open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Sunlight

and of its radiation.]]
**Sunlight** is the light and energy that comes from the Sun. When this energy reaches the earth's surface, it is called insolation. What we experience as sunlight is really **solar radiation**. It is the radiation and heat from the Sun in the form of electromagnetic waves.

The atmosphere affects the amount of solar radiation received. When solar radiation travels through the atmosphere, some of it is absorbed by the atmosphere (16%). Some of it is scattered to space (6%). Some of it is reflected by clouds (28%). About 47% of it reaches the Earth's surface.

Without sunlight, there could not be life on the Earth. Plants need sunlight for the process of photosynthesis. During photosynthesis the plants use the energy of the sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide, to create glucose (sugar). The glucose can later be used by the plant for energy or animals eat the plant and the glucose in it. Plants need sunlight to grow green. Without enough sunlight but with enough water, the plant grows very tall very quickly, but looks yellow and dehydrated, although when touched, the leaves are very moist.

Solar radiation can be both good and bad for a person's health. When in the light, the human body uses the ultraviolet part of sunlight to make its own Vitamin D. Without sunscreen too much ultraviolet light can cause sunburn and skin cancer.  Sun angle makes difference in seasons on Earth as well as in the length of day and night.  A high angle makes the tropics hot, and a low angle makes the arctic cold.

## Intensity of sunlight on planets of Solar System
.]]Different bodies of the Solar System receive sunlight of different intensities. The table compares the amount of light received by each planet on the Solar System follows:

## Use of solar energy
Solar energy is used in many different ways by people all over the world both in its traditional way for heating, cooking or drying and to make electricity where other power supplies are absent, such as in remote places on Earth or in the space. Sometimes, it is cheaper to make electricity from sunlight than from coal or oil.

## References 
## Other websites
*Solar radiation - Encyclopedia of Earth
Plesiosaur

The **plesiosaurs** were an order of large, carnivorous marine reptiles. They flourished from 203 million years ago (mya) to 66 mya.

In 1719, William Stukeley described the first partial skeleton of a plesiosaur. The great-grandfather of Charles Darwin, Robert Darwin of Elston told him about it.

Mary Anning was the first to discover a fairly complete plesiosaur. She found it on the 'Jurassic Coast' of Dorset, England in the winter of 1820/21. The fossil was missing its skull, but in 1823 she found another one, this time complete with its skull. The name *Plesiosaurus* was given to it by the Rev. William Conybeare. 

The earliest plesiosaur remains are from the Middle Triassic period.p128 The group was important through the Jurassic and Cretaceous. They had two large pairs of paddles, short tails, short or long necks, and broad bodies. They died out at the K/T extinction event, 65 million years ago.

## Description 
Plesiosaurs had many bones in their flippers, making them . No modern animal has this four-paddle anatomy: modern turtles use their forelimbs for swimming. Plesiosaurs were mainly piscivorous animals. The most famous members of this family include *Plesiosaurus*, *Elasmosaurus*, *Dolichorhynchops* and *Styxosaurus*.

### Pliosaurs 
The pliosaurs were a group of mostly large submarine predators with short necks and large heads. Their sizes ranged from two to 15 metres, and they were predators of large fish and other reptiles. Their streamlined body shape suggests they swam and ate under water. *Liopleurodon, Rhomaleosaurus* and *Kronosaurus* are amongst the most famous members of this group. 
### Long-necked plesiosaurs 
There were three families of long-necked plesiosaurs, who evidently had a different life-style from the pliosaurs. It was suggested by D.M.S. Watson that their method was as surface swimmers, darting down to snatch smaller fish which were feeding on plankton. It is hard to see the benefit of a long neck under water; aquatic mammals operating under water all have a streamlined torpedo-shape, as did pliosaurs and ichthyosaurs. All the longer-necked familiers were, from the setting of the teeth and jaws, eaters of small fish. However, some at least were bottom-feeders, consuming various prey. Digestion of shellfish was aided by gastroliths. These plesiosaurs included elasmosaurs, styxosaurs and plesiosaurs.

#### Gastroliths 
Plesiosaurs have been found with fossils of belemnites (squid-like animals), and ammonites (giant nautilus-like molluscs) associated with their stomachs. But plesiosaurs could not crack shells. Instead, they probably swallowed them whole. In the belly of a plesiosaur were "stomach stones", which are called *gastroliths.* These stones moved around in the plesiosaur's stomach and cracked or  the shells of the animals it ate. One *Styxosaurus* fossil found in Dakota had 253 gatroliths weighing a total of 29 pounds.

## Live birth? 
Live birth has been proved for ichthyosaurs, but is uncertain for plesiosaurs.  

## False plesiosaurs 
False plesiosaurs include *Megacephalosaurus, Halisaurus, Tylosaurus, Mosasaurus* and *Thalassotitan*.

## References
Theism

**Theism** is the religious belief that at least one god exists while rejecting the existence or importance of polytheistic gods or goddesses. In a broader definition it can also be the belief in God or gods in general, including all types of god-belief. Polytheism is the belief in several gods, while monotheism is the belief in just one god. For example, a theistic religion is Christianity. The opposite to a theist is an atheist. An atheist is a person who denies or disbelieves the existence of a supreme being or beings.

## Different theisms 
### Definitions 
To define the theisms, we can split them all into different groups based on their views on God:
* Atheism is the opposite of theism: atheists do not believe in *any* gods or deities.
* Agnosticism is believing we cannot know whether god(s) exist.
* Ignosticism says it does not matter whether God exists or not, and there is no point in considering it until we understand how to understand God.
* Gnosticism is believing that we *can* know for certain whether a god(s) exist.

