open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Cybernetics

**Cybernetics** is the study of control and communication in the animal and the machine. Norbert Wiener added: "Information is information, not matter or energy". Ashby continued: 
:"Cybernetics stands to the real machine—electronic, mechanical, neural, or economic—much as geometry stands to a real object in our terrestrial space".

Cybernetics was from the first an inter-disciplinary field of study. It included people from at least a dozen academic disciplines. There were two events which sparked it off after World War II. The first was that scientists from different backgrounds had, during the war, worked together on various military projects. They learned a good deal about how to cooperate with their various partners. The second event was the invention of computers during the war.

The countries which started cybernetics were Britain and the United States, but the idea spread quickly to France, Russia and other countries. Another, more famous, example of 'interdisciplinary studies' was molecular and cell biology.

## The building block 
Imagine a simple system such as a central heating system.

A goal-directed or control system has these four parts: 
# Sensor (S): test the system's environment.
# Goal (G): the specification of the desired state of the system. 
# Error Detection (E): a method for finding the difference between the present state and the goal state. 
# Effector (E'): operations the system can make to get the environment closer to the goal.

The device which does this is called a thermostat.

## Later years 
Cybernetics started rapidly, and some of the greatest thinkers of the post-war era were interested in it. When this generation died, and some of the hopes for artificial intelligence and robotics were slow to produce results, cybernetics fell somewhat out of favour.

## Related pages 
*Feedback
*Homeostasis
*Self-organisation
*General systems theory
*Technological singularity

## References
Acura

**Acura** is the luxury brand of the car company Honda. It has been established in the United States, Canada and Hong Kong since March 1986. The brand has been used to market Honda's luxury cars and high performance models. Before Acura, most Japanese cars were economical in design. 1986
## Current models 
## Discontinued Models 
## References
Complexity

**Complexity** is a property of an object with many parts and a  . It is also the state of being . Its opposite is . 
## Related pages
*Physics
*Linguistics
*Complex system
*Computer science
Kingdom of Kush

**Kush** civilization had its center in the region of Nubia. This was in northern Sudan of today. We know about it through the Egyptians who moved south around 2500 BC. When the Middle Kingdom of Egypt ended, an independent kingdom of Kush developed. About 1500 BC Egyptians moved southwards again, but this time met organized resistance. Historians are not sure whether this resistance came from many city states or a single unified empire. The Egyptians won, and the region became a colony of Egypt under the control of Thutmose I. The region supplied Egypt with resources.

In the eleventh century BC internal disputes in Egypt caused colonial rule to collapse and an independent kingdom  based at Napata in Nubia. This kingdom was ruled by locals who overthrew the colonial regime. But Kush had many beliefs and gods in common with Egypt.

## In the Bible
The name given to this civilization comes from the Old Testament where Cush (Hebrew: כוש) was one of the sons of Ham (Son of Noah) who settled in Northeast Africa. The Bible refers to Cush on a number of occasions. Moses wife, Tzipporah, is described as a Kushite in the book of Numbers.

## Related pages
* Meroe

## References
*Jean Leclant. "The empire of Kush: Napata and Meroe"  *UNESCO General History of Africa*
*A. Hakem with I. Hrbek and J. Vercoutter. "The civilization of Napata and Meroe" *UNESCO General History of Africa*
*P.L. Shinnie. "The Nilotic Sudan and Ethiopia c. 660 BC to c. AD 600" *Cambridge History of Africa - Volume 2* Cambridge University Press, 1978.

## Other websites
*Ancient Gold Center Discovered on the Nile
*On Kush 
*  Voyage au pays des pharaons noirs Travel in Sudan : pictures and notes on the nubian history
*Scholars Race to Recover a Lost Kingdom on the Nile from the *New York Times*.
*
Blackletter

**Blackletter** or **Gothic script** is an old way to write. Blackletter in writing or print was used in Western Europe from about 1150 to the 17th century. It was used for printing in Germany until the 20th century.

Letter shapes in printing were copied from letter shapes in a style of handwriting. So, the Gothic script of northern Europe and the Latin script used in Italy were both copied into print typography.

## The name *Gothic* script 
Some people call blackletter Old English. This is not right, because Old English is a language, not a script, and many centuries older. Also *Gothic* script has nothing to do with the Goths. They lived in central Europe from the 3rd to 6th century and wrote in runes. Blackletter must not be confused either with the ancient Gothic alphabet or with the sans-serif typefaces that are also sometimes called *Gothic*.

The term *Gothic* was first used to describe this script in fifteenth century Italy, in the midst of the Renaissance. Scholars thought it was a barbaric script: *Gothic* was a synonym for *barbaric*. 

Not only were blackletter forms called *Gothic script*, but any other seemingly barbarian script was also labeled "Gothic". In contrast, the humanists preferred the Carolingian minuscule, a highly legible script. They called it *littera antiqua*, "the ancient letter", believing that it was the script used by the Romans. But actually it was invented in the reign of Charlemagne.

## Origins
Carolingian minuscule was the direct and linear ancestor of blackletter. Blackletter came from Carolingian when Europe in the twelfth century needed new books in many different subjects when more and more people learned to read. New universities were founded, each writing books for business, law, grammar, history, and other topics, not only religious books, where earlier scripts were used.

