open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Humphrey Bogart

**Humphrey DeForest Bogart** ( ; December 25, 1899 – January 14, 1957) was an American actor. He was sometimes called **Bogie**. He was very important in classic Hollywood cinema. His performances made him an American cultural icon. In 1999, the American Film Institute said he was the greatest male star of classic American cinema. He is nominated for three Academy Awards on each movies, including *Casablanca*, *The African Queen* and *The Caine Mutiny*.

## Movies 
* *Bad Sister* (1931)
* *The Petrified Forest* (1936)
* *Kid Galahad* (1937)
* *San Quentin* (1937)
* *Angels with Dirty Faces* (1938)
* *Swing Your Lady* (1938)
* ''You Can't Get Away with Murder* (1939)
* *The Roaring Twenties* (1939)
* *They Drive by Night* (1940)
* *Brother Orchid* (1940)
* *High Sierra* (1941)
* *The Maltese Falcon* (1941)
* *Across the Pacific* (1942)
* *Casablanca* (1942)
* *Action in the North Atlantic* (1943)
* *Sahara* (1943)
* *To Have and Have Not* (1944)
* *Passage to Marseille* (1944)
* *Conflict* (1945)
* *The Big Sleep* (1946)
* *Dark Passage* (1947)
* *Dead Reckoning* (1947)
* *The Two Mrs. Carrolls* (1947)
* *The Treasure of the Sierra Madre* (1948)
* *Key Largo* (1948)
* *In a Lonely Place* (1950)
* *The African Queen* (1951)
* *Beat the Devil* (1953)
* *The Barefoot Contessa* (1954)
* *The Caine Mutiny* (1954)
* *Sabrina* (1954)
* *The Desperate Hours* (1955)
* *We're No Angels* (1955)
* *The Harder They Fall* (1956)

## Important radio appearances 
*, 1939]]

## References
## Other websites 
* 
* 
* 
*
1588

## Events 
* May 12 – Day of the Barricades in Paris.  Duke Henry of Guise seizes the city, forcing King Henry III to flee.
* May 28 – The Spanish Armada, with 130 ships and 30,000 men, begins to set sail from Lisbon heading for the English Channel (it will take until May 30 for all ships to leave port).
* July – King Henry III of France capitulates to the Duke of Guise and returns to Paris.
* July 31 – First engagement between the English and Spanish fleets off Plymouth. The English have the better of it.
* August 2 – The English and Spanish fleets meet again off Dorset. (The English fleet is led by Lord Howard of Effingham and Sir Francis Drake.) The English again have the better of it.
* August 6 – Battle of Gravelines: The Spanish Armada is defeated by an English naval force under command of Lord Charles Howard and Sir Francis Drake off the coast of Gravelines, now in France.
* August 7 – The English and Spanish fleets again engage off the coast of Flanders. The English again are more successful.
* August 8 – August 9 – The Spanish are unable to reach the coast of Flanders to meet up with the army of the Duke of Parma. Medina Sidonia decides to return to Spain.
* August 12 – The Spanish fleet sails past the Firth of Forth, and the English cease their pursuit. Much of the Spanish fleet is destroyed as it sails around Scotland and Ireland.
* October 1 - Abbas the Great of Persia takes power.
* December 23 – Henry III of France strikes his ultra-Catholic enemies, having the Duke of Guise and his brother, Cardinal Louis of Guise, killed, and holding the Cardinal de Bourbon a prisoner.
* Ahmad al-Mansur, sultan of Morocco, demands that the king of Songhay give a heavy tribute in exchange of a Saharan salt, probably in an intentional provocation. When Songhay's answer is defiant, he declares war and marches his army through Sahara to Songhay
* Russia, regency of Boris Godunov
* William Morgan's Welsh translation of the Bible published.
1513

## Events 
*Florida found by the Spanish (the first Europeans to do so).

## Births 
*

## Deaths 
* February 21 – Pope Julius II
* September 9 – James IV of Scotland
Salmon

of a breeding season]]
 was opened and loosened]]

**Salmon** is a kind of teleost fish. It is a general term for  commercially important ray-finned fish from the family Salmonidae. Salmon belong to the same family of fish as the trout. 

Most kinds of salmon live in salt water, or migrate between rivers and the sea. Many people like to eat salmon, so sometimes the fish is grown in fish farms. 

As the salmon go upstream to the spawning grounds, they may face obstruction from beaver dams. Sluice gates have to be provided so the gravid female salmon can get to the spawning grounds. This is a problem caused by the re-introduction of beavers to the U.K. Sluice gates are opened for the salmon at breeding time. Salmon farms are also possible, in which the fish are non-migratory, but then they have to be fed artificially.

## Coloring 
Salmons get the pink color of their flesh from a pigment called astaxanthin. Wild salmon get it from the krill and shrimp they eat, while farmed salmon gets traces of it in kibble (compound feed). If they don't have the pigment, their flesh has a gray color.

