open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Phenotype

species *Donax variabilis* show diverse coloration and patterning in their phenotypes.]]

The **phenotype** of an organism is the whole set of characters (or traits) of that organism.

It does not mean just 'what you can see on the surface'. Rather, it means anything which can be made visible by suitable means. For example, blood groups are definitely a part of the phenotype. However, they are not visible just by looking at a person.

In biology, the phenotype is distinguished from the genotype. This was proposed by Wilhelm Johannsen in 1911 to make clear the difference between an organism's heredity and what that heredity produces. The distinction is similar to that proposed by August Weismann, who distinguished between *germ plasm* (gametes or their stem cells) and *somatic cells* (the body).

The phenotype is important because it is exposed to natural selection:
:"From Darwin to the present day most evolutionists have considered the individual organism to be the principal object of selection. Actually, it is the *phenotype* which is the part of the individual that is “visible” to selection". Ernst Mayr 

Phenotypes are determined mainly by genes and are influenced by environmental factors. So, knowing the genome of an organism does not give an exact prediction of its phenotype.

Traits vary greatly in how much they owe to heredity (nature vs nurture). The interaction between genotype and phenotype has often been conceptualized by the following relationship:

:**genotype + environment → phenotype**

## Extensions 
The term 'phenotype' must include characteristics that can be made visible by some technical procedure (such as blood types). Another extension adds behaviour to the phenotype since behaviours are also affected by both genotypic and environmental factors.

The idea of the **extended phenotype** has been developed by Richard Dawkins to mean all the effects a gene has on the outside world that may influence its chances of being inherited. These can be effects on the organism carrying the trait, the environment, or other organisms. For instance, a beaver dam might be considered a phenotype of beaver genes, the same way beavers' powerful incisor teeth are phenotype expressions of their genes. Dawkins also cites the effect of an organism on the behaviour of another organism (such as the devoted nurturing of a cuckoo by a parent clearly of a different species) as an example of the extended phenotype.

## Related pages 
*Nature versus nurture

## References
Key lime

The **Key lime** is a citrus fruit. Its Latin name is  *Citrus aurantiifolia* (often, less correctly: *C. aurantifolia*), or *Citrus* x *aurantiifolia* (Christm.) Swingle. It is also known as the **Mexican lime**, **West Indian lime** or '''Bartender's lime'*. It is a shrub that grows to about 5m in height. 

Its fruit is 2.5-5 cm in diameter (1-2 in). The fruit is yellow when ripe but usually, it is picked green. It is smaller, seedier, has higher acidity, a stronger aroma, and a thinner rind than that of the more common Persian lime. It is valued for its unique flavor compared to other lime.  The Key lime usually has a more tart and bitter flavor. It is perhaps most distinguished as an ingredient in the Key lime pie. 

*C. aurantiifolia* is a shrubby tree, that grows to 5 m (16 ft), with many thorns. Dwarf varieties are popular with home growers and can be grown indoors in winter in colder climates. The trunk rarely grows straight, with many branches that often originate quite far down on the trunk. The leaves are ovate 2.5–9 cm (1–3.5 in) long. They resemble orange leaves (the scientific name *aurantiifolia'' refers to the leaves' resemblance). The flowers are 2.5 cm (1 in) in diameter. They are yellowish-white with a light purple tinge on the margins. Flowers and fruit appear throughout the year but are most abundant from May to September  .

*C. aurantiifolia* originally came from  Southeast Asia.  It was introduced through the Middle East to North Africa and Europe during the Crusades. Spanish explorers then took it to the West Indies (at some point including the Florida Keys) contemporaneously with Columbus, then tropical and sub-tropical North America including Mexico, Florida, and later California .  The English name "lime" was derived from the Persian name لیمو *Limu* in this course.  "Key" would seem to have been added sometime after the Persian lime cultivar became more important commercially in the United States. This was after the hurricane of 1926. The hurricane destroyed most U.S. *C. aurantiifolia* plants.  Some plants growing in the wild in the Keys survived the hurricane.  Since the North American Free Trade Agreement came into effect, many Key limes are grown in Mexico and Central America. They are also grown in Texas and California.

## Footnotes
#  Alphabetical List of Plant Families with Insecticidal and Fungicidal Properties
#  *Citrus aurantiifolia* Swingle
#  *Citrus aurantiifolia* Swingle
Persian lime

**Persian Lime** (*Citrus x latifolia*), also known as **Tahiti lime** or **Bearss lime** is a kind of citrus fruit. It is the primary citrus fruit grown commercially in the U.S. It is sold simply as a "lime". The fruit is about 6 cm in diameter. Very often, it has slightly nippled ends. It is usually sold quite green, although it yellows as it reaches full ripeness. It is larger, thicker-skinned, and less aromatic than the key lime. The key lime is grown more often worldwide. The Persian lime is bigger than the key lime, and has fewer seeds. The plant is also hardier, and has no thorns on the bushes. The fruit also has a longer shelf life. 

Persian limes are less acidic than key limes and do not have the bitterness that lends to the key lime's unique flavour. Persian limes are sold primarily in six sizes, known as 110's, 150's, 175's, 200's, 230's and 250's. They are grown primarily in Florida in the U.S. The Persian lime became more important when key lime orchards were wiped out by a hurricane in 1926. Persian lime orchards themselves were devastated by Hurricane Andrew in 1992. Large numbers of Persian limes are grown, processed and exported every year primarily from Martínez de la Torre, Veracruz, Mexico, to the American, European and Asian markets. U.S. Persian lime imports from Mexico are handled mostly through McAllen, Texas.