#### Combined theisms 
Gnosticism and agnosticism can be combined with other forms of theism. For example, it is possible to be an agnostic atheist, or a gnostic theist. In common usage, some people group atheism and agnosticism together under the group of nontheism — absence of clear belief in any deity.

## Types 
The main types of theism are:
* Polytheism — believing that many gods or goddesses exist (sometimes known as paganism)
* Monotheism — belief that only one god exists (Christians, Muslims and Jews believe in monotheism.) 
* Ditheism — belief that two gods exist and they are both equal.

### Other types 
Other types of theism include:
* Animism: believing that everything is alive and spirits are in all things, and that all things have souls.
* Monolatry: there is (or may be) more than one god, but they are all expressions of the supreme god.
* Henotheism: there is (or may be) more than one god, but only one is the supreme.
* Kathenotheism: there is more than one god, but only one at a time should be worshipped. Each is supreme in turn.

* classical theism - God/gods are separate from the world and created it and influence it. This always occurs in traditional Abrahamic monotheistic and also polytheistic religions
* pantheism — god and the universe are the same
* panentheism — the universe is part of god
* dystheism or maltheism — that god or the gods are evil.
* Irreligious theism— is the belief that there is a higher being, pray and believe in one God (or sometimes many gods), but doesn't follow organized religion. It is theism as the belief in God who created the world and influences it without religion, its principles, dogmas and doctrines and following it.
* deism — believing that god(s) exist, but that they do not take part in our lives.

## Related pages 
*Theodicy
*Atheism

## References
Sardinia

**Sardinia** (, Sardinian: *Sardigna*) is the second largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. It is an autonomous region of Italy. It was formerly the Kingdom of Sardinia.

The official name is, in Italian, ***Regione Autonoma della Sardegna***.The capital and largest city is Cagliari.

## Geography
The island of Sardinia has an area of  and, after Sicily, is the second largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. It is  long from North to South, and  wide from West to East. It lies between 38° 51' and 41° 15' latitude north and 8° 8' and 9° 50' longitude east.

The island is on the western Mediterranean Sea, between the island of Corsica to the north and Tunisia to the south. The Tyrrhenian Sea part of the Mediterranean is directly east of Sardinia, between the Sardinian east coast and the west coast of the Italian mainland peninsula.

The Strait of Bonifacio (, , Gallurese: *Bocchi di Bunifaciu*, ) is the strait between Corsica and Sardinia, named after the Corsican town Bonifacio. It is   wide  and divides the Tyrrhenian Sea from the western Mediterranean Sea.

### Rivers
Sardinia has few major rivers, the largest being the Tirso,  long, which flows into the western Mediterranean Sea, the Coghinas () and the Flumendosa ().

### Mountains and valleys
The highest peak is Punta La Marmora (), part of the Gennargentu group of mountains in the centre of the island. Other mountain chains are Monte Limbara () in the northeast, the Chain of Marghine and Goceano () running crosswise for  towards the north, the Monte Albo (), the Sette Fratelli massif in the southeast, and the Sulcis Mountains and the Monte Linas ().

The mountain chains of the island are separated by wide valleys; the main ones are Campidano in the southwest between Oristano and Cagliari, and the Nurra in the northwest.

### Islands
There are many small islands around the main island of Sardinia. Some of them are:
* Maddalena Archipelago, to the northeast
* Asinara, to the northwest
* San Pietro Island, to the southwest
* Sant'Antioco, to the southwest

## Administrative divisions
Sardinia is divided in eight provinces:

## References
## Other websites
* Official Sardinia Tourism website in English
* Official regional website in Italian 
* Sardegna DigitalLibrary - La memoria digitale della Sardegna
Samobor

**Samobor** is a city in Zagreb County, Croatia, population 36,206 (2001). It is west of Zagreb, between the eastern slopes of Samoborsko gorje (Samobor hills, the eastern part of the Žumberak Mountains), in the Sava river valley. It is part of the Zagreb metropolitan area.

Samobor has been there since 1242, according to a document of endowment by King Bela IV. It is one of the earliest tourist resorts in the region, with the first tourist facilities dating back to 1810, oriented towards anglers, hunters and hikers.
Cook Islands

The **Cook Islands** are a group of islands in the southern Pacific. They form an independent state, but have strong ties with New Zealand. The 15 small islands have a total land surface of 240 square kilometers. About 18.000 people live on the islands, most of them from tourism. The largest island, Rarotonga, also holds the territory's capital, Avarua.

The nation also has a distinctive Polynesian language known as Cook Island Maori, which is closely related to the Maori language of New Zealand and to the Tahitian language. 

Foreign relations: Relations with the United States were started in 2023. Relations with China were started earlier.

History: The Rarotonga Treaty was signed in 1986; Cook Islands is (as of the 2020s) still in an area that is supposed to be without any nuclear weapons.

Image:Rarotonga Cook Islands.jpg|A beach on Rarotonga
Image:Aitutaki from top 2006.jpg|A photo taken from Aituaki

## References
Punishment

**Punishment** is when something is done to a person (or animal) that they do not like. It may be because they broke a rule. There are many kinds of punishment, from a death penalty for very bad crimes, to things that parents  may do to punish children, like spanking them or taking away their toys. People are often sent to prison as punishment for a crime.

Punishment can be seen as good in society to prevent people from doing bad things. It can also be seen as cruel and unnecessary. It can also be seen to do more harm than good.

## Related pages 
*Cruel and unusual punishment
*Deterrence (legal)
*Torture
*Zero tolerance
Om

The two letters, **Om** or **OM** can mean:
*Order of Merit, a British and Commonwealth award.
*Another way of spelling Aum, a sacred Hindu word.
Frankfurt (Oder)

**Frankfurt (Oder)** or **Frankfurt an der Oder** (; abbreviated ''*, , Low Sorbian: *Frankobrod nad Odru*, , Upper Sorbian: *Frankobrod nad Wódru'', lit. 'Frankfurt at the Oder') is a town in Germany. It lies on the Oder river, which marks the current border between Germany and Poland (The so-called Oder-Neisse line). It's in the east of the state of Brandenburg.

