open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Air France

**Air France** is one of the largest airlines in the world. It is based in France. It is owned by Air France-KLM. Before it merged with KLM, it employed 71,654 people. Its headquarters are at Charles de Gaulle International Airport near Paris. Air France is a founding member of SkyTeam alongside Aeroméxico, Delta Air Lines and Korean Air.

## History 
The airline can be traced back to 1933, when four other French airlines were combined to create *Air France*.  Air France hired its first flight attendants in 1946.  The airline started flying between Paris and New York City on July 1, 1946. In 1957, the airline bought its first jet aircraft.  Air France was one of 4 airlines that flew the Concorde.  It used it from 1976 until 2003. In 1988, the airline became the first to fly the Airbus A320.  In 2003, KLM Royal Dutch Airlines and Air France announced they were going to be combining. The combination ended in 2004.  As of 2016, Air France is going through many financial problems. 

## Fleets 
## Gallery 

File:Air France Caravelle Haafke.jpg|An Air France Sud Aviation Caravelle seen in 1979.
File:145bc - Air France Boeing 767-300; F-GHGF@CDG;11.08.2001 (8082565393).jpg|An Air France Boeing 767 at Paris-Charles de Gaulle Airport.
File:DL2A Salon première Air France PARIS CDG Roissy 1.jpg|An Air France airport lounge.
File:F-GLZI (7145593261).jpg|Air France cabin on an Airbus A340.
File:F-GNIF FLIGHT ATL-CDG (7202794448).jpg|Airline food on Air France.

## References
Air Dolomiti

**Air Dolomiti L.A.R.E. S.p.A** is a regional airline from Verona in Italy. It is named after a section of the Alps known as The Dolomites. It is part of Lufthansa Regional connecting medium-size Italian airports to other European cities through Munich and Frankfurt am Main airports. The airline employs 550 people.

## References
Hampshire

**Hampshire** is a county in the south of the UK. The county has an area of 1,455 square miles (3,769 km²). At its widest points, the county is about 55 miles (90 km) east-west and 40 miles (65 km) north-south. The county town is Winchester. About 1.6 million people live in Hampshire.
Keynote (software)

**Keynote** is a presentation software application made by Apple for its Mac OS operating system. Version 15 of Keynote is the latest major update. It was released in January 2026.

## History
Keynote was a software program that Steve Jobs, the chief executive officer of Apple used for his own presentations only. It was later sold to everyone as Keynote 1.0, competing against other presentation software, especially Microsoft PowerPoint. Unlike PowerPoint, Keynote can use all image types, and the design uses more pictures, making it easier to use. Because Keynote uses Mac OS X's built-in graphics technologies, it can produce slides with many graphics very easily.

## Version history
## Trivia
*Al Gore, a member of the board of directors for Apple as of 2006, uses Keynote for a lecture about Global Warming which he claims to have shown over a thousand times. The talk was made into a film, *An Inconvenient Truth*. During the film he can be seen using Keynote on a Powerbook to design a slide for his presentation.

## Related pages
*Microsoft PowerPoint
*LibreOffice Impress
*Presentation program

## Other websites 
* Official website of Keynote

### Discussion Groups
* Keynote Yahoo! Group — Help and advice for users of Keynote 
* iWork Yahoo! Group — Help and advice for users of Apple's iWork (Pages and Keynote)

## References
Manuel Pereira da Silva

**Manuel Pereira da Silva** (7 December 1920 – 2003) was a Portuguese sculptor. He was born in Oporto, Portugal. 

The workmanship of Manuel Pereira da Silva has an abstract formal orientation inspired in the human figure, in particularly the man and the woman. In 2000, the Medal of Cultural Merit was attributed to Manuel Pereira da Silva for the City Council of Vila Nova de Gaia.

## Education
In 1939, he entered the Oporto University's College of Arts. In 1953, he finished his coursework with the final classification of 18 values. During his coursework he was distinguished with two awards, "Teixeira Lopes" and "Soares dos Reis".

In 1946 and 1947, he studied in Paris, France, at the Paris College of Arts.

## Selected works
*I Exposition of the Independents, in the Oporto University's College of Arts. (1943)
*II Exposition of the Independents, in the Atheneum Commercial of Oporto. (1944)
*III Exposition of the Independents, in the Coliseum of Oporto. (1945)
*Low-relives in Stone in the Rivoli Theatre and in the Coliseum, in Oporto. (1945)
*Exposition of the Portuguese Life and the Art in Lourenço Marques, Moçambique (1946)
*Exposition of Modern Art in the city of Caldas da Rainha. (1954)
*Sculpture in Bronze of General Ulysses S. Grant, 18º President of the United States of America between 1868 and 1876. This monument was ordered by the Portuguese Government to Pereira da Silva for the capital of Guiné-Bissau. (1955)
*Paintings in the Church of Saint Luzia, in the city of Viana do Castelo. (1956)
*Paintings of the "Snow White" in the Street of Saint Catarina, in Oporto. (1957)
*Sculpture in Bronze in the Square Marquis do Pombal, in Oporto. (1958)
*II Exposition of Modern Art in the city of Viana do Castelo. (1959)
*Low-relief in Ceramics in the capital of Angola. (1960)
*Low-relief in Stone of "D. Pedro Pitões exhorting the Crusades" in the Courthouse, in Oporto. (1961)
*II Exposition of Plastic Arts of the Foundation Calouste Gulbenkian, in the city of Lisbon. (1962)
*Retrospective Exposition in Homage to the workmanship of Pereira da Silva by the Artists Association of Vila Nova de Gaia. (1987)

## Other websites 
*Twitter
*Facebook
*Blogspot
*Instagram
*Flickr
*Youtube
Primality test

A **primality test** is a method (or algorithm) to find out if a certain number is a prime number. Cryptography uses prime numbers, and needs to test if a certain number is prime.  The official proof of a prime is through its primality certificate.

