open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Plantation

plantation in Malaysia]]
 plantation in Canada]]
A **plantation** is a large farm on which usually grows only one type of crop. Plantations grow cash crops, mostly for export, and less for local use. Crops grown on plantations include banana, sugarcane, coffee, tea, cotton and tobacco. 

Most plantations are monocultures, which means only one kind of crop is grown there. This means that the farms are more vulnerable to pests.

The latifundia of the Roman Empire were one of the first known types of plantations. They produced large amounts of wine and olive oil for export.

Before slavery was outlawed in the United States, many enslaved black people were forced to work on Southern plantations.

Plantation agriculture has increased because there has been more international trade and less subsistence farming. Like every economic activity, it has changed over time. Changes have been based on the amount of money people have had, who owns the land, and politics.
Greater London

**Greater London** is a county in Southeastern England. It covers most of London. About 7.5 million people live there.

Greater London is a conurbation and one of the counties made from merging London proper with many smaller villages and towns. Together with the City of London, they form Greater London's administrative districts. In order to avoid confusion with the City of London, "Greater London" is often used to mean the whole modern urban area centred on the City of London, and not just the City of London itself.  When most people say London, they are referring to Greater London.

The county is made of all of London except the City of London. The **London** region, the same area as London, is made up of both Greater London and the City of London.
Fixed Dose Procedure

The **fixed-dose procedure** (FDP) was proposed in 1984 to test a substance's acute oral toxicity using fewer animals with less suffering than the older LD50 test which was developed in 1927.

FDP uses 10-20 animals to find the dose that produces toxicity signs but not death, and from there predicts the lethal dose. LD50 ("lethal dose 50%") uses 60-80 animals to find a dose that kills 50% of animals in a given time. FDP sometimes needs retesting using slightly higher or lower doses.

## Other websites 
*Department of Applied Statistics, University of Reading, UK.
Tentacle rape

**Tentacle rape** or **shokushu goukan** (触手強姦) is illustrated pornography involving the rape of (often quite young) women. This animation is different from other animation methods due to use of tentacles to portray the rape. This was done to get around Japanese censorship laws that made it illegal to portray uncensored male genitalia being used for sexual penetration. Since tentacles are technically not genitals, they do not need to be censored. Not all examples of **tentacle erotica** are non-consensual, though. In fact, one of the earliest and most famous tentacle erotica works, a *Shunga* print by Hokusai called *The Dream of the Fisherman’s Wife*, shows a woman enjoying sex with two octopuses.
Neapolitan

**Neapolitan** means "from the city of Naples in Italy".  It is an adjective.
Neapolitan can mean:

* Someone who lives in Naples or comes from Naples
* Neapolitan language, the language spoken in the former territory of Kingdom of two siclies"
* Neapolitan ice cream, a mixture of chocolate, vanilla, and strawberry ice cream side-by-side in the same container
* Neapolitan chord, in music, is a special chord in music.  An example would be (from bottom note upwards): D flat-F-B if followed by C-E-(G)-C
* Neapolitan Mastiff, a big breed of dog
* Neapolitan piastra, an old currency (money) which used to be used in south Italy
* Neapolitan sauce, a kind of tomato-based sauce used in Italian cooking.
Bel canto

**Bel canto** is a way of singing in opera.  It comes from the Italian, meaning "beautiful singing".  

Bel canto singing means singing beautifully, flexibly and smoothly, delivering high and low notes in a similar style so that all the notes of a singer's range sound even from top to bottom.  Bel canto singing started when opera began in the 1600s, but the term "bel canto" is normally used for operas written in the early 19th century.  The operas of Rossini, Bellini and Donizetti need bel canto singing. The term "bel canto" was not used at the time.  People only started talking about "bel canto" in the mid-to-late 19th century, when a lot of new operas by composers such as Richard Wagner appeared. These new operas had to have singers with big, dramatic voices if they were to sound good.

Bel canto-style operas came back into fashion in the 1950s, having been out of favour for the previous 50 or 60 years. Today, some of the most popular operas are bel canto ones. Famous bel canto singers of recent times include the sopranos Maria Callas, Joan Sutherland, Montserrat Caballé, Beverly Sills and the tenors Francisco Araiza, Juan Diego Florez, Alfredo Kraus, Luciano Pavarotti. 

Mathilde Marchesi was a famous 19th-century bel canto teacher.
Levi Strauss

**Levi Strauss** (February 26, 1829 – September 26, 1902) was a German-born American maker of clothing.

Born as *Löb Strauss* into a Jewish family in Buttenheim in Franconia, Bavaria, now a part of Germany.  In 1847, Strauss, his mother and two sisters moved to New York City to join his brothers Jonas and Louis Löb in their dry goods business. By 1850, he had adopted the name "Levi Strauss".

In 1853, Strauss moved to bustling San Francisco, California, where the California Gold Rush was still in high gear. He expected that the mining camps would welcome his buttons, scissors, thread and bolts of fabric; additionally, he had yards of canvas sailcloth intended for tent-making and as covers for the Conestoga wagons that dotted the landscape next to every stream and river in the area.

