open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Cotswolds

The **Cotswolds** is a range of hills in central-southwest England, sometimes called the "Heart of England", a hilly area reaching over . The area has been designated as Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. The highest point in the Cotswolds is Cleeve Hill at .

The Cotswolds lie within the current ceremonial counties of  Oxfordshire, Gloucestershire, Wiltshire, Somerset, Warwickshire, and Worcestershire. The county of Gloucestershire forms the largest area of the Cotswolds.

## Description
The spine of the Cotswolds runs southwest to northeast through six counties, particularly Gloucestershire, Oxfordshire, and southern Warwickshire. The northern and western edges of the Cotswolds are marked by steep slopes down to the Severn valley and the River Avon, Avon. These are a result of the broken edge of the limestone layer. On the eastern boundary is the city of Oxford and on the west is Stroud. To the south towns as Cirencester, Lechlade, Tetbury, Beverston and Fairford mark the southern limit of this region. 

In the Middle Ages, the wool trade made the Cotswolds wealthy. Some of this money was put into the building of churches. The area has a number of large, handsome Cotswold stone "wool churches". The area is still wealthy and has attracted people who own second homes in the area, or have chosen to retire to the Cotswolds.

Typical Cotswold towns are Bourton-on-the-Water, Broadway, Burford, Chipping Norton, Cirencester, Moreton-in-Marsh, Stow-on-the-Wold and Winchcombe. The town of Chipping Campden is famous as the home of the Arts and Crafts movement, that was founded by William Morris at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries.

The Cotswold Way is a long-distance footpath about  running the length of the AONB, mainly on the edge of the Cotswold escarpement with good views over the Severn Valley and the Vale of Evesham.

### Cotswold stone 
 features Cotswold stone cottages]]
The area has attractive small towns and villages built of  *Cotswold stone* (a yellow limestone). This limestone is rich in fossils. The stone  is a yellow oolitic Jurassic limestone. At the time, this was laid down in a warm tropical sea, about 177 million years ago. The latitude of Britain was about where North Africa is today. The stone is full of fossils such as stalked crinoids. A project is under way to collect examples for the Natural History Museum.

## Historical structures
*Sudeley Castle

## References 
## Other websites 
*Cotswold District Council — The website of Cotswold District Council
*Cotswolds Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty Website  (Countryside Agency)
*Cotswold Journal Local Cotswolds news and information
*Yate and Chipping Sodbury Guide  — A Guide to Yate, Chipping Sodbury on the Southern Edge of the Cotswold Escarpment
* Photos of Lower Slaughter in 3d (Anaglyphs) 
*Cotswold AONB Magic interactive map (slow on first load)
Music critic

A **music critic** is someone who writes about concerts that have taken place or new music that has been written. They write reviews about this in newspapers or journals. What they write is called **musical criticism**.

When people write about the history of music or compare musical styles, this is called musicology. Musical criticism is about what is going on in the musical world at the moment.

## Responsibilities 
Music critics can have a lot of influence on a musician’s success. If a musician gets a bad review people may not bother to go and hear him. If he has a very good review people will think he must be good and they will all want to hear him.

Occasionally it can happen that a new piece of music has such a terrible review that everyone wants to go and hear how terrible it is. They may then find that they like it and the music might become famous. This is called a “succès de scandale” (French for “scandalous success”). Stravinsky’s *Rite of Spring* (1913) is a good example.

## Example of music critics 
Music critics will spend a lot of time listening to music. They often do other jobs with music such as teaching. Some famous music critics include:

* The German composer Robert Schumann. He published a music journal called *Neue Zeitschrift für Musik*. He wrote an article which has become famous called *Neue Bahnen* (*New Paths*) in which he said that there was a young man called Johannes Brahms who would become a great composer. Schumann was right.
* The French composer Hector Berlioz was a good music critic. He wrote a lot of music reviews in order to earn some money.
* The Austrian musicologist Eduard Hanslick. He became famous for saying that Johannes Brahms was a good composer and Wagner, Liszt and Bruckner were bad composers.
* The Irish playwright George Bernard Shaw. He wrote some interesting musical criticisms using the pseudonym (made-up name) Corno di Bassetto. There were some musicians he did not like and he said so. This made him quite a few enemies.

## Other websites 
* International Federation of Music Journalists - an international group of media professionals who treat any aspect of music on any media. Publishes the "Directory of Music Journalists" and confers "Music Journalist Award".
* Music Media Directory - an international publication with over 40.000 contacts of music journalists and music media.
Royal Leamington Spa

**Royal Leamington Spa** (or *Leamington Spa*) is a town in Warwickshire, UK. In 2001 it had a population of 45,300. Until 1784 it was not a town but a village. It was in this year that two local men called Benjamin Satchwell and William Abbott discovered a spring in the village. The two men, and others from the town, began to use the water for treatment of illnesses, which was a common practice in those times. The town quickly developed into a spa town with many rich people visiting to 'take the waters'. Because of this the town grew quickly. The town soon became famous and a popular holiday resort. When spa water stopped being fashionable fewer people came on holiday to the town, but rich people still went to live there when they were old. In modern times Leamington does not treat many people with the water but it is still known as a pleasant place to live.  It is also popular for shopping.

The town is built by a river called the River Leam which flows through the middle of the town from east to west. The town is now connected to another town called Warwick. Other nearby settlements include Kenilworth (about six miles away), Rugby (about sixteen miles away) and Coventry (about ten miles away).

