open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Feedback

**Feedback** is a connection, a loop, between the cause and effect of a . 

## Electronic 
Sometimes, output from an electronic source affects future input.  This can form what is called a "feedback loop". In some cases the output reinforces the input, making it stronger; this is called "self-reinforcing", "positive", "runaway" or "amplifying". In other cases, the output blocks or stops some of the input; this is called a negative feedback loop.

### Positive feedback 
Think about a sound system with input from a microphone and output to a loudspeaker. If the sound coming out of the loudspeaker is heard by the microphone, a loop is created, from speaker, to the microphone, through the cord, and back into the speaker.  The loop is made up of sound and the electrical energy that the microphone and loudspeaker use to create that sound.  If nothing stops the sound and electricity in the loop, it will travel faster and faster, which is why feedback starts out as a low hum and turns into a high squeal very quickly

This is an example of a positive feedback loop: the output reinforces the input; it makes the input stronger.

### Negative feedback 
Think about two mirrors that face each other.  The mirrors reflect each other infinitely, or forever, but in each reflection, the image in the mirror is slightly smaller than the image it reflects.  The images get smaller and smaller until they are no longer visible.  This is an example of a negative feedback loop: the output (the reflection) reduces the input; it makes the input smaller.

## The runaway global warming hypothesis 
Warm temperature caused a glacier to melt. As the glacier melts, areas that were at one time covered by snow and ice are now water or land. Because snow and ice reflect heat but water and land absorb heat, this causes the glacier to melt faster as more snow and ice is melted. This type of positive feedback is an example of thermal runaway.

## Cybernetics 
American mathematician Norbert Wiener made feedback loops more well known in 1948 in his book *Cybernetics*. Cybernetics is the study of feedback loops and their role in communication and control.
Talent (measurement)

A **talent** (Latin: *talentum*, from Ancient Greek:  "scale, balance") is an ancient unit of mass. The many cultures that used the word each gave it their own definition, so it has no single meaning. For the Ancient Romans, it was the mass of water that a wine amphora could hold, about 26 liters (7 US gallons), meaning about .

To the Babylonians and Sumerians, a talent weighed about .

At the time of the Ancient Greek poet, Homer, a gold talent was about the value of an ox and weighed . 

Another way to calculate the modern value to a talent of money is compare it with modern military pay. During the Peloponnesian war in Ancient Greece, a talent was the amount of silver needed to pay the entire crew of a trireme for one month. Mercenaries were commonly paid one drachma for every day of service, which was a good salary in those days. 6,000 drachma made a talent.

In Revelation 16:21, the talent is used as a weight for hail being poured forth from heaven and dropping on mankind as punishment in the end times: "And there fell upon men a great hail out of heaven, every stone about the weight of a talent: and men blasphemed God because of the plague of the hail; for the plague thereof was exceeding great." (King James Bible) Various definitions are provided in different translations:
* *New International Version*: a footnote says "Talent: 75 or 100 pounds."
* *New Living Translation*: text reads "weighing as much as seventy-five pounds".
* *English Standard Version*: text reads "about one hundred pounds each".
Cerebrum

of the human brain]]
 rendering of the human brain, viewed from above. The image shows the cerebral hemispheres. The front of the brain is to the right of the image. Created using Blender, based on MRI data (Wellcome Department of Imaging Neuroscience).]]

The **cerebrum** is the largest part of the brain. It is in the front part of the brain. It contains about 15 billion cells, and is the latest brain structure to have evolved.

## Function 
The cerebrum takes in data from sight and other sense organs, and 'makes sense' of it (interprets it). It controls consciousness and action (voluntary muscular activity). It plans, thinks, judges, and organises speech and information. These are the so-called 'higher mental functions'.

## Structure 
The cerebrum is divided into two *cerebral hemispheres*. These two cerebral hemispheres are connected by three bands of nerve fibres, or commissures, which connect the two halves. The outer layers of the cerebrum are made up of the grey matter, and is called the cerebral cortex. The inner layers are made up of the white matter (nerve fibres), and the basal ganglia.

In the cerebrum, there are specific regions for each kind of stimulus and its response. For example, occipital lobe is the region for visual reception, temporal lobe for auditory reception, and parietal lobe for touch, smell, temperature and conscious association. The frontal lobe takes action, based on sensory input and other factors.

## References
Karelia

**Karelia** (Karelian and Finnish: *Karjala*, Finnish pronunciation: [ˈkɑrjɑlɑ]; Russian: Каре́лия, tr. *Karélija*, is an area in Northern Europe.

Most of Karelia belongs to Russia today. Small parts of Karelia belong to Finland. On the Russian side of Karelia is the Republic of Karelia. On the Finnish side are the provinces of North Karelia and South Karelia.

The original people of Karelia are Karelians. Karelian people speak Karelian, a Finnic language very close to Finnish and Estonian. Karelians knew many old poems. Many poems of the Finnish book Kalevala are from the Karelians. Today in the Republic of Karelia, Karelians are a minority and Russians are a majority. Some people fear Karelian culture and language will die out, due to Soviet immigration to destroy the culture.
Kalevala

" (The Aino Story) by Akseli Gallen-Kallela 1891]]
**Kalevala** is the Finnish national epic. This means it is a book that is very important to Finnish people.