## Simple methods
*Sieve of Eratosthenes: Determine if there is a number (between 2 and n, the number to test) that divides n, without a rest
* Wilson's theorem (inefficient): (p-1)! evaluates to -1 mod p where p is the candidate prime number

## Better methods
*Fermat's primality test
*Miller-Rabin primality test

.
Padding (cryptography)

**Padding** is a term used in cryptography. Very often, messages (to be encrypted) start or end in a well-known way (*Dear Bob, ..., Yours, Alice*). This is a problem, because that knowledge could be used to break (or start to break) encryption. To prevent this, a number of random characters are added at the beginning or the end of the message.

This procedure may also be necessary because many cryptographic methods operate on blocks of code. If a block is not full, additional characters need to be filled in. Filling in random text has proven very useful.
Dictionary attack

A **dictionary attack** is a method used in cryptography to find a key (or username, or password). A large number of words are tried. These words usually come from a special collection, called a "dictionary". 

The attack is based on trying all the strings in a pre-arranged listing. The listing is usually derived from a list of words, such as in a dictionary (hence the phrase *dictionary attack*).

## References
Yeti

The **Yetis** (also called the **abominable snowman**) is an animal said to live in the Himalaya mountain range made of ice. People say they have seen it, but none have ever been caught. It is supposed to look like an ape that walks upright. Some body parts, said to be of a yeti, are kept in a few monasteries in the area. There no real evidence that it exists, but there have been reports of footprints in the snow which could have been made by a yeti.

## Description
The yeti has been described as having white shaggy fur and a lean  body like an ape. This "creature" could also live in the Asian mountains near the Himalayan snow line. Stories about the Yeti and another similar creature, Bigfoot, suggest that if they are real, they could be the same, or similar species. The yeti can stand at least 6 - 10 foot tall, not as tall as the Bigfoot. It has also been said the Yeti can weigh at least 300 - 400 pounds. The yeti is shy, which is why it has never been found. In 2010 an unsuccessful exhibition, some hunters found a hairless four legged creature, they said was a Yeti. It was a small hairless cat that lost it's hair from a disease.

## Popular culture
The yeti has been shown in couple of movies including Monsters, Inc. The Yeti has also been a WWE wrestler name. Toys and games using creatures like yetis have been made including Lego Cards (Lego). It's also depicted in the ride Expedition Everest at Disney World's Animal Kingdom.

Khumjung-Gomba-18-Yeti-Schaedel-2007-gje.jpg|Yeti scull in Khumjung gompa
Khumjung-Gomba-20-Yeti-Doku-2007-gje.jpg|Documentation
1937 yeti footprints.png|1937 yeti footprints, later proved to be bear footprints
Wars of Scottish Independence

The **Wars of Scottish Independence** were a series of military campaigns fought between Scotland and England in the late 13th and early 14th centuries.

The First War (1296–1328) began with the English invasion of Scotland in 1296, and ended with the signing of the Treaty of Edinburgh-Northampton in 1328. The Second War (1332–1357) began with the English-supported invasion of Edward Balliol and the 'Disinherited' in 1332, and ended around 1357 with the signing of the Treaty of Berwick. 

The wars were part of a great national crisis for Scotland and the period became one of the most important moments in the nation's history. At the end of both wars, Scotland still was a free and independent nation, which was her main aim throughout the conflict. The wars were also important for other reasons, such as the emergence of the longbow as a key weapon in mediaeval warfare.

## Important Figures
Scotland
*King David II
*King John Balliol
*King Robert I the Bruce
*William Wallace

England
*King Edward I
*King Edward II
*King Edward III

## Battles 
### Battle of Bannockburn
The **Battle of Bannockburn** (23–24 June 1314) was an important Scottish victory. It was the decisive battle in the First War of Scottish Independence. In this battle, the Scottish king Robert the Bruce defeated the English king Edward II.

## Related pages
*First War of Scottish Independence
*Second War of Scottish Independence

## Other websites 
* Wars of Independence
Smart card

A **smart card** is a card with a microchip in it. Such cards are used as a method of  and authentication. 

Plastic cards that allow taking out money from an automated teller machine (ATM) often are smart cards nowadays (Some of them still have a magnetic stripe which holds the same information). Very often, the user is identified with a PIN. If the PIN is entered correctly, money can be withdrawn. If the PIN is not entered correctly, the card is blocked (after a number of false attempts).

The first smart cards were used in public telephones in France, in 1983. There, the card simply stored a pre-paid credit. This credit was reduced when calls were made. Another way to solve the problem is that the balance is stored in a remote database. To make calls, a (usually toll-free) telephone number is first called. From there, additional calls can be made. This eliminates the need for cards with chips on them.

Smart cards also have many other uses, such as for making payments. These kinds of cards are used a lot in Japan, Singapore, and the Octopus card in Hong Kong.

