open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Giant anteater

The **giant anteater**, *Myrmecophaga*, is an animal that lives in Central and South America. It is also known as the **ant bear**. 

It the only mammal without teeth. Its diet consists of termites and ants, hence the name. It is the largest anteater: its length is between 182&nbsp;cm (5.9 ft) and 217&nbsp;cm (7.1 ft). Males weigh between 33 (72.7 lb) and 41&nbsp;kg (90.3 lb), female are 27 (59.5 lb) and 39&nbsp;kg (85.9 lb). This species lives on the ground, in contrast to other living anteaters and sloths which are arboreal or semi-arboreal. It forages in open areas and rests in more forested habitats.

## Mode of life 
The giant anteater is adapted to eat termites and ants, and does not have any teeth in its mouth. It uses its front claws to dig them up and its long, sticky tongue to collect them. They eat about 30,000 ants and termites every day.

The tongue can reach up to , longer than the length of the skull, and move in and out around 160 times per minute (nearly three times per second). The anteater's tongue has little to no attachments to the hyoid and this is what allows it to flick its tongue at such distances and speed. The hyoid apparatus is large, V-shaped and flexible and supports the tongue as it goes in and out of the mouth. Before being swallowed, insects are crushed against the palate.

The giant anteater knuckle-walks, meaning its front toes are curled under like a fist when it moves.  It is one of only a few animals other than primates that do this.

## Related pages 
* Anteater
* Termite
* Ant

## References
Signal (biology)

A **signal** in biology is any kind of coded  sent from one organism to another, or from one place in an organism to another place.

*Vocal calls
*Some social behaviours
*Chemical signals 
**inside organisms
***nerve transmission
***hormones
**inside cells
**between organisms

In biology, especially in electrophysiology, a **signal** or **biopotential** is an electric quantity (voltage or current or field strength), that is caused by chemical reactions of charged ions. Biological signals can also be seen as an example of signal (electrical engineering).

Another use of the term lies in the transfer of information between and within cells, as in signal transduction. 

## Related pages
* Signal transduction
Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury

**Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury** KG GCVO PC FRS (3 February 1830 - 22 August 1903) was a Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. He was known as **Lord Robert Cecil** before 1865 and as **Viscount Cranborne** from 1865 until 1868.

Salisbury served as Prime Minister three times for a total of over thirteen years. When Prime Minister, he acted as his own Foreign Minister.

Lord Cecil was elected to Parliament in 1853 as a member of the Conservative Party. In 1866 (now called Viscount Cranborne), he served as Secretary of State for India under Prime Minister Lord Derby. Cranborne resigned, but he would return to government in 1874, now as the Marquess of Salisbury. Salisbury was again Secretary of State for India under Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli. In 1878, Salisbury became Foreign Secretary in the Disraeli government.

Salisbury became the Conservative Party leader. Salisbury first served as Prime Minister from 23 June 1885, to 28 January 1886. His first government did not last long as the Conservatives did not have full control.

Salisbury became Prime Minister again on 25 July 1886, with a majority. He would be in office until 11 August 1892. His third time as Prime Minister was from 25 June 1895, until 11 July 1902.

Two issues dominated his time as Prime Minister. One was the struggle between European powers seizing parts of Africa, the so-called "Scramble for Africa". The United Kingdom fought the Second Boer War while Salisbury was Prime Minister.

The other was Ireland, the rise of Irish nationalism amongst Catholics in Ireland. This was backed by his great opponent, Gladstone, leader of the Liberal Party and also three times Prime Minister.

Salisbury helped establish the London County Council. Salisbury built up the Royal Navy. Africa was divided up into colonies. 

Salisbury resigned on 11 July 1902. He died on 22 August 1903. The great issues that had divided the country in his time (colonialism, Ireland and Africa) would last in British politics for most of the next century. The one great issue that was not appreciated at the time was the rise of militant German nationalism, which would in the next century lead to two World Wars. Throughout his career Salisbury wrote articles for the *Quarterly Review*, which have now been edited and published.

## References
Cinnamomum

***Cinnamomum*** is a genus of evergreen trees and shrubs. All of them belong to the same family as the laurel, Laurelaceae. The species in the genus have aromatic oils in their leaves and bark. There are over 300 species in the genus. They can be found in the tropical and subtropical regions of the Americas, Oceania, Asia and Australasia.  

Well-known *Cinnamomum* species include Cinnamon (*Cinnamomum verum*,  also known as "true cinnamon" or Ceylon Cinnamon); Cassia (*C. aromaticum* or *C. cassia*), Camphor laurel (*C. camphora*), Saigon cinnamon (*C. loureiroi*, also known as Vietnamese cinnamon, Vietnamese cassia, or Saigon cassia), Malabathrum (*C. tamala*, also known as *C. tejpata*; *tejpat* or *tej pat* in Hindi; or, inaccurately, "Indian bay leaf").
Ion channel

An **ion channel** is a pore-forming protein that helps to establish and control the small voltage gradient across the plasma membrane of all living cells (see resting potential) by allowing the flow of ions down their electrochemical gradient. They are present in the membranes that surround all biological cells.

An ion channel is an integral membrane protein or more typically an assembly of several proteins.

The 2003 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Peter Agre and Roderick MacKinnon for their discovery of ion channels.
## References
## Notes
* Bertil Hille: *Ion channels of excitable membranes*, 3rd ed., Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, MA (2001). 

