open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Thorn

**Thorn** has several meanings:
* Thorns, spines and prickles, a sharp structure or growth on plants
* Thorn tree
* Hawthorn, *Crataegus*
* Thorn (letter) (Þ, þ), a letter in the Anglo-Saxon and Icelandic alphabets

## Places
* Thorn, Netherlands
* Toruń, Poland (known as Thorn in German)

### United Kingdom
* Thorn, Bedfordshire
* Thorn, Devon
* Thorn, Herefordshire
* Thorn, Powys

### USA
* Thorn, California, in San Bernardino County
* Thorn, Mississippi, in Chickasaw County
* Thorn, Utah, in Salt Lake County

## Persons, Characters
* Andy Thorn
* Brad Thorn, Australian/New Zealand rugby league and rugby union footballer
* Damien Thorn
* Erin Thorn
* Gaston Thorn (born 1928), Luxembourg politician
* George Thorn
* Colonel Herman Thorn (1783–1859), called "the millionaire of New York", brother of Jonathan Thorn
* Jan Thorn-Prikker
* John Thorn
* John Thorn (musician)
* Jonathan Thorn
* Matt Thorn
* Nautica Thorn
* Philip Thorn
* Robyn Thorn
* Rod Thorn
* Stuart Thorn, President of the Fat People United Group
* Tracey Thorn
* Victor Thorn
* Viktor Thorn
* Rose and Thorn is a character with a split personality in DC comics
* Thorn, the main character of the online fantasy story Darksoul Kingdom
* Thorn Harvestar, a main character in Jeff Smith's Bone comic series
* Thorns (band), a Norwegian black metal band
* The Thorns, an American acoustic rock band
* Thorn (Inheritance) a dragon from the *Inheritance Trilogy*

## Companies
* Thorn EMI
* THORN Electrical Industries
* Thorn Cycles, British bicycle manufacturer
* Thorn guitars, guitar manufacturer
* Thorn Lighting, luminaire manufacturer, part of Zumtobel Lighting Group

## Other uses
* *Thorns* (novel), a 1967 science fiction novel by American writer Robert Silverberg
* Thorn (horse), racehorse that won the Kentucky Futurity in 1897
* *Thorn* (video game)
* Thorn (*Inheritance*), the red dragon on the cover of the book *Eldest*
Pope Pius IX

**Pope Pius IX** (, ; May 13, 1792 – February 7, 1878), born **Giovanni Maria Mastai-Feretti**, was an Italian priest of the Roman Catholic Church and the 256th Pope, from 1846 until his death.  Only Saint Peter himself led the church longer than the 32-year reign of Pius IX.

In 2000, he was beatified, which is a step in the process of naming a saint of the Catholic Church.

## Career
Mastai-Feretti was ordained as a priest in 1819.

## Bishop
Father Mastai-Feretti was named Bishop of Spoleto in 1827.

## Cardinal
In 1840, Pope Gregory XVI made Bishop Mastai-Feretti a cardinal.

### Papal States
In 1849, Pius was deposed as the temporal ruler of the Papal States.    The council defined the dogma of papal infallibility.

Pius died at age 85.

### After his death
The process of recognizing Pius IX as a saint began in 1907.  This was part of a ceremony of "recognition". and they were completed in 1984.

## Related pages
* List of popes
* List of popes by length of reign

## References
## More reading
* Kertazer, David I. (1997). *The Kidnapping of Edgardo Mortara.* New York: Knopf. ; ; OCLC 35829023

## Other websites
* 
* Catholic Hierarchy, Pope Pius IX
*Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church , Cardinal Mastai-Feretti
Pay

**Pay** may refer to:
*A wage or salary earned for work (see also minimum wage)
*The process of payment for goods and services, an aspect of trade
*Waterproofing the seams of a wooden ship
Sk8er Boi

**Sk8er Boi** is a single by pop-punk singer Avril Lavigne. It is one of her most famous songs.

## Song information
In this song, she tells the story of a relationship between a "sk8er boi" (skater boy) and a more preppy girl who does ballet. Although both of them "want" each other, the girl rejects him against her own secret feelings because of peer pressure. In the end, the skater boy becomes famous and is with another punk girl (Avril sings in that girl's point of view) who cares for him, leaving the preppy girl behind.

## Track listing
#"Sk8er Boi"
#"Get Over It"
#"Nobody's Fool (live)"
#"Sk8er Boi" (video)

## Music video
The music video begins with what may be the "Sk8er Boi" in the alley of a city with a bunch of spray paint on the ground. The music video goes along with posters that have a star on them advertising a concert Avril hosts, where people use their cars and amplifiers to have the concert on the streets. The concert gets so wild the police come in trying to stop it. At the end of the video, Avril crashes her guitar into the car windshield. A police helicopter comes in, leaving a mystery as to what they will do.

## Movie adaptation
In 2003, Paramount Pictures optioned the song for adaptation into a feature film. However, as of December 2006, the film has apparently been abandoned or is stuck in development hell.

## Charts
## References
Graduated cylinder

A **graduated cylinder** (also called **measuring cylinder**) is a piece of laboratory glassware used to measure the volume of liquids. It is used to  measure the volume of chemicals for use in reactions. 

