Venice and Dalmatia

**Venice and Dalmatia** were an Italian city-state and an eastern adriatic region very much related from the Middle Ages until the 19th century.

## Middle Ages
Venice influenced Dalmatia commercially from the times of Charlemagne. At the end of the first millennium the Republic of Venice started to conquest Dalmatia.

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Illyrian towns on the Dalmatian coast continued to speak Latin. Their language evolved relatively independent from other Romance languages.  It became a distinct language called *Dalmatian language*. The earliest reference on the language dates from the 10th century.  According to the linguist Matteo Bartoli about 50,000 people spoke it at that time.  It was spoken along the eastern Adriatic in the Dalmatian coast from Fiume (Rijeka) as far south as Kotor (Cattaro) in Montenegro.The Dalmatian speakers lived mainly in the coastal towns of Zadar, Trogir, Split, Dubrovnik and Kotor and on the islands of Krk, Cres and Rab. Each of the cities had a local dialect. *Vegliot* was spoken on the island of Krk. *Ragusan was* spoken at Dubrovnik  We know about the Dalmatian dialect of Ragusa from two letters, from 1325 and 1397. They show a language influenced heavily by Venetian. The available sources include hardly 260 Ragusan words. Surviving words include *pen* (bread), *teta* (father), *chesa* (house) and *fachir* (to do). They were quoted by an Italian, Fillipo Diversi, the head of school of Ragusa in the 1430s.

The "Republic of Ragusa" had at one time an important fleet. We know that the language was in trouble in the face of Croatian expansion. The Ragusan Senate decided that all debates had to be held in *lingua veteri ragusea* (ancient Ragusan language). The use of the *lingua sclava* (Croatian) was forbidden. Nevertheless, in the 16th century, Ragusan fell out of use and became extinct. The oldest preserved documents written in Dalmatian are some 13th century inventories, in the Ragusan dialect. A letter of the 14th century from Zadar shows strong Venetian influence.

The Christian schism was an important factor in the history of Dalmatia. The Croatian branch of the Catholic Church in Nin was under the Pope's jurisdiction.It used the Slavic liturgy. Both the Latin population of the cities and the Holy See preferred the Latin liturgy, which created tensions between different dioceses. Many of the Slavs  preferred Eastern Orthodoxy. Areas of today's Bosnia and Herzegovina also had an indigenous Bosnian Church.  It was often mistaken for Bogomilism. The Latin influence in Dalmatia was increased and the Byzantine practices were further suppressed by the general synods of 1059-1060, 1066, 1075-1076 and  other local synods. The bishopric of Nin was abolished. New archbishoprics of Spalatum (Split) and Dioclea (Montenegro) were started.  Any liturgy other than Greek or Latin was not allowed.

## The Republic of Venice
Dalmatia never formed as a "nation", but it achieved a remarkable development of art, science and literature. Politically, the neolatin Dalmatian city-states were often isolated and compelled to either fall back on the Venetian Republic for support, or tried to make it on their own.

The geographical position of the Dalmatian city states suffices to explain the relatively small influence exercised by Byzantine culture throughout the six centuries (535-1102) during which Dalmatia was part of the Eastern empire. Towards the close of this period Byzantine rule tended more and more to become merely nominal, while the influence of the Republic of Venice increased.

The medieval Dalmatia had still included much of the hinterland covered by the old Roman province of Dalmatia. However, the toponym of "Dalmatia" started to shift more towards including only the coastal, Adriatic areas, rather than the mountains inland. By the 15th century, the word "Herzegovina" would be introduced, marking the shrink of the borders of Dalmatia to the narrow littoral area where was spoken the Dalmatian language (that was being assimilated into the venetian language).

In the thirteenth century the Republic of Venice took control of the Montenegro coast and created the *Albania Veneta*.