## References 
* Tahiti lime botany, agriculture, and history
* history and use of limes 
* history and varieties of limes 
* Key limes and others
Creed (disambiguation)

A **creed** is a statement of belief, usually religious.

**Creed** may also refer to:

## Religion 
* Apostles' Creed, an early statement of Christian belief
* Nicene Creed, the most widespread or ecumenical Christian statement of faith
* Athanasian Creed, a statement of Christian Trinitarian doctrine
* Chalcedonian Creed, adopted at the Council of Chalcedon in 451 in Asia Minor
* Social Creed (Methodist), a social creed of the American Methodist Episcopal Church
* Masai Creed, a creed composed in about 1960 by Western Christian missionaries for the Masai people of East Africa
* A New Creed, an affirmation of faith used widely in the worship services of the United Church of Canada
* Islamic Creed, see Shahada or Aqidah

## Government 
* American's Creed, a forerunner to the Pledge of Allegiance
* United States Postal Service creed (unofficial)

**Military**
* Rifleman's Creed, also known as "the Creed of the United States Marine," though unofficial
* Ranger Creed, official creed of the US Army Rangers
* U.S. Soldier's Creed, a set of values and morals that all U.S. Army personnel are encouraged to live by

## People 
* Creed Bratton, American singer and actor
* Frederick G. Creed, Canadian inventor, founder of Creed & Company
* Helios Creed, American musician, guitarist of Chrome
* Linda Creed, Philadelphia songwriter
* Percy Redfern Creed
* Martin Creed, British artist
* Michael Creed, Irish politician
* Creed Taylor, American record producer

**Fictional**
* Creed Bratton (The Office character), a character from the U.S. television series, The Office
* Graydon Creed, a character in Marvel Comics
* Ursarkar E. Creed, a character from Warhammer 40,000 universe
* Apollo Creed, a boxer
* Creed Diskenth, the antagonist in anime and manga series Black Cat (manga)

## Other 
* Assassin's Creed, a video game

**Companies**
* Creed (perfume), a perfume manufacturer
* Creed & Company, a British telecommunications company

**Literature**
* Creed, a poem by Steve Turner (writer)
* Creed (comics), a Lightning Comics series

**Music**
* Creed (band), a Christian rock band
* *Creed*, one of the most popular songs from Christian rock group, Petra on their album, *Beyond Belief*

**Places**
* Creed, Cornwall, a village in Cornwall, England
* Creede, Colorado

## Related pages
* Credo, a musical setting of the Nicene Creed
Kaffir lime

The **Kaffir lime** (*Citrus hystrix *DC., Rutaceae), also known as **kieffer lime**, **makrut** or **magrood**, is a citrus fruit native to Indonesia. It is widely grown worldwide as a garden shrub. It is usually grown for its fruit, the lime. The leaves are used for cooking. Vegetable oil obtained from the leaves is used to make perfumes.

## The plant
The plant is a  very thorny bush with aromatic leaves. The oil obtained from the rind of the fruit can be used as an insecticide. The plant is well suited to being grown in a container. The green fruits are different from other limes because of their bumpy and rough exterior. They are also quite small, about 4 centimetres across. The leaves are shaped like an hourglass. The leaves and the leaf-shaped stem are widely used in the cuisine of Cambodia, Thailand and Laos.

*Citrus x hystrix* leaves are also popular in Cambodia but less so in Vietnam. Malay, Burmese and Indonesian (especially Balinese and Javanese; see also Indonesian bay leaf) cuisines use them sporadically with chicken and fish.

The leaves can be used fresh or dried and can be stored frozen.

Although the most common product of the *Citrus x hystrix* tree is its leaves (which give a sharp Lime/neroli flavour to Cambodian base paste known as Krueng, Thai dishes such as tom yum and Indonesian food such as sayur assam - literally *sour vegetables*), the juice and rind of the small, dark-green gnarled fruit (known as jeruk obat - literally *medicine citrus*) are used in traditional Indonesian medicine.

The zest is widely used in Creole cuisine and to impart flavour to "arranged" rums on Réunion and Madagascar.

## Other names
Other names for *Citrus x hystrix*:
* Burma: shauk-nu, shauk-waing
* Cambodia: krauch soeuch
* China: fatt-fung-kam
* Malaysia: limau purut
* Indonesia: jeruk purut, jeruk sambal
* Philippines: swangi
* Sri Lanka: kahpiri dehi, odu dehi, kudala-dehi
* Thailand: makrut, som makrut

## Terminology
*The Oxford Companion to Food* () recommends that the name *kaffir lime* should be avoided in favour of *makrut lime* because *Kaffir* is an offensive term in certain cultures and also has no clear reason for being attached to this plant. However *kaffir lime* appears to be much more common.
## Image Gallery

Image:Thai-keffir-galangal.jpg|*Citrus hystrix* fruit (left), used in Southeast  Asian cooking, with galangal root.
Image:Citrus_hystrix_dsc07772.jpg|Kaffir limes (as they are sold on Reunion Island)
Image:Citrus hystrix Blanco2.408.jpg|Plate from a book on the Flora of the Philippines
Image:Combava Rind Madagascar.jpg|Combava rinds

## Other websites
Medina

**Medina** (; , '** , "the radiant city"; or , **' (), "the city"), also transliterated as **Madīnah**, is a city in the Hejaz, and the capital of the Al Madinah Region of Saudi Arabia. The city contains al-Masjid al-Nabawi ("the Prophet's Mosque"), which is the burial place of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and is the second-holiest city in Islam after Mecca.

