open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Kenneth Branagh

**Sir Kenneth Branagh** (born 10 December 1960) is a British actor, movie director and television producer. He played Hamlet. He has directed and acted in many Shakespeare adaptations. He has acted alongside popular actors including: Emma Thompson, Keanu Reeves, Michael Keaton, Maggie Smith and Alan Rickman. He is also known for being the director and star of his Hercule Poirot movie adaptations.

Branagh was the president of the Royal Academy of the Dramatic Arts in London from 2015 to 2024.

In 2022, he won a Golden Globe Award and Academy Award for screenplay writing for his movie *Belfast*. Branagh is known for his William Shakespeare film adaptations (1989-2006). He has also portrayed Agatha Christie's Belgian detective character, Hercule Poirot, appearing in *Murder on The Orient Express*, *Death on The Nile*, and *A Haunting in Venice.* 

He is set to star in *Mayday,* Apple TV's upcoming action thriller movie*,* alongside Ryan Reynolds.

## Filmography
## Other websites 
*

## References
Lake Vostok

**Lake Vostok** is the biggest of the seventy lakes in Antarctica that are under sheets of ice. It is at 77° S 105° E. It is under Russia's Vostok Station. It is 4,000 meters (13,000 feet) under Antarctica's surface. 

The lake was found by Russian and British scientists. They used radar to find it. 

The lake consists of fresh water. The temperature of the water is about -3 °C. The freezing point of water is at 0 °C, but the water in the lake remains liquid because of the high pressure produced by the ice. 

There are two separate basins in the lake. These are separated by a ridge. It has been suggested that the ecosystems of the two basins are different.

## Pressure and oxygen
Lake Vostok is an oligotrophic extreme environment. It is supersaturated with oxygen. The levels of oxygen are fifty times higher than those typically found in ordinary freshwater lakes on Earth. 
The weight of the ice on top of Lake Vostok is believed to add to the high concentration of oxygen. Oxygen from the ice gets dissolved into the water of the lake. Deposits of oxygen and other gases are trapped in the lake as well. The structure that traps them is called a clathrate. Gases trapped in clathrates are enclosed in ice and look like packed snow. These structures form at the high-pressure depths of Lake Vostok; they would become unstable if brought to the surface.

## Life
No other natural environment on Earth is as rich in oxygen. For this reason, if there are any forms of life in the lake, they would probably need to have adapted to the high levels of oxygen to be able to survive. Some adaptations might include high concentrations of protective enzymes.

The environment in the lake is very similar to that on Jupiter's moon Europa or Saturn's moon Enceladus. Finding life in the lake would therefore make it more probable that life has existed on one of these moons.

## References
## Other websites 
* "Miles Below Antarctic Ice, a Freshwater Lake May Harbor Ancient Life." Robert Lee Hotz, *The Los Angeles Times*.
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor

**Charles V** (24 February 1500  21 September 1558) was Holy Roman Emperor from 1519, King of Castile and Aragon from 1516, and Lord of the Low Countries as Duke of Burgundy from 1506.

Philip the Handsome (son of Maximilian I of Austria and Mary of Burgundy) and Joanna the Mad  (daughter of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile) were his parents. He ruled Austria, Spain, Two Sicilies, Sardinia, Germany, Belgium, Holland, Luxembourg, Hungary, Bohemia, Croatia, Mexico, Peru, and Venezuela.

*His Majesty* or *His Imperial Majesty* was first used when he was king. His Empire became large and was known as "in which the sun does not set". He was also known as "The Emperor of Universal Dominion."

He divided his empire between his brother Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor and his son Philip II of Spain.

## Issue
Charles and Isabella had seven legitimate children, but only three of them survived to adulthood. Charles also had natural children before he married and after he was widowed.

Due to Philip II being a grandson of Manuel I of Portugal through his mother he was in the line of succession to the throne of Portugal, and claimed it after his uncle's death (Henry, the Cardinal-King, in 1580), thus establishing the personal union between Spain and Portugal.

Charles also had six children out of wedlock:

* Infanta Isabella of Castile (20 August 1518 – 1537), perhaps daughter of Charles's maternal step-grandmother, Germaine of Foix, but strongly disputed by biographer Geoffrey Parker; Isabella died at the age of 19, never married, and had no issue.
* Margaret of Austria (1522–1586), daughter of Johanna Maria van der Gheynst, who Charles recognized a servant of Charles I de Lalaing, Seigneur de Montigny, daughter of Gilles Johann van der Gheynst and wife Johanna van der Caye van Cocamby. Married firstly with Alessandro de' Medici, Duke of Florence, and secondly with Ottavio Farnese, Duke of Parma.
* Joanna of Austria (1522–1530), daughter of Catalina de Rebolledo (or de Xériga), lady-in-waiting of Queen Joanna I of Castile and Aragon or attached to the household of Henry of Nassau. She was brought up in an Augustinian convent in Madrigal de las Altas Torres.
* Cornelis de Hooghe (1541-1583), Dutch cartographer
* John of Austria (1547–1578), victor of the Battle of Lepanto, son of Barbara Blomberg.

## Notes
## Regnal titles of Charles V
## References
Greenwich Village

**Greenwich Village** is an area on the western part of southern/downtown Manhattan. It is sometimes called *The Village*. The Village is mainly residential.

Greenwich Village is bordered by Broadway to the east, Hudson River to the west, Houston Street to the south and 14th Street to the north.

Originally, Greenwich Village was a hamlet separate to New York City.  The grid plan for its streets is less orderly than in parts of Manhattan that were built later. 

## History 
The village is located on what used to be marshland. In the 16th century, Native Americans called it *Sapokanikan* which means *tobacco field*. In the 1630s, it was turned into pasture by the Dutch, who called it *Noortwyck*. In 1664, when the English captured the Dutch settlement of New Amsterdam, and Greenwich Village developed as a hamlet.

