open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Bahraini people

The **Baharna** (singular **Bahrani**) are the indigenous people of the archipelago of Bahrain and the oasis of Qatif on the Persian Gulf coast of Saudi Arabia. The term is sometimes also given to the Shi'a people of the al-Hasa oasis.  They are all Arabic speaking.  They claim descent from Arab tribes. Their dialect of Arabic is known as "Bahrani" or "Bahrani Arabic".  Almost all follow Shia Islam.
Muharraq

**Muharraq** (meaning Place of Ashes), is Bahrain's third largest city.  It was the capital until 1923. The Muharraq Town was replaced by Manama as the capital of Bahrain. 

The city is on Muharraq Island. Bahrain International Airport is located on the island.

Muharraq is home to Muharraq Club, which is Bahrain's most successful football club. The city is also known for its traditional market, or souq, and as a home of traditional arts and music. Ali Bahar, a popular and successful Bahraini singer is from Muharraq.

Gulf Air and Bahrain Air have headquarters in Muharraq.

## References
A'ali

'''A'ali''' is one of the biggest towns in Bahrain. Before it was a part of the municipality of Mintaqah. Since 2001 it is in the Central Governorate. A'ali is famous for its 170,000+ ancient burial mounds.  These are one of the largest graveyards in the world. A'ali is famous also for its old pottery handicraft.

## Geography
A'ali is in the middle of Bahrain.  It is south of Isa Town and north of Riffa. A'ali has a National Driving School. A'ali is mainly a Shia town. It is approximately 15 km (9.3 miles) southwest of the capital of Bahrain.

## References
Souq

, Morocco ]]
A **souq** or **souk** (also spelled **soq**, **souk**, **esouk**, **suk**, **sooq**, **souq**, or **suq**) is an open-air marketplace or commercial quarter in an Arab, or Berber city. A souk or souq is a free market where vendors can say the going market price for their products. The term is often used for the market in any Arab or Muslim city. In modern times, it appears in Western cities, too. It may also be the weekly market in some smaller towns where no tribal conflicts would be allowed. The word "souq" comes from the Aramaic word šūqā, which means "street, market". This Aramaic word was then taken in Arabic. The Arabic word sūq was then borrowed into English via French by the 19th century.
Financial Times

The ***Financial Times*** (***FT***) is an international business newspaper. It is a morning daily newspaper published in London.  It is printed in 24 cities around the world. About 110 of its 475 journalists are outside the UK.

Along with FT.com, it has an average daily readership of 2.1&nbsp;million people worldwide. FT.com has 4&nbsp;million registered users and 250,000 digital subscribers, as well as 585,681 paying users.  The *Financial Times* in print format has an average daily circulation of three hundred and five thousand copies worldwide as of April 2012.

It was started in 1888 by James Sheridan and Horatio Bottomley. The *FT* specialises in UK and international business and financial news.  It is printed as a broadsheet on light salmon paper.

## References
Bani Jamra

**Bani Jamra** is a village in the north-west of Bahrain. It is east of Budaiya and south of Diraz. It is in the Northern Governorate. Before the discovery of oil in Bahrain, most of the people were involved in farming, especially date palms. Bani Jamra is also famous as a center of traditional fabric weaving, a rapidly dying art.

Almost all of the people of Bani Jamra are Baharna Shias. Leading cleric and political activist Abdul Amir al-Jamri, and his son Mansoor Al-Jamri are from the village.

## References
* Bani Jamra Cloth Weaving 
* Bani Jamra website
39th G8 summit

The **39th G8 summit** took place in Northern Ireland on 17th and 18th June 2013.  The meeting was at the Lough Erne Golf Resort in Enniskillen,  Northern Ireland 

In the Queen's speech at the state opening of Parliament in 2012, Elizabeth II said that "my government will use this opportunity to promote international security and prosperity."

## History
The gathering of the Group of Eight (G8) will be the 39th meeting in a series which began in 1976. 

 G8 summits have been hosted by the United Kingdom at London (1977, 1984, 1991) and Birmingham (1998) in England.  The 2005 summit was in Scotland at Gleneagles.

The G8 and the summit are part of a  process.  The G8 is not an international organization. It is an informal group.

## Participants
The s will be the " members" of the group:

### Invited leaders
A number of national leaders are traditionally invited to attend the summit.  They are asked to participate in some, but not all, G8 summit activities.

## Schedule and agenda
The summit meetings are intended as a way to resolve differences among the G8 members.

Traditionally, the host country sets the agenda.  As host, Prime Minister Cameron is expected to try to change the G8.  He has criticised costs and questioned the value of G8 meetings.

Discussions at the 39th G8 summit will include some issues which remain unresolved from previous summits.

The G8 discussions will be about a range of topics, including 
* Food security
* Nutrition

Britain's leading aid groups and charities are planning a "propaganda offensive" which hopes to affect the food-dominated agenda for the G8.

## Related pages
* List of G8 summits

## References 
## Other websites
* University of Toronto: G8 Information Centre 
* Parliament.uk, Graphic shows G8 in context
Samantha Mumba

**Samantha Tamania Anne Cecilia Mumba** (born 18 January 1983) is an Irish singer, dancer, actress and musician who first became famous around 2000 with the single "Gotta Tell You". Samantha sings contralto. Mumba has also been in many movies, in particular independent movies.

Mumba's first single, "Gotta Tell You", reached No. 1 in the Irish charts. It later reached No. 2 in the British charts. Mumba also had success in the USA, with the song reaching No. 4 on the *Billboard* Hot 100. To date, her first album has sold over 4 million copies worldwide.

