open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Perry Rhodan

***Perry Rhodan*** is a German science fiction series, published since 1961.

*Perry Rhodan* picks up nearly every theme that has ever appeared in science fiction. People from outside have criticised the series, but its commercial success during several decades has become a literary phenomenon in itself.  If nothing else, *Perry Rhodan* provides a mirror of the 1960s Cold War, 1970s New Age, and 1980s peace movement in its story line.  The series has an important influence on German writers in the field. The writing of the series still goes on.

## History
Written by an ever-changing team of authors, *Perry Rhodan* is issued in weekly  in the traditional German *Heftchen* (pulp booklet) format.  The series was created in 1961 by K. H. Scheer and Clark Darlton.  Initially, it should have thirty volumes, but it became an long lasting success and passed 3100 installments in January 2021.

## Story
Perry Rhodan is one of four fictional astronauts of the USA. In 1971, they fly to the moon, where they meet an extraterrestrial space-ship. From its owners they get technology, which they use to end the cold war and to unite the people of the Earth. Then "Terra", the Earth, becomes a power in intergalactical politics.

## Other websites 
* Perry Rhodan Official Homepage (German)
* Perrypedia German Wiki-project about Perry Rhodan's Universe
* Cedric Beust's Issue Summaries (1-2500)  (English)
* Series summary (1-1799)  (English)
* *Mission Stardust* (aka *…4…3…2…1…morte*) at the Internet Movie Database
* VPM's English-language Perry Rhodan site 
* Technology of the Perry Rhodan Universe 
* Official French Homepage
* French Fan Homepage
Yellow spot

cross-sectional view.]]

**The yellow spot**, scientifically known as the **macula**, is a small but vital part of the eye that plays a crucial role in our ability to see clearly. Situated at the center of the retina, the yellow spot is responsible for sharp, detailed vision and is essential for activities such as reading, recognizing faces, and driving.

## Structure 
The macula is a tiny, circular area, about the size of a pinhead, located at the back of the eye. It contains a high concentration of light-sensitive cells called photoreceptors, particularly cone cells, which are responsible for color vision and detailed visual acuity.

## Function 
The primary function of the yellow spot is to provide central vision, allowing us to focus on objects directly in front of us. When we look at something, light from that object enters the eye and reaches the macula. The photoreceptor cells in the yellow spot then convert this light into electrical signals, which are sent to the brain via the optic nerve. The brain interprets these signals, enabling us to see fine details and vibrant colors.

## Importance 
The yellow spot's significance becomes apparent when we engage in activities that require sharp, clear vision, such as reading or driving. Without a healthy macula, these tasks would become challenging or even impossible. Age-related macular degeneration (AMD), a condition affecting the macula, is one of the leading causes of vision loss in older adults.

## Protecting the Yellow Spot 
Maintaining the health of the yellow spot is crucial for preserving good vision. Eating a balanced diet rich in nutrients like vitamins A, C, and E, as well as minerals like zinc, can contribute to eye health. Additionally, protecting the eyes from excessive sunlight by wearing sunglasses with UV protection can help prevent damage to the macula.

## Common issues 
As mentioned earlier, AMD Understanding its structure, function, and the importance of maintaining its health can empower individuals to take proactive steps in preserving their vision. Regular eye examinations and healthy lifestyle choices contribute to overall eye health, ensuring the yellow spot continues to play its crucial role in our ability to see the world around us.

## References
The Exploited

**The Exploited** is a Scottish punk metal band. The band was formed in 1979 in Edinburgh, Scotland.

## Current lineup
* Wattie Buchan - Vocals
* Irish Rob - Bass
* Willie Buchan - Drums
* Matt McGuire - Guitar

## Discography
### Studio albums
**Punks Not Dead* - 1981
**Troops of Tomorrow* - 1982
*''Let's Start a War (Said Maggie One Day)* - 1983
**Horror Epics* - 1985
**Death Before Dishonour* - 1987
**The Massacre* - 1990
**Beat the Bastards* - 1996
**Fuck the System'' - 2003

### Singles
*"Army Life" - 1980  (EP)
*"Exploited Barmy Army" - 1980 (EP)
*"Dogs of War" - 1981
*"Dead Cities" - 1981 (EP)
*"Attack/Alternative" - 1982
*"Computers Don't Blunder" - 1982
*"Troops of Tomorrow" - 1982
*"Rival Leaders" - 1983 (EP)

### Split albums
*''Don't Let 'Em Grind You Down* (W/Anti-Pasti) - 1981
**Britannia Waives The Rules* (W/Chron Gen & Infa Riot) - 1982
**Apocalypse Punk Tour 1981* (W/The Anti-Nowhere League, Chron Gen, Anti Pasti & Discharge) - 1992

### Live albums
**On Stage* - 1981
**Apocalypse Tour* (Limited Edition) - 1981
**Live At The Whitehouse* - 1985
**Live And Loud* - 1987
**Live Lewd Lust* - 1989
**Don't Forget The Chaos* - 1992
**Live In Japan* - 1994
**Live at the White House*-1996
**25 Years of Anarchy and Chaos*-2005

### EPs
*Jesus Is Dead - 1986 (12")
**War Now'' - 1988 (12")

### Videography
*Live At The Palm Cove - 1983
*Sexual Favours - 1987
*The Exploited: 83-87 (1993)
*Live In Japan - 1993
*Alive At Leeds - 1995
*Rock and Roll Outlaws - 1995
*Buenos Aires 93 (1996)
*Beat 'Em All - 2004

