open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Cheetah

]]

A **cheetah** (*Acinonyx jubatus*) is a medium large cat which lives in Africa and Asia. It is the fastest land animal and can run up to , and accelerate from 0 to  in less than 3 seconds. Most cheetahs live in the savannas of Africa. There are a few in Iran. Cheetahs are active during the day, and hunt in the early morning or late evening.

## Characteristics 
The cheetah compared to other big cats is light and slimly built. Its long thin legs and long spotted tail are necessary for fast running. Its lightly built, thin form is in sharp contrast with the robust build of other big cats. The head-and-body length ranges from .

The slightly curved claws are only weakly retractable (semi-retractable).

The cheetah cannot defend itself against lions or hyenas who would take the cheetah's prey away. The prey is taken to a shaded place. The cheetah, exhausted after the chase, rests beside the attack and pants heavily for some time. Once they recover, cheetahs eat quickly, and consume large quantities as soon as they can.

## Reproduction 
Pregnant females give birth to about 3 to 5 cubs or kittens after three months pregnancy. It takes two years of full-time supervision by the mother before the cubs are ready to live independent lives. They need to learn how to catch prey, and that takes time. The young are vulnerable to larger predators: lions especially try to kill cheetahs.

## Genetics 
The cheetah has unusually low genetic variability and a very low sperm count. Their sperms also suffer from deformed flagellae, and so their movement is damaged. Apparently, cheetahs went through a great reduction in numbers during the last ice age. Inbreeding after the event further reduced the variation (genetic drift). 

## Cheetah as a pet 
Due to the fact that cheetahs never attack and kill humans they were extremely popular as hunting pets since antiquity and especially in medieval times in the Near and Middle East.

In modern times, cheetahs probably are the most difficult wilds cats to have as pets, due to the necessity for wide open spaces for cheetah for them to run at full speed . It's very important to feed them properly, because cheetahs in captivity must eat only lean steamed meat so they do not get sick and die.

## Interesting facts 
The cheetah is the fastest land dweller. The acceleration of a cheetah allows it to reach speeds of up to a  per hour in three seconds (its maximum speed is ). The speed that a cheetah can develop from the start in three seconds cannot be matched by any sports racing car.

The nearest challenge to the cheetah's speed comes from the pronghorn and springbok.

## References
Quartz

**Quartz** is a tectosilicate mineral that is the second most common mineral in Earth's continental crust. Its crystal structure is a framework of SiO4 silicon–oxygen tetrahedra. Each shares an oxygen atom with another tetrahedron, so the overall chemical formula is SiO2 or silica. It is also known for its incredibly clear and smooth nature because of its composition.

There are many different varieties of quartz, some of which are semi-precious gemstones.  They have been used for a long time to make jewelry and hardstone carvings.  Agate, amethyst, rose quartz are all forms of quartz.

Quartz crystals are used in oscillators, for example in quartz clocks. People also extract the silicon to make semiconductors.
The majority of sand is small quartz bits. Quartz has a mineral hardness of 7. (mohs scale).

The word "quartz" comes from the German word "quarz".

'Fused quartz' is glass made of silica in non-crystalline form. It does not contain other ingredients that are added to other glass to lower the melting point. Fused silica has high working and melting temperatures. For some purposes, fused quartz is better than other types of glass due to its purity. The glass is used in a number of high-tech products.

Quartz comes in many different types such as clear quartz, smoky quartz, tiger's eye, lemon quartz and many more. There are many microcrystalline types of quartz, like Jasper, Onyx, Agate and Carnelian.

## Shocked quartz 
**Shocked quartz** is a form of quartz that has a microscopic structure different from normal quartz. Under intense pressure (but limited temperature), the crystalline structure of quartz is deformed along planes inside the crystal. These planes show up as lines under a microscope.

Shocked quartz is found worldwide, especially in impact craters and in the thin Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary layer. This is at the contact between Cretaceous and Paleogene rocks. It is further evidence (in addition to iridium enrichment) that the transition between the two geologic periods was caused by a large impact. Eugene Shoemaker discovered it in building stones in the Bavarian town of Nördlingen. The stones were from shocked metamorphic rocks, such as breccia, of a meteor crater.

## Related pages 
*Time crystal

## References
Pope John Paul I

**Pope John Paul I** (; , 17 October 1912 – 28 September 1978), born **Albino Luciani**, was an Italian priest of the Roman Catholic Church and the 264th Pope for 33 days in 1978.  His name was a combination of the names of the two popes who came before him.  The name "John Paul" honors Pope John XXIII who made him a bishop and Pope Paul VI who raised him to the rank of cardinal. Pope John Paul I was beatified by Pope Francis on 4 September 2022.

## Early life
Luciani was born in Canale d'Agordo, a small town between Venice and the Austrian border with Italy.  His father was a migrant worker in Switzerland. and the Patriarch of Venice.

## Pope
Cardinal Luciani was elected Pope in 1978, John Paul I was the first pope to combine the names of John and Paul as a Pope as his way of paying tribute to Pope John XXIII and Pope Paul VI.  He was the first Pope to call himself by a new name since Pope Lando in 913.

He was known as "the Smiling Pope".
* *Illustrissimi* (1978)

## Related pages
* List of popes
* List of popes by length of reign

## References
## More reading
* Cornwell, John. (1989). *A Thief in the Night: the Death of Pope John Paul I.* New York: Simon & Schuster. ; OCLC 20013469
* Seabeck, Raymond, ed. (2004). *The Smiling Pope: the Life and Teaching of John Paul I.* 	Huntington, Indiana: Our Sunday Visitor Publishing Division. ; OCLC 438570516
* David Yallop.  In God’s Name. An investigation into the murder of Pope John Paul I

## Other websites
* Catholic Hierarchy, Pope John Paul I
* Vatican webpage, John Paul I biography
* Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church , Cardinal Luciani
Ted Cassidy

**Ted Cassidy** (July 31, 1932 - January 16, 1979) was an American actor. He was best known for his roles as Lurch and Thing on *The Addams Family*.