It was on California Street that Strauss and his brother-in-law David Stern opened a dry goods wholesale business called Levi Strauss & Co.  Strauss was often found leading a pack-horse, heavily laden with merchandise, directly into the mining camps found throughout the region. The story goes that both prospectors and miners, often complaining about the easily torn cotton "britches" and pockets that "split right out" gave Strauss the idea to make a rugged overall trouser for the miners to wear. These were fashioned from bolts of brown canvas sailcloth, with gold ore storage pockets that were nearly impossible to split. Strauss exhausted his original supply of canvas as the demand grew for his hard-wearing overalls, and so he switched to a sturdy fabric called serge, made in Nimes, France. Originally called serge de Nimes, the name was soon shortened to denim.

In 1872, Strauss received a letter from Jacob Davis, a Reno, Nevada tailor. Davis was one of Strauss's regular customers, who purchased bolts of cloth from the company to use for his own business. In this letter, Davis told Strauss about the interesting way in which he made pants for his customers: he placed metal rivets at the points of strain—pocket corners and on the base of the fly. As he did not have the money to patent his process he suggested that Strauss pay for the paperwork and that they take out the patent together.

On May 20, 1873, Strauss and Jacob Davis received United States patent #139121 for using copper rivets to strengthen the pockets of denim work pants. Levi Strauss & Co. began manufacturing the first of the famous Levi's brand of jeans in San Francisco, using fabric from the Amoskeag Manufacturing Company in Manchester, New Hampshire.

Strauss died on September 26, 1902, at the age of 73. He left his thriving manufacturing and dry goods business to his four nephews—Jacob, Louis, Abraham and Sigmund Stern—who helped rebuild the company after the 1906 San Francisco earthquake and fire. The following year, Jacob Davis sold back his share of the company.

Peter Haas and his family are the primary heirs to the Levi Strauss fortune.

## Other websites 
* Levi Strauss Company
* Levi's
* Levi's Europe 
* Levi's Online Store
Midori Days

**Midori Days** is an anime about a girl who falls in love so badly that when she wakes up she's somehow attached to her love interest's (seiji) right hand. This anime is about how these two adjust to their strange new relationship.

High school boy Seiji Sawamura is really quite a nice guy, but he's got a bad reputation and the nickname Mad Dog, earned by copious street fighting, often in pursuit of justice. His right hook is so deadly that it's got its own nickname-The Devil's Right Hand. Other students avoid him and he can not get a girlfriend. In fact, 20 girls have turned him down. But unknown to him, he has had a secret admirer for the past three years-quiet goody-two-shoes Midori Kasugano, who is so paralyzed by her shyness that she could not possibly tell him how she feels. Then, in the tradition of Minami's Sweetheart (*DE) and The Eternity You Desire, Midori falls into a coma, while Seiji finds that instead of a right hand, he now has a living glove puppet-compare to Puppet Master Sakon. A tiny, living and speaking Midori is attached to the end of his arm and reveling in his undivided attention. The situation is awkward and embarrassing but the pair find they really do like each other, even when things are switched for an episode and Seiji becomes Midori's left hand. The result is a very silly show that still manages to convey how paralyzing shyness can be and how enforced intimacy can reveal unsuspected aspects of a person's character. Based on the manga by Kazuro Inoue in Shonen Sunday, itself a surreal cartoon version of the perennial surrogate parenting and reluctant roommates genres of live-action Japanese television

## References
Innocence

's ''L'Innocence'':  Young children and lambs are symbols of innocence]]

**Innocence** is the opposite of guilt.
The adjective is **innocent** (the opposite of 'guilty').

If someone is innocent of a crime it means that they did not do it.
If someone is accused of a crime, they have to go to court. The court will decide whether they are guilty or not guilty (innocent). People must be treated as innocent unless (or until) they are found guilty.

'Innocence' and 'innocent' can also be used in a slightly different way. Children are often described as 'innocent' meaning that they think the world is all good and do not yet know about the bad things in life. People talk about living in a 'state of innocence' i.e. children or people with simple minds who have not yet learned that some people are evil. In Christian cultures this sometimes meant that children did not know about sex.
Guilt

**Guilt** can mean several things:

* Guilt (emotion), when a person feels that they have done something wrong
* Guilt (law), when a court decides that someone has broken the law
* Culpability, the extent to which a person can be held responsible for something
Symphonic poem

A **symphonic poem** or **tone poem** is a piece of orchestral music which has a story attached to it or describes something such as poem or a painting or any idea which is not music.  A symphonic poem is a kind of programme music (music for instruments which has an idea outside music).

Symphonic poems were mostly written in the 19th century at the time known as the  Romantic period.  They are normally in one movement lasting perhaps between 10 and 20 minutes.  Some of the longest ones, such as *Ein Heldenleben* by Richard Strauss are much longer, like a symphony with four movements which run into one another.
 
The idea can be seen in Beethoven's overtures which tell the story of the opera or play which is about to be performed.  Composers such as Felix Mendelssohn then started to write overtures which told a story but were not attached to any opera. ''Fingal's Cave* (1832) describes the sea lapping against the rocks of a cave in the Scottish Hebrides. 

Franz Liszt was the composer who made the symphonic poem an important musical form.  He wrote twelve works which he called *Symphonische Dichtung* (*Symphonic poem*) because the music developed in the same way as in a symphony.  One example is *Mazeppa* (1851) which describes the poem by Victor Hugo about a wild horse that carries a man tied to him until he is rescued by the Ukrainians and made into their chief.

