open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
List of comets

This is a list of some comets in the solar system.

Periodic comets visit us again and again. Non-periodic comets visit us only once. On this list there is a "P" in front of the periodic comets. In front of non-periodic comets there is a "C".  There is sometimes a number in front of the "P": it shows the number of times people saw the periodic comet visiting us.  

## Comets we usually know by a name
*Caesar's Comet
* Comet Borrelly (19P/Borrelly)
* Comet Encke (2P/Encke)
* Comet Hale-Bopp (C/1995 O1)
* Halley's Comet (1P/Halley)
* Comet Humason (C/1961 R1)
* Comet Hyakutake (C/1996 B2)
*Comet Ikrya–Seki (C/1965 S1)
* Comet Kohoutek (C/1973 E1)
* Comet Mrkos (C/1957 P1)
* Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 (D/1993 F2)
* Comet Skjellerup–Maristany (C/1927 X1) 
* Comet West (C/1975 V1)
* Great Comet of 1807 (C/1807 R1)
* Great Comet of 1811 (C/1811 F1)
* Great March Comet of 1843 (C/1843 D1)
* Great January Comet (C/1910 A1)
* Comet Swift–Tuttle (109P/Swift–Tuttle)
* Tsuchinshan–ATLAS

## Periodic comets 
Periodic comets have a special place in astronomy, because their orbits are often the same. We know when they will visit us, and we can plan to watch them, and send space probes to look at them. 

On August 24, 1994, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) standardized the way they name this type of comet. This system tells us which comet is which. The IAU chose the letter **P** for periodic comets and **D** for periodic comets that were lost or which broke into pieces.
Other letters are **C** for *non-periodic* comets, and **X** for comets where we do not know their orbits. It uses **A** for objects people say are asteroids. Each name starts with a number, so two comets have the same name.

## sources 
* Bright Comet Chronicles
List of stars with confirmed extrasolar planets

The following is a list of main sequence stars with confirmed extrasolar planets. Note that the masses of the planets are lower bounds only. If a planet is detected by the spectral line displacement method referred to above, no information is gained about the inclination of the planet's plane of orbit around its star, and a value for this is needed to calculate the mass. It has become customary to arbitrarily assume that the plane is exactly lined up with the line of sight from Earth (this produces the lowest possible mass consistent with the spectral line measurements).

* HD 83443 - .35 MJ and .16 MJ
* HD 16141 - .215 MJ.
* HD 168746 - .24 MJ
* HD 46375 - .249 MJ 
* HD 108147 - .34 MJ 
* HD 75289 - .42 MJ 
* 51 Pegasi - .47 MJ (0.25-AU)
* BD -10 3166 - .48 MJ
* HD 6434 - .48 MJ
* HD 187123 - .52 MJ
* HD 209458 - .69 MJ
* Upsilon Andromedae - .71 MJ (0.06AU), 2.11 MJ (0.83AU), and 4.61 MJ (2.5AU)
* HD 192263 - .76 MJ
* Epsilon Eridani - .86 MJ
* HD 38529 - .81 MJ
* HD 179949 - .84 MJ
* 55 Cancri - .84 MJ (0.25-AU) and >5? MJ
* HD 82943 - .88 MJ and 1.63 MJ
* HD 121504 - .89 MJ
* HD 37124 - 1.04 MJ
* HD 130322 - 1.08 MJ
* Rho Coronae Borealis - 1.1 MJ (0.5-AU)
* HD 52265 - 1.05 MJ
* HD 177830 - 1.28 MJ
* HD 217107 - 1.282 MJ
* HD 210277 - 1.24 MJ
* HD 27442 - 1.43 MJ
* 16 Cygni B - 1.5 MJ (1.5+AU)
* HD 74156 - 1.56 MJand >7.5 MJ
* HD 134987 - 1.58 MJ
* HD 160691 - 1.97 MJ
* HD 19994 - 2.0 MJ
* GJ 876 - 1.98 MJ and .56 MJ
* HD 92788 - 3.8 MJ
* HD 8574 - 2.23 MJ
* HR 810 - 2.24 MJ
* 47 Ursae Majoris - 2.54 MJ (2+AU) and .76 MJ
* HD 12661 - 2.83 MJ
* HD 169830 - 2.94 MJ
* 14 Herculis - 3.3 MJ
* GJ 3021 - 3.37 MJ
* HD 80606 - 3.90 MJ
* HD 195019 - 3.43 MJ
* HD 213240 - 3.7 MJ
* GJ 86 - 4 MJ
* Tau Boötis - 3.87 MJ (0.25-AU)
* HD 50554 - 4.9 MJ
* HD 190228 - 4.99 MJ
* HD 168443 - 7.2 and 17.1 MJ
* HD 222582 - 5.4 MJ
* HD 28185 - 5.6 MJ
* HD 178911 B - 6.47 MJ
* HD 10697 - 6.59 MJ
* 70 Virginis - 6.6 MJ (0.5AU)
* HD 106252 - 6.81 MJ
* HD 89744 - 7.2 MJ
* HD 141937 - 9.7 MJ
* HD 114762 - 11 MJ (0.5-AU)
List of water sports

Many sports are played in water.
The following is a **list of water sports**, divided by category. This list is not complete. Some of the sports include only one part to swimming, as for example Triathlon.

