open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Creativity

**Creativity** is the ability of a person or group to make something new and useful or valuable, or the process of making something new and useful or valuable. It happens in all areas of life - science, art, literature and music.

As a personal ability, it is difficult to measure. The reason is that we don't understand the mental processes that help some people be more creative than others. Judging who and what is creative is also controversial. Some people say only things that are historically new are creative, while other people say that if it is new for the creator and the people around them, then it is also creativity.

Some think that creativity is an important thing that makes humans different from apes. Others recognize that even apes, other primates, other mammals, and some birds adapt to survive by being creative (for example - primates using tools). Liane Gabora believes that all culture comes from creativity, not imitation. Therefore, these people say, human science should focus on it (pay special attention to it): Ethics for example would focus on finding creative solutions to ethical dilemmas. Politics would focus on the political virtues that need some creativity. Imitation would not be the focus of education. Linguistics might be more interested in how new words are created by culture, rather than in how existing ones are used in grammar.

Intellectual interests (recognized as intellectual rights or intellectual property in the law) are a way to reward creativity in law, but they do not always work very well. A good example is copyright which is supposed to pay writers and artists, but may only pay lawyers to make (imitative) arguments in court.

Creativity is a central question in economics, where it is known as **ingenuity** (the ability to come up with new ideas) or **individual capital** - capacities that individuals have, that do not arise from simple imitation of what is known already. This is separate from the instructional capital that might try to capture some of that in a patent or training system that helps others do what the individual leader or  of the system can do. In urban economics there are various ways to measure creativity - the Bohemian Index and Gay Index are two attempts to do this  and predict the economic growth of cities based on creativity.

## Related pages 
*Art
*Genius
*Imagination
*Innovation
Cosmology

**Cosmology** is the branch of astronomy that deals with the universe. 

NASA defines cosmology as "The study of the structure and changes in the present universe". Another definition of cosmology is "the study of the universe, and humanity's place in it".

Modern cosmology is dominated by the Big Bang theory, which brings together observational astronomy and particle physics.

Though the word *cosmology* is recent (first used in 1730 in Christian Wolff's *Cosmologia Generalis*), the study of the universe has a long history.

## History
Until the Renaissance people thought the universe was only the planets up to Saturn, and stars. With the invention of the telescope, we could see more of the universe. Early in the 20th century, astronomers thought the Milky Way was the entire universe. Later, with astrophotography and spectroscopy, astronomers (for example Edwin Hubble) showed that the Milky Way was only one of many galaxies. 

Modern cosmology is considered to have started in 1917 with the final paper of Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity. This made physicists realize that the universe changed. When a scientific discipline begins to change an idea that is believed by many people, it is known as a paradigm shift. Many scientists debated if there were other galaxies. The debate ended when Edwin Hubble found Cepheid Variables in the Andromeda Galaxy in 1926.

The Big Bang model was then proposed by Belgian priest, Georges Lemaître in 1927. This was supported by Edwin Hubble's discovery of the redshift in 1929. Later the discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation was made. This was found by Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson in 1964. 

All of these discoveries have been supported in the 21st century. Some more observations of the cosmic microwave background radiation were found by the COBE, WMAP, and Planck satellites. Some more observations of the redshift were found by the 2dfGRS and SDSS. An astronomical survey looks at a place in space. A redshift survey is a survey that looks for redshifts.

On 1 December 2014, at the *Planck 2014* meeting in Ferrara, Italy, astronomers reported that the universe is 13.8 billion years old and is composed of 4.9% regular matter, 26.6% dark matter and 68.5% dark energy.

According to Dr Robert Massey, deputy director of the Royal Astronomical Society, the evidence for a rethink of what has been a central plank of astronomy is growing.

"This is the seventh large structure discovered in the universe that contradicts the idea that the cosmos is smooth on the largest scales. If these structures are real, then it's definitely food for thought for cosmologists and the accepted thinking on how the universe has evolved over time," he said.

## Key terms 
* Mass 
* Gravity 
* Electromagnetic radiation 
* Dark matter 
* Dark energy 
* Speed of light 
* Age of the Universe 

## Related pages 
*String theory
*Earth science
*Inflation

## References
Cooking

]]
]]

**Cooking** is a process to make food ready to eat by heating it.

## Methods
Cooking is often done in a kitchen using a stove or an oven. It can also be done over a fire (for example, over a campfire or on a barbecue).

The heat for cooking can be made in different ways. It can be from an open fire that burns wood or charcoal. It can be on a stove or in an oven that uses propane, natural gas, or electricity.

There are several different ways to cook food. Boiling cooks food in hot water. Frying (deep or shallow) cooks food in hot butter, fat or oil. Baking and roasting cook food by surrounding it with hot air. Grilling means cooking food on a metal grill that has heat under it.

People often cook meat by boiling, roasting, frying, or grilling it. Some foods such as bread or pastries are usually baked.