Other composers who wrote symphonic poems include Sergei Rachmaninoff, Modest Mussorgsky, Camille Saint-Saëns, Claude Debussy, Jean Sibelius, Bedřich Smetana, Antonín Dvořák, Pyotr Tchaikovsky and César Franck.

The opening of Richard Strauss’s  tone poem *Also sprach Zarathustra* (1895-1896) has become particularly famous in recent years through its use in the movie  *2001: A Space Odyssey''.
Melody

A **melody** in music is a group of notes of various pitches (how high or low note sounds) which are played one after another. Together they make a tune in the same way that a group of words make a sentence. Some people like to sing melodies. Melodies have rhythm (the length of the notes). 

In music, 'melody' contrasts with 'harmony'. Harmony means notes which are played at the same time, like chords.  Composers often think of a melody and then add harmony to it. 

Some music has more than one melody happening at the same time.  When this happens throughout the whole piece, it is called polyphonic music. Rounds and fugues are types of polyphonic music. If the other melody only happens sometimes, then the second melody is called a *countermelody*.

The adjective of melody is *melodic*. There is also the adjective *melodious* which means: 'a sweet-sounding melody'.  

Music that does not have an obvious melody may be hard to understand (unless it is focused on rhythm, such as a drum solo).

Many melodies are easy to sing, while others are difficult to sing. Still other melodies are impossible to sing. Those melodies can still be played on musical instruments.
Apostolic Palace

The **Apostolic Palace**, also called the **Papal Palace** or the **Palace of the Vatican**, is the official residence of the Pope in the Vatican City.

The palace is a complex of buildings, with the Papal Apartment, the Catholic Church's government offices, a handful of chapels, the Vatican Museum and the Vatican library. In all there are over 1,000 rooms with the most famous including the Sistine Chapel and its renowned ceiling frescoes painted by Michelangelo (restored between 1980 and 1990) and Raphael's Rooms.

The other papal residences are at the Lateran Palace and the Castel Gandolfo outside Rome.

Before 1871, the Quirinal Palace was the Pope's official residence. After the final overthrow of the Papal States in 1870, the King of Italy confiscated that palace in 1871, making it the king's official residence; after the abolition of the Italian monarchy in 1946, it became the President of the Italian Republic's residence.

## Related pages
* Borgia Apartment
* Clementine Hall
* Domus Sanctae Marthae
* Papal Gentlemen
* Papal Apartment
* Sistine Chapel
* Raphael Rooms

## References
Wagner (disambiguation)

**Richard Wagner** (1813–1883) was a German composer.

**Wagner** may also refer to:

## People 
* Wagner (surname), including a list of people
* Wagner (given name), a list of people
* Wágner, a given name and surname, including a list of people
*Wagner (singer), Brazilian singer and participant in *The X Factor* Wagner Fiuza-Carrilho
*Wágner (footballer, born 1945), Brazilian football manager and former midfielder Wágner Canotilho
*Wagner (footballer, born 1966), Brazilian football forward Antonio Wagner de Moraes
*Wágner (footballer, born 1973), Brazilian football striker Wágner Pires de Almeida
*Wagner (footballer, born 1978), Brazilian football manager and former attacking midfielder Wagner Santos Lago
*Wágner (footballer, born 1985), Brazilian football attacking midfielder Wágner Ferreira dos Santos
*Wágner (footballer, born 1987), Brazilian football forward Wágner de Andrade Borges
*Wágner (footballer, born 1989), Brazilian football centre-back Wágner Luiz Fogolari
*Wagner (footballer, born 1991), Brazilian football attacking midfielder Wagner Ricardo Silva da Silva

## Places
### United States
* Wagner (community), Wisconsin, an unincorporated community
* Wagner, Montana, an unincorporated village
* Wagner, South Dakota, a city
* Wagner, Wisconsin, a town
* Wagner Township, Clayton County, Iowa
* Wagner Township, Aitkin County, Minnesota
* Wagner Lake, a lake in Minnesota

### Canada
* Wagner, Alberta, a hamlet

### Outer space
* Wagner (crater), on the planet Mercury
* 3992 Wagner, a main-belt asteroid

## Fictional characters
* Wagner, in Christopher Marlowe's play *Doctor Faustus*, ''Goethe's Faust'' and Gounod's opera *Faust*
* Wagner, a shaman in the video game *Fire Emblem: Fūin no Tsurugi*
* Wagner, a dragon in the video game *Odin Sphere*
* Wagner, a pig in the Finnish comic strip *Viivi & Wagner*
* Kurt Wagner, a.k.a. *Nightcrawler* (comics), a character in the Marvel universe

## Business
* Nestlé Wagner, a frozen pizza brand
* Wagner Manufacturing Company, an cookware and metal products maker (1891–1952)
* Wagner Motorcycle Company, an American manufacturer (1901–1914)

## Military
* Wagner Group, a Russian paramilitary organisation
* , a destroyer escort

## Schools
* Wagner College, a private liberal arts college on Staten Island, New York City
** Wagner Seahawks, the athletic program of Wagner College
* Wagner Graduate School of Public Service, New York University
* Karen Wagner High School, a high school in San Antonio, Texas
* W.P. Wagner High School, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada

