open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Ingo Rechenberg

*Ingo Rechenberg*' ( January 20 1934 in Berlin - September 25, 2021)  is a German computer scientist and professor. Rechenberg is a pioneer of the fields of evolutionary computation and artificial evolution.   In the 1960s and 1970s, he invented a highly influential set of optimization methods known as evolution strategies (from German *Evolutionsstrategie*). His group successfully applied the new algorithms to challenging problems such as aerodynamic wing design. These were the first serious technical applications of artificial evolution, an important subset of the still growing field of bionics.

Rechenberg was educated at the Technical University of Berlin and at the University of Cambridge. Since 1972, he was a full professor at the Technical University of Berlin, in the Department of Bionics and Evolution Techniques.

His awards include the Lifetime Achievement Award of the Evolutionary Programming Society (US, 1995) and the Evolutionary Computation Pioneer Award of the IEEE Neural Networks Society (US, 2002). In 1954, Rechenberg also became world champion in the field of model airplanes. 

## Selected bibliography 
* Ingo Rechenberg (1971): Evolutionsstrategie - Optimierung technischer Systeme nach Prinzipien der biologischen Evolution (PhD thesis). Reprinted by Fromman-Holzboog (1973).
* Ingo Rechenberg: Evolutionsstrategie '94. Stuttgart: Frommann-Holzboog 1994.

## References
## Other websites 
*Rechenberg's Bionic's Lab in Berlin  (in German) and in English
Key schedule

In cryptography,  the so-called product ciphers are a certain kind of ciphers, where the decryption of data is done in *"rounds"*. The general setup of each *round* is the same, except for some hard-coded parameters and a part of the cipher key, called a subkey. A **key schedule** is an algorithm that, given the key, calculates the subkeys for these *rounds*. 

## Some types of key schedules 
*Some ciphers have simple key schedules. For example, the block cipher TEA simply splits the 128-bit key into four 32-bit pieces and uses them repeatedly in successive rounds.

*DES uses a key schedule where the 56 bit key is divided into two 28-bit halves then each half is treated separately. In successive rounds, both halves are rotated left by one or two bits (specified for each round), and then 48 subkey bits are selected by Permuted Choice 2 (PC-2) — 24 bits from the left half, and 24 from the right. The rotations mean that a different set of bits is used in each subkey; each bit is used in approximately 14 out of the 16 subkeys.

*In an effort to avoid simple relationships between the cipher key and the subkeys, to resist such forms of cryptanalysis as related-key attack and slide attack, many modern ciphers use much more complex key schedules, such as algorithms that use a one-way function to generate an "expanded key" from which subkeys are drawn. Some ciphers, such as Rijndael (AES) and Blowfish, use parts of the cipher algorithm itself for this key expansion, sometimes initialized with some "nothing up my sleeve numbers". Other ciphers, such as RC5, expand keys with functions that are somewhat or completely different from the encryption functions.

## Notes 
Knudsen and Mathiassen (2004) give some experimental evidence that indicate that the key schedule plays a part in providing strength against linear and differential cryptanalysis. For toy Feistel ciphers, it was observed that those with complex and well-designed key schedules can reach a uniform distribution for the probabilities of differentials and linear hulls faster than those with poorly-designed key schedules.

## References
* Lars R. Knudsen and John Erik Mathiassen, On the Role of Key Schedules in Attacks on Iterated Ciphers, ESORICS 2004, pp322–334.
EFF DES cracker

's US$250,000 DES cracking machine contained over 1,800 custom chips and could brute force a DES key in a matter of days — the photo shows a DES Cracker circuit board fitted with 32 Deep Crack chips]]

In cryptography, the **EFF DES cracker** (nicknamed "**Deep Crack**") is a machine built by the Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) to perform a brute force search of DES cipher's key space — that is, to decrypt an encrypted message by trying every possible key. The aim in doing this was to prove that DES's key is not long enough to be secure.

The DES uses a 56-bit key, meaning that there are 256 possible keys under which a message can be encrypted. This is approximately 7.21 (more than 72 quadrillion). When DES was approved as a federal standard in 1976, a machine fast enough to test such a number of keys in a reasonable time would have cost an unreasonable amount of money to build.

## Other websites
* The DES Cracker page on EFF's site 
* Photos of the machine on Cryptography Research's site
* COPACOBANA, an off-the-shelf DES cracking device
Islamic republic

**Islamic Republic** is the name given to forms of government of several states. These states have Islam as a state religion and are governed by the principles of the Islamic law called Sharia. Some of these countries have both Sharia and civil law. Laws made by the state cannot contradict Sharia in some of these countries, and in other countries civil law is more dominant than Sharia law. 

The following states call themselves Islamic Republic (non-exhaustive list)
*Iran (after Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi was overthrown in 1979)
*Pakistan (Since the constitution of 1956, state founded to provide a homeland for Muslims living in Colonial India, in 1947)
*Afghanistan (since the overthrow of the Taliban in 2001)
*Mauritania (since 1958)
*Sudan
*Comoros (Federal Islamic Republic)
*The Gambia (since December 2015)

Despite the similar name the countries differ greatly in their governments and laws. Of the Islamic republics, only Iran is a theocracy.
Crème brûlée

**Crème brûlée** (or **Crème brulée**) is a dessert. It is made of custard. It is topped with a thin, brittle crust of caramelized sugar. It may be served cold, warm, or at room temperature. The custard is baked, and then sprinkled with sugar Casa  that is caramelized under a broiler or with a kitchen blowtorch. The custard is flavored with vanilla. Other flavorings include chocolate, orange liqueur, fruit, or other. The caramelized sugar crust can be covered with a liqueur and set on fire.

