open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Hangul

**Hangeul** () is the alphabet (or alphabetic syllabary) used for the Korean language. It was created by Sejong the Great, the 4th King of the Joseon Dynasty in 1443. It is still being used now. When Hangeul was spreading, King Sejong published ''Hunminjeong'eum Haeryebon'' (). It was chosen as the 'Memory of the World' by UNESCO in 1997. 

In this book, the design ideas of Hangeul and information about its use were written down in detail. The book ''Hunminjeong'eum Haeryebon'' states the two design ideas of Hangeul. The first one is that the consonants of Hangeul look like vocal organs. The second one is that the vowels of Hangeul are based on Cheonji'in (). Cheonji'in refers to the three elements of philosophy which are sky (), earth () and human (). Because of these ideas, Hangeul is well known for being easy to learn.

Although it was only used by the lower classes at first, Hangeul became the official writing script of Korea in the late 19th century. Today it is the most used writing system of both North Korea and South Korea. North Korea abolished the use of Hanja, and today North Koreans write only in Hangeul. In South Korea, people write mostly in Hangeul, but sometimes Hanja is still used.

## Vowels 
There are 21 letters for vowels in Hangul.
* 10 simple ones,  ㅏㅓㅣㅑㅕ  and  ㅗㅜㅡㅛㅠ.
* 11 more complicated combinations:  ㅐㅒㅔㅖ and ㅘㅙㅚㅝㅞㅟㅢ.

The vowels are transliterated into the Roman alphabet as follows:

Those with two small lines are pronounced with an extra "y" first.

## Consonants 
There are 14 simple consonants: ㄱㄴㄷㄹㅁㅂㅅㅇㅈㅊㅋㅌㅍㅎ. Some of them can also be written next to each other at the end of syllables.

Transliteration:

The consonants the Korean language uses written in Latin letters are:
B, D, G, H, J, K, L, M, N, P, R, S, T, W, Y.

## Blocks 
The consonants and vowels are combined into blocks of syllables. A syllable means one vowel and a few consonants, like "han" and "geul".

The blocks look like these examples: 서울 한글 평양

## Examples 
## References 
## Other websites 
*
Sascha Fischer

**Sascha Fischer** (born 24 December 1970 in Stuttgart) is a German rugby union player. He started with volleyball, then he began to play rugby for DSV 1878 Hannover (Lower Saxony). Right now he is playing in France as a pro for C.A. Périgueux-Dordogne. With his former team, C.S. Bourgoin-Jallieu, he took part at Heineken Cup. He is 6 feet, 8&nbsp;inches tall (2.08 meters) and one of the tallest rugby players in Europe. He is a 27 time national player for Germany. He is a very aggressive player and with his height, he can overlook the whole rugby field.
Trabant

in East Berlin, in 1983. Mainly Trabants, a white Wartburg and a dark green Lada]]
The **Trabant** (or *Trabi*) was a series of cars built in the German Democratic Republic. When the first cars were released, people saw them as being innovative. The cars were also easy on fuel, they did not need much fuel. Trabant had a two-stroke engine. The outside of the Trabant was not made with steel or iron, because the German Democratic Republic did not want to import steel and iron for the cars, because that would have been too expensive. Instead, the Trabant was made of Duroplast, a special kind of plastic, made by mixing formica and bakelite, and made stronger with fibres of cotton. They could afford some steel from Russia, and this was used for the engine and the floor, and to give the plastic strength. After the Berlin Wall was opened the Trabant did not sell as much as before, because the people wanted bigger cars that they could get after the wall was opened. Trabants can still be found in East Europe, for example in Hungary.

## Criticism 
The Trabant was a small car, good for driving in the city. The two-stroke engine created lots of air pollution, but because of the plastic body, it was stronger and safer than western cars of the same time. It was famous for being better in a crash test than a VW Polo.

## Versions 
Between 1957 and 1990, about 3 million Trabants were built. As of January 2005, about 67.000 such cars were still registered.

## Gallery 

File:1983.trabant.P601L.arp.jpg|A blue Trabant
File:Trabant Engine Block.jpg|Trabant two-stroke engine
File:Trabant 1.1.jpg|**Trabant 1.1** model with VW Polo four-stroke engine
File:Trabant Feuerwehrversion.jpg|Outfitted for volunteer fire fighting service
File:Trabant Polizeiversion.jpg|Police version (not a real police car)
File:Berlin_Wall_Trabant_grafitti.jpg|Mural, on the Berlin Wall
File:Trabant-park-dobrich.jpg|Easy parking, Dobrich, Bulgaria.
File:TrabiLondon.JPG|A Trabi in London in 2007
File:Trabant_RS02(ThKraft).jpg|Trabant as a racing car
President pro tempore of the United States Senate

The '*president *pro tempore*** ( or ), or **president pro tem**, **of the United States Senate*' is the longest serving senator from the majority political party in the United States Senate.  According to the Constitution, this is the fourth highest office in the United States. It is the third in the U.S. presidential line of succession (behind the vice president and the speaker of the House). Many state senates also use the office of President pro tem.

Officially the vice president is the person in charge of the Senate, but they are not a Senator.  Chuck Grassley (R-IA) is the current president pro tempore . When the vice president cannot be in charge, the president pro tempore is in charge of the Senate. Many people still think of the president pro tempore as *de facto* president of the Senate. Benjamin Wade was only one vote away from becoming the president of the United States due to the impeachment of Andrew Johnson. No president pro tempore has ever taken over the presidency.

Probably the most famous presidents pro tempore were John Langdon (first in this office), David Rice Atchison (D-MO), Benjamin Wade (R-OH), Arthur Vandenberg (R-MI), Carl Hayden (D-AZ) Richard Russell, Jr. (D-GA), Strom Thurmond (R-SC), Robert Byrd (D-WV), Daniel Inouye (D-HI), Orrin Hatch (R-UT), Chuck Grassley (R-IA) and Patrick Leahy (D-VT).

