Plymouth Brethren

The **Plymouth Brethren** or **Assemblies of Brethren** are a low church and Nonconformist Christian movement. Their history goes back to the mid to late 1820s in Dublin, Ireland, where the movement grew out of Anglicanism. The Plymouth Brethren strongly emphasise *nuda scriptura*, which means they believe the Bible alone is the authority for church teaching and practice. They usually see themselves as a loose network of like-minded, independent churches rather than a formal Christian denomination.

## History
### Origins in Ireland
The Plymouth Brethren movement began in Dublin, Ireland, where small groups of Christians started meeting informally to share the Eucharist together. The first such meeting took place in 1825. Important early figures included Anthony Norris Groves, who was a dentist and theology student at Trinity College; Edward Cronin, a medical student; John Nelson Darby, a curate in County Wicklow; and John Gifford Bellett, a lawyer who brought several of them together.

These early groups did not use any official liturgy or fixed order of service, and they did not have appointed ministers. They believed that the "Bible alone" should guide their meetings and that they should follow the New Testament as they understood it.

### Early theology
One of the main early interests of the movement was the study of biblical prophecy. This was discussed at a series of annual meetings held at Powerscourt House in County Wicklow beginning in 1831. Lady Powerscourt had previously attended Henry Drummond’s prophecy conferences at Albury Park, and Darby supported a similar pre-tribulational view of the end times to that taught by Edward Irving around 1831.

Many people who later became important leaders in the English part of the movement went to these meetings, including Benjamin Wills Newton and George Müller.

From the beginning, there were two aims in tension within the movement. One aim was to form a holy and pure Christian fellowship. The other was to welcome all true Christians into that fellowship.

Many of those involved thought that the Church of England had moved away from many of the older traditions and teachings of the Christian faith. This followed years of religious disagreements, the growth of Methodism, and the political revolutions in the United States and France. People in the new movement wanted to meet simply "in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ" and not to be defined by denominational labels or structures.

### Establishment in Great Britain
The first meeting of the Brethren in mainland Britain took place in December 1831 in Plymouth, England. This meeting was organised mainly by George Wigram, Benjamin Wills Newton, and John Nelson Darby.

The movement soon spread across the United Kingdom, and by 1845 the Plymouth congregation had over 1,000 people in fellowship.

Because the large assembly was based in Plymouth, people began to call them "the brethren from Plymouth", which was soon shortened to "Plymouth Brethren". The term *Darbyites* is sometimes used, especially for the more strict Exclusive Brethren who were strongly influenced by Darby. Many Brethren, however, prefer not to use any special name, and call themselves simply "Christians".

### Schism
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In 1845, Darby returned from a long and successful visit to Switzerland, where he had helped to establish several churches. Back in Plymouth, he found that Newton was effectively leading the assembly. Darby disagreed with some details in a book that Newton had written about the future tribulation, and he also objected to Newton’s role as an elder in the Plymouth meeting. Attempts to sort out the disagreements in front of other Brethren did not lead to a clear solution.

In 1847, Darby criticised Newton over a lecture he had given on Psalm 6. The two sides published tracts against each other. Newton withdrew some of his statements but eventually left Plymouth and started another chapel in London.

Darby started a second meeting in Plymouth. In 1848 he objected to the Bristol Bethesda assembly, where George Müller was a leading figure. His complaint was that Bethesda had accepted a member coming from Ebrington Street, Newton’s original chapel. Bethesda investigated the matter and defended its decision to receive the person. Darby was not satisfied. On 26 August 1848 he issued a circular letter in which he broke fellowship with Bethesda and with any assemblies that accepted people from there. This action formed the basis of what became known as "exclusivism", which Darby supported for the rest of his life.

### Two movements: Exclusive Brethren and Open Brethren
From 1848 onwards, the Brethren were divided into two main streams. The Exclusive Brethren were led by Darby, while the Open Brethren were led by George Müller and others. Darby visited Exclusive assemblies in the United States seven times between 1862 and 1877.

In North America, most early Open Brethren assemblies were started in the second half of the 19th century by travelling preachers from Scotland and Ireland.

The Exclusive Brethren later went through many further splits, divisions, and re-groupings. The Open Brethren also divided over questions of how independent each local assembly should be. These divisions happened at different times in different countries. Despite these problems, both branches continued to grow.

In the United States between 1916 and 1919, Exclusive Brethren membership grew by 33% to 3,896, while Open Brethren membership grew by 25% to 5,928. The 1916 census also recorded three other smaller Brethren groups with sizeable congregations.

