Muslim Hebraists

**Muslim Hebraists** () are Muslims who use the Bible, generally referred to in Qur'anic studies as the Tawrat and the Injil, to help interpret the Qur'an. Muslims who engage with the Bible and draw insights from it to deepen their faith are sometimes called "Biblical Muslims" or "Messianic Muslims". Although Muslim Hebraism was never very widespread, it played an important and often overlooked role in early Islamic thought, especially in the 7th and 8th centuries CE.

Muslim Hebraists allow intertextual studies between the Islamic holy books, and incorporate biblical material in Qur'anic exegesis (tafsir), often exploring the Qur'an's allusions to biblical narratives and concepts that are presented without full explanation. This differs from scholarly conventions which only uses the Bible for polemic or apologetic purposes.

The Islamic methodology of ''tafsir al-Qur'an bi-l-Kitab'' () refers to interpreting the Qur'an with/through the Bible.

## History
, described by historian Walter J. Fischel as the "greatest Muslim Hebraist"]]

In the early centuries of Islam, Biblical texts were more commonly used by Muslims to benefit Islamic arguments than criticized for being corrupted, a practice that contradicts widespread contemporary views. The companion of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, Ubayy ibn Ka'b, received compliments and praises from Muhammad, and was competent in the Torah, the Gospel, and the Qur'an. 

Similarly, the Yememite Jewish Muslim convert Ka'b al-Ahbar taught Jewish traditions and explained the verses of the Qur'an and related them to the Torah. He also taught the Torah in the Mosque of Medina. The number of companions of Muhammad who asked Ka'b of the meaning of the verses of the Qur'an included Umar ibn al-Khattab, Ali ibn Abi Talib, Abu Hurayra, Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan, and Ibn Abbas. Known as "the owner of the two books" (the Qur'an and the Bible), Ka'b was a salaried preacher under Caliph Uthman.

One of the earliest Muslims to make use of biblical material in Arabic translation was the polymath and Mu'tazilite theologian al-Jahiz, who wrote "Al-Radd ʿalā al-Naṣārā". In it, he asserted that the text of the extant Hebrew Bible was trustworthy and a more reliable source than the Christian Gospels. He also discredited Jewish translations of the Old Testament as a source for Christian arguments that Jesus was the literal Son of God, and asserted that the anthropomorphizing content of existing Jewish versions resulted from poor translation.

The Fatimids who were Ismailis used the Bible not to reach out to Jews or Christians but to affirm the legitimacy of their beliefs. Some Ismaili scholars referred to the Bible in order to refute Twelver Shias and non-Ismaili jurists.

In the 11th century CE a much greater emphasis on the corruption of the Bible took hold, primarily through Ibn Hazm, though views of both the utility and corruption of the Bible continued into the ensuing centuries. However, the renowned Muslim philosopher and physician Ibn Sina, who lived during the time of Ibn Hazm, challenged this view and wrote of the impossibility of the Bible being falsified. In the 14th century CE, textual corruption had become the majority view of Muslims. Some hadiths also allege textual corruption. 

Ibrahim ibn Umar al-Biqa'i was a Muslim Hebraist in the Mamluk period. He allowed the use of the Torah and the Gospel to help explain the Qur’an, and believed that quoting earlier scriptures was permitted in Islamic law. Al-Biqa'i used the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament to clarify certain Qur’anic verses. 

Al-Biqa'i believed that quoting from the previous revelations of God is only permitted in terms of stories and sagas of the past. Al-Biqa'i used biblical passages that he felt agreed with the Qur'an to explain its stories, such as the account of Noah's flood. But he rejected parts he believed conflicted with the Qur'an, like the Torah's version of Abraham's sacrifice.

Intellectual figures who impacted al-Biqa'i's work included al-Haralli and al-Asbahani. Al-Biqa'i also defended the use of quoting the Gospels and the Torah due to the consensus of the Muslim community. He said that the tradition of intertextual quoting between the revelations of God or more specifically quoting the Torah and the Gospel, has become commonplace in the Muslim world. He also revealed that the tradition of quoting has become ijma' sukuti (silent agreement). This was evidenced by the number of commentaries that practiced quotation, including Tafsir al-Kashshaf written by al-Zamakhshari, and Tafsir al-Kabir authored by Fakhr al-Din al-Razi.

Al-Biruni has been called the "greatest Muslim Hebraist" by historian Walter J. Fischel. He believed the Hebrew Bible was mostly clear and reliable, while the Greek Septuagint had more errors. Al‑Biruni spoke of three versions of the Torah: the original Hebrew Torah used by Jews, the Greek Septuagint used by Christians, and the Torah of the Samaritans. In his book Chronology of Ancient Nations, he quoted from books like Exodus, Leviticus, and Deuteronomy, saying they contained God’s commands and words. At the same time, he criticized some Christian readings of the Bible, such as their interpretation of Daniel 9:24–27, and rejected both Jewish and Christian interpretations about messianic prophecies. 

Al-Biruni said that translating the Jewish scriptures from Hebrew into Syriac, such as in the Peshitta, changed the meaning of some words, and he believed these changes were intentional. He noted the differences between the four Gospels and described how Christians tried to explain the different family lines of Jesus in Matthew and Luke. He also mentioned other Gospels used by groups like the Marcionites, Bardesanites, and Manicheans, and said their contradictions made them unreliable. 