Often, the biggest graduated cylinders are made of polyethylene or other stiff plastic, making them lighter and less fragile than glass, but more difficult to sterilize.
Edmond Keosayan

**Edmond Keosayan** (; Leninakan, now Gyumri, October 9, 1936 - Moscow, April 21, 1994) was an Armenian Soviet movie director and musician. From 1954 to 1956 Keosayan studied in Plekhanov Moscow Institute of Economy. From 1956 to 1958 he studied in Yerevan Fine Arts and Theatre Institute. In 1964, he graduated from the Directing Department of VGIK (E.Dzigan's master class). Since 1964 Keosayan has been a director at Mosfilm Studio. He has worked worked a few times for Armenfilm Studio.
He was also a Master of Ceremonies of the Soviet State Variety Orchestra. 
His films are mainly in the Armenian and 
Russian languages.

## Filmography
*1964: *Where are you quiet Maxim? (Gde ty teper, Maxim?)*
*1966: *The Elusive Avengers (Neulovimye mstiteli/Неуловимые мстители)*
*1968: *The New Adventures of the Elusive Avengers (Novye priklyucheniya nuelovimykh/Новые приключения неуловимых)*
*1971: *The Crown of the Russian Empire or Once again the Elusive Avengers (Korona Rossiyskoy imperi, ili snova neulovimykh*
*1973: *Tghamardik* (Russian: *Muzhchiny*, English *The Men*)
*1975: *Moratsvatz heqiatneri kirtche* (Russian: *Ushchele pokinutykh skazok*, English: *The Canyon of Deserted Tales*)
*1975: *When September comes (Kogda nastupayet sentyabr)*
*1978: *Huso Astgh* (*Star of Hope*, Russian: *Zvezda nadezhdy*, alternative Armenian title: *Mkhitar sparapet*)
*1980: *Legend tzaghratzui masin* (Russian: *Legenda o skomorokhe*, English: *Legend of the Clown*)

## References
Amerigo Vespucci

**Amerigo Vespucci** (9 March 1451- 22 February 1512) was an Italian merchant, explorer and cartographer. He was the first person to explain that the places discovered by Christopher Columbus in 1492 were not part of east Asia, but an unknown continent which he called "The New World". America got its name when other cartographers used a feminized and latinized version of his first name, *Americus*. 

Not much is known of Vespucci's life. Two books were published saying he wrote them. Some letters exist, also saying he wrote them. He visited the New World at least twice, and died of malaria.

## References 
## Other websites 
* Canaday, James A. *The Life of Amerigo Vespucci *.
* Account of 'The First Voyage', 1497: Letter of Amerigo Vespucci To Pier Soderini - Fordham University (U.S.) Internet Modern History Sourcebook 
* *A scale model*  - A scaled wooden model of the Amerigo Vespucci.
* 
* 'I am America.' - New York Times: Five hundred years ago, our continent was given a name.
Rip Slyme

**Rip Slyme** is a Japanese hip hop group formed in 1994. It has 5 members - 4 MCs and 1 DJ. 

## Albums
### Indies albums
*''Lip's Rhyme* (1995)
**Talkin' Cheap* (1998)

### Warner albums
**Five* (2001)
**Tokyo Classic* (2002)
**Orchestra Plus* (2003) - a recorded album completely of orchestra songs & poetry recitals from celebrities
**Time To Go* (2003)
**Masterpiece* (2004)
**Epoch* (2006)
**FUNFAIR'' (2007)
Names of large numbers

Numbers that are larger than one million are usually either shown using scientific notation, or by words.

## History
The words *billion* and *trillion*, and *millions* were first written to describe extremely large numbers in 1475 by Jehan Adam. In 1484, Nicolas Chuquet used the words *million*, *billion*, *trillion*, decillion, and even further to write and describe much larger numbers. For example, Adam's *billion* (Chuquet's (*bi)llion*) was used to write 1012. While these were the first writings that used these words, Adam and Chuquet were probably not the creators of the words. The word *million* comes from the Old Italian *millione*. These words were most likely used a lot before the books were written.

## Examples of large numbers
## Names for large numbers
There is also the number googol, which is a 1 with 100 zeros behind it (10,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000), and the number googolplex, which is a 1 with a googol of zeros behind it, (1010,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000) (1010100).
The number googolplexplex, is a 1 with a googolplex number of zeros behind it. 

The name **centillion** was made in the 19th century for the 100th "illion", being 10303 in short form and 10600 in long form.

## Other websites
* Pointless Big Numbers
* Naming Large Numbers 

## References
Acetylene

**Acetylene** is a hydrocarbon, belonging to the alkyne group. It is the simplest type of alkyne, as it has only two hydrogen atoms and two carbon atoms. Acetylene is an unsaturated organic compound because its four atoms are triple bonded through a covalent bond. It was discovered in 1836 by Edmund Davy. The chemical symbol is C2H2.

80% of all acetylene produced yearly in the United States is used for chemical synthesis. It is a toxic chemical; breathing the substance causes dizziness, headache and nausea.
Auto racing

**Auto racing** (also known as **automobile racing**, **autosport** or **motorsport**) is a sport involving racing cars. Auto racing began in France in 1895 and is now one of the world's most popular spectator sports.

## Types of auto racing 
Formula One is the top level racing championship worldwide. Formula One cars have no fenders or quarter panels like regular passenger cars. At the front and back of each car there is a spoiler, or wing, which uses air to push the car onto the ground and give it more grip to go faster. Each Formula One race takes place in a different country. These races are called Grands Prix (French for "grand prize"). 

Indy Cars look very similar to Formula One cars, but race on oval tracks that have only banked left-hand turns, and more complex road courses which have both left and right hand turns.

Endurance races are a type of race involving heavily modified cars called *touring cars* and purpose-built race cars called *sports prototypes*. Each race team has more than one driver because endurance races last for several hours, so drivers take turns. The world's most famous endurance race is the 24 Hours of Le Mans in France.

