open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Cladistics

including Symphyla, Pauropoda and Diplopoda]]
**Cladistics** is the method of classifying organisms into groups called **clades**.

A clade (Greek = branch) is a group of organisms with a common ancestor and all its s (and nothing else). Such a clade is monophyletic. The term 'clade' was coined by English biologist Julian Huxley.

## Examples
Birds, dinosaurs, crocodiles, and all other descendants (living or extinct) of their most recent common ancestor form a clade. In the terms of biological systematics, a clade is a single branch on the tree of life, a monophyletic group. Biological classification needs such a natural group of organisms to be put together and given a taxonomic name.

This brings classification in line with phylogeny (how living things evolved). In cladistics, clades are the only acceptable units.

Some versions of cladistics have been the subject of controversy.p226

## History of cladistics
The term *clade* was introduced in 1958 by Julian Huxley, *cladistic* by Cain and Harrison in 1960, and *cladist* (for an adherent of Hennig's school) by Mayr in 1965. Hennig referred to his own approach as *phylogenetic systematics*.

For some decades in the mid to late twentieth century, a commonly used methodology was numerical taxonomy. Critics of phylogenetic nomenclature include Ashlock, Mayr, and Williams.

## Monophyly and paraphyly
Monophyly is defined differently in evolutionary biology and cladistics. In evolutionary biology, the term monophyletic refers to a group of organisms descended from its most recent common ancestor. A monophyletic group may include all or only a part of the descendants of the common ancestor. The ancestor may be a taxon of various ranks.

In cladistics, by contrast, a monophyletic group is a group consisting of all the inferred descendants of an ancestral species.

In cladistics, a group that includes only some of the descendants of the ancestral species is not monophyletic but paraphyletic. The objective of cladistics is to block out monophyletic clades. Therefore, the elements of a paraphyletic group must be rearranged so that they do form one or several clades. Degree of similarity is not a criterion in grouping organisms into clades.

## A distinction 
Cladograms show who's related to what, and evolutionary trees show which evolved from whom.

## Related pages
* Genealogy
* Monophyly
* Paraphyly
* Polyphyly

## References
Mosul

**Mosul** ( '''', , ) is a city in the north of Iraq. Under the Ottoman Empire, it was the capital of northern Iraq and is now capital of the Nineveh Governorate. More than a million people lived there when the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant captured it in early June 2014. In July 2017, the Iraqi Army with help from Kurdish Peshmerga troops and other militias took the city back.

## Further reading
;Published in the 19th century
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 

;Published in the 20th century
* 
* 
* 

;Published in the 21st century
* 
* 

## References
## Other websites
*
* ninava-explorer 
*Iraq Image – Mosul Satellite Observation 
*Detailed map of Mosul by the National Imagery and Mapping Agency, from lib.utexas.edu
*
Hessischer Rundfunk

The **Hessischer Rundfunk** (***HR***) is a German television and radio broadcasting company based in Frankfurt am Main in the State of Hesse.

HR is a member of the group of German public-broadcasting institutions that makes up ARD.

The HR produces the regional television service *HR Fernsehen * (which used to be called HR Fernsehen ) and six regional radio channels.

File:HR Dachmarke 2023.svg|logo of the "Hessischer Rundfunk"

## Other websites 
* Official website *in German*
Duhok Governorate

**Duhok** (also **Dohuk** or **Dahuk**, , , Duhok, Assyrian: **ܢܘܗܕܪܐ**, Nohadra) is a province of the Kurdistan Region located in northern Iraq. The capital is also called Duhok. 510,000 people live in the province and the vast majority of them are Kurds.

## References
Coruscant

**Coruscant** is a fictional planet in the *Star Wars* movies. It has been the capital of the Galaxy for many years, and during that time, the planet has become one big city. It's most notable appearance was in the prequel trilogy.
Digital Video Broadcasting

used. Countries that use DVB-T are shown in blue.]]
**Digital Video Broadcasting** (often shortened to **DVB**) is a series of standards for sending digital content, like Television using digital technology.  Compression of the data stream allows carrying several video channels in one analog television channel.

There are different standards, some of them are
*DVB-S, DVB-S2: Use Satellites to broadcast
*DVB-C: Use a coaxial cable
*DVB-T, DVB-T2: Use a terrestrial signal, relayed thorough various stations

Digital Audio Broadcasting is similar, but for audio.

## Related pages 
* Digital Multimedia Broadcasting
Baghdad Governorate

**Baghdad** () is a province in Iraq. The capital is also called Baghdad. 

The area is . The province is the smallest province in Iraq.
Linguine

**Linguine** are a form of Italian pasta. Sometimes they are also called **Linguini** (this is an English-language form, and is not Italian). 
They are flat, like fettuccine and trenette, but narrow like spaghetti. 

The name means "little tongues" in Italian - the word being derived from Latin *lingua* "tongue" with the suffix *-ine* which indicates that an item is smaller or lesser.

Linguine *alle vongole* (with clams) is a popular use of this sort of pasta.
Babil Governorate

**Babil** () is a province in Iraq. The area is . 2,000,000 people live in the province. The capital is Al Hillah  a Shia 

It contains the ancient city of Babylon.

The name Babil is the Arabic name for Babylon.
Egg (food)

Most **eggs** that are eaten by humans have an eggshell. There are multiple parts to the egg: the egg white, the egg yolk and various thin membranes,  Every part of the **egg** is edible, although the eggshell is usually thrown away. Eggs are a good source of protein.

Roe and caviar are edible eggs produced by fish. They do not have an eggshell, since they hatch underwater. They also are much smaller and do not have a white or yolk.