When Senator Hubert Humphrey, a former vice president, was seriously ill, the Senate showed its respect for him by creating the office of Deputy President Pro tempore for any former president or vice president who is elected to the Senate.  No vice president since Humphrey has held this.

## President pro tempore emeritus 
Since 2001, the honorary title of president pro tempore emeritus has been given to a Senator of the minority party who has previously served as president pro tempore. The position has been held by:

* Strom Thurmond (R-South Carolina) (2001-2003)
* Robert Byrd (D-West Virginia) (2003-2007)
* Ted Stevens (R-Alaska) (2007-2009) 
* Patrick Leahy (D-Vermont) (2015-2021)
* Chuck Grassley (R-Iowa) (2021-2025)
* Patty Murray (D-Washington) (since 2025)

## References
Lakshmi

**Lakshmi** is the goddess of money, wisdom and good luck in Hinduism. Most Hindus pray to her on Diwali, which is a festival in India. She is regarded as an equivalent goddess of Emoinu, her Meitei counterpart.

Lakshmi has four arms, fair skin and sits on a lotus flower and is normally surrounded by elephants. She is covered in jewellery.

She also has several avatars (means a god coming to the earth in the form of a human being or in any other form). Her husband is the Hindu god Vishnu but her other avatars are usually married to Vishnu's avatars:
* Sita, wife of Rama
* Radha, the eternal wife and chief consort of Krishna
* Rukmini, the principal wife and first queen consort of Krishna

## Related pages
* Hindu Goddess

## Further reading 
* 
* 

## References 
## Other websites 
* Maha Lakshmi Purana
*108 Aspects of Wealth 
* The Online mandir of Mahalakshmi 
* Know about Goddess Sri Lakshmi 
* Hymns and eulogies on Lakshmi 
* Lakshmi Puran
Dreamtime

in Central Australia. Dreamtime stories say the largest monolith is the home of Wanambi the snake. His breath can be heard in the valleys.]]
 in the Hunter Valley. It depicts Baiame, the creator spirit who comes from the sky in the Dreaming of several language groups of southeastern Australia.]]

In Australian Aboriginal culture, life is based on a foundation of beliefs which are called the **Dreamtime**, or **The Dreaming**. This is a complex set of ideas with deep levels of meanings. The Dreamtime has four parts: The beginning of everything; the life and power of the ancestors; the way of life and death; and power in life. Dreamtime was all four of these things at the same time because it is more powerful than time and space. In it all things exist at once. The Aboriginal peoples call Dreamtime the all-at-once time because they think it is the past, present, and future at the same time. It is a beginning that has no end. The journeys of the ancestors across the country created the landscape, and populated it with plants and animals. These journeys are often told in cycles of stories, songs and dances, known as *iwara*, or songlines. 

## References
Bob Graham

**Daniel Robert "Bob" Graham** (November 9, 1936 &ndash; April 16, 2024) was an American politician. He was a well-known member of the Democratic Party.

Graham has never lost an election. His career started with being a state legislator (Representative 1966-1969, and Senator 1971-1979).

## Career 
### Early career 
In 1978 he was elected Governor of Florida. His Lt. Governor was Wayne Mixson. Graham was reelected in 1982, when he won 65% over a Republican candidate, Skip Bafalis.

He was a popular Governor. He did much to protect the environment. He also oversaw restart of state executions (as first time since 1964), when 16 people were electrocuted. The first of them, John Spenkelink, was the first to die in the electric chair since 1966 in the United States. He was the second to be executed since 1967 (after Gary Gilmore in Utah in January 1977).  In 1981, he pushed the Florida Legislature to eliminate motor vehicle inspections, after years of complaints from citizens stuck in their cars for hours in hot summer weather while they waited in line at poorly run State MV inspection stations.

### Later career 
Graham was elected to the United States Senate in 1986, defeating sitting Senator Paula Hawkins. He served as Senator from 1985 to 2005, when he retired. He resigned from governorship on January 3, 1985, three days before the swearing-in of the governor-elect, Republican Robert Martinez. For this time Mixson assumed his duties, making him the shortest serving governor in Florida history.

From 2001 to 2003 Graham was a chairman of the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence.

Graham voted in 2002 against intervention in Iraq.

### Presidential campaign 
In early 2003 he decided to run for President but, after poor results in an opinion polls, he resigned and later supported John Kerry, who won the Democratic nomination. He was regarded as possible Kerry Vice Presidential candidate, but Kerry chose John Edwards.

## Death 
Graham died on April 16, 2024 in a retirement community in Gainesville, Florida from problems caused by a stroke, aged 87.

## Personal life 
He was born in Dade County (now Miami-Dade County). He married Adele Khoury in 1959.

## References
Wesleyan

***Wesleyan*** is the adjective form of *Wesley*, which could also mean:
*John Wesley, the founder of *Methodism*
*The Wesleyan Church, split from the *Methodist Episcopal Church* in 1843.
* Any person who adopts the principles of Wesleyan theology. 
**Wesleyan* used as a noun may refer to one of many universities and liberal arts colleges named after John Wesley. Institutions include:
**United States
*:Dakota Wesleyan University, in South Dakota
*:Illinois Wesleyan University, in Illinois
*:Indiana Wesleyan University, in Indiana
*:Iowa Wesleyan College, in Iowa
*:Kentucky Wesleyan College, in Kentucky
*:Nebraska Wesleyan University, in Nebraska
*:North Carolina Wesleyan College, in North Carolina
*:Ohio Wesleyan University, in Ohio
*:Oklahoma Wesleyan University, in Oklahoma
*:Roberts Wesleyan College, in New York
*:Southern Wesleyan University, in South Carolina
*:Tennessee Wesleyan College, in Tennessee
*:Texas Wesleyan University, in Texas
*:Virginia Wesleyan College, in Virginia
*:Wesleyan College, in Georgia
*:Wesleyan University, in Connecticut
*:West Virginia Wesleyan College, in West Virginia
**Global
*:Nagasaki Wesleyan University, Japan
*:Wesleyan University, in the Philippines
Macintosh