Medina was Muhammad's destination after his Hijrah from Mecca, and became the capital of a rapidly increasing Muslim Empire, first under Muhammad's leadership, and then under the first four Rashidun caliphs, Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali. It served as the power base of Islam in its first century where the early Muslim community developed. Medina is home to the three oldest mosques, namely the Quba Mosque, al-Masjid an-Nabawi, and Masjid al-Qiblatayn ("the mosque of the two qiblas"). Muslims believe that the chronologically final surahs of the Quran were revealed to Muhammad in Medina, and are called Medinan surahs in contrast to the earlier Meccan surahs.

Similarly to Mecca, non-Muslims are forbidden from entering the sacred core of Medina or the center of the city.

## Overview 
Medina currently has a population of  more than 1,300,000 people (2006). The city was originally known as *Yathrib*, but later its name was changed to Madīnat al-Nabī (مدينة ﺍﻟﻨﺒﻲ  "city of the prophet") or *Al Madīnah al Munawwarah* ("the enlightened city" or "the radiant city"). The short form *Madīnah* simply means "city". Madina is the second holiest city of Islam, after Mecca (Makkah).

## Medina's religious significance in Islam 
Medina is the second holiest site in Islam after Mecca that's why Medina is very important to Muslims. This is because Prophet Muhammad is buried in a mosque known as 'Masjid-e-Nabawi' or 'The Mosque of The Prophet' located in Medina. The Mosque was built on a site next to Muhammad's home. Muslims believe  that Prophets must be buried at the very same place that they die. Accordingly, Muhammad was buried in his house. The tomb later became part of the mosque when it was expanded by the Umayyad Caliph Al-Walid I. The first mosque of Islam is also in Medina. It is known as *Masjid Quba,* (the Quba Mosque).

Like Mecca, the city of Medina only permits Muslims to enter. The *haram* (area closed to non-Muslims) of Medina is much smaller than that of Mecca, though. Many facilities on the  of Medina are open to non-Muslims. In Mecca the area closed to non-Muslims extends well beyond the limits of the built-up area. Both cities' numerous mosques are the destination for large numbers of Muslims on their annual pilgrimage. Hundreds of thousands of Muslims come to Medina each year to visit the 'Tomb of Prophet' and to worship at mosques in a unified celebration. Muslims believe that praying once in the Mosque of the Prophet is equal to praying at least 1000 times in any other mosque.

## References
## Other websites 
* Beautiful Masajids Of Madina Munawara, Details And Pictures  

* Satellite map of Medina - Google
* Pictures of Medina Munawwara 
* Medina's religious significance in Islam
Citric acid

s, magnified about 200 times, seen through a polarizing filter.]]
**Citric acid** is a weak organic acid. It can be found in citrus fruits. It is used by organisms for Krebs cycle. It acts like a preservative when added to food. It is also used to add a sour (acidic) taste to foods and soft drinks. In the European Union it is known as **E 330**, as a food additive.

Carl Wilhelm Scheele was the first who could extract citric acid from lemons, in 1782. The substance was probably known to alchemists, perhaps with a different name. The Arabian alchemist Geber is said to have discovered citric acid in the 9th century. Citric Acid contains 6 Carbon atoms, 8 Hydrogen atoms and 7 Oxygen atoms. Its chemical formula is C6H8O7.

## Main uses 
* As a water softener
* It is often used in detergents, to avoid the smell of acid, esp. Acetic acid
* As a preserving agent
* Citric acid and its salts prevent blood clotting. Blood donations are kept liquid using citric acid.

## References
## Other websites 
* Citric acid analysis - free spreadsheet for titration of acids and pH calculation
Geber

**Jābir ibn Ḥayyān** (; ; died between 806 and 816), is the name for the writer of a great number of writings in Arabic. The writings together have the name **Jabirian corpus**. The most important subjects of these writings are: alchemy, cosmology, numerology, astrology, medicine, magic, mysticism, and philosophy.

Jabir's writings have in them the oldest known list of chemical substances. For the first time, the writings gave an explanation of how to produce an inorganic substance (ammonium chloride) from organic substances (such as plants, blood, and hair).

Modern scholars doubt the historical existence of Jabir. It is probable that one person did not write all of the writings in the Jabirian corpus. Instead, scholars see Jabir ibn Hayyan as a pseudonym that a group of writers used.

Translations into Latin of some of Jabir's Arabic writings (like the "Book of Mercy", and the "Book of Seventy") came into existence in the Middle Ages. In Latin, Jabir had the name "Geber", a transliteration of "Jabir".

In 13th-century Europe an anonymous writer, called pseudo-Geber, started to produce new writings about alchemy under the name Geber. People still read the  in the 17th century. The '''' was one of the writings that pseudo-Geber produced in the 13th century. It was an influence on early modern chemists like Robert Boyle (1627–1691).

## References 
## Works cited 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
*
Doctrine

**Doctrine** (Latin: *doctrina*) is a code of beliefs or "a body of teachings".

Doctrine often means several religious dogmas that a church teaches. 
But it can also mean a principle of law, in the common law traditions, established through a history of past decisions, such as the doctrine of self-defense, or the principle of fair use.

In matters of foreign policy, a doctrine, also known as dogma, is group of fundamental rules for a nation's foreign policy. Examples include the Monroe Doctrine, the Stimson Doctrine, the Truman Doctrine, the Eisenhower Doctrine, the Nixon Doctrine, the Brezhnev Doctrine, the Kirkpatrick doctrine, and the Bush Doctrine.

## Religious usage 
Examples of religious doctrines include:
* Christian Trinity and Virgin birth of Jesus
* Roman Catholic transubstantiation and immaculate conception
* Pentecostal Jesus-Only doctrine
* Calvinist predestination
* Methodist Prevenient Grace

One department of the Roman Curia is called the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith.