Usually food is cooked in some kind of pot or pan.  Sometimes people cook food by putting it directly into the fire, or by wrapping the food in leaves before they put it into the fire.

## Cooks 
A person whose job it is to cook food may be called a *cook* or a *chef*.  The word *cooker* means a machine or tool that a cook might use to cook food. Rice cookers and pressure cookers are examples.
Chat

To **chat** is to **talk** about ordinary things that are not usually very important. However, important issues can also classify as “chat”, for instance when organising gatherings, meetings or events, such as air show attendance.  A person can chat with another person, or to many people. People also use this word now for parts of the Internet where we can talk with many different people at the same time. Usually, people chat on the Internet in a chat room or messaging service like AOL Instant Messenger (AIM), Yahoo Messenger Windows Live Messenger or Tencent QQ. There are also programs which let people use different messaging services from one program, such as Pidgin.

Online Chat is real time, text-based, digital communication between two or more parties.

## Related pages
* Internet Relay Chat (IRC)
* Conversation
Cup

A **cup** is any kind of container used for holding liquid and drinking. These include:

#teacup
#paper cup

**Cup** may also mean:

#Measuring cup, a measuring instrument for liquids and powders, used primarily in cooking
#Cup (unit), a customary unit of volume and measure
#Cancer of unknown primary origin, form of cancer
#The cup of a brassière, the part that covers the breasts
#A cup-shaped trophy or award for winning in a sport
Maize

**Maize** or **Indian corn** (called **corn** in some countries) is *Zea mays*, a member of the grass family *Poaceae*. It is a cereal grain which was first grown by people in ancient Central America. Approximately 1 billion tonnes are harvested every year. However, little of this maize is eaten directly by humans. Most is used to make corn ethanol, animal feed and other maize products, such as corn starch and corn syrup.

Maize is a leafy stalk whose kernels have seeds inside. It is an angiosperm, which means that its seeds are enclosed inside a fruit or shell. It is has long been a staple food by many people in Mexico, Central and South America and parts of Africa. In Europe and the rest of North America, maize is grown mostly for use as animal feed. In Canada and the United States, maize is commonly referred to as "corn".  

Centuries of cross breeding have produced larger plants, and specialized varieties. Corn has become an important ingredient in American foods through the use of corn starch. People have long eaten sweet corn and popcorn with little processing, and other kinds after processing into flour for making cornbread, tortillas, and other artificial foods.

Maize has been a fruitful model organism for research in genetics for many years: see Barbara McClintock. Research has shown that artificial selection developed maize from a Mexican plant called Teosinte.

## The genus *Zea* 
There are five species and many subspecies in the genus. They are all plants similar to the cultivated maize, with less developed cobs. The wild ones are sometimes called teosintes, and they are all native to Mesoamerica.

## References
Civics

**Civics** is the study of government.  It most often refers to studying government in high school to prepare to be a good citizen.  In college, civics is usually called political science.  Since a city has the most unsimple government problems, the word for this study is like that for city.

Theories of civics can be grouped as:

*Anarchist
*Capitalist
*Democrat
*Green
*Libertarian
*Republican

It contains the rule and regulations of the citizen to make the country democratic
Coin

A **coin** is a piece of metal that is used as currency, or money. The earliest coins were in Lydia, in what is Turkey today, in 7th Century BC. They were made from electrum, an alloy found in riverbeds. 

Most people use coins as currency. They usually have lower value than banknotes. Most are made in government mints.

## Appearance 
Many coins have unique or complicated decorations; one side often has the picture of a king or ither important person's head on it. 

The different decorations on each side of a coin might be used to decide things randomly. This is called "tossing a coin".  A person can throw the coin into the air and catch it.  You then look at which side is facing up. If the head is facing up it is called "heads", if the other side is facing up it is called "tails". Before tossing the coin someone has to decide what each side means. Tossing a coin can be a type of gambling, which is illegal (against the law) in some countries.

## Collecting 
Because coins have been made for a very long time, some people collect old coins. They can be much cheaper than other old things, especially if they are made of cheap metals like copper. Older coins normally cost more than newer ones, but rarity matters more-some coins from the 1920s cost vast sums, while some Roman coins cost very little.

## References
Conceptual metaphor

A **conceptual metaphor** or **cognitive metaphor** is a metaphor which refers to one domain (group of ideas) in terms of another. For example, treating quantity in terms of direction:
#*Prices are rising*.
#*I attacked every weak point in his argument*. (Argument as war rather than enquiry or search for truth).
#*Life is a journey*.
#*Love* talked about as if it were *war* or *competition*.
#*Time* talked about as if it were a *path through space*, or a *quantity* that can be saved or spent or wasted.

The idea of a conceptual metaphor came from a book by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson in 1980: *Metaphors we live by*.
:"The most recent linguistic approach to literature is that of cognitive metaphor, which claims that metaphor is not a mode of language, but a mode of thought". Donald Freeman.
A convention is to write conceptual metaphors in small capital letters, e.g. , with the target domain (idea being referred to) first, here "money," and the source domain (terms used to refer to it) second.

