open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Procopius

**Procopius of Caesarea** (, c. 500 – c. 565) was a prominent Eastern Roman scholar. He took part in the wars of the Emperor Justinian I, and was the major historian of the 6th&nbsp;century&nbsp;AD, writing the *Wars of Justinian*, the *Buildings of Justinian* and the celebrated *Secret History*. He is commonly held to be the last major historian of the ancient world.

## Writings 
The writings of Procopius are the primary source of information for the rule of the Roman emperor Justinian. Procopius was the author of a history in eight books of the wars fought by Justinian I, with information on Justinian's public works throughout the empire, and a book known as the *Secret History* (Greek: *Anekdota*) that claims to report the scandals that Procopius could not include in his published history.

A number of historical novels based on Procopius' works (along with other sources) have been written, of which the best, *Count Belisarius*, was written by poet and novelist Robert Graves in 1938.

## Further reading 
* Greatrex, Geoffrey: *Recent work on Procopius and the composition of Wars VIII*; in: Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies 27 (2003), 45-67.
* Treadgold, Warren: *The Early Byzantine Historians*, Basingstoke 2007, 176-226.

## List of selected works 
* *Procopii Caesariensis opera omnia*.  Edited by J. Haury; revised by G. Wirth.  3 vols.  Leipzig: Teubner, 1976-64.  Greek text.
* *Procopius*.  Edited by H. B. Dewing.  7 vols.  Loeb Classical Library.  Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press and London, Hutchinson, 1914–40.  Greek text and English translation.
* Procopius, *The Secret History*, translated by G.A. Williamson. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1966. A readable and accessible English translation of the *Anecdota*.

## Other websites 
### Texts of Procopius 
* Complete Works, Greek text (Migne Patrologia Graeca)  with analytical indexes
* The Secret History , English translation (Atwater, 1927) at the Internet Medieval Sourcebook
* The Secret History, English translation (Dewing, 1935) at LacusCurtius
* The Buildings, English translation (Dewing, 1935) at LacusCurtius
* The Buildings, Book IV  Greek text with commentaries, index nominum, etc. at Sorin Olteanu's LTDM Project
* 
* Dewing's Loeb edition of the Wars, books 1 and 2 at the Internet Archive
* Dewing's Loeb edition of the Wars, books 3 and 4 at the Internet Archive
* Complete Works 1, Greek ed. by Karl Wilhelm Dindorf, Latin trans. by Claude Maltret in *Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae Pars II Vol. 1*, 1833. (*Persian Wars I-II, Vandal Wars I-II*)
* Complete Works 2, Greek ed. by Karl Wilhelm Dindorf, Latin trans. by Claude Maltret in *Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae Pars II Vol. 2*, 1833. (*Gothic Wars I-IV*)
* Complete Works 3, Greek ed. by Karl Wilhelm Dindorf, Latin trans. by Claude Maltret in *Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae Pars II Vol. 3*, 1838. (*Secret History, Buildings of Justinan*)

*This article is based on an earlier version  by James Allan Evans, originally posted at Nupedia.*
Bleach (Nirvana album)

***Bleach*** is the debut studio album by American grunge band Nirvana. It did not become popular when it was released, but when Nirvana's second album *Nevermind* was released in 1991, many Nirvana fans discovered *Bleach*. It is the best-selling release ever on the Sub Pop label.

## Track listing
## References
Zub

**Zub** is a computer game made for use on the Commodore 64 and ZX Spectrum computers which was released in 1986 by Mastertronic. The code was written by John and Ste Pickford on the ZX Spectrum and Phillip Brian Allsopp on the Commodore 64, and the music was composed by David Whittaker.

## The plot of the game
Zub works for the Emperor Zub of the Zub galactic empire and must find the Green Eye of Zub. Zub has been permitted to use the Ancient Intergalactic Elevators which take him to other planets.  The elevators can only be reached by jumping and riding on platforms to reach the top of the sky.  The platforms and elevators are guarded by creatures (also known as Zubs) but each planet has a different sub-species - for example the first level's Zub resembles a gyroscope whilst he fourth level Zub is a fish.  The Zubs can be shot and stunned.  They will float to the top of the sky where the recover and return to attack Zub again.  The Green Eye of Zub was located on the tenth planet and once the Eye is found, Zub has to return to the first planet to give the Eye of Zub to Emperor Zub.

There are seven  levels, each one increases the number of enemy Zubs per planet.

## Other websites 
*Zub at World of Spectrum
Molly Hatchet

**Molly Hatchet** is a southern rock band from Jacksonville, Florida. They were formed in 1971 by Dave Hlubek and Steve Holland.
Northern Italy

**Northern Italy** (*Italia Settentrionale*, *Italia del Nord*, *Padania*, *Alta Italia*, *Norditalia* or just *Nord*) is an area that is made up of two areas in Italy: 

*North-West (*Nord-Ovest*): Aosta Valley, Piedmont, Lombardy, Liguria;
*North-East (*Nord-Est*): Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Veneto, Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, Emilia-Romagna.
Northern Italy is more a business area compared to the south and is colder. People from the south sometimes emigrate to the north because of this.
This region has 26,835,082 inhabitants and an area of 46,301&nbsp;mi² (119,921 km²). The largest city is Milan. It is generally seen as having a higher wealth than the southern regions of Italy. This is due to the 'North-South' Divide which is said to split the country in half in terms of means of development.
Thermosphere

. The white and blue streaks are the stratosphere, while the orange part is the troposphere, with silhouettes of clouds. The mesosphere is the pink area.]]
The **thermosphere** is the fourth layer of the Earth's atmosphere. It is directly above the mesosphere (middle layer) and directly below the exosphere (top layer). 

