open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Plague of Athens

The **Plague of Athens** was an epidemic which hit the city-state of Athens in ancient Greece during the second year of the Peloponnesian War (430 BC), when an Athenian victory still seemed possible.  Many historians believe that it entered Athens through Piraeus, the city's port and sole source of food and supplies. The city-state of Sparta, and much of the eastern Mediterranean, was also struck by the disease.  The plague returned twice more, in 429 BC and in the winter of 427/6 BC.

## References
* Gomme, A. W., edited by A. Andrewes and K. J. Dover.  *An Historical Commentary on Thucydides, Volume 5. Book VIII*  Oxford University Press, 1981.  .
* McNeill, William H. *Plagues and People*. New York: Anchor Books, 1976. .
* Papagrigorakis, Manolis J., Christos Yapijakis, Philippos N. Synodinos, and Effie Baziotopoulou-Valavani.  "DNA examination of ancient dental pulp incriminates typhoid fever as a probable cause of the Plague of Athens," *International Journal of Infectious Diseases* 10 (2006): 206–214.  ISSN 1201-9712.
* Pomeroy, Sarah B., *Spartan Women* Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. .
* Zinsser, Hans. *Rats, Lice and History:  A Chronicle of Pestilence and Plagues*.  Originally published in Boston in 1935, later edition in 1963.  Most recent edition 1996, Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers, New York.  .

## Other websites 
*Access to International Journal of Infectious Disease/Article
*History of the Peloponnesian War ii, 47–55 .
* Live Science article Accessed January 23, 2006.
*Women in Classical Athens
430 BC

## Events 
* Plague of Athens an epidemic which hit the city-state of Athens in ancient Greece during the second year of the Peloponnesian War.
* Euripides wrote the play Alcestis 

## Deaths 
* Zeno of Elea died about 430 BC
General Hospital

{{Infobox television
| first_aired          = 
| last_aired           = present
| network              = ABC
| camera               = Multiple-camera setup
| runtime              = 30 minutes (1963-1976)45 minutes (1976-1978)60 minutes (1978-present)
| starring             = Present castPast cast
| theme_music_composer = Jack UrbontPaul GlassSteve Hopkins
| country              = United States
| writer               = Dan O'ConnorChris Van Etten
| genre                = Soap opera
| creator              = Frank & Doris Hursley
| num_seasons          = 62
| num_episodes         = 15,600(as of August 19, 2024)
| executive_producer   = Frank Valentini (2012-present}(and others)
| location             = The Prospect StudiosLos Angeles, California
| company              = Selmur Productions(1963-1968)ABC Signature (1968-present)
| language             = English
}}
***General Hospital*** (commonly abbreviated ***GH***) is the longest-running ABC Daytime American soap opera broadcast on the American Broadcasting Company television network. It is also the longest-running serial produced in Hollywood (having been taped at the Prospect Avenue ABC Television Center West and Sunset-Gower Studios).

Set in the fictional city of Port Charles, New York, *General Hospital* debuted on April 1, 1963, the same day that rival network NBC launched its own medical daytime drama, *The Doctors*. The show originally aired for a half-hour until the network expanded it to the unusual length of 45 minutes in 1976, and then to a full hour in 1978. The serial was created by soap writers Frank and Doris Hursley, a husband-and-wife team.

*General Hospital* is credited for starting several trends in the soap opera genre in the 1980s, most notably that of the fast-paced action-adventure plotlines that were remarkably different from the more traditional domestic and social issues that had been the sole focus of most soap operas during the previous decades. In 2003, when *GH* was celebrating its 40th anniversary, *TV Guide* named it "The Greatest Soap Opera Of All Time." In addition, *GH* was also named as one of *TIME* Magazine's "Top 100 Television Shows of All Time."

## Cast
### Current cast members 
### Recurring cast
## Upcoming cast changes
### Debuting and returning
## References
429 BC

Last updated February 2

## Events
## Deaths
*Pericles or Perikles (ca. 495–429 BC), an important statesman of Athens. He also was an orator and a general.
Princess Nikki

***Princess Nikki*** is a British reality television show that stars former Big Brother 7 UK house mate Nikki Grahame. It ran on Wednesday nights between 10:00 - 10:30pm on the digital and satellite television channel E4 from 6 September 2006, for a total runtime of 30 minutes. The show was devised by Endemol, the company that also devised Big Brother. It was narrated by the presenter and comedian, Alex Zane.

The format saw Grahame attempt several jobs on each show, which included various unpleasant tasks such as rubbish collecting, deep sea fishing, and waste management. The show's premise was to see whether or not she would perform the tasks given to her and keep her job for a day, or whether she would quit or be sacked due to her infamous tantrums. The concept of the show was taken from one of the tasks Nikki undertook while in the *Big Brother* house. During the task, she was assigned as Big Brother's personal assistant and had to carry out various duties, which often resulted in Nikki throwing a tantrum and refusing to comply.

The theme music for the programme has been adapted from the 1982 hit single "Hey Mickey!" by Toni Basil, with the lyrics "Hey Nikki!" used as a replacement.

Contrary to rumors, no second season is planned. Creative director Philip Edgar-Jones confirmed the series is finished in an interview with Brother's Bar.
Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg

**Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg** () was a country in what is today Thuringia, Germany.

It was formed in 1672 when Frederick Wilhelm III, the last duke of Saxe-Altenburg died and Ernest I, Duke of Saxe-Gotha (who had married Frederick Wilhelm's cousin, Elisabeth Sophie) inherited his possessions.

The duchy was split up again after Ernest’s death in 1675, and the Duchy of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg officially came into existence in 1680 when his eldest son, Frederick, took control of the parts of the country Gotha and Altenburg.

