open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Languedoc-Roussillon

**Languedoc-Roussillon** (; ) is a former administrative region of France. It is now part of the administrative region of Occitanie. It is the southernmost region of mainland France and borders to the south with Spain and Andorra.

The five departments in the region were Aude, Gard, Hérault, Lozère, and Pyrénées-Orientales.

Its capital was Montpellier, the largest city. In French, the name of the inhabitants of the region is *Languedocien-Roussillonnais*.

## Etymology
The name of the province of Languedoc originates from the language spoken in southern France, ''langue d'oc,* also known as *Occitan*, and Roussillon, an area in the South of present-day Languedoc-Roussillon.

## Geography
The Languedoc-Roussillon region has an area of . It bordered to the south with Spain and Andorra; to the east is the Mediterranean Sea (the *Gulf of Lion''). It also bordered four French regions: Midi-Pyrénées to the west, Auvergne and Rhône-Alpes to the north, and Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur (PACA) to the northeast.

The highest point in Languedoc-Roussillon is Pic Carlit () in the Pyrénées-Orientales department; it is  high.

## Departments
The Languedoc-Roussillon region is formed by five departments:

## Demographics
The Languedoc-Roussillon region has a population, in 2012, of 2,700,266, for a population density of  inhabitants/km2.

The 10 most important cities in the region are:
, Montpellier]]

## Gallery

Vinça, le lac et le Canigou.jpg|Vinça and the Canigou mountain
Stlouis2005 7.jpg|Les Joutes de la Saint-Louis 2005, Sète
Pontdugard.jpg|*Pont du Gard*
Extérieur de l'Abbaye de Gellone à Saint guilhem le désert.jpg|*Saint-Guilhem-le-Désert* abbey

## References
## Other websites
* Regional Council of Languedoc-Roussillon official website 
* Tourism in Languedoc-Roussillon
Picardy

**Picardy** ()  used to be an administrative region of France. It is now part of the administrative region of Hauts-de-France. It is in the north of the country. Amiens was its capital. In 2007 almost 1.9 million people lived in the region, 186,000 of them in the capital.

The departments in the region were Aisne, Oise, and Somme.

Agriculture is very important for Picardy. There are many products, including potatoes, cereals, and vegetables. Picardy was also called *Jardin de France*, meaning 'Garden of France'.

## Other websites
Champagne-Ardenne

**Champagne-Ardenne** is a former administrative region of France. It is now part of the administrative region of Grand Est. Its capital was Chalons-en-Champagne. Another very important city in the region is Reims.

The departments in Champagne-Ardenne were Ardennes, Aube, Marne, and Haute-Marne.

The region is heavily centered on farming. It was the first region of France in the production of barley and alfalfa. Many cereals are also grown here. It is also very important for vegetables and wine. It is nearest to the east border. Sparkling wine is officially allowed to be called champagne if it is from here.

## Other websites
Upper Normandy

**Upper Normandy** (called *Haute-Normandie* in French) is a former region of France. It is now part of the administrative region of Normandy. The capital was Rouen, which is now the capital of Normandy. In 2007 about 1.9 million people lived in the region.

Upper Normandy was formed as a region in 1956. The old region of Normandy was split into the current Upper Normandy and Lower Normandy. The departments in the region were Seine-Maritime and Eure.

The region was the first producer of flax in France. It is also quite industrialized, specialising in petrochemical and pharmaceutical, as well as manufacturing industries.
Île-de-France

**Île-de-France** (pronounced *Eel-de-frans*) is a region of France. The capital city is Paris. It is also the capital city of France. In 2013 about 12 million people lived in the region. About 2.1 million people live in the city of Paris.

There are 8 departments in the region. They are:
*Essonne
*Hauts-de-Seine 
*Paris 
*Seine-et-Marne
*Seine-Saint-Denis
*Val-d'Oise
*Val-de-Marne 
*Yvelines
Democratic Republic of Georgia

The **Democratic Republic of Georgia** (**DRG**; Georgian: საქართველოს დემოკრატიული რესპუბლიკა, *Sakartvelos Demokratiuli Respublika*), 1918–1921, was the first modern establishment of a Republic of Georgia.

Georgia's capital was Tbilisi, and its state language was Georgian. Created on May 26, 1918, on the break-up of the Transcaucasian Federation, it was led by the Social Democratic Menshevik party. Facing permanent internal and external problems, the young state was not able to withstand the invasion by the Russian SFSR Red Armies. It collapsed between February and March 1921 to become a Soviet republic.
Ajaccio

**Ajaccio** (Latin: *Ajax*; French: *Ajaccio*; Corsican: *Aiacciu*), pronounced "ah-YAH-cho", is a town in France. It is the capital of the *territorial collectivity* of Corsica and the prefecture of the department of Corse-du-Sud.

## Geography 
Ajaccio is on the west coast of the island of Corsica in a sheltered position at the foot of wooded hills on the northern shore of the Gulf of Ajaccio. The harbour is to the east of the town and is protected on the south by a peninsula. Ajaccio has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (*Csa* in the Koeppen climate classification).

Ajaccio was the birthplace of:
* Napoleon Bonaparte (1769–1821), Emperor of the French
* Joseph Fesch (1763-1839), cardinal
* Tino Rossi (1907-1983), singer, actor
* Fred Scamaroni (1914-1943), WW II Resistance hero
* Alizée (born 1984), pop singer
* Irène Bordoni (1895-1953), singer, Broadway theatre & movie actress

## References 
## Other websites 
* Official website 

## Sources and references 
*
Prefectures in France

A **prefecture** in France can refer to :
*the *Chef-lieu de département*, the town in which the administration of a *département* is located ;
*the *Chef-lieu de région*, the town in which the administration of a *région* is located ;
*the jurisdiction of a *préfecture* ;
*the official residence or headquarters of a *préfet*.
Spectrum

*This article is about the visible spectrum. For all other uses see: Spectrum (disambiguation)*

A **spectrum**, plural: **spectra**, is a band of several colours: violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and red. A spectrum can be seen if the Sun's light is passed through a prism and allowed to gather on a white screen. This **visible spectrum** is part of the larger electromagnetic spectrum. Spectroscopy is the study of spectra.