## Egg as a food ingredient 
Birds' **eggs** are a common food source. The most commonly used bird eggs are those from the chicken, the duck, and the goose. Smaller eggs such as quail eggs are sometimes used as a fancy ingredient, as are the largest bird eggs, from ostriches.  

Most of the chicken eggs sold for human consumption are unfertilized. The hens are kept without any roosters. Fertile eggs can be bought and eaten as well. There is no difference in the food value of fertilised and unfertilised eggs. Fertile eggs for eating do not have a baby bird inside. This is because eggs have to be kept cool before they are sold, and the cold stops the young inside from starting to grow.

Chicken eggs are widely used in many types of cooking. Recipes that use eggs include sweet and savoury dishes. Eggs can be used and cooked in many different ways. They can be hard-boiled, soft-boiled, scrambled, fried, combined with flour in cakes or eaten raw. Roasted eggs are used at the Jewish holiday of Passover. Pickled eggs are hard-boiled and then put in vinegar. They are often sold in UK fish and chip shops.

Eating raw eggs is not recommended for some people. This is because the egg may be contaminated with bacteria (like salmonella) that could cause illness. This could be serious for the elderly, the infirm, or pregnant women.

The body can use about 91% of the protein of a cooked egg, nearly twice as much as from a raw egg.

## Color 
There is no difference in taste or food value between white or brown eggs.  The color of a chicken's egg depends on the breed.

In most of the United States, eggs are generally white; while in the northeast of that country and in the United Kingdom, eggs are generally light-brown. People in Brazil and Poland prefer brown or reddish eggs, because white eggs are thought of as "industrial", that is, for use in commercial bakeries.  The reason some people prefer one colour of egg and other people prefer a different colour is probably because of what the colours are linked with in their minds.  For example white is linked with purity, and brown-shelled eggs with greater wholesomeness.

Carotenoids can affect how intense the color of the yolk is.

## Related pages 
*Egg (biology)
* List of egg dishes

## References 
* Stadelman W.J. and Cotterill O.J. 1995. *Egg science and technology*. 4th ed, New York: Food Products Press.

## Other websites 
* 9 Health Benefits of Eggs 
* Nutritional values of eggs 
* Nutritional value of free range eggs compared with factory eggs
* Criticism of the validity of the "Animal Care Certified" logo used by United Egg Producers(UEP) 
* British Egg Industry and the Lion Mark
* 10 Health Benefits of Eggs
Leitmotif

A **leitmotif** (pronounced , “LITE-mow-teef”) (also spelled **leitmotiv**), is a German word meaning **leading motif**.  It is a little musical theme that is often repeated in a piece of music, very often in opera. The leitmotif is linked in the musical story with a person or a thing or an idea.  The leitmotif might be a short tune, but it can also be a rhythm or just a chord.

The word “leitmotif” is sometimes used in other things such as literature.  In a book it might be an idea that keeps coming during the story.  It can also be used in movies or video games.

The word “leitmotif” is particularly associated with the operas of Richard Wagner.  The leitmotif helps to make the story dramatic and bind it together, because it makes the music easier to understand.  Sometimes a leitmotif will change during an opera as the character changes.  Various dramatic effects can be made with leitmotifs. For example, a leitmotif might be played before a character comes onstage, so the audience will know who is coming before the actor can be seen.  Three examples of leitmotifs from Wagner's Ring Cycle  *Der Ring des Nibelungen * are: the leitmotif for the chief god Wotan (a person), the leitmotif for the Tarnhelm, the invisibility helmet, (a thing), and the leitmotif for the Renunciation of Love (an idea).

The use of leitmotif was not completely new in the 19th century.  For example: the first four notes of Beethoven's Fifth Symphony are used like a leitmotif during the whole symphony.  It was, however, Carl Maria von Weber who first used it a lot in his operas.  A music critic called F. W. Jähns used the word to describe Weber’s work.  Hector Berlioz wrote a symphony called *Symphonie Fantastique* which has a tune which he called **idée fixe** (“fixed idea”) to represent the love between the two characters.

Wagner did not actually use the word “leitmotif”.  He preferred to call such themes “Grundthema” (basic idea) or simple “Motiv”.  Some people, such as Eduard Hanslick, who did not like Wagner’s music, thought that Wagner’s use of leitmotifs made the music too simple.  Claude Debussy said the use of leitmotifs in operas was like having a world where crazy people would always use "visiting cards" to introduce themselves and then start singing their names to be sure everyone knew what was going on.

Many other composers used leitmotifs in a similar way to Wagner, e.g. Richard Strauss in his operas, Elgar in his oratorios *The Kingdom* and *The Apostles* or Alban Berg in his opera *Lulu*.  

Leitmotifs or music themes are also used to dramatise movies. For example, the famous Jaws theme uses a leitmotif for the shark.
Pangaea

as seen from the Palisades Interstate Parkway. The Hudson River is the background. The formation was caused by the rifting of Pangaea in the Triassic]]
 belts at the end of the Caledonian orogeny (early Devonian). Present day coastlines are indicated in grey for reference. Later in geological history, the Atlantic Ocean opened and the different parts of the orogenic belt moved apart.]]

**Pangaea** was the global supercontinent which formed in the Palaeozoic era. The process started about 450 million years ago (mya) and was complete by 210 mya. So, apart from some volcanic islands (not proven, but very likely), all the land areas were collected together in one big supercontinent.

Pangaea was the latest of a series of global supercontinents. They formed at various times since plate tectonics began on Earth. **Panthalassa** was the name of the huge global ocean which surrounded Pangaea.

