open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
President of Belarus

The **president of the Republic of Belarus** (, ) is the head of state of Belarus. The office was created in 1994. A president is chosen by other Belarusians every five years in a national vote. Alexander Lukashenko is the only person who has been president.

## List of presidents of Belarus (1991–present)
## References
Cork (material)

for wine bottles]]
, as a substitute for linoleum or tiles.]]

**Cork** is a material that is harvested for commercial use primarily from the bark of the Cork Oak tree. As the cork is harvested.
Portugal produces 50% of cork worldwide. Cork is made up of suberin, a hydrophobic substance.

In general, cork is made up of suberin (average of about 40%), lignin (22%), polysaccharides (cellulose and hemicellulose) (18%), extractables (15%) and others.

## Properties and uses
Cork's elasticity together with its near-impermeability makes it suitable as a material for bottle stoppers, especially for wine bottles. Cork stoppers represent about 60% of all cork based production. Cork's low density makes it a suitable material for fishing floats and buoys, as well as handles for fishing rods (as an alternative to neoprene). Cork is also used in the manufacture of musical instruments, particularly woodwind instruments, where it is used to fasten together different segments of the instrument and make the seams airtight.  

Since cork has suberin in its cell walls, this makes the cells consist of sealed elements. And having sealed elements make it greater for acoustic insulation and even thermal insulation. Sealed elements are capable of trapping and absorbing sound. In short, suberin is mostly responsible for noise reduction! Also, lignin is another constituent of cork. It makes up about 22% of cork. One study says that it’s also associated with soundproofing and thermal insulation! 

The cork industry is generally regarded as environmentally friendly. The sustainability of its production and the easy recycling of cork products and by-products are two of its most distinctive aspects. 

Cork demand has increased due to a larger proportion of wine being sealed with cork rather than being sold in bulk. Top quality corks are quite expensive, so many cheaper brands have switched to lower quality cork, synthetic plastic stoppers, screwcaps, or other closures.

## Related pages
* Cork cambium

## References 
## Other websites 
* Cork Board Sheets Information 
* Cork Information
* Cork production 
* Cork Supply USA 
* Instituto de Promoción del Corcho, Extremadura (Spain)
937

## Events 
* Battle of Brunanburh: King Athelstan of England defeats the Viking king of Dublin, the Scots, and Strathclyde.
* September 21 – Magdeburg becomes capital of the Holy Roman Empire.

## Births 
* Duke William IV of Aquitaine
* Gu Hongzhong

## Deaths 
* July 11 – King Rudolph II of Burgundy
* July 14 – Duke Arnulf I of Bavaria
Clubmoss

**Clubmosses** are a group of plants in the Lycopodiophyta, which are the most ancient group of land plants. The clubmosses are an order **Lycopodiales**, (or a subclass **Lycopodiopsida**).

Clubmosses are thought to be structurally similar to the earliest vascular plants, with small, scale-like leaves, homosporous spores borne in sporangia at the bases of the leaves, branching stems (usually dichotomous), and generally simple form.

A powder known simply as *lycopodium*, consisting of dried spores of the common clubmoss, was used in Victorian theater to produce flame-effects. A blown cloud of spores burned rapidly and brightly, but with little heat. It was considered safe by the standards of the time.

## Taxonomy 
The group is now split into two families:
*Lycopodiaceae: the typical clubmosses. Their spores are on a club-like structure. Their typical chromosome count is n=34.
*Huperziaceae: the firmosses. Their spore-bearing structures are in the axils of unmodified leaves. The family has a basal chromosome count of n=67.
Green algae

**Green algae** are microscopic protists. One can find them in all sorts of natural water: salt water, freshwater and brackish water. The group is less used in classification today. Although most are descended from a common ancestor, some are not. Some of their descendants, the land plants are not included in the group, so the group is not monophyletic.

The green algae are the large group of algae from which the higher plants developed.

The green algae include unicellular and colonial flagellates, usually but not always with two flagella per cell, as well as various colonial, coccoid, and filamentous forms. In the Charales, the closest relatives of higher plants, full differentiation of tissues occurs. There are about 6000 species of green algae. Many species live most of their lives as single-cells, other species form colonies or long filaments.

## Related pages 
*Algae
*Brown algae
**Euglena*, a protist that includes a green alga within its cells
*Seaweed

## References 
## More reading 
* 
* 

## Other websites 
*Green algae and cyanobacteria in lichens 
*Green algae (UC Berkeley)
*Monterey Bay green algae
Flagellate

's *Artforms of Nature*, 1904]]

**Flagellates** are cells with one or more whip-like organelles called flagella.  Some cells in animals may be flagellate, for instance the spermatozoa of most phyla. Flowering plants and fungi do not produce flagellate cells, but the closely related green algae and chytrids do.  Many protists take the form of single-celled flagellates. They are found in most lines of eukaryotes, and it is likely that all surviving eukaryotes developed from them.
 (*Chlamydomonas*)]]
 (*Giardia lamblia*)]]

## Related pages
* Ciliate cells have many cilia, which have the same structure as flagella, but are smaller
Sustainable energy

**Sustainable energy** is energy that is created in an environmentally friendly way. It involves both energy efficiency and renewable energy. Both resources help to stabilize and reduce carbon dioxide emissions.

Efficient energy use allows energy demand to slow so that rising clean energy supplies can make big cuts in fossil fuel burning.  If energy use grows too fast, renewable energy development will chase a receding target. Unless clean energy supplies grow rapidly, slowing demand growth will only begin to reduce total emissions. Reducing the carbon content of energy sources is also needed.
 
Any serious vision of a sustainable energy economy thus requires major commitments to both efficiency and renewables.
* Solar power
* Tidal power
* Wave power
* Wind power

## References
## Related pages
*Sustainable biofuels
*Sustainable development
Horsetail

The **horsetails** are a class in the Pteridophyta (ferns). They were one of the most important plant groups in the Palaeozoic era.  

