open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
General Certificate of Secondary Education

The **General Certificate of Secondary Education** (**GCSE**) is a set of exams taken in England, Wales, Northern Ireland and other British territories. They are usually taken by students aged 15–16, after two years of study. Some students can take their exams early if their teachers think the students are capable. Most students taking their GCSEs study between 5 and 25 subjects.

All pupils have to study English, mathematics and science until they are 15-16. They do not have to take the GCSE exams, but the large majority do so. In Wales, students must also study Welsh until they are 14.

Most schools require that a pupil passes 5 or more GCSE exams at grades 4 or 5 or above before they can move on to study A-levels.

In 2020, the exams were cancelled for the first time due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

## Subjects 
Many of the subjects in this list are not offered by every school.

### Required
In all schools students have to study Mathematics, Science, and English linguistics and literature.

### Creativity
* Art
* Art Textiles
* Film studies
* Textiles
* Music
* Design and Technology
* Drama
* Dance
* Performing arts
* Food technology

### Languages
* Modern foreign languages including: Arabic, Bengali, Chinese, Danish, Dutch, French, German, Greek, Gujarati, Hebrew, Hindi, Hungarian, Irish, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Malay, Persian, Polish, Portuguese, Punjabi, Russian, Spanish, Somali, Turkish, Tamil, Urdu and Welsh 
* Classical languages including: Classical Greek, Biblical Hebrew and Latin

### Technology
* Electronics
* Engineering and Manufacturing (Double Award)
* Graphic products
* Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
** Applied ICT (Double Award)
* Product Design
** Electronics with Resistant Materials
** Resistant Materials
** Systems and Control Technology
** Textiles
** IT

### Humanities
* Humanities
* Geography
* Religious Studies
* History
* Citizenship
* Philosophy & Ethics
* Economics
* Hinduism
* Islamic Studies

### People and society-related
* Citizenship (Personal Social Health Education)
* Health and Social Care (Double Award)
* Home Economics: Child Development
* Home Economics: Food and Nutrition
* Law
* Psychology
* Social Science
* Sociology

### Natural sciences
* Astronomy
* Geology
* Human Biology
* Human Physiology and Health
* Physics
* Chemistry
* Biology

### Others
* Further Mathematics (Further Pure Mathematics for Edexcel IGCSE)
* Applied Business (Double Award)
* Archaeology (may not currently be available as a separate GCSE http://www.britarch.ac.uk/education/study/engwalesni )
* Business Studies
* Business and Communication Systems
* General Studies
* Outdoor Pursuits - Birdwatching - Fishing
* Physical Education (PE)
* Sports Studies
* Statistics
* Media Studies

## A-levels - Exams taken after GCSEs 
*International GCSE - GCSE exams for students whose first language is not English.
*Standard Grades - Similar exams taken in Scotland

## References 
## Other websites
Anne Begg

**Dame Anne Begg**, DBE (born December 6, 1955) is a Scottish politician and the  Member of Parliament for the Aberdeen South  in the United Kingdom. She was  in the 1997 general election.

Begg is the first permanent wheelchair user in the House of Commons.

She is a member of the Labour Party.

## References
Gerald Howarth

**James Gerald Douglas Howarth**, known as **Gerald Howarth** (born September 12, 1947) is a British politician and the Member of Parliament for the English   of Aldershot in the United Kingdom. He was first  to the House of Commons in the 1983 general election for the Cannock and Burntwood constituency but lost in the 1992 general election. 

He was re-elected at the 1997 General Election as MP for Aldershot. 

He is currently Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State at the Ministry of Defence as Minister for International Security Strategy.

He is a member of the Conservative Party.

## References
Edo

:*This article is about Edo. For more information, see Tokyo (disambiguation).*
 is the former name of the Japanese capital **Tokyo**, and was the seat of power for the Tokugawa shogunate which ruled Japan from 1603 to 1868. During this period it grew to become one of the largest cities in the world.

## History
The site of the city, on what is now known as Tokyo Bay, had been settled for several centuries, but first became historically significant with the building of Edo Castle in 1457 by order of Ōta Dōkan. Kyoto was the site of the Japanese emperor's residence and the capital of Japan for many centuries, until the Tokugawa shogunate was established in 1603 and Edo became its seat of government. From that point Kyoto remained merely the formal capital of the country, while the *de facto* capital was now Edo, the center of real political power. Edo consequently rapidly grew from what had been a small, virtually unknown fishing village in 1457 to a big city of 1,000,000 residents by 1721, the largest city in the world at the time.

In 1868, when the shogunate came to an end, the city was renamed *Tokyo*, meaning "eastern capital", and the emperor moved his residence to Tokyo, making the city the formal capital of Japan.

## Gallery
## Related pages 
* Edo period

## References
* Alternate spelling from 1911 *Encyclopædia Britannica* article
Cryptanalysis

**Cryptanalysis** (from the Greek *kryptós*, "hidden", and *analýein*, "to loosen" or "to untie") is the study of methods for obtaining the meaning of encrypted information, without access to the secret information which is normally required to do so. Typically, this involves finding a secret key. In non-technical language, this is the practice of **codebreaking** or **cracking the code**, although "break" can also mean just a part of a complete solution.

People have been making and breaking codes for many centuries. In the 1930s specialized machines were invented to do the calculations. Code-breaking machines such as the Colossus computer were important during World War II. Computers were the main tool of cryptanalysis in the Cold War and later.