Kalevala has many stories and folklores in it. The stories of Kalevala are poems that are very old. Long ago, people sang these poems. The poems have a unique metre that is not known outside Finnic languages. There are many themes in these stories from different times in the past. The oldest themes are from the Stone Age. Many of the poems are collected from Karelia and areas nearby.

Heroes have adventures in these stories. The most important heroes are Väinämöinen, Ilmarinen, Lemminkäinen and Kullervo. The enemies of heroes are Louhi and Joukahainen. Many stories in Kalevala are about two countries fighting each other. These countries are the land of Kalevala and land of Pohjola. The Land of Kalevala is the land of Heroes. Pohjola is the land of enemies. Pohjola is an evil and cold place somewhere far north.

Elias Lönnrot was a man who collected these poems and made a book of them. Kalevala has been translated into many languages. There is also an English Kalevala.

In 2024, Kalevala got a cultural heritage label from the European Commission.

## References
Edred of England

King **Edred** or *Eadred* (c. 923 – November 23 955) was King of England from 946 until his death. He was a son of King Edward the Elder and Edgiva of Kent. He was king after his brother, King Edmund I. Like both his older brothers, Edred was successful against the Vikings. Edred was a very religious man, but had very poor health (he could barely eat his food). He died on November 23 955, in Frome, Somerset, and was buried in the Old Minster at Winchester. His nephew, King Edwy, became king after him.

## Family tree
Plant pathology

**Plant pathology**, or **phytopathology**, is the study of plant diseases. Like animals, plants can get infected and damaged by viruses, bacteria and fungi.

It includes not only the harm done by pathogens (infectious organisms), but also harm done by environmental conditions.

Organisms which cause infectious disease include fungi, oomycetes, bacteria, plant viruses, viroids, virus-like organisms, phytoplasmas, protozoa, nematodes and parasitic plants.

Not included are ectoparasites like insects, mites, vertebrate, or other pests that affect plant health by eating plant tissues. Plant pathology involves the study of pathogen identification, disease cycles, economic impact, plant disease epidemiology, plant disease resistance, how plant diseases affect humans and animals, and how to manage plant diseases.

Plant pathology is of fundamental importance to agriculture.

## References
Chytridiomycota

**Chytridiomycota** is a phylum of the Fungi kingdom. The name comes from **chytridium** (from the Greek *chytridion*, meaning "little pot"): the structure containing unreleased spores.

The chytrids are the most primitive of the fungi. Many chytrids are found in fresh water. There are approximately 1,000 chytrid species, in 127 genera, distributed among 5 orders.

Chytrids get their energy mostly from non-living organic matter.

Both zoospores and gametes of the chytrids are mobile by their flagella, one whiplash per individual.

Some chytrid species are known to kill amphibians in large numbers. The actual process, however, is unknown.
## References
## Other websites 
* Chytrid Fungi Online : by the University of Alabama
* Impact of chytrid fungus on frogs (Foundation for National Parks & Wildlife) 
* 'Amphibian Ark' aims to save frogs from fungus. . Unresponsive 2022.
* The Aquarium Wiki on Chytrid Fungus  and how it impacts amphibians kept as domestic pets.
Phosphate

A **phosphate** is a salt of phosphoric acid. Phosphates are important in biochemistry.
Phosphates have the formula PO43- and a molar mass of 94.973 g/mol. An example of a phosphate is sodium phosphate. Three different types of phosphates are known.  They are orthophosphate, PO43-; metaphosphate, PO32-; and pyrophosphate, P2O73-. They have a combining power of 3.

## Structure 
Phosphates are made of one phosphorus atom surrounded by four oxygen atoms. 
Many phosphates do not dissolve in water.

## Sources
Saprophyte

A **saprophyte** or **saprotroph** is an organism which gets its energy from dead and decaying organic matter. This may be decaying pieces of plants or animals. This means that saprophytes are heterotrophs. They are consumers in the food chain. 

This is the typical life-style of fungi. Some fungi are parasites on living organisms, but most are saprophytes. Many bacteria and protozoa are also saprophytes. Most dead organic matter is eventually broken down and used by bacteria and fungi. Slime moulds are also saprophytes, as well as consuming bacteria. Examples of saprophytes are cheese mold, and yeast. The term "saprophyte" refers specifically to fungal and bacterial saprotrophs; animal saprotrophs are known as saprozoites.

Other terms, such as 'saprotroph' or 'saprobe' may be used instead of saprophyte. Strictly speaking, -phyte means 'plant'. The problem is that no embryophytes (land plants) are true saprotrophs, and bacteria and fungi are no longer considered plants. Nevertheless, saprophyte is such a well-known term that most writers continue to use it. This processes was evolutionized by professionals therefore with more case study we will be able to know more.