These books needed to be produced quickly to keep up with demand. Carolingian, though legible, was time-consuming and labour-intensive to produce. It was large and wide and took up a lot of space on a manuscript in a time when writing materials were very costly. As early as the eleventh century, different forms of Carolingian were already being used, and by the mid-twelfth century, a clearly distinguishable form, able to be written more quickly to meet the demand for new books, was being used in north-eastern France and the Low Countries.

## Sources
*Bernhard Bischoff, *Latin Palaeography: Antiquity and the Middle Ages*, Cambridge University Press, 1989.
Falkland Islands wolf

The **Falkland Islands wolf** (*Dusicyon australis*), also known as the **warrah**, **Falkland Islands dog**, **Falkland Islands fox**, or **Antarctic wolf**, is a species of wolf that used to live on the Falkland Islands. They were blamed for killing sheep, but it is not known if they did or not. The last fox died in 1876. This species probably fed on penguins, seals and vegetation.

It is unclear how they got to the Falkland Islands. The most common theory was that the warrah descended from domestic dogs brought to the Falkland Islands by the Yaghan of Tierra del Fuego. This explained the lack of their fear of humans. 

However, this theory was seen as implausible because the Falkland Islands are far from mainland South America and the sea between the mainland and the islands is very windy, making it impossible to cross in simple canoes. Now, the accepted theory is that the warrah crossed into the Falkland Islands on a former ice bridge connecting the mainland and the islands. The animal went extinct soon after, caused by hunters hunting them and killing for their pelt or fur. 

the method they would use would be to hold a piece of meat, and a knife in the other, ready to stay them. they were very friendly creatures, famously swimming up o boats, but that had come to an end.
SNoW

**SNoW** (born June 11, 1985 in Tokyo, Japan) is a J-Pop singer. She is now studying at Santa Monica College in California. She was raised in a two language environment. Her favorite artists include Ani DiFranco, Iggy Pop, Talking Heads, and Jack Johnson.

Her first single "Yes" was released under an indie record label in November 2004. In 2005, she changed labels to Sony Music Entertainment Japan. With Sony, she released "Hanabi made Ato Sukoshi" (花火まであとすこし - unofficial translation: "A Little Longer Until the Fireworks") in July. Her third single, "Sakasama no Chō" (逆さまの蝶, "The Inverted Butterfly"), was released on January 25, 2006. "Sakasama no Chō" was the opening theme of the 2005/2006 anime *Jigoku Shoujo* (地獄少女). It will also be used in the movie *Humoresque* to be released in February 2006. The opening theme for *Jigoku Shōjo*'s second season, "NightmaRe", was also performed by SNoW. It was released as a single on December 6, 2006.

## Singles 
* "Yes" - November 25, 2004
* "Hanabi Made Ato Sukoshi" - July 6, 2005
* "Sakasama no Chō" - January 25, 2006
* "On & On" - July 5, 2006
* "NightmaRe" - December 6, 2006
Cabal Online

**Cabal Online** is a free massive multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG) created by ESTsoft Corporation.

## Characters 
There are eight characters players can choose from in Cabal Online. They are: Warrior, Blader, Magician, Force Archer, Force Blader, Force Shielder, Force Gunner, https://wegototo.com  and Gladiator.
Funnel cloud

A **funnel cloud** is a funnel-shaped cloud of  water droplets.  They usually appear with a rotating column of air.   These  from the bottom of a cloud that does not touch the ground or a water surface. A funnel cloud can usually  be seen as a cone or needle shaped cloud that extends out from the main cloud base. Funnel clouds, very often, develop when supercell thunderstorms happen.

If a funnel cloud touches the ground, it becomes a tornado. Most tornadoes begin as funnel clouds.  Many funnel clouds that appear do not actually touch the ground, and do not become tornadoes.  Tornadoes can only be seen when they pick up stuff off the ground (), but one can see them from a distance of many miles.

A funnel cloud that makes contact with water is called a waterspout. 
A funnel cloud that touches the ground in front of a snow squall is called a winter waterspout.

## Cold-air funnel clouds 
Cold-air (or cold-core) funnel clouds are usually short-lived and are usually much weaker in strength than the tornadoes produced by supercells.  Cold-air funnel clouds usually do not touch the ground, but here have been reports that it can happen. Then, they become weak tornadoes or waterspouts.
. Observed in northern Texas by a member of the VORTEX project.]]

They are a common sight along the Pacific Coast and USA, usually seen in the spring or autumn.

## Related pages
*Tornado
*Waterspout
*Landspout
*Winter waterspout

## References
## Other websites
*NOAA FAQ on Tornadoes
*TORRO Tornado FAQ
Nissan (disambiguation)

**Nissan Motor Corporation** is a Japanese car company.

**Nissan** may also mean:

## Geography
* Nissan (river), river in southwestern Sweden
* Nissan Island, island in Papua New Guinea
* Nissan Rural LLG, administrative division in Papua New Guinea
* Nissan-lez-Enserune, village near Béziers, France

## Brands and enterprises
* Nissan Chemical Corporation, a Japanese chemical company
* Nissan Computer, Not related to Nissan Motor Corperation but famous for a legal dispute over the Nissan.com domain name
* Nissan Group, a Japanese business, which includes:
** Nissan Diesel, former name of truck and bus builder UD Trucks Corporation
** Nissan Forklift, a forklift builder; see Nissan CG engine
** Nissan Marine, a marine engine builder
* Nissan Life, a defunct insurance company

## Other uses
* *Nissan*, or *Nisan*, a month on the Hebrew calendar, Babylonian calendar and modern Arab April
* Nissan Pavilion, former name of an outdoor entertainment venue in Prince William County, Virginia, now known as Jiffy Lube Live
* Rosa Nissán (born 1939), Mexican writer
Waterspout

, the Netherlands on August 27, 2006]]
]]

A **waterspout** is a tornado, over water usually a non-supercell tornado. Waterspouts do *not* suck up water; the water seen in the main funnel cloud is actually water droplets formed by condensation. It is usually weaker than its land counterparts.