Cassidy died of surgery-related problems to remove a tumor from his heart on January 16, 1979.

## References
## Other websites 
*
Aileen Wuornos

**Aileen Carol Wuornos Pralle** (born **Aileen Carol Pittman**; February 29, 1956&nbsp;– October 9, 2002) was an American serial killer. She was born in Rochester, Michigan. She confessed to killing six men in Florida and was executed in Florida State Prison by lethal injection for the murders. Wuornos claimed that the men she killed had raped her or tried to rape her while she was working as a prostitute.

Wuornos was diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder and borderline personality disorder.

The movie, *Monster* is about her life. Two documentaries were made about her.

## Early life
Wuornos was born Aileen Carol Pittman in Rochester, Michigan. She never met her father. Wuornos was adopted by her grandparents. When she was 13 she became pregnant. She started working as a prostitute when she was 14.

## References
Store

**Store** has several meanings:

* Storage, a place for saving things
** Warehouse

* Retail store
** A department store
** A shop
1857

## Events 
*Indian Mutiny; Mangal Pandey, Rani of Jhansi
* "Jingle Bells" is written and published in America

## Births 
* 5 April – Alexander of Battenberg
*  14 April - Princess Beatrice of the United Kingdom; Prince Henry of Battenberg
* June 11 – Antoni Grabowski
* September 15 - William Howard Taft, twenty-seventh President of the United States (d. 1930)
* 3 December – Joseph Conrad

## Deaths
*December 31 - Edward Williams Clay, American artist (b. 1799)
1887

**1887** (MDCCCLXXXVII) was a common year starting on Saturday in the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Thursday in the Julian calendar.

## Events 
* July 26 – L. L. Zamenhof published Esperanto

## Births 
* March 22 – Chico Marx
* December 25 – Conrad Hilton, American hotelier (d. 1979)

## References
Crater

A **crater** is a round dent on a planet. They are usually shaped like a circle or an oval. They are usually made by something like a meteor hitting the surface of a planet. Underground activity such as volcanoes or explosions can also cause them but it's not as likely.

## Related pages
*Volcanic crater
*Caldera
*Impact crater

## References
1485

## Events 
* August 22 – Battle of Bosworth Field ends the War of the Roses, Henry VII becomes King of England.
* The first appearance of the sweating sickness in England.

## Births 
* 16 December – Catherine of Aragon, later first Queen-consort of King Henry VIII of England.
* Thomas Cromwell, English statesman (approximately).
* Hernán Cortés, conqueror of Mexico
* Clément Janequin, French chanson composer (approximate date)
* Hugh Aston, English composer (approximate date)
* Pierre Moulu, French composer (approximate date)

## Deaths 
* March 16 – Anne Neville, Queen consort of Richard III of England.
* 22 August – King Richard III of England.
* October 28 – Rodolphus Agricola, Dutch scholar
24-hour clock

The **24-hour clock** is a method of telling the time in which the civil day runs from midnight until next midnight.

The following numbers (used once in the same civil day) of hours are: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22 and 23, without **AM** nor **PM**.

This system is also referred to (only in the United States and the English speaking parts of Canada) as **military time** or  (only in the United Kingdom and now very rarely) as **continental time**. 

In some parts of the world, it is called **railway time**. Also, the international standard notation of time (ISO 8601) is based on this format.

## Particulars
A time in the 24-hour clock is written in the form hours:minutes (for example, 01:23), or hours:minutes:seconds (01:23:45). Numbers under 10 have a zero in front (called a leading zero); e.g. 09:07. Under the 24-hour clock system, the day begins at midnight, 00:00. The last minute of the day begins at 23:59 and ends at 24:00, which is the same as 00:00 of the following day. This means that "Tuesday at 24:00" and "Wednesday at 00:00" are the same time. Because of this, 12:00 is always noon.

Advantages over the 12-hour clock system:
* Less confusion between morning and evening.
* 12:00 is always midday.

## Application
### Regional
In many African, Asian, European and Latin American countries people use it to write the time. Many people use it in speaking. Many digital wristwatches and clocks can display the time of day using the 24-hour clock.
### Military
The U.S. military prefers not to say 24:00 - they do not like to have two names for the same thing, so they always say "23:59", which is one minute before midnight.
24-hour clock time is used in computers, by the militaries, for public safety, and in transport.

### Railway
In railway timetables 24:00 means the *end* of the day. For example, a train due to arrive at a station during the last minute of a day arrives at 24:00; but trains which depart during the first minute of the day go at 24:00. To write shop opening hours until midnight use, for example, "24:00–24:00", "07:00–24:00". v  67

## Related pages
*Time
*Clock
*Space
*Physics
*Spacetime
*Kinematics
*Radioactivity
*Albert Einstein
*Atomic physics
*General Relativity
*Erwin Schrödinger
*Classical mechanics
*Quantum mechanics
*Unit of Measurement
*International System of Units (SI units)

## References
Fifth Avenue

**Fifth Avenue** is a large avenue in New York City (U.S.). Running from Greenwich Village in southern Manhattan to Harlem in the north, the avenue marks the line dividing Manhattan into two parts, called the East Side and the West Side. The nearest avenues, on either side, are Madison Avenue (east) and Sixth Avenue (west), also known as the Avenue of the Americas.

There are many famous sights, such as the New York Public Library, St. Patrick's Cathedral, Rockefeller Center and Central Park (which runs along the west side, between 59th and 110th Street). On Fifth Avenue there are many expensive shops like Gucci.