The name thermosphere is taken from the Greek word "thermos" which means 'heat'. This layer has high temperatures because it absorbs X-rays and extreme ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. Even though it has temperatures of 2,000 °C (3,360 °F), the density of the thermosphere is so low that it doesn't feel hot. The absorbed ionizing radiation also creates the ionosphere. Shortwave radio waves can bounce off the Kennelly-Heaviside layer (ionosphere) and go to distant parts of the Earth. This layer is very helpful in radio communication.

It is also characterized by large variability, in response to changes in solar ultraviolet radiation and solar-driven geomagnetic activity.  

## References
Canowindra

**Canowindra** (pronounced Can-noun-dra) is an historic town near Cowra in the central west of New South Wales, Australia. Canowindra is on the Belubula River.

## History
A post office opened in 1847. The mail came through Carcoar. It was not part of the road to the Lachlan because it didn't have a bridge.

In October 1863, bushranger Ben Hall's gang took over the village for three days. Everyone was held hostage in the hotel. The gang held a big party for everyone in the hotel. A monument to Ben Hall was put up in 1951 on the site of Robinson's hotel, the ''Travellers' Rest''. New research shows that the events happened at an hotel on the other side of the river.

## Modern Canowindra
The Royal Hotel is on the site of another hotel owned by Robinson. A sign on the wall says this was where Ben Hall's gang had their party. Other important buildings include the nursing home, the Junction Hotel, Finn's Building, the Victoria Hotel, the former Bank of NSW and the former CBC Bank. The Trading Post is a homewares shop that won a tourism award for 2006.

Canowindra is also known as the Balloon Capital of Australia. One of the largest festivals in Australia used to take place here every April. This was called Marti's Fiesta, which is no longer held due to lack of money.

Australian country music star Captain Flange makes his home in Canowindra.

## Fossils
The town is the site of one of the world's great fossil discoveries. A road worker in 1956 found 360 million year old fish fossils. These were from the Devonian period in the Palaeozoic era. The "Canowindra slab" was taken to the Australian Museum, Sydney. The fish had been trapped in a pool of water that dried up. The fish found were two armoured antiarch placoderms, *Remigolepis walkeri* and *Bothriolepis yeungae.* They also found *Canowindra grassi*, a lobe-finned crossopterygian fish, with two rare young arthrodire placoderms, *Groenlandaspis* species.

More fossils were found in January 1993 using an excavator to dig down to the fossil layer. Many fish were preserved in detail. Specimens can be seen in the Age of Fishes Museum. This was built with support and funding from the Australian Museum.  The Canowindra site has now been listed as part of Australia's National Heritage because of its international scientific importance.

## References
Robert Cutler

**Robert Cutler** (1895 – 1974) was a U.S. administrator. He served as National Security Advisor between 1953 and 1955, and again from 1957 to 1958. A graduate of Harvard College and Harvard Law School and attorney and bank executive in Boston, Massachusetts before taking public office, he was the person to serve in the newly created position of National Security Advisor during the Eisenhower Administration.

## References
*"Bostonian at Work ", *Time*, June 4, 1953. Retrieved January 19, 2015
St. Anthony-Chapel

The **St. Anthony-Chapel** is a chapel in the district Kornelimünster of the German city of Aachen.

It was built in 1718 but destroyed by an earthquake a short time later. The abbot of the abbey at Kornelimünster ordered to rebuild the damaged building. It was completed in 1781.

The St. Anthony-Chapel belongs to a group of five chapels of Kornelimünster.

## Other websites 
* Sehenswürdigkeiten in Kornelimünster 
* Antoniuskapelle
African bush elephant

The **African bush elephant** (*Loxodonta africana*) is the larger of the two species of African elephant. It is the largest living terrestrial animal, with fully grown males reaching an average shoulder height of  and a body mass of ; the largest recorded specimen had a shoulder height of  and an estimated body mass of . The African bush elephant is characterised by its long trunk. 

The population of bush elephants has drastically declined in the last thirty years. It is hunted for its ivory and meat. Protection by game wardens has been only partly successful.

This large elephant is well adapted to the grassland plains of East Africa, and it is sometimes called the **African savannah elephant.** 

The African bush elephant occurs in Sub-Saharan Africa including Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Zambia, and Angola. 

It moves between a variety of habitats. These include subtropical and temperate forests, dry and seasonally flooded grasslands and woodlands, wetlands and agricultural land from sea level to mountain slopes. In Mali and Namibia, it also lives at times in desert areas.

## References
Fire services in the United Kingdom

The **fire service in the United Kingdom** operates under separate legislative and administrative arrangements in England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales.

## Fire services
In England, there is a fire service for each county and large city, although some cover two counties. Wales is divided between three fire services. Scotland has had only one fire service since 2013. Northern Ireland has had only one fire service since 1973.