## Related pages 
*Electrophysiology

## Other websites 
*An Interview with Roderick MacKinnon Freeview video by the Vega Science Trust.
*The Voltage Sensor in Voltage-Dependent Ion Channels 
*X-ray crystal structure of a potassium channel 
*Neuromuscular Disease Center at Washington University
*Nobel Prize Press Release
* International Union of Pharmacologists, Ion channel compendium
Electrophysiology

**Electrophysiology** is the study of the electrical properties of biological cells and tissues. It involves measurements of voltage change or electrical current flow on a wide variety of scales from single ion channel proteins, to whole tissues like the heart. In neuroscience, it includes measurements of the electrical activity of neurons, and particularly action potential activity.

## Definition and scope 
### Classical electrophysiologic techniques 
Classical electrophysiology involves placing electrodes into various preparations of biologic tissue. The principle types of electrodes are: 1) simple solid conductors, such as discs and needles (singles or arrays), 2) tracings on a printed circuit boards, and 3) hollow tubes filled with an electrolyte, such as glass pippettes. The principal preparations include 1) living organisms, 2) excised tissue (acute or cultured), 3) dissociated cells from excised tissue (acute or cultured), 4) artificially grown cells or tissues, or 5) hybrids of the above.

If an electrode is small enough in diameter (on the order of microns), then the electrophysiologist may choose to insert the tip into a single cell. 

Many particular electrophysiological readings have specific names:
* Electrocardiography - for the heart
* Electroencephalography - for the brain
* Electrocorticography - from the cerebral cortex
* Electromyography - for the muscles
* Electrooculography - for the eyes
* Electroretinography - for the retina
* Electroantennography - for the olfactory receptors in arthropods

## Other websites 
*EP Lab Digest - Trade Publication for EP Professionals
Henry Addington, 1st Viscount Sidmouth

**Henry Addington, 1st Viscount Sidmouth**, PC (30 May 1757–15 February 1844) was a British statesman. He was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1801 to 1804.

His father was a physician specialising in the treatment of mental illness.  His father was one of George III's doctors and this resulted in Addington  being known (in no friendly spirit) as "The Doctor".  Before becoming Prime Minister he had been Speaker of the House of Commons.

He tried but failed to negotiate a lasting peace with Napoleon's France.

He was not well regarded as Prime Minister and his capabilities were summed up in the rhyme: "Pitt is to Addington as London is to Paddington".  As Viscount Sidmouth, he was a very reactionary Home Secretary in the Government of the Earl of Liverpool but he was eventually persuaded to retire in favour of Sir Robert Peel.
Augustus FitzRoy, 3rd Duke of Grafton

**Augustus Henry FitzRoy, 3rd Duke of Grafton**, KG, PC (1 October 1735 – 14 March 1811) was a British Whig statesman. He was one of a handful of dukes who were Prime Minister of Great Britain.

## Education 
He studied at Westminster School and then got a degree from Peterhouse College in Cambridge.

## Titles from birth to death 
*Mr. Augustus FitzRoy (1735-1747)
*Earl of Euston (1747-1756)
*Earl of Euston, MP (1756-1757)
**His Grace* The Duke of Grafton (1757-1765)
**His Grace* The Duke of Grafton, PC (1765-1769)
**His Grace* The Duke of Grafton, KG, PC (1769-1811)

## References
William Wyndham Grenville, 1st Baron Grenville

**William Wyndham Grenville, 1st Baron Grenville** PC (25 October 1759–12 January 1834), was a British Whig statesman and Prime Minister. Grenville was the son of Prime Minister George Grenville.  

He was educated at Eton College, Christ Church, Oxford and Lincoln's Inn.

## References
Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool

**Robert Banks Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool** (7 June 1770–4 December 1828) was an English politician and the longest serving Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (Robert Walpole held office for longer, but only as Prime Minister of Great Britain) During his time as Prime Minister from 1812 to 1827, Liverpool became known for the harsh rules he put in place to restore order, but he also led the country through the bad period that followed the Napoleonic Wars. Important events during his time as Prime Minister included the Congress of Vienna, the Corn Laws, Catholic emancipation and the Peterloo Massacre.

## Titles 
* Robert Jenkinson (1770 - c. 1786)
* Baron Hawkesbury (c. 1786 - 1796)
* Lord Hawkesbury (1796 - 1808)
* 2nd Earl of Liverpool (1808 - 1828)

## References
Frederick John Robinson, 1st Viscount Goderich

**Frederick John Robinson, 1st Earl of Ripon** PC (1 November 1782 – 28 January 1859) was a British statesman and Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (when he was known as Lord Goderich). 

## Titles 
*Frederick John Robinson (1782 &ndash; 1827)
*The Viscount Goderich (1827 &ndash; 1833)
*The Earl of Ripon (1833 &ndash; 1859)
Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey

**Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey**, KG, PC (13 March 1764 – 17 July 1845) was a British Whig statesman and Prime Minister. Earl Grey tea, a type of tea with a bergamot orange flavour is named after him. He was the son of Major General Charles Grey, 1st Earl Grey.

## Titles 
* Charles Grey (1764 - 1806)
* Viscount Howick (1806 - 1807)
* 2nd Earl Grey (1807 - 1845)
## References
John Russell, 1st Earl Russell

**John Russell, 1st Earl Russell**, KG, GCMG, PC (18 August 1792 – 28 May 1878) was an English Whig and Liberal politician. He served twice as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom in the mid-19th century.