**Macintosh**, **Mackintosh**, or **McIntosh** can be:
* Apple Macintosh (computer)
* Mackintosh, raincoat
* McIntosh (apple), type of apple
* McIntosh, Alabama
* McIntosh Laboratory, hi-fi manufacturer 

**Macintosh** and similar spellings is a surname:
* Charles Macintosh (Scottish inventor)
* Charles Rennie Mackintosh (Scottish architect and designer)
* Donald McIntosh, Canadian-born officer in Custer's 7th Cavalry, killed at Little Big Horn
* The Scottish Clan MacKintosh
* Winston Hubert McIntosh, better known as Peter Tosh
Southern rock

**Southern rock** is a kind of rock music from the southern part of the United States. Some southern rock music groups include: Lynyrd Skynyrd, The Allman Brothers Band and Molly Hatchet.

## Notable artists
*The Allman Brothers Band
*Lynyrd Skynyrd
*Atlanta Rhythm Section
*Wet Willy
*Molly Hatchet
*Outlaws
*Blackfoot
*Black Oak Arkansas
Americans

**Americans** are citizens of the United States.

Also, there are other groups that did not immigrate to the United States but became American because of American expansion in the late 19th century. In addition to the United States, Americans and people of American descent can be found around the world. Around 5.5 million Americans are living outside of the US as of 2025.

Most Americans are 48.95% of European descent.: The number of Latin Americans and Asians is more than ever 18.93% of American Society.  About 14% of Americans are of African descent. People from many cultures, religions, and ethnic groups live in the U.S. This is why the United States is called the "Melting Pot".:

The United States is a diverse country. Six races are officially recognized by the U.S. Census Bureau for statistical purposes:White; or European American; African American; American Indian and Alaska Native; American Asian; Native Hawaiian; and other Pacific Islander.:.

The current population of Americans in the U.S. is over 345 million people as of July; 2025.:.
 https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/us-population/.:
https://worldpopulationreview.com/continents.:
## References
## Other websites
*
Ostrów Mazowiecka

**Ostrów Mazowiecka** is a main town of Ostrów County, Masovian Voivodeship, Poland.

* Population (as of 2008):  a. 23 540
* Area: 22,09 km²
* Town status: Since 1434
* Postal code: 07-300, 07-302, 07-310
* Current Mayor: Hubert Betlejewski
* Community: Ostrów
* Twin town: Brembate di Sopra (Italy), Iziaslav (Ukraine)

## Related pages
* Brok
100

**100** or **one hundred** (Roman numeral: **C**) is a common year of the Gregorian calendar. It started on a Friday.

It is one of only seven years to use just one Roman numeral. The seven are 1 AD (I), 5 AD (V), 10 AD (X), 50 AD (L), **100 AD** (C), 500 AD (D), and 1000 AD (M).

## Events 
* Roman Empire
** Pliny the Younger advances to consulship
** Tiberius Avidius Quietus rule as governor of Roman Britain ends
** Timgad (Thamugas) founded by Emperor Trajan
** The Roman Army reaches 300,000 soldiers
** Bricks become the primary building material in the Empire

* Europe
** Lions have become extinct in Europe by this year

* Asia
** Pakores, last king of the Indo-Parthian Kingdom, becomes king
** In China, the wheelbarrow is first used 

* Americas
** Hopewell culture begins in what is now Ohio (uncertain date)
** Teotihuacan at the center of Mexi reaches a population of 50,000

* Arabia
** Kingdom of Himyarite is conquered by the Hadramaut

* Religion
** The Temple of the God of Medicine is built in Anguo, China
** Fourth Buddhist Council begins
** The making of the Kama Sutra begins in India

## Births 
*

## Deaths 
* Josephus, Jewish historian
* Agrippa II of Judea
## References
Reichstag

**Reichstag** is the name of:

* The Reichstag building, the building where the former German legislature met
* Reichstag (institution), former parliament of Germany
The Last Supper

***The Last Supper*** is a mural by Leonardo da Vinci.  It depicts a scene in the New Testament of the Bible where Jesus has his last supper with his disciples prior to his arrest and crucifixion. In the painting, Jesus's disciples react after Jesus says that one of them would betray him. The painting shows the unique reaction of each disciple.  It measures 4.6 meters (15 feet) x 8.8 meters (28.9 feet). He used experimental techniques to create the mural.

## References
Thomas the Apostle

]]
**Saint Thomas** is one of the twelve apostles of Jesus. His name means "the twin". 

## Doubting Thomas
Thomas is most famous for not being present when the other apostles (Jesus's followers and friends) first saw Jesus after he has been risen from the dead. Thomas was not there and when he heard about it, he did not believe his friends, and he said he wanted to see it for himself, even the marks in his hands where Jesus had been nailed to the cross. Jesus did return and showed Thomas. The phrase "Doubting Thomas" (a term for a person who does not believe something at first) comes from this story. Thomas didn't believe Christ had returned until he was invited by the risen Jesus to put his finger into the nail holes in Jesus' hands and his hand into Jesus' wounded side.

## Missionary Travels
Though not recorded in the Bible, there are many stories about Thomas working as a missionary.  The Saint Thomas Christians of Kerala, India believe that Thomas came to India to preach in 52 A.D. He is regarded as the patron saint of India. Other ancient accounts tell of him going to China and Indonesia.

