open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
West Virginia

**West Virginia** is a state in the Appalachian region of the United States. Its capital and largest city is Charleston.  It is often abbreviated **W. Va.** or simply **WV**. About 1,800,000 people live in the state.

West Virginia is bordered by Pennsylvania to the north, by Ohio to the north and west, by Kentucky to the west, by Maryland to the north and east, and by Virginia to the east and south. The Ohio and Potomac Rivers form parts of the boundaries.

Before the American Civil War, the western part of Virginia practiced slavery as part of the state of Virginia. Slaves, at first Native American but increasingly brought from Africa in the slave trade, were forced to grow tobacco, mine coal, and be personal servants. Many slaves were rented from owners in other parts of the state to work in the mines. With land that was poor for growing cotton, slavery was less important than in other parts of Virginia. In the 19th century, white people kept slaves in order to earn money by selling them to Deep South states like Texas, Louisiana, and Georgia.

## Statehood Of West Virginia 
West Virginia was admitted into the union as a slave state in 1863. Slavery was abolished after the war, and Confederate veterans voted out the politicians who passed the laws. Slaves were fewer in the west than in other parts, and those in West Virginia who were against slavery were not objecting on moral grounds. But it was not an easy process. There had been some discussion of the area becoming a state since the early 1800s. It took three conventions at Wheeling from 1861 to 1863. The process divided friends and communities.

Statehood was not universally accepted in West Virginia. While there were no large scale battles, there was a good deal of guerilla warfare in attempts to  the new government. Confederates raided into West Virginia trying to terrorize the citizens. Despite Confederate efforts to topple the state government, Washington provided both economic and political support. Union military successes outside the state helped keep the state government in power. After the war there were bitter resentments between those for and against statehood. Virginia even tried to force West Virginia back into becoming a part of Virginia again in 1871. But West Virginia remained a sovereign state despite the efforts.

## Geography
West Virginia is often called the "Mountain State" because it is entirely within the Appalachian Mountain Range, and there are many hills and mountains throughout the state. The highest one is Spruce Knob, which is 4,863 feet above sea level. There are many rivers, including the Ohio, the Potomac, the Kanawha, and the Monongahela.

## Related pages
*Colleges and universities in West Virginia
*List of counties in West Virginia

## References
Virginia

**Virginia**, officially the **Commonwealth of Virginia**, is a state in the Southeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. The state's capital is Richmond and the largest city is Virginia Beach. Virginia borders eight states including Kentucky, Tennessee, North Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi, Arkansas, and Missouri.

Virginia is the 35th-largest by area and the 12th-most populated state and as of 2025, the state's population is around 8.8 million.

## History 
Native Americans were the first people to settle in Virginia.

Virginia became a state in 1788 after the American Revolution. Before it became a state of the United States, Virginia was one of the Thirteen Colonies of Great Britain. Virginia was founded (started) in 1607 in Jamestown, Virginia.

The state of West Virginia was part of Virginia until the American Civil War.  Virginia then left (seceded from) the United States and joined the Confederate States of America.  The western counties of Virginia seceded from Virginia to form a new state which was loyal to the Union.  After the end of the Civil War, Virginia became part of the United States again in 1870, but the counties that had left to start West Virginia did not join Virginia again.

Virginia is the state where eight United States presidents were born. This is more than any other state.

The first African-American slaves were sent to Virginia.

## Economy 
Virginia has many industries like local and national government, military, farming, technology and business. Many Virginians work for the government because it is next to Washington, D.C.. The Central Intelligence Agency, Department of Defense, as well as the National Science Foundation are in Northern Virginia.  Farming is the largest industry in the state, making 334,000 jobs.

## Related pages
* Colleges and universities in Virginia
* List of counties in Virginia

## References 
## Other websites 
* Virginia at Citizendium
Vermont

**Vermont** is a state in the United States. Its capital city is Montpelier, and its largest city is Burlington. It is one of the six New England states. About 640,000 people lived there in 2020.

The states that border Vermont are Massachusetts to the south, New Hampshire to the east, New York to the west, and the Canadian province of Quebec to the north.

Vermont was home to the Abenaki and Iroquois Native American groups until France took control of the area when it was building colonies. Great Britain gained control after winning the French and Indian War. It is known for being one of only four states to be an independent nation before joining the United States. It was not a part of the 13 colonies, as it joined as the 14th state. Vermont became a state in 1791. It is world-renowned for its maple syrup industry, and many tourists go to see brilliant colors the trees become in the fall months. The tourism industry has become quite successful, with many tourists coming every year.

File:Holden-Leonard Mill Complex, Bennington VT.jpg|
File:Lake Champlain, Burlington VT.jpg|
File:Congregational Church, East Brookfield VT.jpg|

## Related pages
* Colleges and universities in Vermont
* List of counties in Vermont

## References
Rhode Island

**Rhode Island** is the smallest state in the United States by area. The capital and largest city is Providence. It is called the "Ocean state" because of its bays and waterways. It was founded by Roger Williams for religious freedom. 