When the royal house of *Saxe-Gotha and Altenburg* became extinct in 1825, Saxe-Gotha was given to Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld and Saxe-Altenburg passed to the Duke of Saxe-Hildburghausen. After the abolition of German monarchies at the end of the First World War, both Saxe-Gotha and Saxe-Altenburg became part of the newly created state of Thuringia in 1920.

## Dukes of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg 
* Ernest I *the Pious* (1640-1675), inherited Saxe-Altenburg in 1675
* Frederick I (1675-1691), *son of Ernest the Pious and the first to be called *Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg*.*
* Frederick II (1691-1732), *son*
* Frederick III (1732-1772), *son*
* Ernest II (1772-1804), *son*
* Emil (1804-1822), *son*
* Frederick IV (1822-1825), *brother*
Divided between Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld and Saxe-Hildburghausen
Thucydides

, Toronto.]]

**Thucydides** (; ; born around 460 BC, died around 400 BC) was an ancient Greek historian best remembered for his work on the Peloponnesian War. He was the son of Olorus.

## References 
## Further reading 
* Herodotus, *Histories*, A. D. Godley (translator), Cambridge: Harvard University Press (1920).  &nbsp;.
* Pausanias, *Description of Greece*, Books I-II, (Loeb Classical Library) translated by W. H. S. Jones; Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. (1918). .&nbsp;.
* Plutarch, *Lives*, Bernadotte Perrin (translator), Cambridge, MA. Harvard University Press. London. William Heinemann Ltd. (1914).  &nbsp;.
* Thucydides, *The Peloponnesian War*. London, J. M. Dent; New York, E. P. Dutton (1910).&nbsp;.

## Other websites 
* 
* Short Bibliography on Thucydides  Lowell Edmunds, Rutgers University
* Perseus Project Thucydides, Table of Contents
* Thomas Hobbes' Translation of Thucydides
Girls Aloud

**Girls Aloud** was a British girl group created by an ITV television show named *Popstars: The Rivals* in 2002. The group's members were Cheryl Cole (née Tweedy), Nadine Coyle, Sarah Harding, Nicola Roberts and Kimberley Walsh.  They have also been nominated for five BRIT Awards, winning Best Single in 2009 for The Promise.  In March 2013, the group announced that they were splitting up.

## Albums 
* *Sound of the Underground* (2003)
* *What Will the Neighbours Say?* (2004)
* *Chemistry* (2005)
* *Tangled Up* (2007)
* *Out of Control* (2008)

## Compilations 
* *The Sound of Girls Aloud* (2006)
* *Ten* (2012)

## Singles 
* Sound of the Underground (2002)
* No Good Advice (2003)
* Life Got Cold (2003)
* Jump (2003)
* The Show (2004)
* Love Machine (2004)
* I'll Stand by You (2004)
* Wake Me Up (2005)
* Long Hot Summer (2005)
* Biology (2005)
* See The Day (2005)
* Whole Lotta History (2006)
* Something Kinda Ooooh (2006)
* I Think We're Alone Now (2006)
* Sexy! No No No... (2007)
* Call The Shots (2007)
* Can't Speak French (2008)
* The Promise (2008)
* The Loving Kind (2009)
* Untouchable (2009)
* Something New (2012)
* Beautiful 'Cause You Love Me (2012)

## References
## Other websites
*Official website
Augustine

**Augustine**, **Augustin**, or **Augustini** can mean:
* Augustine of Hippo (354-430), the Church Father and patron of the Augustinians
* Augustine of Canterbury (d. 604), the first Archbishop of Canterbury
* Mar Augustine Kandathil (1874-1956): First Indian Archbishop and First Metropolitan of the Catholic St. Thomas Christians. 
* Norman Ralph Augustine (born 27 July 1935), American aviation engineer/businessman
*Augustine Huy Viet Phan, Augustine Moi Van Nguyen, and Augustine Schoffler, three of the Vietnamese Martyrs

**Augustin** may also be:
* Augustin, a commune in Braşov County, Romania

## Related pages
* St. Augustine
* Augustinians
* Augustine Volcano
* Augustine Inmerlo
Rhône

of the Rhône flowing into the Mediterranean]]

The **Rhône** is a river in France and Switzerland. It is 812 kilometers long. The river starts in Rhône Glacier, which is in Switzerland. Then, the **Rhône** River joints the Saône, in France (and other rivers) and ends in the Mediterranean Sea.

The River Rhône empties into the Mediterranean. Only the Nile brings more water into the Mediterranean. The river drains an area of 95.5500 m2. The usual amount of water is about 1.700 m3 per second (at Tarrascon). During floods, this value has reached over 12.000 m3 per second.

This river splits into two smaller rivers before it flows into the Mediterranean Sea.  The space between those rivers is named the Camargue, and many types of animals live there.

File:Leman img 0573.jpg|The Rhône flowing into Lake Geneva
File:Starry Night Over the Rhone.jpg|*Starry night over the Rhône* by Vincent van Gogh

## References
Saxe-Hildburghausen

**Saxe-Hildburghausen** was one of the Ernestine duchies of the House of Wettin.

## History 
Although it was very small, Saxe-Hildburghausen was an independent duchy from 1680 to 1826. In 1684 the duchy changed its capital from Heldburg to Hildburghausen, and changed its name to Saxe-Hildburghausen.

In 1810, a Princess Therese of Saxe-Hildburghausen married Crown Prince Ludwig of Bavaria, who became king of Bavaria 15 years later. The marriage is the reason for the Oktoberfest, held annually in Munich.