### *Best of* collections
*Totally Exploited - 1984
*Castle Masters Collection - 1990
*Apocalypse '77 - 1992
*Singles Collection - 1993
*Dead Cities - 2000
*Punk Singles & Rarities 1980-83 (2001)
*The Best Of The Exploited - Twenty Five Years Of Anarchy And Chaos (2004)
*Complete Punk Singles Collection - 2005

### Compilation albums
*"Oi! - The Album" - 1980
*"Lords Of Oi!" - 1997

## References
Sham 69

**Sham 69** is a punk rock band from England. The band was formed in Hersham in 1975.

## Albums 
* 1978: *Tell Us the Truth*
* 1978: *That’s Life*
* 1979: *The Adventures of Hersham Boys*
* 1980: *The Game*
* 1988: *Volunteer*
* 1991: *Information Libre*
* 1993: *Kings & Queens*
* 1993: *BBC1 – Live in Concert*
* 1995: *Soapy Water & Mr. Marmalade*
* 1997: *A Files CD*
* 2001: *Direct Action: Day 21*
* 2007: *Western Culture*
* 2010: *Who Killed Joe Public*

## Other websites 
*The Original 1977 line up Website
4Kids

**4Kids Entertainment** (commonly known as **4Kids**, later known as **4Licensing Corporation**) was an American movie and television production company. They specialized in the creation and distribution of children's entertainment around the world. The company is most well known for the large number of Anime and animated television series it has provided to television stations. These series included *Yu-Gi-Oh!* and *Sonic the Hedgehog*. 4Kids Entertainment dubbed *Pokémon* until 2006. The company was first created in 1970 as *Leisure Concepts, Inc*.

4Kids Entertainment has provided a number of series for the Fox television network. These series have been shown on the network using the name **4Kids TV**.

4Kids Entertainment filed for bankruptcy twice. They first filed for bankruptcy in 2011, and again in 2016.

## History
In 1970, the company was originally called *Leisure Concepts, Inc*. It was created by Mike Germakian and Stan Weston.  It was later called **4Licensing Corporation**

During the mid-1980s, Ted Wolf came up with the idea of catlike humanoid superheroes. He told his friend Stan Weston, who  pitched it to Rankin/Bass Animated Entertainment. Both Arthur Rankin Jr and Jules Bass were impressed with the idea. They approved of it and "ThunderCats" started.

During the early development stage, Mike Germakian designed much of the ThunderCats' characters, vehicles and locations. He was also responsible for creating the now iconic ThunderCats logo, featuring a stylized black panther head on a red circle.

## Criticism
4Kids Entertainment gets most of its anime series from Japan. Before showing the series in the United States and United Kingdom, the series are edited. This editing includes changing the words from Japanese to English. It may also include changing other things which could be thought to be bad. For example, cigarette smoking is often removed before being shown in the United States. Changing the names of items from Japanese items to American items is also often done. This is done so the person watching can understand the show more easily. 

Many times the story of an episode is changed completely to make it better for children. Some people believe all the changes to the anime is a bad thing. They say that the series should be shown exactly the same as it was originally created. They feel 4Kids made "Americanized kiddy version" of the original series and that it is not right to do this. 

## Other websites 
* 4Kids Corporate 
* 4Kids Home Video 
* Defunct website

## References
Cubism

, an artist who influenced the Cubists]]

**Cubism** was one of the most significant art movements of the 20th century. It began in France about 1907, and flourished from 1910 through the 1920s. It was pioneered by Georges Braque and Pablo Picasso.

Pablo Picasso's 1907 painting ''Les Demoiselles d'Avignon'' was an early Cubist work. Georges Braque's 1908 *Houses at L’Estaque* (and related works) prompted the critic Louis Vauxcelles to refer to "bizarreries cubiques" (cubic oddities).

The first organized group exhibition by Cubists took place at the *Salon des Indépendants* in Paris in the spring of 1911. It included works by Jean Metzinger, Albert Gleizes, Fernand Léger, Robert Delaunay and Henri Le Fauconnier, but no works by Picasso and Braque were exhibited.

According to one art historian, there were three phases of Cubism. There was "Early Cubism", (from 1906 to 1908) when the movement was initially developed by Picasso and Braque. In the second phase, "High Cubism", (from 1909 to 1914), Juan Gris emerged as an important exponent after 1911. Finally "Late Cubism" (from 1914 to 1921) was the last phase of Cubism as a radical avant-garde movement. Douglas Cooper's emphasis on the work of Braque, Picasso, Gris (from 1911) and Léger (to a lesser extent) was an intentional value judgement.

## Its methods 
Cubism is a style of art which aims to show all of the possible viewpoints of a person or an object all at once. It is called Cubism because the items represented in the artworks look like they are made out of cubes and other geometrical shapes. Cubism was first started by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque. Analytical Cubism is the first type of cubism. Most analytical Cubists painted and drew in monochrome (only one colour) so that the person who was looking at the painting did not pay attention to colour, but only to the shapes and the forms that were being shown.

This was changed in 1912 when Picasso first started painting with colours and using collages. Collage is when you glue together different cut-up pieces of paper to make an artwork. This new form of Cubism was called Synthetic Cubism. Picasso invented collage because he was tired of the way he was making his art, and wanted to try out something new.
Pablo Picasso created over 20,000 pictures. From 1912 to 1919 was Picasso's Synthetic Cubism Period.

