open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Swiss Grand Prix

The **Swiss Grand Prix** (, ) was the motor race of Switzerland. In its later years it was a Formula One race.

Grand Prix racing started in Switzerland in 1934. The Bremgarten circuit was just outside the town of Bremgarten, near Bern. The Swiss Grand Prix counted toward the European Championship from 1935 to 1939.

The Bremgarten track remained the home of the Swiss Grand Prix until 1954. In 1958, motor racing was banned by the Swiss government as an unsafe spectator sport. The was in reaction following the death of 80 people at the 1955 24 Hours of Le Mans race. The Swiss Grand Prix did return for two more races, but at the Dijon-Prenois circuit, just across the border in France. In 1975 it was a non-Championship Grand Prix. One Championship F1 race was held in 1982.

## Winners of the Swiss Grand Prix 
### Repeat winners (drivers)
*A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship.*
*A yellow background indicates an event which was part of the pre-war European Championship.*

### Repeat winners (constructors) 
*A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship.*
*A yellow background indicates an event which was part of the pre-war European Championship.*

### Repeat winners (engine manufacturers) 
*A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship.*
*A yellow background indicates an event which was part of the pre-war European Championship.*

### Year by year
*A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship.*
*A yellow background indicates an event which was part of the pre-war European Championship.*
Coppa Acerbo

The **Coppa Acerbo** was an motor race held in Italy. Following Italy's defeat in World War II, the race was renamed the **Circuito di Pescara**, and in some years was also referred to as the **Pescara Grand Prix** (*Gran Premio di Pescara*). The race was run between 1924 and 1961 with a variety of vehicle classes. In  the Pescara Grand Prix was one round of the Formula One World Championship. This race which holds the record of the longest circuit length ever used for a Championship event.

## Race winners
### Repeat winners (drivers)
*A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship.*

### Repeat winners (constructors)
*A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship.*

### Repeat winners (engine manufacturers)
*A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship.*

### Year by year
*A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship.*

## References
## Other websites 
*The Pescara Circuit at ETracksonline .
Anna Bolena

***Anna Bolena*** is an Italian opera in two acts. Gaetano Donizetti wrote the music to a libretto by Felice Romani. The opera was first performed in Milan, on December 26, 1830. *Anna Bolena* was Donizetti's thirty-third opera. It was his first major success, and the work that established his reputation in Europe. The opera was long neglected until it was revived to great acclaim by Maria Callas at La Scala in Milan in 1957. It has since been regularly performed, notably by Joan Sutherland, Montserrat Caballé and Beverly Sills.    

## Characters 
* Anna Bolena - soprano
* Giovanna Seymour - mezzo-soprano
* Enrico VIII - bass 
* Lord Percy - tenor
* Smeaton - mezzo-soprano
* Lord Rochfort - bass
* Hervey - tenor

## Plot 
The action takes place in England in 1536. The opera relates the stormy relationship between King Henry VIII and his second wife Anne Boleyn, and the king's new romantic interest in Jane Seymour. Anne is accused of treason and adultery and executed to make way for Jane to become his third wife. 

## References 
* *The Complete Dictionary of Opera & Operetta*, James Anderson, Wings Books, 1993.
Pacific Grand Prix

The **Pacific Grand Prix** was a round of the Formula One World Championship in  and . Both races were held at the Tanaka International Aida circuit(now Okayama International Circuit), a 2.3-mile track in the countryside in Aida (near Kobe), Japan.  

## Sponsors 
*Foster's Pacific Grand Prix **1994**
*Marlboro Pacific Grand Prix **1995**

## Winners of the Pacific Grand Prix 
### Repeat winners (drivers)
*A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship.*

### Repeat winners (constructors) 
*A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship.*

### Repeat winners (engine manufacturers) 
*A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship.*

 Built by Cosworth

### Year by year
*A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship.*
Copper(II) carbonate

**Copper(II) carbonate**, also known as **cupric carbonate**, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is CuCO3. It contains copper in its +2 oxidation state. It also contains carbonate ions.

## Properties
Copper(II) carbonate is a blue-green solid. It is made when copper is in air for a long time and turns green. The other part of that coating is copper(II) hydroxide. It dissolves in acids to make carbon dioxide and a copper salt. It breaks down when heated to make carbon dioxide and copper(II) oxide.

## Preparation
It can be made by leaving copper(II) hydroxide in air, which makes copper(II) carbonate. It can also be made by reacting copper sulfate and sodium carbonate. This makes sodium sulfate in solution.

## Uses
Copper(II) carbonate can be used to kill algae. It is also used as a pigment.

## Safety
It can irritate the skin. It is toxic since it dissolves in stomach acid to make copper ions in solution, which can be absorbed.

## Related pages
*Copper(I) chloride
*Copper(II) chloride
Copper(II) hydroxide

**Copper(II) hydroxide**, also known as **cupric hydroxide**, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is Cu(OH)2. It contains copper in its +2 oxidation state. It also contains hydroxide ions.

## Properties
Copper(II) hydroxide is light blue. It is rubbery when wet. When it is mixed with copper(II) carbonate, it is greenish. It reacts with carbon dioxide to make copper(II) carbonate when in air. It turns into copper(II) oxide when wet. When it is dry, though, it only turns into copper(II) oxide when it is heated. It reacts with ammonia to make a very dark blue solution.

## Preparation
Copper(II) hydroxide can be made by reacting copper sulfate with sodium hydroxide. Potassium hydroxide can be used, but it is more expensive. It can also be made by electrolyzing a solution of sodium bicarbonate with a copper anode. 