## Related pages
* Madison Avenue
Ulster Volunteer Force

The **Ulster Volunteer Force** (**UVF**) is a loyalist paramilitary (civilians trained as soldiers) group based in Northern Ireland. It was formed in 1966. Its name comes from the UVF of World War I. The Ulster Volunteer Force was started as a Protestant/Unionist militia (citizen military force) in 1912 to oppose the Home Rule campaign for a separate Irish parliament. Many UVF members formed the 36th (Ulster) Division that fought with the British Army in World War I. The Progressive Unionist Party is the political wing of the outlawed Ulster Volunteer Force and Red Hand Commando. Although the PUP is called a loyalist fringe party, it has more moderate unionist views than any of the traditional unionist parties.

## Crimes
During the Troubles in Northern Ireland (1969-1998), the UVF carried out many attacks:
*In 1971, they bombed McGurk's Bar in Belfast which was in a mostly Catholic area of the city. The blast killed 15 Catholics and destroyed the building.
*In 1974, they placed three car bombs in the centre of Dublin and another in Monaghan, which were deliberately exploded at rush hour to kill as many people as possible. The bombs killed 33 people and injured over 300, making it the worst atrocity of the conflict.
*In 1975, they shot dead three members of the Miami Showband, a popular showband from Dublin, as they were travelling home from doing a show in County Down, Northern Ireland.
*In 1994, they attacked a bar in Loughinisland County Down and fired on the customers. The attack killed six Catholics and injured five others.
*Following the murder of a Catholic taxi driver in Portadown in July 1996, the Mid-Ulster Brigade of the UVF was expelled. They immediately set up the Loyalist Volunteer Force (LVF).

## Ceasefire and decommissioning
After a continuous campaign of 28 years, the UVF called a ceasefire in October 1994. They stated in October 2007 that they had ended their campaign and in June 2009 they announced they had decommissioned (destroyed their weapons), however the UVF have been involved in a number of incidents since then, which has put the announcement in doubt.

## Deaths as a result of campaign
From the organization's creation in 1966 and ending of campaign in 2007, the UVF were responsible for at least 400 murders, however it is believed the actual figure is closer to 1,000. The UVF stated that their mission was to destroy Irish republican paramilitary groups, however over 80% of their victims were Catholic civilians.

## References 
* Steve Bruce, The Red Hand, 1992, 
* Jim Cusack & Henry McDonald, UVF, 2000, 
* Martin Dillon, The Dirty War
* Brendan O'Brien, The Long War - the IRA and Sinn Féin
* Peter Taylor, Loyalists
* Tony Geraghty, The Irish War

## Other websites
* History of the 1912 UVF 
* History of the YCV 
* CAIN - University of Ulster Conflict Archive 
* Photographs of UVF murals
* Ulster Volunteer Force
1254

## Births 
* September 15 &ndash; Marco Polo, Italian explorer (d. 1324)

## Deaths 
* December 7 &ndash; Pope Innocent IV
1473

## Events 
* February 12 - The first complete edition of Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine (in Latin translation) is published in Milan.
* August 11 - Sultan of the Ottoman Empire Mehmed II defeats the White Sheep Turkmens led by Uzun Hasan at Otlukbeli.

### Unknown dates 
* Axayacatl, Aztec ruler of Tenochtitlan, in present-day Mexico, invades the territory of the neighbouring Aztec city of Tlatelolco. The ruler of Tlatelolco is killed and replaced by a military governor, and it loses its independence in the process.
* The city walls of Celje, Slovenia, are built.
* Marsilio Ficino becomes a priest.
* Nicolo Marcello becomes Doge of Venice.

## Births 
 1473-1543]]
* February 19 &ndash; Nicolaus Copernicus, astronomer and mathematician (d. 1543)
* March 16 &ndash; Henry IV, Duke of Saxony (d. 1541)
* March 17 &ndash; King James IV of Scotland (d. 1513)
* August 14 &ndash; Margaret Pole, 8th Countess of Salisbury (d. 1541)
* August 17 &ndash; Richard, Duke of York, one of the Princes in the Tower (d. 1483)
* September 24 &ndash; Georg von Frundsberg, German Knight and landowner (d. 1528)
* October 26 &ndash; Friedrich of Saxony (d. 1510)
* *date unknown* &ndash; Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk, Tudor politician (d. 1555)
* *probable*
** Jean Lemaire de Belges, Walloon poet and historian (d. 1525)
** Edward of Middleham, Prince of Wales, only son of Richard III of England (d. 1484)

## Deaths 
* January 24 &ndash; Conrad Paumann, German composer (b. c. 1410)
* February 23 &ndash; Arnold, Duke of Gelderland (b. 1410)
* April &ndash; Alessandro Sforza, condottiero
* May 8 &ndash; John Stafford, 1st Earl of Wiltshire, English politician (b. 1420)
* July 10 &ndash; James II of Cyprus (b. c. 1440)
* December 24 &ndash; John Cantius, Polish scholar and theologian (b. 1390)
* *date unknown*
** Jean Jouffroy, French prelate and diplomat (b. c. 1412)
** Hosokawa Katsumoto, Japanese nobleman (b. 1430)
** Nicholas I, Duke of Lorraine (b. 1448)
** Yamana Sōzen, Japanese daimyo and monk (b. 1404)
* *probable* &ndash; Patriarch Gennadios II of Constantinople (b. c. 1400)
1898

## Events 
### January 
* January 1 – New York City creates the City of Greater New York.
### February 
* February 12 – Henry Lindfield dies in England, and is the first person to die from a car accident.
### March 
* March 24 – Robert Allison of Port Carbon, Pennsylvania becomes the first person to buy a car built in America.
* March 26 – The Sabi Game Reserve is created in South America, and becomes the first official game reserve.
### April 
* April 25 – The United States declares war on Spain.
### June 
* June 12 – The Republic of the Philippines declares official independence from Spain during the Spanish-American War.