## Military usage 
The term also applies to the concept of an established procedure to a complex operation in warfare. The typical example is tactical doctrine in which a standard set of maneuvers, kinds of troops and weapons are employed as a default approach to a kind of attack.

Examples of military doctrines include:
* Blitzkrieg of World War II
* Hit-and-run tactics
* Shock and Awe
* *Guerre de course*
* Mahanian of late 19th up to mid-20th Century
Carl Wilhelm Scheele

.]]

**Carl Wilhelm Scheele** (December 9, 1742 - May 21, 1786) a German-Swedish pharmaceutical chemist, born in Stralsund, Western Pomerania, Germany (at the time under Swedish rule), was the discoverer of many chemical substances, most notably discovering oxygen before Joseph Priestley and chlorine before Humphry Davy.
Micheline Calmy-Rey

**Micheline Calmy-Rey** (born 8 July 1945) is a Swiss politician. She was Switzerland's foreign minister as head of the Federal Department of Foreign Affairs. She was also a member of the Swiss Federal Council from 2003. She was President of the Confederation in 2007 and again in 2011. She resigned her office as member of the Federal Council on 31 December 2011.

## Other websites
*Official website
*

|-

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Criss Angel Mindfreak

***Criss Angel Mindfreak*** is an American television program. The program is hosted by illusionist Criss Angel. Angel performs many different types of stunts and illusions on the program such as street magic, levitation, and setting himself on fire. The program was first shown on July 20, 2005. It is shown and distributed by the A&E network.

## Other websites 
* Official Criss Angel website
* Official *Criss Angel Mindfreak* TV Series website at A&E
* Titles & Air Dates Guide of *Criss Angel Mindfreak* at epguides.com
Franz Grillparzer

**Franz Grillparzer** (born Vienna, 15 January 1791 – died Vienna, 21 January 1872) was an Austrian dramatist and poet. His dramas include three plays (a “trilogy”) called *Das Goldene Vliess* (*The Golden Fleece*).

## Works 
Two other famous plays are *Des Meeres und der Liebe Wellen* (*The Waves of the Sea and of Love*) and *Der Traum, ein Leben* (*The Dream, a Life*).  Although he said he was not interested in prose his short story *Der arme Spielmann* (*The poor minstrel*) is probably the best known of his works and one of the best short stories of the 19th century.  Grillparzer wrote the funeral speech for Beethoven's funeral in 1827.

Legacy

An Austrian pastry is named after him: the Grillparzertorte.

## References 
## Other websites
Pastry

**Pastry** is the dough from which some baked products are made. Pastry dough is rolled out thinly and used as a base for baked products. It is made from ingredients such as flour, sugar, milk, butter, shortening, baking powder, and/or eggs. Common pastry dishes include pies, tarts, quiches and pasties.

Pastry is also the name given to various kinds of baked products. Small cakes, tarts and other sweet or savoury baked products are called "pastries." 

## Related pages 
*Cookie
*Croissant

## References
Piano trio

A **piano trio** is a group of three instruments including a piano. Usually it is a piano, a violin and a cello. This combination of instruments has been a very popular form of chamber music from the Classical music period onwards. A **piano trio** can also mean a piece of music written for a piano trio to play.

Other combinations of piano with two instruments are often called by the featuring wind instrument. For example: Mozart wrote a trio for piano, clarinet and viola which is usually called a “clarinet trio”. Brahms wrote a trio for piano, violin and French horn which is usually called a “horn trio”.

Music for three people to play at one piano is called music for piano six hands.

## Famous music for piano trio 
Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven all wrote several piano trios for the traditional combination of piano, violin and cello. Beethoven’s last piano trio has the nickname *Archduke* because it was written for the Archduke Rudolph. Franz Schubert wrote two beautiful piano trios.

In the Romantic period some of the best piano trios were written by Felix Mendelssohn, Antonín Dvořák, César Franck and Pyotr Tchaikovsky.

In the 20th century Maurice Ravel and Dmitri Shostakovich each wrote a famous piano trio.

## Famous piano trios 
Alfred Cortot, Jacques Thibaud and Pablo Casals were world famous musicians who played and recorded piano trios in the early 20th century.
During the second half of the 20th century the Beaux Arts Trio were the best known group. Today there are many young musicians who play piano trios, including three Japanese sisters called the Fujita Piano Trio who play a lot of their music all from memory.
Für Elise

"**Für Elise**" (German for *For Elise*) is the common name of the song "**Bagatelle in A minor**." It was written for the piano by the composer Ludwig van Beethoven in 1810. The song is thought to be written for Therese, a woman that Beethoven wanted to marry in 1810. It is believed that his handwriting was not translated correctly when the song was transcribed.  This caused the piece to be known as " Für Elise" rather than "Für Therese".  However, there is also musings that he wrote the piece for a singer named Elise Barensfeld, who was both a student and a friend. Neither claim have ever been fully confirmed or refuted.  

The piece of music was not published until 1865. This was a long time after the death of Beethoven. It is one of the most well-known pieces of piano music in the world.

## Form 
The piece is in rondo form. There is a main section (A) which appears three times. Between these three sections there are two other sections (B and C), so the form of the piece can be described as: A B A C A.

The main section has a time signature of 3/8. It is based on arpeggios which flow from one hand to the other. This is the section that many beginner pianists want to play. The two middle sections are harder to play at the correct speed. They have fast scales, arpeggios and left hand demisemiquavers (32nd notes).