NASCAR is an American organization that runs races on oval tracks with many cars or pickup trucks. The cars, called *stock cars*, look like passenger cars, but have plenty of racing upgrades.

## Related pages
*Motor sports
Lascelles Abercrombie

**Lascelles Abercrombie** (January 9, 1881 – October 27, 1938) was a British poet and critic of Literature, and he was a member of a group of famous poets called "Dymock poets".  He was born in Ashton upon Mersey and studied at the University of Manchester.  

Before the First World War, he lived for a time at Dymock in Gloucestershire.  In 1922, they gave him the job of Professor of English at the University of Leeds.  In 1929 he moved on to the University of London, and in 1935 to the University of Oxford.  He wrote many poems, that were  put together in a book called 'Poems' (1930). In the same year he wrote his most important poem, *The Sale of Saint Thomas* in six Acts.  He was the brother of the architect Patrick Abercrombie, and his son was the scientist Michael Abercrombie.

## Sources
## Other websites
*
*Encyclopaedia Britannica, Lascelles Abercrombie
Eliza Acton

**Elizabeth "Eliza" Acton** (17 April 1799 – 13 February 1859) was an English poet and cook. She was born in Battle, Sussex and raised in Suffolk. She wrote one the first cookbooks for cooking at home, not for professional cook or chef, *Modern Cookery for Private Families*. In this book she started the use of listing the ingredients and suggested cooking times with each recipe, like all the world does now. *Modern Cookery* was sold for a long time after her death, until 1914 and can still be found at many libraries. Her recipes are still very famous.

## Other websites 
*Biography at foodreference.com
*Poems by Eliza Acton
Ralph Fiennes

**Ralph Fiennes** (born 22 December 1962) is an English actor. He has won several awards including the Tony Award and was nominated for the Academy Award for his work in Steven Spielberg's movie ''Schindler's List*, and the Genie Award. He was nominated for another Academy Award for his role in *The English Patient*.

Fiennes is also well known for portraying Lord Voldemort in four of the eight *Harry Potter* movies. He also played Gareth Mallory / M in the *James Bond* movies *Skyfall* (2012), *Spectre* (2015), and *No Time to Die* (2021).

In 2024, Fiennes played Cardinal Thomas Lawrence in the mystery thriller movie *Conclave''.

## Family 
His parents were Jennifer Lash and Mark Fiennes. His brothers and sisters are Joseph Fiennes, Sophie Fiennes, Martha Fiennes, Magnus Fiennes and Jacob Fiennes. He was born in Ipswich, Suffolk.

## References
## Other websites 
*
Wellington Koo

**Vi Kyuin Wellington Koo** (Chinese: 顾维钧；Pinyin: Gù Wéijūn; Wade-Giles: Ku Wei-chün) (January 29, 1887 - November 14, 1985) was a Chinese diplomat. He was a representative at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919. His wife was Chinese-American diplomat Juliana Koo.

Born in Shanghai in 1887, he went to the United States in 1904 and studied Western culture in order to help China with the problem of imperialism. He spoke perfect fluent English, and came to be interested in China's position in international society.

## Other websites 
* Biography from Columbia University
Amanda Bynes

**Amanda Laura Bynes** (born April 3, 1986) is an American actress, former program host on Nickelodeon and fashion designer. After appearing in several successful television series on Nickelodeon in the late 1990s and early 2000s, including her own series, *The Amanda Show*, Bynes had migrated into a movie career and starred in several movies aimed at teenage audiences. These included *Big Fat Liar*, ''She's the Man*, *Hairspray,* and *Easy A*. She and Drake Bell are the only cast members to have appeared in every episode of *The Amanda Show*.

Bynes has been described by *The Boston Globe* as having an "everygirl" appeal, embodying "both everything her teen fans dream of being and everything they know they really are, and they love her for it." In 2006, she was named one of *Teen People's'' "25 Hottest Stars Under 25". 
She was listed on the 2007 Forbes list as the fifth among the highest paid celebrities under 21, her earning $2.5 million.

## Career
On June 19, 2010, Bynes said on her Twitter that she is retiring from acting saying she does not like it as much as she used to. A month later, Bynes changed her mind and returned to acting.

Again in 2012 she said that she is retiring from acting.

## Personal life
In April 2012 Bynes was arrested for side-swiping a police car. In June 2012 she was charged with driving under alcohol or drugs when she was arrested in April.

In May 2013 Bynes was arrested at her house in Manhattan for having marijuana. In July she was arrested after she set fire to a stranger's driveway. The police decided that she should be kept for psychiatric evaluation for her own safety. Since September 2013 Bynes has been in The Canyon rehab in Malibu for schizophrenia and bipolar disorder treatment.

On March 20, 2023 Bynes was found roaming the streets of Downtown Los Angeles unclothed. Bynes waved down a car and told them she was "coming down from a psychotic episode". After calling 911 herself, Bynes was taken to a nearby police station and after an evaluation by mental health officials, she was placed under a psychiatric hold. This comes merely days away from her one-year anniversary of being released from her conservatorship held by her parents Rick and Lynn Bynes.