In 1826, the Ernestine duchies were reorganised after the last ruler of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg died without an heir. The duke of Saxe-Hildburghausen gave up his duchy in return for becoming Duke of Saxe-Altenburg. Hildburghausen was given to Saxe-Meiningen. Hildburghausen was not one of the duchies in the Imperial circle, Altenburg was, so by swapping his land the duke gained in social rank, even though the Holy Roman Empire no longer existed

In 1868, four districts were established in the duchy of Saxe-Meiningen. Hildburghausen was one of these districts, with boundaries very similar to those of the former duchy. It remained almost unchanged until 1993, when the former district of Suhl was dissolved and most of its municipalities joined the district.

### Dukes of Saxe-Hildburghausen 
* Ernst II (1675 – 1715)
* Ernst Frederick I (1715 – 24)
* Ernst Frederick II (1724 – 45)
* Ernst Frederick III (1745 – 80)
* Frederick (1780 – 1825)
Incorporated into Saxe-Meiningen
Anti-fascism

**Anti-fascism** is the opposition to fascist ideologies, organizations, governments and people. Anti-fascism started in Europe in the 1920s. At the same time, fascist political parties were getting popular in Europe. Anti-fascism was most popular during and after World War II, when fascist governments were very powerful in Europe. Many different kinds of political parties have believed in anti-fascism. Some of these parties have been Marxist, nationalist, anarchist, socialist, pacifist, social democratic, conservative, and liberal. 

## Related pages 
*Antifa (United States)
Angelic Upstarts

The **Angelic Upstarts** are an anti-fascist Oi! punk rock band who started in South Shields, North-East England in 1977.

## Other websites 
* Official website
Historical method

The **historical method** are the techniques and guidelines by which historians use primary sources and other evidence to research and then to write history.

## Guidelines 
Following Garraghan (in: *A Guide to Historical Method*, 168) puts six questions that should be answered as minimal standard for a sound historical method:

# *When* was the source, written or unwritten, produced (date)?
# *Where* was it produced (localization)?
# *By whom* was it produced (authorship)?
# *From what pre-existing material* was it produced (analysis)?
#*In what original form* was it produced (integrity)?
# *What is the evidential value* of its contents (credibility)?

## References 
*Gilbert J. Garraghan, *A Guide to Historical Method*, Fordham University Press: New York (1946).   .
*Louis Gottschalk, *Understanding History: A Primer of Historical Method*, Alfred A. Knopf: New York (1950). .
*Martha Howell and Walter Prevenier, *From Reliable Sources: An Introduction to Historical Methods*, Cornell University Press: Ithaca (2001). .
*C. Behan McCullagh, *Justifying Historical Descriptions*, Cambridge University Press: New York (1984). .
*R. J. Shafer, *A Guide to Historical Method*, The Dorsey Press: Illinois (1974). .

## Related pages
*Historiography
*Historical linguistics
*Scientific method

## Other websites 
*Historical Sources Online by Marc Comtois
*Philosophy of History  by Paul Newall
*The Historian's Sources, online lesson by the Library of Congress
*Federal Rules of Evidence in United States law
Piraeus

.]]
**Piraeus** is a port and municipality in Athens, Attica, Greece, in the south of the center of Athens.

The population of Piraeus is 163,688 (2011).

## Population 
## Sister cities 
* Marseille, France 
* Worcester, Massachusetts, USA 
* Ostrava, Czech republic 
* Baltimore, Maryland, USA 
* Galaţi, Romania  since 1985
* Varna, Bulgaria 
* Vilnius, Lithuania 

## Famous residents 
* Polychronis Lembesis (1848-1913) painter
* Ioannis Koutsis (18601953) painter
* Gerasimos Vokos (1868-1927) journalist and writer
* Alexandros Christofis (1875-1957) painter
* Stylianos Miliadis (1881-1965) writer
* Yiorgos Batis (1885-1967) rebetiko musician
* Dimitris Pikionis (1887-1968) architect
* Michalis Oikonomou (1888-1933) painter
* Katina Paxinou (1900–1973) actress
* Markos Vamvakaris (1905-1972) musician and composer
* Emmanuel Kriaras (1906) philologist and lexicographer
* Yannis Tsarouchis (1910-1989) painter
* Dimitrios Gavriilidis (1914) artist
* Michalis Genitsaris (1917-2005) singer and composer
* Andreas Krystallis (1919-1951) painter
* Ektor Kaknavatos (1920) poet
* Nicola Zaccaria (1923-2007) opera singer
* Thanasis Veggos (1926) actor and film director
* Andreas Mouratis (1926) footballer
* John S. Romanides (1927-2001) priest and theologian
* Archbishop Anastasios of Albania (1929)
* Dimitris Papamichael (1931-2004)
* Costas Simitis (1936) economist and politician, Prime Minister of Greece
* Jannis Kounellis (1936) sculptor
* Tolis Voskopoulos (1940) singer and actor
* Thodoris Dritsas (1947) politician
* George Dalaras (1949) singer
* Yiannis Kyrastas (1952-2004) footballer and football manager
* Eleftheria Arvanitaki (1956) singer
* Mando (1966) singer
* Grigoris Georgatos (1973) footballer 
* Spyros Paliouras (1957-1975) writer
* Nikolaos Pavlopoulos (1909-1990) sculptor and writer
* The Andrianopoulos brothers, founders of the Olympiacos sporting club

## Mayors of Piraeus 
* Christos Agrapidis (1999-2006)
* Panagiotis Fasoulas (2007- )

## Universities and technological institutes 
* University of Piraeus

## References 
* 

## Other websites 
* Municipality of Pireas 
* Piraeus Port Authority
* The Marble Lion of Piraeus
Durham, England

**Durham** is a city in the North East of England. It is within the County Durham local government district, and is the county town of the larger ceremonial county. It lies to the south of Newcastle upon Tyne, Chester-le-Street and Sunderland and to the north of Darlington.