## Myco-heterotrophy 
A heterotroph is a general term for an organism that needs organic material to get its carbon for growth and development. Many plants which lack chlorophyll need fungi to break down organic material for them. Traditionally, they were called saprophytes. Now the process is given a new name: myco-heterotrophy.
Mycelium

square]]

The **mycelium** is the part of a fungus that is usually underground (or inside some another substance). It is composed of **hyphae**, which look like threads, or rootlets. The mat of hyphae may be very thickly woven. The fungus uses it to extract nutritients. The hyphae are usually syncytic, that is, they do not have complete cell walls. Fungal colonies composed of mycelium are found in and on soil and many other natural materials.  

A mycelium may be tiny, forming a colony that is too small to see, or it may be extremely large and cover the floors of a large forest.

The part of the fungus which is most visible is the reproductive body. This is often, but not always, the stem and hat of the mushroom.
Lviv

**Lviv** () is the capital city of Lviv Oblast in Ukraine. 860,000 people live in Lviv. 88% of the people living there are Ukrainian, 8% are Russian, and 1% are Polish. An extra 200,000 people commute to Lviv every day for work.

During the city's history, it was ruled by many countries. When part of Poland it was called **Lwów** (pronounced and sometimes spelled *Lvov*). In German, it was known as **Lemberg**, that was part of the Austrian and Austro-Hungarian Empires and again under Nazi German occupation. From 1350 until 1772 it belonged to the Kingdom of Poland and from 1918 to 1939 to the Republic of Poland.

The mayor is Andriy Sadovyi (as of 2024). 
## Pogrom 
On 30 June 1941, the Wehrmacht German officers occupied Lviv, Ukraine. The German name for Lviv is Lemberg. Persecution of Jews began almost immediately, within just hours of the occupation, but ultimately a month later, a full-blown pogrom took place in Lviv. About 3000 to 7000 Jews were forced out of their homes, forced to do all sorts of forced labor, and were treated with great violence and also were humiliated and mocked greatly for the German officers' amusement and entertainment, in various forms. They were then sent in groups to newly-built Lwów Ghetto, and were forced to live in barracks, and used for forced labor, and then just mostly shot and killed there, in dug-up pits.

## References 
## Other websites
Ghost light

**Ghost lights** are lights in the air that are not well understood by scientists. There are few reports of ghost light sightings. Ghost lights can be close to ground or in the sky. Ghost lights close to ground are commonly called "will o' the wisp" while ghost lights in the sky are often called UFOs. There are very different kinds of ghost lights: some resemble balls of light, others look like flame, and some look like a bright cloud. Many ghost lights move.

Different cultures have understood ghost lights differently. People believed that they are dragons, spirits or ghosts. Today some believe they are spaceships. There are many theories about what ghost lights are. Some people say they are methane gas that comes from ground and burns in the air. Others say they are electric things like ball lightning. The fact that some animals and fungus glows may explain some ghost lights.

## Examples
### Australia 
* Min Min lights

### Finland 
* Paasselkä devil

### Norway 
* Hessdalen light

### Canada 
* Baie Chaleur Fireship
* St. Louis Light

### Sweden 
* Martebo lights

### Thailand 
* Mekong lights (Nekha lights)

### Italy 
* Fuoco Fatuo

### United States 
#### Arkansas 
* Crossett Light
* Gurdon Light

#### North Carolina 
* Brown Mountain Lights
* Maco Light

#### Georgia 
* Surrency Spooklight

#### Indiana 
* Moody's Light

#### Michigan (Upper Peninsula) 
* The Paulding Light

#### Missouri 
* Ozark Spooklight

#### Oklahoma 
* Spooklight (same as Hornet Ghost Light, at the Oklahoma–Missouri line)

#### Texas 
* Bragg Road Ghost Light (Light of Saratoga)
* Marfa Lights

#### Utah 
* Skinwalker Ranch

#### Virginia 
* Cohoke Light
Will o' the wisp

A '''will-o'-the-wisp** or ***ignis fatuus*''' (Medieval Latin: "foolish fire") is a ghostly light.  It is seen by travellers at night, especially over bogs, swamps or marshes. 

Usually will o' the wisp looks like a ball of light or a small flame. UFOs and some ghost lights are different, they are usually in the sky while will o' the wisps are near ground.

It looks like a flickering lamp and is said to go farther back if approached.  This draws travellers from the safe paths. This is a folk belief in a lot of English folklore and in much of European folklore.  They are often said to be the work of fairies or elemental spirits.  Some people think will o' the wisps are souls, spirits or spaceships.

Scientists try to use a natural explanation. Some say they are a gas, like methane, that goes up from the ground and burns. Other people say they are electric things, like ball lightning. One flying ball of light was explained: it was an owl that had a bright stomach. Sometimes animals or fungus make some light - this is called bioluminescence by scientists or foxfire. Sometimes diphosphine (P2H4) is also produced over marshes, which are highly flammable. Therefore, it burns in air and causes a flickering glow.

There are many old and new stories about will o' the wisps around the world. These lights have different names in different cultures and languages. Some of the names are ''jack-o'-lantern*, *hinkypunk*, *hobby lantern'' in English.

