open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
11 (Bryan Adams album)

***11*** is the eleventh studio album by the Canadian rock artist Bryan Adams. It was released on March 7, 2008 through Universal Music Group. The album was a number 1 hit in Canada, Switzerland and India and on number 6 in the UK. It was recorded at The Warehouse Studio, Vancouver, Canada, and additionally at hotel rooms and backstage concerts around Europe.

Three singles have been released from the album: "I Thought I'd Seen Everything", "Tonight We Have the Stars" and "She's Got a Way". The album was also released in the US exclusively through Wal-Mart and Sam's Club retail stores on May 13, 2008. To promote the album, Adams toured around Europe on the "11 Days, 11 Cities" acoustic tour, playing new songs and old classics.

## 11 Tour 
In support of the release of *11*, Adams started the ‘11 concerts, 11 cities’ tour, having concerts in 11 different countries in just 11 days. After the ‘11 concerts, 11 cities’ Adams went and acoustic tour where he toured with Foreigner and Rod Stewart to support his new album. Zimbio asked Adams: "With the acoustic tour, which of your songs do you feel sound best acoustically?"

## Track listing 
## Personnel 
* Bryan Adams - guitar, vocals, bass (on tracks 1, 2, 3), producer
* Keith Scott - guitar (tracks 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, and 9)
* Colin Cripps - guitar (all but tracks 8 and 11), backing vocals on track 7
* Gary Breit - hammond organ, piano (tracks 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, and 10)
* Eliot Kennedy - bass (tracks 4, 6, 9 and 10), piano on track 6, backing vocals on track 7
* Robert John "Mutt" Lange - bass (track 5), producer on tracks 1 & 5
* Mickey Curry - drums (tracks 1, 6, 7, 9)
* Pat Stewart - drums (tracks 2, 3, 4, 5, 8)
* Jim Vallance - drums (track 10)
* Máire Breatnach - fiddle on track 8, viola on track 11
### Additional Personnel 
* Pointless Brothers - backing vocals on track 6
* Kathleen Edwards - backing vocals on track 7
* Teese Gohl - string arragement on tracks 7 & 8
* Gavin Greenway - string arragement on track 11
* Hal Beckett - string conductor on tracks 7, 8, & 11
* Bob Clearmountain - Mixing
* Olle Romo - editing
* Ben Dobie - recording
* Bryan Gallant - additional recording
* Kirk Mcnally - additional recording
* Roger Monk - string recording on track 8

## Charts 
### Album 
## References
Pantanal

The **Pantanal** is the world's largest wetland or swamp.

It covers a region of 140,000&nbsp;km2, larger than the area covered by the country Greece.

## References
Balliol College, Oxford

**Balliol College** is one of the colleges of the University of Oxford in England. It was founded in 1263 by John Balliol, father of King John Balliol of Scotland. 

Usually, the undergraduate students are among the most politically active students in the university. The college's alumni include Boris Johnson, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, and several former prime ministers. Adam Smith, a graduate student of the college, is one of its best known students. In 2006, 45.1% of finalists got First Class Honours degrees. This is a higher percentage than any other Oxford college has ever had. The college was placed second in the Norrington Table.

## References 
## Other websites 
* Official website
Rijndael key schedule

The **Rijndael key schedule** (Advanced Encryption Standard) uses a key schedule to expand a short key into a number of separate round keys.

The three AES variants have different numbers of rounds. Each round has 16 bits in it. Each variant requires a separate 128-bit round key for each round plus one more. The key schedule produces the needed round keys from the initial key. This initial key has only one 8-bit-(1-byte) long array (string of data arranged in a certain order).  

One step rotates (shifts) the 32 bits (4 bytes) of a certain word by a fixed amount. For example, rotating by 8 bits (1 byte) shifts each byte one place to the left, and the starting byte goes at the end. Another step arranges each byte in a 16-byte rectangular array and shifts it according to its size. For example, the first byte is unchanged, the second shifted 1 byte to the left, the third 2 bytes to the left and the fourth 3 bytes to the left. It continues until the end of the array.   

## References
Kaiserswerth

**Kaiserswerth** is a settlement with a more than 1,000-year history.
It is one of the oldest parts of Düsseldorf.

## Geography 
It is in the north of Düsseldorf, next to the river Rhine. Kaiserswerth has 7,712 inhabitants and an area of 4.71&nbsp;km².

## History 
About the year 700 the monk St. Suitbert founded a Benedictine-abbey there.
It was destroyed 88 years later.

The Kaiserpfalz (temporary seat of the Holy Roman Emperor) was built in 1045.

In 1062 the young German King Heinrich IV (still a child) was kidnapped by the archbishop of Cologne.

In 1174 Friederick I Barbarossa moved the Rhine customs collection to Kaiserswerth. So the bishop took over control over the whole empire.

Following emperors used Kaiserswerth as temporary seat like as prison for high-range prisoners.

Between 1212 and 1215 the Count of Berg tried to get out prisoners and made the ground around the Castle dry.

In 1273 the Emperor pledged Kaiserswerth to the archbishop of Cologne.

In 1689 Kaiserswerth was particularly destroyed by France during the War of the Palatine Succession. During the Spanish war of succession the Bishop of Cologne stayed with France.

Kaiserswerth got a French garrison. In 1702 the city was therefore besieged by the Grand Alliance. After that war the castle was mostly destroyed.