The exact origin of crème brûlée is uncertain. It is claimed that crème brûlée originated in France, England, and Spain. The first printed recipe for a dessert called crème brûlée is from the 1691 edition of the French cookbook *Le Cuisinier Royal et Bourgeois* by Francois Massialot, a cook at the Palace of Versailles. That version was a sweet custard of egg yolks and milk with a burnt sugar crust. It is similar to the modern versions. In the second edition of the book, the dessert is called *crème anglaise*.

At Trinity College, Cambridge the dessert was known as 'burnt cream'. The college crest was burnt into sugar on top of a custard using a hot iron. It may predate Massialot's cookbook with one authority claiming it was first served at Trinity in 1630.

Catalans claim their dessert known as *crema catalana* is the original. It is a rich custard often flavoured with cinnamon and lemon or orange zest topped with carmelized sugar. The Catalan version was first recorded in the 18th century. It is also called *Crema de Sant Josep*, after Saint Joseph, the husband of the Virgin Mary. In Spain and in many other parts of Europe, Saint Joseph’s Day is celebrated on 19 March. *Crema Catalana* is a traditional dessert served on this day.

## References 
## Other websites 
:
:
:
*A guide to crème brûlée history and how to prepare a recipe
Security clearance

A **security clearance** is a status granted (approved) to individuals allowing them access to classified information, e.g. state secrets. It is something like permission or a license. The term "security clearance" is also sometimes used in private organizations that have a formal process of selecting employees to access *"sensitive information"*. 

A clearance by itself is normally not sufficient to gain access; the organization must determine that the cleared person *"needs to know"* the information. No one is supposed to be granted access to classified information only because of rank, position, or a security clearance.
Sensitive information

**Sensitive information** is information or knowledge that might result in loss of an advantage or level of security if exposed to others who might be unfriends or have low or unknown trustability.

Loss, misuse, modification or unauthorized access to sensitive information can negatively affect the privacy of an individual, trade secrets of a business or even the security, internal and foreign affairs of a nation depending on the level of sensitivity and nature of the information. 

The term classified information generally refers to information that is subject to special security classification regulations imposed by many national governments. The term "Unclassified" as used in the below refers to information that is not subject to security classification regulations. Information can be reclassified to a different level or declassified (made available to the public) depending on changes of situation or new intelligence.
Jack-o'-lantern

A '''Jack-o'-lantern''' is a carved pumpkin, turnip, beet, or potato. In the 19th and 20th centuries people in Scotland and Ireland carved Halloween lanterns from large yellow turnips. This custom has become less prevalent in recent years as supermarkets have begun selling the larger and easier-to-carve American pumpkins. 

In Irish lore, the Jack-o'-lantern is from the story of Stingy Jack. Jack was a clever man who cheated the devil several times. Once when Jack was leaving hell, the devil threw him a glowing coal to light his way. Jack put the coal in a hollowed-out turnip to make the first "Jack-o'-lantern". Lore says Jack can still be seen wandering the world with his turnip lantern, especially around All Saints Day, November 1.

In the United States, the carved pumpkin was first associated with the harvest season in general, long before it became an emblem of Halloween. In 1900, an article on Thanksgiving entertaining recommended a lit Jack-o'-lantern as part of the festivities.

To make a Jack-o'-lantern, the top of the pumpkin surrounding the stump of the vine is cut off. This top will be used as a "lid" when the Jack-o'-lantern is completed. The seeds and pulp inside the pumpkin are scooped out using a spoon or one's hands. The seeds may be roasted in a hot oven, and then salted to make a snack.

Once the inside of the pumpkin is clean, a face is carved into one side of the pumpkin. The eyes and nose are usually triangles. The mouth is usually filled with jagged teeth. A candle, devotional candle in a candle-holder, or a flashlight is put inside the Jack-o'-lantern and lit. The "lid" is replaced. The lid may be placed slightly askew to keep the candle alit. 

In the United States, a completely carved and lit Jack-o'-lantern is put on the porch, the porch steps, or in a window to welcome trick-or-treaters on Halloween. Once the pumpkin is carved, it is good for nothing else and lasts only a day or two before it starts to rot. Pumpkins used to make Jack-o'-lanterns are inedible. In the United States, mischief-makers steal the Jack-o'-lanterns of their neighbors. The pumpkins are smashed in the street, dropped from a bridge, or otherwise destroyed.

## References
Rock Steady (album)

***Rock Steady*** is the fifth studio album by the American alternative rock band No Doubt. It was released on December 11, 2001. The album was influenced a lot by reggae, dancehall, and electronica, compared to their previous albums. A lot of music critics saw this and gave the album good reviews. For example, *Rolling Stone* magazine put the album as the 316th greatest album of all time in their book ''Rolling Stone's List of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time''. It was nominated for Best Pop Vocal Album at the 2003 Grammy Awards. Four singles were released from the album. The first single, "Hey Baby", won the Grammy Award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal. The second single was nominated for Best Dance Recording. The third single, "Underneath It All", was released August 15 2002. It won a Grammy Award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal at the 2004 Grammy Awards. The album's last single, "Running", was released July 1 2003.

