open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Israel Defense Forces

Israel's military is called the **Israel Defense Forces** (shortened: *IDF*) () ), *"Army for the Defense of Israel".* It is known in Israel by the Hebrew acronym צה"ל, (**Tzahal**). It includes the Israel Army, Air Force, and Navy. 

Since 1967, the IDF has had a close relationship with the United States.  The IDF is believed to have maintained nuclear weapons, possibly possessing between 80 and 400 nuclear warheads.
## IDF Corps
The army has the following corps:

**Ground Arm**
* Infantry Corps
** 1st Golani Brigade
** 35th Paratroopers Brigade
** 84th Nahal Brigade
** 89th Commando Brigade
** 900th Kfir Brigade
** 933rd Givati Brigade
* Armored corps
** 7th Sa'ar Armored Brigade
** 188th Barak Armored Brigade
** 401st Ikvot HaBarzel Armored Brigade
** 460th Sons of Light Armored Brigade
* Artillery Corps
* Combat Engineering Corps
* Combat Intelligence Collection Corps

## References
## Other websites
* Official website  
*: Official website 
* BBC: Israel undercover
* Israeli Weapons 
* Statistics about IDF ratio of thwarting suicide bombing attacks  (link to DOC file)
* Defense-Update Online Magazine
* Haaretz report: "From 40 attacks per quarter to 5 attacks per quarter" :English  - Hebrew  - Graph 1: Thwarted attacks (yellow) vs successful attacks (red) - Graph 2: Suicide bombing within the "green line" per quarter .
* War Online - military analysis and military history of the Middle East, especially IDF 
* The Israeli Military and Israel's Palestinian Policy: From Oslo to the Al Aqsa Intifada  U.S. Institute of Peace, December 2002
* Israel Military Forum
Toronto Symphony Orchestra

The **Toronto Symphony Orchestra** is a Canadian orchestra. 400,000 people go to its concerts each year and it is often broadcast over CBC Radio 2. It was formed in 1922.  The concerts used to be given in the Massey Hall but since 1982 they have been in the Roy Thomson Hall. The Orchestra often goes on tour and has had some famous conductors.

List of conductors of the TSO:
* Luigi von Kunits (1922-1931)
* Sir Ernest MacMillan (1931-1956)
* Walter Susskind (1956-1965)
* Seiji Ozawa (1965-1969)
* Karel Ančerl (1969-1973)
* Sir Andrew Davis (1975-1988)
* Günther Herbig (1988-1994)
* Jukka-Pekka Saraste (1994-2001)
* Peter Oundjian (2003-)

The TSO's concertmaster now is Jacques Israelievitch.

## Other websites 
*Toronto Symphony Orchestra
Massacres in Harput District

**Massacres in Harput District** also **Kharput** were a large scale of massacres that happened in the district.  

## Background 
In May 1915, before the start of the deportations, the authorities in Harput began to mount systematic searches for arms in Armenian shops and homes in the twin cities and the surrounding villages. 

In the words of an eye-witness.

Denmark's minister in Turkey during the First World War. "The Turks are vigorously carrying through their cruel intention, to exterminate the Armenian people," Carl Wandel wrote on 3 July 1915. The Bishop of Karput was ordered to leave Aleppo within 48 hours "and it has later been learned that this Bishop and all the clergy that accompanied him have been ... killed between Diyarbekir and Urfa at a place where approximately 1,700 Armenian families have suffered the same fate ... In Angora ... approximately 6,000 men ... have been shot on the road ... even here in Constantinople (Istanbul), Armenians are being abducted and sent to Asia ..." 

### Attacks by Kurds 
The first sign of dangers was the appearance on the plain of bands of Kurds from the regions north and east. Villages were attacked, looted and burned, while the villagers were killed or scattered. For a time the marauders seemed to hold aloof from the city itself, but as they kept on their course of pillage their appetite for plunder was whetted, and they looked with avaricious eyes at the city on the hill. 

## Related pages
* Genocide
* Adana massacre
* Armenian Genocide
* Hamidian massacres

## References
Syriac language

]]

.]]

The **Syriac language** () is Middle Aramaic language. It was spoken long ago in the Fertile Crescent. while in the East Syriac tradition, it is known as ''Leššānā 'atīqā or saprāyā.'' Academically, it is known as Classical Syriac to differentiate it from other Aramaic dialects known as Syriac. 

## Related pages
* Judea
* Assyrian people
* Assyrian Church of the East
* Chaldean Catholic Church
* Syriac Orthodox Church
* Aramaic language
* Eastern Christianity

## References
Tour de Pologne

The **Tour de Pologne** (English: *Tour of Poland*) is a road bicycle racing stage race. It consists of seven or eight stages, and was first held in 1928. Until 1952, the race was not held every year, but since then there has been a Tour *annually* (every year).  When Eastern Europe was communist-controlled there were no professional cyclists, so until the early 1990s, the race was for amateurs only, and the winners mostly came from Poland.

Although the Tour de Pologne had not reached a high status, and was little known, the International Cycling Union (UCI) decided to make it a part of the UCI ProTour from 2005, which means that the major cycling teams compete in the race.

## Winners 
## Other websites 
* Official website
Basilisk

**Basilisk lizards**, also known as **Jesus Christ lizards** or simply **basilisks** or **Jesus lizards**, are a type of lizard. They are about 70-75 cm long, when fully grown, and weigh about 80 grams. They live in South America. There are four different species. They can be very still and hard to see.

