open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Mount Elbrus

**Mount Elbrus** (, , ) is a peak in the western Caucasus mountains and one of Seven Summits. It is in Kabardino-Balkaria and Karachay-Cherkessia, Russia, near the border of Georgia. It consists of two peaks. The western peak has a height of , the eastern peak is  high.

Mount Elbrus is an inactive volcano, with a glacier on top. The western peak still has a crater with a diameter of about . No eruptions have been recorded, but there are other signs of volcanic activity, namely hot springs in the area. The last eruption happened in the first century.

Mount Elbrus is the highest mountain in the Caucasus range, and the highest one on Russian soil. Mount Elbrus is about  taller than Mont Blanc, which is commonly seen as the highest peak in Europe. The Caucasus range is generally seen as the border between Europe and Asia. People disagree on which mountains of the Caucasus are in Europe, and which ones are in Asia. A common view is to use the watershed as the boundary line. If this definition is used, Mount Elbrus is in Europe, and its highest mountain.

## Other websites 
*Mount Elbrus on TierraWiki.org 
*"Elbrus, Mount." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14 Nov. 2006 .
*Computer generated summit panoramas North  South  index. There are a few discontinuities due to incomplete data. Politically the Caucasus are in Europe but topographically they are in Asia.
* NASA Earth Observatory pages on Mount Elbrus: http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_id=15340 , http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_id=10817 
* Mount Elbrus live webcam  (view from Mount Cheget) (the web cam is not working)
* Climbing Mount Elbrus information 
* Elbrus Photos (Hundreds of large photographs of Mt. Elbrus and the vicinity)
* A trip report 
## References
Sandoz

Today **Sandoz** is a standalone company having broken away from Novartis in 2023. It is a big pharmaceutical firm in Switzerland. Today, Sandoz produces many drugs whose patents have run out (so called generic drugs). The original company, which was founded in 1886, is known for several things:
*It invented saccharin in 1899. Saccharin is an artificial sweetener, a substitute for sugar. Artificial sweeteners are used in many *Light*-products today.
*It invented LSD in 1938
Reductio ad absurdum

***Reductio ad absurdum*** is a Latin phrase which means "reduction to the absurd". The phrase describes a kind of indirect proof. It is a proof by , and is a common form of argument. It shows that a statement is true because its  leads to a contradiction, or a false or absurd result. It is a way of reasoning that has been used throughout the history of mathematics and philosophy from classical antiquity onwards. The method is used a number of times in ''Euclid's Elements*.

## Method
*Reduction ad absurdum* can be a tool of discovery.

The method of proving something works by first assuming something about it. Then other things are deduced from that. If there is a contradiction, it shows that the first something cannot be correct.  For example, 

:To prove **A** is , , ,  ....
::Assume the opposite --  that "not-**A**" is true....
::Assume that if "not-**A**" is true, then it must mean or  **B**.
::Show that **B** is , , ,  ...
:Therefore, **A** must be true after all.

## Related pages
* Mathematical proof
* Proof by induction
* Straw man
* Boltzmann brain

## References
## Other websites 
* Conditional Proof and *Reductio ad Absurdum''
Artificial sweetener

.]]
An **artificial sweetener** or **sugar substitute** is a chemical. It is added to some foods to make them taste sweet. It is made to taste like sugar or corn syrup. Usually it has a much lower energy value than sugar. It can be found in many products which say *Light* or *Diet* in their name. 

Consumers use artificial sweeteners for one of the following reasons:
*Diabetes mellitus - People with diabetes have problems regulating their sugar levels in the blood. Artificial sweeteners are better for them than sugar.
*Reactive hypoglycemia - This is a condition similar to diabetes. People who suffer from it therefore often use artificial sweeteners.
*Some people think that artificial sweeteners can help them *lose weight*. A  study at the university showed, however, that those people using artificially sweetened drink are more likely to become obese than those who do not.
*Dental hygiene – sugar substitutes are tooth-friendly, as they are not fermented by the microflora of the dental plaque.

## Problems
Studies done with animals have shown that artificial sweeteners cause weight gain. A sweet taste causes insulin to be produced. This will store some of the sugar in the blood in tissues, including fat. With artificial sweeteners, the amount of sugar in the blood does not increase. This means that there will be too little sugar in the blood. This is known as hypoglycemia. On the next meal, more food will be eaten to get the blood sugar level back to normal values. 
After a while, rats given sweeteners have steadily increased the amount of calories. This increased body weight, and adiposity (fatness). The natural response to eating sugary foods is to eat less at the next meal and to use some of the extra energy to warm the body after the meal. When using artificial sweeteners, this effect is lost gradually.

## References
Independent movie

An **independent movie**, or **independent film** (often called **indie film**), is the name usually given to a movie that is made by a small movie studio for not much money. Sometimes the name is used for art films; which are less expensive and often have less plot. Independent movies are being made (produced) more as the technology needed, such as cameras and editing-software, is becoming less expensive. Movies like *Reservoir Dogs*, *American History X*, *The Basketball Diaries* and the documentary *Bowling for Columbine* are independent because they were made for little money and by small studios.
Cats (musical)

***Cats*** is a musical. It is based on ''Old Possum's Book of Practical Cats'', a book of poems by T.S. Eliot. Trevor Nunn wrote the lyrics for the song, "Memory", which  is based on some of T.S Eliot's poems. Andrew Lloyd Webber wrote the music.