## List of songs
#"Intro"
#"Hella Good"
#"Hey Baby" (featuring Bounty Killer)
#"Making Out"
#"Underneath It All" (featuring Lady Saw)
#"Detective"
#"Don't Let Me Down"
#"Start the Fire"
#"Running"
#"In My Head"
#"Platinum Blonde Life"
#"Waiting Room" (featuring Prince)
#"Rock Steady"

The iTunes version of the album has two extra songs.
#"Underneath It All" (live)
#"Just a Girl" (live)

## References
Trade secret

A **trade secret** is a formula, practice, process, design, instrument, pattern, or a collection of information which is not generally known, invented or created, by which a business can obtain an economic advantage over competitors or customers. In some jurisdictions, such secrets are referred to as "confidential information" or "classified information".

With its broad definition of eligible subject matter, trade secret law protects a wide range of valuable information, including information that would not be eligible for protection under existing patent, trademark, or copyright law. This could include formulae and recipes, proprietary databases, business processes and methods, information about costs, pricing, margins, overhead, manufacturing processes, proprietary computer software programs, customer lists, and strategic plans and marketing programs.

There are three factors that are common to all definitions of a trade secret, a trade secret is information that:
* Is not generally known to the public;
* Grants some sort of economic benefit on its holder (where this benefit must derive *specifically* from its not being generally known, not just from the value of the information itself);
* Is the subject of reasonable efforts to maintain its secrecy.
The unauthorized acquisition, use, or disclosure of such secret information in a manner contrary to honest commercial practices by others is regarded as an unfair practice and a violation of the trade secret protection.

## References
ESTREAM

**eSTREAM** is a project to identify "new stream ciphers that might become suitable for widespread adoption",  organized by the EU ECRYPT network. It was set up because of the failure of all six stream ciphers submitted to the **New European Schemes for Signatures, Integrity and Encryption** project.  The call for cryptographic primitives was first issued in November 2004. The project was completed in April 2008. The project was divided into separate phases and the project goal was to find algorithms suitable for different kinds of application.

## Other websites 
* Homepage for the project
** Discussion forum
** The eSTREAM testing framework http://www.ecrypt.eu.org/stream/perf/
** Update 1: (PDF) 
* Notes on the ECRYPT Stream Cipher project by Daniel Bernstein
* estreamJ - Java implementations of eSTREAM ciphers, plus a live performance test
George Wythe

**George Wythe** (1726 – June 8, 1806), was a lawyer, judge, prominent law professor and "Virginia's foremost classical scholar." Wythe was one of the seven men from Virginia who signed the United States Declaration of Independence.

Wythe served as mayor of Williamsburg, Virginia from 1768 to 1769. In 1779 he was appointed to the newly created Chair of Law at William and Mary, becoming the first law professor in the United States. Wythe's pupils included Thomas Jefferson, Henry Clay, James Monroe, and John Marshall.

## References
MacGuffin (cipher)

In cryptography, **MacGuffin** is a block cipher created in 1994 by Bruce Schneier and Matt Blaze at a Fast Software Encryption workshop. It was intended as a catalyst for analysis of a new cipher structure, known as Generalized Unbalanced Feistel Networks (GUFNs). 

Schneier and Blaze based MacGuffin on DES, their main change was spliting the DES 64 bits data block into two unequal halves in the Feistel network, 48 bits of the 64-bit data block are fed through the round function, whose output is XORed with the other 16 bits of the data block. 

MacGuffin's key schedule is a modified version of the encryption algorithm itself. Since MacGuffin is a Feistel network, decryption is easy; simply run the encryption algorithm in reverse.

The algorithm was experimental, intended to explore the security properties of unbalanced Feistel networks. The cryptanalysis proceeded very quickly, so quickly that the cipher was broken using differential cryptanalysis at the same workshop by Vincent Rijmen and Bart Preneel. They also tried attacking MacGuffin with different S-boxes, taken directly from DES. This version was slightly stronger. 

Rijmen and Preneel warn that designing an algorithm to resist only known attacks is generally not a good design principle.

Schneier and Blaze recommended using 32 *rounds*, and specified MacGuffin with a 128-bit key.

## References
*  
*
Josiah Bartlett

**Josiah Bartlett** (November 21, 1729– May 19, 1795), was an American physician and statesman, delegate to the Continental Congress for New Hampshire. He signed the Declaration of Independence. He was later Chief Justice of the New Hampshire Superior Court of Judicature and governor of the state.
Carter Braxton

**Carter Braxton** (September 10, 1736 – October 10, 1797), was a signer of the United States Declaration of Independence and a representative of Virginia.

## Life
He was born on Newington Plantation in King and Queen County, Virginia and educated at the William and Mary. He married a wealthy heiress named Judith Robinson at the age nineteen, but she died two years later, leaving him two daughters.  

He journeyed to England for two years and returned to the colonies in 1760, marrying again, this time to Elizabeth Corbin, and represented King William County in the Virginia House of Burgesses. He joined the patriot's Committee of Safety in Virginia in 1774 and represented his county in the Virginia Convention. 

When Peyton Randolph died in 1775, Braxton was appointed to take his place in the Continental Congress.  He served in the Congress from February 1776 until August, when Virginia reduced its delegation to five members. Afterwards he returned to the House of Burgesses, and later served on the State's Executive Council.
SMS

An **SMS**, or **short messaging service** is a type of communication used in mobile phones. They are more commonly called 'text messages'. With SMS, someone can send text to another person.