Durham is well known for its Norman Cathedral and 11th-century  castle, and is home to Durham University. HM Prison Durham is also close to the city centre. Durham Castle and Cathedral is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

## History
### Early history
Archeological evidence shows settlement in the area since 2000 BC. the saint's relics remain enshrined to the present day. Saint Bede's bones are also entombed in the cathedral, drawing the mediaeval pilgrim to the city. The city has played an important part in the defence of the north and Durham Castle is the only Norman castle keep never to have suffered a breach. The Battle of Neville's Cross which took place near the city on 17 October 1346 between the English and Scots was the most famous battle of its age.

Basically, William the Conqueror delegated many powers to bishops in the furthest reaches of England. They were his men, and most had fought at the Battle of Hastings. This style of delegation ran for many centuries afterwards. This applied especially in the north and west of England, which were several days ride from London.

So far reaching were the bishop’s powers that the steward of Bishop Anthony Bek commented in 1299 AD: 
:“There are two kings in England, namely the Lord King of England, wearing a crown in sign of his regality and the Lord Bishop of Durham wearing a mitre in place of a crown, in sign of his regality in the diocese of Durham”.
All this activity was administered from the castle and buildings surrounding the Palace Green. The county also had its own attorney general, The courts and judicial posts for the county were finally abolished in 1873.

## Composition of the Council 
The Council is made up of 50 councillors elected every four years (last elections 2007). In 2007, the council was made of Liberal Democrat (30), Labour (17), and Independent (3) members.

Liberal Democrats first took control of the council in the 2003 elections. Labour had held overall control of the City Council continually since the early 1980s.

## Other websites 
* Local Government Committee for England Final Recommendations on electoral arrangements in Durham City
* Local History Publications from County Durham Books 

## References
Secondary source

A **secondary source** is a document or recording that writes or speaks about information that is one step removed from the original source. 

The secondary source depends on the  *primary source* or *original source* of the information. Secondary sources interpret,  or discuss information found in primary sources. In historiography, a secondary source is a study written by a scholar about a topic. Secondary sources frequently cite primary sources and other secondary sources. They rarely cite tertiary sources. They also explain legal concepts.

## Related pages
*Source text
*Primary source
*Tertiary source

## References
## Further reading
*Primary and secondary sources
Breinigerberg

**Breinigerberg** is a small village in the West of Germany, the state of North Rhine-Westphalia About 972 people live at the place. It is close to the *Naturpark Nordeifel*, a large forest area in Germany, Belgium and the Netherlands.

The road L12 passes through Breinigerberg splitting it into two parts. 

In the last two centuries, Breinigerberg was famous for mining. Even the ancient Romans dug for ore in the area. It was used for the production of brass in the city of Stolberg. Today there is no more mining but the remains are still present. Big holes in the Schlangenberg area prove what had been left from the past. Today the Schlangenberg is a natural reserve protecting rare flowers and insects.

## Other websites 
* Webside of Breinig and Breinigerberg
Primary source

A **primary source** is an original document or other material that has not been changed in any way. It is a reliable first-hand account usually written at or near the time the event(s) occurred. Usually it was produced by someone with direct personal knowledge of the events that are described. It is used as an original source of information about the topic. Primary sources are distinguished from secondary sources. Secondary sources are documents based on primary sources. Thus, a memoir of a participant in an event is a primary source, whilst a history of that event based on several memoirs is a secondary source. Different kinds of work have slightly different definitions of a primary source. In journalism, for example, a primary source can also be a person.

## Related pages 
*Historical source
*Historiography
*Secondary source
*Tertiary source

## References 
## Bibliography 
* Jules R. Benjamin. ''A Student's Guide to History* (2003)
* Kathleen W. Craver. *Using Internet Primary Sources to Teach Critical Thinking Skills in History* (1999)
*  Thomas Cripps, "Historical Truth: An Interview with Ken Burns", *American Historical Review* 100 (1995), 741–64. online at JSTOR
*  Michael Drake and Ruth Finnegan (Eds), *Sources and Methods for Family and Community Historians: A Handbook,* (Cambridge University Press in conjunction with the Open University, 1997)
* Wood Gray, *Historian's handbook, a key to the study and writing of history* (Houghton Mifflin, 1964).
* Martha C. Howell and Walter Prevenier. *From Reliable Sources: An Introduction to Historical Methods* (2001)
* Library of Congress, " Analysis of Primary Sources" online 2007
* Richard A. Marius and Melvin E. Page. *A Short Guide to Writing About History* (5th Edition) (2004)
* Barbara W. Sommer and Mary Kay Quinlan, *The Oral History Manual* (2002)

## Other websites
:**- to primary sources repositories**
*A listing of over 5000 websites  describing holdings of manuscripts, archives, rare books, historical photographs, and other primary sources
* Find primary sources  in the collections of major research libraries using ArchiveGrid

:**- to all sources repositories**
***Wikisource** – *The Free Library'' – is the Wikimedia project that collects, edits, and catalogs all source texts.

:**- to essays and descriptions of primary, secondary and other sources**
*Ithaca College Library  - Primary and secondary sources
*"How to distinguish between primary and secondary sources"  from the University of California, Santa Cruz Library
*"Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary sources"  from James Cook University Library
* Joan of Arc: Primary Sources Series—Example of a publication focusing on primary source documents.
* Finding primary sources  from the University of California, Berkeley library
* "Primary versus secondary sources"  from the Bowling Green State University library
* Finding primary sources in world history
Object

**Object** could mean:

* A thing, being or concept
** A physical entity, something that is tangible and within the grasp of the senses
* Object, a sentence element, such as a direct object or an indirect object
* An aim or target
** The intended result of an action
* A collection of masses
* An entity treated by mathematical category theory
* 3D model, a representation of a physical object
* A classification used by the U.S. National Register of Historic Places.
* As a verb (pronounced: *ob-JECT*): to oppose an idea or action.