A natural example of a spectrum is a rainbow. The word *spectrum* was first used by scientists studying optics. They used the word to describe the rainbow of colors in visible light when separated using a prism.  The spectrum seen when light passes through a prism is an example of the dispersion of light.  The material from which the prism is made has a different  refractive index *n* than air.  Usually, *n*prism is greater than *n*air, and *n*air is taken to be approximately one. This implies that light travels a little slower in the material of the prism than in the space surrounding it.  The angle of refraction can be determined from the angle of incidence and the refractive indexes using Snell's law.  

The reason why the white light separates into in its component colors instead of remaining white is because the shorter wavelengths are refracted, or bent, more than the longer wavelengths.  Thus, red, having the longest visible wavelength, will appear closest to the line perpendicular to the surface of the material (the normal), that is, it will be bent the least.  Violet light, with the smallest wavelength  in the visible spectrum, will be bent the most.  The rainbow produced will always be in the same order: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet.

## References
## Related pages
*Primary colour
*Electromagnetic spectrum
Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur

'''Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur** or **PACA'* (, Italian: *Provenza-Alpi-Costa Azzurra'') is one of the 18 administrative regions of France. Its capital is Marseille.

## Geography
The Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region is the tenth largest region of France with an area of . It is in southeastern France and borders to the east with Monaco and Italy (with the Italian regions of Liguria and Piedmont). To the north is the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region and to the west is the Occitanie region.

To the south, the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur has about  of coast along the Mediterranean Sea.

The distances from Marseille, the capital of the region, to other cities are:

* Paris, the national capital, ;
* Toulouse, ;
* Bordeaux, ;
* Lyon, ;
* Montpellier, ;
* Nice, .

### Rivers
The only main drainage basin in the region is the Mediterranean basin; some of the rivers in region are:

* Rhône - 
* Durance - 
* Verdon - 
* Var - 
* Tinée - 
* Estéron - 
* Loup - 
* Vésubie - 
* Siagne - 

### Mountains
The Barre des Écrins, at , is the highest mountain of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region. It is in the Écrins National Park (), one of the ten French national parks.

The highest point of the different departments in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region are:

## Departments
The Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region is formed by 6 departments:

*Arr.* = Arrondissements&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;*Cant.* = Cantons&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;*Comm.* = Communes

## Demographics
The Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region had, in 2014, a population of 4,983,438, with a population density of  inhabitants/km2.
, Marseille]]

The main cities with more than 30,000 inhabitants (2014) in the region are:

## Gallery

File:Vieux port de Marseille 2.jpg|Marseille
File:NiceVieuxCartier.JPG|Nice
File:Toulon Rade and Arsenal.jpg|Toulon
File:Aix-en-Provence-Cours-Mirabeau-Oct-2001.jpeg|Aix-en-Provence
File:Avignon, Palais des Papes depuis Tour Philippe le Bel by JM Rosier.jpg|Avignon

## Related pages
* Provence
* Regions of France

## References
## Other websites
* Regional Council website 
* Prefecture of the region
* Encyclopédie Larousse online
Tiridates III of Armenia

**Tiridates III** (or **Trdat III**) was the king of Armenia (286-330), and was also known as **Tiridates the Great**. (Some scholars may be wrong because they call him as Trdat IV as a result of the fact that Tiridates I of Armenia reigned twice.) In 301, Tiridates made Christianity as the sole religion in Armenia, making Armenia the first Christian state in the world.

## References 
*Translated from the Armenian: Mihran Kurdoghlian, Badmoutioun Hayots, A. hador [Armenian History, volume I],  Athens, Greece, 1994, pg. 96-105.
*The Library of Congress - Armenia - A Country Study
*Yuri Babayan - Tiridates the Great
Tiridates

**Tiridates** was the name of three members of the Arsacid Dynasty of Parthia:
*Tiridates I of Parthia was the brother of Arsaces I.
*Tiridates II of Parthia ruled c. 30–26 BC 
*Tiridates III of Parthia ruled c. AD 35–36

**Tiridates** (**Trdat** in Armenian) was the name of three kings of the Arsacid Dynasty of Armenia:
* Tiridates I of Armenia ruled c. 56–59 and 62–72
* Tiridates II of Armenia ruled c. 197–238
* Tiridates III of Armenia ruled c. 283–330

**Other**

*Trdat the Architect, reconstructed the dome of Hagia Sophia in 989 and built the Cathedral of Ani.
Aotearoa

**Aotearoa** is the current Māori language name for New Zealand. It has replaced previous translations such as *Niu Tirani* (which was used in the Treaty of Waitangi) and *Niu Tireni* (which was used in the Whakaputanga Declaration of Independence). It translates to *the land of the long white cloud* or *one long white cloud*.
Hagia Sophia

were added after it became a mosque]]
**Hagia Sophia** (Greek: Ἁγία Σοφία, meaning the **Holy Wisdom**) is a mosque in the eastern Bosporus of Istanbul, Turkey. It was originally a Byzantine Eastern Orthodox cathedral and was turned into a mosque after the conquest of Constantinople by the Ottoman Empire.
The walls and floor of the building are from the Late Antiquity and the decorations, including mosaics and frescoes, are mostly from the Middle Ages.