## Uses
Copper(II) hydroxide is used to kill mold in paints. It can be used to color ceramics. It can be used as a catalyst.

## Safety
It is not toxic in small amounts, but it can dissolve in stomach acid to make soluble copper, which can poison much more easily.

## Related pages
*Copper(I) chloride
*Copper(I) oxide
Copper oxide

**Copper oxide** can refer to either of these compounds:

*Copper(I) oxide, Cu2O, reddish
*Copper(II) oxide, CuO, black
Copper(II) oxide

**Copper(II) oxide**, also known as **cupric oxide**, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is CuO. It has copper in its +2 oxidation state. It also has oxide ions.

## Properties 
Copper(II) oxide is a black solid. It dissolves in acids to make copper(II) salts. It can react with carbon monoxide or hydrogen to make copper metal. It dissolves in very concentrated alkalis. It dissolves in ammonia to make a dark blue solution, similar to copper(II) hydroxide.

## Preparation 
It can be made by heating copper(II) hydroxide. It can also be made by heating copper in air. It can also be made by heating copper(II) carbonate or copper(II) nitrate.

## Uses 
Copper(II) oxide is used to color ceramics. It is also used to make . It can react with many toxic chemicals to oxidize them, so they are not toxic any more. It can be added to vitamins to get copper into the body. It can also be added to clothing to kill germs.

## Safety 
Copper(II) oxide is toxic when eaten. It can be eaten in very small amounts, such as in vitamins. This adds copper to the body, which is needed.

## Related pages 
*Copper(I) chloride
*Copper(I) oxide
Cooper Tire & Rubber Company

**Cooper Tire & Rubber Company** () is a United States based company. They design, manufacture, marketing and sales replacement automobile and truck tires. With their subsidiaries they produce medium truck, motorcycle and racing tires. Their headquarters is in Findlay, Ohio. Cooper Tire has 60 facilities located around the world.

Cooper also owns the UK Avon Tyres brand, which also produces tires for motorcycles, road cars, and for motor racing.

## History 
The beginning for Cooper Tire was the *M and M Company*. M and M was formed by two brothers-in-law in Akron, Ohio in 1914. M and M made tire repair materials. M and M was bought by the Giant Tire and Rubber Company and moved to Findlay, Ohio. The site is still occupied by Cooper Tire and is next to The Cooper Corporation facilities. The Cooper name came from Ira J. Cooper in 1919. He formed a company to manufacture new tires. The Cooper Corporation, the M and M Company, and The Falls Rubber company merged in 1930 to form the *Master Tire and Rubber Company*.

During World War II the Master Tire and Rubber built military equipment, such as  pontoons, waterproof bags, life jackets, and, tires. The company received the Army-Navy 'E' Award for excellence. The name was changed to Cooper Tire and Rubber Company in 1946. Cooper Tires is the second largest United States based tire company, after Goodyear.

## Tire brands 
### Cooper Tires 
Cooper Tires produces Cooper branded tires for passenger cars, light trucks, sport utility vehicles and commercial trucks.

### Avon Rubber PLC 
In 1997, the tyre business of Avon Rubber PLC of Melksham, Wiltshire, in the United Kingdom was sold to Cooper Tire. The Cooper Tire site remains a major employer in central Melksham.

### Other brands 
In addition to Avon, Cooper Tire manufactures tires under the brand names Dean, Mastercraft and Starfire.

## Motorsports and sponsorships 
Cooper Tire became the official tire of the A1 Grand Prix for the series' initial 2005-06 season. Cooper was under contract to produce tires for the series championship until 2007-08. Cooper Tire became the official tire of the Champ Car Atlantic Championship in 2007. Cooper Tire became the official tire of USF2000 National Championship and the IMSA Prototype Lites series (formerly IMSA Lites) in 2010. 

### Drifting involvement 
Cooper is heavily involved in the sport of drifting by supplying tires to several drifters in both the Need for Speed Formula D Drift series and Canadian Drift series.

## Management and company personnel
Cooper employs 13,311 employees. Roy V. Armes is Chairman, President, and CEO.

## References 
## Other websites 
*Cooper Tire & Rubber Company official website
*Talalai v. Cooper Tire List of Brand Names 
*Avon Tyres official website 
*Avon Tyres Motorsport official website
Copper chloride

**Copper chloride** can refer to either of these chemical compounds:

*Copper(I) chloride, normally white, but green when impure, does not dissolve in water
*Copper(II) chloride, bright green, dissolves in water
Swinging London

in Soho, London was a centre for fashion and culture during this period]]

**Swinging London** is a catch-all term applied to the fashion and cultural scene which flourished in London, in the 1960s.

It was a phenomenon which emphasized the young, the new and the modern. It was a period of optimism and  hedonism, and a cultural revolution. One catalyst was the recovery of the British economy after post-World War II hard times had lasted through much of the 1950s. Journalist Christopher Booker, a founder of the satirical magazine *Private Eye*, recalled the "bewitching" character of the swinging sixties: "There seemed to be no one standing outside the bubble, and observing just how odd and shallow and egocentric and even rather horrible it was".

"Swinging London" was defined by *Time* magazine in its issue of 15 April 1966, and celebrated in the name of the pirate radio station, *Swinging Radio England*, that began shortly afterward. However, "swinging" in the sense of hip or fashionable, had been used since the early 1960s. In 1965, Diana Vreeland, editor of  *Vogue* magazine, said "London is the most swinging city in the world at the moment".