## References
**Types of Cubism**

There were two main types of Cubism:

* **Analytical Cubism** - The first stage of the Cubism movement was called Analytical Cubism. In this style, artists would study (or analyze) the subject and break it up into different blocks. They would look at the blocks from different angles. Then they would reconstruct the subject, painting the blocks from various viewpoints.

* **Synthetic Cubism** - The second stage of Cubism introduced the idea of adding in other materials in a collage. Artists would use colored paper, newspapers, and other materials to represent the different blocks of the subject. This stage also introduced brighter colors and a lighter mood to the art.
Visual acuity

**Visual acuity** (VA) is acuteness or clearness of vision, especially form vision, which depends on the sharpness of the retinal focus within the eye, the sensitivity of the nervous elements, and the interpretative faculty of the brain.

VA is a quantitative measure of the ability to identify black symbols on a white background at a standardized distance when the size of the symbols is varied. The VA represents the smallest size that can be reliably identified. VA is the most common clinical measurement of visual function.

Some people may suffer from other visual problems, such as color blindness, reduced contrast, or inability to track fast-moving objects and still have normal visual acuity. Thus, normal visual acuity does not mean normal vision. The reason visual acuity is very widely used is that it is a test that corresponds very well with the normal daily activities a person can handle, and evaluate their impairment to do them.

## References

## Other websites 
* 20/20 Eyesight is Not Necessarily Perfect  Catalog of Stories by Parents of Children Who Tested 20/20, Optometrists Network
* Visual acuity measurement  The Ophthalmology Teaching Website, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto
*Visual Acuity of the Human Eye 
*Golovin-Sivtsev Table for testing visual acuity  - used in the USSR and post-Soviet states
*Visual Acuity  Chapter from the Webvision reference, University of Utah
*Blur simulator (for eyeglass prescriptions)
Michaëlle Jean

Her Excellency the Rt. Hon. **Michaëlle Jean** (born September 6, 1957, in Port-au-Prince, Haiti) is a Haitian-born Canadian politician and journalist. She was the Governor General of Canada, replacing Adrienne Clarkson on 27 September 2005, until 1 October 2010 when David Lloyd Johnston took over. She is the Secretary General of *Organisation internationale de la Francophonie* since 2015 and multilingual who speaks English, French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese and Haitian Creole.

Jean was formally appointed Special Envoy for Haiti for the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization on November 8, 2010, for a four-year term.

## References
Robert Baker

**Robert "The Grinder" Baker** (October 26, 1926 - April 23, 2002) also known as **Bob Baker**, was an American boxer. He was one of the world's leading heavyweight boxers in the 1950s. Bob Baker was born in Canonsburg, Pennsylvania. He started fighting out of Pittsburgh. One of his most notable accomplishments was winning the 1949 Pennsylvania Intercity Golden Gloves championship in the heavyweight division.

Baker died on April 23, 2002, in the city of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.

## Professional career 
Baker started his professional career with twenty-six straight victories before drawing against Kid Riviera and losing the next fight to another leading boxer, Clarence Henry.

From April 1955 until February 1956, Baker and Archie Moore were both ranked as the leading challengers to Rocky Marciano's heavyweight title. On Wednesday, December 7th, 1955, Baker beat Nino Valdez.

After 13 wins, Baker lost to Tommy Hurricane Jackson on February 3, 1956, in New York's Madison Square Garden. It was a split-decision win for Jackson. Baker lost another split decision rematch with Jackson on September 26, 1956. Opinions on both Baker-Jackson fights were divided in many publications with most of them giving the fight to Baker. The September match was given to Baker by The United Press. It scored the fight 7-5 for Baker. A poll of 13 ringside writers favored Baker 9-4 and it reported that many fans were very surprised with the split decision.

After 1956, Baker's success was limited. His most notable victory was a sound defeat of Canadian George Chuvalo, the future Canadian heavyweight champion, by unanimous decision on September 9, 1957.

## Other websites
* Baker's Boxing Record 
* Ring Magazine's 1950s heavyweight ratings
Catherine Emmerich

Sister **Anne Catherine Emmerich** (September 8, 1774 - February 9, 1824) was a German Augustinian nun. She is remembered for her mystical visions of Jesus' and Mary's lives. What she saw was written in books, for example, *The Dolorous Passion of Our Lord, Jesus Christ*. The book later had an important part as a main source of information for Mel Gibson's movie *The Passion of the Christ*.

## Stigmata 
She was stuck in bed when marks of stigmata showed up she had doctors and physicians examine her markings, and it was found to be a genuine stigmatic case.

## Other websites 
Sister Emmerich and Gibson
New Year

]]
The **New Year** is an event that happens when a culture celebrates the end of one year and the beginning of the next year. Cultures that measure yearly calendars all have New Year celebrations. On January 1, 1600 Scotland was the first country to adopt January 1 as the first day of the New Year. Now, many countries celebrate the New Year on the 31st of December and the 1st of January. Celebrations often include parties and fireworks.

## Related pages
* New Year's Eve
* New Year's Day
Pascal Duquenne

**Pascal Duquenne** is a Belgian actor. He was born in Vilvoorde, Flanders, Belgium on 8 August 1970. He was diagnosed with Down syndrome.

It was Jaco van Dormael who noticed him (as Ducquenne was playing theatre). Dormael offered him his first roles in movies.

In 1996 Pascal Duquenne and Daniel Auteuil were awarded a prize (for best male interpretation) at the Cannes Film Festival. Duquenne received the prize for the role of a boy who has Down syndrome. The movie was called *Le Huitième Jour* (*The Eighth Day*).

He also has acted in other movies. Currently he lives in Brussels.

