open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Orascom

**Orascom** is an Egyptian company that offers mobile telephone services in many countries. 
## Affiliates
Orascom operates these companies:

*Mobinil  in Egypt
*Djezzy  in Algeria
*Iraqna  in Iraq
*Mobilink  in Pakistan
*Banglalink  in Bangladesh
*Telecel Zimbabwe  in Zimbabwe

## History 
In 1997, Orascom Telecom Holding (OTH) was established as a separate entity to consolidate the telecommunications and technology interests of the Orascom group of companies established in 1976. Founded in 1998 as part of the Orascom company, it became the largest cellular operator in the Middle East in only five years.

In 2010, Russian Vimpelcom acquired Orascom Telecom as well as Wind Telecomunicazioni from Weather Investments of the Egyptian entrepreneur Naguib Sawiris and merged the two companies to form Global Telecom Holding based in Cairo. Excluded from this transaction were the activities in North Korea (Koryolink) and Egypt, which were transferred to Orascom Telecom Media and Technology Holding, which remained majority-owned by Naguib Sawiris. The Italian activities of Wind Telecomunicazioni report directly to the parent company Vimpelcom and are not part of Global Telecom Holding.

Orascom Telecom Holding has been renamed to Global Telecom Holding in 2013. On 1 July 2019 Gerbrand Nijman (since June 2015 GTH's group CFO) has succeeded Vincenzo Nesci (retired) as GTH's CEO.

## Other websites 
*Orascom 

## References
Legal entity

A **legal entity** is a legal construct through which the law allows a group of natural persons to act as if they were a single person for certain purposes.  The most common purposes are lawsuits, property ownership, and contracts.

A legal entity is not always something else than the natural persons of which it is composed as one can see with a company or corporation.

Some examples of legal entities include:
* companies
* cooperatives (co-ops)
* corporations
* municipalities
* natural persons
* political parties
* sovereigns
* states
* temples, in some legal systems, have separate legal personality
* trade unions
* ship or vessel

## Limitations
There are limitations to the legal recognition of artificial persons.  Legal entities cannot marry, they cannot vote or hold public office, and in most jurisdictions there are certain positions which they cannot occupy.  The extent to which a legal entity can commit a crime varies from country to country.  Certain countries prohibit a legal entity from holding human rights; other countries permit artificial persons to enjoy certain protections from the state that are traditionally described as human rights.

examples of legal entities are 
- sole traders
-partnerships
- trusts
- private and public company

Recently, in India, a company despite being artificial person has got court stay, from High Court Jaipur Bench against an employee seeking justice in labour court.

## Related pages
* Company

## Footnotes
Ownership

**Ownership** means total possession or control of property, which may be a business, an object, land or real estate, intellectual property or some other kind of property.

The rights of ownership are: 

# Making decisions about what is owned, and 
# Benefiting from the economic returns of what is owned.

Ownership can be divided, or shared between owners. Ownership has no legal value until money is added into the situation. The surplus, or profits, or money value of what is owned is divided according to the ownership accounts.

Ownership is needed for the development of the capitalist socio-economic system. The concept of ownership has existed for thousands of years and in all cultures.

## Related pages
* Constitution
* Constitutional economics
* Political economy
Possession

**Possession** usually means to have some sort of ownership over something else. A person may be in possession of some property, which is legal ownership, under property law.

There are some other related uses of the term. When English explorer, Captain James Cook, claimed the country of Australia as a British country, he took "possession" of the land. The spot where he made his claim on 22 August 1770, a small island in the Torres Strait, is now called Possession Island.

In some beliefs, to be possessed is to be under the control of devils, demons, or evil spirits. These people may do evil or terrible things because of their *possession.*

## References
Officer of arms

An **officer of arms** is someone who is chosen by a sovereign or state to do some important jobs relating to:
* heraldry and coats of arms
* arranging and conducting ceremonies of state
* keeping and interpreting heraldic and genealogical records.

In Scotland the officers of arms maintain the old job of a herald - passing on royal messages. Three days after parliament is dissolved in London the royal proclamation is read out at the Mercat Cross in Edinburgh. They wait three days because this is how long it used to take to get from London to Edinburgh by horse.
Aragorn

**Aragorn** is one of the main characters in J. R. R. Tolkien's *The Lord of the Rings*. He is a member of the Company of the Ring, wanting to destroy the One Ring to save Middle-earth from the rule of the Dark Lord Sauron. He helps distract Sauron, helping Frodo Baggins and Samwise Gamgee to destroy the ring by throwing to in the fires of Mount Doom. He later marries the immortal elf Arwen and becomes the king of both Gondor and Arnor for 122 years. He is in many adaptations of *The Lord of the Rings* and was played by Viggo Mortensen in Peter Jackson's trilogy.

## References
Personal property

**Personal property** means property that consists of  that can be moved from one place to another. 

In the common law systems personal property may also be called **chattels**. There it is distinguished from real property, or real estate. 

In the civil law systems personal property is often called movable property or movables - any property that can be moved from one location to another. This term is in distinction with immovable property or immovables, such as land and buildings.
A machinery, which can be dismantled and moved to a new place, which is installed in a building falls into which category.

