open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Scorpion

**Scorpions** are eight legged venomous arachnids of the order **Scorpiones**. They have a long body with an extended tail with a sting. The average adult scorpion is about  in length. The longest scorpion is the *Gigantometrus swammerdami* (*Giant forest scorpion*) from India, which can be  long. There are about 1,750 species of scorpions worldwide.

The evolutionary history of scorpions goes back to the Silurian, 430 million years ago. They have adapted to a wide range of environments, and live on all continents except Antarctica. There are 13 living families. Only about 25 species have venom which can kill a human being.

## Anatomy 
They have eight legs and a pair of grasping pedipalps (like claws). The tail is narrow, with segments. It usually has a forward curve over the back, ending with a venomous stinger.

Their body is in three parts. The front section is the *cephalothorax*; the abdomen is called the *mesosoma*, and the tail is the *metasoma*. The body is covered by an exoskeleton which gives them good protection.

## Survival in the desert 
Scorpions have many ways to survive in the desert. They can slow down their metabolism. This allows them to survive on as little as one insect per year. This ability also allows them to shelter from the sun and heat for extended periods of time, using only little amounts of oxygen. 
Many people also believe that their claws, or pincers, were once front legs that have turned into what they now are by going through evolution. Nevertheless, the scorpions' claws play a crucial part in their hunting and mating rituals.
Scorpions also possess a special, feather-like pair of organs, called pectines that they use to sense even the smallest of movements around them. This allows them to effectively track down and hunt their prey, either above or below the surface. This also warns them of possible , such as other bigger hunters.
The scorpion’s most feared and recognized feature is its sting. The sting contains a neurotoxin, which the scorpion uses to paralyze the victim, so it would be easier to kill and eat. They also stay hidden under rocks and that makes their body temperature cool.

## Breeding cycle 
The mating ritual of scorpions begins when the male and female connect claws. After this they verify that the other scorpion is of the same species, and is the opposite gender. After this, the male leads the female around until it finds a suitable spot to deposit its spermatophore. Once the male has found a suitable spot, he guides the female over it, where it enters her and fertilizes her. The mating ritual can take anywhere between 1 and 26 hours, depending on the male’s ability to find a suitable spot. Only a scorpion that has reached maturity may go through the mating ritual. A scorpion reaches maturity after it has gone through 5 to 7 moults.

## Related pages 
*Arachnid
*Desert scorpion

## References
Transcontinental country

A **transcontinental country** is a country that is in more than one continent.
## Examples 
**Africa and Asia**
* Egypt, though the vast majority lives in Africa, and mostly around the Nile, and few people live in the Sinai Peninsula, which is in Asia. 
* Yemen, though most its territory is located in Asia, the island of Socotra is geographically located in Africa. 

**Africa and Europe**
* Spain, because the exclaves of Ceuta and Melilla are in mainland Africa and the Canary Islands are part of the African continental plate.
* Italy, most of Italy is in Europe but the Pelagie Islands are geographically located in Africa.
* Portugal, most of Portugal is in Europe but the archipelago of Madeira is geographically located in Africa.

**Asia and Europe**
*Azerbaijan
*Greece
*Georgia
*Kazakhstan
*Russia
*Turkey

**Asia and Oceania**
*Indonesia, controlling large islands in Oceania.
*Australia, the Christmas Island and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands are in Asia.

**America and Oceania**
*United States, because Hawaii is in Oceania.

**America, Oceania and Antarctica**
*Chile, because Easter Island is a province in Oceania and Chilean Antarctic is a claimed (but not officially accepted) territory in Antarctica.

**Oceania and Antarctica**
*Australia,  Australian Antarctic Territory is a territory in Antarctica.
*New Zealand,  Ross Dependency is a territory in Antarctica.

**Europe and America**
*France Saint Barthélemy, Martinique, Guadeloupe, and French Guiana (France)
*Iceland, divided between the Americas and Eurasia by the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.

**Europe, Africa, and America**
* France, because Réunion and Mayotte are regions of France.
* Portugal, because Madeira is part of the African continental plate and the westernmost islands of Corvo and Flores in the Azores are part of the North American continental plate.

## References
Gilbert and Ellice Islands

of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands, 1939]]
The **Gilbert and Ellice Islands** were a British protectorate from 1892 and colony from 12 January 1916. They are formed from two groups of islands in the Pacific Ocean. On 1 January 1976 the islands were split into two different colonies that became independent states. The Gilbert Islands have been the biggest part of the nation of Kiribati since 1979, and the Ellice Islands became Tuvalu in 1978.
1216

## Events 
 dies.]]
* April 10 – Eric X of Sweden dies. He is succeeded by Johan Sverkersson.
* April – Prince Louis of France, the future King Louis VIII, invades England in the First Barons' War
* July 24 – Ascension of Pope Honorius III; in the same year, he officially recognises the Order of Preachers (the Dominican Order)
* October 19 – Henry III becomes King of England, after the death of King John of England.
* Dresden, Germany becomes a city
* Ballintubber Abbey is founded by King Cathal Crovdearg O'Connor of Connaught in Ireland.

## Births 
* Eric IV of Denmark (d. 1250)
* September 17 – Robert I, Count of Artois (d. 1250)

## Deaths 
 1172-1216]]
* Shota Rustaveli, Georgian poet (b. 1172)
* April 10 – King Eric X of Sweden (b. 1180)
* June 11 – Henry of Flanders, Emperor of the Latin Empire (b. 1174)
* July 16 – Pope Innocent III (b. 1161)
* October 19 – King John of England (b. 1167)
Casablanca

**Casablanca** (classical Arabic name: **الدار البيضاء**, "the white house"; Spanish:**Casablanca**, "whitehouse") is a city in western Morocco, on the Atlantic Ocean. 