## Filmography
### Films
* *The Time Machine* (2002)
* *Spin The Bottle* (2003)
* *Boy Eats Girl* (2005)
* *Nailed* (2006)
* *Johnny Was* (2006)
* *3 Crosses* (2007)
* *Shifter* (2007)
* *Loftus Hall* (2011)

### Television
**Get Your Act Together with Harvey Goldsmith* (2008)
**Dancing On Ice* (2008)

## Awards and nominations
*Grammy Award
**2001, Best Remixed Recording, Non-Classical (Nominated)
*Meteor Music Awards
**2002, Best Female Singer (Won)
*MOBO Awards
**2001, Best Album, *Gotta Tell You* (Nominated)
**2000, Best Video, "Gotta Tell You" (Nominated)
*Smash Hits
** Poll Winners' Party Best New Female (Won)

## References
## Other websites
*
Ibrahim

**Ibrahim** ( '''') may be:
* Abraham, a Biblical patriarch
* Ibrahim (name), a name (and list of people with the name)
* Ibrahim (horse), a stallion who sired many successful show jumping horses
* Ibrahim (sura), a sura of the Qur'an
* Ibrahim prize, a prize to recognise good governance in Africa
* "Ibrahim", a song by David Friedman from *Shades of Change*
Diana Dors

**Diana Dors** (born Diana Mary Fluck, 23 October 1931 – 4 May 1984) was a British actress. She was born in Swindon, Wiltshire. in Windsor, Berkshire.

## Personal life
Dors was married three times:
*Dennis Hamilton Gittins (3 July 1951–3 January 1959, his death): married five weeks after meeting, at Caxton Hall; no children; lived London, Berkshire and Hollywood
*Richard Dawson (12 April 1959–1966, divorced): married in New York; two sons Mark Dawson and Gary Dawson; lived London, New York and Hollywood
*Alan Lake (23 November 1968–her death): married at Caxton Hall; one son Jason Lake; lived at Orchard Manor, Sunningdale, Berkshire

## References 
## Other websites 
*
Muharram

**Muharram** is the first month of the Islamic calendar. It is one of the four sacred months of the year in which fighting is not allowed. The month is accounted with many stories in Islam. The other months are Dhu al-Qi'dah, Dhu al-Hijjah and Rajab. Since the Islamic calendar is a lunar calendar, Muharram moves from year to year when compared with the Gregorian calendar.

Muharram is held to be the most sacred of all the months, except for Ramadan. Some Muslims fast during these days. The tenth day of Muharram is the Day of Ashura. To Shia Muslims it is part of the Mourning of Muharram. The mourning is for Husayn ibn Ali who was the grandson of Prophet Muhammad and their third Imam.

 procession carried out by Shiite Muslims in Indian city of Hardoi on the Day of Ashura.]]

Many Sunni Muslims fast during this day. It is in the *hadith* that Musa (Moses) and his people had a victory over the Egyptian Pharaoh on the 10th day of Muharram.  The Islamic prophet Muhammad asked Muslims to fast on this day, and also a day extra either before or after. Many Muslims cook something sweet like sweet rice and share with their family and circle of friends to eat when breaking their fast......
 
On muhurram a large number of people gather and decorate '''Tazia** as the Symbol of the battle
People of Muslim communities in many parts of the world set-up ‘Langar’(A large pot filled with food) where water is served free to all for nine days
On muhurram Sunni Muslims prepare **‘khichda’'''(Rice which includes all the grains and lentils available)

## References
Scientific management

**Scientific management** is a field of study which was started by Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915). In his honor, the domain is sometimes called **Taylorism**. Taylor believed he could improve work in a company and its management through scientific procedures. This would solve the social problems in the company and guarantee wealth for all people. Very important components are:
*Making a difference between planning work and its execution
*Studying how long a process step takes to get estimates for the time it should take
*Wages based on productivity
*Prescribing the daily workload
It was mainly used for manufacturing processes, where workers operated machines to get a product. Today, the main problems seen with this approach is that the workers were treated like machines and not like human beings. It is the division of labour pushed to its extreme.

## Related pages
*Fordism
Father Ted

***Father Ted*** is an Anglo-Irish sitcom created for Channel 4. It was created by Graham Linehan and Arthur Mathews and produced by Hat Trick Productions. It was shown from 21 April 1995 until 1 May 1998. It is set on a fictional island off the west of Ireland. It is about three Roman Catholic priests who share a house. It stars Dermot Morgan as Father Ted Crilly, Ardal O'Hanlon as Father Dougal McGuire and Frank Kelly as Father Jack Hackett. Pauline McLynn plays their housekeeper Mrs Doyle.

## Other websites 
*
Sheikh Hasina

**Sheikh Hasina** (; born 28 September 1947) is a Bangladeshi politician who has served as the tenth Prime Minister of Bangladesh from June 1996 to July 2001 and again from January 2009 until August 2024. She is the daughter of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, one of the founding leader and first president of Bangladesh. 

Hasina was the longest serving prime minister in the history of Bangladesh. At the time of her resignation, she was the world's longest-serving female head of government. She has been widely accused of being an authoritarian, a dictator even, oppressing the freedom of speech while committing serious human rights violence and holding onto the power through anti-democratic practices.

## Resignation
Following widespread protests against her during the 2024 Bangladesh quota reform movement and the Non-cooperation movement, on 5 August 2024, Hasina resigned as prime minister. Later that day she left the country to India.

In November 2025, she was found guilty of crimes against humanity by Bangladesh's International Crimes Tribunal and sentenced to death in absentia.

