. Western Armenians consider Armenians who assimilate within the local population of the country where they were eventually forced to emigrate (such as France, USA, Argentina, etc.) as lost to their nation due to the continuing exile after the actual genocide itself, and thus consider that lost Armenian to be another victim of the genocidal attempt to eliminate the Armenians. The term *White Genocide* was also used for the regions of Nagorno-Karabakh and Nakhichevan where Armenians were forcibly deported and cleansed from the regions.

## Related pages
* Dersim
* Sumgait pogrom
* Armenian genocide

## References
Phrygia

**Phrygia** () was a kingdom in the west central part of the Anatolia. The Phrygian people started to live in the area from c. 1200 BC, and made a kingdom in the 8th century BC. It was ruined by Cimmerian invaders c. 690 BC, then conquered by its neighbor Lydia, before it passed successively into the Persian Empire of Cyrus, the empire of Alexander and his successors, was taken by the king of Pergamon, and became part of the Roman Empire. The Phrygian language survived until about the 6th century AD.

## Other websites 
* Phrygian Period in Anatolia 
* 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica
Marija Gimbutas

, Co. Meath, Ireland, in September 1989.]]

**Marija Gimbutas** (Lithuanian: Marija Gimbutienė, born Marija Birutė Alseikaitė) (Vilnius, Lithuania, January 23, 1921 – Los Angeles, United States February 2, 1994), was a Lithuanian-American archeologist, known for her research into the Neolithic and Bronze Age cultures of "Old Europe" and the theories that she introduced. Between 1946 and 1971, her writings merged traditional spadework with linguistics and mythologies.
Armed Forces of Armenia

The **Armed Forces of the Republic of Armenia** is the Army, Air Defense, and Border Guard. Some parts were formed out of the former Soviet forces in the Armenian SSR. 

The Commander-in-Chief of the military is the President of Armenia, currently Robert Kocharyan. The Ministry of Defense is in charge of political leadership. It is currently headed by Mikael Harutyunyan. Military command is in the hands of the General Staff, headed by the Chief of Staff, who is Lieutenant-General Seyran Ohanyan.  Armenia established a Ministry of Defense on 28 January 1992. The Border guards purpose is to patrol Armenia's borders with Georgia and Azerbaijan, while Russian troops continue to watch its borders with Iran and Turkey.

## Related pages
*Military history of Armenia
*Armenian Army
*Armenian Air Defense
*Armenian Border Guard

## Other websites 
*Armenian Ministry of Defense
President of Armenia

The **president of Armenia** (, *Hayastani Nakhagah*) is the head of state of Armenia. They are elected to a single seven-year term by the National Assembly of Armenia.

## List
## References
## Other websites
*Rulers of Armenia
Armenian Air Force

The **Armenian Air Force** is the aerial group of the Armed Forces of Armenia. It was a part of the military reform program of Ter-Grigoriants. 

Armenian anti-aircraft defense has an anti-aircraft missile brigade and two regiments armed with 100 missile launchers of various models and fixes. These missile launchers include the M79 Osa, Krug, S-75, S-125, and S-300. There are also 24 Scud ballistic missiles with eight launchers. 

## Related pages
*Armed Forces of Armenia

## Other websites 
*Russia is satisfied with Armenia’s air defense capabilities.
Intonation (music)

**Intonation**, in music, can have two different meanings:

#In plainchant, intonation is when a solo singer - usually the priest - sings the first phrase of a piece of music before the choir start to sing.  The intonation is the tune on which the music is based.  For example, when the choir sings a piece called *Gloria* the priest first sings "Gloria in excelsis Deo" ("Glory be to God") by himself, unaccompanied.  Then the choir continue singing with the words "et in terra pax....." ("and peace on earth....).
#The word "intonation" is used in music to describe whether someone who is playing a musical instrument is playing in tune. This is not used for instruments such as the piano which are tuned already, but for an instrument such as the violin there is a lot of skill and practice needed to play with good intonation (to play well in tune).  A violinist needs to put his or her fingers in exactly the right place on the fingerboard, otherwise the note will be sharp (too high) or flat (too low).  Musicians playing in a group will need to listen to one another so that their tuning (intonation) is good. Players of wind instruments and singers all need to pay careful attention to their intonation.

## Related pages
*Musical tuning
Muscatine, Iowa

**Muscatine** is a city in Muscatine County, Iowa. In 2020, 23,797 people lived in the city of Muscatine.

## History
Muscatine began as a trading post in 1833. The city was first called **Bloomington** in 1839. The name was later changed because there were so many other cities named Bloomington. Some people think the name "Muscatine" came from the name of a local Native American tribe.

A person from Germany founded a button company in Muscatine in 1884. They made buttons from clam shells found in the Mississippi river. Muscatine was and still is called the "Pearl button capital of the world."

Sam Clemens, also called Mark Twain, worked at the newspaper the city for a short amount of time. He also wrote about Muscatine in his book *Life on the Mississippi*.