## Architecture 
The Parade (main street) and surrounding streets feature large Regency town houses which are normally white coloured, vertical sliding windows and high ceilings.  Most of the buildings in the centre are protected by the government from being changed or replaced.

## Other websites 
*
Tap

**Tap** may mean:
* Tap (valve), an object that controls the release of a liquid or gas
* Telephone tapping, listening to someone else's phone conversations with a device
* Tapping, a way to play stringed instruments
* Tap dance
* "Taps", a song played in the U.S. military during flag ceremonies and funerals
* *Tap* (film), 1989 movie starring Gregory Hines and Sammy Davis Jr
* Tap water, water that comes out of a sink

## Related pages
* TAP (for more meanings when the word is in all capital letters)
John Batman

**John Batman** (21 January 1801 – 6 May 1839) was an Australian farmer and businessman who was one of the first white people to live in Melbourne.

Batman was born in Rosehill, Parramatta (part of Sydney), and spent time in Tasmania (then called Van Diemen's Land). In Tasmania he started farming on land the government gave him. He brought more land. During this time, he was involved in conflicts with the Tasmanian Aborigines.

In December 1825, or early 1826, Batman captured the notorious bushranger (a kind of robber), Matthew Brady.

Batman asked to be given land in the Westernport area of Victoria, but the government rejected him. So, in 1835, as a leading member of the Port Phillip Association he sailed for the mainland of Australia in the schooner *Rebecca* and explored much of Port Phillip Bay. Batman made an agreement, now known as Batman's Treaty, with some local Aborigines to rent their land in return for things like knives and flour every year. Probably the Wurundjeri people did not understand the agreement. In any case, the Governor of New South Wales said the agreement was not legal the land was owned by the Government rather than the Aborigines.

Batman became very unhealthy after 1835, and he separated from his wife, convict Elizabeth Callaghan. They had had seven daughters and a son. His son drowned in the Yarra River. In his last months the local Aborigines looked after him.

Batman is remembered by some statues around Melbourne, and is buried in the Fawkner Cemetery, a cemetery named after his fellow colonist John Pascoe Fawkner. There is also a memorial in the Old Melbourne Cemetery.

Melbourne was called Batmania for a very brief time, in 1835, after John Batman.

He was also one of the first Australians to take part in the Common wealth Games 1823.

His direct descendant is Australian sprinter Daniel Batman.

## Related pages 
* History of Melbourne

## Other websites 
* http://gutenberg.net.au/dictbiog/0-dict-biogBa.html#batman1 
* Batmania: a fun way to explore the people and events surrounding the foundation of Melbourne, images of the Batman Land Deed and other historical documents  at the National Museum of Australia.

## References 
* A Pictorial History of Bushrangers, *Prior, Wannan and Nunn*, 1968, Paul Hamlyn Pty Ltd, Melbourne
Palaemon

**Palaemon** was a minor Greek sea god. He was originally named *Melikertes*, son of Ino (Leukothea). He was made a god when his mother, Ino,  jumped off of a cliff into the sea while holding him. Legends say that she was trying to get away from Athanas who was made insane by Hera.
Pegnitz River

The **Pegnitz** is a small river in Upper Franconia, Bavaria, Germany.

The Pegnitz has its source in the city of the same name at an altitude of 425 m and meets the Rednitz at 283 m northwest of Fürth. From that point on the river is called Regnitz.

The Pegnitz is about 115 km long.

## Animal life
The river is inhabited by numerous ducks, swans, and gulls. 

## Affluences
* Högenbach (creek) (left affluence from the Pommelsbrunn direction)
* Röthenbach (creek)

## Cities on the Pegnitz
From source to mouth:

* Pegnitz
* Neuhaus on the Pegnitz
* Hersbruck
* Lauf an der Pegnitz
* Röthenbach an der Pegnitz
* Nuremberg: Within city limits (about 14 km), the river forms secondary arms. Numerous bridges and footbridges cross the river, such as the iron suspension bridge *Kettensteg*, dating from 1824. To the west of the Maxbrücke there is a weir.

## History
After the big flood in February 1909 the river was shortened by four kilometers within the Nuremberg city limits. Since 1996 planning and actions are progressing trying to lengthen the course of the river between Nuremberg and Fürth again and to shape it in a nature-oriented way.

## Other websites 
* http://www.bayern.de/wwa-n/stadtamfluss.htm  - Wasserwirtschaftsamt Nürnberg: "Die Umgestaltung der Pegnitz in Nürnberg" (in German)
Short Parliament

The **Short Parliament** in English history lasted from April 13 to May 5 1640. It is called "Short" because it only lasted for three weeks.
## Background
Charles I of England, who was also king of Scotland, was having problems with the Church of Scotland and war with them was breaking out again.  Charles had spent the last 11 years ruling directly, without calling a Parliament even once.  He did this because he had little use for elected representatives trying to decide policy. But now with the problems with the Scots, Charles needed money to pay for his war. To get more money for war meant he had to call a Parliament so they could vote on it.
## Problem
The problem was that the members of Parliament were unhappy about the things he had done since 1629, when he was ruling without them.  They wanted to talk about these things instead of giving the king his money.  John Pym, member for Tavistock, gave fiery speeches refusing to give money unless the abuses were talked about. Charles responded by closing the Parliament and sending them home again, and he tried to fight the Scots without the money.  But when this did not work and as a result of his defeat had to agree to pay the Scots, he was forced to call Parliament again.  This became known as the Long Parliament, and the Constitutional crisis that followed led to the bloody English Civil War.
Rain shadow

slope the water falls out. The dried air goes down the other side, gets warmer, holds water and does not rain]]

A **rain shadow** is an area of land that lies behind a mountain which gets almost no rainfall. This side of a mountainous area is away from the wind. The mountains block the passage of rain-producing weather systems and cast a "shadow" of dryness behind them.