*Cats* premiered at the New London Theatre in the West End on 11 May 1981. It closed on 11 May 2002 after 8,949 performances. It opened on Broadway on 7 October 1982 at the Winter Garden Theatre. It closed on 10 September 2000, after 7,485 performances.

The musical won the 1982 Laurence Olivier Award for Best New Musical and the 1983 Tony Award for Best Musical.

## Plot
Every year, a swing choral tribe of cats known as the Jellicle Cats meet in a junkyard of the Russell Hotel for a family reunion at the Jellicle Ball. Old Deuteronomy Jellicle, who is the choirmaster of the tribe, chooses one cat to ascend to the Heaviside layer to be reborn and return to a new life. 
Grizabella Jellicle, an elderly (younger in some productions) glamour cat who left the junkyard, comes back to her tribe, but they shun her.  While the other cats dance at the Jellicle Ball, Grizabella watches in the background. She performs a simple dance when the other cats leave and sings about how she wants to be accepted. Old Deutoronomy sees this and sympathizes with her.
In act two, Old Deuteronomy gets kidnapped by Macavity Jellicle, a mystery cat who is the only true antagonist in the musical. As soon as he is successfully returned, it is time to choose who goes to the Heaviside layer. 
Grizabella is chosen, and she is taken on a tire to fly into the Heaviside layer.
Provinces of the Dominican Republic

: *See also: Ranked list of Dominican Provinces*
The Dominican Republic has thirty-one (31) provinces (in Spanish, *provincias*). The President of the Republic appoints a Civil Governor (*Gobernador Civil*) in every province. The only function of the Governor is to represent the President of the Republic in the province.

The people who live in the province elect one Senator (*Senador*) and at least two (2) Representatives (*Diputados*) for the National Congress.

The National District (*Distrito Nacional*) is similar to a province but without a Civil Governor and with only one municipality, Santo Domingo de Guzmán, the national capital.

There are two (2) or more municipalities (in Spanish and in singular, *municipio*) in every province. The municipalities are governed by municipal councils and mayors elected by popular vote. The municipal districts (in Spanish and in singular, *distrito municipal*) are subdivisions of some municipalities ruled by a municipal council and a mayor.

The Dominican Republic has 154 municipalities and 202 municipal districts.

The following is a table of the provinces and their capital cities. Population figures in the following table are from the 2010 census.

## References 
## Other websites 
* Political Database of the Americas - Dominican 2002 Constitution 
* Oficina Nacional de Estadística, Statistics Portal of the Dominican Republic
Flower power

"**Flower power**" was a 1960s slogan, used by hippies and other people who were against war and violence. It was a symbol of passive resistance and non-violence ideology.

These people used flowers as a symbol of life, of love, and of peace. They wore flowers, made art with flowers and images of them, and gave them away often. Hippies sometimes placed flowers in the rifle barrels of marching soldiers.

Songs such as *San Francisco, Be Sure to Wear Flowers in Your Hair* by folk musicians The Mamas & the Papas were associated with flower power.

## References
Gallo language

in Rennes.]]
**Gallo** is one of the two regional languages of Brittany. It is an Oïl language of the  Romance language family, with Latin at the base. Gallo is spoken in the eastern part of Brittany.

The other regional language of Brittany is Breton, a Celtic language.

## References
Sexual assault

by artist Martin van Maele from 1905]]

**Sexual assault** is a term from law. It's when a sexual act happens between people, but one or more of the people involved do not consent.
* Groping, which is touching people in sexual ways (usually without their consent).
* Domestic violence, which can involve sexual violence.
* Elder abuse, which involves non-consensual sexual acts with an older person.
* Sexual harassment, which is a type of harassment.
Often, cases of sexual assault are not reported by victims because of social stigma.

A 2010-2011 study in the United States of 1058 people aged 14 to 21 found that 8% had sexually assaulted in their lives. In 66% of cases, no one found out and the perpetrator did not get into any trouble. 50% of perpetrators said that their victim was completely to blame. 2% had raped and 3% had tried to rape.

## References
Carriage

A **carriage** is a type of vehicle that was used before cars were invented. It is a fancy type of cart or wagon, usually with four wheels and suspension.  The carriages may be pulled by horses. Carriages are often used for weddings.

## Related pages
* British state carriages
* Japan state carriages

## References
Diethyl ether

of diethyl ether]]
**Diethyl ether** is a clear liquid chemical. It is often just called **ether**. Ether burns very easily and boils at about 35°C. It has a sweet smell and does not mix with water.

Ether was discovered in 1275. It was used in the past as a general anesthetic to make people unconscious during surgery. Now other chemicals are used because ether has side effects and can catch fire. Ether is used as a solvent by scientists for chemical reactions.

People used to take ether as a recreational drug (drugs used for fun, such as alcohol) in the 1800s. People would either drink a drink with small amounts of ether in it, just like people drink alcoholic drinks, or inhale the fumes given off by pure or nearly pure ether. This could have addicted these people to the ether if they did that often enough. It was a big problem in some places, like Ireland and Poland. It first became popular because Europeans thought it was unladylike to drink alcohol. Women would drink ether instead, as would teetotalers, people who had decided not to drink alcohol. 

It became illegal to sell ether in Poland in 1923.

Ether is made as a byproduct when ethanol is made, so it is not very expensive.
Lozi language

**Lozi**, also called **Silozi** and **Rozi**, is a Bantu language of the Niger-Congo language family.

It is spoken by the Lozi people in southwestern Zambia. It is also spoken in Zimbabwe, Botswana, and the Zambezi Region of Namibia.

