open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Decadence

: *Les Romains de la décadence*, 1847]]
, 1899]]

**Decadence** (pronounced: DEK-a-dence) means a state in which people are behaving in a way that is regarded by some people as being morally bad.  The adjective is 'decadent'.  It has nothing to do with the word decade (10 years).  

## Where the word came from
“Decadence” comes from the Latin words “de” (from) and “cadere” (to fall).  Thus it means *to fall from a higher state of being*.

## Decadence and society
Decadence is usually a state in a society which used to be good but has become bad. Many people have started to behave in a way that others think is shocking and society does not function as well as it did before.  Of course, not everyone will agree what is “good” or “bad”, but some societies, such as Sodom and Gomorrah, are thought to have been decadent.

## Decadence and the arts
's drawings for *Salome* such as this one are regarded as art that expresses a "decadent" mood]]

The end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th century is often called the *fin de siècle* (end of century). It is an example of a supposed decadent society in literature and art. 

In France there were several writers who were happy to be called “decadent”.  They included Paul Verlaine, Charles Baudelaire, Arthur Rimbaud and Stéphane Mallarmé. In France, the symbolist artists such as Gustave Moreau regarded themselves as "decadent". In England decadent artists included the author Oscar Wilde and visual artists such as Aubrey Beardsley. The "decadents" advocated living a "decadent lifestyle", which means a lifestyle based on seeking  the maximum possible amount of aesthetic pleasure. 

In the early 1970s, glam rock musicians such as David Bowie called themselves "decadent". David Bowie's 1973 album *Diamond Dogs* is about the theme of decadence.  Glam rock musicians and fans of glam rock music signaled that they were decadent by wearing platform shoes. The popular 1976 film *Rocky Horror Picture Show* was a humorous depiction of "decadence". 

People of the goth subculture, which began in the early 1980s among fans of the band Bauhaus, generally regard themselves as being "decadent".  One way they may symbolize themselves as being decadent is by wearing fishnet stockings.  

## Colors that symbolize decadence
The color lavender is usually used to symbolize decadence.  Both of the books in the "further reading" list below are colored different tones of lavender.  In the 1890s, the color mauve was used to symbolize decadence--the 1890s were called the *mauve decade*.  

## Further reading
* *Decadence: the strange life of an epithet* By Richard Gilman--New York: 1979--Farrar, Straus and Giroux
* *Dreamers of decadence: the symbolist painters of the 1890s* By Philippe Julian 1971
Giro Manoyan

**Giro (Kiro) Manoyan** () is an Armenian politician, one of the leaders of ARF Dashnaktsutiun and the head of *Armenian Cause* Office.

Manoyan attended and finished Concordia University in Montreal, Canada. In the 1980s he was the Executive Director of the Armenian National Committee of Canada. From 1989 to 1999, he edited the Horizon Weekly Armenian newspaper. Since 2000, he is the Director of the International Secretariat of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation Bureau in Yerevan.

## References 
## Other websites
* An interview with Kiro Manoyan
Castleton, Derbyshire

**Castleton** is a small village in the Derbyshire Peak District national park, in England. It is built on a limestone part of the national park and nearly all the buildings are built of limestone. It has extremely good access as it is near some main cities.

The main attractions in Castleton include Mam Tor, a tall mountain made out of shale. Burbage Moor is a lovely walking spot. It has some climbing spots and has a valley in a valley. Winnats Pass is a path way in between two cliffs. It is very spectacular walking through it. There are big limestone caves near Castleton. They have stalagmites stalactites. 

Blue John is a type of rock which is found near Castleton. Water can be seen flowing out of the ground. This is water which has soaked into the limestone.

Castleton has the nickname "Gem of the Pee*”

## Other websites 
*Derbyshire Guide
*Pigot's 1835 Directory 
*Minerals, Mines and Quarries
Los Angeles Lakers

The **Los Angeles Lakers** are an American professional basketball team in the National Basketball Association (NBA). They play their home games in the Crypto.com Arena in Los Angeles, California, which they share with the Los Angeles Clippers, their sister team the Los Angeles Sparks of the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA), and the Los Angeles Kings of the National Hockey League (NHL). The Lakers were originally known as Minneapolis Lakers. The Lakers are one of the most successful teams in the history of the NBA, and have won 17 NBA championships second behind the Boston Celtics for the most in NBA history. More recently, the Lakers were the champions of the NBA's inaugural In-Season Tournament in 2023.

Many famous players played on the Los Angeles Lakers' team, including:
*Kobe Bryant
*Magic Johnson
*Kareem Abdul-Jabbar
*Shaquille O'Neal
*Wilt Chamberlain
*George Mikan
*Jerry West
*Elgin Baylor
*Luka Dončić
*Bob McAdoo
*Gail Goodrich
*Norm Nixon
*James Worthy
*Pau Gasol
*Jamaal Wilkes
*Anthony Davis
*Michael Cooper
*Byron Scott
*Glen Rice
*A.C. Green
*Ron Harper
*Nick Van Exel
*Eddie Jones
*Dennis Rodman
*Dwight Howard
*Rajon Rondo
*Steve Nash
*Kyle Kuzma
*Alex Caruso
*Brandon Ingram
*Kentavious Caldwell-Pope
*Russell Westbrook
*LeBron James
*Carmelo Anthony
*Derek Fisher
*Robert Horry
*Karl Malone
*Rick Fox
*Lamar Odom
*Gary Payton
*Andrew Bynum
*Luke Walton
*Trevor Ariza
*Metta Sandiford-Artest
*Kent Bazemore
*Wayne Ellington
*D'Angelo Russell

The Lakers have won 17 NBA championships, including 5 in Minneapolis (1949, 1950, 1952, 1953, 1954) and 12 in Los Angeles (1972, 1980, 1982, 1985, 1987, 1988, 2000, 2001, 2002 and 2009, 2010, 2020).