## Political metaphors 
* **eminence grise**: literally, "grey man," from French. Colloquially, the power-behind-the-throne. An official close to the president or monarch who has so much power behind the scenes that he or she may double or serve as the monarch.
* **figurehead**: a leader whose powers are entirely symbolic, such as a constitutional monarch.
* **puppet government**: a government that is manipulated by a foreign power for its own interests.
* **star chamber**: a secretive council or other group within a government that possesses the actual power, regardless of the government's overt form.
* **character assassination**: spreading (usually) manufactured stories about a candidate with the intent to destroy his or her reputation in the eyes of the public.
* **landslide victory**: a huge victory for one side.
* **riding coattails**: victories by local or state politicians because of the popularity of more powerful politicians.
* **grassroots**: a political movement driven by the constituents of a community.
* **astroturfing**: public relations campaigns in politics and advertising that try to create the impression of being spontaneous, grassroots behavior.
* **straw man**: the practice of refuting an argument that is weaker than one's opponent actually offers, or which he simply has not put forth at all. A type of logical fallacy.
* **spin** (public relations): a heavily biased portrayal of an event or situation.
* **witch-hunt**: the hysterical pursuit of political enemies
* **bread and circuses**: satisfaction of shallow or immediate desires of the populace at the expense of good policy; also, the erosion of civic duty and the public life in a populace.

There are many more, enough to prove the importance of the metaphor in our lives.

## Notes
Crust

**Crust** is a piece of bread where the edge where it is harder and darker.

Crust can also mean:
*Crust (geology) - the outer solid layer of a planet such as the Earth but other planets also.
*On Earth the crust can be divided into: 
**continental crust on which the land of the planet Earth sits 
**oceanic crust which forms most of the ocean floor
Time Cube

**Time Cube** was a personal website created in 1997 by Otis Eugene Ray. On that website, Ray explained his theory of everything, known as "Time Cube". It described the planet Earth as having a cubic symmetry, and time as rotating four "corners". He also said that all of modern physics is wrong. Scientists reject these ideas, saying that they make no sense and cannot be tested.

On his site, Ray said that not believing in Time Cube would be "stupid and evil". Some of his comments were racist and discriminatory towards black people, Jews, and gay people. Many people found the site to be difficult to understand.

Ray spoke about Time Cube at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in January 2002.

Ray died on March 18, 2015. He was 87 years old. His website went down in August 2015. It was last archived by the Wayback Machine on January 12, 2016.

## Related pages 
* Conspiracy theory
* Pseudoscience

## References
Census of Marine Life

The **Census of Marine Life** was a ten-year survey of life in the oceans, starting in 2000. Its head was Ron O'Dor of Dalhousie University in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. It used data from researchers all over the world. More than 70 nations were involved and over a billion US dollars were spent on it.

It was a major work of marine ecology. It was founded by J. Frederick Grassle.

The purpose of the Census of Marine Life was to say what is alive in our seas and oceans.

## Other websites 
* Census of Marine Life website
Comet

]]
A **comet** is a ball of mostly ice that moves around in outer space. Comets are often described as "dirty snowballs". They are very different from asteroids.    

The orbital inclinations of comets are usually high and not near the ecliptic where most solar system objects are found. Most of them are long-period comets and come from the Kuiper belt. That is very far away from the Sun, but some of them also come near enough to Earth for us to see at .  

They have long "tails", because the Sun melts the ice. A comet's tail does not trail behind it, but points directly away from the Sun, because it is blown by the solar wind.

The hard centre of the comet is the *nucleus*. It is one of the blackest things (lowest albedo) in the solar system. When light shone on the nucleus of Halley's Comet, the comet reflected only 4% of the light back to us.

*Periodic* comets visit again and again. *Non-periodic* or *single-apparition* comets visit only once.

Comets sometimes break up, as Comet Biela did in the 19th century.  Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 broke up, and the pieces hit Jupiter in 1994. Some comets orbit (go around) together in groups. Astronomers think these comets are broken pieces that used to be one object.

## Famous comets 
*Halley's
*Hale-Bopp
*Shoemaker-Levy 9
*Ikeya Seki

## History of comets 
For thousands of years, people feared comets. They did not know what they were, or where they came from. Some thought that they were fireballs sent from demons or gods to destroy the earth. They said that each time a comet appeared, it would bring bad luck with it. Whenever a comet appeared, a king would die. For example, the Bayeux Tapestry shows the return of Halley's Comet and the death of a king. Comets were also known to end wars and thought to bring famine. During the Renaissance, astronomers started to look at comets with less superstition and to base their science on observations. Tycho Brahe reasoned that comets did not come from the earth, and his measurements and calculations showed that comets must be six times farther than the earth is from the moon.