## Controversy
Matiur Rahman Rentu has written in his book "Amar Fashi Chai" that in 1987, Sheikh Hasina met the young Mrinal Kanti Das, the vice president of Munshiganj Harganga College Students Union. And after the introduction, Mrinal Kanti Das started living in house number thirty-two in Bangabandhu Bhaban. Sheikh Hasina lived in the same house. Mrinal Kanti Das and Sheikh Hasina used to talk and laugh till late at night by locking the door of the library room of Bangabandhu Bhaban from inside. Mrinal's acceptance towards Sheikh Hasina increased so much that everyone became jealous of him. Mrinal became the closest person to Sheikh Hasina! Her power increased so much that in 1990, Syeda Sajeda Chowdhury, the general secretary of the Central Committee of the Awami League, was humiliated and thrown out of Bangabandhu Bhaban. One day, four people including Mrinal were playing cards in Bangabandhu Bhaban.  It was three and a half. At that time, Sheikh Hasina's only uncle Akram Mamu came and said, "Don't go to this Mrinal, he is sitting without eating for you!" To show his strength in front of his friends, Mrinal said "Hey, let me stay without eating for some time!" One day Mrinal got angry with Sheikh Hasina and left. Sheikh Hasina herself went and brought Mrinal Kanti Das to Bangabandhu Bhaban to break his anger. After Sheikh Hasina lost the election in 1991, Mrinal left Sheikh Hasina due to various grievances. Mrinal kept smiling and saying, his relationship with Sheikh Hasina is very deep.

## References
## Other websites
Day of Ashura

The **Day of Ashura** is on the 10th day of Muharram in the Islamic calendar.  It is the high point of the Remembrance of Muharram.

Shi'a Muslims mourn for the martyrdom of Husayn ibn Ali, the grandson of Muhammad.  He died at the Battle of Karbala on 10 Muharram in the year 61 AH (October 10, 680 AD). According to Sunni Muslim tradition, Muhammad fasted on this day and asked other people to fast.

In many Shi'a regions of Muslim countries such as Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Turkey, Azerbaijan, Pakistan, Lebanon, and Bahrain; the Commemoration of Husayn ibn Ali has become a national holiday.  Most ethnic and religious communities participate in it. Even in a mostly Hindu country like  India, Ashura is a public holiday.

## Related pages
*Ashure, a pudding making at the day of Ashura in Turkey

## References
## Other websites
* Who was Hussain?
Chief Justice of Bangladesh

**Chief Justice of Bangladesh** is the chief of the judges of the Supreme Court of Bangladesh. The Chief Justice is picked by the President of Bangladesh. 

## List of chief justices of Bangladesh
## References
*Chief Justice . Banglapedia (National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh)
Cox's Bazar

'''Cox's Bazar'''  is a town, a fishing port and district headquarters in Bangladesh. It is known for its wide sandy beach.  It is the world's longest natural sandy sea beach.  It is 150&nbsp;km south of the port Chittagong. Cox’s Bazar is also known by the name "Panowa".  The modern Cox's Bazar gets its name from Captain Hiram Cox (died 1799), an officer serving in British India.

Today, Cox's Bazar is one of the most-visited tourist destinations in Bangladesh.  It has not yet become a major international tourist destination.

## References
40th G7 summit

The **40th G8 summit** was held in Brussels on June 4–5, 2014. It was originally going to be held at the Black Sea resort of Sochi, Russia.

After Russia's involvement in the 2014 Crimean crisis, some people wanted Russia to leave the G8. On March 24, United Kingdom Prime Minister David Cameron said that the meeting would not occur in Russia due to the Crimean crisis.  The other seven countries decided to hold it without Russia.

## Participants
The s will be the " members" of the group:

### Invited leaders
A number of national leaders are traditionally invited to attend the summit.

## Results 
On June 4, 2014 on G7 meeting in Brussels leaders of the G7 nations in their joint statement condemned Moscow for its «continuing violation» of Ukraine's sovereignty and say they are prepared to impose further sanctions on Russia over its actions in Ukraine.

The G7 summit on June 4–5, 2014 is the first since Russia was expelled from the group following its annexation of Crimea in March.

## Business opportunity
For some, the G8 summit will be a profit-generating event; as for example, the *G8 Summit* magazines which have been published since 1998.  

## Related pages
* G8

## References 
## Other websites
* University of Toronto: G8 Information Centre 
* Parliament.uk, Graphic shows G8 in context
Sundarbans

The **Sundarbans** is the largest single block of tidal halophytic mangrove forest in the world. The Sunderbans is a UNESCO World Heritage Site covering parts of Khulna Division of Bangladesh. 

The Sundarbans National Park is a National Park, Tiger Reserve, and a biosphere reserve.  It is in the Sundarbans delta in the Indian state of West Bengal. This region is covered by mangrove forests.  It is one of the largest reserves for the Bengal tiger.

## References
Tigon

A **tigon** or **tiglon** is a big cat whose father is a male tiger and whose mother is a female lion. It is smaller than a liger.

## Other websites
Rangpur Division

**Rangpur Division** became Bangladesh's seventh division on January 25, 2010. Before that, it was the northern 8 districts of the Rajshahi Division. The Rangpur division has eight districts: Rangpur, Dinajpur District, Kurigram, Gaibandha, Nilphamari, Panchagarh, Thakurgaon, and Lalmonirhat. There are 58 subdistricts under these eight districts. Rangpur is the northernmost division of Bangladesh.  There were 15,665,000 people at the 2011 Census.
The major cities of this new division are Rangpur and Dinajpur. Rangpur has well-known schools, such as Carmichael College, Hajee Mohammad Danesh Science and Technology University, Rangpur Medical College, Rangpur Cadet College, and Begum Rokeya University.
## History
In 1947 it became a part of the former East Pakistan province as a district.

## References
Christine Milne

**Christine Anne Milne** (born 14 May 1953) was the leader of the Australian Greens between 13 April 2012 and 6 May 2015. She held the position after the previous leader Bob Brown resigned.