With 2.95 million people (September 2004 census), Casablanca is Morocco's biggest city.

Casablanca has a Mediterranean Climate with hot dry summers and wet rainy winters.
## Education 
* EMLYON Business School
* Toulouse Business School

## References
## Other websites 
* Official web site of Casablanca
Computability theory

**Computability theory** is part of computer science. Scientists want to know what can be computed, and what can not. 

There is a model of a computer that is used for this. It is called the Turing machine. A Turing machine basically is a special typewriter with an endless ribbon. The machine is named after the mathematician Alan Turing.

A problem is *computable* if it can be expressed in such a way that a Turing machine can solve it. 

One of the best known examples is the Halting problem. The task is to write a program which says for all programs whether they will finally stop. This is impossible to decide. Mathematicians say the problem is undecidable.
Flatulence

**Flatulence** (commonly known as **Farting** or **passing gas**)  is when gas leaves the anus. This sometimes happens with a sound that can be  to some people, but in some cultures it is treated like humor. The word flatulence comes from the Latin word *flatus*, which means  or , but people today usually call it . Children normally pass gas *30* *times* a day as their digestive system is not fully developed. Adults on the other hand only let wind approximately 15 times a day.

In mammals like humans, the gases come from two sources: swallowed air (for example, while eating, talking or drinking) and gases naturally created by bacteria in the body during digestion. Of the gases that come out during flatulence, most of it is nitrogen (which has the chemical formula N2 and makes up between 21% to 89% of all the gases), followed by hydrogen (H₂), carbon dioxide (CO2), oxygen (O2) and methane (CH4).

## References
## Other websites
*7 Easy Ways to Tame Excessive Gas
Batman (city)

**Batman** is a city in southeast Turkey. It is the capital (city) of the province with the same name. In 2010, 325,000 people lived there. There are many Kurds in that area. The area has much oil and gas.

There is a railway track at Kurtalan, near this city. The track runs all the way to Istanbul. There is also an airport near Batman. The name is short for the Bati Raman mountains.

## Other websites 
* Batman Municipality
Rabbit

**Rabbits** and **bunnies** are mammals of the order Lagomorpha. There are about fifty different species of rabbits and hares. The order Lagomorpha is made of rabbits, pikas and hares. Rabbits can be found in many parts of the world. They live in families and eat vegetables and hay. In the wild, rabbits live in burrows, that they dig themselves. A group of rabbits living together in a burrow is called a warren. Rabbits are famous for hopping and eating carrots. 

A male rabbit is called a **buck**, and a female is called a **doe**. A baby rabbit is called a **kit**, which is short for kitten. Rabbits have a gestation period of around 31 days. The female can have up to 12-13 kits, very rarely litters as big as 18 and as small as one. When the doe gives birth her babies are collectively referred to as a litter. Some people have rabbits as pets.  Rabbits are also raised for their meat. Rabbits are of a different biological classification than hares.  

Since rabbits are prey animals, they are careful in open spaces. If they sense danger, they freeze and watch. Rabbit  has a very wide field, including overhead scanning. Their predators are foxes, wolves, coyotes, cougars, lynxes, cats, dogs, bears, raccoons, skunks, weasels, badgers, snakes, and birds of prey. People are also known to shoot rabbits, because they eat crops. Their escape method is to run for their burrow, where they are usually safe.

Rabbits have a  social structure and, like dogs, they have a hierarchy. Rabbit ears probably have several functions. The main function is to give warning of predators, but they may be used for signalling, and temperature regulation.

## Rabbits as pets 
In the wild, rabbits have plenty to keep them occupied, from foraging to reproduction to territorial defence. Captive rabbits, on the other hand, often lack stimulation. This can lead to behavioural problems and poor health. Pet rabbits often live eight to twelve years.

## References
Typewriter

A **typewriter** is a machine that is for typing on a piece of paper instead of writing by hand.  It has keys for typing letters, numbers, and symbols one at a time.  Typewriters were created in 1829.  Typewriters were originally invented to make writing faster and printing.  The earliest typing was done on stone, clay, or metal sheets by inscribing them. 

A typewriter does not have computer memory.  As with writing with a pen, it is difficult to correct mistakes.  One advantage is that many of them are not electrical, so you do not need to plug them in.  Hackers cannot see what you have typed.  On many typewriters, a separate type element (called a typebar) corresponds to each key.  The first commercial typewriters were introduced in 1874. They did not become common in offices until after the mid-1880s.     

Typewriters quickly became a necessary tool for almost all writing other than personal handwritten letters.  They were used a lot by professional writers, in offices, and for business correspondence in private homes.  Typewriters were common in most offices up to the 1980s.  After that, computers often replaced them. Nevertheless, typewriters are still common in some parts of the world. They are needed for a few specific applications, and they are popular in certain subcultures.  Early typewriters, and later cheap ones, were "manual" typewriters. This means they were powered completely by the user.  After the mid-20th century, electric typewriters with a motor became most common.   

## Related pages 
* Teletypewriter
John Schlesinger

**John Richard Schlesinger**, CBE (16 February 1926 – 25 July 2003) was a British movie director. He died of a stroke in Palm Springs, California, United States.