In the 19th century Kaiserswerth was famous by its deaconess clinic. Florence Nightingale visited in 1850 and learned from Pastor Theodor Fliedner and the deaconesses working there for the sick and the deprived. Nightingale published *The Institution of Kaiserswerth on the Rhine, for the Practical Training of Deaconesses, etc.* in 1851 - her first publication.

Kaiserswerth became a part of Düsseldorf in 1929.

## References
## Other websites 
* Kaiserswerth in Spanish succession war 1702
Indochina

**Indochina** or the **Indochinese Peninsula** or the Mainland Southeast Asia is a region in Southeast Asia. 

The region lies roughly east of India, south of China. 
 
Indochina comprises the territory of the following countries:
* Cambodia
* Laos
* Vietnam

Those countries have been known as Indochina since they were French Indochina.

Often also included in the scope of the term are:
* Peninsular Malaysia (comprising the southern end of the Malay Peninsula but not the Malay Islands)
* Myanmar (formerly known as Burma)
* Singapore 
* Thailand (formerly Siam)

## References 
## Other websites
Wadi Halfa

**Wadi Halfa** is a small city in the northern part of Sudan by Lake Nubia (the Sudanese section of Lake Nasser).

It has 6 neighborhoods with inhabitants of 18,000 people. There is a highway under construction which will connect it with Aswan in Egypt and via Dongola with Khartoum. 

Wadi Halfa is now one of fastest growing cities in Sudan.

in 1964 when the Aswan Dam was built, the old city of Wadi Halfa was flooded and Nubians were forced to relocate in New Halfa. Now there is a huge number of Nubians are immigrating back to their mother land.

Wadi Halfa is a home of Geology and earth science college with student body of more than 500 students.

## References
Gorillaz

**Gorillaz** are an animated British rock band. The band was invented by Damon Albarn, a member of the band Blur, and Jamie Hewlett, who has worked on the comic book series *Tank Girl*. Even though the band members are fictional, they have released a large number of albums and music videos. The band's animated members are 2-D, Noodle, Russel Hobbs, and Murdoc Niccals.

The band's genre is mostly a combination of alternative rock, alternative hip hop, and electronica. It also has elements of experimental, trip hop, dub, and psychedelic rock.

## Live performances
Since they are an animated group, they cannot perform live, like other bands can. At Gorillaz concerts, the real members of the band stand behind screens which show computer-generated images of the animated group performing.

Despite the animated performances, the actual band members did go on tour as the Gorillaz (which the animated band referred to as *that Gorillaz tribute band*), playing at various venues across the states, headlining at Coachella. The live Gorillaz band played at the 2010 Glastonbury Festival, performing in place of u2 due to Bono's emergency back surgery. 

## List of albums
### Studio albums
* *Gorillaz* (2001)
* *Demon Days* (2005)
* *Plastic Beach* (2010)
* *The Fall* (2010)
* *Humanz* (2017)
* *The Now Now* (2018)
* *The Song Machine, Season 1: Strange Timez* (2020)
* *Cracker Island* (2023)
* *The Mountain* (2026)

### Compilation albums
* *G-Sides* (2002)
* *Laika Come Home* (with Spacemonkeyz) (2002)
* *D-Sides* (2007)
* *The Singles Collection 2001–2011* (2011)

## References
Ciphertext-only attack

In cryptography, a **ciphertext-only attack (COA)** or **known ciphertext attack** is an attack model for cryptanalysis where the attacker is assumed to have access only to a set of ciphertexts. 

The attack is completely successful if the corresponding plaintexts can be deduced (extracted) or, even better, the key. The ability to obtain any amount of information from the underlying ciphertext is considered a success. 

Every modern cipher attempts to provide protection against ciphertext-only attacks. The process of selecting a new cipher design standard usually takes many years and includes exhaustive testing of large quantities of ciphertext for any statistical different approach from random noise. On the other hand, poor cipher depends on home-grown proprietary algorithms that have not been subjected to extensive testing and inspection; for this reason, many computer-age encryption systems are still subject to ciphertext-only attack but still in use. Examples include:

* Early versions of Microsoft's PPTP virtual private network software used the same RC4 key for the sender and the receiver (later versions solved this problem but may still have other problems). In any case where a stream cipher like RC4 is used twice with the same key, it is open to ciphertext-only attack. 
* Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP), the first security protocol for Wi-Fi, proved susceptible to several attacks, most of them ciphertext-only.
* Some modern cipher designs have later been shown to be suspect to ciphertext-only attacks. For example, Akelarre.

## Related pages 
* Chosen-plaintext attack
* Chosen-ciphertext attack
* Known-plaintext attack

## References 
* Alex Biryukov and Eyal Kushilevitz, "From Differential Cryptanalysis to Ciphertext-Only Attacks," CRYPTO 1998, pp 72–88;
Julianne Moore

**Julianne Moore** (born **Julie Anne Smith**; December 3, 1960) is an American actress with Scottish origins. She was born in Fayetteville, North Carolina. She has been nominated for four Oscars, six Golden Globes, three BAFTAs and nine Screen Actors Guild Awards.

After studying theatre at Boston University Moore began her acting career in 1983 with minor roles.  She then joined the soap opera *As the World Turns*.  She had several supporting roles in movies. Her performance in *Boogie Nights* (1997) brought her fame.

Her success continued with movies such as *The Big Lebowski* (1998), *The End of the Affair* (1999) and *Magnolia* (1999). She received particular praise for acting as a betrayed wife in *Far from Heaven* (2002).  This won several awards. The same year, she was also nominated for several awards for her work in *The Hours*. The critics have liked her for her recent performances in *The Kids Are All Right* and portraying Sarah Palin in *Game Change*.