## Open Brethren
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Among the Open Brethren, one of the best-known and oldest differences between assemblies concerns the way they relate to other local churches and to each other.

Open Brethren assemblies usually see themselves as independent local churches that form loose networks with other similar assemblies. They normally respect and support the disciplinary decisions of other assemblies they are connected to, but they do not automatically feel bound by them in every case. Some Open assemblies will examine each situation for themselves.

People may be put under discipline by both Open and Exclusive Brethren for spreading serious doctrinal error, or for behaviour seen as clearly against the Bible. Accusations of serious illegal financial conduct may also lead to discipline.

Another difference among Open assemblies is how they cooperate with other Christians. Many Open Brethren work together with non-Brethren evangelical churches in activities such as evangelistic meetings, youth events, or holiday Bible clubs. More conservative Brethren are less likely to join in activities outside their own assemblies.

### IBCM
International Brethren Conferences on Mission (IBCM) began in 1993 in Singapore. They were formed by unions of churches from various countries.

According to an IBCM Network census published in 2020, churches in this network claimed about 40,000 congregations and 2,700,000 members in 155 countries.

## Exclusive Brethren
Exclusive Brethren have generally kept close to the teaching of Darby. They tend to be more interdependent with each other and more conservative in belief and lifestyle. Many stress modest and distinctive dress and value very simple, spontaneous worship and preaching.

Exclusive Brethren form several overlapping or separate circles of fellowship, ranging from more moderate to very strict groups. The movement is Protestant in its theology and accepts infant baptism. In 2012 there were about 40,000 Exclusive Brethren worldwide. They are sometimes called "Darbyists" by outsiders, though they rarely call themselves by that name.

### Plymouth Brethren Christian Church
The term *Exclusive Brethren* is often used in the media for one particular group known as the Taylor–Hales Brethren. This group now calls itself the **Plymouth Brethren Christian Church** (PBCC). It claimed about 50,000 members worldwide in 2023.

The PBCC is known for a strong and detailed idea of separation from evil and a strict understanding of Christian fellowship. For them, fellowship is not just the sharing of Communion (the Lord’s Supper), but also includes ordinary activities such as eating in restaurants, business partnerships, professional cooperation, and club membership. They believe these things should only be shared with other members, so their social and business life is closely linked to the church.

There are several other sizeable branches of Exclusive Brethren that are not connected to the Raven–Taylor–Hales group. These groups began with divisions in the 1880s and further separations in the 1960s and 1970s. Many of them prefer to call themselves "Closed" or "Careful" Brethren rather than "Exclusive Brethren" so as not to be confused with the more strict PBCC.

## Brethren labels and distinctions
Brethren and outsiders sometimes use confusing terms to describe different groups. Open Brethren assemblies are often called "Chapels", while more conservative, non-Exclusive assemblies are often called "Gospel Halls". Despite the name, the so-called "Closed Brethren" of the Gospel Halls are not part of the Exclusive Brethren. They are a strict and conservative subgroup of the Open Brethren.

In Gospel Hall assemblies, reception into the assembly is treated as very serious. A person is not simply received to the Lord’s Supper but into the full fellowship of the assembly. Since the Lord’s Supper is understood to be only for believers, these assemblies try to make sure that only true believers take part.

Some chapels, on the other hand, follow an "open table" approach. They may allow anyone who says they are a Christian and lives consistently with that claim to take the bread and wine. Gospel Hall assemblies generally think that only those who are recognised members of that assembly or of a similar, like-minded assembly should take part in the Lord’s Supper. Many Closed Brethren, and some Open Brethren, believe that close association with serious error or wrongdoing spiritually defiles a person, and that sharing Communion with such a person can spread that defilement.

They often refer to , "Do not be deceived: evil communications corrupt good manners," as a key text.

There are also differences in worship style. Gospel Halls often avoid the use of musical instruments in meetings. Chapels are more likely to use instruments and may have singing groups, choirs, or "worship teams". Gospel Halls are generally more conservative in dress; women typically have their heads covered in meetings and often choose not to wear trousers in services, although there is no universal written rule. In most chapels, women may wear what they choose within general ideas of modesty, though many still continue the tradition of wearing a head covering during worship, based on .

Open Brethren churches are independent, self-governing local congregations. They do not have a central headquarters. However, there are seminaries, mission agencies, and publishing works widely used among the assemblies which help link them together and maintain contact.