Schlesinger's acting career began in the 1950s. He started to direct in 1956. By the 1960s he was not acting so he could just direct. His documentary *Terminus* (1961), got a Venice Film Festival Gold Lion and a British Academy Award.  *A Kind of Loving* won the Golden Bear award at the 12th Berlin International Film Festival in 1962.  Schlesinger's movie, *Midnight Cowboy* (1969), made in the United States, was internationally successful. A story of two hustlers living on the fringe in the bad side of New York City, it was Schlesinger's first movie shot in the U.S. It won Oscars for Best Director and Best Picture. In 1996 he received the BAFTA Academy Fellowship Award, a lifetime achievement award.

## Filmography
;Feature and television movies (as Director)
* *A Kind of Loving* (1962)
* *Billy Liar* (1963)
* *Darling* (1965)
* *Far From the Madding Crowd* (1967)
* *Midnight Cowboy* (1969)
* *Sunday Bloody Sunday* (1971)
* *Visions of Eight* (1973)
* *The Day of the Locust* (1975)
* *Marathon Man* (1976)
* *Yanks* (1979)
* *Honky Tonk Freeway* (1981)
* *Privileged * (1982)
* *Separate Tables* (1983) (TV)
* *An Englishman Abroad* (1983)  (TV)
* *The Falcon and the Snowman* (1985)
* *The Believers* (1987)
* *Madame Sousatzka* (1988)
* *Pacific Heights* (1990)
* *A Question of Attribution* (1991) (TV)
* *The Innocent* (1993)
* *Cold Comfort Farm* (1995) (TV)
* *Eye for an Eye* (1996)
* *The Tale of Sweeney Todd* (1998) (TV)
* *The Next Best Thing* (2000)

## References 
## Other websites 
*
Voivodeships of Poland

A **Voivodeship** is one of 16 different divisions of land in Poland. The word comes from the Polish "*wojewoda*" meaning a governor.
50s

*This is an article about the years 50 AD to 59 AD. Sometimes, *the 50s* is used for the 1950s*.

## Events and trends 
*The Roman emperor Claudius is murdered in (54). Nero be comes emperor.
*Buddhism comes to China through the Emperor Ming of Han China

## Significant people 
*Claudius, Roman Emperor (41–54).
*Nero, Roman Emperor (54–68).
*Kujula Kadphises, Kushan emperor
*Saint Paul, Christian evangelist
*Emperor Ming of Han China

## Births 
* Juvenal, Roman poet. 
* Domitian, Emperor of Rome

## Deaths 
*Claudius, Emperor of Rome
*Agrippina the younger, mother of Nero
Nocturnal animals

s are nocturnal.]]
s are crepuscular or nocturnal.]]
s are mostly nocturnal.]]

**Nocturnal** (Latin: *nox* - night, darkness) animals are animals which are mainly active during the . They hunt or feed during the night, and sleep during the day. Diurnal animals do it the other way around.

**Crepuscular** animals are mostly active near dawn, dusk, and sometimes when the full moon throws light. Domestic cats hunt mice and voles mostly at this time.

**Cathemeral** animals are equally likely to be awake and active at any time of day or night. 

Many nocturnal animals have good night vision.  Their large eyes may be highly reflective when a bright light flashes on them. Owls and bats are typical nocturnal predators. More specifically, they have a larger cornea relative to their eye size than diurnal creatures. This increases their visual sensitivity in low-light conditions.

## Examples of nocturnal animals
*Owls
*Bats
*Hedgehogs

## References
Twilight

**Twilight** means either **dawn** or **dusk** when the Sun is below the horizon but still lights the sky.

In the morning, dawn is when it is not dark any more, and the light of the sun is just starting to appear, before sunrise. In the evening, it is the other way around and that phenomenon is called dusk. At sunset, the sun disappears, and darkness is settling in. Light fades away.

The following have been defined:
**Civil twilight* is when the sun is less than 6° below the horizon. It ends at sunrise in the morning or follows sunset in the evening.
**Nautical twilight* is when the sun is between 6° and 12° below the horizon.
**Astronomical twilight* is when the sun is between 12° and 18° below the horizon.
For all these definitions, the horizon is at sea level.

## Related pages 
*Aurora (mythology)
*Eos

## Other websites 
*Definition of Twilight , US Naval Observatory
*Twilight time calculator 
*Formulae to calculate twilight duration , by Herbert Glarner
1291

## Events 
* The Crusades end.
* Switzerland was founded.

## Births 
* February 8 – King Afonso IV of Portugal (d. 1357)
* October 31 – Philippe de Vitry, French composer (d. 1361)
* Pope Clement VI (d. 1352)
* Theodore I of Montferrat (d. 1338)
* Aimone of Savoy (d. 1343)

## Deaths 
* March 10 – Arghun, Mongol ruler
* June 18 – King Alfonso III of Aragon (b. 1265)
* June 26 – Eleanor of Provence, queen of Henry III of England
* July 15 – Rudolph I of Germany, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1218)
* Hong Dagu, Korean military leader (b. 1244)
* Talabuga, khan of the Blue Horde
Czestochowa

**Częstochowa** is a city in south Poland on the Warta River. It has 248,894 residents. It has been in the Silesian Voivodeship (administrative division) since 1999, and was once the capital of Częstochowa Voivodship (1975-1998).

The town is known for the famous monastery of Jasna Góra Monastery, which is the home of the Black Madonna painting, a shrine of the Virgin Mary. Every year, thousands of people from all over the world come to Częstochowa to see it. 

