open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
1810s

The **1810s** was the decade that began on January 1, 1810 and ended on December 31, 1819. It is distinct from the decade known as the  which began on January 1, 1811 and ended on December 31, 1820.

## Events 
* The War of 1812 between Great Britain and the United States.
* Napoleon defeated at Waterloo in Belgium. (1815)
* Denmark lets Norway go; Norway declares independence.
* Congress of Vienna changes Europe.
* Volcano Mount Tambora explodes in the Dutch East Indies (1815)
* Year without a Summer (1816)

## Births 
* James Strang, Mormon. (1813)
* John A. Macdonald, first prime minister of Canada (1815)
* Elizabeth Cady Stanton, American women's rights activist (1815)
* Mary Todd Lincoln, First Lady of the United States
* Frederick Douglass, writer. (1818)

## World leaders 
* Emperor Francis II (Austria)
* Chancellor Klemens Wenzel von Metternich (Austria)
* King Frederick William III of Prussia (Prussia)
* Jiaqing Emperor (China)
* Emperor Napoleon I (First French Empire)
* King Louis XVIII (Restoration France)
* Pope Pius VII
* Emperor Alexander I (Russia)
* King Ferdinand VII (Spain)
* King George III (United Kingdom).
* President James Madison (United States)
* President James Monroe (United States)
* Fath Ali Shah of Qajar dynasty (Persia)

## Deaths 
* Paul Revere, silversmith. (1818)
* Jemima Wilkinson, preacher. (1819)
Capitol building

State Capitol]]

A **capitol building** (or just **capitol**) is a building in a capital city.  People who control government work there to make laws.  The building may have many offices.  

Some offices are for legislators, the people who make the laws.  

Some offices are for people who enforce laws, for example a president or governor.  These people lead all people, and help them obey the laws.

Sometimes, there are offices for judges, people who help all people understand the laws. These judges are very powerful.  A group of these judges can be called a **supreme court** or **superior court**.

Buildings similar to capitols are in other places.  A smaller government like one in a county can be in a court house.  A city government can be in a city hall.
Dissolve

The word **dissolve** can mean:

* In chemistry, it is the act of **solvation**, when a solid is mixed into a liquid, creating a  solution. Mixing salt into water is an example.  Upon evaporation, the dissolved parts usually come out of solution and reform the solid.
* In film and video editing, it is one way of changing the view. For example, a scene fades (changes slowly) from a bright day to all black.
* In politics or law dissolution means that something is brought to an end, either permanently or so that a new election can happen.
Super Bowl

The **Super Bowl** is a special American football game played every year to decide the winner of that National Football League (NFL) season. The best team from the National Football Conference plays the best team from the American Football Conference to win the Vince Lombardi Trophy, which was named after the first coach to win a Super Bowl. For most American football fans, it is a very special event.

Some people who do not like American football still watch it for the television advertisements and the half-time show. The TV advertisements during Super Bowl are the most expensive in the world in per second value. Because of the high cost of advertising, companies usually produce unique advertisements. As a result, watching advertisements has been a well publicized event in itself.

The Pittsburgh Steelers and New England Patriots are the teams with the most Super Bowl Wins with six victories each. The San Francisco 49ers and Dallas Cowboys currently are tied for the second-most Super Bowl wins with five. The Cleveland Browns, Detroit Lions, Houston Texans, and the Jacksonville Jaguars have never played in a Super Bowl. The New York Jets have not played in the Super Bowl since the American Football League (AFL) and the NFL joined together in 1970.

## Champions 
### AFL-NFL World Championships
### NFL Championships
Notes

## References 
## Other websites 
* Official website of the Super Bowl
* America's Game  - America's Game: The Super Bowl Champions, an NFL Films documentary of all Super Bowl winning teams
*
San Jose, California

**San Jose** (officially *San José*) is a city in Santa Clara County, California in the United States. 

It is the third biggest city in California, after Los Angeles and San Diego. It is the 13th most populous city in the United States. It is south of San Francisco. The city has 1,000,000 people. It has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate (*Csb* in the Koeppen climate classification).

By the 1990s, San Jose and the rest of Silicon Valley had become the global center for high tech and internet industries, making it California's fastest-growing economy. It has very high home prices and is one of the most expensive places to live in the United States.

San Jose is home to San José State University as well as the hockey team San Jose Sharks.

## Demographics
### 2020 census
In the 2020 census, there were 1,013,240 people, 328,622 households, and 239,392 families living in San Jose. The population density was 5,684.1 people per square mile (2,194.6/km²). There were 342,037 housing units. The breakdown by race was 38.5% Asian, 27.3% White, 2.9% Black, 1.4% Native American, 0.4% Pacific Islander, 18.2% from one other race, and 11.2% from two or more races. Hispanics and Latinos made up 31.2% of the people.

The median (middle) age was 37.6 years. The age breakdown was 21.1% under age 18, 65.6% from 18 to 65, and 13.3% over 65. The gender breakdown was 50.3% male and 49.7% female.

Of the households, 36.2% had children under age 18, 53.4% had a married couple, 6.2% had an unmarried couple, 22.8% had a woman with no partner, 17.6% had a man with no partner, and 19.0% had one person living alone. The average household size was 3.04 people.

## References
## Other websites
* City of San Jose Web site
Venus, Texas

**Venus**, Texas is a town in the United States. Around 4,361 people lived there (about 2,624 males and 1,737 females) in 2020.
## References
Toller Cranston

**Toller Cranston** (April 20, 1949 &ndash; January 24, 2015) was a Canadian figure skater.

## Early life and career 
Cranston was born in Hamilton, Ontario. He grew up in Kirkland Lake, Ontario.  He was Canadian champion six times, and, despite never coming higher than third at a world championship, he came first in the free skate four times. He was well-respected for his artistic ability, and is recognized as someone who brought a new level of artistry to men's figure skating.