For over 100 million years they were varied, and dominated the understorey of late Paleozoic forests. They are seen in the coal measures of the Carboniferous period, and some were trees reaching up 30 metres. The group is now almost extinct, but one genus survives. They are vascular plants that reproduce by spores and not by seeds. The name *horsetail* came because the branched species somewhat look like a horse's tail.

## *Equisetum* 
Modern horsetails first appeared during the Jurassic period.
***Equisetum*** is the only living genus of horsetails. The name *Equisetum* comes from the Latin (*equus* = horse; and *seta* = bristle). The genus includes 15 species.

Horsetails are native on all continents except Australasia and Antarctica. They are perennial plants. They are either herbaceous (they die back in winter 
like most temperate species) or they are evergreen (some tropical species, and some temperate species). They mostly grow 0.2-1.5 m tall, though *E. telmateia* can reach 2.5 m, and the tropical American species *E. giganteum* 5 m, and *E. myriochaetum* 8 m.
* on an unbranched stem]]

In these plants the leaves are very small, in whorls joined together to make sheaths around the stem. The stems are green and photosynthetic, also distinctive in being hollow, jointed and ridged, usually with 6-40 ridges. There may or may not be whorls of branches at the nodes; when present, these branches are identical to the main stem except smaller.

The spores are borne under sporangiophores in strobili, cone-like structures at the tips of some of the stems. In many species the cone-bearing shoots are unbranched, and in some (e.g. *E. arvense'', field horsetail) they are non-photosynthetic, produced early in Springtime. 

## References
Neoprene

**Neoprene** is the **DuPont Performance Elastomers** trade name for a family of synthetic rubbers based on **polychloroprene** (polymer form of Chloroprene).  Neoprene was invented by DuPont scientists after Dr. Elmer K. Bolton of DuPont attended a lecture by Fr Julius Arthur Nieuwland, a professor of chemistry at the University of Notre Dame.

## Applications
It is used in a wide variety of environments, such as in wetsuits, laptop sleeves, cars, bombs, electrical insulation, and car fan belts.  Its chemical inertness makes it well suited for industrial applications such as gaskets, hoses, and corrosion-resistant coatings. It can also be used as a base for adhesives. 

### Uses
*balls; diaphragms as in diaphragm valve
*sheet: glove
*foam: wetsuit; glove
*adhesive: adhesive tape; liquid adhesive

## Other websites
*Information about Neoprene at DuPont Performance Elastomers
Medical tourism

**Medical Tourism** is when patients visit other countries for medical care. The patients usually come from developed countries to find treatment at lower prices. Over 50 countries have identified medical tourism as a national industry.

Examples of common medical procedures done for medical tourists are surgeries like joint replacement, heart surgery, cosmetic surgery, weight loss, dental treatment, and addictions rehabilitation (or recovery from addiction).

## Etymology 
The term *medical tourism* can also be called medical travel, health tourism or global healthcare. It was initially developed by travel agencies and the mass media to describe the rapidly-growing practice of travelling across international borders to obtain health care. Mainly it is for curing people and a lot of countries believe on this.

## Countries 
Countries that are popular for Medical Tourism are:
* Canada
* Cuba
* Thailand
* India In comparison, in Cuba, going through medical tourism firm Choice Medical Services, the same procedure costs about US$8000 (EUR 5967) or about an 80 percent savings.

## Risks 
People who are obese may get medical treatment to lose weight.  In Britain there are long waiting lists for weight loss surgery. It is very easy to get this surgery in Turkey. Seven Britons have died after having weight loss surgery there since 2019 and many more have had serious problems.

## References 
## Other websites 
*"Canadian Firms Offer Cuban Healthcare to US, Canadian Patients", *Miami Herald*, Oct. 7, 2007
Burrowing parakeet

The **burrowing parakeet** (binomial name ***Cyanoliseus patagonus***), also known as the **Patagonian conure** or **burrowing parrot**. is a species of parrot in the Psittacidae family. It is found in Argentina, Chile, Falkland Islands, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, and Uruguay. It lives in subtropical or tropical dry shrubland, subtropical or tropical high-altitude shrubland, and pastureland. 

## Other websites 
*Birds of Chile postage stamps
Pioneer 11

**Pioneer 11** (also known as **Pioneer G**) was a NASA space probe to explore space and gather information. It was the second mission to visit Jupiter and the first mission to visit Saturn. The space probe was launched on April 5, 1973 and flew by Jupiter on December 2, 1974 and Saturn on September 1, 1979. 

In 1983, Pioneer 11 was predicted to be surpassed by Voyager 1 in the distace to the Sun and later by Voyager 2 around March 1988.

The probe was last heard on November 24, 1995 when the last communication between Earth and the probe ended due to power limitation and vast diatance, when it was 44.1 AU (4.1 billion miles or 7.5 billion km) from Earth.

By Nov. 5, 2017, Pioneer 11 was estimated to be about 97.590 AU (9.1 billion miles or 14.599 billion kilometers) from Earth.

Both Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11 had plaques etched in gold. The plaques were designed by a team lead by Carl Sagan to communicate with extraterrestrial life should the spacecraft come into contact with it.

By 2027, Pioneer 11 is predicted to have exited the heliosphere and entered interstellar space.

## Related pages
* NASA
* Voyager 1
* Cassini-Huygens

## References
## Other websites
*Pioneer Project Home Page 
*Pioneer 11 Profile  by NASA's Solar System Exploration
*Ted Stryk's Pioneer 11 at Saturn page 
*NSSDC Pioneer 11 page 
**Pioneer Odyssey,* NASA SP-396, 1977  - This is an *entire book* about the Pioneer 10 and 11 project, with all pictures and diagrams, on-line!  Scroll down to click on the "Table of Contents" link.
Jay

The **jays** are several species of medium-sized, usually colorful and noisy birds in the crow family Corvidae.

## Jays in culture
### Slang
* The word "jay" has an archaic meaning in American slang meaning a stupid or dull person, from which is derived the term jaywalking 
### Organizational symbols
* The Toronto Blue Jays, a Major League Baseball team based in Toronto, Ontario.