She won an Oscar for Best Actress for her performance in Still Alice (2014).

## Personal life 
Moore was born to an American father and a Scottish mother.

Moore was married to John Gould Rubin from 1986 until they divorced in 1995.

Since August 23, 2003 she has been married to Bart Freundlich. They have a son, Caleb Moore Freundlich (born on December 4, 1997) and a daughter, Liv Helen Moore Freundlich (born on April 11, 2002).

Her mother had emigrated from Scotland. Her father was a military in the US Army.

## Filmography 
## Awards
## References 
## Other websites 
*
Virtue

of virtue (Greek *ἀρετή*) in Celsus Library in Ephesos, Turkey]]
**Virtue** (Latin *virtus*; Greek ἀρετή) is a kind of behaviour which is thought to be good.  The adjective is "virtuous".  Someone who lives a virtuous life is someone who leads a good moral life, doing things that society thinks are good.  The opposite of virtue is vice.  

Philosophers throughout the ages have written their ideas about what they think virtue is.  The Ancient Greek philosophers from Plato onwards said that virtue consisted of four things: Justice, Courage, Wisdom, and Moderation.  In the Christian religion the three virtues  were Faith, Hope and Charity.  These are mentioned in the Bible in the First Epistle to the Corinthians chapter 13 verse 13.  These virtues are also very important in the Judaic and Muslim traditions.

## Related pages
*Ethics
*Justice
*Seven deadly sins
*Virtue ethics
*Virtue signalling
Petra Kelly

]]
**Petra Karin Kelly** (November 23, 1947 – October 1, 1992) was a German politician, peace activist and one of the founders of the Green Party of Germany.

Kelly was born in Günzburg. Her stepfather was a US officer. Her original father and her mother were German.
Her family moved to the US in 1959.
She went to school in both countries.
From 1966 to 1970 he studied political sciences in Washington, D.C..
Kelly campaigned for Robert F. Kennedy in the 1968 U.S. elections.
She admired Martin Luther King and was an anti-Vietnam War protester.
She graduated in 1970 in Washington and got another exam in 1971 in Amsterdam.
Then she returned to West Germany.
She worked for the European Commission in Brussels from 1971 to 1983.

She was one of the founders of the Green Party in Germany in 1979 – the first Green Party worldwide. 
From 1983 to 1990 she was a member of the Bundestag for the Greens.
Kelly received the Right Livelihood Award in 1982.

Petra Kelly, who was seriously ill, died in Bonn in 1992, aged 44. She had been shot by her partner, politician and former general Bert Bastian, who committed suicide afterwards.

## Other websites 
* *The Life and Death of Petra Kelly* by Sara Parkin, Rivers Oram Press/Pandora, 1995 ()
* *Thinking Green! Essays on Environmentalism, Feminism, and Nonviolence* by Petra K. Kelly, Parallax Press, Berkeley, California, 1994 ()
* *Nonviolence Speaks to Power* by Petra K. Kelly, online book , almost complete text (also, out of print, published by Matsunaga Institute for Peace, University of Hawaii, 1992, )
* Curriculum Vitae with picture 
* Happiness is a Warm Gun. Film on Petra Kelly's death 
* Right Livelihood Award website 
* Petra Kelly Archives at the Heinrich Böll Foundation 
* Petra Kelly prize for human rights, ecology and non-violence
Greyhound Lines

**Greyhound Lines** (commonly called *Greyhound*) is a company in the United States that runs bus services between cities. It was founded in 1914. Its parent company is on the London Stock Exchange.  The buses use air brakes and hold over 200 gallons of diesel.
Vitiligo

**Vitiligo** is a long term condition which causes white patches to develop on the skin. It can affect any area of skin, but it commonly happens on the face, neck and hands, and in skin creases.

Viltigo occurs when the melanocytes cells that give skin their color, die or do not work. This means not enough melanin is produced. It is a problem because these cells protect against the light from the sun, so it's important to take extra care when in the sun and use a sunscreen with a high sun protection factor (SPF).

### Internal treatment procedure 
* The incorporation of certain potent herbs such as Kutki, Neem, Guduchi, Manjistha, Haridra, Triphala, Sariva, Giloy, Khadira, and Yashtimadhu into the daily regime is advised to reclaim the health and glory of the skin.
* A complete avoidance of Virudha ahaara is recommended as food for vitiligo to avoid. Which mainly involves non-vegetarian food, excessive dairy, citrus fruits, wheat, spicy, and processed items. Infusion of fresh and water-enriched fruits and vegetables is advised specifically in the form of salads, juices, or warm soups.
* A great concentration is laid down on Maansik Shanti (mental calmness). Ayurveda acknowledges that if your mind and body are not in harmony, no medicines, or treatment can work. For such purpose, certain yoga asanas, and meditation therapy is made compulsory.

### External treatment procedure 
* The application of cow’s ghee, almond oil, virgin coconut oil, and other medicated ointments are instructed, especially to the affected areas in order to keep it nourished.
* Panchakarma therapies such as Vamana (Therapeutic emesis), Virechan (purgation), Basti karma (detoxification through herbal decoctions), and Raktamokshana (blood cleansing) are also performed as per ayurvedic guidelines, catering to the disease pattern, and unique body Prakriti of each patient.
* Accompanying other natural measures, oral medications are also made imperative in the form of vatti (tablets), churana (powder), and pastes prepared utilizing nature-derived substances.