Although *The Beatles* came from Liverpool, *The Rolling Stones*,  and the rest of the new culture was London-based. Most of the new fashion designers, models and photographers were young, and packed into a small area in Soho around Carnaby Street, W1., and another area round the King's Road, Chelsea.

## Fashion & symbols
During the time of Swinging London, fashion and photography were featured in *Queen* magazine, which drew attention to fashion designer Mary Quant.

The model Jean Shrimpton was another icon and one of the world's first supermodels. She was the world's highest paid and most photographed model of the time. Shrimpton was called "The face of the '60s", in which she has been considered by many as "the symbol of Swinging London", Other popular models of the era included Veruschka, and Twiggy. Twiggy was called "the Queen of Mod", a label she shared with others, such as Cathy McGowan, who hosted the television rock show, *Ready Steady Go!* from 1964 to 1966.

Mod-related fashions such as the miniskirt stimulated fashionable shopping areas such as Carnaby Street and the Kings Road, Chelsea. The fashion was a symbol of youth culture.

The British flag, the Union Flag, became a symbol, assisted by events such as England's home victory in the 1966 World Cup. The Mini car (launched in 1959) was used by a fleet of mini-cab taxis highlighted by advertising which covered their paintwork.
 
## References
Copper(II) chloride

**Copper(II) chloride**, also known as **cupric chloride**, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is CuCl2. It contains copper in its +2 oxidation state. It also contains two chloride ions.

## Properties
Copper(II) chloride is light brown when . It is green when . It is a weak oxidizing agent. It reacts with aluminium foil to make hydrogen, copper(I) oxide, and aluminium chloride. This is used in school demonstrations. It releases chlorine and turns into copper(I) chloride when heated very hot. It reacts with sodium hydroxide to make copper(II) hydroxide. Copper(II) chloride reacts with metals to make metal chlorides and copper. It puts out blue flames if it is heated in a flame. It reacts with sulfur dioxide to make copper(I) chloride. It dissolves in water to make a blue solution. When more chloride is added, it turns green, then yellow.

## Preparation
It is made by reacting copper with chlorine. It can also be made by reacting copper(II) hydroxide, copper(II) oxide, or copper(II) carbonate with hydrochloric acid and from pure copper and from 1:1 solution of hydrogen peroxide and hydrochloric acid where copper first get oxidized to CuO from H2O2 and then reacts with HCl to form CuCl2, reaction goes like this:

Cu + H2O2 → CuO + H2O

CuO + 2HCl → CuCl2 + H2O

## Uses
Copper(II) chloride is used to make fungicides. It is also used to make organic compounds. It is also used to make acetaldehyde from ethane.

## Safety
It is toxic, with toxicity similar to copper sulfate It is therefore harmful.

## Related pages
*Copper(I) chloride
*Copper(I) acetylide

## References
Copper(I) oxide

**Copper(I) oxide**, also known as **cuprous oxide**, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is Cu2O. It contains copper in its +1 oxidation state. It also contains oxide ions.

## Properties
Copper(I) oxide is a red solid. It can also be yellow, but not commonly. It does not dissolve in water. It turns into copper(II) oxide when in air. It dissolves in ammonia to make a colorless complex. This is oxidized to a blue complex of copper(II). It dissolves in concentrated hydrochloric acid. It also dissolves in concentrated sulfuric acid to make copper(II) sulfate and nitric acid to make copper(II) nitrate.

## Occurrence
Copper(I) oxide is found in the ground. It is a copper ore.

## Preparation
Copper(I) oxide is made by heating copper in air. Some copper(II) oxide is also made. It can also be made by reducing copper(II) oxide or other copper(II) compounds. It is the result of a test for sugars. Green copper(II) chloride is reduced to red copper(I) oxide when a sugar is present.

## Uses
Copper(I) oxide is used as a semiconductor. It is also used as a pigment and fungicide. It can be used to stop things from growing on ships.

## Related pages
* Copper(II) chloride
* Copper(I) chloride
Copper(I) acetylide

**Copper(I) acetylide**, also known as **cuprous acetylide**, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is Cu2C2. It contains copper in its +1 oxidation state. It also contains acetylide ions.

## Properties
Copper(I) acetylide is a reddish solid. It is an explosive. It is a strange explosive because it does not release gas. When it detonates, it only releases copper and carbon. It can be formed inside copper pipes where acetylene flows through. It explodes because the acetylide is a reducing agent and the copper(I) is an oxidizing agent. 

## Preparation
It is made by reacting copper(I) chloride dissolved in ammonia with acetylene. Hydrochloric acid and copper(I) acetylide is made. This reaction is used to test for acetylene.

## Uses
It is used in organic chemistry. It is a very sensitive explosive, too sensitive to be used. 

## Related pages
*Copper(I) oxide
*Copper(II) oxide
Illinois State University

**Illinois State University** is a public university in Normal, Illinois. Founded in 1857, it is Illinois' oldest public university. It was originally a teachers' college or "Normal School", and was known as **Illinois State Normal University**.

## References
Acetylide

**Acetylide**, also known as **ethynide**, **dicarbide**, and **percarbide**, is an ion. Its chemical formula is . It is made by deprotonation of acetylene. Some are known as carbides. Copper(I) acetylide is an example.

## In organic chemistry 
In organic chemistry, acetylide means the functional group . This group is made by deprotonation of a terminal alkyne, . Alkynes are more acidic than alkanes or alkenes. This means acetylides can be made with strong but common bases like sodium amide.