SMS can be slow, as a network gives priority to phone calls, and only carries text messages after calls are handled.  There is also a limit of 160 characters that a text message can send.  Longer messages than this will be sent as multiple messages, where the sender has to pay for each individual message. 

Text messages are often sent between phone users when an actual phone call is not wanted or needed. For example, they may be used in a situation where silence is needed, or to send something private that one person does not want people near them to hear. Message price depends on the phone network of the user. Some mobile phone plans allow for unlimited texting.

## References
International waters

**International waters** is a body of water that does not belong to any single country. "International waters" is not a defined term in international law. It is an informal term.

The Convention on the High Seas 1958 defined "high seas" to mean "all parts of the sea that are not included in the territorial sea or in the internal waters of a State" and "no State may validly... subject any part of them to its sovereignty".

Therefore "high seas" and "international waters" share a basic idea: that no country can own them.

## References
Alternative hip hop

**Alternative hip hop** is a form of hip hop music that is very different from gangsta rap, crunk, and snap. A way to explain it would be that if "regular hip hop" was on the middle of a number line, gangsta rap, crunk, and snap would be on one side, and alternative hip hop would be on the other. Even though it is a form of hip hop, fans of alternative hip hop tend to also be fans of horrorcore more than "regular hip hop" or especially R&B.

Alternative hip hop originally came from the United States, and some artists like Gorillaz sprang up from the United Kingdom. Examples of American alternative hip hop artists are Talib Kweli, Mos Def, (and the band they started together, Black Star), Common, Nas, Kanye West, A Tribe Called Quest, Jurassic 5, and Styles of Beyond. It started as a movement-of-sorts from hip hop artists against the "tasteless" hip hop that was popular in the 1990s.

## References
Jason Varitek

**Jason Varitek** (born April 11, 1972 in Rochester, Michigan) is an American retired baseball player who played in the MLB. Varitek played for the Boston Red Sox up until his retirement in March 2012.

## 1997&ndash;2004 
Varitek was called up from Triple A Pawtucket on September 24, 1997, for one game.  In 1998, he and catcher Scott Hatteberg were the starting catchers. That season, Varitek played 86 games, while Hatteberg played 76. Varitek went 5–21 with 3 RBI in the 1999 ALDS playing. the Cleveland Indians. He then went 4–20 with 1 RBI in the ALCS playing the New York Yankees.

## References 
## Other websites 
*Baseball-Reference.com
Islamic theology

**Islamic theology** deals with the beliefs of the Islamic faith.

## Types of theology
Islamic theology comes from the Qur'an, Hadith, and the story of Muhammad's life (*Sirah Rasul Allah*). 

### Kalam
Kalam is the Islamic philosophy of seeking theological principles through dialectic. In Arabic, the word means "speech". A scholar of kalam is called a *mutakallim* (Muslim theologian; plural *mutakallimiin*).

### Eschatology
Eschatology is understood as the last things or ultimate things, and in Muslim theology, eschatology is about the end of this world and what will happen in the next world. Eschatology covers the death of human beings, their souls after their bodily death, the destruction of this world, the resurrection of human souls, the final judgments of human deeds by Allah after the resurrection, and the rewards and punishments for the believers and non-believers. The places for the believers are known as Paradise and for the non-believers as Hell.

### Comparative religion 
Comparative religion in Muslim theology is about the differences and similarities between it and other theologies such as Christian and Jewish as explained in the Qur'an and the Prophetic traditions.

## Differences between various Muslim groups
In the history of Muslim theology, there have been theological schools among Muslims with both similarities and differences with each other about their beliefs.

### Sunni view
Sunni Muslims hold that there are six articles of belief: belief in Allah, in angels, in divinely revealed scripture] like Qur'an, in prophets, in the "Last Day" or end times, and in predestination.

### Shia view
Shi`ite Muslims hold that there are five articles of belief: the Divine Oneness and Justice, the Prophethood, the Imamate, and eschatology.

### Mu`tazilite view
In the relationship between humans and their creator, Mu`tazilites emphasize human free will over predestination and God's justice over God's omnipotence. Mu'tazilites also believe in the use of logic to decide the true meanings of the Qur'an. This and the principal of Ijtihad, led to their belief in dynamic Fiqh.
Frankfurter Rundschau

The ***Frankfurter Rundschau*** is a nationwide newspaper in Germany.

## Newspaper
The Frankfurter Rundschau is a left-wing liberal newspaper in Germany. Its position is often similar to the positions of the trade unions.
There are 6 newspapers a week.
It has a regional part for Hesse and a local part for Frankfurt am Main, too.
There are about 180,000 newapapers sold daily.
The  is the first newspaper in Germany in the tabloid format.

## History
The Frankfurter Rundschau was the second newspaper starting in Germany after the World War II on the 1st of August 1945.
And it was the first newspaper in the U.S. sector.
The licence was handed over to the first team of editors consisting of Emil Carlebach, Hans Etzkorn, Wilhelm Karl Gerst, Otto Grossmann, Wilhelm Knothe, Paul Rodemann and Arno Rudert.
There were social democrats, political katholics and communists, who had spent years in the resistance and nazi concentration camps or in exile.