Rhode Island was one of the original Thirteen Colonies. It became very important to the economy because of the slave trade, and more slaves were taken to the thirteen colonies through Rhode Island than any of the others in the 18th century. Slavers would send ships from Newport to buy slaves from Africa and make money by trading goods with others involved in slavery. Rhode Island became a state (the last of the thirteen to agree to the new United States Constitution) in 1790. But despite it joined the United States in 1790, it was founded in 1776.

Rhode Island is bordered on the north and east by Massachusetts, on the west by Connecticut, and on the south by Rhode Island Sound and the Atlantic Ocean. It shares a water border with New York. It is named for a large island in Rhode Island Sound, Rhode Island. Some thought the island looked liked Rhodes, an island in Greece.

An executive order was signed by Governor Gina Raimondo on June 22, 2020 to remove "Providence Plantations" from the official state name due to its ties to slavery.  Raimondo stated the change would go into effect "as soon as practicable."  In November 2020, the official name was voted to be changed to "State of Rhode Island".

## Related pages
* Colleges and universities in Rhode Island
* List of counties in Rhode Island

## Notes
## References
## Other websites
Mathematician

A **mathematician** is someone who studies mathematics, either as a hobby or as a job. Many mathematicians are math professors at universities, or work at cryptography. Euclid, Ramanujan, Sir Isaac Newton are some of the most famous early mathematicians.

## Mathematical societies and foundations 
## Gallery

File:Domenico-Fetti Archimedes 1620.jpg|Archimedes
File:Leonhard Euler 2.jpg|Leonhard Euler
File:Sofja Wassiljewna Kowalewskaja 1.jpg|Sofja Wassiljewna Kowalewskaja, the first woman to become a math professor.

## Notes
## Notable mathematicians
### Europe
* Carl Friedrich Gauss
* Emmy Noether
* Karl Weierstrass
* Leonid Kantorovich
* Lucy Joan Slater
* Sophie Germain

### Asia
* Masao Iri
* Masatake Mori
* Ryogo Hirota

## Other websites
* Mathematics Genealogy Project
* International Congress of Mathematicians
* Timeline of women in mathematics
New Hampshire

**New Hampshire** is a state in northeast United States. It is one of six states in the New England region. The capital is Concord and its largest city is Manchester. The second largest city is Nashua. Other major cities include Keene, Dover, Portsmouth, and Merrimack.

The state motto is "Live Free or Die"  and the nickname is the Granite State.  The state flower is the lilac and the state bird is the purple finch.  New Hampshire is part of New England.  It is bordered by Maine in the East, Massachusetts to the South, Vermont to the West, and Quebec, a Canadian province, to the North.

Its population was 1,377,529 in 2020, so it is the tenth smallest state in the United States by population.

New Hampshire's tourist attractions include the Lakes Region, the White Mountains, the autumn leaves, and the New Hampshire Motor Speedway in Loudon.  Some famous people from New Hampshire are Franklin Pierce, Adam Sandler, and members of the band Aerosmith. New Hampshire is also famous for being the first state to vote in the Presidential primaries.

New Hampshire was a British colony before the American War of Independence.  It became the ninth state on June 21, 1788 when it accepted the United States Constitution.

File:Congress_Street,_Portsmouth_NH.jpg|
File:McDermott_Bridge,_Langdon_NH.jpg|
File:Gilsum_Stone_Arch_Bridge,_Gilsum_NH.jpg|

## Related pages
* Colleges and universities in New Hampshire
* List of counties in New Hampshire
* Explore New Hampshire

## References
Watch glass

(Sodium Chloride or, chemically, NaCl) on a watch glass]]
A **watch glass** is a piece of laboratory glassware used for temporary storage of solids and sometimes liquids (in small amounts).
Funnel

A **funnel** is an object with a wide top and a narrow tube at the bottom and this is used for pouring liquids into a container. A funnel is also a round metal chimney on top of a ship or train.
South Carolina

**South Carolina** is a state in the southeast United States. Its capital city is Columbia which with 137,300 people is the largest city in South Carolina by population. The population of the state is about 5.2 million people, ranked 23rd in the United States. South Carolina has an area of 32,030 square miles, making it the 40th largest state in the United States.

Other important cities in South Carolina are Greenville, Spartanburg, Anderson, Sumter, and Florence.

Major landforms include beaches, "barrier islands", salt marsh, sandhills , rolling piedmont, and the Blue Ridge Mountains.  Because of its natural beauty, the state attracts many tourists, especially to Myrtle Beach, Charleston, and Hilton Head Island.
South Carolina became a state in 1788.  The economy was agriculture-based, known for cotton, rice, indigo, and tobacco by African American slaves.  After the American Civil War, the state lost much of its political and economic power.  Towards the end of the 20th century, the state began to strengthen its economy and add population.  Today, the major industries are tourism, textiles (clothing materials), golf, and manufacturing.  South Carolina has the second highest number of workers employed by international companies per capita in the United States.

