open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Spin (physics)

In physics, **spin** is the constant rotation of an object. 

For large visible objects like the Earth, spin is the angular momentum of the turning of the Earth around its axis. This tells the amount of rotation that it has. Angular momentum changes with the mass and shape of the object, and with how fast it is turning.

## Spin in quantum theory 
Experiments such as the Stern-Gerlach experiment have shown that sub-atomic particles, such as electrons, seem to have a north pole and a south pole much like magnets do. Scientists once thought that this was caused by the particle spinning on its axis like a planet.

Later, it was shown that the electron would have to be spinning faster than the speed of light to do this. This is why scientists no longer believe that the electron is actually spinning like a planet. Scientists do, however, continue to refer to the magnetic properties of particles as "spin".

Spin, whatever it is, seems to follow some of the laws of angular momentum, but not all of them. A "spinning" electron (or any other sub-atomic particle with spin) can only have certain values of angular momentum. Electrons can also align themselves against a magnetic field in ways that would be impossible in the everyday world.

Spin is considered a fundamental property of any particle.  

## Related pages
*Dirac equation
*Spintronics
Bendigo, Victoria

**Bendigo** is a city in central Victoria, Australia. There are about 86,000 people in Bendigo. It is the fourth biggest city in Victoria after Melbourne, Geelong and Ballarat. The city area is  and has the towns Bendigo, Marong, Lockwood, Lockwood South, Ravenswood, Sebastian, Elmore, Heathcote, Maiden Gully, Lake Eppalock, Axedale, Goornong, Raywood and Huntly, all together, there are 100,000 people living there.

## Strathfieldsaye 
Strathfieldsaye is a small suburb in Bendigo.  It takes its name from Stratfield Saye House, which was awarded to the Duke of Wellington after his defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo. In the 2011 census, Strathfieldsaye had a population of 4,648. 

## References
Heimdall

]]
**Heimdall** (or **Heimdallr**) is one of the gods in Northern mythology. He is the guardian of the Bifröst Bridge. He was the son of nine different mothers and was called the *White God*. 

Heimdall is the guardian of the gods. He will blow a horn, called the *Gjallarhorn*, if Asgard is in danger. His senses are so good that he can hear the grass grow and he can see to the end of the world. Heimdall could hear a leaf fall. He does not need any sleep at all. 

Heimdall was said to be the last of the gods to die at Ragnarok when he and Loki would kill one another.
Tantalum

**Tantalum** is a chemical element. Tantalum was named **tantalium**. It has the chemical symbol **Ta**. It has the atomic number 73. It is a  metal. It is hard and blue-gray. In chemistry it is placed in a group of metal elements named the transition metals.

Tantalum does not easily corrode. It is found in the mineral tantalite.

## Sources
Hafnium

]]
**Hafnium** is a chemical element. It has the chemical symbol **Hf**. It has the atomic number 72. It is a metal. It is silver gray. In chemistry it is placed in a group of metal elements named the transition metals. The chemistry of hafnium is similar to zirconium.

Hafnium is found in zirconium minerals. Separating hafnium from zirconium is important for their use in nuclear power plants. The two metals are very similar, so it is difficult to separate them.

Hafnium is used in tungsten alloys in filaments and electrodes. It is also used as a neutron absorber in control rods in nuclear power plants.

## Related pages
* Periodic table
* List of common elements

## References
Lutetium

**Lutetium** is a chemical element. It has the chemical symbol **Lu**. It has the atomic number 71. It is a metal and a rare earth element. It is silver white. In chemistry it is placed in a group of metal elements named the transition metals. Lutetium can also be grouped with the lanthanides because it is near the lanthanides in the Periodic Table. Its physical properties are like the lanthanides.

## Related pages
* Periodic table
* List of common elements
Anaheim Ducks

The **Anaheim Ducks** are an ice hockey team from Anaheim, California. They are in the National Hockey League (NHL). The Ducks changed the name on June 22, 2006. They used to be the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim. The name comes from the Disney movie *The Mighty Ducks*.

## History
The team was created in 1991 and started playing in the 1993 season. The Ducks were originally owned by The Walt Disney Company. In 2005, Disney sold the Ducks to Susan and Henry Samueli

They are in the Western Conference's Pacific Division. They play their home games at Honda Center, in Anaheim, California. Their team colors are black, gold, and orange. Dallas Eakins is the team's head coach. Ryan Getzlaf is the captain of the team. 

To date, they have won one Stanley Cup. It was in the 2006-2007 season. The Anaheim Ducks won the conference championship in the 2002-03 season and 2006-2007 season. They have won 6 Pacific division titles.

## References
## Other websites 
*Official website
Móði and Magni

**Magni** and **Móði** (Old Norse: "strength" and "bravery") are a pair of minor deities in Norse mythology. They are sons of the god Thor, said to be embodiments of their father's traits. While Magni is born to Thor by the jötunn Járnsaxa (a lover of Thor), the name of Móði's mother is unknown. 

Other than his part after Ragnarök, little is known about Móði. Magni however, is featured prominently in the myth of Thor's battle with the giant Hrungnir. 