## Deaths 
* March 16 – Aubrey Beardsley
* March 27 – Sir Syed Ahmed Khan Bahadur
Minesweeper (video game)

**Minesweeper** is a strategy game that comes with most Microsoft computer operating systems. It is available for many other operating systems and desktop environments as well. The object of the game is to clear a minefield of mines. By clicking on blocks, the player learns if the block contains a mine. If they do not see a mine, the game continues. If they clicked on a mine, the game is over. When the player clicks on a block, a number may appear. The number shows how many mines are next to this square. This helps the player find out where the mines are.

The most common variation of the game is won when every block that does not contain a mine has been clicked, although some variations are won by having every block that contains a mine flagged.

## Variations 
There are many versions out there:

Image:Minesweeper_games2relaxnet.png|Online, non rectangular
Image:Cube_Minesweeper_3D.png|3D 
Image:Firefox_Hexagon_Minesweeper_-_fr.png|hexagonal
Image:Xbomb_triangles.png|triangular
Image:Freesweep.png|ASCII
Image:Mines_Simon_Tatham's.png|no guess
Image:Emoji_Minesweeper.png|emoji
Confederate States of America

of the Confederate States of America. (4th March, 1865 - onwards)]]

The **Confederate States of America** (CSA) was a short-lived government that existed in the southern United States during the American Civil War. It was established (made) in 1861 by seven southern states in which slavery was legal, after Abraham Lincoln was elected president of the U.S., but before he took office. South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas declared their secession (independence) from the United States. After war began, Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina joined them.  The first capital of the Confederacy was Montgomery, Alabama, but for most of the war the capital was Richmond, Virginia.

The government of the Confederacy was much like the United States government. The Confederate States Constitution was similar to that of the United States; however, it emphasized states' rights and clearly protected the enslavement of black Americans. Jefferson Davis was chosen as president and Alexander Stephens as vice-president.  As in the United States, the CSA president had a cabinet of advisors. The armed forces of CSA were Confederate States Army, Navy, and Marine Corps.

The United States government (also known as the Union) did not agree that the states could leave and start a new government. Thus, the Union government refused to abandon all its forts in the states that wanted to secede. War began when the CSA attacked one of those forts, Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina. This war is known as the American Civil War, and it lasted from 1861 to 1865. After some of the deadliest battles in U.S. history, Union forces gradually regained control of southern states. As Confederate forces surrendered, the Confederacy fell apart and the Civil War came to a close in 1865. Following the war, slavery was outlawed everywhere in the United States. The process of restoring the states of the CSA to the Union, called the Reconstruction of the United States, continued until 1877.

It is still undecided if the Confederate States of America was ever a country. The Union never said that the Confederacy was really a country. Although British and French companies sold ships and materials to the Confederacy, no nation officially recognized the CSA as an independent country.

The CSA was also called "the South," "the Confederacy," and "Dixie."

## References 
## Other websites 
* Confederate States of America -Citizendium
A Tale of Two Cities

***A Tale of Two Cities*** is a book written by Charles Dickens. It was published (printed) in 1859. It is set during the time of the French Revolution (1775-1793). The story happens in France and England. It talks about the French Revolution and the troubles the poor go through and how the rich ignore them. The main characters are Sydney Carton, Charles Darnay and their love interest, Lucie Manette. The story's main theme is society. 
## Other websites
* 
* 
* 
*
Fiji

**Fiji** is an island country in the Pacific Ocean. It has 322 islands. The most important islands are Vanua Levu and Viti Levu. The capital city and the city with the most people is Suva.  There are about 844,330 people in Fiji.
The official languages of Fiji are Fijian, English and Hindi Fiji is part of the Pacific Rim. About 313000 speak Fiji Hindi.

In the 17th and 18th centuries, the Dutch and the British explored Fiji. Fiji was a British colony up until 1970; British occupation lasted almost a century.

Fiji has many forest, mineral, and fish resources.

## Divisions and provinces
Fiji is divided into Four Major Divisions:
* Central
* Eastern
* Northern
* Western

These divisions are divided into 14 provinces:

## Cities
* Lautoka
* Nadi
* Nausori
* Suva

## Incorporated towns
*Fijian law defines "towns" as urbanized areas incorporated as municipal bodies, governed by Town Councils.*

## Unincorporated towns
*The following localities are urbanized, but have not been municipally organized.*
* Dreketi
* Lomawai
* Korolevu
* Navua
* Natumbua
* Vatukoula
* Nakasi, 9½ Miles

## Tourism
Fiji has a lot of tourism and many people go to the Nadi and Denarau islands. Most visitors are from Australia, New Zealand and the USA. Fiji has many soft coral reefs. Scuba diving is a common tourist activity. More budget resorts are being opened in remote areas, which provides more tourism opportunities.

## Related pages
* Fiji at the Olympics
* Fiji national football team
* List of rivers of Fiji

## Other websites
* Pictures of Fiji 
* UN Fiji LESA - Association 

## References
Fijian language

The **Fijian language** is a Austronesian language. It is one of the official languages of Fiji. It has about 350,000 speakers.

## References
Apricot

An **apricot** is a drupe fruit. It is closely related to the plum.

## Description 
The apricot comes from a small to medium-sized tree,  tall, with a trunk up to 40 centimetres in diameter with spreading, dense canopy; leaves are shaped somewhat like a heart with pointed tips, about 8 centimetres (3 inches) wide. 

Apricots contain many nutrients but is highest in vitamin C and potassium. A single apricot contains approximately 3.5 grams of vitamin C and 91 grams of potassium. 
* **Flowers**: Flowers are white to pinkish in color.
* **Fruit**: The fruit has only one seed; the color runs from yellow to orange and may have a red cast; the surface of the fruit is smooth and nearly hairless.