## Famous people with vitiligo 
*Michael Jackson told Oprah in a 1993 interview that he had vitiligo. He is the most well known person to have had the disease. A lot of people thought that he was lying. He died in 2009, and his autopsy found that he was telling the truth. Apparently, when it got past the point where makeup could have hidden it, he chose to have the rest of the pigment removed.
*Jon Hamm got vitilgo when he was filmed acting for *Mad Men* because of stress.

## Related pages
*Albinism

## References
Maghreb

The **Maghreb** ( ) is the western part of the Arab world. It is in North Africa. The term is generally applied to all of Mauritania, Western Sahara, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya, but in older Arabic usage meant only the area of the three countries between the high ranges of the Atlas Mountains and the Mediterranean Sea (Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia). Historically, some writers also included Muslim ruled regions in Spain, Portugal, Sicily and Malta in the definition. Malta, in particular, still speaks Maltese, a language based on Maghrebi Arabic. Many Maghrebis (Algeria, Morocco) emigrate to Western Europe (especially the nearby France and Spain).

The Maghreb can be best understood by the many ways the region is both like and unlike other countries around the Mediterranean Sea and the Western Cape in South Africa, and the contrasts with the rest of Africa. The region faces various challenges, including security issues related to terrorism and migration. The population is mainly Arab or of Berber origin, or a mixture of the two. Arabic is the dominant language, but many populations also speak other languages, such as Tamazight. The region has mountain ranges (notably the Atlas), coastal plains, and the Sahara Desert. Historically, it was the westernmost point of the Islamic world, and the term was used to refer to regions beyond Egypt. Couscous is an emblematic dish of the region. The Arab Maghreb Union (AMU) is a regional organization for political and economic cooperation, which includes Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco and Tunisia.

## References 
## Other websites 
* Politics, economics, and human affairs analysis in the Maghhreb 
* Radio Online of the Maghreb 
* News and Views of the Maghreb
Truncated differential cryptanalysis

In cryptography, **truncated differential cryptanalysis** is a generalization of differential cryptanalysis, an attack model against block ciphers. In 1994 Lars Knudsen designed the technique, during this period ordinary differential cryptanalysis analyzes the full difference between two texts, the truncated version considers differences that are only determined to some extent. It has been applied to SAFER, IDEA, Skipjack, E2, Twofish, Camellia, CRYPTON, and the stream cipher Salsa20 as well.

## References
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
*
Fatimid Caliphate

The **Fatimid Caliphate** was ruled by the **al-Fātimiyyūn** () dynasty  from 5 January 909 to 1171. It was an Arab Shi'a dynasty. It ruled the fourth and final Arab caliphate. In different times different areas of the Maghreb, Egypt, and the Levant belonged to the caliphate.

The Egyptian city of Cairo was made the capital. The term *Fatimite* is sometimes used to refer to the citizens of this caliphate as well. The ruling elite belonged to the Ismaili branch of Shi'ism. The leaders were also Shia Ismaili Imams. They had a religious significance to Ismaili Muslims. They are also part of the chain of holders of the office of Caliph, as recognized by most Muslims, the only period in which the Shia Imamate and the Caliphate were united to any degree. There was only one other exception: the Caliphate of Ali himself.

The Fatimids were famous for religious tolerance towards non-Ismaili sects of Islam as well as towards Jews, Maltese Christians and Coptic Christians, but there were some exceptions nevertheless.

## Rise of the Fatimids 
, the sixth Caliph]]
The Fatimids came from Ifriqiya, modern-day Tunisia and eastern Algeria. The dynasty was founded in 909 by , who legitimised his claim through descent from Muhammad by way of his daughter Fātima as-Zahra and her husband , the first  Imām, hence the name *al-Fātimiyyūn* "Fatimid".

Abdullāh al-Mahdi's control soon extended over all of central Maghreb, an area consisting of the modern countries of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya, which he ruled from Mahdia, his newly-built capital in Tunisia.

## Decay and fall 
In the 1040s, the Zirids (governors of North Africa under the Fatimids) declared their independence from the Fatimids and their conversion to Sunni Islam, which led to the devastating Banū Hilal invasions.  After about 1070, the Fatimid hold on the Levant coast and parts of Syria was challenged first by Turkic (Seljuk) invasions, then the Crusades, so that Fatimid territory shrank until it consisted only of Egypt.

After the decay of the Fatimid political system in the 1160s, the Zengid ruler Nūr ad-Dīn had his general, Shirkuh, seize Egypt from the vizier Shawar in 1169.  Shirkuh died two months after taking power, and the rule went to his nephew, Saladin.  This began the Kurdish Ayyubid Dynasty.

## Fatimid caliphs 
#  (909-934) founder Fatimid dynasty
#  (934-946)
#  (946-953)
#  (953-975) Egypt is conquered during his reign
#  (975-996)
#  (996-1021)
#  (1021-1036)
#  (1036-1094)
#  (1094-1101) Quarrels over his succession led to the Nizari split.
#  (1101-1130) The Fatimid rulers of Egypt after him are not recognized as Imams by Mustaali Taiyabi Ismailis.
#  (1130-1149)
#  (1149-1154)
#  (1154-1160)
#  (1160-1171).

## Notes 
## Other websites 
* Fatimids entry in the *Encyclopaedia of the Orient*. 
* Institute of Ismaili Studies London.
Plaintext

In cryptography, **plaintext** is the information which the sender wants to transmit to the receiver(s).  