Six of the Lakers' rivals are the Boston Celtics, Los Angeles Clippers, Detroit Pistons, Phoenix Suns, Portland Trail Blazers, and the Sacramento Kings.

## References
## Other websites
*
Magician

A **magician** is an entertainer who does illusions and magic tricks by learning about the tricks of the mind and using them to his/her **advantage**; magicians will occasionally use props, such as a pack of cards. 

The most famous magicians are:
* Harry Houdini
* David Copperfield
* Jean Eugène Robert-Houdin
* David Blaine
* P.C. Sorcar
* Doug Henning

## Related pages
* List of magicians
Judo

, Japan.]]
 is a modern Japanese martial art and Olympic sport.  It was developed in 1882 by Jigorō Kanō. Judo is the most internationally competed form of jacket wrestling in the world today.

Judo is very scientific in its training s and fighting techniques.

## History
Judo grew out of an older martial art, *Jujutsu* or *Jū-jutsu*.

*Jujutsu* was an ancient and deadly martial art which used chokes, throws, joint locks, and strikes. Kanō created judo by using techniques which were common in jujutsu. He eliminated techniques that he thought were dangerous in training, so that students could train with resistance. Some basic throws are Tai-otoshi and De-ashi-barai (these are in Japanese). There are two types: groundwork and feet work. Ground work is when both players are on the ground. Usually the attacker would be on top and the uke (defender) would be on the bottom. In feet work both players would move along the mat in a variety of moves.  Every once in a while a player will throw their opponent on the floor. In competitions the players will go full on for each other. Once someone has thrown their opponent down, they need to hold them down for 20 seconds or the point will not count. The person who has the most points at the end wins a gold, silver or bronze.

## Use of Judo in competitions
Judo has been included in the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo for men and female judokas started competing in the 1992 Summer Olympics as well as the Commonwealth Games from 1990 initially as optional sport but from 2022, it is now a core sport.

## Rules for female judokas
Al female judokas must tie their hair either into a pony tail, neat hair bun or a messy hair bun. All female judokas also wear either blue or white judogis with a plain white T-shirt and also a black belt. All female judokas can play judo barefoot.

## Related pages
* Sports in Japan
* Boxing
* Fencing
* Sport
* Wrestling

## References
## Other websites
Michelle Williams

**Michelle Williams** may refer to different people:

* Michelle Williams (actress) - American Academy Award-nominated actress. She is best known for her parts in the movie *Brokeback Mountain* and the television series ''Dawson's Creek''.
* Michelle Williams (singer) - American singer. She was a member of the group Destiny's Child.
Humus

in humus]]

**Humus** (or **humous**) is the organic matter in the soil. It is made of dead parts of plants and animals. Humus takes in water and has plenty of nutrients. Nitrogen is the most important. Plants put roots into the soil to get the water and nutrients. Humus is good for plants because it is like a sponge.

The dark colour of humus (usually black or dark brown) helps to warm up cold soils in the spring.

When plants and insects die they are first raw organic matter. Bacteria and fungi eat the raw material, but they do not eat all of it. They leave a small amount behind. The part they leave behind is named "humus". This activity is  and keeps happening. There is always more dead material arriving on top. So the soil always has organic material in it, along with small pieces of rock.

In agriculture, "humus" usually means mature compost, or some taken naturally from a forest, where it may have lived for many years. 

## Related pages
*Biomass
*Organic matter
Republic P-47 Thunderbolt

The **P-47 Thunderbolt** (also called **The Jug** ) was a fighter aircraft made by Republic Aviation. It first flew in 1941, and was introduced in 1942. It had a very big Pratt and Whitney R-2800-59 engine, which had more than 2,000 horsepower. Because of this, the P-47 could go more than 430 miles per hour. In fact, it was the biggest engine ever at the time.  It had 8 machine guns, 2 more than most fighters. It's shape and speed made it similar to the Fw 190.

During 1944, the P-51 Mustang was lighter, faster, and could turn better. Because of this, it started replacing the P-47 as a fighter. The P-47 was then used for bombing in late World War II. It was retired from the American Air National Guard in 1955.

Now, there is a jet called the A-10 Thunderbolt II, and it is named after the P-47.

## Related pages
*P-40 Warhawk

## References
King's Counsel

'''King's Counsel** (postnominal **KC**), during the reign of a female sovereign known as **Queen's Counsel** (**QC'''), are senior lawyers in various Commonwealth countries.

They are appointed by letters patent to be one of "His Majesty's Counsel learned in the law".  They are not a separate type of lawyer. They are more than long serving lawyers,  because their status is given by the Crown and recognised by the courts. 

King's Counsel have the privilege of sitting within the Bar of court, and wear silk gowns of a special design (hence the informal title **Silks**).   The special robes are the reason why becoming a
KC is often called "taking silk".