## References
Aerostatics

**Aerostatics** is the study of gases that are not in motion. The study of gases in motion is called aerodynamics. It is a part of fluid statics.

An aerostat is a lighter than air craft, such as an airship or balloon, which uses the principles of aerostatics to float.

## Fields of study 
* Atmospheric pressure fluctuation
* Composition of mountain air
* Cross-section of the atmosphere
* Gas density
* Gas diffusion in soil
* Gas pressure
* Kinetic theory of gases
* Partial pressures in gas mixtures
* Pressure measurement
Mohammad Abdul Hamid

**Mohammed Abdul Hamid** (born 1 January 1944) was the 16th President of Bangladesh from 2013 to 2023. He was the Speaker of the National Parliament of Bangladesh from 2009 through 2013.

Hamid was born in Mithamoin in the Kishoreganj District.

He started his political career while a student in Kishoreganj.  He was the vice president of Gurudayal Government College. He later became a lawyer in the Kishoreganj Judge Court. He was president of Kishoreganj Bar Association several times. He has been elected 7 times as a member of Parliament from 1970 to 2009.

## References
Zillur Rahman

**Mohammed Zillur Rahman** (9 March 1929 – 20 March 2013) was the President of Bangladesh between 12 February 2009 and his death. He was a senior member of the Awami League. No other candidate filed to run in the presidential election. Rahman died on March 20, 2013 after being taken to Singapore City from an lung infection, aged 84.

## References
Prime Minister of Bangladesh

The **prime minister of Bangladesh** (), officially '''prime minister of the Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh** () is the chief executive of the government of Bangladesh. The prime minister and the cabinet are collectively accountable for their policies and actions to the Parliament, to their political party and ultimately to the electorate.  The prime minister is ceremonially appointed by the president of Bangladesh.

The position was taken over by the military during years of 1975–78, 1982–86 and 1990–91 due to imposed martial law. In each of these periods, the national government leadership was in control of the military with the executive authority of the president and the prime minister. During the period between 1996 and 2008, The **chief adviser''' of the caretaker government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh exercised authority as per the constitution as the Head of government for 90 days during transition between one elected government to another. The chief adviser headed an Advisory Committee comprising ten Advisers. With powers roughly equivalent to those of the **prime minister** of an elected governments, his executive power was constrained with certain constitutional limitations. The system was scrapped in 2011 by 15th amendment of constitution to allow political government to conduct any General Election in future.

The current prime minister is Tarique Rahman, appointed on 17 February 2026 by president Mohammed Shahabuddin. The longest serving prime minister in the country's history is Sheikh Hasina, who served from 6 January 2009 until her resignation on 5 August 2024.

## List of prime ministers
## References
Khulna

**Khulna** is the fourth largest city in Bangladesh. It is on the banks of the Rupsha and Bhairab rivers in Khulna District. It is the headquarters of Khulna Division.  It is a major industrial and commercial center. It has a seaport named Mongla on its outskirts, 38&nbsp;km from Khulna City. There were about 1,000,000 people in 2010 estimation.

The city is 333&nbsp;km southwest of Bangladesh's capital Dhaka.  It is connected by air, road, train and water transportation.

Khulna is known as the city of shrimp, because 75% of shrimp exported from Bangladesh are from the Khulna zone.  It is also known for its lobster, prawn, catfish, and crab.

## References
Rajshahi

The city of **Rajshahi** is the headquarters of Rajshahi Division and Rajshahi District.  It is one of the six metropolitan cities of Bangladesh. It is called *Silk City* and *Education City*. There are around 1,000,000 people. It is on the northern banks of the river Padma. 

Rajshahi used to be known as Rampur Boalia. 

## Notable people
* Akshay Kumar Maitreya
* Andrew Kishore
* Hasan Azizul Huq
* Ila Mitra
* Ritwik Ghatak
* Sir Jadunath Sarkar
* Mohammad Shamsuzzoha

## References
Bogra

**Bogra** is one of the oldest towns in northern Bangladesh. It is a centre of commerce and trade within the Bogra District.  It is under the Rajshahi Division. They have hosted cricket test matches in Shaheed Chandu Stadium. Bogra is also home to the Western Wing of Bangladesh Highway Police.  

Ziaur Rahman, former president of  Bangladesh, and Muhammad Ali Bogra, a former Prime Minister of Pakistan, were both born in the district.

Bogra is often called the heart of North-Bengal.
Eosinophil granulocyte

**Eosinophil granulocytes**, usually called *eosinophils* or *eosinophiles*, are granulocyte white blood cells that fight off certain parasites and infections in vertebrates. When they are activated, eosinophils release a cocktail of proteins from their granules, including heparin. Like mast cells and basophils, their main targets are parasites, and they are part causes of the syndromes called asthma and allergy. 

Eosinophils make up 1-6% of white blood cells circulating in the body. They are similar in size to neutrophils but have reddish-orange granules (when stained with eosin) and a bilobed nucleus. Eosinophil granulocytes are important defenders against large, multi-cellular parasites, such as worms and flukes. Their numbers increase during a parasitic infection.

## References
Sylhet

**Sylhet** is a major city in north-eastern Bangladesh. It is the main city of Sylhet Division and Sylhet District.  It was given metropolitan city status in March 2009. 

The city is called a City of Saints. There is the mausoleum of the great saint Hazrat Shah Jalal, who brought Islam to Bengal during the 14th century. 