## Filmography
### Film
### Television
## References
## Other websites
*
Prince (disambiguation)

A **prince** is a member of the highest aristocracy

**Prince** may refer to:

**The Prince*, a book written by Niccolò Machiavelli in the 16th century
**The Little Prince*, a novel by Antoine de Saint-Exupéry
*PRINCE2, a project management method
*Prince (album), the second album by Prince
*The Prince (song), the first single by Madness
*Prince (cigarette), a brand of cigarettes
*Prince Sports, Inc., a maker of sporting goods
*Prince Motor Company, a maker of automobiles in Japan from 1952 until they joined with Nissan in 1966
*Prince XML, a software product from YesLogic
**The Prince* (Pournelle), a book by Jerry Pournelle and S.M. Stirling.
* Prince, a South Devon Railway 2-4-0ST steam locomotive
*Princes (company), a food manufacturing company based in the United Kingdom
**The Prince*, song by Dimond Head, made famous by Metallica

## People 
*Prince (musician), stage name of pop music artist Prince Rogers Nelson, known from 1993 to 2000 as  (or informally, "The Artist Formerly Known as Prince") 
*"Prince" Naseem Hamed, British boxer
*Bonnie Prince Geoffie the reluctant, the McGillicuddy Serious Party's pretender to the throne of New Zealand
*Oldest son of Michael Jackson
*Prince Johnson, Liberian politician
*Mahesh Babu, a popular Indian movie actor from Tollywood who was given the title "Prince" by his fans after his first film
*Prince Polley a Ghanaian footballer

## Fictional characters 
*The Prince from Prince of Persia
*The Prince, *Katamari Damacy*'s main character
*Eileen Prince, mother of Severus Snape in the *Harry Potter* series
*Short name for "Demon Prince" for Beelzebub (Sand Land) in *Sand Land*
*Isambard Prince from *LEXX*

## Related pages 
* Princess (disambiguation)
Ralf Schumacher

**Ralf Schumacher** (born 30 June 1975) is a retired German Formula one driver. He was born in Hürth, North Rhine-Westphalia and is the younger brother of Michael Schumacher. He drove for Jordan, Williams and Toyota.

## Racing record
### Career summary
### Complete Formula Nippon results
(key) (Races in **bold** indicate pole position; races in *italics* indicate fastest lap)

### Complete Formula One results
(key) (Races in **bold** indicate pole position; races in *italics* indicate fastest lap)

† Did not finish, but was classified as he had completed more than 90% of the race distance.

### Complete Formula One non-championship results
### Complete DTM results
(key) (Races in **bold** indicate pole position) (Races in *italics* indicate fastest lap)
Wade–Giles

**Wade–Giles** (), sometimes abbreviated **Wade**, is a romanization system for Chinese that is based on the form of Mandarin used in Beijing. The system was produced by Thomas Wade in the mid-19th century and was fully developed in Herbert Giles's 1892 Chinese-English dictionary.

Wade-Giles was the main transliteration system in the English-speaking world for much of the 20th century. It is used in several standard reference books and in all books about China that were published before 1979. It replaced the Nanjing-based romanization systems that was common until the late 19th century. Wade-Giles has been replaced by pinyin but remains commonly used in Taiwan, also known as the Republic of China.

One well-known feature of Wade-Giles is that it uses the apostrophe to mark aspirated consonants, or breathy consonants, as in Ancient Greek. For example, *ping* in pinyin would be written as ''p'ing* in Wade-Giles, but *bing* in pinyin would be written as *ping''. Sounds are written that way because Chinese, unlike English, has no voiced stop consonants, fricatives, or affricates. Chinese distinguishes only aspirated and unaspirated sounds. Therefore, an apostrophe, instead of a different letter, is used.

However, the apostrophe was not understood well by people who do not know the Wade-Giles spelling and so many people would ignore the apostrophe when reading or copying Chinese words, which led many non-Chinese people to say Chinese words incorrectly, including Tao, tai chi, and kung fu. Wade-Giles spellings that ignore the apostrophe completely are called bastardized Wade-Giles.

## Comparison chart
## Sample sentences of Wade-Giles 
Here are sample sentences written in Chinese characters, pinyin, and Wade-Giles with English translations:

## References
## Other websites 
* Chinese Romanization Converter - Convert between Hanyu Pinyin, Wade-Giles, Gwoyeu Romatzyh and other known or (un-)common Romanization systems.
* Wade-Giles → Zhuyin → Pinyin conversion table 
* Pinyin → Wade-Giles → Zhuyin conversion table 
* Wade-Giles → Zhuyin → Pinyin → Word list 
* A conversion table of Chinese provinces and cities from Wade-Giles to Pinyin
* Pinyin4j: Java library supporting Chinese to Wade-Giles
* Pronunciation Guide
Democratic Progressive Party

The **Democratic Progressive Party** (DPP) (Traditional Chinese: ; Simplified Chinese: ; abbreviated to  or ; Pinyin: Mínjìndǎng) is a major political party in the  Republic of China (Taiwan). The party has been linked with the pan-green coalition and de jure Taiwan independence movement. The DPP is a member of Liberal International and a founding member of the Council of Asian Liberals and Democrats. The DPP represented Taiwan in the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organisation.

## List of Chairpersons 
# Chiang Peng-chian (1986–1987)
# Yao Chia-wen (1987–1988)
# Huang Shin-cheih (1988–1992)
# Hsu Hsin-liang (1992–1994, 1996–1998)
# Shih Ming-teh (1994–1996)
# Lin Yi-hsiung (1998–2000)
# Frank Hsieh (2000)
# Chen Shui-bian (2000–2008)
# Tsai Ing-wen (since 2008)

## References 
## Other websites 
* Official website
President of the Republic of China

.]]
The **President of the Republic of China** is the head of state and Commander-in-Chief of the democratic country known officially as the  **Republic of China**. The Republic of China government has controlled Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu and other islands after the Nationalist lost the war and moved the government from mainland China in 1949. 

The presidential office was created in 1948 under the 1947 Constitution of the Republic of China.

In the previous Kuomintang administration, the title of "President of the Republic of China" was used (). The current Democratic Progressive Party administration refers to the President as the "President of the Republic of China (Taiwan)" ().