## Kinds
There are two basic kinds of smart cards:
* Simple cards only contain memory that can be read and written to. Examples are phone cards, or cards for health insurance. All the processing of the data is done outside the cards.
* Complex cards contain an integrated microchip. In addition to being able to store data, they can also do some of the data processing. Unlike with the simple cards, there is generally no way to directly access the memory of the card. Examples of such cards include the bank cards that can be used for withdrawing money, or the SIM cards used in mobile phones.
Both kind of cards contain a controller for managing the I/O.

Many smart cards have RFID technology that allows them to be used without inserting them into a machine. They just need to be placed on a reader. These are called "contactless smart cards" and many credit and debit cards in the 21st century are this kind.

## References
## Other websites
*What is a smart card? (from HowStuffWorks)
Coprime

In mathematics, two integers (*a* and *b*) are **co-prime** (or **relatively prime**) if they share no common factors. This is sometimes written as a \perp b. In other words, there is no number, other than 1, that divides both a and b evenly. In which case, the greatest common divisor (**GCD**, or **highest common factor**) of these numbers is 1.

As an example, 6 and 35 are coprime, because the factors of 6, 2 and 3, do not divide 35 evenly. On the other hand, 6 and 27 are not coprime, because 3 divides both 6 and 27. Another example is 4 and 5:
4 = 2*2*1; 
5 = 5*1 (Prime). The only common factor is 1, so they are coprime.

On the other hand, 10 and 5:
10 = 5*2 
5 = 5*1 (Prime). The common factors are 5 and 1, so they are not coprime.

Prime numbers are always **coprime** to each other.

# Any two consecutive integers are always **coprime**.
# Sum of any two **coprime** numbers is always **coprime** to their product.
# 1 is trivially **coprime** with all numbers.
# if out of two numbers, any one number is a prime number while the other number is not a multiple of first one, then both are coprime.
# This is not applicable to negative numbers

## Related pages 
* Chinese remainder theorem
* Euler's totient function
* Euler's totient theorem

## References
Ciao (magazine)

is a Japanese shōjo manga magazine published by Shogakukan for young girls (about 9-13 years old). It has been published since 1977.

## Famous works
**Slow Step* (Mitsuru Adachi)
**Alpen Rose* (Michiyo Akaishi)
**Mizuiro Jidai* (Yuu Yabuuchi)
**Dr. Rin ni Kiite Mite!* (Kiyoko Arai)
**Mirumo de pon!* (Hiromu Shinozuka)
**Kirarin Revolution* (Ann Nakahara)

## Cartoonists
*Yuu Yabuuchi (1983–)
*Kiyoko Arai (1984–)
*Masumi Shimizu (1989–)
*Takemaru Sasaki (1992–)
*Tomoko Nishimura (1992–)
*Yukino Miyawaki (1992–)
*Yumi Tsukirino (1996–)
*Mai Jinna (1997–)
*Kaoru Igarashi (1999–)
*Hiromu Shinozuka (1999–)
*Chikako Mori (2000–)
*Jun Kawamura (2000–)
*Ann Nakahara (2000–)
*Ryoko Mizoguchi (2000–)
*Chitose Yagami (2001–)
*Itsuru Minase (2001–)
*Meme Iwaoka (2001–)
*Nozomi Shiratori (2002–)
*Yūko Kohara (2002–)
*Shou Obara (2003–)
*Maki Sugawa (2003–)
*Mayuki Anan (2004–)
*Miru Akino (2004–)
*Akira Wao (2005–)
*Mariko Kosaka (2005–)
*Yayoi Tsukamoto (2005–)
*Yūmi Rink (2005–)
*Michiru Aoi (2005–)
*Aya Misaki (2006–)
*Eri Nasubi (2006–)
Key (cryptography)

In cryptography, a **key** (or **cryptographic key**) is a piece of information that allows control over the encryption or decryption process.

There are two basic types of cryptographic algorithms.
**Symmetric algorithm*: If there is just one key for encrypting and decrypting, the algorithm is called *symmetric*.
**Asymmetric algorithm*: If there are two different keys, each of which can be used only to encrypt data or only to decrypt it, the algorithm is called *asymmetric*.  If an algorithm is asymmetric, one person publishes a key and accepts messages encrypted with that key.  Anyone can encrypt a message, but only the person who owns the other key can decrypt it.  This is how online stores, banks, etc., work.

## Key sizes
For symmetric algorithms, a minimum key size of 128 bits is recommended. For applications that need extreme security, such as top secret documents, 256 bits is recommended. Many older ciphers used 40, 56, or 64-bit keys—these have all been cracked by brute force attack because the key was too short.

Asymmetric (public key) algorithms need much longer keys to be secure. For RSA, at least 2048 bits is recommended. The largest publicly-known key that has been cracked was a 768-bit key.

## Related pages 
* Key exchange
Hollywood, Florida

**Hollywood** is a city in Broward County in Florida in the United States.  In 2020, there were 153,067 people living in Hollywood. **Joseph W. Young, Jr.** first came to south Florida in 1920 from the state of Washington. He had also lived in California and liked what he had seen of Hollywood, California and the burgeoning movie industry in that state. He dreamed of creating a motion picture industry on the east coast, and founded Hollywood, Florida in 1920.