## Other uses
* *Wagner* (mini-series), a 1983 television series about Richard Wagner

## Related pages
*
Staple

**Staple** may mean:
* Staple (fastener), a small piece of metal used to hold sheets of material or wires together
* Staple food, a food that is the basic part of a diet. This meaning is often used to cover other areas besides food (A rollercoaster is a theme park staple).
* Staple (textiles) is the raw material, or its length and quality, of fibre from which textiles are made. It is the material in its standard form as a traded commodity.
* The Staple Singers, a United States gospel, soul, and R&B singing group.
* Staple (band), a Christian post-hardcore band.
* STAPLE!, a convention for creators of comics, minicomics, and other independent media

## Places
* A staple port was one in which trade in specified goods was regulated. The term is a medieval one. Normally the king licensed a particular group of merchants to trade in the commodity, in an area such as his kingdom and their trading had to be done in the staple town or port.
* *The staple* was the staple port where wool exports were traded. From 1363 to 1558, this was at Calais.
* Staple, Nord (pronunciation: stohpl) is a commune in the Nord *département* of France. This is the name in its Flemish form.
* Étaples, Pas-de-Calais, is another place in which the word appears but in its French form.
* Staple, Kent is a village in Kent, England near Sandwich.
Thong

**Thong** may refer to:

*G-string, an item of underwear or swimwear
*Thong sandal or "flip-flop", a type of sandal held to the foot by a thin strap
*Thong, Kent, an English village
*a Vietnamese name, Thông
*a common Laotian surname, and the Laotian word for gold
Flip-flops

In footwear and fashion, **flip-flops** are a kind of flat, backless sandal. They have a flat sole held on the foot by a u-shaped strap that passes between the first (big) and second toes and around either side of the foot, attached to the sole at three points, commonly known as the thong strap. They may have been developed out of traditional Japanese woven or wooden-soled sandals (*i.e.*, zori and setta) in Australia.
Hamlet (place)

]]
A **hamlet** is a small settlement, smaller than a village. Usually, all settlers in a hamlet are centered around a single economic activity. A hamlet may consist of a farm, a mill, a mine or a harbor. All the people living there would be workers on that farm, mill, mine or harbour. Hamlets, especially those with a medieval church may have resulted from a medieval village, that was abandoned for some reason.

Because of the small size of the settlement, there are usually no buildings which have a central or admninistratrive function. There usually is no church, town hall or pub. Roads and streets in the hamlet do not have names, most of the time. 5-6 families may live there usually within a 2km radius area. 

In Germany, Austria, Switzerland and the Alsace region of France, such hamlets often have names that end in *-wil*, *-wil(l)er*, *-wyhl* or *-viller*.
Mar del Plata

**Mar del Plata** is a city of Argentina in the Buenos Aires Province. It is found on the coast of the Atlantic Ocean, about 400 km south of Buenos Aires. Mar del Plata has a population of 541,733 people. It is the 7th biggest city in Argentina.

## Other websites 
* Official Government website 
* Tourist Info (from the Official Government website)  
* Mar del Plata Website with news and things to do
Recording Industry Association of America

The **Recording Industry Association of America** or **RIAA** is an organization that was created and paid for by large record companies. It is based in Washington, D.C. It symbolizes the entire recording industry of the United States of America. The RIAA also participates in the collection, management and distribution of music licenses and royalties.

The association is responsible for certifying gold and platinum albums and singles in the U.S. Its goals are:
#to protect intellectual property rights worldwide and the First Amendment rights of artists;
#to perform research about the music industry;
#to watch over and review laws, regulations and rules that apply to the music industry.

## Members
The members of the RIAA are mostly record companies in the U.S.

## History
The RIAA was created in 1952 to create technical standards for vinyl records so any record could play on any record player without difficulty. In today's times, the RIAA's goals is to prevent piracy of records. The RIAA says that the music industry loses nearly 4.2 billion U.S. dollars a year because of this.

## Related pages
* Recording Industry Association of Japan (RIAJ)
* American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (ASCAP)
* Japanese Society for Rights of Authors, Composers and Publishers (JASRAC)

## References
## Other websites
* Official website of the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA)
Pope Boniface VIII

**Pope Boniface VIII** (; c. 1230 – October 11, 1303), born **Benedetto Caetani**, was an Italian cleric of the Roman Catholic Church and the 194th Pope  from 1294 to 1303.

## Early life 
Benedetto Caetani was born in 1235 at Anagni in Italy.  Caetani studied at Todi and at Spoleto where he earned a degree in law. His family was in government.

In 1265, Caetani traveled with Cardinal Ottobuono Fieschi to England. and he chose to be called Boniface VIII.

Pope Boniface confirmed the decree of Pope Celestine V that any pope can freely resign.

Boniface was involved in Italian and European political disputes.

## After his death
Dante mentions Boniface in *The Inferno.*  He identifies the pope as "the Prince of the new Pharisees."

## Related pages
* List of popes
* Abdication

## References 
## Other reading
* Boase, Thomas Sherrer Ross. (1933). *Boniface VIII.* London: Constable. OCLC 1387650

## Other websites 
* 
* Catholic Hierarchy, Pope Boniface VII
* Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church , Cardinal Caetani
Signal (electrical engineering)

In the fields of communications, signal processing, and in electrical engineering more generally, a **signal** is any time-varying quantity. 