Thor hit the giant Hrungnir in the head with his hammer, Mjölnir, shattering Hrungnir's skull. The giant then fell dead, as his leg landed on Thor's neck, pinning the god to the ground. The other Æsir tried to lift Hrungnir's leg off of Thor, but were unsuccessful. Thor's son, Magni, who was only three days old at the time, then came to his father and lifted Hrungnir's leg off of Thor all by himself. In his gratitude, Thor gifted his son Hrungnir's horse, Gullfaxi (Old Norse: "Gold-mane"). Odin himself was upset that Thor gave the horse to "the son of a giantess" and not to Odin, Thor's own father.
Kerosene

**Kerosene** or **paraffin oil** is a colourless flammable liquid, usually used for fuel. Kerosene is made by fractional distillation of petroleum. It may be used as fuel for lamps, in some kinds of cooking stoves and heaters, and there are even kerosene refrigerators. Kerosene is mainly used in the fuel for jet engines. The most common consumer use for kerosene in Canada and the US is lighting camp lamps. Kerosene is used as cooking fuel in some places, such as South Asia. Kerosene is also used to store sodium and other alkali metals.

## References
Brass instrument

A **brass instrument** is a musical instrument that you play by blowing through a mouthpiece to change the pitch, or note. 

Brass players use their breath to produce sound. Instead of blowing into a reed, they vibrate their lips by buzzing them against a metal cup-shaped mouthpiece. The mouthpiece helps to amplify the buzzing, which creates the sound. Most brass instruments have valves attached to their long pipes; the valves look like buttons. Pressing on the valves makes them open and close different parts of the pipe. Brass instruments may be made of other metals or alloys, or even plastic. Some brass instruments are really made of wood, like the didgeridoo or serpent. 

Other instruments are made of brass but the player does not need to buzz their lips, like the saxophone. They are not called brass instruments, because they do not require lip-buzzing.

Brass players also change the pitch of the sound by tightening or loosening their lips, but this alone does not let them play all musical notes. So, most instruments have slides or valves that can change the pitch. 

A brass band is a group of brass instruments and drums that play music together. They are often used to play for parades and processions because the players can march and play at the same time. Brass bands were very popular in England. Many factories and coal mines had their own bands. The workers would play in the bands after work. One famous band is the Grimethorpe Colliery Band.

## List of brass instruments
* Bugle
* Baritone horn
* Trumpet
* Cornet
* Piccolo trumpet
* Flugelhorn
* French horn
* Mellophone
* Euphonium
* Trombone
* Tuba
* Sousaphone (Marching Tuba)
* Cimbasso
* Hunting horn
* Serpent
Ragnarok Online

***Ragnarok Online*** is a 2002 massively multiplayer online role-playing game developed and published by Gravity. The game is based on the manhwa *Ragnarok* by Lee Myung-jin.

## References
Cairns

**Cairns** () is a city in Queensland, Australia. 120.000 people live there. Cairns is about 1720 km (1,069 miles) north of Brisbane and about 2500km (1,553 miles) from Sydney by road. It is built on the shores of Trinity Bay.

Cairns is an important travel destination for tourists because it has a games arcade at Cairns Central, Public toilets, Zoos, Casinos, Various Takeaway shops, Pubs, Nightclubs, Movie theatres and Beaches, it is warm all year round and is near many attractions. The Great Barrier Reef is only one-and-a-half hours away by boat. The Daintree National Park and Cape Tribulation, about 130km north of Cairns, are popular areas for experiencing a tropical rainforest. It is also a starting point for people wanting to see Cooktown, Cape York Peninsula, and the Atherton Tableland.

## History
Captain James Cook named Trinity Bay when he arrived there in his ship HM Bark Endeavour on Trinity Sunday, 1770. The first Europeans to settle arrived in 1876 when gold was found near Cairns. It was named after the Governor of Queensland, Sir William Cairns.

## References
Wampanoag

The **Wampanoag** are a Native American tribe. They are part of the Northeast Woodlands. They have lived in present-day Massachusetts and Eastern Rhode Island for over 12,000 years. There are around 4,000 to 5,000 Wampanoag people living in New England today.

## History 
After the Pilgrims arrived in the New World on the *Mayflower* in 1620, the Wampanoag tribe helped them survive.

In the early 17th century, an epidemic of leptospirosis (a bacterial infection also called Weil's syndrome) killed many Wampanoags and greatly damaged their society.  

## Today 
There are multiple Wampanoag communities in Massachusetts today. The United States government officially recognizes two surviving Wampanoag tribes: the Mashpee Wampanoag Tribe and the Wampanoag Tribe of Gay Head (Aquinnah).

## References
Ytterbium

**Ytterbium** is a chemical element.  It has the chemical symbol **Yb**.  It has the atomic number 70 which means it has 70 protons in an atom. It is part of a group of chemical elements in the periodic table named the Lanthanides. Ytterbium, along with yttrium, terbium, and erbium, is one of the four elements to be named after the town of Ytterby in Sweden, all of which are rare earth elements. It is soft and silver in color.

Ytterbium is found in minerals named gadolinite, monazite, and xenotime.  In nature it is found as a mix of seven stable isotopes. Ytterbium is used in some steels and is also used to make lasers.

## Related pages
*Periodic table
*List of common elements
Heart transplant

A **heart transplant** is transplant, a type of surgery where someone's damaged or failing heart is removed and replaced with a healthier donor heart, likely to be from someone who passed just a few hours before the surgery. it is required that two or more healthcare providers declare the donor brain-dead.