## Professional career 
He skated as a professional for many years, choreographed (designed movement patterns for) skating routines, and was a commentator (talked about events) on T.V. during skating events. Many people don't realize that Toller was also an extremely successful and talented fine art painter. He funded his career off the sale of his artworks, and continued to paint ferociously until the end of his days.    

## Retirement and death 
After his retirement, Cranston lived in San Miguel de Allende, Mexico. He was found dead at his home in San Miguel de Allende on the morning of January 24, 2015. He was 65 years old. His cause of death was later said to be a heart attack.

## Amateur competitions
*World Championships:  third in 1974
*Olympics:  bronze medal in 1976
*Canadian Championships:  first in 1971, 1972, 1973, 1974, 1975, and 1976

## References
## Other websites
***Toller Cranston ** official site

*
Tyresta National Park

**Tyresta National Park** is a small national park in Sweden. It only has about 50 square kilometers (or 19 square miles) of land. It is located near the capital city of Stockholm. A large fire burned almost 10 percent of the park in 1999, but the animals and plants have come back and are now doing fine.

## Other websites 
*Tyresta National Park and Nature Reserve
Hockey

**Hockey** is a type of sport in which players try to get points by hitting an object into the other team's  with a stick. Others believe hockey came from the French word “hoquet” which means shepherd's stick. James Creighton, an engineer who learned how to play the game of hockey while living in Nova Scotia, is credited for bringing the game to a new level. He taught his friends at McGill University in Montreal how to play the game.
 
## Types
There are three main ways that hockey is played.

*Field hockey is played with a ball on grass or turf. there are eleven players in each team . Field hockey is usually played outdoors, but there is indoor field hockey. Field hockey is played in the Summer Olympic Games.
*Ice hockey is played on ice. Players on each team wear ice skates. They try to hit hockey puck into the other team's goal. There are up to 6 players on the ice for each team. It can be played indoors or outdoors. Ice hockey is one of the most popular sports in the world. It is played in the Winter Olympic Games. The modern game was invented in the mid-1850´s by British soldiers based in Canada. Rules were set by students at McGill University in Montréal, Canada, in 1879, and many amateur clubs and leagues were organized in Canada by the late 1880s. The first game played in the USA is believed to have been in 1893.
*Roller hockey is played on a roller hockey rink, usually inside. Players on each team wear roller skates. They try to hit a small plastic disk called a hockey puck into the other team's goal. There are 5 players on each team. There is no contact.

## History
Evidence exists that shows ancient Aztecs, Greeks and Romans played similar forms of the game. The modern game of field hockey came to fruition in the mid-19th century in Great Britain. The British army brought the game to its colonies, and the first international competition took place in 1895.
Death grunt

A **death grunt** is when a singer uses a scream which is very low and deep. It is used in many types of music, but usually death metal and black metal. In many people's opinions, it is hard to understand the death grunt. However, some people who listen to them a lot think they are not so hard to understand. Some people believe that death grunts in music sound "scary", so they do not like them.

Bands that use death growls include Necrophagist, Morbid Angel, Opeth, and many more.
Bands that use higher screams that come from the throat include Escape the Fate, Alesana and Greeley Estates.

Other terms for **death grunts** are **death growls**, **harsh vocals**, and **unclean vocals**.

## References
Goth subculture

:*Goth can also mean a member of a Germanic tribe*

A **goth** is a word usually used to describe a person who listens to gothic music and/or dresses in a goth style clothes. Goths often wear black and unusual jewelry. Both goth men and goth women often wear make-up.

The *goth subculture* originated in the early 1980s among fans of the first gothic rock group, Bauhaus.

The word goth comes from the word *Gothic* which actually means *gloomy* or *dark*.  This meaning of the word comes from *gothic fiction*, a type of literature popular during the late 18th and early 19th century. 

People who call themselves a goth are those who live up the meaning of the name through wearing clothes or putting on makeup that is in colors that represent death, decay, or gloominess, such as the color black, deathly white face makeup, dark bloody red colors, or the tones of the color puce.

Goths wear normal black clothes and mix them with other colors to make a new look.

Goth people are often mistaken to be emo or punk because of the everyday stereotypes.
Year without a Summer

The **Year without a Summer** was 1816.  The year before that, in 1815, a volcano had erupted in the Dutch East Indies.  The volcano's name was Mount Tambora.  The volcanic ash from the eruption spread across the world.  It darkened the sky, and made the Earth's surface colder.  

In much of Europe and northern North America, summer never came. In New England and Germany, there were frozen lakes in the middle of June.  Flowers never bloomed, and every day was cold. These places and China suffered famine.
Gdańsk

**Gdańsk** is a city in the north of Poland in Pomeranian Voivodeship, near the place where the Vistula river meets the Baltic Sea. It is Poland's 6th largest city (population of 500 000 people) and the largest and most important sea port.

It has existed since the 10th century and many times played a very important role in Poland's history. In the 19th century it was part of Prussia. This is where Solidarity, the movement which helped end Communist rule in Central and Eastern Europe, came to life.

Gdansk has a humid continental climate (*Dfb* in the Köppen climate classification).