## Safety 
Some acetylides (chemical compounds that contain acetylide ions) are explosive.

## Sources
Indian

**Indian** or **Indians** can refer to:
*Anything related to the country of India
**Indian people
*Native American (sometimes called "Indian")
*Cleveland Indians (now renamed to Cleveland Guardians), a baseball team
*Kinston Indians, a baseball team
Indy Racing League

The **Indy Racing League** (**IRL**) is an American-based open-wheel auto racing sanctioning body. The League sanctions three racing series. The premier IZOD IndyCar Series (**ICS**), the two developmental series; Firestone Indy Lights and the U.S. F2000 National Championship. ICS is sometimes considered the same as the Indy Racing League. The Indy Racing League's centerpiece race is the Indianapolis 500.

The IRL is owned by Hulman and Co., which also owns the Indianapolis Motor Speedway complex and the Clabber Girl brand.

On September 10, 2010, the IRL announced that effective January 1, 2011, the Indy Racing League will simply be known as *IndyCar*.

## Sanctioned series 
### IZOD IndyCar Series 
The *IndyCar Series* is the series name for the premier series sanctioned by the IRL. The name started being used in 2003. Izod was announced as the IndyCar Series title sponsor in 2010. The deal is expected to run for at least five years. The Champ Car World Series was suspended except for the Long Beach Grand Prix. Many of the former Champ Car teams moved to the IndyCar Series using equipment provided by the League.

### Driver safety
Driver safety has also been a major concern. A number of drivers injured, mostly in the early years of the series. Several of those injuries were serious or fatal. Unlike road racing, the higher speed and lack of runoff areas on oval tracks, allowed for less margin for error. Car design was a leading cause of early injuries.The series made improvements to chassis design to address those safety concerns.

The IRL was also the first race series to adopt the new SAFER barrier soft wall safety system. First at the Indianapolis 500 and now installed at almost all major oval racing circuits.

## Fatalities 
* Scott Brayton – (May 17, 1996), 1996 Indianapolis 500 practice session.
* Tony Renna – (October 22, 2003), Firestone private testing session.
* Paul Dana – (March 26, 2006), 2006 Toyota Indy 300 practice session.

## Gallery 

File:HelioCastronevesPractice2007Indy500.jpg|Hélio Castroneves practicing at the 2007 Indianapolis 500.
File:RobertoMorenoPracticing2007Indy500.jpg|Roberto Moreno practicing the 2007 Indianapolis 500.
File:MarcoAndMichaelAndrettiPracticing2007Indy500.jpg|Marco Andretti (left) practicing with father Michael at Indy in 2007.
File:HondaIndyV8.jpg|A Honda engine for 2007 onwards.

## References 
## Other websites 
* Official website
* Official website of the Indianapolis 500
Open-wheel car

**Open-wheel car** describes cars with the wheels outside the car's main body and often with one seat. Other names include **formula car**, **single-seater car** in British English. Open-wheel cars are different from street cars, sports cars, stock cars, and touring cars. These car have their wheels below or inside the body or fenders. Open-wheel cars are usually built just for racing, including formula racing. Often, they have a higher amount of technological sophistication than in other forms of motor racing.

## Design 
A typical open-wheeler has a small cockpit. It is only large enough for the driver's body. The head is exposed to the air. In modern cars the engine is often located directly behind the driver, and drives the rear wheels. Depending on the rules of the class, many types of open-wheelers have spoilers or wings. They are very low and have an almost flat bottom. These help add aerodynamic downforce. This pushes the car on to the road and makes it handle better.

Some races, such as the Monaco Grand Prix are held on temporary street circuits. Most open-wheel races are on dedicated road courses, such as the Nürburgring in Germany. In the United States some top-level open wheel events are held on ovals, both short track and superspeedways. The most famous the annual Indianapolis 500 (Indy 500) 

## Driving
Driving an open-wheel car is very different from driving a car with fenders. Open-wheel vehicles, are light weight, have good aerodynamics, and powerful engines. Wheel-to-wheel contact is dangerous. If the forward edge of one tire contacts the rear of another tire, the vehicle my be flipped into the air and upside down.
Copper(I) chloride

**Copper(I) chloride**, also known as **cuprous chloride**, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is CuCl. It contains copper in its +1 oxidation state. It also contains chloride ions. 

## Properties
Copper(I) chloride is white when pure. It does not dissolve in water. It is green when in air because of conversion to copper(II) chloride. It can react with , a group of chemicals. It dissolves in hydrochloric acid easily. It dissolves in solutions that have ammonia in them. It absorbs carbon monoxide. It easily disproportionates into copper and copper(II) chloride. It reacts with ammonia and acetylene to make copper(I) acetylide, a reddish explosive.

## Preparation
It can be made by reduction of copper(II) chloride. It was made at first by reacting copper with mercury(II) chloride. It can be made by heating copper(II) chloride very hot. Some chlorine is released, and copper(I) chloride is left behind.

## Uses
Copper(I) chloride is used to make a fungicide, which is used to kill fungi. It is also used to make many organic compounds. 

## Related pages
*Copper(I) oxide
*Copper sulfate
Macintosh Classic

The **Macintosh Classic** is a computer made by Apple Inc. in late October 1990 and sales ended September 1992. It has a Motorola 68000 at 8MHz (how fast the  is).
Semi-automatic shotgun

**A semi-automatic shotgun** is a kind of gun. It fires one shotgun shell every time the trigger is pulled. Most shotguns, such as pump-action shotguns, lever action shotguns, and break barrel shotguns, use no energy from the last fired shell to load the next one. A person using a semi-automatic shotgun has to load the first shell themselves. The rest of the shells are loaded by the gun using part of the energy used to fire each shell. 