As shown by the diagram to the right, the incoming warm and moist air is drawn by the prevailing winds towards the top of the mountains.  As it does so, it cools and condenses, and relief rainfall removes the moisture before it crosses the top.  The air, without much moisture left, goes on over the mountains creating a dry side called the "rain shadow".
Lesson

A **lesson** in school is a planned period of time for learning. It involves one or more students being taught by a teacher. A *lesson* may be either one section of a textbook or a  period of time during which learners are taught about a subject or how to perform an activity. *Lessons* are mostly taught in a classroom but they may take place online, or outside. Not all lessons are for children.
 lesson]]

A lesson  means someone learning something he did not know before. Such a *lesson* can be either planned or accidental, enjoyable or painful. The slang phrase "to teach someone a *lesson*", means to punish or scold a person for a mistake they have made making sure that they does not make the same mistake again.

Lessons can also be made entertaining. When the term education is combined with entertainment, it is called "edutainment".

## References
Pelé

**Edson Arantes do Nascimento**, more commonly known as just **Pelé**, (23 October 1940 &ndash; 29 December 2022) was a Brazilian football player. He was good scorer in the world, with 678 league goals. In total, Pelé scored 789 (1279)goals in 831(1363 )games, excluding unofficial friendlies and tour games. Widely regarded as one of the greatest players in the history of the sport he was listed in the Guinness World Records for most career goals scored in the history of football. 

He was given the title "Football Player of the Century" by FIFA. Many believe that he was the best player in the history of football.

## Teams 
From 1956 to 1974, Pelé played for Santos, had 605 appearances, and scored 1281 goals. From 1975 to 1977, he played for New York Cosmos, when he had 64 appearances, and scored 37 goals.

|-
|1971||rowspan="4"|Santos||rowspan="4"|Série A||21||1
|-
|1972||16||5
|-
|1973||30||19
|-
|1974||17||9

|-
|1975||rowspan="3"|New York Cosmos||rowspan="3"|NASL||9||5
|-
|1976||22||13
|-
|1977||25||13
84||34
56||31
140||65
|}

## International career statistics 
, after Brazil won the 1958 Cup.]]
 at 1959 Copa America]]

|-
|1957||2||2
|-
|1958||7||9
|-
|1959||9||11
|-
|1960||6||4
|-
|1961||0||0
|-
|1962||8||8
|-
|1963||7||7
|-
|1964||3||2
|-
|1965||8||9
|-
|1966||9||5
|-
|1967||0||0
|-
|1968||7||4
|-
|1969||9||7
|-
|1970||15||8
|-
|1971||2||1
|-
!Total||92||77
|}

## Health and death
In September 2021, Pelé had surgery to remove a tumour on the right side of his colon. He began chemotherapy treatment a few weeks later.

Pelé died on 29 December 2022, at 3:27&nbsp;pm, at the age of 82, due to multiple organ failure, a complication of colon cancer at a hospital in São Paulo, Brazil.

## Honours 
 and Brazil President José Sarney.]]
 in Rio de Janeiro, 15 October 1997.]]
### Club 
*  **Santos** (Official Tournaments)
** Campeonato Paulista: 1958, 1960, 1961, 1962, 1964, 1965, 1967, 1968, 1969 and 1973
** Torneio Rio-São Paulo: 1959, 1963 and 1964
** Torneio Roberto Gomes Pedrosa (Taça de Prata): 1968
** Taça Brasil: 1961, 1962, 1963, 1964 and 1965
** Copa Libertadores: 1962 and 1963
** Intercontinental Cup: 1962 and 1963
** South-American Recopa: 1968
** Recopa Intercontinental: 1968
*  **New York Cosmos**
** NASL Champions: 1977

### International 
*  **Brazil**
** Roca Cup:
*** **Winner (2):** 1957, 1963
** FIFA World Cup:
*** **Winner (3):** 1958, 1962, 1970
*** Appearances (4): 1958, 1962, 1966, 1970

## References 
## Other websites 
* 
*
The Good Life

***The Good Life*** is the name of several television series, including

**The Good Life* (1971 TV series), American sitcom
**The Good Life* (1975 TV series), British sitcom
**The Good Life* (1994 TV series), American sitcom
Fashion

in 2017 at the Met Gala in Manhattan, widely regarded to be the world's most prestigious haute couture fashion event, where the theme was "Art of the In-Between"]]
, wife of Louis XVI, was a leader of fashion. Her choices, such as this 1783 white muslin dress called a , were highly influential and widely worn.]]
**Fashion** is the form of clothing, accessories, and furniture. It includes the way we wear clothes in a particular time and place. Fashion is also one way we can make ourselves look more attractive.

It is related to culture, but also to weather and to the history of the country we live in. For example, we have warm clothes in the Swedish fashion and we have thin clothes in the African fashion.

Fashion includes clothing, footwear, lifestyle, accessories, makeup, hairstyle, and body posture.

The history of modern fashion design is generally understood to date from 1858 when the English-born Charles Frederick Worth opened the first authentic *haute couture* house in Paris.

## Related pages 
*Fashion design
*Haute couture

## References
South East England

**South East England** is one of the nine official regions of England. It was created in 1994. It includes Berkshire, Buckinghamshire, East Sussex, Hampshire, Isle of Wight, Kent, Oxfordshire, Surrey and West Sussex.