South Carolina is bounded to the north by North Carolina, to the south and west by Georgia, located across the Savannah River, and to the east by the Atlantic Ocean.

## History
The original inhabitants of South Carolina were Native Americans. At least 29 Native American tribes lived in South Carolina. The Native American population declined after the arrival of Europeans.

## Farming 
Before the Civil War, South Carolina grew a lot of rice. African slaves worked on slave plantations in the state.

## Participation In The Civil War & 1876-1966 Segregation 
### The Civil War 
South Carolina became the first of eleven states to secede from the union, on December 20, 1860, to protest the election of Republican Abraham Lincoln. It joined the Confederacy. The first battle of the Civil War took place at Fort Sumter, in Charleston.

### 1876-1966 Segregation & Democratic Dominance 
After the Civil War, African-Americans in South Carolina got to vote for some time, but soon black codes were enacted, and white-supremacist groups like the KKK were reborn, restricting African-Americans from voting. South Carolina thus became a Democratic stronghold. In fact, in 1904, Republican Theodore Roosevelt, who was running for president, won less than 5% of the vote in the state. The Democratic candidate won over 95% of the vote. This cult of fear disabled most African-Americans in South  Carolina from voting till 1965, when President Johnson signed the Voting Rights Act.

### Confederate Flag 
For a long time, South Carolina had the Confederate flag hanging over its capital. This is no longer the case.

## Famous People 
U.S. President Andrew Jackson was born in South Carolina.

## Related pages
* Colleges and universities in South Carolina
* List of counties in South Carolina

## References
Constantinople

[[File:Byzantine Constantinople.png|right|thumb|300px|Map of Constantinople. Detailed map .]]
**Constantinople** (; ) was the capital city of the Roman Empire from 330 AD and later what historians called the Byzantine Empire. Constantinople was located in the Bosporus, the strait between the Balkans and Asia Minor.

## History 
For centuries the city was not very large, and was called Byzantium. In the 4th century, Roman emperor Constantine the Great made Byzantium the capital of the Roman Empire and renamed it to **Constantinople**. 

In the 13th century, Constantinople was looted and captured by crusaders during the Fourth Crusade. The crusaders created the Latin Empire (12041261), with Constantinople as the capital city. In 1261, the Empire of Nicaea successfully restored the Byzantine Empire, under the rule of the Palaiologos dynasty.

In 1453 the Ottoman sultan Mehmed the Conqueror captured Constantinople. The city was renamed Istanbul and became the capital of the Ottoman Empire (14531922).

Over time, the city's short name in  became the name Istanbul. This name became the city's official name in 1930, during the government of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.

## Related pages
* Istanbul

## Other websites 
* Monuments of Byzantium  - Pantokrator Monastery of Constantinople
* Mosaics of Hagia Sophia - The Deesis Mosaic from Hagia Sophia
* Constantinoupolis on the web Select internet resources on the history and culture of Constantinople
* Info on the name change  from the Foundation for the Advancement of Sephardic Studies and Culture
* Welcome to Constantinople , documenting the monuments of Byzantine Constantinople, compiled by Robert Ousterhout, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
* Constantinople, from *History of the Later Roman Empire*, by J.B. Bury
New Jersey

**New Jersey** is one of the 50 states of the United States of America. It is in the northeastern section of the country along the coast of the Atlantic Ocean. It is a geographically small state, shaped like a letter [S], and bordered on the west by Pennsylvania and Delaware across the Delaware River, on the north by New York, on the northeast by the Hudson River and New York City, on the east and southeast by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the southwest by Delaware Bay. New Jersey is divided into 21 counties.

The capital of New Jersey is Trenton and the largest city is Newark, though New Jersey is better known for bordering the large cities of New York City and Philadelphia. The state nickname is "The Garden State". The current governor is Phil Murphy.

New Jersey is the fourth smallest state, but has the eleventh highest number of people. It therefore has the highest **population density** (number of people for the amount of land) in the United States. New Jersey is also well known for its beaches, industries, swamps, and pine forests.

The climate is hot and humid summers and cold winters, with about  of precipitation every year. The average temperature in the summer is between  and , and in winter around 16&nbsp;°F (-9&nbsp;°C) to 34&nbsp;°F (1&nbsp;°C).

## History
Before Europeans came, the land that is now New Jersey was inhabited by the Lenape (also known as Delaware Indians by the English), who were nomads, hunters, and farmers. The Dutch came to the northern area of the state in the 1630s, after Henry Hudson explored the area, thought it was a nice place, and claimed it for the Dutch. Towns quickly sprang up, occupied by the Dutch, Swedes, and Finns. People rushed in. The first towns, such as Bergen (now Jersey City), Trenton (the capitol), and Burlington developed. Many others started themselves upon the west bank of the Hudson. New Jersey was part of the area known at this time as New Netherland.

In 1664, the English took New Netherland from the Dutch and added it to their colonies. This part was renamed New Jersey after an island in the English Channel known as Jersey.