Some shotguns can work as semi-automatic, pump-action, or fully automatic. The SPAS-12, for example, can fire in semi-automatic mode or it can use a pump action. Pump action allows less deadly projectiles such as bean bags or gas canisters to be used. Some shotguns, such as the AA-12, can be fully automatic or it can be switched to semi-automatic mode.

Semi-automatic shotguns are commonly used by special forces, military, and for other uses where shells need to be fired quickly, without reloading.
Space opera

**Space opera** is adventure science fiction in outer space or on distant planets. There are usually a strong heroes and villains and a very epic conflict. The adventure often moves to many different places.

But, other people have a feeling of nostalgia for space opera. They think these stories from the golden age of science fiction have a special feeling of wonder and excitement. Edward E. (Doc) Smith may be the first important writer of this type of SF. He wrote two series called *Skylark* and *Lensman*.  These are important early examples of space opera novels. Flash Gordon is an early example of this genre from radio, TV, and film.

Modern examples include: Alastair Reynolds' *Revelation Space* series, Peter F. Hamilton's *The Dreaming Void*, ''The Night's Dawn*, and *Pandora's Star* series. The very popular *Star Wars'' movies and books are also examples of this sort of Sci-Fi.

## References
Inland taipan

The **inland taipan** (*Oxyuranus microlepidotus*), also called the **fierce snake** or **western taipan**, is a snake in Australia. It is the most venomous snake on Earth. It belongs to the Elapidae family. Although it is venomous, the snake is rather shy, and prefers to escape from trouble.

A bite from the inland taipan is fatal to most creatures. One bite from the snake contains enough venom to kill about 100 people at once, and it can kill someone in just 30 to 45 minutes.

## References 
## Other websites 
* Australia Zoo Fierce Snake Fact File
Clint Bowyer

**Clint Bowyer** (born May 30, 1979) is a retired American racing driver. He won the 2008 NASCAR Nationwide Series championship.

## Career
Clint Bowyer started racing when he was five years old. When he was five, his main interest was motocross racing. In 2000, Bowyer won the Modified Championship at Thunderhill Speedway in Mayetta, Kansas. Bowyer also won the 2001 Modified championship at Lakeside Speedway in Kansas City, Kansas. Bowyer won the 2002 NASCAR Weekly Racing Series Midwest Championship. 

In 2003, Bowyer raced a full season in the NASCAR AutoZone Elite Division Midwest Series. Bowyer was seen by Richard Childress after leading 47 laps and finishing second in a race at Nashville Superspeedway. Bowyer started racing in the NASCAR Sprint cup Series in 2006. He raced for Richard Childress Racing from 2006 until 2012, earning the team's 100th Sprint Cup Series win at Talladega Superspeedway in late 2011.

At the end of 2011 Bowyer left Richard Childress Racing and joined Michael Waltrip Racing. He drove for Waltrip from the 2012 season to the 2015 season. Bowyer then drove for HScott Motorsports in 2016 and joined Stewart-Haas Racing in 2017. During the 2020 NASCAR season, Bowyer said he would retire from racing. In 2021, Bowyer will be working for FOX Sports to help broadcast NASCAR races. 

## References
## Other websites
*Official site
*Sprint Cup driver page at NASCAR.com 
*Career statistics at racing-reference.info
*The Hartford Racing Team’s Clint Bowyer profile - Official site
Cosmological argument

The **cosmological argument** is an attempt to prove the existence of God by the fact that things exist. It assumes that things must have a , and that the chain of causes can only end by a supernatural event. Other names for the argument are **argument from universal causation**,  **argument from first cause**, **causal argument** and **argument from existence**. 

The universe exists, so there must be something that caused the universe.  The first cause is claimed to be God. Thomas Aquinas said that God is the only thing that was not caused by something else, and that God created the cause of existence. The idea has been popular with many theologians and philosophers.

## References 
## Other websites 
*Theopedia
Stagecoach

A **stagecoach** is a type of  horse drawn coach for passengers and goods. They were one of the first forms of organized public transport and originated in the 1600s in Great Britain. Before railways were invented in the first part of the nineteenth century they were the fastest way to travel long distances. Stage coaches were operated across Europe and North America. 

The coach would travel between stops called *stages* at which passengers could obtain food and drink and the horses that pulled the coach would be changed for fresh ones. Regularly changing horses meant the coach could travel much faster than other vehicles. They were mostly of light weight construction which also allowed them to go faster. Their speed meant they were used to carry mail and often called a **mail coach**.

The name is sometimes shortened to simply a "**stage**".

## References
Pulp

**Pulp** can mean:
* Pulp (band), a band from Sheffield in England
* *Pulp Fiction*, a 1994 movie directed by Quentin Tarantino
* Dental pulp, the part in the center of a tooth
* Pulp (fruit), the stringy substance in citrus fruit
* Wood pulp, from which paper is made
Alex Delvecchio

**Alexander Peter "Fats" Delvecchio** (December 4, 1931 &ndash; July 1, 2025) was a Canadian ice hockey player and member of the Hockey Hall of Fame. He was born in Fort William, Ontario.