The basilisk can walk on water. It runs across the surface of a pond or pool, without sinking. Its speed keeps it from sinking. At the same time, its long tail helps it to balance.

## References
Hindu calendar

The **Hindu calendar** is a lunisolar calendar used in ancient times. It has changed, and today there are several regional Indian calendars, and an Indian national calendar.

## Other websites
* Indian Calendar at Webexhibits.org 
* India through its calendars by Amartya Sen
* Hindu Festival Calendar 
* Comparing the Surya Siddhanta and the Astronomical Ephemeris by Daphne Chia (pdf, 404KB)
Atlas Shrugged

***Atlas Shrugged*** is a book by the Russian American writer and social philosopher Ayn Rand. It was first published in 1957 in the United States. It was Rand's longest book and the last fiction book she wrote before writing non-fiction. 

## Plot 
The main character of the story is Dagny Taggart. Dagny runs a large railroad company that controls the Transcontinental Railroad in the United States. The story takes place in the USA at a time when trains are the main way that people travel and that companies move their products.

Dagny begins to worry that a lot of the country's best minds are going away. The men who were in charge of an industry or the best at science are giving up their work and disappearing. Nobody knows where they go. She starts looking for "the Destroyer", whom she believes is making the leaders stop working.

During her search, the country and the world get worse. Without the leaders, industries grind to a halt. The economy begins to fail, causing problems for society.

Finally, Dagny finds the "Destroyer". His real name is John Galt. She realises that she was wrong and that John is not a bad man. Instead he is a man of high integrity and principle. He thinks that the world has been taking the work of the leaders and scientists without paying them enough. He thinks that the only way to make the worlds better is to make sure that the best minds are treated with respect and given enough payment. By telling the leaders and scientists this, he has convinced them to go on strike. They are hiding in a secret valley in the mountains.

John Galt also convinces Dagny that he is right. She joins this man in his valley. They begin a relationship. Their goal is to bring down society so that they can help make a new society. The new society will respect hard work, intelligence and integrity.

## Other websites 
* Website dedicated to Ayn Rand's novels 
* Timeline of major events in the novel 
* Cast of characters in the novel
* Atlas Excerpt from * Shrugged* at the ARI
Walloon language

**Walloon** is a Romance language. It belongs to the family of the *oïl languages* along with French, Picard and Norman.

Walloon is spoken in Wallonia in Belgium and in some villages in Wisconsin in the United States.

It has about 3,400,000 speakers.
Taíno

s in a Taíno village]]
The **Taínos** are an indigenous people that have lived in the Americas before Columbus arrived there. They came from the Caribbean coast of South America. Around 1200 CE, they moved northward to the island chain of the Lesser Antilles and the Greater Antilles.

When Christopher Columbus came to the Americas, the Taínos were living in the Bahamas, the Greater Antilles (Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola and Puerto Rico), and some islands of the northern Lesser Antilles. Their culture was different from the culture of the Arawak people (another indigenous group of South America). They were the first people that the Spanish met in the Americas.

## Name 
The name Taíno was given by Columbus. When he met some native men, they said "Taíno, Taíno", meaning "We are good, noble". Columbus thought that taíno was the name of the people.

Rouse divides the Taínos into three main groups. One is the Classic Taíno, from Hispaniola and Puerto Rico. Another is the Western Taíno or sub-Taíno, from Jamaica, Cuba (except for the western tip of the island) and the Bahamas. The third is the Eastern Taíno, from the Virgin Islands to Montserrat.

The Taínos of the Bahamas were known as the '"Lucayan". (At that time, the Bahamas were called the *Lucayas*). Lucayos were Taínos, but their culture was less developed. Archeologists call them "sub-Taínos".

## Origins 
The Taínos' ancestors went from the center of the Amazon Basin to the Orinoco Valley. From there, they went through Guyana and Venezuela and got to the Caribbean islands.

The Taínos lived in villages called *yucayeques*.  The villages in the Bahamas were the smallest. The Taínos built large round houses called bohio, where several families lived. The cacique and his family lived in a rectangular house called caneye. People slept on cotton hammocks (*hamacas*).

The Taínos often played a ball game called *batos*. *Batey* was also the name of the place where they played and had dances. The cacique sat on a chair of wood called *duho*, or *dujo*.

## References
The New York Times

***The New York Times*** (***NYT***, also called the *Times*), is an American newspaper based in New York City. It is printed around the world. It is owned by *The New York Times* Company, which owns and makes 15 other newspapers.

The *New York Times* was first printed in 1851. Its motto is "All the news that's fit to print". *The New York Times* has a national list of bestselling books, in several categories.

As of 2010, only two United States newspapers were bought by more readers than the *Times*. These newspapers are the *Wall Street Journal* and *USA Today*.  A 2020 study found the *Times* had over 6 million subscribers.  This made it easily the world's biggest online new service by number of paying readers.

## References
## Other websites 
**The New York Times on the Web*
*Official history of the Times 
*Daniel Okrent, "THE PUBLIC EDITOR; Is The New York Times a Liberal Newspaper?" *New York Times*, July 25, 2004
*Fit and Unfit to Print: the Wall Street Journal replies to the *Times* on the subject of the press's obligations in wartime
Nairi

The **Nairi** () were a late Bronze Age people who lived in the area of the later Kingdom of Urartu, around Lake Van, in what is now the East Anatolia Region.