Fire services are known as *fire and rescue services*, or *fire services* for short, or by the older phrase *fire brigades*. Most of them now have the name "[Place] Fire and Rescue Service", e.g. Oxfordshire Fire and Rescue Service. There are a few that do not: London Fire Brigade, Cleveland Fire Brigade and West Midlands Fire Service.

## How fire services work
There are two main types of firefighter:
*Wholetime firefighter: Those who work full-time as firefighters. They usually work during some days and during some nights. When they are on duty, they wait at the fire station to be called to an emergency. Wholetime firefighters are found in towns and cities. In the largest cities, all firefighters work wholetime.
*Retained firefighter: Those who are called out to do firefighting work a few times a week, or less. They do not work full-time in the fire service, and many have full-time jobs somewhere else. However, they are paid some money. They spend long periods of time on call. When called to an emergency, they drive to the fire station in their cars and bring out the fire engine. In villages, all firefighters are retained. Some fire stations (especially in medium-sized towns) have both wholetime firefighters and retained firefighters.
Some fire stations are **day-crewed**, meaning they are covered by wholetime firefighters during the day and by retained firefighters at night. A few places have volunteer firefighters, who are like retained firefighters but are not paid at all.

Wholetime firefighters work as part of a 'watch'. This is a group of 5-15 firefighters who work the same hours at the same fire station. A fire station's watches are usually named with a colour (e.g. red watch, white watch, blue watch, green watch,etc).

The fire service has ranks. In most fire services, these are, from lowest to highest:
*Firefighter (FF)
*Crew Manager (CM)
*Watch Manager (WM)
*Station Manager (SM)
*Group/Area Manager (G/AM)
*Assistant Chief Fire Officer (ACFO)
*Deputy Chief Fire Officer (DCFO)
*Chief Fire Officer (CFO)

## Notes
United States Department of Transportation

The **United States Department of Transportation** (**DOT**) is a federal Cabinet department of the United States government concerned with transportation. It was established by an act of Congress on October 15, 1966 and began operation on April 1, 1967. It is administered by the United States Secretary of Transportation. Their current mission statement is, "*The mission of the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) is to ensure our Nation has the safest, most efficient and modern transportation system in the world, which improves the quality of life for all American people and communities, from rural to urban, and increases the productivity and competitiveness of American workers and businesses.**"*

## References
United States Department of War

The **United States Department of War**, also called the **War Office**, was the department of the United States government's executive branch responsible for the  and  of land (and later air) forces from 1789 until September 18, 1947, when it became part of the **National Military Establishment**, renamed on August 10, 1949, the Department of Defense. The War Department also had responsibility for the young nation's naval affairs until the establishment of the Navy Department in 1798.
United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare

The **United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare** (also known as **HEW**) was a cabinet-level department of the United States government from 1953 until 1979.  It was administered by the United States Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare.  In 1979, a separate Department of Education (ED) was created from this department, and HEW was renamed as the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS).

## History 
President Warren G. Harding proposed a Department of Education and Welfare as early as 1923, and similar proposals were also recommended by subsequent presidents, but for various reasons was not implemented.  It was only enacted as part of *Reorganization Plan Number 1 of 1953*, transmitted to Congress by President Dwight D. Eisenhower on March 12, 1953. HEW ran a Community Public Health Program, which was famous for its grants to cities like Chicago for rat control. It ran a Solid Waste program focused on municipal waste issues, like how to build sanitary landfills rather than dumps. It also had a radiation program under which it wrote standards on things like microwave ovens. When the EPA was created in 1970, it assumed a number of HEW’s programs that related to environmental protection, including its pesticides program and half of its radiation program.

To date, this was the only department of the U.S. government to be created through presidential reorganization authority, in which the president is allowed to create or reorganize bureaucracies as long as neither house of Congress passed a legislative veto. This power to create new departments was removed after 1962, but in the early 1980s, the Supreme Court declared legislative vetoes unconstitutional.

## References
United States Post Office Department

The **Post Office Department** is the former name of the United States Postal Service when it was a Cabinet department. It was headed by the United States Postmaster General.

The Postal Service Act signed by President George Washington on February 20, 1792 established the Department. Postmaster General John McLean was the first to call it the Post Office *Department* rather than just the "Post Office." The organization became more important in the government when President Andrew Jackson asked his Postmaster General, William T. Barry, to sit as a member of the Cabinet.

During the Civil War, postal services in the  Confederacy were provided by the Confederate States of America Post Office Department, headed by Postmaster General John Henninger Reagan.

The Postal Reorganization Act signed by President Richard Nixon on August 12, 1970, replaced the cabinet-level Post Office Department with the independent United States Postal Service.  The Act took effect on July 1, 1971.

## References
Anaconda (installer)

**Anaconda** is the installer for Red Hat Linux and Fedora. It is written in Python and C, with a graphical interface using GTK+&nbsp;3 and PyGObject and a text inetrface using python-newt. A kickstart file can be used to automatically configure the installation, allowing users to run it without much supervision.

Anaconda is used by RHEL, Fedora and a number of other projects, Anaconda offers a text-mode and GUI mode, so users can install on a wide range of systems.