In January 1999, the town added a prefix *Kleiststadt* to refer to Heinrich von Kleist, who was born there in 1777. Today, about 65,000 people are living in Frankfurt an der Oder.

## Well-known people 
* Manuela Schwesig (born 1974), politician

## References 
## Other websites
Porpoise

**Porpoises** are  mammals that live in the ocean. They are in the order *Cetacea*. They form the family ***Phocoenidae***. There are six species of porpoise. The porpoise is a common whale found along Chinese coasts. Porpoises have been effectively sustained for over twenty-five years by research and teaching institutions such as Fjored & Baelt in Denmark. To demonstrate effective supervision and stimulation in captivity, F&B harbor porpoises participate in daily training sessions for scientific study and educational awareness. 

## Taxonomy 
* Family *Phocoenidae*:
** Finless porpoise (*Neophocaena phocaenoides*)
** Vaquita (*Phocoena sinus*)
** Harbour porpoise (*Phocoena phocoena*)
** Burmeister's porpoise (*Phocoena spinipinnis*)
** Spectacled porpoise (*Phocoena dioptrica*)
** Dall's porpoise (*Phocoenoides dalli*)

## Appearance 
Porpoises look much like dolphins, but they are different in some ways: They are smaller and more stout. They have spade-shaped teeth, rounded heads, blunt jaws, and triangular dorsal fins.

## Images 

Image:Dallsporpoise06.jpg|Dall's porpoise
Image:Tuemmler-drawing.jpg|A drawing of a Harbour porpoise.

## Related pages 
* Whale
* Dolphin

## References
Cetacea

; 2- Orca; 3- Right whale; 4- Sperm whale; 5- Narwhal; 6- Blue whale; 7- Rorqual; 8- Beluga]]

The order **Cetacea** are marine mammals that live in oceans, seas and even a few rivers around the world. Whales, dolphins and porpoises are part of this group. These common names refer to size: whales are the largest, porpoises the smallest. How and what they eat is a better guide to their relationships. The study of cetaceans is called cetology.

Cetaceans are ocean creatures without toes, but are classified in the related order Cetartiodactyla because their ancestors were even toed ungulates.

## Taxonomy 
* Infraorder **Cetacea**
** Parvorder **Mysticeti**: Baleen whales
*** Family **Balaenidae**: Right whales and Bowhead whale
**** Bowhead whale, *Balaena mysticetus*
**** Genus *Eubalaena*: Right whales
***** North Atlantic right whale, *Eubalaena glacialis*
***** North Pacific right whale, *Eubalaena japonica*
***** Southern right whale, *Eubalaena australis*
*** Family **Balaenopteridae**: Rorquals
**** Genus *Balaenoptera*
***** Blue whale, *Balaenoptera musculus*
***** Fin whale, *Balaenoptera physalus*
**** Humpback whale, *Megaptera novaeangliae*
*** Family **Eschrichtiidae**
**** Gray whale, *Eschrichtius robustus*
*** Family **Neobalaenidae**
**** Pygmy right whale, *Caperea marginata*
** Suborder **Odontoceti**: Toothed whales
*** Family **Delphinidae**: Oceanic dolphins
*** Family **Phocoenidae**: Porpoises
*** Family **Monodontidae**
**** Beluga, *Delphinapterus leucas*
**** Narwhal, *Monodon monoceros*
*** Family **Physeteridae**: Sperm whales
**** Sperm whale, *Physeter catodon*
**** Dwarf sperm whale, *Kogia sima*
**** Pygmy sperm whale, *Kogia breviceps*
*** Family Ziphiidae
**** Cuvier's beaked whale, *Ziphia cavirostris*
*** Superfamily **Platanistoidea**: River dolphins
Scottish language

**Scottish language** can mean:
*Scottish Gaelic language - the Celtic language spoken in Scotland today
*Scots language - a West Germanic idiom spoken in parts of Scotland, Northern Ireland, and Donegal, Ireland
*Scottish English - the group of dialects of the English language currently used in Scotland
Blue whale

The **blue whale** (*Balaenoptera musculus*) is a marine mammal of the suborder of baleen whales (called Mysticeti). They grow to be about  long. The biggest blue whale found was  and measured  long. Larger specimens have been measured at , but never been weighed. This makes blue whales the largest animals to ever live on Earth, even bigger than the largest dinosaurs. 

The blue whale eats mostly very tiny creatures, like krill, which had decreased in population by 19%-29% due to the consumption of whales.These inch-long, shrimp-like crustacean swim in large swarms. In the Antarctic summer, there are so many of these krill that they turn the waters orange. A blue whale can eat  of krill every day, Which had caused a rapid weight gain in whales, especially in the humpback whales.

The blue whale's body is long and slender. It can be various shades of bluish-grey above and somewhat lighter underneath. There are at least three different subspecies: *B. m. musculus* of the North Atlantic and North Pacific, *B. m. intermedia* of the Southern Ocean and *B. m. brevicauda* (also known as the pygmy blue whale) found in the Indian Ocean and South Pacific Ocean. *B. m. indica*, found in the Indian Ocean, may be another subspecies. As with other baleen whales, its diet consists almost exclusively of small krill.