## History
### Cathedral
Hagia Sophia was the third church built in this location. It was built between 532 and 537 as the cathedral of Constantinople, the capital city of the Eastern Roman Empire during Late Antiquity. Byzantine emperor Justinian the Great ordered the construction. The architects were Anthemius of Tralles and Isidore of Miletus. Greek historian Procopius wrote about Hagia Sophia's construction. The building's roof (a large dome) fell and had been rebuilt many times. An earthquake in 994 damaged the cathedral, it was rebuilt by Trdat the Architect.

Hagia Sophia was used as an Eastern Orthodox cathedral until 1453, except during the Latin Empire when it was turned into a Roman Catholic cathedral. 

### Mosque
In 1453, after the Fall of Constantinople, Ottoman Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror turned Hagia Sophia into a mosque.

## Other websites 
## References
Incense

, China]]

**Incense** is a fuel that is burned to make a smell. It can be used for many purposes, for example, during rituals in some religions. Incense can be used to make a place smell better or to help improve mood.

In Judaism, instructions for the use of incense were given in Exodus. (E.g. Exodus 30:1). In Christianity, Christ is given myrrh and frankincense by the wise men. (Gospel of Matthew 2:11)

Incense is also used in Hindu rituals.

## Other websites
* Incense in Catholicism
Pont-l'évêque cheese

'''Pont-l'évêque''' is a soft cheese from Normandy. It is produced in the village with the same name. It has had an AOC since 1976, which means it can only be made in Pont-l'Évêque, Calvados. It is made from the milk of cows.
Derbyshire

**Derbyshire** is a county in the East Midlands of England. A large part of the Peak District National Park lies within Derbyshire. 

The northern part of Derbyshire overlaps with the Pennines, a famous chain of hills and mountains. The county contains part of the National Forest, and borders on Greater Manchester, West Yorkshire, South Yorkshire, Nottinghamshire, Leicestershire, Staffordshire and Cheshire.

## Places of interest 
* Chatsworth — a stately home
* Crich Tramway Village, Crich
* Derwent Valley Mills — a World Heritage Site
* Hob Hurst's House — English Heritage
* Nine Ladies Stone Circle — English Heritage
* Sutton Scarsdale Hall — English Heritage
* Wingfield Manor — English Heritage
* Creswell Crags — pending World Heritage Site proposal 

## Geology 
Derbyshire can only be understood by its ancient geology. Most of the geology was laid down in a tropical paradise in the equatorial region of the Earth.

Northern Derbyshire is an uplifted dome of rock layers. These layers have been eroded to expose older rocks in the centre of the Derbyshire Dome. They are encircled by younger limestone rocks. They give way on three sides to Upper Carboniferous shales, gritstones and sandstones of Namurian age (331 to 315 mya).

South of Buxton much of the land is difficult to walk on, and roads are narrow and winding. This area was once a tropical paradise with scattered calcium carbonate reefs. This coarse sandstone was much used for gritstone grinding wheels for use in mills.
Arshak II

**Arshak II** (or **Arsaces II**) (350-367) was the son of Diran. During his reign, Shapur II of Persia tried to take over Armenia once and for all. Arshak II was taken prisoner during talks about peace with Shapur and later killed himself in prison.

Despite having many troubles during his reign, Arshak II was able to change many parts of his kingdom for the better. They included:
*The creation of many monasteries, to keep monks away from the problems of everyday life. They also helped spread the gospel
*The building of hospitals
*The creation of many schools to teach Assyrian and Greek, since the Holy Bible was read in those languages at that time
*The ban of inbred marriages, polygamy, divorce, pagan rituals, drunkenness and killings for 
*The better treatment of slaves

## References 
*Translated from the Armenian: Mihran Kurdoghlian, Badmoutioun Hayots, A. hador [Armenian History, volume I], Athens, Greece, 1994, pg. 108-111
South Yorkshire

**South Yorkshire** is a metropolitan county in the Yorkshire and the Humber region of England, in the north. The county was created in 1974 by the Local Government Act 1972 and in 2001 covered an area of 155,205 hectares.

## Divisions and Environs 
South Yorkshire is divided into four local government districts; they are the City of Sheffield, the Metropolitan Borough of Doncaster, the Metropolitan Borough of Barnsley and the Metropolitan Borough of Rotherham. The county borders Derbyshire, West Yorkshire, North Yorkshire, East Riding of Yorkshire, Lincolnshire and Nottinghamshire.

## History 
The main settlements of South Yorkshire developed around the industries of mining and steel manufacturing. The main mining industry was coal which was concentrated to the north and east of the county. There were also iron mines in the area. The rivers running off the Pennines to the west of the county supported the steel industry that is concentrated in the city of Sheffield.

South Yorkshire was created as a metropolitan county in 1974, by the Local Government Act 1972, from the southern part of the West Riding of Yorkshire and the former county boroughs of Barnsley, Doncaster, Rotherham and Sheffield.

## Economy 
South Yorkshire is one of the least prosperous areas in Western Europe.

## Towns and villages 
### Main settlements 
The principal settlements of South Yorkshire are:
* Sheffield, an industrial city known for steel and cutlery
* Doncaster, an old Roman town known for railways and horse racing;
* Rotherham, an industrial town bordering Sheffield on the River Don;
* Barnsley, a market town on the River Dearne, the former administrative centre of the metropolitan county.

### Urban areas 
South Yorkshire is made up of three main urban areas. Dearne Valley is made up of Barnsley and a number of villages and towns. The Sheffield urban area is made up of Sheffield and Rotherham and the Doncaster urban area is Doncaster and surrounding areas.