"*And I remember Muscatine--still more --for its summer sunsets. I have never seen any, on either side of the ocean, that equaled them. They used the broad smooth river as a canvas, and painted on it every imaginable dream of color, from the*   *and  of the opal, all the way up, through cumulative , to blinding purple and crimson conflagrations which were enchanting to the eye, but sharply tried it at the same time. All the Upper Mississippi region has these extraordinary sunsets as a familiar . It is the true Sunset Land: I am sure no other country can show so good a right to the name. The sunrises are also said to be  fine. I do not know.*"

## Notable natives
* Samuel Clemmens, also called "Mark Twain" - writer
* Norman Baker- businessman, radio pioneer, helped finish the air-powered calliope
* Roy J Carver- businessman and philanthropist
* C Maxwell Stanley- founder of Stanley Consultants, delegate to the United Nations
* Ellis Parker Butler- writer
* Lee Allen- medical illustrator
* Dr. Ronald K Ross- academic physician
* Dr. David G. Meyers- academic cardiologist
* Ernie Peniston- rhythm and blues musician
* Max Allan Collins-  Writer of screenplay of the movie *Mommy*. The movie was filmed in Muscatine's Wood Creek neighborhood in 1995. He also wrote the graphic novel *Road to Perdition*, which became a screenplay and was filmed in 2002, starring Tom Hanks and Jude Law.
* Terry Beatty- artist who has worked as a penciler and inker in the comic book industry.
* Phil Vischer- creator of *VeggieTales*
* Natalie Larson- Professional artist and marathon runner

## References
## Other websites 
* Official website of the City of Muscatine 
* Official website of Muscatine County
* Muscatine Chamber of Commerce 
* Muscatine Journal
* Muscatine Web Design 
* Muscatine Art Center
List of members of the Red Army Faction

This is a list of **Members of the Red Army Faction**. After Andreas Baader escaped from jail in 1970, the media began referring to the "Baader-Meinhoff Gang". When Baader and Meinhof were arrested, they became known as the Red Army Faction.

## First generation 
These are the earliest members, from the late 1960s. The most important had all been arrested by 1972.

## Second generation Red Army Faction
Other young terrorists available to swell the shrinking ranks of the Gang. Like the first generation they were mostly middle class and a lot of them were students. A lot of them were terrorists who joined the Gang after their own groups dissolved (e.g. the Socialist Patients' Collective (SPK), J2M).

## Third Generation Red Army Faction
This generation was active mostly throughout the 1980s and early 1990s. More vicious than their predecessors, they did not have as much cause as the earlier generations to rebel.
* Wolfgang Grams
* Birgit Hogefeld
* Andrea Klump
* Eva Sybille Haule-Frimpong

## References
* Jillian Becker ''Hitler's Children* http://www.baader-meinhof.com/students/resources/print/hitlerchild.html 
* Tom Vague *Televisionaries: The Red Army Faction Story 1963-1993* 
* Baader-Mienhof.com Guide to Baader-Meinhof Gang Members 
* RAF information site 
* The Stoke Newington 8 Defence Group *Armed Resistance in West Germany: Notes From The Red Army Fraction'' (1972)
Suppiluliuma II

**Suppiluliuma II**, the son of  Tudhaliya IV,  was the last known king of the New Kingdom of the Hittite Empire, ruling  1207 BCE – c.1178 BCE, contemporary with Tukulti-Ninurta I of Assyira.

He is known from two inscriptions in hieroglyphics. They record wars against former vassal Tarhuntassa, and against Alasiya in Cyprus.

After the fall, the Kaskians were probably in control of Hatti. Hattusa itself was destroyed, its site only re-occupied by a Phrygian fortress some 500 years later.

## Literature
*Astour, AJA 69 (1965).
*Güterbock, JNES 26 (1967), 73–81.

## Other websites
*Reign of Suppiluliuma II
Levon Ter-Petrosyan

**Levon Ter-Petrosyan** (Armenian: Լևոն Տեր-Պետրոսյան; Russian: Левон Тер-Петросян) (born 9 January 1945), also **Levon Ter-Petrosyan**, was the President of Armenia from 1991 to 1998. Because of many economic and political problems, he resigned on 3 February 1998. He was replaced by Robert Kocharyan. Levon Ter Petrosian, announced he will run again for office in the presidential election which will start next year.Ter-Petrossian was born in Aleppo, Syria to an Armenian-Syrian family of genocide survivors. They emigrated to Armenia in 1946.
In 1968, Ter-Petrossian graduated from the Oriental Studies Department of the Yerevan State University. In 1972, he completed his postgraduate studies at the Leningrad State University. In 1987, he received his doctoral degree from the same university. In 1972-1978, Ter-Petrossian worked as junior researcher at the Literature Institute of Armenia named after Manouk Abeghian. In 1978-1985, he held the post of science secretary at Matenadaran named after Saint Mesrop Mashtots. Since 1985, Ter-Petrossian has been working at Matenadaran as a senior researcher.

## Filmography 
*1988: Armenia 1988 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sCOGxwGooHE
*2002: The Manuscript of Indepedence, Մատյան Անկախության - (Levon Ter-Petrosyan,Robert Kocharyan,Serj Sargsyan) 
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EERMf2jdMlc

## References 
## Other websites 
* Official Presidential site of Armenia 
* ARF history 
* Levon Ter-Petrossian at ArmeniaPedia.org
Battle of Rhandeia

The **Battle of Rhandeia** was a battle fought between Armenia and Parthia against the Roman Empire. It was fought just after the Mithridatic Wars. The Romans were led by Lucius Caesennius Paetus. They were defeated by the Parthian-Armenian army led by Tiridates I of Armenia.