## In the water (13)
*Swimming
*Triathlon - Usually a combination of swimming, cycling and running
*Modern pentathlon includes épée fencing, pistol shooting, swimming, a show jumping course on horseback, and a cross-country run.
*Rescue swimming - Swimming with the goal to rescue other swimmers or the practice thereof.
*Surf lifesaving - A competitive sport which evolved from the training activities of lifeguards at Australian surf beaches.
*Water polo - A team ball sport played in water.
*Synchronized swimming - A hybrid of swimming, gymnastics, and ballett.
*Fin swimming - Swimming with fins
*Water aerobics - Aerobics in the water
*Water gymnastics - Gymnastics in the water
*Snorkeling - The practice of swimming at the surface (typically of the sea) with a mask and a short tube called a snorkel.
*Diving off springboards or off platforms
*A water slide  - A slide with water flowing down it

## Underwater water (6)
*Diving
*Scuba diving - Swimming under water using a (self contained) breathing apparatus
*Free-diving - The aim to maximize the depth dived using no breathing apparatus
*Apnea - The practice of not breathing for extended times.
*Underwater rugby - Rugby played under water with a ball that has been rendered neutrally buoyant. Surfacing to breathe is only allowed without the ball.
*Underwater hockey - Hockey played under water with short wooden curved sticks and a heavy puck. Players wear diving masks, snorkels, and fins, and must surface to breathe while team mates continue the game on the pool bottom.

## Near the water (20)
*Boating - The use of boats
*Bodyboarding - Similar to surfing, but the board is smaller and the person lies down on the board
*Canoeing
*Canoe Polo - Polo using a canoe
*Dragon Boat Racing - A team paddling sport on water
*Fishing - The recreation and sport of catching fish
*Hydroplane racing
*Jet sprint boat racing
*Kayaking
*Kite surfing - on flat water using a kite for propulsion
*Motor boating
*Offshore powerboat racing
*Parasailing - A person is towed behind a vehicle (usually a boat) while attached to a parachute
*Rowing - Propels a boat by means of oars
*Sailing - Using the wind for propulsion
*Surfing - The sport or pastime of riding a wave towards the shore while standing or lying on a surfboard.
*Wakeboarding - Similar to water skiing, but using only one board attached to the feet
*Wake skating - Similar to wakeboarding, but the board is NOT attached to the feet
*Water skiing - Using skis to slide over the water while being pulled by a boat or other device
*Wind surfing - On flat water using wind for propulsion in combination with sails

Overall, there are a total of 39 water sports.
List of waterways

The **list of waterways** is a link page for any river, canal, estuary, or firth.

## Albania
## Australia
*Swan River
*Port Jackson
*Botany Bay

## Belgium
*Ghent-Terneuzen Canal

## Brazil
*Amazon River
*Tocantins River

## Bosnia and Herzegovina
*Bosna
*Buna
*Drina
*Neretva
*Una
*Vrbas

## Canada 
*Lachine Canal
*Rideau Canal
*Saint Lawrence Seaway, (Canada and USA)
*Trent-Severn Waterway
*Welland Canal

## China
*Amur
*Chang Jiang (Yangtze)
*Grand Canal of China
*Huang He (Yellow River)
*Lingqu Canal
*Mekong
*Songhua River
*Tumen River
*Yalu River

## Egypt 
*Nile River
*Suez Canal

## France
*Aa River
*Aude River
*Canal du Midi
*Cher River
*Dordogne River
*Gironde River
*Loire River
*Meuse River
*Moselle River
*Rhone River
*Saône River
*Seine
*Têt River
*Var River

## Germany
*Elbe River
*Main River
*Mittellandkanal
*Neisse River
*Rhine River
*Rhine-Main-Danube Canal (Rhein-Main-Donau-Kanal)
*Oder River
*Weser River

## Greece
*Corinthian Canal connected the Gulf of Corinth with the Aegean Sea,

## India
*Agra canal
*Brahmaputra
*Ghaggar River
*Ganges River
*Godavari River
*Hakra River (dried-out)
*Indus River
*Krishna River
*Saraswati River
**Vedic Saraswati River*

## Italy
*Po River
*Isonzo (Soca)
*Tevere (Tiber)
*Ticino River

## Netherlands
*Afgedamde Maas
*Amsterdam-Rhine Canal
*Beneden Merwede
*Bergse Maas
*Boven Merwede
*Canal through Walcheren
*Canal through Zuid-Beveland
*Ghent-Terneuzen Canal
*Gooimeer
*Haringvliet
*Hollands Diep
*IJssel
*Linge
*Meuse river
*Nieuwe Maas
*Nieuwe Merwede
*Nieuwe Waterweg
*North Sea Canal
*Oude Maas
*Rhine
*Scheldt
*Scheldt-Rhine Canal
*Volkerak
*Waal

## New Zealand
*List of rivers of New Zealand

## North Korea
*Taedong River

## Panama
*Panama Canal

## Poland
*Bydgoszcz Canal
*Notec
*Nysa
*Oder (*Odra*)
*Vistula
*Warta River

## Republic of Ireland
*Grand Canal
*Royal Canal
*River Shannon

## Romania
*Danube-Black Sea Canal

## Russia
*Amur
*Lena
*Irtysh
*Ob
*Volga
*Yenisei

## Slovenia
*Bednja
*Drave (*Drava*)
*Dravinja
*Hudinja
*Krka
*Ljubljanica
*Ložnica
*Mirna
*Mislinja
*Mur (*Mura*)
*Savinja (old English name *Sann*)
*Soča
*Sava
*Voglajna

## South Korea
*Geum River
*Han River
*Nakdong River

## Sweden 
*Göta Kanal

## United Kingdom
*Rivers of the United Kingdom
*Waterways in the United Kingdom

## United States
*Rivers in the United States
*Canals in the United States
List of wave topics

This is a **list of wave topics**, by Wikipedia page.