## Types 
### Non-tornadic 
Waterspouts that are not come from the turning updraft of a supercell thunderstorm, are known as "nontornadic" or "fair-weather waterspouts", and are by far the most common type.

Fair-weather waterspouts are usually form from tall cumulus clouds with dark, flat-bottoms.

### Snowspout
A **winter waterspout**, also known as a **snow devil**, an **icespout**, an **ice devil**, a **snonado**, or a **snowspout**, is a very  meteorological phenomenon in which a vortex from snow develops that looks like a waterspout.  One does not know much about this rare happening and there are only six known pictures of this event so far.

There are three main things that produce a winter waterspout:
* Very cold temperatures present over a body of warm water enough to produce fog that looks like steam above the water's surface.  This usually needs temperatures of -18&nbsp;°C or colder if the water temperature is no warmer than 5&nbsp;°C.
* Lake-effect snows in a small, enclosed or banded  must be present and going on.
* The wind speed has to be slow, usually less than 5 knots (9.25&nbsp;km/h).

## Related pages
* Winter waterspout
* Funnel cloud
* Tornado

## References 
## Other websites 
* British and European Tornado Extremes 
* A series of pictures  from the boat *Nicorette* getting impressively close to the south coast tornadic waterspout.
* USA Today online article on waterspouts 
* Home video of a waterspout on Long Island Sound on 27 September 2006 
* Pictures of cold-core waterspouts over Lake Michigan on 30 September 2006. Archived from the original on March 102007.
* http://aoss-research.engin.umich.edu/PlanetaryEnvironmentResearchLaboratory/
Billy Graham Evangelistic Association

in 1966]]
The **Billy Graham Evangelistic Association** (**BGEA**) is an organization founded by Rev. Billy Graham in 1950. The purpose of the *BGEA* is to tell the gospel of Jesus Christ to as many people as they can. They have done this through crusades, evangelism training, youth outreach, television broadcasts, and radio programs, just to name a few. The current President of BGEA is Graham's son Franklin.

## Other websites 
*Official website
Bob Jones University

**Bob Jones University** (**BJU**) is a private Protestant Christian university in Greenville, South Carolina. The university was founded in 1927 by Bob Jones, Sr. (1883-1968), an evangelist. The school has around 3,000 students attending it, and there are 2,755 undergraduate students attending. Until the 1970s, BJU only allowed white students to attend. Afterwards, it banned interracial dating.

## References 
## Other websites 
*BJU website
Washington National Cathedral

's funeral at the cathedral]]
The **Washington National Cathedral** is a cathedral of the Episcopal Church in the United States. Located in Washington, D.C., the capital of the United States, it is the sixth largest cathedral in the world and second largest in the United States. It was built between 1907 and 1990.

On Tuesday, August 23, 2011, the central tower on the Cathedral was damaged by an earthquake. A 5.8-magnitude earthquake struck northern Virginia, about  from Washington D.C. The earthquake knocked off some of the cross-shaped finial stones. Finials are the decorative top of the pinnacles or towers. One pinnacle is leaning to the side. The inside of the cathedral did not receive any serious damage from the earthquake.

Officials have stated that it will cost millions of dollars to repair the damage. The cost of repairs will not be covered by insurance. There are many cracks in the limestone exterior. There was concern that the landfall of hurricane Irene would cause more damage. The hurricane did not cause any additional damage to the cathedral.

State funerals for four American Presidents have been held at the cathedral:
* Dwight Eisenhower (1969): Eisenhower was lying in repose at the cathedral before lying in state
* Ronald Reagan (2004)
* Gerald Ford (2007)
* George H.W. Bush (2018)
Memorial services were also held for presidents Warren G. Harding, William Taft, Calvin Coolidge, Harry S Truman, and Richard M. Nixon.

## References
United States Postal Service

The **United States Postal Service** (**USPS**) was founded in 1971, replacing the United States Post Office Department. Its headquarters is in Washington D.C. In the United States, it is referred to as "the post office", "the postal service", or just "the mail". Its job is to deliver letters, packages, and other items to people.

The purpose of the Postal Service is to deliver equal service to all citizens of the United States.  The Postal Service has almost 500,000 employees to deliver and sort mail, as well as run management and clerk positions.  The Postal Service is for the service of Americans, so it is generally left out of politics between political parties.  Users can use their mailbox flag to signal USPS drivers to deliver the mailbox's contents to a different place.

## History 
The Postal Service was originally the Post Office Department, which began in 1775. In 1971, the Postal Reorganization Act went into effect, creating the United States Postal Service. Since then, the Postal Service has had 14 Postmaster Generals, the current one being Louis DeJoy.