## Related pages
*General licences under the Wildlife & Countryside Act 1981

## References
* Ericson, Per G. P.; Jansén, Anna-Lee; Johansson, Ulf S. & Ekman, Jan (2005): Inter-generic relationships of the crows, jays, magpies and allied groups (Aves: Corvidae) based on nucleotide sequence data. *Journal of Avian Biology* **36**: 222-234. PDF fulltext 

## Other websites
*Jay videos on the Internet Bird Collection
Aquifer

An **aquifer** is an underground  layer where the material contains water. That can be less solid material like sand, gravel, clay or silt, but it can be rock as well, as long as the rock allows water to get in (that means that it is water-bearing).
Groundwater can be taken out of the ground by digging a well. The study of water in aquifers is called hydrogeology.

## Groundwater in rock formations 
One kind of groundwater is found in underground rivers in caves where water flows freely underground. This may occur in eroded limestone areas known as karst topography, but those are only found in small parts of the Earth.

Usually, groundwater is found in the pore spaces, or tiny openings, of rocks under the ground.  The pores in the rocks are saturated, or filled up, with water, much like a kitchen sponge.  The groundwater  can be pumped out for agricultural, industrial, or municipal uses.

If a rock unit of low  is highly fractured, it can make a good aquifer (via fissure flow), if the water can get through it. Porosity is important, but, *alone*, it does not make an aquifer. The Deccan Traps (a flood basaltic lava) in west central India are good examples of rock with high porosity but low permeability, so they are poor aquifers. The (Upper Cretaceous) Chalk of south east England has a reasonably high porosity, but low grain-to-grain permeability. Much of its good water-yielding characteristics being due to micro-fracturing and fissuring.

## Examples 
*The Great Artesian Basin in Australia is arguably the largest groundwater aquifer in the world. (over 1.7 million km²). It plays a large part in water supplies for Queensland and remote parts of South Australia.
*The Guarani Aquifer with an area of 1.2 million km² is shared by Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay.
*The Ogallala Aquifer of the central United States is one of the world's great aquifers. It underlies portions of eight states, contains primarily fossil water from the time of the last glaciation.  Annual recharge, in the more arid parts of the aquifer, is estimated to total only about 10 percent of annual withdrawals.
*The Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System (NSAS) is the world’s largest known fossil water aquifer system. 

## Exploitation 
Aquifers can occur at various depths. Those closer to the surface are not only more likely to be exploited for water supply and irrigation, but are also more likely to be topped up by the local rainfall. Many desert areas have limestone hills or mountains within them or close to them which can be exploited as groundwater resources. If more water is taken out than get in again one speaks of over-harvesting. Along the coastlines of certain countries, such as Libya and Israel, population growth has led to over-population which has caused the lowering of water table and the subsequent contamination of the groundwater with saltwater from the sea (saline intrusions). In these cases the aquifer contains brackish water.

When water seeps (comes slowly) out of the ground, it is called a **seep** or "spring (water)". It usually means there is an aquifer under the ground.

## References
Errol Flynn

**Errol Leslie Thomson Flynn** (20 June 1909 – 14 October 1959) was an Australian actor. He was known for his swashbuckler roles in movies like *Adventures of Don Juan* and *The Sea Hawk*.

## Early years 
Errol Flynn was born in Hobart, Tasmania, Australia. His father Theodore Thomson Flynn, was a lecturer (1909) and later professor (1911) of biology at the University of Tasmania. Flynn was born at the Queen Alexandra Hospital in Battery Point. His mother was born Lily Mary Young. She dropped the first names Lily Mary shortly after she was married and changed her name to Marelle. Flynn described his mother's family as *"seafaring folk"*. This may account for his lifelong love of the sea and boats.

## First movies
He became a naturalized American citizen in 1942. He is remembered for his successful on-screen partnership with Olivia de Havilland. They appeared together in eight movies: *Captain Blood* (1935, his first great success), *The Charge of the Light Brigade* (1936), *The Adventures of Robin Hood* (1938), ''Four's a Crowd* (1938), *Dodge City* (1939), *The Private Lives of Elizabeth and Essex* (1939), *Santa Fe Trail* (1940), and *They Died with Their Boots On'' (1941). This partnership started rumors of romance. De Havilland denied these rumors. She said her relationship with Flynn was one of friendship only.

## WWII years 
Flynn tried to enlist in every branch of the United States Armed Services during WWII. He was classified 4F because of numerous health issues. Hollywood executives kept his health issues a secret to protect his screen image. He never served and was criticized for this. As the years passed, Flynn's manly image diminished. He became an alcoholic, gained weight, and had a seedy appearance. Flynn wrote his autobiography *My Wicked, Wicked Ways* in 1959. He died of a heart attack at age 50. 

## Marriages and children 
Flynn was married three times: first to actress Lili Damita from 1935 until 1942 (one son, Sean Flynn, 1941&ndash;70?); to Nora Eddington from 1943 until 1949 (two daughters, Deirdre born 1945 and Rory born 1947); and to actress Patrice Wymore from 1950 until his death (one daughter, Arnella Roma, 1953–1998).

## Lifestyle
Flynn had a reputation for womanizing and freewheeling fun. His hedonistic lifestyle caught up with him in 1942 when two under-age girls, Betty Hansen and Peggy Satterlee, accused him of statutory rape. The two girls said that it happened at the Bel-Air home of Flynn's friend Frederick McEvoy. A group was organized to support Flynn. It was called the American Boys' Club for the Defense of Errol Flynn (ABCDEF). Its members included William F. Buckley, Jr. The trial took place in January and February 1943. Flynn was cleared of the charges.

## References 
## Other websites 
* Errol Flynn at the National Film and Sound Archive 
* 
* Map of where Errol died in Vancouver
* Profile for Errol Flynn at Find A Grave
* Errol Flynn on CBC's Front Page Challenge
* Wu Ming's "In Like Flynn" at Chicago Review
David Niven

**David Niven** (March 1, 1910 – July 29, 1983) was an English actor. He won the Academy Award for "Best Actor" for his role in the movie *Separate Tables* in 1958. Originally, he was the actor who was to play the first James Bond, but the producers later decided to give the role to Sean Connery instead. Some of the movies that he was in include The Pink Panther, Around the World in 80 Days, The Guns of Navarone, and Casino Royale. 