#### Dearne Valley 
[bolton on Dearne] |barnsley |

#### Doncaster 
#### Sheffield 
### Other towns and villages 
## Places of interest 

* Abbeydale Industrial Hamlet, Sheffield 
* Barnsley Town Hall
* Cannon Hall Museum, Park & Gardens, Barnsley 
* Chapel of Our Lady of Rotherham Bridge ("Chapel on the Bridge"), Rotherham
* Clifton Park Museum, Rotherham
* Conisbrough Castle 
* Cusworth Hall
* Doncaster Mansion House
* Kelham Island Museum, Sheffield 
* Monk Bretton Priory
* Sheffield Winter Gardens 
* Roche Abbey 
* Rother Valley Country Park 
* Howden Moors 
* St Lawrence Church, Adwick le Street
* Wentworth Castle & Gardens, Barnsley
* Wentworth Woodhouse
* Weston Park Museum & Mappin Art Gallery, Sheffield
* Woodlands model village
* Worsborough Mill and Country Park

## Notes
Nottinghamshire

**Nottinghamshire** (abbreviated **Notts**) is a county in the East Midlands of England. It borders South Yorkshire, North Lincolnshire, Lincolnshire, Leicestershire and Derbyshire. The county town is traditionally Nottingham, at , though the council is now based in West Bridgford (at a site facing Nottingham over the River Trent).

The districts of Nottinghamshire are Ashfield, Bassetlaw, Broxtowe, Gedling, Mansfield, Newark and Sherwood, and Rushcliffe. The City of Nottingham was administratively part of Nottinghamshire between 1974 and 1998 but is now a unitary authority, although it remains part of the county.

.]]
## Culture
Nottinghamshire contains the ancestral home of the poet Lord Byron, Newstead Abbey, which he sold in 1818. It is now owned by Nottingham City Council and open to the public.

## Settlements and communications 
The traditional county town, and the largest settlement in the historic and ceremonial county boundaries, is Nottingham. The city is now administratively independent, but suburbs including Arnold, Carlton, West Bridgford, Beeston and Stapleford are still within the administrative county and West Bridgford is now home of the county council.

## Places of interest 
* Clumber Park
* Creswell Crags
* Rufford Country Park
* Southwell Minster
* Sherwood Forest
* Ye Olde Trip To Jerusalem
* Hawton Church
* Nottingham Castle
* Newstead Abbey

## Other websites 
* Nottinghamshire County Council
* BBC Nottingham
* Nottinghamshire Indymedia 
* Visit Nottinghamshire 
* Nottinghamshire Police 
* Flickr Nottingham  A collaborative blog from the members of the Nottingham Flickr Group, covering the county as well as the city
* Nottingham Nightclub Guide
Pennines

The **Pennines** are a mountain range in England. Often said to be the "backbone of England", they form an unbroken range stretching from the Peak District in the Midlands, through the Yorkshire Dales, parts of Greater Manchester, the West Pennine Moors of Lancashire and Cumbrian Fells to the Cheviot Hills on the Scottish border. Their total length is about .
## Etymology
The name *Pennines* is believed to come from the Celtic *pennioroches*, meaning "hill", although the earliest written reference to the name dates only from the 18th century. 

## Altitude and size
The mountains are not very tall and are often called hills. The highest is Cross Fell in eastern Cumbria, at . Other main mountain peaks include Mickle Fell , Whernside , Ingleborough , Pen-y-ghent , and Kinder Scout .

The landscape of the Pennines are mostly upland areas of high moorland. 
The Pennines make up the main watershed in northern England, dividing the eastern and western parts of the country. The rivers Eden, Ribble, and Mersey flow west towards the Irish Sea. On the other side of the watershed, the rivers Tyne, Tees, Swale, Calder, Aire, Don, and Trent flow east to the North Sea.
Salad

A **salad** is a serving in a meal that includes leaf vegetables such as lettuce, spinach, or arugula. Uncooked or cold cooked vegetables that are sliced into small pieces (for example tomato or onion) are then mixed with the leaf vegetables. Some salads use spices like Tabbouleh.

A salad dressing or vinaigrette is then poured on top of the vegetables. Salad dressings and vinaigrettes are a mixture of oil, herbs, spices, and flavorings. 

Some people also add other foods to the salad, such as croutons, bacon, beef, chicken, grated cheese, tuna, pasta, olives, cooked potatoes, rice, or beans.

## Types of salad 
### Green salad 
A **green salad** or **garden salad** has leafy vegetables such as lettuce, spinach, or rocket (arugula). The salad leaves may be cut or torn into bite-sized fragments and tossed together (a *tossed salad*). They may also have nuts or croutons.

A **wedge salad** is made from a head of lettuce (such as iceberg) halved or quartered, with other ingredients on top.

### Vegetable salad 
Vegetables other than greens may be used in a salad. Common raw vegetables used in a salad include cucumbers, peppers, tomatoes, onions, carrots, celery, and radishes. Other ingredients include mushrooms, avocado, olives, hard boiled egg, artichoke hearts, heart of palm, green beans, cheeses.

### Fruit salads 
Fruit salads are made of fruit, and include the fruit cocktail that can be made fresh or from canned fruit.

### Dessert salads 
Dessert salads rarely include leafy greens and are often sweet. Common variants are made with gelatin or whipped cream; e.g. jello salad, pistachio salad, and ambrosia. Other forms of dessert salads include snickers salad, glorified rice, and cookie salad popular in parts of the Midwestern United States.

### Composed salad 
A composed salad is a salad arranged on a plate rather than put into a bowl. It can be used as a meal in itself rather than as a part of a meal.