## History 
The Lozi language comes from a mix of two languages: Luyana and Kololo.

## Example 
This is Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Lozi:

## References
Cargo cult

cargo cult, Tanna island, New Hebrides (now Vanuatu), 1967]]
**Cargo cult** is a name given to several religions. There are many cargo cults in Melanesia and New Guinea. These religions started when tribal societies saw Western things like radios. These things are called *cargo*. The tribespeople did not know how the things they saw worked, or how they were made.  

The tribespeople copied the things they saw the Westerners do. They did this because they hoped gods would send them more cargo. Also sometimes, for example on the island of Tanna in Vanuatu, cult members worshipped Americans who brought the cargo.

During the age of colonialism, the people came in contact with many societies who had less technology than they did. The first cargo cults were seen in New Guinea, and other countries of Micronesia, Melanesia and the West Pacific Ocean. 

The people who are part of the cargo cults think that the cargo was created by their deities and ancestors. They think that the cargo was made for the members of the cargo cult, but the foreigners have it instead. For this reason, the efforts and rituals of cargo cults are so that the foreigners get less of these goods and the cult members more of them.

## Related pages
*Vailala Madness - a cargo cult active between 1919 and 1922, possibly the first known cargo cult.
*Ghost Dance - a similar thing that happened when Native Americans saw European settlers.

## References
## Other websites
* Vanuatu cargo cult marks 50 years (BBC News)
* Information on the Jon Frum Cargo Cult (still active) 
* Contemporary Cargo Cults by John FitzGerald
* Western Oceanian Religions 
* 
* Cargo cults  includes a bibliography
* Account of a Visit to a Jon Frum Village in 2005 
* Air Force Magazine , January 1991, Vol. 74, No. 1. Summary from the guys who fly those Cargoes.
M249 light machine gun

The **M249 light machine gun** is a machine gun which is the U.S. version of the Belgian FN Minimi light machine gun, used by the United States and Lebanon. The main use of this weapon is to provide cover fire for other soldiers in a squad (or group of soldiers). The gun uses 5.56 NATO caliber ammunition.

## Overview
The M249 was made because a lot of the squadrons of the U.S. Army did not have fully automatic weapons. It has seen action in every war that the United States has been in since 1989. 

## Replacement
In the U.S. Marines, the M249 is due to be replaced by the German M27 Infantry Automatic Rifle.

## References
Gothic language

The **Gothic language** is an extinct Germanic language that was spoken by the Goths. It is the East Germanic language with the most texts surviving today. It had died out by the 8th century or perhaps the early 9th century.

Probably, one of the best known works of the language is Wulfila's translation of the Bible, known as the Wulfila Bible or *Gothic Bible* or *Codex Argenteus*. The translation was done in the 3rd century.

## Other websites 
* Project Wulfila , studies the Gothic language.

## References
Larry Sanger

**Lawrence Mark Sanger** (born July 16, 1968) is an American internet project developer. He worked with Jimmy Wales to create the online encyclopedias, Nupedia and Wikipedia before he created his own online encyclopedias Digital Universe and Citizendium. Since leaving Wikipedia, he has criticised the site for having a left-wing bias.

## Career 
Jimmy Wales, through his company Bomis, paid Sanger to help them to maintain Nupedia.

On January 2, 2001, Ben Kovitz, Larry Sanger's friend, had the idea to use a wiki to help to make Nupedia better. Larry Sanger in turn told Wales, and on January 15, 2001, Wikipedia was launched. There are different opinions on which of the three people are most responsible for Wikipedia.

In 2005, Larry Sanger created Digital Universe, an online encyclopedia like Wikipedia.

In 2006, Larry Sanger created Citizendium, another online encyclopedia. Citizendium uses the MediaWiki engine (like Wikipedia) but the rules are different. People must use their given name on Citizendium and experts are given special status in approving articles.

In December 2017, Larry Sanger joined Everipedia. He left the project in 2019.

In February 2025, Larry Sanger asked Tesla CEO Elon Musk to investigate which branches of the United States government "have employees who are paid to edit, monitor, update, or lobby on Wikipedia" and advocated that such departments "should be defunded". Musk responded, "Good idea".

## References 
## Other websites
*
Colin McRae

**Colin McRae** (5 August 1968 – 15 September 2007) was a Scottish rally car driver. He was one of the best rally drivers in the world. He died with his son and two other friends when he crashed his helicopter near his home in Lanark, Scotland.

## References
Ernest MacMillan

Sir **Ernest MacMillan** (born Mimico, Ontario, 18 August 1893; died 6 May 1973)  was a famous Canadian conductor and composer.

MacMillan's father was a Scottish Presbyterian minister and musician.  He was a child prodigy.   He gave his first organ recital in Massey Hall at the age of ten. After studying in Britain and gaining the ARCO and FRCO diplomas at the Royal College of Organists, he studied modern history at the University of Toronto from 1911 to 1914. 

## Prisoner in Germany
In 1914 he went to Europe.  He wanted to study at the Paris Conservatoire but this was closed because of the political situation.  He went on to Germany to attend the Bayreuth Festival, but World War I started and he was taken prisoner and kept at the Ruhleben civilian detention camp near Berlin.  He helped the other people who were prisoners in the camp to put on concerts.  He gave talks about classical music and conducted a performance of the Gilbert and Sullivan opera *Mikado* as well as a pantomime version of *Cinderella*.  This helped him to get experience in conducting.  He also took part in the drama productions. He studied hard and was given a BA degree from the University of Toronto (1915) and a D Mus from the University of Oxford (1918), although he was locked up in the camp all this time.