## References
## Other websites
Rangpur

**Rangpur**  may be:

*Rangpur (fruit), citrus fruit

;Places
*Rangpur, India, in Gujarat, India
*Rangpur (Ahom capital), capital of Ahom kingdom, the present Sibsagar town in Assam, India
*Rangpur Division, in Bangladesh
**Rangpur District, in Bangladesh
**Rangpur, Bangladesh, administrative centre of Rangpur District, Bangladesh
*Rangpur, Punjab, village in Punjab, Pakistan
Mymensingh

**Mymensingh** is a city of Bangladesh on the river Brahmaputra. It is the capital of Mymensingh Division.  The city is known for institute like Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh Medical College, Mymensingh Engineering College, Ananda Mohan College, Mymensingh Muminunnesa Women College, Mymensingh Polytechnique Institute and Mymensingh Girls' Cadet College. Other landmark institutions include Mymensingh Army Cantonment. Mymensingh city is about  north of Dhaka which is the capital of the country.

## References
Barisal

**Barisal**, officially known as **Barishal**, ( *Bengali Pron: [boɾiʃal]*) is a town in southern Bangladesh.  It is an old port on the Kirtankhola. It is 142&nbsp;km (373&nbsp;km by road) away from the capital city Dhaka. It is now the headquarters of both the Barisal Division and the Barisal District. The city has 30 wards and 50 mahallas. Barisal municipality was formed in 1957 and was turned into a City Corporation in 2000.

Barisal City has one police academy.

## Education
Barisal is a major center for higher education in Bangladesh. A few of city’s education institutions are:

### Universities
* University of Barisal

### Medical College
* Sher e Bangla Medical College

### College
* Brojomohun College
* Government Syed Hatem Ali College
* Barisal Government Women's College
* Amrita Lal Dey College
* Barisal Cadet College 
### School
* Barisal Zilla School
* Barisal Govt. Girls' High School

There is also a Physical education college, a Nursing institute and two Teacher's training colleges.

## References
37th G8 summit

summit meeting in Deauville]]

The **37th G8 summit** was held 26–27 May 2011 in the commune of Deauville in France.
   
## History
The Deauville summit of the Group of Eight (G8) was the 37th meeting in a series which began in 1976.  

 G8 summits have been hosted by France at Rambouillet (1975); Versailles (1982); Paris (1989); Lyon (1996);  and Évian-les-Bains (2003).

The G8 and the summit are part of a  process.  The G8 is not an international organization. It is an informal group.

## Participants 
 leaders walk to the first working session at summit in Deauville. Pictured, from left are: European Commission President Barroso; US President Obama; French President Sarkozy; Canadian Prime Minister Harper; Japanese Prime Minister Kan; German Chancellor Merkel; and British Prime Minister Cameron.]]

These summit s were the current " members" of the G8:

### Invited leaders 
Other national leaders are traditionally invited to attend the summit.
* '*** Essam Sharaf, Prime Minister
* **** Abdoulaye Wade, President
* **African Union*' (AU) Jean Ping, Chairman

## Schedule and Agenda 
Traditionally, the host country of the G8 summit sets the agenda. French general priorities included peace and security.

Discussions included some issues which remained unresolved from previous summits.  

Some of the specific topics on the agenda were: 
* Afghanistan; 
* G8 + Broader Middle East and North Africa (BMENA);
* The Internet: new challenges
* Non-proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction
* The G8's Partnership with Africa
* Transatlantic Cocaine Trafficking
* Counter-terrorism
* G8 political and security issues 

World events caused the list of topics to grow, including 
* Fukushima nuclear accident 
* European debt crisis 
* Selection of a new managing director for the International Monetary Fund

## Protesters and demonstrations 
Protest groups and others organized public events. In these demonstrations, the  *G8 dégage* ("G8 Go Away") was notable.

The demonstrators are widely understood to be against globalisation.

For some, the G8 summit became a profit-generating event. For example, the *G8 Summit* magazines have been published under the auspices of the host nations for distribution to all attendees since 1998.

## Related pages
* List of G8 summits

## References 
## Other websites
* University of Toronto: G8 Information Centre 
* G20-G8 France 2011 , official website
* Parliament.uk, Graphic shows G8 in context
San Cristóbal, Táchira

**San Cristobal** is the capital city of the Táchira State in Venezuela, a mountain state. It is located in the southwest region of Táchira. San Cristobal was founded by Juan de Maldonado in March 31, 1561. San Cristobal makes a frontier by the west with Cúcuta, Colombia; by the east with the Apure state; and by the north with the states of Zulia, Barinas and Trujillo.

## Education 
San Cristobal has a large student population. There are many post-secondary schools, both public and private, in San Cristobal. Major colleges and universities of San Cristobal are listed below:

*     Universidad Nacional Experimental del Táchira (UNET)
*     Universidad de los Andes (ULA)
*     Universidad Católica del Táchira (UCAT)
*     Universidad Nacional Experimental de las Fuerzas Amadas (UNEFA)
*     Universidad Nacional Abierta (UNA)
*     Instituto Universitario Politecnico Santiago Mariño
*     Instituto Universitario Antonio Jose de Sucre
*     Instituto Universitario Monseñor Talavera
*     Instituto Universitario Jesus Enrique Lozada

## Climate 
The weather in San Cristobal is tropical; the temperatures are between 19℃ and 28℃ (66&nbsp;°F and 83&nbsp;°F). San Cristobal is characterized has two seasons: summer and spring. The temperatures between those two seasons do not change a lot. However, there is more rain in the spring than in the summer.

## Political Divisions 
* Parroquia San Juan Bautista
* Parroquia La Concordia
* Parroquia Pedro María Morantes
* Parroquia San Sebastián
* Parroquia Francisco Romero Lobo

## Sports
The Deportivo Táchira Fútbol Club was founded in 1974 by Gaetano Greco. The Stadium of the Deportivo Tachira is located in the north side of San Cristobal, and it is called Polideportivo de Pueblo Nuevo, and it has a capacity for 38,755 people.