## Related pages
* List of fruits

## Other websites 
* www.apricotseeds.org  – includes information on medicinal uses of apricot seeds
* Apricot Kernel products  – About Apricot Kernel
* Scintro fruit book – All about fruits
* Apricot Nutrition Facts
Contraction

A **contraction** is a word that is made up of two or more words that are connected together. One or more letters are removed from the words when they are connected. One or more apostrophes are added in the location letters are removed. For example, an apostrophe goes in place of the o in *not* when "do not" is shortened to "don't."

In linguistic analysis, contractions should not be confused with crasis, abbreviations and initialisms (including acronyms), with which they share some semantic and phonetic functions, though all three are connoted by the term "abbreviation" in loose parlance. Contraction is also distinguished from morphological clipping, where beginnings and endings are omitted.

The definition overlaps with the term portmanteau (a linguistic *blend*), but a distinction can be made between a portmanteau and a contraction by noting that contractions are formed from words that would otherwise appear together in sequence, such as *do* and *not*, whereas a portmanteau word is formed by combining two or more existing words that all relate to a singular concept that the portmanteau describes.

## Pronoun + verb contractions
### Helping verbs
* I will = I'll
* He will = He'll
* You are = You're

## Negative contractions
### Be
* Are not = aren't
* Is not = isn't

### Do
* Do not = don't
* Did not = didn't
* Does not = doesn't

### Helping Verbs
* Cannot or Can not = can't
* Could not = couldn't
* Shall not = shan't
* Should not = shouldn't
* Might not = mightn't
* Must not = mustn't
* Will not = won't
* Would not = wouldn't
* He did = he'd

### Have
* Has not = hasn't
* Have not = haven't
* Had not = hadn't

## References
Tonga

**Tonga** is a country in Pacific Ocean. It has 169 islands. Only 36 islands have inhabitants. The most important island is Tongatapu. Tupou IV is the king of Tonga and the Prime Minister is Siaosi Sovaleni. The capital of Tonga is Nuku'alofa, which is on Tongatapu.

The official languages of Tonga are Tongan and English. Tonga had 102,321 inhabitants in 2000. It is a very hot country. Tonga became independent in 1970.

## History
About 3000 years before, the Polynesians had settled in Tongatapu. In 1845, Tāufaʻāhau united Tonga into a kingdom. He declared Tonga a constitutional monarchy. Between 1845 and 1893, slavery was stopped. Also, constitution was made up.

In 1900, Tonga became a protected state of the United Kingdom. Tonga maintained its sovereignty. It remained the only Pacific nation never to have given up its monarchical government. Foreign affairs was managed by the UK. Tonga was no longer a protected state and became independent in 1970. Tonga joined the Commonwealth of Nations in 1970. It became a member of the United Nations in September 1999. Tonga has never lost indigenous governance.

## Geography
Tonga is in Oceania. It is an archipelago in the South Pacific Ocean. It has 177 islands. Thirty-six of them are inhabited. The islands are divided into three main groups – Vava'u, Ha'apai, and Tongatapu. The largest island is Tongatapuon. The capital city of Nukuʻalofa is on Tongatapuon.

## Politics
, King of Tonga (1845–1893).]]
Tonga is a constitutional monarchy.

Tonga provides for its citizens:
* free and mandatory education for all
* secondary education with only nominal fees
* and foreign-funded scholarships for post-secondary education

Tongans have universal access to a national health care system. The Tongan constitution protects land ownership. Land cannot be sold to foreigners. While there is a land shortage on the urbanised main island of Tongatapu, there is farmland available in the outlying islands.

The majority of the population engages in some form of subsistence production of food. Women and men have equal access to education and health care. They are fairly equal in employment. Women are discriminated against in land holding, electoral politics, and government ministries.

## Climate 
The climate is tropical with a distinct warm period (December–April) and a cooler period (May–November). The average wettest period is around March. The average daily humidity is 80%.

## References
Filippo Azzaiolo

**Filippo Azzaiolo** (1530 - 1569) was an Italian composer. He lived in 16th century. Azzaiolo worked in Bologna.

All his known songs were composed between 1557 and 1569. Azzaiolo's most famous song is "Chi passa".

## References
Legend

*Legends* (derived from Latin *legenda*) are stories in oral tradition passed on by word of mouth.

The word is also used for famous or historically significant people, places, events, etc. We sometimes say of someone who is extremely famous that they are a "legend" or "of legendary fame".

Examples of legends are Ali Baba, the Fountain of Youth, Nano Begal, Paul Bunyan, Bogeyman, Kraken, Sirens, Atlantis, the Loch Ness Monster, Bigfoot, and Yeti.  Some legends are stories about real people; others are not. Odysseus and Robin Hood for example may have been real but most the stories about them are definitely fiction.

For some places, legends are the earliest history. For example, the origin of ancient Rome is known only from legends, as are the earliest dynasties in the history of China.
1724

## Events
* January 14 &ndash; King Philip V of Spain leaves the throne for his 16-year-old son Louis I.
* January 28 &ndash; Saint Petersburg State University is established.
* February 8 &ndash; Catherine I of Russia is officially named czarina by her husband, Peter the Great.
* May 29 &ndash; Pope Benedict XIII succeeds Pope Innocent XIII as the 245th pope.
* June 23 &ndash; Treaty of Constantinople is signed

* April 22 – Immanuel Kant
1914

**1914** (MCMXIV) was a common year starting on Thursday in the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Wednesday in the Julian calendar.  It was the year that saw the start of what became known as World War I.

## Events 
* June 28 – Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria and his wife Countess Sophie were assassinated by Black Hand in Sarajevo. This led to World War I.
* August 2 – According to the NSDAP 25 points manifesto, anyone who was not German-race who did not live in Germany before this date had to leave the country.
* August 15 - Construction of the Panama Canal is finished.
* August 31 – Saint Petersburg, Russia is renamed Petrograd by Nicholas II.
* September 26 - The Federal Trade Commission is formed.
### Date unknown 
* Australian supermarket chain Coles Supermarkets was founded.
* The Iglesia ni Cristo ("Church of Christ") was built in the Philippines.
* The Johann Wolfgang Goethe University in Frankfurt am Main opened.
* Yuma, Arizona became a city.
* Portugal got rid of the monarchy of Kongo.