In the early 20th century, Henry K. Carroll analysed United States census data and divided Brethren groups into types marked with Roman numerals. For example, his "Brethren III" group is also called the Lowe Brethren or the Elberfeld Brethren.

Carroll’s first study listed four groups as Brethren I–IV, then later expanded his list to six, and finally to eight groups. Arthur Carl Piepkorn later increased the number to ten distinct Brethren groupings.

Others who have tried to map the many realignments and splits of the Plymouth Brethren include Ian McDowell and Massimo Introvigne. The complexity of Brethren history can be seen in charts published by McDowell and Ian McKay.

## Definition
Both Open and Exclusive Brethren have often been called "Plymouth Brethren". In several regions, such as North America, this is still normal. In some other places, especially Australia and New Zealand, many Open Brethren avoid the word "Plymouth". One reason is that in those countries, the term is strongly linked in the public mind with the Plymouth Brethren Christian Church, the strictest branch of the Exclusive Brethren and the only large Exclusive group there. Many Open Brethren see the PBCC as a cult and do not want to be mistaken for that group.

## Leadership
One of the most distinctive features of Brethren churches is their rejection of a separate clergy. They believe that all Christians are called to serve God and therefore that every believer is, in a sense, a minister. This follows the doctrine of the priesthood of all believers.

The Brethren apply this idea very widely. They do not officially appoint or ordain a special group of people as ministers or pastors. Instead, Brethren assemblies are led by local church elders recognised from within each fellowship.

In most Brethren circles, there is no official office of "pastor". The term *pastor* (, ) in Ephesians 4:11 is understood as one of several spiritual gifts rather than a church office. Darby wrote that the gifts of Ephesians 4:11 are "ministrations for gathering together and for edification established by Christ as Head of the body by means of gifts with which He endows persons as His choice."

Because of this, there is no formal ordination process for preaching, teaching, or leading. Men who become elders, or who serve as deacons or overseers, are recognised by the assembly as meeting biblical qualifications. Existing elders may invite them to share in leadership tasks.

Elders are expected to be able to teach when their assembly believes that God has called them to that work (). Brethren elders often perform duties that are elsewhere carried out by clergy. These include teaching, counselling people who want to be baptised, performing baptisms, visiting the sick, and offering pastoral care generally. Sermons are normally given by elders or by other men who regularly attend the Sunday meetings and whom the elders recognise as gifted for this work.

Travelling speakers are sometimes invited, and they are usually reimbursed for travel costs and given hospitality such as meals after meetings.

Open and Exclusive Brethren apply the "no clergy" principle in different ways. Open Brethren normally teach a plurality of elders in each assembly (; ,; ; Philippians 1:1). They base their practice on the qualifications listed in  and . Some Baptist churches, especially Reformed Baptists, and the Churches of Christ hold a similar view. Elders are believed to be appointed by the Holy Spirit (Acts 20:28), and recognised as such by the assembly and by existing elders. In many Open Brethren assemblies, elders themselves watch for men who meet biblical standards and invite them to share the work of eldership. In some Open assemblies, elders are elected by the congregation, though this is a more recent and less common development.

In most Open Brethren assemblies, elders are officially named and recognised, in line with . Many Exclusive Brethren assemblies, however, avoid officially recognising elders for fear this might resemble a clergy system. In these assemblies, decisions are often made by a group of leading brothers without any formal titles. They try to present matters to the whole meeting, believing that the entire assembly, not just a group of elders, should decide. Traditionally, only men speak at such decision meetings, though some assemblies are relaxing this practice.

The Brethren use the term *elder* in the same way that other churches use terms like bishop or overseer. Some Exclusive Brethren argue that the Open Brethren, by formally recognising elders, are not fully consistent with the idea of the priesthood of all believers. Open Brethren respond that the priesthood of all believers refers mainly to the right of every Christian to worship God directly, especially at the Lord’s Supper, without a human mediator. They point to , which says that Christ Jesus is the only mediator between God and humanity.

Within the Plymouth Brethren Christian Church (the strict Taylor–Hales group), a de facto hierarchy has developed. This includes a recognised spiritual leader called the *Elect Vessel*, currently Bruce Hales of Australia.

Instead of ordaining ministers, many assemblies give travelling preachers a "commendation" to the work. This means that their home assembly publicly shows its approval and support for their full-time ministry. In English-speaking countries, such workers have been called *full-time workers*, *labouring brothers*, or simply men who are "on the Lord’s work". In India, they are often called evangelists and may be identified by the prefix "Evg."