## 0-9
*21 cm line

## A
*Abbe prism
*Airy disc
*Alfvén wave
*amphidromic point
*amplitude
*amplitude modulation
*analog sound vs. digital sound
*atmospheric diffraction
*atmospheric wave
*atmospheric waveguide
*audience wave

## B
*Babinet's principle
*bandwidth limited pulse
*beat
*Berry phase
*Bloch wave
*blueshift
*Brillouin scattering

## C
*carrier wave
*chirp (frequency)
*circular polarization
*closed waveguide
*coherence (physics)
*coherence length
*collimated light
*Compton effect
*continuous wave
*cutoff wavelength

## D
*decollimation
*delta waves
*dielectric waveguide
*diffraction
*dispersion (optics)
*dispersion relation
*dominant wavelength
*Doppler effect
*Doppler radar

## E
*E-skip
*echo (phenomenon)
*electromagnetic wave
*electromagnetic wave cut-off
*Elliott wave
*elliptical polarization
*evanescent wave

## F
*F wave
*frequency
*frequency modulation
*fundamental frequency

## G
*Gaussian beam
*geometric optics
*gravity wave
*groundwave
*group delay
*group velocity

## H
*harmonic
*holography
*Huygens' principle

## I
*in phase
*interferometry
*inverse scattering

## K
*knife-edge effect

## L
*linear elasticity
*linear polarization
*longitudinal wave
*longwave

## M
*Mach wave
*Mach-Zender interferometer
*mediumwave
*megatsunami
*microwave
*microwave auditory effect
*microwave oven
*microwave plasma
*microwaving
*Mie scattering
*Millimeter Cloud Radar
*monochromator

*multipath propagation

## O
*optical waveguide
*out of phase
*overtone

## P
*phase (waves)
*phase difference
*phase inversion
*phase modulation
*phase velocity
*plane wave
*polarization
*pressure wave
*pulse-density modulation

## Q
*quadrature
*quadrature amplitude modulation
*quantum optics
*quantum tunneling

## R
*radar
*radar astronomy
*Radar gun
*radio propagation
*radio waves
*Rayleigh scattering
*Rayleigh-Jeans law
*redshift
*reflection coefficient
*relativistic Doppler effect
*ring modulation
*ring wave guide
*ripple tank
*Rossby wave

## S
*sample (signal)
*sawtooth wave
*Seiche
*seismic wave
*seismograph
*seismology
*Sellmeier equation
*shock wave
*shortwave
*sine wave
*single-sideband modulation
*skywave
*soliton
*sonar
*square wave
*standing wave
*standing wave ratio
*surface-wave-sustained mode
*surfing
*Synthetic aperture radar

## T
*tidal power
*transverse mode
*transverse wave
*triangle wave
*trigonometric function
*tsunami

## U
*ultraviolet catastrophe
*Underwater wave

## V
*vestigial-sideband modulation
*voltage standing wave ratio

## W
*wave drag
*wave equation
*wave front
*wave model
*wave period
*waveform
*waveform monitor
*waveguide
*wavenumber
*wavenumber-frequency diagram
*waverider
*wave velocity
*wave-particle duality
*wavefunction
*wavefunction collapse
*wavelength
*wavelength-division multiplexing
*Wien's law

## X
*X-band radar

## Z
*zero-dispersion slope
*zero-dispersion wavelength
List of symbols

This is a list of graphical signs, icons, and symbols.

## Religious and mystical symbols
## Political symbols
* Fasces
* Hammer and sickle
* Swastika (as used by Nazis and neo-Nazis)
* Peace symbol
* List of political party symbols in India

## Scientific and engineering symbols
* Astronomical symbols
* Chemical symbols
* Electronic symbols
* Hazard warning symbols
* Mathematical symbols

## Other symbols
* Jolly Roger
* Skull and crossbones
* "No" symbol
* Chess symbols in Unicode

## Other websites
List of tunnels

The **list of tunnels** is a link page for any road tunnel,  railway tunnel, or waterway tunnel anywhere in the world.

## Australia
*Sydney Harbour Tunnel

## Austria
*Tauern Tunnel

## Canada
*Detroit-Windsor Tunnel

## France
*Channel Tunnel
*Mont Blanc Tunnel

## Iceland
*Hvalfjörður Tunnel
*Vestfirðir Tunnel
*Múlagöng Tunnel

## Italy
*Fornaci Tunnel
*Mont Blanc Tunnel

## Japan
*Seikan Tunnel

## Netherlands
*List of tunnels in the Netherlands

## New Zealand
*Tunnels in New Zealand

## Spain
*Alfonso XIII Tunnel

## United Kingdom
*Channel Tunnel
*Tunnels in the United Kingdom

## United States
*Anton Anderson Memorial Tunnel, Alaska
*Allegheny Tunnel, Pennsylvania Turnpike
*Big Walker Mountain Tunnel, Virginia
*Blue Mountain Tunnel, Pennsylvania Turnpike
*Brooklyn Battery Tunnel, New York
*Caldecott Tunnel, Orinda, California to Oakland, California
*Callahan Tunnel, Boston
*Cascade Tunnel, Washington
*Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel
*Cumberland Gap Tunnel, Kentucky to Tennessee
*Detroit-Windsor Tunnel, United States and Canada
*Downtown Tunnel, Portsmouth, Virginia to Norfolk, Virginia
*East River Mountain Tunnel, West Virginia to Virginia
*Eisenhower Memorial Tunnel, Colorado
*Flathead Tunnel, Montana
*Fort McHenry Tunnel, Baltimore, Maryland
*Fort Pitt Tunnel, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
*Hampton Roads Bridge-Tunnel, Hampton, Virginia to Norfolk, Virginia
*Harbor Tunnel, Baltimore, Maryland
*Holland Tunnel, New York
*Kittatinny Tunnel, Pennsylvania Turnpike
*Liberty Tubes, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
*Lincoln Tunnel, New York
*Midtown Tunnel, Portsmouth, Virginia to Norfolk, Virginia
*Monitor-Merrimac Memorial Bridge-Tunnel, Newport News, Virginia to Suffolk, Virginia
*Posey Tube, Alameda, California
*Queens Midtown Tunnel, New York
*Squirrel Hill Tunnel, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
*Sumner Tunnel, Boston
*Ted Williams Tunnel, Boston
*Transbay Tube, San Francisco Bay
*Tuscarora Tunnel, Pennsylvania Turnpike
*Webster Tube, Alameda, California
Beach

and shingle beach in Dorset, England]]
, France]]
, *Amblyrhynchus cristatus*, on the beach at Tortuga Bay on Santa Cruz Island, Galapagos]]

A **beach** is a landform along the coast of an ocean, sea, lake, or river. It usually consists of loose particles, such as sand, gravel, shingle, or pebbles. The particles of a beach are sometimes biological in origin, such as mollusc shells or bits of coral and sometimes bits of igneous rock, but the most common mineral in beaches is quartz.