In 1712, it officially became a village, and was named Grin'wich in the 1713 Common Council records. Following a yellow fever epidemic in 1822, many New York residents moved to the healthier air of Greenwich; where many stayed. In the 19th century, it was known as Washington Square.

## Other websites 
* New York Architecture Images- Greenwich Village
* Greenwich Village Society for Historic Preservation
* Village Voice 
* Greenwich Village, by Anna Alice Chapin, 1919, from Project Gutenberg
Yoshiki

is a Japanese musician. He is a co-founder of the Japanese band rock X Japan.  He also founded an independent record label Extasy Records. X Japan ended in 1997.  They got back together in 2007 and are currently touring worldwide.

Yoshiki's solo career includes two classical studio albums: *Eternal Melody* (1993), and *Eternal Melody II* (2005).

## References
Lava

in the Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
, California shows the classic tube shape; the grooves on the wall mark former flow levels.]]

**Lava** is magma, hot molten rock that flows through holes in the Earth's crust and onto the surface. Like magma, lava can be either viscous (~thick) or fluid (~thin). Blocky lava is so thick and slow that it barely moves along the ground. Other types of lava, like *pahoehoe*, *aa*, and *pillow lava*, are thinner and flow faster.

## Lava tube 
A lava tube is a natural channel formed in flowing lava. The lava continues flowing under the tube's upper surface. Later, when the lava is cooled and solid, the tube remains as a feature in the landscape.

## Gallery 

File:Stromboli Eruption.jpg|Stromboli eruption. The yellow/reddish things in the picture are lava.
File:Aa large.jpg|A stream of lava on Kīlauea on Hawaii
File:Dripstone in Skull Cave in Lava Beds NM-750px.jpg|When lava cools down it looks like this. Those are drips of lava which have become cold again

## References 
## Other websites
* Volcanic landforms of Hawaii
* USGS definition of Pāhoehoe
Sculpture

**Sculpture** is a type of art. It must be three-dimensional (meaning it must have height, width, and depth like a cube). There are many kinds of sculptures from different parts of the world, like China and India, or from different time periods, like the Renaissance and modern times. The pictures below are of sculptures:

## Examples 

File:Michelangelos David.jpg
File:Bronzes-Chola-2.jpg
File:British Museum Greek & Rome 11.jpg
File:HenryMoore RecliningFigure 1951.jpg
File:Gothic sculpture 15 century.jpg
File:Cabeza de Viracocha, Museo de América.jpg
File:Siva and Parvati.jpg
File:Lisbon monument.jpg

## Related pages
* Hologram
* Pottery
* Glass blowing
* Costume
* Mask
* Doll
* Relief
* Statue
1178

## Events 
* June 18 – Five Canterbury monks see what was possibly the Giordano Bruno crater being formed
* The Sung Document written detailing the discovery of "Mu-Lan-Pi" (suggested by some to be California) by Muslim sailors
* The Chronicle of Gervase of Canterbury written
* The Leaning Tower of Pisa begins to lean as the third level is completed
1168

## Events 
* December 22 – Afraid that Old Cairo would be captured by the Crusaders, its Caliph orders the city set afire. The city burns for 54 days.
* Prince Richard of England becomes duke of Aquitaine. He later becomes King Richard I of England.
* Emperor Takakura ascends to the throne of Japan.
* King Valdemar I of Denmark conquers Arkona on the Island of Rügen, the strongest pagan fortress and temple in Northern Europe.
1280

## Events 
* Construction on the northern section of the Grand Canal of China begins.
* The final stage of the Lincoln Cathedral is completed.
* King Edward I of England forms the Court of King's Bench. The Bench hears petitions for justice instead of the king hearing them himself.
* The Wolf minimum of solar activity begins (approximate date).
* The Asen dynasty of tsars of Bulgaria ends.
* Syria tries to leave from the Mamluk sultanate of Egypt. Qalawun defeats the rebels and keeps Syria in the Egyptian sultanate.
* The second of two main surveys of the Hundred Rolls is completed. It began in 1279.
* Turin is conquered by Thomas III of Savoy. It becomes the capital of the House of Savoy.
* Osman starts to rule.

## Births 
* Birger of Sweden (d. 1321)
* Wu Zhen, Chinese painter (d. 1354)

## Deaths 
* May 9 &ndash; Magnus VI of Norway
* August 22 &ndash; Pope Nicholas III (b. 1218)
* November 15 &ndash; Albertus Magnus, German theologian
1195

## Events 
* July 18 – Battle of Alarcos, great victory of Almohad ruler Abu Yusuf Ya'qub al-Mansur over the Castilian King Alfonso VIII.
* Priory of St Mary's, Bushmead, founded.
* Alexius III Angelus overthrows Isaac II and becomes emperor of Byzantium.

## Births 
* August 15 – Anthony of Padua, Portuguese preacher and saint (died 1231)
* Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Provence (died 1245)
* Roger de Quincy, 2nd Earl of Winchester (died 1265)

## Deaths 
* August 6 – Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony and Bavaria (b. 1129)
* December 17 – Baldwin V, Count of Hainaut (born 1150)
* Gualdim Pais – Great Master of the Templars in Portugal (born 1118)
* Hugh de Puiset, bishop of Durham
1106

## Events 
* September 28 – Henry I of England defeats his older brother Robert Curthose, duke of Normandy, at the Battle of Tinchebrai, and imprisons him in Devizes castle; Edgar Atheling and William Clito are also taken prisoner.
* Balaguer, Spain, is captured from the Moors by the count of Urgell.
* Boleslaus III of Poland begins a war against his brother Zbigniew for control of Poland.
525