### Dressings 
A green salad is often served with a salad dressing. Some examples include:
* Italian dressing
* Mayonnaise
* Olive oil
** French dressing
* Tahini
* Vinaigrette

The purpose of salad dressing depends across cultures. There are many often used salad dressings in North America. Traditional dressings in southern Europe are vinaigrettes, while mayonnaise is predominant in eastern European countries and Russia. In Denmark dressings are often based on crème fraîche. In China, where Western salad is a recent adoption from Western cuisine, the term salad dressing (沙拉酱, *shalajiang*) means to mayonnaise or mayonnaise-based dressings.

### Garnishes 
There are many vegetables and other fare that are often added to salads. Some of them include: 

* shelled sunflower seeds
* onions (mostly the red variety)
* bacon bits (sometimes the bits are artificially flavored pieces of textured soybean protein)
* radishes
* grated carrots
* tomatoes
* surimi - artificial crab meat

Again, individual taste usually governs the choice of salad garnishes.

## Related pages 
* Chef salad
* Caesar salad
* Fruit salad
* Watercress salad
* Salade niçoise

## References
International Phonetic Alphabet

The **International Phonetic Alphabet** (**IPA**) is a system for writing down sounds. It was created by the International Phonetic Association in 1886, so that people could write down sounds of languages in a standard way. Linguists, language teachers, and translators use this system to show the pronunciation for words.

Wikipedia also uses the IPA to show how certain words are meant to be spoken. Most symbols are letters in the Latin alphabet, or variations of them. For example, the voiced palatal approximant  (the *y* in **y**esterday) is written with []. In IPA symbols can be written between slashes (called a broad transcription, e.g."little" can be written as /lɪtl/ ) or in square brackets (called a narrow transcription, e.g. "little" can be written [lɪɾɫ], which is how specific groups say it). Narrow transcription is more precise than broad.

The IPA has symbols only for sounds that are used normally in spoken languages. The Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet (or extIPA) are used to write other sounds.

The IPA is sometimes changed, and symbols are added or taken away. Right now there are 107 different letters in the IPA. There are also 52 marks which are added to letters to change their sound. These marks are called "diacritics".

## History 
In 1886, a group of French and British language teachers formed the International Phonetic Association. These teachers used the Romic alphabet at first. They later changed the alphabet so that different languages would all write the same sounds with the same letters.

## Use of the alphabet 
The IPA is made to have one symbol for every sound. This means that every letter always makes the same one sound. This is different from English. In English, some letters make multiple sounds. For example, the letter  in English normally is spoken as two sounds ([ks]), but could also be spoken as [gz] or [z].

## Letters 
The International Phonetic Alphabet has letters for three types of sounds: pulmonic consonants, non-pulmonic consonants, and vowels.

### Pulmonic consonants 
Pulmonic consonants are made by blocking air coming from the lungs. Most consonants (and all English consonants) are pulmonic. The symbols for these sounds are arranged in a table. The rows show how the sound is made (the manner of articulation), and the columns show where it is made (the place of articulation).

### Non-pulmonic consonants 
Non-pulmonic consonants are made without air coming from the lungs. There are three types of non-pulmonic consonants. Implosive consonants are made by taking air into the mouth. Ejective consonants are made by forcing the air out of the larynx instead of the lungs. Click consonants are made by creating an airtight pocket in the mouth and quickly releasing it.

### Vowels 
Vowels are sounds made without blocking air at all.

## References 
## Other websites 
* Homepage of the International Phonetic Association 
* Interactive IPA Flash Charts
* Interactive IPA Chart, for all languages
Khosrov III the Small

**Chosroes III The Small** (or Khosrov III Godag), was the son of Tiridates III, was a member of the Arshakuni Dynasty and the king of Armenia from 330 – 339 AD. He was a man of short stature, thus his name. He founded the city of Dvin which later became the Armenian capital. 

During his reign, two generals, Vatche Mamikonian and Vahan Amatuni, started a battle, often coming to help the king. During these years, pro-Sassanid  and anti-Mamikonian sentiment grew in Armenia and so did anti-Roman sentiment. Pro-Sassanid groups gained popularity so much so that they were successful in assassinating Catholicos St. Aristaces I, son of Gregory the Illuminator. 

Shapur II, Sassanid king of the Persians, invaded Armenia twice and did gain some territory. Vatche Mamikonian was killed in those battles and was later named a saint by the Armenian Apostolic Church for his sacrifice. Chosroes II died in 339 AD. 

## References 
Translated from the Armenian: Mihran Kurdoghlian, Badmoutioun Hayots, A. hador [Armenian History, volume I],  Athens, Greece, 1994, pg. 107
Pays de la Loire

**Pays de la Loire** (or **Pays-de-la-Loire**) is an administrative region of France. Its capital is Nantes. In 2018, about 3.8 million people lived in the region. There are seven big centers, with more than 100.000 people in the respective urban area:  Nantes, Angers, Le Mans, La Roche-sur-Yon, Cholet, Saint-Nazaire and Laval.  

The departments in the region are:
*Loire-Atlantique
*Maine-et-Loire
*Mayenne
*Sarthe
*Vendée

The economy is centered around the production of food, and agriculture in general. It is the third in France in that sector. 51% of meat products, 19% of milk, and 67% of the natural produce of grain (cereals) are produced there. 

## Languages 
Some people in the region also speak other local languages. These are  

* Angevin
* Breton
* Gallo
* Poitevin

Breton is a Celtic language, the others are Romance languages.

## References
## Other websites
Xerxes of Sophene

**Xerxes** (died c. 212 BC) was the King of Sophene and son of Arsames II. During his domination, Antiochus III the Great invaded his capital Arsamosata. Xerxes recognized Antiochus as his sovereign and received his sister Antiochia as his bride, who later killed him.