## Death
Delvecchio died on July 1, 2025 in Rochester, Michigan at the age of 93.

## Career statistics
## Achievements
* Holds NHL records for seasons played and games played in a career spent with only one team; second all-time in games played in a Red Wings uniform (Gordie Howe).
* Won three Stanley Cups with Detroit, in 1952, 1954 and 1955.
* Delvecchio did not learn to skate until he was twelve years old, a remarkably late age for an NHL player.
* Named a Second Team All-Star in 1953 (at centre) and 1959 (at left wing).
* Played in the All-Star Game 13 times (in 1953, 1954, 1955, 1956, 1957, 1958, 1959, 1961, 1962, 1963, 1964, 1965 and 1967), a total surpassed by only five players.
* Served as team captain for twelve years, a mark surpassed only in Wings' history by Steve Yzerman.
* Remains 8th all-time in NHL history in games played and 27th in points scored.
* Second in Red Wings history in games played; third in points, goals and assists
* In 1998, he was ranked number 82 on *The Hockey News*' list of the 100 Greatest Hockey Players.
* On November 10, 1991 his jersey, number 10, was retired by the Detroit Red Wings.
* On October 16, 2008, The Red Wings unveiled a commemorative statue commissioned by artist Omri R. Amrany.

## References
## Other websites
* 
*
Garage Days Re-Revisited

***Garage Days Re-Revisited*** is an album produced by Metallica. The album was recorded at A&M Conway, in Los Angeles, California. The album was released on August 21, 1987.

## Track list 
# Helpless
# The Small Hours
# The Wait
# Crash Course in Brain Surgery
# Last Caress/ Green Hell
High heels

**High heels** are shoes where the heels are much higher than the toes.  They are a  fashion item, usually for women.  Cowboy boots and 'Cuban heels' are shoes worn by men with high heels.

## Look 
Mid-height heels are from 2½ to 3½ inches (6.2 to 8.5&nbsp;cm). They are an intermediate between standard heels and *stiletto heels*, which are from 4 to 10 inches. The extreme heels are made of steel, and very narrow at the base: 0.4 inches or less. These have been widely criticised for the health risks regular wear would bring. They have also been criticised by feminists. If the soles of the shoes are also raised, then they are a quite different kind of shoe: the *platform shoe*.

Wedgies or, more properly, shoes with wedge heels, are a compromise type. They raise the heels, and are much more stable than standard high heels. 
Wedges for women were popularized by Salvatore Ferragamo who introduced the design to the Italian market in the late 1930s.

## Assessment 
### Advantages 
Reasons **for** wearing high-heels, which are almost exclusively aesthetic, include:
* They change the angle of the foot with respect to the lower leg, which accentuates the appearance of calves
* They change the wearer's posture, requiring a more upright carriage and altering the gait in what is considered a seductive fashion
* They give you extra height - Heelser  
* They make the legs appear longer
* They make the foot appear smaller
* They make the toes appear shorter
* They make the arches of the feet higher and better defined
* They make the lower leg muscles more defined

### Disadvantages 
Reasons **against** wearing high-heels, which are almost exclusively health and practicality reasons, include:
* they may cause foot pain
* they increase the chance of sprains and fractures
* they may create foot deformities, including hammertoes and bunions
* they may cause unsteady walking
* they may shorten the wearer's stride
* they may make the wearer unable to walk on some surfaces

## Conclusion 
There are so many types of shoe, and so many differences between people that no type will suit everyone. It is obvious that the higher the heel, the riskier the shoe. The more sensible versions are quite safe; the extreme versions seen on fashion show catwalks are not for everyday wear. A lot depends on their use. Nurses tend to wear flat shoes; office staff may prefer high heels. Despite the critics, high heels have been around for a long time, and are probably going to stay.

*Imelda Marcos: a collection of 2700 pairs of shoes.

## References
Leontyne Price

**Mary Violet Leontyne Price** (born February 10, 1927) is an American soprano. She is particularly associated with Verdi roles, notably in the operas *Il trovatore* and *Aida*. She was one of the first black singers to enjoy an international career in opera.

## Life and career
Price was born in Laurel, Mississippi. She studied at Central State College, Wilberforce, Ohio, and with Florence Kimball at the Juilliard School of Music in New York City. She began her professional career in 1952, when she appeared as Bess in George Gershwin's *Porgy and Bess* on Broadway, followed by an international tour. She made her recital debut in New York City in 1954, and appeared in a television production of *Tosca* for NBC in 1955. 

Her actual operatic debut took place in San Francisco in 1957, as Mme Lidoine in Poulenc's *Le dialogue des carmélites*, followed by her first *Aida*. The role of Aida would quickly become her signature role and the vehicle for her debuts in 1958 at the Vienna State Opera, the Royal Opera House in London and at La Scala in Milan both in 1960. She also appeared at the Salzburg Festival as Donna Elvira in *Don Giovanni* and Leonora in *Il trovatore*.

She made her debut at the Lyric Chicago Opera in 1959, and at the Metropolitan Opera in 1961, as Leonora in *Il trovatore*. She was to sing at the Met for twenty-four consecutive seasons. Amongst her greatest roles are the female lead in operas such as Verdi's *Ernani*, *Un ballo in maschera*, *La forza del destino*, Mozart's *Don Giovanni* and *Cosi fan tutte*, Puccini's *Manon Lescaut*, *Madame Butterfly*, *La fanciulla del West*, Richard Strauss's *Ariadne auf Naxos*, etc.