Anacondas are lizard-eating boas, and the Caldera installation program was called "Lizard", hence this name was chosen.

## Other websites 
*Anaconda home page
United States Department of Housing and Urban Development

The **United States Department of Housing**, often abbreviated **HUD**, is a Cabinet department of the United States federal government. Although its beginnings were in the House and Home Financing Agency, it was founded in 1965 to develop and execute policy on housing and cities. It has largely scaled back its urban development function and now focuses primarily on housing.

The department was established on September 9, 1965 when President Lyndon Johnson signed the Department of Housing and Urban Development Act  into law. It stipulated that the department was to be created no later than November 8, 60 days following the date of enactment. The actual implementation was postponed until January 13, 1966, following the completion of a special study group report on the federal role in solving urban problems.

HUD is administered by the United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development.
United States Department of Veterans Affairs

The **United States Department of Veterans Affairs** (**VA**) is a government-run military veteran benefit system with Cabinet-level status. It is responsible for administering programs of veterans’ benefits for veterans, their families, and survivors. The benefits provided include disability compensation, pension, education, home loans, life insurance, vocational rehabilitation, survivors’ benefits, medical benefits and burial benefits.
It is administered by the United States Secretary of Veterans Affairs.

The basic intention of the VA home loan program is to supply home financing to eligible veterans and to help veterans purchase properties with no down payment. The loan may be issued by qualified lenders.

## References
Particle accelerator

A **particle accelerator**, also called an **atom smasher**, is a machine that accelerates (speeds up) particles and makes them travel at very high speeds.  Accelerators work by pushing particles like electrons, protons, or atomic nuclei (the centers of atoms) with electric fields and by steering them with magnetic fields. Their main use is to study particle physics.

The largest accelerators are used to study particles smaller than atoms; smaller accelerators are used to study atomic nuclei and make radioactive materials.   There are two kinds of particle accelerators: linear accelerators and circular accelerators. Linear accelerators move the particles in a line, while circular accelerators move the particles in a circle.   One example of a **particle accelerator** is the Large Hadron Collider at CERN. It is very big, stretching through two countries.  Another example is the Tevatron in the United States.  The cathode ray tube, used in 20th century televisions and computer monitors is also a simple accelerator for electrons.

When accelerated particles hit other particles such as atoms, smaller pieces come out. This helps people see particles smaller than an atom. Normally those particles cannot be seen, but they can in the particle accelerator.  This is because in some ways energy and matter are the same thing. At the high speed created in these machines, some of the movement energy is changed into matter. It is the opposite process that nuclear weapons use; nuclear weapons turn matter into energy.  Small amounts of antimatter are also created during the process.

 accelerates particles in a circle]]
The particle accelerator at CERN was set up to search for the Higgs Boson particle, which would complete the Standard Model of Particle Physics. The Higgs boson was found on July 4, 2012 by the ATLAS and CMS experiments at CERN.

Particle accelerators often use very advanced technology. This makes them cost a lot of money which is usually paid by governments.

## References
United States Secretary of Transportation

The **United States Secretary of Transportation** is the head of the United States Department of Transportation. The Secretary is a member of the President's Cabinet. 

## List of secretaries of transportation
; Parties
 (8)
 (11)

;Status

## Living former secreatries of transportation 
As of September 2025, there are eleven living former secretaries of transportation, the oldest being Elizabeth Dole (served 1983-1987). The most recent death of a former secretary of transportation was that of Neil Goldschmidt (served 1979-1981) on June 12, 2024. 

## References
United States Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare

The **United States Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare** was the head of the United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.  The Secretary was a member of the President's Cabinet. In 1979, there was a division of the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare's position into separate secretaries of Health and Human Services and Education.

## Living former secretaries of health, education, and welfare 
As of , there are two living former health, education, and welfare, the older of the two being Joseph A. Califano Jr. (served 1977-1979). The most recent death of a former secretary of health, education, and welfare was that of Caspar W. Weinberger (served 1973-1975) on March 28, 2006. The living former secretaries of health, education, and welfare, in order of service, are:
Oveta Culp Hobby

**Oveta Culp Hobby** (January 19, 1905–August 16, 1995) was the first secretary of the United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, first commanding officer of the Women's Army Corps, and chairman of the board of the *Houston Post*.

## References 
* Pando, Robert T. "Oveta Culp Hobby: A Study in Power and Control." Ph.D. dissertation, Florida State University, 2008, 220 pages.
* Treadwell, Mattie. ''The Woman's Army Corps'' (1954)
Assistant Secretary of Housing and Urban Development for Housing

The **Assistant Secretary for Housing**, who also carries the title **Federal Housing Commissioner**, is a position within the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development. The Assistant Secretary is responsible for overseeing the $2+ trillion Federal Housing Administration insurance portfolio. He or she also oversees the Department of Housing and Urban Development's regulatory responsibilities in the areas of the Real Estate Settlement Procedures Act, the housing mission of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac, and the manufactured housing industry.

The Federal Housing Commissioner is appointed by the President and confirmed by the United States Senate. The Assistant Secretary is third in the order of succession for the office of Secretary of Housing and Urban Development. The Assistant Secretary is paid at level IV of the Executive Schedule, meaning he or she receives a basic annual salary.  Frank Cassidy currently serves as Federal Housing Commissioner and Assistant Secretary, having been nominated by President Trump in August 2025 and confirmed by the US Senate in December.