**Computing**
* Object (computer science), a language mechanism for binding data with methods that operate on that data
** Object-oriented programming (OOP), an object is an instance of a class
* Object file, the output of a compiler or other translator program, also known as "object code"
* Object (Information Processing), an information source for an information [rocessor
* HTML object tag

**Popular culture**
* *Object*, a song by *The Cure* from their 1979 album *Three Imaginary Boys*
* *Objects*, from the 2006 television series *The Lost Room*
Index

An **index** is a system used to make finding information easier.

**Index** could also mean:

* Index (publishing), a detailed list, usually arranged alphabetically, of the specific information in a publication
* Index cards in a rolodex or old card catalog, early and mid 20th century technologies for maintaining such lists
* Index (mathematics), for various meanings of the word in mathematics
* Index (economics), a single number calculated from an array of prices and quantities.
* Index, Washington, a town in Snohomish County, Washington, United States.
* Index (typography), a largely obsolete punctuation mark 

In **publications**:
* *Index Librorum Prohibitorum*, a list of publications which the Catholic Church censored
* Germany's List of Media Harmful to Young People, colloquially known as *The Index*, published by the Bundesprüfstelle für jugendgefährdende Medien
* *Index Magazine*, was a prominent New York City based publication for art and culture.
* *Truman State University Index*, the weekly newspaper distributed at Truman State University and throughout the Kirksville, Missouri community.
* *The Index*, the student newspaper of Kalamazoo College, published since 1877.
* The Index (journal), a European propaganda journal created by Henry Hotze to support the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War.

In **computers and information retrieval**:
* Index (database), a feature in a computerized database which allows quick access to the rows in a table
* Index (information technology), in computer science, either an integer which identifies an array element, or a data structure which enables fast lookup
* Index (search engine), for supporting information retrieval in search engines
* Webserver directory index, a default or index web page in a directory on a web server, such as index.html
* Subject indexing, describing the content of a document by keywords

**Other**:
* The Index, an item on the Halo (megastructure) in the Halo series of video games.
* The Index (skyscraper), a tower under construction in Dubai.
* Index (retailer), a defunct UK catalogue retailer formerly owned by the Littlewoods group and known as *Littlewoods Index*
* Index finger, The second digit of a human hand is also referred to as the *index finger*, *pointer finger*, *forefinger*, *digitus secundus*, or *digitus II*.
* Index fund, a collective investment scheme
* Indexicality, in linguistics, the variation of meaning of an utterance according to certain features of the context in which it is uttered
Pedro Santana, Dominican Republic

**Pedro Santana** is a municipality in the Dominican Republic, in the Elías Piña Province, on the border with Haiti, along the left side of the Artibonite river.

## Origin of the name
The town, and municipality, was named after *Pedro Santana*, a general of the Independence wars and first president of the Dominican Republic. He was born in Hincha, now a Haitian city ("Hinche") near the border.

## Population
The municipality had, in 2010, a total population of 3,917: 2,120 men and 1,797 women. The urban population was  of the total population.

## Geography
Pedro Santana has an area of  and is at  to the north of Bánica and at  to the north of Comendador.

The limits of the municipality are the Dajabón province to the northwest, the Santiago Rodríguez province to the northeast, the San Juan province to the east, the municipality of Bánica to the south and Haiti to the west.

## Administrative division
The municipality of Pedro Santana has only one municipal district; this is:

## Economy
The main economic activity of the municipality is farming.

## References
Recording

**Recording** means to capture data to store it on a storage medium or record as a video format.

Historical records of events have been made for thousands of years. Amongst the earliest are cave painting, runic alphabets and ideograms. Technology continues to provide and expand means for human beings to record their thoughts, feelings and experiences.

## References 
## Related pages 
* Writing
* Sound recording
* Record
* RecordingWiki offers you more information about recording.
Microform

**Microform** is a name given to special photographic films. Microforms contain reduced images of documents. Usually, documents stored on microform are reduced about 25 times. Microform is mainly used for archival purposes.

There are three common formats:
***Microfilm**, which comes in reels of film.
***Aperture card**, This contains additional digital data (as a punch card).
***Microfiche**, a flat sheet with many pages.

Properly stored (room temperature, 50% humidity), microform should be able to last up to 500 years. 
## Images 

Image:Positive roll film.jpg|A roll of (positive) microfilm
Image:Aperture card.JPG|An aperture card
Image:Microfiche card.JPG|A microfiche (flat sheet)
Visual system

The **visual system** is the part of the nervous system which allows organisms to see.
It interprets the information from visible light to build a representation of the world surrounding the body. The visual system has the complex task of (re)constructing a three dimensional world from a two dimensional projection of that world. The psychological manifestation of visual information is known as visual perception.

## Introduction
This article mostly describes the visual system of mammals, although other "higher" animals have similar visual systems. In this case, the visual system consists of:

* The eye, especially the retina
* The optic nerve
* The optic chiasma
* The optic tract
* The lateral geniculate nucleus
* The optic tectum (superior colliculus)
* The optic radiation
* The visual cortex
* The visual association cortex

Different species are able to see different parts of the light spectrum; for example, bees can see into the ultraviolet, while pit vipers can accurately target prey with their infrared imaging sensors.