The Parthians made Tiridates the King of Armenia. He was the brother of the Parthian king Vologases I. Tiridates replaced Tigranes, a Roman ally, as king. The Romans fought to take back the throne, but were forced into surrender at Rhandeia (autumn 62).

## Related pages
*Armenian Empire

## References
Adenoidectomy

**Adenoidectomy** is the process of taking out a person's adenoids from the back of their throat through the process of surgery. They may be removed for several reasons, including difficulty breathing through the nose and having ear infections. The surgery is common in young children. The procedure is usually performed using a substance called anaesthesia (Greek for "without sensation"), and the substance puts a person to sleep when it is applied. Recovery time from the operation can vary from several hours to a few days.

Adenoidectomy is usually done on young children because their adenoids were infected by a virus. If the disease was to be left alone, it would worsen. The affected person could have harder times breathing or hearing, and may possibly die from the disease. Normally functioning adenoids help maintain the body's healthy immune system during early childhood. They shrink when a person gets older. When a person becomes an adult, their adenoids completely disappear.

## Other websites
* Surgery Encyclopedia: Adenoidectomy
* Adenoidectomy - throat operation to remove swollen adenoids
Kobayr monastery

**Kobayr** (Armenian: Կոբայր) is a 12th century Armenian Apostolic Church monastery. It is located in the village Kober within Lori marz, Armenia. 

Kobayr was built on a shelf of a gorge by the princes of the junior Bagratuni branch, Kyurikids in 1171. The monastery was later acquired by the Zakarids and converted into a Chalcedonian monastery. Many of the writings in the monastery are written in Georgian.

The monastery is being fixed and paid for by the government of Armenia with the help of the government of Italy. The ruins of the main church in the monastery contain frescoes of Christ and the twelve apostles as well as the Church fathers and other Christian figures.
Turkish Armenian Reconciliation Commission

The **Turkish Armenian Reconciliation Commission** was made in 2001 to help Turkey and Armenia be closer. The main goal was to make the governments more active.

## Members 
* Gunduz Aktan (Ankara) - resigned June 2003
* Alexander Arzoumanian (Yerevan)
* Ustun Erguder (Istanbul)
* Sadi Erguvenc (Istanbul) - resigned June 2003
* David Hovhannissian (Yerevan)
* Van Krikorian (New York)
* Andranik Migranian (Moscow)
* Ozdem Sanberk (Istanbul) - resigned June 2003
* Ilter Turkmen (Istanbul)
* Vamik Volkan (Charlottesville) 

**Newer Members** (2003-2004)

* Emin Mahir Balcioglu (Geneva)
* Ahmet Evin (Istanbul)
* Ersin Kalaycioglu (Istanbul)
* Sule Kut (Istanbul)
* Ilter Turan (Istanbul) 

## Other websites 
*Turkish Armenian Reconciliation Commission
*Turkish Armenian Reconciliation Commission - Armeniapedia.org
ROT13

**ROT13** (or **ROT-13**) is a very simple form of encryption cipher. It is a variant of a Caesar cipher. In it, the alphabet is written in two lines, of 13 characters each. Encryption, and decryption is done by simply switching the letters that are below each other. That way, *A* becomes *N*, *B* becomes *O*, and so on.

It is widely used in USENET forums.

## Letter games and net culture
ROT13 can also be used for letter games. There are some words, that will produce another existing word, when they are treated with ROT13. The longest example in the English language is the pair of 7-letter words abjurer and nowhere; there is also the 7-letter pair chechen and purpura. Other examples of words like these are shown in the table.

The 1989 International Obfuscated C Code Contest (IOCCC) had an entry by Brian Westley. Westley's computer program can be ROT13'd or reversed and still compiles correctly. Its operation, when executed, is either to perform ROT13 encoding on, or to reverse its input.

The newsgroup *alt.folklore.urban* made a word—furrfu. It was the ROT13 encoding of the frequently encoded utterance "sheesh". "Furrfu" evolved in mid-1992 as a response to postings repeating urban myths on alt.folklore.urban, after some posters complained that "Sheesh!" as a response to newcomers was being overused.

## References
Armenian Army

The **Armenian Army** is the army of Armenia. Armenia has sent around 1,500 officers to be trained in Greece and Russia over the past years. Since the end of the Nagorno-Karabakh War, Armenia has made the army boost the defense and help defend Nagorno-Karabakh from a possible new attack by neighboring Azerbaijan.

## Related pages
* Military history of Armenia
* Armed Forces of Armenia
* Armenian Air Force
* Armenian Air Defense
* Nagorno-Karabakh Defense Army
* 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict

## Other websites 
* Military Parade in Stepanakert, Artsakh
* Armenian Military Photo Gallery
DDT

, US, 1958]]
 soaked with DDT, for use indoors. Seen in Australia, 2008]]

**DDT** (**D**ichloro-**D**iphenyl-**T**richloroethane) is a well-known pesticide. 

It was discovered by the Swiss chemist Paul Hermann Müller, who received the 1948 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for the discovery. 