## After the war
After the war he returned to Canada where he gave organ recitals and lectured about his experiences in Ruhleben.  From 1926 to 1942 he was principal of the *Toronto Conservatory of Music*, later to become the Royal Conservatory of Music. He was the conductor of the Toronto Symphony Orchestra between 1931 and 1956.  He did a lot for music in Canada,and he was knighted in 1935 by King George V. In 1969 he was made a Companion of the Order of Canada. He died in Toronto in 1973.

When he conducted he often took the music very slowly.  This gave him the nickname "Lord Largo" ("Largo" means "slow and broad" in music).  He had an amazing musical memory and he could improvise very well.  MacMillan helped to record and preserve the traditional songs and music of Canada's aboriginal or First Nations people.  He had an important influence on almost every part of Canadian musical life.
Illyria

**Illyria** (Ancient Greek: Ἰλλυρία, Illyría or Ἰλλυρίς, Illyrís) was an ancient region in the western part of today's Balkan Peninsula in modern-day Epirus, Greece. The people who lived there were called Illyrians and spoke the Illyrian languages.

The Illyrians settled in the Balkans approximately around 2500 BC along with other Indo Europeans.

The Illyrians became heavily romanised and a portion of them evolved into modern Albanians.

## Gallery

File:Illyrii Proprie Dicti aka Illyrians Proper aka Docleatae.svg
File:Illyria and Dardania Kingdoms.png
File:Map of the Kingdom of Agron of the Ardiaei (English).png
File:KingdomofTeuta.png
File:228-220BC-DemetriusofPharos.png

## Other websites 
* Illyria region in google map
Benjamin Dale

**Benjamin Dale** (born London 17 July 1885; died London 30 July 1943) was a British composer.

Dale won many prizes at the Royal Academy of Music for composition when he was still very young.  He wrote a * Piano sonata in D minor* which shows the influence of Romantic composers such as Liszt and Schumann.  It was played by pianists such as York Bowen and  Dame Myra Hess who were becoming famous.  He wrote music for viola for Lionel Tertis to play.

He was in Germany when World War I broke out and was a prisoner in the camp at Ruhleben.  There were other musicians there, including the  Canadian Ernest MacMillan who later became a famous conductor. They organized a lot of musical events at the camp.   Ernest MacMillan gave lectures about each of the nine symphonies by Beethoven, after which he and Dale would play the whole symphony in a piano duet arrangement.

After the war he worked as an Associated Board examiner.  He became professor of harmony at the Royal Academy of Music.  He continued to compose music.  His ballade for violin was especially popular.  Dale’s music is not played much today, but there have been some attempts to make his music known again through CD recordings.
Battle of Kosovo

The **Battle of Kosovo** was a battle between Serbian forces and the Turkish Empire. The result was huge losses on both sides, delaying the Turkish advance into Europe for many years.  It is considered draw in military terms but it drained Serbia, more than the Turks, politically for long time. The Turks were able to quickly recover from this battle and immediately began capturing more territory in the Balkans.

The battle was fought on St Vitus' Day, 1389. At the time this was June 15, but is now celebrated on the June 28 as a national holiday in Serbia of their war against the Turks.

## Other websites 
* Battle of Kosovo as National Narrative by Dr. Seth Ward
* The Battle of Kosovo: Early Reports of Victory and Defeat  by Thomas Emmert
* The Kosovo Legacy by Thomas Emmert alternate URL 
* The events Surrounding the Battle of Kosovo 1389 and its cultural, traditional effect on the Serbian people  by Mark Gottfried
* The Battle of Kosovo *Serbian Epic Poems*  edited by Charles Simic Alternate URL 

## References
Vattenfall Cyclassics

The **Vattenfall Cyclassics** is a cycling race held every year in Hamburg, Germany.

It started as an unimportant race in 1996, but because cycling became very popular in Germany it was made a part of the UCI Road World Cup in 1998. Since 2005, it is a part of the UCI ProTour.

The route of the race changes, but is about 250&nbsp;km long. During a number of laps through Hamburg, the Waseberg hill is climbed a several times.  The cyclists also race over Hamburg's highest bridge Köhlbrandbrücke.  Unlike many races the Cyclassic race almost never ends in a *mass sprint*, that is, with a lot of riders close together racing to the finish line.

There is an amateur part of the Cyclassics.  Earlier on the day of the race there are three *Jedermann-Rennen*.   Anybody (*jedermann*) with a ticket can take part in these races (*rennen*) over 55&nbsp;km, 100&nbsp;km and 155&nbsp;km.  Tickets must be reserved months in advance. In 2005 there were 20000 amateurs on the course.

The sponsor of the Cyclassics, was the *Hamburg Electrizität Werke*, Hamburg electricity plant or "HEW", after it became part of the big "Vattenfall" company the Cyclassic changed its name too, and from 2006 this cycling race has been known as the **Vattenfall Cyclassics**.