## Related pages 
* Code
* Cryptography

## References 
* Helen Fouché Gaines, "Cryptanalysis", 1939, Dover. 

## Other websites 
* Basic Cryptanalysis
* Simon Singh's crypto corner 
* Distributed Computing Projects
* UltraAnvil tool for attacking simple substitution ciphers 
* A lot of real encrypted messages on newsgroups
* Kryptobull 
* The National Museum of Computing Cipher Challenge
Mount Batur

]]
 is at the left; on the far right is Mount Bratan. This view is looking to the south west.]]

**Mount Batur** () is a volcano on Bali. Mount Batur last erupted in 2000. It is a volcano inside an older, larger, volcano. The original eruption, about 30,000 years ago, is one of the largest known volcanic events on Earth. The volcano is now 1,717 metres (5,633 feet) high. There are many people — whole villages — living inside the caldera.

## Other websites
*
Mataram

.]]
**Mataram** is a city on the west side of the island of Lombok, Indonesia. It is the capital and largest city of West Nusa Tenggara province, and has a population of around 342,896 people as of the year 2005.

## Other websites
* http://www.mataramkota.go.id/
Kingdom of Kerma

The **Kingdom of Kerma** was a state in Nubia from around 2500 BC to about 1520 BC.  It was based in the city of Kerma in Upper Nubia and was a major centre during the Middle Kingdom period of Egypt.  It had a  civilization (for example very fine and original ceramics have been found).

The site of Kerma includes both an extensive town and a cemetery consisting of large tumuli.  Because one can find there much examples of Nubian culture and burial practices at the site, scholars think that the Egyptian statues and other Egyptian objects found at Kerma arrived through trade.

In 2003, a Swiss archaeological team working in northern Sudan uncovered one of the most remarkable Egyptological finds in recent years. At the site known as Kerma, near the third cataract of the Nile, archaeologist Charles Bonnet and his team discovered a ditch within a temple from the ancient city of Pnoubs, which contained seven monumental black granite statues. Magnificently sculpted, and in an excellent state of preservation, they portrayed five pharaonic rulers, including Taharqa and Tanoutamon, the last two pharaohs of the 'Nubian' Dynasty, when Egypt was ruled by kings from the lands of modern-day Sudan. For over half a century, the Nubian pharaohs governed a combined kingdom of Egypt and Nubia, with an empire stretching from the Delta to the upper reaches of the Nile.

## Footnotes
## References
* Bonnet, Charles, *et al.* *The Nubian Pharaohs: Black Kings on the Nile*, AUC Press (February 22, 2007) -   
* Bonnet, Charles, *et al.*, 2005, ''Des Pharaohs venus d'Afrique : La cachette de Kerma*. Citadelles & Mazenod.
* Bonnet, Charles, 1986,  *Kerma, Territoire et Métropole*, Institut Français d’Archaéologie Orientale du Caire.
* Kendall, Timothy 1997.  *Kerma and the Kingdom of Kush''.  National Museum of African Art, Smithsonian Inst. Washington D.C.
Mount Agung

, or what remains of it, is to the right of center; on the far right is Mount Bratan. This view is looking to the south west.]]
**Mount Agung** () is a volcano on Bali. Mount Agung last erupted in 1963-1964. The lava just missed the Mother Temple of Besakih, which is located on high on the slopes of this sacred mountain. Over 1,000 people were killed and a number of villages were destroyed in this eruption.

Gunung Agung is an active volcano, with a large and deep crater that occasionally emits smoke and ash. The last major eruptions occurred in November 2017.

## References
John Reid, Baron Reid of Cardowan

**John Reid, Baron Reid of Cardowan** (born 8 May 1947) is a Scottish football club chairman and a Labour Party politician.  He was the Member of Parliament for the Scottish  constituency of Airdrie and Shotts in the United Kingdom. He was first  to the House of Commons in the 1987 general election for the Motherwell North constituency. The boundary of the constituency was changed, and in the 1997 election he was elected to the new constituency of Hamilton North and Bellshill. After more boundary changes in 2005 he was elected to the new constituency of Airdrie and Shotts.

He is the former Home Secretary. 

Reid did not stand in the 2010 election, and was made a life peer instead.

He is Chairman of Celtic Football Club in Glasgow.

He is a member of the Labour Party.

## References
International General Certificate of Secondary Education

The **International General Certificate of Secondary Education**, or IGCSE, is an international exam for school students, offered by Cambridge Assessment International Education. It is typically taken by 14 to 16-year-olds, and it makes students ready for more academic work, including moving to A-Level and AS-Level study. The IGCSE is recognised as the same  as the UK GCSE.

IGCSE courses cover subjects from a variety of areas: Languages, Humanities, Social Sciences, Mathematics, Creative, Technical and Vocational.

Most subjects can be studied at two levels of , either an easier level or a harder level. This is so that the IGCSE is  for students with different levels of ability. It is planned to be appropriate for students whose first language may not be English, and this is seen in all the tests for the IGCSE.