## City name 
The name **Częstochowa** means Częstoch's place, and comes from the name of a person, Częstoch. It is mentioned in medieval documents also as Częstobor and Częstomir. Częstochowa is also known as Czestochowa, Czenstochov, and Chenstochov.

## Tourism 
Currently, the city is one of the main tourist attractions in the area. It attracts hundreds of thousands of visitors every year.
The Black Madonna of Częstochowa, kept at the Jasna Góra Monastery, is a very popular attraction.
Delhi

**Delhi** (;  *Dillī*;  *Dillī*;  *Dēhlī*), officially the **National Capital Territory of Delhi** (**NCT**), is a city and territory in India. It includes the country's capital New Delhi. It covers an area of . It is bigger than the Scandinavian territory of the Faroe Islands but smaller than the Caribbean island of Guadeloupe. Delhi is a part of the National Capital Region, which has 12.5 million people living there. The governance of Delhi is like that of a state in India, since it has its own legislature, high court, and a council of executive ministers. Delhi is a part of Punjab region. 

Delhi is on the banks of the Yamuna River. Historians have evidence that people have been living in this region since at least the 6th century BC. People also believe that the legendary city of Indraprastha was here. This city has many remains and monuments of historic importance.

The India Gate is a war memorial in Delhi. Following the Bangladesh Liberation war in 1972, a structure consisting of a black marble plinth with a reversed rifle, capped by a war helmet and bounded by four eternal flames, was built beneath the archway. This structure, called Amar Jawan Jyoti (Flame of the Immortal Soldier), has since 1971 served as India's tomb of the unknown soldier. 

The largest gotra of Brahmin caste in Delhi is Jamdagni in 2023.

Delhi was described as the most polluted city in the world in 2023. The air quality index, which measures levels of deadly pollutants such as very small particles known as PM2.5, is often above 400. People who live there would have a life expectancy 12 years longer if the pollution was cut to meet World Health Organization guidelines.

## References
## Other websites 
* Nightlife in Delhi
* https://newstaza.com  newstaza
Friendship

**Friendship** means familiarity with and liking of each other's mind.

People who are friends talk to each other and spend time . They trust one another and also help each other when they are in  or are hurt. Friends are people that can be looked up to and trusted. Friends usually have similar interests. A friend is one who  another person.

The strength of the bond of friendship between two people can vary. If the bond is very strong, they are called best friends.

There are expectations, demands, and complaints in friendship too. If friends do not match your expectations, it does not mean you will break the friendship. It is all about understanding, realizing, and helping whenever possible.

Friendship is both good and bad. Generally, it is only people of similar age, character, and background, mentality, etc., who can understand the problems of another person. Friends are needed for support and for sharing.

There are many different types of friendships. Most people find friends at a young age. Some do not have friends until much later in life, others will never make friends in their lifetime. Friendships can end. Friends leaving can be caused by differences in opinion or not talking to each other for a long time.

Many movies and TV shows are based on people making friends. An example of a friendship would be that of Sierra, Olivia, Emma, Langli, and Mallory in the movie Eight grade Whittier.

The word *Friendship* is also the official motto of Texas.

## Related pages
* Platonic love
* Cross-sex friendship

## Other websites
Friendship facts by RoastedBook.com
Łódź

**Łódź** () is the third-largest city in Poland. As of 2022, 411,310 people reside within the city. It is in central Poland, contained within the lodz voivodeship. In native polish, the name alludes to  "boat". The mayor of Łódź is Hanna Zdanowska.

## History 
The first documents mentioning the city date from 1332. Łódź was awarded city rights (according to the Magdeburg law) in 1432. The Congress of Vienna decided in 1815 that the city should be part of Russia. Only in 1918 did the city fall back to Poland.

## Geography 
The city is about 120 km south-west of Warsaw. In and around the city, there are some textile and electronics industries. Because of prolonged economic difficulties, there has been a decline in the population of the city. The city has a university and a film academy. Łódź has a humid continental climate (*Dfb* in  the Koeppen climate classification). 

## Sports 
There are two major football teams in Łódź: the first is called ŁKS Łódź and the second is Widzew Łódź.

## Images 

Image:Aleksander-Newski Lodz 2006.jpg|Alexander Newski (Orthodox) Cathedral
Image:Rynek S Miasta Lodz.jpg|Old Market square
Image:Lodz manufaktura 01.jpg|"Manufaktura" Shopping Centre in post- industrial style.

## Notable residents 
*Grażyna Bacewicz, composer
*Max Factor, Sr., businessman, founder of the Max Factor cosmetics company
*Piotr Fronczewski, Polish actor
*Marcin Gortat, NBA basketball player for the Phoenix Suns
*Roman Polanski, cinema director, Oscar and Golden Palm winner
*Władysław Reymont, writer, Nobel Prize winner
*Paweł Rogaliński, journalist
*Artur Rubinstein, pianist, settled
*Julian Tuwim, poet
*Miś Uszatek, cartoon character
*Marek Saganowski, football player
*Adam Ostrowski, better known as O.S.T.R., rapper
Kraków

]]
]]
]]
**Kraków** (pronounced: ; in full **Royal Capital City of Krakow**, ) is one of the oldest and largest cities in Poland. In 2014, 759,800 people lived in Kraków. It is on the Vistula river. Krakow is the capital of Lesser Poland Voivodeship (*województwo małopolskie*); before that it was the capital of Kraków Voivodship (since 14th century).