## Formation 
The collisions between continental plates formed the greatest mountain ranges in the history of the Phanerozoic eon. The mountain building included the Caledonian orogeny, the Alleghenian orogeny and the Variscan orogeny. The low mountains of Scotland, Scandinavia and eastern North America are the ground-down remains of these vast events.

## Break-up 
There were three major phases in the break-up of Pangaea. The first signs of rifting came in the Triassic before Pangaea was completely formed.

Pangaea broke up about 180/200 million years ago, in the early middle Jurassic. It broke into supercontinents Laurasia and Gondwana before each of these broke into the present continents. One rift resulted in a new ocean, the North Atlantic Ocean.

The second major phase in the break-up of Pangaea began in the Lower Cretaceous (150–140&nbsp;mya), when Gondwana separated into continents (Africa, South America, India, Antarctica, and Australia).

The third major and final phase of the break-up of Pangaea occurred in the early Cenozoic (Paleocene to Oligocene). Laurasia split when North America (Laurentia) broke free from Eurasia, opening the Norwegian Sea about 60–55&nbsp;mya. The Atlantic and Indian Oceans continued to expand, closing the Tethys Ocean.

The break-up of Pangaea continues today in the Great Rift Valley in East Africa and Arabia.

## Other sources 
*Matte P. 2001. The Variscan collage and orogeny (480-290 mya) and the tectonic definition of the Armorica microplate: a review. *Terra Nova* **13**, 122-128.
*Stampfli G.M; Raumer J.F. von & Borel G.D. 2002. Paleozoic evolution of pre-Variscan terranes: from Gondwana to the Variscan collision. *Geological Society of America* Special Paper **364**, pp.&nbsp;263–280.
*Torsvik T.H. *et al* 1996. Continental break-up and collision in the Neoproterozoic and Palaeozoic - a tale of Baltica and Laurentia. *Earth-Science Reviews* **40**, pp.&nbsp;229–258.
*Ziegler P.A. 1990. *Geological atlas of western and central Europe*. 2nd ed, Shell Internationale Petroleum Maatschappij B.V. 

## References
Nineveh Governorate

**Ninawa** (, , Assyrian: **ܢܝܢܘܐ** **Nîněwâ**) is a province in north of Iraq It has an area of 37,323 km². The capital is Mosul which lies near the Tigris river. 2,600,000 people live in the province. The ancient Biblical city of Nineveh is also in this province.  The name Ninawa is the Arabic name for Nineveh.

## References
List of egg dishes

The following is a **list of egg dishes**:

## Plain egg dishes
## Savory egg dishes
## Sweet egg dishes
## References
Mayonnaise

**Mayonnaise** (Commonly spelt Nayonnnaisne) is a thick sauce. It is an emulsion of vegetable oil and egg yolk, with either lemon juice or vinegar. It is often used as a condiment for food such as salads, sandwiches and french fries.

## References
Republicanism

**Republicanism** is the ideology of governing a nation as a republic with an emphasis on liberty and the civic virtue practiced by citizens.  Republicanism always stands in opposition to aristocracy, oligarchy, monarchy, and dictatorship. More broadly, it refers to a political system that protects liberty, especially by incorporating a rule of law that cannot be arbitrarily ignored by the government.

## United States 
According to John Adams, “They define a republic to be a government of laws, and not of men.” Much of the literature deals with the issue of what sort of values and behavior by the citizens is necessary if the republic is to survive and flourish; the emphasis has been on widespread citizen participation, civic virtue, and opposition to corruption.

## Commonwealth realms 
Many Commonwealth realms (countries which have the British Monarch as their head of state) have political movements to become republics. For example, the Prime Minister of Jamaica said that it will become a republic by 2025. In 1999, Australia had a vote to decide whether or not to keep the monarchy. The result was a majority supporting the monarchy.

## Other websites
* Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry
* Res Publica: an international anti-monarchy Web directory
Brussels-Capital Region

**Brussels-Capital Region** is one of the three regions of Belgium. Its official name in the three official languages of Belgium:
*
*
* 

It has a population of 1,222,637  (1 January 2022) on an area of 162 km².

## Language 
Brussels-Capital Region is officially bilingual: Dutch and French, but most people speak French. In earlier times, they spoke Brabantian, which is a Dutch dialect. 

## History 
The area of Brussels-Capital Region belonged to the Duchy of Brabant until 1795. After the French occupation it became part of the newly formed province of South Brabant during the United Kingdom of the Netherlands from 1815 until 1831. After the Belgian separation in 1831, it became part of the newly formed province of Brabant. On 1 January 1995, Brabant province was divided into the provinces of Flemish Brabant (Dutch-speaking) and Walloon Brabant (French-speaking), and into the bilingual Brussels region.

## Municipalities 
Brussels-Capital Region has 19 municipalities:

¹ Capital, English name *Brussels*.

## Related pages 
There are two other regions:
* Flanders (or Flemish Region) for the Dutch-speaking part of Belgium
* Wallonia (or Walloon Region) for the French-speaking part of Belgium

## References 

## Other websites 
*Official website
*The Brussels-Capital Region, belgium.be
Tabriz

**Tabriz** (; )  is the largest city in north-western Iran with a population of 1.6 million. Most of them speak the Azerbaijani language. Tabriz is north of the volcanic cone of Sahand and south of the Eynali mountain. It is the capital of East Azarbaijan Province.