Niven started his career as an extra. He died of motor neurone disease.

## Other websites
* 
* 
* 
*
Rudolph Valentino

**Rudolph Valentino** (May 6, 1895 – August 23, 1926) was an Italian actor of silent movies. He was born **Rodolfo Alfonso Raffaello Piero Filiberto Guglielmi** in Castellaneta, Italy. He became popular as one of the first sex symbols in Hollywood in the 1920s.

He grew up in Italy. His father died while he was young, and his mother spoiled him. Valentino did not live long enough to see movies with sound replace silent movies. He died of peridontis on August 23, 1926, at the age of 31.

## Movies 
* *My Official Wife* (1914)
* *The Quest of Life* (1916)
* *The Foolish Virgin* (uncredited) (1916)
* *Seventeen* (uncredited, extra) (1916)
* *Alimony* (1917)
* *A Society Sensation* (1918)
* *All Night* (1918)
* *The Married Virgin* (or *Frivolous Wives*; 1918)
* *The Delicious Little Devil* (1919)
* *The Big Little Person* (1919)
* ''A Rogue's Romance* (1919)
* *The Homebreake* (1919)
* *Out of Luck* (1919)
* *Virtuous Sinners* (1919)
* *The Fog* (1919)
* *Nobody Home* (1919)
* *The Eyes of Youth* (1919)
* *Stolen Moments* (1920)
* *An Adventuress* (1920)
* *The Cheater* (1920)
* *Passion's Playground* (1920)
* *Once to Every Woman* (1920)
* *The Wonderful Chance* (1920)
* *The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse* (1921)
* *Uncharted Seas* (1921)
* *Conquering Power* (1921)
* *Camille* (1921)
* *The Sheik* (1921)
* *Moran of the Lady Letty* (1922)
* *Beyond the Rocks* (1922)
* *Blood and Sand* (1922)
* *The Young Rajah* (1922)
* *Monsieur Beaucaire* (1924)
* *A Sainted Devil* (1924)
* *Cobra* (1925)
* *The Eagle* (1925)
* *The Son of the Sheik* (1926)

## References
## Other websites
* Rudolph Valentino homepage
* 
* Rudolph Valentino Yahoo discussion group 
* Rudolph Valentino photo gallery  at Silent Gents .
* Audio history (MP3, 17:23). Emily Leider, author of *Dark Lover: The Life and Death of Rudolph Valentino''
* Affairs Valentino.
* Valentino biography in Spanish, Italian & English 
* Rudolfo Valentino at tricolore.net
Rita Hayworth

**Margarita Carmen Cansino**, usually called **Rita Hayworth** (October 17, 1918–May 14, 1987), was an American actress of Spanish and Irish origin. She became famous as the greatest sex symbol of the 1940s.

She died of Alzheimer's at age 68 in Manhattan, New York.

Other websites:
* 
* 
* 
* Obituary, New York Times, May 16, 1987 - *Rita Hayworth, Movie Legend, Dies*
* Rita Hayworth Biography.
* Find-A-Grave profile for Rita Hayworth
* The All-American Love Goddess  Rita Hayworth: 1918-1987   Time Magazine 1987 obituary.
* California Carmen  Hayworth's November 10, 1941 Time Magazine cover story article.
* Cultural Studies essay on Rita 
*
Raquel Welch

in 1976 with Gilda Radner]]

**Jo Raquel Tejada** (September 5, 1940 &ndash; February 15, 2023), usually called **Raquel Welch**, was an American actress and model. She became famous during the 1960s as one of the most beautiful women in Hollywood. She won the Golden Globe Award in 1975.

On February 15, 2023, Welch died from cardiac arrest at her home in Los Angeles, California at the age of 82. She also suffered from Alzheimer's disease.

## Movies 
* *A House Is Not a Home* (1964)
* *Roustabout* (1964)
* ''A Swingin' Summer* (1965)
* *The Queens* (1966)
* *Fantastic Voyage* (1966)
* *One Million Years B.C.* (1966)
* *Shoot Loud, Louder... I Don't Understand* (1966)
* *Think Twentieth* (1967) (short subject)
* *The Oldest Profession* (1967)
* *Fathom* (1967)
* *Bedazzled* (1967)
* *The Biggest Bundle of Them All* (1968)
* *Bandolero!* (1968)
* *Lady in Cement* (1968)
* *100 Rifles* (1969)
* *Flareup* (1969)
* *The Magic Christian* (1969)
* *The Beloved* (1970)
* *Myra Breckinridge* (1970)
* *Hannie Caulder* (1971)
* *Bluebeard* (1972)
* *Fuzz* (1972)
* *Kansas City Bomber* (1972)
* *The Last of Sheila* (1973)
* *The Three Musketeers* (1973)
* *The Four Musketeers* (1974)
* *The Wild Party* (1975)
* *Mother, Jugs & Speed* (1976)
* *The Animal* (1977)
* *Crossed Swords* (1978)
* *Trouble in Paradise* (1989)
* *Naked Gun 33⅓: The Final Insult* (1994) (Cameo)
* *Chairman of the Board* (1998)
* *What I Did for Love* (1998)
* *Tortilla Soup* (2001)
* *Legally Blonde* (2001)
* *Jim Brown: All American* (2002) (documentary)
* *Forget About It* (2005)
* * The Elvis Cup (2006)

## References
## Other websites 
* 
* 
* Raquel Welch video clips
Anthony Quinn

**Anthony Quinn** (April 21, 1915 – June 3, 2001) was an American actor. He was famous in the United States for his roles in two Hollywood films, the star role in *Zorba the Greek* and *Viva Zapata!*. He won two Academy Awards during his very long career.