## Biography 
Russell was known as "Lord John Russell", which is called a courtesy title. As the third son of the then Duke of Bedford, he was entitled to use one of the family's lower titles. Before becoming Prime Minister, he served in other important posts, such as Home Secretary, Colonial Secretary and Foreign Secretary.
Henry Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston

**Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston**, KG, GCB, PC (20 October 1784 – 18 October 1865) was a British statesman who served twice as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom in the mid-19th century. He began his parliamentary career as a Tory and ended it as a Liberal.

He is best remembered for his leading of British foreign policy in a period of time when the United Kingdom was at its strongest. He served as both Foreign Secretary and Prime Minister. Some of his actions, now sometimes called 'liberal interventionist', were disliked by the Queen and by many of his fellow politicians.
Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington

General **Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington**, KG, GCB, GCH, PC, FRS (1 May 1769–14 September 1852) was a soldier and statesman. He was one of the leading military and political figures of 19th-century Britain. His defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 put him in the top rank of Britain's military heroes. In 2002 he was number 15 in the BBC's poll of the 100 Greatest Britons.

Tipu Sultan was defeated by him in 1799.

Wellesley was born in Dublin, Ireland, into a wealthy Anglo-Irish aristocratic Protestant family. Starting as an ensign in the British Army, he served well in British India and in the Napoleonic Wars, mostly in the Peninsular War, in which he reached the rank of General. He became a duke when Napoleon was exiled to Elba.  

Wellington is often compared to the 1st Duke of Marlborough. They had many things in common, including being in politics after a  successful military career.  

Wellington was twice a Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. A Tory, he was one of the leading figures in the House of Lords until his retirement in 1846. He remained commander-in-chief of the British Army until his death.

## Titles 
* The Honourable Arthur Wesley (birth–7 March 1787)
* Ensign The Hon. Arthur Wesley (7 March 1787–25 December 1787)
* Lieutenant The Hon. Arthur Wesley (25 December 1787–30 June 1791)
* Captain The Hon. Arthur Wesley (30 June 1791–30 April 1793)
* Major The Hon. Arthur Wesley (30 April 1793–30 September 1793)
* Lieutenant-Colonel The Hon. Arthur Wesley (30 September 1793–3 May 1796)
* Colonel The Hon. Arthur Wesley (3 May 1796–19 May 1798)
* Colonel The Hon. Arthur Wellesley (19 May 1798–29 April 1802)
* Major-General The Hon. Arthur Wellesley (29 April 1802–1 September 1804)
* Major-General The Hon. Sir Arthur Wellesley, KB (1 September 1804–8 April 1807)
* Major-General The Right Honourable Sir Arthur Wellesley, KB (8 April 1807–25 April 1808)
* Lieutenant-General The Rt Hon. Sir Arthur Wellesley, KB (25 April 1808–4 September 1809)
* Lieutenant-General The Rt Hon. The Viscount Wellington, KB, PC (4 September 1809–May 1811)
* General The Rt Hon. The Viscount Wellington, KB, PC (May 1811–28 February 1812)
* General The Rt Hon. The Earl of Wellington, KB, PC (28 February 1812–3 October 1812)
* General The Most Honourable The Marquess of Wellington, KB, PC (3 October 1812–4 March 1813)
* General The Most Hon. The Marquess of Wellington, KG, KB, PC (4 March 1813–21 June 1813)
* Field Marshal The Most Hon. The Marquess of Wellington, KG, KB, PC (21 June 1813–11 May 1814)
* Field Marshal His Grace The Duke of Wellington, KG, KB, PC (11 May 1814–2 January 1815)
* Field Marshal His Grace The Duke of Wellington, KG, GCB, PC (2 January 1815–14 September 1852)
George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen

**George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen**, KG, KT, PC (28 January 1784–14 December 1860) was a Scottish Tory/Peelite politician. He served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1852 until 1855.
Archibald Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery

**Archibald Philip Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery** (7 May 184721 May 1929) was a British Liberal politician and Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, also known as **Archibald Primrose** (1847&ndash;1851), **Lord Dalmeny** (1851&ndash;1868).

After an education at Eton and Oxford, Dalmeny succeeded to his grandfather's Scottish earldom in 1868. It was Francis Douglas, who was Roseberry's private secretary. The suggestion was that Queensberry had threatened to expose the Prime Minister if his government did not vigorously prosecute Wilde for Wilde's relationship with Francis Douglas's younger brother, Lord Alfred Douglas. Queensberry believed, as he put it in a letter, that "Snob Queers like Rosebery" had corrupted his sons, and he held Rosebery indirectly responsible for Drumlanrig's death.

## References
## Other websites
*
*
*
Henry Campbell-Bannerman

**Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman** GCB (7 September 1836 - 22 April 1908) was a Scottish- born British Liberal statesman. He served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 5 December 1905 until resigning because of bad health on 3 April 1908. 

Campbell-Bannerman was born in Glasgow, Scotland, in 1836 as **Henry Campbell**.  The surname *Bannerman* was added to his surname in 1871 as required by his uncle's will. It was a requirement of his inheritance of his uncle's Kent estate, Hunton Court.

Seriously ill by the time of his resignation as Prime Minister, he died just nineteen days later. He remains the most recent Prime Minister to die in 10 Downing Street.
Pitch

**Pitch** can mean:

* Pitch (music), a term in music
* Pitch (card game)
* Pitch (resin), a substance from plants or from petroleum
* Pitch (baseball), a throw of a baseball from the pitcher to the catcher
* A field of play, usually outdoors. A lawn.
** Association football pitch
** Cricket pitch
** Rugby pitch
* Sales pitch
* *Pitch* (movie)
* Pitch, yaw, and roll, the directions in which an airplane can turn
United States Census Bureau

The **United States Census Bureau** (officially **Bureau of the Census**) is a part of the United States government that is responsible for the United States Census.
The Census Bureau is a part of the United States Department of Commerce.