Edmond Halley reasoned that some comets are periodic, that is, they appear again after a certain number of years, and again and again. This led to the first prediction of a comet's return, Halley's Comet, named after him.

Isaac Newton also studied comets. He realised that comets make U-turns around the sun. He asked his friend Edmond Halley to publish this in his book *Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica*. Before Newton said this, people believed that comets go in to the sun, then another comes out from behind the sun. 

In later years, some astronomers thought comets were spit out by planets, especially Jupiter.

All this new information and research gave people confidence, but some still thought that comets were messengers from the gods. One 18th century vision said that comets were the places that hell was, where souls would ride, being burned up by the heat of the sun and frozen by the cold of space.

In modern times, space probes have visited comets to learn more about them.

## Related pages
*List of comets

## Other websites 
*Are Comets Made of Antimatter?
Cheese

**Cheese** is a dairy product that is made from milk from many different animals. There are many types of cheese, such as cheddar, Swiss, and provolone. 

Many things affect the form, texture, color and flavor of a cheese. These include the milk (cow or goat), if the milk has been pasteurized, the amount of butterfat, bacteria and mold in the cheese, how the cheese is made, how much fat is in the cheese, and how old the cheese is.

## Origin 
People have been making cheese since before history was written down. It is not known when cheese was first made, but is known that cheese was eaten by the Sumerians in about 4000 BC. 
## Classification 
There are many different ways to classify cheeses. Some ways include:

* How long the cheese was aged 
* The texture of the cheese. These include Hard, Soft and Softer.
* How the cheese was made
* how tasty the cheese is.
* What type of milk was used to make the cheese. This is mainly what animal the milk comes from, such as cows, sheep, and goats. The diet of the animal can also affect the type of cheese made from its milk.
* How much fat is in the cheese
* What color the cheese is (common colors are yellow, and white)

There are also man-made foods that some people use instead of cheese. These are called Cheese analogues.

Different types of cheese include:

File:La Fourrière (cheese).jpg|A heart-shaped goat milk cheese from France.
File:Feta Cheese.jpg|Feta cheese
File:Parmigiano-Reggiano from Osteria Ristorante Italiano.jpg|Paremesan Cheese
File:Swiss cheese and garlic cheese.jpg|Emmental and Boursin cheese
File:Crumbly cheese.jpg|Crumbly cheese
File:Brie Cheese and German Beechwood Smoked cheese.jpg|Smoked cheese and Brie Cheese
File:A Swiss Cheese at home.jpg|Swiss Cheese
File:Bleu de Gex.jpg|Bleu de Gex Blue Cheese
File:A big blue cheese.jpg|Gorgonzola Cheese
File:A Pecorino cheese plate at Hong Kong.jpg|Pecorino cheese
File:Camembert cheese.jpg|Camembert cheese
File:Mozzarella cheese ball with cherry tomatoes and basil.jpg|Mozzarella Cheese 
File:Le Cendrillon Alexis de Portneuf.jpg|Le Cendrillon Alexis de Portneuf
File:Berkswell cheese.jpg|Berkswell Cheese
File:Parmigiano-Reggiano in hk.jpg|Parmigiano-Reggiano
File:Époisses cheese.JPG|Époisses 
File:Blue Cheese plate from Nicholini's.jpg|Blue Cheese 
File:Cacio cavallo with slices.jpg|Cacio Cavallo 
File:Edam cheese with knife.jpg|Edam Cheese
File:12 month manchego cheese plate with nuts.jpg|Manchego 
File:Rians Goat Cheese with Ash in Supermarket.jpg|Goat Milk Cheese 

## References
## Other websites
Constitution

's stele shows him receiving the laws of Babylon from the seated sun deity.]]

The **constitution** of a country (or a state) is a special type of law document that tells how its government is supposed to work. Every country has its own constitution, it tells how the country's leaders are to be chosen and how long they get to stay in office, how new laws are made and old laws are to be changed or removed based on law, what kind of people are allowed to vote and what other rights they are guaranteed, and how the constitution can be changed.

Limits are put on the Government in how much power they have within the Constitution *(see Rule of Law )*. On the other hand, countries with repressive or corrupt governments frequently do not stick to their constitutions, or have bad constitutions without giving freedom to citizens and others. This can be known as dictatorship or simply "bending the rules". A Constitution is often a way of uniting within a Federation.

The UK's constitution is not written in one single  like many other countries' are. In fact, the UK's constitution is not completely written down at all. Some of it can be found in writing, starting with Magna Carta of 1215 and the Bill of Rights Act 1689 and including more modern Acts of Parliament. Other parts of it are considered common law and are made up of the decisions of judges over many hundreds of years in a system called legal or judicial precedence. Because of this, some people say that the United Kingdom has a *de facto* or "unwritten" constitution.
 
The United States in 1787 began a trend in the writing of constitutions. The United States Constitution is also the shortest that people are still using, and it has been changed (amended) many times over the years. It was made after the colonists won their independence from Britain. At first they had the Articles of Confederation but the Articles were replaced with today's Constitution.