## Other websites 
* The Estate of Anthony Quinn
* Anthony Quinn's artwork 
* 
* Directing Anthony Quinn
Tommy Lee Jones

{{Infobox person
| name               = Tommy Lee Jones
| image              = Tommy Lee Jones 2017.jpg
| image_size         = 200px
| caption            = Jones at the 2017 Tokyo International Film Festival
| birth_date         = Tommy Lee Jones
(age 75) September 15, 1946 - Present
}
| birth_place        = San Saba, Texas, U.S.
| alma_mater         = Harvard University
| occupation         = Actor, director
| years_active       = 1970–present
| spouse             = Katherine "Kate" Lardner (1971–1978)Kimberlea Cloughley (1981–1996)Dawn Laurel (2001–present)
| children           = 2
| awards             = Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor (1994), Golden Globe Award (1994), Emmy Award (1983)
}}
**Tommy Lee Jones** (born September 15, 1946) is an American actor and movie director. He won the Academy and the Golden Globe awards in 1993 for his role in the movie *The Fugitive*.

## Early life
He was born in Texas in 1946. His mother, Lucille Marie (née Scott), was a police officer, school teacher, and beauty shop owner. His father, Clyde C. Jones, was an oil field worker. He was raised in Midland, Texas. Jones was given an athletic scholarship to go to a school in Dallas, Texas. After finishing school he worked on the oil rigs before going to Harvard University to study English.

He finished university in 1969 and moved to New York to be an actor. His first role was in the Broadway play, *A Patriot For Me.* He had many small parts until he got the main role in the movie *JFK*. He won the Academy Award for the best actor in a supporting role for the movie *The Fugitive*.

## Other websites
*
*

## References
Jack Lemmon

**John Uhler "Jack" Lemmon III** (February 8, 1925 – June 27, 2001), was an American actor and director who received many awards in his long career. He got two Academy and five Golden Globe awards. Lemmon acted in many movies, and was famous for being very good at comedy and drama. Lemmon died of bladder and colon cancer.

## Movies 
**The Lady Takes a Sailor* (1949)
**It Should Happen to You* (1954)
**Phffft!* (1954)
**Three for the Show* (1955)
**Mister Roberts* (1955)
**My Sister Eileen* (1955)
**Hollywood Bronc Busters* (1955)
*''You Can't Run Away from It* (1956)
**Fire Down Below* (1957)
**Operation Mad Ball* (1957)
**Cowboy* (1958)
**Bell, Book and Candle* (1958)
**Some Like It Hot* (1959)
**It Happened to Jane* (1959)
**The Apartment* (1960)
**Stowaway in the Sky* (1960)
**Pepe* (1960)
**The Wackiest Ship In the Army* (1960)
**The Notorious Landlady* (1962)
**Days of Wine and Roses* (1962)
**Irma la Douce* (1963)
**Under the Yum Yum Tree* (1963)
**Good Neighbor Sam* (1964)
**How to Murder Your Wife* (1965)
**The Great Race* (1965)
**The Fortune Cookie* (1966)
**Luv* (1967)
**There Comes a Day* (1968)
**The Odd Couple* (1968)
**The April Fools* (1969)
**The Out-of-Towners* (1970)
**Kotch* (1971)
**The War Between Men and Women* (1972)
**Avanti!* (1972)
**Save the Tiger* (1973)
**The Police Can't Move* (1974) (narrator)
**The Front Page* (1974)
**Wednesday* (1975)
**The Gentleman Tramp* (1975)  (narrator)
**The Prisoner of Second Avenue* (1975)
**Alex & the Gypsy* (1976)
**Airport '77* (1977)
**The China Syndrome* (1979)
**Portrait of a 60% Perfect Man* (1980)
**Tribute* (1980)
**Buddy Buddy* (1981)
**Missing* (1982)
**Mass Appeal* (1984)
**Macaroni* (1985)
**That's Life!* (1986)
**Dad* (1989)
**JFK* (1991)
**Beyond 'JFK': The Question of Conspiracy* (1992)
**The Player* (1992)
**Glengarry Glen Ross* (1992)
**Luck, Trust & Ketchup: Robert Altman In Carver County* (1993)
**Short Cuts* (1993)
**Grumpy Old Men* (1993)
**The Grass Harp* (1995)
**Grumpier Old Men* (1995)
**Getting Away with Murder* (1996)
**My Fellow Americans* (1996)
**Hamlet* (1996)
**Out to Sea* (1997)
**Off the Menu: The Last Days of Chasen's* (1997)
**Puppies for Sale* (1998)
**The Odd Couple II* (1998)
**Tuesdays with Morrie* (1999)
**The Legend of Bagger Vance'' (2000)

## References 
## Other websites 
* 
* 
* 
* Jack Lemmon's Gravesite
Olivia de Havilland

**Dame Olivia Mary de Havilland** DBE (July 1, 1916 &ndash; July 26, 2020) was a British-American actress. She was one of two only living stars of *Gone with the Wind*, but there were also actors with smaller roles in said film who were still alive. She has won the Academy Award two times. She was the sister of late actress Joan Fontaine, who also won The Academy Award. They did not get along ever since they were children.

De Havilland was born in Tokyo to British parents. She became a naturalised American citizen in 1941. She lived in Paris from 1956 until her death in 2020.

De Havilland died on July 26, 2020 at her home in Paris at the age of 104.