Young originally named his town **"Hollywood by the Sea".**

Young's own Mediterranean styled mansion was built in 1921 and still stands at **1055 Hollywood Boulevard**, the main thoroughfare from downtown Hollywood to Hollywood Beach. The mansion is on the **U.S. National Register of Historic Places.**

## Geography 
Hollywood is located on the coastal plain along the Atlantic Ocean in the south-eastern part of the United States, also of Florida. It is bordered by Pembroke Pines, Fort Lauderdale and Hialeah.
## Climate 
In Hollywood, the summers are long, hot, oppressive, wet, and mostly cloudy and the winters are short, comfortable, humid, windy, and mostly clear. Over the course of the year, the temperature typically varies from 61&nbsp;°F to 89&nbsp;°F and is rarely below 48&nbsp;°F or above 92&nbsp;°F.

## References 
## Other websites 
* City of Hollywood official website
* Hollywood Historical Society
*Hollywood-Specific Alcohol Use Stats
Echo

**Echo** could mean:
* Echo, as a reflection of sound that can be heard a while after the first sound
* Echo (mythology), a nymph from Greek mythology
* One type of effect pedals, echo
Exponentiation by squaring

**Exponentiating by squaring** is an algorithm. It is used for quickly working out large integer powers of a number. It is also known as the **square-and-multiply** algorithm or **binary exponentiation**. It uses the binary expansion of the exponent. It is of quite general use, for example in modular arithmetic. 

The algorithm is believed to have first been documented in the Sanskrit book *Chandah-sûtra*, about 200 BC.

## Squaring algorithm
The following recursive algorithm computes *x**n* for a positive integer *n* where n > 0:

:
\mbox{Power}(x,\,n)=
  \begin{cases} x, & \mbox{if }n\mbox{ = 1} \\ 
                \mbox{Power}(x^2,\,n/2), & \mbox{if }n\mbox{ is even} \\
                x\times\mbox{Power}(x^2,\,(n-1)/2), & \mbox{if }n >\mbox{2 is odd}
\end{cases}

This algorithm is much faster than the ordinary method to compute such a value. Multiplying x by itself, n operations are needed to calculate *x n*. With the method shown above, only log2(n) operations are needed. 

The following algorithm computes modular exponentiation *x**n* mod *m* where x is the base, n is the exponent and m is the modulus.

#include 
#include 

unsigned long long exponentiation_by_squaring(int base, int exponent, int modulus)
{
    unsigned long long result = 1;
    while (exponent > 0)
    {
        if (exponent % 2 == 1)
        {
            result = (result * base) % modulus;
        }
        base = (base * base) % modulus;
        exponent = exponent / 2;
    }
    return result;
}

int main()
{
    int x, n, m;
    scanf("%d %d %d", &x, &n, &m);
    // x : base
    // n : exponent
    // m : modulus
    unsigned long long result = exponentiation_by_squaring(x, n, m);
    printf("%llu", result);

    return 0;
}
Payphone

.]]
A **payphone** is a telephone that lets the public make phone calls if they pay for them first.  Many payphones accept coins, but some can accept credit cards, debit cards, and phone cards as well. In the 20th century they were very often used, especially in cities. When people used more mobile phones, payphones quickly became rarer in small towns, and later also in cities.

## Related pages
* Telephone box
* Red box

## Other websites
* Pay phones: Is That Still A Thing? 2016 in the San Diego Union-Tribune.
Magnetic stripe card

A **Magnetic stripe card** is a plastic card which has a magnetic stripe on it. Different kinds of information can be stored on the magnetic stripe. Such stripes are usually made of small particles of iron (or another metal). Information is stored by changing the magnetism of the particles, as with magnetic tape
Today such cards are widely used for:
* Banking (debit or credit cards)
* Tickets issued for transportation or in parking lots.
* Keys in hotels and other buildings
* Systems to track working hours in companies
There are different ways in which the data is stored on the card. But all of them are read in much the same way, by "swiping" (sliding the card through a ) on a machine called a reader. These readers can be separate from or built into other machines such as a payment terminal in a cash register or point of sale system.

Similar cards, which can also do calculations themselves, are called smart cards.

## Details 
The standard ISO 7811 specifies the format in which information is stored on these cards. A magnetic stripe holds about 1024 bits of information, which is arranged in three tracks. The first track holds 76 alphanumeric characters, encoded in 7 bit per character. The two other tracks  hold 37 and 104 numeric characters, encoded with 5 bits per character. The first two tracks can only be read, the third track can also be written to. 

Cards that are used for banking used to store the PIN as a hash value on the magnetic stripe. Today, the ATM calculates the hash value, and transmits it to the server of the bank, which does the comparison. Storing the PIN in the ATM is no longer allowed.

In many payment cards around the world, magnetic stripes are being replaced with a more secure technology called EMV. Most of these cards, though, still have magnetic stripes to be used in places which do not yet work with EMV.

## References
## Other websites
* Magnetic Stripe Formats 
* A Brief History of Reprogrammable Card Technology (2012)
Sápmi

**Sápmi** (as its name is in Northern Sámi language), in English commonly known as **Lapland** (), is the most northern part of Fennoscandia. Fennoscandia is a peninsula in northern Europe.

The area of Sápmi is shared between four countries: Norway, Sweden, Finland and Russia. In Norway, as far south as the Hedmark area of Innlandet county, there are areas with many Sámi people.

The original people of Sápmi are the Sámi. They are now a minority there. The Sámi people are sometimes called Lapps, but this word has a negative association and is something most Sámi dislike being called.

The weather of Sápmi is cold. Summer is short. There are big hills with no trees on top of them. Reindeer live in Sápmi. You can see northern lights in the sky.