## Subjects available
The following is a list of subjects for which IGCSEs are available:

* Accounting
* Afrikaans as a first language
* Afrikaans as a second language
* Agriculture
* Arabic as a first language
* Arabic as a second language
* Art
* Art and Design
* Bangladesh Studies
* Biology
* Business Studies
* Chemistry
* Child Development
* Chinese as a first language
* Chinese (Mandarin) as a second language
* Computer Studies
* Commerce
* Czech as a first language
* Drama
* Design & Technology
* Development Studies
* Dutch as a first language
* Dutch as a second language
* Economics
* English Language
* English Literature
* English as a second language (ESL)
* Environmental Management
* Food and Nutrition
* French as a first language
* French as a second language
* Geography
* German as a first language
* German as a second language
* Greek as a second language
* Hindi as a First Language
* History
* Human Anatomy
* Indonesian as a second language
* Information and Communication Technology
* Information Technology
* IsiZulu as a second language
* Japanese as a first language
* Japanese as a second language
* Korean as a first language
* Latin
* Malay as a second language
* Mathematics
* Mathematics – Additional
* Music
* ORACLE
* Pakistan Studies
* Physical Education
* Physical Science
* Physics
* Portuguese as a first language
* Portuguese as a second language
* Punjabi
* Religious Studies
* Russian as a first language
* Science – Combined
* Sciences – Co-ordinated (Double Award)
* Sociology
* Spanish as a first language
* Spanish as a second language
* Spanish Literature
* Thai as a first language
* Thai as a second language
* Travel and Tourism
* Turkish as a First language
* Urdu
* Sinhala

This list, along with more information, is also available on the Cambridge International website. 

## References 
## Related pages
*GCSE⁣ – GCSEs in the UK.
*List of GCSE subjects.
*Advanced levels (A-levels) - Exams taken after GCSEs in the UK.
Megawati Sukarnoputri

**Diah Permata Megawati Setiawati Soekarnoputri** (born January 23, 1947), was President of Indonesia from July 23, 2001 to October 20, 2004. She was the Indonesia's first female President, and leader born after independence. On September 20, 2004, she lost her campaign for re-election in the 2004 Indonesian presidential election. She was also the country's vice president from 21 October 1999 to 23 July 2001. She is the daughter of Indonesia's first president, Soekarno.

## Early life
, with his children Megawati Soekarnoputri and Guntur, while receiving Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru along with his daughter Indira Gandhi.]]
Megawati Soekarnoputri was born in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Her father is Indonesia's first President, Soekarno, and her mother is Fatmawati, one of Soekarno's nine wives. Megawati Soekarnoputri was Sukarno's second child and first daughter. She grew up in her father's Merdeka Palace, one of Indonesia's presidential palace. She used to dance for her father's guests and had a hobby of gardening. Megawati Soekarnoputri was 19 when her father gave up his power in 1966 and was taken over by a government which was later led by President Soeharto.

Megawati Soekarnoputri studied agriculture at Padjadjaran University in Bandung but dropped out in 1967 to be with her father following his loss of power. In 1970, the year her father died, Megawati Soekarnoputri went to the University of Indonesia to study psychology but dropped out two years later.

## References
|-
Placard

]]
A **placard** is a sign made to inform people about something. Often, they are used to warn about danger. Very often, hazard symbols (special pictograms) are used. 

Sometimes, placard is also used to mean a leaflet that shows how a certain machine should be operated.
Budíkov

**Budíkov** is a village in the Pelhřimov District, Vysočina Region of the Czech Republic. About 283 people live there and it has 6,64&nbsp;km². Budíkov was first documented in 1226.
Typha

***Typha*** is a genus of plants. They are found in wetland habitats. They are commonly found in the Northern Hemisphere, but may be found in wetlands elsewhere. These plants are known in British English as **bulrush**, **bullrush** or **reedmace**, and in American English as **cattail** or **punks**.

## Species 
* *Typha angustifolia* - Lesser Bulrush or Narrow Leaf Cattail
* *Typha angustifolia x T. latifolia* - Hybrid or White Cattail 
* *Typha domingensis* - Southern Cattail
* *Typha latifolia* - Common Cattail
* *Typha laxmannii* - Laxman's Bulrush
* *Typha minima* - Dwarf Bulrush
* *Typha orientalis* and *Typha muelleri* - Raupo
* *Typha shuttleworthii* - Shuttleworth's Bulrush

## Uses by humans 
Cattails were once used to make paper. Cattail paper is very heavy and coarse, and is rarely used today. Cattail has also been used as a water filter to remove the poisonous chemical arsenic from drinking water.

## References
David Miliband

**David Wright Miliband** (born 15 July 1965) is a British politician who was the Foreign Secretary from June 2007 to May 2010 and a member of Tony Blair's cabinet. He was the Member of Parliament for South Shields in Tyne and Wear. He is the CEO of the International Rescue Committee.

David Miliband was born in London to Polish-Jewish parents and is an atheist. He was raised in Primrose Hill, London. He is the elder son of Marxist Ralph Miliband and Marion Kozak. He is the elder brother of Labour leader Ed Miliband. He was educated at the University of Oxford and was the head of the Number 10 Policy Unit from 1997-2001. He was first  in the 2001 general election. After being part of Tony Blair and Gordon Brown's governments, Miliband was a candidate in the 2010 Labour leadership contest. Despite Miliband being favourite to win the contest, his brother Ed narrowly won the contest in September 2010. Miliband chose not to be a member of Ed's shadow cabinet.

## References
Alistair Darling

from 2007-2010]]
**Alistair Maclean Darling, Baron Darling of Roulanish**  (28 November 1953 – 30 November 2023) was a British Labour Party politician who was the Chancellor of the Exchequer from June 2007 to May 2010 and also held several posts in Tony Blair's government. He was the Member of Parliament for Edinburgh South West.