Blue whales were once numerous around the world. In the nineteenth century, they were hunted almost to extinction by whalers. They were finally protected by the International Community in 1966. A 2002 report estimated there were 5,000 to 12,000 blue whales worldwide, located in at least five groups. More recent research into the Pygmy subspecies suggests this may be an underestimate. Before whaling, the largest population was in the Antarctic, numbering approximately 239,000 (range 202,000 to 311,000). There remain only much smaller (around 2,000) concentrations in each of the eastern North Pacific, Antarctic, and Indian Ocean groups. There are two more groups in the North Atlantic, and at least two in the Southern Hemisphere. The North Atlantic group of Blue Whales can be seen in the Saguenay-St. Lawrence Marine Park near Tadoussac QC, Canada.

## References
Germanic languages

The **Germanic** languages are a group of Indo-European languages. They came from one language, Proto-Germanic, which was first spoken in Scandinavia in the Iron Age. Today, the Germanic languages are spoken by around 515 million people as a first language. English is the most spoken Germanic language, with 360-400 million native speakers.

The Germanic languages are the East Germanic languages (all extinct), the North Germanic languages, and the West Germanic languages. 

When Proto-Germanic split from Proto-Indo-European, one of the main changes to the sounds in the language was Grimm’s law.

## References
## Sources
* 
* 

## Related pages 
*Runes
Punjabi

**Punjabi** might mean:

* Something related to the Panjab region in Pakistan and India
** Panjab (India), a state of India
** Panjab (Pakistan), a province of Pakistan
** Islamabad Capital Territory (Pakistan)
** Haryana (India) 
** Himachal Pradesh (India)
** Delhi (India)
* Panjabi language
* Panjabi people, an ethnic group from the Panjab region in Pakistan and India
* Punjabi dialects, dialects of Punjabi language.

## Related pages
*Punjab, a disambiguation page
Scottish Gaelic language

**Scottish Gaelic** (*Gàidhlig*, pronounced "Gah-lick") is a Celtic language that is commonly called just **Scots Gaelic** in Scottish English. It is a sister language of Irish and Manx, all of which are Goidelic languages. They are related to Welsh, Cornish and Breton, which are Brythonic languages. All of them are Celtic languages.
## History
Scottish Gaelic was once spoken across all of Scotland except for the Northern Islands (Orkney and Shetland). In the Late Middle Ages, the kings of Scotland began to speak Scottish English and looked down on the Scottish Gaelic. After the 1707 union of England and Scotland to form Great Britain, Scottish Gaelic was looked down on even more, and its speakers changed to Scottish English.
## Today
Scottish Gaelic today is basically spoken in the Outer Hebrides and on Skye. Generally speaking, Scottish Gaelic spoken across the Western Isles is similar enough to be classed as one major dialect group, but there is some regional variation. The 2001 census in the United Kingdom showed that in Scotland, 58,652 (1.2% of the Scottish population aged over three years old) could then speak some amount of Scottish Gaelic. Only the Western Isles have more people who can speak Scottish Gaelic than not since 61% of the people speak it. Barvas, on the Isle of Lewis, has 74.7% of its residents speaking Scottish Gaelic, the largest percentage of speakers in Scotland.

Children in Scotland do not have to learn Scottish Gaelic in schools, but it is becoming a more popular subject, as Scottish Gaelic is an important part of Scottish culture. Scottish Gaelic is also used overseas. It is estimated that 1,000 to 2,000 in Nova Scotia, Canada, can speak some Scottish Gaelic.

Also, there is a dialect called "Canadian Gaelic" outside Scotland with thousands of speakers.

## References
Nuclear reactor

A **nuclear reactor** is a machine that uses fission to generate heat. There are different designs which use different fuels. Most often,  uranium-235 or plutonium-239 are the main components of these fuels.

Most nuclear reactors are power reactors, used to make electricity. In nuclear power plants heat from the fission reactions in the reactor changes water into steam.  The steam is then used to power electric turbines which make electricity. Some small power reactors run nuclear submarines.  As with other steam engines, the turbines take energy from the movement of the steam. 

Some reactors are used for other purposes. Some reactors make neutrons for scientific research and others make radioactive isotopes. Some universities have small nuclear reactors to teach students how reactors work.

The first nuclear reactor was built in 1942 by a team of scientists led by Enrico Fermi. This was a part of the Manhattan Project which needed the fuel from the reactor to make the atomic bomb.

Nuclear reactors are expensive to build because of the many safety features they need to have. There is also a problem with the huge amount of radioactive waste from the reactors. However, they produce electricity cheaply, and do not pollute the air. There have been serious accidents at several nuclear reactors: Windscale (UK) 1957, Mayak (USSR) 1957, Three Mile Island (USA) 1979, Chornobyl (USSR) 1986 and Fukushima (Japan) 2011. Safety concerns have limited the growth of nuclear power. There are about 437 reactors around the world which provide about 5% of the world's electricity.

## References
## Other websites
*Images for nuclear reactors
*Nuclear Power Reactors 
*Recent videos of nuclear reactorsweapon nuclear accidents Chernobyl plant Fukushima plant books
Gujarati

**Gujarati** might mean:

*Anything related to Gujarat, a state in India
* Gujarati people
* Gujarati language

PATEL family tree:
Shooting star

A **shooting star** is the common name for the visible path of a meteoroid as it enters the atmosphere.  A shooting star is also broken pieces of meteors that have become broken off in space.