An assembly may have several full-time workers or none at all. In the last few decades, many Open Brethren assemblies in Australia, New Zealand, America, and elsewhere have begun to call their full-time workers "pastors". This does not imply ordination into a separate clergy class or any special spiritual authority. The pastor is usually one of the elders and differs from other elders mainly in being supported financially to work full-time. In some congregations he may take a larger share of preaching duties; in others he shares this work more evenly with fellow elders.

## UK government COVID-19 contracts
During the COVID-19 pandemic, dozens of companies with connections to the Exclusive Brethren, now known as the Plymouth Brethren Christian Church, received UK government contracts from the Department of Health and Social Care worth a total of about £2.2 billion. These contracts included the supply of personal protective equipment (PPE). Several former members of the church had links with the Conservative Party, and some Members of Parliament had previously lobbied the Charity Commission in support of charitable status for the church.

## Missionary work
The Plymouth Brethren have long been involved in missionary work overseas, especially in Central Africa, India, and Latin America. Today, Brethren assemblies can be found throughout the English-speaking world and in many European countries. The movement spread to the United States in the 1860s.

## Notable Brethren
This list is mainly made up of nineteenth-century figures who were associated with the Brethren movement before the major split of 1848. They are early leaders recognised by both Open and Exclusive Brethren. Two exceptions are H. A. Ironside and Watchman Nee, twentieth-century preachers who were connected at different times with both Open and Exclusive Brethren. More recent figures linked mainly with either Open or Exclusive Brethren are listed in the articles on those groups.

* Robert Anderson – senior officer of Scotland Yard and Christian author; a member of the Brethren, first with Darby and later with the Open Brethren, before returning to Presbyterianism
* John Gifford Bellet – research fellow in classics at Trinity College, Cambridge
* André Bergeron – French trade union leader
* George Beurling – Canadian Second World War fighter pilot
* Robert Mackenzie Beverley – influential figure who left the Quakers during the Beaconite controversy and joined the Brethren
* John Bodkin Adams – British doctor, convicted fraudster, and suspected serial killer
* Lancelot Brenton – translator of a Greek–English edition of the Septuagint
* F. F. Bruce – British biblical scholar and author of many commentaries (Open Brethren)
* Robert Chapman – influential Brethren leader in the 19th century
* William Coltman – Victoria Cross recipient and one of the most highly decorated stretcher bearers of the First World War
* Henry Craik – co-worker with George Müller in Bristol at Gideon and Bethesda Chapels from 1832
* Edward Cronin – early homeopath and one of the original Dublin Brethren
* Anthony Crosland – British Labour MP and Foreign Secretary (1976–1977); grandson of F. E. Raven (a leader among Raven Exclusive Brethren)
* Aleister Crowley – British occultist, raised in the Brethren before his father’s death
* John Nelson Darby – international preacher, writer, Bible translator, hymn writer, and influential figure in dispensationalism
* James George Deck – evangelist and missionary to New Zealand; officially linked with Exclusive Brethren but refused to break fellowship with Open Brethren
* Jim Elliot – one of five missionaries killed during Operation Auca
* Garrison Keillor – American author and radio presenter, raised in Brethren assemblies
* Ken Follett – British novelist
* Emily Bowes Gosse – painter, illustrator, and writer of religious tracts
* Philip Henry Gosse – naturalist and marine biologist
** Edmund Gosse – son of Philip and Emily Gosse, author of *Father and Son*, a memoir about his father and their religious background
* Anthony Norris Groves – missionary to Baghdad and India
* Stuart Wesley Keene Hine – missionary, hymn writer, and translator and author of the English version of How Great Thou Art
* John Eliot Howard – chemist and quinologist
* Luke Howard – chemist and meteorologist, known for classifying clouds
* Harry Ironside – Bible teacher and author; pastor of Moody Church in Chicago (1930–1948); associated at different times with both Open and Exclusive Brethren
* William Kelly – leading figure among Exclusive Brethren in the late 19th century
* Charles Henry Mackintosh – 19th-century writer of Christian books, often known as C. H. M.
* George Müller – founder of the Bristol Orphanage and a teacher at Bethesda Chapel, Bristol
* Watchman Nee – Chinese Christian leader of the "Little Flock" movement, who was excluded by Exclusive Brethren for "breaking bread with sectarians"
* Thomas Newberry – translator of the *Newberry Reference Bible*, which uses symbols to explain verb tenses
* Francis William Newman – younger brother of Cardinal John Henry Newman, excommunicated for denying the divinity of Christ
* Benjamin Wills Newton – early leader in Plymouth; later condemned as teaching error by Darby and his supporters
* John Parnell, 2nd Baron Congleton – missionary to Mesopotamia
* G. H. Pember – English theologian, author of *Earth’s Earliest Ages*
* Joseph M. Scriven – author of the hymn "What A Friend We Have In Jesus"
* Samuel Prideaux Tregelles – English biblical scholar and theologian
* William Edwy Vine – author of *Vine’s Expository Dictionary of Old and New Testament Words* and other works
* George Wigram – author of a Greek–English concordance to the New Testament and *The Englishman’s Hebrew and Chaldee Concordance of the Old Testament*
* Orde Wingate – British army officer and commando leader