## Events 
*Bernicia settled by the Angles.
*Ethiopia conquers Yemen.
*The Daisan river, a tributary of the Euphrates, floods Edessa and within a couple of hours fills the entire city except for the highest parts. Eventually the pent-up waters break through the city walls. The Shroud of Turin was discovered during the rebuilding of the city.
*Byzantine emperor Justin I rebuilds Anazarbus and renames it the Justinopolis.
*Dionysius Exiguus produces his tables for computing the date of Easter.
1380

## Events 
*September 8 - Battle of Kulikovo.

## Deaths 
* January 5 – Philippa Plantagenet, Countess of Ulster (born 1355)
* April 29 – Catherine of Siena, Italian saint (born 1347)
* July 26 – Emperor Komyo of Japan (born 1322)
* September 16 – King Charles V of France (born 1338)
* Bertrand du Guesclin, Constable of France
* Dafydd ap Gwilym, Welsh poet
* Haakon VI of Norway (born 1340)
* Nissim of Gerona, rabbi (born 1320)
687

## Events 
* December 15 – Sergius succeeds Conon as Pope
* King Theuderic III of Neustria is defeated by Pepin of Herstal, Mayor of the Palace of Austrasia. Austrasia and Neustria are combined again; Pepin becomes *de facto* ruler of both areas.
* Egica succeeds Erwig as king of the Visigoths.
* Construction of the Dome of the Rock is started.
* Adamnan visits the Northumbrian court of Ecgfrith to ransom Irish captives.
1221

## Deaths 
* August 6 – Saint Dominic, Spanish founder of the Dominicans (born 1170)
* October 4 – William III Talvas, Count of Ponthieu (born 1179)
* October 21 – Alix of Thouars, Duchess of Brittany (born 1201)
* Roger Bigod, 2nd Earl of Norfolk
1304

## Events 
* 20 July – Fall of Stirling Castle: Edward I of England takes the last rebel stronghold in the Wars of Scottish Independence.
* James II of Aragon reconquers Villena, Spain.
* Holland and Zeeland are occupied by duke John II of Brabant and Guy of Dampierre. Count John II recovers the counties.
1156

## Events 
* Establishment of the Carmelite Order
* Hogen Rebellion in Japan
* January 20 – According to legend, freeholder Lalli slays English crusader Bishop Henry with an axe on the ice of the lake Köyliönjärvi in Finland.
* The Privilegium Minus elevates Austria to the status of a duchy ruled by the Babenburgs family. (see History of Austria).
* Mosan artists create the Stavelot Triptych, a masterpiece of goldsmithing, as a reliquary to house purported pieces of the True Cross.
1226

## Deaths 
* March 7 – William de Longespee, 3rd Earl of Salisbury, English military leader
* October 3 – Francis of Assisi, Italian saint (born 1181)
* November 8 – King Louis VIII of France (born 1187)
* November 14 – Frederick of Isenberg, German politician (executed) (b. 1193)
* December 11 – Robert de Ros, English baron (born 1177)
* Pandulph, Roman ecclesiastical politician
1181

## Events 
* Jayavarman VII defeats the Cham and assumes control of the Khmer kingdom.
* The word Albigensians first used by chronicler Geoffroy du Breuil of Vigeois to describe the inhabitants of Albi, France.
* September 1 — Pope Lucius III succeeds Pope Alexander III as the 171st pope.
* Chinese and Japanese astronomers observe what has since come to be understood as a supernova. One of only eight supernovae in the Milky Way observed in recorded history, it appeared in the constellation Cassiopeia and was visible in the night sky for about 185 days. The radio source 3C58 is thought to be the remnant from this event.
* Beginning of the Yowa era in Japan. The era is marked by famine.

## Births 
* Saint Francis of Assisi, Italian founder of the Franciscan Order (died 1226)
* Saint Teresa of Portugal
* Jayavarman VII, king of the Khmer (died 1219)
## Deaths 
* January 30 — Emperor Takakura of Japan (b. 1161)
* March 17 — Henry I of Champagne
* June 30 — Hugh de Kevelioc, 3rd Earl of Chester, English politician (b. 1147)
* August 30 — Pope Alexander III (b. c. 1100–1105)
* Taira no Kiyomori, Japanese warlord (b. 1118)
* As-Salih Ismail al-Malik, ruler of Syria (b. 1163)
Aragonese language

The **Aragonese language** is a Romance language spoken in the north of Aragon by 10,000 people.

It is similar to nearby languages: Spanish, Catalan and Occitan. Also, many Aragonese words are similar to Basque words.

## History 
Aragonese, which developed in parts of the Ebro basin, can be traced back to the High Middle Ages. It spread throughout the Pyrenees to areas where languages almost the same as modern Basque might have been spoken before. The Kingdom of Aragon (formed by the counties of Aragon, Sobrarbe and Ribagorza) expanded to the south from the mountains. It pushed the Moors farther south in the Reconquista and spreading the Aragonese language.

The union of the Catalan counties and the Kingdom of Aragon which formed the 12th-century Crown of Aragon did not merge the languages of the two areas; Catalan continued to be spoken in the east and Navarro-Aragonese in the west. The Aragonese Reconquista in the south ended when James I of Aragon gave Murcia to the Kingdom of Castile as dowry for an Aragonese princess.

The best-known writer in Aragonese was Johan Ferrandez d'Heredia, the Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller in Rhodes at the end of the 14th century. He wrote a lot of works in Aragonese and translated several works from Greek into Aragonese (the first in medieval Europe).

The spread of Spanish, the Castilian origin of the Trastámara dynasty, and the similarity between Spanish and Aragonese helped the decline of the latter. A turning point was the 15th-century coronation of the Castilian Ferdinand I of Aragon, also known as Ferdinand of Antequera.