## References
* Woodstra, Chris. et al. 2005. *All Music Guide to Classical Music*. All Media Guide, LLC. p.&nbsp;104. 

* What is the meaning of Beethoven’s ‘Für Elise’ – and who was Elise?
## Other websites 
*Für Elise - and other Beethoven resources (includes the free sheet music)
Teplice

**Teplice**  () is a city in Bohemia, the western area of the Czech Republic.  Teplice (pronounced in Czech: “Tep-li-tse”) is a famous spa town where, in earlier times, lots of famous people went for holidays to improve their health.  Goethe, Beethoven, Chopin, Franz Liszt and Richard Wagner all stayed there.

Teplice lies between Prague and Dresden in a mountain area called Krušné hory (Iron Mountains).  In the year 762, hot springs were found there.  The waters from these springs helped people who were ill to get better so it became a spa town.

Since 1990, many buildings have been restored.  The Krušnohorské divadlo (Krušnohorské theatre) is now being refurbished.  The North Bohemia Philharmonic Orchestra give concerts there in the open air.  There is a museum and many restaurants, wine bars and cafés.  In the winter the mountain slopes are good for skiing.

Image:Teplice_(Teplitz-Schönau)_-_Schlossplatz_mit_Kirche_St._Johannes_links.JPG|Square, castle and church
Image:Teplice_25.5.2006.JPG|Night view
Image:Teplice-Neues-Rathaus 02.jpg|Town hall

## Other websites 
*Official website
Symphony No. 9 (Beethoven)

when he wrote his ninth symphony.]]
**Symphony No. 9 in D minor**, Op. 125, is a symphony written by Ludwig van Beethoven. It is one of the most famous pieces of music ever written.

A symphony is a piece of music for orchestra. Beethoven wrote nine symphonies. This one, the last one he wrote, is very unusual because the last movement also has singing in it: there are four soloists (soprano, alto, tenor and bass) and a choir. This is why it is known as the “choral” symphony (“choral” means: “for choir”). It is a very long work, lasting more than an hour. This, too, was unusual.

This symphony has four movements. The first movement is in sonata form. The second and third movements come the other way round from the usual order: the second movement is the scherzo and the third movement is the slow movement. It is a theme and variations. The last movement sets the words of a poem by Friedrich Schiller, a famous poet who had only recently died. The poem was called *Ode an die Freude* (in English: *Ode to Joy*). The poem has a strong message to all mankind: it is about living in peace and harmony together. It was written at the time of the French Revolution when these ideas were becoming very important in Europe.

The main tune of the last movement (sung to the words: “Freude, schöne Götterfunken, Tochter aus Elysium”) is one of the best known tunes in the world. Many children like to play it on instruments because the first part of the tune only uses five notes (it can be played on D, E, F-sharp, G, A). When the tune comes the first time in the symphony it is played by the cellos and double basses.

The *Ode to Joy* was adopted as Europe's “National anthem” in 1972, with an official arrangement for orchestra written by Herbert von Karajan.

Beethoven had been interested in Schiller’s famous poem since he was young. In 1817 he started to write the first two movements of the symphony. In 1822 he decided to use Schiller’s poem in the symphony. Most of the rest of the symphony was written in 1823 and he finished it in 1824. It was first performed in May of that year. Beethoven conducted the performance. The story is told that he wondered why the audience were not applauding when it had finished. They were applauding, but Beethoven was deaf so he could not hear. Caroline Unger, the alto soloist, made him turn round, and he saw that people were applauding enthusiastically.
Shahada

The ***Shahada*** (, ) is the first pillar of Islam. The saying is "*Lā ʾIlāha ʾIllā Allah, Muḥammadun Rasūl Allah"*, meaning "There is no deity but God, Muhammad is the messenger of God". this saying also declared for conversion to Islam.

In one of the many ayahs (proofs, evidence, verses, signs, revelations, etc.) within the Qur'an. The ayah says 3:18 

3:18

شَهِدَ ٱللَّهُ أَنَّهُۥ لَآ إِلَـٰهَ إِلَّا هُوَ وَٱلْمَلَـٰٓئِكَةُ وَأُو۟لُوا۟ ٱلْعِلْمِ قَآئِمًۢا بِٱلْقِسْطِ ۚ لَآ إِلَـٰهَ إِلَّا هُوَ ٱلْعَزِيزُ ٱلْحَكِيمُ ١٨

  Allâh bears witness that Lâ ilâha illa Huwa (none has the right to be worshipped but He), and the angels, and those having knowledge (also give this witness); (He always) maintains His creation in Justice. Lâ ilâha illa Huwa (none has the right to be worshipped but He), the All-Mighty, the All-Wise.
Mersenne prime

In mathematics, a **Mersenne number** is a number that is one less than a *power of two*.

:*Mn* = 2*n* − 1.

A **Mersenne prime** is a *Mersenne number* that is a prime number. This however, is not sufficient. Many mathematicians prefer the definition of a Mersenne number where exponent *n* to be a prime number.

For example, *31 = 25 − 1*, and 5 is a prime number, so 31 is a Mersenne number; and 31 is also a Mersenne prime because it is a prime number. But the Mersenne number *2047 = 211 − 1* is not a prime because it is divisible by 89 and 23. And *24 − 1 = 15* can be shown to be composite because 4 is not prime.

Throughout modern times, the largest known prime number has very often been a Mersenne prime. Most sources restrict the term *Mersenne number* to where *n* is prime, as all Mersenne primes must be of this form as seen below.

Mersenne primes have a close connection to perfect numbers, which are numbers equal to the sum of their proper divisors. Historically, the study of Mersenne primes was motivated by this connection; in the 4th century BC Euclid demonstrated that if *M* is a Mersenne prime then *M*(*M*+1)/2 is a perfect number. In the 18th century, Leonhard Euler proved that all even perfect numbers have this form. No odd perfect numbers are known, and it is suspected that none exist (if one does, it would have to be greater than 102200).