## Eating 
Usual ways to make food out of salmon are smoking, cold smoking and graving. 

## Main species 
*Atlantic salmon
*Australian salmon
*Chinook salmon
*Chum salmon
*Coho salmon
*Indian Salmon
*Pink salmon
*Sockeye salmon

## References
## Other websites
*Salmon Nation  A place and idea for "reliable prosperity."
*Columbia River Inter-Tribal Fish Commission
*Seafood Watch from the Monterey Bay Aquarium
*Is Something Fishy Going On? (red dyes in farmed fish)
1560

**1560** (MDLX) was a leap year starting on Monday in the Julian calendar.

## Events 
*July 6 – Treaty of Edinburgh

## Births 
* Anton Praetorius, fighter against torture and chase of witches (d. 1613)
* August 7 – Elizabeth Báthory, Hungarian murderer
* November 28 – Baltasar of Marradas, Spanish noblemanbleman, knight of the Knights of Malta, imperial field marshal, governor in Bohemia (d. 1638)

## Deaths 
*April 19 – Philipp Melanchthon, German humanist and reformer
*September 29 – King Gustav I of Sweden (b. 1496)
Cary Grant

**Cary Grant** (January 18, 1904 - November 29, 1986), born as **Archibald Alexander Leach** in Bristol, United Kingdom, was an English-American actor. He was known for his Mid-Atlantic accent, debonair demeanor, light-hearted approach to acting, and sense of comic timing. He was one of classic Hollywood's definitive leading men from the 1930s until the mid-1960s.  He starred in many movies, including 1959's *North by Northwest*.

Grant became an American citizen in 1942.  At that time, he legally changed his name to "Cary Grant." He died of a stroke on November 29, 1986. His body was cremated.

## Sources
## Other websites 
*
Dyslexia

**Dyslexia**, or **word blindness**, is a learning disability that affects reading. Different people are affected to different degrees. This condition makes it difficult to learn and understand things in the same way others do. It is a very common problem.

Dyslexia affects the way the brain understands words. The most common signs of dyslexia are reading and writing problems. 

Estimates are that in the United States between 5 and 9% of school children have dyslexia. Another source says it affects 3–7% of the population. Up to 20% of the general population may have some degree of symptoms.  While dyslexia is more often diagnosed in boys, this is partly explained by a self-fulfilling referral bias among teachers and professionals.

## Characteristics
A person can have dyslexia even if they are intelligent. Their education might be affected by their dyslexia or not. Recent studies show there are some small business owners that have dyslexia. Researchers think many dyslexic entrepreneurs are successful because they can delegate responsibilities (of writing letters) and still be good at speaking.

At the end of the 19th century, scientists did a lot of research about dyslexia and found some of the reasons that people are dyslexic.

## Therapy
Children with dyslexia can be helped. One way teachers help dyslexic students is to break words into different sounds. The student must learn how to write the different sounds and create words. This helps with reading and writing.

## Origins 
Speech is a newcomer in evolutionary terms. Like the large heads of babies, human speech evolved very recently. 

Newer biological functions tend to be less reliable than older functions.

## References
## Related pages
*Dysgraphia
*Neurodiversity
Emotion

**Emotions** are what people feel. They are very ancient, and can be seen in all mammals.

Emotions are caused by a complex mixture of hormones and the unconscious mind. Only with great difficulty can we control our emotions by conscious effort. They cause mammals to change behaviour according to changes in their situation. In our case, they sometimes run against our attempt to live our lives in a logical way.

A scientific definition is not simple; over 90 definitions have been offered by experts. A definition of emotion needs to include three things:
#conscious experience (feelings)
# which can be seen by others
#actions of the body ('physiological arousal')

Here is one definition:
:"Emotion is a complex psychological phenomenon which occurs as animals or people live their lives. Emotions involve physiological arousal, appraisal of the situation, expressive behaviours, and conscious experience. Emotion is associated with feeling, mood, , personality, , and ".

In physical terms, emotions involve body systems which have operated for hundreds of millions of years. These are the hormone system, the autonomic nervous system and the 'lower' brain centers (hindbrain and midbrain).

## Function of emotions 
)]]

The study of emotions became one of Darwin's books after *The Descent of Man*. He published *The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals* in 1873. He had discovered, by sending letters and a list of questions worldwide, that in different societies emotions were expressed in almost the same way.

If so, the mechanisms which made the expressions must be inherited. They must have been developed in the same way as all other features of man, evolution by natural selection. It was already known from anatomy that the muscles and nerves of the face were the same or similar in all humans.

Darwin illustrated the expression of the emotions with a series of photographs and woodcut illustrations. Ekman did the same thing on a research visit to New Guinea, where he asked villagers to identify the emotions shown in the photographs. This was part of a long-term effort to test and extend Darwin's insights into emotions. Some of Ekman's conclusions are: 

Because two large groups of vertebrates have developed emotions (mammals and birds at least), it must be that emotions are helpful in group behaviour. In a quite different group, social insects, the group behaviour is controlled by pheromones: inherited scent patterns. Scent is also important to most mammals, but birds are more sight-oriented.

## Related pages 
* List of emotions

## References
1763

## Events 
* February 10 – French and Indian War: The 1763 Treaty of Paris ends the war and France cedes Canada to Great Britain.
* 15 February – the Treaty of Hubertusburg puts an end to the Seven Years' War between Prussia and Austria and their allies
* March 1 – Charles Townshend becomes President of the Board of Trade in the British government
* May 7 – Chief Pontiac begins the "Conspiracy of Pontiac" by attacking British forces at Fort Detroit.
* June 2 – Pontiac's Rebellion: At what is now Mackinaw City, Michigan, Chippewas capture Fort Michilimackinac by diverting the garrison's attention with a game of lacrosse, then chasing a ball into the fort.
* June 28 – earthquake in Komarom, Hungary
* August 5 – Pontiac's War – Battle of Bushy Run – British forces led by Henry Bouquet defeat Chief Pontiac's Native Americans at Bushy Run in the Pennsylvania backcountry.