## Wikimania 
The sixth Wikimania was hosted in this city in 2010.

## Related pages 
* Golden Gate in Gdańsk

## References 
## Other websites
St. Basil's Cathedral

'''St. Basil's Cathedral**, also known as the **Cathedral of Intercession**, is a very famous cathedral in Moscow, Russia. It is officially known as the **Cathedral of the Intercession of the Most Holy Theotokos on the Moat**, or **Pokrovsky Cathedral'''. It was commissioned by Ivan IV (Ivan the Terrible), for Saint Basil the Blessed. It is in the area called Red Square. It was built in 1555-1561.

The cathedral is has eight distinctive onion-shaped towers. The building itself is made up of separate chapels. There is a ninth spire in the middle, forming an eight-point star.

The cathedral has been close to destruction many times. Napoleon Bonaparte decided to take it to Paris, but such an undertaking would have been impossible. Instead, he ordered it to be demolished. Explosives were lit, but torrential rain suddenly started, extinguishing the fuses. 

Joseph Stalin also ordered it to be destroyed, since it interfered with parades.  Pyotr Baranovsky, who was the architect in charge, objected and was sent to the GULAG but the demolition was cancelled.  The city of Moscow also caught fire numerous times, and the cathedral wasn't spared. Even so, it still stands to this very day.
Montserrat

**Montserrat** is a Caribbean island and a British Overseas Territory. Officially, the capital is Plymouth, but the government has moved to Brades after Chances Peak erupted, destroying Plymouth in 1995.

Before the island was called Montserrat, Kalinago and Taíno people had lived in the region for a long time. They knew it as **Alliouagana**.

Montserrat was colonised mostly by Irish Catholics. They brought many black slaves to the island and forced them to work on sugar plantations. The work the slaves made many plantations grow wealthy. When slavery was made illegal in the 1830s, the British Empire paid all the slave owners.

## References
Electromagnetic radiation

**Electromagnetic waves** are waves that contain an electric field and a magnetic field and carry energy. They travel at the speed of light (299,792,458 meters per second).

Quantum mechanics developed from the study of electromagnetic waves. This field includes the study of both visible and invisible light. Visible light is the light one can see with normal eyesight in the colours of the rainbow. Invisible light is light one can't see with normal eyesight and includes more energetic and higher frequency waves, such as ultraviolet, x-rays and gamma rays. Waves with longer lengths, such as infrared, micro and radio waves, are also explored in the field of Quantum mechanics.

Some types of electromagnetic radiation, such as X-rays, are ionizing radiation and can be harmful to your body. Ultraviolet rays are near the violet end of the light spectrum and infrared are near the red end. Infrared rays are used as heat rays and ultraviolet rays cause sunburn.

The various parts of the electromagnetic spectrum differ in wavelength, frequency and quantum energy.

Sound waves are not electromagnetic waves but waves of pressure in air, water or any other substance.

## Mathematical formulation
In physics, it is well known that the **wave equation** for a typical wave is

\nabla ^2 f=\frac{1}{c^2}\frac{\partial^2 f}{\partial t^2}

The problem now is to prove that Maxwell's equations explicitly prove that the electric and magnetic fields create electromagnetic radiation. Recall that two of Maxwell's equations are given by

\nabla \times \mathbf{E}=-\frac{\partial \mathbf{B}}{\partial t}

\nabla \times \mathbf{B}=\mu_o \mathbf{j}+\mu_o \varepsilon_o \frac{\partial \mathbf{E}}{\partial t}

By  evaluating the curl of the above equations and vector calculus one can prove the following equations

\nabla ^2 \mathbf{E}=\frac{1}{c^2}\frac{\partial^2 \mathbf{E}}{\partial t}

\nabla^2 \mathbf {B}=\frac{1}{c^2}\frac{\partial^2 \mathbf{B}}{\partial t}

Note: the proof involves making the substitution

c=\frac{1}{\sqrt {\mu_o \varepsilon_o}}

The equations above are analogous to the wave equation, by replacing **f** with **E** and **B**. The above equations mean that propagations through the magnetic (**B**) and electric (**E**) fields will produce waves.

## Related pages 
* Photon

## References 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
*

## Other websites
*'' Electromagnetic Waves from Maxwell's Equations ''  on Project PHYSNET.
*Conversion of frequency to wavelength and back - electromagnetic, radio and sound waves 
*eBooks on Electromagnetic radiation and RF 
*The Science of Spectroscopy  - supported by NASA. Spectroscopy education wiki and films - introduction to light, its uses in NASA, space science, astronomy, medicine & health, environmental research, and consumer products.
Cigarette

, "A Good Cigarette" (1880)]]

**Cigarettes** can be any dried leaf that people roll in thin paper to smoke, but the word is most often used to refer ones with dried tobacco leaves. The nicotine in the tobacco can be addictive to people. The nicotine from cigarettes makes people want to smoke more, even if they do not like the taste or its other effects.

The smoke also has other things that are bad for people's health. Many countries have laws saying who can smoke tobacco cigarettes and where they can smoke them. They can cause lung cancer, heart disease and many other diseases. Most packs of cigarettes have warning labels on them. Until the mid-1950s, cigarettes were advertised as being healthy or at least not harmful. Tobacco companies used images of doctors smoking in their advertisements to falsely convince the public that cigarettes were safe. Cigarettes were advertised as a remedy for throat irritation, the common cold, obesity, indigestion, and even asthma. Today, all of the major tobacco companies admit that cigarettes are harmful to health.

## Dangers 
Smokers have symptoms such as frequent coughing, chest pain, and breathlessness. Doctors say that people should not smoke, as it can harm almost every organ in the body.