## Related pages
* Constitution
* Constitutional economics
* Political economy
Statutory law

**Statutory law** is written law (as opposed to oral or customary law) set down by a legislature or other governing authority such as the executive branch of government in response to a need to clarify the functioning of government, improve civil order, answer a public need, to codify existing law, or for an individual or company to obtain special treatment.

The term **codified law** is sometimes used as a synonym for statutory law in general. In some U.S. states, the entire body of statutory law is referred to as a "code," such as the Ohio Revised Code. At the federal and state level in the United States, portions of the statutory law are also referred to as "code," such as the U.S. Bankruptcy Code.

## Other websites 
*Parliamentary Fact Sheets  United Kingdom
Jurisprudence

**Jurisprudence** is the theory and philosophy of law. Scholars of jurisprudence, or legal philosophers, hope to obtain a deeper understanding of the nature of law, of legal reasoning, legal systems and of legal institutions. As jurisprudence has developed, there are three main aspects with which scholarly writing engages:
* **natural law** is the idea that there are unchangeable laws of nature which govern us, and that our institutions ought to match this natural law
* **analytic jurisprudence** asks questions like, "what is law?" "What are the criteria for legal validity?" or "what is the relationship between law and morality?" are other questions that legal philosophers may engage with
* **normative jurisprudence** asks what law should be like. It overlaps with moral and political philosophy, and includes questions of whether we should obey the law, on what grounds law-breakers might properly be punished, the proper uses and limits of regulation

Modern jurisprudence and philosophy of law is dominated today primarily by Western academics. The ideas of the Western legal tradition have become so pervasive throughout the world that it is tempting to see them as universal. Historically, however, many philosophers from other traditions have discussed the same questions, from Islamic scholars to the ancient Greeks.

## Related pages
* Constitution
* Constitutional economics

## Other websites 
* http://www.redeemer.on.ca/Dooyeweerd-Centre/  Navigate to page for Encyclopedia of the Science of Law (Mellen, 2002).
* John Witte, Jr: A Brief Biography of Dooyeweerd, based on Hendrik van Eikema Hommes, Inleiding tot de Wijsbegeerte van Herman Dooyeweerd (The Hague, 1982; pp 1-4,132)http://www.redeemer.on.ca/Dooyeweerd-Centre/biography.html 
* LII Law about... Jurisprudence
* *The Case of the Speluncean Explorers:  Nine New Opinions *, by Peter Suber (Routledge, 1998.)  Lon Fuller's classic of jurisprudence brought up to date 50 years later.
* The Roman Law Library, incl. *Responsa prudentium*  by Professor Yves Lassard and Alexandr Koptev.
* Evgeny Pashukanis - General Theory of Law and Marxism
* Internet Encyclopedia: Philosophy of Law
*
Legal case

A **legal case** is a dispute between two parties that is resolved by a court or other legal process. A legal case may be either civil or criminal. The decision of a court is usually published in one form or another for later . In countries like the United States which have a common law system, decisions by a higher court are ing on lower courts when the facts and issues are similar. Stare decisis, or the concept of precedent, means to follow cases that were decided earlier when judging the current case. 

## References
Ampere

The **ampere** (symbol: **A**, often shortened to **amp**) is the standard unit of electric current. An electric current of one ampere is one coulomb per second. The amp is named after André-Marie Ampère who studied electromagnetism'*.

The ampere is defined so the elementary charge *e'' is 1.602 176 634 × 10−19 C or A•s.

## References 
## Other websites 
* The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty
* A short history of the SI units in electricity
929

## Events 
*January 16 - Emir Abd-ar-rahman III of Cordoba creates the Caliphate of Cordoba and assumes power
*Pope Stephen VII succeeds Pope Leo VI

## Deaths 
*Pope John X
*Al-Batani, Arab astronomer
Pope John IX

**John IX** () was Pope from 898 to 900. 

## Early life
Although his exact birth day is unknown, he was a native of Tivoli, which is near Rome.

## Monk 
He was a Benedictine monk. 

## Pope
He was made Pope because of the support of Emperor Lambert of Spoleto. Lambert was of the Formosian party. Pope Sergius III who had been elected by the Anti-Formosians was chased from office with arms. John IX died unexpectedly in the year 900, which again led to feuds between different groups.

## Related pages
* List of popes

## References
 of the popes ]]
Oral tradition

An **oral tradition** or **oral culture** is a way of transmitting history, literature or law from one generation to the next, without a writing system, by voice. People tell stories. Often the stories are made into poems and songs to make remembering easy. For example, the Homeric poetry of the *Iliad* and the *Odyssey* combined oral literature and oral history. Eventually they were written down.

## Related pages 
*Legend
*Narrative poetry
*Oral law
*Word of mouth

## Other websites 
* The Center for Studies in Oral Tradition
* The Milman Parry Collection of Oral Literature Online 
* Oral Tradition Journal
Arthur de Gobineau

**Joseph Arthur Comte de Gobineau** (July 14, 1816 — October 13, 1882) was a French aristocrat. He was well educated, and wrote many things. He became famous for developing the racialist theory of the Aryan Master race in his book *An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races* (1853-1855).
Staff (music)

A **staff** (or **stave**) is the name given to the five horizontal lines on which we can write music. Musical notes can be placed either on a line (i.e. with a line going through the middle of the note head) or in a space.  There are four inside spaces as well as the two outer spaces at the top or bottom.