## Legal mandate
The Constitution of the United States says that the population must be counted at least once every ten years (through the U.S. Census). This is done to calculate how many Federal Representatives in Congress each state should have. The Census Bureau is in charge of doing this. It  statistics about the nation, its people, and its economy. The Census Bureau's legal authority is listed in Title 13 of the United States Code. The first census bureau was in 1790.

## Organizational structure
Since 1903, The Bureau of the Census has been the census-taking organization of the United States government. The Bureau is led by a Director, who is helped by a deputy director and associate directors.

The Census Bureau headquarters is located at 4600 Silver Hill Road, Suitland, Maryland. There are regional offices in 12 cities: Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Detroit, Chicago, Kansas City, Seattle, Charlotte, Atlanta, Dallas, Denver, and Los Angeles. More offices are set up and used when it comes time to do the census every 10 years.

## Population estimates
The Census Bureau also use real-time extrapolation of information on population, birth, and death to give their estimates of the number of people in the United States and the world.

## References
* The original version of this article was adapted from U.S. Census Bureau text.
* What the U.S. Census Bureau does and how it does it are detailed in Title 13 of the United States Code. http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode13/usc_sup_01_13.html

## Other websites
* United States Census Bureau website
* U.S. and World Population Clocks - POPClocks
* RSS Feed
Edward Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby

**Edward George Geoffrey Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby**, KG, PC (29 March 1799–23 October 1869) was an English statesman. He served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom three times. To date, Derby was the longest serving leader of the Conservative Party. Derby is one of only four British Prime Ministers to have been in office three or more times.  However each time he was only in office for less than two years. Derby was Prime Minister for a total of just over four years, less than many other Prime Ministers.
Henri Troyat

**Henri Troyat**, born **Levon Aslan Torossian** or **Lev Aslanovich Tarasov**, (1 November 1911 – 2 March 2007) was a French author, biographer, historian and novelist. Originally, his family was from Armenia.

He was born in Moscow. His family fled Russia, because they feared the coming revolution. After a long exile, the family  settled in Paris in 1920, where young Troyat was schooled and later earned a law degree.

He won his first literary award at the age of 24, "le prix du Roman populaire". At the age of 27 he was awarded the prestigious Prix Goncourt.

He  published more than 100 books, novels and biographies, among them those of Anton Chekhov, Catherine the Great, Rasputin, Ivan the Terrible and Leo Tolstoy. He was at his death the dean of the Académie française.

His best-known work is *La neige en deuil*, which was adapted as an English-language movie in 1956 under the title *The Mountain*.

## References
Signal processing

**Signal processing** is the analysis, interpretation and manipulation of signals.  Signals of interest include sound, images, biological signals such as ECG, radar signals, and many others.

Processing of such signals includes storage and reconstruction, separation of information from noise (e.g., aircraft identification by radar), compression (e.g., image compression), and feature extraction (e.g., converting text to speech).

## Signal classification 
For analog signals, signal processing may involve the amplification and filtering of audio signals for audio equipment or the modulation and demodulation of signals for telecommunication. For digital signals, signal processing may involve the compression, error checking and error detection of digital signals.

* Analog signal processing—for signals that have not been digitized, as in classical radio, telephone, radar, and television systems
* Digital signal processing—for signals that have been digitized.  Processing is done by digital circuits such as ASICs, FPGAs, general-purpose cad_microprocessors or computers, or specialized digital signal processor chips.
* Statistical signal processing—analyzing and extracting information from signals based on their statistical properties
* Audio signal processing—for electrical signals representing sound, such as music
* Speech signal processing—for processing and interpreting spoken words
* Image processing—in digital cameras, computers, and various imaging systems
* Videos signal processing—for interpreting moving pictures
* Array processing—for processing signals from arrays of sensors

## Method of Signal processing
Signal processing is the analysis, interpretation and manipulation of acquired signals.  Acquired signals must to be processed depending on the purpose of measurement, a method of measurement, and a property of acquired signals.

When signals are processed, statistics is used because it's essential to know a distribution of data and represent data by numerical formulas. In other words, to study signal processing, it's demanded to study statistics (like the theory of error, the arithmetical mean, probability, a stochastic variable, accuracy, and detailed drawing, etc.).

In most cases, signals are regular, as it is acquired from electric instruments like telemeter, or communications equipment, etc. But there are also many accidentally occurred irregular signals which make it difficult to find formulas that fit exactly. Here, the irregular means it's hard to predict the result which is not yet occurred. When irregular signals are acquired, photon is necessary, so it is measured, and calculated.

## Related pages
* Signal (electrical engineering)
Singular

In linguistics, noun phrases have grammatical number. **Singular** is one kind of grammatical number. A singular noun phrase usually refers to something that you would count as one only (e.g., *one time*, *a glass*, *the sun*, *my mother*, *Jennifer*). Noun phrases that cannot be counted are also singular in English (e.g., *water*, *the meat*, *some space*, etc.). In contrast, plural noun phrases are counted as more or less than one (e.g., *no bananas*, *0.5 liters*, *1.2 grams*, *two times*, *three fish*, *20 mothers*).
Cantons of Switzerland

Switzerland is divided into 26 different territories called *cantons*. A canton is similar to a state in the United States.