Beaches are natural landing and launching places for boats, and landing craft are specially made for beaches.

People often use beaches for recreation. They swim, bask in the sun, or just relax. The most popular beaches have fine white or light-colored sand and warm water to swim in. Beaches are also used for diving or for seeing marine life.

Among the world's most popular and well-known beaches are Aruba (Dutch Caribbean), Long Beach (Canada), Copacabana Beach (Brazil), Hot Water Beach (New Zealand), Megan Bay (St. Thomas), Kailua Beach (Hawaii), Zandvoort Beach (Netherlands), Jeffreys Bay (South Africa), Bondi Beach (Australia) and Lake Como beaches (Italy).

Taking holidays on the beach is something of a British cultural export. Early railways in the 19th century took people to places they had never seen before. This tourism was made possible by the industrial revolution. Whole seaside resort towns grew to support visitors, where before there were just villages. Vacations at the sea became common all over the world.

Beaches are never static. They are always being built up or eroded, more quickly than other landforms. Over time the boundary between the land and the sea changes. New Romney, a small town in Kent, is one of the Cinque Ports, a 1.6 kilometres from the sea. In Henry VIII's time it was a port on the south coast of England. The growth of Dungeness has cut it off from the sea. Dungeness is a huge shingle beach.

## References
Tony Blair

**Sir Anthony Charles Lynton** "**Tony**" **Blair** (born 6 May 1953) is a British politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1997 to 2007. He was Leader of the Labour Party from 1994 to 2007 and Member of Parliament (MP) for Sedgefield from 1983 to 2007. On the day he stood down as Prime Minister and MP, he was made official Envoy of the Quartet on the Middle East on behalf of the United Nations, the European Union, the United States and Russia.

Blair was elected Leader of the Labour Party in the 1994 leadership election following the sudden death of his predecessor, John Smith. Under Blair's leadership the party abandoned many policies it had held for decades. Labour won a landslide victory in the 1997 general election, which ended 18 years of Conservative rule with the heaviest Conservative defeat since 1832.

He was the Labour Party's longest-serving Prime Minister and the only leader to have taken the party to three uninterrupted general election victories.

Gordon Brown, Chancellor of the Exchequer during all Blair's ten years in office, succeeded him as party leader and Prime Minister in 2007.

## Early life
Blair was born at Queen Mary Maternity Home in Edinburgh on 6 May 1953. He was the second son of Leo and Hazel Blair. Blair joined the Labour Party in 1975.

## Career
Blair was a lawyer before becoming a politician. He married Cherie Booth, also a lawyer, who graduated from the London School of Economics with a first-class honours degree. Blair himself left Oxford University with a second-class degree. They have four children: Euan, Nicky, Kathryn, and Leo. There was a controversy over Blair sending Euan to a grant-maintained school. As a result of this, Alastair Campbell discovered Blair "standing stark naked reading the *Daily Mail*."

### As Prime Minister
As Leader of the Labour Party, he won the 1997, 2001 and 2005 UK general elections. Blair is the first and only Labour Party leader to have won three general elections in a row.

He attributes his success in politics to a pair of "lucky brogues", which he wore for every single Prime Minister's Questions of his leadership. He claimed that "cheap shoes are a false economy".

Blair strongly supported a number of elements of US foreign policy, notably participating in the invasions of Afghanistan in 2001 and Iraq in 2003. He faced heavy criticism for this. The facts about Iraq's possible possession of weapons of mass destruction that he relied on, which later turned out to be false, led many to perceive him as dishonest. Playwright Harold Pinter and former Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad said Blair committed war crimes. Criticism also arose for his involvement in bombings of Yugoslavia in 1999 when he supported the Kosovo Albanian UÇK guerrillas.

### After-PM
On the day of his resignation, Blair was made an official envoy in the Middle East. In 2004, he started the Commission for Africa. He continued work as a commissioner after his service as Prime Minister ended.

In December 2021, Queen Elizabeth II honored Blair with the Order of the Garter.

## References
## Other websites
*
Accident

, sorted by activity and age]]

An **accident** is when something goes wrong when it is not meant to. Physical accidents are things like collisions, injuries, and falling. Non-physical accidents are things like telling someone a secret without meaning to, forgetting something important, or deleting an important computer file.

Road accidents kill thousands of people each month in the United States, and thousands each week in the world. They injure more thousands each week. The majority involve a car but there are also many bus, truck and bicycle accidents. Aircraft crashes, ship sinkings and other transport accidents also attract much attention. 

Injuries from accidents, however, are more numerous at home than elsewhere. They attract less attention because only a few people are hurt at a time.  

Often, accidents are  so that we can learn how to avoid them in the future. Sometimes by studying an accident we can discover new things, for example penicillin.

Most of the deaths resulting from injuries are caused by fire accidents. Thus, accidental fires are one of the leading causes of unintentional deaths.  The main cause of death in fire incidents is burning, but inhalation of smoke and toxic gas causes death as well. Often the cause of the fire is very simple and unexpected, such as forgetting a candle near something flammable, defect in the hardware, or old electrical wires. So most of the large fires are caused by simple reasons.

## Work accidents 
Industrial accidents such as mine cave-ins and the West Gate Bridge collapse also kill and maim many workers. The Bhopal disaster killed thousands, mostly not workers. 

An accident at work is defined as an external, sudden and violent event. Work accidents happen while an someone is working. It may cause the injury or death of the worker or someone else.  For an accident to be a work accident, there must be a direct or indirect relationship of cause and effect between the accident and the work.