In order to "take silk" a lawyer usually has to serve as a barrister or a Scottish advocate for at least 10 years. Recently solicitors have also been appointed King's Counsel.

A KC's status means they generally charge higher fees than ordinary barristers, and always have another barrister as an assistant.  This assistant is called a "junior" even if the junior has been a lawyer longer than the "silk".
Pedogenesis

**Pedogenesis** or **soil evolution (formation)** is how soil is created.

Climate regulates soil formation. Soils develop more in areas with more rainfall and more warmth. The rate of chemical weathering increases by 2-3 times when the temperature increases by 10 degrees Celsius (50°F). Climate also affects which organisms are present, affecting the soil chemically and physically (movement of roots, burrowing by animals).

The organisms living in and on the soil form distinct soil types. Coniferous forests have acidic leaf litter. Mixed or deciduous forests leave a larger layer of humus. Prairies have very high humus accumulation, creating a dark, thick soil.

The rock from which soil is formed is called 'parent material' (bedrock). The main types are: eolian (wind), glacial material, alluvium, lake material other parent materials.

Pedogenesis is the major topic of the science of **pedology**. Its other aspects include the soil morphology, classification (taxonomy) of soils,  and their distribution in nature.

## Related pages
*Topography

## References 
* Buol, Stanley W; F.D. Hole & R.W. McCracken. 1997. *Soil genesis and classification*. 4th ed, Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames. 
* Hole Francis D. & J.B. Campbell. 1985. *Soil landscape analysis*. Totowa Rowman & Allanheld.
11 (number)

**11** (**eleven**  or ) is a number. It comes between ten and twelve, is an odd number, and is the 5th prime number, after 2, 3, 5, and 7.

In Roman numerals 11 is written as **XI**.
12 (number)

**12** (also written as **twelve**) is a number. It comes between eleven and thirteen, and it is an even number. It is divisible by 2,3,4,6.

and 12. Its ordinal is 12th (twelfth). In Roman numerals, it is written as **XII**. It is the base of duodecimal numbers. It is often called **dozen**.

12 is also referred to as, The Twelve Imams or the Twelve Apostles of Christ 

The number twelve carries religious, mythological and magical symbolism, generally representing perfection, entirety, or cosmic order in traditions since antiquity.

## Mathematics
* Twelve is the first abundant number.
* Twelve is a composite number, meaning it is divisible by other numbers, not only 1 and itself.
In Roman numerals 12 is written as **XII**.

## In the world
There are 12 months in a year

There are 12 gods in Greek and Roman Mythology.

There are 12 zodiac signs

## References
14 (number)

**14** (**fourteen**) is a number. It is between 13 and 15. It is an even number.  It is divisible by 1, 2, 7, and 14.

In Roman numerals, 14 is written as **XIV**.
Hurdy gurdy

A **hurdy gurdy** is a stringed musical instrument played by a rosin-covered wheel. It dates back to the Middle Ages. 
The hurdy gurdy can create three types of sounds. The melody is played on melody strings by pressing keys on the side of the instrument. These press tangents against the strings. Hurdy gurdies can also have drone strings, which play one note continuously. Many hurdy gurdies also have a buzzing bridge. Turning the wheel faster causes this to make a rhythmic buzzing.

## Bands that feature hurdy gurdies 
* Omnia
* Valravn
* Faun
* Kelten Zonder Grenzen
* The Mediaeval Baebes
16 (number)

**16** (**sixteen**) is a number. It comes between fifteen and seventeen, and is an even number.  It is also the 4th square number, after 1, 4, and 9. It is the base of hexadecimal numbers.

In Roman numerals, 16 is written as **XVI**.
Soil science

]]

**Soil science** deals with soil as a natural resource on the surface of the earth.

It includes soil formation, classification and mapping.

But many more sciences deal with knowledge of soils and the advancement of the soil sciences: engineering, agronomists, chemistry, geology, geography, biology, microbiology, sylviculture, public health, archaeology, and regional planning.

"Soil" refers to anything between the top of the dirt and the top of the underlying rock (called "bedrock"). Soil is often broken into layers. The top layer is high in organic matter (rotting plants and such). Then there is a layer of soil where rain water has removed some metals (called "leaching"). Those metals get collected in another, lower layer. Finally, there is a layer made up mostly of broken bits of bedrock. A soil can have all of these layers, or only a few.

Soils are important because most groundwater, which is used in everything from city water supplies to farming, is found in soil, not bedrock.

## Fields of application in soil science
* Soil survey
* Soil management
* Standard methods of analysis
* Soil fertility / Nutrient management
* Ecosystem studies
* Climate change
* Watershed and wetland studies
* Pedotransfer function

## References 
## Related disciplines 
* Agricultural sciences
** Irrigation management
* Anthropology
** archaeological stratigraphy
* Environmental science
** Landscape ecology
* Geography
** Physical geography
* Geology
* Hydrology
** Hydrogeology
* Waste management
* Wetland science

## Other websites
* Certified Professional Soil Scientist 
* Registered Professional Soil Scientist  (PDF)
*SoilScience.info
*SoilScience.info's Daily Dirt - Soil Science in Mainstream Media and Popular Press 
*SoilScience.info's Job Listings
Weathering

**Weathering** is the breaking down of rocks, soil and their minerals through direct contact with the Earth's atmosphere, waters, or living things. It is a natural process. 