It is currently unknown if there is an infinite number of Mersenne primes. Most mathematicians who have studied the question think there are an infinite number of Mersenne primes. Carl Pomerance, Samuel S. Wagstaff Jr. and Hendrik Lenstra developed a formula which they think should say about how many Mersenne primes there are under a given number.

The binary representation of 2*n* - 1 is *n* repetitions of the digit 1.

For example, 2*5* - 1 = 11111 in binary.

The first four Mersenne primes were known by the Ancient Greeks. They are 3, 7, 31 and 127. The next, 8191, was discovered in 1456. Some people like trying to find big primes. Since there are tricks and algorithms to finding Mersenne primes quickly, the largest known primes are also Mersenne primes.

As of 2024, 52 Mersenne primes are known. The largest known prime number is Mersenne prime 2^{136,279,841} - 1.

## References
Johann Georg Albrechtsberger

**Johann Georg Albrechtsberger** (born 3 February 1736 in Klosterneuburg near Vienna; died 7 March 1809 in Vienna) was an Austrian composer, organist, music theorist and music teacher. He is most known today because he was Beethoven's teacher for a time.

## Life
From the age of seven, Albrechtsberger was a choirboy. He had lessons in organ and music theory.  As an adult, he had several jobs in churches in small towns.  He became Kapellmeister at St Stephen’s Church, Vienna in 1793. This was the best job for a church musician in the empire.

## Writing music
Albrechtsberger wrote hundreds of compositions. He wrote most of them before he got the job in Vienna. He wrote in a classical style. Albrechsberger enjoyed doing things with music which were not normally done. He would ask string players to tune their strings in different ways (called “scordatura”). He would also write slow movements with muted strings. As well as classical sonatas he wrote lots of fugues. Several people, including Mozart, thought of him as the greatest organist in the world.

## Teaching
Albrechtsberger was a very important music teacher. Joseph Haydn thought he was the best teacher in Vienna. He was very interested in contrapuntal music of the Baroque period. He copied many fugues by Bach and other composers.

When Beethoven was a young man, he had some composition lessons from Joseph Haydn. When Haydn was going to travel to England for several months, he asked Albrechtsberger to teach Beethoven while he was gone. These lessons took place from 1793 to 1795. A few years later, Albrechtsberger said about Beethoven that “he learned absolutely nothing and will never accomplish anything decent”. Beethoven said that Albrechtsberger was a “musical pedant”. However, Beethoven still studied Albrechtsberger’s books on music theory. The string quartets which Beethoven wrote near the end of his life show the influence of Albrechtsberger.

## References
Purgatory

According to the teaching of the Roman Catholic Church, **Purgatory** is the "final purification of the elect": "All who die in God's grace and friendship, but still imperfectly purified, are indeed assured of their eternal salvation; but after death they undergo purification, so as to achieve the holiness necessary to enter the joy of heaven." 

“In Purgatory there are different levels; the lowest is close to hell and the highest gradually draws near to Heaven. It is not All Souls Day, but, Christmas, that the greatest number of souls leave Purgatory.

There are in Purgatory, souls who pray ardently to God, but for whom no relative or friend prays on earth. God makes them benefit from the prayers of other people.

It happens that God permits them to manifest themselves in different way, close to their relatives on earth, in order to remind men of the existence of Purgatory and to solicit their prayers to come close to God who is just, but good.

## Purgatory in art and culture 
:Purgatorio (by William Blake)]]
Perhaps the best-known instance of purgatory in the arts is Dante's *Purgatorio*, the second book of his *Divine Comedy*. Likewise, the Ghost in William Shakespeare's *Hamlet* may also presuppose a belief in purgatory, 

## Related pages
* The Divine Comedy
* Hades
* Heaven
* Hell

## Footnotes 
## Sources 
* Akin, James. *How to explain Purgatory to Protestants*
* * Blackwell Dictionary of Eastern Christianity*  (Oxford: Blackwell, 1999)
* *Catechism of the Catholic Church*, available online 
* *Catechism of St. Philaret (Drozdov) of Moscow*
* Catholic Encyclopedia of 1914, *Purgatory*
* Clendenin, Daniel B.  (ed.). *Eastern Orthodox Theology*  (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1995)
* Demetry, Constas H. *Catechism of the Eastern Orthodox Church*
* Dragani, Anthony. *From East to West: Purgatory*
* O' Collins, Gerald and Mario Farrugia. *Catholicism: the story of Catholic Christianity* (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003)

## Other websites 
* CatholicBridge.com, *Purgatory*  — Ecumenical article by David MacDonald concerning Evangelical and Catholic belief
* Catholic Answers, *Purgatory*  — Catholic apologetic article
* NewAdvent.org, *Purgatory* — 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia article
* philvaz.com/apologetics  — Readings from the Church Fathers and other sources on Purgatory, by Phil Porvaznik
* EWTN.com library, *Heaven, Hell and Purgatory according to Pope John Paul II*  — Article from the newspaper of the Holy See, ''L'Osservatore Romano*, July-August 1999
* JewishEncyclopedia.com, *Purgatory* — Article by Kaufmann Kohler in the online Jewish Encyclopedia 
* New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, *Purgatory* — Article by C. A. Beckwith in the 19th century Protestant encyclopedia (ed. Philip Schaff)
* Purgatory account in the 1911 *Encyclopaedia Britannica*.
* *I Believe in Purgatory...'' — excerpt from C. S. Lewis's *Letters To Malcolm: Chiefly on Prayer*, chapter 20 
* Frequently Asked Questions  at Holy Souls Online
* Purgatory and praying for the dead on Catholic Apologetic
* *"Prisoner of the King: Thoughts on the Catholic Doctrine of Purgatory"*, H. J. Coleridge, 1889. retrieved 24 May 2007
Race (biology)

In biology, **races** are distinct populations within the same species with relatively small morphological and genetic differences. 