## Films he acted in
* *Toto le hèros* (Toto the Hero), by Jaco van Dormael (1991)
* *Le Huitième Jour* (The Eight Day), also by van Dormael (1995)
* *Lumière et compagnie* (Light & Co.); a documentary made by about 40 authors (1996)
* *The Room*, by Giles Daoust (2006)
* *Un Noël pas comme les autres * (A Christmas not like the others), by Nancy Franck (1997, Television)
* An episode of the Series *Commissaire Moulin* (2004, Television)

## References
Polyethylene

**Polyethylene** (also called **polyethene**, usually shortened to **PE**) is a thermoplastic. It is used in consumer goods, typical examples are transport wraps, and garbage bags. Other uses include pre-fabricated plastic parts, plastic tubes, and insulation of electric cables. 

Polyethylene plastic wrap is usually less adhesive than Polyvinyl chloride, but this can be helped by adding linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE), which also increases the film's tensile strength. The world makes over 80 million tonnes of polyethylene per year.

## Products 
* Amphibian Fencing
* Bespoke Polythene Bags Made To Order
* Clinical Waste Bags
* Coloured Polythene Bags
* Food Waste Polythene Bags
* Low Melt EVA Bags
* Printed Polythene Bags
* Scented Polythene Bags, Sacks & Sheeting

## References 
## References
Clarence Henry

**Clarence Henry** (March 27, 1926 – February 28, 1999) was an American heavyweight boxer. Contender for Rocky Marciano's title. 

He was a leading boxer in the heavyweight division in the early to mid-1950s. Henry was 1948 *Los Angeles Times* Golden Gloves Heavyweight Champion. 

He was elected into the World Boxing Hall of Fame in 1998.

## Other websites
*Boxing record
Polyvinyl chloride

character for this symbol is U+2675]]

**Polyvinyl chloride**, also called **Polychloroethene** or **PVC**, is a thermoplastic. It turns soft when heated and hard when cooled. Polyvinyl chloride is made by polymerization of the monomer vinyl chloride (chloroethene) CH2=CHCl. PVC can be made softer and more flexible by adding plasticizers. Phthalates are often used to soften PVC in this way.

Vinyl polymers are the most common type of plastic. "Vinyl" is actually Ethylene, a gas that is used to make those plastics including PVC. In popular usage, "vinyl" is often short for PVC, but there are two other vinyl polymers which are more common. The most common is polyethylene, the second-most common is polypropylene. Another, less used, is polystyrene.

## Uses 
 pipes due to its low cost, chemical resistance and ease of jointing]]
Softened PVC is used in clothing, upholstery, electrical cable insulation, and other products instead of rubber. In the 1950s PVC became the usual material of phonograph records. Some audiophiles use the word "vinyl" to mean records made of PVC.

About half of the polyvinyl chloride resin manufactured each year is used to make pipes. PVC pipes are 66% of the newer water pipes in the US.  PVC pipes are 75% of new sewer pipes. PVC is useful because of its light weight, high strength, and low reactivity. Also, PVC pipes can be glued together, or they can be connected by heating (similar to joining HDPE pipe). Both kinds of connections make permanent joints that do not leak.

PVC plastics can be recycled.  Their recycling code is "3".

## References
Supreme Leader of Iran

The **supreme leader of Iran**, also called the **supreme leadership authority**, is the head of state and the highest political and religious authority of Iran above the president. The armed forces, judiciary, state radio and television, and other key government organizations such as the Guardian Council and Expediency Discernment Council are subject to the supreme leader. as supreme leader, Khamenei has issued decrees and made the final decisions on the economy, the environment, foreign policy, education, national planning, and other aspects of governance in Iran.

The office was established by the Constitution of Iran in 1979 by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini's concept of the Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist, and is a lifetime appointment. 

In its history, the Islamic Republic of Iran had only three supreme leaders: Khomeini, who held the position from 1979 until his death in 1989; Ali Khamenei, who has held the position for more than 30 years until his assassination in 2026; and Khamenei's son Mojtaba Khamenei, who has held the position since 2026.

## List of supreme leaders
### Timeline
## Notes
## References
## Related pages 
* President of Iran
President of Iran

The **President of Iran** is the head of government of the Islamic Republic of Iran. The president is chosen by direct popular vote, that is the voters choose the president, they do not vote for other people to choose as in the USA. Unlike other countries, in Iran, the President is not the leader of the country. The President does many of the things that are normally done by a head of state but the Supreme Leader is the person who is actually in control of the country. 

The current President of Iran is Masoud Pezeshkian since 28 July 2024.

## List
## References
## Other websites
* The President's Office
* Iran Electoral Archive - President
Ruhollah Khomeini

**Ruhollah Musavi Khomeini** (Arabic, ; 24 September 1902 – 3 June 1989) was an Iranian politician, revolutionary and religious leader who was the 1st Supreme Leader of Iran. He was also the Leader of the Islamic Revolution from January 1978 until his victory in the revolution in February 1979 and the Iran–Iraq War from 1980 to 1988.

Khomeini died of intestinal cancer and a heart attack in Tehran on 3 June 1989, at the age of 86. He was succeeded by Ali Khamenei on July 17, 1989

## Political life 
On 5 June 1964, Khomeini was arrested and sent into exile. He was exiled to Iraq, Turkey and then to France. Khomeini gave many speeches in France against Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, the last Shah of Iran. Many of his idea's were still reaching the people of Iran via cassette tapes. These tapes became very popular. On 16 January 1979, the Shah left Iran, living in the United States and Egypt, where he died. Two weeks later, on 1 February 1979, Khomeini returned to Iran.