Before computers, plaintext meant text in the language of the communicating parties.  Since computers, the definition has been expanded. It now includes not only the electronic representation of text, such as emails and word processor documents, but also the computer representation of speech, music, pictures, videos, ATM and credit card transactions, sensor data, and so forth. That is basically any information which the communicating parties might wish to hide from others.  The plaintext is the normal representation of the data before any action has been taken to hide it.

The plaintext is used as input to an encryption algorithm; the output is termed **ciphertext**.  Some systems, however, use a cascade of layers of encryption (called 'rounds') in which case the ciphertext output of one encryption algorithm becomes the plaintext input to the next. Triple DES is an example.

## Related pages
* Cleartext
Ciphertext

In cryptography, **ciphertext** (or cyphertext) refers to the output of the encryption process. Plaintext is turned into ciphertext using an algorithm (cipher). This makes it unreadable to anyone except those who own unique information about it, usually referred to as a key. 

**Decryption** is the reverse process of **encryption**. It takes the unreadable **ciphertext** as an input and makes it readable again in the form of plaintext.

## Other websites 
* Ciphertext -Citizendium
Letterkenny

**Letterkenny** () is a town in County Donegal of the Ireland. It is  on the River Swilly and has a population of 17,586.

In 1824, when the first description of Letterkenny as a modern town was written, it was stated that: *"Within half a mile is the Port of Ballyraine, whither vessels of 100 tons bring iron, salt and colonial produce and whence they export hides and butter"*. Nothing is left of the port now except the warehouses.

Letterkenny achieved town status in the early 1920s following the partition of Ireland. 

## References
Thalwil

from Lake Zurich]]

**Thalwil** is a municipality in the district of Horgen in the canton of Zürich in Switzerland.

## History
Early Middle Ages Thalwil was Alemannic farmland.

Thalwil was originally four *Wachten*, or hamlets:
* Ludretikon, the oldest hamlet (mentioned in 915), bordering Rüschlikon
* Oberdorf (Upper Village), the area around the church
* Unterdorf (Lower Village), the area roughly south of the railway station
* Langnau am Albis, (which separated from Thalwil around 1713)

In the Middle Ages, most income was made in farming, vineyards and a small amount of fishing on the lake. 
Thalwil also has the oldest wood corporation in the Canton of Zurich, the *Bannegg-Waldung*. It was first mentioned in 1483.

## Modern day Thalwil
Today, the economy of Thalwil is mostly some small and medium-sized businesses, and a wide range of shops. Most of the shops are located around Gotthardstrasse- the town centre.

The main source of Thalwil's wealth lies with its 7,000 commuters. These people live in Thalwil, but work in Zurich city. Today, Thalwil has left most of its farming past behind in exchange for a town of commuters, with its public transportation links, low tax and good quality of life.

## Other websites 
*Official website of the Thalwil Gemeinde 
*
*Blog about life in Thalwil 
*Thalwiler Anzeiger newspaper
Hearth

A **hearth** is a brick or stone lined fireplace or oven that is used for cooking and heating. Historically, the hearth was the center of the home, as it provided heat for the house.

In more modern times, the hearth may be a section of the fireplace that can be seen. This often includes tiles around the base of the fireplace and the floor.

## References
Twofish

In cryptography, **Twofish** is a symmetric key block cipher with a block size of 128 bits and key lengths up to 256 bits. 

In 1997, the NIST announced for competition to choose a successor to DES to be known as AES, Twofish was one of the *five finalists* of the Advanced Encryption Standard competition, but was not selected as a standard. 

Twofish is related to the earlier block cipher Blowfish. Twofish's main features are the use of pre-computed key-dependent S-boxes, and a relatively complex key schedule. One half of an n-bit key is used as the actual encryption key and the other half of the n-bit key is used to modify the encryption algorithm (key-dependent S-boxes). Twofish uses some elements from other designs; for example, the pseudo-Hadamard transform (PHT) from the SAFER family of ciphers. Twofish uses the same Feistel structure as the DES.

On most software platforms Twofish is slightly slower than Rijndael (the chosen algorithm for Advanced Encryption Standard) for 128-bit keys, but somewhat faster for 256-bit keys.

## Creators 
Twofish was designed by Bruce Schneier, John Kelsey, Doug Whiting, David Wagner, Chris Hall, and  Niels Ferguson; the "extended Twofish team" who met to made further cryptanalysis of Twofish and other AES competitors included Stefan Lucks, Tadayoshi Kohno, and Mike Stay.

Twofish algorithm is free for anyone to use without any restrictions whatsoever. The Twofish cipher has not been patented and the software example of its specification has been placed in the public domain. However, Twofish is not widely used like the Blowfish, which has been available for a longer period of time.

## Cryptanalysis 
As of 2008, the best published cryptanalysis on the Twofish block cipher is a truncated differential cryptanalysis of the full 16-round version. The paper claims that the probability of truncated differentials attacks is 2-57.3 per block and that it will take about 251 chosen plaintexts (32 PiB worth of data) to find a good pair of truncated differentials.

Bruce Schneier responds in a 2005 blog entry that this paper does not present a full cryptanalytic attack, but only some hypothesized differential characteristics: "But even from a theoretical perspective, Twofish is not even remotely broken. There have been no extensions to these results since they were published" in 2000.