## Other websites 
*Tabriz Historical Buildings Virtual Library - Related to Tabriz University 
*Tabriz Information 
*Tabriz Culture & Information Center 
*Tabriz City 
*Tabriz from Encyclopaedia of the Orient 
*Tabriz Municipal Office 
*tabrizinfo.com
*Tabriz Municipality News Agency
*Tabriz Metro
*Hundreds of Tabriz Pictures
Prosper Mérimée

**Prosper Mérimée** (September 28, 1803 – September 23, 1870) was a French writer. He was also a historian and an archaeologist. He is probably best known for writing the short story "Carmen". "Carmen" became the basis for the opera *Carmen* by Georges Bizet.
Pointe shoes

**Pointe shoes** are special shoes worn by ballerinas. They are made with a wide, flat, reinforced front end. This lets the dancer stand on tiptoe. 

In normal flat ballet shoes, the toe construction does not provide this support for the dancer's body weight. So they cannot stand or dance *en pointe*.

## History 
Mid-18th century dancer Marie Camargo of the Paris Opéra Ballet was the first to wear a non-heeled shoe,

## Construction 
All pointe shoes are handmade. There are many different companies which make these shoes. Some of them include: Bloch, Capezio, Gamba, Grishko, Gaynor Mindens, Sansha and Freed of London.

There are many different parts to a pointe shoe:
*Platform 
*Vamp
*Throat
*Binding
*Sockliner
*Quarter 
*Drawstring
*Outer sole

### Proper fit and safety 
Its important that pointe shoes fit correctly. If they do not, it can cause the dancers feet to become sore. It can also affect the way the dancer performs in them and may cause injury to the dancer. A dancer may need to try on many pairs of pointe shoes before they find ones that fit correctly. Also, when the pointe shoes are "dead" (too soft to dance in any more), the shoes will need to be replaced.

With light use, a pair of pointe shoes may last through ten to twenty hours of wear. A dance student may get weeks of serviceable use from a pair of pointe shoes. Professional dancers wear out pointe shoes much more quickly; a new pair may wear out in a single performance. As a result, ballet companies either buy shoes in bulk or give shoe allowances for their dancers.

### Quantity & quality 
Ballet companies order pointe shoes in huge quantities at maybe $50-$110 a pair. A soloist or principal dancer will have her shoes specially hand-made to her needs, and may get through several in a single performance. Dancers' feet take a terrific battering, and few end their careers without having some damage to their feet. This is the reality behind the light, airy, graceful sight on the stage.

## Demi-pointe 
Demi-pointe shoes are often used to train dancers who are new to pointe technique. They help dancers get used to the feel of pointe shoes, strengthen the ankles and feet. The toe box allows the dancer to feel a pointe, while the insole and outsole work together to give the resistance for developing foot and ankle strength.

Demi-pointe is often used in modern dance, because choreography in modern dance most often asks for balance on the ball of the foot, which is what those shoes are made for.

## References
Licchavi

**Licchavi** (also *Lichchhavi*, *Lichavi*) was an ancient republic that existed in what is now Bihar state of India before the birth of Mahavira (born 599 BC). Its capital was Vaishali.

From about 400 to 750, a kingdom in Nepal in the Kathmandu Valley had the same name, Licchavi.

## Origins
Early Buddhist legends tell that Licchavi was a ruling family during Gautama Buddha's time in India, but links to the Nepalese kingdom are speculative.  The language of Licchavi inscriptions is Sanskrit, and the particular script used is closely related to official Gupta scripts. That means that India was a significant cultural influence. That was likely through Mithila, now the north of Bihar, India.

## References
## Other websites
* Tamot, Kashinath and Alsop, Ian. "A Kushan-period Sculpture, The Licchavi Kings", Asianart.com
* *History of Nepal,*  Thamel.com
* ["Nepal: The Early Kingdom of the Licchavis, 400-750", Library of Congress Countryreports.org (September, 1991)](http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+np0015))
* Vajrācārya, Gautamavajra, "Recently Discovered Inscriptions of Licchavi, Nepal", *Kailash - Journal of Himalayan Studies,* Volume 1, Number 2, 1973. (pp. 117-134)
Wasit Governorate

**Wasit** () is a province in the east of Iraq. The capital is Al Kut. *Wasit* is an Arabic word meaning "middle". The province is along the Tigris about midway between Baghdad and Misan.
Jerry Hsu

**Jerry Hsu** (born December 17, 1981) is an American professional skateboarder. He was born in, and currently lives in, San Jose, California. Hsu is a member of the San Jose Tilt Mode Army crew. He has several pro model skateboard decks with Enjoi Skateboards. Hsu was featured in the skateboard videos *Bag of Suck* by Enjoi. He won an award for best video part by Transworld Skateboarding Magazine and a reader's choice award for his work in the video. 

## References
Kirkuk Governorate

**Kirkuk Governorate** ( ,  *Parêzgay Kerkûk*,  , ) or **Kirkuk Province** is a governorate in northern Iraq, with an area of . 

The capital is also called Kirkuk, and **1,597,876** people live in the Governorate. 

## References
Scrambled eggs

**Scrambled eggs** is a dish made from beaten whites and yolks of  eggs (usually chicken). The dish often contains other ingredients.  Cream, butter, milk, water or oil (used in China) will dilute the egg proteins to create a softer texture.

## Sample recipe
The eggs and a large piece of butter are put into a saucepan over a low heat.  The egg whites and egg yolks are then "scrambled" or mixed together.   The mixture should be mixed together all the time they are being cooked.

When cooked a little créme frâiche is added.  This is because the eggs will be hot enough to carry on cooking themselves.  Adding a cool liquid will stop the eggs from overcooking. Some salt and pepper or other seasoning can be added to taste as well.

In the home the eggs can be mixed together first and then poured into a pan.  The créme frâiche does not need to be added if the eggs will be eaten almost immediately.