In the past, each canton had its own army and money. This changed in 1848 when Switzerland finished the Sonderbund civil war and changed to the structure it has now.

The cantons Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden (Nidwalden and Obwalden together are called *Unterwalden*) are called *Urkantone*. An Urkanton is a canton that existed since the foundation of Switzerland in 1291. With time, other cantons joined Switzerland. *Jura* is the newest canton in Switzerland since 1978. In that year, it split from the canton of Bern, after some rioting.

The cantons of Basel-Stadt, Basel-Landschaft, Appenzell Innerrhoden, Appenzell-Ausserrhoden, Obwalden and Nidwalden are different from the others in one way. For historical reasons, their voting is counted differently in national elections. Other than that, they are the same as the others.

In Switzerland, the individual municipalities and cantons are very free. Usually, there is a Swiss law (at the level of the whole confederation). Very often this states general things and says that the cantons must follow this rule. The cantons then make detailed rules, each in the way it sees fit. Sometimes this leads to strange situations. There are 26 different schooling systems.

Drug abuse is a federal offense. Punishment is usually one to three years, but can also be only a fine. The problem is: Consumption itself (not trading, or giving away for free) is not punishable. Also in light cases, the police can say that there will be no fine. This has led to the fact, that in each canton, this law is applied differently. In one canton, smoking marijuana will mean a fine, in another, it can mean a prison term.

The word for that is called federalism. That means each canton has its own government and constitution. The constitution is the highest law in a state.

## List and map 
The cantons are listed in the order given in the federal constitution.

Notes: 1 As of 31 December 2001, National Statistics, 2 km², 3 per km², based on 2000 population 4 seat of government and parliament, the seat of the judicial authorities is Trogen.

The two-letter abbreviations for Swiss cantons are widely used, e.g. on car license plates and in the ISO 3166-2 codes (with the prefix "CH-", i.e. CH-SZ for the canton of Schwyz).

## References
London Stock Exchange

**The London Stock Exchange** (LSE) is a stock exchange in London, England. It is the biggest stock exchange in the Europe and third largest in the world. 

The Royal Exchange, London was officially opened on 23 January 1571 by Queen Elizabeth I. This is where the regulated stock market started.  From 1801 dealers had to pay a subscription.  The government used the Exchange's organised market (and would most likely not have managed without it) to raise the enormous amount of money required for the wars against Napoleon.

The new Stock Exchange Tower was opened on 8 November 1972; it was a new City landmark, with a 23,000 sq ft (2,100 m2) trading floor.  From 1973 women and foreign-born members were allowed. The  London Stock Exchange formally merged with the eleven British and Irish regional exchanges.  It became a company, no longer owned by its members in 2001.

In 2004 it moved to a brand-new headquarters in Paternoster Square.  It bought Refinitiv, a  financial data company, in 2019 for $27 billion. It then sold Borsa Italiana, the owner of Milan’s stock exchange.

The growth of the electronic processing of financial transactions means that face-to-face trading no longer happens.  Normal trading sessions  are from 08:00 to 16:30 local time every day of the week except Saturdays, Sundays and holidays declared by the exchange in advance.

In 2011 there were 2,938 companies from over 60 countries listed on the London Stock Exchange. The total value of these companies is £3.9 trillion.

The FTSE 100 Index (often called the "Footsie") is like the Dow Jones Industrial Average in the United States. FTSE stands for Financial Times Stock Exchange. The 100 most valuable companies listed are tracked. The value of a company is calculated by multiplying the share price of the company by the total number of shares they have issued. The index took the place of the FT30 in January 1984. 

The FTSE 250 follows the share prices of the 101st to the 350th largest companies. There is also the FTSE 350 Index which combines the FTSE 100 and 250, and the FTSE SmallCap Index, which tracks the 351st to the 619th largest-listed companies. The FTSE All-Share Index is an index of all 620 companies listed.

They are calculated by computers in real time, and the cost of shares in the companies is reported every minute.

In 2023 data and analytics businesses made most of the company's money. Less than  4% came from listing and trading cash equities. Microsoft bought 4% of the company in 2022.

## References
Nervous system

travels to the brain, from René Descartes's *Treatise of Man*]]

The **nervous system** is a body system which sends signals around the body. It lets animals  to what is around them. The *central nervous system* is the brain and the spinal cord. It is present in almost all animals. It is there to process the input from the senses, and to coordinate movement. Neuroscience is the scientific study of the nervous system.

The nervous system is made up of neurons. Other cells, such as glial cells keep the neurons safe and in good condition.

The structure of the system includes the brain and spinal cord, which together are called the *central nervous system.* The nervous system can react in 1/100 of a second to a stimulus, like a pain signal.

*Central nervous system
**Brain
**Spinal cord
*Peripheral nervous system
**Autonomic nervous system
***Sympathetic nervous system
***Parasympathetic nervous system
**Somatic nervous system

## References
Conjunctivitis

**Conjunctivitis** (also known as **pinkeye**) is a medical condition when the *Conjunctiva* (a transparent membrane that lines the outer eye, and inner part of the eyelid) becomes inflamed, which can cause it to become pink or red. The cause of conjunctivitis can be either bacterial or viral infection.