## Related pages
* Blowfish (cipher)
* Advanced Encryption Standard
* Data Encryption Standard

## References 
## Additional reading 
* 
* 

## Other websites 
* Twofish web page with full specifications, free source code, and other Twofish resources.
* David Wagner's sci.crypt post recommending AES over Twofish  — Wagner was one of the designers of Twofish.
* SCAN's entry for Twofish
* http://www.schneier.com/twofish-products.html List of products using TwoFish
Third person

**Third person** (or **third-person**) may refer to:

* A grammatical person, *he*, *she*, and *they* in many languages
* Third-person narrative, a perspective in story-telling
** Third-person view, a point-of-view in film, television, and video games that is shown outside any of the actors or characters.
*** Third-person shooter, a genre of 3D computer and video games in which the onscreen character is seen at a distance from a number of different possible angles
* Third Person, a New York City improvising trio

## Related pages
* First person (disambiguation)
* Second person (disambiguation)
Nyon

**Nyon** is a municipality in the district of Nyon in the canton of Vaud in Switzerland. It is found 25 kilometers north of Geneva, and is part of the Geneva metropolitan area. The town has (as of 2006) 17,267 people.

## History 
Nyon was built by the Romans between 50 BCE and 44 BCE, and was called "Colonia Iulia Equestris" or "Colonia Equestris Noiodunum". It grew to be one of the most important Roman colonies in modern-day Switzerland, with a forum, a basilica and an amphitheater that was discovered in 1996.

## Modern Day Nyon 
Today, Nyon has a high school (Gymnase de Nyon), a hospital, a movie theatre, hotels, restaurants, cafes and a popular tourist attraction - the castle. 
In the last week of July each year, Nyon hosts the Paléo Festival - a huge music festival.

Image:Nyon_castle.jpg|White Castle in Nyon
Image:Nyon_nma.jpg|Nyon and its castle seen from the lake in spring, with the Jura mountains in the background
Image:NyonDock.JPG|Nyon seen from Lake Geneva in October

## Other websites 
*Official website of the town (available in French, English and German)
*Web site of the Roman Museum of Nyon (same languages as above link)
*Paléo Festival
*Rugby Club Nyon
*Ultimate Frisbee Club, Les Mange-Disques de Nyon
*La Redoute, Popular neighbourhood of Nyon
Bushfire

, 2003.]]
.]]
 covered in smoke during the 2006–2007 bushfire season.]]
 searching for food behind a bushfire.]] NSW RFS fire fighting tanker]]

A **bushfire** is a wildfire that happens mostly in the Australian bush. Bush is the word for scrub, woodland or grassland of Australia and New Zealand. In south east and south west of Australia, bushfires are most common in the summer and early autumn. In the north of Australia, bushfires usually happen during winter which is the dry season. Many Australian plants burn easily. Eucalyptus trees have a high oil content which makes them burn.But these figures do not include the 173 people who died and the 2000 homes destroyed in the 2009 Victorian bushfires. They can also kill wildlife including rare koalas.

## Related pages 
*Wildfire
*Fire ecology

## References
Artificial selection

and Great Dane show the range of dog sizes produced by artificial selection]]
's few fruitcases (left) into modern corn's rows of exposed kernels (right)]]

**Artificial selection** is the intentional breeding of plants or animals. It means the same thing as **selective breeding** and is an ancient method of genetic engineering. 

Selective breeding is a technique used when breeding domesticated animals, such as dogs, pigeons or cattle. Some of these animals may have traits that a breeder will want to carry over to the next generation. The breeder will therefore select those animals to breed which have that quality, rather than those that do not.

Inbreeding is a particular kind of selective breeding, designed to produce a population which is genetically virtually identical.  Such populations are rarely viable outside the laboratory.  They lose fertility.  To control this, most breeds are outcrossed or backcrossed to wild-type individuals, or at least less inbred stock. The details differ from breed to breed.  The improvement when outcrossing is done is called hybrid vigour.

Charles Darwin used the example of artificial selection to introduce his idea of natural selection. Artificial selection may be contrasted with the process of natural selection. In natural selection, the differential reproduction of organisms with certain traits happens. This is because some variations help the organism to have better survival and reproduction. The process maintains or enhances the fitness of a population in its natural habitat. 

Artificial selection may sometimes be unintentional; it is thought that domestication of crops by early humans was largely unintentional.

## References
Selectable marker

A **selectable marker** is a reporter gene introduced into a cell along with a gene insert. What this means is, the experimenter can tell the right gene is in the cell because the marker can be seen or detected.

Most often, this is used for  bacteria or for cells in culture. Selectable markers show the success of a transfection or other procedure meant to introduce foreign DNA into a cell. It is a technique in gene targeting and gene knockout.

Selectable markers are often antibiotic resistance genes; bacteria that have been subjected to a procedure to introduce foreign DNA are grown on a medium containing an antibiotic.  The antibiotic knocks out cells which do not have the resistant marker. Those bacterial colonies that can grow have successfully taken up and expressed the introduced genetic material.

An alternative to a selectable marker is a **screenable marker**, which allows the researcher to distinguish between wanted and unwanted cells.

Examples of selectable markers include:
*Beta-lactamase which confers ampicillin resistance to bacterial hosts.
*Neo gene from Tn5, which confers antibiotic resistance to kanamycin in bacteria and to geneticin in eukaryote cells.
*Mutant FabI gene (mFabI) from *E. coli* genome, which confers triclosan resistance to the host.
 
## References
West Coast blues

The **West Coast blues** is a type of blues music related to jazz and jump blues, with lots of piano sounds and jazz guitar solos, which originated from Texas blues musicians that moved to California in the 1940s.  West Coast blues also uses smooth, honey-toned vocals, often sounding similar to urban blues.
, a West Coast blues performer and pianist.]]