Weathering occurs in one place with little or no movement, and should not be confused with erosion which is when rocks and minerals are moved to another place by ice, water, wind or gravity.

## Mechanical weathering 
Mechanical or physical weathering is when the rocks and minerals are broken down but the chemical composition remains the same. Mechanical weathering physically breaks up rock. 

### Wind 
Wind can blow water or small particles such as sand against the rock thus breaking it down.

### Rain 
Rain is another force that works slowly. The force of raindrops on some rocks make them wear down. Rain also can make a chemical change in some rocks, because it is usually slightly acidic. The water mixes with the minerals in the rock to break it down.

### Temperature 
]]
Changing temperature can make a rock crack. Every day when the sun shines on the rock, its surface is heated. Heat causes the surface to expand (get bigger) a little. The inside of the rock, though, does not heat up as fast as the outside of the rock. The inside of the rock stays cooler. At night, the surface cools down and contracts. The expanding and contracting makes some places on the surface weak, and a crack is made.

Also, if water gets into a crack in a rock and the temperature goes below the freezing point, the water will freeze and expand. After some time, the rock may be weak enough to break into pieces.

### Ice 
Ice, which can be miles thick, grinds the surface of the rock below it. The particles are carried with the ice, and if a glacier ends up in the sea, so does all the material carried with it.

### Lava or magma 
Lava or magma can cause weathering when molten rock touches older rock. It causes the older rock to change form to a different crystal structure.

## Chemical weathering 
Chemical weathering is the breaking down of rock which changes the chemical composition.

### Carbon dioxide cycle 
The carbon dioxide cycle is the most important for weathering. CO2 is put into the atmosphere mostly by volcanoes, and it is taken out of the atmosphere by photosynthesis, and by one other process. 

While it is in the air, CO2 can dissolve in water droplets to form weak carbonic acid.

When rain hits rock it does so with mechanical energy and dilute acid. The acid dissolves many types of minerals and rocks though, of course, very slowly. When a mineral like feldspar is dissolved, it lets sodium ions into the sea; chlorine ions come from other minerals. The sea tastes salty because of the elements which have been dissolved out of rocks.

## Related pages
*Erosion
*Pedogenesis

## References
15 (number)

**15** (**fifteen**) is a number. It is between fourteen and sixteen, and is an odd number. It is divisible by 1, 3, 5, and 15.

In Roman numerals, 15 is written as **XV**.
Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981

The **Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981** is an law for environmental conservation made by the Parliament of the United Kingdom. It protects native species and restricts the release of non-native species into the wild. The Act is split into four parts. Killing most mammals and almost all birds is illegal in the United Kingdom, except for certain types and for certain reasons.

## Licenses
General licences under the act to hunt birds are issued each year by the Department for Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) in England. The Department can give a licence to kill or disturb birds. It also gives out a general licence. This allows any "authorised person", that is someone who has the landowner's permission, to kill certain birds, or to destroy their eggs or nests, if there is no other way to get rid of the birds.

This table shows the name of the bird, and the reasons () that type of bird can be destroyed.

1or to prevent serious damage to livestock or damage to foodstuffs for livestock, crops, vegetables, fruit, growing timber, fisheries or inland waters.

## Other websites
*Official text of the Act
Soil classification

s]]
**Soil classification** means that one finds categories of soils that are based on general characteristics as well as criteria that decide about the use that is possible.

Soil classification can be approached from both the perspective of pedogenesis and from soil morphology. But in both cases interpretations do not vary widely. 

## Further reading
* Eswaran, H., Rice, T., Ahrens, R., & Stewart, B. A. (Eds.). (2002). Soil classification : a global desk reference. Boca Raton, Fla.: CRC Press.
* McBratney, A. B., & de Gruijter, J. J. (1992). A continuum approach to soil classification by modified fuzzy k-means with extragrades. Journal of Soil Science, 43(1), 159-175.

## Other websites
*A Compendium of On-Line Soil Survey Information - Soil Classification for Soil Survey by D. G. Rossiter
*Engineering soil description and classification
English country house

, one of the grandest English country houses. Country houses not only displayed the owners' fashionable and cultivated tastes, but was the center of a vast landed estate, providing employment to hundreds]]

The **English country house** is generally accepted as a large house that was once in the ownership of an individual who in most of the cases owned another great house in the West End of London. The country house was not only a weekend retreat for aristocrats, but also often a full time residence for the minor gentry.

## Evolution of the English country house 
The country houses of England have developed over the last 500 years. Before this time most larger houses were fortified, because their owners were feudal lords or overlords of their manor. The Tudor period of stability in the country saw the first of the large unfortified country houses.

With the rise of modern industry and urbanization, when people left the country to go to the big cities the popularity of country houses declined as there were less people in the country. After 1945 it became very difficult to pay for the huge staff that was required to maintain these houses.

## References 
*Girouard, Mark. *Life in the English Country House : a social and architectural history* details the impact of social change on design

## Other websites 
*The National Trust - England, Wales, & Northern Ireland
*The National Trust for Scotland
*English Heritage
*An English Manor House Head Gardener's Online Diary
*Lost Heritage - A Memorial to the Lost Country Houses of England
List of magicians

This is a **list of magicians, illusionists, escape artists, and other practitioners of stage magic**.

Magicians are listed by the most common name used in performance. Magicians' real names, if different, follow in parentheses.