During the mid-early 19th century, Krakow became an independent city-state, under the name of "The Free, Independent and Strictly Neutral City of Krakow". However, it was annexed by Austria-Hungary in 1846.

Pope John Paul II was raised in Krakow and was its archbishop from 1964 until he was elected as Pope in 1978. When it was later announced that the city will host World Youth Day in 2016, it will be a tribute to the late Pope who became a saint in 2014.

From 2002 to 2024, the mayor of the city was Jacek Majchrowski. His successor was Aleksander Miszalski.

During World War II, there was once a ghetto in the city which held mostly the Jews of Kraków. The ghetto was liquidated for the final time in March 1943, with most of its inhabitants sent to the Treblinka extermination camp.

## Sister cities
Kraków is twinned, or maintains close relations with:

## Related pages 
*Trams in Kraków

## Other websites 
* Official website of the city
Broadway

**Broadway** is a -long main street in New York City. It is different from other streets in that it runs diagonally across the street grid of Manhattan, diagonally crossing newer streets. The street also goes through the Bronx. It continues north as U.S. Route 9 to Albany, the capital of New York State.

Times Square, where Broadway meets 7th Avenue and 42nd Street, is a center of entertainment and is famous for its many Broadway theatres and stage plays.  

One of the New York City Subway lines, the BMT Broadway Line, runs under the street in Manhattan, south of Times Square. The IRT Broadway - Seventh Avenue Line runs under Broadway, north of Times Square.
Frame of reference

In physics, a **frame of reference**, or **reference frame**, is a perspective that one uses to determine if an object is moving. A frame of reference consists of an object or environment that is considered to be stationary. Typically the observer is at rest in the reference frame; in this context, the term is "**observational frame of reference**."

For example, when you see a ball roll down a street, you can tell the ball is moving because the frame of reference is the streets, whatever may be on the side of the roads, or the Earth. All of these are frames of reference.

All measurements of motion will be compared to a frame of reference. Therefore, the most commonly used frame of reference is Earth itself, even though it moves. Stars are used as a frame of reference when discussing the motions of the Earth.

When we walk from one side of a ship to the other, our frame of reference is the ship; whether the ship is moving is not relevant to that frame of reference.

## Inertial frame of reference 
An inertial frame of reference is a frame that is either not moving or moving at a constant velocity. In other words, an inertial frame of reference has no net force acting upon it, and therefore Newton's laws of motion are observed.

Inertial reference frames are often used in general relativity and special relativity to describe relative motion of observers or objects and the effects they will endure.

Inertial frames of reference are useful in everyday life as well. For example, consider a situation where two cars are traveling along a road. See Figure 1. If they are separated by a distance of 100 meters, the car in the black is moving at 10 meters per second and the car in front is moving at 5 meters per second, both relative to the ground.

There are three obvious inertial reference frames that can be used to determine when the cars will be even with each other: one where the back car is not moving but the front car is moving backwards at 5&nbsp;m/s, one where the front car is stationary and the back car is moving forward at 5&nbsp;m/s, or one where the ground is not moving and the cars are moving at their given velocities. These three perspectives all describe the situation accurately and are physically identical.
Nutmeg

**Nutmeg** (*Myristica fragrans*) is a species of evergreen tree in the genus *Myristica*. It is found in tropical Southeast Asia and Australia.

Nutmeg powder can  cause allergic reactions.
Portland, Oregon

**Portland** is the largest city in the U.S. state of Oregon. It is the county seat of Multnomah County. As of 2020, about 652,503 people live in the city of Portland, and about 2.5 million people live in the city's metropolitan area. It is in the northern Oregon, where the Willamette River meets the Columbia River. Portland has the second most people of any city in the Northwest United States, after the city of Seattle.

Portland has many nicknames. One of these is "The City of Roses," because roses grow well there. Some other nicknames of Portland are "Stumptown" (because Portland was built over a forest), and "Puddletown" (because it often rains in Portland).

Many things are from Portland. Some of these things are Powell's Books, Beverly Cleary (and some of her most popular fictional characters, Henry Huggins and Ramona Quimby, which also have statues in the city's *Beverly Cleary Sculpture Garden for Children*), and the Portland Trail Blazers basketball team.

## References
Run (island)

**Pulau Run** is an island in Indonesia. It is one of the smallest Islands of the Banda Islands. It is about 3&nbsp;km long and less than 1&nbsp;km wide.

It used to be of great importance, because of the value of the spices nutmeg and *mace*. Both spices are from the same tree. The trees were only grown on the Banda Islands.  During the history of the spice trade sailors of the British East India Company of the second expedition of James Lancaster, John Davis and John Middleton who stayed in Bantam on Java first reached the Island in 1603. They made good contacts with the people who lived there.

Two wars were fought over the extremely costly spices.

The Treaty of Westminster ended the First Anglo-Dutch War of 1652–1654. According to the treaty, Run should have been returned to England. The first attempt in 1660 failed due to formal constraints by the Dutch; after the second in 1665 the English traders were expelled in the same year and the Dutch destroyed the nutmeg trees.

After the second Anglo-Dutch War of 1665–1667 England and the United Provinces of the Netherlands agreed in the Treaty of Breda to the status quo: The English kept the island of Manhattan which a fleet sent by the Duke of York (the future Charles II), had occupied illegally in 1664 and renamed from New Amsterdam to New York. Run was officially given to the Dutch.