## Winners
## Other websites
* Official Cyclassics site
Stoke-on-Trent

**Stoke-on-Trent** is a city in Staffordshire in the West Midlands region of England. It is also a unitary authority.

Stoke-on-Trent was the home of the pottery industry in the United Kingdom. It was a very important exporter in the late 18th, the 19th and up to about 1960. It is commonly known as The Potteries. The industry was killed off by cheap Chinese pottery after the Second World War, and by the even cheaper plastic homeware. 

Coal was its other employment. The furnaces of the kilns needed coal. Coal was also a commodity which was exported from the area.

The city is unusual in that it is made up of a cluster of six towns  Longton, Fenton, Stoke (Stoke-upon-Trent), Hanley, Burslem, and Tunstall.

Stoke-on-Trent is known for the Supermarine Spitfire, pottery, oatcakes, the spark plug, Sir Stanley Mathews, Robbie Williams, Slash, Arnold Bennett, Captain Smith and Stoke City F.C. (Stoke City is the second oldest professional football club: it was founded in 1863).

## Other websites
* Stoke-on-Trent City Council
* BBC Stoke website
* The Potteries
* Local Information from *The Sentinel* newspaper
* Staffordshire and Stoke-on-Trent Archive Service 
* Exploring the Potteries
Worcester

**Worcester** (pronounced *Wuster*) is a cathedral city and district in the West Midlands of England. It is the county town of Worcestershire, a county of England. In 2015, it had 101,328 residents.

It is about 30 miles (48 km) southwest of Birmingham and 29 miles (47 km) north of Gloucester. 

The River Severn runs through the middle of the city. Worcester Cathedral overlooks the river. 

The University of Worcester is a high ranking university located in the city.

Famous composer Edward Elgar was from Worcester. It is also where Worcestershire sauce originated.

King John of England's tomb is in Worcester, in Worcester Cathedral.

## Transport 
### Road 
The A38, A44, A422, A449, A4103, A4440 and A4538 roads pass through Worcester.

The M5 bypasses Worcester.

### Rail 
Worcester currently has three stations: Worcester Shrub Hill, Worcester Foregate Street and Worcestershire Parkway which is just outside the city and opened in 2020.

## Gallery

File:The_Guildhall,_High_Street,_Worcester.jpg |Worcester Guildhall
File:Tudor_Buildings_Friar_Street_Worcester.JPG|Tudor buildings on Friar Street
File:Worcester_Library_and_History_Centre_-_The_Hive_-_footbridge_(6364861303).jpg|Worcester Library and History Centre
File:King_George's_Fields_SO8656.jpg|King George's Fields

## References
Pierre Curie

**Pierre Curie** (15 May 1859 in Paris – 19 April 1906 in Paris) was a French physicist. He shared the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics with his wife, Marie Curie and Henri Becquerel, for the work on 'spontaneous radioactivity' which Becquerel discovered.

## Work 
Pierre Curie is not as well known as Marie Curie, although Pierre and his brother had done a lot of work before Pierre's marriage and work with Marie. They were the first to use the term 'radioactivity', and were pioneers in its study. Pierre and his brother, Jacques Curie, built a special meter for measuring small amounts of electricity, piezoelectricity and ferromagnetism which Pierre and Marie used in their other discoveries.

Pierre died after a carriage accident in Paris on 19 April 1906. His head was crushed under the wheels. If he had lived he would probably have died by radiation poisoning, as Marie did. As they were the first to study radioactivity, they did not know how dangerous it was.

After Pierre's death, a group of scientists at the Radiology Congress decided to honour him by naming the unit of radioactivity a curie.

## Children 
Pierre and Marie Curie's daughter Irène Joliot-Curie and their son-in-law Frédéric Joliot-Curie were also physicists involved in the study of radioactivity, and were also given the Nobel prize for their work. Their other daughter Ève wrote her mother's biography. His granddaughter Hélène Langevin-Joliot is a professor of nuclear physics at the University of Paris and his grandson, Pierre Joliot, who was named after him, is a noted biochemist.

## Prizes 
* Nobel Prize in Physics (1903)
* Davy Medal (1903)
* Matteucci Medal (1904)

## References 
## Other websites 
* Pierre Curie's Nobel prize 
* Official Nobel biography 
* Nobel article about Marie Curie 
* Biography American Institute of Physics 
* Annotated bibliography for Pierre Curie from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
Triton (moon)

(green), in the Solar System's outskirts, is where Triton is thought to have originated.]]
' orbit (green) in the movement's direction, and the orbit is tilted.]]

**Triton**, or **Neptune&nbsp;I**, is the largest moon of the planet Neptune. It is the seventh-largest moon in the Solar System. Triton is slightly smaller than Earth's Moon. Triton has a complicated geological history: it is thought to have a young surface compared to the age of the Solar System itself.

It was discovered by the British astronomer William Lassell on 10 October 1846, just 17 days after Neptune itself was discovered by the German astronomer Johann Gottfried Galle and Heinrich Louis d'Arrest.

Triton is believed to be a captured Kuiper Belt object, It will either collide with Neptune's atmosphere or break up, forming a ring system similar to that found around the planet Saturn.

Despite its very cold temperature, the surface of Triton is geologically active. There are events which look like geysers, volcanos and earthquakes. All the materials involved are quite different from those on Earth. Most of the gases are frozen most of the time. Gases like nitrogen are frozen until something occurs to melt them, then it turns back into a gas. A temperature increase of just 4 K () is enough to make this happen.