## A 
## B 
## C 
## D 
## E 
## F 
## G 
## H 
## I 
## J 
## K 
## L 
## M 
## N 
## O 
## P 
## R 
## S 
## T 
## V 
## W 
## Z 
## References 
* Randi, James. *Conjuring*. (1992)
Larynx

The **larynx** (plural *larynges*), also known as the **voice box**, is an organ in the neck of humans and animals. It helps to protect the wind pipe by stopping it from inhaling food. It also helps with breathing and making sounds. The larynx houses the vocal cords.

## Function 
The larynx makes the voice. Both pitch and loudness are controlled here. It has a small slit through which air passes and makes the vocal cords vibrate. The vibrating vocal cords make the air vibrate. This sound changes as it travels through the vocal tract. It becomes a different sound based on the position of the tongue, lips, mouth, and pharynx.

When swallowing, the backward motion of the tongue forces part of the larynx called the epiglottis to cover up the opening to the larynx, also called the laryngeal opening. This is to stop the food swallowed from entering the lungs. The larynx is also pulled upwards to help with this process. If the larynx is irritated by something that is swallowed, a strong cough reflex is used to protect the lungs.

## Disorders of the larynx
There are several things that can cause a larynx to not function properly. Some symptoms are hoarseness, loss of voice, pain in the throat or ears, and breathing difficulties. Larynx transplant is not done very often. The world's first successful operation took place in 1998 at the Cleveland Clinic, and the second took place in October 2010 at the University of California Medical Center in Sacramento.

* Acute laryngitis is the sudden inflammation and swelling of the larynx. It is caused by the common cold or by excessive shouting. It is not serious. Chronic laryngitis is caused by smoking, dust, frequent yelling, or prolonged exposure to polluted air. It is much more serious than acute laryngitis.
* Presbylarynx is age-related hardening of the soft tissues of the larynx. It results in weak voice and restricted vocal range. Bowing of the front portion of the vocal cords is found on laryngoscopy (*an examination of the larynx*).
* Polyps and nodules are small bumps on the vocal cords. They can be caused by prolonged exposure to cigarette smoke and vocal misuse.
* Two related types of cancer of the larynx, namely squamous cell carcinoma and verrucous carcinoma, are strongly associated with repeated exposure to cigarette smoke and alcohol.
* Laryngeal spasm.
* Laryngopharyngeal reflux is a condition in which acid from the stomach irritates and burns the larynx. Similar damage can occur with gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD).
* Laryngomalacia is a very common condition of infancy. The soft, immature cartilage of the upper larynx collapses inward during inhalation, causing the airway to be (partly) blocked.
* Laryngeal perichondritis, the inflammation of the perichondrium (*a connective tissue around the cartilage*) of laryngeal cartilages, causing the airway to be (partly) blocked.

## Related pages 
* Pharynx

## References 
***Speech and Hearing Science: Anatomy and Physiology** 3rd edition. Willard R. Zemlin. 1988. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Endangered species

An **endangered species** is a  group of animals or plants which is threatened by becoming extinct. This could happen because there are few of that animal left, its predators have grown in number, or the climate that it lives in is changing, or the places it lives in have been destroyed. 

The World Conservation Union (IUCN) has worked out that endangered species are 40% of all organisms. 
## How to get rid of endangered species
Many countries have laws to protect these plants and animals. These laws, if obeyed, can save species by stopping hunting, land development or making parks and reserves. Poaching and other illegal activities, however, can still destroy them. 

Only a few plants and animals at risk of extinction, mostly vertebrates, are put on the lists and get legal protection. Many more species become extinct, or will become extinct, without people knowing about it.

## Mammal
This is a list of some mammals that are endangered. They include:
* Asiatic linsang
* Asiatic lion
* Black-footed ferret
* Black rhinoceros
* Blue whale
* Dhole
* Ethopian wolf
* Hairy-eared dwarf lemur
* Indonesian mountain weasel
* Snow leopard
* Tiger
* White rhinoceros  *(currently considered as near endangered)*

## Birds
Endangered birds include:
* Albatross
* Crowned solitary eagle
* Grey parrot

## Related pages
* CITES
* IUCN Red List
* Protected area

## Further reading
**Endangered or Not, but at Least No Longer Waiting* March 6, 2013 New York Times

## References
Calcite

of **calcite**]]
**Calcite** is one of the most common minerals on the Earth's surface. It is a often part of sedimentary rocks, especially limestone. It is also the primary mineral in metamorphic marble.

It is a chemical or biochemical calcium carbonate with the formula CaCO3. It is a carbonate mineral. It can be a vein mineral in deposits from hot springs, and in caverns as stalactites and stalagmites.

## Other websites
Deposit

**Deposit** could mean:

*Deposit account, owed by the bank to its depositor
*Deposit (geology), material added to a landform
*Damage deposit taken in relation to rental or an item or property
*Deposit (town), New York
*Deposit (village), New York
*Deposit model, a method of identifying the character and degree of survival of buried archaeological remains
* Token amounts intended to promote recycling via container deposit legislation
Stalagmite

:*Stalagmites may also refer to a type of fungus*.
]]
A **stalagmite** is a form that can be found on the ground in a cave. It rises from the floor of a limestone cave when mineralized solutions drip from the ceiling and deposits of calcium carbonate form columns on the ground. When the columns form on the ceiling of a cave instead, they are called stalactites. 