The higher the pitch of the note the higher it will be on the staff. Taking the white notes of a keyboard: each note (A, B, C, D etc.) is placed higher on the stave (line, space, line, space etc.).  A clef is needed to show which notes they are. There are different clefs to suit high, medium or low instruments.
:

This musical example shows the opening of *Symphony no 5* by Beethoven.  The first three notes are on the second line (counting from the bottom).  They are Gs, because there is a treble clef at the beginning of the staff.  The fourth note is a little lower: on the bottom line, the E line (because of the flats in the key signature it is an E flat).  The next note is between the other two in pitch (an F). After the three Fs comes a D in the outside bottom space.

Sometimes composers have used staves with fewer or more than 5 lines, but the five-line staff started to become the usual one in Western music in the 13th century.

When notes are a little too high or low to put on the stave,  lines are used.  These are called ledger lines.  

If two or more staves are being played at the same time the staves are joined on the left by a bracket which is called a **brace**.  Piano music, for example, is written on two staves: one for the right hand and one for the left.

Instruments that only play a rhythm (such as the cymbals), do not need a stave.  The notes can be written just on one line. The beats are crosses. It's modern notation started from the Catholic Church.

## References
Colorado potato beetle

The **Colorado potato beetle**, *Leptinotarsa decemlineata*, is a beetle. It is sometimes just called the Colorado beetle. It is one of the worst potato pests in the world.  

The beetle is notable for its ability to resist pesticides. Over the last 50 years it has become resistant to 52 chemical compounds used in insecticides, including cyanide. However, not every population is resistant to every chemical.

The Colorado beetle first lived in the southwest United States and northern Mexico. Now it lives in most of North America and also in Europe and Asia.

## What it eats
The Colorado potato beetle now eats cultivated potato plants. Both larvae and adults eat the leaves and strip the plant down to a skeleton. They may also attack tomato and eggplants. There can be so many Colorado potato beetles in potato farms that they destroy the potatoes.

## Defence 
Because the beetle rapidly evolves resistance to chemicals, the best defence may be biological control. A ground beetle, *Lebia grandis* is a predator of the eggs and larvae, and its larvae are parasitoids of the Colorado beetle's pupae. 

*Beauveria bassiana* (Hyphomycetes) is a pathogenic fungus that infects many insects, including the Colorado beetle. It is probably the most widely used natural enemy of the Colorado beetle. There are commercial formulations that can be applied using a pesticide sprayer. 

, Hungary]]

## Origins 
The Colorado potato beetle did not always eat potato plants. This is because potatoes came from South America, not near the beetle's original range. Before people brought potatoes to North America, the Colorado beetle ate a plant called buffalo-bur.

## References
Daddy Longlegs

**Daddy Longlegs** could mean:
*Crane fly
*Opiliones (Harvestman)
*Daddy long-legs spider (Cellar spider)
Shikon no Tama

**The Shikon no Tama** (English:**The Jewel of Four Souls**) is the fictional magic jewel in Rumiko Takahashi's manga and anime series *InuYasha*. It contains four types of souls, Courage, Friendship, Wisdom and Love. The souls can make a person powerful. Before Midoriko sacrificed herself, she joined four souls within her heart, with the demonic one making it good and pure. This created the Shikon Jewel, where Midoriko and the demon are trapped within. The battle depends to any demon who kept the jewel. If the jewel is purified, Midoriko survives. If the demon binds the jewel, it becomes defiled. Naraku defiles the jewel, while collecting all pieces. Shako (Sango's grandfather) found the impured jewel from one of the demons. When Kikyo dies, the jewel survives and Naraku plans to retrieve it. Kagome Higurashi ends up travelling to the past while keeping the jewel. After Kagome destroys the raven, the jewel is shattered into pieces. Izumo is a philosopher half–demon who made the fake jewel with small power, by copying the real one. However, Inuyasha defeats him.
Opiliones

s.]]
**Harvestmen** are eight-legged arachnids. Even though they are arachnids like spiders, harvestmen are not spiders. They are in the order **Opiliones**.

More than 6,400 species of harvestmen have been discovered, although the real number of extant species may be more than 10,000. Well-preserved fossils have been found in the 400-million year old Rhynie cherts of Scotland. Fossil harvestmen look surprisingly similar to modern harvestmen. Apparently, the basic body shape of harvestmen has not changed much.

In some places, harvestmen are known by the name "daddy longlegs", but this name is also used for two other unrelated arthropods: the crane fly (*Tipulidae*) and the cellar spider (*Pholcidae*).

Many species of harvestmen are omnivores--they eat anything they can find. Most of the time this is small insects, and some plants and fungi. Some are scavengers.

Harvestmen are not dangerous to humans. None of the described species have poison glands. They are not "true" spiders even though they look like spiders in many ways. For example, harvestmen have no venom or silk glands; spiders have these.

## Anatomy 
Harvestmen have exceptionally long walking legs compared to their bodies, although there are also some short-legged species. In harvestmen, the two main body sections (the abdomen and cephalothorax) meet at a wide point, so that they appear to be one oval structure. In more advanced species of harvestmen, the first five segments of the abdomen are fused into a "shield" on the harvestman's back called the scutum. In some species, this shield is only present in males. The second pair of legs is longer than the others and work as antennae. This can be hard to see in short-legged species.