Alistair Darling was born in London. He was first elected to the House of Commons at the 1987 General Election. His government posts under Tony Blair include: Chief Secretary to the Treasury (1997–1998), Secretary of State for Work and Pensions (1998–2002), Transport Secretary (2002–2006), Scottish Secretary (2003–2006), Secretary of State for Trade and Industry (2006–2007), and Chancellor of the Exchequer (2007–2010).

Alistair Darling died on 30 November 2023 after a short illness, at the age of 70. Gordon Brown, Keir Starmer, Jeremy Hunt and David Cameron were among those who paid tribute to him.

## References
Moa

, ostrich, and *Dinornis*, each with its egg]] 

The **moa** were large, herbivores and were flightless birds with no wings. They lived only in New Zealand, and are now all extinct.

There were nine species (in six genera) of Moa. The largest and best known were the genus *Dinornis*, which grew up to 3.6 meters (12&nbsp;feet) tall, and weighed as much as 230 kilograms (510 pounds). 

The Māori people arrived in New Zealand from Oceania about 800 years ago. Then, moas lived in large numbers, especially on South Island. Archaeological sites with evidence of moa hunting are all over New Zealand. The moas became extinct about five hundred years ago. The moas had survived being hunted by Haast's eagle. However, they could not survive being hunted for food by the Maori.

Recent extinctions (also mostly birds) have been caused by habitat change and introduced species.

## Large birds 
* Cassowary
* Elephant bird 
** *Aepyornis* 
* Terror birds 
** *Phorusrhacos*
** *Brontornis*
* *Dromornis*
* *Gastornis* (*Diatryma*)

## References
Des Browne, Baron Browne of Ladyton

meeting.]]
'*Desmond "*Des*" Henry Browne, Baron Browne *' (born 2 March 1952) is a Scottish politician and was Secretary of State for Defence and Secretary of State for Scotland. He was first  in the 1997 general election, and was the Member of Parliament for the Kilmarnock and Loudoun constituency in the United Kingdom until 2010, when he was created a Life Peer 

He is a member of the Labour Party.
Jack Straw

'''John Whitaker 'Jack' Straw''' (born 3 August 1946 in Buckhurst Hill, Essex, England) is a British politician. He held several Cabinet posts in the Labour government under Tony Blair and Gordon Brown. He is the Member of Parliament (MP) for the constituency of Blackburn.

Jack Straw became a Labour Party MP at the 1979 General Election for the constituency of Blackburn. He was promoted to the shadow cabinet in 1987 and became the Home Secretary when Labour returned to power in 1997.  His other cabinet posts included: Foreign Secretary (2001-2006), Leader of the House of Commons (2006-2007) and Justice Secretary (2007-2010). He did not choose to become a member of Ed Miliband's shadow cabinet.

## Personal life
Straw's first marriage, in 1968, to teacher Anthea Weston ended in divorce in 1977. They had a daughter, Rachel, born on 24 February 1976. She died after five days because of a heart defect.

Straw is of Jewish descent (his maternal great-grandmother was from an Eastern-European Jewish family). He himself is Christian.

On 10 November 1978 he married Alice Perkins, a senior civil servant. They have two adult children, William and Charlotte.

He supports his local football club Blackburn Rovers. He was made an Honorary Vice President of Blackburn Rovers in 1998 by Jack Walker.

Straw has tinnitus.

## References
John Hutton, Baron Hutton of Furness

**John Matthew Patrick Hutton, Baron Hutton of Furness** (born 6 May 1955) is an English politician. He is a member of the Labour Party.

He was the Member of Parliament for the Barrow and Furness constituency in the United Kingdom. He was first  in the 1992 general election, and retired in 2010. In March 2011 he published a report on public sector pension reform.

The report states that radical reform to the pension plans of six million public sector workers still leave them with "hugely generous" settlements. The retirement crisis has been caused by the scrapping of gold-plated final salary pension schemes for private sector workers coinciding with low-interest rates and a lacklustre stock market. House prices have also fallen. "Future pensioners are likely to be confronted by a crisis of expectations and a squeeze in income", the report warns.

## References
Alan Johnson

**Alan Arthur Johnson** (born 17 May 1950) is an English politician and former Shadow Chancellor of the Exchequer. He was born and raised in London. He has been the Member of Parliament for the Hull West and Hessle constituency in the East Riding of Yorkshire since the 1997 general election.

He is a member of the Labour Party.

Johnson has been married twice. His first marriage was to Judith Elizabeth Cox. They had one son and two daughters. born in 2000.

## References
Harriet Harman

**Harriet Ruth Harman, Baroness Harman**  (born 30 July 1950) is a British politician who was the Deputy Leader of the Labour Party from 2007 to 2015. She was born and raised in West London. She is the Member of Parliament for the Camberwell and Peckham constituency in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom. She was first  for Peckham in a by-election in 1982.

## Career
She has held cabinet posts in the Labour governments of Tony Blair and Gordon Brown. Following Brown's resignation as Labour leader on 11 May 2010, Harman was the acting leader of the Labour Party until Ed Miliband was elected on September 25, 2010. Until 2015 she was the Deputy Leader and ex-officio member of the Shadow Cabinet. She was also Shadow Deputy Prime Minister and Shadow Secretary of State for International Development.

On February 24 2014, Harman's was on *Newsnight* to say that she did not support the Paedophile Information Exchange.
Harman would not say sorry.

## Personal life
Harman is a feminist. She married Jack Dromey in 1982. The couple have two sons and a daughter. Dromey died in 2022.