In the early 18th century, after the defeat of the allies of Aragon in the War of the Spanish Succession, Philip V ordered the prohibition of the Aragonese language in the schools and the institution of Spanish as the only official language in Aragon. This was ordered in the Aragonese Nueva Planta decrees of 1707.

In recent times, Aragonese was mostly seen as a group of rural dialects of Spanish. After the 1978 Spanish transition to democracy new books and studies of the language have been published.

## References
1219

## Events 
* Saint Francis of Assisi introduces Catholicism into Egypt, during the Fifth Crusade
* The Flag of Denmark fell from the sky during the Battle of Lyndanisse
1711

## Events 
* John Shore invents the tuning fork.
* Alexander Pope publishes *An Essay on Criticism*.

## Births 
* April 26 - David Hume, Scottish philosopher (d. 1776)
* September 11 - William Boyce, English composer
* October 15 - Elisabeth Therese of Lorraine, Queen of Sardinia
* December 11 - Bárbara of Portugal, Portuguese princess

## Deaths
* April 14 - Louis, *le Grand Dauphin*, son of Louis XIV of France (b. 1661)
1765

## Events 
* The first true restaurant opens in Paris, where a tavern-keeper named **Boulanger** sells cooked dishes at an all-night place on the Rue Bailleul
* Nicholas Cugnot pioneers the automobile with a three-wheel gun tractor
* James Watt supersedes the 1705 Newcomen engine with a more effective steam engine
* In Lisbon, the *auto-da-fé* parade (often an excuse for violence against Jews or Christian 'heretics') is abolished
* Josef II becomes Holy Roman Emperor
* Horace Walpole publishes *The Castle of Otranto*
* The birth of Mary Bryant, one of the first successful escapees from the fledging Australian penal colony.
1590

## Events 
* March 14 – Battle of Ivry – Henry IV of France again defeats the forces of the Catholic League under the Duc de Mayenne.
* May – August – Unsuccessful siege of Paris by Henry IV of France. Henry is forced to raise the siege when the Duke of Parma comes to its relief with a Spanish army.
* May 17 – Anne of Denmark is crowned queen of Scotland.
* August 18 – John White, the governor of the Colony of Roanoke, returns from a supply-trip to England and finds his settlement deserted.
* September 15 – Pope Urban VII succeeds Sixtus V.
* December 5 – Pope Gregory XIV succeeds Urban VII.
* Coptic Pope Gabriel VIII succeeds Yoannis XIV.
* Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria Meletius I succeeds Silvester.
* Japan is united by Toyotomi Hideyoshi
1105

## Events 
* Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor deposed by his son, Henry V
* Tamna kingdom annexed by Korean Goryeo Dynasty.
1628

## Events 
* March 1 – writs were issued in February **1628** by Charles I of England that every county in England (not just seaport towns) pay ship tax by this date.
* August 10 – The Swedish 64 gun sailing ship Vasa sinks on her maiden voyage in the Stockholm harbor
* September 6 – Puritans settle Salem which will later become part of Massachusetts Bay Colony.
* October 28–Siege of La Rochelle ends with the surrender of the Huguenots.
* Charles I reconvenes the English Parliament and accepts the Petition of Right as a concession to gain his subsidies.
* Island of Santorini explodes.
* John Felton assassinates George Villiers, duke of Buckingham.
* William Harvey publishes his findings about blood circulation.
* The Collegiate School, today the oldest educational institution in North America, is established.
* *Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus*, by William Harvey, is published.
1622

## Events 
* January 1 – In the Gregorian calendar, January 1 is declared as the first day of the year, instead of March 25.
* February 8 – King James I of England disbands the English Parliament.
* March 22 – In the Jamestown massacre, Algonquian Native Americans kill 347 English settlers around Jamestown, Virginia (1/3 of the colony's population) and destroys the Henricus settlement.
* May 13 — the *Eendracht*, Dutch VOC sailing ship and the second recorded European ship to make landfall on Australian soil, is wrecked off the western coast of Ambon Island, Dutch East Indies.
* Étienne Brûlé is the first European to see Lake Superior.
* Portugal loses control of the island of Ormus, after 107 years.
* Albertus Magnus is beatified by the Roman Catholic Church.
* Spanish galleon *Nuestra Señora de Atocha* sinks off the Florida Keys, while carrying copper, silver, gold, tobacco, and indigo. (Wreck discovered 1985).
Levi Eshkol

**Levi Eshkol** (born **Levi Shkolnik**, 25 October 1895 – 26 February 1969) was the 3rd Prime Minister of Israel from 1963 until his death in 1969. He is buried in Mount Herzl in Jerusalem.
303

## Events 
### By place 
#### Roman Empire 
* Great Persecution: Emperor Diocletian launches the last major persecution of Christians in the Empire. Hierocles is said to have started the fierce persecution of the Christians under Galerius. They are forbidden to worship in groups, and thousands of them are killed in the next 10 years.
* February 24 &ndash; Galerius publishes his edict that begins the persecution of Christians in his portion of the Empire.
* September 25 &ndash; On a voyage preaching the gospel, Saint Fermin of Pamplona is beheaded in Amiens, France.
* November 28 &ndash; Diocletian makes a visit to Rome. The Augusti and the Caesars are united for the first time to celebrate the 20th anniversary of Diocletian's accession.
* The Triumphal Arch of Maximian is erected in Salonica.