Many construction workers are injured.  There are multiple reasons for that, but the main  reason is working on the edge of high buildings without using a safety belt. Thus, you have to follow the safety rules when you are working on these places.

Chemical accidents can happen in a laboratory.  Especially, some students make chemical mistakes that injure them seriously.

## References
Alcohol (chemistry)

In chemistry, **alcohol** is a general term which refers to many organic compounds used in industry and science as reagents, solvents, and fuels. Common alcohols include rubbing alcohol, grain alcohol, wood alcohol, ethylene glycol, glycerin, and phenol.

Simple alcohols are made of an alkyl group with one or more hydroxyl () groups bound to its carbon atoms. They are often transparent colorless liquids.

## Names for alcohol 
There are two ways of naming alcohols: Common names, and IUPAC names. 

* Common names often are made by taking the name of the alkyl group, and adding the word "alcohol". For example, "methyl alcohol" or "ethyl alcohol".
* IUPAC names are made by taking the name of the alkane chain, removing the last "e", and adding "ol". Examples of this are "methanol" and "ethanol".

## Properties 
The hydroxyl (OH) group makes alcohols polar, and they can form hydrogen bonds. Alcohols are weakly amphoteric, meaning they are both a weak acid and a weak base: they react with strong bases to make alkoxide anions, and strong acids to make oxonium cations.

Most alcohols are highly flammable.

## Common alcohols 
The simplest two alcohols are methanol (or methyl alcohol) and ethanol (or ethyl alcohol), which have the following structures:

File:Methanol Lewis.svg|Methanol
File:Ethanol-2D-flat.png|Ethanol

IUPAC nomenclature is used when describing more complex alcohols.

In common usage, "alcohol" often means ethanol or "grain alcohol". (See also: alcoholic proof).

Other commonly used alcohols include:
* Isopropyl alcohol (*sec*-propyl alcohol, propan-2-ol, 2-propanol) , or "rubbing alcohol"
* ethylene glycol (ethane-1,2-diol) , which is the main substance in antifreeze
* glycerin (or glycerol, propane-1,2,3-triol) , bound in natural fats and oils, which are triglycerides (esters of glycerol and fatty acids)
* phenol , an alcohol where the hydroxyl group is bound to a benzene ring.

## References
Virgil

portrait  of Virgil, 3rd-century AD.]]

**Publius Vergilius Maro** (; traditional dates 15 October 70 BC21 September 19 BC), usually called **Virgil** or **Vergil** ( ) in English, was a poet in the Latin language. His poems are about gods and their mythology.  Virgil's most famous epic poem is called the *Aeneid*.

## Life 
Tradition is that Virgil was born in the village of Andes, near Mantua in Cisalpine Gaul. Scholars looking at the way he used words think that he may have Etruscan, Umbrian or even a Celtic background. Study of his name has led to beliefs that his family may have been earlier Roman settlers. These modern beliefs are not supported by evidence from his own writings or from writers of his biographies. Some scholars have noted that his nickname, *MARO*, is an anagram of the two main themes in the Aeneid: *AMOR* (love) and *ROMA* (Rome).

## References
Stone Age

The **Stone Age** was a prehistoric time when people made tools from stone such as flint. It began when people created the first stone tools about 3.3 million years ago. It lasted for about 3.4 million years, and ended between 4,000 BC and 2,000 BC. About 99% of human history happened during the Stone Age. 

## Life 
Stone Age people also made tools out of wood, antler, and bone. However, these materials do not last as long as stone. For this reason, most of the Stone Age tools archaeologists have found are made of stone.

Food eaten in the Stone Age included berries (e.g. blackberries), fish, animals (e.g. mammoth), and animal organs.

## Timeline 
Archaeologists divide the Stone Age into three sections: Paleolithic ("old stone"), Mesolithic ("middle stone"), and Neolithic ("new stone"). During the Neolithic period, people invented farming and pottery, and started to care for animals like cows and pigs.

Sometime between 3000 BC and 2000 BC, people discovered the art of making metals. This probably happened in the Middle East. People used copper first, then learned how to make bronze. When people started using these metals instead of stone, the Stone Age ended and the Bronze Age began.

Some groups of people in Papua New Guinea continued to use Stone Age technology into the 20th century. They used stone-tipped weapons to kill animals for food and clothing. They made shelters using animal skin.

## References
Sahara

The **Sahara**, in North Africa, is the largest desert in the world except for Antarctica. The Sahara is the largest hot desert. It is between  long and between  wide.

It is bounded by the Atlantic Ocean, the Atlas Mountains, the Mediterranean Sea, the Red Sea, and the Sahel region. It runs through many countries including Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Chad, and The Sudan. Most parts are uninhabited, but some people manage to survive in places where there is water.

The Sahara Desert is about 9,200,000 square kilometers (3.6 million square miles) in size. It has been both larger and smaller at different times. After the last ice age it became more fertile, then dried up again. It is the hottest place on the Earth, but not the driest. The driest is the Atacama Desert in South America. The Sahara has about the same size as the whole United States.
Since the 1920s, the Sahara had grown by about ten percent, through a process that is known as desertification.

## Climate 
The Sahara has one of the world's most harsh climates. Typically, the Sahara landscape experiences little rainfall, powerful winds and wide temperature ranges. In some areas, there can be no rainfall for years at a time.

In the summer, daytime air temperatures across the Sahara often reach over 100 degrees Fahrenheit. In the winter the freezing temperatures may occur in the northern Sahara, and milder temperatures, across the southern Sahara. Snow may fall occasionally in some of the higher mountain ranges and rarely, on the desert floor.

## Environment 
The highest mountain is 3415 m, and is the *Emi Koussi* in Chad. Some mountain peaks in the Sahara Desert have snow even in the summer. The main mountain ranges is the Atlas Mountains in Algeria. The Sahara's lowest point lies in the Qattara Depression in Egypt, at about 130 metres below sea level. Sand sheets and dunes are about 25% of the Sahara. The other parts are mountains, steppes with a lot of stones, and oases.  The most venomous scorpion in the world lives here.