## References
Jacqui Smith

**Jacqueline Jill "Jacqui" Smith** (born 3 November 1962) is an English politician. She was the first female Home Secretary of the United Kingdom. She was born in Malvern, Worcestershire. She was the Member of Parliament for the Redditch constituency. She was first  in the 1997 general election. She lost her seat at the 2010 General Election.

She is a member of the Labour Party.

## Personal life
Smith married Richard Timney (born 1963 in Ealing, London) in October 1987 in Malvern, Worcestershire. They have two sons. 

In December 2008, it was discovered that Timney wrote a series of letters praising the work of Smith. These letters were sent to newspapers. He did not say that he was her husband and managing her constituency office.

In June 2008 the *Independent newspaper* reported that she was a season-ticket holder at Aston Villa Football Club.

## References
James Purnell

**James Mark Dakin Purnell** (born 2 March 1970) was an English politician was Secretary of State for Work and Pensions in 2010. He was the Member of Parliament for the Stalybridge and Hyde constituency in the United Kingdom from the  in the 2001 general election until he retired at the 2010 general election.  He is currently the Head of the Open Left project at the left leaning think tank Demos

He is a member of the Labour Party.
Geoff Hoon

]]
**Geoffrey William Hoon** (born 6 December 1953) is an English politician and held several government posts. He was born in Derby. He was the Member of Parliament for the Ashfield constituency in the United Kingdom from his first  in the 1992 general election until he retired in 2010.

Hoon is a member of the Labour Party.
Ed Balls

**Edward Michael "Ed" Balls** (born 25 February 1967) is a British current television presenter and a former politician who is currently presenter for the ITV breakfast show ***Good Morning Britain***.  He was the shadow Home Secretary in Ed Miliband's shadow cabinet. He was born in Norwich, Norfolk and moved to Nottinghamshire during his childhood. He is the Labour Party and was theCo-operative Party Member of Parliament (MP) for the constituency of Morley and Outwood in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom.

He was first  in the 2005 general election and held the post of Secretary of State for Children, Schools and Families from June 2007 to May 2010. He was a candidate to become leader of the Labour Party in September 2010 and lost to Ed Miliband. Ed Balls lost his seat in the 2015 general election

## References
Paul Murphy, Baron Murphy of Torfaen

**Paul Peter Murphy**, KCMCO, KSG  (born November 25, 1948) is a Welsh politician and held several cabinet posts, including Secretary of State for Wales. He is the Member of Parliament for the Torfaen constituency in the United Kingdom. He was first  in the 1987 general election. 

He is a member of the Labour Party.
Hazel Blears

**Hazel Anne Blears** (born May 14, 1956) is an English politician.   She was the Member of Parliament for the Salford and Eccles constituency from 1997 to 2015. She was first  in the 1997 general election as member for the Salford constituency.  

She held several government posts under Prime Ministers Tony Blair and Gordon Brown, including Secretary of State for Communities and Local Government, up until the 2010 general election

She is a member of the Labour Party.
Douglas Alexander

**Douglas Garven Alexander** (born October 26, 1967) is a Scottish politician. In 2025, he became the Secretary of State for Scotland.

Before the 2010 General election he was Secretary of State for International Development, afterwards he became the Shadow Secretary of State for International Development and is now Shadow Secretary of State for Work and Pensions. He is the Member of Parliament for the Paisley and Renfrewshire South constituency in the United Kingdom. He was first  in 1997 in a by-election. 

He is a member of the Labour Party.

## Notes
## References
Ruth Kelly

**Ruth Maria Kelly** (born May 9, 1968) is now an economist working for the HSBC Bank. She was a British politician and had been a Cabinet Minister. 

She was the Member of Parliament for the Bolton West constituency in the United Kingdom from the 1997 general election to the 2010 general election

She is a member of the Labour Party.
Andy Burnham

**Andrew Murray Burnham** (born 7 January 1970) is an English politician. He was a candidate in the 2010 Labour leadership election. As of 2012 Burnham was Shadow Secretary of State for Health within Ed Miliband's Shadow Cabinet. He is the Member of Parliament for the Leigh constituency in the United Kingdom. He was first  in the 2001 general election. 

Burnham was born in Old Roan, Aintree, Lancashire and raised in Culcheth, Warrington.

He is a member of the Labour Party.

On 5 May 2017, he was elected mayor of Greater Manchester.

In 2026, Burnham applied to be the Labour Party candidate in the 2026 Gorton and Denton by-election but his candidacy was blocked by the party because they thought should he win, Burnham would challenge Prime Minister Keir Starmer for the Labour leadership.

## References
Shaun Woodward

**Shaun Anthony Woodward** (born 26 October 1958 in Bristol, England) is a British politician and is the Shadow Secretary of State for Northern Ireland in Ed Miliband's shadow cabinet. He is the Labour Party Member of Parliament (MP) for the constituency of St Helens South in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom. 

He was first  in the 1997 general election as the Conservative Party MP for the constituency of Witney but changed to Labour in 1999. At the 2001 General Election he was made the MP for the St Helens South constituency and was the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland from 2007 to 2010. When Ed Miliband became Labour leader, Shaun Woodward was made the Shadow Secretary of State for Northern Ireland.
Toyota RAV4

The **Toyota RAV4** is a small sized SUV made by Toyota. Toyota has made the RAV4 since 1994 and sold it in America since 1996. The RAV4 is sold in a 4-door with an optional V6 engine. It is more of a car-like SUV than a truck sized one. The RAV4 EV was an electric version sold in California from 1996 to 2003. The RAV4 competes with the similar Honda CR-V, Subaru Forester, and Ford Escape. RAV4 stands for Recreational Active Vehicle with 4-wheel-drive but RAV4s may just come with 2-wheel drive. It’s a versatile car with good fuel economy and favorable on-road manners. The car is powered by a 2.5-liter four-cylinder engine along with six-speed automatic gear options.