The Dutch monopoly on nutmeg and mace was destroyed by the transfer of nutmeg trees to Ceylon, Singapore and other British colonies in 1817 after the capture of the main Island Bandalontor in 1810 by Captain Cole. This led to the decline of the Dutch supremacy in the spice trade, but there are still nutmeg trees growing on Run today.

## Further reading 
* Milton, Giles.  ''Nathaniel's Nutmeg: or the True and Incredible Adventures of the Spice Trader Who Changed the Course of History''.  Penguin, 1999.  ()
Shinty

**Shinty** a traditional game now mainly played in the Scottish Highlands. It involves 2 teams of twelve players using a stick (known as a "caman" from Scottish Gaelic) to put a ball in the opposing team's net.

It was once played over all Scotland but is now played mostly in the Scottish Highlands and Highland communities in the big Scottish cities. It is also played in universities and in America by enthusiasts.

The sport's rules and regulations are decided by the Camanachd Association.

It has a common ancestor with the Irish game of hurling and hurlers and shinty players sometimes hold internationals.

## Other websites 
* An Interesting Site about the Sport 
* The Camanachd Association website.
1229

## Events 
* February 18 – The Sixth Crusade: Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor signs a ten-year truce with al-Kamil, regaining Jerusalem, Nazareth, and Bethlehem with neither military engagements nor support from the papacy.
* March 18 – Sixth Crusade of Emperor Frederick II ends in truce with Sultan al-Kamil and coronation of Frederick as King of Jerusalem.
* Catalans capture island of Majorca from Muslims.
* University of Paris strike of 1229.
* Foundation of the University of Toulouse in Toulouse, France.
* Founding of the city of Turku, Finland.
## Births 
*
*
*
## Deaths 
* January 17 – Albert of Buxhoeveden, German soldier
* Yaqut al-Hamawi, Arab biographer and geographer (born 1179)
European Central Bank

The **European Central Bank** (**ECB**) is the central bank for the euro. It administers the monetary policy of the eurozone, which is 19 EU member states and is one of the largest currency areas in the world. It is one of the world's most important central banks and is one of the seven institutions of the European Union  listed in the Treaty on European Union. The capital stock of the bank is owned by the central banks of all 28 EU member states. The Treaty of Amsterdam established the bank in 1998. Its  headquarters is in Frankfurt, Germany.  the President of the ECB is Mario Draghi, former governor of the Bank of Italy, former member of the World Bank, and former managing director of the Goldman Sachs international division (2002–2005). 

The primary objective of the ECB, mandated in Article 2 of the Statute of the ECB, is to maintain price stability within the Eurozone. Its basic tasks, set out in Article 3 of the Statute, are to set and implement the monetary policy for the Eurozone, to conduct foreign exchange operations, to take care of the foreign reserves of the European System of Central Banks and operation of the financial market infrastructure under the TARGET2 payments system and the technical platform  for settlement of securities in Europe. The ECB has, under Article 16 of its Statute, the exclusive right to authorise euro banknotes. Member states can issue euro coins, but the amount must be authorised by the ECB beforehand.

The ECB is governed by European law directly. Its set-up is like that of a corporation in the sense that the ECB has shareholders and stock capital. Its capital is €11 billion held by the national central banks of the member states as shareholders. The initial capital allocation key was determined in 1998 on the basis of the states' population and GDP, but the capital key has been adjusted. Shares in the ECB are not transferable and cannot be used as collateral.

The **European Central Bank** is the main bank of the European Union. The main goal of the European Central Bank is to maintain price stability, in other words make sure inflation is below 2%. This is done by controlling the interest rates. 

Presidents:
# Wim Duisenberg (from the Netherlands): 1998-2003
# Jean-Claude Trichet (from France): 2003-2011
# Mario Draghi (from Italy): 2011-2019
# Christine Lagarde (from France): 2019-present

## References
Hexahedron

A **hexahedron** (plural: hexahedra) is any polyhedron with six faces. A cube, for example, is a regular hexahedron with all its faces square, and three squares around each vertex.

There are seven topologically distinct *convex* hexahedra, one of which exists in two mirror image forms. (Two polyhedra are "topologically distinct" if they have intrinsically different arrangements of faces and vertices, such that it is impossible to distort one into the other simply by changing the lengths of edges or the angles between edges or faces.)

There are three further topologically distinct hexahedra that can only be realised as *concave* figures:

## Related pages
*Prismatoid

## References
## Other websites
*Polyhedra with 4-7 Faces  by Steven Dutch
54

**54** is a common year in the 1st century.

## Events 
*October 13 – Roman Emperor Claudius dies after being poisoned by Agrippina, his wife and niece.
*Nero succeeds Claudius as emperor of Roman Empire
*Patriarch Onesimus succeeds Stachys the Apostle as Patriarch of Constantinople.
*Judea is returned piecemeal to Agrippa I's son Marcus Julius Agrippa between 48 and 54.
*Saint Paul begins his third mission.
*Apollos, a later assistant of Paul, is converted to Christianity in  Ephesus
*Maiden Castle, Dorset in Dorset was captured from the Celtic Durotriges by Vespasian.
1627

## Events
* July 22 – English under the Duke of Buckingham invade the Ré Island in support of the Huguenots in La Rochelle. The invasion does not go well.
* A Dutch ship makes the first recorded sighting of the coast of South Australia.