**Shooting star** could also mean:
* Shooting Star (band), a rock band from Kansas City, MO
* Shooting Star (comics), a character from Marvel Comics
* P-80 Shooting Star, a United States Army Air Forces jet fighter
* T-33 Shooting Star,  an American-built jet trainer
* Shooting Star Children's Hospice, a UK children's charity

An **album**:
* *Shooting Star* (album), an album by the band of the same name
* *Shooting Star* (Elkie Brooks album), a 1978 album
**The Shooting Star*, an adventure from the comic book series Tintin

**Shooting star** may also be:
*Dodecatheon, a genus of herbaceous flowering plants
* A professional wrestling aerial technique
* An award for young European actors at the Berlin International Film Festival

**See also**:
* "Shooting Star" (song)
* Shooting Stars FC, a Nigerian football club
* *Shooting Stars*, a British comedy television show
* *Shooting Stars* (Singapore television series)
* "Shooting Stars" a poem by Carol Ann Duffy concerning the holocaust
West Germanic languages

The **West Germanic Languages** are a branch of Germanic languages first spoken in Central Europe and the British Isles. The branch has three parts: the North Sea Germanic languages, the Weser-Rhine Germanic languages, and the Elbe Germanic languages. The most spoken languages in the branch are English, German, and Dutch. 

These languages were spread around the world in the Colonial Era. English is now spoken by around 400 million people natively.

## Branches
There are three branches of West Germanic languages:
* **North Sea Germanic / Ingvaeonic languages**
** Anglo-Frisian languages
*** English Languages/Anglic
**** English
**** Scots
**** Yola (extinct)
**** Fingalian (extinct)
*** Frisian languages
**** West Frisian
**** East Frisian
**** North Frisian
** Low German / Low Saxon
*** Northern Low Saxon
*** Schleswig dialects
*** Holstein dialects
*** Westphalian
*** Eastphalia dialects
*** Brandenburg dialects ("Märkisch")
*** Pomeranian (moribund)
*** Low Prussian (moribund)
*** Dutch Low Saxon
* **Weser-Rhine Germanic / Istvaeonic languages / Netherlandic / Low Frankish**
** Dutch
*** West Flemish
*** East Flemish
*** Zeelandic
*** Hollandic
*** Brabantine
*** Clevian/Meuse-Rhenish
*** Limburgian
** Afrikaans
* **Elbe Germanic / Irminonic languages / High German**
** German
*** Alemannic, including Swiss German and Alsatian
*** Swabian
*** Austro-Bavarian
*** East Franconian
*** South Franconian
*** Rhine Franconian, including the dialects of Hessen, Pennsylvania German, and most of those from Lorraine
*** Ripuarian
*** Thuringian
*** Upper Saxon German
*** Silesian (moribund)
*** Lombardic  Langobardic (extinct, unless Cimbrian and Mocheno are in fact Langobardic remnants.)
*** High Prussian (moribund)
** Luxembourgish
** Pennsylvania German language
** Yiddish (a language based on Eastern-Central dialects of late Middle High German/Early New High German)

## References
## Sources
*
Greenlandic

**Greenlandic** could mean:
*Anything relating to Greenland or its people
*Greenlandic language, the modern languages of Greenland
*Occasionally, the Danish language as spoken in Greenland
Midland, Texas

**Midland** is a city in the American state of Texas. It is called Midland, because it is the midway point between two bigger cities in Texas, Fort Worth and El Paso. Oil was discovered in the region in 1923 and is still a larger part of the economy.

Midland is also famous as the hometown of former First Lady Barbara Walker Bush. She and her husband, former president George H. W. Bush lived there, with their children including the later US President George W. Bush and his wife Laura, and his brother Jeb Bush, the former Governor of Florida.

## History
Many of the Confederate monuments and buildings have been removed or renamed. 
*Prior to 2002, the Commemorative Air Force was the Confederate Air Force.
*In October 2020, the Midland Independent School District voted 5-2 to rename Robert E. Lee High School to Legacy High School. In August 2025, the Board voted 4-3 to change the name back to Lee High School.

## References
Mosel-Saar-Ruwer

**Mosel-Saar-Ruwer** is a German wine-growing-region in the valleys of the rivers Moselle, Saar and Ruwer near Koblenz and Trier, Rhineland-Palatinate. It is famous for its wines of Riesling, Elbling and Müller-Thurgau grapes. 

There are the following six sub-regions with 19 large vineyards: 

*Region Cochem / Untermosel
**Weinhex
**Goldbäumchen
**Rosenhang
**Grafschaft
**Schwarze Katz (Zell)

*Region Bernkastel / Mittelmosel
**Vom heißen Stein (Reil)
**Schwarzlay
**Nacktarsch (Kröv)
**Münzlay
**Badstube (Bernkastel)
**Beerenlay
**Kurfürstlay 
**Michelsberg
**St. Michael
**Probstberg
**Römerlay

*Region Ruwer

*Region Saar

*Region Obermosel
**Königsberg
**Gipfel

*Region Moseltor
**Schloß Bübinger (Perl)

## Other websites 
*Mosel-Saar-Ruwer
Ruwer River

The **Ruwer** is a river in Germany with a length of , a tributary of the Mosel River.  The valley of the Ruwer is a part of the wine-growing region Mosel-Saar-Ruwer near Trier in Rhineland-Palatinate. It is famous for its Riesling wines.

At the lower Ruwer valley are the villages Waldrach, Kasel, Mertesdorf, Eitelsbach and Ruwer.