## Past formation and capture 
Like most TNOs, Triton is mostly icy. While Triton's orbit does help us understand its past, it is mostly unknown. It is thought that Triton formed in a binary system, like Pluto, and was moving at very high speeds. However, when it passed through Neptune's Hill sphere the other body will have been flung out, reducing Triton's speed and allowing it to be captured. Now, Triton is the most massive TNO to ever have existed, and it had effects on Neptune's moon system. All large moons were destroyed, flung out of orbit or crashed into Neptune itself.

## References 
## Other websites 
* Triton Profile  
*Triton
Mayan languages

showing the classic Mayan language written in Mayan hieroglyphs (from the 1880 Förstermann edition)]] 

The **Mayan languages** are a language family spoken in Central America and Mesoamerica. 

They are spoken by at least 6 million native Maya, mostly in Guatemala, Mexico, or Belize. In 1996, Guatemala formally recognized 21 Mayan languages by name, and Mexico recognized eight others.

The Mayan languages are some of the best documented and most studied languages in the Americas. Those spoken today come from Proto-Mayan, a language that was probably spoken at least 5000 years ago and has been partly reconstructed.

## References
Masala

**Masala** or **Massala** or **Masalo** (,  , , ) is a word used mainly in South Asian cuisine. Originally(derived from Sanskrit *मषि (maṣi)*, to mash or powder/grind to powder).It is extensively used in South Asian cooking.

## Popular dishes 
There are many different, popular spice mixtures that have been given their own name because they taste really good with one special ingredient. The dish will often use *masala* in its name. Some popular dishes are:

* Masala Chai: tea flavoured with a special blend of spices
* Chicken tikka masala: pieces of chicken cooked using a special blend of spices; very popular in the United Kingdom & Ireland
* Chana Masala: a chickpea dish flavoured with a special mix of spices
* Maggi masala noodles: a brand of noodles with a packet of dried spices for flavouring; very popular in India

The blend of spices or *masala* for these dishes is often sold in markets or packed by companies to be sold in shops. Some spice blends, like Garam Masala, are so popular that they are used in many different dishes.

India is among a few countries with the highest variety in masalas. Around 70% of the world's spice business and exports are handled by India.

## Other websites
Soconusco

**Soconusco** is a region of the Mexican state of Chiapas. It is in the most southern part of the state. It borders the Republic of Guatemala on the southeast, the regions Costa, Sierra and Fraylesca of Chiapas on the east and north, and the shore of the Pacific Ocean on the southwest. It is a region of rich lowlands and foothills. The economic center of Soconusco is Tapachula.

The name comes from the Nahuatl word *xoconostle*, meaning the fruit of the prickly pear cactus. It was, under the Mexican culture, the farthest region of trade. The area provided jaguar pelts, cacao, and quetzal feathers for the ruling classes in the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan.     

The Soconusco region is the main coffee-producing region in Chiapas. It has many plantations farther inland in the foothills of the Sierra Madre del Sur.
Urbanism

**Urbanism** is the study of cities. Urbanists look at the different factors present in a city. A city is different from rural areas. There are certain things than make people come to a city, to live and work there. There are also certain factors, like where the city is located, that have an influence on the economic, social and cultural development of that city.

## Related pages
*Urban history
*Urban planning
*World Urbanism Day
Hindustani language

**Hindustani** is an Indo-Aryan language. It is widely spoken in India and Pakistan. It is written in Devanagari and Nastaliq. The Devanagari variety is commonly called *Hindi* or *Hindui*. The Nastaliq variety is commonly called *Urdu* or *Lashkari*. There also is a Braille version, called Bharati Braille.

Because the English languge is important in the region, the Hindustani language is sometimes written using the Latin script. These transliterations are called Romainzed Urdu, and Roman Hindi. 

Hindi and Urdu use different alphabets, but the grammar and pronounciation is almost the same. For this reason, the languages are mutually intelligible. Two peole will understand each other, when one of them speaks Urdu, and the other Hindi. As both languages use different writing systems, this may not be the case for written texts. 

## References
## Other websites
*History of Hindustani  JustPedia
Deadwood (TV series)

***Deadwood*** is an American dramatic television series. It was first shown in March 2004 on HBO. The series is a Western set in the 1870s in Deadwood, South Dakota. At the time, Deadwood was little more than a camp, but it was a popular place to go for those searching for gold in the Black Hills. The series shows Deadwood's growth from camp to town. It deals with ideas ranging from the creation of communities to western capitalism.

*Deadwood* features many historical people. For example, Wild Bill Hickok, Seth Bullock, Sol Star, Calamity Jane, Al Swearengen, Wyatt Earp, E. B. Farnum, Charlie Utter and George Hearst have all been used in the series. The stories that deal these characters include historical truths as well as fictional parts. Some of the characters are fully fictional, but they may have been based on actual persons.

The series was created by David Milch (*NYPD Blue*). He was also executive producer and head writer of the show. The theme music was written by David Schwartz.

The third and final season ended on August 27, 2006.

## Other websites 
*HBO's *Deadwood*
*
Chiapas

**Chiapas** is the southernmost state of Mexico. It is towards the southeast of the country. Chiapas is bordered by the states of Tabasco to the north, Veracruz to the northwest, and Oaxaca to the west. To the east Chiapas borders Guatemala, and to the south the Pacific Ocean. 

Chiapas has an area of . The 2005 census population was 4,293,459 people.