## Notes
*Polybius, VIII.25

## References
*Johann Gustav Droysen,  *Geschichte des Hellenismus*, vol. ii. p.&nbsp;73
*Joseph Hilarius Eckhel, vol. iii. p.&nbsp;204.
Yorkshire and the Humber

**Yorkshire and the Humber** is one of the regions of England. It covers most of the historic county of Yorkshire, along with the part of northern Lincolnshire that was previously in the administrative area of Humberside (which existed 1974-1996).

The highest point of the region is Whernside, in the Yorkshire Dales, at 737 metres. The largest freshwater lake is Hornsea Mere in the East Riding of Yorkshire.

The population in 2005 was 5,854,357.

## Local government 
The official region consists of the following subdivisions:

Key: shire county = † | metropolitan county = *

It was originally called **Yorkshire and Humberside**, and defined as North Yorkshire, West Yorkshire, South Yorkshire and Humberside. 
## Other websites 
* Government Office for Yorkshire and the Humber 
* Yorkshire and Humber Assembly
Sophene

]]
**Sophene** (Armenian: '''') was a province of the Armenian Kingdom and of the Roman Empire, in the southwest of the kingdom. It is currently in modern-day southeastern Turkey.

According to Anania Shirakatsi's *Ashkharatsuyts* ("World Atlas," 7th century), Tsopk was the 2nd among the 15 provinces of Greater Armenia. It consisted of 8 cantons (*gavars*): Khordzyan, Hashtyank, Paghnatun, Balahovit, Tsopk (Shahunyats), Andzit, Degiq, and Gavreq (Goreq).

Tsopk was part of the kingdom of Urartu in the 8th-7th cc BC. After unifying the region with his kingdom in the early 700s BC, king Argishtis I of Urartu resettled many of its inhabitants to his newly built city of Erebuni (modern day Armenian capital Yerevan). Around 600 BC, Tsopk became part of the newly emerged ancient Armenian Kingdom of Orontids.
 under Tigranes the Great.]] 
After Alexander the Great's campaigns in 330s BC and the subsequent collapse of the Achaemenid Empire, Tsopk remained part of the newly independent kingdom of Greater Armenia. In the early 200s BC, at the instigation of the Seleucid Empire, which was trying to weaken the Armenian kingdom, Tsopk, along with Commagene, split from Greater Armenia, forming the Hellenistic kingdom of Tsopk-Commagene. The kingdom was ruled by a branch of the Armenian royal dynasty of Orontids. Tsopk later split from the Tsopk-Commagene kingdom as well, forming an independent kingdom.

Around 200 BC, in his attempt to finally subjugate Armenia, Seleucian king Antiochus III conquered both Greater Armenia and Tsopk, installing Armenian generals Artaxias I and Zariadres as governors-strategoses respectively in each kingdom. Following Antiochus' defeat by Romans at the battle of Magnesia in 190 BC, both Zareh and Artashes declared themselves independent kings. Zareh and his descendants ruled the kingdom of Tsopk until it was reunified with Greater Armenia by Tigranes the Great in the 80s BC.

Pompey gave Sophene to Tigranes, after defeating his father Tigranes the Great.
Sophene later become part of the Roman Empire, and was made into a province of the Roman Empire. The capital was Amida (modern Diyarbakır). Around 54, the province was ruled by Gaius Julius Sohaemus.
In 530, Sophene was included into the province of Armenia IV.

## References
Centre-Val de Loire

**Centre-Val de Loire** is one of the administrative regions of France. Its capital is Orléans but its largest city is Tours.

It was formed in 2014 from the territories of three historical provinces: Touraine (Indre-et-Loire), Orléanais (Loiret, Eure-et-Loir, Loir-et-Cher), and Berry (Cher, Indre).

## Geography
The Centre-Val de Loire region is the seventh largest region of France with an area of . It is in north central France and borders with 6 regions: Normandy to the northwest, Île-de-France to the north, Bourgogne-Franche-Comté to the east, Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes to the southeast, Nouvelle-Aquitaine to the south and Pays de la Loire to the west.

The distances from Orléans, the capital of the region, to other cities are:
* Paris, the national capital, ;
* Bordeaux, ;
* Lyon, ;
* Marseille, ;
* Montpellier, ;
* Nice, ;
* Strasbourg, ;
* Toulouse, .

### Rivers
The Centre-Val de Loire is crossed by the longest French river: the Loire, . Some other rivers that flow through the region are:
* Eure - .
* Loir - .
* Cher - .
* Loing - .
* Indre - .

### Mountains
The territory of the Centre-Val de Loire region is formed mostly by large plains and low plateaus.

The *Le Magnoux* (), at , is the highest point of the Centre-Val region. It is in northwestern Massif Central, in the southern end of the Cher department.

The highest point of the different departments in the Centre-Val de Loire region are:

## Departments
The Centre-Val de Loire region is formed by 6 departments:

*Arr.* = Arrondissements&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;*Cant.* = Cantons&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;*Comm.* = Communes

## Demographics
, the Centre-Val de Loire region had a population of 2,577,435, for a population density of  inhabitants/km2.
, *Place du Martroi*, Orléans.]]

The main cities with more than 20,000 inhabitants (2014) in the region are:

## Gallery

File:Tours - château.JPG|Castle of Tours.
File:Cathedrale Saint-Etienne (Bourges) 16-09-2006.jpg|*Saint-Etienne* cathedral, Bourges.
File:France Loir-et-Cher Blois Hotel de ville 01.JPG|Blois City hall.
File:Châteauroux Musée Hôtel Bertrand 01.jpg|*Musée Hôtel Bertrand*, Châteauroux.