## Reported light locations
### Europe
* Ferbane in Ireland
* Hessdalen light in Norway
* Martebo lights in Sweden
* Paasselkä devil in Finland
* Virvatuluke in Estonia
* Dwaallichtjes in the Low Countries
* Corpse Candles in Wales 

### North America
;Canada
* Fireship of Baie des Chaleurs in New Brunswick
* St. Louis Light in Saskatchewan

;United States
* Arbyrd/Senath Light of Missouri
* Bragg Road ghost light (Light of Saratoga) of Texas
* Brown Mountain Lights of North Carolina
* Gurdon light of Arkansas
* Hornet ghost light or Spooklight of Missouri-Oklahoma state line
* Maco light of North Carolina
* Marfa lights of Texas
* Oviedo Lights of Florida
* The Paulding Light of Michigan's Upper Peninsula
* Skinwalker Ranch lights of Utah

## Related pages
* Omphalotus olearius

## References
Roman Giertych

**Roman Jacek Giertych** (born February 27, 1971 in Śrem) is a former Minister of Education in Poland.

## Biography 
Roman Giertych comes from a family of Polish politicians, being a son of Maciej Giertych and a grandson of Jędrzej Giertych.

His brother (holding a Ph.D. himself) said he was a young bookworm who made dozens of books, especially on history. He improved in history throughout his school years while his grades in other subjects remained normal.

He graduated from Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań with a master's degrees in both law and history. In 1989, he reactivated the far-right "All-Polish Youth" (Młodzież Wszechpolska) organization, becoming its chairman; he remains honorary chairman to this day. For several years he was a member of the National-Democratic Party (Stronnictwo Narodowo-Demokratyczne) and the National Party (Stronnictwo Narodowe), which went with several other organizations to form the League of Polish Families (Liga Polskich Rodzin, LPR) in 2001.

## Other websites 
*Roman Giertych - sejm page  (in Polish)
*The page of opponents Giertych (Polish)
Groove

**Groove** could mean:
* Groove (engineering), a slot cut into hard material
* Groove (joinery), a slot cut parallel to the grain
* Groove (music)
* *Groove* (film)
* Microsoft Office Groove
* Groove metal, a subgenre of heavy metal music
* The Groove, a US radio station.
* The Groove (band), an Australian rock/pop band of the 1960s.

## Related pages
* Groovy
Sheave (mechanical)

A **sheave** (pronounced "sheev" or "shiv") is a wheel or roller with a groove along its edge for holding a belt, rope or cable.  When hung between two supports with a belt, rope or cable, one or more sheaves make up a pulley.  The words *sheave* and *pulley* are sometimes used interchangeably.
Smoothie

**Smoothies** are a type of cold drink made from a liquid (either milk, fruit juice, or water), crushed ice or ice cubes, different fruits (such as banana, strawberries, or pineapple). Sometimes other foods are added to smoothies, such as yogurt, honey, maple syrup or ice cream. Smoothies are blended with an electric blender until the fruit and ice is puréed (made smooth). 

People usually drink smoothies from a tall glass or cup, and use a plastic drinking straw to suck it into their mouth. Some dieticians think that drinking smoothies is not as good as eating the original fruit, because the smoothie has less fibre, and does not provide exercise for the jaw and other digestive processes which eating the fruit would give.

Smoothies are similar to milk shakes. Milk shakes are also a cold drink made with an electric blender. Milk shakes are usually made with milk, ice cream, and sweet syrups, such as chocolate syrup.

## Related pages
* Milk shake
Unidentified flying object

, USA]]

An **unidentified flying object** (or **UFO**) is an object in the sky which cannot be identified.

## Identified flying objects (IFOs) 
Studies estimate that 50-90% of all reported UFO sightings are identified later. Most are natural or man-made objects that looked strange. 80-90% of UFOs are identified as one of three things: 
# astronomical causes (for example: planets, stars, or meteors)
# aircraft
# balloons (including weather balloons)

## New term 
Since the 2020s, people have come up with the following terminology:
*Unidentified Aerial Phenomena
*Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena
Therefore, it is common to hear "UFO" and "UAP" while listening to people talk about this topic.

## References
## Other websites 
* Wikinews - UFO Archive
* CIA educational summary on UFO  (working link or what? Maybe it should be used this link  instead?)
* NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts
* BBC article on Mexican Air-force videotape
* NASA UFO Hacker Video Interview 
* Popularmechanics Article - When UFOs Arrive: February 2004 Cover Story 
* Allan Hendry, *The UFO Handbook: A Guide to Investigating, Evaluating, and Reporting UFO Sightings*, 1979, Doubleday & Co.,
U.S. postal abbreviations

This is a **list of postal code abbreviations used by the United States Postal Service**. They are used to help the postal service process mail.  In other contexts, such as newspaper articles, the traditional abbreviations for the states are used. 