## Republic of Venice and the Kingdom of Hungary in Dalmatia
The city states gradually lost all protection by Byzantium. They could not unite in a defensive league because they did not agree with each other.  They had to turn to either Venice or Hungary for support. The two political factions had support within the Dalmatian city states, based mostly on economic reasons.

The Venetians main goal was to prevent the development of any dangerous political or commercial competitor on the eastern Adriatic. . The seafaring community in Dalmatia looked to Venice as mistress of the Adriatic. In return for protection, the cities often supplied people to the army or navy of their suzerain. Sometimes they paid tribute either in money or in kind. Rab  paid ten pounds of silk or five pounds of gold to Venice each year.

Hungary had defeated the last Croat king in 1097. It laid claim on all lands of the Croatian noblemen since the treaty of 1102. King Coloman of Hungary  conquered Dalmatia in 1102-1105. The farmers and the merchants who traded in the interior favoured Hungary. It was their most powerful neighbour on land that affirmed their municipal privileges. With the royal assent they might elect their own chief magistrate, bishop and judges. Their Roman law was still accepted. They could even make separate alliances. No alien, not even a Hungarian, could live in a city where he was unwelcome. A man who disliked Hungarian dominion could emigrate with all his household and property. Instead of tribute, the revenue from customs was in some cases shared equally by the king, chief magistrate, bishop and municipality.

These rights and the similar privileges granted by Venice were often infringed. Hungarian garrisons were put in unwilling towns. Venice interfered with trade, the appointment of bishops, or the tenure of communal domains. The Dalmatians remained loyal only while it suited their interests. Insurrections frequently occurred. Even in Zadar four outbreaks are recorded between 1180 and 1345, although it was treated with special consideration by its Venetian masters. It was important for their control of the sea. 

The once rival Romanic and Slavic populations began to join in a common civilization. Ragusa (Dubrovnik) was the primary example of this. By the 13th century, the councilmen's names were mixed, and in the 15th century their literature was even written in the Slavic language (from which Croatian language is directly descended).  and the city was often called by its Slavic name, Dubrovnik. Only in 1918 Ragusa was called officially "Dubrovnik", with the creation of Yugoslavia.

The doubtful allegiance of the Dalmatians caused trouble between Venice and Hungary. This was complicated by internal discord due largely to the spread of the "Bogomil heresy", and by many outside influences.

The cities of Zara (Zadar), Spalato (Split), Trau (Trogir) and Ragusa (Dubrovnik) and the surrounding territories changed hands several times between Venice, Hungary and the Byzantium during the 12th century. In 1202, the armies of the Fourth Crusade helped Venice by occupying Zadar for it. In 1204 the same army conquered Byzantium.  The early 13th century was more peaceful. The Dalmatian cities started accepting foreign sovereignty (mainly of the Republic of Venice). They still wanted independence. The Mongol invasion weakened Hungary. In 1241, the king Bela IV had to take refuge in Dalmatia (in the Klis fortress). The Mongols attacked the Dalmatian cities for the next few years but eventually withdrew.

The Croats were no longer regarded by the city folk as a hostile people, in fact the counts Šubić of Bribir, were  supreme in the northern districts  between 1295 and 1328). In 1346, Dalmatia was struck by the Black Death. The economic situation was also poor. The cities became more and more dependent on Venice.

Stephen Tvrtko, the founder of the "Bosnian kingdom" in 1389 took over the  Adriatic coast between Cattaro and Sebenico (Šibenik), and even claimed control over the northern coast up to Fiume (Rijeka) except for the Venetian-ruled Zara (Zadar), and his own independent ally, Ragusa (Dubrovnik). This was only temporary. The Hungarians and the Venetians continued their struggle over Dalmatia as soon as Tvrtko died in 1391.