Its population as of the 2001 census was 8,000,550, making it the most populous English region. The highest point is Walbury Hill in Berkshire at 297m/974 ft. The major urban areas of the region include Brighton and Hove, Portsmouth, Southampton, and Reading. Settlements closer to London are part of the Greater London Urban Area.

## Local government
The official region consists of the following subdivisions:

## Other websites 
* South East England Development Agency  - Abolished in 2012 https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/south-east-england-development-agency
* Tourism Information - Visit South East England
South West England

**South West England** is one of the regions of England.  It has the largest area of all regions, and reaches from Gloucestershire and Wiltshire to Cornwall and the Isles of Scilly.  This includes the area often known as the West Country, and much of Wessex. The size of the region is shown by the fact that the northern part of Gloucestershire, near Chipping Campden, is as close to the Scottish border as it is to the tip of Cornwall.  

Agriculture and tourism are the important industries of the region. Mining of tin and copper was also formerly very important in Devon and Cornwall. Traditionally, the South West of England has been well known for producing Cheddar cheese, named after Cheddar, Somerset in the Mendip Hills, for Devon cream teas, and for Somerset cider.  It is now probably equally well known as the home of the *Eden Project* (in Cornwall), *Aardman Animations*, the *Glastonbury festival* (in Somerset), *trip hop* music, Cornwall's seafood restaurants, and surfing beaches.  Two National Parks (Dartmoor and Exmoor) and four World Heritage Sites lie in this region.

## Local government
The official region consists of the following geographic counties and local government areas:

## Other websites 
*Government Office for the South West 
*South West Regional Assembly 
*South West Regional Development Agency 
*Government's list of councils in the South West 
*Campaign for a Cornish Assembly
*Attractions South West 

;Photographs
* Bristol http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Bristol http://www.cotch.net/Bristol 
* Cornwall: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Cornwall http://www.cornwall365.co.uk  http://www.cotch.net/Cornwall 
* Devon: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Devon http://www.cotch.net/Devon 
* Dorset: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Dorset http://www.dorsetphotos.co.uk http://www.cotch.net/Dorset  http://www.imagesofdorset.org.uk/
* Somerset: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Somerset http://www.cotch.net/Somerset
North East England

**North-East England** is one of the nine official regions of England and includes the combined area of Northumberland, County Durham, Tyne and Wear and a small part of North Yorkshire.

The highest point in the region is The Cheviot, in Northumberland, at 815m and the largest city is Newcastle. Sunderland is the second-largest.
 
The region is known for its urban centres and for its natural beauty: Northumberland National Park, the region's coastline, its section of the Pennines and Weardale. It also has great historic importance. There are two World Heritage Sites: Durham Cathedral and Hadrian's Wall.

## Local government 
The official region consists of the following subdivisions:

Key: shire county = † | metropolitan county = *

## Education
## Other websites 
* North East England 
* The North East HUB 
* North East Regional Assembly 
* The North East Biodiversity Forum 
* Future Races in North East England
Sussex

**Sussex** is a historic county in South East England. Its area is more or less the same as that of the ancient Kingdom of Sussex. It is divided for local government into West Sussex and East Sussex and the City of Brighton and Hove. The city of Brighton and Hove became a unitary authority in 1997; and got City status in 2000. Until then Chichester had been Sussex's only city.

Sussex still has a strong local identity and the county's unofficial anthem is *Sussex by the Sea*. The county's motto, "We wun't be druv", shows the  strong-willed nature of its people in past centuries.

## Towns and cities
Major towns and cities of Sussex include:

*Arundel
*Bognor Regis
*Brighton (home of the University of Sussex and the University of Brighton)
*Burgess Hill
*Chichester (home of the University of Chichester)
*Crawley
*Eastbourne
*East Grinstead
*Hastings
*Haywards Heath
*Horsham
*Lewes
*Littlehampton
*Midhurst
*Worthing

## Further reading 
*"Angels in the Sussex Air", an anthology of poetry by Sussex authors chosen and edited by Patrick Garland, 
*"An Historical Atlas of Sussex", An Atlas of the History of the Counties of East and West Sussex, edited by Kim Leslie and Brian Short, with maps by Susan Rowland, published by Phillimore & Co. Ltd, Chichester, 1999, 

## Links and references 
*The Sussex Association 
*The Sussex Local Internet Portal  Justsussex
*Sussex Community Website 
*Sussex County Cricket Club
*Sussex County Football Association 
*Sussex Enterprise 
*Sussex Past (The Sussex Archaeological Society)
*Sussex Wildlife Trust
*Sussex Police
*The Royal Sussex Regimental Association
Kingdom of Sussex

The **Kingdom of Sussex**, (*Suth Seaxe*, i.e. the South Saxons), was one of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, its area was more or less that of the later county of Sussex. A large part of that district, however, was covered in early times by the forest called Andred.  It was ruled by the kings of Sussex.

## History 
According to the traditional account given in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, it was in 477 that a certain Ælle led the invaders ashore at a place called *Cymenes ora* and defeated the inhabitants. A further battle at a place called *Mearcredes burne* is recorded under the year 485, and in the annal for 491 we read that Ælle and his son Cissa robbed Anderitum (Pevensey Castle) and killed all the inhabitants. 

**Based on a 1911 encyclopedia article.*
Violence

s from physical violence, per 100,000&nbsp;inhabitants in 2002.