## States 
In alphabetical order by postal abbreviation (not by state):

|}

## Other codes 
### Federal districts 
### Territories 
### Freely associated states 
### Armed Forces 
### Codes that are no longer used
## References
Second War of Scottish Independence

The **Second War of Scottish Independence** began in 1333, when Edward III of England no longer accepted the 1328 Treaty of Northampton under which the Kingdom of England recognised the legitimacy of the dynasty of the Kingdom of Scotland that was established by Robert Bruce. Edward was determined to support the claim of Edward Balliol, the son of the former king, John Balliol, over David II, Bruce's son and heir. Edward had ruled in Scotland for a short time in the autumn of 1332, but was thrown out of the country later in the year. The war itself lasted until 1357, when David II was released from English captivity. English involvement in Scotland was also one of the factors that led to the outbreak of the Hundred Years' War with France in 1337.

## Related pages
*Wars of Scottish Independence
*First War of Scottish Independence

## Sources
### Primary sources 
* *Anonimalle Chronicle, 1333-81*, ed. V. H. Galbraith, 1927.
* Bower, Walter, *Scotichronicon,* ed. D. E. R. Watt, 1987-96.
* *Brut, or the Chronicles of England*, ed. F. W. D. Brie, 1906.
* Capgrave, John, *The Book of the Illustrious Henries*, ed. F. Hingeston, 1858.
* C*alendar of Documents Relating to Scotland*, ed. J. Bain, 1857.
* Fordun, John, *Chronicles of the Scottish Nation*, ed. W. F. Skene, 1872.
* Gray, Thomas, *Scalicronica*, ed. H. Maxwell, 1913.
* *The Lanercost Chronicle*, ed. H. Maxwell, 1913.
* Wyntoun, Andrew, *The Original Chronicle of Scotland*, ed. F. J. Amours, 1907.

### Secondary sources 
* Balfour-Melville, E. W. M, *Edward III and David II*, 1954.
* Campbell, T., *England, Scotland and the Hundred Years War*, in *Europe in the Late Middle Ages,* ed. J. Hale *et al.*, 1970.
* Duncan, A. A. M., *Honi soit qui mal y pense: David II and Edward III*, in the Scottish Historical Review, vol. 67, 1988.
* Nicholson, R., *Edward III and the Scots*, 1965.
* Nicholson, R., *Scotland: the Later Middle Ages*, 1974.
* Brown, C.K., "The Second Scottish War of Independence", 2001
* Paterson, R. C., *Edward Balliol*, in Military History, April 2003.
* Reid, R. C., *Edward de Balliol*, in *Transactions of the Dumfriesshire and Galloway Antiquarian and Natural History Society*, vol. 35 1956-7.
Booing

**Booing** means shouting "BOO!" several times. When people do this, it means that they do not like it. It is the opposite of applause (clapping to show that the performance was good).

If people shout "boo" after a performance (for example, a concert, play or opera) they are showing that they did not like it. 

Booing and hissing used to be very common, especially at the opera. In the early days of opera (from the 17th to the early 19th century) opera audiences often behaved badly. They went to the opera to chat with their friends, but booing has recently become less common in Western culture except at sports events because people think it is rude.

## Related pages
*Applause
*Claque
Applause

**Applause** is the sound made by an audience who are clapping their hands (**applauding**) to thank someone for a performance.  People at a concert usually applaud when the performers come onto the stage.  This is a way of welcoming them.  At the end of a performance people applaud again to thank the performers.

People may applaud after someone makes a speech or at a sporting match.  They will applaud after a play in the theatre or at the end of an opera.  The length of applause (how long they applaud for) may depend on how much they liked the performance.  If they liked it very much they may also shout "BRAVO!".  When an audience applauds with really wild excitement it is called an "ovation".  Very occasionally (in English-speaking cultures) an audience might all stand up as well.  This is called a "standing ovation".

## Related pages
*Booing
*Bowing
*Claque
*Encore

## References
Kyle Busch

**Kyle Thomas Busch** (born May 2, 1985) is a NASCAR race car driver. Busch races in the NASCAR Cup Series, Xfinity Series and the Craftsman Truck Series. Kyle's brother, Kurt Busch  used to race in the NASCAR Cup series.

Busch won his 100th NASCAR race on July 17, 2011. He is only the third driver in NASCAR history to do this. The other two drivers are Richard Petty with 200 wins, and David Pearson with 106 wins. With over 50 wins in the Nationwide series, Busch has more wins than any other driver in that series. At the end of the 2015 Sprint Cup Series, Kyle Busch won his first Sprint Cup Series Championship.

As of December 9th 2019 he is the WWE 24/7 Champion after pinning R-Truth.

## References
498a

**Section 498-A** is a section under the Indian Penal Code, 1860, which was brought in 1983 to stop cruelty towards married women because of dowry. This often led to their deaths. It makes it a crime to be cruel to your wife or to your relative's wife. The law explains that "cruelty" means anything that is done on purpose, and either causes harm to the woman or makes the woman want to kill herself. It also makes the laws against dowry or payment made by the bride's family to the husband's family stronger. It makes it a crime to harass a woman to try to make her family pay a dowry.

If someone breaks this law he can be put in prison for up to 3 years with fine.

The law is criticized. The critics of the law say it allows a woman to ask the police to arrest her husband without any evidence or investigation, and that women have abused the law in domestic disputes. Others say it gives important support to women who are vulnerable from abusive husbands. The Supreme Court of India expressed its concerns over the misuse of section 498-A and termed it "***Legal Terrorism***".