The feeding apparatus (stomotheca) differs from other arachnids as they are able to eat their food in chunks, without needing to liquify it. Most species have a single pair of eyes in the middle of their heads, oriented horizontally. However, there are some eyeless species. 

## Further reading
* Joel Hallan's Biology Catalog (2005)
* Pinto-da-Rocha R. Machado G. & Giribet G. eds. 2007. Harvestmen – the biology of Opiliones. *Harvard University Press* 
* Pinto-da-Rocha R. & Kury A.B. 2003. Third species of Guasiniidae (Opiliones, Laniatores) with comments on familial relationships. *Journal of Arachnology* **31**: 394-399. PDF 
* Shultz, Jeffrey W. 1998. Phylogeny of Opiliones (Arachnida): an assessment of the "Cyphopalpatores" concept. *Journal of Arachnology* **26**: 257-272. PDF 

## Other websites
*Harvestman: Order Opiliones Diagnostic photographs and information on North American harvestmen
*Harvestman: Order Opiliones Diagnostic photographs and information on European harvestmen
* University of Aberdeen: The Rhynie Chert Harvestmen (fossils)
*  National Museum page Classification of Opiliones  A synoptic taxonomic arrangement of the order Opiliones, down to family-group level, including some photos of the families

## References
Houston Stewart Chamberlain

**Houston Steward Chamberlain** (September 9, 1855 – January 9, 1927) was a writer of books. He wrote many popular scientific books, about Richard Wagner, Immanuel Kant, and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe amongst others. He was born in Portsmouth, but later emigrated to Germany. In later life he became a German citizen. He was acquainted with Hitler and died in Bayreuth. He is known for his Antisemitism. His best-known book, *The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century* is seen as a standard antisemitic work of the early 20th century.
Threat

A **threat** is a type of communication. It is a warning. It is a behaviour which almost all advanced animals have. In humans it is often verbal (spoken). The dictionary definition of "threat" isː 
:"Any action, gesture or response that indicates an intention to attack, harm or intimidate another".

Threats evolved because actual fighting often damages an animal, and a damaged animal is at risk. On the other hand, animals compete for food, territory, and mating for example.

Because humans have complicated brains, their use of threats may be deliberate, and may be spoofs or jokes. Humans make threats verbally, but words are not automatic. If one person treads on the toe of another, the might say "Ow" by reflex. That response is not a threat. But if they say "do that again, and I'll [whatever]", that is a threat. In many cases the threat is not believed, or may even be a joke. Like other communications, a threat has a context, and the context decides its meaning.

## Context and examples 
A child who says "I'l tell my dad" may learn from the sarcastic reply "I'm so scared!" that the threat is what is called an "idle threat". An idle threat is one that promises harm which cannot or will not happen.

A threat to do harm may be mixed with an offer to do good. This is called a conditional offer, or throffer. The threat part may be implied, but still effective.

## Society 
Some countries, such as the United States, have a legal concept of "true threat". A true threat is a threatening communication which can be prosecuted under the law.

A threat can describe a situation of danger. For example a "terroristic threat". Many countries have a system where the government can adjust its security by having official threat levels.

## Related pages 
* Nonverbal communication
* Threat display (in animals)

## References
Promotion

**Promotion** means spreading information about an product, service or issue. 

Promotional activity generally involves a company spreading knowledge about its brand, products, or service to generate demand, build a following, raise awareness, or build loyalty. Many of these activities taking place simultaneously, and including channels such as: Social Media, Direct Mail, Print, and Television.

Promotion as part of marketing means spreading information about a product, product line, brand, or company.
*Promotion* includes:
* Publicity and public relations
* Advertising

*Promotion for marketing* includes additionally:
* Personal selling
* Non-personal selling
* Sales promotion
* Tradeshows
* Direct selling
* Refer a friend
* Loyalty bonus
* Product placement
** For example, arranging  that a product is used on a television programme or in a movie so that the viewer can see the brand name or symbol or logo.

Promotion can also happen when a marketing company is providing discounts and coupons to customers to create brand awareness.

## References
Issue

**Issue** may have one of the following special meanings:

* The  or question of a debate
* A single instance of a serial publication, such as a journal, magazine or a newspaper.
* Issue (legal), a point disputed by parties to a lawsuit.
* Issue (computers), a generalization of the term bug.
* Social issue, an issue which affects many people in a society
* In project management, an issue is the result of an event that has occurred and has a positive or negative impact on the project and should be analyzed and dealt with via actions.
Arachnocampa

**Arachnocampa** is a family of flies. They are also called **Fungus gnats**. They occur in Australia and New Zealand. Their larvae are glowworms.

They were called **Bolitphila** (*mushroom-lovers*) until 1924. Then people found out that their larvae use silk threads to catch prey. Their current name means *spider-grub*.
Firefly

**Fireflies** are a family of beetles called the **Lampyridae**. These beetles are special in that most of them have bioluminescence, the ability to produce light. They are sometimes called  **fireworms**, **firebugs**, **firebeetles**, **glowflies**, **glow-worms**, **glowbugs**, **glowbeetles**, **lightning flies**, **lightning worms**, **lightning bugs**, **lightning beetles**  or **forest stars** or simply **lightflies**, **lightworms**, **lightbugs** or **lightbeetles**. There are about 2000 different species, most of which are nocturnal.

