Turk Shahi–Arab conflicts

The Turk Shahi–Arabs Conflictsa series of military conflicts fought between the forces of the Turk Shahi and  the Arabs..

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## Background
The Turk Shahis, or Kabul Shahis, were a dynasty of Turkic or mixed Turko-Hephthalite origin that ruled from Kabul and Kapisa to Gandhara between the 7th and 9th centuries AD. They may have been of Khalaj ethnicity, and their territory bordered the Kashmir and Kannauj kingdoms. In the 560s, the Western Turks expanded southeast from Transoxonia, taking control of Bactria and the Hindu Kush, forming independent states. The Turk Shahis possibly emerged as an extension of the Western Turk Yabghus of Tokharistan and replaced the Nezak Huns, the last rulers of Bactria. Rabi's successor, Ubayd Allah ibn Abi Bakra, continued the fighting in 673 CE, leading Rutbil to agree to a peace deal. Although their relationship was sometimes hostile, they worked together to fight off Arab attacks.

In 683, the Arabs tried again to capture Kabul and Zabulistan, but their general Abu Ubaida ibn Ziyad was captured in Kabul, and Yazid ibn Ziyad, the governor of Sijistan, was killed while attacking the city. For a short time in 684–685, the Arabs took control of Kabul. Around 700, Ibn al-Ash'ath tried again to invade with the 'Peacock Army,' but after making some progress, he reached a peace deal with the Turks and later led a rebellion against the Umayyad viceroy, al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf.

By around 710, Tegin Shah regained control over Zabulistan. Chinese records say that the rulers of Zabulistan submitted to Kabul between 710 and 720. During this time, the Zunbils and Turk Shahis sometimes paid taxes to the Arabs, acknowledging some control, but resisted when the Arabs tried to take more power over them.
### Arab Invasion of Zunbil Turk Shahi
The Arabs often claimed control over the Zunbils. In 711, Qutayba ibn Muslim made the Zunbils pay tribute. However, in 725–726, Yazid ibn al-Ghurayf, the governor of Sistan, was unable to do the same. Similarities can be seen with the Kizil Caves knights, indicating the continuity of Central Asian art under the patronage of the Western Turks.]]

In 739 CE, Tegin abdicated in favour of his son Fromo Kesaro:

"Fromo Kesaro" is probable phonetic transcription of "Rome Caesar". He was apparently named in honor of "Caesar", the title of the then East Roman Emperor Leo III the Isaurian who had defeated their common enemy the Arabs during the Siege of Constantinople in 717 AD, and sent an embassy to China through Central Asia in 719 AD which probably met with the Turk Shahis.

### Bo Fuzhun Conflict with Arabs
In 745 AD, Bo Fuzhun, the son of Fromo Kesaro, became the king, according to the Old Book of Tang..He was also given the title "General of the Left" by the Tang dynasty, which suggests a close relationship between the Chinese and the Turk Shahis, especially as the Islamic empires were expanding. Between 775 and 785 AD, a ruler of Kabul, possibly named Hanhal, Khinkhil, Khingil, or Khingal, received a proposal from the Abbasid Caliph Al-Mahdi asking for his submission. This ruler agreed, and he might have been the same person as Bo Fuzhun.

### Abbasids Invasion of Zunbil Turk Shahi
After the Abbasids took control in 750, the Zunbils formally submitted to the third Abbasid Caliph al-Mahdi (reigned 775–785), but these submissions were likely not sincere. The people in the region continued to resist Muslim rule. The Muslim historian Ya'qubi (died 897/8) in his Ta'rikh ("History") mentions that al-Mahdi asked for, and seemingly received, the submission of several rulers from Central Asia, including the Zunbils.

In 769 CE, the Arabs were able to get tribute from the Zunbils again after almost 50 years, when Ma'n b. Za'ida al-Shaybani defeated them near Ghazni.

### Harun Al Rashid Expeditions against Turk Shahis
Harun Al Rashid led Two Expedition against the Turk Shahis in one in 769 and another in 786 in both the expeditions Arabs were defeated and the Invasion was repulsed.
### Renewed conflict with the Arabs and decline of Turk Shahis and Failure against Zunbil Turk Shahis
, dedicated around the end of the 7th century CE under the Turk Shahis. King wearing a Central Asian caftan with double lapel, a belt and pointed boots, and Queen of Indian type, holding hands over cushions. Circa 700 AD.]]

The conflict between the Arabs and the Turk Shahis continued into the 9th century AD. After the Abbasid caliph Al-Ma'mun won the Civil War, he sent troops to fight the Turk Shahis. In 814/815 AD, the Arabs defeated the Turk Shahis and pushed into Gandhara. Another military campaign against the Gandhara area likely happened soon after, with the Caliphate reaching the Indus River and dealing a major defeat.

The Zunbils repulsed the Al-Ma'mun's raids and kept ruling for about 20 more years. However, they later became involved in a conflict with Saffarids that led to their downfall. According to the historian Al-Biruni, Lagaturman’s bad behavior led his people to complain to Kallar. Kallar found a hidden treasure and used it to gain power. He imprisoned the king for corruption and became the regent before taking the throne for himself. Kallar then started a new dynasty called the "Hindu Shahi" in Gandhara. No other sources mention Kallar, and little is known about his rule, the areas he controlled, or how long he ruled. By 870 AD, Yaqub controlled all of Khorasan and the Panjshir Valley, allowing him to mint silver coins.

This marked the first time Muslim forces successfully expanded into eastern Afghanistan after over 200 years of resistance from local rulers. The Hindu Shahis continued to resist the spread of Islam until around 1026 AD.
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