* The Treaty of Paris signed by Great Britain, France and Spain brings an end to the Seven Years' War (also called the French and Indian War in the United States)
* First publication of Bayes' theorem
* Proclamation of 1763
1637

## Events 
* February 3 – Tulip mania collapses in the United Provinces (now the Netherlands) by government order
* February 15 – Ferdinand III becomes Holy Roman Emperor
* December 17 – Shimabara Rebellion erupts in Japan
*Pierre de Fermat makes a marginal claim to have proof of what would become known as Fermat's last theorem.
*France places a few missionaries in the Côte d'Ivoire, a country it would come to rule more than 200 years later.
*England wages war against the Mashantucket Pequots
* First opera house, *Teatro San Cassiona*, opens in Venice
* René Descartes – *Discours de la Methode*
*Elizabeth Poole becomes the first woman to have founded a town (Taunton, Massachusetts) in the Americas.
146

## Events 
*Change of era name from *Yongxi* (1st year) to *Benchu* era of the Chinese Han Dynasty
*Change of emperor from Han Zhidi to Han Huandi of the Chinese Han Dynasty
Colima

**Colima** is a state in southwest Mexico.  About 760,000 people live there. Its capital is also called Colima.
1682

## Events 
* March 11 – Chelsea hospital for soldiers is founded in England.
* April 7 – René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, exploring rivers in America, reaches the mouth of the Mississippi River.
* April 9 – At the mouth of the Mississippi River, near modern Venice, Louisiana, Robert de La Salle buries an engraved plate and a cross, claiming the territory as "La Louisiane" for France.
* May 6 – Louis XIV of France moves his court to Versailles.
* May 7 – Official beginning of the reign of Peter the Great.
* May 11 – Moscow Uprising of 1682: a mob takes over the Kremlin and lynches the leading boyars and military commanders.
* July 19 – Iyasus succeeds his father Yohannes I as Emperor of Ethiopia.
* August 12 – Vesuvius begins a period of volcanic activity lasting for ten days.
* September – Halley's comet makes an appearance, and is observed by Edmond Halley himself.
* September 14 – Bishop Gore School in Swansea, Wales is founded.
* October 27 – The city of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania is founded by William Penn.
* October 31  – The city of Bideford, England two men and one woman were some of the last to be executed for witchcraft in England. They were accused of speaking in unknown languages as well as practicing knowledge beyond their natural abilities, and acting in peculiar manners. The woman, Guenevere Damascus, as well as her lover (name unknown) and their spiritual mentor were burned at the stake.

### Undated 
* The first black slaves arrive in Germany.
* The Richard Wall House is built in Pennsylvania.

## Births 
* February 25 – Giovanni Battista Morgagni, Italian anatomist (died 1771)
* April 16 – John Hadley, inventor (died 1744)
* June 27 – King Charles XII of Sweden (died 1718)
* July 10 – Roger Cotes, English mathematician (died 1716)
* August 16 – Louis, duc de Bourgogne, heir to the throne of France (died 1712)
* October 29 – Pierre François Xavier de Charlevoix, French historian (died 1761)

## Deaths 
* February 25 – Alessandro Stradella, Italian composer (born 1644)
* March 14 – Jacob Isaakszoon van Ruysdael, Dutch painter (born c.1628)
* April 1 – Franz Egon of Fürstenberg, Bishop of Strassburg (born 1625)
* April 3 – Bartolomé Esteban Murillo, Spanish painter (born 1618)
* May 7 – Tsar Feodor III of Russia (born 1661)
* July 12 – Jean Picard, French astronomer (born 1620)
* September 8 – Juan Caramuel y Lobkowitz, Spanish writer (born 1606)
* October 19 – Sir Thomas Browne English writer, physician, and philosopher (born 1605)
* November 19 – Prince Rupert of the Rhine, Royalist commander in the English Civil War (born 1619)
* November 23 – Claude Lorrain French painter (born c.1600)
* *date unknown* Yohannes I, Emperor of Ethiopia
* *date unknown* Turhan Hatice, regent of the Ottoman Empire (born 1627)
1451

## Events 
* February 3 – Murad II, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire dies and is succeeded by his son Mehmed II.
* April 11 – Celje acquires market-town status and town rights by orders from the Celje count Frederic II.
* June 30 – French troops under the Comte de Dunois invade Guyenne and capture Bordeaux
* August 20 – The French capture Bayonne, the last English stronghold in Guyenne
* Foundation of the University of Glasgow
* Nicholas of Cusa invents concave lens spectacles to treat myopia
* Roger van der Weyden paints his *Last Judgement*
* Lodi dynasty succeeded the Sayyid dynasty in India

## Births
* Christopher Columbus
* April 22 – Isabella of Castile
Valencia

]]
**Valencia** is a city in Spain, on the Mediterranean coast. It is the capital of the Community of Valencia. It has 807,396 people, making it the third-largest city in Spain and the fifteenth in the European Union. 

Valencia has a borderline hot semi-arid climate (*BSh* in the Köppen climate classification) and a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (*Csa* in the Köppen climate classification).

## Other websites 
Valencia Tourism Official Site 

## References
Zaragoza

**Zaragoza** (sometimes called **Saragossa** in English) is the capital of Aragon, in the Ebro Valley, in the crossroad from Barcelona, Valencia, Madrid, and Bilbao. The population is 643,000. The most important monument is the Nuestra Señora del Pilar (*Basilica of Our Lady of the Pillar*).

Zaragoza has a cold semi-arid climate (*BSk* in the Köppen climate classification) with hot summers and cool winters.

## References
Peter Jackson

**Sir** **Peter Robert Jackson** ONZ KNZM (born 31 October 1961, Wellington, New Zealand) is a New Zealand film director. He is most widely known for directing *The Lord of the Rings* film trilogy. He also directed the 2005 film, *King Kong*.

In 2003, Jackson won three Academy Awards for *The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King*: Academy Award for Directing, Academy Award for Best Picture and Academy Award for Writing Adapted Screenplay.

Jackson directed the music video for "Now and Then", the "last" single of The Beatles.