New Jersey took part in the American Revolutionary War, and was a scene of battles. On Christmas in 1776, George Washington's army entered New Jersey to attack British soldiers at Trenton and Princeton. The American army won, in two small but famous battles that were important in boosting American morale.

Later, the rebels drove the British residents out of Princeton and for a time established a national capital there. New Jersey was the third state to join the US and the first to approve the Bill of Rights.

## Counties
New Jersey has 21 counties:

## References
Mohammad Khatami

**Seyyed Mohammad Khatami** (**سید محمد خاتمی**), (born October 14, 1943) is an Iranian politician who was President of Iran from August 2, 1997 to August 3, 2005 and was followed by Mahmoud Ahmadinejad. Khatami studied Islamic theology in Qom, and philosophy in Isfahan. Khatami built upon the idea of a lawful state, called Rechtsstaat, of democracy and of social equality. He was the first Iranian president to officially do so. These tenets led to conflicts with the government of Iran. Khatami is seen as a reformist. He is currently a prominent supporter of the Iranian Green Movement, and a critic of the government.

## References
## Other websites 
* Biography in I.R.I.B. Archive 
* Biography in Encyclopedia Britannica
* Web site of the International Center for Dialogue Among Civilizations
Baseball cap

A **baseball cap** is a type of hat worn by baseball players when they play as part of their team's uniform, but other people wear them as well.

File:Baseball cap line drawing.svg|
File:Barry Zito.jpg|
File:YankeeCaps.jpg|
File:Adidas Baseball cap.JPG
File:Texas Tech Red Raiders baseball cap.jpg
Windows 95

**Windows 95** is an operating system created by Microsoft. It was released in August 1995, and was the first operating system in the Windows 9x family. Windows 95 added newer features to the last Microsoft Windows operating systems, which were part of the Windows 3.x family. Windows 95 was the first Windows operating system with the "Start" menu. Since then, the Start menu has been used in all Windows operating systems until now, and the general look has not changed except for Windows 8's "tablet-design" start menu. It was also the first Windows operating system that included ways to connect to the [Internet]. Although Windows 95 is thought of as an operating system by itself, it works over MS-DOS. Windows 95 is like a visual version of MS-DOS. This means that Windows 95 can run both MS-DOS programs and Windows ones, but programs made just for Windows 95 will not work in MS-DOS.

Windows 95 was Microsoft's first operating system to support long file names. Before that, file names could only be eight characters (letters, numbers, or symbols) long, plus the file extension. Windows 95 was also Microsoft's first operating system to fully support CD-ROMs, though Windows 3.x could also access CD-ROMs.

It was popular from 1995 until 1998, when Microsoft introduced Windows 98. Microsoft ended mainstream support for Windows 95 on December 31, 2000 and extended support ended 95 on December 31, 2001.

## Editions 
**Windows 95 Retail*
**Windows 95 OSR 1 and SP1*
**Windows 95 OSR 2.0*
**Windows 95 OSR 2.1*
**Windows 95 OSR 2.5*

## References
Bison

**Bisons** are large, even-toed ungulates.  They are bovines, and are similar to cows. They are often called buffalo, but are not closely related to the African buffalo or water buffalo.  

Bison live in the northern part of the world. The American bison lives in North America where they once wandered around the prairies in huge herds. The wisent lives in Europe. Bison can also live in rugged areas.

## American 
The American bison is the biggest mammal in North America.   There used to be as many as 30 million bison in the United States, but because of hunting, by 1890, only 1000 bison were left. Through conservation efforts, there are now more American bison than there used to be, but still far fewer than there were before the 1800s.

## European 
European bison (wisent) tend to live in lightly wooded to fully wooded areas and areas with increased shrubs and bushes, though they can also live on grasslands and plains.

## Taxonomy 
They are classified in the subfamily Bovinae of the family Bovidae.
* Genus *Bison*
** American bison (*Bison bison*)
** Wisent or European bison (*Bison bonasus*)

## Life 
They live to be about 20 years old and are born without their "hump" or horns, which both males and females have. After shedding their lightly colored hair, and with their horns, they are grown at 2 to 3 years of age, but males keep growing slowly until seven years. Adult bulls are very dominant in mating season. Adult bison usually have one or two baby bison.

## References
Socialist country

A **socialist country** is a sovereign state in which everyone in society equally owns the factors of production.   

In a socialist state, the distribution of resources and their allocation is by the State itself. Here, the state gives people items and goods. The state also makes sure that each class gets access to goods too. The four factors of production are labor, capital goods, natural resources and entrepreneurship. In a socialist country, people account for own needs and other needs. The resources of the country go to both types of needs. Social needs include things like education, healthcare, defense, transportation and the preservation of natural resources, as well as caring for people who can't contribute to production (such as children, the elderly and the disabled). Theoretically, everyone in a socialist society receives a share of the production based on their individual needs. A socialist country is vastly different from countries that practice capitalism. The main goal of a socialist society is to end exploitation and improve the quality of life of their citizens. 