These are the some relevant judgements:

# SC on 498a - preeti gupta vs state of Jharkhand
# SC on 498a - Ruchi Agrawal vs. Amit kumar Agrawal 
# SC on 498a - Geeta Malhotra vs. State of UP
# SC on 498a - Ramesh vs. State of Tamilnadu
# SC on 498a - BS Joshi vs. State of Hariyana

## References
Caesar cipher

.]]

In cryptography, a **Caesar cipher** is an ancient form of substitution cipher. It is named in the honor of the Roman emperor, Julius Caesar.

## Method 
To encrypt a message with a Caesar cipher, each letter in the message is changed using a simple rule: shift by three. Each letter is replaced by the letter three letters later in the alphabet. A becomes D, B becomes E, and so on. For the last letters, we can think of the alphabet as a circle and "wrap around". W becomes Z, X becomes A, Y becomes B, and Z becomes C. To change a message back, each letter is replaced by the one three before it.

## Weakness 
However, it is very easy to break a Caesar cipher, even if you change the "key number" to a different number. Using a more modern form of encryption would be better.

Changing by three is the rule that the well known Julius Caesar used, but the same idea works for any number. ROT13 can be seen as a modern version of the Caesar cipher, with the same weaknesses.

The Caesar cipher is a *substitution cipher*: each letter is replaced by another. No substitution cipher is safe for sensitive information.

## References
Crop rotation

**Crop rotation ** is a practice used in farming. It involves the planting of different seeds on the same land in different years or seasons, using a set pattern of two, three, or sometimes four different crops. This technique helps replace the nutrients in the soil for the plants. It also reduces plant-specific pests on the land.

## References
Social engineering (security)

**Social engineering** is a type of confidence trick to influence people with the goal to illegally obtain sensitive data (i.e. passwords, credit card information). Social engineers observe the personal environment of their victims and use fake identities to gain secret information or free services. In most cases, social engineering is used to infiltrate third party computer systems to spy on sensitive data.

## Development 
### The beginning 
An early way of social engineering first occurred in the 1980s and was named phreaking. Phreakers called phone companies and claimed to be system administrators and asked for passwords which they used to connect illegally and free of charge to the Internet.
### Nowadays 
A more modern form of social engineering is called phishing (derived from “fishing”), which is an attempt to get access to Internet user's data via faked WWW-addresses. The most common way of phishing is fraud mailing (also known as scam mailing), where the victim is being sent a fake e-mail i.e. of a bank. In most scam mails, the letter includes a link that is redirecting to a fake website which is logging the login ID and the appropriate password of the victim. The hackers are often using DNS-spoofing to fake the sender's e-mail address.

## Main model 
### How it works 
The main model of social engineering shows up with faked phone calls: the social engineer calls employees of a company and impersonates a technician who needs sensitive data to complete important technical operations. In advance the attacker has gathered information about work routines of the target company from public sources or former raid attempts, that gives him advantage in further social engineering trials.
The invader tries to confuse his victims and to seem trustful, using trade language and involving the victims in small talk. Further the assaulter pretends authority to frighten his victims. Under circumstances the employee actually requested technical support and is expecting such a phone call.

### Protection 
The prevention of social engineering is difficult. By influencing the victim subconsciously, the invader abuses typical human behavior like helpfulness in emergency situations or to respond with help to the seemingly helpful attacker.
General mistrust would disturb the efficient and trustful team work of an organization. The most effective way to avoid social engineering is to assure the identity of the caller. This can already be done by asking for the caller's name and phone number and to politely ask for patience, even if the caller's issue seems to be very urgent. Even if one could verify the caller's identity, one should only hand out the absolutely necessary information.

## Famous social engineers 
Social engineering became generally known through people such as Kevin Mitnick, who became one of the most wanted persons in the United States because of successfully invading government systems such as the Pentagon and the NSA. Further well known social engineers are the check scammer Frank Abagnale.

## References 
* *DATA PROTECTION ESSENTIALS*  Knowledge about SE, Information about Kevin Mitnick
Changeling

In stories (folklore), a **changeling** is the child of a troll, elf, or fairy that has been left in the place of a human child. The stolen human child then lives with the troll family. A changeling is like a human baby but ugly, always hungry, and with a bad temper. Sometimes the changelings are much wiser than a human baby would be. 

It is thought that changeling stories came from actual events. A family who had a handicapped or sick child may have traded their sick child for a healthier, better-looking child.

Folklore says that it might be possible for parents to figure out that their child has been replaced with a changeling. If they discovered the changeling quickly enough, they could get their human child back. One way to get the child back was to put the changeling in an oven. Another way was to put the changeling in a forest so that the troll could take its child back. Sometimes children died in the oven or forest.
Bomb

A **bomb** is an explosive object that makes and lets out its energy very quickly. This detonation makes a big shock wave. Bombs have been used for centuries. Some bombs also throw out dangerous metal fragments, and some are firebombs. 

Most bombs do not contain more energy than ordinary fuel, except in the case of a nuclear weapon. However, they release their energy more quickly, thus are more powerful.