Adults use flashes of light to attract mates. Also, firefly larvae flash their lights to warn predators that they are not a tasty meal. Many predators do not like the taste of firefly larvae.

## Body 
A firefly is an insect, so it has an exoskeleton and three body parts. Much like an annual cicada, they are usually soft-bodied, often with the elytra (front wings) more leathery than in other beetles.

A firefly may be brown or black with yellow and red marks.

## Function 
All fireflies glow as larvae. Bioluminescence serves a different function in lampyrid larvae than it does in adults. It appears to be a warning signal to predators, since many firefly larvae contain chemicals that are distasteful or toxic.

Light in adult beetles was originally thought to be used for similar warning purposes, but its main purpose is now thought to be mate selection. Fireflies are a classic example of an organism that uses bioluminescence for sexual selection. They have evolved a variety of ways to communicate with mates in courtships: steady glows, flashing, and the use of chemical signals unrelated to photic systems.

## Habitat 
Fireflies live in tropical climates in the United States, Latin America, Caribbean Island, and South East Asia. They also live east of Rocky Mountains. Fireflies like to live in damp areas and dry areas. Examples of damp areas are rain forests, streams, marshes, ponds and leaf piles. Examples of dry areas are backyards and meadows.

Most species live in marshes or near water, because there their larvae have more than enough food.

## References 
*Halfmann, Janet 1999. *Fireflies*. Smart Apple Media 
*Pierre Stephanie 2002. *Firefly*. Heinemann, Library 

Image:Leuchtkäfer - Firefly.JPG|Firefly larva
Image:GluehwuermchenImWald.jpg|Fireflies in a wood near Nürnberg, Germany
Debate

and Oriental Christians in 1290, Acre]]

**Debate** or **debating** is a method of argument. Disputes and conflicts may be settled by debate. It is a larger form of argument than logical argument, because in a debate, the debaters try to influence the feelings of the audience, in order to persuade them on a topic.

The  or  of the debate is the question on which the participants debate. An issue or debate always has two sides or positions. Informal debates like discussion are very common, but the quality of a debate improves with knowledge and skill of its participants as debaters.

Deliberative bodies such as parliaments, legislative assemblies, and meetings of all sorts have debates. The winner of a debate may be decided by the audience's vote, by judges, or by both.

Formal debates between candidates for an elected office are common in places where leaders of countries are chosen by the people. The most well-known of these debates are between candidates for the President and Vice President of the United States, and leaders debates between leaders of parties in Parliament in countries like Great Britain and Canada.

## Other websites
## References
Alternative

In natural language and in cognitive decision-making, **alternative** is  one of two things/(abstract or real objects)/actions which can be chosen. From a specific perspective/(point of view)/goal, alternatives are always .

In logic and mathematics, alternative is the element of logical disjunction. 

In different contexts **alternative** (or *Alternativism*) may refer to :

* Alternative rock, a style of rock music
** Alternative dance and Alternative metal, subgenres of alternative rock
** Alternative hip-hop
** Alternative country
* Alternative algebra, an abstract algebra with alternative multiplication
* Alternative comics, one of several labels applied to a range of comic strips and books
* Alternative comedy, a range of styles used by comedians and writers in the 1980s
* Alternative culture, a variety of subcultures outside or on the fringes of so-called accepted mainstream culture
* Alternative dispute resolution, processes and techniques outside the traditional mainstream of jurisprudence
* Alternative lifestyle, a lifestyle that it is not within the generally perceived cultural norm
* Alternative media, media practices falling outside the mainstreams of corporate communication
* Alternative medicine, methods and practices used in place of, or in addition to, conventional medical treatments
* Alternative society, alternative models for society and social change
* Alternative education, alternatives to traditional education
* Alternative school, a school geared towards students whose needs cannot be met in the traditional school such as underachievers who do not qualify for special education, rather than educational alternatives for all students
Crane fly

**Crane flies** are flies in the family **Tipulidae**. They are insects. Crane flies look similar to large mosquitoes but, unlike mosquitoes, crane flies do not bite people or animals. Crane flies occasionally eat nectar.

They are also known as daddy longlegs around the world. The term 'daddy-long-legs' is also given to arachnids of the order Opiliones or the family Pholcidae. The larvae of crane flies are known commonly as leatherjackets.

There are about 15,000 different species and 525 genera of crane flies. This means that the Tipulidae (crane flies) are the largest group of flies. Most crane fly species (75%) were found by Charles P. Alexander.

The adult only lives to mate and lay eggs: 10 to 15 days is all. In some species the adult does not eat at all.

## Larvae 
Most of the crane fly's life is spent as a larva. Crane fly larvae are called **leatherjackets** or 'leatherjacket slugs' because of the way they move and eat roots (such as those of grass in lawns) and other vegetation. Some leatherjackets are aquatic.  

Leatherjackets can cause damage to plants. Because of this, crane flies are a pest of lawn grass in some areas. Invasive (European) crane flies (*Tipula paludosa*) cause extensive damage to turfgrass. 

Larvae of crane flies are divided into segments. They have a distinct head capsule on the front. The segments on the rear portion of the larva (the abdominal segments) often have long fleshy projections (like tentacles). Scientists have never seen the larvae from most crane fly species: less than 2% of the larvae are known.