## Tributaries
Tributaries are Alkenbach, Altbach, Altweiherbach, Apfelbach, Avelbach, Bausbach, Benninger Bach, Bingelbach, Burg Heider Bach, Burkelsbach, Eitelsbach, Enterbach, Eschbach, Eselsbach, Flonterbach, Gimpelbach, Gondersbach, Grindelbach, Großbach, Hinzerter Bach, Kittelbach, Klinkbach, Kreidbach, Kundelbach, Labach, Lehbach, Misselbach, Moertschelbach, Mühlscheider Bach, Pehlbach, Rauruwer, Rimperterbach, Riveris, Rothbach, Siebenbornbach, Thielenbach, Waldbach, Waschbach, Weiherbach, Wenigbach, Wenzelbach and Weschbach.
Ruwer

**Ruwer** could mean:

* Ruwer River, in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany
* Ruwer (municipality), a convention community (Verbandsgemeinde) in Rhineland-Palatinate
* Ruwer (suburb), a suburban part of Trier
* Ruwer (region), a part of the German wine-growing region Mosel-Saar-Ruwer near Trier
Slug

**Slug** is a general term for a gastropod mollusc which has no shell, or just a small internal shell. 

Slugs belong to several different families which also include snails with shells. Snails are gastropods with a coiled shell large enough for the animal to pull back inside. The families of land slugs are not very closely related, despite looking similar. The shell-less slug type is an example of convergent evolution, and so the category "slug" is not a taxonomic category.

The name "slug" is used for air-breathing land slugs, while the marine forms are usually known as sea slugs. Land gastropods with a shell that is too small to hide the body are sometimes called *semislugs*.

## Body parts and behaviour 
Like land snails, most slugs have four 'feelers' or *tentacles* on their head. The upper two (the "optical tentacles") see light and have eyespots at the ends, while the lower two (the "sensory tentacles") are used for smelling. The tentacles are retractable and can regrow if lost. 

On top of the slug, behind the head, is a body part called the *mantle,* and under this are the genital opening and anus. On one side (almost always the right side) of the mantle is a breathing hole, which is easy to see when open, but difficult to see when closed. Inside the mantle in some species is a very small, flat shell.

The bottom of a snail is called a "foot". Like other snails, a slug moves by rhythmic waves of muscle contraction on the bottom of its foot. At the same time, it secretes a layer of mucus on which it travels, which helps prevent damage to the foot. Around the edge of the foot is the 'foot fringe'. 

Some slug species hibernate underground during the winter in places with cold winters, but in other species, the adults die in the autumn.
Ruwer (municipality)

]]

**Ruwer** is a municipality (a convention community called *Verbandsgemeinde* Ruwer) on the River Ruwer. The administrative offices are in the town of Waldrach, and it should not be confused with the nearby town of Ruwer, which is for administrative purposes a part of the city of Trier.

## Members 
## Photos 

Image:Grueneberg-mertesdorf-trier.jpg|Grueneberg
Image:Naumeter-kupp.jpg|Naumeter Kopf
Image:Roesterkopf-anlage.jpg|upright|Roesterkopf

## Related pages 
*Ruwer-Hochwald-Radweg

## Other websites 
* Homepage of the municipality
* Touristinformation Ruwer
Gunpowder

**Gunpowder** (or **gun powder**) is a mix of chemical substances (75% saltpeter, 15% charcoal and 10% sulfur). It is used primarily in firearms, burns very quickly, and creates gases. Those gases use up more space than the gunpowder they come from, so they push outward. If the gunpowder is in a small space, the gases will push on the walls of the space, building up pressure. In a gun, the pressure pushes against a bullet, causing it to fly out at high speeds. If the pressure became too high, it could destroy the gun barrel.

Gunpowder was invented by the Chinese. The first references of black powder, the original form of gunpowder, date to the 9th century. According to legend, Chinese alchemists were looking for a formula to create the elixir of life, or the mythical potion that causes whoever drinks it to become immortal, when they accidentally created gunpowder. Because the powder was highly flammable, or burned very easily, they decided to call it "fire medicine" (Simplified Chinese: 火药 / Traditional Chinese: 火藥). The Chinese soon weaponized the substance, or made weapons out of it. In later centuries they made many weapons using gunpowder, including rockets, bombs, flamethrowers, and land mines, before making cannons and guns. The oldest weapon that uses gunpowder dates back to a bronze handheld cannon made in northeastern China in 1288. The first mention in Europe was in the 13th century when Roger Bacon described the formula of black powder. Gunpowder was extremely valuable to the Chinese civilization, in fact so valuable that sometimes it was traded for gold.

## Other websites 
* Gunpowder -Citizendium

## References
Pot Noodle

**Pot Noodle** is a type of cup noodle sold in the United Kingdom. They contain noodles, soya pieces, vegetables, and seasoning powder with a packet of sauce that can be added to taste.

## Available products 
Pot noodles are available in several varieties:
*Beef and Tomato
*Bombay Bad Boy
*Chicken and Mushroom
*Chow Mein
*Hot Chicken Curry
*Seedy Sanchez (Mexican fajita flavour)
*Southern Fried Chicken
*Spicy Curry
*Sticky Rib 
*Sweet and Sour
*Sweet 'n' Spicy - formally "Nice 'n' Spicy"
*The Sizzler (bacon flavour)
*Mac n’ Cheese 
*Chicken korma
*Thai green curry
Churning of the Ocean

**Churning of the Ocean** is a mythical story of Hinduism and Hindu mythology. It is described in many Hindu scriptures, especially in the Mahabharata and the Puranas. The story tells about the churning of the ocean by the gods and the demons.

From this churning of the ocean, several things came out of the ocean. Some of them were:

#Surabhi: She was a cow. She was called the cow of plenty.
#Varuni: He was the goddess of wine.
#Parijata: It was a tree. The story tells that this tree granted all the wishes of the person standing below it.
#Apsaras (Angels): They were beautiful women. They would never grow old. They used to dance in the court of Indra, a god of the Indo-Aryan period.
#The moon: The Hindu scriptures name the moon as the Chandra. It rose from the ocean when the gods and the demons were churning the ocean.
#Kalakuta: It was a  poison. When it came out of the ocean, Shiva drank it.
#Dhanvantari: He was the first physician of Ayurvedic system of medicine and medication.
#Lakshmi: She came out of the ocean seated on a lotus. She is a goddess of Hindus.
#Uchchaishravas: It was a horse with seven heads. The legend states that it pulls the chariot of the sun-god, Surya.
#Airavata: It was a three-headed elephant. It was taken by Indra.
#Kaustuba: It was a very important gem. God Vishnu kept it.