A bomb is usually some kind of container filled with explosive material that is designed to destroy things.  The word bomb comes from the Greek word *βόμβος* (bombas), an  term with almost the same meaning as "boom" in English.

Air forces send bombers to destroy enemy . Terrorists use bombs in suicide attacks. Explosive materials used in mining work the same way, but are usually not called bombs.

## Related pages
* Explosion protection
* Nuclear weapon
Dieter Bohlen

**Dieter Gunther Bohlen** is a German musician, born on 7 February 1954. He was born in Berne, Lower Saxony. He was a member of Modern Talking, but now appears in the TV programme "Germany Searches for a Superstar" , which is the German version of Pop Idol and American Idol.

## Other websites 
*
A Hard Day's Night

***A Hard Day’s Night*** was a 1964 album by The Beatles, released on 10 July of that year. It was the soundtrack to the movie of the same name, starring the Beatles and directed by Richard Lester. It was their third album. It is said that the title was accidentally said by Ringo Starr during the filming of the movie.

The movie was made because United Artists, a movie company, wanted to sell a soundtrack album. Many movies that included rock and roll were not good movies. The Beatles did not want to star in a movie unless it was well made, with a good plot. United Artists agreed, and a playwright, Alun Owen, was hired.

Alun Owen travelled with the Beatles on a concert tour. He was to write a fictional story at first, based on how the band ed with other people, but Owen decided the best story to tell was real, based on what he saw. The "grandfather" character (played by Wilfrid Brambell) was added to appeal to older viewers. Brambell was a popular television actor, who starred in *Steptoe and Son* (a forerunner of *Sanford and Son*) as a "dirty old" junk dealer.

Even with a script, the Beatles improvised (made up) some of their own  in the movie. They also acted out ideas from the director, Richard Lester.

## Movie overview 
In the movie's storyline, the Beatles go to London to perform in a television program. Paul's family send along his grandfather, so he and Paul can keep each other company. The grandfather is a "mixer", and likes to cause trouble between people. (He is also noticed often as being "very clean"; a play on Brambell's "dirty" television role.)

The Beatles enjoy breaking rules and expectations, and playing jokes. Their manager Norm and road  "Shake" try to make things run smoothly, but have a busy time keeping up with both the Beatles and Paul's grandfather, and making sure the television show goes as planned. (Norm and Shake were based loosely on road managers Neil Aspinall and Mal Evans.)

## Songs on the album 
This is the only Beatles album on which all songs are by John Lennon and Paul McCartney, and their first to only have only songs written by the Beatles.

# A Hard Day’s Night
# I Should Have Known Better
# If I Fell
# I’m Happy Just To Dance With You
# And I Love Her
# Tell Me Why
# Can’t Buy Me Love
# Any Time At All
# I’ll Cry Instead
# Things We Said Today
# When I Get Home
# You Can't Do That
# I'll Be Back

The first seven songs were used in the movie.
SWOT Analysis

**SWOT Analysis** is a tool to find out the **S**trengths, **W**eaknesses, **O**pportunities, and **T**hreats that are to be expected in a project or in a business venture or in something similar. It means that the situation (internal and external to the organization or individual) is looked at. It is one of the best tools to conduct the internal and external analysis for any company.

## Internal and external factors 
Internal factors may include employment, finance, manufacturing opportunities, and all of the marketing mix's 4Ps.

External factors include macroeconomics, technological change, legislation, and sociocultural changes, as well as changes in the marketplace.

## Use 
SWOT analysis can be used in any decision-making situation. SWOT analysis can be used:

* to build organizational or personal strategy;
* for matching and converting;
* allow organizations to achieve their goals;
* as a basis for the analysis of business and environmental factors;
* in marketing — analyzing competitors.

## In community organizations 
The SWOT analysis has been used in community work as a tool to identify positive and negative factors within organizations.

Although SWOT analysis is a part of the planning, it will not provide a strategic plan if used by itself, but a SWOT list can becomes a series of recommendations.

**Strengths and weaknesses** (*internal factors within an organization*):

*Human resources — staff, volunteers, board members, target population;
*Physical resources — your location, building, equipment;
*Financial — grants, funding agencies, other sources of income;
*Activities and processes — programs you run, systems you employ;
*Past experiences — building blocks for learning and success, your reputation in the community.

**Opportunities and threats** (*external factors from community or societal forces*):

*Future trends in your field or the culture;
*The economy — local, national, or international;
*Funding sources — foundations, donors, legislatures;
*Demographics — changes in the age, race, gender, culture of those you serve or in your area;
*The physical environment — is your building in a growing part of town? Is the bus company cutting routes?;
*Legislation — do new federal requirements make your job harder...or easier?;
*Local, national, or international events.

## References
Phototroph

**Phototrophs** (*photo* = light, *troph* = nutrition) or **photoautotrophs** are organisms which carry out photosynthesis. 