The populations are *ecological races* if they arise from adaptation to different local habitats or *geographic races* when they are geographically isolated. 

If sufficiently different, two or more races may be described as subspecies, which is an official biological taxonomy unit below 'species'. 

If not, they are called *races*, which means that a formal rank should not be given to the group, or taxonomists are unsure whether or not a formal rank should be given. 

According to Ernst Mayr, "a subspecies is a *geographic race* that is sufficiently different taxonomically to be worthy of a separate name" 

## Example
The key lime is a shrub that grows to a size of about 5 metres in height. It has many thorns. It produces a fruit that is yellow when it is ripe. This fruit is preferred by bartenders to mix cocktails. They prefer this lime, rather than the Persian lime. 

The lime plant originally came from southeast Asia, where it is native. It was taken to the Middle East, and Crusaders took it to Europe and North Africa. Spanish explorers took it to the West Indies and the Florida Keys. In 1926, a hurricane destroyed most of the commercially-grown limes in the region. The Persian lime was reintroduced then.

Some of the original shrubs grew wild in the Florida Keys.  It became clear that the originally introduced shrubs (now known as *Mexican limes*) had modified their fruits. These were darker green than the original Persian limes, they also had a thicker skin.

## More detail 
In biological taxonomy, **race** is an informal rank below the level of subspecies. It may be used as a higher rank than "strain". There are various definitions. Races may be genetically distinct populations in the same species, or they may be defined in other ways, e.g. geographically, or physiologically. Genetic isolation between races is not complete (some interbreeding takes place between the groups).
However, the genetic differences are not (yet) enough to put the groups into separate species. The term *race* is recognized by some, but is not governed by any of the formal codes of biological classification. This is one reason why modern biology says that there is only one human race.

## References
Granule

**Granule** is a generic term used for a small particle or grain.  The generic term is used in a lot of contexts.

* Granule (solar physics), visible structures in the photosphere of the Sun arising from activity in the Sun's convective zone
* Granule (cell biology), any of several submicroscopic structures, some with explicable origins, others noted only as cell type-specific features of unknown function
** "Azurophil granule", a structure characteristic of the azurophil eukaryotic cell type
** "Chromaffin granule", a structure characteristic of the chromophil eukaryotic cell type
* Martian spherules, spherical granules of material found on the surface of the planet Mars
* A specified particle size of 2–4 millimetres (-1– -2 on the φ scale)
Joan Jett

**Joan Jett** (born September 1958) is an American singer and guitarist. She is best known for her number one single "I Love Rock n Roll". Jett has a punkish, tomboy appearance and is a Democrat.

In 2015, she was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.

## References
Cytosol

The **cytosol** (also known as **intracellular fluid** (ICF) or **cytoplasmic matrix**, or **groundplasm**) is the internal fluid of the cell, and a part of cell metabolism occurs here.

Proteins within the **cytosol** play an important role in signal transduction pathways and glycolysis.

Cytosol mostly consists of water, dissolved ions, small molecules, and large water-soluble molecules (such as protein). It contains about 20% to 30% protein.

Normal human cytosolic pH is (roughly) 7.0 (i.e. neutral), whereas the pH of the extracellular fluid is 7.4.

The texture of cytosol being described as granular can be attributed to the fact that in order to study the texture, an electron microsope must be used, which requires a process of dehydration prior to study.

## References
*Life: the science of biology*. Purves, Sadava, Orians, Heller. Sunderland, MA. Sinauer Associates, Inc. 2004.  (ILM USA)
Nathuram Godse

**Nathuram Vinayak Godse** (, May 19, 1910 – November 15, 1949) was an Indian Hindutva Nationalist and convicted Criminal who was responsible for the assassination of Mohandas Gandhi.

## Biography 
Nathuram Godse was born at Baramati, Pune District, British India. His father was Vinayak Vaman Rao Godse, his mother was Lakshmi (Godavari before marriage). His father was a fifteen-rupee-a-month employee of the post office. He would drop out of high school and become an activist for the party Hindu Mahasabha

## Killing of MK Gandhi 
### Motive 
In his speech in Court, Naturam Godse stated the following as his reasons -

Gandhi's January 13, 1948 decision to fast to the death unless the Indian central government reversed a decision to withhold the transfer of 55 crore (550 million) rupees to the government of Pakistan. The transfer had been specified in the partition agreement, but the Indian government had refused to complete it, complaining of continued Pakistani rebel occupation of disputed parts of Kashmir.

The Indian government immediately reversed its decision to withhold the funds, which infuriated Godse and his fellow Hindu nationals.

### Attack 
Godse assassinated Gandhi on January 30, 1948, approaching him during the evening prayer, bowing, and shot him three times at close range. Godse was convicted of murdering Gandhi, for which he was executed by hanging.

## Related pages 
* Hindutva
* Yigal Amir

## Other websites 
* Godse's deposition in court 
* A pro-Godse site  with interviews and links
* Time Magazine's Feb 2000 interview of Gopal Godse 
* Rediff's Jan 1998 interview of Gopal Godse
* Article discussing pro-Godse play
* Eyewitness to Gandhi assassination 
* Eyewitness gives VIDEO account of Gandhi Assassination
Makoto Sakurai

is the leader and founder of the very right-wing hate group Zaitokukai (). It is one of the largest hate groups in Japan, with over 14,000 members as of March 2014. The name means "Citizens’ League to Deny Foreigners in Japan Special Rights." As the leader, Sakurai participates in demonstrations, appears in videos, and blogs.