#### Asia 
* Sassanid Shah Hormizd II succeeds Narseh.

#### America 
* In Mexico the civilization of Teotihuacan flourishes.

### By topic 
#### Religion 
* March 4 &ndash; Martyrdom of Saint Adrian of Nicomedia.

## Births 
* Magnentius, Roman usurper (d. 353)
* Wang Xizhi, Chinese calligrapher (d. 361)

## Deaths 
* April 23 &ndash; Saint George, soldier of the Roman Empire
* September 25 &ndash; Saint Fermin, Roman Catholic saint
* Acacius of Byzantium, centurion in the Roman army and martyr
* Adrian of Nicomedia, Christian saint
* Anthimus of Rome
* Cao Huan, last emperor of the Kingdom of Wei
* Cessianus, Roman Catholic saint and martyr
* Crescentinus, patron saint of Urbino
* Erasmus of Formiae
* Expeditus, Roman commander and martyr
* Felix and Adauctus, Christian martyrs
* Lu Ji, Chinese writer and literary critic
* Romanus of Caesarea, martyr 
* Saint Cyriacus
* Saint Devota
* Saint Pantaleon
* Victor Maurus, Christian martyr
* Vitus, Christian saint from Sicily
Sidney Sheldon

**Sidney Sheldon** (February 11, 1917 - January 30, 2007) was an American screenwriter and novelist. He wrote the screenplays for twenty-three motion pictures including *Easter Parade* and *Annie Get Your Gun*. He also created four long-running television series. He is also included in the *Guinness Book of Records* as, "The Most Translated Author".

## Novels 
His novels include:
* The Naked Face (1970) 
* The Other Side of Midnight (1973) 
* A Stranger in the Mirror (1976) 
* Bloodline (1977) 
* Master Of The Game (1983)
* Windmills of the Gods (1987) 
* The Sands of Time (1988) 
* Memories of Midnight (1990) 
* The Doomsday Conspiracy (1991) 
* The Stars Shine Down (1992) 
* Nothing Lasts Forever (1994) 
* Morning, Noon and Night (1995) 
* The Best Laid Plans (1997) 
* Tell Me Your Dreams (1998) 
* The Sky is Falling (2001) 
* Are You Afraid of the Dark? (2004)
* If Tomorrow comes
* Rage of the Angels

## Other websites 
* Sidney's Official Website
* Sidney on CNN
Rugby World Cup

The **Rugby World Cup** is the most important tournament in the sport of rugby union. The first one was in 1987.  The cup happens every four years.  The competition is one of the biggest sporting events in the world (along with the FIFA World Cup and the Olympics).

There are only 20 spots available in a Rugby World Cup, so teams must compete for them in a qualifying competition. Teams that reached the knockout stages of the previous tournament automatically qualify for the next tournament.

The 2019 competition was held in Japan, with South Africa winning.

The current 2024 champions are South Africa.

## Results by nation 
## Other websites 
* – official site
*World Rugby
1996 U.S. campaign finance scandal

The **1996 United States campaign finance controversy** was an alleged effort by the People's Republic of China to influence domestic United States politics during the 1996 federal elections. The Chinese government denied all accusations.  Twenty-two people were eventually convicted of fraud or for funneling Asian funds into the United States elections, and others fled U.S. jurisdiction. 

In late 1996, the Justice Department opened a task force to investigate allegations of illegal donations to the Clinton/Gore re-election campaign and to Clinton's legal defense fund. Ultimately, Justice Department prosecutors secured the conviction of several fund-raisers for various offenses. John Huang served 500 hours of community service and paid a $10,000 fine. Johnny Chung served 3000 hours of community service. Charlie Trie served four months of in-home detention. Maria Hsia served 90 days of home detention and paid a $5,300 fine. Indonesian billionaire James Riady was fined $8.6 million. Ernest Green served three months home detention. Michael Brown served 150 hours of community service and paid a $5000 fine. In all, the Justice Department task force secured criminal convictions against 22 people by 2001.

## References
1008

## Events 
* Olof, king of Sweden, is baptized by saint Sigfrid.
* Bruno of Querfurt and others try to establish a mission among the Prussians.
* Oldest known mention of the city of Gundelfingen.
* Mohammed II succeeds Hisham II as Caliph of Cordoba.
* Unification of Georgia under king Bagrat III.
* King Æthelred II (**the Unready**) orders a new fleet of warships built, organized on a national scale. It is a huge undertaking, but is completed the following year.
## Births 
* May 4 &ndash; King Henry I of France, French royal (died 1060)

## References
1045

## Events 
* Emperor Go-Reizei ascends the throne of Japan.
* Harold Godwinson becomes Earl of Wessex.
* Edward the Confessor marries Edith of Wessex.
* Edward the Confessor begins construction on Westminster Abbey.
* Pope Benedict IX sells the Papacy to Pope Gregory VI.
* Movable type printing is invented by Bi Sheng in China.
## Births 
* Stephen I, Count of Blois (died 1102)

## Deaths 
* June – Rainulf Drengot, Norman adventurer.
1644

## Events 
* February to August – Explorer Abel Tasman's second expedition for the Dutch East India Company maps the north coast of Australia.
* April – A popular Chinese Uprising led by Li Zicheng enter and conquer Beijing, prompting Chongzhen, the last emperor of the Ming Dynasty, to commit suicide.
* June 6 – The invading Manchu army, with the help of Ming general Wu Sangui, captures Beijing, China. This marks the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (also known as the Manchu Dynasty), the last imperial dynasty of China.
* July 2 – Battle of Marston Moor, a crushing victory for the Parliamentary side of the English Civil War, ends Charles I's hold on the north of England.
* September 1 – Battle of Tippermuir, Montrose defeats Elcho's Covenanters, reviving Royalist cause in Scotland
* September 2 – Second Battle of Lostwithiel, the last major victory for Charles I and the Royalist side in the English Civil War.
* September 15 – Pope Innocent X is elected to the Papacy, in Rome.
* November 23 – *Areopagitica* by John Milton is published.
* December – Plague breaks out in Edinburgh.
Islam and clothing

Muslims have different dress codes for different contexts. Conservative ideas of *hijab* require people to dress modestly both for outside and religious contexts. Clothing for everyday wear, inside and outside the house is different, and very much depends on the family.