## Organization 
The Postal Service is led by the Board of Governors, 11 people that guide the Postal Service. Nine of the governors are chosen by the president and confirmed by the senate, similar to the president's cabinet. Only four governors can be in one political party to avoid political hardship. The nine governors choose a tenth governor to be the Postmaster General who leads the Postal Service. The now 10 governors choose a Deputy Postmaster General to assist the Postmaster General. The Postmaster General and Deputy Postmaster General do not leave their office until the Board of Governors votes them out.

## Laws Affecting The Postal Service 
### U.S. Constitution 
The Constitution gives Congress the ability to "establish post offices and post roads." Congress used this power to originally create the Post Office as well as give it power.

### U.S. Code Title 39 
This code outlines the duties and powers of the Postal Service, making its mission of service clear.

### Postal Reorganization Act 
This law, signed in 1970 by President Richard Nixon, separated the Postal Service from the rest of the Executive Branch, allowing them to act independently without approval from Congress.

### Postal Accountability and Enhancement Act 
This law, signed in 2006, requires the Postal Service to put money into their Retiree Health Benefit Program ahead of time. This would allow them to save money for the future. Since this law, however, the Postal Service has often been losing money due to high operating costs.

## References
## Other websites
* Official USPS website
Samford University

**Samford University** is a private, Southern Baptist-related university in Homewood, Alabama, a suburb of Birmingham, Alabama. Samford ranked 118 out of 262 institutions in ''U.S. News and World Reports' * college rankings.
## History 
*Samford University* was founded as *Howard College* in 1841 and opened its doors to students on January 3, 1842, in Marion, Alabama. In 1887 the school moved to Birmingham.

Women were first admitted to *Howard College* in 1895. In 1920 the school joined the *Southern Association of Colleges* and in 1927 it added its pharmacy school. In 1965, *Howard'' got back its master's degree program. This led to the college's becoming a well-known college by November 9, 1965.  The school was renamed in honor of *Frank Park Samford*, chairman of the Board of Trustees and most generous personal supporter, because there was already a *Howard University* in Washington, D.C..

## References 
## Other websites 
*Samford University
*Samford University Catalog 
*Samford Bulldogs Athletics
Vortex

A **vortex** (pl. *vortices*) is a spinning, often turbulent, 
flow of fluid. The motion of the fluid  rapidly around a center is called a vortex. The speed and rate of rotation of the fluid are greatest at the center and become smaller with distance from the center.

## Related pages
* Vorticity
* Wormhole

## Other websites
*Dust Devil Movie A short movie showing many spinning vortices of varying sizes
*Video of two water vortex rings colliding  (MPEG)
*BubbleRings.com Web site on "bubble rings", which are underwater rings made of air formed from vortices. The site has some information on how these rings work.
*Chapter 3 Rotational Flows: Circulation and Turbulence 
*Video of Vortex Formation and Annihilation in a Superconductor (By Joel Thorarinson )
Parkinson's disease

'''Parkinson's disease** (or **PD**, sometimes simply "**Parkinson's'''") is a disease that slowly damages the central nervous system. 

The central nervous system is made up of the brain and spine. When a person gets Parkinson's disease, the cells that make dopamine in a part of the brain die. Dopamine cells send information to other cells which makes us do the actions we do. Because of this, Parkinson's disease mainly affects the body's motor system.

Parkinson's disease is a disease that gets worse over time. People normally get Parkinson's disease when they are over 50 years old. It is sometimes very hard for doctors to detect.

## Causes 
Doctors are studying the exact causes of Parkinson's. It is said that Parkinson's develops through a combination of genetic errors and several possible influences, but not much is known. Doctors have discovered some clues about the cause(s). It is caused by the destruction of specialised ganglions in the brain. The production of dopamine, a neurotransmitter, reduces. Parkinson's can also be genetic. But research shows that genetic Parkinson's is not normal, and is uncommon. Parkinson's disease is more frequent among those who work with pesticides  or have had a history of head injuries.

Research suggests that people are slightly less likely to get Parkinson's disease if they smoke cigarettes.

## Symptoms 
Parkinson's disease can cause the brain to not respond. The patient may become paralyzed. The disease can give the patient slow reaction time and poor coordination between the hand and the brain.

It hurts the patient's movement skills and their speech. It can also affect mood, behavior and thinking. A common symptom of Parkinson’s disease is tremors. Tremors cause people's hands, legs, and arms to shake. Some symptoms include skin problems, depression, and difficulty swallowing.

## Treatments 
Parkinson's disease cannot be completely cured yet. Still, people have tried to cure it with drugs. One treatment is to put back the lost dopamine. A group of drugs called dopamine receptor agonists acts similarly to dopamine when put in the brain. There are four different drugs included in that group. Many patients take one of those with another drug. That other drug is called L-dopa. Unlike the dopamine, the L-dopa can enter the brain. The dopamine cannot enter the brain. This is why many patients take L-dopa and dopamine together. In the beginning, L-dopa helps a lot. But as the disease develops, the L-dopa doesn't work as well. Two other drugs used are anticholinergics and selegiline. They both help lessen symptoms. Anticholinergics help the patient stop shaking. Selegiline is meant to protect the nerves in the central nervous system. Selegiline is not often used. This is because there is no real proof that it helps.

## References
## Other websites 
*National Parkinson Foundation
*Asociacion Parkinson TARAY Aranjuez MADRID ESPAÑA
*Parkinson's Disease Society of the United Kingdom
*Blechman Foundation for Parkinson's Research
Libertia

***Libertia*** is a genus of monocotyledenous plants in the family *Iridaceae*. There are 15 species in the genus. The plants can be found growing in the southern hemisphere.