## Other websites
*Frankfurter Rundschau Online (German)
Mac OS X Leopard

**Mac OS X v10.5 "Leopard"** is an operating system made by Apple Inc. for its Macintosh line of computers. It is a version of Mac OS X, and carries the release number 10.5. It was released on October 26, 2007, and came in one release for both Intel Mac's, and PowerPC processors. According to Apple, Leopard contains over 300 changes and improvements since Mac OS X v10.4 "Tiger". Leopard was the last release for the PowerPC processor.

## References
Der Spiegel

***Der Spiegel*** is a weekly political news magazine in Germany.
It was set up in 1947 as a copy of *Time magazine*. It is now one of Europe's largest weekly magazines.

Der Spiegel is a liberal magazine.  It has long, detailed articles.
It has a circulation of more than one million per week. It now has an on-line version, *Spiegel Online*.

## History
The first edition of the Spiegel magazine was published in Hanover on 4 January 1947.  Later it was published in Hamburg.
Rudolf Augstein was the publisher from the very first issue until his death in 2002.

There was an affair which became known as the "Spiegel affair" in the early 1960s, when Defense Secretary Franz-Josef Strauß arrested writers and publishers of the Spiegel, because he was angry about a critical report on the Germany army (the Bundeswehr).

Many political affairs in Germany were first made known by Der Spiegel, e.g. the Flick affair. "The magazine is renowned for its aggressive, vigorous, and well-written exposes of government malpractice and scandals".

## References 
## Other websites
* Spiegel.de, the magazine's online version 
* Spiegel.mobi, the magazine's mobile online version  - Click twice for .mobi page
* Spiegel.de International 
* Spiegel cover gallery
Oliver Wolcott

**Oliver Wolcott** (December 1, 1726– December 1, 1797) was an American politician who signed the Declaration of Independence and also the Articles of Confederation as a representative of Connecticut.

## Life
Oliver Wolcott was born in Windsor, Connecticut, as the youngest of fourteen children of Royal Governor Roger Wolcott. He attended Yale College and graduated in 1747. He was commissioned to raise a militia company to fight in the French and Indian War, and he served the King as captain in the unit on the northern frontier.At the end of the war, Wolcott studied medicine. He was then was appointed sheriff of the newly-created Litchfield County, Connecticut, and served from about 1751 to 1771.

Wolcott participated in the American Revolutionary War as brigadier general and then major general in the Connecticut militia. The Continental Congress appointed him Commissioner of Indian Affairs, and he was elected to the Congress in 1775. He became seriously ill in 1776 and did not sign the Declaration of Independence until sometime later. He was engaged in military affairs between 1776 and 1778 and served again in Congress from 1778 to 1784.

He served again as an Indian Commissioner and was elected lieutenant governor of Connecticut in 1786 and became goveronr on the death of Samuel Huntington in 1796. Wolcott was re-elected to the position and died in office at the age of 71 in Farmington, Connecticut. He is buried in East Cemetery in Litchfield, Connecticut.

## Legacy
The town of Wolcott, Connecticut, was named in honor of Oliver and his son, Oliver Jr. The Oliver Wolcott House, in Litchfield, was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1971.

His son, Oliver Wolcott Jr. served as Secretary of the Treasury under Presidents George Washington and John Adams and as Governor of Connecticut.
Weather forecast

A **weather forecast** is a prediction of what the weather will be in the future. Weather stations measure things such as temperature, air pressure and cloud cover. Meteorologists use these measurements and fluid dynamics and other methods to predict the weather. A forecast for many days in the future is less trustworthy than one for tomorrow or the next day.
Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung

The ***Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung*** is a conservative newspaper in Germany.

## Newspaper
The Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung is the leading conservative newspaper in Germany.
There are 6 newspapers a week and supplementary the **Frankfurter Allgemeine Sonntagszeitung** on Sundays.
There are about 360,000 newspapers sold every day.
It is the German newspaper with the widest circulation abroad. It is sold to 148 countries every day.

## History
The first edition of the FAZ published on November 1, 1949. Its founding editor was Erich Welter. Some editors had worked for the Frankfurter Zeitung, which was banned in 1943.

## Other websites 
* The FAZ online edition (in German; most articles are free)
* Ketupa.net - Frankfurter Zeitung and FAZ  media profile
Süddeutsche Zeitung

The ***Süddeutsche Zeitung*** ("South German Newspaper") is the most-read nationwide quality-newspaper in Germany. It is published in Munich. Recently, they are known for leaking offshore bank accounts that led to the Panama Papers and the Paradise Papers leak.

## Newspaper 
The Süddeutsche Zeitung is a liberal newspaper. The national edition features four sections: Politics, Culture, Economy and Sports. There are also regional editions for Munich and Bavaria featuring local news. There are 6 newspapers a week. It has the second most readers in Germany after the tabloid newspaper Bild-Zeitung. There are about 442,000 papers sold each day, reaching over 1.1 million readers daily.

## History 
The Süddeutsche Zeitung was published for the first time on October 6, 1945. It was the first newspaper in Bavaria to get a licence from the U.S. military government after World War II.

## Supplements 
*SZ Magazin (Friday), a magazine-style supplement
*Wochenende (Saturday), longer articles and short stories for the weekend
*The New York Times (Monday), selected articles (English language).
*The TV programme (Tuesday) and an event guide (Thursday) are only included in the Bavarian edition.

## Other websites 
*
MacBook

The **MacBook** is a type of laptop computer made by Apple Inc. It runs macOS and comes with a built in webcam and microphone and a power adapter that is attached by a barrel jack, magnets or USB-C. The very last (and now discontinued) MacBooks were last available housed in Silver, Space Gray, Gold and Rose Gold aluminium.