The concept is broad, and hard to define precisely.  Definitions specific to subfields are common. For example, in information theory, a *signal* is a codified message, i.e., the sequence of states in a communications channel that encodes a message. In a *communications system*, a *transmitter* encodes a *message* into a signal, which is carried to a *receiver* by the communications *channel*.  For example, the words "Mary had a little lamb" might be the message spoken into a telephone. The telephone transmitter converts the sounds into an electrical voltage signal. The signal is transmitted to the receiving telephone by wires; and at the receiver it is reconverted into sounds.

## Examples of signals 
* *Motion*.  The motion of a particle through some space can be considered to be a signal, or can be represented by a signal.  The domain of a motion signal is one-dimensional (time), and the range is generally three-dimensional.  Position is thus a 3-vector signal; position and orientation is a 6-vector signal.

* *Sound*.  Since a sound is a vibration of a medium (such as air), a sound signal associates a pressure value to every value of time and three space coordinates.  A microphone converts sound pressure at some place to just a function of time, using a voltage signal as an analog of the sound signal.

* *Compact discs* (CDs).  CDs contain discrete bits representing a sound signal, recorded at 44,100 samples per second.  Each sample contains data for a left and right channel, which may be considered to be a 2-vector (since CDs are recorded in stereo).

* Noise typically unwanted but not always.

## References
Shannon, C. E., 2005 [1948], "A Mathematical Theory of Communication,"  (corrected reprint ), accessed Dec. 15, 2005. Orig. 1948, *Bell System Technical Journal*, vol. 27, pp.&nbsp;379–423, 623-656.
Transcendental number

A real or complex number is called a **transcendental number** if it cannot be found as a result of an algebraic equation with integer coefficients.

 a_{n}x^{n} + \dots + a_{2}x^2 + a_{1}x + a_{0} = 0 

Proving that a certain number is transcendental can be very hard. Each transcendental number is also an irrational number. The first people to see that there were transcendental numbers were Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and Leonhard Euler. The first to actually prove there were transcendental numbers was Joseph Liouville. He did this in 1844.

Well known transcendental numbers:
* e
* π
* ea for algebraic a ≠ 0
* 2^{\sqrt{2}}

## References 
* David Hilbert, "Über die Transcendenz der Zahlen e und \pi", *Mathematische Annalen* **43**:216–219 (1893).
* Alan Baker, *Transcendental Number Theory*, Cambridge University Press, 1975, .

## Other websites 
*

* Proof that e is transcendental (PDF)  (German)
* Proof that \pi is transcendental (PDF)  (German)
Signal

**Signal**, **signals** or **signalling** may refer to:

## Scientific concepts 
* Signal (electrical engineering), a varying quantity that can carry information over air or wires.
* Signal processing, the field of techniques used to extract information from signals
* Signal (computing), an event, message, or data structure transmitted between computational processes
* Cell signalling (biology), the system of communication that governs basic cellular activities and coordinates cell actions
* Signal (biology), electrochemical activity in an organism

## Communications 
* **Signals** used in various kinds of transport:
** Road traffic signal
** Railway signal
** Semaphore
** Beacon
** International maritime signal flags, using the International Code of Signals
* Signals (military), a historical name for the military communications
* Signal corps, the branch of military which operates with command, control and communications systems
* Signalling theory in biology, how organisms signal their state to others
* Distress signal
* Smoke signal (See also :Category:Early telecommunications)
* Signalling (telecommunications), a part of some communication protocols
* Signal (recognition), a way of showing that a person s something; such as the Color of the day used by police.

## Names 
* *Signal* band A rock band from Northwest Indiana
* *Signal* (band), a Bulgarian rock band
* Signals (album), an album by progressive rock band Rush
* *Signal* (magazine)
* Signal (toothpaste)
* *Signal 1* and *Signal 2* radio stations
* Signal (subscription service), service that provided real-time stock quotes
* *Signaal* (now Thales Nederland), a Netherlands-based defence company
* Signal Systems, a company of the McLean Group of Companies

## Other 
* Any implicit, subtle, or disguised message, in situations such as:
** Partnership card games (see signal (bridge))
** Signaling (economics)
* Signals and slots, a software design pattern
* Kent (game) a card game also known as Signal or Kemp
Air Jamaica

**Air Jamaica** was the national airline of Jamaica from Kingston, Jamaica. It flies regular services from Kingston and Montego Bay to 23 airports in the Caribbean, the USA, Canada and United Kingdom. The airline's main bases are Norman Manley International Airport (KIN), Kingston and Sangster International Airport (MBJ), Montego Bay.

## References
Economist

An **economist** is someone who studies or works in the  of economics. Economics is the study of how people make choices to satisfy their wants.

According to Frédéric Bastiat:
:"There is only one difference between a bad economist and a good one: the bad economist confines himself to the visible effect; the good economist takes into account both the effect that can be seen and those effects that must be foreseen."

## Related pages
* Constitutional economics
* Political economy

## References
Wall Street crash of 1929

after the 1929 crash.]]
, 1928–1930]]

The **Wall Street crash of 1929** was the greatest stock market crash in the history of the United States.