Cigarette smoke contains many harmful substances. Among them are nicotine, tar, carcinogens and carbon monoxide.
* Nicotine is a drug that is addictive. It damages brain tissue 
* Tar is a sticky substance that kills cells (is cytotoxic) and causes lung cancer (it is a carcinogen)
* Carcinogens are substances that cause cancer
* Carbon monoxide is a colourless and poisonous gas that stops hemoglobin from taking oxygen around the body
* Filtered, light, ultra-light, menthol, natural, nicotine-free, and electronic cigarettes are just as harmful as regular cigarettes
* Other tobacco products, such as cigars and chewing tobacco, are not a safe alternative to cigarettes
* Improperly extinguished cigarettes are a common cause of house fires
* Smoking near fuel or flammable chemicals can cause a fire or explosion

## Notable brands 
* Marlboro
* Camel
* Lucky Strike
* Kool
* Pall Mall
* Kent

## References
Miami Dolphins

The **Miami Dolphins** are an American football team in the National Football League based in Miami, Florida. The Dolphins began playing in 1966 and in 1972 they had the only perfect season in NFL history and won a Super Bowl, with Bob Griese leading the team as quarterback and Don Shula as head coach. The other Super Bowl win came a year later, in 1973. Another quarterback, Dan Marino, is a more recent famous player from this club. The Miami Dolphins stadium is Hard Rock Stadium in Miami Gardens, Florida.

## References
## Other websites
*Official Site
Oksana Grishuk

**Oksana Vladimirovna Grishuk** (; born 17 March 1972) is a Russian retired ice dancer. She and her partner, Evgeny Platov, won two Olympic gold medals and four world championships.

## Early life
Grishuk began training in skating at the age of four. She moved to Moscow in 1986, and studied at the Sport University from 1988 to 1992.

## Career
After they won the gold medal in the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano, Japan, Platov decided to skate as a professional with a different partner, Maya Usova, so Grishuk began skating professionally by herself.

## Amateur competitions
*World Championships:  first in 1994, 1995, 1996, and 1997
*Olympics:  gold medal in 1994 and 1998
*European Championships:  first place in 1996, 1997, and 1998

## References
## Other websites
*
*
* The largest fansite about Oksana Grishuk, AKA Pasha  
* Oksana Grishuk's official website 
* Platov and Usova site
Evgeny Platov

**Evgeny Arkadievich Platov** (; born 7 August 1967) is a Russian retired ice dancer. He won two Olympic gold medals and four world championships with his partner, Oksana Grishuk.

## Early life
Platov began skating when he was nine years old.  He studied at the Physical Institute of Culture in Moscow.  

## Career
After the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano, Japan, Platov started skating as a professional with a different partner, Maya Usova, until he retired from performing in 2002.  He is now a coach at Princeton Sports Center in Princeton, New Jersey.

## Amateur competitions
*World Championships:  first in 1994, 1995, 1996, and 1997
*Olympics:  gold medal in 1994 and 1998
*European Championships:  first place in 1996, 1997, and 1998

## References
## Other websites
* 
* 
* Platov and Usova site
Tetris

**Tetris** is a puzzle game, developed in the Soviet Union by Alexey Pajitnov in 1985. It has appeared on many video game systems.

Many companies have published *Tetris* games, such as Nintendo for the Game Boy and Nintendo Entertainment System. The Tetris Company, founded in 1996 by Pajitnov and Henk Rogers, manages and licenses the Tetris brand.

With over 500 million copies sold across all of its different versions, it is the best-selling video game of all time.

## Gameplay
In a game of *Tetris*, shapes known as tetrominoes fall down into a playing field, which is usually ten squares wide and twenty squares tall. There are seven different tetrominoes. The goal of the player is to move and turn the falling tetrominoes so they fill an entire row of the playing field. When a row is completely filled, it disappears and the lines above it move down to fill the space. This is called a line clear.

Clearing lines give points. A player gets more points if they clear more than one line with one tetromino. Clearing one line is called a "single", two lines a "double", three lines a "triple", and four lines a "Tetris". Clearing two Tetrises in a row is called a Back-to-Back Tetris. The player can also turn a T-shaped Tetrimino into a T-shaped hole before it finishes falling to get more points. For example, these rules state what each button on a game controller must do, and what colour each tetromino should be.

In older versions of the game, the player loses when the tetrominoes make it to the top of the playing field. In more modern versions of the game, they can lose in two ways. The first is when they place a piece completely above the playing field. The second way to lose is if a player places a piece that blocks the next piece from spawning in.

## Music
On the Game Boy, there are several musical themes played. The theme for level 1 and used in the Game Boy version is often called the "Tetris Theme". It is actually a Russian dance called *Korobeiniki*, or "The Peddlers". It was arranged for the Game Boy by Hirokazu Tanaka. Other themes include music by Johann Sebastian Bach and the Dance of the Sugar Plum Fairy.

## References
Polish

**Polish** can mean:
When written with upper-case *P*:
*Anything related to the country of Poland
*Polish language, the language spoken in the country
*Poles, the people of Poland

When written with lower-case *p*:
*To polish something is to rub it so that it is smooth and shiny
*A substance used to do that action is called **polish**
Georgia

**Georgia** could mean either of two things:
*Georgia (country), a country in the Caucasus region of Eurasia
*Georgia (U.S. state), one of the states in the United States of America

## Related pages
*Georgian, a disambiguation page
Lech Wałęsa

**Lech Walesa** ( (pronounced [lɛx vaˈwɛ̃sa]); born September 29, 1943) is a Polish shipyard worker, trade unionist and a politician who used to be the leader of Solidarity and the President of Poland between 1990 and 1995. Walesa won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1983.