He received a traditional religious education in Qom (city in Iran). When he lived in Najaf (a holy city in Iraq) for some years, he spoke about Islam ideas about Government. During that time, he refined his theory of *velayat-e faqih* ("government of the jurist"), which was highly controversial amongst other religious scholars.

On 11 February 1979, as soon as Khomeini overthrew the Shah, he appointed his first own Prime Minister, Mehdi Bazargan. On 30 March 1979, a referendum was held and as a result, the Monarchy was replaced with an Islamic Republic. After the Islamic Revolution, Khomeini became the first ever Supreme Leader of Iran.

### Rushdie fatwa 
In early 1989 Khomeini issued a fatwā calling for Muslims to kill Salman Rushdie and "all those involved in the publication" of his book called *The Satanic Verses*. This controversy centred on the novel's suggestion of the Quran containing verses about deception from the devil during the life of Muhammad. As part of the fatwa, Rushdie was stabbed on 12 August 2022, resulting in him losing vision in one eye. The Japanese translator of Rushdie's book, Hitoshi Igarashi, was stabbed to death due to the fatwa, his body being found at the University of Tsukuba.

### Velayet-e Faqih 
The concept of Velayet-e Faqih literally translates to ‘’The jurist’s trusteeship’’ which was doctrine that ultimately resulted in the clerics having more power in different domains in the country. It granted the clerics the right rule in absence of the Twelve Imams, which meant that the Islamic law in Iran could not only be interpreted by them but also be updated by them. 

## Gallery 

File:خمینی با وضو.JPG|Khomeini before prayer
File:کودک و خمینی.JPG|A boy who liked Khomeini
File:Yasser Arafat meeting with Ruhollah Khomeini - 1979.jpg|Khomeini with Yasser Arafat

## References 
## Notes 
## Other websites 
* Imam Khomeini
Theocracy

In **Theocracy**, a form of government, the institutions and people that govern the state are very close to the leaders of the main religion or are religious leaders themselves. If the religious leaders do not directly run some bodies of the state, they influence them very much. The word theocracy comes from two Greek words literally meaning God-government, and meaning the government is run by "The Church".

## Modern-day states that are theocracies 
### Andorra 
The Roman Catholic Bishop of Urgell as the Co-Prince, is one of the two heads of states of Andorra (the other Co-Prince as head of state is the President of France). His role is mostly ceremonial, and while Roman Catholicism is the official religion of the country, it is not a theocracy.

### Iran 
Iran is a theocratic Islamic republic. In Iran, two bodies, the Supreme Leader and Guardian Council consist of members who are not elected by the people. These two bodies are staffed by Shia clerics. The highest elected official is the President of Iran.

Mohammad Khatami, the former president, said that this model is an alternative to democracy, as it brings in religious elements. He called it a religious democracy.

### Vatican City 
The Vatican City is a true theocracy, with no separation of church and state. The head of the Catholic Church is the leader of the country.  The pope is elected by the Papal Conclave.   Most popes have stayed for the rest of their lives, but some have resigned.  One who resigned was Pope Benedict XVI.

## State religion 
Many states have a state religion (also called official religion). Israel, for example mixes some aspects of Halakha and civil law, even though Judaism is not a state or official religion of the country. Also, the state hires rabbis. In some such states, religious leaders also have civil duties, not only religious ones.

## Some historic theocratic states 
Some (now extinguished) states throughout history had characteristics of a Theocracy, as for example: 

* In Ancient Egypt the Pharaoh was a god.
* In the Empire of Japan (1868 - 1947), Shinto, the indigenous religion of Japan, was the official state religion (State Shinto), besides, the Emperor of Japan was worshipped, and viewed as, a living deity. 
* Bhutan was formerly governed as a Buddhist theocracy. 
* Though the Byzantine Empire was not *de facto* a theocracy, it was caesaropapist. In matters where the interests of the Greek Orthodox Church had a considerable interest, its concerns would have been taken into account and influenced the ruler's decision.
* The Holy Roman Empire had many Prince-Bishops.

## References
Incumbent

An **incumbent** is the current holder of a  political office or position.  This word is usually used when talking about elections, which are often between the incumbent and one other person or several other people.  For example, Donald Trump is the incumbent President of the United States since he is still president. It can also be used in sports to let people know if a sportsman still holds the position or award in question.

## Related pages 
*Inauguration
Assembly of Experts

The **Assembly of Experts** was created after the Islamic Revolution in Iran.  It is an assembly of Islamic clerics who have the power to choose the successor of the Supreme Leader of Iran.

## Other websites 
* Assembly of Experts - Official website 
* Assembly of Experts in the Constitution of Islamic Republic of Iran 
* Understanding Iran's Assembly of Experts 
*Results of Assembly of Experts elections in 6 provinces 
*Results of Assembly of Experts elections in four provinces 
*Results of Assembly of Experts elections in some provinces
Ali Meshkini

**Ayatollah Ali Meshkini** (1922-30 July 2007) was the chairman of the Assembly of Experts of the Islamic Republic of Iran from 1984 to 2007.

## Other websites
*Ayatollah Meshkini In A Friday Sermon in Qom: An Islamic Rule Under Ayatollah Sistani Is Required in Iraq , video clip, 2004
Judiciary

The **judiciary** or **judicial system** is the system of courts that administers (or makes decisions about) justice. This kind of system, does its work in the name of the state (or country) or the sovereign. A judicial system is used to resolve disputes.