It happened in the New York Stock Exchange on Tuesday October 29, 1929, now known as **Black Tuesday.** Bank failures followed, resulting in businesses closing. This caused worldwide panic, which started the Great Depression. Stock prices did not reach the same level until late 1954.

## The depression (what it created) 
The crash signaled the beginning of the 10-year Great Depression that affected all Western industrialized countries. Countries imposed high tariffs and otherwise restricted imports. International trade was on the decline. Soup kitchens were the place to go for food for many people. The Depression ended in the United States with the start of American mobilization for World War II at the end of 1941. People who lost their homes lived in what were Hoovervilles, blaming President Herbert Hoover for the Depression.

The Depression ended as dramatically a decade later on September 3, 1939, when the Second World War began. The widespread poverty and suffering during the 1930s. The Great Depression spread rapidly from the US to Europe and the rest of the world as a result of the connection between the United States and European economies after WWI. The Wall Street Crash was the U.S. Stock Market crash of October 29, 1929, which triggered the Great Depression.

## Causes 
Stock-exchange speculation led hundreds of thousands of Americans to invest heavily in the stock market, creating an economic bubble. Many were  money to buy more stocks.

"At the turn of the 20th century, stock market speculation was restricted to professionals, but the 1920s saw millions of 'ordinary Americans' investing in the New York Stock Exchange. By August 1929, brokers had lent small investors more than two-thirds of the face value of the stocks they were buying on margin – more than $8.5bn was out on loan".

The amount of money out on loan was more than the entire amount of currency circulating in the US at the time. When a stock price declined below the amount of borrowed money, the owner had to sell to pay the debt. This caused prices to decline more. Years later, regulations limited the use of debt in this way.

## References
Air New Zealand

**Air New Zealand**  is a big passenger airline from Auckland, New Zealand. It flies mainly in Australasia and South Pacific, but it also has services to Europe, North America and Asia. It is a Star Alliance member. It joined the alliance in 1999. Its main base or hub is Auckland International Airport.

## History
In 1940, TEAL was founded. Its first flights were from Auckland to Sydney and Wellington. Later, flights to Fiji, Samoa, Tahiti and the Cook Islands were added. The Australian government bought 50% of TEAL in 1953. The remaining 50% was owned by the Government of New Zealand. In 1961, the airline became completely owned by the Government of New Zealand. *TEAL* was officially renamed *Air New Zealand* on April 1, 1965. The airline bought Douglas DC-8 airplanes in July 1965. These were used for longer routes to Honolulu and Los Angeles. A larger Boeing 747 was bought in 1981. Air New Zealand bought Ansett Australia in 2000. Ansett later went out of business.

## Gallery

File:Air NewZealand-Logo.svg|The old logo used from 1996 until 2012
File:Air New Zealand.svg|The new logo introduced in 2012
File:Air New Zealand check in hall at Auckland Airport June 2012.JPG|Air New Zealand's self-service check-in
File:Air New Zealand DC-10 (6961717348).jpg|Air New Zealand had DC-10's from 1973 until 1982 
File:Airnz.b747.zk-nbt.arp.jpg|Air New Zealand Boeing 747
File:Air New Zealand Boeing 787-9 landing at Perth Airport.jpg|A new Air New Zealand Boeing 787
File:ZK-OKE (6941444347).jpg|An air New Zealand 777,its second lagest plane.

## Destinations
Air New Zealand serves the following destinations:

## References
Eddie August Schneider

**Eddie August Schneider** (October 20, 1911 – December 23, 1940) was an American aviator. He set the transcontinental airspeed record for pilots under the age of twenty-one in 1930. When he received his pilot's license, he was the youngest licensed pilot in the United States.

## Biography
Eddie Schneider was born in 1911 in Manhattan in New York City. His father was Emil August Schneider (1886-1955), a banker and stock broker who born in Germany. His mother was Inga Karoline Eldora Pedersen (1882-1927), who was born in Farsund, Norway. The family moved from Manhattan to Red Bank, New Jersey, and then they moved to Jersey City, New Jersey by 1920. Eddie graduated from Dickinson High School in Jersey City in 1927, the same year that his mother died. After his mother's death, he and his parents visited Bielefeld, Germany and Farsund, Norway to visit with relatives. In Germany Eddie went on a plane ride and then aviation became his obsession. In 1929 he trained at Roosevelt Field on Long Island and became the youngest person in the United States to receive a commercial pilot's license. That same year he also received a mechanics license, becoming the youngest licensed airplane mechanic in New York. 

On August 25, 1930 he set the round-trip transcontinental air speed record for pilots under the age of twenty-one years in his airplane. He flew from Westfield, New Jersey on August 14, 1930 to Los Angeles, California in 4 days with a combined flying time of 29 hours and 55 minutes. He lowered the East to West record by 4 hours and 22 minutes. He then made the return trip from Los Angeles to New York City in 27 hours and 19 minutes, lowering the West to East record by 1 hour and 36 minutes. His total elapsed time for the round trip was 57 hours and 14 minutes, breaking the preceding record for the round trip. Frank Goldsborough held the previous record which was 62 hours and 58 minutes. When Eddie landed in New York on August 25, 1930, his first words were to his father: "Hello Pop, I made it."

He married Gretchen Hahnen (1902-1986) in New York City on June 2, 1934. Gretchen was the daughter of Zora M. Hahnen (1882-1962) and was originally from Des Moines, Iowa. Eddie met her at an aviation function. They did not have any children. 