* The aurochs are hunted to extinction, the last being killed by poachers in Poland.
* England places the first European settlers on Barbados.
* Siege of La Rochelle begins
* Korea becomes a tributary state of China
1626

## Events 
* September 30 – Nurhaci, chieftain of the Jurchens and founder of the Qing Dynasty dies and is succeeded by his son Huang Taiji.
* November 18 – The new St Peter's Basilica in the Vatican is consecrated, the anniversary of that of the previous church in 326.
* Spanish establish a trading colony on Taiwan.
* Peter Minuit, director of the New Netherland colony, begins a policy of "purchasing" Manhattan from the Lenape.
* Work begins on building the sailing ship Vasa.
* The Duchy of Urbino is incorporated into the Papal States.
* The English Parliament impeach George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, favorite of Charles I of England.
* Charles I dissolves Parliament.
* The Dutch settle Manhattan, founding the town of New Amsterdam. The town would transform into a piece of what is now New York City.
* In New England, the Town (later City) of Salem, Massachusetts is founded at Naumkeag
1072

## Events 
* William I of England invades Scotland, and also receives the submission of Hereward the Wake.
* Osbern FitzOsbern becomes Bishop of Exeter.
* January 10 – Normans conquer Palermo in Sicily.
1263

## Events 
* October – King Alexander III of Scotland defeats the Viking armada of King Haakon IV of Norway in the Battle of Largs.
* King James I of Aragon conquers Crevillente, Spain from the Moors during the Reconquista.
* Mindaugas, the only Christian king of Lithuania, is assassinated by his cousin Treniota.
* The chieftains of the eastern part of Iceland become the last to pledge fealty to the Norwegian king, bringing a more complete end to the Icelandic Commonwealth and the Icelandic civil war.
* Genoa captures the city of Chania on Crete from the Venetians.
* Hulagu Khan is defeated in an attempted invasion north of the Caucasus.
* Based on Magdeburg Law Żnin (Poland) was given city rights
48

**48** is a year in the 1st century. It was a leap year starting on Monday  of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Vitellius and Poplicola**.

## Events 
* Roman Emperor Claudius makes Agrippa II superintendent of the Temple in Jerusalem
* Probable date of the Apostolic Council
* The Silures, with the help of Caratacus, revolt against the Romans in Britain.
* The Hsiung-nu empire ends
* Gallic nobles are admitted to the Roman Senate

## Births 
* Ts'ai Lun, inventor of paper (d. 121)
* Ulpia Marciana, sister of emperor Trajan (d. 112)

## Deaths 
* Valeria Messalina, third wife of emperor Claudius
* Pompey - military and political leader of Roman Republic
1641

## Events 
*The Long Parliament passes a series of laws written to help keep Charles I's absolutist policies.
* August 10 – Charles I of England runs from London to the north
* Irish Rebellion of 1641 – revolt of the Gaelic Irish in Ulster against the English settlers
*The Dutch found a trading colony on Dejima, near Nagasaki, Japan.
*Portugal is ousted from Malacca by the Dutch.
*Claudio Monteverdi's opera ''Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria'' is first performed.
*Moses Amyraut's ''De l'elevation de la foy et de l'abaissement de la raison en la creance des mysteres de la religion'' is published.
*The Norwegian city of Kristiansand was founded by King Christian IV
1244

## Events 
* Dogen Zenji establishes the Eiheiji temple in Japan, in doing so founding the Soto sect of Zen Buddhism.
* Sultan Malik al-Muattam razes city walls.
* James I of Aragon reconquers Altea, Spain.
Manx

The word **Manx** could mean many things related to the Isle of Man:

* The Manx language, also known as Manx or Manx Gaelic
* The Manx people, an ethnic group in the Isle of Man 
* The Manx cat, a domestic cat breed
* The Manx Shearwater, a seabird
* The Manx Pound, the currency of the Isle of Man
* Manx cattle, Manx horse, Manx pig and Manx sheepdog, some extinct animals from the Isle of Man
* Manx Radio, the national radio station of the Isle of Man
1264

## Events 
* Before May – Second Barons' War, a civil war in England, begins.
* May 12 to May 14 – The Battle of Lewes of the Second Barons' War is fought between Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester and King Henry III of England in Sussex. By the end of the battle, de Montfort's forces capture both King Henry and his brother, future King Edward I, making de Montfort the "uncrowned king of England" for 15 months before Edward escapes captivity and recaptures the throne.
* June 18 – The Parliament of Ireland meets at Castledermot in County Kildare, the first definitively known meeting of this Irish legislature.
* In Spain, King James I of Aragon reconquers the cities of Orihuela in Alicante and Elx in Valencia from the Moors, ending over 500 years of Islamic rule.
* The Thuringian War of Succession ends.
* The state of Hesse gains its independence from Thuringia and becomes a free state of the Holy Roman Empire.
* In the Peerage of England, the title Baron de Ros, the oldest continuously held peerage title in England, is created by writ of summons.

## Births 
* May 26 – Prince Koreyasu, Japanese shogun (died 1326)
* Pope Clement V (died 1314)

## Deaths
Hierarchy

A **hierarchy** (in ; this comes from '**-hieros, sacred, and **'-arkho, rule) is a way of ranking and organizing  or . Beneath the top of the hierarchy, each part of it is below some other part. This turns out to be like a pyramid. It is a system to decide who can make decisions, and who is forced to comply with those decisions.

An example with people would be the structure of a company. There is the top manager, and there are a few levels of middle and lower management. At the bottom are the common workers. Another example would be an army that might have a general, followed by colonels, corporals, and sergeants, then privates.