]]

**Violence** is when someone attacks someone else, often to get them to do something they do not want to do by making them feel pain. 

## Overview
Violence can mean anything from one person hitting another to a war between many countries that could cause millions of deaths. Laws are often created to lower the chance of violence happening.

## Types
* **Physical**: Fighting, killing or hurting someone
* **Sexual**: When someone subjects someone else to unwanted sexual acts
* **Racial**: When a victim is subject to violence due to his or her race or nationality

## Examples
Many notable groups regularly committing violence are politically motivated. They are sometimes called terrorist groups. Below is a select list.

### Select list of terrorist groups
* ISIS
* Hamas
* Houthis
* Hezbollah
* Wagner Group
* Al-Nusra Front

## Related pages
* Pogrom
* Terrorism
** September 11 attacks
** Charlie Hebdo shooting
** 2016 Berlin truck attack
** Palestinian political violence
* Genocides
** The Holocaust
** Bosnian genocide
** Rwandan genocide
** Cambodian genocide

## References
Annals

**Annals** (Latin *Annales*, from *annus*, a year) are a short form of historical writing which record events chronologically, year by year. 

## History
### Ancient Rome
Cicero ( in *De Oratore*, ii. 12. 52) tells that from the earliest period down to the pontificate of *Publius Mucius Scaevola* (c. 131 BC), it was usual for the pontifex maximus to record on a white tablet (*album*), which was exhibited in an open place at his house, so that the people might read it. On this tablet were written down (according to Cicero) the name of the consuls and other magistrates, and then the important events of the year.  

In Cicero's time these records were called *Annales Maximi*. The practice of writing annals was carried on by several unofficial writers. Cicero speaks of Cato, Pictor and Piso. 

### Medieval
In the Middle Ages in the Western Church there were written tables to show that date of Easter for a certain number of years or even centuries. These *Paschal tables* were thin books in which each annual date was separated from the next by a more or less considerable blank space. In these spaces some monks wrote down the important events of the year. The writing of these Annals was begun at the end of the 7th century and among the Irish – see the **Annals of the Four Masters**, the **Annals of Ulster**, the **Annals of Innisfallen** and the **Annales Cambriae** or Annals of Wales, one of the earliest sources for King Arthur. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is also in annalistic, year-by-year form.  

In the 9th century, during the *Carolingian Renaissance*, these Annals became the usual form of contemporary history. There were the *Annales Einhardi*, the *Annales Laureshamenses* (or "of Lorsch"), and the *Annales S. Bertini*. They were written officially in order to preserve the memory of the more interesting acts of Charlemagne, his ancestors and his successors. At this stage, the Annals now began to lose their primitive character, and became more and more **Chronicles**. But the term was still used for many documents, such as the Annals of Waverley.
Marián Hossa

**Marián Hossa** (born 12 January 1979, in Stará Ľubovňa, Czechoslovakia, now Slovakia) is a Slovak former professional ice hockey right winger. He played a total of 19 years in the National Hockey League (NHL). He played for the Ottawa Senators, Atlanta Thrashers, Pittsburgh Penguins, Detroit Red Wings, and Chicago Blackhawks. He played in attack, preferably in right-wing. He was considered as one of the fastest skating players of the sport. He wore number 81 on his jersey.

After the 2007-2008 season when his team, the Pittsburgh Penguins, lost to the Detroit Red Wings in the Stanley Cup he switched teams to the Detroit Red Wings because he felt he had a better chance of winning the Stanley Cup with them.  When the Penguins again met the Red Wings in the Stanley Cup after the 2008-2009 season, Hossa was once again on the losing team as the Penguins won in 7 games.

Hossa signed a 12-year contract with the Chicago Blackhawks that's worth 62.8 million dollars.

After losing two straight Stanley Cup finals with the Pittsburgh Penguins and Detroit Red Wings, He finally won the Stanley Cup with the Chicago Blackhawks in 2010. On June 24, 2013, He won his second Stanley Cup with the Blackhawks after they defeated the Boston Bruins 4 games to 2 in the 2013 Stanley Cup Finals.

Before the 2017–18 season, it was announced that Hossa would miss the entire season because of eczema.

On April 7, 2022, Hossa signed a one-day contract with the Blackhawks and retired from professional ice hockey. On November 20, 2022, the Blackhawks retired Hossa's jersey number #81.

## Career statistics
### International

### All-Star Games

## References
## Other websites
*
Świnoujście

**Świnoujście**  () is a town in Pomerania, northwestern Poland, with about 42,000 people (). It is on the Swina river, which flows into the Baltic Sea. In Świnoujście is the largest and longest beach in Poland. Świnoujście is also a health resort and has a modern harbour.

The port can handle of dry bulk and general cargo (especially coal, ore and chemical materials).

The ferry terminal (run by the Polish Baltic Shipping Company) provides ferry berths and facilities for passenger services to Sweden and Denmark. There are lines to Malmo in Sweden, Copenhagen and Ronne (Bornholm) in Denmark.

There are also facilities for deep-sea fishing, fish processing, and ship repair services.
## Other websites
* Official website of Świnoujście 
* Tourist Information for Swinemünde
Cicero

**Marcus Tullius Cicero** (3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, consul, lawyer, political theorist and philosopher. He is often thought to be one of Rome's greatest orators and prose stylists.

His Latin is thought to be the model of Classical Latin. He introduced Greek philosophy to the Romans.