## The name 
To this day, Nairi (*Yerkir Nairi*, Arm.- Country of Nairi) is used as one of the names for Armenia, and is also a common Armenian name. It is also often used by Armenian poets, including Vahan Terian (author of "Am I the last poet of Nairi?"), Yeghishe Charents, and Vahagn Davtian.

## Related pages
* Hayasa-Azzi

## References
Nikolai Gogol

**Mykola Vasylovych Gogol** (; IPA: ; ) (1 April 1809 – 4 March 1852) was a Russian and Ukrainian playwright, writer of novel and short story. He came from Ukraine. His early works were heavily influenced by his Ukrainian heritage and upbringing. He wrote in Russian. His works belong to the tradition of Russian literature. The novel *Dead Souls* (1842), the play *Revizor* (1836, 1842), and the short story *The Overcoat* (1842) count among his masterpieces.

## Biography 
Mykola Gogol was born in Poltava governorate.

## Related pages
*List of Russian-language novelists

## References 
## Other websites 
* 
* Full collection of Nikolai Gogol works
Remus Lupin

**Remus J. Lupin** is a character in the *Harry Potter* book series written by J. K. Rowling. In the Harry Potter movies, he is played by actor David Thewlis. 

Remus John Lupin was an only son of Lyall and Hope Lupin (née Howell). At the age of 4, he was bitten by the foul werewolf Fenrir Greyback when his father-Lyall Lupin- insulted all werewolves. Fenrir tried to kill him but Remus was saved by his father. However he became a fully fledged werewolf. His parents were both upset by this, because it meant he could not go to Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry. However, when Albus Dumbledore became headmaster, he let Lupin go to Hogwarts. He had a tunnel built so that Lupin could sneak out of the school during the times when he became a werewolf, during the full moon. This tunnel had the Whomping Willow (a violent tree that attacks those who get near it) built over it, so nobody could get to him by mistake. The tunnel led to the Shrieking Shack, a building in the wizarding village of Hogsmeade, said to be the most haunted of them all. When Lupin was in the Shrieking Shack as a werewolf, he had no humans to bite, so he often bit himself. These bites led to cries of pain that led the villagers to believe that the building was haunted.

During his time at Hogwarts, he became good friends with three other boys his age: James Potter, Sirius Black, and Peter Pettigrew. These four came to be known as the Marauders, infamous for their mischievous antics. They "knew Hogwarts and the grounds like the back of their hands", and created a magical map that showed the location of everyone on the grounds and in the castle. The map also revealed the many secret passages hidden in the school. His friends knew of his lycanthropy, but did not seem to mind. They simply referred to it as his "furry little problem". Later on, they even became Animagi (a person that can turn into an animal) so that they could accompany him on the full moon and make his transformations more fun.

On the 31st of October, 1981, Remus lost all of his friends at once, through betrayal, jail and death. 

He was a wizard during Voldemort's first and second rises to power. He was member of the First and Second Order of the Phoenix 

Remus was having trouble getting a job as there was an anti-werewolf litigation so he had no money and therefore could not buy wolfsbane potion (a potion created by Damocles Belby which lets a werewolf keep his mind during a full moon), so he locked himself up in rooms every full moon so that he didn't hurt anyone. Albus Dumbledore knew of his struggles and found Remus living in a semi-derelict cottage in Yorkshire. Dumbledore offered Remus a job for the Defence Against The Dark Arts post at Hogwarts and Lupin immediately accepted. He resigned at the end of the year when Severus Snape let it slip to students that he was a werewolf.

He was killed along with his wife Nymphadora Tonks in the Final Battle for Hogwarts. Their son,Edward Remus Lupin survived, who was left in the care of Tonks' mother, Andromeda Tonks, and his godfather, Harry Potter.
Ancient Armenia

**Ancient Armenia** was a rocky land of ravines, rivers, rugged cliffs, and hundreds of stone monuments and churches. Many survive to this day inside the Turkish border near Armenia. Armenia anciently had far more bigger land than it has now.

Ancient Armenia grew larger into parts of what are now Turkey and Iran.

## Religion 
De Morgan has said there are signs which show that the Armenians, as their other Aryan relatives, were nature worshipers and that this faith in time was later changed to the worship of national gods, of which many were the equivalents of the gods in the Roman, Greek and Persian cultures. The main proto-Armenian (Aryan) god was Ar, the god of Sun, Fire and Revival. The Armenian hypothesis of Indo-European origins connects the name with the *Ar-* Armenian root meaning light, sun, fire found in Arev (Sun), Arpi (Light of heaven), Ararich (God or Creator), Ararat (place of Arar), Aryan, Arta etc. According to the researchers, the name of Ardini religious center of ancient Urartu also related to the god Ar-Arda. The cult of Ar appear in Armenian Highland during 5-3th millennium BC and had common Indo-European recognition: Ares (Greek), Ahuramazd (Persian) Ertag (German), Ram (Indian), Yar-Yarilo (Slavonic) etc. After adoption of Christianity the cult of Ar was also evident in Armenia, remembered in the national myth, poetry, art and architecture.