## References
List of football clubs in the Netherlands

These are some Dutch football (soccer) teams.

## Eredivisie (*Honour Division*)
Season 2018/19
* ADO Den Haag
* Ajax
* AZ Alkmaar
* Emmen
* SBV Excelsior
* Feyenoord Rotterdam
* Fortuna Sittard
* De Graafschap
* FC Groningen
* SC Heerenveen
* Heracles Almelo
* NAC Breda
* PEC Zwolle
* PSV Eindhoven
* FC Utrecht
* Vitesse
* VVV-Venlo
* Willem II

## Eerste Divisie (*First Division*)
* Almere City FC
* Cambuur Leeuwarden
* FC Den Bosch
* FC Dordrecht
* FC Eindhoven
* Excelsior
* Fortuna Sittard
* Go Ahead Eagles
* De Graafschap
* Helmond Sport
* MVV
* FC Oss
* Sparta Rotterdam
* Telstar
* BV Veendam
* FC Volendam
Charles de Gaulle

**General Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle** (22 November 1890 - 9 November 1970) was a French military and political leader. He was president of France from 1959 to 1969. He was a founding member and leader of the French Resistance during the Second World War. 

De Gaulle chaired the Provisional Government of the French Republic from 1944 to 1946 in order to re-establish democracy in France.

In 1958, he came out of retirement: the Algerian War was happening. He rewrote the Constitution of France and founded the Fifth Republic after it was approved by a referendum. He was elected President of France later that year, a position to which he was re-elected in 1965 and held until his resignation in 1969.

The National Assembly brought him back to power in May 1958. He granted independence to Algeria. 900,000 French people in Algeria (called *les pieds-noire*) left for France. The Organisation armée secrète (OAS) tried to kill him. Frederick Forsyth used this incident as a basis for his novel *The Day of the Jackal*.

After the Algerian conflict, de Gaulle wanted to improve the French economy, and have an independent foreign policy. This was called by foreign observers the "politics of grandeur" (*politique de grandeur*). See Gaullism.

The French economy recorded high growth rates. In 1964, for the first time in nearly 100 years, France's GDP overtook that of the United Kingdom. This period is still remembered in France with some nostalgia as the peak of the *Trente Glorieuses* ("Thirty Glorious Years" of economic growth between 1945 and 1974).

De Gaulle had many admirers, but he was also one of the most hated men in modern French history.

*His most famous saying was: ''"L'etat? c'est moi!"'', roughly "The State? it's me!"

## Death 
De Gaulle died in Colombey-les-Deux-Églises in 1970 while playing cards because of a brain aneurysm.

## References
Kryptos

***Kryptos*** is the name of a sculpture (art that is like a statue) on the grounds of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) in Langley, Virginia, USA.  Kryptos is very famous.  It has codes (secret hidden messages) on it.  There are four messages.  People know what three of the messages say.  No one knows what the fourth message says yet.

A man named Jim Sanborn made *Kryptos* in 1990.  Kryptos is in a garden in the middle of a building called CIA Headquarters.  

Not very many people have seen *Kryptos*, because only a few people are allowed to go into the CIA building.  They do very important work at the CIA, and have to be very careful.

The word Kryptos comes from the Greek language.  It means "hidden".

The sculpture is about 12 feet high and 20 feet long.  It is made of metal and different kinds of rocks. It has thousands of letters and other things written in the metal. 

The first person to find out what the first three messages say, was Jim Gillogly.  He learned the answers in 1999.  After he said what the answer was, the CIA said that a man who works at the CIA, David Stein, knew the answer too.  A few years later the NSA (another agency in Washington D.C.) said that they had people who had solved it too.

Before he made *Kryptos*, Jim Sanborn had not made any other sculptures with letters on them.  After *Kryptos* he made many other sculptures with letters on them.  Some of them have secret messages. One is called Antipodes.  There are two copies of Antipodes.  One belongs to a man in California.  The other is in a museum in Washington DC called the Hirshhorn Museum.  

Another sculpture that Sanborn made which has secret messages is called the *Cyrillic Projector*.  It has secret messages in Russian.  The Cyrillic Projector was independently cracked by Michael Bales and Frank Corr in 2003.

There are two famous books that talk about *Kryptos*, which were written by Dan Brown. He wrote a book in 2003 called *The Da Vinci Code*.  On the cover of the book is art.  In the art there are secret messages.  Two of the messages talk about *Kryptos*.  Dan Brown wrote another book in 2009 called *The Lost Symbol*, which also talks about *Kryptos*.

## Other websites
*The CIA website about Kryptos 
*NY Times Library An article in the newspaper (*The New York Times*: ''CIA's Artistic Enigma Reveals All but Final Clues'', – June 16, 1999)
*Elonka Dunin's Kryptos page
*Washington Post ("Cracking the Code of a CIA Sculpture" – July 19, 1999)
*New York Times article and other articles  ("Gillogly Cracks CIA Art", & "The Kryptos Code Unmasked")
*Wired News ("Solving the Enigma of *Kryptos*" – January 21, 2005)
*CNN story, "Cracking the Code", June 19, 2005

### Pictures of Kryptos from high up in the sky
*Windows Live Local - Several images. (zoom in and click on aerial / bird's eye links at left)
*Terraserver-USA
*Google Maps
American Film Institute

The **American Film Institute** (**AFI**) is an independent, organization that is designed not to make money created by the National Endowment for the Arts, which was started in 1967 when President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the National Foundation on the Arts and the Humanities Act.

