Battle of the Masts

The **Battle of the Masts** was a intense naval confrontation between the Muslim army and the Roman navy. The battle occurred in 655 and was one of the greatest Islamic victories against the Roman Empire. The battle resulted in the Muslims to have influence over the Mediterranean Sea.
## Background 
 During the reign of Caliph Umar, Alexandria was conquered by the Muslims. After Umar passed away, Uthman ibn Affan was elected as the new leader of the state. At this moment, Constantine II decided to send a navy expedition to regain there North African territory from the Muslims.

When the Muslims met with the Romans, they discussed if they should fight in the land or the sea. The Romans, who were masters of naval warfare, said that they should fight at sea.

## Location of the Battle 
The location in which the battle took place is heavily debated. Dr. Shawqi Abu Khaleel believes that the battle most likely took place somewhere near Alexandria. Although most sources do not point out where the battle directly took place, some give us hints and key pieces of information.

* ''Al-Nujoom al-Zahirah fi Mulook Misar wa'l-Qahirah* states that the battle took place in the sea, near Alexandria. 
* *Tareekh of Ibn Khuldoon'' states that when the Muslims expanded into Africa, Constantine, the son of Heraclius, set out a navy of around 600 ships to attack Alexandria. 
* Dhat al-Sawari states that the Non-Arabs claimed the battle to have tooken place in a place called Phoenicus, which was an outpost near Alexandria, near the city of Marsi Matrooh. 

## The battle 
Not only was the Roman fleet stronger in terms of naval skill, but it also outnumbered the vessels of the Muslims, Emperor Constantine II had a weird dream on the eve of the battle. It was later on interpreted as a sign of a upcoming defeat for the Romans. Constantine II engaged with confidence, he sent his ships into the sea without putting them into formation. As the vessels came within range, both fleet's archers exchanged shots, and the seeds of battle sprouted. The Byzantine galleys charged toward an Arab fleet that had lashed its ships together, which created a battle platform in sea.

The Muslims recited the Qur'an in loud unison. The Byzantines closed and came storming over the side, charging into them, slashing as both sides tangled ferociously. The Muslim historian Al-Tabari recounted: 

* “So they fought bitterly. At length Allah aided the Believers, and they made a great slaughter among the Romans, among whom only those who fled made it to safety.” - *Al-Tabari*

## Aftermath 
Both the Muslims and Romans fought with bravery, but the battle ended in a Muslim victory. This was a major defeat for the Romans, some Muslim historians nicknamed this battle as "The second Yarmouk". The battle had heavy casualties in both sides, the Byzantine chronicler Theophanes once said:

* “When the two forces joined battle, the Romans were defeated, and the sea was mixed with Roman blood.” - *Theophanes*

Emperor Constantine II exchanged clothes with another person, escaped from his imperial ship, and, as Theophanes records, he abandoned all his men and sailed away to Constantinople. 
## Notes 
## References