In a socialist society the logic of the profit doesn’t exist, so (in theory) they hope things will be cheaper and equal. However, in practice, socialism has repeatedly led to a centralized power grab, higher prices, increased poverty, lowered production, and squalor. The reason for this discrepancy between idealism and practice, is due to the psychology of human behavior. People naturally work harder when they directly benefit; socialism takes away this incentive. Government spends money less efficiently than individuals do, and also more corruptly, with special interest payouts and waste; individuals do not. The best way of ensuring a higher standard of living is through limited government and free enterprise. 

Socialism has been established in many countries, even today. However, countries have commonly struggled under socialism, shown through conflicts such as in Venezuela. No country has claimed to have fully reached peak socialism, and is therefore impossible to determine whether it is a corrupt way of government.

## References
1499

## Events
* January 8 &ndash; Louis XII of France marries Anne of Brittany
* August 24 &ndash; Lake Maracaibo is explored by Alonso de Ojeda and Amerigo Vespucci.
* September 18 &ndash; Vasco da Gama arrives at Lisbon, returning from India
* Montenegro is added to the Ottoman Empire

* October 14 – Claude of France
Watch

is the world's first radio-controlled wristwatch with hands]]
A **watch** is a small clock carried or worn by a person. It makes it easy to see the time. It is also considered to be a fashion accessory, and expensive watches are designed for this purpose. A watch may be one of the few accessories worn by a person.

A **wristwatch** is designed to be worn on a wrist, attached by a strap or other type of bracelet. A pocket watch is to be carried in a pocket. There are other variations. Nurses often wear a watch attached to the front of their uniform. It hangs down from a short strap: when lifted by the user, it is right side up. 

A wristwatch has the advantage of being portable in comparison to traditional watches. 

Watches evolved in the 17th&nbsp;century from spring-powered clocks, which appeared as early as the 14th&nbsp;century. In 1524, Peter Henlein created the first pocket watch. 
The first watches were strictly mechanical, driven by clockwork. 

As technology developed, mechanical watches were largely replaced by vibrating quartz crystals, producing accurately timed electronic pulses. Some watches use radio technology to correct the time and date. The first digital electronic watch was developed in 1970and the world's first radio-controlled wristwatch with hands was manufactured 1991 by the German watchmaker Junghans.

Electronic movements, also known as quartz movements, have few or no moving parts, except a quartz crystal which is made to vibrate by the piezoelectric effect. A varying electric voltage is applied to the crystal, which responds by changing its shape so it works as an oscillator. It resonates at a stable frequency, which paces a timekeeping mechanism. Most quartz movements are primarily electronic but are geared to drive mechanical hands on the face of the watch to give a traditional analog display of the time.

Some watches are smartwatches, mobile devices similar to smartphones but smaller.

## References
Hamster

**Hamsters** are small rodents belonging to the subfamily **Cricetinae**. This group has about 25 species in six or seven genera. They have become established as popular small house pets.

Even though the Syrian hamster or golden hamster (*Mesocricetus auratus*) was first described scientifically by George Robert Waterhouse in 1839, researchers were not able to successfully breed and domesticate hamsters until 1939. Plain toilet paper is also a cheap, safe option, but straw should only be given in small amounts. Hamsters eat mostly hamster food sold at a pet shop, but they can also eat many vegetables and fruits in small portions. Hamsters store food in natural pouches in the sides of their mouths.

Because they are rodents, hamster incisors grow constantly. They need wooden blocks and hard food to wear the teeth down and prevent them from getting too long. Most hamsters also have a wheel to run on for exercise. A 6-inch (15&nbsp;cm) wheel is recommended for most dwarf hamsters, and at least an eight-inch (20&nbsp;cm) wheel for Syrians. If the wheel is too small, the hamster's spine can become bent. Some people get other kinds of exercise equipment for their hamsters, like a "hamster ball" in which the hamster can roll around the floor (though these are not recommended by some animal welfare groups), or a long network of tubes with air holes for hamsters to crawl through. They should live in a tank or cage. Hamsters are not recommended for young children.

## References
First-person shooter

A **first-person shooter** (**FPS**) is a type of video game. In a first-person shooter, a player sees through the eyes of a character. The character uses a gun to shoot objects or enemies. The character travels and shoots in a three-dimensional world.

## History 
The first first-person shooters were made in the 1970s and 1980s.  In the 1970s, schools like the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and the University of Illinois made *Maze War* and *Spacism.* These games were not sold.  In 1980, arcades got a tank game called *Battlezone.* In 1983, home computers got *Battlezone.* It was the first successful first-person shooter sold to many people.

In the 1990s, first-person shooters were very popular. Many people played the first-person shooters *Wolfenstein 3D* and *Doom* because they were shareware. In 1998, *Half-Life* was made. *Half-Life* was different because it had a strong narrative.
Read-only memory

.]]
**Read-only memory** (or simply **ROM**) is a type of computer memory. Unlike RAM, it keeps its contents even when the computer or device is turned off. Usually, ROM cannot be written to when the computer runs normally. ROM is used for the BIOS which tells the computer how to start, or important programs like the firmware of certain devices, which usually does not need to be modified. Usually, ROM comes on computer chips.