## Famous Citizens 
* Rafael de Nogales Méndez, soldier and writer.
* Isaías Medina Angarita, served in the military and former president of Venezuela.
* Manuel Felipe Rugeles, poet and journalist.
* Luis Felipe Ramón y Rivera, folklorist and musician.
* Francisco Arias Cárdenas, Former Governor of Zulia State, Presidential Candidate and Representat of Venezuela at the UN.
* Veruska Tatiana Ramírez, model and former Miss Venezuela.
* Giancarlo Maldonado, footballer.
* Tomas Rincon, footballer.
* Édgar Ramírez, actor.

## Notes 
:1.*Parroquia* is a section of the city.

## References 
## Other websites 
Official website
Aeronautical operations technician

The degree of '''Technicien aéronautique d'exploitation'* (TAE, in English aeronautical operations Technician) was created in 2011. It is recognized by CNCP, and recorded level IV in the *nomenclature des niveaux de formation'' (levels of training). The training is organized by the French Civil Aviation University.

## History 
The TAE course started in 1962. It was originally named « Agent d'Exploitation » (Handling Agent / Flight Dispatcher). The new name was introduced in November 2010.

## Training 
The training is in seven months in Toulouse or, since September 2012, on the Aerocampus » of Latresne. The curriculum propose, in substantially equal parts, general lessons of aeronautics and practical lessons : air navigation, telecommunications and aeronautical information, aircraft flight mechanics, navigation, avionics, meteorology, air operations, air law, English, ....

## Occupations 
The ''Technicien aéronautique d'exploitation'' is responsible for the flight preparation and flight planning, passengers, freight management and pricing. he works for an airline or an airport.

## Related pages 
* Technicien supérieur de l'aviation

## References 
## Further reading 
* Ariane Gilotte, Jean-Philippe Husson et Cyril Lazerge, ''50 ans d'Énac au service de l'aviation'', Édition S.E.E.P.P, 1999
* ENAC TAE course
6th G7 summit

The **6th G7 summit**  was a meeting in 1980 for the leaders of Canada, the European Commission, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom and the United States.

The  group of leaders were together in Italy on June 22-23. The meetings were held in Venice.

## History
The Venice summit of the Group of Seven (G7) was the 6th meeting in a series which began in 1976.  

This was the first G7 summit hosted by Italy.

The G8 and the summit are part of a  process.  The G8 is not an international organization. It is an informal group.

## Participants
The s were the " members" of the group:

Japanese Prime Minister Masayoshi Ohira had a fatal heart attack only 10 days before the summit.  The Foreign Minister led the Japanese delegation.

## Overview
The G7 leaders agreed to work together to break the link between oil consumption and economic growth.  Medium- and long-term policies were identified as important issues.

## Related pages
* G8
* List of G8 summits

## References
## Other websites
* University of Toronto: G8 Information Centre 
* Parliament.uk, Graphic shows G8 in context
Meghna River

The **Meghna River** is an important river in Bangladesh.  It is one of the three that forms the Ganges delta.  This delta is the largest on earth. The river meets Padma River in Chandpur District. The river ends in the Bay of Bengal in Bhola District.

Major tributaries of the Meghna include the Dhaleshwari River, Gumti River, and Feni River. The river's average depth is . The maximum depth is .

The Meghna is the widest river of those that are completely inside Bangladesh. At one point near Bhola, Meghna is 12&nbsp;km wide. In its lower parts this river follows almost a straight line. Despite its very calm and quiet look, this river is the cause of many deaths every year. Several ferry sinkings in the past have killed hundreds.  Near Chandpur it is very dangerous.

## References
## Other websites
Jatiya Sangsad

**Jatiya Sangsad** or **National Assembly** is the national parliament of Bangladesh. The current parliament of Bangladesh has 345 seats. This includes 45 seats held for women.  People who are in the Jatiya Sangsad are called Members of Parliament or MPs. The last 9th National Parliamentary Election was held on December 29, 2008.  Normally elections are every five years.

The leader of the party that has most of seats is the Prime Minister of Bangladesh. The President of Bangladesh, who is the ceremonial head of state, is picked by Parliament.

The parliament itself meets in the Jatiyo Sangshad Bhaban.  The current majority party is the Bangladesh Awami League.

Members of Parliament must be citizens of *only* Bangladesh and above the age of 25.

## Past parliamentary election results
## References
Independence Day of Bangladesh

The **Independence Day of Bangladesh** is a national holiday. It commemorates the country's declaration of independence from Pakistan. It is celebrated on 26 March. Independence Day is commonly associated with parades, political speeches, fairs, concerts, and ceremonies to celebrate the history and traditions of Bangladesh.

The Independence Day Award is the highest state award given by the Government of Bangladesh.

## References
Charyapada

The **Charyapada** is a collection of 8th-12th century Vajrayana Buddhist *caryagiti*.  They are mystical poems from the tantric tradition in eastern India. The Charyapada were meant to be sung. 

A manuscript of this anthology was found in the early 20th century. It shows early examples of the Assamese, Oriya, Maithili and Bengali languages. The writers of the Charyapada belonged to the various regions of Assam, Bengal, Orissa and Bihar. A Tibetan translation of the Charyapada was also kept in the Tibetan Buddhist canon. 

## References
Michael Madhusudan Dutt

**Michael Madhusudan Dutt,** or **Michael Madhusudan Dutta,** (25 January 1824 – 29 June 1873) was Bengali poet and dramatist.  He was the first great poet of modern Bangla literature. He was educated at the Hindu College, Kolkata. In 1843, he became a Christian. He was born in Sagordari, a village in Keshobpur Upozila, Jashore District, East Bengal (now in Bangladesh). He was a pioneer of Bengali drama. His famous work *Meghnad Badh Kavya*, is a tragic Novel, centring round the heroic figure of Indrajit, Ravan's son. It has nine cantos and is exceptional in Bengali literature both in terms of style and content. He also wrote poems about the sorrows and pains of love as spoken by women.  