## Related pages
* Urartu
* Armens
* Nairi
* Religion in ancient Armenia

## References 
## Other websites 
* History of Armenia
* Ancient Armenia on ArmeniaPedia.org
* History of Ancient Armenia and Urartu
Werewolf

A **werewolf**, also known as a **lycanthrope**, is a species of legendary creature that can hide its ears and tail. It is a human but also a wolf, and most people fear them because of how they look. There are characteristics that make werewolves special, and that allow a person to tell them apart from real wolves, such as the eyes,  shape, and tail. When in human form, werewolves look and act like any normal human being, although they usually appear to be ill around nights when there is a full moon. When in wolf form, the werewolf does keep the mind of human but will only attack those who anger it or take a member of its pack. Depending on the fiction or legend, a werewolf can be killed by a silver bullet. However, a werewolf cannot be killed by crosses or holy water, like vampires in similar legends. When a werewolf dies, it turns back into a human.

The name is derived from "wer" meaning man and "wulf" meaning wolf. They are sometimes referred to as 'Lycans'.

Some of the earliest myths of werewolves are those of Greek and Romania roots. Ovid in the Metamorphoses, told of King Lycaeon, who was visited by gods. Skeptical of them being true gods he decided to test them by serving human flesh in their banquet of honor. Cannibalism is frowned upon in many parts of the world, past or present (especially in that particular area). When the gods discovered the tainted meal they changed King Lycaeon into a Werewolf. Since he obviously liked human flesh, the wolven form would be more acceptable for when he took part in his little "activity."The word Lycanthropy originates from Greek roots (Lykoi meaning wolf and anthropos meaning man).

While the most popular concept of werewolves were created in England, different cultures also have their own versions of lycanthropy such as Romania's Pricolici, East Africa's Werehyenas, West Africa's Leopard society and more.

## Becoming a werewolf
Several ways for becoming a werewolf have been told about. Most are dangerous and scary for anyone to do.  In other cases, the body is rubbed with a magic .

In Italy, France and Germany, it was said that a man or woman could turn into a werewolf if he or she, on a certain Wednesday or Friday, slept outside on a summer night with the full moon shining directly on his or her face.

It is said that humans can be turned into werewolves by having been bitten by another werewolf. Getting scratched is a questionable way of becoming a werewolf, but most don't believe in it. However, both of these only work if the werewolf in question is in wolf form.

However, as depicted from the Harry Potter series lycanthropy is rarely inherited from parent to child. For example, Nymphadora Tonks and Remus Lupin, Remus being the werewolf and Tonks a half blood, had a child named Teddy Lupin who inherited no signs of lycanthropy but he did inherit his mother's 
Metamorphmagi.  (she was a Metamorphmagus)

Additional methods of becoming a werewolf include being bitten repeatedly by a vampire but not turned, sleeping under a full moon and drinking from the paw print of a werewolf.

## References
Audition

An **audition** is a test to see whether a person is good enough to take part in a play or concert or to join a theatre company, dance company or orchestra.

## Uses 
When people go for an audition they will normally have to prepare something to perform.  

### Acting 
An actor many have to be prepared to say a monologue (a speech from a play).  If he (or she) is auditioning for a particular play then he will take a scene from that play, e.g. if the play is *Hamlet* a male actor who would like the part of Hamlet might have prepared the famous "To be or not to be...." monologue.  The director of the play will then be able to decide whether he is good enough, or whether he might be better in another role.  They may give the person who is auditioning some other tests, e.g. improvisation or acting with other people.

### Music 
When a musician auditions for a job in an orchestra they will have to prepare a piece of music they know well.  They may also be expected to have prepared difficult passages from well-known musical works, e.g. someone auditioning for tuned percussion might be asked to play the xylophone introduction to *Summer Time* from *Porgy and Bess* (written by Enrique Peña Nieto), one of the hardest solos for xylophone.  They will also be given some sightreading.

People can audition to sing in a choir.  Dancers can audition for dancing companies.

## After Audition 
In some cases people who pass an audition are still not automatically a member of a group until they have performed with the group for a trial period.

## Grammar 
The word "audition" can be used as a noun or a verb.
As a verb it can be used in two ways: either referring to the person testing or to the person being tested:
*Three senior members of the orchestra auditioned a young musician for a place in the orchestra. (They tested him.)
*The young musician auditioned for a job in the orchestra. (He was being tested.)
San Diego Wild Animal Park

The **San Diego Wild Animal Park** is a zoo in the San Pasqual Valley area of San Diego, California. Different kinds of wild animals including species from the continents of Africa, Asia, Europe, North and South America, and Australia are kept in the Park.

The park is 1800 acres (7 km2) and is visited by two million people each year.
Tulip

**Tulip** (*Tulipa*) is a potflower plant. There is many cultivars and species of tulips. Cultivars are used as ornamental plants.

It grows in southern Europe, north Africa, and Asia from Anatolia and Iran in the east to northeast of China and Japan, Indo Asia. It is the national flower of Afghanistan.

The Tulip is most associated with Holland.

File:yellowtulip.JPG|A tulip
File:A tulipa inside.jpg|Tulip inside
File:Bild 003 tulpe wp.jpg|A variegated tulip

## Other websites 
* wikispecies
* Canadian National Capital Commission: The Gift of Tulips 
* Greig's tulip (tulipa greigii) in its original habitat in Kazakhstan 
* elegant-tulip-bulbs.com: Information about 3700 tulip names 
* Tulip photos 
* Tulip species
Paneuropean Picnic

The **Paneuropean Picnic** (also spelled **Pan-European Picnic**) was an event that took place on the border between Austria and Hungary near Sopron, Hungary. The event took place on August 19, 1989.