The Indian constitution of 1950 is the longest ever written constitution in the world. It originally consisted of 395 Articles arranged under 22 Parts and 8 Schedules. As of 2021, it has 470 Articles, 12 schedules, and 25 Parts with 5 appendices and 98 amendments.

## Related pages
* Constitutional law
* Constitutionalism
* Constitutional convention
* Constitutional economics
* Democracy
* International law
* Jurisprudence
* Rule of law
* Social contract
* US Constitution

## References
Capitalization

**Capitalization** (North American spelling), or **capitalisation** (British spelling), is a process to make one letter or more uppercase. The first letter of a sentence is capitalised in many languages, as are the first letters of proper nouns such as names of people and places. In German, however, all nouns are capitalized.

In the Latin alphabet, which is used in English, these are the uppercase or capital letters or majuscules:

A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z

These are the lowercase or small letters or minuscules:

a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z

The homonym "(to) capitalize" is a different word and it means "to fully fund as an investment".

## Names of capitalization styles 
There are many ways to use capitalization and they have names.

### Sentence case 
"The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog."

**Sentence case** is the standard case used in English prose and in many other languages. Only the first word is capitalized, except for proper nouns and other words which are generally capitalized by a more specific rule.

### Title case 
"."

When something is written in **title case** (also known as **capital case** or **headline style**), all words are capitalized, except for certain minor words, such as "the", "of" or "and".

### All caps 
""

When something is written in **all caps** (or **all-caps**), every single letter is uppercase, with no exceptions.

### Camel case 
**Camel case** (or **CamelCase**) is the practice of writing compound words or phrases so that each next word or abbreviation is capitalized. It can either start with a lowercase or uppercase letter. Common examples are PowerPoint or iPhone.
Cube

A **cube** is a type of polyhedron with all right angles and whose height, width and depth are all the same. It is a type of rectangular prism, which is itself a type of hexahedron.

A cube is one of the simplest mathematical shapes in space. Something that is shaped like a cube can be called *cubic*.
Surface area of cube=6l^2
Lateral Surface area of cube=4l^2
Volume of cube=l^3

 cube.]]

## Relative 2-dimensional shape 
The basic difference between a cube and a square is, a cube is a 3D figure (having 3 dimensions) i.e. length, breadth and height while a square has only 2 dimensions i.e. length and breadth.
The 2-dimensional (2D) shape (like a circle, square, triangle, etc.) that a cube is made of is squares. The sides (faces) of a cube are squares. The edges are straight lines. The corners (vertices) are at right angles.  A cube has 8 corners, 12 edges and 6 faces, as in the most usual kind of dice. A tesseract carries this idea into the fourth dimension (4D) and is made of 8 cubes.

## Volume 
* The volume of a cube is the length of any one of the edges (they are all the same length so it does not matter which edge is used) *cubed*. 
* This means you multiply the number by itself, and then by itself again. 
* If the edge is named 'd' (See Diagram), the equation would be this: Volume=d×d×d (or Volume=d3).

## Cube-shaped figures 
* Dice
* Boxes
Dublin

**Dublin** () is the capital city of the Republic of Ireland, and the biggest city on the island of Ireland. In 2022, there were over 2.13 million people living in the Greater Dublin Area.

Dublin was built by the Vikings upon the river Liffey. The river divides the city into two parts, North Dublin and South Dublin.

Many famous writers lived in Dublin. Oscar Wilde and George Bernard Shaw were born in Dublin. James Joyce is probably Dublin's best known and most international writer.

Dublin is home to Ireland's largest stadium for all sports, Croke Park. It can hold up to 85,000 people. Croke Park is the usual venue for all Ireland hurling and football finals. The Aviva Stadium hosts rugby and soccer.

## Notes
## References
## Other websites 
* "The Reflecting City"
* Dublin GDP stats 
* WikiSatellite view of Dublin at WikiMapia
* The Dublin Community Blog
* Satellite map of Dublin - Including local geographic features.
* Dublin - Tourist information.
Christian

A **Christian** () is a person who believes in Christianity, an Abrahamic monotheistic religion. Christianity is mostly about the life and teachings of Jesus Christ, in the Bible's New Testament and interpreted or prophesied in the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament. Christianity is the world's largest religion, with 2.1 billion followers around the world.

Other Christians use the word in a narrower way and apply it only to people who actively follow the teachings of Jesus and shape their life by Christian faith. In some Christian movements, especially Fundamentalism and Evangelicalism, a person is called a **born-again Christian** when they believe the Bible’s message about Jesus and commit themselves to that belief, and are willing to live in ways most people find strange or unacceptable.

There are also differences between major Christian traditions. Many Protestants believe that all Christians are part of the spiritual church of Christ, whether or not they regularly attend a local church. In contrast, Catholic teaching in the past emphasized that the Roman Catholic Church was the one true church. These views continue to shape how different groups understand what it means to be a Christian.