## References

*David H. Hubel 1989. *Eye, Brain and Vision*. New York: Scientific American Library.
*David Marr 1982. *Vision: A Computational Investigation into the Human Representation and Processing of Visual Information*. San Francisco: Freeman.
*R.W. Rodiek 1988. The Primate Retina. In *Comparative Primate Biology*. vol **4** of *Neurosciences*. eds H.D. Steklis and J. Erwin. pp.&nbsp;203–278. New York: A.R. Liss.
*Matthew Schmolesky, The Primary Visual Cortex 
*Martin J. Tovée 1996. *An introduction to the visual system*. Cambridge University Press. 
*Andreas Vesalius 1543. *De Humani Corporis Fabrica* (On the Workings of the Human Body)
*Torsten Wiesel and David H. Hubel 1963. The effects of visual deprivation on the morphology and physiology of cell's lateral geniculate body. *Journal of Neurophysiology* **26**, 978-993.

## Other websites
*"Webvision: The Organization of the Retina and Visual System" - John Moran Eye Center at University of Utah
*VisionScience.com - An online resource for researchers in vision science.
*Journal of Vision - An online, open access journal of vision science.
Duchy of Saxe-Gotha

**Saxe-Gotha** () was a state in today's Thuringia, Germany.

It was created in 1640 for Duke Ernest I and ended in 1680 when his lands were divided after his death in 1675. The area around Gotha passed to Ernest's eldest surviving son, Frederick of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg, who also inherited Altenburg (which Ernest had inherited through his wife Elisabeth Sophie) and became Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg.

## Dukes of Saxe-Gotha 
* Ernest I *the Pious* (1640 – 75, also Duke of Saxe-Altenburg from 1672)
* *Divided into Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg, Saxe-Coburg, Saxe-Meiningen, Saxe-Römhild, Saxe-Eisenberg, Saxe-Hildburghausen and Saxe-Saalfeld in 1680*

When the house of Saxe-Gotha and Altenburg became extinct in 1825, Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg was split. Saxe-Gotha passed to the Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld who in turn gave Saalfeld to Saxe-Meiningen. The Duke of Saxe-Hildburghausen became Duke of Saxe-Altenburg, and gave Saxe-Hildburghausen to Saxe-Meiningen.

After the abolition of German monarchies at the end of the First World War it became a part of the newly created state of Thuringia in 1920.

## References 
* Saxe-Gotha , *Columbia Encyclopedia*, Sixth Edition, Columbia University Press (2001 – 05), accessed January 27 2007
Analog signal

An **analog** or **analogue** signal is any continuous signal. 

The difference from a digital signal is that also very small fluctuations in the signal are meaningful. When one speaks of analog one often means an electrical context, however mechanical, pneumatic, hydraulic, and other systems may also convey analog signals.

An analog signal uses some property of the medium to convey the signal's information. 
Any information may be conveyed by an analog signal, often such a signal is a measured change in physical phenomena, such as sound, light, temperature, position, or pressure.

For example, in sound recording, changes in air pressure (that is to say, sound) strike the diaphragm of a microphone which causes related changes in a voltage or the current in an electric circuit.  The voltage or the current is said to be an "analog" of the sound.

See digital for a discussion of *digital vs. analog*.
Comendador, Dominican Republic

The Dominican city of **Comendador** is the head municipality of the Elías Piña province, on the border with Haiti.

## Population
The municipality had, in 2010, a total population of 19,344: 9,675 men and 9,669 women. The urban population was  of the total population. and named after Nicolás de Ovando, the "Comendador of Lares" (*Comendador* was the chief of a military or religious order). It was founded where there was a military post close to the border with Haiti. The Taíno name of the region was *Duan*.

There was several fights between Haitian and Dominican soldiers during the Dominican-Haitian War after 1844. The most important fight was the *La Estrelleta Battle* in a savanna near Comendador.

The old military post was made a *Cantón* (now called Municipal District) of the Azua province in 1907. The next year, in 1908, it was elevated to the category of municipality of the same province.

Its name was changed to Villa Elías Piña on 29 November 1930. In 1972, its name was changed back to Comendador..

## Geography
Comendador is at  to the west of Santo Domingo and    of San Juan de la Maguana. The limits of the municipality are the municipality of Bánica to the north, the San Juan province to the east, the municipality of El Llano to the south and Haiti to the west.

The average daily temperature in the city is  and the average rainfall for the year is .

## Administrative division
The municipality of Comendador has two municipal districts; these are:

## Economy
The main economic activity of the municipality is agriculture. Commerce with Haiti is also an important economic activity in the city.

## References
Emily Greene Balch

**Emily Greene Balch** (1867–1961) was an economist and pacifist, who shared the Nobel Peace Prize in 1946 with John Raleigh Mott (1865–1955). Both laureates were American.

She was born in Massachusetts, U.S., and after graduated from Bryn Mawr College in 1889, she began teaching at Wellesley College in 1896.
Curie

The **Curies** were a family of distinguished scientists:

* Marie Curie (1867-1934), a Polish-French chemist, physicist, and two time Nobel Prize winner
* Pierre Curie (1859-1906), Marie's husband, French physicist and Nobel Prize winner
* Irène Joliot-Curie (1897-1956), Marie and Pierre's daughter, French physicist and Nobel Prize winner
* Frédéric Joliot-Curie (1900-1958), Irène's husband, French physicist and Nobel Prize winner
* Ève Curie (1904-2007), Marie and Pierre's second daughter, French-American writer and journalist

Things and ideas named after the Curies:

* Curie (unit) (Ci), a unit of radioactivity
* Curie point
* Curie's law
* Curium (Cm), a chemical element
* Curie (lunar crater)
* Curie Institute (Paris)
* Curie Institute (Warsaw)
* Curie (Q 87), a French submarine in the First World War
* French submarine Curie (P67), a French submarine in the Second World War

CURIE:

* CURIE, a syntax for Compact URIs.
Antoni Lange

**Antoni Lange** (1861 or 1863 – March 17, 1929), was a Polish poet, translator and mystic philosopher of the Symbolism and Parnassianism movements. He was regarded as a "great master of reflective poetry". He spoke 15 languages. His pen-names were **Antoni Wrzesień** and **Napierski**. Although Lange was not a particularly famed author, many people call him "a magican of lyrical form" because of his unquestionable mastery in using rare poetic forms and innovations which makes him a pioneer of modern *collage* and even imagism movement.