In the 1960s, a study found that DDT can cause cancer. DDT is also highly poisonous to birds and other animals further up the food chain. For these reasons, DDT was replaced by other pesticides. 

The Stockholm Convention (which took effect in 2004) restricts the use of DDT to vector control. The convention does not affect the use of DDT for public health issues because there are very few affordable alternatives. DDT is still widely used in India, North Korea and possibly elsewhere.

## References
Nucleobase

A **nucleobase** is a part of RNA and DNA which may be involved in pairing (see base pair). Nucleobases are important for genetics.

They include cytosine, guanine, adenine, thymine in (DNA), uracil in (RNA) and xanthine and hypoxanthine (mutated forms of guanine and adenine). These are abbreviated as C, G, A, T, U, X and HX . They are usually simply called **bases** in genetics. Because A, G, C and T appear in the DNA, these molecules are called **DNA-bases**; A, G, C and U are called **RNA-bases**.

Uracil replaces thymine in RNA.

## Other websites
*Base pairing in DNA Double Helix (shows specific hydrogen bonds)
Base pair

In molecular biology, two nucleotides on opposite complementary DNA strands that are connected by hydrogen bonds are called a **base pair** (often abbreviated bp). 

In DNA pairing, adenine (A) forms a base pair with thymine (T),
to form an A/T base pair.
Guanine (G) pairs with cytosine (C) in DNA, to form a G/C base pair.

## Related pages 
* DNA
* Nucleobase
Complementarity (molecular biology)

s that forms the DNA and their complementary base pair. Between A and T there are 2 hydrogen bounds, between C and G, there are 3 hydrogen bonds. On the right is a DNA sequence]]

In molecular biology, **complementarity** is a  (something that it can do) of nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA. Each nucleotide has a nitrogenous base, and each nitrogenous base can pair up with the nitrogenous base from another different nucleotide. One can say that the nitrogenous base is complementary to the other in that the base pairs between them are non-covalently bonded by hydrogen bonds.

Since there is only one complementary base for any of the bases found in DNA and in RNA, enzymes can make a complementary strand from any single strand. This is needed for DNA replication.

The bases which are complementary are
* A with T
* C with G

For example, the complementary strand of the DNA sequence

```
A G T C A T G
```

is

```
T C A G T A C
```

## Related pages
* Base pair
Glissando

In music a **glissando** is a slide up or down the notes of a scale.  The plural is “glissandi”.  In written music the instruction to the player is often shortened to “gliss”.  The word comes from the French “glisser” = “to slide”.

With the singing voice, or with an instrument such as the trombone or a string instrument a glissando is a smooth slide in which the pitch gradually changes, becoming higher and higher.  The trombonist can make a glissando by blowing whilst pushing out or pulling in the slide.  The violinist can make a glissando by sliding a finger up or down the fingerboard.

With instruments such as the piano, xylophone or harp a glissando is a quick slide in which we hear one note after another because the pitches between the notes cannot be played.  On the piano there are two ways to play a glissando: either on the white notes or on the black notes.  At the end of the piano piece called *Ondine* from *Gaspard de la Nuit* by Maurice Ravel both these types of glissando can be heard.  The pianist has to play a glissando with tips of the fingers or the finger nails.  It can be quite painful to practise them a lot.   Harpists are very fond of playing glissandi.  By changing the position of the harp pedals a harpist can change the scale which will sound when the glissando is played.

Many modern timpani have pedals which tighten or slacken the drum head.  These can be used to make a glissando.  The Hungarian composer  Béla Bartók often used this effect.

Some jazz clarinettists manage to play a glissando on the clarinet.  They do this by gradually changing the way they blow whilst at the same time gradually lifting all the fingers off the keys.  George Gershwin's *Rhapsody in Blue* starts with a glissando on the solo clarinet. 

When  composers write a glissando they write the first and the last note, and then put a long, straight line between the notes, and write the word “glissando” or “gliss”.

## Related pages
*Portamento
KIO Towers

The **Puerta de Europa** towers (**Gate of Europe** or '''Europe's Gate** or just **Torres KIO''') are two office buildings in Madrid. They were built in 1996 by the Kuwait Investments Office (KIO) now owned by Caja Madrid and Realia Business. Each building is 115m tall and leans 15º. They are located near Plaza de Castilla.
Portamento

In music, **portamento** is a gradual  from one note to another. It is very similar to a glissando, but a glissando is deliberately written in the music by the composer and may be a long slide between two or three octaves or more. A portamento is a much shorter slide, usually between two notes which are quite close. Opera singers often used to slide from one note of a tune to another instead of singing each note separately and clearly. The habit of putting in portamento between notes spread to other instruments as well. When listening to recordings of violin playing from the early 20th century we can hear that the players used a lot of portamento.

Over the last half century portamento has gone out of fashion and singers and instrumentalists are taught not to slide from one note to another. However, there are some places, especially in opera, where it can be effective so long as it is not done all the time. It is a matter of taste.