## Economy
Reindeer herding is part of the economy.

In Norway's part of Sapmi, as of the spring of 2025, during the last five winters, grazing reindeer were finding less and less food.  An owner of a reindeer herd said (summer of 2025) that this was the first time ever, that he had to give  [extra food or] pellets to grazing reindeer, during the summer;

A "pasture crisis" or "grazing crisis" (*beitekrise*), was a name used by media.

## Related pages 
* Finnish Lapland
* Swedish Lapland

## References
Euler's totient function

In number theory, the **totient** of a positive integer *n* is the number of positive integers smaller than *n* which are coprime to *n* (they share no factors except 1). It is often written as \phi (n).

For example, \phi(8) = 4, because there are four numbers (1, 3, 5 and 7) which do not share any factors with 8.
The function \phi used here is the **totient function**, usually called the **Euler totient** or '''Euler's totient**, after the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler, who studied it.
The totient function is also called **Euler's phi function** or simply the **phi function**, since the Greek letter Phi (\phi) is so commonly used for it. The **cototient'* of *n* is defined as n - \phi(n).

The totient function is important mainly because it gives the size of the multiplicative group of integers modulo *n''. More precisely, \phi(n) is the order of the group of units of the ring \mathbb{Z}/n\mathbb{Z}. This fact, together with Lagrange's theorem, provides a proof for Euler's theorem. 

A common use of the totient function is in the RSA algorithm. The RSA algorithm is a popular method of encryption used worldwide.

For any prime number, *p*, \phi(p) = p-1. 

## Related pages 
* Euler's totient theorem

## References
Gantt chart

A **Gantt chart** is a type of bar chart. It is a tool of project management invented by the engineer Henry L. Gantt in the 1910s. The chart illustrates a project schedule. 

Gantt charts show the start and finish dates of the elements of a project. Gantt charts show dependency between activities. It means that some activities can begin only after other activities are finished. If activities are independent, they can go on at the same time (though the converse is not necessarily true). Gantt charts can be used to show current schedule status using percent-complete shadings and a vertical "TODAY" line as shown here.

Gantt chart also helps in scheduling, managing, and monitoring specific tasks and resources in a project. The chart shows the project timeline, which includes scheduled and completed work over a period. The Gantt chart aids project managers in communicating project status or plans and also helps ensure the project remains on track.

They are now a common charting technique, but Gantt charts were thought revolutionary when first introduced. The charts are also used in information technology to represent data that has been collected.

Horizontal bars of different lengths represent the project timeline, which can include task sequences, duration, and the start and end dates for each task. The horizontal bar also shows how much of a task requires completion.

## References
Mind map

A **mind map** is a drawing used to show words, ideas, tasks or other things. Everything is written around a word or idea in the middle. This word or idea is the main topic of the mind map, and the things linked to it are related to the main idea. It is used to store and order ideas, and is very useful for study, ordering things, solving problems, and making choices.

## Other websites 
*Mindmapping for offices, Website
Dia

**Dia** is free and open-source software that is used to make diagrams. It lets people draw many different types of technical drawings, for example flow charts and circuit diagrams. Technical diagrams are needed when doing work in subjects such as electronics and resistant materials. A flow chart can also be used to show how to plan out how to solve a problem, for example, how to bake a cake.

## Other websites 
*Dia Project Homepage
*Free Software Magazine 
*Addictive Tips
Talent

A **talent** (or **aptitude**) is the natural ability to do something better than most people. Talent is often confused with skill. We can develop and improve skill but not talent. Talent is the information written in genes when we are born. That information never changes in our lifetime. It can only be inherited by our children. Talent means only a greater potential for doing something. But talent is not enough. To get good results we need also practice. Even the greatest talent without practice will not give good skill. But on the other hand, even years of practice without talent will not give good results either. If somebody has no talent for music but learns to play piano several hours a day for two years, they will achieve some skill but never become a great musician.

## Related pages 
* Charisma
* Genius
* Gifted education
* Mensa

## References
Gift (disambiguation)

The word **gift** can mean:

* A gift or a present is something that is given to somebody.
* A talent is a skill that somebody is born with.
*UN.GIFT, the United Nations global initiative to fight human trafficking
Judah

The **Kingdom of Judah** was an ancient Israelite kingdom that existed in the southern part of the Levant. It was on the western shore of the Dead Sea. Its main cities were Jerusalem and Hebron. It existed from the 9th or 8th century BC, up until 586 BC.

After the death of Saul, Israel picked David to rule them. (1 Chronicles 11:1) After the death of King Solomon, son of David, ten of the twelve of the tribes of Israel did not want Solomon's son, Rehoboam to lead them. This caused the kingdom to split the Northern Kingdom, the Kingdom of Israel and the **Southern Kingdom**, the Kingdom of Judah. Jerusalem was the capital of the Kingdom of Judah. In 586 BC, the king of Babylon, Nebuchadnezzar II, took over Jerusalem and destroyed Judah.
## Related pages
* Jews
* Judaism
* Jerusalem
* Near East
* Kingdom of Israel
* Classical antiquity
## References
Claymore

The **claymore** is a Scottish sword. It has two sharp edges. The word claymore is from Gaelic. It means “great sword”. The sword is held with two hands. In some sources the broad claymore sword is called “claidheamh da lamh”, which means “two-hand sword”. It was very popular in the 16th century when Scottish warriors (highlanders) used it against the Englishmen.

The average claymore was about  long. The blade was about  long. It weighed around . It had a very wide blade. Many claymore blades had a small amount of metal cut out of them. This was done to make the sword weigh less.