## Related pages
*Assemblies Jehovah Shammah
*Exclusive Brethren
*Gospel Hall Brethren or Gospel Hall Assemblies
*Indian Brethren
*Kerala Brethren Assembly
*The Local Church (affiliation)
*Needed Truth Brethren
*Open Brethren
*Plymouth Brethren Christian Church

## Notes and references
## Bibliography
* Adams, Norman (1972) *Goodbye, Beloved Brethren*. Impulse Publications Inc. 
* ](https://archive.org/details/religiousforces00unkngoog/page/n19/mode/2up|isbn=9780790543314}})
* Carroll, H. K. (1912) *Religious Forces in the United States*. New York
* Coad, F. Roy (2001) *A History of the Brethren Movement: Its Origins, Its Worldwide Development and Its Significance for the Present Day*. Regent College Publishing 
* Dorman, W. H. (1866) *The Close of Twenty-eight Years of Association with J. N. Darby*. London: Houlston & Wright. 
* ](http://www.bruederbewegung.de/pdf/embley.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031208014754/http://www.bruederbewegung.de/pdf/embley.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2003-12-08}}) Ph.D. thesis
* 
* 
* 
* 
* Ironside, H. A. (1985) *[http://www.plymouthbrethren.org/series/6265(http://www.plymouthbrethren.org/series/6265) Historical Sketch of the Brethren Movement]*. Loizeaux Brothers.  (1st ed. 1942)
* Kelly, William (1883) ''Response by William Kelly to J. S. Teulon's Plymouth Brethren* [http://presenttruthpublishers.com/pdf/KELLY-TUELON-TEXT.pdf(http://presenttruthpublishers.com/pdf/KELLY-TUELON-TEXT.pdf) Free download]
* Lindsay, Thomas Martin (1885). "Plymouth Brethren", *Encyclopædia Britannica'', Ninth Edition. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
* Lindsay, Thomas Martin & Grieve, Alexander James (1911). "Plymouth Brethren", *Encyclopædia Britannica*, Eleventh Edition. New York: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
* 
* ](https://archive.org/stream/historyofthebret028097mbp}})
* Pickering, Henry (1918) *Chief Men Among the Brethren*. London: Pickering & Inglis; reprinted Loizeaux Brothers, 1996. 
* 
* Smith, Natan Dylan (1996) *Roots, Renewal and the Brethren*. Hope Publishing House 
* Strauch, Alexander (1995) *Biblical Eldership: an Urgent Call to Restore Biblical Church Leadership*. Lewis & Roth Publishers 
* Stott, Rebecca (2017) *In the Days of Rain: A Daughter, A Father, A Cult*. London: Fourth Estate. 
* Stunt, Timothy C. F. (2000) *From Awakening to Secession: Radical Evangelicals in Switzerland and Britain, 1815–35*. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark 
* Taylor (1866) *Biography of Henry Craik*. London
* Teulon, J. S. (1883) *The History and Teaching of The Plymouth Brethren*. London. [https://archive.org/details/historyandteachi00teuluoft(https://archive.org/details/historyandteachi00teuluoft) Free download] 

## Other websites
*Brethren Online
*Plymouth Brethren (online library of Brethren authors)
*The Brethren Writers Hall of Fame
*BrethrenPedia
*Brethren Archive (online archive of historical material about all strands of Plymouth Brethren)
*Brethren Archivists and Historians Network
*Christian Brethren Archive (large archive at the University of Manchester)
*The Plymouth Brethren Movement (history and ministry from the Raven/Taylor segment)
*Bible, Darby Translation