In 1936 Eddie left for Spain to be a pilot in the Spanish Civil War which was against the law. Along with fellow Americans Bert Acosta and Frederic Ives Lord he organized the Yankee Squadron. He was only there for a month before he returned to the United States. When talking to reporters Eddie said: "I was broke, hungry, jobless ... yet despite the fact that all three of us are old-time aviators who did our part for the development of the industry, we were left out in the cold in the Administration’s program of job making. Can you blame us for accepting the lucrative Spanish offer?" 

On December 23, 1940, Eddie was killed in an accident while training another pilot. They were trying to land, when a Navy pilot struck the tail of Eddie's plane. Eddie's plane went into a spin and crashed into the river. Both the student and Eddie were killed.

## References
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties

The **Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties** is a contract of treaties and international law. It also defines the means of expression consent to be bound by a treaty including ratification. It was signed in the 1960s. It codified earlier customs that were there. 105 states signed the convention.

## Other websites 
*Full text of the treaty: html, pdf 
*Easy-to-read version of the text 

## Sources
*Damrosch, Henkin, *et al.*, *International Law*, West Group 2001.
The Lost World

***The Lost World*** is a book written by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle in the year 1912. In it, Professor Challenger and his companions travel to find a large plateau in South America where many dinosaur species still live. After a long journey they find the plateau, and witness not only dinosaurs, but two tribes - an ancient Native American people and ape-men who resemble the missing link. After many adventures, they return to London and attempt to describe their adventures to a disbelieving public.

## Dinosaurs featured in this story 
### Active ones 
* Iguanodon
* Megalosaurus
* Stegosaurus

### Inactive ones 
* Jeholosaurus
* Allosaurus
* Dilong
* Alectrosaurus
* Tyrannosaurus
* Daspletosaurus
* Albertosaurus
* Velociraptor
* Tarbosaurus
* Lythronax
* Nanuqsaurus
* Carcharodontosaurus
* Ozraptor
* Camelotia
* Torvosaurus
* Barosaurus
* Riparovenator
* Suchosaurus
* Segisaurus
* Segnosaurus

### Inactive sea reptiles 
* Rhomaleosaurus
* Cryptoclidus
* Plesiosaurus
* Mosasaurus
* Pliosaurus
* Elasmosaurus
* Kronosaurus
* Tylosaurus
* Liopleurodon
* Ichthyosaurus
* Opthalmosaurus
* Temnodontosaurus
* Shonisaurus
* Shastasaurus
* Mixosaurus
* Atopodentatus
* Tanystropheus
* Nothosaurus
* Cymbospondylus

### Inactive land reptiles 
* Diadectes
* Cacops
* Eryops
* Eogyrinus
* Hynerpeton
* Dimetrodon
* Seymouria
* Edaphosaurus
* Diplocaulus
* Diictodon
* Lystrosaurus
* Gorgonops
* Lycaenops
* Scutosaurus
* Erythrosuchus
* Proterosuchus
* Euparkeria
* Postosuchus

### Inactive sharks 
* Otodus
* Squalicorax
* Orthacanthus
* Megalodon

## Other websites
*
House of Lords

The **House of Lords** is one of the two Houses of Parliament of the United Kingdom (UK). It is in London, the capital city of the UK. The other house is the House of Commons. Together, the two houses form the government and parliament of the UK. 

The House of Lords is not elected (voted for), except in the case of the holders of the seats reserved for hereditary peers (who are chosen by the House or by other hereditary peers in their parties).
* 2 people are members because of their job (The Duke of Norfolk, who is the Earl Marshal, and the Marquess of Lord Great Chamberlain, who both help to organise royal events).
* 90 people are *hereditary peers*. These are members of the House of Lords because one of their ancestors was made a member and (since 1999) have been elected from among other such people.
* The other members were made members for life, either life peers, who have existed since 1958 or as law lords. Law lords were senior judges made members of the House to help when the House of Lords was also the highest court in England and Wales (before the foundation of the Supreme Court in 2009).
* The twenty-six most senior Bishops of the Church of England also sit in the House of Lords, they are called the Lords Spiritual.

## Crossbenchers 
Many members of the House of Lords sit as *Crossbenchers*.  This means they do not support either the government or opposition parties, but instead are independent of party politics. They got their name because the benches where they sit are placed across the aisle which separates the government and opposition supporters.

## Criticisms
There are several criticisms of the House of Lords, including:

* How people are "appointed" as lords, which has often been described as undemocratic. The House of Lords is fully unelected and allows peers to hold their seats until death.
* The makeup of the Lords does not reflect the diversity of the UK, with under-representation of ethnic minorities and women when compared with the House of Commons, and relative over-representation of people from South East England and people over 50.
* The House of Lords is often criticised for being too large, and too expensive. With almost 800 members it is the second-largest house of government in the world, second only to the National People's Congress of China, and is much larger than Upper Houses in comparable countries.

These criticisms have led some to question whether there is a need for a second/upper house at all, and whether the two house system in British politics is still useful. People such as Tony Benn and Rebecca Long-Bailey, have said the House of Lords should be gotten rid of. This is also supported by the Scottish National Party (SNP). This would mean the United Kingdom would have one level of government, which is called unicameralism and is present in many other countries.