Toyota RAV4 is also one of the first cars introduced in small crossover SUV market. 

## Sixth generation (XA60; 2025) 
The sixth-generation RAV4 has been around since 2025.

## References
Wheaton College

**Wheaton College** is a private Evangelical Protestant college in Wheaton, Illinois, a suburb  west of Chicago in the United States. It was founded in 1860.

## Other websites 
*Official college website
Yvette Cooper

**Yvette Cooper** (born 20 March 1969) is a British politician who is currently the Foreign Secretary since 5 September 2025. Before, she was the Home Secretary from 5 July 2024 until 2025.

Cooper is the Member of Parliament (MP) for the Normanton, Pontefract and Castleford constituency in the United Kingdom. She is a member of the Labour Party. Her husband, Ed Balls, represents the neighbouring constituency of Morley and Outwood.

She served in the Cabinet between 2008 and 2010 under Prime Minister Gordon Brown. She was Chief Secretary to the Treasury and then Secretary of State for Work and Pensions. After Labour lost the 2010 general election, Cooper was appointed Shadow Foreign Secretary, then in 2011 Shadow Home Secretary.

## References
## Other websites
*Official site
Basil II

**Basil II** (958 – December 15, 1025), was a Byzantine emperor from the Macedonian dynasty from January 10, 976 to December 15, 1025. Under his reign, the Byzantine Empire reached its greatest height since Justinian the Great. Under his reign, the First Bulgarian Empire was completely taken by him, a land that would be part of his empire for 150 years. Because of this, the northern part of the Roman Empire touched the Danube river for the first time in several hundred years. He also took land towards the east.  

## Bibliography 
* (primary source) Michael Psellus, *Chronographia*
* *The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium*, Oxford University Press, 1991

## References 
## Other websites 
* Basil II
Battle of Manzikert

{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict    = Battle of Manzikert
| image       = 131 Bataille de Malazgirt.jpg
| caption     = This 15th-century French miniature shows the Battle of Manzikert, whose combatants are clad in the time's Western European armor.
| partof      = the Byzantine-Seljuk wars
| date        = August 26, 1071
| place       = Manzikert (now Malazgirt, Turkey)
| result      = Seljuk victory
| combatant1  = Byzantine Empire
| combatant2  = Seljuk Empire
| commander1  = Romanus IV {WIA}Nikephoros Bryennios,Theodore Alyates,Andronikos Doukas
| commander2  = Alp Arslan
| strength1   = Up to  (More than half deserted)~  -  took part.
| strength2   = ~  - 
| casualties1 = Very high
| casualties2 = Unknown
}}

The **Battle of Manzikert**, or **Malazgirt** (Turkish: *Malazgirt Sav*), was fought between the Byzantine Empire and the Seljuq Empire. On August 26, 1071, the Seljuq forces attacked near Manzikert (now Malazgirt, Turkey). 

The result was one of the most decisive Byzantine  and the capture of Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes. The battle played an important role in breaking the Byzantine resistance and preparing the way for the Turkish settlement of Anatolia. 

## References
## Sources 
* 

## Other websites
* Battle of Manzikert: Military Disaster or Political Failure?  By Paul Markham
* Debacle at Manzikert, 1071: Prelude to the Crusades , by Brian T. Carey (Issue 5 - January 2004)
Red Square

**Red Square** (, ) is the most famous city square in Moscow, Russia. The square separates the Kremlin, the former royal citadel and currently the official residence of the President of Russia, from a historic merchant quarter known as Kitay-gorod (China-Town). As major streets of Moscow radiate from here in all directions, being promoted to major highways outside the city, the Red Square is often considered the central square of Moscow and of all Russia.

Red Square and the Kremlin are a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Joseph Stalin's body was preserved near Red Square, in Lenin's mausoleum. It was later moved and reburied deep behind the Kremlin Wall without any ceremony.

Red Square is a popular tourist attraction in Russia.

## Other websites 
* Red Square in Moscow, the most important place in the country's largest. - Thewotme Travel Blog
* Moscow-Life: A guide to Moscow's Red Square
* 3D model of Red Square 
* Visiting Red Square  – Useful information for visitors to Red Square and the Kremlin
*Red Square and surrounding area time-lapse video
Mark Lawrenson

**Mark Thomas Lawrenson** (born 2 June 1957, in Preston, Lancashire) is a former professional football player, a defender in the Liverpool and  Irishfootball teams of the 1980s; he has since become a radio, television and internet pundit for the BBC. 

Despite being born in England, UK, he played for the Republic of Ireland national football team due to his Irish ancestry.