From an early age, Dutt wanted to be an Englishman in form and manner. In later life, he regretted his attraction to England and the Occident.  He wrote lovingly of his homeland in his poems and sonnets from this period.

His early writings were in English, but they were unsuccessful. He turned, reluctantly at first, to Bengali. His main works, written mostly between 1858 and 1862, include prose drama, long narrative poems, and lyrics. His first play, *Sarmistha* (1858), was well received. His poetical works are *Tilottamasambhab* (1860), a narrative poem on the story of Sunda and Upasunda; *Meghnad Badh* (1861), his most important piece, an epic on the Rāmāyaṇa theme; *Brajangana* (1861), a cycle of lyrics on the *Rādhā-Kṛṣṇa* theme; and *Birangana* (1862), a set of 21 epistolary poems on the model of Ovid’s Heroides. 

Dutt is widely said to be one of the greatest poets in Bengali literature.  He is the father of the Bengali sonnet. He was the first to make what came to be called *amitrakshar chhanda* (blank verse). Dutt died in Kolkata, India on 29 June 1873.

## References
## Other websites
Sledgehammer Games

**Sledgehammer Games** is an American video game developer. It was founded in 2009 by Glen Schofield and Michael Condrey, who worked at Visceral Games and have been an important of the *Dead Space* franchise development.

## History 
Sledgehammer Games began to work on a  *Call of Duty* third-person shooter in 2009, which would have changed the series dramatically: they planned to turn it into an adventure game. But when Jason West and Vince Zampella, and many other employees from left Infinity Ward in spring 2010, Activision stopped the developement of that new game. Instead, they asked Sledgehammer Games to work with Infinity Ward to develop *Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3* together. Sledgehammer Games had spent six months working on the *Call of Duty* third-person shooter before they began working with Infinity Ward. In October 2011, Sledgehammer Games have said that they will likely cancel the third-person shooter development, but will maybe continue developing in the future.

## Reception 
Sledgehammer's first title, *Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3*, sold 6.8 million copies in the US and UK alone and grossed $470 million within 24 hours. It grossed more than $775 million globally in the first 5 days. *Modern Warfare 3* also topped the UK video game sales chart in the first seven days. By November 21, 2011, the game was the bestselling title in the United Kingdom, sales dropping by 87%. *Modern Warfare 3* was still the top spot on the UK charts in the third and fourth week. The PS3 version of *Modern Warfare 3* also topped the Japanese chart in its first week on sale. The PS3 version sold 180,372 copies, while the Xbox 360 version sold around 30,000.

## Games 
## References 
## Other websites 
* 
* *Call of Duty* website
* Activision website
Kazi Nazrul Islam

**Kazi Nazrul Islam** (25 May 1899&ndash;29 August 1976) was a Bengali poet, musician and revolutionary.  His nickname was "Rebel Poet". He was the first to make poems talking about intense spiritual rebellion against fascism and oppression. Nazrul is the national poet of Bangladesh. He is commemorated in India.

## Life
He was born into a Muslim family in India, Nazrul received religious education.  He worked as a muezzin at a local mosque. He learned of poetry, drama, and literature while working with theatrical groups. After being in the British Indian Army, Nazrul made himself a journalist in Kolkata (then Calcutta). He was against the British Raj in India.  He talked about revolution through his poetic works.  Some examples are "Bidrohi" ("The Rebel") and "Bhangar Gaan" ("The Song of Destruction"), as well as his publication "Dhumketu" ("The Comet"). His work in the Indian independence movement often led to going to jail by British authorities. While in prison, Nazrul wrote the "Rajbandir Jabanbandi" ("Deposition of a Political Prisoner"). 
## Writings
Nazrul's writings are about themes such as love, freedom, and revolution.  He was against all bigotry, including religious and gender.  Throughout his career, Nazrul wrote short stories, novels, and essays but is best known for his poems.  He started new forms such as Bengali ghazals. Nazrul wrote and composed music for his nearly 4,000 songs. They are collectively known as Complete Works of Kazi Nazrul Islam, which are widely popular today. At the age of 43 (in 1942) he began suffering from an unknown disease.  He was losing his voice and memory. It is often said, the reason was slow poisoning by British Government. He lived alone for many years. Invited by the Government of Bangladesh, Nazrul and his family moved to Dhaka in 1972.  He died four years later.

## References
## Other websites
Biryani

served with Indian dishes.]]

**Biryani**, **Biriani**, **Beryani** or **Beriani** is a dish that is popular in South Asia, that comes in set of rice-based foods made with spices, rice (usually basmati) and meat, fish, eggs or vegetables. The name comes from the Persian word *beryā(n)* which means "fried" or "roasted". 

The cooking method of Biryani came from Iran. It was brought to the Indian subcontinent by Iranian travelers and merchants. In India and Pakistan, the recipe of biryani developed to its current form. Local variants of this dish are popular not only in South Asia but also in Southeast Asia, Arabia, and their communities who reside in Western countries.

## Ingredients
The spices and condiments used in biryani may include, but are not limited to, ghee, nutmeg, mace, cumin, pepper, cloves, cardamom, cinnamon, bay leaves, coriander, mint leaves, ginger, onions, and garlic. The premium varieties include saffron. For a non-vegetarian biryani, the main ingredient with the spices is the meat—beef, chicken, goat, lamb, fish or shrimp. The dish may be served with dahi chutney or raita, korma, curry, a sour dish of eggplant (brinjal), boiled egg and salad.