## Other websites 
* Mayo Clinic - Pink-eye
* All About Vision
* Kid's Health
* MedicineNet
* WebMD
* Learning the Herbs  - Natural treatment for pink-eye
Cerulean

**Cerulean** is a range of colours from teal-blue, sky-blue, bright blue, or azure to deep cyan. The word cerulean comes from the Latin word *caeruleum*, which means "sky" or "heavens". This was in turn from Latin *caeruleus* deep blue: resembling the blue of the sky.

In classical times, this term was used to describe blue pigments, particularly mixtures of copper and cobaltous oxides, called genuine cerulean. These early attempts to create sky blue colours were often less than satisfactory due to greenish hues and lack of permanence. When the artificial pigment cerulean blue was invented people started using this instead.

The first recorded use of *cerulean* as a colour name in English was in 1590.

## Meaning of cerulean
* Cerulean represents the "sky" or "heavens", or sometimes the ocean. 

* The United States Navy Blue Angels aerobatics team wears uniforms that are a bright rich tone of cerulean.

## Tones of cerulean color comparison chart
## Related pages
* List of colors

## References
John Barrowman

**John Scot Barrowman** MBE (born 11 March 1967) is a Scottish-American actor, author, presenter and singer.

## Early life
Barrowman was born on 11 March 1967 in Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom, but moved to Joliet, Illinois, United States when he was 8 years old and grew up there. He is citizen of both the United Kingdom and the United States because of this. Barrowman was a contestant on the first series of *Dancing on Ice* in 2006.

## Acting and presenting
Barrowman is most known for playing the character Captain Jack Harkness in the television series *Doctor Who* and *Torchwood*. He is also a famous musical actor and singer. He has appeared in many musicals, as well as television shows about musicals. He also has been a presenter for series such as *Live & Kicking and, the Hollow Earth trilogy*. He is currently starring in CW's Arrow as Malcolm Merlyn.

## Personal life
Barrowman is openly gay. He has been in a relationship with Scott Gill since 1993. They have been civil partners since 2006. They married in 2013.

## References
David Alfaro Siqueiros

**David Alfaro Siqueiros** (December 29, 1896 in Camargo, Chihuahua, Mexico &ndash; January 6, 1974 in Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico) was a famous painter and muralist. He was famous for large public murals using the latest in equipment, materials and technique.

## Other websites 
*Short biography and some of his artwork 
*David Alfaro Siqueiros Online - more information and art galleries
Swamp

, world's largest wetland]]
, India & Bangladesh]]
, Florida.]]

A **swamp** is a type of wetland ecosystem. Swamps are forested, low, spongy land generally saturated with water and covered with trees and aquatic plants. Big parts of swamps are often flooded with water. Swamps are nesting and breeding grounds for birds and other animals.

The water of a swamp may be fresh water, brackish water, or seawater. Freshwater swamps form along large rivers or lakes. Saltwater swamps are found along tropical and subtropical coastlines.  

About 6 percent of Earth's surface is covered by swamps. Swamps are also filters for groundwater and protect against flooding. Swamps are one of the key wetland areas which are protected by the international agency Ramsar.

Some well-known swamps are: 
* The Pantanal is the world's biggest wetland. It covers an area of 140,000 square kilometers, bigger than the area covered by the country Greece. The Panatal is in South America. It is shared by Brazil, Bolivia and Paraguay.
* The Everglades
* The Okefenokee
* The Sundarbans

Peat accumulates in these swamps. Some of the world's largest swamps are found along major rivers such as the Amazon, the Mississippi, and the Congo.

## References
Diego Rivera

in 1932]]
**Diego Rivera** (December 8, 1886 – November 24, 1957) was a famous Mexican painter and muralist. He was born in Guanajuato City, Guanajuato.

Rivera is famous for his 1933 mural, "Man at the Crossroads," for the lobby of the RCA Building at Rockefeller Center. Before he finished the mural, people saw that there was an image of Vladimir Lenin and other communist images in it. Rivera was fired because of this and the mural was .

Rivera's wife, Frida Kahlo, was also a famous Mexican painter. He died in Mexico City of congestive heart failure at the age of 70.

## Related pages
* List of Mexican painters
Siege

A **siege** is a military blockade of a city or fortress. The purpose is to conquer by starvation, lack of water, or by a well-prepared assault. 

Siege warfare is a form of constant, low-intensity conflict. The defender inside has a strong, static, defensive position. Negotiation between combatants is common.

A siege happens when the attacker gets to a city or fortress which cannot be taken by storm, and which refuses to surrender. Sieges block the  supplies and reinforcements or escape of men. Siege engines, artillery bombardment, and undermining are frequent. Deception and treachery are common.

Sieges can be decided by starvation, thirst, or disease. This form of siege can take many months or even years, depending upon the size of the stores of food the fortified position holds. 

Well known sieges were:

* Siege of Petersburg
* Siege of Yorktown
* Siege of Odessa
* Siege of Orleans
* Siege of Fort Zeelandia
*Siege of Leningrad
* Siege of Tobruk
* Siege of Vicksburg
River Hull

The **River Hull** is a river in Yorkshire in the north of England.

It has its source in the Yorkshire Wolds. It joins the River Humber estuary in the centre of Kingston upon Hull.

The river separates the industrial area of the city, and several opening bridges have been constructed. These continue to cause traffic delays during high tides, though river traffic is not so heavy any more in recent years.