An internal struggle of Hungary, between King Sigismund and the Neapolitan house of Anjou, also reflected on Dalmatia. In the early 15th century, all Dalmatian cities welcomed the Neapolitan fleet except for Dubrovnik (Ragusa). The Bosnian duke Hrvoje controlled Dalmatia for the Angevins, but later switched loyalty to Sigismund. Over the period of twenty years, this struggle weakened the Hungarian influence. In 1409, Ladislaus of Naples sold his *rights* over Dalmatia to Venice for 100,000 "Ducats". Venice gradually took over most of Dalmatia by 1420. In 1437, Sigismund recognized Venetian rule over Dalmatia in return for 100,000 Ducats. The city of Omiš yielded to Venice in 1444 Only Ragusa (Dubrovnik) preserved temporarily its freedom.

The rule of Venice on most of Dalmatia lasted nearly four centuries (1420 - 1797).

## Venetian and Ottoman rule in Dalmatia
During the Venetian rule in Dalmatia from 1420 to 1797 the number of Orthodox Serbs in Dalmatia was increased by numerous migrations.

Hungary was attacked by the Turks, and could no longer afford to try to control Dalmatia. Christian kingdoms and regions in the east fell one by one, Constantinople in 1453, Serbia in 1459, neighbouring Bosnia in 1463, and Herzegovina in 1483. The Venetian and Ottoman frontiers met. There were many border wars.

Dubrovnik sought safety in friendship with the invaders. It sold two small strips of its territory (Neum and Sutorina) to the Ottomans to stop land access from the Venetian territory.

In 1508 the hostile "League of Cambrai" compelled Venice to withdraw its garrison for home service. After the overthrow of Hungary in 1526 the Turks were able easily to conquer the greater part of Dalmatia by 1537. The peace of 1540 left only the maritime cities to Venice. The interior became a Turkish province, governed from the fortress of Klis by a "Sanjakbeg" (an administrator with military powers).

Christian Croats from the neighbouring lands now went to the towns.  They outnumbered the Romanic population even more. Their language was now the primary one. The pirate community of the "Uskoks" had originally been a band of these fugitives, especially near Segna (Senj). Piracy helped to start war between Venice and Turkey (1571-1573). Dalmatian troops served abroad; at the Battle of Lepanto  in 1571, a Dalmatian squadron helped the allied fleets of Spain, Venice, Austria and the Papal States to crush the Turkish navy.

The continental bits of Dalmatia were under Ottoman rule, parts of the Viyalet of Bosnia or the Klis Sanjak. The desolate areas of the Knin Frontier and Bukovica were inhabited by Orthodox Serbs from Bosnia. The Albania veneta got constant Serb migrations from Herzegovina and Montenegro. The Serbs formed one quarter of Dalmatia's population in the 16th century. They had absolute majority in the Knin Frontier, Bukovica and the Cattaro area. The Ottomans  resettled them to create a living defence against the territories of the Venetian Republic. Much of this population fled to Venetian land and gladly fought against the Ottomans. The number of Serbs in Venetian Dalmatia rapidly increased during the War of Crete in 1645 - 1669 and the Great Viennese War in 1683 - 1699. After that the "Peace of Karlowitz" gave the whole of Dalmatia and coastal Montenegro (from Sutorina to Cattaro) to the Venetian Republic. After the Venetian-Turkish war of 1714-1718, Venetian territorial gains were confirmed by the 1718 "Treaty of Passarowitz". The number of Dalmatian Serbs was between *20%* and *25%* by the end of Venetian rule.  The venetian speaking population in the Dalmatian cities and islands increased with colonists from north-east Italy.

The Serbian peasant population of  Upper Dalmatia was freed of "Feudal bonds", when they fought  wars for the Venetian Republic. The Serbs living in urban area of cities in Dalmatia were much wealthier. The Serbs in Dalmatia with Boka had strong national and religious determination through numerous old monasteries as beacons of culture and faith. Such were the early 14th century Krupa, Krka and Dragović monasteries in the Knin Frontier and Bukovica. The Serbs in the area of Cattaro (Kotor) had much more cultural advancement due to the nearby Cetinje capital area. The Venetians had to fall back from influencing the religious life of people there.