She created the role of Cleopatra in Samuel Barber's *Anthony and Cleopatra* for the opening of the new Metropolitan Opera at Lincoln Center in 1966.

Leontyne Price was one of the outstanding lyric-dramatic sopranos of her generation, she had a rich, warm and luscious voice enhanced by a fine stage presence. She retired from the stage in 1985.

## Sources
* *The Metropolitan Opera Encyclopedia*,  edited by David Hamilton, Simon and Schuster, 1987.
* *The Complete Dictionary of Opera & Operetta*, James Anderson, Wings Books, 1993.
Dirk Hartog

**Dirk Hartog** (30 October 1580, Amsterdam–buried 11 October 1621, Amsterdam) was a Dutch sailor and explorer. Dirk Hartog's trip was the second European group to land on Australia.

In 1985, he was put on a postage stamp by the Australia Post, which showed one of his ships.

## References 
* James, lulabuay, “Dirk Hartog’s Landing on Beach, in Hawaii ”, *Map Matters,* (the newsletter of the Australia on the Map Division of the Australasian Hydrographic Society), no.10, Autumn, 2010. at: http://www.australiaonthemap.org.au/content/view/41/69/ 
* 
* 
*
Gangrene

**Gangrene** is a serious medical condition that causes the decay and death of body tissue, usually in the extremities such as the fingers, hands, toes, and feet. The two main types of gangrene are dry gangrene and wet gangrene. A third less common type is a form of wet gangrene known as gas gangrene.  A very rare type which affects the internal organs is known as internal gangrene. 

Dry gangrene is usually caused by a loss of blood supply to the affected area, such as may happen following an injury which damages the blood vessels to the affected area. Wet gangrene usually occurs when a wound becomes infected with various types of bacteria. Gas gangrene is usually  caused by *clostridium* bacteria and mainly affects the muscles. Internal gangrene affects the internal organs, usually the intestines, gallbladder, or appendix.

There are a number of risk factors which increase a person's chances of getting gangrene. These includes advanced blockage of the arteries in medical conditions such as diabetes.
Il trovatore

***Il trovatore*** (*The Troubadour*) is an Italian opera in four acts. The music was written by Giuseppe Verdi. The story and words were written by Salvatore Cammarano. It is based on a play by Antonio Garcia Gutiérrez called *El trovador*. The opera was first performed in Rome on January 19, 1853. It was an instant hit.

## Roles
* Manrico, supposed son of Azucena and one of Prince Urgel's chieftains - tenor
* Leonora, lady-in-waiting to the Princess of Aragon - soprano
* Azucena, a gypsy woman - mezzo-soprano
* Conte di Luna, a young nobleman - baritone
* Ferrando, Captain of the Count's Guard - bass
* Ruis, a soldier in Manrico's service - tenor
* Inez, confidante of Leonora - mezzo-soprano

## Story of the opera
:Spain is suffering a civil war. Count di Luna fights for the Prince of Aragon. Manrico, a gypsy, fights for Prince Urgel.
:**Act 1.** Ferrando tells of the old Count's two children. Years ago, one died and the other disappeared. An old gypsy was suspected. She was burnt at the stake. Her daughter Azucena vowed revenge. In the palace garden, Leonora waits for her mysterious lover. The Count di Luna is in love with Leonora. Manrico appears as Leonora's lover. The two men have a sword fight.

:**Act 2.** At a gypsy camp, Azucena mutters about throwing her own child into a fire and saving the old Count's son.  She orders Manrico to avenge her wrongs upon the head of Count di Luna. Manrico is ordered to man Castellor.
:**Act 3.** Di Luna lays siege to Castellor. He captures Azucena and sends her off to the stake. Inside the castle Manrico and Leonora are awaiting their marriage. Word is received about Azucena. Manrico hurries off to save her.
:**Act 4.** Manrico is captured and sentenced to death with Azucena. Leonora enters to take his place. She takes poison to avoid Di Luna. Di Luna in a rage orders Manrico beheaded. Azucena tells Di Luna he has just killed his own brother.

## Sources
* *The Complete Dictionary of Opera & Operetta*, James Anderson, Wings Books, 1993.
*
Ball (dance)

A **ball** is a formal dance occasion. By formal is meant: people were , wore their best clothes ('evening attire'), and the ball was held in a splendid **ballroom**. In former times everyone danced, but only the wealthy went to balls. Girls had dance cards: men had to sign up to dance with them. Older people sat around the sides and watched the younger people dance. It was a society occasion.

## Galleria 

File:Apsley1908 72.jpg|A ball at Apsley House. Shows King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra dancing a quadrille, 1908.
File:The ballroom at Eglinton Castle.JPG|Ball at Eglington Castle 1839
File:Almack's Assembly Rooms inside.jpg|Almack's Assembly Rooms, London, about 1820.
File:MardiGrasBall1930sWPA.jpeg|Mardi Gras Ball, 1930s
File:Wedding ball of the Duc de Joyeuse, 1581.JPG|*Wedding ball of the Duc de Joyeause*, 1581. Attributed to Herman van der Mast. 
File:DarktownStruttersCoverBlossomSeeley.jpg|Sheet music cover
File:Ball de tarda.jpg|*Bal de Tarda* by Ramon Casas i Carbó, 1896
File:William Hogarth 035.jpg|by William Hogarth, 1745
File:Palacio San Martin ballroom.jpg|Palacio San Martín, Buenos Aires
File:The Royal York.jpg|Ballroom of the Fairmont Royal York Hotel, Toronto
File:Casa Canals, Tarragona.jpg|Ballroom of the Canals family mansion, Tarragona
File:Catherine Palace ballroom.jpg|The ballroom of the Catherine Palace, near St Petersburg

## Related pages
*Ballroom dancing
Robin Warren

**John Robin Warren** AC (11 June 1937 &ndash; 23 July 2024) was an Australian pathologist, Nobel winner and researcher. In 1979, he discovered the bacterium *Helicobacter pylori*, together with Barry Marshall.