## Bridges 
These are the bridges in the Hull area:-
* Footbridge to *The Deep*
* Myton Bridge on Garrison Road A1033
* Drypool Bridge
* North Bridge
* Scott Street Bridge (permanently raised)
* Sculcoates Bridge (its not called Chapman Street Bridge)
* Wilmington Bridge (former railway, now footpath and cycles). Built by the North Eastern Railway in 1907.
* Hull Bridge (railway). Built by the Hull and Barnsley Railway in 1885, still used by freight trains.
* Stoneferry Bridges
* Sutton Road Bridge
* Ennerdale Link Road. The most recent bridge, replacing a failed flooded tunnel.

## Other websites 
* Driffield canal history 
* Tour of the River Hull by boat
* Google Maps Satellite View
Avenged Sevenfold

**Avenged Sevenfold** (or **A7X**) is an American heavy metal band from Huntington Beach, California, formed in 1999. The band is sometimes called "A7X", which is a title started by the band's guitarist, Zacky Vengeance.

Avenged Sevenfold's first few albums were metalcore, before the band became more hard rock/heavy metal. In December 2009, the band's drummer, The Rev, died from a drug overdose. He was 28 years old.

## Band members
*Brooks Wackerman (Drums)
*M. Shadows (Vocals)
*Zacky Vengeance (Guitar)
*Synyster Gates (Guitar)
*Johnny Christ (Bass)

## Former members
*The Rev (shortened from The Reverend Tholomew Plague) (died 2009)

*Mike Portnoy (Spring 2010- December 2010) 
*Arin Ilejay – drums (2011–2015)
*Justin Sane – bass guitar (2000–2001)
*Dameon Ash – bass guitar (2001–2002)
*Matt Wendt – bass guitar (1999–2000)

## Music 
### Extended plays 
Avenged Sevenfold has released three extended plays.
* *Warmness on the Soul*, 2001
* *Welcome To the Family*, 2011
* *Black Reign*, 2018

### Albums 
* *Sounding the Seventh Trumpet*, 2001
* *Waking the Fallen*, 2003
* *City of Evil*, 2005
* *Avenged Sevenfold*, 2007
* *Live in the LBC & Diamonds in the Rough*, 2008
* *Nightmare*, 2010
* *Hail to the King*, 2013
* *The Stage*, 2016
* *Live Is but a Dream...*, 2023

## References
Buoyancy

In physics, **buoyancy (lit: float force)** () is a force on an object making that object rise or move upward. It comes from the Spanish word for "float", *boyar*. Buoyancy is made by the difference in pressure put on the object by the Fluid or air that the object is in.

The net upward buoyancy force is equal to the magnitude of the weight of fluid that is displaced by the body. This force enables the object to float or at least to seem lighter. Buoyancy is important for many vehicles such as boats, ships, balloons, and blimps.  

## Density
If the object has exactly the same density as the liquid, then its buoyancy is the same as its weight. It will not sink or float.

If the object has a higher average density than the liquid, then its buoyancy is less than its weight. It will sink. That is why pebbles do not float. 

If the object has a lower average density than the liquid, then its buoyancy is greater than its weight. That is why, although a ship may be made of steel which is more dense than water, it floats because it encloses a volume of air and the resulting shape has an average density less than that of the water.

## Related pages 
* Submarine
* Thrust

## Other websites  
*Falling in Water (Animation 1) 
*Falling in Water (Animation 2) 
*Falling in Water
Hull (watercraft)

A **hull** is the body of a ship or boat. It is a central concept in floating vessels as it provides the buoyancy that keeps the vessel from sinking.

## General features
Almost all watercraft, from small boats to the largest ships, have a general form that is necessary for  stability and efficient propulsion, which includes:
* horizontal cross-sections that have narrow, usually pointed, fronts (at the bow), 
* smooth widening from the bow until roughly the middle of the length (midships), and often narrowing smoothly but usually significantly to the extreme end (the stern).

* A keel may be fitted on a hull to increase the transverse stability (if filled with a heavy weight), directional stability or to create lift as in a sail boat . 
* Control devices such as a rudder, trim tabs or stabilizing fins may be fitted.

## How does it float? 
Archimedes, a Greek doctor, inventor, and mathematician, made the science of "hydrostatics", the study of liquids and pressure. The Archimedes principle says that the force holding up an object that is inside a liquid in part or totally is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object. So, a ship would sink, unless it moves an amount of water that is the same weight of the weight of the ship. The weight must be over a wide area to work. This explains why ships and boats (including submarines) float. An object's weight pulls down in the direction of gravity, but the water's buoyant (floating) force pushes it up. Because these forces  each other, the object seems to have no weight. NASA uses this principle to prepare their astronauts for the weightlessness of space, so they had the astronauts work on parts of the space ship inside water tanks 25 feet (7.6 m) deep.
::* draft (**d**) or (**T**) is the vertical distance from the bottom of the hull to the waterline.
::* Freeboard (**FB**) is **depth** plus the height of the keel structure minus **draft**.
:***Form Derivatives** that are calculated from the shape and the Block Measures.  They are:
::* Volume (**V**) is the volume of water displaced by the hull.
::* Displacement (**Δ**) is the weight of water equivalent to the immersed volume of the hull.
::* Longitudinal Centre of Buoyancy (**LCB**) is the longitudinal distance from a point of reference (often Midships) to the centre of the displaced volume of water when the hull is not moving.  The Longitudinal Centre of Gravity or centre of the weight of the vessel must align with the LCB when the hull is in equilibrium.
::* Vertical Centre of Buoyancy (**VCB**) is the vertical distance from a point of reference (often the Baseline) to the centre of the displaced volume of water when the hull is not moving.
::* Longitudinal Centre of Floatation (**LCF**) is the longitudinal distance from a point of reference (often Midships) to the centre of the area of waterplane when the hull is not moving.