## Clothes for men
Muslim men are required to dress modestly, especially during prayer. The minimum requirement for covering the awrah (the area from the navel to the knees) is essential for the validity of prayer. It is encouraged for men to wear loose-fitting garments, such as thobes, that cover the body modestly and ensure that the awrah is properly concealed. Tight or revealing clothing is discouraged, as it detracts from the focus on prayer and modesty. Muhammad is reported to have encouraged covering the shoulders during prayer in addition to the awrah, emphasizing modesty and dignity in worship.

## Clothes for women
s in Istanbul (Turkey)]]
ic style scarf]]

Islam says that women should dress in a very special way. This dress code applies to women and adolescent girls, but not to children. Usually, women who travel to Muslim countries should also wear such dress.

*Abaya - long flowing outer garment worn over all other clothing.
*Jilbab - garment that may be worn like a dress, usually with trousers underneath.
*Dupatta - a South Asian long rectangular scarf usually worn over the shoulders in front of the neck, or however you prefer. Women will sometimes use a dupatta over their head for a hijab.
*Scarf or veil - the head covering worn by some Muslim women. Some Muslims maintain that the practice (of women covering the head) is not mandated in Islam.  The headscarf is a square folded into a triangle or simply a triangle, but also can be a rectangular shape. To wear- bring the two corners together and pin/knot/wrap at the neck.
*Niqab - a veil worn to cover the face. A niqab can be made to leave only the eyes uncovered, only the eyes and forehead uncovered, or to leave the forehead, eyes, and nose uncovered, covering only the mouth.
*Burka - a long, loose piece of clothing covering the whole body from head to feet, worn in public by some women in Muslim countries.

## References
Pepin the Short

**Pepin the Short** or **Pippin** (714 – September 24, 768), often known as **Pepin the Younger** or **Pepin III**, was King of the Franks from 751 to 768.

Pepin was the son of Charles Martel and Chrotrud (690 - 720), and was born in Jupille, Belgium.

In 740 Pepin married Bertrada of Laon. She was the daughter of Caribert of Laon. They had two sons and a daughter who lived long enough to become adults:

* Charlemagne
* Carloman
* Gisela

Pepin died at Saint Denis and is buried in the basilica with his wife, Bertrada of Laon. His sons, Charlemagne and Carloman, were each King of half the Kingdom of the Franks after him.
1580

**1580** (MDLXXX) was a leap year starting on Friday in the Julian calendar.

## Events 
*March 1 – Michel de Montaigne signs the preface to his most significant work, Essays. They are published later the same year.
*June 11 – Juan de Garay founds Buenos Aires.
*June 25 – Publication of the Book of Concord, a collection of Lutheran confessional documents.
*July 12 – Publication of the Ostrog Bible, the first complete printed Bible in a Slavic language.
*September 26 – Sir Francis Drake circumnavigated the globe
*Portugal loses independence to Spain following the death without heirs of king Henry of Portugal. The Habsburg rule would last until 1640.
*Yermak entered Siberia with a band of 1636 men. Russia begins the conquest of Siberia.
* Khorasan Wars were fought between Abbas the Great and his father king Mohammed Khodabandeh.
Joseph Fiennes

**Joseph Alberic Fiennes** is an English actor. He was born on 27 May 1970 in Salisbury, Wiltshire, England. His parents were Jennifer Lash and Mark Fiennes. Joseph is the youngest of six children.  His brothers and sisters are Ralph Fiennes, Sophie Fiennes, Martha Fiennes, Magnus Fiennes and his twin brother, Jacob Fiennes. He is best known for acting in the movie *Shakespeare in Love*.

## Other websites 
*
Chris Martin

**Christopher Anthony John "Chris" Martin** (born 2 March 1977) is an English singer, songwriter and musician for the band Coldplay. He also plays the guitar. He was born in Whitestone, Exeter, Devon, England. He married Gwyneth Paltrow in 2003. They have two children, a daughter, Apple (born 2004) and a son, Moses (born 2006). The couple separated in 2014. 

His band members are called Jonny Buckland (lead guitarist), Guy Berryman (bass guitarist) and Will Champion (drummer).  They met while studying at University College London. In January 1998, they formed the rock band Coldplay. They were influenced by the Scottish rock band Travis.  U2 was another important influence on Martin both musically and politically. 

In 2003 it was reported that Chris Martin does not smoke cigarettes or drink alcohol. PETA said he was the World's Sexiest Vegetarian in 2005.

## Filmography
### Television
### Movies
## Solo discography
:*See Coldplay for his work with the band.*

## References
1618

## Events 
* March 8 – Johannes Kepler discovers the third law of planetary motion (he soon rejects the idea after some initial calculations were made but on May 15 confirms the discovery).
* May 23 – The Second Defenestration of Prague – Protestant noblemen throw three representatives of Ferdinand II out of a window. The event began the Thirty Years' War.
* July 20 – Pluto reached, according to sophisticated mathematical calculations, its second most recent aphelion. The next one occurred in 1866, and the following one will occur in *2113*.
* August 29 – Johan van Oldenbarnevelt and Hugo Grotius are imprisoned by Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange
* October 29 – English adventurer, writer, and courtier Sir Walter Raleigh is beheaded for allegedly conspiring against James I of England.

* The margraves of Brandenburg is granted Polish approval to inherit Ducal Prussia.
* November 13, the Synod of Dordrecht has its first meeting.
* Change of emperor of the Ottoman Empire from Mustafa I (1617-1623) to Osman II (1618-1622).
* The 3000 seat Teatro Farnese, the first permanent proscenium theatre, was built into the Great Hall of the Palazzo della Pilotta in Parma, Italy in 1618.
Wikibooks

**Wikibooks** (previously called **Wikimedia Free Textbook Project** and **Wikimedia-Textbooks**) is a collection of free books. It is one of many projects that are run by the Wikimedia Foundation. It is a wiki, which makes it possible for anyone to edit.