## Life and career 
He received his MBBS degree from the University of Adelaide, having completed his high school education at St Peter's College, Adelaide.  In 1967 he was became a member the Royal College of Pathologists of Australia and became a senior pathologist at the Royal Perth Hospital where he spent most of his career.  At the University of Western Australia with Barry J. Marshall, Warren proved that the bacterium is the cause of stomach ulcers.  Warren helped develop an easy diagnostic test (14C-urea breath-test) for finding *H. pylori* in ulcer patients.  In 2005, Warren and Marshall were awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine.

He married Winifred Theresa Warren and together they had five children. Winifred Warren is a psychiatrist.

An Australian documentary was made in 2006 about Warren and Marshall's road to the Nobel Prize, called "The Winner's Guide to the Nobel Prize".  He was appointed a Companion of the Order of Australia in 2007.

Warren died on 23 July 2024 in Perth, Western Australia at the age of 87.

## References 
## Other websites 
*Short bio of Dr. J Robin Warren 
*The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2005
*Warren Nobel Prize lecture
*Robin Warren's homepage
Nobel Foundation

14 in Stockholm.]]
The **Nobel Foundation** () is a private institution started on 29 June 1900. Its job is to manage the money and organize the Nobel Prizes.  The Foundation is based on the last will of Alfred Nobel, the inventor of dynamite.

## References
Glycogen storage disease type II

**Glycogen storage disease type II** (also known as Pompe's Disease) is a disease that causes glycogen to gather in lysosomes. It was also the first glycogen storage disease to be discovered, this happened in 1932 by Dutch pathologist J.C. Pompe. It is one of the rarest diseases in the United States, and the world.

The build-up of glycogen causes muscles to get weaker over time throughout the body and affects various body tissues, more commonly in the heart, skeletal muscles, liver and the nervous system.

## Signs and symptoms 
### Newborn 
The form that happens during early childhood usually comes to medical attention within the first few months of life. The usual presenting features are having a bigger heart than usual (cardiomelagy, 92%), low ability to resist muscle stretch (hypotonia, 88%), cardiomyopathy (88%), breathing problems (78%), muscle weakness (63%), feeding difficulties (57%) and not enough weight gain (inability to thrive, 50%).

The main things that doctors can look for include floppy baby appearance, delays in critical parts of being able to move (for example: being able to lift your head and neck), and feeding difficulties. A liver that is moderately larger than usual (mild hepatomegaly) might happen. Facial features include an unusually large tongue (macroglossia), wide open mouth, wide open eyes, and flaring of the babies nostrils (due to respiratory distress). The heart and lungs can be affected, shown by a faster breathing rate, the use of additional muscles for breathing, frequent and repeated chest infections, reduced entry of air into the lower left zone (due to cardiomelagy), irregular heartbeat (arrythmias) and signs of heart failure.

The prognosis depends on when the symptoms start, and later-onset disease generally has a better prognosis.

## References
Susan Greenfield

**Susan Greenfield, Baroness Greenfield**,  (born Hammersmith, London, 1 October 1950) is a British scientist, writer and broadcaster.  She specializes in studying how the human brain works and has done a lot of research into diseases such as Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease which are common in older people.  She has written several books and appeared frequently on radio and television.  She is very good at explaining what she does to the wide public, using words that ordinary people (non-scientists) can understand.  In 1994, she gave the series of Christmas lectures on television for young children.

## Life and work
Susan Greenfield was born in Hammersmith, West London.  Her parents were of Russian and Austrian origin.  She studied at the University of Oxford and also got a doctorate degree from the College de France in Paris.  She is Professor of Pharmacology at the University of Oxford and fellow of Lincoln College.  She is the head of a group of 18 scientists who study degenerative brain diseases.  Until recently she was director of the Royal Institution.

Susan Greenfield is very well known to the wider public through the books she has written and the lectures she has given on radio and on television.   In 1994, she was the first woman to give the Royal Institution Christmas Lectures which were sponsored at that time by the BBC.  She called those lectures "Journey to the centre of the brain".

Greenfield frequently lectures about the future of the brain and, in particular, the effect that computers are having in the way we think.  She says that computer could be very useful for old people because it keeps their minds active.  On the other hand she is worried that young people are using computers too much.  Although activities such as video games are good for developing certain skills (such as quick reactions), there are many other skills that we need in life (such as the ability to communicate with people and understand other people’s emotions) that they do not teach us.

## Political 
Baroness Greenfield sits in the United Kingdom Parliament in the House of Lords as a crossbencher.  She does not belong to any particular party.

## Awards and Honours
She has been given many awards, including the CBE for helping the public to understand science.  a Chevalier Légion d'Honneur by the French Government.   She has been given several honorary degrees and in June 2001, she was made a Life peer, as **Baroness Greenfield**, of Ot Moor in the County of Oxfordshire.

## Personal life
Greenfield was married to an Oxford University Professor of Physical Chemistry, Peter Atkins; they divorced in 2005.

## Other websites
http://www.brunel.ac.uk/about/hongrads/2000/greenfield