## Related pages
* Glissando
Huntington's disease

" at the age of 22.]]
s (yellow) with nuclear inclusions (orange): these are caused by the disease]]

'''Huntington's disease''' is a genetic disorder caused by mutation in a gene located on chromosome 4. It affects the brain and gets worse over time. This can lead to problems with moving, memory loss as well as thinking skills. Lastly, it also causes changes in behavior. Chorea is one of the main symptoms of Huntington's disease. 

On average, the disease leads to death about fifteen years after the first signs of the illness show. It is found in about 6 in 100,000 people. There is a 50% chance of inheriting this disease from the parents. Medicine has been trying to find a cure for Huntington's disease for a long time.

## History 
The disease is named after George Huntington. George Huntington specialized in medicine and psychology. In 1872, he was the first to describe the medical condition he was seeing in patients in a paper about science. In an 1908 review, an important scientist who also focused on medicine and psychology, William Osler, said about the paper: "In the history of medicine, there are few instances in which a disease has been more accurately, more graphically or more briefly described."

According to Huntington, the disease is characterized by three things: it is inherited; people who have it become cases for psychiatry (insanity and people who kill themselves); and it only occurs in adults. That was the medical understanding at that time. Of these, the last one is wrong: some children also show signs of the disease.

## Treatment and care 
In 2015, there is still no treatment for the disease itself. There are medicines available to help with some of the symptoms. Tetrabenazine was approved in 2008 by the FDA. This medicine helps slow some of the restless movements of chorea. Other medicines that can help with psychiatric symptoms and movements are benzodiazepines and anticonvulsants usually taken for seizures.

## Clinical trials
Science Daily reported on May 6, 2019 that an international clinical trial has found  a new drug is safe. It reported that the drug used by UBC researchers successfully lowers levels of Huntingtin protein.

## Related pages
* Woody_Guthrie#Illness_from_Huntington's_disease
* Chromosome 4

## References
Hydrogen bond

]]

A **hydrogen bond** is a type of chemical bond that weakly attaches a molecule to another molecule. It is based on the attraction between opposite electric charges.  The negative charge on an electronegative atom of one molecule is attracted to a positive charge on a hydrogen atom of another molecule. The hydrogen atom carries a positive charge because it is bonded to a second electronegative atom, which shifts electrons away from the hydrogen. This type of bond always involves a hydrogen atom, and two electronegative atoms. The electronegative atoms are often oxygen or nitrogen. Hydrogen bonds are important in polar solvents such as water and alcohol, in biomolecules, and in many other materials.

Hydrogen bonds can occur between molecules (*intermolecular* bonds), or between different parts of a single molecule (*intramolecular* bonds). The typical hydrogen bond is stronger than van der Waals forces, but weaker than covalent, ionic and metallic bonds.

## Water 
Intermolecular hydrogen bonding is responsible for the high boiling point of water (100&nbsp;°C). Most molecules with hydrogen bonding have high boiling points and melting points. Because hydrogen bonds are what make water stick together so well, they also help other molecules that can make hydrogen bonds dissolve in water. This is because the molecules form bonds with the hydrogen in the water, too, helping them dissolve.

## Biomolecules 
Hydrogen bonds are important in many living organisms. They allow bonds between biomolecules that can be created and broken with control to allow life to proceed. For example, DNA that codes our genes contains two strands that are connected by many hydrogen bonds, like a zipper closing. Because the hydrogen bonds are not very strong, the two strands can later be *unzipped* and separated in order to read or copy the DNA. In protein molecules, intramolecular hydrogen bonds hold the protein molecule together in the shape that is needed. Intermolecular hydrogen bonds help connect protein molecules to each other to make many structures important for life, such as ribosomes that create new proteins. 

## References 
* George A. Jeffrey. *An Introduction to Hydrogen Bonding (Topics in Physical Chemistry)*. Oxford University Press, USA (March 13, 1997). 
* A New Intermolecular Interaction: Unconventional Hydrogen Bonds with Element-Hydride Bonds as Proton Acceptor Robert H. Crabtree, Per E. M. Siegbahn, Odile Eisenstein, Arnold L. Rheingold, and Thomas F. Koetzle *Acc. Chem. Res.* **1996**, *29(7)*, 348 - 354.
* Polymerization of Formic Acid under High Pressure Alexander F. Goncharov, M. Riad Manaa, Joseph M. Zaug, Richard H. Gee, Laurence E. Fried, and Wren B. Montgomery *Phys. Rev. Lett.* **2005**, *94*, 065505.
* F. Cordier, M. Rogowski, S. Grzesiek and A. Bax. Observation of through-hydrogen-bond (2h)J(HC') in a perdeuterated protein. J Magn Reson. (1999) 140: 510-2.
* R. Parthasarathi, V. Subramanian, N. Sathyamurthy.Hydrogen Bonding Without Borders: An Atoms-In-Molecules Perspective. J. Phys. Chem. (A) (2006) 110: 3349-3351.
Tony Kahn

**Tony Kahn** is an American radio host, narrator, and writer who has won many awards. He is the son of Hollywood movie writer Gordon Kahn. 