Stalactites and stalagmites can also form on concrete ceilings and floors, but they form much more quickly on concrete than in the natural cave environment. 

## Stalagmites and stalactites 
There are several methods to help remember which formation hangs from the ceiling (stalactite) and which rises from the floor (stalagmite):

* Stala**C**tite has a "c" for "ceiling".
* Stala**G**mite has a "g" for "ground".
* The T in Stalac**T**ite resembles one hanging from the ceiling, while the M in Stalag**M**ite resembles a formation rising from the floor.

## Preservation 
When touring caves with stalactites and stalagmites you might be asked to not touch the rock formations. This is generally because the formation is considered to still be growing and forming. Since the rock buildup is formed by minerals solidifying out of the water solution, skin oils can disturb where the mineral water will cling. So the development of the rock formation will be affected and not will not be natural anymore.

## Related pages
* Stalactite

## References 
## Other websites 
* The Virtual Cave: Stalagmites
Archosaur

**Archosaurs** are a big group of reptiles, including all crocodiles, birds, dinosaurs, and pterosaurs (flying reptiles). There are also some smaller extinct groups, mostly from the Triassic period.

The Archosaurs are a monophyletic clade, and do not include reptiles such as the Squamata (lizards and snakes) and the Sphenodontia (*Sphenodon*).

They have these diagnostic features, called *synapomorphies* in cladistics talk:
* Teeth set in , which makes them less likely to be torn loose during feeding. Some archosaurs, such as birds, are secondarily toothless.
* Holes in the skull in front of the eyes, but behind the nostrils. The holes reduce the weight of the skull.
* Small holes in the jaw bones make the jaw slightly less heavy.
* Legs held under the body rather than sprawled, or *may* be held under the body. This helps both breathing and movement.
** A special ridge for attaching muscles to the femur. This detail may have made it possible for dinosaurs to stand on two legs. All early dinosaurs and many later ones were bipedal. All birds are bipedal; only the large herbivore dinosaurs went back to walking on four legs.

The archosaurs or their immediate ancestors survived the catastrophic Permian–Triassic extinction event. Benton says: "The key tetrapods to benefit from the Permo-Triassic mass extinction was the Archosauromorpha". Then, in the early and middle Triassic, there was rapid evolution into the types of aquatic and land tetrapods which dominated the rest of the Mesozoic era.

## Archosaur classification
Clades:
* Avemetatarsalia
** †Pterosauria
** Dinosauria
* Crurotarsi or Pseudosuchia: The crocodile line of crown-group Archosauria
** †Phytosauria: semi-aquatic long-snouted types
** †Aetosauria: quadrupedal armoured herbivores
** †Ornithosuchidae: look rather like dinosaurs
** Crocodylomorpha (Crocodilia and their ancestors)
** †Rauisuchia ? uncertain group, includes some large-bodied quadrupedal predators

## Archosauromorpha
This is an even wider group, which includes diapsid Sauropsida which appeared in the middle Permian and Triassic periods. Their relationships are not well established at present.

## Further reading
* Benton M.J. 2015. *Vertebrate paleontology*. 4th ed, Blackwell, Oxford: Evolution of the Archosauromorphs, p154.
* Carroll R.L. 1988. *Vertebrate paleontology and evolution*. Freeman N.Y.

## References
Deposition (geology)

**Deposition** is the geological process where material is added to a land (or a landform). This can happen in many places, such as a beach or river. Some parts of a shoreline build up and grow out, whereas other parts of the shoreline erode and fall into the sea.

In deposition, wind and water lay down grains of material that have been eroded and transported from another place. Deposition happens when the forces which transport sediments  are weaker than the forces of particle weight and friction. This causes a resistance to movement, and the particles drop down. 

Deposition can also refer to the buildup of sediment from organically derived matter or chemical process.
## Related pages
*Sediment
*Sedimentary rock
Hard water

**Hard water** is water that has a high mineral content (contrast with *soft water*).

The main components of these minerals usually are calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) ions. But there are also dissolved metals, bicarbonates, and sulfates. Calcium usually enters the water as either calcium carbonate (CaCO3) in the form of limestone and chalk, or calcium sulfate (CaSO4) in the form of several other mineral deposits. The main source of magnesium is dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2). Hard water is generally not harmful and some hardness in water is a useful source of calcium for healthy bone development . 

## Other websites 
*Alcoa Chemical, Langelier Saturation Index (LSI) Calculator
Soft water

**Soft water** is water with a very low mineral content. The opposite is hard water*,* which has a high mineral content. Around 15% of the United States' water supply is soft water. Meanwhile, soft water lathers easily with soap.

## References
Calcium carbonate

**Calcium carbonate** is a chemical compound made of calcium and carbonate ions, with the chemical formula CaCO3. The elements involved are calcium (Ca), carbon (C), and oxygen (O). It is a common substance found as rock in all parts of the world, and is the main component of seashells, snails, and eggshell. 

Calcium carbonate is usually the main cause of hard water. It is used as a calcium supplement or as a treatment for antacid (brand name Tums), but too much can be bad for your health.