Some books are original, but others have started as text copied from other sources of free-content textbooks found on the Internet.

The CC-BY-SA license covers all the content that is in Wikibooks.

In February 2010, the Simple English Wikibooks was locked and closed. It can still be read.

## Wikijunior 
Wikijunior is a subproject of Wikibooks that has books for children. The project consists of both a magazine and a website and is currently being developed in English, Danish, Finnish, French, German, Italian, Japanese, and Spanish. It is funded by a grant from the Beck Foundation.

Pages in Wikijunior will have the Wikijunior: prefix in front of the page's name.

## Other websites 
*Wikibooks Main page
*
Charles IX of France

**Charles IX of France** (June 27, 1550 – May 30, 1574) was a King of France and a member of the House of Valois.

## Birth 
Charles was born in Saint-Germain-en-Laye, France, on June 27, 1550. His parents were Henry II of France and Catherine of Medici.

## Marriage 
Charles was married to Elizabeth of Austria on November 26, 1570. They had one child, Mary Elizabeth of France (October 27, 1572 – April 9, 1578), who died young.

## Death 
Charles died in Vincennes, France, on May 30, 1574. He is buried in the Saint Denis Basilica. The next King was Henry III of France.
Henry III of France

**Henry III of France** (September 19, 1551 – August 2, 1589) was a King of France and a member of the House of Valois. He was also a King of Poland.

## Birth 
Henry was born in Fontainbleau, France, on September 19, 1551. His parents were Henry II of France and Catherine de Medici. He was Catherine de Medici's favourite son.

## Marriage 
Henry was married to Louise of Lorraine on February 13, 1575. They had no children.

## Death 
Henry died in Saint-Cloud, France, on August 2, 1589, after being stabbed with a knife. He is buried in the Saint Denis Basilica. Henry was the last King of the Valois Dynasty. The next King was Henry IV of France, who was a member of the Bourbon Dynasty.
999

**999** (CMXCIX) was a common year starting on Sunday in the Julian calendar.

## Deaths 
*February 7 – Boleslaus II, Duke of Bohemia
*February 18 – Pope Gregory V
*December 16 – Saint Adelaide of Italy (b. 931)
*Maredudd ab Owain king of Deheubarth and Powys
1015

## Events 
* August: King Cnut the Great of Denmark launches an invasion of Mercia and Northumbria in England.
* Berserkers are banned in Norway.
* Olav Haraldsson becomes king of Norway.
* Sviatopolk succeeds Vladimir as prince of Kiev.

## References
418

## Events
* Theodoric I becomes king of the Visigoths.
* December 28 &ndash; Pope Boniface I succeeds Zosimus as the 42nd pope.
* Eulalius is elected antipope of Rome.

## Deaths 
*December 26 – Pope Zosimus
Constance of Arles

**Constance of Arles** (c. 986 – 28 July 1032), also known as Constance of Provence, was queen of France as the third spouse of King Robert II of France, They were married in 1003 after Robert had divorced his second wife, Bertha. She was buried in the Saint Denis Basilica with Robert II of France.

They had several children:
*Henry I of France
*Adela of France - is the mother of Matilda of Flanders, who was the wife of William I of England
*Robert I of Burgundy
*Eudes of France
*Constance of France, married to Count Manasses of Dammartin
Marie of Boulogne

**Marie of Boulogne** was the Countess of Boulogne from 1159 until 1170.

Marie was the daughter of Stephen of England and Matilda of Boulogne.  She was placed in a convent when she was young so that she could become a nun.  When her brother, William of Blois, died, she became the heir of the Count of Boulogne.  She had to leave the convent and was married to Matthew of Alsace.  Marie and Matthew ruled Boulogne together, but their marriage was not happy and they got a divorce in 1170.  

After Marie died, Matthew continued to be the Count of Boulogne until 1173.  After this Marie and Matthew's daughter, Ida of Boulogne, became Countess of Boulogne.  Marie and Matthew's other daughter, Maud of Boulogne, became the wife of Henry I of Brabant.
Marie of France

**Marie of France** was the eldest daughter of Louis VII of France and Eleanor of Aquitaine. In 1164 she was married to Henry I of Champagne. Their children included:
*Henry II of Champagne
*Theobald III of Champagne
1179

## Births 
* April 4 — Farid-ud-din Ganj Shakar

## Events 
* Third Council of the Lateran condemned Waldensians and Cathars as heretics, institutes a reformation of clerical life, and creates the first "ghettos" for Jews
* Afonso I is recognized as the true King of Portugal by Pope Alexander III, bringing Portugal the protection of the Catholic Church against the Castilian monarchy
* Philip II is crowned King of France
* Aberdeen is chartered by William the Lion
* Westminster School founded by the monks of Westminster Abbey (by papal command)
* Drigung Kagyu school of Kagyu Buddhism was founded.
Alix of France

**Alix of France** (July/August 1150 - 1197/1198) was the youngest daughter of Louis VII of France and Eleanor of Aquitaine.  She was married to Theobald V of Blois in 1164.  Their children included:
*Louis I of Blois
*Margaret of Blois
Margaret of Blois

**Margaret of Blois** was Countess of Blois from 1218 until 1230.  She was the daughter of Theobald V of Blois and Alix of France.  Her mother was the daughter of Louis VII of France and Eleanor of Aquitaine.  

Margaret was married to Otto I of Burgundy.
Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band

'''''Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band''''' is an album released by the Beatles. It was the eighth Beatles album released in the United Kingdom. It was released on 1 June 1967. It was at the top of music charts in the UK for twenty-seven weeks. It has many well-known songs, such as "When I'm Sixty-Four" and "A Day in the Life", which John Lennon and Paul McCartney worked on together. For a while before this album came out, The Beatles had been trying new things when they made records, but this album made a much bigger change in the way they sounded.