## List of Presidents 
### Presidents of the Republic of China, 1912-1928 
### Presidents of the Republic of China (Taiwan), 1948-present 
## References
Mitanni

**Mitanni** was an Indo aryan  Hurrian speaking kingdom in northern Mesopotamia from ca. 1500 BC. Since no histories, royal annals or chronicles have yet been found in its excavated sites, knowledge about Mitanni is sparse compared to the other powers in the area, and dependent on what its neighbours commented in their texts.

A number of  proper names and glosses (technical terminology) of the Mitanni are of Indo-Aryan or Proto-Indo-Aryan origins. The Kikkuli's horse training text includes technical terms of Indo-Aryan origin, and the Indo-Aryan deities Mitra, Varuna, Indra, and Nasatya (Ashvins) are listed and invoked in two treaties found in Hattusa, between the kings Sattiwaza of Mitanni and Šuppiluliuma I the Hittite: (treaty KBo I 3) and (treaty KBo I 1 and its duplicates). The toponym of the Mitanni capital of Washukanni is also "unanimously accepted" to have been derived from an Indo-Aryan dialect. but Mayrhofer has shown that specifically Indo-Aryan features are present.

It is generally believed that Indo-Aryan peoples settled in Upper Mesopotamia and northern Syria, and established the Kingdom of Mitanni following a period of political vacuum, while also adopting Hurrian. This is considered a part of the Indo-Aryan migrations. Since the late 20th century, the view that the Mitanni kingdom was ruled by royal house and aristocracy of Indo-Aryan origin has been prevalent among the scholars; accordingly, a branch of Indo-Aryans separated from the other Indo-Iranians around the turn of second millennium BCE and migrated into West Asia, hence giving rise to the Mitanni kingdom, while also adopting Hurrian language. Some of the recent studies such as those by Eva von Dassow (2022) and Cotticelli-Kurras and Pisaniello (2023), while noting the modern identification of Mittani as Indo-Aryan and the role of Indo-Aryan speakers in establishing its dynasty, have disputed the significance of Indo-Aryan vocabulary in an otherwise Hurrian-speaking state stating that it does not indicate any Indo-Aryan origins for Mitanni kings. According to Alexander Lubotsky (2023), however, the military elite of Mitanni kingdom (see Maryannu) was of Aryan descent and that their language displays a clear Indo-Aryan character. in reference to the word *marijannu* that was found in a letter from Tell Leilan in northeastern Syria dating to a period slightly before 1761 BC, which is the time when the reign of Zimri-Lim ended in the region of Mari. Kroonen et al. (2018) consider this as an early Indo-Aryan linguistic presence in Syria two centuries prior to the formation of the Mitanni realm, as *mariannu* is generally seen as a Hurrianized form of the Indo-Aryan **marya*, which means 'man' or 'youth', associated to military affairs and chariots.

## Notes
## References
## Other websites 
*The Hurrian Culture
*Vyacheslav Ivanov 
*Vahan Kurkjian, "History of Armenia," Michigan, 1968
*Dutch excavations at Tell Sabi Abyad 
*Excerpts from the text of the Shuppililiuma-Shattiwazza treaty
*Mitanni  Simple article.
*Armenian Highland
Russians in the United Kingdom

There may be many as 300,000 **Russians in the United Kingdom**. About half of these were born in Russia. Some of the others are citizens of the Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania). Since they joined the EU in 2004, they are free to live in other EU countries, including the UK. There are many Russian language schools in London and the South East. These schools were founded by immigrants from Russia to the United Kingdom. They send their children to the schools so the children can learn about their parents' culture.

## Other websites 
*Russian shops in the United Kingdom  
*British Russian Society  
*Понаехали тут! (Ponaehali tut!) Forum  
*Популярный и единственно работающий фомум в Великобритании - Русские в Лондоне 
*http://www.bbc.co.uk/london/content/articles/2007/02/12/russians_feature.shtml 
*http://www.guardian.co.uk/russia/article/0,2763,1190191,00.html
*Russian London
*Russians in London
*Gazeta.UK
Anastas Mikoyan

**Anastas Hovhannesi Mikoyan** (, *Anastas Hovhannesi Mikoyan*; ; &nbsp;– 21 October 1978) was an Armenian Old Bolshevik and Soviet statesman during the Stalin and Khrushchev years.

It was told that, during Khrushchev time, he was the second most powerful man in the Soviet Union.
Larry Griffin

**Larry Griffin** (September 23, 1954 – June 21, 1995) was a man accused of killing 19-year-old Quintin Moss. The alleged crime happened in Saint Louis, Missouri, on June 26, 1980 On June 21, 1995, the State of Missouri executed Griffin by lethal injection. He maintained his innocence until he was executed for the crime.

## Re-opened investigation 
After Griffin's execution, a 2005 post-execution investigation was sponsored by the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund. This NAACP investigation raised doubts about the conviction (the shooter's identity), and caused an investigation by the St. Louis City Circuit Attorney's Office. The St. Louis City investigation ended in a finding that "the right person was convicted".

## References 
## Other websites
* Article from NY Times
* Another article from NY Times
SMAP

**SMAP** is a Japanese boy band. Their music is produced by Johnny's. SMAP was formed in April 1988. Now, the group has five members but at the beginning it had six members. They held their first concert at Nippon Budokan in January 1991. They released their first album ''Can't Stop!!-LOVING'' on September 9, 1991.

SMAP is an acronym. It is a short way of writing **S**ports **M**usic **A**ssemble **P**eople.

They officially disbanded on 31 December 2016.