It is otherwise known as an 'open heart procedure', taking several hours to accomplish. The first heart transplant on a human was done by Christiaan Barnard on Louis Washkansky, a 54-year-old with both diabetes and incurable heart disease at the time. (A recent study suggests that the heart was taken from a 25-years-old girl, Denise Darvall, who was not brain-dead and her heart was arrested artificially, similarly to a non-voluntary active euthanasia.)
 This procedure was carried out on Sunday 3rd December 1967.

## Related pages 
* Gastric bypass surgery
* Coronary Heart Disease (CHD) 

## References
## Other websites 
* Heart transplant website built by heart transplant patient, John Fisher
Joan Baez

**Joan Chandos Baez** (born January 9, 1941) is an American folk singer and activist. Baez is known for her very individual vocal . She is a soprano with a three-octave vocal range. Many of her songs talk about social issues.

She is best known for her 1970s hits "Diamonds & Rust" and "The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down". She is also known for "Sweet Sir Galahad" and "Joe Hill."  She sang these songs at the 1969 Woodstock festival and the songs became famous. She is also a well known singer  due to her relationship with Bob Dylan and her love for activism in areas such as , civil and human rights and the environment.

## Music 
Baez has performed for over 65 years, since the release of her eponymous album. She has released over thirty albums. She has recorded songs in over eight languages. Baez is known primarily as a folksinger, but she sings many kinds of music, including rock, pop, country, and gospel. Baez is famous for covering other artists' songs with her own unique style. She sang songs by The Beatles, Jackson Browne, Paul Simon, The Rolling Stones, Stevie Wonder and many others.

## Activism 
Baez protests against social and environmental problems. She did not support the Vietnam War. She did not want people to pay taxes that paid for the Vietnam War. Baez did not want men going to fight in the war. She did not perform in places where people of color were treated differently. In addition, Baez helped found the Resource Center for Nonviolence. The Resource Center for Nonviolence is an organization whose goal is to make social change without violence.

## References 
## Other websites
*
Kalmar Union

The **Kalmar Union** was a royal personal union consisting of the kingdoms of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, and various other provinces and areas.  At that time, Norway included Iceland, Greenland, the Faroe Islands, Jan Mayen, Shetland, and Orkney.  Parts of Finland belonged to Sweden. The union was started in 1397 when Eric of Pomerania was crowned in the town of Kalmar in Sweden. The union ended on 6 June 1523 when Sweden left the union by Gustav I.

## References
## Other page
*Stockholm Bloodbath
Bay of Plenty

of New Zealand.]]
The **Bay of Plenty** is a region in New Zealand. It was first called the Bay of Plenty by Captain James Cook in November 1769. The Māori name for the bay is *Te&nbsp;Moana-a-Toi* ("the sea of Toi").

## References 
## Other websites
*
Dot matrix printing

computer with a dot-matrix printer.]]

**Dot-matrix printers** are printers for computers. A dot matrix printer creates characters by striking pins against ink ribbons. The print head moves back and forth on the paper like a typewriter and prints the image. Each pin makes a dot, and combinations of dots form characters and pictures. This is much like a typewriter. Each character is made from a matrix of dots. These were used a lot in the 1970s to the 1990s. Today, dot matrix printers are not used by many people anymore. Most people use inkjet printers or laser printers now. They are still in use where forms (with multiple copies) need to be filled out. It is not advisable for office uses as it is an impact printer (make noise as the job is getting done). It prints information on continuous paper. 

## References
Vercingetorix

, on Place de Jaude, in Clermont-Ferrand]]

**Vercingetorix** ( in Gaulish) born c.82 BC, died 46 BC. was a chieftain of the Gallic tribe of the Arverni.  

He led the Gauls in 52 BC against the Roman army in Gaul led by Julius Caesar. Vercingetorix's name in Gaulish means "over-king of the marching men"; the "marching men" would now be called "infantry".

Vercingetorix was probably one of the first to unite some tribes of Gaul against a common enemy. This was the last major uprising of the peoples of Gaul against the Roman invaders.

After the celebration of Caesar's triumph was over, Vercingetorix was executed.
Philippe Noiret

**Philippe Noiret** (1 October 1930, in Lille, France – 23 November 2006 in Paris) was a well-known French actor. He is probably best known for his role in Cinema Paradiso, and for playing Pablo Neruda in the film Il Postino. He died on November 23, 2006 of cancer.
## Selected works
**Film**
**The Man Who Planted Trees* (1987)

## Other websites 
*
Monica Bellucci

**Monica Bellucci** (born 30 September 1964) is an Italian fashion model and actress. She was born in Città di Castello, Umbria. Bellucci started modelling at 16.  She is the daughter of Maria Gustinelli, a painter, and Luigi Bellucci, who owned a trucking company.  She used to be a fashion model.   She speaks Italian, French, and English fluently and has acted in each of these languages, as well as Aramaic. She is currently considered as an Italian sex symbol. 

Bellucci was married to Vincent Cassel and has a daughter named Deva (born 12 September 2004). She has been in a relationship with American director Tim Burton since 2022. 

In 2004, while pregnant with her daughter, Bellucci posed nude for the Italian "Vanity Fair" Magazine in protest against Italian laws that allow only married couples to use in-vitro fertilisation (IVF) and that prevent the use of donor sperm.