In democracy this is done by educating people in the issues and then voting - in an election to choose leaders, or a referendum to actually choose one option from several. Competing power networks each form a political party and each offers only one leader or one option to the public, to simplify the issues to make decisions possible. After the decision, they typically do not fight it to the point of civil war, but wait for the next election.

In dictatorship this is done by asking one powerful person to make the decision and then agreeing to force everyone to follow it. Any who will not are exiled, imprisoned, or killed, even if the decision is not very important, since the refusal to follow is taken as a challenge to the power structure itself. There is only one power network and all others are forced to become part of it, or fight it. Civil war is much more common in a dictatorship than in a democracy.

In these examples, people who are higher up have more authority and power than people below them.

## Related pages
* Anarchism
* Social class
States and union territories of India

The Republic of India is divided into twenty-eight States and eight union territories, including the National Capital Territory.

## States and capitals 
## Union territories and capitals
## Related pages
*List of states and union territories of India by area
*List of state and union territory capitals in India
Sultan

Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent]]
**Sultan** is a title of Arabic origin for Islamic rulers who are monarchs. The title often  to that of a king.

The word *sultan* comes from the Arabic language. It means "strength", "authority", or "rulership". Later, it came to be used as the title of certain Muslim rulers who claimed full sovereignty. They did not have to take orders from any higher monarch, without claiming the overall caliphate. There is no specific word for a sultan's wife in Arabic. The word, *sultana* began to be used (as the feminine version of the Italian word for *sultano*) in the 16th century in Italy, to describe the  wife, mother, daughter, or concubine of a sultan. The Italian word also passed to other European languages.

The dynasty and lands ruled by the Sultan is called a sultanate, which corresponds to a kingdom. During the 20th century, several Sultans in the Arab world changed their title to "Malik", which means "king" in Arabic.
1645

## Events
* January 10 – Archbishop of Canterbury William Laud executed for treason on Tower Hill, London.
* January 14 – English Civil War: Fairfax appointed Commander-in-Chief.
* January 29 – English Civil War: Armistice talks opened at Uxbridge.
* February 2 – Covenanters defeated by Montrose at the Battle of Inverlochy
* February 15 – English Civil War: New Model Army is founded officially
* February 29 – English Civil War: Uxbridge armistice talks failed.
* March 4 – English Civil War: Prince Rupert left Oxford for Bristol.
* March 31 – Fearing the spread of the plague, Edinburgh Town Council bans all gatherings except weddings and funerals
* April 3 – Lords pass Self-Denying Ordinance.
* April 10 – Because of the plague, Edinburgh town council orders that the college graduation ceremony should be brought forward so that students can leave the city (in November 19, teaching continues in Linlithgow)
* April 23 – English Civil War: 150 Irish soldiers bound for service with King Charles, were captured at sea by parliamentarians who celebrated St George's Day by joyfully killing them all at Pembroke.
* May 9 – Covenanters defeated by Montrose at the Battle of Auldearn.
* June 1 – English Civil War: Prince Rupert' army took sacked Leicester
* June 10 – English Civil War: Cromwell confirmed as Lieutenant-General of Cavalry.
* June 14 – English Civil War: Battle of Naseby – 12,000 Royalist forces are beaten by 15,000 Parliamentarian soldiers
* June 28 – English Civil War – the Royalists lose Carlisle.
* July 2: Fight at Alford, Aberdeenshire.
* July 10 – English Civil War: Cromwell won the Battle of Langport, Somerset.
* July 23 – Alexei Mikhailovich, Tsar of Russia came to the throne.
* September 10 – English Civil War: Prince Rupert surrendered Bristol.
* September 13 – Covenanters defeated Montrose at the Battle of Philiphaugh, Selkirk.
* September 24 – English Civil War: Parliamentarians defeated Royalist cavalry at the Battle of Rowton Heath.
* October 8 – English Civil War: Final crushing of Basing house begun.
* October 8: Jeanne Mance founds the Hôtel-Dieu de Montréal, the first hospital in North America.
* October 11 – English Civil War The re-fortification of Bourne, Lincolnshire castle against threatened Royalist attack, was begun.

* Siege of Raglan Castle during the English Civil War
* The Long Parliament outlaws the 1559 version of the Book of Common Prayer
* Beginning of the Maunder Minimum, a time period when sunspots became exceedingly rare
* Founding of the Stolberg-Wernigerode branch of the family of counts of Stolberg and Wernigerode in Germany
* Wallpaper begins to replace tapestries as a wall decoration
* Mechanical calculating machine invented by Blaise Pascal.
Madness

, *Mad Kate*, 1806/1807]]

**Madness** (or **Insanity**)  is a word that can have different meanings:
* Up to about the 19th century someone who acted *strangely*, or outside the socially accepted norms was called *mad* or *insane*. This could range from having weird  ideas to someone having delusions or hallucinations, as they are common in some mental illnesses, such as psychosis. 
* Today, those having delusions or hallucinations (or other mental illnesses) are sometimes called *mad* or *insane* by people who are not doctors. Doctors say they have "mental disorders"
* Certain diseases, such as rabies, lead to a major change in behaviour.  An animal that suffers from rabies is sometimes called *rabid* or *mad*. 

Being able to tell right from wrong is the base of a working society and of law; for this reason, the law treats those people differently who are not able to make this distinction. In the law, when people who can’t understand that their crimes are crimes it’s called the insanity defense.

## Related pages 
* Lunatic
* Psychiatry
* Insanity defense