George Stevens, Jr. was the first director of the organization. Jean Picker Firstenberg was the director from 1980 to 2007. Bob Gazzale is the current President and CEO.

The AFI Conservatory trains new filmmakers.

Even though its name only mentions film, AFI also works on television and video.

In 1973, the AFI began handing out Life Achievement Awards.

In 1998, when American cinema had existed for 100 years, AFI began its 100 Years Series, which helped people become interested in the history of movies.

Recently, it built and started the AFI Silver Theatre and Cultrual Center in Silver Spring, Maryland near Washington, D.C.

## AFI 100 Years series
In honor of the hundredth birthday of American cinema, the AFI has made several lists of the best movie-related things:

* 1998: AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies
* 1999: AFI's 100 Years... 100 Stars
* 2000: AFI's 100 Years... 100 Laughs
* 2001: AFI's 100 Years... 100 Thrills
* 2002: AFI's 100 Years... 100 Passions
* 2003: AFI's 100 Years... 100 Heroes and Villains
* 2004: AFI's 100 Years... 100 Songs
* 2005: AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movie Quotes
* 2005: AFI's 100 Years of Film Scores
* 2006: AFI's 100 Years... 100 Cheers

## References
## Other websites 
* Official Website
* History of AFI
* AFI Los Angeles Film Festival - History and Information
Antonio Meucci

**Antonio Meucci** (Florence, April 13, 1808 – October 18, 1889) was an Italian inventor. He invented the first type of telephone, also known as the first 'talking telegraph' 1857.  In 2002, the United States House of Representatives ruled that he invented the first working telephone, although Alexander Graham Bell was first to patent it. 

## References
Sumatran tiger

The **Sumatran tiger** (*Panthera tigris sumatrae*) is the smallest living tiger subspecies. Only the extinct Bali tiger was smaller. It is listed as critically endangered. They are in danger due to hunting and the destruction of their habitat. It is estimated that there are only about 400-700 Sumatran tigers left in the wild.

The Sumatran tiger lives only on the Indonesian island of Sumatra. It can be found in low and highland areas, mountainous jungles, and peat swamp forests.

## Description
Like other tiger subspecies, the Sumatran tiger has deep orange fur with black stripes. Every tiger has its own pattern of stripes, with none being the same. The Sumatran tiger has very long back legs, which allow it to jump great distances. Even though they are the smallest of the tiger subspecies, Sumatran tigers are still very large, reaching to the length of 9 feet (2.7 meters), and weighing up to 165-250 pounds (75–114&nbsp;kg). Sumatran tigers have webbed feet. This allows them to swim easily.

## Where they live 
The Sumatran tiger is found only on the Indonesian island of Sumatra, where the Sumatran tiger can be found from low and highland areas, to mountainous jungles and peat swamp forests.

## Feeding
Sumatran tigers ambush their prey, using their long, powerful legs, jaws, and claws to catch and kill their prey. They have extremely good eyesight and hearing, which helps them to find their prey. Sumatran tigers feed mainly on wild boar and deer, and they can eat more than 40 pounds of meat at a time.

## Reproduction
Female Sumatran tigers reach maturity at the age of around three to four years. Males turn mature at the age of around four to five years. Females are pregnant for about 95–110 days, and the females give birth in hidden and private areas and raise the cubs alone. They give birth to around 2-3 cubs at a time, but they can sometimes give birth to six cubs. The cubs’ eyes are closed at birth, and they don't open fully until the cub is one or two weeks old. Cubs feed on milk for three to six months and start hunting with their mother at the age of about five or six months. They will stay with their mother until they are fully able to hunt on their own, which doesn't happen until the cubs are at least 18 months to 2 years old. In the wild, Sumatran tigers live an average of 15 years.

## References
## Other websites
*
*
*The Sumatran Tiger Trust 
*Tiger Facts - Sumatran Tiger
8 Mile

***8 Mile*** is a 2002 American drama movie starring rapper Eminem, Kim Basinger, Brittany Murphy and Mekhi Phifer. It is set in 1995 in Detroit, Michigan.

The film tells about a young white rapper living in inner city Detroit. He tries to make a rap career but most rappers are African Americans.

The film was a critical and financial success. Eminem won the Academy Award for Best Original Song for "Lose Yourself".

## Other websites 
* 

## References
Moldova

**Moldova** is a country in Eastern Europe. Its full name is the **Republic of Moldova** (, .) It used to be called **Moldavia.** It borders Ukraine to the east and Romania to the west.

The official language in Moldova is the Romanian language. The capital of Moldova is Chișinău.

The Russian Empire took almost half of the Principality of Moldova in 1812 and called it Bessarabia. Between 19181940 and 19411944 it was part of the Kingdom of Romania. It became independent from the Soviet Union after the latter country's dissolution.

The average monthly salary/wages are still low, standing at only US$243. Moldova is an associated country for future membership in the European Union.

Infrastructure: As of 2024, Russia has stopped selling gas to Moldova.

## Related pages
* 
* List of rivers of Moldova
* Moldova at the Olympics
* Moldova national football team

## References
Pol Pot

**Pol Pot** (born **Saloth Sâr**; May 19, 1925 – April 15, 1998) was a Cambodian National Communist politician who was the dictator of Cambodia from 1975 to 1979. He was also the leader of the Khmer Rouge, who were  members of the country's Communist Party. Pol Pot's government consisted of armed peasants. His government killed between 1.7 and 2.2 million people in the Cambodian genocide. He has been called one of the most brutal dictators in world history. 