## Filmography 
* ''Bram Stoker's Dracula* (1992)
* *L'appartement* (1996)
* *Dobermann* (1997), Nat the Gypsy
* *Under Suspicion* (2000)
* *Malèna* (2000)
* *Le Pacte des Loups* (2001)
* *Astérix & Obélix: Mission Cléopâtre* (2002)
* *Irréversible* (2002)
* *Tears of the Sun* (2003)
* *Ricordati di me* (2003)
* *The Matrix Reloaded* (2003)
* *The Matrix Revolutions* (2003)
* *The Passion of the Christ* (2004)
* *She Hate Me* (2004)
* *The Brothers Grimm* (2005)
* *Shoot 'Em Up* (2007)
* *Heart Tango* (2007)
* **Spectre* (2015)
* *Beetlejuice Beetlejuice* (2024)

## References
## Other websites 
*
Allmänna Idrottsklubben

**AIK** (which stands for **Allmänna Idrottsklubben**), is a sports club from Sweden. It is one of the biggest and one of the oldest in the country. It was founded in 1891. The name means *Common* (or *Public*) *Sports Club*. It has s for many different sports including football, ice hockey, bandy, golf, table tennis, bowling, and handball.

## Other websites
*Official website
Network Ten

**Network Ten** is one of three major television networks in Australia. It started broadcasting television on 1 September 1964, when they were called Independent Television Network.

## Shows 
Shows that Network Ten buy from other countries and broadcast in Australia include:
**The Simpsons*
**The O.C.*
**Jericho*
**The Biggest Loser*
**House*
**The Bold and the Beautiful*
**Buffy the Vampire Slayer*
**Everybody Hates Chris*
**Futurama*
**Law & Order*
**Law & Order: Special Victims Unit*
**Law & Order: Criminal Intent*
**JAG*
**NCIS*
**Medium*
**NUMB3RS*
**Smallville*
**Supernatural*
**Veronica Mars*
**World Poker Tour*

Shows made in Australia for Network Ten include:

* *10 Late News*

**Australian Idol*
**Before The Game*
**Big Brother Australia*
**The Biggest Loser*
**Neighbours*
**Rove Live*
**David Tench Tonight*
*''Jamie's Kitchen Australia*
**Joker Poker*
**Real Stories*
**The Ronnie Johns Half Hour*
**Thank God You're Here*
**The Wedge*
**9am with David and Kim*
**Tripping Over''
Des Lynam

**Desmond Michael Lynam** (born 17 September 1942) is an Irish television and radio presenter. He was born in Ennis, County Clare, Republic of Ireland. He was best known for presenting the BBC's sport coverage such as *Grandstand*.

Lynam also presented *Countdown* on Channel 4 from 2005 to 2006. He was replaced by Des O'Connor.

## Other websites 
*
Carbonate

A **carbonate** is a chemical compound that has the **carbonate ion**, .  This ion is made of carbon and oxygen. The name may also mean an ester of carbonic acid, an organic compound containing the **carbonate group** C(=O)(O–)2 of carbon and oxygen.  They have a valency of 1.

When added to an acid, a carbonate will produce carbon dioxide, water and a chemical salt. Sedimentary rocks containing calcite and other carbonates are plentiful in the earth.

Some examples of carbonates are:
*Calcium carbonate ()
*Sodium carbonate ()
*Magnesium carbonate ()
*Potassium carbonate ()

## Related pages
*Bicarbonate
*Polycarbonate
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

(*Fraxinus*) wood, drawing made by Van Leeuwenhoek]]

**Antonie Philips van Leeuwenhoek** (24 October 1632 – 30 August 1723; last name pronounced 'Layvenhook') was a Dutch tradesman and scientist from Delft, Netherlands. He is best known for his work to improve the microscope.

Using his handcrafted microscopes, he was the first to see and describe single celled organisms, which he originally referred to as *animalcules*, and which we now refer to as microorganisms. He was also the first to record microscopic observations of muscle fibers, bacteria, spermatozoa and blood flow in small blood vessels. Van Leeuwenhoek did not write books, but sent letters to the Royal Society in London. The letters were published in the Royal Society's journal *Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society*.

In his youth van Leeuwenhoek was apprenticed to a draper. Later, a civil service position allowed him to give time to his hobby: grinding lenses and using them to study tiny objects. His simple microscopes were skillfully ground, powerful single lenses capable of high image quality. He looked at protozoa in rainwater, pond water and well water. He also looked at bacteria in the human mouth and intestine. In 1677, he first described the spermatozoa of insects, dogs, and humans.

His observations laid the foundations for the sciences of bacteriology and protozoology. He was the first to see bacteria, protists, spermatozoa, the cell vacuole, blood corpuscles, capillaries, and the structure of muscles and nerves.

*Dobell, Clifford (1960) [1932]. *Antony van Leeuwenhoek and his "little animals": being some account of the father of protozoology and bacteriology and his multifarious discoveries in these disciplines*. New York: Dover Publications reprint of original edition by Harcourt, Brace and Company.

## Related pages
*List of biologists

## Other websites
*Britannica Concise Encyclopedia
Parmesan cheese

**Parmesan cheese** is the name of an Italian extra-hard cheese made of raw cow's milk. 

The original Parmesan cheese is more precisely called *Parmigiano-Reggiano*. It is produced only in Italy, in the provinces of Parma, Reggio Emilia, Modena, Mantua (partly) and Bologna (partly). It is usually the cheese to go with Spaghetti and other typical Italian pasta, but it also has many other uses. Parmesan is a part of Italian national cuisine and it can be eaten both grated and in slivers. It is hard, sharp and dry.