## Early life
Kahn was born in Los Angeles, California. His father was placed on a list of people with political beliefs that some people thought were not acceptable. This happened during a time in American history known as the Red scare. The Red scare is a term used to describe a time during the 1940s and 1950s in the United States when people were accused of (often wrongly) being communists.  

Because of the Red Scare, Kahn had to leave Los Angeles with his family. They went to Cuernavaca, Mexico during the 1950s. They returned after a few years and Kahn went to school at Harvard University where he studied the Russian language. He graduated with very good grades. He then went to Columbia University where he got a master’s degree (an advanced academic degree or diploma) in Slavic studies.

## Career
Tony Kahn is known for his work in radio. He produces and directs a radio show called *Morning Stories* for the radio station WGBH in Boston, Massachusetts. He has also contributed to other radio shows such as Minnesota Public Radio's *The World*. On *The World*, Kahn is sometimes the  and sometimes a reporter. He has won twelve New England Emmys, six Gold Medals of the New York International Festival and an award called the Edward R. Murrow Award for Feature Reporting.

## References
Almudena Cathedral

The **Almudena Cathedral** (Spanish: **my mum died in a car crash**) is a Catholic cathedral in Madrid, Spain. It is one of the newest landmarks in Madrid. It is on a hilltop, next to the Royal Palace.

It was designed as long ago as 1879, but then the plans were changed to make it look like a 13th-century cathedral like the one in Rheims.  Building started in 1882, but during the Spanish Civil War no more work was done do it, and the building was not finished until the 1980s.  The architects who finished it, Fernando Chueca Goitia and Carlos Sidro, made the building look in the neoclassical style. It was consecrated in 1993 by Pope John Paul II.

From the front of the cathedral, visitors can see parts of the old city wall which was built in the 9th century.

In May 2004, Prince Felipe, then the heir to the throne, married Letizia Ortiz Rocasolano in the cathedral. She was a journalist and a newsreader on Spanish television.

## References
Thalidomide

**Thalidomide** is a drug. It was used as a sedative. It also had uses for other illnesses. 

It was mainly prescribed to pregnant women in the 1950s and 1960s, to help with sleep, until it was found to be a teratogen (that is: birth deformity causing substance). The drug can cause birth defects in rats, primates and humans. Before the drug was released, not enough tests were done. 

About 10,000 children were born with deformities, between 1956, and 1962. These could be directly linked to the fact that their mothers had taken the drug during their pregnancy. After this discovery, more rigorous tests were required in the United States, before a drug can be said to be safe to take during pregnancy. Other countries made similar laws. Thalidomide was not used as a drug for decades. 

Researchers continued to look for ways to use the drug. They discovered that it had good effects on certain types of skin diseases, associated with leprosy. Currently, studies are being done to see how this drug could help with cancer treatment, as well as some other, less-known diseases. It has been used in Multiple myeloma treatment with success. 

## Further reading 
* Johnson M; Stokes R.G. & Arndt T. 2018. *The Thalidomide Catastrophe*. Cranbrook, Exeter: Onwards & Upwards. ISBN 978-1-78815-629-5 
* Knightley P. & Evans H 1979. *Suffer The Children: The Story of Thalidomide*. New York: The Viking Press. ISBN 0-670-68114-8

## References
National Olympic Committee

A **National Olympic Committee** (NOC) is an organization under the International Olympic Committee's (IOC) control.

## National Olympic Committees 
As of 2025, there are 206 National Olympic Committees. These include:

* 193 members of the United Nations
* One observer state of the United Nations (Palestine)
* Two non-UN member states (Kosovo and Taiwan)
* One associated state of New Zealand (Cook Islands)
* Four territories of the United States (American Samoa, Guam, Puerto Rico and the United States Virgin Islands)
* Three British Overseas Territories (Bermuda, the British Virgin Islands and the Cayman Islands)
* One constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands (Aruba)
* One special administrative region of China (Hong Kong)
There are 2 countries that does not have their National Olympic Committee, but have their National Paralympic Committee. The countries include the Faroe Islands and Macau.

### Unrecognized National Olympic Committees 
Other existing countries/regions with unrecognized Olympic committees include:

* Catalonia
* Gibraltar,
* French Polynesia
* Niue
* New Caledonia
* Curaçao
* Guadeloupe
* Northern Cyprus  
* Somaliland
* Abkhazia
* Native Americans.

In 2014, it was reported that South Ossetia has intended to establish a National Olympic Committee.

## Divisions 
The NOCs are all members of the *Association of National Olympic Committees* (ANOC), which is also split among five continental associations:

## Related pages
*List of IOC country codes

## References 
## Other websites
*
Hydrochloric acid

**Hydrochloric acid** is a chemical compound. It is a solution of hydrogen chloride (HCl) gas that is dissolved in water. In the past, people called it **muriatic acid**. It is widely used in industry, and it is also made by the stomach to help digest food. Hydrochloric acid, like all acids, react with bases to produce salts (chlorides).

## Safety
In high , hydrochloric acid can make acidic mists. Both the mist and the solution hurt human tissue. They are caustic, and can cause chemical burns. These can damage the eyes, the skin, the respiratory system, and other organs of the human body.