## Who is a Christian?
The question of "Who is a Christian?" can be very difficult. Christians often disagree over this due to their differences in opinion on spiritual matters. In countries where most persons were baptized in the state church or the majority Christian church, the term "Christian" is a default label for citizenship or for "people like us".
In this context, religious or ethnic minorities can use "Christians" or "you Christians" as a term for majority members of society who do not belong to their group - even in a very secular (though formally Christian) society.

Persons who are more devoted to their Christian faith prefer not to use the word so broadly. They only use it to refer to those who are active in their Christian religion and really believe the teachings of Jesus and their church.  In some Christian movements (especially Fundamentalism and Evangelicalism), to be a **born-again Christian** is to undergo a "spiritual rebirth" by believing in the Bible's teachings about Jesus and choosing to follow him.

## Church life
Many Christians choose to go to church. Most Christians believe this to be a sign of their religious devotion to God and an act of worship. However, some Christian groups think that one can be a Christian without ever going to a church.  Though there are many different viewpoints on the issue, most Protestants believe all Christians are part of the spiritual church of Christ, whether or not those Christians go to an actual church each week. On the other hand, Catholics in the past have believed that their Roman Catholic Church is the only true church.

## Related pages
* Christianity
* Religion
* Salvation (Christianity)

## References
Dissolution of the monasteries

's visitors leaving a monastery. People think this could be Colchester Abbey, after it was ruined.'']]

The **dissolution of the monasteries** was an event that happened from 1536 to 1540, when English King Henry VIII took away the land and money that the nuns and monks of the Roman Catholic church owned. Henry VIII then gave this land and money to people that supported him.

This was also when Henry VIII made himself the new head of the Church of England (which is a type of Christianity). Parliament made the Act of Supremacy to give him the right to do both these things. It was part of the Protestant Reformation in England.
Dutton's Speedwords

**Dutton Speedwords** is a made-up language written by Reginald John Garfield Dutton. The idea of **Dutton Speedwords** is to make frequent words short, and very frequent words very short. **Dutton Speedwords** can be used as a second language for international communications. Dutton Speedwords is also a shorthand writing system – this means you can use it to write quickly. 

The method was made up by Reginald John Garfield Dutton (1886-1970) in 1922. It was first published in 1935. It was called *International Symbolic Script*. A year later, it was called *Speedwords*. It was changed in 1946 and 1951.

It has two uses; to be a language and to be used for writing quickly. Dutton hoped that this would mean more people would learn it because they could use it for two reasons.

The books that Dutton wrote about Speedwords are not printed anymore. But Speedwords is now being used by more people because they find it is good for working online. For example, it makes it faster to type an email.

Another way of writing quickly is Pitman's shorthand. This uses special symbols instead of letters. Speedwords uses Roman letters. This makes it easier to learn. It also means it can be typed using a normal keyboard. Each word means only one thing. This means you do not need to use different forms of the same word.

The words used in Speedwords are the same as the words used in many other languages. The words are like short versions of the writer's own language.

## Other websites 
* overview of Speedwords by Richard K Harrison 1994
Devil

meeting the Devil in an illustration created around 1460]]
 and a tail]]
In some religions and mythology, the **Devil** (also called the **God of Darkness** or **Dark God**) is an evil spirit, deity, demon, or other supernatural being that tries to create problems for people and distance them from God. In some cultures, the Devil is seen as the embodiment of evil. He is often depicted with red skin, horns, and a tail.

Some people also use the word "Satan" for the most powerful devil. 

## Etymology 
The word "devil" comes from the Greek word "diabolos", which means "someone who tells lies to hurt you". ("Diabolos" is translated to the English word "slanderer.") The New Testament uses "diabolos" as a title for Satan, so "the Devil" became another name for Satan in English.

The Old Testament talks about the **Serpent** and **Satan the Evil One**, who may be two different characters. "Satan" in Hebrew means "adversary", which is a word for an enemy or opponent. Shaitan is also a word used for the Devil in the Koran, who often appears as an animal and tries to get people to do the wrong thing.

## Appearances in religions 
### Christianity 
According to the Christian Bible, the Devil wanted to be a deity who was independent from God. Therefore, a war in heaven started and the angels battled. The Devil lost the battle and was thrown out of heaven. Then he started doing bad things on Earth, and wanted people to worship him instead of God. Sometimes he tries to trick people by giving them false promises.

The other angels who were thrown out of heaven became evil spirits called demons. They obey the Devil and help him do evil things. 

In the Bahá'í Faith, the Devil as a malevolent, supernatural entity is not believed to exist. These terms do, however, appear in the Bahá'í writings, where they are instead used as metaphors for the lower nature of man.

## Arts 
Artists draw pictures of the Devil that show him as ugly and evil. However, in the Bible, no description of Satan is ever given. 