Cicero was heavily involved in the politics of the Roman Republic. After Julius Caesar's death, Cicero became an enemy of Mark Antony. In the power struggle, Cicero attacked Antony in a series of speeches. Cicero was proscribed as an enemy of the state by the Second Triumvirate. He was executed in 43 BC by soldiers working for the Triumvirate.

## References 

## Sources 
* Everitt, Anthony 2001, ''Cicero: the life and times of Rome's greatest politician*, Random House, hardback, 359 pages,  
* Haskell, H.J.: (1946) *This was Cicero*,  Fawcett publications, Inc. Greenwich, Conn. USA
* Rawson, Elizabeth (1975) *Cicero, A portrait*, Allen Lane, London  
* Taylor, H. (1918). *Cicero: A sketch of his life and works.* Chicago: A. C. McClurg & Co.

## Other websites 
### General 
** Links to Cicero resources 
** University of Texas Cicero Homepage  
** The Internet Encyclopædia of Philosophy

### Works by Cicero 
** 
** Perseus Project (Latin and English): Classics Collection (see: M. Tullius Cicero)
** The Latin Library (Latin): Works of Cicero 
** UAH (Latin, with translation notes): Cicero Page 
** *De Officiis'', translated by Walter Miller
** Cicero's works: text, concordances and frequency list
* Biographies and descriptions of Cicero's time:
** At Project Gutenberg
*** Plutarch's biography of Cicero contained in the *Parallel Lives*
*** *Life of Cicero* by Anthony Trollope, Volume I – Volume II
*** *Cicero* by Rev. W. Lucas Collins (*Ancient Classics for English Readers*)
*** *Roman life in the days of Cicero* by Rev. Alfred J. Church
*** *Social life at Rome in the Age of Cicero* by W. Warde Fowler
** At Heraklia website 
** Dryden's translation of *Cicero* from Plutarch's *Parallel Lives* 
** At Middlebury College website
** Prætor Brutus 
* News article on a museum-guide robot named after him
Niels Bohr

**Niels Bohr** (7 October 1885  18 November 1962) was a Danish physicist who helped discover quantum physics, the structure of the atom, and the atomic bomb. Bohr was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1922 for discovering the quantization of atomic energy levels. He worked on the Manhattan Project. He married Margrethe Nørlund in 1912. One of his sons was Aage Bohr, who was also an important physicist. Aage won in 1975 his own Nobel prize. Niels Bohr worked also with Albert Einstein. He is also considered one of the most important physicists of the 20th century.  

## Biography 
Niels Henrik David Bohr, or Niels Bohr was born in Copenhagen, Denmark,1885 as the son of Christian Bohr, who was also professor of physiology at the University of Copenhagen. Bohr's mother was Ellen Adler Bohr and was Jewish with a rich family of bankers and politicians. Niels was also the brother of Harald Bohr. Bohr was a mathematician, a physicist, and a football player of the national team.  

In 1903 Bohr began studies of philosophy and mathematics at the Copenhagen University. 

In 1905 the Royal Danish Academy of Science organized a competition. Niels Bohr participated with some experiments in surface tension. He used the laboratory of his father in the university, because he knew it since he was a boy. 

His work won the prize. For this reason, he decided to stop the studies of philosophy and mathematics and changed to physics. 

He received his doctorate in 1911. 

Bohr did experiments in the Trinity College in Cambridge under the direction of J.J. Thomson. After it, he went to the University of Manchester under the direction of Ernest Rutherford. On the basis of the theories of Rutherford, he published his theory of electrons. He introduces the theory of electrons traveling in orbits around the nucleus of the atom in 1913 and the chemical properties of the orbit.

He introduced the idea that an electron can drop from a higher energy orbit to a lower one. Then it can emit a photon of discrete energy. This is the basis of quantum theory. 

Niels Bohr and his wife Margrethe Nørlund Bohr had four sons. Their oldest died in a tragic boating accident and another died from childhood meningitis. The others went on to lead successful lives, including Aage Bohr, who became a very successful physicist and, like his father, won a Nobel Prize in physics, in 1975.

British actor Kenneth Branagh played Bohr in the 2023 Christopher Nolan movie *Oppenheimer*.
Sky Odyssey

**Sky Odyssey** (or ***The Sky Odyssey*** in Japan) is an action/adventure flight simulator (or flight videogame) for the SonyPlayStation 2.  It was made by Cross, published by Activision and was sold in store’s in the year 2000.

The games story is a Indiana Jones-like adventure in which the person playing the game flies an airplane in a fictional (or not real) world collecting very old objects as well as pieces of a map.

The game's music was made by Kō Ōtani, who also made the music for *Shadow of the Colossus*, different types of *Gamera* films, and many other anime.

It is one of the few videogames that you can fly the Japanese Shinden and Shinden Kai, the Shinden is the airplane shown on the game's box.

## Other websites 
*Official website
Piri Reis map

The **Piri Reis map** is a map of the world from the 16th century. It was drawn on a parchment of gazelle skin by Ottoman cartographer Piri Reis (Muhiddin Piri) in 1513. This map was used to support claims for a pre-modern exploration of Antarctica.

Only around one third of the map still exists, and it is located at the Topkapı Palace in Istanbul.

## References
Genealogy

**Genealogy** is the study of family history. It is the study of family relationships and ancestry (parents, grandparents, great-grandparents, etc.). It is a popular hobby in the United States and in many other countries.

Some people show their family history using a family tree. A family tree is a diagram of the members of a family. With a family tree you use lines to show how people are related, for example, people who are married or have children. 