The term is also used to refer collectively to the judges and magistrates who form the basis of the judiciary, as well as the other people who help keep the system running properly.

## Separation of powers 
Separation of powers causes separate branches of government that each has a different purpose. The judiciary is the branch of government that interprets the law. Such systems may have three branches: Legislature, Executive and Judiciary. Often the judiciary branch has courts of first resort, appellate courts, and a supreme court or constitutional court. Decisions of the lower courts may be appealed to the higher courts.

## Judiciary in the USA 
In the United States the federal Judicial Branch is an integrated system of courts headed by the Supreme Court of the United States. Each state also has a judicial system.
Mahmoud Hashemi Shahroudi

**Ayatollah Seyyed Mahmoud Hashemi Shahroudi** (15 August 1948 – 24 December 2018) was an Iranian politician. He was the Chief Justice of Iran from 1999 to 2009. He was born in Najaf, Iraq.

Ayatollah Shahroudi was best known for ordering a moratorium on stoning as a form of the death penalty. However, later it was shown that executions by stoning are still being carried out, in spite of his claims that they have stopped. Stoning is still happening inside prisons, where the public cannot see it.

From August 2017 to December 2018, Shahroudi was Chairman of Expediency Discernment Council.

He died on 24 December 2018 from cancer in Tehran at the age of 70.

## References
## Other websites
* Text: Human Rights Watch Protests Media Crackdown, Detentions in Iran  (April 2000)
* Iran veil crackdown criticised APRIL 24, 2007
Expediency Discernment Council

The **Expediency Discernment Council** is a governmental body for resolving disputes between the Guardian Council and the legislature in the Islamic Republic of Iran.

## Other websites 
* Official Website 
* GlobalSecurity.org on the Expediency Discernment Council
Ahmad Jannati

**Ayatollah Ahmad Jannati** (born 23 February 1927) is an Iranian politician and cleric. He has been the secretary of the Guardian Council of the Islamic Republic of Iran since 1988. He is the oldest Iranian official currently in power and one of the oldest living clerics.

## Other websites 
*Ayatollah Ahmad Jannati to U.S.: Invade Iran, If You Dare

## References
Father Damien

**Father Damien**, also **Saint Damien of Molokai**, born as **Joseph de Veuster** in Belgium on January 3, 1840 and died on April 15, 1889, was a Roman Catholic Priest and missionary. He was known for helping people with leprosy in the colony of Kalaupapa on the island of Molokai in Hawaii. Father Damien came to Hawaii in 1864. During this time, many Native Hawaiians were dying from many of the diseases they caught from the white settlers. The King of Hawaii, made the people who had leprosy live in a colony away from other people. Father Damien went to help the sick people and gave them hope. Father Damien also died from leprosy, but what he did helped many people. 

In 1995, he was beatified (made an important person) by the Pope, and he is recognized by both the Catholic and Anglican churches. Father Damien was canonized by Pope Benedict XVI on Sunday October 11, 2009.  

His is Patron Saint of the Diocese of Honolulu, as well as all of 🌋, of  people with leprosy, and of outcasts, as well as people suffering from HIV and AIDS as well.

## References
Mata Hari

and convicted spy, made her name synonymous with femme fatale during World War I.]]

**Mata Hari** was the stage name of Margaretha Geertruida (Grietje) Zelle (7 August 1876, Leeuwarden, The Netherlands – 15 October 1917, Vincennes, France). 

She was  a Dutch-Frisian exotic dancer and spy. She was executed by a firing squad of the French Army. French authorities thought she was a spy during World War I. Because she had relationships with both German and French officers, they thought she was a double agent (working for both sides). Her dossier (file) was released in 2017, a hundred years after her death.

## Guilty 
German documents unsealed in the 1970s proved that Mata Hari was truly a German agent. In the autumn of 1915, she entered German service. 

On the orders of section III B-Chief Walter Nicolai, she was instructed about her duties by Major Roepell during a stay in Cologne. Her direct handler was Captain Hoffmann, who gave her the code name H-21.

## References
Jess Willard

**Jess Willard** (December 29, 1881–December 15, 1968) was an American boxer. He was the heavyweight best puncher in the world from 1915 to 1919. When Jack Johnson was the Black world champion, Willard was one of the many "White Hopes" who wanted to take the title. He succeeded when he beat Johnson by a 26th round out-cold punch in Cuba in 1915. He fought to keep the title and won once before losing it to Jack Dempsey in 1919.

## References
## Other websites
* Boxing record
* Biography of Jess Willard
Jack Dempsey

**William Harrison "Jack" Dempsey** (June 24, 1895 – May 31, 1983) was an American boxer who held the world heavyweight title between 1919 and 1926  Known as "The Manassa Mauler", Dempsey was a tremendous puncher famous for his exciting fights, many of which set financial and attendance records.

He won the title by beating Jess Willard on July 4, 1919. He defended the title six times before losing it to Gene Tunney in 1926. They had a rematch in 1927 and Tunney again beat Dempsey. It was during this fight where the "Long Count" took place. Dempsey knocked Tunney down in the seventh round. The referee would not start counting until Dempsey went to a neutral corner, so it is estimated that Tunney had as many as fourteen seconds to rise (instead of the usual ten).

Dempsey retired in 1928. He fought exhibitions after his retirement, served as a commander in the Coast Guard during World War II, and opened a restaurant in New York City.

Dempsey died in 1983.