## Honours
;Liverpool
*Football League First Division (5): 1981–82, 1982–83, 1983–84, 1985–86, 1987–88
*FA Cup: 1985–86
*League Cup: 1981–82, 1982–83, 1983–84
*FA Charity Shield: 1982, 1986
*Football League Super Cup: 1986
*European Cup: 1983–84

## Statistics
### Club
### International
## Notes
## References
Official Opposition (United Kingdom)

'''His Majesty's Loyal Opposition**, or the **Official Opposition''' in the United Kingdom is led by The Leader of the Opposition.  This is usually the political party with the second largest number of seats in the House of Commons, as the largest party will usually form the government. Since July 2024, the Official Opposition has been the Conservative Party.
Limnology

**Limnology** is the study of waters that are not part of the oceans or seas. This includes rivers, lakes, swamps, streams, wetlands, water under the ground, and even bodies of water made by people. Scientists who study this are called *limnologists*. Their work includes biology, chemistry, physics, geology, and hydrology.
The *International Society of Limnology*  promotes limnology to  scientists throughout the world. There are many centres for such research throughout the world. 

Limnology helps to explain why some lakes have lots of plants and animals and some have very few.  The Freshwater Biological Association which is based next to Windermere in England did a lot of the early work. Limnologists there worked out why deep lakes have cold water at the bottom in summer-time but not in Winter. The reason was that winds in Autumn mix the waters up.

## References
George I of Great Britain

**George I** (George Louis; 28 May 1660 – 11 June 1727) was the ruler of Hanover in North Germany and later also the King of Great Britain and Ireland.

## Family 
 coin from the reign of George I, showing him in profile.]]
George was born in Osnabrück, Germany, on 28 May 1660. He lived most of his life in the Electorate of Hanover, one of the many German countries that was part of the Holy Roman Empire. This area is today part of Germany. He married his cousin Sophia Dorothea (the daughter of his father's brother George William) in 1682.

On 10 November 1683, their first child and only son, George Augustus, was born. When George Louis was King of Great Britain, George Augustus was the Prince of Wales. When the father died, the son became king, as George II.

On 16 March 1687, their second child and only daughter was born. She was called Sophia Dorothea, after her mother. She later married and became the Queen in Prussia. Because she was married, she did not live in Britain with her father, but in Prussia with her husband.

George and his wife drifted apart, because he preferred his mistress Melusine, with whom he had three daughters, Anna, Melusine and Margaret. Meanwhile, his wife was having an affair with Count Philip Christopher of Königsmarck, who was found dead in a river, rumoured to have been murdered on George's orders.

The marriage was ended in 1694, on the grounds that Sophia Dorothea had effectively abandoned George. Sophia Dorothea's father, George William, and George Louis, had Sophia Dorothea imprisoned in Ahlden Castle in Celle, where she was unable to see her father, former husband, or children.

In 1698, his father died and George became the ruler ("Prince-elector") of Hanover.

## King of Great Britain 
When Queen Anne of Great Britain died in 1714, an act of parliament said the next ruler must be a Protestant. George was not the closest relative, but was the closest Protestant one. All the closer relatives were Roman Catholic, so George became King of Great Britain and Ireland on 1 August 1714. He was the first ruler of Great Britain from his family, the House of Hanover.

Many of the British people did not like the new king. It is often said that he could not actually speak English. This may have been true at first, but he sometimes wrote in English later in his reign. George spent less time running the country than previous monarchs and allowed Parliament to have a bigger role. Later on, he left Robert Walpole in charge of running the country. Walpole became the first British prime minister, although the word "prime minister" was not used at the time.

He died while travelling from England to Hanover on 11 June 1727.
John Denham

**John Yorke Denham** (born July 15, 1953) is an English politician. He is the Member of Parliament for the Southampton Itchen constituency in the United Kingdom. He was first  in the 1992 general election. 

Denham has held the following positions:
*1995–1997: Shadow Minister for Social Security
*1997–1998: Parliamentary under Secretary of State at the Department of Social Security
*1998–1999: Minister of State at the Department of Social Security
*1999–2001: Minister of State for Health Services
*2001–2003: Minister of State for Policing
*2003–2007: Chairman of the Home Affairs Select Committee
*2007–2009: Secretary of State for Innovation, Universities and Skills
*2009–2010: Secretary of State for Communities and Local Government
*2010–2011: Shadow Secretary of State for Business, Innovation and Skills
*2011–2013: Parliamentary Private Secretary to the Leader of the Opposition

He is a member of the Labour Party.
Ed Miliband

**Edward Samuel Miliband** MP (born 24 December 1969) is a British politician. He was the leader of the Labour Party and of the Official Opposition. He is also the Labour Member of Parliament (MP) for the constituency of Doncaster North, and is a former cabinet minister.

He was born in University College Hospital, Bloomsbury, London and raised in Primrose Hill. His parents were Polish-Jewish immigrants. He is the younger son of the Marxist thinker Ralph Miliband. At the London School of Economics, he obtained a Master's degree in Economics, and then became an advisor to Labour politicians such as Harriet Harman and Gordon Brown. At the 2005 general election, he was elected to be the MP for Doncaster North. His first job in government was as the *Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change*, which he took up on October 3, 2008 and remained as until Labour lost the 2010 General Election.

In September 2010, he defeated his brother David Miliband by a small number of votes to become leader of the Labour Party.

He resigned as leader in May 2015 after Labour lost to the Conservative Party in the General election. Jeremy Corbyn replaced him.

Following Labour's landslide victory in the 2024 general election, Miliband was appointed Secretary of State for Energy Security and Net Zero by Starmer. He was among several ministers under Blair and Brown to be appointed to Starmer's cabinet.

## Notes 
## References
David Davis

**David Michael Davis** (born 23 December 1948) is an English politician.  He is a member of the Conservative Party.  In July 2016, Davis became the first Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union under the Theresa May cabinet.

Davis was born in York and raised in south London.