There are different kinds of ROMs:
* Masked ROM: This kind is written once, at the factory. It cannot be changed at all later on. Its main benefit is that it is very cheap to make.
* PROM: Can be programmed once. Comes *unprogrammed* from the factory. Programming consists in removing connections. Invented in 1956, it has been replaced by EPROMs.
* EPROM: This kind can be erased with UV light. Invented in 1972, it became rare early in the 21st century. 
* EEPROM: This kind can be erased using an electrical signal. Today, flash memory is often used.''

## References
Moss

**Mosses** are bryophytes, a group of plants without tissue to move water. Mosses evolved from liverworts.p75

Moss tissue does not have cells that move water. This means that they are non-vascular plants. Water must soak into mosses like a sponge. A patch of moss is made of many tiny moss plants packed together so that they can hold water for as long as possible. They do not have roots. Because mosses cannot find water, they live in two ways. They can live in places that are always wet like near a spring, a river, or in a place where there is a lot of fog or has a lot of rainfall. They can also pause their natural processes when they dry up. Mosses can survive months in this paused state. However, they eventually need water to live. This means they can never live in dry places like deserts.

Mosses cannot grow very large because they could not move water to the top of their growth. The largest moss grows in New Zealand. It is about 30&nbsp;cm tall.

A moss does not make seeds. A moss does not have fruit. The green fuzzy part of a moss that is always there has only one set of DNA. Moss waits until there is lots of food and enough water. Then it produces spores that leave the parent plant and float away. The spores are like dust. They will make more moss. Each spore is male or female. It grows into the green fuzzy part of the moss called the gametophyte. Male gametophyte make sperm. Female gametophyte make eggs. Water moves the sperm from the male moss to the female moss. Then the sperm and the egg join to make a cell with two sets of moss DNA. This cell grows into a different shape called a sporophyte. The sporophyte gets all of its food from the green fuzzy female gametophyte. When the sporophyte grows up, it makes a tiny box with spores inside instead of seeds. The lid on the box falls and the spores float away to repeat the cycle again. This process is called alternation of generations.

Scientists divide the mosses into eight groups. Five of these groups are small, with just a few species; most mosses are in the group called Bryopsida.

## References
## Other websites
* 
* 
*
Miami

**Miami** is a city located on the southeastern part of the U.S. state of Florida. It is a known tourist stop and it is well known for its Cuban, Puerto Rican and Haitian culture. Miami has one of the largest Hispanic communities in the United States, with over 70% of the population being of Hispanic and Latino American descent. Miami is also the county seat (and largest city) of Miami-Dade County.

Miami is nicknamed "The Magic City" because of its rapid growth. 

## History 
The Tequesta tribe lived in what is now Miami before Spain claimed it. In 1566, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, Florida's first governor, claimed the area from the Tequesta for Spain. Spain ruled Florida until Spain gave it to the United States in 1821. Florida became a state in 1845. On July 28, 1896, Miami officially became a city. It was named after the Mayaimi tribe.

Miami experienced rapid growth during the Florida land boom of the 1920s. However, this land boom was affected by the 1926 Miami hurricane. Many Cubans migrated to Miami after Fidel Castro rose to power in Cuba following the 1959 Cuban Revolution, and the population rapidly increased. The majority of these Cuban immigrants now live in Little Havana.

During the 1980s, Miami was a primary location for drug trafficking from South America, mainly Colombia. This brought in millions of dollars into the city's economy, and it allowed the construction of luxury hotels, skyscrapers, nightclubs and car dealerships.

## Climate
Miami has a tropical monsoon climate. Summers have average temperatures of  during the day and  at night, with average monthly rainfall around . Winters have average temperatures of  during the day and  at night, with average monthly rainfall around .

## Education
Miami-Dade County Public Schools is the school district for public schools in Miami. There are also some private schools there. There are many colleges and universities in and around Miami. A few of these include: Florida International University, University of Miami, Miami Dade College, and Florida Atlantic University.

## Sports
There are several professional sports teams that play in and around Miami, including the Miami Marlins of Major League Baseball, the Miami Heat of the National Basketball Association, the Florida Panthers of the National Hockey League, the Miami Dolphins of the National Football League, and Inter Miami CF of Major League Soccer.

Also, three universities in and around Miami are members of NCAA Division I, the top division of college sports in the U.S.:
* Miami Hurricanes, in the suburb of Coral Gables – Atlantic Coast Conference
* FIU Panthers, in the city of Miami – Sun Belt Conference; moved to Conference USA in July 2013
* Florida Atlantic Owls, in Boca Raton – Sun Belt Conference

## Demographics 
The population of Miami, Florida as of 2011 is 1.3 million, with 41.4% suffering from poverty. According to the DNA North American Studies Institute, the racial-makeup of Miami is:
* 54.75%: European 
* 23.14%: African
* 20.39%: Mixed 
* 1.72%: Others

"Others" includes Asians and Arabs, among others.