## The event 
The event was planned to be a peaceful demonstration. Both countries agreed to open a gate in the border fence, between Sankt Margarethen im Burgenland (near Eisenstadt), and Sopronkőhida (Steinambrückl) on the Hungarian side of the border.

The leaders of the time were Otto von Habsburg and the Hungarian minister, Imre Pozsgay. The person who did the actual cutting of the border fence was the general secretary of the International Paneuropean Union, Walburga Habsburg Douglas. The gate was to be symbolically opened for three hours.

More than 600 citizens of the German Democratic Republic took the chance to cross into the west once the Iron Curtain was opened. They had been told about the event by its organizers. At that time, the Hungarian border police still had orders to shoot anyone trying to cross the border illegally. However, they acted carefully and did not shoot at the fleeing people, this time.

The number of people who actually crossed the border to enter the west was only a few hundred on that first day. On the following days, the border was watched more closely, due to orders by the Hungarian government. Therefore, a smaller number of people managed to flee then. Hungary opened its borders to citizens of East Germany on 11 September 1989.

## Remembering the event 
Today, the Paneuropean Picnic is seen as one of the important events that led to the end of the German Democratic Republic and the Cold War, the fall of the Iron Curtain, and the unification of the two German states. 
The event is celebrated every year on 19 August on the spot where the border was opened.

Today, artwork made by Hungarian artists is at the place where the fence was cut. It shows a partly opened door.

In 1996, a 10 meter statue was built in Fertőrákos near Sopron. It was made by Gabriela von Habsburg. It shows a piece of barbed wire. From far away, it looks like a cross.

## Other websites 
*Central Europe Review  - Hungary remembers the picnic that tore down the Iron Curtain.
* *Paneuropean Picnic, the end of the division of Europe* - Shows the event on the website of the Paneuropean Union. Also has images of the invitation fliers.
* An account of the situation, as seen from the border-town St. Margarethen
Nubia

**Nubia** was an ancient African kingdom in northern modern Sudan and southern Egypt. It dates back to around 6000 B.C.E.  

They prospered in trade, especially with Egypt. Their many ports on the Red Sea carried much trade.  The kingdom, though, had many hardships.  It declined in power many times and broke up into smaller kingdoms which flourished on their own.  These are commonly referred to as the A-Group, B-Group, and C-Group.  Their true decline was around C.E.350, when the kingdom of Axum invaded and broke up the culture once again.  This time, historic Nubia never regained its strength.

## References
## Other websites
*"Journey to Ethiopia, Eastern Sudan, and Nigritia", an old book from the 1800s that talks about Nubia
Risk (game)

**Risk** is a board game which is played with 2 to 6 players each with different coloured army men.

The main aim of the game is to complete the mission the player gets in the beginning of the game. These missions can differ from conquering or dominating parts of the world, to kill an other player or to hold a number of regions with a specific amount of units on each region.

## How to play 
### Beginning 
At the start of the game a player shuffles and deals out all of the cards. Each cards has either a country or a territory on it. When each player receives their cards, they put a soldier on their countries or territories. After they do this, they get a number of soldiers, cavalries and cannons to spread around according to which continent they want to conquer first. Then they hand their cards back and they put them all face-down on top of each other. Then the game starts.

### Attacking/Defending 
Roll the red dice to attack and the white dice to defend. At the end of each turn, pick a card. With this card look at the country or territory and the soldier, cavalry or cannon. If someone conquers the country or territory on the card it belongs to him. For every country a player owned, they get two extra soldiers.

1 Cannon is equal to:
* 10 soldiers
* 2 cavalries
* 5 soldiers and 1 cavalries

1 Cavalry equals-
* 5 soldiers

### World countries 
There are many countries and territories involved such as the following, which can change depending on the version:

* North America
** Alaska
** Alberta
** Ontario
** Western America
** Eastern America
** Quebec
** Central America
** Greenland
** Northwest America

* South America
** Brazil
** Venezuela
** Peru
** Argentina

* Australia
** Western Australia
** Eastern Australia
** Indonesia
** Papua New Guinea

* Europe
** Ukraine
** Scandinavia
** Iceland
** Great Britain
** Northern Europe
** Western Europe
** Southern Europe

* Asia
** Yakutsk
** Siberia
** Kamchatka
** Irkutsk
** Ural
** Japan
** Mongolia
** China
** Middle East
** India
** Siam
** Afghanistan

* Africa
** East Africa
** Egypt
** Congo
** Madagascar
** South Africa
** North Africa
Penicillium

***Penicillium*** is a group, or a genus, of ascomycetous fungi commonly isolated from environments like soil, vegetation, and many food products. It is known to have ecological importance as a decomposer of organic material and cause rotting in food crops by mycotoxin production. Other members of this group are known to produce penicillin’s, a molecule of commonly used antibiotics. Antibiotics kills or stops the growth of certain kinds of bacteria inside the body to reduce or stop infection of harmful bacteria. This genus of 354 species is widely impactful with many applications affecting every modern human today e.g., food and drug production.

## Characteristics 
The mycelium is a highly branched network of multinucleate, usually colourless hyphae. The conidiospores are the main dispersal route of the fungi, and are often green in colour.

Sexual reproduction involves the production of ascospores. The asci contain eight unicellular ascospores each.