In general Chiapas has a humid, tropical weather. In the north, in the area bordering Tabasco, near Teapa, rainfall can be more than 3,000&nbsp;mm (118&nbsp;in) per year . In the past, natural vegetation at this region was lowland, tall perennial rainforest, but this vegetation has been destroyed almost completely to give way to agriculture and ranching. Rainfall decreases moving towards the Pacific Ocean, but it is still abundant enough to allow the farming of bananas and many other tropical crops near Tapachula. On the several parallel "sierras" or mountain ranges running along the center of Chiapas, climate can be quite temperate and foggy. This allows the development of cloud forests like those of the Reserva de la Biosfera el Triunfo, home to a handful of quetzals and horned guans.

The state capital is Tuxtla Gutiérrez. Other cities and towns in Chiapas include San Cristóbal de las Casas, Comitán, and Tapachula. Chiapas is also home to the ancient Maya ruins of Palenque, Yaxchilan, Bonampak, Chinkultic, and Tonina.

Most people in Chiapas are poor, rural small farmers. About one quarter of the population are of full or predominant Maya descent, and in rural areas many do not speak Spanish. The state suffers from the highest rate of malnutrition in Mexico. This rate is estimated to affect over 40% of the population.

Other social issues involve the increasing presence of the Central American gangs known as Maras, and illegal immigration from Central America in general. This migration is mostly directed towards the United States, but it makes local poverty even worse. Many times, there are abuse and Human Rights violations that touch these migrants.

In 1994, there was an outbreak of violence between the Mexican Government and the Zapatista Army of National Liberation (the EZLN or Zapatistas). Today, the EZLN (Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional, named in honour of Emiliano Zapata) has rejected the use of force and seek to be recognized as a voice of the poor. There are currently 32 "rebel autonomous zapatista municipalities" (independent Zapatista communities, MAREZ in Spanish), controlled by the EZLN in Chiapas: examples of these communities are Ocosingo and Las Margaritas.
The Chaser's War On Everything

***The Chaser’s War on Everything*** is a comedy television series. It was shown on the ABC in Australia from 2006-2009. The series is replayed on Friday nights and again (on a different channel) on Sunday nights. The series is hosted by a group of men called The Chaser. 

## Overview
The series has the men doing stunts and tricks. Sometimes these tricks have been known to be dangerous (such as in one episode, cutting across lanes of traffic to stay behind a mobile advertisement), causing the television program Today Tonight to show a story on how dangerous this stunt was. At the end of each episode, there is a parody song performed, usually about the national government.

## Stunts
One of the most famous tricks that has been on the series was when the group tricked security at the APEC Meeting in Sydney in 2007.  They drove past two checkpoints in a fake motorcade, using fake access passes. One member of The Chaser was dressed up as Osama bin Laden, causing a massive security scare just metres from where George Bush was staying. 13 crew members were arrested, charged and later released on bail.

Other stunts have included:
*Following a Mobile Advertisement until they left town
*Making fun of call-in-quiz-shows Quizmania, Midnight Zoo and The Up-Late Game Show
*Using Public Transport as a furniture moving truck.
*Making fun of Kids with Cancer and the Make A Wish Foundation

## References
## Other websites
*
Lamella

**Lamella** is a Latin word meaning "layer", or something which is like a "plate".

It can mean:
* Lamella of a fish.
* Lamella of a cell.
* Lamella of a mushroom.
Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals

The **Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals** (RSPCA) is a charity in England and Wales that promotes animal welfare. Money for the group comes from donations. It is one of the largest charities in the UK, with an income of £100 million in 2005.

## History
The group began as the **SPCA** in 1824. Since then, it has inspired the creation of similar, but independent organisations in other regions:
*Ulster Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals in Northern Ireland
*Scottish Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals in Scotland
*Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (Australia) in Australia
*Royal New Zealand Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals in New Zealand
*American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals in the United States
Not only that, there are also many other countries who have participated in this effort to prevent cruelty not only against domestic pets but also to other almost extinct or endangered wildlife.

## Related pages 
* List of Royal Societies

## Notes
## References
## Other websites
* Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals website
Sütterlin

**Sütterlinschrift**, **Sütterlin** or **Suetterlin script** is a form of German handwriting. It was taught in German schools from 1915 to 1941. 

In the 19th century the common form of German handwriting was German Kurrent. It uses very thin lines and sharp edges. Many students in primary school found it difficult to learn. So in 1911 the German designer and teacher Ludwig Sütterlin was asked to design a simpler script. Sütterlin script has thicker lines and rounder edges than German Kurrent. It can be easily written with any pen. 

In everyday language some people call any handwritten blackletter script "Sütterlin".

Image:Friedrich Kellner diary Oct 6, 1939 p3.jpg|Historical handwriting in Sütterlin, 1939
Image:Sütterlinschrift.png|Text in Sütterlin, made with a computer in 2005
Image:Kant in Sütterlin font.png|Text in German Kurrent, made with a computer in 2005

## Related pages
* Blackletter

## Other websites
* The Sütterlin script at Omniglot
* Freeware Sütterlin font 
* Learn Sütterlin, a lesson, with sample texts
Runic calendar

The **Runic calendar** also *Rune staff* or *Runic Almanac* is a perpetual calendar based on the 19 year long Metonic cycle of the Moon. 

A typical Runic calendar consisted of several horizontal lines of symbols, one above the other.

Special days like solstices, equinoxes, and celebrations (including Christian holidays and feasts) were marked with additional lines of symbols.