## Related pages
* Touraine
* Regions of France

## References
## Other websites
* Regional Council website  
* Prefecture of the region
Westmorland

**Westmorland** (an older spelling is *Westmoreland*, an even older spelling is *Westmerland*) is an area of north west England and one of the 39 historic counties of England. It was an administrative county from 1889 to 1974 and now is part of Cumbria. 

## Early history
]]
At the time of the Domesday Book in 1086 the county was said to form part of Yorkshire. 
The historic county borders are with Cumberland to the north, County Durham and Yorkshire to the east, and Lancashire to the south and west. 

The highest point of the county is Helvellyn at 950m (3,117 ft). According to the 1831 census its area was 485,990 acres.  

Appleby, the historic county town, was also a historic borough until it was reformed in 1885.

According to the 1971 census, Westmorland was the second smallest administrative county with people in England, after Rutland. The spead of population was as follows: 

In 1974, under the Local Government Act 1972, the county was abolished and its former area was combined with Cumberland and parts of Lancashire and Yorkshire to form the new county of Cumbria. The former county now forms part of the districts of South Lakeland and Eden.

## References
Historic counties of England

The **historic counties of England** are subdivisions of UK They were used for various functions for several hundred years and continue to form the basis of modern local government. They are alternatively known as *ancient counties* and *traditional counties*.

## The counties 
The historic counties are as follows:

## References 
## Other websites 
* GENUKI - Family history links to historic counties
* The Historic Counties Trust
Seleucid Empire

The **Seleucid Empire** was a Hellenistic (or Ancient Greek) successor state of Alexander the Great's empire. At its greatest extent, the Empire covered areas such as central Anatolia, the Levant, Mesopotamia, Persia, Turkmenistan, Pamir and the Indus Valley.

Primarily, it was the successor to the Achaemenid Empire of Persia, and was followed there by the Roman/Byzantine province of Syria as well as the Parthian and Sassanid Empires of Iran. The former Seleucid territory was inherited by the Islamic Caliphate (Rashidun Empire), which conquered and rule from the 650s to 660s AD. Later on, much of this area became part of the Umayyad Empire and then the Abbasid Empire.

There were over 30 kings of the Seleucid dynasty from 323 to 63 BC.

## The partition of Alexander's empire (323–281 BC) 
Alexander the Great had conquered the Persian Empire but later died young, leaving his huge empire of partly Hellenized culture without an adult heir. 

The empire was put under the management of a regent named Perdiccas in 323 BC, and the territories were divided between Alexander's generals, who thereby became satraps, at the Partition of Babylon. Leaders who thought they should have more, started wars to get it. Soon the various parts of the empire were fighting each other.

## The early Seleucid Empire 
Seleucus I Nicator was one of Alexander's generals who received a portion of the huge empire Alexander had carved out. He received huge expanses of land in Syria, Babylon, Anatolia, even as far out as India. When Perdiccas was killed in a political assassination by Ptolemy of Egypt, the empire that was barely held together then splintered apart. The Seleucid Empire quickly expanded, eventually taking parts of Thrace in the west. In the East he fought a war with the Indian emperor Chandragupta where he was forced to give up his eastern satrapies in exchange for 500 war Elephants.  

Seleucus I clashed several times with his southern rival for power, the Ptolemaic Dynasty. The Ptolemaic Dynasty controlled most of Egypt and the lands around it, and would fight the Seleucid Empire on many occasions for control of Syria. Seleucus I conquered much of Anatolia, and was preparing to invade Macedonia, when he was assassinated. This momentarily put an end to the Seleucid Empire's ambitions in Greece. After Seleucus I died, his heirs spent much of their time and money trying to maintain the enormous empire they had inherited. In this, they were rather successful, but the vastness of the empire defied attempts by the successors of Seleucus to control it effectively.

## References
Rhône-Alpes

**Rhône-Alpes** is a former administrative region of France. It is now part of the administrative region of Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes. In 2010, about six million people lived in the region.

The capital was Lyon. Grenoble and Saint-Étienne are also important cities in the region.

The departments in the region were:
*Ain
*Ardèche
*Drôme
*Isère
*Loire
*Rhône
*Savoie
*Haute-Savoie

The Rhône-Alpes region hosted the Winter Olympics three times; in 1924 at Chamonix, 1968 at Grenoble, and 1992 at Albertville.

## Other websites
Samus Aran

is the main character of the *Metroid* games.  She's a bounty hunter, and helps the Galactic Federation. She has many enemies, including Mother Brain, Ridley, Kraid, Dark Samus, and the Metroids. Because she does not remove her suit or talk much, people thought she was a boy until they saw the secret ending of *Metroid*, which shows Samus without her suit.

## Creation 
The makers said that the Metroid series is supposed to be like the 1979 film, *Alien*, and Samus was like one of the film's characters, Ellen Ripley. Players thought Samus was a boy until the end of the original *Metroid* game. One of the makers said that it would be "kind of cool if it turned out that this person inside the suit was a woman". The rest of the makers liked it so it happened.

## Suit 
Samus' suit is orange and red, and runs on Energy Tanks. It was made by creatures called Chozos, and can gain new powers and abilities. She has lots of other suits as well.

## Appearances 
**Metroid* series 
**Metroid Prime* series 

The *Metroid Prime* series takes place in between *Metroid* and *Metroid II: Return of Samus*.

In *Metroid Prime*, Samus has to go to the Frigate Orpheon, and meets Meta Ridley, the revived form of an enemy from *Metroid*. She loses her powers on the frigate through an accident, and escapes to the planet Tallon IV. She eventually has to do battle with the final boss, Metroid Prime.

In *Metroid Prime 2: Echoes*, Samus meets a creature called Dark Samus, which is Metroid Prime fused with a suit Samus got on Tallon IV.