Many college students purchase MacBooks to help with their studies and to stay connected with their family and friends.  

The first models were released in 2006. It now has the same "unibody" construction as the MacBook Pros.

## History
The MacBook was introduced by Apple in May 2006. It replaced the iBook and 12 inch PowerBook series of notebooks because Apple was switching all of their CPUs to Intel from Power PC's.

In October 2008, Apple decided to make a MacBook housed in aluminum. It was pretty much the same as the one housed in plastic except that it was a little better and that it was housed in metal. In June 2009, during WWDC (Apple's big yearly gathering), this laptop was renamed the MacBook Pro 13 inch.

In 2015 Apple released 12-inch MacBook, with a smaller  Retina display.

## References
## Other websites
*MacBook website
Die Zeit

***Die Zeit*** is a nationwide weekly newspaper in Germany.

*Die Zeit* (the title means: "The Time") is read by about 2 million people. It sells about 480.000 copies every week. It is well known for its good articles which are well-written and often detailed. It is read by well-educated people. It is a liberal newspaper.

It includes articles about politics, economics, knowledge, the sciences, art, literature, education, life (style) and travel. It has many advertisements for jobs at universities.

## History 
The first copies of *Die Zeit* were published on the 21 February 1946 in Hamburg. Since that day it has been published in Hamburg every week.

## References
## Weblinks 
* Die Zeit
* *Die Zeit* Wissen
* *Zuender* Das Netzmagazin der *Zeit* 
* Zeit Campus Online
All your base are belong to us

"**All your base are belong to us**" (often shortened to "**All Your Base**", "**AYBABTU**", or simply "**AYB**") is a broken English phrase that began an internet phenomenon in 2001 and 2002, with the use of a Flash animation. The phrase is taken from the first part of a European Sega Mega Drive version of the video game *Zero Wing*, made in Japan by Toaplan. The words in the game were translated into English so quickly that they did not make very much sense. The words "**All your base are belong to us**" were at first popular on the Something Awful message forums.

It was used widely in the late 1990's on MMORPGs such as Star Wars Galaxies and World of Warcraft.

## Words of the game 
## Notable media references 
 Route 50 in Nevada]]

The phrase and similar phrases from the game has been shown in articles, books, comics, clothing, movies, radio shows, songs, television shows, video games, webcomics, and websites.

* In the year 2000, Jeffery Ray Roberts, a Kansas City computer programmer and part-time deejay aged 23, and his musical band called The Laziest Men on Mars made a techno dance tune called "Invasion of the Gabber Robots", which used some of the Zero Wing video game music by Tatsuya Uemura with a voice saying "All your base are belong to us."
* On February 23, 2001, *Wired magazine* wrote an article about the phrase being in the Flash animation, in many e-mails, Internet forums and T-shirts showing the phrase.
* On April 1, 2003, in Sturgis, Michigan, seven people aged between 17 and 20 placed signs all over their town that said, "All your base are belong to us. You have no chance to survive make your time." They said it was an April Fools' Day joke, but not many people who saw the signs had seen the phrase before. Many people who lived in the town were angry because the United States was at war in Iraq, and police chief Eugene Alli said the signs could be "a terrorist threat depending on what someone interprets it to mean."
* In February 2004, businesses and schools in Raleigh, North Carolina were closed because of bad weather and they used an internet service to report it. Some North Carolina State University students and members of The Wolf Web in Raleigh, North Carolina took control of the internet service and showed the phrase in a news ticker on the television channel, News 14 Carolinas live news broadcast.
* On June 1, 2006, the video website YouTube was closed to fix some problems. The phrase "ALL YOUR VIDEO ARE BELONG TO US" was shown until their problems were fixed. Some users believed the site had been taken control of by students but YouTube said "No, we haven't! Get a sense of humor!"
* On September 22, 2008, on the MSNBC show Countdown with Keith Olbermann, a Princeton University Professor called Paul Krugman said that  what the United States Congress said about giving the banks money from the government was similar to the leader of the United States Treasury Secretary, Henry Paulson saying, "All your decisions are belong to me."

## Related pages
* Internet meme
* Engrish

## References 
**Notes**

## Other websites 
* Website with animation
Gall

on a leaf]]

 record. Two galls with perforations on a crinoid stem from the Middle Jurassic of southern Israel]]
 in the family Cynipidae]]
 leaf gall]]
 marble galls, one with a gall fly exit hole and another with *Phoma gallorum* fungal attack]]

A **gall** is a growth on the surface of plants and other lifeforms. They are caused by various parasites, such as fungi, bacteria, insects and mites.   

Plant galls are abnormal growths of plant tissues similar to benign tumors or warts in animals.   

What causes a plant gall can often be known without the actual agent being there. Many types of gall have typical structures. This is true of many galls produced by insects and mites. 

Insect galls on plants give some herbivorous insects their own microhabitat. They are plant tissue which is controlled by the insect.  Galls are the habitat and food source for the maker of the gall. The gall may contain nutritious starch and other tissues.  Galls often give the insect physical protection from predators.

Insect galls are usually induced by chemicals injected by the larvae or the adults of the insects into the plants. After the galls are formed, the larvae develop inside until fully grown, when they leave. In order to form galls, the insects must seize the time when plant cell division occurs quickly. The growing season, spring in temperate climates, is longer in the tropics.