## Nobel Prizes 
* Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine won by Robert Bárány, Austrian doctor.

## Births 
* February 5 – William S. Burroughs, American writer (d. 1997)
* March 31 – Octavio Paz, Mexican writer, poet and diplomat (d, 1998)
* April 2 – Alec Guinness, English actor (d. 2000)
* May 13 – Joe Louis, American boxer (d. 1981)
* May 29 – Tenzing Norgay, Sherpa climber (d. 1986)
* September 24 – John Kerr, 18th Governor-General of Australia (d. 1991)
* October 16 – Mohammed Zahir Shah, last Shah of Afghanistan (d. 2007)
* October 27- Dylan Thomas, Welsh poet (d. 1953)
* November 25 – Joe DiMaggio, American MLB baseball player (d. 1999)
* December 14 – Karl Carstens, 5th President of West Germany (d. 1992)
* December 20 - Harry F. Byrd, Jr., American politician (d. 2013)
* December 30 – Igor Diakonov, Russian (Soviet) historian and linguist (d. 1999)
* Nancy Drew, Fictional character

## Deaths 
* June 14 – Adlai E. Stevenson, Vice President of the United States (b. 1835)
* June 28 – Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria (b. 1863), and his wife Countess Sophie
* August 6 – Ellen Louise Wilson, American First Lady, wife of Woodrow Wilson. (b. 1860)
Torah

**Torah** () is a Hebrew word that means "instructions". When most people say the word Torah they either mean the whole Jewish Bible (the Tanakh), the first five books of the Bible, or all of the Jewish teaching in general. These five books are the beginning of both the Jewish and Christian bibles. They are

# Genesis (),
# Exodus (),
# Leviticus (),
# Numbers () and
# Deuteronomy ().

Other names for this set of books are the "Five Books of Moses," or "Pentateuch".

Each of the books in the Torah is separated into parts called "Parshiyot." *Parsha* is a Hebrew word meaning "portion." Every Shabbat one *parsha* is read in the synagogue, but sometimes two are read. This is so that all the *parshiyot* are finished every year, on the Jewish holiday of Simchat Torah.

It is also known as the **Five Book of Moses** because Moses received these five books from God.

The "Tawrat" () is the Arabic name for the Torah within its context as an Islamic holy book believed by Muslims to be given by God (Allah) to prophets and messengers amongst the Children of Israel, and often refers to the entire Hebrew Bible. It is mentioned many times in the Qur'an.

## Pentateuch 
Pentateuch means the first five books of the Bible. These books are Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. The word *Pentateuch* comes from two Greek words that mean "five books" or "five scroll"

According to tradition, the books were written by the Israelite leader, Moses. The Pentateuch is often called the Five Books of Moses or the Torah.

The Pentateuch tells the story from the Creation of the world to the death of Moses and the preparation of the Israelite's to enter the land of Canaan. The story is told in three parts. The first part (Genesis 1-11) is about the Creation and the beginning of human beings on earth. The second part (Genesis 12-50) are the stories of the  of the Israelites, mainly Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph. The third part, beginning with the book of Exodus, describes how the Israelite's left Egypt and the early history of the people of Israel as a nation. It also has many laws about how the Israelite's must build their society. Deuteronomy is mostly Moses's final speech to his people and a summary of the Pentateuch.

## References
## Other websites 
* 
*
Mandarin

**Mandarin** might mean:

*Mandarin language, a language from China
*Mandarin orange, a citrus fruit
*Mandarin Duck, a breed of duck
*Mandarin Airlines, an airline from Taiwan
Hesse

**Hesse** () is a state of Germany. It was formed in 1945 as Greater Hesse, and became Hesse in 1946

The capital is Wiesbaden. The main rivers in the northern part of Hesse are Werra, Fulda and Lahn. It is a hilly countryside, the main mountainchains being the Rhön, the Westerwald, the Odenwald, the Taunus and the Spessart. Most inhabitants live in the southernmost part of Hesse between the rivers Main and Rhine.

Hesse is divided into 21 districts. There are also five cities, which belong to no district.

## Municipalities
### Independent cities 
* Darmstadt
* Frankfurt (Main)
* Kassel
* Offenbach
* Wiesbaden

### Cities 
* Hanau
* Marburg
* Fulda
* Giessen
* Wetzlar
* Bad Homburg
* Rodgau

## Districts 
The cities and counties of Hesse are grouped into three *Regierungsbezirk.* automobile registration is handled by the districts.  The two or three letters of the automobile registration plate are in *italics*

## Other websites 
* Official government portal
* Portal about east part of Hesse 
* 360 Degree virtual trip through the Rhön - part of eastern Hesse
Schleswig-Holstein

**Schleswig-Holstein** (Danish: *Slesvig-Holsten*, Low Saxon: *Sleeswiek-Holstain*, Frisian: *Sleeswyk-Holstein*, North Frisian: *Schleswig-Holstian*) is the northernmost of the 16 states (German: Bundesländer) in Germany.

Schleswig-Holstein borders on Denmark in the North, the North Sea in the West, the Baltic Sea and Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania in the East, and Lower Saxony and Hamburg in the South. Kiel is the capital of this state.

There are 4 independent towns:
* Kiel
* Lübeck
* Neumünster
* Flensburg

## Countryside
|left]]
The countryside is lowlands and hills with no mountains. The highest elevation in the state is the Bungsberg at only . There are many lakes, especially in the eastern part of Holstein called the Holsteinische Schweiz ("Holstein Switzerland") or Schweiziann-Schwezalia. It has this name because there are many small hills which came to existence in the last ice age.