## Members 
* Masahiro Nakai (born August 18, 1972) from Kanagawa Prefecture
* Takuya Kimura (born November 13, 1972) from Tokyo.
* Goro Inagaki (born December 8, 1973) from Tokyo.
* Tsuyoshi Kusanagi (born July 9, 1974) from Saitama.
* Shingo Katori (born January 31, 1971) from Kanagawa.

Katsuyuki Mori withdrew from the group in 1996 to be an auto racer.

## Related pages 
* J-Pop
* Johnny & Associates
Judy and Mary

**Judy and Mary** is a Japanese rock band. This group began in 1992. The members were YUKI, Yoshihito Onda, Kota Igarashi and TAKUYA. They were very famous, but this group ended in 2001. Their famous songs include "Sobakasu", "Lucky Pool" and "Sanpomichi". Their songs have been sung by many Japanese people at karaoke.
Nassau County, New York

**Nassau County** is a suburban county in the New York Metropolitan area east of New York City and west of Suffolk County, in the U.S. state of New York. In 2020, 1,395,774 people lived there. Nassau County is in western Long Island, and is bordered by Suffolk County to the east and by the New York City boroughs of Brooklyn and Queens to the west. Until 1899, Nassau County was part of Queens County. The county seat is Mineola. Along with Suffolk, it was named the safest county in the United States in 2005 by Forbes.

## Communities 
Nassau County is split into three towns and two cities:
*Hempstead (town)
*North Hempstead (town)
*Oyster Bay (town)
*Glen Cove (city)
*Long Beach (city)

Hamlets in Nassau County include Manhasset, New York.

## References
Angela Aki

**Angela Aki** (born September 15, 1977) is a J-pop singer-songwriter. Her former Japanese name is Aki Kiyomi. 

Aki was born in Itano of Tokushima prefecture. Her father is Japanese and her mother is Italian-American.  She is bilingual in English and Japanese. She was raised in Japan, but she moved to Hawaii when she was fifteen. 

Then she went to university at George Washington University. She released an indie album in the United States in 2000, called "These Words". Now she is signed under Sony Japan.

## References
Viceroyalty of New Spain

The **Viceroyalty of New Spain** was the name of the territories of the Spanish Empire in North America and its peripheries in Asia that were ruled by the viceroy from 1521 to 1821. **New Spain** was the name that the Spanish gave to what is now central and southern Mexico, and since the area's viceroy had his capital in Mexico City, the name was also used for the viceroyalty.

The viceroyalty's territory included what are now the Bay Islands of Honduras (until 1643), Cayman Islands (until 1670), Central America (as far as the southern border of Costa Rica until 1821), Cuba, Florida, Hispaniola (including Haiti until 1700), Jamaica (until 1670) Mariana Islands, Mexico, Philippines, Puerto Rico, nearly all of the Southwestern United States (including all or parts of the U.S. states of California, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, Wyoming, Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, and Florida). Spain claimed areas as far north as British Columbia and Alaska, but the northern boundary of New Spain was redefined by the Adams-Onís Treaty of 1819. New Spain also included Venezuela before it was annexed to the Viceroyalty of New Granada in 1717. 

The territories were separated into provinces, each of which was led by a governor, who was responsible for its administration and often also led its army and militias. The provinces were grouped together under five high courts, called *audiencias* in Spanish, at Santo Domingo, Mexico City, Guatemala, Guadalajara, and Manila.  The high courts and the governors had much autonomy from the viceroy and carried out most duties on their own. Only on important issues would the viceroy become directly involved in ruling the provinces.

In 1821, Spain lost its continental territories and recognized the independence of Mexico, as well as that of Santo Domingo (now the Dominican Republic) when it was invaded by Haiti that year. However, Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Spanish East Indies (including the Mariana Islands and the Philippines) remained part of the Spanish Empire until it lost the 1898 Spanish–American War to the United States.

## Related pages
* History of New Spain

## Other websites 
* MEXICO'S COLONIAL ERA--PART I: The Settlement of New Spain  at mexconnect.com
* Index to the DeWitt Colony Region under New Spain  at Texas A&M University
* 1492 -- Middle America at ibiblio.org ''the public's library and digital archive''
Matthew Perry

**Matthew Langford Perry** (August 19, 1969 – October 28, 2023) was a Golden Globe and Emmy  American and Canadian movie and television actor. He was best known for his work as Chandler Bing in the sitcom *Friends*. 

## Early life and education 
Matthew Perry was born in Williamstown, Massachusetts on August 19, 1969. His mother, Suzanne Jane Louise Morrison (née Langford), is a Canadian journalist. She was a press secretary to Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau. Perry's father, John Bennett Perry, is an American actor and model.  Perry was a citizen of both the United States and Canada. He was very good at speaking French. 

His parents divorced (broke-up) before his 1st birthday. His mother is remarried to Keith Morrison, a broadcast journalist. Perry was raised by his mother in Ottawa. While growing up in Ontario, Matthew Perry was very interested in tennis. He soon became a top-ranked junior player. He had been good friends with professional tennis player Jennifer Capriati. By age 10, Perry started to steal money, smoke, and beat up fellow student and future Canadian prime minister Justin Trudeau. The schools he went to were Rockcliffe Park Public School, Lisgar Collegiate Institute and Ashbury College. All of them are in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.

## Drug problems and recovery
In the past, Perry had problems with alcohol, and addiction to drugs. He started drinking alcohol at an early age. He also was addicted to different drugs, also legal ones, such as painkillers.

He received a Champion of Recovery award in May 2013 from the White House Office of National Drug Control Policy for opening Perry House, a rehab center in his former mansion in Malibu, California. In 2015, Perry sold the mansion and relocated its services.