The album title was used later for a 1978 Universal Pictures movie. Peter Frampton and the Bee Gees played Sgt. Pepper's band, while Billy Preston was the Sergeant. George Burns played Mr. Kite (the mayor), Steve Martin (in his first film) played Maxwell Edison, and Aerosmith was the Future Villain Band. It consistently holds the top spot on critics' lists of the greatest albums of all time.

## Songs on the album
## Sources
Feta cheese

**Feta cheese** (, feminine gender; pronounced ), or simply **Feta** is a kind of cheese. Usually it is made from the milk of sheep or goats. Feta cheese originally is from the Greek mainland, or from Lesbos in the Aegean Sea.

It is an ingredient in a Greek Salad.

Other cheese (which is usually not from Greece and is usually made from cow milk) must not be called *Feta* from 2007. The European Court said so in its decisions  C-465/02 and  C-466/02 (from October 25, 2005).

This ruling is only valid for the European Union, and other countries in Europe. Several member state of the WTO still think that the term "feta" is generic.  European Member states wanted to defend this protected designation  of origin at the WTO talks in Doha.

## History 
What is now called *feta cheese* was known to Ancient Greeks. Homer must have known about it. There were several references to the cheese in the *Odyssey*. According to the myth, the cyclops Polyphemos was the first cheese manufacturer. He carried the milk in animal-skin bags. He had collected the milk from his sheep. He was very surprised to see that days later the milk had become solid. When Polyphemus tried to eat it, it tasted well. He also found that as such a solid, it would go bad later than with milk.

The name *Feta* has an Italian origin. It is derived from *fetta* (slice), and dates back to the 17th century. Very likely this referred to the method of cutting the cheese in slices to put it in barrels.

## References
## Other websites 
* Feta registered as Protected Designation of Origin
* http://www.feta.gr(http://www.feta.gr/english-html/index.htm) on feta's history, production and conservation methods, plus dozens of recipes with feta
Winter Palace

The **Winter Palace** in St. Petersburg, Russia, is one of the greatest and largest palaces. From 1732 to 1917, it was the official residence of the Russian Tsars. It was built on the shores of the Neva River between 1754 and 1762.

Tsar Nicholas I, in the 19th century, was  responsible for the palace's present appearance and layout. He made many changes to the interior of the palace, and was responsible for its complete rebuilding after the fire of 1837.

On 30 October 1917, the palace was declared to be part of the Hermitage Museum. Today, the palace, as part one of the world's most famous museums, attracts an annual 3.5 million visitors.

## Gallery 

File:Palace Square02 2006.jpg|Palace Square at night
File:WinterPalaceLibrary.jpg|Winter Palace Library
File:Golden Drawing Room.jpg|The Golden Drawing Room
File:Armorial Hall, Winter Palace, St Petersburg (Hermitage), 1730, ZM.JPG|The Armorial Hall
File:Field Marshal's Hall, Sadovnikov.jpg|The Field-Marshall's Hall, by Sadovnikov, 1852.
File:St GeorgesHallWP.jpg|The St Georges Hall by Ukhtomsky, 1862.
File:Avant-salle.jpg|The Great Ante-Chamber (waiting room), Ukhtomsky 1861.
File:Krendovsky Throne Room of Empress Maria Fiodorovna 1831.jpg|The Throne Room of Empress Maria Fiodorovna, ~1831. 
File:Nicholas II of Russia painted by Earnest Lipgart.jpg|Nicholas II, last Tsar of all the Russias, in the Nicholas Hall of the Winter Palace.

## References
Standing's day gecko

The '''Standing's day gecko** (***Phelsuma standingi*''' Methuen & Hewitt, 1913) is a  type of gecko. It is diurnal, which means that it sleeps during the night and is awake during the day. It lives in southwest Madagascar and usually is found on trees. Standing's day gecko eats insects and nectar (a type of drink created by flowers).
Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor

**Charles VI** (1 October 1685 – 20 October 1740) was Holy Roman Emperor from 12 October 1711 to 20 October 1740. He was emperor after his elder brother, Joseph I. His daughter, Maria Theresia of Austria, inherited the throne after he died.
Pierre Trudeau

**Joseph Philippe Pierre Yves Elliott Trudeau**  (October 18, 1919 – September 28, 2000) was the nineteenth Canadian Prime Minister from 1968 to 1979 and then again as the twenty-first Prime Minister from 1980 to 1984. Previously, in 1968, Trudeau stood for the leadership of the Liberal Party of Canada, beating his main rival Robert Winters.

He is thought by many Canadian citizens today as having been the greatest Canadian Prime Minister ever. His son is the twenty-eighth and former Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau.

## As Prime Minister 
He had many challenges during the 1970s, including the October Crisis, and in 1980 held the country together by defeating the referendum on Quebec sovereignty (the province of Quebec wanted to leave Canada and become its own country), and keeping Quebec a member of the Canadian state. Another popular event associated with Pierre Trudeau is Trudeaumania, which referred to how much he was liked by the Canadian people. As a relatively young man, he was very close to the youth of the time, as well as funny, and he appealed to everyone by being so understanding and just like a normal person. This kind of Prime Minister had never been seen before, and it made people feel like he was a good, friendly person.

## Retirement and death 
Trudeau retired from being the Prime Minister in 1984, after he did not speak to the public very much. He died of prostate cancer and Parkinson's disease in Montreal on September 28, 2000. After he died, his son, Justin Trudeau, spoke at his funeral, which was shown all over the country. He said ''je t'aime'' (French for "I love you") and cried on his father's coffin. After this moving eulogy (a speech at a funeral about the dead person), many Canadian people thought Justin would have a future in politics; Justin is the 23 Prime Minister of Canada, elected in 2015. 

## References