## References
United States Congress. “PN462-1 — Frank Cassidy — Department of Housing and Urban Development.” Congress.gov.
https://www.congress.gov/nomination/118th-congress/462￼
The Bushwackers (band)

**The Bushwackers Band** was first called the Bushwackers and Bullockies Band. It is an Australian folk and country music band. It was active from 1970 to 1984. The group started as a trio playing around Latrobe University, Melbourne. The players were Dave Isom, Jan Wositzky and Bert Kanahoff. Their first album, ''The Shearer's Dream* was made in 1974 with Dobe Newton on lagerphone and vocals, Mick Slocum on accordions and vocals, Jan Wositzky on harmonica, bush bass and vocals, Tony Hunt on fiddle and viola and Dave Isom on guitar. 

Recordings include *Faces in the Street*, *Beneath the Southern Cross*, *Bushfire*, *Murrumbidgee* and *The Shearers Dream*. some of these were made through Australian record label Astor Records. The album *And the Band Played Waltzing Matilda'' was made with EMI records in 1976. It is regarded as one of their best recordings.

Many songs were settings of poetry written by Australian bush poets including Henry Lawson.

## Band members
Other members and musicians who have played and recorded with the band over the years include:
*Andy Colville
*Roger Corbett
*Pete Farndon
*Steve Groves
*Michael Harris
*Dave Kidd
*Fred Kuhnl
*Trevor Lucas
*Gregory Martin
*Dave Mattacks
*Louis McManus
*Eddy van Roosendael.

In the 90's the band reformed with Newton and Corbett back in the lineup.

The band members in 2000 were: 
*Dobe Newton: Vocals, lagerphone, bones, whistle and bodhran.
*Roger Corbett: - Vocals, bass guitar, songwriter, producer, manager.
*Mark Oats: Fiddle.
*Justin Duggan; Drums.
*Tim Gaze: Vocals, guitars, songwriter, producer.
*Pamela Drysdale: Vocals, piano accordion, guitar, songwriter, poet.

The band members in 2008 were:
*Dobe Newton - vocals, lagerphone percussion
*Roger Corbett - vocals, bass
*Tony O’Neill - guitar
*Ben Corbett - electric guitar
*Mark Oats - fiddle
*Clare O’Meara - fiddle and mandolin
*Justin Duggan - drums

In 2010 the band members were:
*Dobe Newton - vocals, lagerphone, percussion, whistle
*Roger Corbett - vocals and guitar
*Mark Oats - fiddle
*Clare O'Meara - fiddle and accordion
*Michael Vidale - bass
*Adrian Cannon - drums

## Recordings
**The Shearers Dream* (1974)
**Beneath the Southern Cross* (1981)
**And The Band Played Waltzing Matilda* (1976)
**Murrumbidgee* (1977)
**Bushfire* (1979)
**The Bushwackers Dance Album* (1980)
**Faces In The Street* (1981)
**Warrigal Morning* - music for the film Bush Christmas (1983)
**Down There For Dancing* (1982)
*''No Nuts 'Til Monday* (2000)
**Handy* (2003)
**April 25* (2006)
**Ned* (2007)
**The Lawson Project'' (2008) - spoken word recording

## References 
* http://www.bushwackers.com.au/index.htm 
* http://www.answers.com/topic/and-the-band-played-waltzing-matilda-rock-album?cat=entertainment
Henry Paulson

**Henry Merritt "Hank" Paulson Jr.** (born March 28, 1946) was the United States Treasury Secretary from 2006 to 2009 and member of the International Monetary Fund Board of Governors. He previously served as the Chairman and Chief Executive Officer of Goldman Sachs.

Paulson is co-chair with Tom Steyer and Michael Bloomberg for a  report called *Risky Business* () by a coalition of top U.S. political and economic leaders from the political left, right, and center on the dire economic consequences from climate change (global warming), from lost property to ruined crops.

## References
Reconquista

The **Reconquista** (Spanish and Portuguese word for "Reconquest"; Arabic: الاسترداد, "Recapturing") was a period of 800 years in the Middle Ages during which the several Christian kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula grew by conquering Al-Andalus (Arabic الأندلس), the Muslim states on the peninsula.

The Reconquista began shortly after the Islamic conquest of the peninsula. Much of the ideology of the Reconquista was common to most Crusades, and soldiers from all Christendom travelled to Iberia to fight the Muslims as an act of Christian repentance.

The Reconquista came to an end on 2 January 1492, with the capture of Granada. The last Muslim ruler of Granada surrendered his kingdom to Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, the Catholic Monarchs (Spanish: *los Reyes Católicos*). That event marked the end of Muslim rule on the peninsula.