## Other websites 
* Official governmental portal  in German

## References
Lower Saxony

**Lower Saxony** ( ; ; Saterland Frisian: *Läichsaksen*) is a German Bundesland (state).

## Places 
The capital is Hannover (Hanover).

There are 38 districts:

There are 8 urban districts
* Braunschweig (Brunswick)
* Delmenhorst
* Emden
* Oldenburg
* Osnabrück
* Salzgitter
* Wilhelmshaven
* Wolfsburg

Other important towns are Göttingen, Hildesheim and Goslar.

## Other websites 
* Official governmental portal (German) 
* Official governmental portal (English)
1536

## Events 
*February 2 – Spaniard Pedro de Mendoza founds Buenos Aires, Argentina.
* February 25 – Jacob Hutter burned in a stake for heresy
* May 19 – Execution of Anne Boleyn
* May 30 – Henry VIII of England marries Jane Seymour
* October 13 – The Pilgrimage of Grace, a rebellion in York, is "resolved" by Robert Aske
* October 29 – Coronation of Jane Seymour as the Queen of England
* Various religious buildings are closed as part of Henry VIII's dissolution of the monasteries, including
*Basingwerk Abbey
*Bourne Abbey
*Brinkburn Priory
*Cartmel Priory
*Dore Abbey and
*The Cistercian Abbey of St Mary and St Chad
* Wales is united with England by an Act of Union
* Manco Capac II revolts from Spanish rule in Peru
* Resumption of war between Francis I of France and Emperor Charles V. Francis ceases control of Savoy and captures Turin.
* Protestantism introduced in Denmark
* Portuguese Crown divides Brazil into fifteen donatory captaincies.

## Deaths 
* January 7 – Catherine of Aragon, first wife of Henry VIII of England.
* May 19 – Anne Boleyn, second wife of Henry VIII of England.
* Pargalı İbrahim Pasha Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire.
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern

**Mecklenburg-Vorpommern** or known by its anglicized name: **Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania** or **Mecklenburg-West Pomerania** (Low German: *Mäkelborg-Vörpommern*) is one of the 16 States of Germany. The capital is Schwerin.

As of 2016, Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania had about 1,612,000 people.

It made part of former East Germany.

It is the most northeastern state of Germany. It borders the Baltic Sea in the north, Poland in the east, Brandenburg in the south, Lower Saxony in the southwest and Schleswig-Holstein in the west.

Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania is low-lying and has many rivers, canals and lakes. The Stettin Lagoon lies partly in this state and partly in Poland.

The state hosts the biggest German island called Rügen, and the second biggest German lake called Müritz.

## Politics 
Seats in the state parliament (*Landtag*) since 2016:
* SPD: 26
* AfD: 18
* CDU: 16
* Linke: 11

Total: 71 seats

*]]
## Cities 
The largest cities/towns in the state are:
* Rostock
* Greifswald
* Stralsund
* Schwerin
* Neubrandenburg
* Güstrow

Besides Rostock all have a population of less than 200,000. Schwerin, the state capital, is the smallest state capital in Germany. Usually Schwerin would not be called a city. In Germany a city has over 100,000 people.

## Districts 
### Former districts 
Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania was going to change the borders of all of its urban districts (towns) and rural districts (kreise or "counties").  The state supreme court stopped the changes.

Mecklenburg-Vorpommern was divided into twelve rural districts (*Landkreise*):

Also there were six independent urban districts:

# Greifswald (HGW)
# Neubrandenburg (NB)
# Rostock (HRO)
# Schwerin (SN)
# Stralsund (HST)
# Wismar (HWI)

### Current districts 
Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania has been divided into six rural districts (*Landkreise*) and two independent urban districts (*kreisfreie Städte'') since 4 September 2011:

Rural districts:
# Ludwigslust-Parchim
# Mecklenburgische Seenplatte
# Nordwestmecklenburg
# Rostock
# Vorpommern-Greifswald
# Vorpommern-Rügen

Urban districts:
# Rostock 
# Schwerin

## References
2005 Hoboken mayoral election

The **Hoboken election of 2005** was an election when people living in Hoboken, New Jersey voted for a mayor. They also voted for a person for council of the city. The main people hoping to be mayor were:
*David Roberts (won)
*Carol Marsh (lost)
*Frank Raia (lost)
*Michael Russo (lost)
*Evelyn Smith (lost)

The people hoping to join the council were:
*Ruben Ramos Jr. (with Roberts, won)
*Theresa LaBruno (with Roberts, won)
*Peter Cammarano (with Roberts, won)
*Inés García-Keim (with Marsh)
*Anthony Soares (with Marsh)
*Brian Urbano (with Marsh)
*Theresa Burns (with Raia)
*Anthony Mussara (with Raia)
*Ron Rosenburg (with Raia)
*Genevy Dimitrion (with Russo)
*Manny Ortega (with Russo)
*Brian Keller (with Russo)
*Carrie Gilliard (with Smith)
*Diane Nieves (with Smith)
*Elizabeth Falco (with Smith)
*Andrew Amato (by himself)
*Scott Delea (by himself)

The election was on May 10, 2005. Roberts and Marsh got the most votes. Neither of them got 50% of the vote. Because this happened, a second election will happen (June 14, 2005).
1519

## Births 
* Lady Eleanor Brandon (d. 1547)
* March 31 – Henry II of France (d. 1559)
* April 13 – Catherine of Medici (d. 1589)
*

## Deaths 
* May 2 – Leonardo da Vinci (b. 1452)
1564

**1564** (MDLXIV) was a leap year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar and a leap year starting on Wednesday in the proleptic Gregorian calendar.