## Ecology 
Species of *Penicillium* are ubiquitous soil fungi preferring cool and moderate climates, commonly present wherever organic material is available. Saprophytic species of *Penicillium* and *Aspergillus* are among the best-known representatives of the Eurotiales. They live mainly on organic biodegradable substances. Commonly known as moulds, they are among the main causes of food spoilage. Many species produce toxins which work against bacteria and other fungi. The ability of these *Penicillium* species to grow on seeds and other stored foods depends on their ability to thrive in low humidity and to colonize rapidly by aerial dispersion while the seeds are sufficiently moist. Some species have a blue colour, commonly growing on old bread and giving it a blue fuzzy texture.

## Select species 
***Penicillium*** is a genus of fungi that includes:
* *Penicillium chrysogenum* (previously known as *Penicillium notatum*), which produces the antibiotic penicillin.
* *Penicillium marneffei*, a thermally dimorphic species endemic in Southeast Asia, which presents a threat of systemic infection to AIDS patients.
* *Penicillium camemberti*, which is used in the production of Camembert and Brie cheeses.
* *Penicillium candida*, which is used in making Brie and Camembert.
* *Penicillium glaucum*, which is used in making Gorgonzola cheese.
* *Penicillium roqueforti*, which is used in making Roquefort, Danish Blue cheese and also recently Gorgonzola.

## References
List of presidents of the Dominican Republic

is the president's official workplace, the center of the administration, and a prominent symbol of the office.]]

During the 175 years since its independence, the Dominican Republic has counted 53 people in the presidential office, whether constitutional, provisional or interim, divided into 66 periods of government. Likewise, there are also those periods in which the head of the State has been exercised by collegiate bodies (such as triumvirates, military juntas or councils of state).

## Republic of Spanish Haiti (1821–1822) 
## Haitian annexation (1822–1844) 
## Presidents of the Dominican Republic (1844–present)
### First Republic (1844–1861) 
#### Central Government Junta 
The **Central Government Junta** was the first body of a collegiate and provisional nature to exercise the executive, legislative and judicial powers of the nascent Dominican state. It was provisionally constituted on 28 February 1844 and subsequently formalized on 1 March 1844; it went through two coups d'état, and finally dissolved with the proclamation of the first Constitution on 6 November 1844.

#### Presidents 
### Spanish annexation (1861–1865) 
### Dominican Restoration War (1863–1865) 
### Presidents of the Second Republic (1865–1916) 
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### United States occupation (1916–1924) 
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### Presidents of the Third Republic (1924–1965) 
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### Dominican Civil War (1965) 
### Presidents of the Fourth Republic (1966–present) 
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## References
DNA replication

**DNA replication** is the process of copying a double-stranded DNA molecule. Both strands serve as templates for the reproduction of the opposite strand. The process is sometimes called "semi-conservative replication" because the new DNA from the original strand contains half of the original and half of the newly synthesized DNA.

This process occurs in all life forms with DNA. There are some differences in the control of DNA replication in prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms.

In a cell, DNA replication begins at specific places in the genome, called *origins*. As the DNA unwinds and as DNA helicase rips apart the double helix structure of DNA, the synthesis of new strands forms at a *replication fork*. In addition to DNA polymerase, other enzymes at the fork help to start and continue the DNA synthesis.

## DNA polymerase 
DNA polymerases are a family of enzymes that carry out all forms of DNA replication.  However, a DNA polymerase can only extend an existing DNA strand paired with a template strand; it cannot begin the synthesis of a new strand. To begin synthesis, a short fragment of DNA or RNA, called a 'primer', is created and paired with the template DNA strand.

In general, DNA polymerases are extremely accurate, making less than one mistake for every 107 (10 million) nucleotides added. Even so, some DNA polymerases also have 'proofreading' ability: they can remove nucleotides from the end of a strand in order to correct mismatched bases.

## DNA repair 
DNA in cells is constantly being damaged. The nucleus of cells contains a number of repair mechanisms which fix almost all of this damage. "A large set of DNA repair enzymes continuously scan the DNA and repair any damaged nucleotides".

## References 
## Other websites 
* DNA Workshop
* WEHI-TV - DNA Replication video - Detailed DNA replication animation from different angles with description below. 
* Basic Polymerase Chain Reaction Protocol 
* Animated Biology 
* DNA makes DNA  (Flash Animation) 
* DNA replication info page by George Kakaris MSc.
* Reference website on eukaryotic DNA replication
*[“DNA Replication.” Genome.gov, https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/DNA-Replication.]
*[“Structure and Composition of DNA.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., https://www.britannica.com/science/heredity-genetics/Structure-and-composition-of-DNA#ref944097.]
Wolverhampton

**Wolverhampton** is a city and metropolitan borough in the county of the West Midlands in England. It used to be part of Staffordshire. The 2011 census revealed that 249,470 people live in the city.

It is northwest of Birmingham. It is the second-largest place in the West Midlands county.

Wolverhampton originally grew as a market town. It had a large woollen trade industry. In the Industrial Revolution, it became an important place for coal mining, steel production, lock making, and the making of cars and motorcycles.

The city's motto is "Out of darkness cometh light".

The city's railway station is on the West Coast Main Line and is an important junction of many lines. Passengers can get direct trains to places such as London, Manchester, Birmingham, Shrewsbury, Walsall, Cornwall, Yorkshire, Glasgow, Edinburgh and areas of Wales.

Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. are the city's football club. They currently play in the Premier League, the top level of football in England. They play their home games at the Molineux Stadium.