**Texas and the West Coast**

The best known West Coast blues musicians may be guitarist T-Bone Walker, famous for the song "Call It Stormy Monday (But Tuesday Is Just As Bad)", originally from Texas, he had made his first recordings in the late 1920s. During the early 1940's Walker moved to Los Angeles, where he recorded a lot of music for Capital, Black & White, and Imperial. Walker an electric guitar sound to the blues, prossibly doing more to make the use of electric guitar popular in blues than anyone else. Much of his material had a jazzy jump blues feel, which is typical of popular blues from California in the 1940s and 1950s. Other Texas bluesmen followed: Pianist/songwriter Amos Milburn, singer Percy Mayfield, famous for the song "Hit the Road Jack", and Charles Brown moved to Los Angeles. Guitarist Pee Wee Crayton divided his time between Los Angeles and San Francisco, while Lowell Fulson, from Texas by way of Oklahoma, moved to Oakland.
 
After the efforts of Tom Mazzolini, producer of the San Francisco Blues Festival, started in 1974, and the efforts of recording companies like Arhoolie and HighTone, the West Coast is one of the most important blues areas in the country.

## Artist/Musicians
## Footnotes
## Other websites
*Bay Area Blues Society
Artificial life

**Artificial life** (commonly **Alife** or **alife**) is a field of study that looks at systems related to life, its processes, and its evolution. This is done with simulations using computer models, robotics, and biochemistry. There are three main kinds of alife, named for their approaches: *soft*, (from software); *hard*, (from hardware); and *wet (*from biochemistry). Artificial life simulates traditional biology by trying to *recreate* biological phenomena. It is common for "artificial life" to refer to soft alife in specific.

## References
Nils Aall Barricelli

**Nils Aall Barricelli** (24 January 1912 &ndash; 27 January 1993) was a Norwegian-Italian mathematician.

Barricelli's early computer-assisted experiments in symbiogenesis and evolution are considered pioneering in artificial life research. Barricelli, who was independently rich, held an unpaid residency at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey in 1953, 1954. and 1956. He later worked at the University of California, Los Angeles, at Vanderbilt University (until 1964), in the Department of Genetics of the University of Washington, Seattle (until 1968) and then at the Mathematics Institute of the University of Oslo. Barricelli published in a variety of fields including virus genetics, DNA, theoretical biology, space flight, theoretical physics and mathematical language.

## References
## Other websites
* Barricelli's Universe (make-digital.com) 
* George Dyson TED talk discusses Barricelli
Evolutionary algorithm

In computer science, especially in artificial intelligence, **evolutionary algorithms** (**EA**) are a kind of algorithm that simulate evolution to optimise something. Each generation of solution is subjected to some kind of fitness function; those that *survive* are then recombined in some way to make the next generation of solution. This is done until a certain level of fitness is reached, or a determined number of generations have been used.
Ontario Lacus

**Ontario Lacus** is a lake filled with methane and ethane near the south pole of Saturn's moon Titan.  It was identified as a hydrocarbon lake and confirmed by data from the Cassini spacecraft. This discovery was announced in the 31 July 2008 edition of *Nature*. Ontario Lacus is about 20,000 km2 in area, and is named after Lake Ontario in North America, which is a similar size and shape.

## References
## Other websites
*
Penetrometer

A **penetrometer** is a device to test the strength of a material.

It is often used on soil. The penetrometer is dropped on soil or it is pressed against soil to measure how deep a hole it makes. This is a way to decide if soil is strong enough to build a road on. Scientists can use a penetrometer to measure how much moisture is in soil. Penetrometers are used on space probes such as the Cassini-Huygens probe, to measure the amount of moisture in soil on other planets.

## Sources 
*University of Arizona document, "An impact penetrometer for a landing spacecraft". http://www.lpl.arizona.edu/~rlorenz/acce.pdf
*A picture of a penetrometer from the European Space Agency (ESA) http://www.esa.int/esaSC/SEM7EXGHZTD_index_1.html
Kraken Mare

**Kraken Mare** is the largest known lake on the surface of Saturn's moon Titan. It was discovered in 2007 by the Cassini probe and was named in 2008 after the Kraken, a legendary sea monster.

Kraken Mare is believed to be the largest of seas and lakes near Titan's north pole. It was discovered as a sea of hydrocarbons by radar pictures. Only a small part of the sea has been pictured by radar, but its full size is seen in visible light pictures. Kraken Mare is believed to be similar in size to the Caspian Sea.

An island in the sea is named Mayda Insula.

## References 
## Other websites 
* Map of Titan's north pole, based on radar imagery, showing Kraken Mare's location
John Henry Holland

**John Henry Holland** (February 2, 1929 &ndash; August 9, 2015) was an American scientist. He was Professor of Psychology and Professor of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. He was a pioneer in complex system and nonlinear science. He was known as the father of genetic algorithms.

Holland died on August 9, 2015 in Ann Arbor, Michigan, aged 86.

## References
Ligeia Mare

on Earth]]

**Ligeia Mare** is a lake on Titan at 79.0° N, 248.0° W, measuring around 500 km in width. It is named after Ligeia, one of the sirens in Greek mythology. Ligeia Mare has been a proposed lake to land the Titan Lake In-situ Sampling Propelled Explorer space probe

## Other websites
*Map of the liquid bodies in the north polar region of Titan
Noor Jehan

**Noor Jehan** () was the adopted stage name for **Allah Wasai** (September 21, 1926 – December 23, 2000). She was a Punjabi singer and actress. She is renowned as one of the greatest singers of her time in the Indian subcontinent and was given the honorific title of *Mallika-e-Tarranum* (, English: the queen of melody). She achieved special national recognition and popularity in Punjab with her patriotic songs of 1965, which elevated her to an iconic level. 