## Species 
**L. chilensis* (Molina)Gunckel (=*Libertia formosa* Graham)
**L. elegans* Poepp.
**L. sessiliflora* (Poepp.) Skottsb.
**L. tricocca* Phil.
**L. grandiflora* (R.Br.) Sweet
**L. ixioides* (G.Forst.)Spreng (mapuche) pukallecalle, māori mikoikoi
**L. peregrinans* Cockayne et Allan
**L. micrantha* A.Cunn.
**L. cranwelliae* Blanchon, Murria et Braggins
**L. edgariae* Blanchon, Murria et Braggins,
**L. mooreae* Blanchon, Murria et Braggins
**L. paniculata* (R.Br.)Spreng.
**L. pulchella* var. *laurencei* (Hook.f.) Domin

## References 
## Other websites 
*Abstracts
*Rodney Todd Eason Mediterranean plants from Chile for displays at Longwood gardens
Tibetan

**Tibetan** can refer to:
*Of or relating to Tibet
*Tibetan people, an ethnic group
*Tibetan language
*Tibetan script, a writing system
*Tibetan art
*Tibetan culture
*Tibetan food
*Tibetan Spaniel dog breed
*Tibetan Mastiff dog breed
*Tibetan Buddhism
V/Line

**V/Line** is a regional train operator in Victoria, Australia. They operate all regional trains outside the Connex network, as well as some bus services that take people a long way.

## References
Mordecai Ham

**Mordecai Fowler Ham, Jr.** (April 2, 1877 – November 1, 1961) was an American evangelist. He entered his ministry in 1901. In 1936, he started his Christian radio evangelism career. He continued working as an evangelist until shortly before his death in 1961.

## Other websites 
*Biography from Christian History Institute
Charles Templeton

**Charles Bradley Templeton** (October 7, 1915 – June 7, 2001) was a Canadian cartoonist, evangelist, agnostic, politician, newspaper editor, inventor, broadcaster and author. At the age of 17 during the Great Depression, *Chuck Templeton* (as he was then known) got his first job as a sports cartoonist for *The Globe and Mail*. This would be the first of many of his careers. In the late 1990s, he was diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease.  He died from problems with the disease in 2001.

## Other websites 
*His homepage
*An obituary of *Charles Templeton*
Toome

**Toome** (or **Toomebridge**) is a village in Northern Ireland, in the United Kingdom. It is  from Magherafelt and  from Antrim. It is close to the River Bann.

## Population facts
On 29 April 2001 the United Kingdom government had a census and saw that there were 722 people living in Toome. They also saw that:
*27.2% of the people were under 16 years old and 10.9% were over 60 years old
*48.8% of the people were male and 51.3% were female
*96.3% of the people were from a Roman Catholic background and 2.9% were from a Protestant background
*6.2% of people aged 16–74 had no job.

## References
Middleweight

In boxing, the term **Middleweight** is used for a specific group of people based on weight. A middleweight is a boxer weight does not exceed 160 pounds (73&nbsp;kg).
 
Boxing organizations created many divisions so that fighters could fight people of the same size. 

The first heavyweight champion under modern rules was Irish boxer Jack (Nonpareil) Dempsey.

Famous heavyweight champions have include Bob Fitzsimmons, Nino Benvenuti, Rocky Graziano, Marvin Hagler, Bernard Hopkins, Roy Jones Jr., Jake LaMotta, Carlos Monzon, 
Sugar Ray Robinson, Tony Zale and Sugar Ray Leonard.
Gary Megson

**Gary Megson** (born 20 June 1960) is an English former football player and manager. He managed Norwich City, Blackpool, Stockport County, Stoke City, West Bromwich Albion, Nottingham Forest, Leicester City, Bolton Wanderers and Sheffield Wednesday. He guided West Brom to promotion in 2001–02 and 2003–04, both times from the First Division to the Premier League.

## Career statistics
## Managerial statistics
## Honours
### As a manager
**West Bromwich Albion**
*Football League First Division runner-up: 2001–02, 2003–04

**Individual**
*Premier League Manager of the Month: November 2008

## References
Edmund Spenser

**Edmund Spenser** (; c. 1552 – 13 January 1599) was a poet from England. He was most known for his poem *The Faerie Queene*, which talks about different knights who fight against evil. The poem also praises Queen Elizabeth I of England. He wrote also many sonnets and poems. The sonnets were collected under the name of Amoretti.

Edmund Spenser made a new rhyme-scheme for sonnet (abab bcbc cdcd ee) and a nine-line stanza (ababbcbcc). These forms are now called Spenserian sonnet and Spenserian stanza. Spenserian stanza was later used by many poets, among others by George Gordon Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley, John Keats and Alfred Tennyson.

## Sources
Papuan languages

The term **Papuan languages** means languages of the western Pacific which are neither Austronesian nor Australian. That is, the term is defined negatively and does not mean a linguistic relationship. 

## The languages
The majority of the Papuan languages are spoken on the island of New Guinea (which is divided between the country of Papua New Guinea and Indonesian provinces of Papua and West Irian Jaya), with a number spoken in the Bismarck Archipelago, Bougainville Island, and the Solomon Islands to the east, and in Halmahera, Timor, and the Alor archipelago to the west. One Papuan language, Meriam Mir, is spoken within the national borders of Australia, in the eastern Torres Strait. The only Papuan languages with official recognition are those of East Timor.