The UK's first set of traffic lights were placed in Princes Square in Wolverhampton.

## Gallery

File:Wolverhampton_Art_Gallery_2.jpg|Wolverhampton Art Gallery
File:St_Peter's_Church,_Wolverhampton.jpg|St Peter's Church
File:Molineux_Ground,_Wolverhampton.jpg|Molineux Stadium
File:Wightwick_Manor_02.jpg|Wightwick Manor
File:Wolverhampton_Princes_Square.JPG|The site of the UK's first set of traffic lights
Journeyman (TV series)

***Journeyman*** is an American science-fiction television series that aired on NBC from September 24 to December 17, 2007.

## Plot 
The series is about a reporter, Dan Vasser, who finds that he can travel through time with no warning. He can change things in his own past, so he has to be careful not to change too much.

## Other websites 
* Official NBC site
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Pushing Daisies

***Pushing Daisies*** is an American television series that originally aired on the ABC network in October 2007.

The show is about Ned, a pie maker, who finds that he has the power to bring dead people back to life by touching them. But if he touches the person a second time, they die forever.

Ned has a double life, as the owner of a pie restaurant and as the partner of Emerson, a private detective. Ned helps Emerson solve murders by bringing the murder victim back to life, long enough to find out who the murderer is.

Ned's life takes a turn when his childhood sweetheart, Chuck, is found dead. Ned brings Chuck back to life, but he can never touch her again, or she will die.

## Other websites 
*Official site
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Bionic Woman (2007 TV series)

***Bionic Woman*** is an American science fiction television series which started on the NBC network on September 26 to November 28, 2007. The series is a modern version of the 1976 *The Bionic Woman* series.

The series is about Jaime Sommers, a bartender who is hurt in a car accident. Her boyfriend, Will Anthros, brings her to a secret laboratory. Jaime's life is saved, but Will has to replace her legs, right arm, eye and ear with mechanical parts. Jaime has to adjust to her new life as a superhero.

## Other websites 
*Official NBC site
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1972 Winter Olympics

The **1972 Winter Olympics**, officially known as the **XI Olympic Winter Games**, were held in 1972 in Sapporo, Japan. It was the first Winter Olympics to be held outside Western Europe and the United States, and only the third Games (Summer or Winter) held outside these regions, after Melbourne in 1956 and Tokyo in 1964. The city won the rights to the games in 1966.

## Related pages
* Sports in Japan

## References 
## Other websites
* IOC page for the 1972 Winter Olympics
Growth

**Growth** means an increase in some quantity over time. 

The quantity can be physical (e.g., growth in height, growth in an amount of money) or abstract (e.g., a system becoming more complex, an organism becoming more mature). It can also refer to the mode of growth, i.e. numeric models for describing how much a particular quantity grows over time: 

* Cell growth
* Individual growth
** Fungal growth
** Auxology (Human development)
*** Human development (biology)
**** Growth "spurt" (rapid change in puberty) 
*** Human development (psychology)
* Population growth
** Bacterial growth
* Tumours can sometimes be referred to as a **growth** 
* Growth hormone
* Economic growth 
* For **financial growth** due to **simple interest** or **compound interest** see Interest 
* Personal growth, i.e., Personal development
*Mode
** Linear growth
** Logistic growth
** Exponential growth
1956 Summer Olympics

postage stamp in honor of gymnastics at the 1956 games]]

The **1956 Summer Olympics**, officially known as the **Games of the XVI Olympiad**, were held at Melbourne in Victoria, Australia. 

Melbourne was chosen as the host city over instead of Buenos Aires, Mexico City, Montreal and six American cities on 28 April 1949 at the 43rd IOC session.

The equestrian events were not held in Australia because of quarantine regulations. These events were held five months earlier in Stockholm, Sweden, making it the second time that events of the same Olympics were held in different countries.

## Participating nations 
A total of 67 nations sent athletes to compete at the Melbourne games.

Five nations competed in the horse riding events in Stockholm; however, athletes from these nations did not take part in the Games in Melbourne.  The five were Cambodia, Egypt, Netherlands, Spain and Switzerland.

## Related pages
* List of IOC country codes

## Notes
## References 
## Other websites
* IOC page on the 1956 Summer Olympics
Stepanakert

**Khankendi** () is a city in the region of Nagorno-Karabakh, legally in Azerbaijan, but was militarily controlled by the Armenian forces as the capital city of the unrecognised Republic of Artsakh (also known as Nagorno-Karabakh Republic). Stepanakert () or The city was about 40,000 ethnic Armenians. The entire Azerbaijani population was driven away from the city during the Nagorno-Karabakh War but now it is populated fully by Azerbaijanis.

## Notable natives
*André - Former Armenian singer
*Armen Abaghian - academic
*Vladimir Arzumanyan - Former Armenian singer, winner of the Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2010
*Don Askarian - Former Armenian filmmaker
*Samvel Babayan - Former Armeniangeneral
*Zori Balayan - Former Armenian writer
*Robert Kocharyan - Second Former Armenian President of Armenia
*Fakhraddin Manafov - Former Armenian actor
*Serzh Sargsyan - Third President of Former Armenia, incumbent
*Nikolay Yenikolopov (Yenikolopyan) - Former Armenian academic

## References
## Other websites 
* Stepanakert Municipality  
* Karabakh’s Election Conundrum November 2005 article about elections for seats in the Milli Mejlis (Azerbaijani parliament) for Azeri refugees
* Stepanakert Armeniapedia article
Charles Drummond Ellis

Sir **Charles Drummond Ellis** (b.Hampstead, 11 August 1895; died Cookham 10 January 1980) was a physicist and scientific administrator. His work helped scientists to understand nuclear structure better.