Properly made, the eggs should be moist and creamy consistency.  If any liquid is coming from the eggs, it means the eggs have been overcooked or that the add the vegetables were undercooked.

## Other methods of preparation
Using a double boiler  or *bain-marie* means that the heat is constant, and does not to be adjusted  to make sure the eggs do not brown or burn.  The baine marie method is slower than cooking directly in a pan over a heat but makes it easier to  cook the eggs perfectly.

*''scrambled eggs à l'américaine* scrambled eggs in the American way - Add cubes of smoked bacon fried in butter to eggs.

**scrambled eggs Rossini* named after the composer Rossini- Cook some scrambled eggs.  Sauté some thin slices of foie gras in butter.  Cook some sliced truffle in butter.  Plate the scrambled eggs on a serving dish, garnish with foie gras and truffles, then coat with a very reduced Madeira demi-glace sauce.

## Related pages
*List of egg dishes

## Notes
## References
*Escoffier, Georges Auguste. *Escoffier: The Complete Guide to the Art of Modern Cookery*. Translated by H. L. Cracknell and R.J. Kaufmann. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 2002.
*McGee, Harold. *On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen*. New York: Scribner, 2004.
*Robuchon, Joël, Members of the Gastronomic Committee. *Larousse Gastronomique''. New York: Clarkson Potter/Publishers, 2001.

## Other websites
*An article on cooking scrambled eggs
*Scrambled eggs recipe
Saladin Governorate

**Salah ad Din** () is a province in north of Iraq. The province has an area of 24,751 km². The capital is Tikrit where Saddam Hussein was born and 1,147,000 people live in the province. The majority population is Sunni. In 2011, the province declared autonomy.

## References
Limb

A **limb** is a part of the body of a living creature, which extends from its trunk. Examples are the branches of a tree, and the legs of a man.

In normal human body, there are four limbs: two *upper limbs* (arms) and two *lower limbs* (legs). Each limb has several joints.
LATAM Airlines Brasil

**LATAM Airlines Brazil** () is Brazilian airline. LATAM was founded in 1961, but since 2000 it has grown fast. It's now the biggest airline in Brazil and all of Latin America.

## History
TAM Airlines began in 1961, with the name *Taxi Aereo Marília* (Marília Air Taxi). In 1971, one of the airline's pilots buys 33% of the airline's shares. In 1976, the pilot founds an airline with the name *Transportes Aereos Regionais* (Regional Air Transport).  Both *TAM* and *TAR* Airlines were combined in 2000.  This formed the TAM Airlines. In 2010, LAN Airlines and TAM Airlines were also combined. They formed the LATAM Airlines Group. 

## Gallery

File:Fokker 100 (F-28-0100), TAM AN0287919.jpg|A TAM Fokker 100. The airline used to own 51 of these airplanes.  
File:F-WZGU (PR-XTE 048) Airbus A350-941 Airbus Industrie (LATAM Airlines Brazil) TLS 16SEP16.jpg|Airbus A350-900 of LATAM Airlines Brazil
File:Airbus A321-231, TAM AN2276109.jpg|Airbus A321-231 of TAM

## References
Australosphenida

]]
**Australophenida** are a clade of mammals which has nearly entirely died out. Today, living specimen exist only in Australia and New Guinea with only five surviving species species, but fossils have been in Madagascar and Argentina. Species consist of the platypus and echidnas.

This grouping includes the following animals:
* Monotremata 
** Kollikodontidae (*extinct*)
*** *Kollikodon*
** Ornithorhynchidae (platypus)
*** *Obdurodon*
** Steropodontidae (*extinct*)
*** *Steropodon*
*** *Teinolophos*
** Tachyglossidae (echidnas)
Steropodontidae

**Steropodontidae** was a family of monotremes that are known fossils from the Early Cretaceous in Australia.

## References 
* Rich et al. 2001. Monotreme nature of the Early Cretaceous mammal Teinolophos. Acta Paleontologica Polonica. 46:113-118
Steropodon

***Steropodon galmanii*** was a prehistoric species of monotreme, or a egg-laying mammal, that lived during the Mesozoic, in the Lower Cretaceous period. It is the second-earliest known relative of the platypus: the earlist is called *Teinolophos*.

## References 
*Archer M. *et al* 1985. First Mesozoic mammal from Australia – an early Cretaceous monotreme. *Nature* 318: 363-366.
Kollikodon

***Kollikodon ritchiei*** is a fossil monotreme species. It is known from an opalised teeth fragment, with one premolar and two molars in situ. The fossil was found al Lightning Ridge, New South Wales, Australia.

## References 
* Flannery, T.F., Archer, M., Rich, T.H., Jones, R. (1995) "A new family of monotremes from the Cretaceous of Australia". *Nature* 377: 418-420.
Teinolophos

***Teinolophos trusleri*** was a prehistoric species of monotreme, or egg-laying mammal. It is known from a lower jawbone found in Flat Rocks, Victoria, Australia. It lived during the Lower Cretaceous, about 123 million years ago (mya).

## References
Obdurodon

***Obdurodon*** is a extinct monotreme genus. *Obdurodon* differed from modern Platypuses in that it still had teeth (except for juveniles, the modern platypus does not have teeth).