## References 
;Notes

## Other websites 
* City of Miami official site
Grunge music

**Grunge music** or **Seattle sound** (as it is called sometimes) is a style of rock music that has elements of punk rock and heavy metal. It started in the mid- 1980s in the Pacific Northwest of the United States, especially in the state of Washington. It became more popular in the early 1990s. Grunge songs often had lyrics with nihilism, depression, unhappiness, or apathy as themes. The widespread use of heroin as a recreational drug found its way into the lyrics and careers of numerous grunge rockers, notably Kurt Cobain and Layne Staley of "Alice in Chains".

The songs often had light (or clean) guitar sounds in the verses, and the high energy boost of distorted (or dirty) guitars in the choruses. The line-up for these bands was the typical rock band of guitars, bass, drums and vocal.

Although grunge as a movement became less popular by the end of the 1990s, its influence is still heard in many bands. Grunge musical sounds were copied by post-grunge bands such as Foo Fighters and Nickelback and nu metal bands such as Korn and Limp Bizkit.

## Sound
Grunge music uses music from punk rock and heavy metal. Grunge guitar players use distorted electric guitar. Like punk and heavy metal, grunge bands use electric guitar, bass guitar, a drummer and a singer.

## Grunge artists
Some well known grunge artists were:
* Alice in Chains
* Melvins
* Mother Love Bone
* Mudhoney
* Nirvana
* Pearl Jam
* Screaming Trees
* Smashing Pumpkins
* Soundgarden
* Stone Temple Pilots
* Tad
* Temple of the Dog

## References
Carly Simon

**Carly Simon** (born June 25, 1945) is an American singer-songwriter and occasional children's book writer. She was born in New York City to businessman Richard L. Simon (1899-1960) and Andrea Heinemann Simon (1909-1994). She was raised in Riverdale, The Bronx. She has two sisters - singer Joanna Simon (born 1940) and composer Lucy Simon (born 1943). She also has a brother, photographer Peter Simon.

Simon's songs include: "You're So Vain", "Nobody Does It Better", "Coming Around Again" and "Let the River Run", and "Why".

## Other websites 
*
Toto (band)

**Toto** (stylized as **TOTO**) is a rock group that formed in Los Angeles in 1977, that was popular in the early 1980's. Their best known song is "Africa" (1982). Their best known albums are "*TOTO*", "*TOTO IV*", and *"The Seventh One*".

The current band members are Joseph Williams, Steve Lukather and David Paich.

The former band members were David Hungate, Fergie Frederiksen, Mike Porcaro, Jeff Porcaro, Simon Phillips, Greg Phillinganes, Jean-Michel Byron, Bobby Kimball, Keith Carlock and Steve Porcaro.

## References 
## Other websites
Jim Jones

**James Warren "Jim" Jones** (May 13, 1931 – November 18, 1978) was the leader of a cult as well as being a preacher. He was American. His church was called the "People's Temple". Jones died when he committed suicide, after forcing most of the members of his cult to drink poison.

The temple began as a Christian church (a member church of the Disciples of Christ). However, Jones was an atheist. Over time the church became a cult. Jones and most of the members of his group died on November 18, 1978 in Guyana. 

## Visit by Congressman Ryan, murders 
In November 1978, U.S. Congressman Leo Ryan led a fact-finding mission to Jonestown to investigate allegations of human rights abuses. Ryan's delegation included relatives of Temple members, Don Harris, an NBC network news reporter, an NBC cameraman and reporters for various newspapers. The group arrived in Georgetown on November 15. On November 17, Ryan's delegation traveled by airplane to Jonestown. The guards killed Congressman Ryan and four others near a twin engine Otter aircraft. At the same time, one of the supposed defectors, Larry Layton, drew a weapon and began firing on members of the party that had already boarded a small Cessna. 303 of them children, died of apparent cyanide poisoning, in and around a pavilion. This was the greatest single loss of American civilian life in a non-natural disaster until the September 11, 2001 attacks. No video was taken during the mass suicide, though the FBI did recover a 45-minute audio recording of the suicide in progress.

On that tape, Jones tells Temple members that the Soviet Union, with whom the Temple had been negotiating a potential exodus for months, would not take them after the Temple had murdered Ryan and four others at a nearby airstrip.

Jones was found dead in a deck chair with a gunshot wound to his head that Guyanese coroner Cyrill Mootoo stated was consistent with a self-inflicted gun wound. However, Jones' son Stephan believes his father may have directed someone else to shoot him. An autopsy of Jones' body also showed levels of the barbiturate Pentobarbital which may have been lethal to humans who had not developed physiological tolerance. Jones' drug usage (including LSD and marijuana) was confirmed by his son, Stephan, and Jones' doctor in San Francisco.