## Filmography 
* *Bad Taste* (1987)
* *Meet the Feebles* (1989)
* *Valley of the Stereos* (1992) (short film)
* *Braindead* (a.k.a. *Dead Alive*) (1992)
* *Heavenly Creatures* (1994)
* *Forgotten Silver* (1995) - mockumentary
* *The Frighteners* (1996)
* *The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring* (2001)
* *The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers* (2002)
* *The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King* (2003)
* *King Kong* (2005)
* *The Lovely Bones* (2007)
* *Halo* (2008) - executive producer
* *The Adventures of Tintin* - executive producer
* *The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey* (2012)
* *The Hobbit: The Desolation of Smaug* (2013)
* *The Hobbit: The Battle of the Five Armies* (2014)

## References 
## Other websites 
*
Murcia

**Murcia** is the capital of the autonomous community of Murcia, in Spain, and its biggest city, with a population of 459,778 in the city. The municipality is the seventh largest in Spain. 

The city is in the Segura Valley, in an area called la *Huerta de Murcia*, which is a very important agricultural center with oranges, lemons, tomatoes, onions, etc.; the varied fruits and vegetables typical of the Mediterranean lands. It has a hot semi-arid climate (*BSh* in the Koeppen climate classification). The city has a Baroque cathedral and a university.
Las Palmas de Gran Canaria

La Palma is another island of the Canary Islands

**Las Palmas de Gran Canaria** is the biggest city of the Canary Islands, in the Atlantic Ocean. The city, with a population of 383,308 in 2010, is the eighth-largest in Spain. 

Together with Santa Cruz de Tenerife, it is the capital of the Comunidad Autónoma de
Canarias (Autonomous Community of the Canary Islands). It is also the capital of the island of Gran Canaria and of the province of Las Palmas. The islands of this province are Gran Canaria, Lanzarote and Fuerteventura.

The city was founded in 1478. The town has a beautiful old area. This area (Vegueta) has a lot of houses from the 16th to the 19th Centuries. There is still a house where Christopher Columbus stayed in 1492. He stayed there before he went to the Americas. The interesting cathedral was begun in the year 1500.

Its port is one of the busiest in Spain and the biggest between Europe and Cape Town, in South Africa.

Las Palmas (for short) is famous for its very nice and dry weather all year round. It is also famous for its Las Canteras Beach. This beach is more than 3 kilometers long. The beach brings a lot of tourists to the city. 

Main industries: trade, tourism, canned food, fishing, shipbuilding.

**Places to visit**: *Vegueta* (old area);* Triana* (traditional commercial area); *Playa de Las Canteras* (Las Canteras Beach); cathedral; *Casa de Colón* (Columbus House); *Museo Canario* (archaeology museum); *CAAM - Centro Atlántico de Arte Moderno* (Modern Art Centre); *Museo Élder de la Ciencia* (science museum); *Museo Néstor* (museum with paintings); *Teatro Pérez Galdós* (theatre); *Auditorio Alfredo Kraus* (concert hall); *Jardín Canario* (Canary Garden, mostly with plants from the Canary Islands); Doramas Park.
Córdoba, Andalusia

**Córdoba** is a city in Andalusia, Spain. It is the capital of Córdoba province. It had a population of about 326,000 in 2017.

Córdoba was the capital of the Caliphate of Cordoba, an Islamic empire in the Middle Ages, when the city was the biggest in Europe, with 250,000 people.

Córdoba is 138 kilometers (86 miles) northeast of the city of Seville and is on the Guadalquivir river. Córdoba has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Csa in the Köppen climate classification) with the hottest summers of all European cities.

## History
The Romans occupied Córdoba in 206 B.C. The city was very important in the 900s CE as a famous center of Moorish art and culture.  The Mezquita de Córdoba is the city's chief landmark. It was built as a mosque (Muslim house of worship) in the 700s and was made into a Roman Catholic cathedral in 1238.  More than 1,000 pillars of stone including granite, onyx, marble and jasper support its arches.

## Economy
A soft, fine-grained leather called *cordovan* is made in Córdoba. Córdoba is the center of an agricultural region. The farms there produce grain, grapes, olives, and vegetables.

## References
Málaga

**Malaga** (Spanish: *Málaga*) is a Spanish city in Andalusia, Spain on the Mediterranean coast. The city has 560,000 people. There are more than 1,000,000 people in the surrounding area. It is the second biggest city in Andalusia after Sevilla, and the sixth biggest in Spain. The 20th century artist Pablo Picasso was born in Málaga.

Málaga is southernmost large city in Europe, it lies on the Costa del Sol (Coast of the Sun) of the Mediterranean, about 100&nbsp;km (62.14&nbsp;mi) east of the Strait of Gibraltar and about 130&nbsp;km (80.78&nbsp;mi) north of Africa.
Málaga enjoys a subtropical–mediterranean climate. It has one of the warmest winters in Europe, with average temperatures of 17&nbsp;°C (62.6&nbsp;°F) during the day and 7–8&nbsp;°C (45–46&nbsp;°F) at night in the period from December through February.
## Climate
The climate is subtropical-Mediterranean (Köppen climate classification: *Csa*) with very mild winters and hot summers. Málaga enjoys plenty of sunshine throughout the year, with an average of about 300 days of sunshine and only about 40-45 with precipitation annually. Its coastal location with winds blowing from the Mediterranean Sea make the heat manageable during the summer.

Málaga experiences the warmest winters of any European city with a population over 500,000. The average temperature during the day in the period December through February is . During the winter, the Málaga Mountains (*Montes de Málaga*) block out the cold weather from the north. The highest wind speed ever recorded was on 16 July 1980, measuring . Snowfall is virtually unknown; since the end of the XIX century, Málaga city has only recorded snow one day in the 20th century, on 2 February 1954.