## References 
* Archer, *et al.* "Description of the skull and non-vestigial dentition of a Miocene platypus (*Obdurodon dicksoni*) from Riversleigh, Australia, and the problem of monotreme origins".
* Augee, M.L. "Platypus and Echidnas". Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales.  1992. Pages 15–27. (O. dicksoni).
* Pascual, *et al.* "First discovery of monotremes in South America". *Nature* **356** (1992), Pages 704-706 (Monotrematum).
* Woodburne and Tedford. "The first Tertiary Monotreme from Australia." American Museum. Novitates Number 2588. 1975. Pages 1–11.  (O. insignis).
Mario (disambiguation)

**Mario** is a Nintendo video game character.  **Mario** or **Mario Son** may also mean:

## People
*Mario, a male given name
*Mario Gómez
*Mario R. Capecchi
*Mario Jeckle

## Video Games
*Mario (series), the video games with Mario in them
Curtiss P-40 Warhawk

The **Curtiss P-40** (also called the **Tomahawk, Warhawk, and Kittyhawk**) was a fighter aircraft that could also be used for attacking things on the ground. It was made by Curtiss. It first flew in 1938 and saw combat during World War II. It was not as fast high up as the German Luftwaffe fighters, but was used a lot in other places. It was used not only the United States Army Air Force, but also a mercenary air force called the "Flying Tigers." They put the mouth of a shark on their P-40s. It could fly to 360 miles per hour. In 1948, the United States Air Force stopped using it.

## References
Flying Tigers

The **Flying Tigers** were a group of American fighter pilots from the United States Army Air Force, the United States Navy, and the United States Marine Corps. The group was commanded by Claire Lee Chennault.

The Flying Tigers are well known for things. Their airplane paint had a shark face on the sides. Also, they fought hard during the war. President Franklin D. Roosevelt found them good.

The airplane that they used was the Curtiss P-40 Warhawk. There were about 100 of those fighter aircraft. They could not turn with the Japanese fighters, such as the A6M Zero, the Ki-43 Oscar, and the Ki-27 Nate. However, the P-40 was tough, had more guns, and was faster in a dive.

## List of flying aces 
The following are flying aces from the Flying Tigers, with their air-to-air victory credits in alphabetical order:

* Percy Bartelt (5.0)
* William Bartling (5.0)
* Charles Bond (7.0)
* George Burgard (10.0)
* Robert Hedman (6.0)
* David Lee "Tex" Hill (10.25)
* Frank Lawlor (7.0)
* Robert Little (10.0)
* William McGarry (8.0)
* Robert Neale (13.0)
* John Newkirk (7.0)
* Charles Older (10.0)
* Edmund Overend (5.0)
* Robert Prescott (5.5)
* Joseph Camille Rosbert (6.0)
* Richard Rossi (6.0)
* Robert Sandell (5.0)
* Robert H. Smith (5.0)
* Robert T. Smith (8.9 kills)

## Related pages
*World War II
*Second Sino-Japanese War

## References
Doritos

**Doritos** (), is a brand of flavored corn (maize) tortilla chip snack. They have been made by the American food company Frito-Lay since 1966. They come in different flavors, including Nacho Cheese and Cool Ranch. They may be eaten with a dip such as salsa. They are made with a few different vegetables and are not fruit products.

## In popular culture
* Disneyland made Doritos popular in the 60's selling their products

## Other websites 
* Doritos America 

* Doritos Canada

* Doritos China 

* Pepsico France 

* Doritos Australia 

* Doritos Scotland 

* Doritos Germany 

* Nutrition facts
Shusha

**Shusha** is a city in Azerbaijan. The city is a major centre of Azerbaijani culture and music.

## History 
Shusha was founded in 1750-1752 by Panah-Ali khan Javanshir (r. 1748-1763), the founder and the first ruler of the Karabakh Khanate (Qarabağ xanlığı - in Azerbaijani). The first capital of the Karabakh khanate was the castle of Bayat, built in 1748 in the district of Kebirli. However, soon afterwards Panah Ali khan realized that in order to secure himself and his newly established khanate from external threats, he needed to build a new more reliable castle. Shusha was turned into the capital of the Karabakh khanate.

Shusha was a popular mountainous-climatic recreation resort in Azerbaijan.

On May 8, 1992, the city was captured by the Armenian forces and all of the city's predominantly Azerbaijani population was either expelled or killed. It was recaptured by Azerbaijan on 8 November, 2020 during the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war, with the city's Armenian population fleeing beforehand.

## References
## Other websites 
* Shusha: from A to Z
* Shusha by Travel-images.com
* Shusha – the town of the dead. Photo-report.
Mount Silverthrone

**Mount Silverthrone** is a 20&nbsp;km wide, deeply dissected caldera complex in southwestern British Columbia, Canada. Most of its eruptions occurred during the last ice age. The products have since been heavily eroded. It is the highest peak in the Ha-Iltzuk Icefield, the largest icefield in the Coast Mountains south of the Alaska Panhandle.

## References
X-intercept

The **x-intercept** of a line on a graph is where the line touches (intercepts) the x-axis.

## Related pages
* y-intercept
* Algebra
AIM-9 Sidewinder

The **AIM-9 Sidewinder** is a short-range air-to-air missile, which means it is shot from an aircraft to hit another aircraft.  It is a heat seeking infrared missile, which locks on to something that gives out a large heat signature. It first flew in 1953, and went into air forces in 1956. It was used during the Vietnam War along with the AIM-7 Sparrow. The AIM-9 of that time was made for shooting at an enemy from behind and homing in on the engine. In Vietnam it hit only 10-20% of the time, and could be fooled. Sometimes it could lock on to the sun or other bogus heat source and not an enemy airplane.

Later versions are better. They can see the enemy aircraft from all directions, not just from behind. They have a good hitting rate and can hit from 11 miles. Sidewinders are carried on many different aircraft around the world.