## Bibliography 
* Watt, W. Montgomery: A History of Islamic Spain. University Press of Edinburgh (1992).
* Watt, W. Montgomery: The Influence of Islam on Medieval Europe. (Edinburgh 1972).
* Timothy Reuter, Christopher Allmand, David Luscombe, Rosamond McKitterick (eds.), *" The New Cambridge Medieval History"*, Cambridge University Press, Sep 14, 1995, .
* Bishko, Charles Julian, 1975. *The Spanish and Portuguese Reconquest, 1095–1492* in *A History of the Crusades, vol. 3: The Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries*, edited by Harry W. Hazard, (University of Wisconsin Press)

## Other websites 
* Timeline of the Reconquista , The University of Calgary.
* Battles of Castile & Leon : 844–1521.
* Exiles from Andalusia .
United States Department of Education

The **United States Department of Education** is a Cabinet-level department of the United States government. Created by the Department of Education Organization Act (Public Law 96-88), it was signed into law by President Jimmy Carter on October 17, 1979, which began operating on May 4, 1980.

## Footnotes
## References
Paul H. O'Neill

'''Paul Henry O'Neill''' (December 4, 1935 &ndash; April 18, 2020) was an American businessman and politician.

He served as the 72nd United States Secretary of the Treasury for part of President George W. Bush's first Administration. He resigned in December 2002 under pressure from the administration and became a harsh critic.

O'Neill was chairman and CEO of Pittsburgh-based industrial giant Alcoa from 1987 to 1999, and retired as chairman at the end of 2000. In 1995, he was made chairman of the RAND Corporation.

O'Neill died of lung cancer on April 18, 2020 in Pittsburgh, aged 84.

## References
United States Secretary of Education

The **United States Secretary of Education** is the head of the Department of Education. The Secretary is a member of the President's Cabinet, and 16th in line of United States presidential line of succession. The United States Secretary of Education deals with Education.

In 1979, President Jimmy Carter established the Department of Education as a cabinet-level agency. Previously, Education had been handled by the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare, henceforth known as the Secretary of Health and Human Services.

## Chronological list
Source

## Living former secreatries of education 
As of January 2026, there are ten living former secretaries of education, the oldest being Joseph A. Califano Jr. (served 1977-1979). The most recent death of a former Secretary of Education was that of Rod Paige (served 2001-2005) on December 9, 2025. The current oldest living person who has held the position of Secreatry of Education since its creation in October 1979 is Richard Riley (served 1993-2001)

However, two former secreatries, F. David Mathews (served 1975-1977) and Joseph A. Califano Jr. (served 1977-1979) served prior to the implention and founding of the Department of Education, thus being recognized as former Secreatries of Education but also Secreatries of Health, Education, and Welfare (now the Secreatry of Health and Human Services)

## References
Samuel Dexter

**Samuel Dexter** (May 14, 1761 – May 4, 1816) was an early American statesman who served both in Congress and in the Presidential Cabinet.

Born in Boston, Massachusetts, to the Rev. Samuel Dexter, the 4th minister of Dedham, he graduated from Harvard University in 1781 and then studied law at Worcester under Levi Lincoln, Sr., the future Attorney General of the United States. After he passed the bar in 1784, he began practicing in Lunenburg, Massachusetts.
United States Secretary of the Army

The **United States Secretary of the Army** is a civilian office within the Department of Defense with statutory responsibility for all matters relating to the United States Army: manpower, personnel, reserve affairs, installations, environmental issues, weapons systems and equipment acquisition, communications, and financial management. Nominated by the President and confirmed by the U.S. Senate, the Secretary of the Army is a non-Cabinet position serving under the Secretary of Defense. This position was created September 18, 1947, when the Department of War became the Department of the Army and made a branch of the new Department of Defense.

## Chronological list of Secretaries of the Army 
## References
Kenneth Claiborne Royall

**Kenneth Claiborne Royall** (July 24, 1894 — May 25, 1971) was a United States Army general and the last person to hold the office of Secretary of War. That position was abolished in 1947, and Royall served as the first Secretary of the Army (a successory position) from 1947 to 1949.
Pete Geren

**Preston M. Geren, III** (born January 29, 1952 in Fort Worth, Texas) was the 20th United States Secretary of the Army from 16 July 2007 to 16 September 2009.

He had already been acting United States Secretary of the Air Force, between 29 July 2005 and position he served in until the confirmation of his successor Michael Wynne on 4 November 2005.

Geren was also a member of the United States House of Representatives from Texas.

## References
United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development

The **United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development** is the head of the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development, concerned with *urban housing matters.*  The Secretary is a member of the President's Cabinet. 

On January 13, 1966, Robert C. Weaver became the first African American Cabinet member by being appointed to the position.

## Chronological list 
;Parties
 (9)
 (9)
; Status

## References
## Other websites
*
Kabul markhor

The **Kabul markhor** (*Capra falconeri megaceros*) is a goat-antelope native to Afghanistan and Pakistan. It is an endangered subspecies of the markhor. It is the 'Provincial animal of Afghania'.

## Related pages
*Markhor
Oliver Wolcott Jr.

**Oliver Wolcott Jr.** (January 11, 1760 – June 1, 1833) was United States Secretary of the Treasury from 1795 to 1800 and governor of Connecticut from 1817 to 1827.
India–Pakistan border

The **Hindustan–Pakistan Border**, known locally as the International Border (IB), is the international boundary between the Republic of India and Pakistan that demarcates the Indian states of Punjab, Rajasthan and Gujarat from the Pakistani provinces of Punjab and Sindh except for Kashmir that is disputed (Line of Control). The border resulted from the Partition of India in 1947.