There was also a type of claymore that had one sharp edge and a basket-shaped handle. The basket of the handle was used to protect the hands. The basket was also used to help with balance. This was because the blade was very long. Many claymores were made during the mid-1600s. 

People in Europe started using swords with two hands in the 14th century. The biggest European swords were made in the early 16th century. They were usually used by bodyguards or soldiers for defending from pikes and polearms. One example of these kinds of swords is the Germanic Zweihänder (two-handed) sword.

## References 
## Other websites 
*More on swords' component parts
Rocky Marciano

**Rocco Francis Marchegiano**, better known as **Rocky Marciano** (September 1, 1923 – August 31, 1969), was an American boxer (1946-1956). Marciano was the World Heavyweight Boxing Champion from 1952 until 1956. He had the shortest reach of any heavyweight champion at only 68&nbsp;inches (173&nbsp;cm). He was also short for a champion, standing 5'11" (180&nbsp;cm). Marciano is the only heavyweight champion in professional boxing history who never lost or drew (tied) in a professional match. He won 43 fights by a way of knockout or technical knockout, an 87.76% knockout rate.

## Early life 
He was born Rocco Francis Marchegiano on September 1, 1923. His parents were Italian immigrants.

## Professional career 
Before becoming a professional fighter, Marciano had an amateur record of 10-4 (8KOs). Marciano's first professional fight was in March 1947. He won the championship from Jersey Joe Walcott on September 23, 1952.

Marciano was named fighter of the year by Ring Magazine three times. His three championship fights between 1952 and 1954 were named fights of the year by that magazine. Marciano's last title fight was against Archie Moore on September 21, 1955. Marciano was knocked down in the fight, but he got up and knocked out Moore in the 9th round. Marciano announced his retirement in a press conference on April 27, 1956.

## Retirement 
Marciano considered a comeback in 1959 when Ingemar Johansson won the heavyweight championship from Floyd Patterson on June 26, 1959. However, Floyd Patterson's contract demanded a rematch with Ingemar within one year. After a period in training and thinking about a comeback, Marciano decided against it and never seriously considered a comeback again. 

## Personal life 
In 1947, Marciano met Barbra Cousins. They married on December 31, 1950.

## Death 
In 1969, on the eve of his 46th birthday, Marciano was a passenger in a small private plane, a Cessna 172, headed to Des Moines, Iowa. It was at night and bad weather set in. The pilot tried to land the plane on a small airfield outside Newton, Iowa, but the plane hit a tree two miles short of the runway. The passengers and crew, including Marciano, died on impact. 

He is entombed in a crypt at Forest Lawn Memorial Cemetery in Fort Lauderdale, Florida. His widow, who died five years after him at the age of 46, is entombed next to him.

## References 
## Other websites 
* Rocky Marciano Biography
* Official Record 
* Official Website 
*
NTFS

**NTFS** is a file system developed by Microsoft. NTFS stands for **New Technology File System**. A file system is a way of storing computer files. Microsoft introduced it with the Windows NT operating system. 

It was made to replace the old file-system used by earlier versions of Windows, like Windows 95, Windows 98, and Windows 98SE. That file system was also used by MS-DOS and is called FAT.

A newer version of NTFS (v3.1) was used in Windows XP, Windows Server 2003, Windows Vista, and the most recent version of operating system, Windows 11. NTFS can be accessed from non-Windows operating systems such as Linux using the NTFS-3G driver.
File system

A **File system** (or **filesystem**) is a way of storing all data on a data storage device. The data is usually organized in computer files in directories. Below the file system, there is often a physical device where the files are stored. This might be a HDD, SSD, USB flash drive, Compact Disc, DVD, etc. The file system might also talk to a remote server over a network where the file is stored. The file system might also only use RAM to store the files. 

The underlying storage mechanism typically has no concept of a file. A hard disk knows of disk blocks, which are numbered in a certain way. These disk blocks contain binary data (usually: large numbers). 

The file system does the *translation* between the large numbers, and the view the users see, that is that of files, organized in a certain way.

More recently, concepts from databases have been used to develop file systems. That way, there are two different kinds of data:
*Data that holds the files
*Data that is used to describe what state the files are in. This is called metadata.
It then becomes possible to always keep the file system in a consistent state. With databases, this is known as ACID. That way, an operation on a file is either done, or it is not done. There are, however, no states in between. The file being written to the filesystem is no longer visible. This is usually done using transactions. But with filesystems, it is called *journaling*.

## References
David II of Scotland

**David II** (5 March 1324 – 22 February 1371) King of Scots, son of King Robert the Bruce by his second wife, Elizabeth de Burgh (d. 1327), was born at Dunfermline Palace, Fife.

He was married on 17 July 1328, aged only four, to Joan of the Tower (d. 1362), daughter of Edward II of England and Isabella of France. Joan was only seven years old.

At the age of five, David became King of Scotland after the death of his father on 7 June 1329. He was crowned at Scone in November 1331. 

Edward Balliol, with support from Edward III of England fought against David, so that he could become king. He defeated David at the Battle of Dupplin on 12 August 1332. Balliol was crowned king, and in July 1333, the nine year old David and his queen were sent to France for their safety. In June 1341 he came back and began to rule. In 1346 he invaded England, but was  and taken prisoner at the Battle of Neville's Cross on 17 October 1346, and remained in England for eleven years, living mainly in London and at Odiham in Hampshire. In October 1357 he was allowed to go back to Scotland for a payment of 100,000 marks. The money was never paid completely. 
In 1371 David died in Edinburgh Castle.