## References 
## Other websites 
*Parliament UK
Amnesty International

**Amnesty International** (also called **AI** or **Amnesty**) is an international organization founded in London in 1961. They promote human rights in accordance with Universal Declaration of Human Rights and international human rights law.  This organization was the recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1977 for its defense of human dignity against torture. It is one of the most widely-known human rights groups in the world.  The six key areas that Amnesty International focuses on are refugee rights, the rights of women, children, and of minorities, ending torture, stopping the death penalty, the rights of people imprisoned because of what they believe, and protection of human dignity.

## What they believe in 
Amnesty International is based on these central ideas:
* *Every person has human rights. Human rights cannot be taken away from a person.* They are natural laws that are the right of all human beings from their birth on.
* *Human rights cannot be divided.* When one right is taken away, this is also bad for other rights. When one right is protected, other rights are in a better position as well.
* *Human rights will not be protected by governments alone.* Governments have said they will protect human rights, and then not acted upon it. Human rights organizations have to influence the governments.
* *To protect human rights, people must help other people.* Danger for human rights starts at the level of single persons. To help one person means to stop the danger from growing. One person alone can do this.
* *To defend human rights, an organization must be independent and impartial.* It should not be for or against any one ideology. An ideology is a certain point of view. It can be political, economic, or religious. Also, the organization should not say one country is the "worst". It should focus on the individual and all individuals.

## References 
## Literature 
* Jürgen Wüst: *«Imperialistisches Menschenrechtsgeschrei». Der Kampf des MfS gegen die Internationale Gesellschaft für Menschenrechte (IGFM) und Amnesty International (AI)*, in: *Deutschland Archiv*, Nr. 3/1998, S. 418—427

## Other websites 
*
Deutsche Bahn

**Deutsche Bahn** AG (short **DB AG** or often only **DB**) is Europe's largest railway company. It runs over 30,000 trains a day and owns more than 5,000 stations. The company headquarters are in Berlin, Germany.

It was founded on January 1, 1994 to replace the Deutsche Bundesbahn, which was the state railway of West Germany, and the Deutsche Reichsbahn, which was the state railway of East Germany.

 carriages at Leamington Spa, in the UK.]]

Deutsche Bahn is also active in the field of logistics and owns companies like Schenker. DB claim they are the second largest logistics company in the world.

## Other websites 
*DB corporate home page
*DB travel portal
*DB timetable information
Eastern Standard Time

There are three different time zones called **Eastern Standard Time Zone**:
* Australian Eastern Standard Time, UTC+10
* Brazilian Eastern Standard Time, UTC−2
* Eastern Time Zone (North America), UTC−5
Decameron

The ***Decameron*** is a collection of 100 short stories. It was written by the Italian writer Giovanni Boccaccio around 1350. In the book, ten friends, seven young women and three young men, leave the city of Florence because of the plague and stay in a large house in the countryside. Each day, they entertain each other by taking turns to tell stories. The stories are of different types. Some are romantic, some are erotic, some are comedies and some are tragedies.  

Other writers have used the stories for ideas. Many paintings have been done which illustrate the stories. The picture to the right shows a scene from the story of "The Pot of Basil" in which Isabella buries the head of her murdered lover Ferdinand inside a potplant.

## Other websites 
* Decameron Web, from Brown University
* The Decameron - Introduction , from the Internet Medieval Sourcebook
Lung transplant

A **lung transplant** is transplant, a type of surgery. People who can not breathe without additional oxygen may need a lung transplant. In this surgery, the patient's ill lung or lungs are removed.  A healthy lung or lungs are put into the patient. The healthy lungs may come from a dead or from a living person. When the person who gives, or donates, the healthy lung is still alive, only one lung is removed. Sometimes a healthy person can give just part of a lung to a sick person. A healthy person can normally give a lung or part of a lung without becoming sick.  

## References
Artillery

**Artillery** is a word for the big guns used in an army, for example cannons and howitzers. Such guns are used to shoot targets far away. Artillery is often used to stop enemy troops using an area, to bombard trenches and buildings with enemies in it and to support friendly units. There are many different weapons that are called artillery. They may shoot shells or missiles. Newer systems can even drop mines over a big area, making the area uncrossable. Anti-aircraft warfare includes the use of artillery to fight planes and other aircraft.  

Those who fire the artillery piece are called "gunners". In most cases someone else, called a "spotter" must see the enemy, because artillery often shoots farther than the gunners can see. The artillery crews do not have to see the enemy to damage them. 

## Different types of artillery
## Other websites 
* Artillery  - Citizendium

## More reading
*
Acapulco

**Acapulco de Juárez** (), commonly called **Acapulco** ( , also  ),  is a town and sea port on the Pacific coast of Mexico, 300 km (190 miles) southwest from Mexico City. Acapulco is on a deep, semi-circular bay. It is a stop for shipping and cruising lines running between Panama, and San Francisco, California, USA. In 2005, about 722,499 people lived there.

Its name is a Nahuatl word, meaning "plain of dense reeds". The city has been a port since the 16th century.

## Playones de San Isidro 
**Playones de San Isidro** de Isidro is a community belonging to the Flavio Alfaro canton. The village has a population of approximately 200 people.

## References