## Appearance
Adult crane flies have very long legs and a long, thin abdomen. It is very easy to accidentally break off their delicate legs when catching crane flies. Their thin legs and  abdomen may help them to escape from birds who try to eat them. Females have larger abdomens in comparison to the males. The female abdomen also ends in a pointed ovipositor that looks a bit like a stinger. Crane flies cannot sting.

The wings are often held out from the body when the crane fly is not moving. When the wings are held out, the large halteres (balancers) can be seen behind the wings. Unlike mosquitoes, crane flies can not fly well. They will sometimes "wobble" when flying.

Crane flies that live in temperate places, such as *Tipula* species, may grow as big as 60&nbsp;mm in size. Tropical crane flies may grow to more than 100&nbsp;mm. The giant crane fly (*Holorusia rubiginosa*) that lives in the western United States can reach 38&nbsp;mm (1-3/8&nbsp;inches). There are also small crane flies, the size of mosquitoes. 

## References
* Oosterbroek, Pjotr. "Tipulidae" .

## Other websites 
* Family descriptions and images 
* Ohio State University Fact Sheet
* 1 Photo 
* Crane Flies of Pennsylvania 
* Crane Fly Tipula sp.

* Crane Fly Tipula dorsimacula
* Catalogue of Craneflies of the World 
* Family Tipulidae - By Pjotr Oosterbroek 
* Image Gallery from Diptera.info
* Image Gallery from Bug Guide Extensive
Disjunction

**Disjunction** can refer to several things.

In logic, it can mean:
*Inclusive disjunction (also known as *logical or*): at least one of the arguments is true
**OR gate, the logic gate
*Exclusive disjunction (also known as *XOR*): exactly one of the arguments is true

In biology, it can mean:
*Meiosis, a type of cell division
*Disjunct distribution, when populations of the same taxon are widely separated between two or more areas
Colombo Central Bank bombing

The **Central Bank bombing** was one of the deadliest terrorist attacks of the civil war in Sri Lanka between the government and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam.

The attack happened on January 31, 1996, in Colombo, the capital city of Sri Lanka. A truck with about 440 pounds (200&nbsp;kg) of high explosives crashed through the main gate of the Central Bank, a seaside building which managed most of the financial business of the country. As gunmen and security guards were shooting, the suicide bomber in the truck detonated the massive bomb, which badly damaged the bank and damaged eight other buildings nearby.

The explosion killed 90 people and injured 1,400 others. Most of these were ordinary citizens or civilians working in the small shops set up near the bank. This bombing was followed by the 1996 Dehiwala train bombing in July that killed 64 people.

Until 2006, the Central Bank bombing was the deadliest Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam terrorist bombing.
Attac (organization)

]]
 in front of the Kölner Dom, Germany, 2004]]

The '''Association pour la Taxation des Transactions pour l'Aide aux Citoyens** (**Association for the Taxation of Financial Transactions for the Aid of Citizens**, **ATTAC''') is an organization that promotes a tax on foreign exchange transactions, the so-called Tobin tax. 

## Background
At first Attac demanded only the introduction of the so-called Tobin tax on currency speculation. Now it fights for many issues related to globalisation. Therefore, it reports about the decisions of the World Trade Organisation (WTO), the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF).  ATTAC attends the meetings of the G8 with the goal of influencing policymakers' decisions.

Though ATTAC criticises the neoliberal ideology dominating economic globalisation, it is not "anti-globalisation".  It supports globalisation policies that they characterise as sustainable and socially just. One of ATTAC's slogans is "The World is not for sale", denouncing the "merchandisation" of society.

## Other websites 
* ATTAC homepage 
* ATTAC.info
* "Disarming the Markets", editorial by Ignacio Ramonet
* Term Paper about ATTAC
Momofuku Ando

, born ** Wú Bǎifú** (吳百福) in Taiwanese (5 March 1910 - 5 January 2007) was the founder and chairman of Nissin Food Products Co., Ltd., and the inventor of the modern instant noodle, ramen.

Ando was born to Taiwanese parents in Kagi (currently Chiayi), Taiwan and grew up an orphan in Tainan City. In 1948, Momofuku Ando founded what was to become Nissin in Ikeda, Osaka, Japan. It was a small family-run company at first.

On August 25, 1958, at the age of 48, and after months of trial and error experimentation, Ando announced that he had finally perfected his flash-frying method and therefore invented the instant noodle. Called Chikin Ramen, after the original flavour, it was originally considered a luxury food item as it cost around six times that of traditional non-instant udon and soba noodles. Ando began sales of the Cup noodles on September 18, 1971. As prices dropped, ramen soon became a booming business. An estimated 70 billion servings were sold in 2004.

In 1964, looking for a way to promote the instant noodle industry, Ando founded the Instant Food Industry Association which set guidelines for fair competition and product quality, introducing several industry standards such as the inclusion of production dates on packaging and the "fill to" line.  The Momofuku Ando Instant Ramen Museum is named after Ando.

Ando was also the chairman of the International Ramen Manufacturers’ Association. He died on January 5, 2007 of heart failure in Osaka Prefecture at the age of 96.