## References
* Andrew of Wyntoun, *The orygynale cronykil of Scotland*, edited by D. Laing (Edinburgh, 1872–1879)
* John of Fordun, *Chronica gentis Scotorum*, edited by W. F. Skene (Edinburgh, 1871–1872)
* J. H. Burton, *History of Scotland*, vol. ii. (Edinburgh, 1905)
* Andrew Lang, *History of Scotland*, vol. i. (Edinburgh, 1900)
* 

## Further reading
* Michael Brown, *The Wars of Scotland, 1214–1371. The New Edinburgh History of Scotland, volume 4.* Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2004.
* Ranald Nicholson, *Scotland. The Later Middle Ages.* Edinburgh: Mercat Press, 1975.
* Michael Penman, *David II, 1329–71: The Bruce Dynasty in Scotland.* East Linton: Tuckwell Press, 2003.
Aurora

An **aurora**, also called **polar light**, **northern light** or **southern light**, is a natural light display in the sky. They are usually seen in the high latitudes (Arctic and Antarctic) regions. Auroras are produced when the Earth's magnetosphere is disturbed by the solar wind.

 

An aurora around the North Pole is called the *Aurora borealis* or 'northern lights'. Around the South Pole is the *Aurora australis* or 'dawn of the south' or 'southern lights'. It can be seen from long distances, stretching in the sky many hundreds of miles.

Auroras can happen at any time, however, they can only be seen at night because their light is not as intense as the light of day. Faint stars can even be seen through the aurora.

Many legends are associated with the aurora in all countries where this phenomenon regularly occurs.

## How it happens 
An aurora occurs when the Sun sends off small particles into space. These particles are mainly electrons, with charge and energy, which means they contribute to electricity. Earth has a protective shield of energy around it. This is called the "magnetic field" and forms an elongated sphere around the Earth called the "magnetosphere". The Earth’s magnetic field keeps off most solar wind. 

At high-latitude areas (polar areas), the magnetic field is vertical. It does not keep off particles of the solar wind which can come from the magnetosphere and hit the particles of the air (Earth's atmosphere). When they hit, the atmosphere is heated and excited and the excess gets away, a phenomenon which we see as moving lights in the sky above 100 km altitude typically. An aurora can be especially bright following a solar flare and coronal mass ejection (CME) when the charged particles rips through the electromagnetic field because of their power.

## On other planets 
Auroral phenomena have been observed on other planets that have a magnetic field, such as Jupiter, and Saturn. It is believed to be a widespread phenomenon in the Solar System and beyond.

## References
Nordic countries

**Nordic countries** are a group of countries in Northern Europe. These countries include Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Sweden, Norway, and the territories of Greenland, Svalbard, the Åland Islands and the Faroe Islands. Though often confused as such, Scandinavia is not equivalent to the Nordic countries. Scandinavia is a peninsula while the Nordic countries are recognized states. Sweden and Norway (and a small part of Finland) rest on the Scandinavian peninsula. Scandinavia and Finland together belong to a larger peninsula, Fennoscandia. Finns speak a non-Germanic language.

Nordic countries have similar state, law and culture. Historically, Nordic countries have maintained close connections. Nordic countries are primarily socialist democracies and welfare states. Nordic countries have some political co-operation, such as the Nordic Council. Cooperation with a larger group, the European Union, makes the Nordic cooperation even smaller.

Nordic countries have long, cold winters with warm days in the summer, but only a small part of Northern Norway and approximately half of Iceland is arctic, although Iceland lies below the Arctic Circle except for one small island.

## References
Going Underground

"**Going Underground**" was The Jam's first number one song on the UK charts. The song is arguably The Jam's finest moment in their career. Although it did not appear on any of their studio albums, it did appear on several 'best of' Jam albums.
Paasselkä devil

**Paasselkä devils** (Finnish "Päässelän pirut") are stories about balls of light at Lake Paasselkä, Finland. Local people say that bright balls sometimes move above lake Paasselkä or near the lake in the forest. This kinds of lights are said to appear around the world. They are sometimes called ghost lights or will o' the wisps. Scientists does not know what ghost lights or will o' wisps are. 

People have told these stories for a long time, so it is a part of folklore there. People thought that balls of light are devils. Some still believe that balls are alive or have mind, because they seem to act like that. Ball can follow fishermans boat of go to hide if you use your torch.

Lake Paasselkä appeared when big stone dropped from the sky millions of years ago. Such lake is called crater-lake. Magnetism in the middle of the lake is not normal.

## Related pages
*Ghost lights

## Video
You can see the balls from this website 

## Book
*Sulo Strömberg: Kerimäen ja Savonrannan kyliä kiertämässä. Tarinoita Paasveen piruista ja pohuista (2006)
Aurora (mythology)

:*The phenomena that can be seen in the atmosphere is at Aurora*
, 1621-23 (ceiling fresco in the Casino Ludovisi, Rome), a classic example of Baroque illusionistic painting]]

**Aurora** was the ancient Roman equivalent of Eos. Eos was the ancient Greek goddess of the dawn. *Aurora* is the Latin word for dawn.

Aurora renews herself every morning at dawn and flies across the sky. She announces the morning's arrival. She has a brother and a sister. Her brother is the sun, and her sister is the moon. She also has many husbands and four sons, one for each cardinal direction: North, East, South, and West.