## Related pages
*Ship
*Submarine

## References 
## Other websites 
*Nautical terms for the parts of sailing vessels 
*Description of hydrostatics and coefficients
Hull

A **hull** can be:
* Husk or hull, the outer covering of a fruit or vegetable
* Hull (watercraft), the body or frame of a ship
* The main body of an armored tank
* in economics, the Hull-White model of interest rates

In **mathematics**:
* the affine hull in affine geometry
* the convex hull in geometry
* Carathéodory's theorem for convex hulls
* the holomorphically convex hull in complex analysis
* the injective hull of a module
* the Skolem hull of mathematical logic

Other **places**:
* Kingston upon Hull (Usually abbreviated to Hull), a city in England named after the River Hull.
* Hull, a former city in Québec, Canada (now part of the city of Gatineau)
* Orona, an island in Kiribati was formerly called Hull Island.
* Hull, Tuscaloosa County, Alabama, USA
* Hull, Walker County, Alabama, USA
* Hull, Florida, USA
* Hull, Georgia, USA
* Hull, Illinois, USA
* Hull, Iowa, USA
* Hull, Massachusetts, USA
* Hull, Minnesota, USA
* Hull, North Dakota, USA
* Hull, Ohio, USA
* Hull, Texas, USA
* Hull, West Virginia, USA
* Hull, Marathon County, Wisconsin, USA
* Hull, Portage County, Wisconsin, USA

There are several **people named Hull**:
* Hull, Blair, an American businessman and politician,
* Hull, Bobby, a former Canadian ice hockey player
* Hull, Brett, a former Canadian ice hockey player, and son of Bobby Hull
* Hull, Cordell, United States Secretary of State from 1933 to 1944 under Franklin Delano Roosevelt, and the recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1945
* Hull, Isaac, Early United States Naval officer, Captain of the USS Constitution during the battle with HMS Guerriere
* Hull, John, a Professor of Derivatives and Risk Management at the University of Toronto
* Hull, Merlin, Congressman
* Hull, William, an American general during the American Revolutionary War and War of 1812.

There is also:
* Hull House, Settlement house in Chicago, Illinois
* River Hull, for which Kingston upon Hull is named
* Hull City A.F.C., an English football (soccer) team
* Hull RLFC, rugby league club formed in 1865, based in the West of the City
* Hull Kingston Rovers, rugby league club formed in 1882, based in the East of the City
* The University of Hull, a university in England
* USS Hull, any of four U.S. Navy ships
Intercontinental ballistic missile

An i**ntercontinental ballistic missile** (acronym: **ICBM**) is a missile that can travel so far that it be used from one continent to another. The United States and the Soviet Union made thousands of them during the Cold War, primarily to deliver nuclear weapons.

An ICBM is guided, which means it can be controlled to hit a target, usually by an inertial guidance system. The missile carries a warhead, which is usually a nuclear weapon but may be also a chemical or biological weapon. It can be launched from a large bunker called a "missile silo" in the ground or underwater from a submarine. Some of them can be launched from large ground vehicles.

## References
## Other websites 
* Intercontinental Ballistic Missile -Citizendium
Elevation

.]]
When talking about geography the **elevation** of a certain point is how high it is compared to some reference point. Very often, the reference point is mean sea level, the level of the ocean midway between high and low tide on an average day. Most land has a positive elevation, which means it is above sea level. A few desert places are below sea level, thus have negative elevation.

Sometimes elevation is measured against the center of the earth. The problem there is that the geoid, the shape of the earth, does not really look like a ball, it is slightly squashed (an oblate spheroid). This means, that while still at mean sea level (at the equator), some points are farther away from the center of the earth than others. That way the peak of Chimborazo, a volcano in Ecuador is farther away from the center of the earth than the peak of Mount Everest. Yet, Mount Everest is higher above sea level.

## Related pages 
* Altitude
Bastila Shan

**Bastila Shan** is a character from the *Star Wars* universe.

Bastila Shan was born in the year 3,979 BBY. She is the daughter of Helena Shan and an unknown treasure hunter who joined the Jedi Order. She became a valuable member to the Jedi Order despite her young age due to her mastery of Battle Meditation. During the Jedi Civil War, she was responsible for the capture of Darth Revan, with whom she fell in love. 

After the amnesic Darth Revan was given an entirely new identity, they worked together for a long time, searching for the Star Forge. 

After Revan learnt of his true identity she was captured and tortured by Darth Malak and turned to the dark side. During a confrontation, she tried to persuade the redeemed Revan to return to the dark side and reclaim his rightful place. After being rejected and forced to flee to the Star Forge, Bastila confronted Revan again and lost. She begged him to kill her, but he refused and used the power of their love to bring her back to the light and help the Republic in the Battle of Rakata Prime. 

She later married Revan and soon had a child called Vaner. When Revan left to stop a war he was sure was coming, she stayed behind to look after her child. She is also one of the surviving Jedi to survive the purge that followed it. She died of old age.
Kraft Foods

**Kraft Foods** () is a business that makes packaged food. They own Oscar Mayer. It was started in 2012 as a spin-off of Mondelez. It was bought by H.J. Heinz in 2015.

## Other websites 
* Kraft Corporate Website 	
* Kraft Foods Inc. Fact Sheet from Hoover's