In *Metroid Prime 3: Corruption*, Samus and three other bounty hunters

### Other appearances 
Samus was the first female character to appear in the *Super Smash Bros.* series, and has been in *Super Smash Bros.*, *Super Smash Bros. Melee*, *Super Smash Bros. Brawl*, and *Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U*. She's only in her suit in the first two, but in the third and fourth, she can be in Zero Suit Samus form, which comes from *Metroid: Zero Mission*. In the fourth game, Samus in her power suit and her zero suit are listed as two separate characters. She takes many moves from the *Metroid* series, including the Charge Beam, Bombs, Screw Attack, and Missiles.

## References
Metroid

***Metroid*** is a series of video games made by Nintendo. The series started in Japan in 1986. Its main character in the game is Samus Aran. Almost all of the games in the series have a certain kind of fictional creature called a "Metroid". This is where the name of the series comes from. Metroids look a lot like jellyfish except they can fly. They also have teeth instead of tentacles. They attack creatures and people by charging quickly towards them and sucking out 

## Characters
The main character in the series is Samus Aran.  She always wears a very powerful space suit. This suit lets her do things that normal humans cannot do, such as jump very high and fall long ways without being hurt. The right arm on Samus' suit has a large gun built into it. She is seen in this space suit almost all of the time. In many of the games, if the player finishes the game fast enough or collects enough items, they can see her without the suit on. When this happens, she is either wearing a tight jumpsuit, or something resembling a bikini.

The main enemies of the *Metroid* games are the Space Pirates. They are tall creatures who look like lizards that walk on two legs. The Space Pirate commander is a dragon named Ridley, who is Samus' worst enemy.

## Gameplay
In most *Metroid* games, the player explores far away planets or space stations. The player, as Samus, starts the game with very few powers, and not many places to go. The player must explore to find items and powers that let him or her get to new areas. In the first *Metroid*; Samus had to defeat Ridley; a giant monster named Kraid; and then destroy the Space Pirate's computer, Mother Brain. In all *Metroid* games, there are different goals to achieve, but nearly all of them involve looking for items and exploring.

## Other websites
*Official English website
*Wikitroid, the Metroid wiki
Isabella, Queen of Armenia

**Queen Isabella of Armenia** (died c. 1252) ruled the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia 1219–1252. She was the daughter of Leo II of Armenia and Sybilla of Lusignan (daughter of Amalric I of Cyprus). Leo named Isabella as his heir.

She was married twice. Her first husband was Philip, son of Bohemund IV of Antioch, whom she married in 1223. Philip was murdered in 1225.

Her second husband was Hethum (or Hetoum) I, to whom she was married against her will on June 14, 1226. Hethum was co-ruler (or ruler) of Armenia from 1226 to 1270. The couple had six children:

#Leo III (d. 1289)
#Thoros (d. 1266),
#Sibylle (d. 1290), who married Bohemund VI of Antioch
#Euphemie (d. 1309), who married to Julien Grenier, Lord of Sidon
#Rita of Armenia
#Maria of Armenia, who married Guy d'Ibelin

## Bibliography
*
Hydrogen sulfide

**Hydrogen sulfide**  (British English: *hydrogen sulphide*) is the chemical compound with the formula , is a colorless, toxic, flammable gas that is responsible for the foul smell of rotten eggs and flatulence. It often results when bacteria break down organic matter if there is no oxygen. This happens in swamps, and sewers (alongside the process of anaerobic digestion). It also happens in volcanic gases, natural gas and some well waters. This is the smell that people often think to be that of sulfur. But sulfur itself does not smell.

Hydrogen sulfide is also known as **sulfane**, **sulfur hydride**, **sour gas**, **sulfurated hydrogen**, **hydrosulfuric acid**, **sewer gas** and **stink damp**. IUPAC accepts the names "hydrogen sulfide" and "sulfane". When people speak of more complicated compounds they always use the term "sulfane".

## Occurrence 
Small amounts of hydrogen sulfide can be found in crude petroleum. Sour natural gas can contain up to 28%. But, sour natural gas must be cleaned before it can enter a long distance pipeline. Pipelines limit hydrogen sulfide to 3 grains per thousand cubic feet of natural gas. Volcanoes and hot springs give off some H2S, where it probably is made by the hydrolysis of sulfide minerals, i.e. MS + H2O to give MO + H2S.

Normal average concentration in clean air is about 0.0001-0.0002 ppm.

## Safety 
Hydrogen sulfide is a highly toxic and flammable gas. Because it is heavier than air it tends to accumulate at the bottom of poorly ventilated spaces.

## Toxicity 
Hydrogen sulfide is considered a broad-spectrum poison, meaning that it can poison several different systems in the body, although the nervous system is most affected. The toxicity of H2S is comparable with that of hydrogen cyanide. 
## References 
* "Hydrogen Sulfide", Committee on Medical and Biological Effects of Environmental Pollutants, University Park Press, 1979, Baltimore. 

## Other websites 
* International Chemical Safety Card 0165
* Concise International Chemical Assessment Document 53
* National Pollutant Inventory - Hydrogen sulfide fact sheet 
* NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
* MSDS safety data sheet 
* Abstract of survey article on H2S as used by the body, by P. Kamoun
* Computational Chemistry Wiki
William Cavendish-Bentinck, 3rd Duke of Portland

**William Henry Cavendish Cavendish-Bentinck, 3rd Duke of Portland**, (14 April 1738 – 30 October 1809) was a British Whig and Tory statesman and twice Prime Minister of the United Kingdom of Great Britain. After his first time as prime minister, the kingdom of Ireland joined Great Britain to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In the new Parliament of the United Kingdom, he again became prime minister in 1807.