## References
## Related pages
*Twelve Apostles
Niue

**Niue** is a sovereign island country in the south Pacific. 

It is located between Tonga, Samoa and the Cook Islands, it is commonly known as "Rock of Polynesia". 

It has its own government, but it is an associated state of New Zealand. This means that Niue's head of state is New Zealand's sovereign (king) in right, and most diplomatic relations are conducted by New Zealand on Niue's behalf.

Niue is not a member state of the United Nations, but it is a member of some United Nations agencies.

The territory is 2,400 kilometres northeast of New Zealand in a triangle between Tonga, Samoa, and the Cook Islands.

## Related pages
* Niue national football team

## References
Bartholomew the Apostle

**Bartholomew the Apostle** is one of the twelve apostles of Jesus. He is the patron saint of Armenia, bookbinders, butchers, Florentine cheese and salt merchants, Gambatesa, Italy, leather workers; nervous diseases, plasterers; shoemakers; tanners, and trappers. Along with Saint Jude Thaddeus, he helped bring Christianity to Armenia. He is the patron saint of people who work with leather and animal skins because he was martyred (killed for his beliefs) by being skinned alive. He is usually represented by holding a large knife and his skin.

Bartholomew is also found in Islamic literature. In one such story mentioned by Suyuti, Ibn Arabi, Bayhaqi, and Abu Nuyam Bartholomew is described as one whom God has given extended life to and he meet the companions of the Prophet Muhammad in Iraq. This event took place during the reign of Umar.

## Related pages
*Twelve Apostles

## References
Matthew the Evangelist

]]
**Matthew the Evangelist** is one of the twelve apostles of Jesus Christ and the traditional author of the Gospel of Matthew (AD 80-90). He is traditionally considered identical to the tax collector Matthew the Apostle or "Levi" mentioned in the New Testament of the Christian Bible. 

## Modern scholarship 
According to the consensus of modern biblical scholars Matthew the Apostle is not the writer of the Gospel of Matthew, who in fact is anonymous. If the Gospel was not written by Matthew as tradition states, then the author was probably a male Jew, standing on the margin between traditional and non-traditional Jewish values, and familiar with technical legal aspects of scripture being debated in his time.

## References
## Related pages
* Twelve Apostles
Pope Paul III

**Pope Paul III** (; February 29, 1468 – November 10, 1549), born **Alessandro Farnese**, was an Italian priest of the Roman Catholic Church and the 221st Pope from 1534 to 1549.

## Early life
Alessandro Farnese was born in an ancient Roman family.  His grandfather was commander-in-chief of the papal troops under Pope Eugenius IV. 

## Cardinal
In 1493, Pope Alexander VI made Farnese a cardinal.

## Pope
Cardinal Farnese was elected Pope in 1534;

## Related pages
* List of popes

## References
## Other websites
* 

* Catholic Hierarchy, Pope Paul III
*Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church , Cardinal Farnese
Donato Bramante

**Donato Bramante** (c. 1444 - April 11, 1514) was an architect who introduced the High Renaissance style to architecture.
Pope Julius II

**Pope Julius II** (; December 5, 1443 - February 21, 1513), born *Giuliano della Rovere*, was an Italian priest of the Roman Catholic Church and the 217th Pope  from 1503 until his death in 1513.  He was known as "the Warrior Pope."

He was the nephew of Pope Sixtus IV.

## Early life 
Giuliano della Rovere was the son of Rafaello della Rovere.

His uncle would become Pope Sixtus IV. 

## Related pages 
* List of popes
* List of popes from the della Rovere family

## References
## More reading
* Shaw, Christine. (1993). *Julius II: the Warrior Pope.* Oxford: Blackwell. ; OCLC 417355755

## Other websites
* 
* Catholic Hierarchy, Julius II
* Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church , Cardinal della Rovere
Public Enemy

**Public Enemy** is an American hip hop group who are from Long Island, New York. They are also known as **PE**. They formed in 1982, and are still together today. They became famous for their politically charged, militant messages in their songs. They are also famous for using lots of jazz and funk samples in their songs, doneto create a loud, noisy sound and back their angry, powerful rapping.  The group members include Chuck D. and Flavor Flav, as well as Terminator X and Professor Griff, who left the group in 1990, but rejoined in the late 1990s.
Pope Sixtus IV

**Pope Sixtus IV** (; 21 July 1414 - 12 August 1484), originally *Francesco della Rovere*, was an Italian priest of the Roman Catholic Church and the 213th Pope from 1471 until his death in 1484.

He is known for beginning construction of the Sistine Chapel.

## Early life
Della Rovere was born in Celle Ligure, a town near Savona in Liguria.

As a young man, he joined the Franciscan Order.  He rose in the order to head of the Franciscans in Liguria.  He took the name Sixtus because the first day of the conclave which elected him pope was the Feast Day of St. Sixtus.

Pope Sixtus was involved in Italian and European political disputes.

### Papal actions 
* **1474** – Christian I of Denmark was received in Rome.

## Related pages 
* List of popes
* List of popes from the della Rovere family

## References
## Other websites
* 
* Catholic Hierarchy, Sixtus IV
* Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church , Cardinal della Rovere
Beastie Boys

**Beastie Boys** were an American rap group. According to an interview with Charlie Rose, the word "Beastie" is the backronym of *Boys Entering Anarchic States Towards Internal Excellence*.  They formed in 1981 as a punk rock band. Their most famous albums are probably *Licensed To Ill* (1986) and ''Paul's Boutique* (1989). *Licensed To Ill* is their first album, and it is an album that is given credit for starting the type of music "rap rock", which is rapping done over rock guitar or beats. *Paul's Boutique* is an album famous for its use of samples, or snippets of music, and the fact that the samples were put together in creative, interesting ways.