The Hindu scriptures and the Hindu mythology tells that all the above things came out of the ocean for the betterment of human beings.

## References
**Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend* () by Anna Dallapiccola
Martha Jefferson Randolph

**Martha Washington Jefferson Randolph** (September 27, 1772 – October 10, 1836) was the daughter of Thomas Jefferson and his wife Martha Wayles Skelton Jefferson. Thomas Jefferson was the third President of the United States. Because her father was a widower, Martha Washington Jefferson Randolph acted as the First Lady of the United States from March 4, 1801 to March 3, 1809.

Martha was born in Monticello, near Charlottesville, Virginia. She was named Martha Washington in honor of Martha Washington, the wife of the first President of the United States, George Washington. She was educated in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and Paris.

In 1790, Martha married Thomas Mann Randolph Jr. They had twelve children. Shortly before her death, she and her husband developed differences. She died in 1836 in Albemarle County, Virginia at the age of 64.
Martha Washington

**Martha Dandridge Custis Washington** (June 2, 1731 – May 2, 1802) was the wife of George Washington, the first President of the United States.  Although people only started using the term decades after her death, Martha Washington is considered to be the first First Lady of the United States.

## Early life
She was born  on June 2, 1731, at Chestnut Grove Plantation near Williamsburg, Virginia.  Her parents were John Dandridge, an immigrant from England, and his wife Frances Jones. Her education consisted of the womanly arts such as needlework and playing musical instruments. Later in life, she would learn to manage a plantation.

## Marriage 
At 18, she married Daniel Parke Custis, a wealthy tobacco planter 20 years older than her. She bore him four children. Only two, John "Jacky" and Martha "Patsy", survived to young adulthood. She was widowed in 1757 at age 26. In 1759, she married George Washington, a colonel in the colonial militia. Their marriage was one of mutual affection and respect, but not one of passion.  The Washingtons had no biological children.

## Personal life
During the American Revolutionary War, Martha visited the cold and starving Continental troops spending the winter at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania. She donated as much food as possible, and sewed clothing for the soldiers.  She nursed those who were ill or dying. She urged local women to do the same. Her commitment to the welfare of the veterans of the Revolution would remain lifelong. They addressed her as "Lady Washington."

## First Lady
Washington was unanimously elected president in 1789. Martha served as First Lady from April 30, 1789 to March 4, 1797. She found the job unpleasant. She complained of the journalists who followed her everywhere (even to the circus with her grandson), and of the many restrictions placed upon her as First Lady (she was not allowed to accept dinner invitations, for example).

She set many of the customs and standards that were observed by future First Ladies. She retired to Mount Vernon with her husband after serving her country.

## Death
She died in Mount Vernon on May 22, 1802. Her obituary (death notice) was widely printed in regional newspapers. She is buried in the vault at Mount Vernon. She was the first historical female figure to be depicted by the United States government on postage stamps and currency.

## Gallery

File:Martha Washington.jpg
File:Martha-Washington-by-Andrews.jpg
File:Martha Dandridge Custis.jpg|Martha Washington in 1757
File:Martha Washington 1.png
File:Washington, Mrs. George (Martha) (bust) - NARA - 518219.tif
File:Washington's Tomb, Mount Vernon, 2007Feb19.jpg|Tomb at Mount Vernon
File:Martha Washington First Spouse Coin obverse.jpg|Coin reverse
File:US-$1-SC-1886-Fr.215.jpg|Dollar bill, 1886
File:US-$1-SC-1891-Fr.223.jpg|Dollar bill, 1891

  
## References
Abigail Adams

**Abigail Smith Adams** (November 22, 1744 – October 28, 1818) was the wife of John Adams, the second President of the United States. She was also the mother of John Quincy Adams, the sixth president. Later on, people started to address the wife of the president as the First Lady. So, she became the second First Lady of the United States. 

Adams was born in Weymouth, Massachusetts. She belonged to a famous Massachusetts family (the Quincy Family).

In 1801, John and Abigail retired to Quincy, Massachusetts. Abigail died from typhoid fever in 1818, at the age of 73.

## Early life 
Abigail Adams advocated for an equal education in public schools for boys and girls. In her earliest years, she was often in poor health. She spent most of her time reading and, she corresponded with family and friends before getting married. 

Adams did not get any formal education in any school or college. Her father had a big library, so she studied many books and educated herself that way. 

She married John Adams in 1764. In the next ten years, she had five children (a sixth was stillborn). One of her children was John Quincy Adams, the sixth President of the United States.

## Political involvement 
Adams was a vital confidant and adviser to her husband John Adams. She opposed slavery and supported women's rights. In 1776, her husband participated in the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia. There, Adams wrote her most famous letter to the Founding Fathers, asking them to "remember the ladies." 

In 1784, Adams joined at her husband at his diplomatic post in Paris. She became interested in the manners of the French. After 1785, she filled the difficult role of wife of the First United States Minister to Great Britain. 

## References 
## Other websites
Superman (1978 movie)

***Superman*** is a 1978 movie based on the popular Superman superhero comic book. It was directed by Richard Donner, produced by Ilya Salkind, and the music was provided by John Williams. The movie starred Christopher Reeve, Margot Kidder, Marlon Brando, Gene Hackman, Ned Beatty, Phyllis Thaxter, Glenn Ford, and Jackie Cooper. It was very successful at the box office and with critics, and inspired three sequels along with the 2006 movie, *Superman Returns*.