Pol Pot was thrown out of power in January 1979, when the North Vietnamese military liberated Kampuchea. However, he remained active in politics and in the Khmer Rouge. In 1997, Pol Pot was put under house arrest and died the following year. 

## Early life
Pol Pot was born on May 19, 1925. His village was around 2 miles (3.2 km) from the capital city of the Kompong Thom province. At that time, Cambodia was a colony of France (part of French Indochina).

Pol Pot's father was a landowner named Pen Saloth. This was the planned, organized persecution and genocide of Cambodians that the Khmer Rouge regarded as enemies. The genocide, malnutrition, and poor medical care killed between 1.5 and 2 million people (around one in every four people in Cambodia). Pol Pot's second in command, Noun Chea (also called Brother Number Two) later said that these mass killings were a mistake. 

## Death
On the evening of April 15, 1998, Pol Pot died of a possible heart attack in his hut in the jungle. This was just just 2 days before the anniversary of Khmer Rouge's takeover of Cambodia.

Nate Thayer believed that Pol Pot killed himself with diazepam (Valium) and chloroquine to avoid trial. He was cremated without any ceremony.

## Notes
## References
1800s

The **1800s** was the decade that began on January 1, 1800 and ended on December 31, 1809. It is distinct from the decade known as the  which began on January 1, 1801 and ended on December 31, 1810.

## Events 
*Beginning of the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815). 
*Semaphore is adopted by navies. 
*The United Kingdom was founded (1801)

## World leaders 
* Emperor Napoleon I (First French Empire)
* Emperor Francis II (Holy Roman Empire)
* Frederick William III of Prussia (Prussia)
* Pope Pius VII
* Tsar Paul I (Russia)
* Tsar Alexander I (Russia)
* King Charles IV (Spain)
* King George III, (United Kingdom)
* President John Adams (United States)
* President Thomas Jefferson (United States)
* Fath Ali Shah of Qajar dynasty (Persia)
* Jiaqing Emperor of China (Qing Dynasty)

## Births 
## Deaths
Sedan (automobile)

is a sedan]]

A **sedan**, or **saloon**, is an automobile that has a low , a roof and one or two doors on each side. The trunk is reachable only from outside.

The word sedan is used in American English, but in British English such an automobile is called a saloon.
Macy Gray

**Macy Gray** (born **Natalie Renee McIntyre** on September 9, 1967) is an American singer and actress. She started her career after moving to Los Angeles in 2000. Gray is best known for her 1999 single, "I Try", which came off of her first album, *On How Life Is*.

## Discography
### Albums
*1999: *On How Life Is*
*2001: *The Id*
*2003: *The Trouble with Being Myself*
*2004: *The Very Best of Macy Gray*
*2005: *Live in Las Vegas*
*2007: *Big*
*2010: *The Sellout*
*2012: *Covered*
*2012: *Talking Book*

## References
## Other websites 
*
Rapid City, South Dakota

**Rapid City** is the second most populous city in the U.S. state of South Dakota. It is in the western part of the state on the eastern edge of the Black Hills. Rapid City is the county seat of Pennington County.

It is a good starting point for the area around it, which is a tourist area. Local tourist sites include Mount Rushmore, the Black Hills, the Badlands, and Custer State Park.

The city is founded in February 1876 and incorporated in February 1883.

## Other websites 
* Rapid City government website
Sedan

**Sedan** can mean any of a few things:
*A sedan is a car body style
*The much older form of transport, the sedan chair, from which the name of the car body style is borrowed.
*Sedan, Ardennes, a *sous-préfecture* of the Ardennes département in France, where the Battle of Sedan occurred in 1870
*Sedan, Kansas, a community in the United States
*Sedan, Minnesota, a community in the United States
* Sedan (nuclear test), an Operation Plowshare nuclear test conducted by the United States at its Nevada Test Site in 1962, which resulted in a massive crater.
Citizen Kane

***Citizen Kane*** is a 1941 American drama movie starring Orson Welles in his first full-length movie. There are s that its story is based on the life of the famous businessmen William Randolph Hearst, Howard Hughes, and Samuel Insull. Welles said that his character, Kane, was based on more than one famous person. In *F for Fake* (1974), he said that Kane was going to be based on Hughes but that Welles became inspired by Hearst.

Welles worked closely with his cinematographer, Gregg Toland, who was in charge of the camera and the lights. Together, they worked on a new style, "deep focus." Usually, if something close to the camera is in focus, everything that is far away is out of focus. In deep focus, every object is in focus at the same time.

Its working title, before the movie was finished, was *RKO 281*.

Many have called *Citizen Kane* the best movie of all time. In 1998, it was number one on the American Film Institute's list of 100 Years... 100 Movies.

It is in some ways is like *The Power and the Glory* (1933).

The last living crew member was director Robert Wise. Also known for making *The Sound of Music* (1965), he died on September 14, 2005.

## Other websites 
* 
* The American Film Institute's "100 Greatest Movies" list 
* Original Trailer 
* Greatest Films: *Citizen Kane*
* Essay  on the use of mise-en-scene and cinematography
* RaveCentral: *Citizen Kane*
Dynamite

, D - Fuse|alt=]]
**Dynamite** is an explosive invented by Alfred Nobel, the creator of the Nobel Prize. Its main explosive component is nitroglycerin. Nitroglycerin is very sensitive to movement. It explodes very easily when it is moved. For this reason, it is absorbed into diatomaceous earth to make it less sensitive. Diatomaceous earth is a soft, sedimentary rock made of fossil diatoms. About one-quarter of dynamite is diatomaceous earth, the other three-quarters are nitroglycerin. A little sodium carbonate is added to stabilize the mixture. 