Parmigiano-Reggiano is DOP / AOC. This means that the way they are made and the region in Italy they come from are strictly controlled.The brand (Parmigiano Reggiano) is protected, and only in Europe. In many parts of the world, cheese is sold as *Parmesan cheese* that has nothing to do with the true (Italian) Parmigiano Reggiano.

The original Parmesan cheese is one of the most expensive cheeses in the world.
]]

## Name 
Within the European Union, the term *Parmesan* may only be used, by law, to refer to Parmigiano-Reggiano itself, which must be made in a restricted geographic area, using stringently defined methods. In many areas outside Europe, the name "Parmesan" has become genericized: Any one of a number of hard Italian-style grating cheeses are called 'Patmesan'. After the European ruling that "parmesan" could not be used as a generic name, Kraft renamed its grated cheese "Pamesello" in Europe.

One kind of cheese, which is very similar, but produced in another region in Italy, is Grana Padano. Grana Padano is produced in Lombardy. 

## References
## Other websites
Fandom (website)

**Fandom** (previously known as **Wikia** and before that, **Wikicities**) is an organization for making websites that are wikis. Wikia was started in 2004 by Jimmy Wales, who also started Wikipedia, and Angela Beesley. The name of Wikicities was changed to Wikia on March 27, 2006 to prevent other people from mistaking it for a wiki on cities, and then renamed again on October 4th, 2016 to Fandom for an unknown reason. At the time, it was called "Fandom powered by Wikia" until June 2018. Since October 2018, most of the URLs have changed from x.wikia.com to x.fandom.com.
this does not include wikis based on serious topics which instead changed to x.wikia.org.

Wikis hosted on Fandom are about something which many people will like. All content on Fandom is released under a free license, such as the GNU Free Documentation License or the Creative Commons.  Anybody can change pages on wikis at Fandom, so that no single person "owns" or is "the boss" of a wiki, and so that large communities can be made. The software used is MediaWiki.

Fandom uses advertisements to generate money.

Articles on Fandom are often written in more "in-universe" style; meaning that fictional characters and plots are written as if they are real. Some projects on Fandom are more for people who are very interested in the topic.

In August 2010, they said that a new look was coming, making some people take their wikis off the service.

Fandom uses the MediaWiki software.

## References 
## Other websites 
* Fandom Community Central
* Main Page of Fandom in English
*
Semiconductor

A **semiconductor** is a material that in some cases will conduct electricity but not in others. Good electrical conductors, like copper or silver, easily allow electricity to flow through them. Materials that block the flow of electricity, like rubber or plastic, are called insulators. Silicon is the most used semiconductor, but gallium arsenide is also used.

By the addition of different atoms into the crystal lattice (grid) of the semiconductor it changes its conductivity by making n-type and p-type semiconductors. Silicon is the most important commercial semiconductor, though many others are used. They can be made into transistors, which are small amplifiers. Transistors are used in computers, mobile phones, digital audio players and many other electronic devices.

Like other solids, the electrons in semiconductors can have energies only within certain bands (i.e. ranges of energy levels) between the energy of the ground state, corresponding to electrons tightly bound to the atomic nuclei of the material, and the free electron energy, which is the energy required for an electron to escape entirely from the material.

## History 
Semiconductors were being studied in laboratories as early as the 1830s. In 1833 Michael Faraday was experimenting with silver sulfide. He discovered that as the material was heated it conducted electricity better. This was the opposite of how copper acted. When copper is heated it conducts less electricity. A number of other early experimenters discovered other properties of semiconductors. In 1947 at Bell Labs in New Jersey, the transistor was invented. This led to the development of integrated circuits, which power almost all electronic devices today. Lightly and moderately doped semiconductors are called **extrinsic**. A semiconductor doped to such high levels that it acts more like a conductor than a semiconductor is referred to as **degenerate**. Most semiconductors are made out of silicon crystals. Pure silicon has little use but doped silicon is the basis for most semiconductors. Silicon Valley was named for the large number of semiconductor startup companies that were located there.

## Related pages
* Diode
* Transistor
* Light-emitting diode
* N-type Semiconductor
* Integrated circuit
* Quantum dot
* Solar cell

## References
Limburger cheese

**Limburger cheese** is a cheese made from cows' milk. Its name comes from the Duchy of Limburg, which is divided between The Netherlands, Belgium and Germany today. Limburger cheese is known for its strong smell, which is caused by the bacterium that lives in its rind. Since about the mid nineteenth century, most Limburger is produced in Germany. 

In 2006 a study showing that the malaria mosquito (*Anopheles gambiae*) is attracted equally to the smell of Limburger and to the smell of human feet earned the Ig Nobel Prize in the area of biology. This Cheese has now been placed in strategic locations in Africa to fight against malaria, which is spread by  mosquitoes.

## References
MyScene

**MyScene** is a type of doll created by the Mattel Toy Company. They share the product name of Barbie, but they have differences with the head shapes. The line was supposedly started as a rival to the popular Bratz dolls.

## Movies 
The My Scene characters have starred in three DVD movies:
* "Jammin' In Jamaica"
* "Masquerade Madness"
* "My Scene Goes Hollywood" featuring Lindsay Lohan.