## Death
Perry died on October 28, 2023 at the age of 54. He was found dead in his hot tub at his Los Angeles home. Foul play was not suspected. On December 15, 2023, Perry's death was revealed to have been "acute effects of ketamine". Other causes of death included the effects of buprenorphine, drowning, and coronary artery disease. They were charged with the alleged involvement of distributing ketamine which caused the deaths of Perry and another person.

## References 
## Other websites 
* 
* *Variety* announces Matthew Perry in *Studio 60*
* Matthew Perry interview 

*Mathew Perry Possible Cause Of Death
Matt LeBlanc

**Matthew Steven LeBlanc** (; born July 25, 1967)  is an American actor. He has been  for an Emmy and a Golden Globe Award. He is famous for his role as Joey Tribbiani on the television sitcoms *Friends* (1994-2004) and on its spin-off series *Joey*. In 2000, he won "Editor's Choice" in TV Guide Awards (as *Friends*). In 2002, he won "TV - Choice Actor - Comedy" at the Teen Choice Awards (as *Friends*). In 2005, he won "Favorite Male Television Star" at the People's Choice Awards. He stars in *Episodes* as a fictional version of himself. He hosted *Top Gear* from 2016 until 2019

## References
## Other websites 
* Matt LeBlanc  at Mattleblanc.net
*
Reduction

**Reduction** in a general sense means to take of a part of a whole thing or to make it smaller. 

'Reduction** or **reducing** may may mean in special

* Reduction (chemistry), the reverse of oxidation, half of a redox reaction, adding of electrons  to a molecule, which means reducing the valence
* Reduction (cooking), the process of thickening a liquid mixture such as a sauce by evaporation
* Reduction (philosophy), in philosophy, the process of explaining a particular concept or phenomenon in terms of more fundamental concepts or phenomena
* Reduction (linguistics), in linguistics, the shortening of the pronunciation of a word. e.g. wanna, lemme, gimme.
* Reduction, in physiology, another name for weight loss or dieting
* Reduction (orthopedic surgery), in orthopedic surgery, a medical procedure to restore a fracture to a correct alignment
* Reduction (town), a form of Catholic mission in South America in the 17th and 18th centuries
* Purchasing reduction, in economics and in waste management, is the process of decreasing the purchase of consumer goods
* Reduction (Sweden), in 1680 a return of lands to the Crown earlier granted to the nobility.
* Waste reduction is the first and most desirable component of the waste hierarchy (reduce, reuse, recycle)

In **mathematics** and **computer science''':
* Reduction (mathematics), the process of manipulating a series of equations or matrices into a desired 'simpler' format
* Reduction property, in descriptive set theory, a pointclass allows partitioning the union of two sets in the pointclass into two disjoint sets in the same pointclass
* Reduction (complexity), in computational complexity theory, the transformation of an instance of one problem into an instance of another
* Reduce computer algebra system, a general-purpose computer algebra system geared towards applications in physics.
* Reduce (higher-order function), a family of higher-order functions that process a data structure in some order and build up a return value.
Ethane

**Ethane** is an organic chemical compound with chemical formula C2H6. 

At standard temperature and pressure, ethane is a colourless, odorless gas. It is isolated from natural gas, and as a byproduct of petroleum refining. 

Its main use is in the chemical industry, to make ethylene by steam cracking. 

At room temperature, the gas is flammable, and it explodes when mixed with air. When ethane is liquid, touching it causes a very serious frostbite.

## References
Tango

The **Tango** is a dance which was created in Buenos Aires, Argentina. The musical style that was created with the dance is also called 'tango'. It is danced today in two versions. Neither version is 'better' than the other; they are rather different in style.

## Argentine tango 
The first tango dances and music was called *tango criollo,* or simply *tango*. Today, there are various tango dance styles, including Argentine tango, Uruguayan tango, and vintage tangos. The Argentine tango is probably closer to that originally danced in Argentina and Uruguay, though no details survive of its original form.

## International tango 
The tango is a standard dance in international ballroom dancing. This version was developed in England before WWII, mainly as a result of the work of Monsieur Pierre, a French dance teacher who lived in London.

The Tango is now danced in international competitions to a style first set out in English ballroom texts and regulations.

## Other sources 
*Thompson, Robert Farris 2005. *Tango: the art history of love*. Knopf, New York. . 
:Thomson is Professor of Art at Yale University. He started his career with an article on Afro-Cuban dance and music published in 1958, and has devoted his life to the art history of the Afro-Atlantic world.

*Collier, Simon and Artemis Cooper 2007. *Â ¡Tango!: the dance, the song, the story*. Thames & Hudson, London. 
*Denniston, Christine  2007. *The meaning of tango: the story of the Argentinian dance*. Anova. 

## Other websites 
*Argentine Tango Radio. https://www.argentinetangoradio.com
*Basic figures in the International version of the tango. The demonstrators are Marcus and Karen Hilton, nine times World Professional Ballroom Champions. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jDJM1gGW0zM
*Basic tango demo by Mirko and Alessia. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_N1MWv9bW6Q
*Basic tango hold and style, by Andy & Wendy, The Grand Ballroon, Richmond, British Columbia. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7GUHarvXgnE

## References
Phosphine

**Phosphine** is a chemical compound. Its chemical name is **phosphorus hydride**. Its chemical formula is PH3. It is also called **phosphane** and **phosphamine**. It contains phosphide and hydrogen ions.

## Properties
It is a colorless, flammable gas. It is highly toxic; it can easily kill, even when concentration levels are low. It smells like fish. It can ignite without a spark. When it burns, it makes a white cloud of phosphorus(V) oxide, which is irritating.