## Films 
* *Alibi Ike* (1935)
* *The Irish in Us* (1935)
* ''A Midsummer Night's Dream* (1935)
* *Captain Blood* (1935)
* *A Dream Comes True* (1935 - short subject)
* *Anthony Adverse* (1936)
* *The Charge of the Light Brigade* (1936)
* *The Making of a Great Motion Picture* (1936 - short subject)
* *Call It a Day* (1937)
* *It's Love I'm After* (1937)
* *The Great Garrick* (1937)
* *Gold Is Where You Find It* (1938)
* *The Adventures of Robin Hood* (1938)
* *Four's a Crowd* (1938)
* *Hard to Get* (1938)
* *A Day at Santa Anita* (1939 - short subject)
* *Wings of the Navy* (1939)
* *Dodge City* (1939)
* *The Private Lives of Elizabeth and Essex* (1939)
* *Gone with the Wind* (1939)
* *Raffles* (1940)
* *My Love Came Back* (1940)
* *Santa Fe Trail* (1940)
* *The Strawberry Blonde* (1941)
* *Hold Back the Dawn* (1941)
* *They Died with Their Boots On* (1941)
* *The Male Animal* (1942)
* *In This Our Life* (1942)
* *Show Business at War* (1943 - short subject)
* *Princess O'Rourke* (1943)
* *Thank Your Lucky Stars* (1943)
* *Government Girl* (1943)
* *To Each His Own* (1946)
* *Devotion* (1946)
* *The Well-Groomed Bride* (1946)
* *The Dark Mirror* (1946)
* *The Snake Pit* (1948)
* *The Heiress* (1949)
* *My Cousin Rachel* (1952)
* *That Lady* (1955)
* *Not as a Stranger* (1955)
* *The Ambassador's Daughter* (1956)
* *The Proud Rebel* (1958)
* *Libel* (1959)
* *The Light in the Piazza* (1962)
* *Lady in a Cage* (1964)
* *Hush... Hush, Sweet Charlotte* (1964)
* *The Adventurers* (1970)
* *Pope Joan* (1972)
* *Airport '77* (1977)
* *The Swarm* (1978)
* *The Fifth Musketeer'' (1979)

## References
## Other websites 
* 
* 
* 
* Long obituary at https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/olivia-de-havilland-dead-gone-wind-adventures-robin-hood-star-was-104-720040
* 1995 interview
James Garner

**James Garner** (born **James Scott Bumgarner**; April 7, 1928 &ndash; July 19, 2014) was an American movie and television actor. He acted in several television series in a career of more than fifty years, including his roles as *Bret Maverick* in the popular 1950s western-comedy series, *Maverick* and *Jim Rockford* in the popular 1970s detective drama, *The Rockford Files*. He also acted in many movies, including *The Great Escape* (1963) and Paddy Chayefsky's *The Americanization of Emily* (1964).

Garner died from a massive heart attack at his Los Angeles, California home, aged 86.

## Movies
* *Toward the Unknown* (1956)
* *The Girl He Left Behind* (1956)
* *Shoot-Out at Medicine Bend* (1957)
* *Sayonara* (1957)
* ''Darby's Rangers* (1958)
* *Up Periscope* (1959)
* *Alias Jesse James* (1959) (Cameo)
* *Cash McCall* (1960)
* *The Children's Hour* (1961)
* *Boys' Night Out* (1962)
* *The Great Escape* (1963)
* *The Thrill of It All* (1963)
* *The Wheeler Dealers* (1963)
* *Move Over, Darling* (1963)
* *Action on the Beach* (1964) (short subject)
* *The Americanization of Emily* (1964)
* *36 Hours* (1965)
* *The Art of Love* (1965)
* *Grand Prix: Challenge of the Champions* (1966) (short subject)
* *A Man Could Get Killed* (1966)
* *Duel at Diablo* (1966)
* *Mister Buddwing* (1966)
* *Grand Prix* (1966)
* *Hour of the Gun* (1967)
* *Once Upon a Wheel* (1968) (documentary)
* *The Man Who Makes the Difference* (1968) (short subject)
* *How Sweet It Is!* (1968)
* *The Pink Jungle* (1968)
* *The Racing Scene* (1969) (documentary)
* *Support Your Local Sheriff!* (1969)
* *Marlowe* (1969)
* *A Man Called Sledge* (1970)
* *Support Your Local Gunfighter!* (1971)
* *Skin Game* (1971)
* *They Only Kill Their Masters* (1972)
* *One Little Indian* (1973)
* *The Castaway Cowboy* (1974)
* *HealtH* (1980)
* *The Fan* (1981)
* *Victor/Victoria* (1982)
* *Tank* (1984)
* *Murphy's Romance* (1985)
* *Sunset* (1988)
* *The Distinguished Gentleman* (1992)
* *Fire in the Sky* (1993)
* *Maverick* (1994)
* *Wild Bill: Hollywood Maverick* (1996) (documentary)
* *My Fellow Americans* (1996)
* *The Hidden Dimension* (1997) (documentary) (narrator)
* *Twilight* (1998)
* *Space Cowboys* (2000)
* *Atlantis: The Lost Empire* (2001) (voice)
* *Divine Secrets of the Ya-Ya Sisterhood* (2002)
* *The Land Before Time X: The Great Longneck Migration* (2003) (voice) (direct-to-DVD)
* *The Notebook* (2004)
* *Al Roach: Private Investigator* (2004) (short subject) (voice)
* *The Ultimate Gift* (2007)
* *The Magic Shoe* (2007)
* *Terra'' (2008) (voice)

## References
## Other websites
*
*Jim's bio @ the Museum of Broadcast Communications 
*Archive of American Television Interview with James Garner March 17, 1999 on Google Video
*Rockford Files site 
*
Torajan people

The **Torajans** are an ethnic group, indigenous to a part of South Sulawesi, Indonesia. There are about 650,000 of them around the world. 450,000 of these still live in the regency of Tana Toraja ("Land of Toraja"). Most of them are Christian. Others of them are Muslim or have local animist beliefs known as *aluk* ("the way"). The Indonesian government has recognized this animist belief as *Aluk To Dolo* ("Way of the Ancestors").

## References
## Further reading
*
*

## Other websites 
*Tana Toraja official website .
*Toraja on the Net - news and commentary.
*batusura.de - A personal website containing photography and recorded music from Toraja.
*Online Toraja information .
Voyager 2

***Voyager 2*** is a space probe. It was used by NASA to explore Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.  It is the only spacecraft that has come near to Uranus and Neptune.  Because of this, most pictures of these two ice planets are from this spacecraft.  It was identical in form to its sister space probe, *Voyager 1*.  The space probe is currently moving away from the Solar System. It is heading out into interstellar space.

*Voyager 2* was launched on August 20, 1977. It is now in an extended mission. Its encounter with the largest natural satellite of Neptune, Triton sent it on a hyperbolic trajectory out of the Solar System. It was moving at about . This is much faster than escape velocity.