4,000 years ago, the Sahara was a thriving savanna grassland with a great variety of wildlife.  This included animals such as elephants and giraffes.  Climate change has caused the rainfall to be less and turn the Sahara into the barren, desert wilderness as we know it today.

## References 
## Other websites 
* Flora and fauna of the Sahara  
* Also see, the list of All types of Desert Snakes in the World (With Exclusive Pictures)
Kyoto

**Kyoto** () is a city in Japan. This city was the capital of Japan from 794 until 1868.

Kyoto is a major city in the Kansai region of Japan. Its population is 1.5 million people. The city of Kyoto is the capital city of the prefecture of Kyoto. Kyoto is one of the cultural, educational, and technology centers of Japan. In it are many universities including Kyoto University, the second oldest national university of Japan.

## History
After 794, the Japanese emperors lived in this city which was called Heian-kyō.

In 1868, the city was called *Saikyō* ("Western capital") in order to distinguish it from Edo (Tokyo) which was the "Eastern capital".

## Geography
There are mountains around the city on the east, north, and west sides. Some people in Kyoto believe that these mountains make Kyoto's summer especially hot and humid, and Kyoto's winter very cold.

We can see many temples and shrines built in traditional Japanese architectural s here. Some of those buildings are registered as UNESCO World Heritage Sites. On the other hand, since Kyoto was one of biggest and richest Japanese cities in the middle of the 19th century; the citizens were eager to import European style, and there are many European style buildings in the center of Kyoto for company offices and schools.

Kyoto is one of oldest cities in Japan. Many tourists from all over the world come to Kyoto. Japanese people often come to Kyoto in the spring to see the cherry blossoms, and in the autumn to see the leaves change color.

Traditional Kyoto food often uses vegetables. McDonald's signboards in Kyoto are brown to preserve the traditional surroundings.

The oldest novel in the world, Shikibu Murasaki's The Tale of Genji is set in Kyoto during the Heian Period.

Kyoto is famous for three festivals: Gion festival, Aoi festival in the summer, and Jidai festival in the autumn.

## Related pages 
* Kyoto Protocol
* Tokyo

## References
## Other websites
Anarchy

**Anarchy** (from Greek αναρχια meaning "without a leader") is a word that has more than one meaning. Some of its meanings are:
# When there is no leader, or when nobody has power over everyone (used in the anarchist movement).
# When there is no political order, and there is confusion (used often in mass media)
# When people do not have any reason to work together, or do not have anything that makes them feel like a group.

In the first meaning listed, an *anarchy* might be a made-up or real society based on a group's beliefs about **anarchism** (see anarcho-communism).

In the second meaning listed, "anarchy" has to do with having no political order. The CIA World factbook  said that there was only one nation, Somalia, that was in a state of anarchy. In Somalia, the government was no longer in control, and some parts of the country were ruled by mobs and warlords who sometimes fight one another.

When there is no political order, more than one government or political authority might compete for the same food, oil, land, or groups of people. The word "Anarchy" can be used to describe this. However, because there is *more than one* competing authority, a better word might be *polyarchy*. The difference between "anarchy" and "polyarchy" is important to someone who thinks that true anarchy would work well. The word for someone who thinks this is "**anarchist**", and the word for this kind of thinking is "**anarchism**". Anarchism has been thought about for hundreds of years. The book called "The Politics of Individualism" attempts to teach its readers that anarchism is not always simply an opposition to the government, but a complicated political movement against the domination of few people.

## Other uses of the word 
Anarchy which follows the death of a ruler and ceases when his successor rises to power, is called interregnum (literally: "in-between rules").

(Another use of the word “Anarchy” is when it is said as “*The* Anarchy”. This is the name that is sometimes given to the civil war and unsettled government in England when Stephen of England was King.) (See **The Anarchy**)

## References
Shinto

at Itsukushima Shrine, Hiroshima Prefecture]]
**Shinto** () is a form of Japanese animism. It has many *kami*, translated as gods or nature spirits. Some "kami" are just spirits of certain places, and some are the overall "kami" (like "Amaterasu", the Sun goddess). The word "Shinto" comes from the Japanese words "", *shin*—the word for spirit or god, and "", *tō*—the word for "the way" or "path". So, Shinto means "the way of the gods." 

State Shinto was the main religion of Japan before World War II. During the period 1868 to 1945 the Japanese government used Shinto for propaganda. All Japanese were forced to register with their local shrine. All Shinto priests worked for the government. War was seen as a sacred duty. The Emperor of Japan was seen as a god. Japanese Buddhism was also involved with the war effort (See Zen at War).

Shinto has many rituals and customs, and some are done every day. Festivals are frequent. Some people mix Shinto and Buddhist rituals and beliefs. 

* Although Jinja-Honcho manages almost all shrines, some, such as Yasukuni, are run separately.

* Amaterasu, the Sun Goddess, is seen as the holiest of all Shinto kami. Her shrine is in Ise, Japan.

## Related pages 
*Shinto shrine

## Other websites 
* Kokugakuin University Encylopedia of Shinto
Astronomer

An **astronomer** is a scientist who studies astronomy. Observational astronomers work in observatories with telescopes to collect information from things in outer space such as planets, stars, or galaxies. Theoretical astronomers study the collected information, and use it to help us understand how the universe behaves.

## Related pages
* List of Astronomers
Karl Marx

**Karl Marx**

## Legacy
Karl Marx's legacy is marked by his influential contributions to political theory and economics, particularly with his ideas on communism and class struggle. While his ideas have shaped various political movements, their interpretation and application have varied widely, sometimes leading to both positive and negative outcomes. However, there's ongoing debate about Karl Marx's legacy by historians. Some see him as a revolutionary thinker who highlighted class struggles, while others criticize his ideas for various reasons, including their implementation in certain historical contexts. Some historians argue that Karl Marx's ideas, as interpreted and implemented by various leaders, contributed to the development of totalitarian regimes, citing instances like the Soviet Union and Maoist China as examples. Many people continue to follow and develop Marx's ideas.