Along with Ahmed Rushdi, she has given voice to the mny number of film songs in the history of Punjabi cinema. She is also considered to be one of the best female Punjabi film director.

Noor Jehan moved to Pakistan shortly after.

Noor Jehan was awarded the Pakistan President's Award in 1965.

She married Shaukat Hussain Rizvi in 1942. The marriage ended in 1953 with divorce. The couple had three children, including their singer daughter Zil-e-Huma. She then married Ejaz Durrani in 1959. The second marriage also produced three children. It ended in divorce in 1970.

In 2000, Jehan was hospitalized in Karachi and suffered a heart attack. Jehan died as a result of heart failure.

## References
## Other websites
*
Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan

**Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan** (, October 13, 1948 – August 16, 1997), was a Pakistani musician. He was a singer of qawwali, the devotional music of the Sufis. In 2006, *Time* magazine included him in their list of "Asian Heroes'.

Traditionally, qawwali is a performing art which is passed down with in the family. Nusrat's family has been performing qawwali for the last 600 years. Among other honorary  given to him, Nusrat was called *Shahenshah-e-Qawwali*, meaning *The Emperor of Qawwali*.

## Other websites 
*
Aziz Mian

**Aziz Mian Qawwal** () (April 17, 1942 – December 6, 2000) was a Pakistani singer, most famous for his performing of Qawwalis. Aziz Mian was born as **Abdul Aziz** () in Delhi, British India. The exclamation *Mian*, which he often used in his qawwalis, became part of his stage name. He began to introduce himself as **Aziz Mian Mairthi**. The word *Mairthi* refers to Meerut, a city in northern India, from which he migrated to Pakistan in 1947.

At the age of ten, he began learning the art of Qawwali under the tutelage of Ustad Abdul Wahid Khan. He received sixteen years of training at the Data Ganj Baksh School of Lahore, and obtained a degree in Urdu literature from the University of Punjab, Lahore.
Kashmir Solidarity Day

**Kashmir Solidarity Day** has been celebrated and observed on the 5 February each year since 1990. It is a day of protest against Indian control of part of Kashmir. It is a national holiday in Pakistan.

## References
National emblem of Bangladesh

.]]

**The National Emblem of Bangladesh** was adopted shortly after independence in 1971. 

Located on the emblem is a White water lily, that is bordered on two sides by rice sheaves. Above the water lilly are four stars and a three-leaf clover of jute leaves. The water lily is the country's national flower, and is representative of the many rivers that run through Bangladesh. Rice represents its presence as the staple food of Bangladesh, and for the agriculture of that nation. The four stars represent the four founding principles that were originally enshrined in the first constitution of Bangladesh in 1972: **Nationalism**, Secularism, Socialism, and **Democracy**. 

The details of the emblem is given as quoted below:
*The national emblem of the Republic is the national flower Shapla (Nymphaea pubescens) resting on water, having on each side an ear of paddy and being surmounted by three connected leaves of jute with two stars on each side of the leaves.* - **Constitution of Bangladesh** Article 4(3) 

The Government of Bangladesh has adopted Education, Nationalism and Democracy as its *"National Motto"*.

## References
Keystream

In cryptography, a **keystream** is a stream of random or pseudorandom characters that are combined with a plaintext message to produce an encrypted message (the ciphertext).

The "characters" in the keystream can be bits, bytes, numbers or actual characters like A-Z depending on the usage case.

Usually each character in the keystream is either added, subtracted or XORed with a character in the plaintext to produce the ciphertext, using modular arithmetic.

Keystreams are used in the one-time pad cipher and in most stream ciphers. Block ciphers can also be used to produce keystreams. For example, the CTR mode (also known as Integer Counter Mode (ICM)) is a block mode that makes a block cipher produce a keystream then turns the block cipher into a stream cipher.

## Example 
In this simple example we will use only the English alphabet of 26 characters from a-z, therefore we will not encrypt numbers, commas, spaces and other symbols. As we have only 26 characters the random numbers in the keystream have to be at least between 0 and 25.

To encrypt we add the keystream numbers to the plaintext. And to decrypt we subtract the same keystream numbers from the ciphertext to get the plaintext.

If a ciphertext number becomes larger than 25 we wrap it to a value between 0-25. I.e. 26 becomes 0 and 27 becomes 1 and so on. (Such wrapping is called modular arithmetic.)

Here the plaintext message "attack at dawn" is combined by addition with the keystream "kjcngmlhylyu" and produces the ciphertext "kcvniwlabluh".

## References 
* *Handbook of Applied Cryptography* by Menezes, van Oorschot and Vanstone (2001), chapter 1, 6 and 7.
Product cipher

In cryptography, a **product cipher** is a popular type of stream ciphers that works by executing in sequence a number of simple transformations such as substitution, permutation, and modular arithmetic. 

Product ciphers usually consist of iterations of several *rounds* of the same algorithm. Individual *rounds* themselves are not secure. However, it is hoped that a sufficiently long chain of *rounds* loads the cipher with sufficient confusion and diffusion properties to make it resistant to cryptanalysis. 

A product cipher that uses only substitutions and permutations is called a SP-network. Feistel ciphers are another important class of product ciphers.