## Main characters 
### Girls 
*Barbie(Barbie was replaced by Kennedy because they said that she had moved to California)
*Madison
*Chelsea
*Nolee
*Delancey
*Kenzie
*Jai
*Kennedy
*Nia
*Jai, Nia and Kennedy were added when they changed the my scenes dolls to look like Bratz and they took out Nolee and Barbie

### Boys 
*Bryant
*River
*Hudson
*Sutton
*Ellis
*Tyson
Bora Bora

**Bora Bora** is a small island in the Leeward group of the Society Islands of French Polynesia, an overseas territory of France in the Pacific Ocean. Vaitape is the largest city on the island with 4,000 people. There is an airport on an islet where residents can fly to other islands in French Polynesia.
Bora Bora has one main road which runs around the island.

## Other websites 
* Bora Bora Pictures Bora Bora Photos
* Bora Bora entry on WorldAtlas.com
* Bora Bora Islands Pictures  Pictures of the Islands
Robert I of Scotland

**Robert I of Scotland** (11 July 1274 – 7 June 1329) was King of Scotland from 1306 to 1329. He is better known as **Robert the Bruce**, or simply **The Bruce**. He is famous for beating the English army at the Battle of Bannockburn near Stirling in 1314.

## Early life 
Roberto the Bruce was born at Turnberry Castle kaka on 11 July 1274. He was the oldest son of the sixth Robert Bruce and Marjorie, the Countess of Carrick. An ancestor also named Robert de Brus came to England with William the Conqueror in 1066. His granddaughter was supposed to become Queen of Scotland, but she died too.

In 1292 Robert's family decided that he should be the head of all the Bruces in Scotland. In 1297, King Edward I of England wanted Scotland go to war against France. Many Scottish leaders said no and rebelled against the English king. Robert joined this rebellion. Edward won most of the battles against the Scottish rebels. Finally Robert ended up doing what Edward wanted.

## King of Scots 
In 1306, Robert the Bruce met a man called John Comyn III (KOHM-in) in a church. John Comyn also wanted to be King of Scotland. They had an argument and Robert killed John. Soon after, Robert went to Scone (skoon), and the Scottish lords brought out the royal clothes that they had hidden from the English. Then Robert was crowned King of Scots.

Robert the Bruce then fought a lot of battles to make Scotland free instead of always doing what the English king wanted. He fought King Edward I, and then his son, King Edward II. In 1314, Robert the Bruce's army defeated Edward II's army at the Battle of Bannockburn.

In 1315, Robert the Bruce sent his army to Ireland. At that time the English were in control of Ireland. Robert fought with them and made his brother, Edward Bruce, High King of Ireland in 1316. After a life of fighting he had wanted to redeem himself by joining the Crusades. Realizing he could not accomplish this he sent his trusted friend Sir James Douglas to take his heart in a small silver box on crusade. James Douglas took the heart and with several knights left on their journey to honor Robert's request. But in fighting in Spain Sir James was killed and the heart was returned to Scotland. the Bruce's body is buried in Dunfermline Abbey, while his heart is buried in Melrose Abbey.

## Family
In 1295 Robert married Isabella of Mar, daughter of Donald, 6th Earl of Mar. Together they had a daughter:
* Marjory Bruce (died 2 Mar. 1316), she married Walter Stewart, 6th High Steward of Scotland

In 1302 Robert married his second wife Elizabeth de Burgh. She was the daughter of Richard de Burgh, Earl of Ulster Together they had:
* Matilda Bruce, she married Thomas Isaac.
* Margaret Bruce, she married William Earl of Sutherland.
* David II of Scotland, King of Scotland after his father.
* John Bruce, died as a child.

Robert also had several illegitimate children.
* Robert, killed at Dupplin 12 Aug. 1332
* Nigel of Carrick, killed at Battle of Durham, 17 Oct. 1346
* Margaret, married to Robert Glen
* Elizabeth, married to Sir Walter Oliphant of Aberdalgie
* Christian of Carrick

## References
Mozzarella

were mozzarella is commonly used.]]

**Mozzarella** is a kind of  fresh cheese. Originally, it was Italian but now it can be found all over the world. Its made of the milk of cows or water buffalos. A cheese produced in a similar way, but with sheep's milk is common in Sardinia, Abruzzo and Lazio. It is sometimes called mozzapecora. Mozzarella made with goats milk can also be found. Its development is more recent, though. The main reason it is produced is that goats' milk is easier to digest than that of cows or buffalos.

Mozzarella is common in Italian cuisine. It can be used on pizza.

Mozzarella can be kept in the fridge for a few days, if it is covered in brine. 

Mozzarella can come in different moistures. 

## References
Raven-Symoné

**Raven-Symoné Christina Pearman** (born December 10, 1986) is an American actress,  model, comedian, and singer. She was born in Atlanta, Georgia. She moved to Ossining, New York at age three. She played the role of "Olivia" in the last three seasons of *The Cosby Show* (1984) and Nicole Lee on ''Hangin' with Mr. Cooper* (1992). 

Pearman is most well known as the title character Raven in the TV show *That's So Raven* and Galleria in *The Cheetah Girls* and *The Cheetah Girls 2*. Pearman goes by the name **Raven** for most of her acting. She is also the host of the American game show *Scrabble''. 

In August 2013 Raven-Symoné commented on legalizing gay marriage, "I was excited to hear today that more states legalized gay marriage. I, however am not currently getting married, but it is great to know I can now, should I wish to". She was dating AzMarie Livingston since 2012, and in October 2015, she announced that she had broken up with her.

## Filmography
## References 
## Other websites 
*
Food chain

A **food chain** shows the feeding relationship between different organisms in a particular environment and/or habitat. 