Annual average relative humidity is 65%, ranging from 58% in June to 72% in December. Yearly sunshine hours is between 2,800 and 3,000 per year, from 5–6&nbsp;hours of sunshine / day in December to average 11&nbsp;hours of sunshine / day in July. Rain occurs mainly in winter, with summer being generally dry. Málaga is one of the few cities in Europe which are "green" all year round.

## References
## Other websites 
* Málaga.diwiki.org  Periódico digital
Alicante

**Alacant** or **Alicante** (, Valencian: ) is a city in Spain. It is the capital of the province of Alicante. It is in the southern part of the Valencian Community. It is also a historic Mediterranean port. The population of the city of Alicante proper is about 332,067, as of 2014, ranking as the second-largest Valencian city.  Including nearby municipalities, Alicante was populated by 458,843 residents. Population of the metropolitan area (including Elche and satellite towns) was 795,034 as of 2009. Based on population it is the eighth-largest metropolitan area of Spain.

The city is a sea port and a tourist centre. It has a hot semi-arid climate (*BSh* in the Koeppen climate classification).

The avenue Maisonnave is the principal commercial street in the city of Alicante. In fact, Maisonnave is the sixth most expensive avenue in the whole of Spain, which gives an idea of the importance that this  street has. The Corte inglés has in this central street both branches that it possesses in Alicant, one at each end of the avenue.

Santa Barbara's Castle is 166 metres up the Benacantil mountain. It's very strong with great strategic value. It's called Santa Barbara's Castle because the 4th of December is Santa Barbara's day and the 4th of December in 1248 is when it was taken from the Arabs by Alfonso of Castilla.

## References
## Other websites 
* Alicante Information 
* Interactive map
Phonology

**Phonology** is part of linguistics. Linguistics is the scientific study of language. Phonology is the science that studies the way that sounds (phones) carry meaning in language. Sounds (phones) that carry meaning in language are called phonemes. Sounds that do not carry meaning in the language are called allophones.

Phonology focuses on the study of phonemes, "units of sound (speech) that distinguish one word from another in a particular language." Phonology also includes studies of how words are articulated, or spoken.

## Terminology 
Phonology refers to the sound patterns of a language and is different from phonetics. Phonology studies how sounds form meaning in language. Phonetics studies how those sounds are formed. Studies of phonology and phonetics are sometimes combined, which results in more specific areas of study.

## History 
In 300 BC, Panini was the first person to study phonology. He created a grammar (a set of language rules) for Sanskrit (an ancient Indian language). He also created a list of the phonemes in Sanskrit. He assigned a symbol to represent each phoneme. The symbols are still used today in phonology.

The first person to use the word "phoneme" was the French linguist (one who studies language) Antoni Dufriche-Desgenettes. In the 1800s, Jan Baudoin de Courtenay gave the definition of phoneme that is used today and soon began the study of phonology.and worked on the theory of phonetic alternations, which predicts changes in the sounds of a language.

One of the best schools of phonology was the Prague School. In 1939, a student of that school, Prince Nikolai Trubetzkoy, published one of the most important studies on phonology, titled *Principles of Phonology*. Another important person in the Prague School was Roman Jakobson, who was the most well-known linguist in the 1900s.

In 1968, Noam Chomsky and Morris Halle published *The Sound Pattern of English* (SPE). This book described generative phonology, which studies how grammar changes how people use language.
Region of Murcia

The **Region of Murcia** is an autonomous community in the south-east of Spain. The region has 1,350,000 people. The capital is Murcia, with 410,000 people. Other important cities are Cartagena, Lorca, Molina de Segura, and Cieza.
Segura

city]]
**Segura** is a Spanish river that is 325 kilometers (200 miles) long. It flows through the provinces of Jaen, Albacete, Murcia, and Alicante, and the cities of Cieza, Molina de Segura, Murcia, Orihuela, Rojales, and Guardamar. It then flows into the Mediterranean Sea.
Orihuela

**Orihuela** is a municipality in the Province of Alacant, in the Valencian Community, Spain.

It has an area of 365.4 km² and a population of 78,486 people.
Province of Alicante

**Alacant** () province is the fifth largest Spanish province by population with 1,750,000, and the second largest in the Valencian Community. It is on the south-east Mediterranean coast and the capital is the city of Alicante, a sea- port with a university. It is a commercial city with monuments like Sainte Barbra Castle. Other important cities are Elche, 215,000 with palms trees and its important shoe industry; Torrevieja, 100,000, tourist center with the world-famous Habaneras contest; Orihuela, 75,000, agricultural important center; Benidorm, 67,000, the Mediterranean Manhattan; Alcoi, 60,000; textile center, and Elda, 55,000, shoes industry.

The most important river is the Segura, in the south, which provides water to Alicante, Elche, Torrevieja, Orihuela and other cities. There are others like Vinalopo, Serpis, Amadorio, Ravine of the Sheeps and Monnegre.

The biggest mountain is Aitana, and other mountains are Mariola, Puig Bell, Maigmo and Gold Head, near Alicante. In the coast there are islands, the most important is Tabarca, and other is the Benidorm island. An important coast success is the Penon of Ifach, in Calpe.