Some people keep track of their family history data in a genealogy database on their computer. Examples of data that a person would save are dates and places of births, marriages, and deaths. Other information that might be saved are records of military service, census records which show where ancestors lived at a certain time, immigration data, education, occupations, and even photos of the ancestors. The person building the database can usually decide to save many kinds of data—news articles, stories that were told in the family (oral history), information on religious ceremonies, wills or inheritances, information from family letters, customs, or how world or local events affected the family. The advantages of using a genealogy database are that it helps to keep the data organized, especially when relationships change; it can generate several types of charts or tables with the data filled in; it may make it easier to share data with others; and it takes up less room than paper and notebooks.

People study genealogy (family history) for many reasons. 
* They may want to help someone be reunited with their family after war, natural disasters, foster care, or adoption, or find living relatives. 
* They may have an interest in history and want to know how and where their family lived during interesting times of history. (dynasty in case of royal familty)
* They may want to track hereditary diseases that may be passed from parents to their children. (This would overlap with the study of genetics.)  
* The Mormons believe that they can give baptisms and other religious rites to their ancestors to help them in the afterlife.  This belief drives them to find as many of their ancestors as they can, and they have collected many genealogy records from around the world.
* Some people use genealogy to keep track of money, land and power so that they can inherit what belongs to their family. These people use genealogy to help it stay in the family and prevent false claims to the wealth, land or power.

## References 
## Related pages 
*Phylogeny
Osburg

**Osburg** is a municipality in the Trier-Saarburg district, in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. It is near Trier. As of 31 December 2018, 2,422 people lived there.

## Other websites 
* Official website
Landform

(Argentina)]]
 erratic'', Waterville Plateau, Washington.]]
A **landform** is a word that describes a form of land. Each type of landform is defined by its size, shape, location, and what it is made of. The scientific study of landform is called geomorphology.

## List of landforms 
### Slope landforms
*alas
*bluff
*cliff      
*cuesta
*dale
*dell
*escarpment (scarp)
*glen
*gully
*hill
*knoll
*mountain
*plain
*plateau
*ravine
*ridge
*rock shelter
*terrace & terracettes
*vale
*valley
*valley shoulder

### Coastal and oceanic landforms
*abyssal fan
*abyssal plain
*arch
*archipelago
*atoll
*confluence
*barrier island
*bay & gulf
*baymouth bar
*headwaters
*beach & raised beach
*beach ridge
*bight
*boondock
*cape
*cave
*cliff
*coast
*coral reef
*cove
*delta
*dune system
*estuary
*fjord
*headland
*isthmus
*island, islet, island arc, archipelago & atoll
*lagoon
*machair
*meadow
*notch
*ocean
*Ocean ridge & oceanic trench
*peninsula
*ria
*salt marsh
*sea
*shoal
*sound
*spit
*stack & stump
*tombolo
*cut landform
*Wave cut platform

### Fluvial landforms
Landforms that are related to flowing water.
*ait
*anabranch
*arroyo
*bar
*bayou
*Carolina Bay
*basin
*beach
*cave
*cliff
*gully
*island
*lake
*levee
*marsh
*meander
*oasis
*ox-bow lake
*pond
*pool
*riffle
*river
*spring
*stream
*stream terrace
*swamp
*valley and vale
*waterfall
*watershed

### Mountain and glacial landforms
*arête
*cirque
*crevasse
*corrie or cwm
*dirt cone
*drumlin
*drumlin field
*esker
*fjord
*U-shaped valley
*glacial horn
*glacier
*hanging valley
*inselberg 
*kame
*kame delta
*kettle
*moraine
*mountain & mountain range
*outwash fan and outwash plain
*pingo
*stream terrace
*summit
*tunnel valley
*valley

### Volcanic landforms
*Butte
*Caldera
*Cinder cone
*Geyser
*lava dome
*lava flow & lava plain
*mesa
*Mid-ocean ridge
*Oceanic trench
*Vent
*Volcanic island
*Volcano, shield volcano &  composite volcano (or stratovolcano)

### Erosion landforms
Landforms made by erosion and weathering usually occur in coastal or fluvial areas, and many are listed under those headings.  Some other erosion landforms that are not listed in those categories include:
*canyon
*cave
*lavaka
*limestone pavement
*rock formations
*tea table

*Deposition landform -- landforms produced by deposition of load or sediment (usually coastal or fluvial).
*Eolian landform - landforms produced by wind weathering.

## Other websites 
*Landform Design
Shadow of the Colossus

***Shadow of the Colossus*** is a Japanese-made action-adventure video game made and sold by Sony Computer Entertainment (SCEI) for the PlayStation 2. The game was sold in North America and Japan in October 2005, and was then sold in Europe and Oceania in February 2006. The game was made by SCEI's International Production Studio 1, the same video game makers that made the game Ico.

The game is about a person called Wander, a young man who must travel across a large area on a horse and destroy sixteen giant creatures called the colossi to bring back the life of a dead girl. The game is not a normal action-adventure type of game because there are no towns or dungeons to explore, no characters to talk to, and no enemies to destroy other than the colossi. Shadow of the Colossus has been described as a puzzle game, because each colossus has a weakness which must be found and somehow used to defeat the colossi.

## Remake 
A remake game title *Shadow of the Colossus* (2018) released for PlayStation 4.
Principality

A **principality** (sometimes also called **princedom**) is a country or territory which is ruled by a sovereign prince or princess. Principalities were common in the Middle Ages. Principalities tend to have quite a small territory. 

## Current principalities 
There are currently three countries which are principalities: Andorra, Monaco and Liechtenstein.