## Human use 
Galls can be used by humans, and have been since ancient times. One use is to collect the pigment which many galls make. The galls are rich in resins and tannins, from which dyes and inks can be made. Galls can be used to make a mordant for dyeing: mordants make the dye on the cloth permanent. Also, permanent black ink can be made from galls, and that has been done for a long time. 

The larvae inside the galls may be used as food or as fishing bait, and some galls have medicinal uses.

## References 
## Gallery

File:Diplolepis-rosae.jpg|Rose bedeguar gall on a wild rose in summer.
File:Eikengallen op mannelijke bloeiwijze.jpg|*Neuroterus albipes* forma *laeviusculus*
File:Rhododendron ferrugineum b.JPG|Leaf galls on *Rhododendron ferrugineum*
File:Pineapple gall.JPG|Pineapple gall on Sitka spruce.
Thomas Paine

**Thomas Paine** (29 January 1737 – 8 June 1809) was an English pamphleteer, revolutionary, inventor, and intellectual. Born in Norfolk, he lived and worked in Great Britain until he was 37, when he emigrated to the British North American colonies just before the American Revolution. A friend of Benjamin Franklin, his main contribution was the powerful, widely-read pamphlet *Common Sense* (1776), which promoted the idea of Colonial America's independence from Great Britain. He also wrote *The American Crisis* (1776–1783), a series of pamphlets supporting the revolution.

Paine went to France after the American Revolution to join the French Revolution. In prison there, he wrote *The Age of Reason*, a pamphlet that was critical of organized religion. Paine, along with other American founders such as Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, preferred to apply reason, instead of revelation, to religion. That was part of the greater Age of Enlightenment, a movement that had started around the 17th century.

Paine died at the age of 72 at 59 Grove Street in Greenwich Village, New York City, United States, on the morning of June 8, 1809.

## References
## Other websites
**The Age of Reason*
*ThomasPaine.org website
Third law of thermodynamics

The **third law of thermodynamics** says:
*If an object reaches the absolute zero of temperature (0 K = −273.15C = −459.67 °F), its atoms will stop moving.
The definition is: **at absolute zero , the entropy of a perfectly crystalline substance is zero**.

Experimentally, it is not possible to obtain −273.15°C, as of now. It is found that most of the gases either liquify or solidify before reaching such a temperature, gaseous molecules no longer remaining. So far, scientists have been able to get close to, but not exactly, absolute zero. This may change in the future.

## Related pages
*Zeroth law of thermodynamics
*First law of thermodynamics
*Second law of thermodynamics
Danny Murphy

**Daniel Ben Murphy** (born 18 March 1977) is an English former professional footballer who played as a midfielder.

## Career statistics
### Club
### International
:*England score listed first, score column indicates score after each Murphy goal*
*Football League Second Division play-offs: 1997

**Liverpool**
*FA Cup: 2000–01
*Football League Cup: 2002–03
*FA Charity Shield: 2001
*UEFA Cup: 2000–01
*UEFA Super Cup: 2001

**Fulham**
*UEFA Europa League runner-up: 2009–10

**Individual**
*PFA Team of the Year: 1996–97 Second Division
*Premier League Player of the Month: November 2001, September 2005

## References
Zeroth law of thermodynamics

The **Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics** says that if a change to the temperature(T) from one object (for example 'A') changes the temperature of another object ('B'), and a change to the temperature of 'B' changes the temperature of 'C' (a third object), then a change to the temperature of 'A' will mean a change to the temperature of 'C'. Heat naturally flows from areas that are hot to areas that are cold. 

More simply: 

:\mathrm{if}~T(A)=T(B) 
:\mathrm{if}~T(B)=T(C) 
:\mathrm{then}~T(A)=T(C)

It is called the zeroth (0th) law of thermodynamics because it was discovered after the others, but scholars thought it was more important so they wanted to give it a number before the other laws. 

## Related pages
*First law of thermodynamics
*Second law of thermodynamics
*Third law of thermodynamics
*Thermodynamic equilibrium
Dion Dublin

**Dion Dublin** (born 22 April 1969) is an English former footballer. He has played for England national team.

## Club career statistics
|-
|1987–88||Norwich City||First Division||0||0
|-
|1988–89||rowspan="4"|Cambridge United||rowspan="2"|Fourth Division||21||6
|-
|1989–90||46||15
|-
|1990–91||Third Division||46||16
|-
|1991–92||Second Division||43||15
|-
|1992–93||rowspan="2"|Manchester United||rowspan="2"|Premier League||7||1
|-
|1993–94||5||1
|-
|1994–95||rowspan="5"|Coventry City||rowspan="5"|Premier League||31||13
|-
|1995–96||34||14
|-
|1996–97||34||13
|-
|1997–98||36||18
|-
|1998–99||10||3
|-
|1998–99||rowspan="4"|Aston Villa||rowspan="4"|Premier League||24||11
|-
|1999–00||26||12
|-
|2000–01||33||8
|-
|2001–02||21||4
|-
|2001–02||Millwall||First Division||5||2
|-
|2002–03||rowspan="2"|Aston Villa||rowspan="2"|Premier League||28||10
|-
|2003–04||23||3
|-
|2004–05||rowspan="2"|Leicester City||rowspan="2"|Championship||37||5
|-
|2005–06||21||0

|-
|2005–06||Celtic||Premier League||11||1

|-
|2006–07||rowspan="2"|Norwich City||rowspan="2"|Championship||33||5
|-
|2007–08||37||7
601||182
11||1
612||183
|}

## International career statistics
|-
|1998||4||0
|-
!Total||4||0
|}

## References
Allauch

**Allauch** is a commune of 19,400 people (2005). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

## Related pages
* Communes of the Bouches-du-Rhône department
* Arrondissements of the Bouches-du-Rhône department

## Other websites
*Allauch official website 
*Allauch official tourism website
Gabriel Batistuta

**Gabriel Batistuta** (born 1 February 1969) is a former Argentine football player. He played for Argentina national team.