Believers in the Devil say he is usually a spirit that nobody can see, though he can make himself look like a human in order to trick people. Many modern depictions of the Devil portray him as a red human-like being with horns and a pointed tail, carrying a red pitchfork or trident.

## References
Cytology

**Cytology** is the study of the cells, especially their appearance and structure. Cells are the small parts that make up all living things, and their effects on each other and their environment.

There are two types of cells. Prokaryotic cells do not have a clear and easy-to-see nucleus, and do not have a membrane, or wall, around them. Eukaryotic cells have an easy-to-see nucleus where all of the cell's functions take place, and a membrane around them. The main organelles of a cell and their uses are: 
* Mitochondria: produces energy for the cell
* Endoplasmic reticulum: makes proteins and carbohydrates for the cell to use
* Golgi bodies: store and package products that the cell uses
* Plastid (present in plant cells only): contains chemicals needed to photosynthesize (create energy from sunlight); in plants only.
* Nucleus: directs the actions of the cell
* Centrosomes: guides the cell in mitosis and meiosis, the processes for cell division.

## Related pages
*Cell biology is mostly about how cells work, and about cell division and molecular biology.
*Histology deals with techniques for looking at tissues under a microscope.
*Cytopathology is a medical discipline that deals with techniques for looking at cells under a microscope.
Dimension

, the cube, and the tesseract. The square is a 2-dimensional object, the cube is a 3-dimensional object, and the tesseract is a 4-dimensional object.  A 1-dimensional object is just a line.  A projection of the cube is given since it is viewed on a two-dimensional screen. The same applies to the tesseract, which additionally can only be shown as a projection even in three-dimensional space.]]

**Dimensions** are the way we see, measure and experience our world, by using up and down, right to left, back to front, hot and cold, how heavy and how long, as well as more advanced concepts from mathematics and physics. One way to define a dimension is to look at the degrees of freedom, or the way an object can move in a specific space. There are different concepts or ways where the term dimension is used, and there are also different definitions. There is no definition that can satisfy all concepts. 

In a vector space V (with vectors being "arrows" with directions), the dimension of V, also written as \dim(V), is equal to the cardinality (or number of vectors) of a basis of V (a set which indicates how many unique directions V actually has). It is also equal to the number of the largest group of straight line directions of that space. "Normal" objects in everyday life are specified by three dimensions, which are usually called length, width and depth. Mathematicians call this concept Euclidean space.

Dimensions can be used to measure position too. The distance to a position from a starting place can be measured in the length, width and height directions. These distances are a measure of the position.

In some occasions, a fourth (4D) dimension, time, is used to show the position of an event in time and space.

## Other Dimensions
In modern science, people use other dimensions. Dimensions like temperature and weight can be used to show the position of something in less simple spaces. Scientist study those dimensions with dimensional analysis.

Mathematicians also use dimensions. In mathematics, dimensions are more general. Dimensions in mathematics might not measure things in the world. The rules for doing arithmetic with dimensions in mathematics might be different than usual arithmetic rules.

## Dimensions and vectors
Vectors are used to show distances and directions. Vectors are often used in engineering and science, and sometimes in mathematics.

A vector is a list of numbers. There is one number for each dimension. There are arithmetic rules for vectors.

For example, if Jane wants to know the position of Sally, Sally can give Jane a vector to show the position. If Jane and Sally are in the world, there are three dimensions. Therefore, Sally gives Jane a list of three numbers to show her position. The three numbers in the vector Sally gives Jane might be:
# Sally's distance north of Jane
# Sally's distance east of Jane
# Sally's height above Jane

## Related pages 
* 3D
* 4D
* Hypercube, generalization of square and cube beyond three dimensions
* Minkowski spacetime, a four-dimensional manifold
* Space-time

## References
Distance

**Distance** is how far one thing is from another thing. It is also a measure of the space between two things. It can be measured along any path. Thus, someone who goes around in a circle has traveled a distance, even though his position has not changed.

In geometry, the distance between two points *A* and *B* is sometimes written as \overline{AB}. Pythagorean theorem is often used in the calculation of distance. Distance is a scalar, and thus is different from displacement.  Displacement is a vector that measures distance with a straight line (and in only one path). Displacement is the shortest way to travel the distance.

## Examples 
* One ball is 5 feet from another ball. The distance between the two balls is 5 feet.
* John walks at a speed of 6 kilometres per hour for one hour. John walks a distance of 6 kilometres. 
* A circle is a curved line. Each point on the circle is the same distance from the centre of the circle.

## Related pages 
* Euclidean distance
* Norm (mathematics)

## References
Depth

In math, the distance between the nearest end and the farthest end of an  is its **depth**.

For example, the depth of a box can be measured. When the distance between one end of the box and another end of the box is found, the box's depth was measured.

## Depth in Liquids 
For liquids, the distance between the top or surface of the liquid and the bottom of the liquid is the liquid's depth.