*  The **Principality of Andorra** is a small country in Western Europe which borders Spain and France. Andorra has two heads of state known as "Co-Princes". The two Co-Princes are Emmanuel Macron (also President of France) and Joan Enric Vives Sicília (who is also Bishop of Urgell).
*  The **Principality of Liechtenstein** is a very small country located in the Alps. It was named after the ruling family, the House of Liechtenstein. The principality was once a part of the Holy Roman Empire but eventually became independent. The ruler of Liechtenstein holds the title "*Fürst*", which is usually translated as "Prince".
*  The **Principality of Monaco** is the second-smallest country in the world. It borders France. Monaco's ruler is the "Sovereign Prince".

## Sub-national principalities 
Many states of the Holy Roman Empire were small principalities with their own royal families. 

In modern Europe, there are some cases where the heir to the throne of a country holds the title "Prince of...", followed by the name of a significant region of the country. This mostly has some historical meaning.

*  The **Principality of** **Asturias** is one of Spain's autonomous communities. The heir to the throne of Spain has the title "Prince/Princess of Asturias".
*  **Wales** is one of the four countries part of the United Kingdom. The heir to the throne of the UK holds the title Prince of Wales. This is because the Principality of Wales formerly existed before Wales and England became a single legal entity.

## Micronations 
Some states claim to be principalities but are not recognised by other countries: Sealand (a Sea Fort off the English coast), Seborga (a small town in Italy), the Principality of Hutt River in Australia and the Principality of Minerva in the Pacific. These states are examples of micronations.

## Colonialism 
Sometimes the word is also used to mean dependent territories in  Africa, Asia and India, pre-Columbian America and Oceania. For these, the word princely states is generally preferred, especially if they came under the authority of a European colonial power.
Verbandsgemeinde

A **Verbandsgemeinde** (plural **Verbandsgemeinden**) is an administrative unit unique to the German Bundeslands (federal states) of Rhineland-Palatinate and, since 2009, Saxony-Anhalt.

## Rhineland-Palatinate
There are 163 Verbandsgemeinden in Rhineland-Palatinate, which are grouped into the 24 districts and subdivided into nearly 2200 **Ortsgemeinden**.  
Most of these Verbandsgemeinden were established in 1969. Formerly the name of the administrative units was *Amt*.  Most of the functions of municipal government for several villages are consolidated and administered centrally from a larger or more central village among the group, while the individual villages (Ortsgemeinden) still maintain a limited degree of local autonomy.

## Districts
.  The twelve cities which do not belong to any district and are identified on the map with letters.]]
The 24 districts:
Crescent

'' shape (in light grey).]]

In art and symbolism, a **crescent** is generally the shape produced when a circular disk has a segment of another circle removed from its edge, so that what remains is a shape enclosed by two circular arcs of different diameters which intersect at two points (usually in such a manner that the enclosed shape does not include the center of the original circle). 

The crescent was long used as the symbol of Byzantium. Now it is the main symbol for the religion Islam.

## Other websites 
*The origin of the Islamic crescent
*MathWorld article on geometric "Lune"
*Worldwide Moon Sighting Reports
Fertile Crescent

The **Fertile Crescent** is a historical region in the Middle East that includes the Levant, Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt. These countries on a map together have a shape that is similar to a crescent, so archaeologist James Henry Breasted spoke of the "Fertile Crescent" because he wanted to show the similarities of the cultures of this region in ancient times.

All these lands are watered by important rivers: Nile, Jordan, Euphrates and Tigris. Together they cover some 400-500,000 square kilometers, and the region extends from the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea around the north of the Syrian Desert and through the Jazirah and Mesopotamia to the Persian Gulf. These areas are in present-day Egypt, Israel, West Bank, Gaza strip, Lebanon, Cyprus and parts of Jordan, Syria, Iraq, south-eastern Turkey and south-western Iran. The population of the Nile River basin is about 70 million, the Jordan River basin about 20 million, and the Tigris and Euphrates basins about 30 million, giving the present-day Fertile Crescent a total population of around 120 million, or at least a quarter of the population of the Middle East.

The Fertile Crescent has a very long record of past human activity.

## Related pages 
*Mesopotamia
*Ancient Egypt
Crescent (disambiguation)

**Crescent** is a shape, form or symbol.

**Crescent** may also refer to:
* *Crescent* (Amtrak), an American passenger train
* Crescent Engineering College, a private engineering college in Vandalur, Chennai (Madras), India
* Crescent School, an all-male private school in Toronto, Canada
* Crescent (Dallas), an ornate office tower in the Oak Lawn area of Dallas, Texas, United States
* *Crescent* (John Coltrane), a 1964 album by John Coltrane
* *Crescent* (album), a 2003 album by Gackt
* Crescent (architecture), an architectural structure where a number of houses are laid out in an arc to form of a crescent shape
* Crescent (pigeon), a breed of domestic pigeon
* "Crescent" is the literal translation of *croissant* - a popular buttery French bread in the shape of a crescent moon.
* *Crescent*, a Swedish bicycle brand manufactured by Nymanbolagen
* the Crescent meteorite of 1936, which fell in Oklahoma, United States (see meteorite falls)
*Crescent is also often found as part of street names. Such streets are often (but not always) curved in some way.
* Crescent Records, a record label
* HMCS *Crescent*, a WWII Royal Canadian Navy destroyer.
* The Crescent, a defunct department store chain.
* Crescent Arms, a firearms manufacturer bought by Savage Arms.