## Other websites
* Boxing record
Board

**Board** could mean: 
*Board (wood), a piece of lumber, or other rigid material made of wood, milled or sawn flat
*Surfboard
*Skateboard
*Snowboard (often made of fibreglass)
*Board of directors or a similar governing or advisory committee
*Sound Board, an audio mixing console
*Bulletin board system or Internet forum
*Board (bridge), a device used in playing duplicate bridge
*Board or level, a distinct area in or stage of a video game 
*Chalkboard, Blackboard or whiteboard, a reusable writing surface
*Board, use accommodation in a house or hotel; to stay at school during term time, and sleep in a dormitory
William Tell

in Switzerland.]]
**William Tell** was a folk hero from Switzerland. In the story, William Tell is a man who refused to bow down to pole that was set up by an army who had taken over the place where he lived. He was arrested and forced to shoot an apple off his son's head with a crossbow. If he did not, both he and his son would be killed. So he shot the apple off the son's head and did not harm his son. He is considered a legend and his actions helped form Switzerland as a nation.

## Adaptions 
* *Wilhelm Tell* (*William Tell*), a play by Friedrich Schiller
* *Guillaume Tell* (*William Tell*), an opera by Gioachino Rossini, based on Schiller's play
Pitman arm

The **Pitman arm** is a part used in automobiles, trucks, SUVs and other vehicles to steer the wheels. When the steering wheel is turned right or left the pitman transmits the motion it receives from the steering gearbox to the tie rod. A "drop pitman arm" is used to correct the steering when a vehicle has a suspension lift.

## References
Chemically inert

In chemistry, the term **inert** is used to describe something that is not chemically active.  The noble gases were described as being inert because they did not react with the other elements or themselves. 

Inert gases are completely inert to basic chemical reactions (such as combustion, for example) because their outer valence shell is completely filled with electrons. With a filled outer valence shell, an inert atom is not able to acquire or lose an electron, and is therefore not able to participate in most chemical reactions. For inert atoms or molecules, a lot of energy is involved before it can combine with other elements to form compounds. A high temperature and pressure is necessary, and sometimes requires the presence of a catalyst.

For example, elemental nitrogen is inert under standard room conditions and exists as a diatomic molecule, N2. The inertness of nitrogen is due to the presence of the very strong triple covalent bond in the N2 molecule.

Inert atmospheres of gases such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen and argon are routinely used in working with processes that will go wrong if air or water is present. For example, some welding must be done in argon so the material will not burn.
Wheelchair

A **wheelchair** is a type of chair usually used by disabled people.

A wheelchair is moved either manually (by pushing the wheels with the hands, or pushed from behind with handles by somebody who is not sitting in the wheelchair) or by automated systems such as electric motors which can be controlled by the wheelchair user (the person sitting in the chair) or by somebody walking behind or beside the wheelchair if the wheelchair user needs help to move their wheelchair. 

Wheelchairs are used by people for whom walking is difficult or impossible due to illness, injury, or disability. Wheelchairs can have extra cushions and other parts added to improve support if the wheelchair user cannot keep their body in a good sitting position, or to make the wheelchair more comfortable to sit in. The earliest record of the wheelchair in England dates from the 1670s [Oxford English Dictionary, (2nd Ed.), 1989, Vol. XX., p. 203.], and in continental Europe this technology dates back to the German Renaissance.

In 1655, Stephan Farffler, a 22-year-old paraplegic watchmaker, built the world's first self-propelling chair on a three-wheel chassis using a system of cranks and cogwheels. However, the device resembled a hand bike more than a wheelchair since the design included hand cranks mounted at the front wheel.

## References 
## Other websites
* Rehabilitation Engineering Research Center on Wheeled Mobility 
* Dept of Transportation   Information for air travelers with disabilities and their rights in the US
* Etiquette: Wheelchair users  Suggestions for better communication with people who use wheelchairs
Fuel oil

taking on bunker fuel.]]**Fuel oil** is a fraction obtained from petroleum distillation, either as a distillate or a residue at the oil refinery.

Broadly speaking, fuel oil is any liquid petroleum product that is burned in a furnace or boiler for the generation of heat or used in an engine for the generation of power, except oils having a flash point of approximately +40 °C and oils burned in cotton or wool-wick burners. In this sense, diesel is a type of fuel oil. Fuel oil is made of long hydrocarbon chains, particularly alkanes, cycloalkanes and aromatics. The term *fuel oil* is also used in a stricter sense to refer only to the heaviest commercial fuel that can be obtained from crude oil, heavier than gasoline and naphtha.

## Six classes
Fuel oil in the United States is classified into six classes, according to its boiling temperature, composition and purpose. The boiling point, ranging from 175 to 600 °C, and carbon chain length, 20 to 70  atoms, of the fuel increases with number. Viscosity also increases with fuel oil number and the heaviest oil has to be heated to get it to flow. Price usually decreases as the fuel number increases. 

**No. 1 fuel oil**, **No. 2 fuel oil** (heating oil), and **No. 3 fuel oil** are referred to as **distillate fuel oils**, **diesel fuel oils**, **light fuel oils**, **gasoil** or just **distillate**. For example, No. 2 fuel oil, No. 2 distillate and No. 2 diesel fuel oil are almost the same thing. Diesel is different in that it also has a cetane number limit which describes the ignition quality of the fuel. Distillate fuel oils are distilled from crude oil.