New Guinea is perhaps the most linguistically diverse region in the world. Besides the Austronesian languages, there are some 800 languages divided into perhaps sixty small language families, with unclear relationships to each other or to anything else, plus a large number of language isolates.  

## References
* 

## Other websites
*2003 bibliography of languages (Papuan and Austronesian) of Indonesian Papua 
*Summer Institute of Linguistics site on languages (Papuan and Austronesian) of Papua New Guinea 
*Map of Papuan languages (formerly known as the East Papuan family) of island Melanesia 
*Bill Foley on Papuan languages 
* Dryer's Papuan Language Families and Genera
Papua

**Papua** may refer to:

*New Guinea, Pacific island
**Papua New Guinea, country on the above island
***Papua Region, in the above country
**Papua (Australian territory), former Australian-administered territory in southeastern New Guinea
**Papua (Indonesian province), Indonesian province on the western half of the New Guinea
**West Papua (province), Indonesian province on the Bird's Head Peninsula region of the island
**Western New Guinea, the western part of the island.
*Papuan languages
The Faerie Queene

]] 

***The Faerie Queene*** is an English epic poem by Edmund Spenser. The poem was first published in 1590. A longer version of the poem was published in 1596. This version of the poem is in six parts or books. 

*The Fairie Queene* is about different knights who fight against evil. It is an allegorical work, and each book of the poem is about a different virtue. The poem also praises Queen Elizabeth I of England and her family, the Tudors. Queen Elizabeth liked the poem so much that she gave Spenser a pension as a reward.
An Inconvenient Truth

***An Inconvenient Truth*** is a 2006 documentary movie about global warming directed by Davis Guggenheim, presented by former United States Vice President Al Gore. The movie was first shown at the 2006 Sundance Film Festival. It opened in New York and Los Angeles on May 24, 2006. The movie was released on DVD on November 21, 2006. A companion book by Gore reached Number 1 on the paperback nonfiction New York Times bestseller list on July 2, 2006.  The movie won Academy Awards for Best Documentary Feature and for Best Original Song.

*An Inconvenient Truth* is the story of Al Gore and his efforts to tell people about climate change concerns. Gore says, "I've been trying to tell this story for a long time and I feel as if I've failed to get the message across." The movie closely follows a "slide show" presentation that Gore has shown throughout the world. It shows Gore's exploration of the global warming data, and predictions regarding climate change and its potential for disaster.

## Related pages
* Stern Review
* The Dirty Energy Dilemma

## References
## Other websites
* 
* 
*
Alan Dawazhouma

**Alan Dawazhouma** (known as **alan**) or **阿兰** is a Tibetan-Chinese singer and erhu player from Sichuan province who debuted in 2005 with 声声醉如兰. As well as Tibetan and Mandarin, she speaks some English and Japanese. Her first release in Japanese was the single, 明日への讃歌.

## Biography 
alan was born on 25 July 1987. Her stage name "alan" is pinyin for 阿兰, which is her surname. In Japan, she is also known as あらん. Her real name is Alan Dawa Dolma (阿兰达瓦卓玛 in Chinese, which is pronounced in pinyin as Alan Dawazhuoma).

alan grew up in the Meiren valley in the Danba County of Garze Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture in China. Her father is a civil servant, while her mother was a former singer. She learned singing from a young age and started to learn how to play the erhu at the age of eight. At nine years old, alan was selected for the leading role in the TV drama Tai Yang Nu Shen and first pursued a career as an actress.

After graduating from her musically oriented high school, she enrolled in a relatively well known music school in China, the China National Chinese Opera and Dance Drama Company (解放軍芸術学院), where two members of 12 Girls Band were also being taught. Later in 2005, alan debuted with a cover album titled Sheng Sheng Zui Ru Lan under a Chinese independent label. Currently, the album has sold over 50,000 copies.

In October 2006 at the Shanghai International Art Festival, alan won second place (tied with Filipino singer Jimmy Layo Marquez) at the 9th Asia New Singer Competition. In July 2007, she graduated the China National Chinese Opera and Dance Drama Company with excellent grades.

alan was discovered when the Japan-based record label Avex Inc. held auditions in Beijing. Her first single was in November the same year. It was called "Ashita e no Sanka", which can be translated as "a song for tomorrow." She is currently still studying Japanese and only has a basic grasp of the language.

## Discography 
## Filmography 
* [1997]  (; lit. *Goddess of the Sky*) as 电视剧
* [2008] 
* [2012] 
* [2013] 
* [2016] 
* [2017] 

## References & other websites 
* Official Website (Japan)
* Official Blog 
* Official Blog 
* Oricon Profile
Lombok

**Lombok** (population 2,950,105 in 2005) is an island in West Nusa Tenggara province, Indonesia. It is to the east of Bali on the other side of the Lombok Strait. The capital and largest city on the island is Mataram.

The Gili Islands are very popular with tourists. There are many places to dive and the beaches are lovely.

Mount Rinjani, 3,726 m (12,224 ft), is the third-highest volcano in Indonesia.

In the summer of 2018, two major earthquakes, in July (6.4 magnitude) and in August (6.9 magnitude) hit the city killing nearly 270 people all together.

## Other websites
* 
* NY Times on Lombok
* Inside Lombok
Vortex (disambiguation)

A **vortex** is a dynamic phenomenon of fluids.