Sakurai was arrested for spitting on another person at a protest. The United States Department of State criticized his actions with Zaitokukai.

## References 
## Other websites 
* Sakurai's blog (Japanese)
George Adamski

**George Adamski** (April 17, 1891 – April 23, 1965) was a Polish-born American who became known in ufology circles after he said he photographed ships from other planets, met with aliens, and took flights with them. He considered himself to be a "philosopher, teacher, student and saucer researcher." 

## References
Cradle of Filth

**Cradle of Filth** is an extreme metal band from England. Some people say the band’s musical style is black metal, others say that it is gothic metal, extreme metal, or many other different styles. Cradle of Filth had many different members. It was founded by Dani Filth in 1991. He is still the leader of the band. Cradle of Filth is very well known and has enjoyed success on TV and the radio.

## Albums 
* *The Principle of Evil Made Flesh* (1994)
* *Dusk and Her Embrace* (1997)
* *Cruelty and the Beast* (1998)
* *Midian* (2000)
* *Damnation and a Day* (2003)
* *Nymphetamine* (2004)
* *Thornography* (2006)
* ''Godspeed on the Devil's Thunder* (2008)
* *Darkly, Darkly, Venus Aversa* (2010)
* *The Manticore and Other Horrors* (2012)
* *Hammer of the Witches* (2015)
* *Cryptoriana - The Seductiveness of Decay* (2017)
* *Existence Is Futile* (2021)
* *The Screaming of the Valkyries'' (2025)

## Members 
* Dani Filth - Vocals
* Paul Allender - Guitar
* Charles Hedger - Guitar
* Dave Pybus - Bass
* Martin Skaroupka - Drums
* Sarah Jezebel Deva - Backing Vocals
* Rosie Smith - Live Keyboards

## References
Donkey Kong

**Donkey Kong** is a Nintendo video game character. He was first seen in a video game in 1981. He is a large gorilla who lives deep in the jungles of his very own island. Since 1994 he has worn a red necktie with his initials "DK" in yellow, his only piece of clothing. He appears as both the hero and villain of the *Donkey Kong* games.

## Appearances in video games
* *Donkey Kong*
* Donkey Kong Jr.
* Donkey Kong 3
* Donkey Kong Jr. Math
* *Donkey Kong Country*
* Donkey Kong Country 2: Diddy's Kong Quest
* *Mario Kart 64*
* *Super Smash Bros.*
** Mario Kart: Double Dash!!*
* *Mario Power Tennis*
* *Super Mario Strikers*
* *Super Smash Bros. Melee*
* *Mario Strikers Charged*
* *Super Smash Bros. Brawl*
* *Donkey Konga*
* *Donkey Kong Jungle Beat*

## Appearances in TV shows 
Donkey Kong Country (TV series)

## Appearances in movies
* *The Super Mario Bros. Movie*
Sharin Yamano

is a Japanese manga artist. He is well known for his books, *Manga Kenkanryu* (Hate Korea Wave) and *Manga Kenchogokuryu* (Hate China Wave). He is thought to be anti-Korean and anti-Chinese, but the detail of his profile is not known well.

## References
Marble

, made from marble]]
, made from marble]]
:*For the toy, see marbles*
**Marble** is a metamorphic rock that developed from limestone. Most of the material is calcite (a crystalline form of calcium carbonate, CaCO3) and dolomite. It is often used for sculpture, as a building material, and for many other purposes.

The word 'marble' is also used for other stones that can be polished well and for ball shaped objects used for child games. 

'Faux marble' is a wall painting technique that imitates the color patterns of real marble (not to be confused with paper marbling). Marble dust can be combined with cement or synthetic resins to make *reconstituted* or *cultured marble*.

Marble has been used in construction for thousands of years. It was widely used by Greek and Roman sculptors and architects. Places named after the stone include Marble Arch, London; the Sea of Marmara; India's Marble Rocks; and the towns of Marble, Minnesota; Marble, Colorado; and Marble Hill, Manhattan, New York. The Elgin Marbles are marble sculptures from the Parthenon that are on display in the British Museum.  They were brought to Britain by the Earl of Elgin.

## Construction marble 
In the construction trade, the term "marble" is used for any massive, crystalline calcitic rock (and some non-calcitic rocks) useful as building stone.  

### Examples 
Purbeck marble is a fossiliferous limestone found in the Isle of Purbeck, a peninsula in south-east Dorset, England. It has been quarried since at least Roman times as a decorative building stone. The industry is no longer active.

Tennessee marble is really a massive, highly fossiliferous gray to pink to maroon Ordovician dolostone, known as the Holston Formation by geologists.  "Tennessee marble" is not true marble.  Its crystalline nature gives it a resemblance to marble, especially when polished. 

Carrara marble is a genuine marble. It is white or blue-grey and of high quality, popular for use in sculpture and building decor. It is quarried at the city of Carrara in the Lunigiana, the northernmost tip of modern-day Tuscany, Italy. The illustration shows the *Pietà*, which is a masterpiece of Renaissance sculpture by Michelangelo. It is in St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City, and is the only piece Michelangelo ever signed.

## Industrial use of marble 
Colorless marbles are a very pure source of calcium carbonate, which is used in a wide variety of industries.  Finely ground marble powder is a component in paint, toothpaste, and plastics; calcium carbonate can also be reduced under high heat to calcium oxide (also known as "quicklime"), which has many uses including being a primary component of most cements.

## Related pages
*list of minerals
*limestone
*granite
*sandstone
*Scagliola

## Other websites
*Inlaid marble  
*Tips for cleaning marble  
*Learning to carve by Marc Levoy.

## References