Even though the diatomaceous earth takes away some dangers of nitroglycerin, there are still problems because the mixture is not stable in damp environments. Water causes the nitroglycerin to leak away. The nitroglycerin can build up, and explode unexpectedly. 

For this reason, the formulation was changed. Instead of diatomaceous earth, gelignite was used to hold the nitroglycerin. Gelignite holds the nitroglycerin so that it cannot dissolve in water. 

Today, dynamite is not used often. It has been replaced by explosives that cost less to make and are easier to handle than dynamite. However, works of fiction still show people using dynamite.
Convertible

A **convertible** is a car with a roof that can be removed or folded down, but is often seen without a roof. A convertible usually has two doors, but convertibles with four doors can also be found. Some examples are Mazda MX-5, BMW Z4, Ferrari 458 Spyder, Mercedes-Benz SLK Class, etc. A convertible is a type of automobile of various automobile body styles that can convert from open-air (top-down or topless) mode to a provisionally enclosed (roofed or top-up) mode. Convertibles evolved from the earlier Phaeton, a similar vehicle without glass side windows that may or may not have had removable panels of fabric or other material instead to protect passengers from rain and cold, etc. A semi-convertible or cabrio coach is similar to a convertible and also has a retractable or removable top, but has fully framed windows on its side doors as opposed to a convertible's roll-down frameless windows that provide an even more open car driving experience, However, a left-hand drive convertible car are relatively less than a left-hand drive open cab truck or a left-hand drive open-top bus and a right-hand drive convertible car are relatively less than a right-hand drive open cab truck or a right-hand drive open-top bus.

Roof designs have varied widely and have evolved from the earliest models, where roofs were demountable and/or detachable. Contemporary roofs are often hinged to fold away, either into a recess behind the rear seats or into the boot or trunk of the vehicle. The roof may operate either manually or automatically via hydraulic or electrical actuators, and the roof itself may be constructed of soft or rigid material. Soft-tops are made of vinyl, canvas or other textile material, while hard-tops are made of steel, aluminum, plastic, or other rigid materials.

The majority of convertible cars are two door models, with markedly fewer four-door models.

Convertibles may also be referred to as cabriolet, roadster, tourer or drophead coupé and the colloquial terms drop top and rag top are also used. Hard-top convertibles may be called coupé cabriolet, coupé convertible, retractable hardtop or, when equipped with two seats, coupé roadster/roadster coupé.

## Other websites
Vince Lombardi

**Vincent Thomas Lombardi** (June 11, 1913, in Brooklyn, New York, USA — September 3, 1970) was an American football coach that never had a losing season.  Lombardi was named **NFL Man of the Decade** in the 1960s, and won five NFL championships, including winning the first two Super Bowls.

The yearly trophy given to the Super Bowl champion was renamed the *Vince Lombardi Trophy* (*right*) in 1971, the same year Lombardi was named to the Pro Football Hall of Fame. He was head coach of the Green Bay Packers and the Washington Redskins.

## Other websites 
*Official Vince Lombardi website
*Vince Lombardi information from the Pro Football Hall of Fame website
Guano

is made of almost pure guano.]]
 near Walvis Bay in Namibia]]**Guano** is the excrement of bats and birds. This excrement is exceptionally high in nitrogen, phosphate, and potassium, three nutrients which are essential for plant growth. Therefore, it is often used as fertilizer, to make plants grow more quickly.

## Related pages 
* Uric acid
1790s

The **1790s** was a decade that began on 1 January 1790 and ended on 31 December 1799. It is distinct from the decade known as the  which began on January 1, 1791 and ended on December 31, 1800.

## Events 
* French Revolution
* Supreme Court of the United States meets for first time.
* Whiskey Rebellion in the United States.
* First State of the Union Address

## World leaders 
* King Louis XVI (France)
* Maximilien Robespierre (France)
* King George III (Great Britain)
* Emperor Leopold II (Holy Roman Empire)
* Emperor Francis II (Holy Roman Empire)
* Frederick William II of Prussia, King of Prussia
* Emperor Kangxi (China)
* Pope Pius VI
* Empress Catherine II (Russia)
* Emperor Paul (Russia)
* King Charles IV (Spain)
* President George Washington (United States)
* President John Adams (United States)
* Shahs of Persia (Zand dynasty and Qajar dynasty)
# Lotf Ali Khan, 1789–1794
# Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar, 1796–1797
# Fath Ali Shah, 1797–1834

## Births 
* Jean-François Champollion, French Egyptologist (1790)
* Samuel Morse, American inventor (1791)
* Antonio López de Santa Anna, Mexican general and President of Mexico (1794)

## Deaths 
* Benjamin Franklin, American scientist and statesman (1790)
* Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Austrian composer (1791)
* George Washington, first President of the United States (1799)
Triple point

The **triple point** of any substance is the combination of temperature and pressure at which it exists in its solid, liquid, and gaseous state all at once, in equilibrium.

The temperature of the triple point of water is a commonly used physical constant which is used to define temperature scales and calibrate temperature-measuring systems.

*By definition*, the temperature of the triple point of water is 273.16 Kelvin, 0.01°C, or 32.018°F at a pressure of 611.5 Pa (less than 1% of atmospheric pressure). One degree Celsius is defined as 1/273.16th part of the triple point of water. This fixes the temperature scale as defined in the ITS 90, which is the international temperature scale of 1990. This scale is developed as a practical approximation of the thermodynamical temperature scale.