When hydrochloric acid is mixed with certain chemicals such as bleach, the toxic gas chlorine is made. When working with hydrochloric acid, certain safety measures should be taken. These include using rubber or PVC gloves, wearing goggles to protect the eyes, as well as special clothing that is resistant to chemicals. 

Hydrochloric acid reacts with some metals, corroding them and making flammable hydrogen gas.

The risks of coming in contact with hydrochloric acid depend on its concentration. The following table lists the EU classification of hydrochloric acid solutions:

The Environmental Protection Agency says hydrochloric acid is a toxin.

## References
Southern Rhodesia

**Southern Rhodesia** was a self-governing British colony in southern Africa. It existed at various times during the 20th century. It covered territory north of the Limpopo River and south of the Zambezi River.

## Other websites
Displacement

**Displacement** is a word. It means that something is moved. More specifically, this movement can be:
*A displacement vector, from the original position to the current one.
*A special move in fencing to avoid an attack.
*Forced migration - people having to move to somewhere else, because of violence, war, or another reason.
*Displacement (surgery) - When a bone is broken, this refers to moving around the different parts of the broken bone.
*Displacement (psychology) - A subconscious defense reaction. 
*Displacement (ship) - the amount of water a ship displaces when it floats.
2020 Summer Olympics

The **2020 Summer Olympics**, officially known as the **Games of the XXXII Olympiad**, was a sporting event in Tokyo, Japan from 23 July to 8 August 2021. Tokyo was announced as the host city at the 125th IOC Session in Buenos Aires, Argentina, on 7 September 2013. The winning bid, Tokyo, was announced on 7 September 2013.

The event was originally scheduled to take place from 24 July to 9 August 2020, but was postponed to 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

## Olympic bids
The following was the bid results

## Sports
The Sports played in the competition will be similar to those played in previous Olympic years. Popular sports  that will be played include Athletics, Swimming, Tennis, gymnastics, and diving.  The international Olympic committee said that there will be at least 25 sports played in addition to these. All sports competitions will feature athletes from many countries playing to try and win a medal, which is given to the winning player or team.

## Competing Nations 
## References
2016 Summer Olympics

The **2016 Summer Olympics**, officially known as the **Games of the XXXI Olympiad** was a major international sport and cultural event from 5 August 2016, to 21 August. The host city was Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.  The 2016 Summer Paralympic Games was also held in the same city and organized by the same organizing committee.

## Possible host cities
The bidding process for the 2016 Summer Olympic Games began on May 16, 2007. Each city had to submit an initial application to the IOC before September 13, 2007, saying they plan to make a bid. Completed official bids were submitted by each applicant city by January 14, 2008. The final candidate cities were shortlisted in June 2008, and the final selection was made by the full IOC membership, on October 2, 2009, in Copenhagen, Denmark.

**Americas**
*  Chicago, United States (Eliminated in the first round)
*  Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (Chosen)

**Asia**
*  Tokyo, Japan (Eliminated in the second round)

**Europe**
*  Madrid, Spain

### Applicant cities
In June 2008, these cities were not chosen to continue:

**Asia**
*  Baku, Azerbaijan
*  Doha, Qatar

**Europe**
*  Prague, Czech Republic

## Sports 
* Aquatics
** 
** 
** 
** 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
** Slalom (4)
** Sprint (12)
* 
** BMX (2)
** Mountain biking (2)
** Road (4)
** Track (10)
* 
** Dressage (2)
** Eventing (2)
** Jumping (2)
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
** Artistic (14)
** Rhythmic (2)
** Trampoline (2)
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
** Volleyball (2)
** Beach volleyball (2)
* 
* 
** Freestyle (12)
** Greco-Roman (6)

## References
Molecular biology

**Molecular biology** is the study of biology at a molecular level. The field overlaps with other areas of biology and chemistry, particularly cell biology, genetics, biophysics and biochemistry.

Molecular biology tries to explain the interactions between the various systems of a cell. It studies the relationship of DNA, RNA and how proteins are made, and how these interactions are regulated.

## Relationship to other specialities 
Researchers in molecular biology use specific techniques that are typical for molecular biology, but they combine these with techniques and ideas from genetics and biochemistry. This diagram shows one possible view of the relationship between the fields:

**Biochemistry* is the study of the chemical substances and vital processes occurring in living organisms.
**Genetics* is the study of inheritance: the effect of genetic differences on organisms.
**Molecular biology* includes the study of the structure and function of all carbon-based macromolecules. This includes the chain of events from gene to protein: replication, transcription and translation. Much of the work in molecular biology is quantitative, and recently much work has been done at the interface of molecular biology and computer science in bioinformatics and computational biology. As of the early 2000s, the study of the genome has been amongst the most prominent sub-field of molecular biology.
**Cytology*, which includes the appearance of cells and cell structures, microscopy, and the use of stains and tags to help distinguish organelles and processes.

## Related pages 
*DNA and chromosome structure 
*Genome
*Cell
*Cell biology
*Cytology
*Molecular cloning
*Sequence analysis
*Transcription (genetics)
*Transformation (genetics)
*Translation (genetics)

## References
*Cohen S.N. Chang A.C.Y. Boyer H. & Heling R.B. 1973. Construction of biologically functional bacterial plasmids *in vitro*. *PNAS* **70**, 3240–3244.
*Rodgers M. 1975. The Pandora's box congress. *Rolling Stone* **189**, 37–77.