Adam Yauch (1964-2012) was one of the founding members of the band until his death on May 4, 2012 after almost 3-years with cancer of the parotid salivary gland. Former original guitarist, John Berry (1963-2016), died on May 19, 2016 from dementia at 52.

## Members 
* John Berry – guitar (1981–1982; died 2016)
* Mike D – singing, drums (1981–2012)
* Kate Schellenbach – drums, percussion (1981–1984)
* MCA – singing, bass guitar (1981–2012; died 2012)
* Ad-Rock – singing, guitar (1982–2012)

## Discography 
* 1982 - *Polly Wog Stew* (EP) 	
* 1984 - *Rock Hard* (EP) 	
* 1986 - *Licensed to Ill*
* 1989 - *Paul's Boutique*
* 1992 - *Check Your Head*
* 1994 - *Ill Communication*
* 1995 - *Root Down* (EP) 	
* 1995 - *Aglio e Olio* (EP) 	
* 1998 - *Hello Nasty*
* 2003 - *In A World Gone Mad* (EP) 	
* 2004 - *To the 5 Boroughs*
* 2007 - *The Mix-Up*
* 2011 - *Hot Sauce Committee Part Two''

## Other websites 
* Official site 
* Mic To Mic
Alexandre Dumas, père

**Alexandre Dumas** (born 24 July, 1802 at Villers-Cotterêts, died 5 December 1870 at Dieppe) was a French writer of Haitian descent. He is famous for writing *The Three Musketeers* (1844), *Queen Margot*, *The Count of Monte Cristo* (1844-1845) and about the Man with the iron mask.

Dumas's father was a general, who fought in the French Revolution. When his father died, his mother raised him. They didn't have much money when he was growing up.

Dumas wrote his first plays in 1825 and 1826 after reading Shakespeare, Sir Walter Scott, Friedrich von Scholler and Lord Byron.

Dumas was also a gourmand (lover of food), and wrote Le Grand Dictionnaire de cuisine, an encyclopædia of food and cooking with 1152 pages. He finished it weeks before his death. It is not thought very reliable, because it relies on Dumas' opinions rather than fact.

## Related pages
*Alexandre Dumas, fils, son of this writer

## References
## Further reading
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 

## Other websites
*
The Comedy of Errors

***The Comedy of Errors*** (c. 1589–94) is one of the first plays by William Shakespeare. It is a comedy. Shakespeare's sources were *Menaechmi* by Plautus and *Amphitruo* by Plautus.

## References
Pietà (Michelangelo)

The ***Pietà*** is a statue by Michelangelo. It is now in the first temple on the right of Saint Peter's Basilica in the Vatican City. 

## References 
## Related pages
The following are other statues by Michelangelo:
* David
* Moses
Titus Andronicus

, 1594]]
**Titus Andronicus** (c. 1589–1592) is the first tragedy play by William Shakespeare.  Most of its theme, structure and language comes from *The Spanish Tragedy* by Thomas Kyd. It is believed to be Shakespeare's first play, and also the  bloodiest and least respected of his works.
Love's Labour's Lost

, 1598]]
'''''Love's Labour's Lost''''' is a comedy play by William Shakespeare which was written between 1588 and 1597.

The play contains a lot of wordplay and many characters are based off real kings and noblemen from around those years. This makes the play harder to understand for modern audiences, which is why it is less famous than most of Shakespeare's plays. However, it has been performed more often since the 20th century.

## Plot 
Ferdinand, the King of Navarre, and three of his men meet together and talk about their intellectual plans. Their plans then go wrong when the Princess of France and three of her ladies arrive. The men find that they are in love with the ladies and cannot hide it.

## Name 
The exact original title is unknown. In early written versions of the script, it varied as to how many apostrophes were used in the title. In the first quarto, it is called *Loues labors lost*, as a "u" was often used for a "v" sound back then. The title is now most often given as ''Love's Labour's Lost''.

## References
Non-governmental organization

A **non-governmental organization** (**NGO**) is a group of people acting together, but not connected with the government of any country. Usually non-governmental organizations are non-profit - that is, they are trying to do something other than make money for the people who run them. They include organizations such as Oxfam and World Vision.

Non-governmental organization is a term that has become widely accepted as referring to a legally constituted organization with no participation or representation of any government. In the cases in which NGOs are funded totally or partially by governments, the NGO maintains its non-governmental status and excludes government representatives from membership in the organization.

Government funding of NGOs is controversial, since, according David Rieff, writing in *The New Republic*, "the whole point of humanitarian intervention was precisely that NGOs and civil society had both a right and an obligation to respond with acts of aid and solidarity to people in need or being subjected to repression or want by the forces that controlled them, whatever the governments concerned might think about the matter."

Unlike the term intergovernmental organization, "non-governmental organization" is a term in general use but is not a legal definition. In many jurisdictions these types of organization are defined as "civil society organizations" or referred to by other names.

## Purpose Of NGOs 
NGOs work for uplifting the poor and backward sections of the community. Moreover, the main function which is performed by NGOs is to bridge the gap of inequalities and unfair treatments.

## Related pages 
*International organization
*Nonprofit organization
*Quango

## References
Animal rights

**Animal rights** is a term used for the general belief that non-human animals deserve rights. Most people that support animal rights believe that humans should not use animals in food, clothing, experimentation, and entertainment.

People that support animal rights also believe that just as you have human rights simply because you are a human, other animals deserve animal rights simply because they are an animal.

Things like Animal Farm, by George Orwell, is an allegory, showing that animals have rights, and the political side of things too.