The activities in Alicante province are tourism, industry (shoes, carpets, plays, dolls, textiles) and modern agriculture of regadium (oranges, lemons, tomatoes, almonds, wine). There are two universities: University of Alicante and University of Michael Hernandez.
1636

## Events 
* March 26 &ndash; Utrecht University is founded in the Netherlands.
*Harvard University founded.
* In the American colonies, Roger Williams (theologian) founds Rhode Island.
* The first American ancestor of John Adams, Henry Adams, emigrates to Massachusetts.
Rubidium

**Rubidium** is chemical element 37 on the periodic table. Its symbol is **Rb**. Its atomic mass is 85.47. It has 37 protons and 37 electrons. It is a soft silver colored metal. It was first discovered in 1861 by Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchoff in Heidelberg, Germany. Rubidium reacts very violently with water to make hydrogen and rubidium hydroxide, a strong corrosive base. The reaction is normally very hot so the hydrogen ignites.

### Chemical compounds
Rubidium forms chemical compounds in only one oxidation state: +1. Some rubidium compounds have a mixed oxidation state, though. Rubidium chloride is the most common rubidium compound. Rubidium hydroxide and rubidium carbonate are also used commonly. Rubidium compounds makes a red-violet color in a flame. Most rubidium compounds are colorless. Rubidium compounds are not as common as other alkali metal compounds, such get sodium compounds. Otherwise, they are similar.

*Rubidium chloride, similar to sodium chloride
*Rubidium hydride, strong reducing agent
*Rubidium hydroxide, powerful base
*Rubidium nitrate, strong oxidizing agent
*Rubidiumoxide, yellow, strong base when dissolved in water

## Occurrence and preparation
Rubidium is about as common as zinc. It is the 23rd most common element in the Earth's crust. Most minerals only have a small amount of rubidium in them. It normally comes in small quantities in other minerals. It is made by reduction of rubidium ores with calcium. It is expensive because calcium is difficult to make and the rubidium needs to be kept in argon and away from water or air.

## Uses
There are not many common uses for rubidium. Rubidium compounds are sometimes used in purple fireworks. It and its compounds are used mainly in science research though. It is also used to make superoxide ions. It is used in some special types of glass.

## Safety
Rubidium compounds are not very dangerous in the human body; however, if a person gets too much from eating, they could get sick because it acts like other alkali metal ions such as sodium ions in sodium chloride. Rats can live with up to half of their potassium replaced with rubidium, though it is not likely for that to happen.

Rubidium metal is very dangerous. It reacts with air and water and makes the corrosive substance rubidium hydroxide.

## References
D-Day (military term)

, one of the five sectors for Operation Overlord|alt=Soldiers in a landing craft]]

**D-Day** is a term used in military planning to mean the actual day a major operation or event is to begin. The days leading up to a D-Day are called D-1, D-2, D-3, etc. That allows scheduling a sequence of events before the start date is chosen. The days after a D-Day are D+1, D+2, D+3, and so on.    

Several different days in military history were named D-Day. However, the most famous D-Day was the Normandy landings during Operation Overlord, on the morning of June 6, 1944, when the largest naval attack in military history took place in France during World War II. Operation Overlord was led by US General Dwight D. Eisenhower

The Allies Britain, Canada, and America breached the Normandy coastline and broke through the German fortification chain, the Atlantic Wall. That was a turning point in World War II though over 3,500 men were lost.   

The invasion started with airborne landings at 3:30 a.m. and the seaborne invasion started at 6:30 a.m. and took 19 hours. Operation Overlord had been planned for months and was scheduled for June 5 but was delayed for a day by bad weather.

Over the next several months, the Allies fought in France and took various useful ports such as Caen and later took Paris. After less than a year, the Allies entered Nazi Germany, which surrendered.

An invasion of southern France was intended to start at the same time, but there were not enough landing craft for both invasions. The operation started on its D-Day, August 15.

## References 
## Other websites  
* WW2DB: Normandy Campaign
* Omaha-Beach.Org D-Day 7.6.1944
Scandium

**Scandium** is chemical element. Its symbol is **Sc**. It has an atomic number of 21 on the periodic table.

Scandium is a metal in a group known as the transition metals.  It is also a rare earth metal.  What this means is that there is not very much scandium found in the earth.  Because of this, the pure metal can be expensive.  The pure metal is very reactive, and will react with other elements like oxygen.  The metal turns from shiny to gray.

Scandium is not very dangerous because there is not much of it on Earth, so there is not enough of it to harm us.  It does not have many uses. Its main use is perhaps as a component in Mercury-vapor lamps. These lamps are used to light stadiums.

## Related pages
*Periodic table
*List of common elements

## References
## Further reading
*

## Other websites
*Scandium at *The Periodic Table of Videos* (University of Nottingham)
*WebElements.com – Scandium
*
844

## Events 
* Rhodri the Great becomes King of Gwynedd.
* Louis II is crowned Holy Roman Emperor.

## Births 
* Judith Martel

## Deaths 
* January 25 – Pope Gregory IV
Caesium

**Caesium** (or **cesium**) is the chemical element with the atomic number 55 on the periodic table. Its symbol is **Cs**.

Caesium is an alkali metal. Its melting point is low (28&nbsp;°C). It is extremely reactive. Because of its high reactivity, it is a dangerous chemical. It may set itself on fire (ignite) in air. It explodes on contact with water. It reacts more violently than the other alkali metals with water. Because of this, caesium is stored in mineral oil.

Caesium is a rare element. Since there is little caesium on the Earth, it is rather expensive. The human body does not need caesium. In large amounts, its chemical compounds are mildly poisonous because it is close to potassium, which the body does need.

## History 
Caesium was first described in 1860, by Gustav Robert Kirchhoff and Robert Wilhelm Bunsen. They were testing mineral water, from Bad Dürkheim in Rhineland-Palatinate. After they separated calcium, strontium, magnesium and lithium, they saw two lines in the "blue" range of the spectrum. Because of these lines, they concluded that in addition to the elements already found, there must be another unknown substance in the mineral water. They named this substance caesium, after the color blue.