For example, water is a liquid. If a container is filled with water, the distance between the top of the water and the bottom of the container is the water's depth.  If the depth is big, the water is **deep**. 

## Related pages 
* Volume
* Geometry
* Width
* Height
* Length

## References
Definition

A **definition** in language explains what a word or phrase means. *Defining* means giving a definition. 

Other words with this meaning are ''* and *explanation''. They describe what a word means and explains to the person when and where it can be used.

In mathematics, a definition is an exact way of saying what a mathematical concept is. It might not be the easiest way to say what it is, but it is used because it is exact. It can be used in a mathematical proof.
Embassy

embassy in Riga]]

A foreign **embassy** is the official office of one country in another. It is usually in the capital city of the other country. It is where the ambassador and other representatives of the home country work. Much of the diplomacy (talk) between the two governments happens there.  They represent their country to the host government. The embassy represents the interests of the entire country and is fully responsible for the relationship between the two countries. 

The head of the embassy is usually an ambassador, but can also be a minister, high commissioner, or other level of diplomatic personnel appointed by the sending country to represent it.
Experiment

An **experiment** is a test of an idea or a . It is often used by scientists and engineers. An experiment is used to see how well the idea matches the real world. Experiments have been used for many years to help people understand the world around them. Experiments are part of scientific method. Many experiments are **controlled experiments** or even blind experiments. Many are done in a laboratory. But thought experiments are done in mind.

Experiments can tell us if a theory is false, or if something does not work. They cannot tell us if a theory is true. When Einstein said that gravity could affect light, it took a few years before astronomers could test it. General relativity predicts that the path of light is bent in a gravitational field; light passing a massive body is deflected towards that body. This effect has been confirmed by observing the light of stars or distant quasars being deflected as it passes the Sun.

Now, a hundred years or so after Einstein published his ideas, there have been many tests, all of which have been consistent with Einstein's predictions. But, one day, we might find the theory has some limits beyond which it does not work. What we test are implications of the theory, because the theory itself is too large and complicated to test all at once.

:"The universe does not tell us when we are right, only when we are wrong". – Karl Popper

## Controlled experiments
A controlled experiment is a kind of comparison. It often compares the results from experimental samples against control samples. Control samples are the same as the experimental sample, except for one difference. This difference is the one thing whose effect is being tested (the independent variable). A good example would be a drug trial. The sample or group receiving the drug would be the experimental group (treatment group); and the one receiving the placebo or an older treatment would be the control group.

## Difference with observational study
An observational study is used when an experiment would be difficult, unethical, or expensive. Observational studies are not experiments. Experiments can control for other variables, and it allows the researchers to change something. Observational studies often do not have random samples, and they often have many variables.

## Famous experiments 
* Galileo Galilei did some experiments about free fall (1623)
* Benjamin Franklin showed that lightning is a form of electricity (1752)
* The Michelson–Morley experiment proved a flaw in old physics, and prompted Einstein's work (1887)
* Ivan Pavlov did some experiments about the classical conditioning of dogs (1927)
* The Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment proved DNA was the molecule which caused heredity (1944)
* Stanley Milgram showed that people follow orders; this became known as the Milgram experiment (1961)

## References 
* Shadish, William R; Cook, Thomas D. & Campbell, Donald T. 2002. *Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for generalized causal inference*. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 

## Related pages 
*Experimental physics
*Experimental psychology
Einstein on the Beach

***Einstein on the Beach*** is an opera written by the minimalist composer Philip Glass and theater director and designer Robert Wilson. It was first acted for an audience in Avignon, France in 1976. 

It is a single act opera, about five hours long with no intermission. Because of the length and the minimalist (repetitive) nature of the music, audience members are free to enter and leave the opera as they wish. Glass's music tends to cycle round, but does not exactly repeat itself. Admittedly, he has described himself as a composer of "music with repetitive structures". Though his earlier music fits what is normally called "minimalist", he has since evolved stylistically.

## References
English

**English** can mean:
* From or about the country England
* English people
* English language
* The Amish word for somebody who is not in their group
* Avoirdupois, a system of measurement sometimes called "English".
* English opening, a chess opening
* English, Indiana, the county seat of Crawford County
Ethnic group

An **ethnic group** is a group of people who are considered to be the same in some or multiple ways. They may all have the same ancestors, speak the same language, or have the same culture, which could sometimes include religion. They often live in the same or surrounding area.

Sometimes almost all of the people in one country are of the same ethnic group, but not always. Often one country may have several different ethnic groups, or the people of one ethnic group may live in several different countries.

The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights ensures the rights of ethnic groups in Article 27 and also gives them the right to use their own language.

An example of an ethnic group is the Slavic peoples and Roma people.

## Related terms 
* Supraethnicity or supra-ethnicity: a grouping of several interrelated ethnicities that have similar but unique cultures.

## Related pages 
* Ethnic groups of the United States
* Minority group

## References