## References
Agnosticism

, a famous agnostic in 1907]]

**Agnosticism** is the philosophical view that it is unknown (or even, unknowable) whether any deities (god or gods) exist or not. 

Some people who call themselves "agnostic" say that it is not possible for anyone ever to know if there are any deities or not. Other agnostics, though, say only that they themselves currently do not know if there are any deities.

Thomas Henry Huxley, the English biologist, coined the word "agnostic" in 1869. In 1889 he wrote "Agnosticism... is not a creed, but a method... the fundamental axiom of modern science...  In matters of the intellect, do not pretend that conclusions are certain which are not demonstrated or demonstrable".

There are several different kinds of agnosticism:
* *Absolute agnosticism* (also called *hard agnosticism*, *closed agnosticism*, *strict agnosticism*, *strong agnosticism*) is the belief that it is not possible to know whether a god/gods exists or not.
* *Empirical agnosticism* (also called *soft agnosticism*, *open agnosticism*, *weak agnosticism*, *temporal agnosticism*) is the belief that at present there is not enough information to know whether any god/gods exists or not, but that we might find out someday.
* *Apathetic agnosticism* is the belief that it does not matter whether any god/gods exists or not.

People often have difficulty telling agnosticism and atheism apart. Atheists do not believe in the existence of deities, and some say that they are sure that no deity exists. Some (perhaps most) atheists, though, say that it is up to theists (people who believe in a deity) to give the evidence for a god or to show why someone should believe in a god. They say that there is not enough evidence or a strong enough argument to believe any gods exist. So they reject belief that any exist. While agnostics think we cannot *know for sure* whether any deities exist, some agnostics do *believe* at least one deity exists  These people are both agnostic and theistic—they believe at least one deity exists, but do not claim to *know* that to be true. Some people are both atheist and agnostic—they reject belief in any deities without claiming to know that deities do not exist. Some agnostics cannot decide whether to believe any deities exist or not.

## Beliefs related to agnosticism 
* *Ignosticism* is the belief that the idea of god/gods does not have a good enough definition, so saying "god exists" or "god does not exist" does not mean anything. 
* *Agnostic theism* believes in the existence of one or more gods. They accept this is unknown or inherently unknowable. 
* *Agnostic atheism* is the view that a god/gods may or may not exist, but there is no good reason to believe they do.
* *Post-theism* is the view that religion used to be important, but is not anymore.

All these beliefs point to the lack of evidence of actual presence of God.

## Related pages
* Atheism
* Religion
* Humanism
* Irreligion
* Skepticism

## References
Brisbane

**Brisbane** (, ; local nickname *Brissie*) is the seaport capital city and biggest city of Queensland in Australia. It has a population of 2.2 million people and is the third biggest city in Australia, after Sydney and Melbourne.

The central city is on the Brisbane River,  inland from Moreton Bay.

Brisbane is named after the Brisbane River, which is named after Sir Thomas Brisbane who was Governor of New South Wales from 1821–1825.

A penal colony was founded at Redcliffe,  to the north, in 1824. It was moved to North Quay in 1825. The first free settlers moved to Brisbane in 1842. Brisbane became the capital city when Queensland became a separate colony from New South Wales in 1859.

Brisbane has more than 50 skyscrapers more than  tall.

## Climate 
Brisbane has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification: *Cfa*). Summers are hot and wet. Winters are warm and quite dry.

Thunderstorms happen a lot from November to March every year. Very heavy thunderstorms caused big floods and a lot of damage in February 1893, January 1974, January 2011 and January 2013.

The warmest recorded temperature in Brisbane was  on 26 January 1940 and the coldest was  on 2 July 1896.

## Local government 
 which has Brisbane City Council offices.]]
The City of Brisbane, run by Brisbane City Council, covers a big part of the suburbs close to the city. The outer suburbs are part of Logan City to the south, Moreton Bay Region to the north, the City of Ipswich to the south west, Redland City to the south east, with a small part in the Scenic Rim Region to the west.

## Education 
Brisbane has many universities and colleges including University of Queensland, Queensland University of Technology and Griffith University. The Australian Catholic University, Central Queensland University, James Cook University, University of Southern Queensland and the University of the Sunshine Coast each have a campus in Brisbane.

There are three big vocational schools in Brisbane – Brisbane North Institute of TAFE, Metropolitan South Institute of TAFE and Southbank Institute of TAFE.

Most primary schools and secondary schools are run by the Queensland Government. There are also private, Catholic and other Christian schools.

## Sport 
 game at Lang Park stadium.]]
Brisbane hosted the 1982 Commonwealth Games, the 1988 World Exposition (called World Expo 88), and some games at the 1987 Rugby World Cup and 2001 Cricket World Cup.

Big sports stadiums include the Brisbane Cricket Ground, Lang Park, Ballymore Stadium and the Queensland Sport and Athletics Centre.

Brisbane has teams in all Australian sports competitions.

## Related pages
* List of tallest buildings in Brisbane

## References 
## Other websites 
* City of Brisbane
* Official tourism website of Brisbane