Plants are at the bottom of a food chain because they are producers that make their food from photosynthesis. Consumers are animals that eat the products of producers or other animals.  The direction of arrows between the organisms shows who eats what and what gets eaten by what.

A food chain also represents a series of events and consumption in which food and energy are consumed from one organism in an ecosystem to another. Food chains show how energy is passed from the sun to producers, from producers to consumers, and from consumers to decomposes such as fungi. They also show how animals depend on other organisms for food.

In any ecosystem, many food chains overlap. Different food chains may include some of the same organisms. Several consumers may eat the same kind of plant or animal for food. When this happens, the food chain forms a food web.

## Related pages
*Ecology

## References
Embryology

**Embryology** is the study of embryos and their development. The study of embryology starts with the fertilisation of an egg, and continues until the foetus stage. A broader term, developmental biology, covers the whole period of growth from the egg to adult life.  

In mammals (and some other animals) embryos develop inside the mother, in the mother's womb. Otherwise it takes place after the egg is laid. It most animals, there are various stages between the egg and the adult animal. If the stages are well-defined the process is called metamorphosis.
Ann Arbor, Michigan

**Ann Arbor** is a city in the US state of Michigan. It is the county seat of Washtenaw County. According to the 2020 United States Census, Ann Arbor was the 5th largest city in Michigan. In 2020, there were 123,851 people living there. The city is part of the Detroit Metropolitan Combined Statistial Area.

Ann Arbor was started in 1824. It is thought that the city is named after the wife, Ann, of one of the founders. The University of Michigan was moved to Ann Arbor in 1837. (Before that, the university had been in Detroit.) The city grew during the 1800s and 1900s. The only time the city did not grow was the Depression of 1873.

During the 1960s and 1970s, Ann Arbor was an important place for the Civil Rights Movement, the anti-Vietnam War movement, and for left-wing and liberal politics.

Today, Ann Arbor is home to the University of Michigan. The university is very important to the city because 30,000 people work for it. 12,000 of these workers work for the University of Michigan Health System, which are hospitals and clinics run by the university. Ann Arbor's economy is also very high-tech. High-tech companies come to the area because there are many graduates and a lot of research and development money at the university.

## Sources
Microbiology

**Microbiology** -  (Greek μικρός, mikrós, „tiny“, βίος, bíos, „life“ and λόγος, lógos, „science“) is a science in the composition of biology, which is occupied by the study of microorganisms (bacterium, (archaebacteria), microscopic fungi, protozoa,alga,and viruses).  Microbiology studies the systematics, morphology, physiology, biochemistry, evolution, ecological roles, and practical uses of microorganisms.  Medical microbiology is also part of microbiology.  

Different parts of microbiology can be classified into pure and applied sciences.  Microbiology can be also classified by taxonomy, as in the cases of bacteriology, mycology, protozoology, and phycology.  There is considerable overlap of the specific branches of microbiology with each other and with other disciplines.  Certain aspects of these branches can extend beyond the traditional scope of microbiology

## History 
In 1665, Robert Hooke saw that cork was made up of little cubes that he named cells. Later Anton van Leeuwenhoek made the important connection that cells are living things when he saw through his early microscope smallest one-celled organisms. Later Christian Ehrenberg found thatprotista or bacteria were different kinds of cells. In the late part of the 1800s Martinus Beijerinck showed that there were small particles called viruses. 

Another important change in the study of microorganisms came from the discovery of DNA and RNA.  This allowed using a vector to change the inside of a cell without killing it.  One recent discovery that changed the study of microbiology is the discovery of transposons or jumping genes.  Another one is the discovery of animal genes in the cells.
Histology

and coverslip, mounted on the stage of a light microscope.]]
 tissue stained with haematoxylin and eosin.]]
 is stained blue, nuclei are stained dark red/purple, and cytoplasm is stained red/pink.]]
s (A) and granule cells (B) from pigeon cerebellum by Santiago Ramón y Cajal, 1899. Instituto Santiago Ramón y Cajal, Madrid, Spain]]
. IgA deposits are in the walls of small superficial capillaries (yellow arrows). The pale wavy green area on top is the epidermis, the bottom fibrous area is the dermis.]]

**Histology** is the study of the microscopic anatomy of cells and tissues of plants and animals, particularly the tissues. It is a part of cytology, and an essential tool of biology and medicine.

Histology is usually done by looking at cells and tissues under a light microscope or electron microscope. The tissue has to be specially prepared beforehand.

## The process 
The stages below are only described in outline. Laboratories which do histology work from schedules which are much more detailed.

### Fixing 
Chemical fixatives are used to preserve tissue from decay. This preserves the structure of the cell and of sub-cellular components such as cell organelles (e.g., nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria). The most common fixative for light microscopy is formalin (4% formaldehyde in saline).

### Embedding 
After fixing, the block of tissue is embedded in paraffin wax. This holds and preserves the tissue as a block.

### Sectioning 
The section is cut into a series of wafer-thin slices, each of which is put on a glass microscope slide. The machine which cuts the block is a mechanical guillotine which can be set to cut at a suitable depth for the tissue in question.

### Staining 
Stains are dyes, chemicals used to make cells and tissues easy to see under a microscope. There are many tissue stains, and each of them has advantages and disadvantages.