With their plastids and the help of energy from sunlight, carbon dioxide and water are converted into sugar by photosynthesis. Sugar is then converted into other organic molecules which can be used in cellular functions. Such a function might be, for example, respiration.
Scottsdale

The place name **Scottsdale** can refer to:

*Scottsdale, Tasmania, in Australia
*Scottsdale, Arizona, in the United States
Central Time Zone

The **Central Time Zone** subtracts six hours from UTC during standard time (UTC−6) and five hours during daylight saving time (UTC−5).

This time zone is called **Central Standard Time** (CST) during standard time (Winter). It is called **Central Daylight Time** (CDT) during daylight saving time (Summer). In the United States and Canada, this time zone is often just called **Central Time** (CT).

The zone is one hour ahead of the Mountain Time Zone and one hour behind the Eastern Time Zone.

The largest city in the Central Time Zone is Mexico City. In the United States, the largest city is Chicago, and the largest metropolitan area is the Chicago metropolitan area.

## Places that are in Central Time Zone 
### Canada 
In Canada, this time zone includes all of Manitoba, nearly all of Saskatchewan, a little part of western Ontario, and part of Nunavut (most of the Kivalliq Region and part of the Qikiqtaaluk Region).

### United States 
In the United States, the time zone includes the entire area of the states of 
Alabama, 
Arkansas, 
Illinois, 
Iowa, 
Louisiana, 
Minnesota, 
Missouri, 
Mississippi, 
Oklahoma, and 
Wisconsin.

It also includes parts of Florida, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Michigan, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota, Tennessee, and Texas.

### Mexico 
Most of Mexico belongs to the Central Time Zone. The six northwestern states are not part of the time zone.

### Central America, South America, Oceania 
Central Time Zone includes the Central American countries of Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua and Costa Rica. In South America, this zone includes the Ecuadorian province of Galápagos. In Oceania, the Chilean Easter Island also belongs to this time zone.

## Central Daylight Time 
Daylight saving time occurs from the second Sunday of March to the first Sunday of November. During daylight saving, Central Time Zone is only 5 hours behind Coordinated Universal Time (UTC−5). Most of the locations in Central Time Zone observe daylight saving time. A few places do not. These include Saskatchewan, Central America and Galápagos. They stay on standard time all year.

## Other websites
Salerno

**Salerno** is a southern Italian city. It has a port. It faces the Mediterranean Sea. It is capital of the province of Salerno.

File:Salerno looking S from hill.jpg|View of Salerno
File:Salerno-PanoramaMazzoDellaSignora.jpg|View of Salerno
Opera house

opera house in Buenos Aires]]
 opera house in Venice]]

An **opera house** is a building where operas and ballets are performed. It is similar to a theatre.

The first opera houses were built in the 1630s in Italy, about thirty years after the first operas were written. Traditionally they have a stage where the action takes place and a proscenium archway with a curtain that can be drawn back when the performance begins. In front of the stage is an orchestra pit which is a little lower than the stage so that the audience can still see the stage. The audience sit in the auditorium which is often horse-shoe shaped. The downstairs seats are called “stalls”. Round the stalls there are two or three tiers (storeys) of boxes. Each box can seat a small number of people. At the top towards the back there is a balcony and often a gallery along the sides as well. Some seats in the gallery may have restricted view (it is not possible to see all of the stage).

Some of the most famous opera houses in the world are Teatro alla Scala (or “La Scala”) in Milan, the Royal Opera House in Covent Garden, London, the Metropolitan Opera House in New York, the War Memorial Opera house in San Francisco, the Bolshoi Theatre in Moscow and the Sydney Opera House in Sydney which is a very modern building.

## Other websites
Kullervo

: Kullervos curse]]
**Kullervo** is a person in the Finnish national epic Kalevala. He is a good looking man with golden hair. Bad things happen to him; his destiny is tragic.

In folk stories Kullervo is the son of the giant Kaleva. In the Kalevala however Kullervo is the son of a man called Kalervo.

In the Kalevala Kullervo's family is killed by Untamo's family before Kullervo is born. Only one woman is not killed. She gives birth to Kullervo who will be a slave of Untamo. Every work that Kullervo tries goes ill. This is why Untamo sells him to a smith called Ilmarinen.

Ilmarinen puts Kullervo to shepherd cows. Ilmarinen's wife gives Kullervo bread that has stones in it. While Kullervo cuts the bread his knife hits the stone and breaks. Kullervo gets angry and curses bears to eat cows and Ilmarinen's wife. Then he escapes.

While travelling Kullervo has sex with a girl. He does not know that this is his own sister. When he finds out he goes very angry and attacks Untamo and kills him and his family. Then he commits suicide.

The story of Kullervo differs from all other folktales in the respect that it describes the effects of child abuse in a very realistic way, and in the end of the poem Väinämöinen especially warns all parents from abusing their children.
Compton scattering

In physics, **Compton scattering**, or the **Compton effect**, is the name used for what happens to the energy (or frequency or wavelength) of an X-ray or gamma ray photon when it interacts with matter; the wavelength increases (or energy/frequency decreases) as it scatters off electrons. This scattering is one of the main things that happen when gamma rays meet matter. The Compton effect was studied by Arthur Holly Compton in 1923.

## References