## Preparation
It is made when hypophosphites and phosphites are heated. It is also made when white phosphorus reacts with warm alkali.

## Uses
The gas is used for pest control. It is also used in making semiconductors. 

## Related pages
*Ammonia
Castile

**Castile** or **Castilia** can mean:

*Kingdom of Castile, the historical kingdom from the 9th to the 13th century
*Crown of Castile, the historical Kingdom formed in 1230 from the union of the Kingdom of Castile and Kingdom of León
*Castile-La Mancha, an autonomous community of Spain formed in 1982, composed of five provinces: Albacete, Ciudad Real, Cuenca, Guadalajara and Toledo
*Castile and León, an autonomous community of Spain formed on February 25, 1983, composed of 9 provinces, six Castilian and three Leonese: León, Zamora, Salamanca, Ávila, Burgos, Palencia, Segovia, Soria and Valladolid
*Old Castile, the political name of the region formed by Santander, Burgos, Logroño, Soria, Segovia, Ávila, Valladolid and Palencia. It had some territorial changes in its History, and had this name from 18th century to 1983. It no longer exists
*New Castile, the political name of the region formed by  Ciudad Real, Cuenca, Guadalajara, Madrid, Toledo and part of Albacete. It took this name in the 18th century and disappeared with democracy. It no longer exists

;Other
*Real Madrid Castilla, a Spanish football team. It is the reserve team of Real Madrid
*Castile soap, a name used in English-speaking countries for soap made exclusively from vegetable oil
**Castilia (butterfly)*, a butterfly genus
*Castella, a kind of sponge cake popular in Japan. The name comes from the Portuguese phrase *pão de Castella*, meaning "bread from Castile"
Luigi Galvani

**Luigi Galvani** (September 9, 1737 – December 4, 1798) was an Italian physician who lived and died in Bologna (Italy). In 1771, he found out that the muscles of dead frogs twitched when hit by a spark. He was a pioneer in modern obstetrics, and discovered that muscle and nerve cells produce electricity. He is well known as the inventor of chemical cells.

Galvani invented batteries which is probably the most important thing which he has made. He also discovered that nerves and muscles produce electricity, and he was a very intelligent man in many different other ways.

This also links to the story of Frankenstein this story is based on a scientist giving life to a body made from different people's limbs by using the same procedure as Luigi Galvani, by sending an electrical current from lightening.  

## References 
## Related pages 
*Galvanic isolation
*Galvanizing
*Galvanometer
Kingdom of Castile

The **Kingdom of Castile** was one of the medieval kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula. It began in the 9th century: it was called *County of Castile* and was a vassalage depending from the Kingdom of León. It was one of the kingdoms that existed before the Kingdom of Spain.

## History 
### 9th to 11th centuries: The beginnings 
The first Count of Castile was Rodrigo in 850, under Ordoño I of Asturias and Alfonso III of Asturias. In 931 the county was unified by count Fernán González, who made his lands subject to a hereditary succession, independent of the kings of León.

### 11th and 12th centuries: Expansion and union to the Kingdom of León 
In 1028 Sancho III the Great, of Navarre, married the sister of count García Sánchez and inherited title to the County of Castile after his brother-in-law's death. In 1035 he left the county to his son Fernando. Fernando I was married to Sancha, sister of Bermudo III of León. Fernando I began a war with León and in the battle of Tamarón against a coalition of Castile and Navarre the king of León was killed, leaving no offspring. His brother-in-law Fernando took the crown of León for himself and their three sons took the kingdoms of León (Alfonso VI), Galicia (García) and Castile, Sancho, becoming king and borning the Kingdom of Castile.

## Notes
Redox

.]]

**Redox** (shorthand for **reduction/oxidation**) describes all chemical reactions in which atoms have an increase or decrease in oxidation number (oxidation state).

An oxidation number is a number assigned to an element in chemical combination that represents the number of electrons lost (or gained, if the number is negative), by an atom of that element in the compound.

The term *redox* comes from the two concepts of **red**uction and **ox**idation. It can be explained in simple terms:
****Oxidation*** describes the ***loss*** of electrons by a molecule, atom or ion
****Reduction*** describes the ***gain*** of electrons by a molecule, atom or ion

Whether an electron is gained or lost can be easily memorised by the abbreviation OIL RIG, which stands for, "Oxidation Is Loss," or losing electrons, and "Reduction Is Gain," or gaining electrons. Redox reactions can also happen by sharing electrons to form a product by covalent bonding. The term is called redox as neither oxidation or reduction may occur without the other occuring.  

In an oxidation reduction reaction, the cation gives an electron to the anion because both ions will have a different charge to attract each other with. In an oxidation reduction reaction, the oxidizing reagent pulls an electron from the other atom to have a net positive charge. The reducing reagent gives an electron to have a net negative charge. However, there are exceptions. 

## Chemical process 
Redox is a chemical process. It can be described in chemical formulas. This example describes the process that occurs in a blast furnace, where iron (Fe) reacts with carbon (C):
:\mathrm{1) \ C + O_2 \longrightarrow CO_2}

:\mathrm{2) \ CO_2 + C \rightleftharpoons 2 \ CO}

:\mathrm{3) \ Fe_2O_3 + 3 \ CO \longrightarrow 3 \ CO_2 + 2 \ Fe}
:Now elementary iron has been processed.

## Related pages
* Electrochemistry

## Notes 
## Other websites 
* Redox reactions calculator
* Redox reactions at Chemguide
* Online redox reaction equation balancer, balances equations of any half-cell and full reactions