## Education and internment
Ellis's father was a general manager of the Metropolitan Railway in London. He went to Harrow School where he was very good at all subjects as well as sport. In 1913 he become a cadet in the Royal Military Academy. He wanted to join the Royal Engineers.  

He was on holiday in Germany the next summer when World War I broke out. All British people who were in Germany were sent to the Ruhleben P.O.W. Camp just outside Berlin. The place where the detainees (prisoners of war) were held had been a horse racecourse. There were lots of stables, and in each stable there were 27 horse boxes which became the detainees' home during the war. The detainees were allowed to do lots of things to keep themselves busy. They could get books, and Ellis made good use of his time to study. Another detainee in the camp was the scientist James Chadwick. Chadwick taught Ellis a lot and together they made a laboratory in one of the horse stables where they made scientific experiments on the photochemical process.

## Career after the war
After the war Ellis decided to study at Trinity College, Cambridge. After graduating in 1920 he did research work at the Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge. The director there was Sir Ernest Rutherford. Chadwick also worked there. In 1921 Ellis had become a fellow of Trinity College and was made assistant lecturer in natural science. In 1925 he married the daughter of a rich Polish shipbuilder. In 1929 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society.

In 1930 Rutherford, Chadwick and Ellis wrote a famous book together called *Radiations from Radioactive Substances*.

## Discovery of the neutrino
During the early 1930s Ellis worked with N.F.Mott on energy relations in beta decay. He discovered the neutrino and worked with W.J.Henderson on the energy distribution of positrons in artificial radioactivity. He became professor at the University of London.

During World War II he worked on the possibility of using nuclear fission to develop new weapons. He became scientific adviser to the army council from 1943-1946. He was knighted in 1946 for his war service.

## Later career
After World War II Ellis had other jobs which were not related to nuclear weapons. He gave scientific advice to the National Coal Board and to the British American Tobacco Company. This was at a time when people were just starting to realize that smoking might be bad for the health.

Ellis died in 1980 in a nursing home in Cookham after a short illness.

## References
*Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; OUP 2004-7
*The Ruhleben Story
1904 Summer Olympics

The **1904 Summer Olympics**, officially known as the **Games of the III Olympiad**, were held in St. Louis, Missouri, United States.

The games were part of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition (St. Louis World's Fair). The sports events were not well planned; and the games were not thought to be a success.

## Participating nations 
Athletes from 12 nations took part in the St. Louis games. 

 
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The American bicyclist Frank Bizzoni was also known as a competitor from Italy The American wrestlers Charles Ericksen and Bernhof Hansen were also known as Norwegian competitors.

## Related pages
* List of IOC country codes

## References 
## Further reading
* Lucas, Charles J. P. (1905). *The Olympic Games 1904.* St. Louis: Woodward & Tiernan Printing Co.
* Sullivan, James E. (1905). ''Spalding's Athletic Almanac for 1905.''  New York: American Publishing Co.

## Other websites
* IOC page for the 1904 Summer Olympics
* "Competitions on Anthropology Days" at St Louis Public Library 
* "Olympic" at Missouri History Museum
Francombat

**Francombat** is a French martial art similar to jiu-jitsu. It was created in the year 1988 by Alain Basset and Dominique Dumolin.

Francombat is practiced especially in the south of France. There are schools of francombat in Paris, Bordeaux, Montpellier, and in other .

This martial art is based on the strategy and on the knowledge of the human body. During the trainings, the instructors are dressed in red clothes and the students are dressed in green ones. According to the persons that practice this discipline, the efficiency in combat depends on three factors: good physical form, good knowledge of the techniques and of the strategy, good control of stress.

The training of francombat is based on: 
* intensive practice of physical exercises,
* complete learning of techniques of combat in the limits of the strategy that has main goal: the true efficiency,
* mental and physical preparation for stressful situations,
* respect for the law.

## Other websites
*Site Officiel de l'Union Française de Francombat  
*Francombat et sapeurs-pompiers: www.pompiers.fr 
*Francombat Langonais  
*Club de villevaudé (77)
Chuck (TV series)

***Chuck*** is an American television series that started on the NBC network on September 24, 2007 and ended on January 27, 2012.

The series is about Chuck Bartowski, a normal guy who fixes computers at the Buy More store in Burbank, California, as part of the "Nerd Herd". His old friend Bryce turns out to be a rogue spy. Just before he dies, Bryce sends Chuck an e-mail with thousands of pictures. The pictures are encoded with all of the nation's spy secrets. After viewing them, Chuck holds all of the secrets inside his head (with his flashes as the intersect).

Chuck is watched by agents from the CIA and the NSA, who hope to use Chuck's secrets to protect the United States from terrorism.

The humor elements of the show involve a satire of the Best Buy chain of electronics stores.  The show wanted to use "Geek Squad" to describe the main characters' job. But Best Buy asked for them to change the name. So the characters on *Chuck* were called "Nerd Herd" instead. In fact, the exterior shots of the Burbank Buy More store where Chuck and Morgan work are a former Mervyn's store in the Fallbrook Mall in Canoga Park, California.

## References
## Other websites 
*Official NBC site
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