#### Haematoxylin and eosin  (H&E) 
This is the most widely used stain in biology and medicine. Haematoxylin colours cell nuclei and eosin colours cell cytoplasm.

#### Silver nitrate 
Camillo Golgi developed a silver nitrate stain for nerve cells. His idea was used by Santiago Ramón y Cajal in his famous work on the structure of brain tissue.

## Modern techniques 
Electron microscopy is used often as well as light microscopy. This has its own procedures. Its advantage is that it resolves things which light cannot resolve. For example, viruses were first seen by electron microscopy..

Specialised selective stains using immunology or radioactive labelling are now routine. The advantage of using antibodies or radioactive labels is that they stick to *specific kinds of molecules*. 
Increasingly popular is tagging with a fluorescent stain, which shows up even if a tiny part of a cell is stained. Immunoinfluorescence is the name of this particular technique.

## Other websites
Toowoomba

**Toowoomba** (also known as 'The Garden City') is a city in South East Queensland, Australia. It is 132 km west of Brisbane, and two hours drive from the Gold Coast and Sunshine Coast beaches. With a population around 135,000, Toowoomba is Australia's second largest city that is not on the coast, after Canberra.

Every year in September, Toowoomba holds its annual Flower Festival, at Queens Park. When this is taking place, the town, especially its CBD are decorated with flowers. People who live there may also open their gardens for public judging for the garden competitions. Another attraction is the parade, where one would see floats with flower themes. Many people from all over the nation visit the festival, and a popular way to arrive is on the specially operating retired steam train.

Another major event held in Toowoomba is the Easterfest. It is a large religious festival that thousands of people come to, to see many famous singers perform. Many put up tents on in Queens Park.

Toowoomba is also known for its historical buildings, such as the town hall, The Empire Theatre, and the Cobb & Co Museum. The town hall was the first in Queensland to be built for a town hall. The Empire Theatre was built as a silent movie house in 1911. A fire nearly destroyed the building, but it was built again, and reopened in 1933. Now, it is the biggest regional theatre in Australia. The Cobb & Co Museum began in the 1880s as a small mail run. It moved both mail and passengers to Brisbane and further.

Toowoomba is also home to some notable private schools, including Toowoomba Grammar School (which is a GPS school), Downlands College, and The Glenny School, none of which are 'co-educational'.

During the 2010-2011 Queensland floods, several people were drowned in their cars when water flooded the main shopping centre.

## References
## Other websites
* Easterfest website
Inclusive disjunction

of \scriptstyle A \or B]]

**Inclusive disjunction** (also called **or**) is a logic operation. It normally takes two truth values as inputs and returns one truth value as output. It is false when both inputs are false, but is true otherwise. It is written with the symbol \lor.

In general, given two propositions A and B, A \lor B is true if A is true, or if B is true, or if both A and B are true.

This is different from the exclusive disjunction, which asserts "either *x* or *y*, but not both".

## Related pages 
* Alternative
* Boolean algebra
* Horn clause
* Logical conjunction
* XOR gate

## References
Logical negation

**Logical negation** (also known as **not**) is a logic operation. For a proposition P, its negation is written as \neg P. It takes one input. It flips the value of the input as the output. If the input was true, it returns false; If the input was false, it returns true.

## Related pages 
* First order logic
* Propositional logic

## References
Logical conjunction

**Logical conjunction** (very often called **and**) is a logic operation. It is represented by the symbol \land. Logical conjunction takes two truth values as inputs and returns an output. If both of the inputs are "true" at the same time, then logical conjunction outputs "true". If one of the inputs is false, or if both of the inputs are false, then logical conjunction outputs "false".  Its logic gate equivalent is the AND gate.

## Related pages 
* Exclusive disjunction
* First order logic

## References
Logic equality

**Logical equality** is a logical operation. It corresponds to equality (=) in Boolean algebra and biconditional (written \leftrightarrow or \Leftrightarrow) in logic. It takes two inputs. It returns true if both inputs are true or if both inputs are false. Otherwise (when they are different), it returns false.

## Related pages 
* Implication (logic)

## References
Albury

**Albury** () is a city in New South Wales, Australia. It is on the Hume Highway that runs between Sydney and Melbourne. The Murray River separates Albury from Wodonga. Albury is on the north side of the Murray River. The river is also the border between Victoria and New South Wales. It is about 550 km from the state capital Sydney, but only 312 km from the Victorian capital Melbourne. Albury is believed to have been named after Aldbury in Hertfordshire.

The Australian Aboriginal people called the area Bungambrewatha. The rich river flats would have provided food for native animals, and the wetlands would have been home to large numbers of water birds.

The first Europens to arrive in the area were the explorers, Hamilton Hume and William Hovell in 1824.

## References
Newcastle, New South Wales

**Newcastle** () is a city in New South Wales, Australia. It is also the second oldest city in Australia. Newcastle is 160km north of Sydney, and is the largest coal-harbour in the world. 500,000 people live in Newcastle making it second largest city in New South Wales. Newcastle was started in 1804 by Lieutenant Charles Menzies and was for convicts who mined the coal. It is named Newcastle after the English coal harbour of Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Newcastle has lots of things to do such as restaurants and food. It has passenger trains to and from Sydney.

## Climate
Newcastle has a humid subtropical climate with warm humid summers and mild winters with moderate rainfall throughout the year. Newcastle is the windiest city in Australia, with an average 3pm windspeed of 31.4 km/h (19.5 mph), annually.

## References