## Related pages
*Commodity fetishism
*Factors of production
*Political economy
*Marxism
*Friedrich Engels
*Communism
*Russian Revolution

## References
### Biographies 
* Friedrich Engels' *Biography of Marx*
* Franz Mehring's *Karl Marx: The Story of His Life*
* Vladimir Lenin's *Karl Marx Biography *
* Francis Wheen's *Karl Marx: A Life *
* Karl Korsch's *Karl Marx Biography*
* Maximilien Rubel's *Marx, life and works*

### Articles and entries 
* Dead Sociologists - Karl Marx 
* Ernest Mandel, *Karl Marx* (New Palgrave article)
* **Marx on India and the Colonial Question**  from anti-caste 
* Portraits of Karl Marx
* The Karl Marx Museum 
* Marxmyths.org  - Various essays on misinterpretations of Marx
* Paul Dorn, The Paris Commune and Marx' Theory of Revolution
* Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry
* Why Marx is the Man of the Moment 

## Other websites 
### Bibliography and online texts 
* Marx and Engels Internet Archive http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/
** *Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right* (1843)
** *On the Jewish Question* (1843)
** *Notes on James Mill* (1844)
** *Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844* (1844)
** *Theses on Feuerbach* (1845)
** *The German Ideology* [with Engels] (1845-46)
** *The Poverty of Philosophy* (1846-47)
** *Wage-Labour and Capital* (1847)
** *Manifesto of the Communist Party* [with Engels] (1847-48)
*** Free audiobook from LibriVox (Also available in German)
** *The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte* (1852)
** *Grundrisse* (1857-58)
** *A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy* (1859)
** *Writings on the U.S. Civil War* [with Engels; compiled] (1861)
** *Theories of Surplus Value, 3 volumes* (1862)
** *Value, Price and Profit* (1865)
** *Capital vol. 1* (1867)
** *The Civil War in France* (1871)
** *Critique of the Gotha Programme* (1875)
** *Notes on Wagner* (1883)
** *Capital, vol. 2* [posthumously, by Engels] (1893)
** *Capital, vol. 3* [posthumously, by Engels] (1894)
** *Letters* [with Engels; compiled] (1833-95)
* *Ethnological Notebooks* —  (1879-80)
* 
* "The Reality Behind Commodity Fetishism" (in English) at *Sic et Non* (in German)
* Libertarian Communist Library Karl Marx Archive 
* Karl Marx Biography 
* Works by Karl Marx at Zeno.org
Analysis

**Analysis** is the process of breaking a complex topic or substance into smaller parts to gain a better understanding of it. The technique has been applied in the study of mathematics and logic since before Aristotle (384–322 B.C.), though *analysis* as a formal concept is a relatively recent development.

The word comes from the Ancient Greek ἀνάλυσις (*analusis*, "a breaking up", from *ana-* "up, throughout" and *lysis* "a loosening").

In this context, Analysis is the opposite of synthesis, which is to bring ideas together.

The following concepts are closely related to this basic idea:
* Mathematical analysis is the name given to any branch of mathematics that looks at what functions are, how they behave, and what things can be done with them.
* Analytical chemistry looks at the qualities of substances, and their composition.

## Some definitions 
#The process of breaking up a concept, proposition, or fact into its simple or ultimate constituents. *Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy*. 2nd ed, 1999, ed. Robert Audi.
#Resolution into simpler elements by analysing. 2. (Maths) Use of algebra and calculus in problem-solving. *Concise Oxford Dictionary*. 1976, ed. J.B. Sykes.
#The isolation of what is more elementary from what is more complex by whatever method. *Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology*. 1925, ed. James Mark Baldwin, Vol. I
#The original Greek sense [was] a ‘loosening up’ or ‘releasing’. Geometry assumes a proposition to be true and searches for another known truth from which the proposition may be deduced. Physical science resolves complex wholes into their elements. *A Kant Dictionary*, 1995, by Howard Caygill.
#The process of breaking a concept down into more simple parts, so that its logical structure is displayed. *Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy*. 1996, Simon Blackburn
#Philosophical analysis is a method of inquiry in which one seeks to assess complex systems of thought by ‘analysing’ them into simpler elements whose relationships are thereby brought into focus. *Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy*. 1998, entry under ‘Conceptual Analysis’ by Robert Hanna

## References
Foolishness

—from his fresco of seven virtues and their opposite vices. *Stultitia* (folly) was shown as the opposite of *Prudentia* ().]]

**Foolishness** is when someone acts without wisdom or sense. A foolish decision is one made without careful reasoning or judgement. An act of foolishness is called **folly**. A person who shows foolishness may be called a **fool**. It is different to stupidity, which is the lack of intelligence.

A ''fool's errand* is a useless piece of work.

A *fool's paradise* a happy state for which there is no good reason.

The *wise fool'' is a common literary character, a person who appears at first to be unintelligent but then reveals him or herself to possess a grest deal of wisdom. An example of this is Sancho Panza in Cervantes' *Don Quixote*. Sancho is an uneducated peasant who at first seems to have little sense or experience. However, as the tale unfolds, he reveals himself to possess a wealth of common sense, first expressed through endless proverbs, but then through his own skill. In this sense he provides a comic juxtaposition to Quixote himself, who is highly educated but insane; both of them supply what the other lacks.

## References 
## Related pages 
* Silliness
Matsuo Basho

.]]

**Matsuo Munefusa**, known as **Matsuo Bashō** (, 1644 - November 28, 1694) was a Japanese poet. He is known as the greatest maker of haiku, a kind of poetry with 17 syllables. The Japanese written language was difficult to master, but haiku was easy for him to write. Matsuo's haikus included characteristics of nature and the four seasons. The reader has to use their imagination to understand his poems. First he named himself *Tosei* (桃青) meaning "unripe peach in blue". Basho took this name because he admired a Chinese poet, Li Po whose name means *plum in white*.