## Career statistics 
### Club 
### International 
## References
Bentley

**Bentley** is a British automobile maker. It is based in Crewe, Cheshire, England.

Bentley is famous for their fast, luxury vehicles. In 1998, the German Volkswagen Group bought Bentley for £430 million.
Chloe O'Brian

'''Chloe O'Brian'* is a character in the television series *24''. She works at the Counter Terrorist Unit as an analyst. O'Brian is a close friend of Jack Bauer.
Stéphane Henchoz

**Stéphane Henchoz** (born 7 September 1974) is a former Swiss football player. He has played for Switzerland national team.

## Career statistics
## Honours
**Liverpool**
*FA Cup: 2000–01
*Football League Cup: 2000–01, 2002–03
*FA Charity Shield: 2001
*UEFA Cup: 2000–01
*UEFA Super Cup: 2001

**Celtic**
*Scottish Cup: 2004–05

**Wigan Athletic**
*Football League Cup runner-up: 2005–06

**Individual**
*Credit Suisse Player of the Year: 2001, 2002

## References
Milan Baroš

**Milan Baroš** (born 28 October 1981) is a former Czech football player. He played for the Czech Republic national team.

## Career statistics
### Club
Source: League matches;Cup and League Cup matches;Liverpool European matches;European club matches from 2006

### International
Baroš made his debut opposed to Belgium in April 2001, netting his first goal as the match ended in a 1–1 draw.  Baroš has only scored a hat-trick once, which came against San Marino in a 2010 FIFA World Cup qualification match in September 2009, where he accomplished a career mark by scoring four times.

:*Czech Republic score listed first, score column indicates score after each Baroš goal. Updated as of final match played 21 June 2012.*

## Honours
**Liverpool**
* FA Community Shield runner-up: 2002
* Football League Cup: 2002–03; runner-up 2004-05
* UEFA Champions League: 2004–05

**Olympique Lyon**
* Ligue 1: 2006–07, 2007–08
* Trophée des Champions: 2007

**Portsmouth**
* FA Cup: 2007–08

**Galatasaray**
* Süper Lig: 2011–12

**Mladá Boleslav**
* Czech Cup: 2015–16
**Czech Republic Youth**
* UEFA European Under-21 Football Championship: 2002
**Individual**
* UEFA European Championship Golden Boot: 2004
* UEFA European Champions Team of the Tournament: 2004
* Süper Lig top scorer: 2008–09 *(20 goals)*

## Notes
## References
Ehrenbreitstein

**Festung Ehrenbreitstein** is a fortress. It was built on a mountain called Ehrenbreitstein on the right side of the Rhine opposite to the town of Koblenz in the German state of Rhineland-Palatinate.

It was built as part of the "Festung Koblenz" (Fortress Koblenz), by Prussia between 1817 and 1832 and guarded the middle Rhine region. This area had often been invaded by the French. The fortress was never attacked.

## Other websites 
* Ehrenbreitstein pictures and information
Filipino language

**Filipino** is "in practice" but not "according to the law" a form of the Tagalog language or the Metro Manila dialect of Tagalog. It is the national language of the Philippines, and one of the two official languages of the Philippines, with English being the other. About a third of the people in the Philippines speak Tagalog as a first language, and more people speak it as a second language, especially the Filipino language.

*Filipino* is "in practice" but not "according to the law" used as the formal, official, and/or academic name of the Tagalog language, but sometimes, it even means the same thing, which makes Tagalog and Filipino different languages 

Commonly called Tagalog, the Tagalog language or the Tagalog language in the Philippines and among most Filipinos, just differentiate it from the other languages of the Philippines. 

Filipino is a language that has undergone evolution and development from the Pilipino language since 1987, and it has more influences from the other languages of the Philippines and from foreign languages than the core Tagalog language.

The Pilipino language has been since 1959 the final official name of the former or previous official and national language of the Philippines.

## References
Châteauneuf-les-Martigues

**Châteauneuf-les-Martigues** is a commune of 11,900 people (). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

## History 
During the feudal period, Châteauneuf was known for its castle, the Castrum Novum, mentioned as early as the 11th century. The village developed at the foot of the castle. Its Occitan name, Castèunòu dau Martegue, recalls its belonging to the category of medieval Castelnau (village or town founded in the Middle Ages near a castle).
Gréasque

**Gréasque** is a commune of 3,705 people (2004). It is found in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.
Graveson

**Graveson** is a commune of 3,836 people (2008). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

The village is very attractive for holidaymakers, because it is located between Arles and Avignon. Neighbour villages are Châteaurenard, Maillane and Rognonas.

Graveson is birthplace of the painter Auguste Chabaud.
Mas-Blanc-des-Alpilles

**Mas-Blanc-des-Alpilles** is a commune of 373 people (1999). It is in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in south France.
Mollégès

**Mollégès** () is a commune of 2,171 people (1999). It is in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

## References