As a religious thinker Lange was one of the first to make people interested in Indian philosophy and literature in Poland. He never married and had no children.

## Works 
Eternal solitaries - human souls,
Solitaries blown astray;
Each wanders through the Milky Way,
Each in her finite circle rolls.

Like wandering planets they gaze
At one another in the sky's blue halls;
Each in her finite circle rolls,
But never from her orbit sways.

## Bibliography 
### Poems 
* *Sonety wedyckie* (1887)
* *Pogrzeb Shelleya* (1890)
* *Wenus żebracza* (1890)
* *Ballady pijackie* (1895)
* *Księgi proroków* (1895)
* *Logos* (1895)
* *Poezje* (I – 1895; II – 1898)
* *Pogrobowcom* (1901)
* *Świat* (1901)
* *Fragmenta. Poezje wybrane* (1901)
* *Pocałunki* (1902)
* *Deuteronomion* (1902)
* *Akteon* (1903)
* *Księgi bogów* (1903)
* *Rozmyślania* (1906)
* *Pierwszy dzień stworzenia* (1907)
* *XXVII sonetów* (1914)
* *Ilia Muromiec* (1916)
* *Trzeci dzień* (1925)
* *Groteski. Wiersze ironiczne* (1927)
* *Rozmyślania. Z nowej serii* (1928)
* *Gdziekolwiek jesteś* (1931)
* *Ostatni zbiór poezji* (1931)

### Novels and short stories 
* *Godzina* (1894)
* *Elfryda: nowele i fantazje*(1895)
* *Zbrodnia* (1907)
* *Dwie bajki* (1910)
* *Czterdzieści cztery* (1910)
* *Stypa* (1911)
* *W czwartym wymiarze* (1912)
* *Miranda* (1924)
* *Nowy Tarzan* (1925)
* *Róża polna* (1926)
* *Michałki* (1926)

### Plays 
* *Atylla* (1898)
* *Wenedzi* (1909)
* *Malczewski* (1931)

### Essays 
* *O sprzeczności sprawy żydowskiej* (1890)
* *Analfabetyzm i walka z ciemnotą w Królestwie Polskim* (1892)
* *O poezji współczesnej* (1895)
* *Studia z literatury francuskiej* (1897)
* *Studia i wrażenia* (1900)
* *Lord Byron* (1905)
* *Rzuty* (1905)
* *Panteon literatury wszechświatowej* (1921)
* *Pochodnie w mroku* (1927)

## References
Curie (unit)

The **curie** (symbol **Ci**) is a unit of measurement. It measures  radioactivity. It is defined as

: 1&nbsp;Ci = 3.7×1010 decays per second.

This is roughly the activity of 1 gram of the radium isotope 226Ra. Radium was studied by the pioneers of radiology, Marie and Pierre Curie so the unit is named after them. The curie has since been replaced by an SI derived unit, the becquerel (Bq), which is decay per second. Therefore:

: 1&nbsp;Ci = 3.7×1010 Bq or 37 Gigabecquerel (Gbq)

and

: 1&nbsp;Bq = 2.70×10−11&nbsp;Ci

In 1962, the International Commission on Radiological Units suggested the usage of this unit named after Marie Curie.
Fjord

, Møre og Romsdal, Norway]]

A **fjord** or **fiord** is a type of gulf. Fjords are narrow with steep sides and are created by large glaciers (masses of snow) moving over land. They can be found in Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Canada, Germany, and New Zealand. In German, they are called *Fjorde*.

## Cities 
Most cities near fiords are sea ports. Some cities near fjords are listed below:

* Lübeck, Germany
* Kiel, Germany
* Flensburg, Germany
* Schleswig, Germany
* Orebro, Denmark
* Vaile, Denmark
* Horsens, Denmark
* Kungsbacka, Sweden
* Nykarleby, Finland
* Tornio, Finland
* Sangi, Sweden
* Tore, Sweden
* Hudiksval, Sweden
* Hopedale, Canada
Raccoon

The **raccoon** (*Procyon lotor*, **common raccoon**,) is a mammal. Raccoons are curious, clever, and solitary. They are originally from North America. They have spread through Central America, and live in various habitats. They have escaped in some parts of Eurasia (see map), and now live there as well. Raccoons are in the family Caniformia, and are related to the mustelids.

The raccoon has short legs, a pointed nose, small ears, grayish-brown fur, and a bushy tail.

The raccoon's most distinctive features are its multi-purpose front paws, its facial 'mask', and its striped tail. Moreover, raccoons are noted for their intelligence. Studies show they are able to remember the solution to tasks for up to three years. Raccoons are usually nocturnal. Their food is about 40% invertebrates, 33% plant foods, and 27% vertebrates. Raccoons are omnivores.  They feed on mice, squirrels, rabbits, birds, fish, frogs, turtles, lizards, snakes, eggs, insects, worms, fruit, and nuts. Their predators are red foxes, wolves, coyotes, bears, eagles, hawks, owls, cougars, and lynxes.