Both *Voyager 1* and *Voyager 2* hold the Voyager Golden Record. This is a recording of sounds and images of life on Earth.  It was designed by a team led by Carl Sagan. The Golden Record is to communicate with extraterrestrial life.

Voyager 2 is the second spacecraft to exit from the Solar System and enter into the interstellar space. It did so 6 years after Voyager 1. In 2018, NASA said that Voyager 2 had reached the heliopause on 5 November 2018. On July 18, 2023, Voyager 2 overtook Pioneer 10 to become the 2nd farthest spacecraft from the Sun, at a distance of 133.917 AU (nearly 12.45 billion miles or approximately 2034.00 billion km) from the Sun.  

## Related pages
* Pioneer 10
* Pioneer 11
* Voyager 1
* Exploration of Neptune

## References
## Other websites
* NASA *Voyager* website
* *Voyager* Spacecraft Lifetime
* Voyager 2 Mission Profile  by NASA's Solar System Exploration
* Spacecraft Escaping the Solar System  - current positions and diagrams
* Mission state
* VOYAGER RECENT 6-HOUR HISTORY 
* Voyager 2 Detects Odd Shape of Solar System's Edge  23 May 2006
Rock Hudson

**Rock Hudson** (November 17, 1925 – October 2, 1985) was an American movie and television actor. He is famous for his good looks and remembered as a romantic star during the 1950s and 1960s, especially several movies where he starred with actress Doris Day. 

Hudson was voted *Star of the Year* and *Favorite Leading Man,* by many movie magazines and was one of the most popular movie stars of the time. He made nearly 70 movies and acted in several television productions during a career of more than three decades, and he received the Golden Globe Award four times. 

Hudson was a closeted homosexual. He was one of the first major Hollywood personalities to die from AIDS.

## Movies
**Fighter Squadron* (1948)
**Undertow* (1949)
**One Way Street* (1950)
**I Was a Shoplifter* (1950)
**Peggy* (1950)
*''Winchester '73* (1950)
**The Desert Hawk* (1950)
**Shakedown* (1950)
**Tomahawk* (1951)
**Air Cadet* (1951)
**The Fat Man* (1951)
**Bright Victory* (1951)
**Iron Man* (1951)
**Bend of the River* (1952)
**Here Come the Nelsons* (1952)
**Scarlet Angel* (1952)
**Has Anybody Seen My Gal?* (1952)
**Horizons West* (1952)
**The Lawless Breed* (1953)
**Seminole* (1953)
**Sea Devils* (1953)
**The Golden Blade* (1953)
**Gun Fury* (1953)
**Back to God's Country* (1953)
**Beneath the 12-Mile Reef* (1953) (narrator)
**Taza, Son of Cochise* (1954)
**Magnificent Obsession* (1954)
**Bengal Brigade* (1954)
**Captain Lightfoot* (1955)
**One Desire* (1955)
**All That Heaven Allows* (1955)
**Never Say Goodbye* (1956)
**Giant* (1956)
**Written on the Wind* (1956)
**Battle Hymn* (1957)
**Something of Value* (1957)
**A Farewell to Arms* (1957)
**The Tarnished Angels* (1958)
**Twilight for the Gods* (1958)
**This Earth Is Mine* (1959)
**Pillow Talk* (1959)
**The Last Sunset* (1961)
**Come September* (1961)
**Lover Come Back* (1961)
**The Spiral Road* (1962)
**Marilyn* (1963) (documentary) (narrator)
**A Gathering of Eagles* (1963)
**Man's Favorite Sport?* (1964)
**Send Me No Flowers* (1964)
**Strange Bedfellows* (1965)
**A Very Special Favor* (1965)
**Blindfold* (1965)
**Seconds* (1966)
**Tobruk* (1967)
**The Man Who Makes the Difference* (1968) (short subject)
**Ice Station Zebra* (1968)
**A Fine Pair* (1969)
**The Undefeated* (1969)
**Darling Lili* (1970)
**Hornets' Nest* (1970)
**Pretty Maids All in A Row* (1971)
**Showdown* (1973)
**Embryo* (1976)
**The Mirror Crack'd* (1980)
**The Ambassador'' (1984)

## Other websites
* 
* Transcript of CNN Larry King 7. june 2001, Special on Rock Hudson offscreen with Dale Olson
* Transcript of CNN Larry King 1. October 2003, 18th anniversary of Hudson's death
* Rock Hudson biography at TCM 
* Rock Hudson at AllExperts 
* Rock Hudson at classic movies - many links 
* fan page by LMScully
* Rock Hudson at Brian's drive-in theatre
Maximus the Confessor

**Saint Maximus the Confessor** (also known as **Maximus the Theologian** and **Maximus of Constantinople**) (born  580 – 13 August, 662) was a Christian monk, theologian, and scholar. In his early life, he was a civil servant. He was also an  to the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius. However, he gave up this life to become a monk.

## Further reading
**Maximus Confessor: Selected Writings (Classics of Western Spirituality)*. Ed. George C. Berthold. Paulist Press, 1985. .
**St. Maximus the Confessor: The Ascetic Life, The Four Centuries on Charity (Ancient Christian Writers)*. Ed. Polycarp Sherwood. Paulist Press, 1955. .
**Maximus the Confessor and his Companions (Documents from Exile) (Oxford Early Christian Texts)*. Ed. and Trans. Pauline Allen, Bronwen Neil. Oxford University Press, 2004. .

## Other websites 
* Selected works of Saint Maximus Confessor
* Maximus Confessor in the Catholic Encyclopedia
* Maximus Confessor  in the Catholic Forum
* Maximus Confessor in the Orthodox Church in America
Chitin

is chitin.]]

**Chitin** is a semitransparent material that is the main component of the exoskeletons of arthropods, such as crustaceans (e.g. crab, lobster and shrimp) and insects (e.g. ants, beetles and butterflies), of the cell walls of fungi, the radula of molluscs and the beaks of cephalopods (e.g. squid, and octopuses). Chitin has also proven useful for several medical and industrial purposes.
's head and chest are covered with plates of hard chitin, while the abdomen is covered with soft chitin. The wings also are a chitinous membrane.]]