Wagah, the ceremonial point of crossing between India and Pakistan lies along this border between the Indian city of Amritsar and the Pakistani city of Lahore.

## "Working boundary"
The border between two countries is called an international border from Gujrat/Sindh to the Line of Control. The Kashmir region is divided by the 1949 UN ceasefire line into two parts and the de facto border dividing Pakistan-administered Kashmir from Indian-administered Kashmir has been called the Line of Control since 1972. On the south side of the border of the Jammu Division is Pakistan's Punjab border, and is called the *working boundary* by Pakistan (which is a recent term) but the "international border" by India.

## Other disputes
*Rann of Kutch and the Kori Creek
*Ferozpur District
*Pathankot Tehsil
Emblem of Afghanistan

]]
The **Coat of arms of Afghanistan** has appeared in some form on the Flag of Afghanistan since the inception of that nation. The most notable absence was during the 1980s when a Communist regime ruled the nation, and in the late 1990s, during the rule of the Taliban. 

The latest incarnation of the coat of arms has the added inscription of the shahadah in Arabic at the top. Below it is the image of a mosque with a mehrab that is facing Mecca with a prayer mat inside. Attached to the mosque are two flags, taken to stand for flags of Afghanistan. Beneath the mosque is an inscription that states the name of the nation. Around the mosque is a garland. It is white.
USB hub

USB is an international standard of technology for connecting peripherals to computers and other devices that support it. An interface where a USB device can be connected is called a port. A **USB hub** is a special device which allows adding more USB ports. The additional ports share one USB connection to the computer; for this reason,  each of them cannot carry as much data as a direct USB connection can. 

A hub may be bus-powered, which means it gets all its electrical power from the computer. This makes simple wiring, but it cannot give full power to its peripherals. A self powered hub has its own power cord, and can give full power to peripherals that need it.  

There are different versions of the USB standard; main difference between the version is the maximum speed that is supported. The USB standard also defines different types of USB plugs.  

A USB hub is a normal USB device, which was built for a given version of the standard. Certain models may support different versions of USB, while others may not.  As an example: USB 3.0 can transfer payload data at up to 5 GBits per second. USB 2.0 is limited to a transfer rate of 480 MBits per second. Connecting an USB 3.0 device to the computer using an USB 2.0 hub will limit the transfer rate to that of USB 2.0.
Astor markhor

.]]

The **Astor Markhor** or the **Flare-horned Markhor** (*Capra falconeri falconeri*) is an endangered species of Markhor. It is native to northern Pakistan, northern India and far-eastern Afghanistan. The range of the Astor markhor is very scattered. At one time considered an "endangered species", The Astor Markhor also has a tendency to sexually segregate outside the mating season because of multiple different mechanisms. The females are usually confined to cliffs with less forage coverage, while the males live in areas with a lot more forage coverage. 

Within Afghanistan, the Astor Markhor is limited to the east in the high and mountainous monsoon forests of Laghman and Nuristan. In Indian-occupied kashmir, this subspecies is restricted to a portion of the Pir Panjal range in southwestern Jammu and Kashmir. Throughout this range, Astor Markhor populations are scattered, starting east of the Banihal Pass (50&nbsp;km from the Chenab River) on the Jammu–Srinagar highway westward to the disputed de-facto border with Pakistan. Recent surveys indicate it still occurs in catchments of the Limber and Lachipora Rivers in the Jhelum Valley Forest Division, and around Shupiyan to the south of Srinagar. In Pakistan, the Astor Markhor there is restricted to the Indus and its tributaries, as well as to the Kunar (Chitral) River and its tributaries. Along the Indus, it inhabits both banks from Jalkot (Kohistan District) upstream to near the Tungas village (Baltistan), with Gakuch being its western limit up the Gilgit River, Chalt up the Hunza River, and the Parishing Valley up the Astore River. It has been said to occur on the right side of the Yasin Valley (Gilgit District), though this is unconfirmed. The flare-horned Markhor is also found around Chitral and the border areas with Afghanistan, where it inhabits a number of valleys along the Kunar River (Chitral District), from Arandu on the west bank and Drosh on the east bank, up to Shoghor along the Lutkho River, and as far as Barenis along the Mastuj River. The largest population is currently found in Chitral National Park in Pakistan.

## References
Key generation

**Key generation** is the process of generating keys for cryptography. The key is used to encrypt and decrypt data whatever the data is being encrypted or decrypted.

Modern cryptographic systems include symmetric-key algorithms (such as DES and AES) and public-key algorithms (such as RSA).  Symmetric-key algorithms use a single shared key; keeping data secret requires keeping this key secret.  Public-key algorithms use a public key and a private key.  The public key is made available to anyone (often by means of a digital certificate).  A sender will encrypt data with the public key; only the holder of the private key can decrypt this data.

Since public-key algorithms tend to be much slower than symmetric-key algorithms, modern systems such as TLS and its predecessor SSL as well as the SSH use a combination of the two in which:  
# One party receives the other's public key, and encrypts a small piece of data (either a symmetric key or some data that will be used to generate it).
# The remainder of the conversation (the remaining party) uses a (typically faster) symmetric-key algorithm for encryption.