## References
Daddy long-legs spider

The **Daddy-Long-Legs Spider** (*Pholcus phalangioides*) is a spider of the family Pholcidae. Its legs are about 5 or 6 times the length of its body.  It is often confused with the *daddy long-legs*, a member of the Opiliones, which are not true (real) spiders. *P. phalangioides* has the habit of shaking the web violently when disturbed. This is probably to blur the vision of a predator. Because it is often found on the ceilings of rooms, caves or cellars, it is also called **cellar spider**.  They can easily catch and eat hairy house spiders, mosquitoes, and other insects.  When food is scarce, they will prey on their own kind. Because they originally came from the tropics, these spiders do not seem to be aware of seasonal changes and breed at any time of the year. 

The female holds 20 to 30 eggs in her jaws.  Spiderlings are transparent with short legs and change their skin about 5 or 6 times as they grow.

Females have a body length of about 9mm, males are slightly smaller.

## Trivia 
* This is the only spider species described by Swiss painter and entomologist Johann Kaspar Füssli.
* This species have the ability to completely suck out a mosquito from the tip of one of its legs, although this may take up to twelve hours.

## Other websites 
* Description and pictures 
* Long description and pictures
Penalty

A **penalty** is most often a punishment, and may also mean:
*in law:
**Sentence (law), for example the death penalty
**Sanctions (law), a punishment for violating rules of procedure, or for abusing the judicial process.
*in sports:
**getting a Penalty (American football) gets a punishment for your team's rule infraction
**getting a Penalty kick (football/soccer) gets a "reward" for the other team's rule infraction, or refers to the tiebreak procedure where there has been no rule infraction, and there is neither a punishment nor a reward. See also Penalty area.
**in Contract Bridge and other card games a penalty can be both an "intra-game" scoring bonus which is not associated with any rule infraction, or an "extra-game" punishment for a rule infraction such as a "revoke".
**Penalty (ice hockey). See also Penalty box.
**Penalty (rugby)
**Penalty (Brazilian sports manufacturer)
**in other sports or games, penalties may be referred to as fouls or faults
*in finance and banking:
**a payment forfeited for an early withdrawal from an account or an investment
** Tax penalty, a fee required for missing a deadline or some other violation.
*In entertainment:
***The Penalty*, a film.
Visoko

**Visoko**  is historic town in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It has 17000 residents. Visoko is on the rivers Bosna and Fojnica. 

Visoko was the capital of medieval Bosnia in early years of the country. From this time, the most important places are old town **Visoki** on Visočica hill, the trade center **Podvisoki**, **Mile** - the place where the kings were crowned and **Moštre** where the Bosnian church university was. 

In 1463, the Ottomans conquered Bosnia. Ajas-beg is founder of modern Visoko. He built mosques, trade shops and other things.

## Other websites 
*News from Visoko
*VISOKOIN - Nezavisni News Magazin
*City of Visoko
*Turistic presentation of Visoko 
*Neolithic findings in Okolište, Visoko 
*Short history of Visoko
*Visoko in Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th Edition 
*Tragovima bosanskog kraljevstva  - Tourist route for medieval Bosnia (English)
*Trail of the Bosnian Kingdom  - Cultural Tourism in Visoko
Speculation

**Speculation** has a special meaning when talking about money. The person who speculates is called a **speculator**. A speculator does not buy goods to own them, but to sell them later. The reason is that he wants to make a profit from the change in price. 

One tries to buy the goods when they are cheap and to sell them when they are expensive. There is a good chance to profit as long as the market price  changes often in different directions.

Speculation includes the buying, holding, selling, and short-selling of stocks, bonds, commodities, currencies, collectibles, real estate, derivatives or any  investment. It is the opposite of buying because one wants to use them for daily life or to get income from them (as dividends or interest). 

Speculation is one of the biggest market roles in western financial markets. The others are hedging, long term investing and arbitrage.  Speculators do not plan to keep an asset for a long time.

## References
Quarterback

A **quarterback** (**QB**) is a position in American and Canadian football. Quarterbacks are members of the offense, or attacking team. They line up directly behind the center, in the middle of the offensive team's line. A quarterback is usually the leader, and starts most plays. In addition, the quarterback gives commands to the other players before the start of a play. A quarterback will in most attacking plays throw the ball to a member of their team, ready to run to the end of the pitch. Quarterbacks may also run the ball themselves, as well as hand the ball to a runningback. These players are usually the faces of their respective teams. Some very notable players at this position in history are Tom Brady, Jim Kelly, and Peyton Manning.

## Special tactics
 QB Eli Manning throwing in pre-game warmups in 2009. Note how he holds the ball and the position of his legs.]]
If quarterbacks don't like the formation the defense is using, they may use an audible. An audible is a way for the quarterback to change the play at the line of scrimmage (where players line up to start a play). He changes what the play will be by shouting out things that his teammates will understand. An audible may be called if the quarterback sees how the defensive players are lined up and does not think that the play that has been called would be good against how the defense is lined up.

## References
Oehlen

People with the name **Oehlen**:
*Jos Oehlen, sculptor 
*Albert Oehlen, painting artist
*Markus Oehlen, German artist
*Mischa Oehlen, movie director
Ledger line

) needs one ledger line.  The next note (B) is in the space below it, and the last note (A) needs two ledger lines.]]