## Related pages
*Speciesism
*Veganism
*Vegetarianism
*Animal cruelty
*Animal Farm (novel)
*Animal Rights Militia
*Animal rights movement
*Animal Rights (song)
*Animal welfare

## Other websites
*Animal Rights Library
Aaron Sorkin

**Aaron Benjamin Sorkin** (born June 9, 1961) is an American screenwriter and movie director. He was born in New York City, New York. He is most famous for creating and writing *The West Wing*, a television series about the lives of people who work in the White House. He also wrote the movies *The American President* and *A Few Good Men* (which he took from a play he had written with the same name), and created and wrote the television series *Sports Night*. 

A director, he is known for his works in ''Molly's Game*, *The Trial of the Chicago 7* and *Being the Ricardos''.
470s

The ***470s*** was the decade that began on January 1, 470. and ended on December 31, 479. It is distinct from the decade known as the ***48th*** which began on January 1, 471 and ended on December 31, 480.

## Events
* 476 – The last Western Roman Emperor in Rome was removed by Odoacer the Ostrogoth.
* Peter the Fuller is restored as Patriarch of Antioch.
1060s

The **1060s** was a decade that began on 1 January 1060 and ended on 31 December 1069. It is distinct from the decade known as the ***107th decade** which* began on January 1, 1061 and ended on December 31, 1070.

## Events 
* 1061 Normans conquer Messina in Sicily
* 1062 Marrakech starts.
* 1066 Normans conquer England
* 1066 William the Conqueror became King of England on Christmas Day in Westminster Abbey.
* 1068 Japan changes emperors.

## Important people 
* William the Conqueror
* Harold Godwinson
* Harald Hardrada
30s BC

## Events 
* Octavian defeats Mark Antony and Cleopatra VII of Egypt at the Battle of Actium (2 September 31 BC). On August 30 BC Octavian captures Alexandria. Marcus Antonius and Cleopatra suicide (kill themselves). Romans kill Cleopatra's son and co-ruler (this means they ruled the country together) Ptolemy XV Caesarion. Egypt becomes part of the Roman Republic and Octavian becomes the ruler of Rome and all Romans. Rome will soon become an Empire not a Republic.
* Herod the Great builds Masada (37–31 BC) as a place to escape to if Jewish people attack him.

## Significant people 
* Mark Antony, Roman politician and general (83–30 BC).
* Pharaoh (Egyptian Queen) Cleopatra VII of Egypt (lived 70/69 – 30 BC, ruled 51–30 BC).
* Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus (Octavian) Roman politician and general (62 BC – 14).
* Pharaoh Ptolemy XV Caesarion (lived 47–30 BC, ruled 44–30 BC).
California Institute of Technology

The **California Institute of Technology** (called "Caltech" for short) is a major American research university in the city of Pasadena in the state of California. Caltech specializes - is especially good, or especially interested - in the study of engineering, computer science, and the physical sciences (some physical sciences are physics and chemistry, as well as others). Caltech is also in charge of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, also called JPL. JPL is part of NASA, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, which is the part of the United States government that explores space. Caltech is not owned or run by the United States, or NASA, but NASA pays Caltech to run JPL for them. By most measures, it is the most selective college/university in the world and has one of the highest faculty-to-student ratios in the world.

Caltech's mascot is the beaver. Many schools that specialize in engineering have beavers for their mascot, because in the wild, beavers are known for making dams, and so people think that they are the animal most like engineers.

## Famous alumni 
* Jean Robieux, French physicist.

## References 
*
Secrecy

A **secret** is information or facts that only one person or group knows about. There are many reasons for not telling or sharing the truth with others. 

Some secrets are good. These are ones that should be kept secret. An example of a good secret is respect for a citizen's privacy.  But some secrets are bad, if keeping facts hidden causes harm. An example of a bad secret is child abuse. Some things might be kept secret only for a short time, such as a surprise party. Other things may need to be kept secret forever. Sometimes things might be kept secret from someone because it is believed that it would upset them to know. 

Some things need to be kept secret for security reasons. If a person has a bank account they must keep their password secret. No one else should know it. Espionage is snooping for someone else's secrets. Criminals like to keep their crimes secret.  

In a business, some information is kept secret. This is also called "confidential". Conversations at meetings are sometimes confidential. People who were at the meeting cannot go telling everyone else what was discussed. Usually, managers will make this a rule for an employee. Trade secrets are protected by law.

Another type of secret is Cryptography. These are codes that unlock other secrets. So, secrets are being used to protect secrets.

## Related pages
* Classified information
* Information security
* Security

## Other websites
40s BC

This article talks about what happened in between 40 and 31 BC.

## Events 
* Julius Caesar wins the civil war (49–45 BC) in the Roman Republic against the Roman Senate. He becomes dictator for life.
* Julius Caesar, Roman dictator, is killed by 23 Roman people. Some people who killed him were Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus. (15 March 44 BC).

## Important people 
* Julius Caesar, Roman dictator (lived 100–44 BC, ruled 46–44 BC).
* Marcus Junius Brutus, Roman politician ( 85–42 BC).
* Mark Antony, Roman politician and general ( 83–30 BC).
* Pharaoh (Egyptian Queen) Cleopatra VII of Egypt (lived 70/69 – 30 BC, ruled 51–30 BC).
* Gaius Iulius Caesar Octavianus (Octavian), Roman politician and general (62 BC – 14).
* Pharaoh Ptolemy XV Caesarion (Cleopatra VII's son) (lived 47–30 BC, reigned 44–30 BC).
* Gaius Cassius Longinus, Roman politician (died 42 BC).
Władysław Reymont

**Władysław Stanisław Reymont**, born as **Stanisław Władysław Rejment**, (May 7, 1867 in Kobielce Wielkie, Poland – December 5, 1925 in Warsaw, Poland) was a well-known Polish writer, who won the Nobel Prize in 1924 for his four-volume epic novel "Chłopi" (*The Peasants*). This novel was about life of this part of the society. He also wrote "Ziemia obiecana" (*The Promised Land*), about industrial capitalism in 19th century Łódź.