Dalmatia was the largest  concentration of Roman Catholic bishops, priests, churches, m onasteries and religious institutions. The Catholic bishops controlled the Orthodox episcopy in Dalmatia by naming the Eastern Othodox Christian episcopes themselves.

Dalmatia experienced a period of intense economic and cultural growth in the 18th century. Trade routes with the hinterland were reestablished in peace. Christians that migrated from the Ottoman-held territory into the Dalmatian cities converted from Orthodoxy to Catholicism.

Because the Venetians were able to reclaim some of the inland territories in the north during the Turkish wars, the region of Dalmatia was no longer restricted to the coastline and the islands. The Venetian influence wasn't as strong in the former southern Dalmatia, so it did not extend inland into areas of Herzegovina or Montenegro.

This period was abruptly interrupted with the fall of the Venetian republic in 1797.

Napoleon united for the last time Dalmatia and Venice in his *Kingdom of Italy* in 1805. After his fall Venice followed the history of Italy with the Risorgimento. Dalmatia became part of  the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

## Gallery

File:Narodni Trg (Pjaca).JPG|Narodni Trg (Pjaca) in Spalato/Split. '** means square in old Venetian (**' in old Italian).
File:Zadar_SvMarija.jpg|St. Mary's Church in Zara/Zadar. Built with "Stone of Istria" in typical Venetian style of northern Dalmatia.
File:Zadar_Sveta_Stosija.jpg|Cathedral of St. Anastasia, Zara/Zadar. Basilica in Romanesque style built in the 12th to 13th century (high Romanesque style), the largest cathedral in Dalmatia.
File:Mali Losinj 01.jpg|The Venetian-looking view of Lussinpiccolo/Losinj, a city of northern Dalmatia that belonged to Italy until 1947.
File:Rector's Palace, Dubrovnik, Croatia.jpg| The "Sponza" Palace in Ragusa/Dubrovnik. It is the best example of Venetian-influenced architecture remaining in the city.
File:Main street-Dubrovnik-2.jpg|The "Stradun" of Ragusa/Dubrovnik was the main street of old Ragusa. The word ''* in Venetian means "big street".
File:Trogir3.jpg|View of Trau/Trogir with the Venetian architecture of the port area.
File:Cathedral Kotor.JPG|Catholic Cathedral of Saint Tryphon in Cattaro (Kotor)
File:Church Perast.JPG|Church in Perasto (Perast) with typical Venetian belfry
File:Budua (1900).jpg|the Venetian walls of Budua/Budva in Montenegro in a 1900 postal.
File:Kyrka i Kotor1.jpg|Old Cattaro (Kotor)
File:Walls.ofKotor-Montenegro.jpg|Venetian walls of Cattaro (Kotor)

## Related pages
* Dalmatian Italians
* Italian cultural and historic presence in Dalmatia
* List of Italian place names in Dalmatia
* Albania veneta

## Bibliography
* Chambers, D.S. (1970). *The Imperial Age of Venice, 1380-1580.* London: Thames & Hudson.
* Garrett, Martin, "Venice: a Cultural History" (2006). Revised edition of "Venice: a Cultural and Literary Companion" (2001).
* John Rigby Hale. *Renaissance Venice* (1974) ()
* 
* Martin, John Jeffries and Dennis Romano (eds). *Venice Reconsidered. The History and Civilization of an Italian City-State, 1297-1797.* (2002) Johns Hopkins UP.
* Manfredo Tafuri. *Venice and the Renaissance* (1995) architecture review.
* Gasparo Contarini (1599). *The Commonwealth and Government of Venice.* Lewes Lewkenor, trsl. London: "Imprinted by I. Windet for E. Mattes."
* Praga, Giuseppe. *Storia di Dalmazia''. Dall'Oglio editore. Varese, 1981
* Mileta, Olinto. ''Popolazioni dell'Istria, Fiume, Zara e Dalmazia''. Edizioni A.D.ES. Trieste, 2005

## References