A **ledger line** is a short line used in musical notation to write notes which would otherwise be too high or too low to put on any of the five lines on the staff. A short line (slightly longer than the note) is drawn parallel to the lines on the staff, and the note head is placed on that line or in the space below or above it.

Notes with at least three or four ledger lines are rarely used for composing and arranging. It is easier to change the clef or use the “8va” sign (called "ottava" sign), which means the notes should be played an octave higher or lower than it is written, depending on whether the sign is above or below the staff.

## Related pages 
* Transposition (music)

## References
*Anon. 2001. "Leger [Ledger] Line". *The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians*, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Publishers.
*Godwin, Joscelyn. 1974. "Playing from Original Notation". *Early Music* 2, no. 1 (January): 15–19.
*Read, Gardner. 1969. *Music Notation: A Manual of Modern Practice*, second edition. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Reprinted, New York: Taplinger Publishing Company, 1979.
Sunflowers Interactive Entertainment Software

**Sunflowers Interactive Entertainment Software** was a German company that developed and published video games. It was located in Heusenstamm, Germany. It was founded in 1993 by Adi Boiko and Wilhelm Hamrozi. Boiko was president of the company and Hamrozi was chief executive officer (CEO). The company was known for the Anno series (also by Max Design), Knights of Honor (by Black Sea Studios) and ParaWorld (by SEK). In 2007 the founders sold the company including all trademarks to Ubisoft.

## List of games
The following is a list of games that have been created or published by Sunflowers:

*Anno 1503: The New World
*Anno 1503: Treasures, Monsters and Pirates
*Anno 1602: By Royal Command
*Anno 1602: Creation of a New World
*Anno 1602: New Islands, New Adventures
*Anno 1701
*Knights of Honor
*ParaWorld
*TechnoMage: The Return of Eternity
*Holiday Island

## Other websites 
*Official Sunflowers website
James Tobin

**James Tobin** (March 5, 1918 – March 11, 2002) was an American economist. Outside academia, Tobin became widely known for his suggestion of a tax on foreign exchange transactions, now known as the "Tobin tax". This was designed to reduce speculation on currency markets, which he saw as unproductive. He also suggested that the money gained from the tax could be used to fund projects for the benefit of Third World countries, or to support the United Nations.

Tobin's academic work included pioneering contributions to the study of investment, monetary and fiscal policy and financial markets. He promoted and developed the ideas of Keynesian economics. He believed that governments should intervene in the economy in order to stabilise output and avoid recessions.

## Other websites 
* James Tobin at the Nobel Foundation e-Museum
* James Tobin at the Cowles Foundation site
* James Tobin  at the HET site
* Short biography at nobel-winners.com
Conversion

In general, **conversion** is the transformation of one thing into another. Articles on particular kinds of conversion are:

* Conversion (construction)
* Conversion (law)
** Criminal conversion
* Conversion (linguistics)
* Conversion (marketing)
* Conversion Path (marketing)
* Conversion syndrome (psychology)
* Conversion (options) (an option-trading strategy)
* Currency conversion (aka Exchange rate)
* Miniature conversion (miniature figures)

## Religion
* Religious conversion
** Secondary conversion
** Deathbed conversion

## Sport
* Two-point conversion (American football)
* Conversion (Rugby football)

## Technology
* Conversion of units
** Units conversion by factor-label
* CHS conversion (computing)
* Code conversion (computing/telecommunications)
* Conversion (chemistry)
* Conversion (logic)
* Data conversion
* Electric vehicle conversion
* Energy conversion
* Type conversion (computing)
* Conversion rate (websites and Search engine optimization)
Simon Peyton Jones

**Simon Peyton Jones** (1958-) born in South Africa and is a British computer scientist. He does research on (lazy) functional programming languages, such as Haskell. He works at Microsoft Research in Cambridge, England. He is married to Dorothy, a priest in the Church of England. They have six children.

Simon Peyton Jones, Simon Marlow and others have developed the Glasgow Haskell Compiler, a compiler for Haskell.

He has also worked on C--.

He was elected a member of the Academia Europaea in 2011.

## Other websites 
*Simon Peyton Jones page, Microsoft Research website

## References
Zambezi River

The **Zambezi River** is the fourth largest river in Africa. It is also the largest river that enters the Indian Ocean. It starts in Zambia, flows successively through Angola, Zambia again, borders Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe, through Mozambique where it enters the ocean. Much more water flows during the rainy season, October through March.

The Victoria Falls, the most beautiful sight on the river, is listed as one of  the UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The Kariba Dam on the Zambezi is a major source of hydroelectricity

## References
Truth value

In logic, the **truth value** of a logical statement says how much it is true. Usually, the truth value can only be "true" or "false". For example, "The car is red" is true when the car is red, and false when it is not. The "true" truth value is often written as \top, T or 1, and the "false" truth value as \bot, F or 0. The truth value of a complex statement can be found using a chart called truth table.

In multi-valued logics, the truth value can be other values as well. For example, one could use a value between 0 and 1 to say how much it is true. Zero would mean that it is completely false, and one would mean that it is completely true. When the car is orange (and we define orange as half red, half yellow), the truth value could be 0.5 because the statement is half true and half false. it is also used in critical thinking.

## Related pages 
* Fuzzy logic, a multi-valued logic
* Tautology (logic)

## References