Many people say he is one of the greatest and most prominent Polish writers of all time and one of the greatest in 20th century.

## Biography
Reymont was born in the family of the organist. His father, Józef Rejment, a well-read man, had a musical education and in tuszyńskiej performed the parish duties of the organist, and also carried on Civil Status Registers and the correspondence of the parish priest with Russian authorities. Mother, Antonia from Kupczyńskich, had talent for a story. She came from the impoverished Cracow gentry; in mature years the writer has often emphasized this fact.
Extraversion and introversion

**Introversion** and **extraversion** (also spelled ***extroversion***) are ways of describing a person's personality. People who are more extraverted are called **extraverts** (or **extroverts**). People who are more introverted are called **introverts**.

## History
This idea was proposed by psychiatrist Carl Jung in the 1920s. 

## Ideas
He said that introversion and extraversion affects how people behave socially (with other people), and also where they get mental energy from. Introverts prefer being alone and extraverts prefer being with other people. Introverts get energy and pleasure from , and may feel tired after being around other people. Extraverts are the opposite. They get energy from spending time with other people, and may feel bored and tired after being alone.

### Spectrum
Introversion and extraversion exists on a spectrum. Everyone has a different amount of introverted and extraverted personality traits. People with more extraverted traits are called extraverts (or extroverts), and people with more introverted traits are called introverts. People who are around the middle of the spectrum may be called ambiverts.

## Introversion vs. shyness and social anxiety 
, and social anxiety.]]
Some people mistake introversion for shyness or social anxiety because they can appear similar, but they are separate things. Introversion is a personality trait, but shyness and social anxiety are caused by distress. Introverts usually prefer being alone, but are not scared of being around other people.

## Related pages 
* Trait theory
* Cognitive psychology
* Introspection
* Social psychology

## References
Herpes simplex

**Herpes simplex** (also known as Herpesvirus hominis) is an infection by the herpes virus. The herpes simplex virus (HSV) causes two common diseases. Both diseases have painful, watery blisters in the skin or mucous membranes (such as the mouth or lips) or on the genitals.

An infection on the lips is commonly known as a cold sore or fever blister.  A cold sore is not the same as a canker sore, which appears inside the mouth and is caused by something else.

## Symptoms 
Usually, herpes is diagnosed based on the symptoms. HSV-1 usually causes infections around the mouth.  HSV-2 more commonly causes genital infections. Viruses are transmitted through body fluids, or lesions in the skin.

## How common it is 
Herpes is very common. Worldwide rates of either HSV-1 or HSV-2 are between 60% and 95% in adults. Most people get HSV-1 when they are children. Most people with HSV-2 do not know that they are infected.

## References
1680s BC

## Events 
*The sixteenth dynasty starts in Egypt.
*People make leavened bread in Egypt.

## Important people 
*Hammurabi dies in 1686 BC
*Heremon dies in 1684 BC, (Irish legend)
1670s BC

## Events 
*The fifteenth dynasty starts in Egypt.
*Pharaoh (king) Tutimaios of Egypt dies in 1674 BC.
*People write Ipuwer Papyrus in 1674.
* Hyksos invade Egypt in 1674.
1080s BC

## Events (things that happened) 
* The nineteenth dynasty ends in Egypt in 1186.
* The Trojan War ends on the 24 April 1184 BC
* Menestheus (in legends he is the king of Athens) dies. he has ruled for 23 years. His nephew, Demophon, becomes king. (Some people think that Menestheus died before, in the 1190s BC.)

## Important people 
* Ramesses III of Egypt is born in 1180.
Sunset

7:20pm]]
**Sunset** or **sundown** is the instant at which the upper edge of the Sun disappears below the horizon in the west. Its opposite is the sunrise.
Pop punk

**Pop punk** (or **punk-pop**) is a form of pop music that blends punk rock with pop music and rock music. 

## Overview
Pop-punk music has a lighter, happier sound than most punk rock and hardcore punk music. Most punk rock and hardcore punk music sounds angry and harsh, and has lyrics about protest and anger.

## History
### Late 1970s and 1980s
There are several types of pop-punk. An early type of pop-punk was developed right after Punk rock became popular in the late 1970s. Most of this kind of music is very much like Punk rock, but it features things from other kinds of music like pop music and older rock music, and country music, so different people can enjoy it. Some people call the Ramones a pop-punk band. The Ramones were a band from the United States.

### 1990s
In the 1990s, pop-punk became very popular in North America. Bands such as Green Day, Blink-182 and Zebrahead sold millions of recordings and did many tours.

### Today
In the 21st century, many bands have contributed to the pop punk genre. They include Fall Out Boy, Relient K, FM Static, Hawk Nelson, and Amber Pacific.

## Controversies
Some people who like 1970s punk rock or 1980s hardcore punk do not like pop-punk. The 1970s punk rock or 1980s hardcore punk was usually angry, rebellious protest music. In contrast, 2000s pop-punk songs are nicer and lighter. Some people think 2000s pop-punk is too commercialized and nothing like the older punk music from the 1970s and 1980s.

## Artists
* Green Day
* Blink-182
* Sum 41
* The Donnas
* FM Static
* Simple Plan
* Relient K
* MxPx
* Bowling for Soup
* Mayday Parade
* All Time Low
* Fall Out Boy
* Midtown
* Yellowcard
* New Found Glory
* The Undertones
* Pierce the Veil
* My Chemical Romance
* Panic! at the Disco (early)
* The Offspring
* Matchbook Romance
* Hawk Nelson
* Avril Lavigne
* The Red Jumpsuit Apparatus
* Senses Fail
* Story of the Year
* Hawthorne Heights

## References
Sheryl Crow

**Sheryl Crow** (born February 11, 1962) is an American singer-songwriter and actress. She can also play guitar and bass guitar.