## References 
## Other websites 
* Chitin Product Information from China GreatVista Chemicals 
* Horseshoe Crab Chitin Research
Separation of powers

**Separation of Powers** means that the three branches of government are separated.

The three branches are as follows:
* the Legislative - the part that makes laws
* the executive - the part that carries out (*executes*) the laws
* the Judicial Branch - the courts that decide if the law has been broken

Separation of Powers helps to protect freedom.  The executive branch carries out the laws but cannot make laws to make themselves powerful.  Also the judiciary is responsible for making sure that criminals are punished, so that members of the government or legislature cannot ignore the law as the judiciary can check on them.

Separation of powers is also called a system of *checks and balances* because the branches can check up on each other and if any of the branches get too strong, that branch will be balanced by the others. 

In the United States the three branches of government are completely separate except for the Vice President who is President of the Senate. In the United Kingdom the three branches of Government are mixed but the checks and balances are provided by history and *custom* (the rule that says something should happen because that is how it has been done for a long time).  The King is Head of State (the executive), but is also part of Parliament (the legislative branch) and is the Fountain of Justice (the head of the judicial branch). But by convention he does not do anything without the advice of Ministers and never refuses to pass an Act of Parliament. The King has a lot of power but the power is controlled and balanced by the need to act in certain ways or only use the power at certain times.

In some countries the leaders of the executive branch are members of the legislature. This system is called responsible government.
The first to talk about separation of powers in the modern age was Charles-Louis Montesquieu. Montesquieu published his book ''De l'esprit des lois* (*The Spirit of Laws'') in 1748.

## Related pages
* Constitution
* Constitutionalism
*Constitution of the United States
* Mixed government
Radula

The **radula** is the toothed chitinous ribbon in the mouth  of most molluscs. It can be compared with the tongue of human beings but, unlike our tongue, it is used for cutting and chewing food before it enters the esophagus.  

The radula is present in all molluscs except bivalves, and only in molluscs.  For example, Gastropods use it to graze and scrape diatoms and other microscopic algae off rock surfaces and other substrata.  Squid use it for cutting up their prey. 

## References 
## Other websites 
* Molluscan buccal structures and radula 
* A Comparison of the feeding behaviour and the functional morphology of radula structure in Nudibranchs
Endoskeleton

]]

An **endoskeleton** is a structure that holds an animal from inside. 

One can find endoskeletons in three phyla and one subclass of animals: in Chordata, Echinodermata, Porifera and Coleoidea. An endoskeleton allows the body to move and gives the body structure and shape. 

A true endoskeleton develops from mesodermal tissue. Such a skeleton is present in echinoderms and chordates. The Coleoidae do not have a true endoskeleton in the evolutionary sense; here, a mollusc exoskeleton developed into several sorts of internal structure, the "cuttlebone" of cuttlefish being the best-known version. An important advantage of an endoskeleton over an exoskeleton is that the endoskeleton provides more structural support.
Endoskeletons hold inner organs, tissues, and systems together easily.
Adetokunbo Ademola

Omoba Sir **Adetokunbo Adegboyega Ademola**, KBE, GCON, PC, SAN (1 February 1906 – 29 January 1993) was a Nigerian judge and former Chief Justice of Nigeria (1958-1972). Before becoming the Chief Justice, he was Chief Justice of the Western Region of Nigeria. 

Although, Justice Ademola is known for his judicial duties, he was an important person in the Nigerian crisis of 1966. Then, a counter coup had challenged the unity of Nigeria. A few Northern Military officers had successfully executed a coup with a plan to secede from Nigeria. But the British High Commission, which gets intelligence briefings on Nigeria and Chief Justice Ademola persuaded the Northern leaders not to quit but to take power.

## Life
Adetokunbo Ademola was born on February 1, 1906 to the family of a titled traditional ruler of Abeokuta, Oba Ladapo Ademola. He later married the daughter of a prominent Lagos lawyer, Kofo Moore.

He attended St Gregory's Grammar School and King's College, Lagos before proceeding to Selwyn College, Cambridge. He was then called to the bar in 1934 and started work as a crown counsel. In 1939, he was appointed a magistrate before becoming a junior high court judge in 1949. In 1955, he was made the Chief Judge of Western Nigeria and later became the Chief Justice of the country.

## Chief Justice
As the Chief Justice, he was instrumental to the establishment of the Nigerian Law School, the first in the country. He was also involved in a case: Lakanmi vs the Attorney General of Nigeria, where he ruled that a Nigerian court could review military decrees.

## References
Kayfabe

In professional wrestling, something that is **"kayfabe"** is not real, something that is "acted out" and not happening in real life. Many things in wrestling are kayfabe, that is, they appear to be real (such as the storylines), but are fake. Its opposite is legit.

People who believe that kayfabe acts are real are called marks, as opposed to smarks. Those who know wrestling is scripted but still enjoy the storylines are known as smart-marks, or smarks.

It is unknown where the term came from; it is sometimes believed that the term "kayfabe" is a modification of the Pig latin word for "fake", "akefay".

## Related pages 
*List of professional wrestling terms
Bruce Willis

**Walter Bruce Willis** (born March 19, 1955) is an American retired film actor and film producer. His mother was German; his father was American. He became famous in the late 1980s. He has remained one of Hollywood's biggest stars, mostly for his role as Lt. *John McClane* in the *Die Hard* series. 

Willis was married to actress Demi Moore and they had three daughters before their divorce in 2001. They were married for thirteen years. He has received many awards and honors in his career. Willis supports the United States armed forces and has been a spokesman several times.

Some of his best known movies are *Die Hard*, *The Player*, *Pulp Fiction* and *Sin City*.

In March 2022, he officially announced his retirement from acting after he was diagnosed with aphasia. In February 2023, it was announced that Willis was diagnosed with frontotemporal dementia.

## References
## Other websites 
* 
* 
* 
* Bruce Willis interview  on *The Tavis Smiley Show*