## Isotopes and compounds 
Caesium has at least 39 known isotopes ranging in atomic mass from 112 to 151. Only one of these, Cs, is stable. Therefore, the naturally-occurring isotope of caesium is Cs, which is not radioactive. Cs is used in atomic clocks, its vibration frequency used to define the length of the second. Another isotope, Cs is not made naturally but is made after nuclear fission has been done. It is very radioactive and used as an industrial gamma ray source. 

Caesium forms compounds with many other chemical elements. Caesium formate is used in oil drilling because of its high density.

## Reactivity 
Caesium is extremely reactive in air and water. Caesium rapidly oxidizes in air and can spontaneously combust (randomly catch on fire) at any moment. For this reason, it must be stored in kerosene or a mineral oil, like other group one elements (lithium, sodium, rubidium, and francium.) In water, caesium violently reacts to make caesium hydroxide (2CsOH).  The Caesium sinks for about one second, then explodes. The explosion is over 50 times the size of the element dropped in the water, and the explosion is enough to break a common Pyrex beaker, flask, or test tube.

## References
## Other websites
*
Turkmenistan

**Turkmenistan** ( or ; , ;), also known as **Turkmenia**, is a country in South-Central Asia. It has borders with Afghanistan, Iran, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan. It has no ocean but it is on the Caspian Sea to the west. The capital of Turkmenistan is Ashghabat.
The majority of the country is Muslim at 93%.

Turkmenistan is a non-aligned and fully neutral country.

## History 
Turkmenistan was part of the Soviet Union since its creation, in 1922. At first, Turkmenistan was an autonomous republic within Russian SFSR. In 1925 it was promoted to a Soviet republic. Turkmenistan is an independent country since 1991, after the breakup of the Soviet Union. Saparmurat Niyazov became Turkmenistan’s first president in 1991.

## Provinces
Turkmenistan is divided into five provinces and one capital city district. The provinces are divided into districts which may be either counties or cities.

## Climate
Turkmenistan is one of the driest desert areas in the world. Some places have an average annual precipitation of only . The highest temperature recorded in Ashgabat is . Kerki, an extreme inland city located on the banks of the Amu Darya river, recorded  in July 1983, but this value is unofficial. 50.1C is the highest temperature recorded at Repetek Reserve, recognized as the highest temperature ever recorded in the whole former Soviet Union.

## Geography
Turkmenistan is the world's 52nd-largest country. It is slightly smaller than Spain and somewhat larger than the US state of California. Over 80% of the country is covered by the Karakum Desert.

The Turkmen shore along the Caspian Sea is  long. The Caspian Sea is entirely landlocked, with no access to the ocean.

The major cities include Aşgabat, Türkmenbaşy (formerly Krasnovodsk) and Daşoguz.

Turkmenistan has a humid climate. Annual rainfall is low, particularly in summer. Winters are dry and mild. The wettest region in Turkmenistan is Köýtendağ Range. Köýtendağ is in southeastern Turkmenistan on the borders with Uzbekistan.

## References
Gallium

s of gallium joined together]]
**Gallium** (chemical symbol: **Ga**) is element 31 on the periodic table. It is a soft, gray metal that is rare on Earth. It can easily be melted just by holding it in your hand, as its melting point is very low 29.76 Celsius (85.58 Fahrenheit), however it also sticks to your hand a lot, unlike mercury. Gallium is a semiconductor, and as the compound Gallium arsenide it is used in electronics and LEDs. Then, Gallium is also used in mirrors. Gallium can also be alloyed with indium and tin to create galinstan. Gallium is similar to the elements aluminium, indium, and mercury. Gallium is also used to make alloys that are liquid at room temperature. These can be used as a thermal paste for computers, and as a substitute for mercury in some applications.

Gallium's existence was predicted by Dmitri Mendeleev in 1871. Four years later, it was discovered by Paul-Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran.

## Reference
Vanadium

**Vanadium** is chemical element 23 on the periodic table. Its symbol is **V**. It is a metal and is part of the group known as the transition metals. It is gray-blue colored. It is mostly used in steel where it helps strengthen the steel metal. It is named after Vanadis, another name of Freyja.

Vanadium is often found in aquatic forms of life. The human body may need a little bit of vanadium, but scientists are not sure.

Vanadium can react with many other elements, and the chemical compounds it forms often have beautiful colors.

## History 
Vanadium was found for the first time in 1801 in Mexico by the Spanish mineralogist Andrés Manuel del Río in an ore called "brown lead". He named it *panchromium* because of the beautiful colors in its chemical compounds. He was told by other people that it was chromium and so he stopped researching it.

In 1831 Swedish chemist Nils Gabriel Sefström found the element in iron ores. The German chemist Friedrich Wöhler said it was the same element that del Río found in 1801. The element was then named *vanadium*. 

## Occurrence 
The amount of vanadium in the Universe is 0.0001%, making the element almost as common as copper or zinc. Vanadium is detected by spectroscopy in light from the Sun, and sometimes in light from other stars.

Vanadium is the 22nd most common element in the Earth's crust. Vanadium compounds occur naturally in about 65 different minerals. Most of the world's vanadium production comes from vanadium-bearing magnetite found in ultramafic gabbro rocks. Vanadium is mined mostly in South Africa, north-western China, and Eastern Russia. In 2013 these three countries mined more than 97% of the 79,000 tonnes of produced vanadium.

Vanadium is also in bauxite and in deposits of crude oil, coal, oil shale and tar sands.

## Properties 
Vanadium is soft compared to other metals. It is a good conductor of electricity and heat. It can be pulled out into wires (ductile). Pure vanadium will form a layer of vanadium oxide corrosion very fast.