## Related pages
*Diesel
*Gasoline
*Kerosene
*Naphtha

## Sources
*Bunkerworld - media site for the marine fuels industry
*National Park Service - Fuel Oil 
*How Stuff Works - Oil Refining
*The True Cost of #6 Oil
*Burning #6 Fuel Oil 
*Identity and Analysis of Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons
*Poten & Partners: Advisors to the Fuel Oil Industry
*Classification of Fuel Oils
*Marine Fuel Oil (ISO 8217)
List of large wind farms

This is a **list of large wind farms**, with a generating capacity of 100 megawatts (MW) or more, which are currently operating, under construction, or proposed. Wind power capacity has expanded quickly to 336 GW in June 2014, and wind energy production was about 4% of total worldwide electricity usage, and growing fast. 

Wind power is widely used in Europe, and more recently in the United States and Asia. Wind power accounts for approximately 19% of electricity generation in Denmark, 11% in Spain and Portugal, and 9% in the Republic of Ireland.

## Operational wind farms
Many of the largest onshore wind farms are in the USA. As of January 2014, the Alta Wind Energy Center is the largest onshore wind farm in the world at 1,020 MW.

, with a turbine under construction]]

Many of the largest offshore wind farms are in Europe. As of January 2014, the London Array is the largest offshore wind farm in the world at 630 MW.

## Related pages
* List of renewable energy topics
* Wind power in Denmark
* Wind power in Germany
* Wind power in South Australia
* Wind power in Texas
* Wind power in the United States
* Clyde Wind Farm
* Markbygden Wind Farm
* Gwynt y Môr Wind Farm

## Notes
Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center

**Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center** is a large wind farm with 735.5 megawatt (MW) capacity.  It consists of 291 GE 1.5 MW wind turbines and 130 Siemens 2.3 MW wind turbines spread over nearly 47,000 acres (190 km²) of land in Taylor and Nolan County, Texas. 

The first phase of the Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center consisted of 213 MW and was completed in late 2005; phase two consisted of 223.5 MW and was completed in the second quarter of 2006; phase three which consisted of 299 MW, was completed by the end of 2006.

## Related pages
*Wind power
*List of large wind farms

## References
## Other websites
*Jury Sides With Horse Hollow Wind Farm
List of solar thermal power stations

near Seville in Spain]]

This is a **list of solar thermal power stations**. These include the 354&nbsp;megawatt (MW) Solar Energy Generating Systems power plant in the US, Solnova solar power station (Spain, 150&nbsp;MW), Andasol solar power station (Spain, 100&nbsp;MW), Nevada Solar One (USA, 64&nbsp;MW), PS20 solar power tower (Spain, 20&nbsp;MW), and the PS10 solar power tower (Spain, 11&nbsp;MW). Many other plants are under construction or planned, mainly in Spain and the USA. In developing countries, three World Bank projects for integrated solar thermal/combined-cycle gas-turbine power plants in Egypt, Mexico, and Morocco have been approved.

## Operational
 III-VII plants located at Kramer Junction]]
,  PS20.]]

## Related pages
* List of renewable energy topics
* List of large wind farms
* Solar power in Spain

## References
Electron shell

: it has one electron shell and one electron.]]

An **electron shell**, or main energy level, is the part of an atom where electrons are found orbiting the atom's nucleus.

In chemistry and atomic physics, an electron shell may be thought of as an orbit followed by electrons around an atom's nucleus. All atoms have one or more electron shell(s), all of which have varying numbers of electrons.  

Each electron shell has one or more electron sub-shells, or sub-levels. Electron shells make up the electron configuration of an atom. The number of electrons that can be in a certain shell is equal to 2n^2, where n is the number of a shell.

The name for electron shells came from the Bohr model, which states that electrons orbit the nucleus at certain distances so that their orbits form "shells". This term was presented by Niels Henrik David Bohr.

## Valence shell
The valence shell is the outermost shell of an atom in its neutral state. The valence shell contains the electrons most likely to be involved in reactions. 

In a noble gas, an atom tends to have eight electrons in its outer shell (except helium, which is only able to fill its shell with two electrons). Noble gases serve as the model for the octet rule, which states that atoms tend to form bonds or create ions so that they can have eight electrons in their outermost shell. This is mostly applicable to the main-group elements of the second and third periods.

For coordination complexes containing transition metals, the valence shell consists of 18 electrons. This is referred to as the *eighteen electron rule*.

## Sub-shells 
Electron sub-shells are identified by the letters s, p, d, f, g, h, i, etc., corresponding to the azimuth quantum numbers: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, etc. Each shell is able to hold 2, 6, 10, 14, and 18 electrons respectively.

## References 
* Tipler, Paul & Ralph Llewellyn (2003).  *Modern Physics* (4th ed.).  New York: W. H. Freeman and Company.
African slave trade

The **African slave trade** was a trade in slaves and, like most of the world, has carried on for thousands of years in Africa. The first three main routes were passed through the Sahara, the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean, which became part of the Arab slave trades. During and after the Age of Exploration, African slaves became part of the Atlantic slave trade, from which comes the modern, Western and American type of slavery. Despite being against the law, slavery continues in all parts of the world, including Africa. In Mauritania, people could not be punished for having slaves until August 2007.

## References
Pocking Solar Park in Germany

The **Pocking Solar Park** is a 10-megawatt (MWp) solar photovoltaic plant which is among the largest in the world. Construction of the power plant started in August 2005 and was completed in March 2006. On the former military training area in the Lower-Bavarian town of Pocking, sheep are now grazing under and around the 57,912 photovoltaic modules.

## Related pages
* Photovoltaics
* Renewable energy
* Solar cell
* Solar power station in Victoria
* Waldpolenz Solar Park in Germany

## References