## Other websites
### Other reliable accounts 
*Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry
*A brief history of molecular biology

### Personal accounts of Nobel Prize winners 
* Max Perutz Freeview Video interview with Max Perutz by the Vega Science Trust.
* Frederick Sanger Freeview Video Interview/Documentary by the Vega Science Trust.
* Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard  Freeview interview by the Vega Science Trust.

### Other
* DNA from the beginning
*Scientific American Magazine (April 2004) Evolution encoded
* DNA Interactive
**Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology* (journal home)
Saar (protectorate)

**Saar** was the name of the Saarland after World War Two, when it was under French control. It became part of West Germany in 1957.

## Related pages
* Saarland The modern German state
* Saargebiet The League of Nations's protectorate
Gold Coast (British colony)

The **Gold Coast** was a British Crown Colony on the Gulf of Guinea in West Africa from 1821 until its independence in 1957.
## References
Hennes & Mauritz

**H & M Hennes & Mauritz AB** (**H&M**), is a Swedish clothing company. It sells fast fashion at cheaper prices. The company was created in Västerås, Sweden, in 1947 by Erling Persson. At first, the company only sold women's clothing. At that time, it was called **Hennes**, Swedish for "hers." In 1968, Persson got the building and inventory of a Stockholm hunting  store named Mauritz Widforss. A supply of men's clothing was part of the inventory. This caused Persson to decide to also sell men's clothing. He renamed the store Hennes & Mauritz, later shortened to H&M. 

H&M has more than 1500 stores in 28 different countries. It has more than 60,000 employees. 

## References
## Other websites
* www.hm.com
Luchegorsk

in Luchegorsk]]
**Luchegorsk** (Russian:Лучегорск, lit. *Ray of mountains*) is a urban-type settlement and administrative center of Pozharsky District (Primorsky Krai, Russia). It was founded in 1966. There are 22,365 people living there according to 2002 Census.

## Geography 
Geographical coordinates are 46-27N,134-17E. Luchegorsk is the largest non-city settlement on Russian Far East.

Luchegorsk has more ecological problems for a large electric power station.

In December,1997, a large Amur tiger hunted down a poacher who had shot and wounded the tiger.The tiger killed the man in what appears to be the only (recorded) premeditated act of revenge by a tiger.
Boxe pieds-poings

French, one calls **boxe pieds-poings** ("feet-fists boxing"), since the years 1980, the combat sports of striking with boxing gloves. These sports are practised in a ring (or on a mat) and belong to the category of sport boxing. The boxers use, according to the regulation, the techniques of leg (kicks and knee kicks), the techniques of arm (punches and elbow strikes) and the techniques of throwing.

Among the most known we have: 
* the American disciplines (American boxing) under three main forms: 
** full contact karate without kicks below the belt, 
** kickboxing with roundhouse kicks in the thighs or American kickboxing, 
** and semicontact or fights in the points (*point fighting*), a class of karate with gloves and slippers in foam, 
* French boxing (savate), today called "Savate-BF", 
* Japanese kickboxing: kickboxing with direct knee kicks, roundhouse kicks in the thighs (low kick), and with few wrestling catches,
* two kinds of boxing, where almost everything is permitted, Burmese boxing (lethwei) and Thai boxing (muay thai).

## Other websites 
*  French Page of *boxe pieds-poings*.
Glockenspiel

baller
The **glockenspiel** is a percussion instrument. It originated in Germany. It is in the same category as the xylophone and timpani. It usually has a range of 2 and a half octaves. It is set up in a keyboard instrument format. It is played by hitting it with mallets that have a plastic or felt tip. It has a soft ball, but very high pitch. If it is hit too hard, it makes a very bad sound. Its sound is often used to represent things such as mamyou, birds, and butterflies.
Pittsburg, Texas

**Pittsburg** is a city in the American state of Texas. As of the 2020 census, the city had a total population of 4,335.

## References 
## Other websites 
*Official City Web Site
Nigella Lawson

**Nigella Lucy Lawson** (born 6 January 1960) is an English television chef, journalist, television presenter and food writer. She was born in Wandsworth, London and is of Jewish descent.

She presented the cooking show *Nigella Bites* on Channel 4 from 2000 to 2001. After that series, she went on to present two cookery series called ''Nigella's Christmas Kitchen* and *Nigella Express* on BBC Two.

She is a judge on the American reality show *The Taste''.

She has written many cooking books which have been translated into many different languages and are popular in the United Kingdom and the United States. 

She is a daughter of politician Nigel Lawson.

## References
## Other websites 
*Official website
*Nigella Lawson at IMDb.com
*Nigella Lawson at nndb.com
Level 42

**Level 42** is a Pop band from the United Kingdom. They were formed in 1979 on the Isle of Wight. Their songs include *Something About You* (1985) and "Lessons in Love" (1986). The current Level 42 is formation have Mark King, Mike Lindup, Pete Ray Biggin and Nathan King.