He quit samurai life 1666, and in 1675 he moved to Edo, today called Tokyo. There, in 1678, he got to be a haiku master ("*Sosho*") and began the life of a working poet. In 1680, he moved to Fukagawa, where he had a house. This was just outside of Edo. One of his followers gifted him a banana plant (*basho-an*). He planted the plant and called himself *Basho* because it became his favorite tree in his garden.

In his life, Basho visited many places. Those travels were important for his writings. He visited his disciples (followers) and taught them by making *renga*, a series of haiku, with them. He also visited famous places in Japanese history. These visits made his writing much stronger.

His most famous book is *Oku no Hosomichi* ("The Narrow Road Through the Deep North"). This book was written after a trip. On the trip, Basho and his disciple left Edo on March 24, 1689. They went around Tohoku and Hokuriku, and returned to Edo in 1691. The trip in this book ends in Ogaki, Mino (Gifu prefecture today) with one of his haiku where he hinted that he wanted to visit Ise shrine after staying in Ogaki. Matsuo was considered to have written some of the most beautiful travel diaries ever written in Japanese.

Basho died because of disease in early autumn of 1694 in Osaka, while staying at a house of his disciple on a trip.  Before his death, he made a haiku as his last words:

:*Tabini yande / yume ha kareno wo / kake meguru*
::On travel I am sick
::My dream is running around
::a field covered with dried grass

## Notes
Choreography

**Choreography** (dance-writing) is the art of making dances. It tells dancers how they should dance and move. The word has been used since the late 18th century to mean the art of composing dance.
## Overview
A person who does choreography is called a *choreographer*. A choreographer makes a dance based on music or a synopsis (a writing of what occurs in the dance). They may also act as trainers for professional dancers in ballet, stage shows and competitive ballroom dance. Their ideas may be recorded in dance notation, or on videos.
## Applications
Choreography is also used in other types of performances. In Ice skating and Ice dancing, the choreographer designs the moves the skates does. In theater, movies and television, a choreographer is used to design fight scenes. For example, Bob Anderson designed many of the swordfight scenes in the *Lord of the Rings* movies as well as some of the *Star Wars* movies. A person who does this type of choreography is usually called a *fight choreographer*.
## References
Electrical cell

An **electrical cell** is a device used to generate electricity, or to make chemical reactions  by applying electricity. A battery is one or more cells, connected. This cell is also known as electrochemical cell.

## Cells producing electricity 
The simple electrical cells were first developed in 1800s. They are also called *galvanic cells*, because an Italian scientist named Luigi Galvani invented these cells.

Special chemical reactions which occur inside the electrical cell, result in oxidation and reduction of the substances inside the cell.

A plate of zinc and a plate of copper immersed in a dilute solution which contains acid or salt is an example of the chemical reaction based cell. The solution acts as an electrolyte (electric conductor). When the two plates are connected to a current meter with a wire, electric current will pass; this is because oxidation and reduction processes take place in this chemical reaction turning the zinc plate to a negative electrode and the copper plate to a positive electrode, and so the electrons flow from zinc to copper.

## Cells using electricity 
Some chemical reactions need high energy to happen. An example is the breakdown of water into hydrogen and oxygen. An electrical cell (or an "electrolytic cell") is used for these reactions. It is a container which has to have a chemical reaction involving electrodes. The chemical substances are exposed to electrical power, and the electrolysis reaction happens inside the electrical cell.

Two pieces of metal are placed in water that has a little electrolyte such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, sodium bicarbonate, or sodium hydroxide added to it. An electric current is applied and gas comes out of each electrode. Some greenish-brown color may be seen too if iron was used. 

There may also be a chemical reaction which will result in the explosion of the iron and has a strong blast radius (safety goggles recommended).

## Related pages
* Battery

## References
Dry cell

**Dry cells** are a type of chemical cells. Dry cells are commonly used today in the form of batteries. Dry cells are used in many electrical appliances. They have to be thrown away after their chemicals are used.

Secondary cells are rechargeable. They can be used again.

## Related pages
*Battery
*Rechargeable battery
*Table of batteries

## References
Colonization

**Colonization** is the act of the people of a country settling in another area or country to rule the place. An early example is the settlers who went from the cities of Ancient Greece to start new cities.

In 1492, Christopher Columbus landed in the Americas. This is how the Europeans learned that North America and South America were there.  The Europeans colonized the Americas. Because of this, and the killing of many Native Americans, most people now living in North America are mostly descendants of Europeans. Sometimes, science fiction stories talk about space colonization on space stations or planets other than the Earth.
## Related pages
*Colony
*Nazism
*Fascism
*Annexation
*Colonialism
*Imperialism
**Mein Kampf*
*Fascist Italy
*Protectorate
*World War II
*Nazi Germany
*Decolonization
*Russian Empire
*German Empire

## References
Chemical change

A **chemical change** (**chemical reaction**) is a change of materials into other materials with different properties.

Chemical changes occur when a substance combines with another to form a new substance, or,  chemical decomposition into two or more different substances. These processes are called chemical reactions.

Burning of wood is a chemical change as new substances which cannot be changed back (e.g. carbon dioxide) are formed. For example, if wood is burned in a fireplace, there is not wood anymore but ash. Other examples  include burning of a candle, rusting of iron, baking a cake, etc. Special details that describe how a chemical change takes place are called chemical properties.                 

Compare: physical change. The opposite of a chemical change is a physical change. Physical changes are a change in which no new substances are formed, and the substance which is changed is the same. For instance, if a stick of wood is broken, there is still a stick of wood; it is just broken.    

More examples include changes of shape, changes of states, passing electricity through a copper wire, breaking of wood, shattering of glass, pouring of water, etc. Special details which do not change in a substance without new substances being formed are called physical properties.