## References
Dignity

**Dignity** in humans involves the earning or the expectation of personal respect or .

"All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood".
Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights

It is easy to show that many societies do not agree with this in practice. The civilised Greeks and Romans regarded other races as barbarians. A shocking example was Aristotle's advice to Alexander to be 'a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants'.p58 Many societies based on religion have treated persons of other religions harshly, with little dignity. And sometimes political movements have deliberately and openly talked about and treated some groups as not having human dignity. Nazi treatment of the Jews came after a long period of propaganda against their humanity and dignity.

## Related pages
* Human rights
* Pride
* Self-esteem

## References
## Other websites
*Dignity , article from Parenting For Everyone
*Respect at Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* Emotional Competency Entry describing Dignity.
Association

**Association** can mean:
* Voluntary association, a group of individuals who voluntarily enter into an agreement to accomplish a purpose
* 501(c) non-profit organization
* Association (statistics), comes from two variables that are related
* Association (psychology), something linked in memory or imagination with a thing or person
* The Association, a pop band
* Archaeological association, in archaeology, the relationship between objects found together
* HMS *Association*, a Royal Navy ship which sank in 1707
* Association (object-oriented programming), in object-oriented programming, a relationship between classes
* Association (ecology), a set of organisms which appear together and cover areas in a roughly uniform way
* Association (astronomy), combined or co-added group of astronomical exposures
* Professional association
* Alumni association, an association of former students of a college or university
* An industry trade group is also known as a trade association
* L'Association, a French comic book publisher

## Related pages
* Interpersonal relationship
Dignity (disambiguation)

**Dignity** in humans involves the earning or the expectation of personal respect or of esteem.

**Dignity** could also mean:

In **music**:
* "Dignity" (Deacon Blue song), a song by Deacon Blue on their 1987 album *Raintown*
* "Dignity" (Bob Dylan song), a song by Bob Dylan on his 1994 album ''Bob Dylan's Greatest Hits Volume 3*
* *Dignity* (album), a 2007 album by Hilary Duff
** "Dignity" (Hilary Duff song), a song by Hilary Duff on the album
* *The Dignity of Labour*, a 1979 album by The Human League
* *Dignity and Shame'', a 2005 album by Crooked Fingers

**Concepts**:
* Dignitas, an ancient Roman political idea to do with the influence of a citizen
* Dignitatis Humanae, the Second Vatican Council's Declaration on religious freedom
* Four Dignities of Shambhala Buddhism

Relating to **non-governmental organisations**:
* Dignitas International, a medical humanitarian organisation that aims to increase access to life-saving treatment and prevention in areas overwhelmed by HIV/AIDS
* Dignité (Centrale des Syndicats Libres de Côte d'Ivoire), a trade union centre in the Côte d'Ivoire, Africa
* DignityUSA, an organisation that works for 'respect and justice' for LGBT people in the Catholic Church in the USA. It is an organization of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender Catholics
* Dignity Village, a collective of homeless people that have created a shanty town near Oregon, USA

**Political Parties**:
* Dignity for Disabled, a minor South Australian political party
* Dignity, Democracy, Motherland, a minor Armenian political party
* Dignity (Ar-Namys) Party, a major political party of Kyrgyzstan

**Dignity** may also refer to:
* Dignity Battalions, paramilitary combatants under the Manuel Noriega Regime in Panama in the 1980s
* Dignity plc, a major UK funeral company formed by a management buyout of the UK interests of Service Corporation International
Voluntary association

A **voluntary association** or **union** is a group of individuals who  enter into an agreement to form a body (or organization) to work together for a purpose.

In most of the cases no formalities are necessary to start an association. But in some jurisdictions, there is a minimum for the number of persons starting an association, in others the association must register with the police or other official body to inform the public of the association's existence. This is not necessarily a tool of political control but much more a way of protecting the economy from fraud.

## Legal status
An unincorporated association has been defined as existing:

:"...where two or more persons are bound together for one or more common purposes by mutual undertakings, each having mutual duties and obligations, in an organisation which has rules identifying in whom control of the organisation and its funds is vested, and which can be joined or left at will."

In most countries, an unincorporated association does not have separate legal personality, and nor do members of the association usually enjoy limited liability.  However, in some countries they are treated as having separate legal personality for tax purposes.

Associations that are organized for profit or financial gain are usually called partnerships.  A special kind of partnership is a co-operative which is usually founded on one man–one vote principle and distributes its profits according to the amount of goods produced or bought by the member. Associations may take the form of a non-profit organization or they may be not-for-profit corporations; this does not mean that the association cannot make benefits from its activity, but all the benefits must be reinvested. Most associations have some kind of document or documents that regulate the way in which the body meets and operates. Such an instrument is often called the organization's bylaws, regulations, or agreement of association.

## Freedom of association
The freedom of association stands in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights:
:Article 20
:(1) Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association.
:(2) No one may be compelled to belong to an association.

## Related pages
* Society

## Footnotes
## Other websites
*Law relating to unincorporated associations 
*French Association of Epargne and Retraite
Helen Keller

**Helen Adams Keller** was an American writer and speaker. She was born in Tuscumbia, Alabama in 1880. Her father was Arthur H. Keller and her mother was Kate Adams Keller. When she was nineteen months old, she became sick and lost her eyesight and hearing. The doctor didn't know what it was, so he called it a "congestion of the stomach and brain." Some people say that it was scarlet fever or meningitis. Communicating with other people was hard for Helen, because she could not see or hear. She made up some home signs that she used to communicate with her family. The home signs were quite simple, pull meant "come", push meant "go" and so on. Sometimes Helen's family did not understand what Helen was meaning with her home signs. That made Helen frustrated and she had temper tantrums. 