Because of these issues, al-Biruni trusted the Torah more than Christian sources, since the Christian texts had gone through more translation. Even so, he believed the existing Gospels still contained real parts of the original Injeel and could be used as historical sources. He quoted and paraphrased Gospel passages, including from Matthew and John, such as the saying attributed to Jesus: "Do not mind the anger of kings when you speak the truth to them. They control only your body, not your soul."

Al-Biruni was as unequivocal in rejecting beliefs unacceptable to Muslims as he was in condemning unfair criticism of other faiths, such as Christianity. Though he criticised the Trinity, he believed that the Torah and the Gospel use the words "father" and "son" in a metaphorical, as well as a literal, sense.

## Modern period
In the 19th century CE, Syed Ahmad Khan wrote a Muslim commentary on the Tawrat and the Injeel called Tabyin al-Kalam. It is seen as the first organized effort at Muslim–Christian dialogue in India. He wrote it after the Indian Rebellion of 1857. The commentary points out shared beliefs and teaches that the Tawrat, the Injeel, and the Qur'an all come from God. It also uses kalam (Islamic rational theology) to discuss and explain perceived contradictions between the Qur'an and earlier scriptures, especially the Book of Genesis and the Gospel of Matthew. Although the work had an important influence on Muslim–Christian relations, its impact was mostly limited to educated and elite groups.

Syed's reformist program included a rationalist, neo-Mu'tazilite understanding of Islamic scripture, questioning much of the corpus of Hadith as either apocryphal or relevant only to prophet Muhammad's day and age, rejecting the validity of *ijma* (consensus), broadening the horizon of *ijtihad* (independent reasoning), and interpreting Biblical scripture from a sympathetic Muslim point of view.

The Zumratul Jamiu Mumin (ZJM) is a society in Nigeria that regards only the Qur'an and the Bible as sacred books of Allah for determining religious matters. To them, the use of Hadith is an aberration. The group, numbering in the thousands, occupies a specific "Islamic City" settlement in the Ogun State.

A similar sect in Nigeria is the Isawa, who reject all established Muslim traditions and instead preach that the Qur'an alone and the Christian scriptures should be the foundations of a Muslim's faith. They are also called "Yan Sap" because they pray Salat by going straight into prostration, and they interpret the Qur'an directly, rejecting classical tafsir and other forms of exegesis. They are often confused with the Kala Kato, a Qur'an-only group that rejects hadith.

In the 21st century CE, many scholars have studied how the Qur'an and the Bible are connected. More Muslim scholars who study the Bible—such as Abdullah Saeed, Jerusha Lamptey, Farid Esack, and Abdulla Galadari—say that the main ideas of Islam can also be found in earlier holy books. Because of this, they accept the Tawrat, the Injeel, the Zabur, and the Scrolls of Abraham as true, important, and still meaningful today.

Galadari suggested a new way to understand the Qur'an. His method looks at intertextual polysemy, which means that one Arabic word can have several related meanings in different places. By studying these meanings, he shows how the Qur'an refers to itself and also to the Bible. For example, his method helps explain how the Qur'anic verses about the Qibla (the direction of prayer) are directly connected to the Shema passages in the Book of Deuteronomy and to later Talmudic commentary.

## Notable individuals
Notable Muslim mufassirun (commentators) or philosophers of the Bible and Qur'an who have weaved biblical texts together with Qur'anic ones:

*Ubayy ibn Ka'b (d. 649 CE), a companion of the Islamic prophet Muhammad
*Ka'b al-Ahbar (d. 652/656 CE), a Yemenite Jew who converted to Islam and lived during the Rashidun Caliphate
*al-Biruni (d. 1052 CE), an Iranic polymath
*Ibrahim ibn Umar al-Biqa'i (d. 1480 CE), a scholar during the Mamluk Sultanate 
*al-Jahiz (d. 868 CE), a polymath and Mu'tazilite theologian who lived during the Abbasid Caliphate
*Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani (d. 1021 CE), an Isma'ili Shia scholar who lived during the Fatimid Caliphate
*Abu al-Jald al-Jauni (d. 718 CE), a Judaeo-Muslim preacher and Shia Akhbari from Basra
*Abu al-Hakam Abd al-Salam bin al-Isbili of al-Andalus (d. 1141 CE)
*Shams al-Din al-Daylami (d. 1197 CE)
*the Brethren of Purity
*Yusuf bin Hilal al-Safadi (d. 1296 CE)
*Ibn Qutaybah (d. 889 CE), a Persian scholar who served as a judge during the Abbasid Caliphate
*Abdülvasi Çelebi (d. 1415 CE), a scholar during the Ottoman Caliphate
*Syed Ahmad Khan (d. 1898 CE), a Muslim modernist and neo-Mu'tazilite from India
*Abdulla Galadari, an Arab scholar who focuses on Qur'anic hermeneutics

## See also 
* Islam
* Hadith rejectors
* Non-denominational Muslim

## External links
* In Defense of the Bible: A Critical Edition and an Introduction to al-Biqa`i’s Bible Treatise

## References