Many of her songs have charted and are still popular. They include "The First Cut Is the Deepest", "Soak Up the Sun", "If It Makes You Happy" and "All I Wanna Do".

## Personal life 
Crow has never married. She has two adopted sons, Wyatt Steven Crow (born in 2007) and Levi James Crow (born in  2010).

She had breast cancer in 2006.

## Songs
* I Know Why (2005)

## Other websites
* Official website
*
Chubby Checker

**Ernest Evans** (born October 3, 1941) better known as **Chubby Checker**, is a pop singer from the United States. He is most famous for his dance songs.  After his famous appearance on American Bandstand, his cover version of Hank Ballard's "The Twist" hit #1 became a popular dance.

## References
Irish people

The **Irish** are a nation who come from or came from the island of Ireland. There are two countries on the island of Ireland: the Republic of Ireland and  Northern Ireland. Historically, the Irish have been primarily a Celtic people. Many countries, especially English-speaking countries, have people with Irish roots.

In Northern Ireland, there have been violent fights between the Unionists, who identify as British people and are mainly Protestant, and the Nationalists, who identify as Irish and are mainly Catholic. Irish people have a strong culture and beliefs.

Due to problems in Ireland, most importantly a famine between 1845 and 1852, caused by the potatoes in Ireland being destroyed by disease, many Irish moved out of Ireland, including Great Britain, and to other countries like the United States, Canada, and Australia. At present, many more Irish live in the United States than in Ireland, with many of them living in large American cities such as Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Chicago. The population of Irish people in the United States is over seven times more populated than that of those who live in the original homeland of Ireland.

## References
## Further reading
*Irish Immigrant who served in US Civil War
*Cork man survived the Titanic
*Irish Immigrant who served in World War I
*
50s BC

## Events 
* Julius Caesar, Pompey and Marcus Licinius Crassus make the First Triumvirate (ca. 59–53 BC).
* Gallic Wars: Julius Caesar conquers much of Gaul, and leads two journeys to Britain (58–49 BC).
* Bak Hyeokgeose makes the kingdom of Silla in Korea (57 BC)
* Pompey builds Rome's first permanent (made to stay the same for a long time) theatre (54 BC)
* Battle of Carrhae: the Roman general Marcus Licinius Crassus tries to attack the Parthian Empire. Surenais defeats him at Carrhae, now Harran in Turkey; Crassus dies. (53 BC).
* Battle of Alesia: Vercingetorix leads a rebellion by the Gauls. Julius Caesar defeats him. (52 BC).

## Significant people 
* Julius Caesar, Roman politician and general (lived 100–44 BC)
* Pharaoh Cleopatra VII of Egypt (lived 70/69 – 30 BC, ruled 51–30 BC).
* Pompey, Roman general (lived 106–48 BC)
* Marcus Licinius Crassus, Roman politician and general (lived 115–53 BC)
* Marcus Tullius Cicero, Roman politician (lived 106–43 BC)
* Vercingetorix, ruler of the Arverni (died. 46 BC)
* Cassivellaunus, British war-leader
* Ariovistus, German king
* Commius, Gaulish king
* Phraates III, King of Parthia (ruled 70–57 BC)
* Mithridates III, king of Parthia and Media (ruled 57–54 BC)
* Orodes II, king of Parthia (ruled 57–38 BC)
* Surena, Parthian general (lived 84–54 BC)
* Bak Hyeokgeose, king of Silla in Korea

## Births 
* Livy, Roman historian (ca. 59 BC)
* Seneca the Elder, Roman orator (ca. 54 BC)

## Deaths 
* Marcus Licinius Crassus, Roman politician and general (53 BC)
* Posidonius, Greek philosopher, astronomer, and geographer (51 BC)
P.O.D.

**P.O.D.** (which stands for **Payable on Death**) is a metal band from San Diego, California. Its fans are called "The Warriors", and the band is known for its Christian messages.

## Members
The members are Sonny Sandoval (lead singer), Marcos Curiel (guitar player), Wuv Bernardo (drummer) and Traa Daniels (bass player).

## History
The band released an album in 1999 called *The Fundamental Elements of Southtown*, which became very popular, and P.O.D. made a lot of fans who saw the band on MTV.

In 2001, P.O.D. made a second album called *Satellite*, which had a more nu metal post-grunge vibe and several hit songs, like "Boom," "Alive," "Youth of the Nation," "Set It Off," "Satellite," and "Portrait." In 2003, P.O.D. made the album *Payable On Death*, which had a heavy neo-grunge sound and a hint of reggae.

Their next album, *Testify*, was released in 2006. It was similar to *Satellite* in sound and featured two duets with Matisyahu. In 2008, P.O.D. released the album *When Angels & Serpents Dance*.

## References
Differential

**Differential** can refer to different concepts:

* A differential equation in mathematical analysis
* A differential (mechanical device), a mechanical device able to transmit power from one axis to another
Blackbird

**Blackbird** may refer to:

## Birds
Two groups of birds in the parvorder Passerida:
* New World blackbirds, family Icteridae
* Old World blackbirds, any of several species in the genus Turdus in the family Turdidae, the thrushes
**Chinese blackbird
**Common blackbird
**Grey-winged blackbird
**Indian blackbird
**Somali thrush or Somali blackbird
**Tibetan blackbird
**White-collared blackbird

## Other uses
* Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird, a United States Air Force airplane