When Helen was seven years old, her family decided to find a teacher for her. They wrote to Michael Anagnos, who was the director of the Perkins Institute and Asylum for the Blind. They asked him to help them find a teacher for their daughter. He wrote to them and told them that he knew a young teacher and her name was Annie Sullivan. She had been blind, but a series of operations helped to restore her eyesight. Annie traveled to Alabama to live with Helen’s family and to teach her. Annie went to live with the Keller family in March, 1887.

Annie helped Helen to learn how to communicate with other people. She taught her the names of things by writing the words on Helen’s hand. At first Helen didn't understand the meaning of the words. The first word Helen understood was "water". She learned this word when Annie put Helen's hand under some water and wrote W,A,T,E,R on her hand. Then she learnt the words and sentences with this method. In 1890, Helen’s family sent her to the Perkins Institute to learn how to speak and communicate. When she was nineteen years old, Helen went to Radcliffe College in Massachusetts. She graduated from Radcliffe in 1904. She was the first deaf and blind person to earn a Bachelor of Arts degree.

In 1903, Helen wrote a book about her life. It was called *The Story of My Life*. The movie *The Miracle Worker*, made in 1962, was based on Helen's book. She also wrote a book about Annie Sullivan called *Teacher*. She wrote twelve other books.

Helen tried to help poor people and other blind people during her life. She traveled to over 39 countries with Annie to talk about her life and experiences.  When Helen was in Japan, she met Hachiko, a famous Akita. She decided to adopt an Akita, and was the first person to bring an Akita to America.

Helen Keller wanted to get married. She fell in love with her secretary, but her mother didn't allow Helen to marry him. At that time, disabled people often could not marry. Helen Keller died in her sleep on June 1, 1968, at Arcan Ridge in Connecticut.

## References
Pausanias (geographer)

**Pausanias** (Greek: ) was a Greek traveller and geographer of the 2nd century A.D., who lived in the times of Hadrian, Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius. He is famous for his *Description of Greece* (), a lengthy work that describes ancient Greece from firsthand observations. He is a crucial link between classical literature and modern archaeology.

## Biography 
Pausanias was probably a native of Lydia; he was certainly familiar with the western coast of Asia Minor, but his travels extended far beyond the limits of Ionia. Before visiting Greece he had been to Antioch, Joppa and Jerusalem, and to the banks of the River Jordan. In Egypt he had seen the Pyramids, while at the temple of Ammon he had been shown the hymn once sent to that shrine by Pindar. In Macedonia he had almost certainly viewed the traditional tomb of Orpheus. Crossing over to Italy, he had seen something of the cities of Campania and of the wonders of Rome. He was one of the first to write of seeing the ruins of Troy, Alexandria Troas, and Mycenae.

## Work 
Pausanias' *Description of Greece* takes the form of a tour in Ionia on the coast of Asia Minor and in the Peloponnese and part of northern Greece. He constantly describes ceremonial rites or superstitious customs. He frequently introduces narratives from the domain of history and of legend and folklore, and it is only rarely that he allows the reader to see something of the scenery.

## References
### Other websites 
*Description of Greece, tr. W.H.S. Jones and H.A. Ormerod (1918)
*Description of Greece, Jones translation at Theoi Project
*Bibliography (in French) 

### Further reading 
* Hutton, William 2005, *Describing Greece: Landscape and Literature in the Periegesis of Pausanias* (Cambridge). .
* Levi, Peter (tr.) 1984a, 1984b, *Pausanias: Guide to Greece*, 2 vols. (Penguin). Vol. 1 *Central Greece* ; vol. 2 *Southern Greece* .
* Pretzler, Maria. "Turning Travel into Text: Pausanias at work", *Greece & Rome*, Vol.&nbsp;51, Issue&nbsp;2 (2004), pp.&nbsp;199–216.
Dignitas

In Ancient Rome, ***Dignitas*** was regarded as the sum of the personal influence that a male citizen acquired throughout his life. It included personal reputation, moral standing, and ethical worth and the man's entitlement to respect and proper treatment as well.

The word does not have a direct connotation or translation in English. Some interpretations include dignity (merely a derivation) and prestige. The Oxford Latin Dictionary defines the expression as fitness, suitability, worthiness, visual impressiveness or distinction, dignity of style and gesture, rank, status, position, standing, esteem, importance, and honor.

## Origins 
Authors who had used *dignitas* extensively in their writings and oratories include M. Tullius Cicero, Julius Caesar, Cornelius Tacitus, and T. Livius (Livy). The most prolific user was Cicero, who initially related it to the established term auctoritas. These two words were highly associated, auctoritas was thought to be the expression of a man’s *dignitas*.

## The changing definition of dignitas 
Over the course of Ancient Roman history, *dignitas* took on different meanings over time, adjusting for the gradually changing viewpoints of society, politicians, and the various authors.

Years after Caesar's death, his heir Augustus rejected the contemporary meaning of *dignitas*. Augustus found the related term *auctoritas* to be a suitable alternative.

## References 
*Balsdon, J.p.v.d. "Auctoritas, Dignitas, Otium." The Classical Quarterly ns 10 (1960): 43-50.
*Cicero, Ad Familiares 4.14
*Cicero, Epistulae Ad Familiares. J. Paul Leonard Library, San Fransisco. Cicero, Epistulae ad familiares. San Francisco State University. 18 May 2007 
*Radin, Max. "Roman Concepts of Equality." Political Science Quarterly 38 (1923): 262-289.
*Ridler, Vivian. "Dignitas." Oxford Latin Dictionary. 1 vols. London: Oxford UP, 1968.