Calcium carbonate is found naturally as the following minerals and rocks:
* Aragonite
* Calcite
* Vaterite or (μ-CaCO3)
* Chalk
* Limestone
* Marble
* Travertine

## Reactions with acids
Calcium carbonate reacts with strong acids (like hydrochloric acid) to make calcium salt, water, and carbon dioxide. It can also react with weak acids (like acetic acid) but less quickly. All of the rocks and minerals mentioned above will react with acids.

The balanced chemical equation of calcium carbonate and hydrochloric acid reaction is:

The word chemical equation for the hydrochloric acid reaction is:

While the balanced chemical equation of calcium carbonate and acetic acid reaction is:

And the word chemical equation for the acetic acid reaction is:

This is why a rock or mineral might need to be added with an acid to check there is calcium carbonate or not. If there is, then it will fizz and make carbon dioxide. But if it does not, then it will not fizz because there is no carbon dioxide forming.

## Related pages
* Ocean acidification
* Gesso
* Cuttlefish
* Cuttlebone
Moorland (disambiguation)

**Moorland** could mean:

In **geography**:

* Carlton-le-Moorland
* Moorland, type of habitat found in upland areas
* Moorland, Iowa
* Moorland, Kentucky
* Moorland Township, Michigan

In **other fields**:

* Daydream — Moorland, soundtrack album by the German band Tangerine Dream for the TV series *Tatort*
* Jesse E. Moorland, Black minister, community executive, and civic leader
* Moorland-Spingarn Research Center, repository for the documentation of the history and culture of people of African descent in Africa
Nearctic

*For the thoroughbred racehorse see Nearctic (horse).*

The **Nearctic** is one of the eight terrestrial ecozones dividing the Earth's land surface.

In ecology, an ecozone is a large land mass that contains many terrestrial ecoregions, each of which has unique plants and animals.

The Nearctic ecozone covers most of North America, including Greenland and the highlands of Mexico. 

Southern Mexico, southern Florida, Central America, and the Caribbean islands are part of the Neotropic ecozone, together with South America.

The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) divides the Nearctic into four **Bioregions**, defined as "geographic clusters of ecoregions that may span several habitat types, but have strong biogeographic affinities, particularly at taxonomic levels higher than the species level (genus, family)."

## Other websites 
* Map of the ecozones
* Nearctica, the natural world of North America

## References 
* Flannery, Tim 2001. *The eternal frontier: an ecological history of North America and its peoples*. Grove Press, New York.
* Ricketts, Taylor H., Eric Dinerstein, David M. Olson, Colby J. Loucks et al. 1999. *Terrestrial ecoregions of North America: a conservation assessment*. Island Press, Washington DC.
Neotropic

In context of biogeography, **Neotropic** or **Neotropical** means one of the world's eight terrestrial ecozones.

This ecozone includes South and Central America, the Mexican lowlands, the Caribbean islands, and southern Florida, because these regions share a large number of plant and animal groups.

It is sometimes used as a synonym for the tropical area of South America, although the ecozone also includes temperate southern South America. 
Its fauna and flora are distinct from the Nearctic (which includes most of North America) because of the long separation of the two continents. The formation of the Isthmus of Panama joined the two continents 2 to 3 million years ago.

The Neotropic includes more tropical rainforest than any other ecozone. They extend from southern Mexico through Central America and northern South America to southern Brazil and include the Amazon Rainforest. These rainforest ecoregions are one of the most important reserves of biodiversity on Earth. Extensive deforestation in the late 20th century has reduced this diversity to a degree.

## Other websites 
* Map of the ecozones
* Eco-Index, a bilingual searchable reference of conservation and research projects in the Neotropics; a service of the Rainforest Alliance

## References 
* Cox, C. Barry; Peter D. Moore 1985. *Biogeography: an ecological and evolutionary approach.* 4th ed, Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford.
* Dinerstein, Eric; David Olson; Douglas J. Graham; et al. 1995. *A conservation assessment of the terrestrial ecoregions of Latin America and the Caribbean*. World Bank, Washington DC.
* Schultz J.: 2005. The Ecozones of the World. 2nd ed, Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York.  
* Udvardy M.D.F. 1975. *A classification of the biogeographical provinces of the world*. IUCN Occasional Paper #18. Morges, Switzerland: IUCN.
Nearctic (horse)

**Nearctic** (February 11, 1954 – July 27, 1973) was a Canadian-bred Thoroughbred racehorse. He had his most successful season in racing at 4 years old, when he won nine races. Nearctic was retired to stand at stud at *Windfields Farm* in Canada where he became father of a *Kentucky Derby* winner and the *Northern Dancer*.
He died at age 19 on July 27, 1973.

## Other websites 
* Nearctic's pedigree and stats
Stud

**Stud** could mean:
* Stud (animal) - a male animal employed for breeding 
** By analogy, a virile human male (see gender role)
* A small ornamental button mounted on a short post for insertion through an eyelet
* Screw - a threaded fastener
* The interlocking circular piece of a LEGO brick
* Snowmobile Stud - a metal threaded piece installed in a snowmobile rubber track
* Stud earring for pierced ears
* Cleat - a protrusion on the bottom of a shoe to provide extra grip
* Shoe studs - a traction device used on the bottom of horse shoes
* Traction devices inserted in the tread of automobile winter tires
* Wall stud - a vertical member within a light-frame construction wall
* Stud poker - a kind of card game:
** Five-card stud
** Seven-card stud
** Caribbean Stud Poker
* *Studs* (game show) - a dating show from the early 1990s
* Stud contact system, an obsolete Ground-level power supply system for tramways
Lockerbie

**Lockerbie** is a small town in Scotland. About 4000 people live there. The town has been there since about 900. By 1750 Lockerbie had become a significant town. From the 1780s it was a staging post on the carriage route from Glasgow to London.   Thomas Telford's Carlisle-to-Glasgow road was built through Lockerbie from 1816. The Caledonian Railway opened the line from Carlisle to Beattock through Lockerbie in 1847 and later all the way to Glasgow. 