Biryani and pullao are different. In biryani the rice (plain or fried) is cooked separately from the thick sauce (curry of meat or vegetables). The curry and the rice are then brought together and layered.  This makes a dish with contrasting flavors of rice, sauce and meat or vegetables. 

## References
## Other websites
Vesak

**Vesākha** or **Vesak** is a holy day.  It is observed traditionally by Buddhists in Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, India, Nepal and the South East Asian countries of Singapore, Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Malaysia, Burma, and Indonesia.  Sometimes it is called "Buddha's Birthday". It is basically Buddha's birthday and actually includes the birth, enlightenment (nirvāna), and passing away (Parinirvāna) of Gautama Buddha.

The exact date of Vesākha varies according to the lunar calendars used in different traditions. In Theravada countries following the Buddhist calendar, it falls on a full moon Uposatha day.  This is typically in the 5th or 6th lunar month. Vesākha Day in China is on the eighth of the fourth month in the Chinese lunar calendar. The date varies from year to year in the Western Gregorian calendar.  It usually falls in April or May. In leap years Vesākha is celebrated in June.

## References
Pohela Boishakh

, Bangladesh.]]

**Pôhela Boishakh** (**Bengali New Year**) is the first day of the Bengali calendar. It is on 14 April in Bangladesh and 15 April in other places. The holiday is celebrated in Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal.  It is also celebrated in Bengali communities in the other Indian states like Assam, Tripura, Jharkhand and Odisha and all over India as well where the Bengali community is. It is the same day as the New Year's Days of many Southern Asian calendars.

In Bangladesh, it is a national holiday .

In Bengali, Pohela means ‘first’. Baisakh is the first month of the Bengali calendar. 

*Boishakhi* fairs are held in many parts of the country. Various agricultural products, traditional handicrafts, toys, cosmetics, as well as various kinds of food and sweets are sold at these fairs. The fairs also provide entertainment, with singers and dancers. They present folk songs.  Among other attractions of these fairs are puppet shows and merry-go-rounds.

## References
## Other websites
Rangpur, Bangladesh

**Rangpur** is one of the major cities in Bangladesh. Rangpur is the centre of northwestern Bangladesh. Rangpur used to be the headquarter of *Greater Rangpur* district. Later the Greater Rangpur district was broken down into Rangpur, Kurigram, Nilphamari, Lalmonirhat and Gaibandha districts. A public university "Begum Rokeya University, Rangpur" was recently started in the southern part of the city. 

## Places of interest
* Tajhat Palace is at Tajhat, the southern end of Rangpur city. In 2004, it was largely fixed and turned into a museum.
* Carmichael College is in the southern part of the city.  It is just a few minutes drive from the city centre.
* Rangpur Zilla School, formed more than a century ago.

## Education
Major schools in the city include:

*Begum Rokeya College
*Carmichael College
*Colectorate School and College
*Policelines School and College
*Rangpur Cadet College
*Rangpur Cantonment Public College
*Rangpur Government College
*Rangpur Medical College
*Rangpur Polytechnic Institute
*Rangpur University
*Rangpur Zilla School

## Notable residents
*William Beveridge, British economist who wrote the *Beveridge Report*. 
*Begum Rokeya Shakhawat Hossain who was most famous for her efforts on behalf of gender equality and other social issues.
*Hussain Muhammad Ershad, former President of Bangladesh.
*Nasir Hossain, prominent Bangladeshi all-round cricketer.
*Anisul Hoque, author, novelist, dramatist, and journalist.

File:Sir W.H. Beveridge, head-and-shoulders portrait, facing left.jpg|William Beveridge
Image:Begum Rokeya.jpg|Begum Rokeya
Hussain Muhammad Ershad.jpg|Hussain Muhammad Ershad
Anisul Hoque.jpg|Anisul Hoque
Magpie-robin

The **magpie-robins** or **shamas** are medium-sized  birds.  They mostly eat insects.  Some also eat berries and other fruit.  They are in the genera *Copsychus* and *Trichixos*. They were used to be in the thrush family Turdidae.  They are now treated as part of the Old World flycatcher Muscicapidae.

These are African and Asian garden and forest dwelling species.

Species list:
* Madagascar Magpie-robin, *Copsychus albospecularis*
* Oriental Magpie-robin, *Copsychus saularis*
* White-rumped Shama, *Copsychus malabaricus*
* Seychelles Magpie-robin, *Copsychus sechellarum*
* White-browed Shama, *Copsychus luzoniensis*
* White-vented Shama, *Copsychus niger*
* Black Shama, *Copsychus cebuensis*
* Rufous-tailed Shama, *Trichixos pyrropyga*

## References
Juliette Binoche

**Juliette Binoche** (born 9 March 1964) is a French actress. She was born in Paris. Her maternal grandparents were Poles. She won an Academy Award for her role in the movie *Chocolat*. She won a BAFTA Award for her role as Hana in *The English Patient*. 

## References
## Other websites 
*
Ektara

**Ektara** (literally "one-string", also called **iktar**, '**, **yaktaro** **gopichand'*) is a one-string instrument.  It is most often used in traditional music from Bangladesh, India, Egypt, and Pakistan.

The ektara was a regular string instrument of wandering bards and minstrels from India.  It is plucked with one finger. The ektara usually has a stretched single string.  An animal skin is over a head made of dried pumpkin/gourd, wood or coconut.  The neck is a pole or split bamboo cane. 

Pressing the two halves of the neck together loosens the string.  This lowers its pitch. The sound can be changed many ways by slight changes in pressure.  

The various sizes of ektara are soprano, tenor, and bass. The bass ektara, sometimes called a *dotara'' often has two strings.

## Other websites