Most raccoons live in the wild. Being around humans does not bother them. They often nest in empty buildings, garages, sheds, and even the attics of houses. Raccoons do not hibernate in the winter. Those that live further north where it is colder, grow thick coats to keep them warm and spend long periods sleeping. Raccoons that live in captivity can survive up to 20 years. In the wild, they usually live only 1–3 years.

Two other species of raccoon, the crab-eating raccoon (*P. cancrivorus*) and the Cozumel Island raccoon (*P. pygmaeus*), are extremely similar to the common raccoon. The crab-eating raccoon is quite widespread in eastern South America.

After a gestation period (pregnancy) of about 65 days, two to five young are born in spring. Newborn raccoons are called "kits".

*A raccoon climbed a building in Minnesota.

## Footnotes 
## Other websites
Sandy Robson

**Sandy Wayne Robson** (born November 6, 1973 in Peterborough, Ontario) is a Canadian actor. He is probably best known for hosting the game show *Trash to Treasure* and his role as "Dude" in The N's television series *About a Girl*.

## Biography
A Toronto native, Robson's breakthrough role was in *Crazy Canucks*, the story of the 1974 World Cup ski champions. (His background as a giant slalom down hill skier was useful for the film.) More recently, he has acted in *Cow Belles* and *The Cheetah Girls*, and the television series *Kevin Hill*, *Sue Thomas: F.B.Eye*, and *Instant Star*. Sandy has starred in many theatrical productions, including the one man show *Full Committed*, in which he played 40 characters.

## Television
* *About a Girl* (2007) - Dude.
* *Trash to Treasure* (2003) - Host.

### Guest appearances
* *Twice in a Lifetime* (1999) - Handler #1.
* *In a Heartbeat* (2000) - Guttman.
* *Sue Thomas: F.B.Eye* (2004) - Justin.
* *Kevin Hill* (2005) - Major Paul Cahan.
* *Instant Star* (2006) - Ken.
* *Psych* (2008) - Logan.

## Filmography
* *The Impossible Elephant* (2001) - Lenny.
* *Twas the Night* (2001) - Harry.
* *Out of the Ashes* (2003) - Leiku's husband.
* *The Cheetah Girls* (2003) - Firefighter.
* *Crazy Canucks* (2004) - Jungle Jim Hunter.
* *The Winning Season* (2004) - Dots Miller.
* *Cow Belles* (2006) - Thomas.

## Other websites
* 
*
Space station

A **space station** is an artificial satellite in space that people can live at. All past and current space stations have been in low Earth orbit. Space stations can dock with other spacecraft. This allows transferring cargo and people. At present the International Space Station is the only space station in orbit. The first space station was Salyut 1. Prior stations were the seven *Salyut* stations, *Skylab*, *Mir* and the two *Tiangong* stations. The Chinese Space Station is planned for the future.

Space stations are used to learn about how being in space for a long time affects the human body. They also are a place for science experiments and research. Space stations have been designed for more than one crew. Each crew member may stay aboard the station for weeks or months, and then is replaced by others. Some have spent more than one year at a time on a space station. This includes Vladimir Titov, Musa Manarov, Sergei Avdeyev and Valeriy Polyakov aboard *Mir*.

## List of successful stations 
The below list is of stations that made it to orbit and had at least one crew visit them. There have also been a few stations that have failed or were for testing. Those are not included on this list.

## Research and development of parts for space stations
 (2021)]]
In 2024, international media showed a film clip of a NASA test of putting too much pressure inside a LIFE (Large Integrated Flexible Environment) habitat, a room designed for a future space station.

### Notes 
## References
Ashley Massaro

**Ashley Marie Massaro**

Massaro was found dead at her home on May 16, 2019 in Long Island, New York at the age of 39. The cause of death was suicide by hanging.

## References 
## Other websites 
*
*
Digital signal

**Digital signal** can mean two different things: 
# *discrete-time signals* that are digitized.
# the waveform signals in a digital system.

## Discrete-time signals 
**Digital signals** are digital representations of *discrete-time signals*, which are often produced by changing an analog signal.

An analog signal is a datum that changes over time (for instance the temperature at a given place; the depth of a certain point in a pond; or the amplitude of the voltage at some node in a circuit). A discrete-time signal is a sampled version of an analog signal: the value of the datum is noted at fixed intervals (for example, every microsecond) rather than continuously.

In short, a digital signal is a quantized discrete-time signal; a discrete-time signal is a sampled analog signal.

In the digital revolution the usage of digital signals has increased significantly.
Many modern media devices, especially the ones that connect with computers use digital signals to represent signals that were traditionally represented as analog signals; cell phones, music and video players, personal video recorders, and digital cameras are examples.

In most applications, digital signals are represented as binary numbers, so their precision of quantization is measured in bits.

## Waveforms in digital systems
In computer architecture and other digital systems, a waveform that switches between two voltage levels representing the two states of a Boolean value (0 and 1) is referred to as a **digital signal.**

The clock signal is a special digital signal that is used to synchronize digital circuits.
The image shown can be considered the waveform of a clock signal.
Logic changes are triggered either by the rising edge or the falling edge.
Laura Prepon

**Laura Prepon** (born March 7, 1980) is an American actress. She is best known for her roles as Donna Pinciotti on the Fox television series ''That '70s Show* and as Hannah Daniels on the ABC television series *October Road*. She plays Alex in *Orange Is the New Black*.

## Personal life 
Prepon and Ben Foster were married in 2018. The couple have two children, a daughter born in August 2017 and a son born February 2020. The couple got separated in November 2024, finalized their divorce.

## Other websites 
* Biography  from the *That '70s Show'' website
*