The simplest method to read encrypted data is a brute force attack–simply attempting every number, up to the maximum length of the key.  Therefore, it is important to use a sufficiently long key length; longer keys take exponentially longer time to attack, making a brute force attack invisible and impractical.  

Currently, commonly used key lengths are:
# 128-bits for symmetric key algorithms.
# 1024-bits for public-key algorithms.

## Key generation algorithms 
In computer cryptography keys are integers.  In some cases keys are randomly generated using a random number generator (RNG) or pseudorandom number generator (PRNG), the latter being a computer algorithm that produces data which appears random under analysis. Some types the PRNGs algorithms utilize system entropy to generate a seed data, such seeds produce better results, since this makes the initial conditions of the PRNG much more difficult for an attacker to guess.  

In other situations, the key is created using a passphrase and a *key generation algorithm*, using a cryptographic hash function such as SHA-1.

## Related pages
* Distributed key generation: For some protocols no party should be in the sole possession of the secret key. Rather, during *distributed key generation* every party obtains a share of the key. A threshold of the participating parties need to work together in order to achieve a cryptographic task, such as decrypting a message.

## References
Second Lady or Second Gentleman of the United States

The **second lady of the United States** or **second gentleman** is the title held by the hostess of the Number One Observatory Circle. This is usually the wife or husband of the U.S. vice president, during the vice president's term in office. 

Usha Vance is the current second lady of the United States, in role since January 2025 as the wife of Vice President JD Vance.

## Second Spouse Designate 
The second lady or second gentleman designate is the wife or husband of the vice president-elect of the United States. The vice president-elect was the candidate who won the presidential election alongside the presidential candidate, but is awaiting the inauguration to become vice president. The second lady or second gentleman designate is also awaiting the inauguration to become the second spouse.

The term corresponds to the term "incoming second lady or second gentleman", used for those wives of vice president-elects for the same period between their election and inauguration. Incumbent second spouses whose husband or wife have won re-election for a second term are not referred to as second lady-second gentleman designate, as they are already in office and are not waiting to become second spouse.

## Origins and Role 
The second lady or second gentleman is not elected by the people of the United States. There are no official jobs he or she is officially required to perform and they are not paid for being the second spouse. 

They are often involved in political campaigns and managements of the Number One Observatory Circle. They are involved in participating in social causes and representing the vice president at official and ceremonial occasions. They also accompany the vice president on foreign summits and events.

## Office of the Second Lady 
The Office of the Second Lady helps the second lady carry out their duties as the official hostess of the Number One Observatory Circle. They are also in charge of all social and ceremonial events of the vice presidents official residence. The second lady has her own staff that includes a Chief of Staff, Director of Public Engagement and Policy, Deputy Director for Scheduling, Communications Assistant, and Associate Director of Projects and Special Assistant.

## Causes and initiatives 
Since the early 2000s, a few second spouses have become public speakers, to promote public initiatives. A staff supports her or his agenda.

* Barbara Bush: Literacy
* Marilyn Quayle: Combatting early diagnosis of breast cancer
* Tipper Gore: Removing objectionable materials in popular American entertainment
* Lynne Cheney: History of the United States
* Jill Biden: "Joining Forces"; military families
* Karen Pence: Art therapy; military families
* Doug Emhoff: Food security; climate change; combatting antisemitism
* Usha Vance: Childhood literacy

## List of second ladies and gentlemen
## List of living former second spouses
There are six living former second spouses

## References
Nirvana (album)

***Nirvana*** is a greatest hits album by American grunge band Nirvana, who disbanded in 1994 because the lead singer, Kurt Cobain died. The album was released on October 29, 2002.  It was almost not released because of a lawsuit by Cobain's wife Courtney Love. This was because of a song on the album, "You Know You're Right", that Love thought would be wasted on a box-set album. She thought it would work better on one CD. Soon after the lawsuit was settled, the album was released.

## List of songs
#"You Know You're Right"
#"About a Girl"
#"Been a Son"
#"Sliver"
#"Smells Like Teen Spirit"
#"Come as You Are"
#"Lithium"
#"In Bloom"
#"Heart-Shaped Box"
#"Pennyroyal Tea"
#"Rape Me"
#"Dumb"
#"All Apologies" (live at *MTV Unplugged*)
#"The Man Who Sold the World" (live at *MTV Unplugged*. David Bowie cover)
#"Where Did You Sleep Last Night" (live at *MTV Unplugged*. Only on Vinyl and International Versions)
#"Something In The Way" (live at *MTV Unplugged*. (Only on Vinyl and Japanese CD Versions)
John W. Snow

**John William Snow** (born August 2, 1939, in Toledo, Ohio) served as the 73rd United States Secretary of the Treasury. He replaced Secretary Paul O'Neill on February 3, 2003 and was succeeded by Henry Paulson on July 3, 2006, in a move that had been anticipated for several weeks. Snow submitted a letter of resignation on May 30, 2006, effective "after an orderly transition period for my successor."  To replace him, U.S. President George W. Bush nominated Henry M. Paulson, Jr.. Snow announced on Thursday, June 29, 2006 that he had completed his last day on the job; Robert Kimmitt served as acting secretary until Paulson was sworn in.

## References