## Uses
A lot of vanadium (85%) is used to make different types of steel. Steel made with vanadium is stronger. It is also mixed with titanium to make metal alloys that are used in jet engines and tooth implants.

Vanadium is also used to make batteries.

### In nature 
Vanadium is used by several marine organisms. Some algae and bacteria (like *Azotobacter*) use it for nitrogen fixation.

## References
Guadalquivir

**Guadalquivir** is a river in southern Spain. It crosses the autonomous community of Andalusia. The name derives from the Arab *Wadi al-Kabir* ("big river"), whereas the Romans called it *Betis*.

Guadalquivir starts in the Glen of the Sources in the mountains near Cazorla (Jaen province) and ends in Sanlucar de Barrameda (Cadiz province). It goes through the provinces of Jaen, Cordoba, Seville and Cadiz. The river is  long. The main tributaries are the rivers Genil (which flows through Granada), The Minor Guadiana, Guadalbullon, and Guadajoz on the left side, and Guadalmena, Jandula, and Guadiato on the right.

It is the only river in Spain with shipping traffic. At present, it only is navigable up to Seville. In the Roman epoch it was navigable up to Cordoba.
Castilla–La Mancha

**Castilla–La Mancha** or **Castile-La Mancha** is an autonomous community in Spain with a population over 2,000,000. The capital is Toledo and the biggest cities are Albacete, Talavera of the Queen, Guadalajara, Ciudad Real, Puertollano, and Cuenca.

Provinces of Castile-La Mancha:
* Albacete province
* Cuenca province
* Guadalajara province
* Ciudad Real province
* Toledo province
## Gallery
Ciudad Real

**Ciudad Real** (this translates to *Royal City*) is a city in Spain. It is the capital of the province with the same name, in the autonomous community of Castile-La Mancha.

The city has 69,063 people who live there. It is an average of 628 meters above sea level. The municipal area is 285 km². It is approximately 200 km to the south of Madrid.
Talavera de la Reina

**Talavera of the Queen** (*Talavera de la Reina* in Spanish) is a city of the interior of Spain. It is the capital of a wide region belonging to the autonomous community of Castile-La Mancha. It is in the northwest of the province of Toledo. Talavera of the Queen is the second biggest city of Castile-La Mancha, with a population of 85.172 inhabitants.

The city is well known for its pottery.

Its mistress is *Our Lady of the Meadow*.

Gwyneth Paltrow is an adopted child of this .
Toledo

**Toledo** is the name of several things. The best known cities are:
## Places
*Toledo, Spain
*Toledo, Callaway County, Missouri, USA
*Toledo, Ozark County, Missouri, USA
*Toledo, Ohio, USA

## People
*It is a last name in Spain, England, and Ireland.
*Alejandro Toledo
NOFX

**NOFX** was a popular punk rock band from California that was formed in 1983 by Fat Mike. As of January 20th, 2024, NOFX has released eighteen full-length albums. Their latest one, *Double Album*, came out on December 2, 2022. On October 2, 024, NOFX played their final show ever.

## Studio albums 
*Maximum Rocknroll (1985)
*Liberal Animation (1988)
*S&M Airlines (1989)
*Ribbed (1991)
*White Trash, Two Heebs and a Bean (1992)
*Punk In Drublic (1994)
*Heavy Petting Zoo (1996)
*So Long And Thanks For All The Shoes (1997)
*Pump Up The Valuum (2000)
*45 or 46 Songs that weren't good enough to go on our other records (2002)
*The War on Errorism (2003)
*Wolves in Wolves' Clothing (2006)
*Coaster (2009)
*Self Entitled (2012)
*First Ditch Effort (2016)
*Single Album (2021)
*Double Album (2022)

## Autobiography 
**NOFX: The Hepatitis Bathtub and Other Stories **

Published on April 12, 2016, this book is a collaboration effort between the members of the band to chronicle the events that led to themIT entering the punk rock scene in California and how all of it led to them creating one of the most influential punk bands of all time. It recalls events that the band experienced playing and touring together. The book is currently available through many online retailers.

## References
## Other websites
* NOFX official website
North Country (movie)

* during the filming of *North Country*]]
***North Country**'' is a 2005 American drama movie about a woman being harassed in a mining facility.

## Other websites
Street Fighter II

***Street Fighter II*** is a 1991 fighting game made by Capcom.

The player controls a martial arts fighter and has to knock out the opponent. There are many playable characters, including Ryu, Ken Masters, Guile and Chun Li. Each character has special moves that require special commands to perform. The game has 4 bosses - Balrog (M. Bison in Japan), Vega (Balrog in Japan), Sagat, and M. Bison (Vega in Japan). (Balrog and Sagat were also featured in the first *Street Fighter* game). There have been many follow-up games to *Street Fighter II*. The franchise for the games became popular. The game was released for arcades and different consoles.

It is sequel to the first *Street Fighter*.
Methane

**Methane** is an organic compound with the chemical formula . It is an alkane with one carbon atom. It is often found as the main part of natural gas. Methane is a greenhouse gas 23 times more effective than carbon dioxide. It is also less stable and slowly oxidates by oxygen to carbon dioxide and water.

It is a gas at 25 degrees Celsius at standard atmosphere (a specific pressure).
## Uses 
Methane is used in gas taps in places such as kitchens, chemistry classrooms, laboratories and more, as it burns very easily because of its simple molecular structure.

## Molecular structure 
Methane's molecular structure is very simple. It is a single carbon atom surrounded by four hydrogen atoms.

## Production 
Methane can be made by many chemical ways, but usually is found in natural gas and is obtained by fractional distillation, after it has become liquid.

## References