Aurora is comparable to Eos in Greek mythology and to Ushas in Hindu mythology.

One of her lovers was Tithonus. Aurora asked Zeus to grant immortality to Tithonus. However, she failed to ask him for eternal youth. As a result, Tithonus ended up aging eternally. 
 Aurora, goddess of the morning and Tithonus, Prince of Troy - Aurora e Titone]]

In Shakespeare's *Romeo and Juliet* (i.i) Montague says of his lovesick son Romeo
:*But all so soon as the all-cheering sun*
:*Should in the farthest east begin to draw*
:''The shady curtains from Aurora's bed,*
:*Away from the light steals home my heavy son...*

In the poem "Tithonus" by Lord Alfred Tennyson, Aurora is described as folllows:

:*Once more the old mysterious glimmer steals*
:*From thy pure brows, and from thy shoulders pure,*
:*And bosom beating with a heart renewed.*
:*Thy cheek begins to redden through the gloom,*
:*Thy sweet eyes brighten slowly close to mine,*
:*Ere yet they blind the stars, and the wild team*
:*Which love thee, yearning for thy yoke, arise,*
:*And shake the darkness from their loosened manes,*
:*And beat the twilight into flakes of fire.*

The asteroid 94 Aurora was named after her.

## Other websites 
* Aurora in *Encyclopædia Mythica''
Ukko

s) of weapons of sky god. A was usual in Finland]]
**Ukko** was the most important god in Finnish paganism, a religion that was in Finland before Christianity. Ukko was god of sky and thunder. Ukko was an old man and he lived on the sky. He had a weapon - hammer or axe called *Ukonvasara*. Lightning is from this weapon.

Finnish pagans had an image of this weapon made from metal on their necks. They believed that lightning does not hit people who have this image.

At Midsummer Finns gathered together and drank beer to honour Ukko. That was called "toast of Ukko".

Ukko is similar to Thor that was a sky god of most Scandinavians and Perun that is a Baltic sky god.
Väinämöinen

. He fights against Louhi, evil leader of Pohjola]]

**Väinämöinen** is an important person in Finnish mythology. He was a wise man and he knew magic. He was a hero and had many adventures.

Väinämöinen was also a god. As such, he was worshipped.

Magic of Väinämöinen was in his songs. When he sings hills shake and water moves. He sings his enemy, Joukahainen, to sink in swamp.

Väinämöinen was born before Earth. He was floating in the sea. He was born a grown man. Her mother, Ilmatar got pregnant by the water and wind and carried her son for 30 years. A bird (Sotka) made a nest on Ilmatar´s knee and when the bird hatched her eggs (six of them made of iron, one pure gold), it burned Ilmatar´s knee and finally Ilmatar moved her knee and all the eggs flew into the sky and on the earth and were broken. From those pieces the Earth and sky, the stars, The sun and the moon were born.
Ilmarinen

**Ilmarinen** is an important person in Finnish mythology. He is a very good smith who made the sky. He also made the Sampo, a magical machine that makes salt, gold and food. He tried to create a new moon and a sun, but failed. Ilmarinen married one of Louhi´s daughters.

## Related pages
*Ilmari, a given name
Finnish paganism

of swan and egg on stone]]
**Finnish paganism** was a pagan religion in Finland and Karelia before the Finnish people were Christian. Finnish paganism is close to Scandinavian paganism and Baltic paganism. The Finns believed that there were many gods. 

Finnish paganism was animistic. This means that people believed nature was full of small and big spirits. The biggest spirits were gods who had names, the god of the sky was Ukko, the god of the forest was Tapio and the god of water was Ahti. There were many other spirits known by specific names.

A Shaman was a wise person who could perform magic. With the help from spirits, he could heal ill people and curse enemies.

Humans had a soul that was divided. "Self" and "me" were two different parts of the soul. If one's "self"-soul left him, he was not dead, but very ill. A Shaman could go to the spirit world to bring the soul back.

The Bear was considered a holy animal. If a bear was hunted down, he or she was celebrated with a ritual called *Peijainen*, usually a big celebration involving food and drink. The purpose of the ritual was to pacify the soul of the bear. A happy soul would then be reincarnated into another bear, so that people could eat bears in the future. The swan was a holy bird and people believed that killing a swan would cause the killer to die.

Some trees and stones were holy to Finns, along with some forests. These places were often used to offer gods or spirits a sacrifice sacrifice. The sacrifice was gift intended to make the spirit happy. This spirit would then help humans. For example, a happy spirit of the sea would guarantee a plentiful catch for a fisherman. At later times things that were given to spirits were small, such as: money, flowers, pieces of silver, alcohol or food.

. North star holds sky dome and its supporting pillar together. Pillar stands at a disc that is surface of earth. Below the disc is the land of dead.]]

The Finns believed that Earth was flat like a disc. Above Earth was sky-dome, a pot that was upside down. In the middle of the Earth was a pillar holding the sky, so that it did not drop. The North star was a nail in the top of this pillar. Land of the dead, Tuonela, was under Earth. The way to Tuonela was at the base of pillar that holds the sky. The rotational movement of the pillar caused a great whirl of water at the base of the pillar called Kinahmi and this could be used as access way to Tuonela.

People hoped that their dead relatives would go to Tuonela, because they did not like ghosts. However some times dead relatives were asked to help living people. Sometimes shamans went to Tuonela to ask souls for help.