## Other websites
Celestia

**Celestia** is a free 3D astronomy program for Windows, Mac OS X, and Linux. It was created by Chris Laurel and is licensed under the GPL.

The program is based on the Hipparcos Catalogue (118,218 Stars) and allows users to display objects from artificial satellites to entire galaxies in three dimensions in OpenGL. Different from other planetarium software, the user is free to travel in the universe.

NASA and ESA have used Celestia, but it is not to be confused with Celestia 2000, ESA's own program.

On 31st October 2022, a Chinese game developer named Linfeng Li created a mobile version of Celestia for android devices.

## Related pages 
* Astronomy

## References
Bill Cullen

**Bill Cullen** (February 18, 1920 &ndash; July 7, 1990) was an American television game show host.  His full name was **William Lawrence Cullen**.

Cullen was originally from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.  He suffered from polio as a child. He had a limp for the remainder of his life.

Cullen was best known for hosting the original version of *The Price is Right* on the television networks NBC and ABC.  That show is now on CBS and hosted by Drew Carey.  He also hosted a version of *The $25,000 Pyramid*, ''Child's Play*, and *Blockbusters''.

Bill Cullen died in Bel Air, California in 1990 from lung cancer after smoking for most of his life.
Rudi Carrell

**Rudi Carrell** (real name **Rudolf Wijbrand Kesselaar**) was a very successful comedian, singer and television presenter. He was born on December 19, 1934 in Alkmaar, in the Netherlands. He died of lung cancer on July 7, 2006 in Bremen, Germany. He was very popular in Germany, for shows like *Die Rudi Carrell Show*.

He was awarded various prizes, amongst others the *Goldene Kamera* for a lifetime of good work, in February of 2006 (which was his last public appearance) as well as the Bundesverdienstkreuz (the only award given by the Federal Republic of Germany, for extraordinary achievements in politics or culture) in 1985.

## Other websites
Elizabeth Monroe

**Elizabeth Kortright Monroe** (June 30, 1768 – September 23, 1830) was the wife of James Monroe. James Monroe was the fifth President of the United States.

Elizabeth Monroe was born in an old family of New York. When she was a girl of 17 years, she married James Monroe. At that time, Monroe was a lawyer. He was aged 27 years. Once, the government sent Monroe as an envoy to Versailles. She also went along with her husband. 
                                 
During her last years, Elizabeth Monroe became very sick. She could not take part in social functions. She became more distant from people. Some people thought her to be a snob. But, her husband always understood her problems. After a long illness, she died on September 23, 1830 at her home in Oak Hill at age 62.
Panthera

***Panthera*** is a genus of the family Felidae.
It has five living species, which are the biggest cats in the Felidae.  The tiger is the largest *Panthera* species, and the largest of all cats. The leopard is the smallest *Panthera* species.

Results of genetic analysis indicate that the snow leopard also belongs to the *Panthera*, a classification that was accepted by IUCN assessors in 2008. The genus *Neofelis* is also closely related.

## Taxonomy 
* Genus *Panthera*
** Lion, *Panthera leo*
** Jaguar, *Panthera onca*
** Leopard, *Panthera pardus*
** Tiger, *Panthera tigris*
* Snow leopard, *Uncia uncia*, now *Panthera uncia*

## References
Superpower

A **superpower** is a country that is one of the most powerful countries in the world. It is more powerful than a great power and less powerful than a hyperpower. Right now, only the United States is a superpower. However, China may become a superpower in the future. Some say it is already one. Others say that it will not become a superpower.

In the years following World War II, the United States, United Kingdom and the Soviet Union were global superpowers. 

But the United Kingdom declined as a superpower after the 1950s. For most of the century, the United States and Soviet Union remained a superpower until it declined in the late 1980s. After the Soviet Union split into a lot of smaller countries in 1991, it was not a superpower anymore. Russia got most of the Soviet Union's nuclear weapons but not the status of a superpower. In order to be a superpower, a country must dominate economic, cultural, and military as well as diplomatic influence.

## Related pages
* Great power
* Hyperpower

## References
Leprosy

**Leprosy** is a contagious disease. It has been known for a very long time. Today, it is mostly called '''Hansen's disease''', named after the person who discovered bacterium, Gerhard Armauer Hansen. It is caused by a bacterium, Mycobacterium leprae. A person with leprosy is called a leper.

As of 2004, the estimated number of new infections was about 400,000.

Getting the disease is hard, since it requires close contact with someone who has it, over a long period of time. In addition, about 95% of people seem to be naturally immune to it.

Most cases of leprosy occur in India, and other developing countries. It has known to have been in the US before. There are practically no cases of leprosy in the developed world. This is because there are excellent drugs and people regularly take antibiotics which will kill the leprosy bacteria.

In former times, leprosy was seen as a divine punishment for sins committed.

## Symptoms 
The symptoms of leprosy are irregular spots and patches on the skin. These are either lighter colored than the surrounding skin, or reddish in color. On those patches, hair will fall out, and they will feel numb to the patient. Nerves will form knots there.
With the illness progressing the sense of touch will become less and less (until the patient feels completely numb). So called leptomes and ulcers will eat away the skin, the flesh and the organs on the patches.

Usually people do not die of leprosy, but of secondary infections and diseases they get.

For many years there was a leprosy colony on the Hawaiian Island of Molokai called Kalaupapa. Tens of thousands of people from the United States that had the disease were sent there.
## Gallery

File:Lepra_2003.png|New cases of leprosy, in 2003. The darker the color, the more cases.
File:Leprosy Cranium.JPG|Skull deformed by leprosy
File:Leprosy deformedfeet.JPG|Feet deformed by leprosy
File:Leprosy.jpg|24-year-old man from Norway, suffering from leprosy, 19th century.