**Vortex** could also mean:

In **amusement**:
* Vortex (California's Great America), a stand-up roller coaster at California's Great America in Santa Clara, California, United States
* Vortex (Canada's Wonderland), a suspended roller coaster at Canada's Wonderland in Vaughan, Ontario, Canada
* Vortex (Carowinds), a stand-up roller coaster at Carowinds in Charlotte, North Carolina, United States
* Vortex (Kings Island), a steel roller coaster at Kings Island in Mason, Ohio, United States

In **fiction**:
* Cindy Vortex, a fictional character on the TV series *The Adventures of Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius* and movie *Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius*
* Time vortex (Doctor Who), the space-time vortex in the *Doctor Who* television series
* *Vortex* (novel), a 1991 war novel by Larry Bond and Patrick Larkin
* Vortex (Transformers), a member of the Combaticons from Transformers who transforms into a helicopter
* Vortex life form, a fictional extraterrestrial species of the Ecco the Dolphin video game series

In **gaming**:
* Vortex (game), several games
* Vortex Software, a defunct video game developer

In **music**:
* ICS Vortex, a Norwegian metal singer and bassist
* *Vortex* (album), a remix album by *Collide*
* Vortex I: A Biodegradable Festival of Life, a state sponsored music festival held in 1970 in Estacada, Oregon
* Vortex Jazz Club, a London venue that primarily features live jazz music but will occasionally have intriguing programmes of other music

In **science and technology**:
* Aureal Vortex, the PC audio accelerator chipset which powered such sound cards as the Monster Sound MX300
* Vortex (satellite), a class of United States Reconnaissance satellites
* Caltex Vortex, a brand of 95 and 98 octane unleaded fuels from Caltex
* Vorticity, a mathematical concept used in fluid dynamics

In **television**:
* *Vortex* (DS9 episode), a first-season episode of *Star Trek: Deep Space Nine*
* *Vortex* (Smallville episode), the first episode in Season 2 of *Smallville*
* *Vortex* (YTV), a programming block produced by YTV and hosted by Paula Lemyre

In **other fields**:
* Subaru Vortex, a sporty coupe sold from 1985 to 1991 by Subaru
Omagh bombing

The **Omagh bombing** was a car bomb attack by the Real Irish Republican Army in Omagh, County Tyrone, Northern Ireland, on 15 August 1998. It killed 29 people and injured 300 others.

## References
The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck

***The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck*** is a comic book painted and written by Don Rosa. To make it, Rosa needed to see Carl Barks's stories and the more important facts of Scrooge's fictional life.

## Chapters 
The story has 12 original parts, with more added later, that tell Scrooge's life:
Torres Strait Islanders

**Torres Strait Islanders** are the indigenous people of the Torres Strait Islands, part of Queensland, in Australia. They are culturally related to the coastal peoples of Papua New Guinea but are regarded as being different from other Aboriginal peoples of the rest of Australia. There are also two Torres Strait Islander communities on the nearby coast of the mainland.

## Population 
There are 6,000 Torres Strait Islanders who live in the area of the Torres Strait and 42,000 others who live outside that area, mostly in northern Queensland, particularly in Townsville and Cairns. 

## Culture 
The Torres Strait Islanders have a distinct culture, which has slight variations on the different islands on which they live. They are a sea-faring people and engaged in trade with peoples of Papua New Guinea. The culture is complex, with some Australian elements, some Papuan elements, and some Austronesian elements, just like the languages.

The islanders seem to have been the dominant culture for many centuries, and neighbouring Aboriginal and Papuan cultures show some Island influence such is their religious ceremonies. Archaeological, linguistic and oral history evidence suggests that the core of Island culture is Austronesian. Unlike the Aboriginal peoples in the rest of Australia, the islanders were traditionally agriculturalists but supplemented their food supplies by hunting and gathering.

## Related pages
* Indigenous Australians
* Papua New Guinea

## References 
## Other websites 
* Torres Strait Regional Authority 
* Church of Torres Strait
Real Irish Republican Army

The **Real Irish Republican Army** (or **Real IRA**) is a group from Ireland who want Northern Ireland to become part of the Republic of Ireland, and want it to leave the United Kingdom. The group started after they left the Provisional Irish Republican Army, after an argument. On 15 August 1998 they did the Omagh bombing, which killed 29 people and hurt over 300 people. They have shot police officers and have also bombed places in England, such as London and Birmingham. It is against the law to be a member of the Real IRA.

## References
Themis (hypothetical moon)

On April 28, 1905, the American astronomer William H. Pickering said that he had found a tenth moon of the planet Saturn. Pickering named the moon **Themis**. No other astronomer has ever seen the moon that Pickering said he saw. Because of this, astronomers do not count Themis as an official moon of Saturn.

Pickering tried to figure out an orbit for Themis. He thought that Themis had an inclination of 39.1° to the ecliptic, with 0.23 eccentricity (0.23) and a semi-major axis distance of 1,457,000&nbsp;km. This meant that Themis had an orbit like the moons Titan and Hyperion. Pickering believed that it took Themis 20.85 days to orbit Saturn, in a prograde motion.

Pickering thought that the diameter of Themis was about 38 miles (61&nbsp;km). Pickering had also discovered the moon Phoebe, but modern astronomers know that Pickering made a mistake when he gave 42 miles (68&nbsp;km) as the diameter of Phoebe. Because astronomers know how Pickering made his mistake, they can say that if Themis existed, it would have a diameter of 200&nbsp;km.