## Events 
* March 8 –  Naples bans kissing in public under the penalty of death
* June 22 – Fort Caroline, the first French attempt at colonizing the New World
* September 10 – The Battle of Kawanakajima
* Ottoman Turks invade Malta
* Modern pencil becomes common in England
* Conquistadors crossed the Pacific
* Spanish found a colony in the Philippines

## Births 
* February 15 – Galileo Galilei
* April 23 – William Shakespeare

## Deaths 
* March 18 – Michelangelo (Michelangelo Buonarroti)
1919

**1919** (MCMXIX) was a common year starting on Wednesday in the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Tuesday in the Julian calendar.

## Events 
* January 15 – Great Molasses Flood in Boston kills 21 people.
* January 16 – Prohibition begins in the United States.
* June 28 – The Treaty of Versailles is signed, ending World War I.
* Charles Strite invents the toaster.
* Jules Bordet, Belgian doctor, won the 1919 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine

## Births 
### January 
]]
]]
]]
* January 1 – Carole Landis, American actress and singer (d. 1948)
* January 13 – Robert Stack, American actor (d. 2003)
* January 14 – Giulio Andreotti, 41st Prime Minister of Italy (d. 2013)
* January 27 - Ross Bagdasarian, Sr., creator of Alvin and the Chipmunks (d. 1972)
* January 31 – Jackie Robinson, American baseball player (d. 1972)

### February 
]]
]]
* February 5 – Andreas Papandreou, Prime Minister of Greece (d. 1996)
* February 18 – Jack Palance, American actor and singer (d. 2006)

### March 
]]
]]
* March 2 – Jennifer Jones, American actress (d. 2009)
* March 17 – Nat King Cole, American singer and jazz pianist (d. 1965)
* March 25 – Jeanne Cagney, American actress (d. 1984)

### April 
]]
* April 8 – Ian Smith, 8th Prime Minister of Rhodesia (d. 2007)
* April 13 – Madalyn Murray O'Hair, American atheist activist (d. 1995)

### May 
]]
]]
]]
* May 3 - Pete Seeger, American folk musician (d. 2014)
* May 7 – Eva Perón, former First Lady of Argentina (d. 1952)
* May 16 – Liberace, American pianist (d. 1987)
* May 17 – Antonio Aguilar, Mexican singer, actor, equestrian, film producer, and screenwriter (d. 2007)

### June 
]]
* June 6 – Peter Carington, 6th Baron Carrington, 6th Secretary General of NATO (d. 2018)
* June 14 – June Spencer, English actress (d. 2024)

### July 
]]
]]
]]
* July 8 – Walter Scheel, 4th President of Germany (d. 2016)
* July 20 – Edmund Hillary, New Zealand mountaineer and explorer (d. 2008)
* July 26 – James Lovelock, English environmentalist (d. 2022)

### August 
]]
* August 9 – Joop den Uyl, Prime Minister of the Netherlands (d. 1987)
* August 13  Norman Spencer, English film producer

### September 
* September 19 – Prakash Kaur, Indian folk singer
* September 26 – Matilde Camus, Spanish poet (d. 2012)

### October 
]]
]]
]]
* October 3 - James M. Buchanan, American Nobel Prize winning Economist (d. 2013)
* October 6 – Siad Barre, 3rd President of Somalia (d. 1995)
* October 8 – Kiichi Miyazawa, Prime Minister of Japan (d. 2007)
* October 18 – Pierre Trudeau, 15th Prime Minister of Canada (d. 2000) 
* October 26 - Edward Brooke, American politician (d. 2015)

### November 
]]
* November 4 – Martin Balsam, American actor (d. 1996)

### December 
## Deaths 
* Alexis Mérodack-Jeanneau – French painter
* January 6 – Theodore Roosevelt, 26th President of the United States 
* April 10 – Emiliano Zapata
* May 6 – L. Frank Baum, American writer 
* August 11 – Andrew Carnegie, Scottish businessman
* October 7 – Alfred Deakin, second Prime Minister of Australia
* October 13 – Karl Adolph Gjellerup, Danish writer, Nobel Prize winner
Brown

**Brown** is a color through which light cannot pass. Brown is a neutral color.In physics light cannot pass through brown.In color wheel , cmyk , rgb , vibgyor brown is not a color.

Brown is a color. There are many ways to make the color brown – it can be a mixture of black and orange, of red, blue and yellow, of red and green, of blue and orange, of yellow and purple or of red, yellow and black paint.

Brown is the color of:
* Some chocolate
* Wood
* Toast
* Some hair
* Coffee
* Tree bark

## Meaning of brown 
## Tones of brown color comparison chart 
## Related pages 
* List of colors
Magenta

**Magenta** is a purplish-red color. It is considered a dark pink or tint of pink.

In the HSV (RGB) color wheel, magenta is a secondary color, made using red and blue. Magenta has the same hue as colors such as pink, but the saturation and value is different.

Magenta is one of three colors used by an inkjet printer, along with cyan and yellow. These three primary colors are used to make the other colors. The tone of magenta used in printing is called "printer's magenta" (Magenta (CMYK)).

The first written use of *magenta* as a color name in English was in 1860. Another name for *magenta* is **fuchsia**, named after the fuchsia flower.

## Meaning of magenta
* Like the colors red, pink, and rose, one might use this color to express love. Along with those colors, magenta is used to represent Valentine's Day.
* Many women like to wear clothing in shades of magenta because it is an attractive and vibrant color.
* The color magenta is used to symbolize anti-racism by the Amsterdam-based anti-racism Magenta Foundation.

## Comparison of purple, magenta, rose and red
## Tones of magenta color comparison chart
## Tones of fuchsia color comparison chart
Although magenta and fuchsia are the same color, the chart below (the colors displayed on which are also shown in the magenta color chart above) shows those tones of magenta which are specifically named fuchsia.

## Wrapping the spectrum into a color wheel
If the visible spectrum is wrapped to form a color wheel, magenta (additive secondary) appears midway between red and blue:

## Related pages
* List of colors
* Cerise
* Fuchsia
* Pink
* Raspberry
* Rose

## References