He was the Shadow Home Secretary from 2003 - 2008.  He is the Member of Parliament for the Haltemprice and Howden constituency in the United Kingdom. He was first  in the 1987 general election for the Boothferry constituency.

On 12 June 2008, Davis said he was going to resign as an MP, and was immediately replaced as Shadow Home Secretary.  This was intended to force a by-election in his seat, for which he intended to seek re-election by mounting a specific campaign designed to provoke wider public debate about the erosion of civil liberties in the United Kingdom.  Following his formal resignation as an MP on 18 June 2008, he officially became the Conservative candidate in the resulting by-election and won it on 10 July 2008.

In 2017, Davis proposed a new treaty between UK and EU to fight crime and terror, after series of terrorist incidents in UK.  In September 2017, he stated that UK was to remain as the part of Europol.  However, EU is said to have refused to discuss Europol, which exchanges crime and counter-terrorism information and intelligence, until it judges that the "sufficient progress" has been on the financial settlement, Ireland and citizen's rights after Brexit. 

On 8 July 2018 Davis resigned as Brexit Secretary.

## References
530

## Births 
* Dallán Forgaill, Christian Irish poet (approximate date)
* Venantius Fortunatus, Latin poet and bishop (approximate date)
* Xuan Di, emperor of the Chen Dynasty (d. 582)

## Deaths 
*Trojanus of Saintes
* Cador, king of Dumnonia (England)
* October 14 &ndash; Antipope Dioscorus
* Erzhu Rong, general of Northern Wei (b. 493) 
* September 22 &ndash; Pope Felix IV
* Xiao Baoyin, prince of Southern Qi (b. 487)
Anguidae

**Anguidae** is a family of lizards.

## Classification 
**Family Anguidae**
***Subfamily Anguinae**
**Genus *Anguis*
**Genus *Ophisaurus* (glass lizards)
**Genus *Pseudopus*
***Subfamily Diploglossinae**
**Genus *Celestus*
**Genus *Diploglossus*
**Genus *Ophiodes*
***Subfamily Gerrhonotinae**   
**Genus *Abronia*
**Genus *Barisia*
**Genus *Coloptychon*
**Genus *Elgaria*
**Genus *Gerrhonotus*
**Genus *Mesaspis*
William Hague

**William Jefferson Hague, Baron Hague of Richmond** (pronounced *HAIG*; born 26 March 1961) is a British politician. He was Foreign Secretary and First Secretary of State. He was the leader of the Conservative Party from June 1997 to September 2001. He was the Member of Parliament for the Richmond (York) constituency in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom.

William Hague was born in Rotherham in West Riding of Yorkshire, England. He first gained national attention when he spoke at the 1977 Conservative Party conference aged 16. He was educated at the University of Oxford. Hague first became a Member of Parliament at a by-election in 1989. In 1995, William Hague was made the Secretary of State for Wales until 1997 when the Conservatives lost the general election. He was elected as Conservative Party leader in 1997. Following the Conservative's defeat in the 2001 General Election, he resigned from the position and was succeeded by Iain Duncan Smith.

He went on to write biographies of William Pitt the Younger and William Wilberforce. In 2005, when David Cameron became the Conservative Party leader, Hague was made the Shadow Foreign Secretary and Secretary of State.

Hague became the Foreign Secretary after the 2010 election in the Conservative Liberal Democrat coalition government. Issues that he was involved in included the Arab Spring and Syrian Civil War as well as the crisis in Crimea. Hague thinks Syrian President Bashar al-Assad should be removed from power, and the Cameron government wanted to help the opposition with air strikes in 2013, but Parliament did not agree and the plans did not go forward. Hague did not run for reelection in the 2015 election and mostly retired from politics after that. He was made a member of the House of Lords as **Baron Hague of Richmond**, where he is a member today.

## Awards
* ''The Spectator's* "Parliamentarian of the Year Award" (1998)
* History Book of the Year in the 2005 British Book Awards, for *William Pitt the Younger*
* *The Spectator's'' 'Speech of the Year Award' (2007)
* The Trustees Award at the 2008 Longman/History Today Awards
* Elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature (2009)

## References
Celestus warreni

***Celestus warreni*** (also known as the '''Warren's galliwasp** or the **giant Hispaniolan galliwasp''') is a kind of lizard of the Anguidae family.  It can be found in the Dominican Republic and Haiti. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests underneath leaf litter and underneath forest debris. Giant galliwasps are opportunistic predators that feed on insects, earthworms, small mammals, and other reptiles. 

It is threatened by habitat loss.
Duquesney's galliwasp

***Celestus duquesneyi*** (also known as the '''Duquesney's galliwasp** or **blue-tailed galliwasp''') is a kind of lizard of the Anguidae family.  It can only be found  in Jamaica.
Leader of the Opposition (United Kingdom)

The **Leader of the Opposition** (sometimes known as the **Leader of the Opposition in the House of Commons**) in the United Kingdom is the politician who leads His Majesty's Loyal Opposition. The Leader of the Opposition is normally the leader of the second largest party in the House of Commons.

The current Leader of the Opposition is Rishi Sunak, the Leader of the Conservative Party. Sunak assumed the position on 5 July 2024, after his party lost the 2024 election.

## List of leaders of the opposition (1911–present)
## References
Trojanus of Saintes

**Trojanus of Saintes** (died c.530) was a 6th century bishop of Saintes, in France. 

He is a Catholic saint, also known as **Trojan** and **Troyen**.  His feast day is held on 30 November.

## References