In April 1861, Hermann Goldschmidt also thought he discovered a new satellite of Saturn between Titan and Hyperion. Goldschmidt called this moon Chiron. The moon Chiron also does not exist, but the name was used much later for the comet/asteroid 2060 Chiron.

In 1906, the French Academy of Sciences gave Pickering the Lalande Prize of the French Academy of Sciences for his "discovery of the ninth and tenth satellites of Saturn".

The actual tenth satellite of Saturn (in order of discovery) was Janus, which was discovered in 1966 and confirmed in 1980. Its orbit is far from the supposed orbit of Themis.

There is also an asteroid named 24 Themis.

## Themis in fiction
*John Varley's science fiction novel *Titan* takes place on an expedition to Saturn. As they approach the planet and prepare to enter orbit, the astronomer onboard discovers a new moon. At first she believes she has recovered Pickering's lost moon, so she names it Themis.
*Robert Anton Wilson's novel Schrödinger's Cat trilogy makes frequent reference to Pickering's Moon as a satellite that revolves the "wrong way" around its primary.

## References
* Harvard College Observatory Bulletin No. 189, p.1 (April 1905)
* Annals of Harvard College Observatory, vol. 53, no. 9, pp. 173-185 (1905)
* AnHar **53** (1905) 173
* AnHar **61** (1908) 86
* Obs **28** (1905) 12:433
* PASP **18** (1906) 96
* Obs **31** (1908) 8:295
* MNRAS **69** (1909) 215
* Obs **32** (1909) 3:79
Sánchez Ramírez Province

**Sánchez Ramírez** is a province of the Dominican Republic. It is in the central part of the country. Its capital city is Cotuí.

It was created in 1952. It was a municipality of the Duarte province before being elevated to the category of province.

## Name
The province was named after Juan Sánchez Ramírez, who was born in Cotuí and who fought against the French army when the country was a colony of France. When the country was again a Spanish colony, Sánchez Ramírez was made the governor of the colony.

## History
The territory of the province was part of the La Vega Province from the Dominican independence (in 1844) until 1945 when most of the territory was made part of the Duarte Province.

On 3 March 1952, the province was created with the territory of Cotuí, part at that moment of the Duarte Province, and the southeastern part of La Vega province. When it was created, it had only two municipalities: Cotuí, the provincial capital, and Cevicos. In 1961, Fantino became the third municipality of the province; in 2002, Villa La Mata became the fourth municipality.

In 1979, La Cueva became a municipal district; La Bija and Angelina in 2001; Quita Sueño and Platanal in 2005; Hernando Alonzo, Caballero and Comedero Arriba in 2006; and Zambrana Abajo in 2010.

Its population represents  of the total population of the country and the province is ranked as the 19th (out of 31 plus the National District) more populated province.

, the total estimated propulation of the province is 152,036 inhabitants.

The largest city of the province is Cotuí, its head municipality or capital, with an urban population (in ) of 45,135 inhabitants.

The altitude of Cotuí, provincial capital, is  above sea level.

The most important river is the Yuna river, that flows from west to east; the other rivers are all tributaries of this river. Other rivers are Cevicos, Chacuey and Maguaca; they flow from the Sierra de Yamasá into the River Yuna.

## Municipalities
There are 4 municipalities and 8 municipal districts (M.D.) in the province.

## Economy
The main economic activities in the province are farming and mining. Close to the town of Las Lagunas, in the Sierra de Yamasá, are the gold mines.

The main products of farming in the Sierra de Yamasá are cacao, oranges and tobacco. In the Yuna valley, rice is the most important product but pineapple and orange are also produced.

Cattle are also important in the province, mainly in the northwestern part of it.

## References
Diane Abbott

**Diane Julie Abbott** (born 27 September 1953) is a British politician. Abbott was born and raised in London. Her parents were Jamaican immigrants. She is now the Member of Parliament for the Hackney North and Stoke Newington constituency in London, UK. She was fortunate to be the first black woman to be  to the House of Commons  when she was elected in the 1987 General Election. In 2010, Abbott became Shadow Public Health Minister after unsuccessfully standing for election as leader of the Labour Party. Abbott was made Shadow Home Secretary by Jeremy Corbyn in October 2016.

She attended Newnham College, Cambridge.

Abbott is a frequent public speaker, newspaper contributor and TV performer.  She has been on many programmes such as *Have I Got News For You*, *Celebrity Come Dine with Me*, *Cash in the Celebrity Attic*.

## Notes
## References
Hywel Francis

**David Hywel Francis** (6 June 1946 – 14 February 2021) was a Welsh politician and the Member of Parliament for the Aberavon  in the United Kingdom. He was  in the 2001 General Election.

He was a member of the Labour Party.

## References
Frank Doran

**Frank Doran** (born April 13, 1949 in Edinburgh, Scotland–died October 30, 2017) was a Scottish politician and the  Member of Parliament for the Aberdeen North  in the United Kingdom. He was first  to the House of Commons in the 1987 general election for Aberdeen South but was defeated in 1992. He is a member of the Labour Party. 

## Career 
He was re-elected at the 1997 general election for the new constituency of Aberdeen Central. The boundary of the constituency was changed, and in 2005 he was elected for the Aberdeen North constituency.

## Personal life 
He is the partner of fellow Labour MP Joan Ruddock.

## References