## Other websites 
* An article on rune calendars
Agha Petros

**Petros Elia of Baz** (Syriac: ܦܸܛܪܘܿܣ ܐܹܠܝ݂ܵܐ ܕܒܵܙ; 1 April 1880 – 2 February 1932), better known as **Agha Petros** (Syriac: ܐܓܐ ܦܛܪܘܣ) was an Assyrian military leader during World War I, born in the lower Baz village of the Ottoman Empire. Petros led the Assyrian independence movement against the Ottoman Empire and their Kurdish allies during the Assyrian genocide. 

Agha Petros defeated the Turks in Sauj Bulak and drove them back to Rawandiz.

## Other websites
*Bet Nahrain
Classical Latin

**Classical Latin** is the form of Latin that was used by the Ancient Romans in official Roman records, the Roman army, and Latin literature. Its use helped the Golden Age of Latin literature, during the 1st century BC and the early 1st century AD.

Classical Latin is a dead language, as is Vulgar Latin, the common speech of citizens in the Roman Empire. Latin is no longer spoken as a first language, but it is still spoken by church officials in the Vatican, where it is the official language.
Tim Minear

**Tim Minear** (born October 29, 1963) is an American screenwriter and director. He was born in New York, grew up in Whittier, California. He studied film at California State University, Long Beach.

Minear was an assistant director on the movie *Platoon*. He wrote episodes for several television series including *The X-Files* and *Lois and Clark*. He later wrote, executive-produced, and directed episodes of *Strange World*, *Angel*, *Firefly*, *Wonderfalls*, and *The Inside* (which he also created, with Howard Gordon).

Minear had another series, *Drive*, airing on FOX in April 2007, however it was cancelled by the network after only four episodes. Drive was set to return with two additional episodes on July 4th, 2007, but these were rescheduled to July 13th and then cancelled.

Minear often works with Joss Whedon. His work is usually includes a sharp, black humor. He is known for his ability to create characters who are sympathetic, understandable and completely wrong. The best example of this is his writing in *Angel* Season Two.

## Credits
* *Lois and Clark: The New Adventures of Superman*
** 4x05 "Brutal Youth" (writer)
** 4x11 "'Twas the Night Before Mxymas" (writer)
** 4x14 "Meet John Doe" (writer)
** 4x20 "I've Got You Under My Skin" (writer)
* *The X-Files*
** 5x08 "Kitsunegari" (co-writer)
** 5x16 "Mind's Eye" (writer)
* *Strange World*
** 1x02 "Lullaby" (writer)
** 1x04 "Spirit Falls" (co-writer)
* *Angel*
** 1x05 "Sense & Sensitivity" (writer)
** 1x09 "Hero" (co-writer)
** 1x11 "Somnambulist" (writer)
** 1x15 "The Prodigal" (writer)
** 1x19 "Sanctuary" (co-writer)
** 2x02 "Are You Now or Have You Ever Been" (writer)
** 2x07 "Darla" (writer/director)
** 2x09 "The Trial" (co-writer)
** 2x10 "Reunion" (co-writer)
** 2x15 "Reprise" (writer)
** 2x16 "Epiphany" (writer)
** 2x21 "Through The Looking Glass" (writer/director)
** 3x03 "That Old Gang of Mine" (writer)
** 3x06 "Billy" (co-writer)
** 3x09 "Lullaby" (writer/director)
** 3x14 "Couplet" (co-writer/director)
** 3x20 "A New World" (director)
** 3x21 "Benediction" (writer/director)
** 4x22 "Home" (writer/director)
* *Firefly*
** 1x02 "The Train Job" (co-writer)
** 1x03 "Bushwhacked" (writer/director)
** 1x07 "Out of Gas" (writer)
** 1x12 "The Message" (co-writer/director)
* *Wonderfalls*
** 1x02 "Karma Chameleon" (writer)
** 1x06 "Barrel Bear" (unaired) (co-writer)
* *The Inside*
** 1x01 "New Girl In Town" (final story & writer/director)
** 1x06 "Thief of Hearts" (co-writer)
** 1x10 "Little Girl Lost" (unaired in US, UK Airdate 03/17/2006) (co-writer)
** 1x13 "Skin and Bone" (unaired) (story)

## References
## Other websites 
* TimMinear.net
* 
* PopGurls Quickie with Tim Minear 
* The Drive News Blog
Louis Charles Antoine Desaix

**Louis Charles Antoine Desaix** (17 August 1768 – 14 June 1800) was a general of France.

Napoleon Bonaparte created two monuments in the memory of Desaix; they are *Desaix* on the *Place Dauphine* and *Place des Victoires* in Paris.
Monte Melkonian

**Monte Melkonian** (born November 25, 1957 – June 12, 1993) was an American-Armenian military commander. in the Nagorno-Karabakh war. He is largely known for major military victories against Azerbaijan from the late autumn of 1992. Melkonian had no prior service record in any country's army before being placed in command of an estimated 4,000 men in the war. He had largely built his military education beginning from the late 1970s and 1980s where he fought against the various splintering factions in the Lebanese Civil War, against Israeli troops in the Israeli invasion of Lebanon and was a member of the Armenian terror organization ASALA.

## Other websites 
* 2 part documentary video about Monte, including rare interviews, on Google Video: Part 1 and Part 2. (In Armenian.)
* 5 part interview with Monte Melkonian, in English, on YouTube: Part 1, Part 2, Part 3, Part 4,Part 5