It was devastated on 21 December 1988 when a Pan American World Airways 747-400 aeroplane crashed after a bomb exploded on board. The bomb was hidden in a hand held radio in the rear cargo hold. It had been transferred onto the flight from a connecting flight from Amsterdam. All 243 passengers and 16 crew aboard the aeroplane, and 11 people in the town  were killed. The total number of deaths caused was 270. The Libyan government was found to have organized the bombing. The United Nations placed sanctions on Libya, which stopped people buying and selling items with Libya. In 2003 Libya agreed to pay compensation to the families of the people killed.

## References
Circadian rhythm

A **circadian rhythm** is a rhythm that repeats about every 24 hours.  Plants and animals have these built-in cycles which allow them to flower at the right time, sleep at the right time, etc.

These cycles are also called **circadian clocks**. The word "circadian" comes from the Latin *circa*, "around", and  *dies*, "day", meaning "about a day".  Biological time-keeping rhythms include daily, tidal, weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms. However, most of these rhythms repeat once a day, so they are called circadian  from the Latin *circa* (about) *dies* (a day).

Circadian clocks are the internal clocks which make sure that the organism is doing the right thing at the right time. With more complex animals there is the matter of sleep, which seems to be universal amongst animals which have a brain.

Circadian rhythms do some amazing things, especially in the oceanic animals whose eggs are fertilised externally. This means the eggs and sperm have to be released at the same time by both sexes of the same species. Little is known about the physiology of how this coordination is achieved.

Animal clocks have three main parts:
* a central biochemical oscillator with a period of about 24 hours that keeps time;
* a series of input pathways to this central oscillator to allow  the clock to adjust itself;
* a series of output pathways that regulate rhythms in biochemistry, physiology, and behaviour throughout an organism.

In 2017, the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to Jeffrey C. Hall, Michael Rosbash and Michael W. Young "for their discoveries of molecular mechanisms controlling the circadian rhythm" in fruit flies (*Drosophila*).

The circadian rhythms, also called the "biological clock" or the "body clock", of humans and other animals, regulate many bodily functions including feeding, sleeping, body temperature and hormone production.

## Plants 
The actual machinery in plants, fungi and bacteria are different from those in the animal clock. However, they do the same kind of thing in practice.

## References
Bullock

**Bullock** may refer to:
* Bullock (in British English), a castrated bull of any age
* Bullock (in North America), a young uncastrated bull
* Bullock (in Australia and New Zealand), an ox, an adult male bovine used for draught (usually but not always castrated)
* Bullock County, Alabama

## Related pages
* Bollocks
Bureaucracy

**Bureaucracy** is a concept. It is the structure and rules which control the activities of people that work for large organizations and government. 

It has standardized procedure (rule-following), formal division of responsibility, hierarchy, and impersonal relationships. However, in practice, the interpretation and execution of policy can lead to informal influence.

Bureaucracy is a concept in sociology and political science. Four things are central to any definition of bureaucracy: a well-defined division of work between persons and offices, consistent patterns of recruitment, and stable careers. There is a hierarchy among offices, such that the authority and status are distributed between actors. Formal and informal networks connect people to one another, through flows of information and patterns of cooperation. 

Examples of everyday bureaucracies include governments, armed forces, corporations, hospitals, courts, ministries and schools.

## Other websites
* Abstracts of academic books and articles about bureaucracy 
* Kevin R. Kosar, "What ought a bureaucrat do?"  Claremont.org, (A review piece that ponders the values that should guide bureaucrats in their work.)
* Scientific Management and the Bureaucratic Organization  Summary of key concepts from on-line course.
Anzère

**Anzère** is a small village in the canton of Valais, Switzerland. It is north of Sion. It is a popular ski resort, with several ski schools. 

## Skiing
The ski slopes in Anzère cover about 40 kilometers, with 1 cablecar, 2 chair lifts, and 8 T-bars.
There are several cafes in the area, and the entire area is known as Télé-Anzère. 
  
## Town Centre
Facilities in and around Anzère's 'Place du Village' include both indoor and outdoor swimming pools, two supermarkets, many hotels, bars and nightclubs, as well as many restaurants and clothing shops. The 'Place du Village' is a person area right in the heart of the village, housing most of Anzère's cafes and restaurants. There is also an internet cafe, a crèperie and a children's play area.

## Other websites
*Anzère
Brig District

The **Brig District** is a part of the canton of Valais, Switzerland. It includes the following municipalities:
Monthey

**Monthey** is the capital of the district of Monthey in the canton of Valais in Switzerland.

As of 2004, Monthey had a population is of 15,118 people (*Montheysans*).  Monthey is located on the west side of the Rhône valley, south to Lake Geneva. Monthey is important to Swiss industry, with many important companies including chemical companies. The city is close to the famous winter sports region, the Portes du Soleil.

## References
## Other websites
* Monthey Homepage