open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
MTV

| channels = MTVMTV2Tr3sMTV Classic en Español
MTVU
**MTV** (originally an acronym for **Music Television** until 2010) is an American cable television network. They are based in New York City. The channel launched on August 1, 1981. They used to only show music videos. However they mostly show reality shows like Ridiculous nowadays. The first music video shown on MTV was *Video Killed the Radio Star* by The Buggles. Today, the channel shows many different television programs aimed at adolescents and young adults.

## References
## Other websites
* Website
Not

The word **not**  the meaning of the word or phrase following it; see No.

**Not**, **NOT**, **NOTs**, or **NOTS** may also refer to:

* ... Not!, an expression used to contradict a statement before it, popular during the early 1990s
* Negation, unary operator in logic depicted as **~**, **¬**, or **!**
* NOT gate, a digital logic gate (commonly called an inverter)

## Related pages 
* And (disambiguation)
* Negative (disambiguation)
* Knot
AFC Ajax

**Amsterdamsche Football Club Ajax** (**Ajax Amsterdam**, **AFC Ajax**, or simply **Ajax**) is a football club from Amsterdam, Netherlands. They play in the Eredivisie, which is the highest football competition in The Netherlands. Players like Johan Cruyff, Van Basten, Frank Rijkaard, Zlatan Ibrahimovic and Jari Litmanen played for this club.

## History
The club was founded on March 18, 1900. The founders were Floris Stempel, Carel Reeser  and Johan Dade. It was the second attempt to found Ajax. In 1894 they tried it too. Ajax is named after the mythological hero Ajax the Great.

Ajax promoted to the highest level in 1911. Their coach was Jack Kirwan. Because Sparta Rotterdam had almost the same kit (clothes), they had to change it.

### Stadium 
The name of the stadium is Amsterdam ArenA and has an attendance (which means the number of seats) of about 52.000. The Amsterdam ArenA was opened on 14 August 1996 by Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands. Their previous stadium was named De Meer.

### League position 
### Former position 
## Players
### Current squad
### Players out on loan
#### Retired numbers
***14** –  Johan Cruyff (Forward, 1964–73, 1981–83). ''Number retired on 25 April 2007 at Cruyff's 60th birthday celebration match.''
***34** –  Abdelhak Nouri (Midfielder, 2016–17)
                                                     

                                  **Apres Maccabi Tel Aviv * Red Bull Slazbourg  ou vas Joue Oscar Gloukh ( apres Euro 2024 - Paris 2024 ou Word Cup 2026 qui vas  Joue avec Israel )  בזרת השם *****
                                  
                                  
                                  
                                         **1. Ajax Amsterdam ( Eredivisie)** 
                                         
                                         
                                           **2. Genova Fc ou Inter Milan ( Series A)**  
                                           
                                           
                                              **3. Paris St Germin (  Uber ligue 1 )** 
                                              
                                              
                                                 **4.  Olympiacos ( Grece Supe Ligue)**

## References
Chad Kroeger

**Chad Robert Turton** (better known as **Chad Kroeger**) is a Canadian singer and guitarist for the rock band, Nickelback. He was born on November 15, 1974, in Hanna, Alberta, Canada. 

Kroeger is of English, German, Irish, Norwegian, Scottish, Swiss-German, and Welsh descent. Kroeger became engaged to Canadian singer Avril Lavigne in 2012. The couple married in 2013 and separated in 2015.

Nickelback consists of four band members. Chad Kroeger (vocals, lead guitar), Mike Kroeger (bass guitar), Ryan Peake (rhythm guitar) and Daniel Adair (drums). 

## References
Chin

chin]]

The **chin** is the bottom part of the face. It is under the mouth and is the forward part of the jaw.

The chin is unique to present-day humans, our species. It is not present in the anthropoid apes, nor in any other hominin. Neanderthals did not have a human-type chin. In medical anatomy, the chin is called the "mental eminence".

Its absence in *Homo floresiensis* is grounds for thinking that small hominin was not of our species.

It is thought that our chin may have become shaped like this to improve the muscle attachments of the lips and tongue. Chins can be larger or smaller, depending on the person. Even though chin sizes vary a lot, it is usually further forward than the rest of the face in normal humans.

## References
Beowulf (hero)

**Beowulf** is the hero of the Anglo-Saxon poem *Beowulf*. He was the son of Ecgþeow, a banished warrior of the Wægmundings. Ecgþeow had killed a man from another clan and had to flee to the Danes. The Danish king Hroðgar accepted him as one of his warriors. The king also paid to repay the blood feud that was threatening Ecgþeow.

When King Hroðgar came upon difficulties because his land was raided by the giant Grendel- a descendant of Cain, and cursed-, Ecgþeow's son Beowulf came to help him with twelve warriors. During the night, Grendel arrived to attack the sleeping men. Grendel gruesomely slaughtered one man before anyone awoke, but Beowulf attacked him. Beowulf had earlier decided to fight without his sword because he thought it would be shameful to fight with unequal weaponry. He, however, outmatched Grendel in strength and tore off his arm. Grendel fled back to his cave, where he died and his arm was fixed to the wall like a trophy. During the following night, Grendel's Mother arrived and Beowulf had an even harder fight against her, as she stole back her son's arm and retreated to her underwater cave. Beowulf followed her and spent a day sinking to the bottom of the lake, and they fought it out a while before Beowulf saw a sword, which conveniently was the only sword that could possibly kill Grendel's mother. He stabbed her with it, and she died. The sword dissolved and he found and beheaded Grendel's body. He brought back the head as a trophy. Beowulf was greatly rewarded for both of these feats, and he and his men were showered in glory and riches. All the gold was presented to their king, and Beowulf was rewarded with a great sword, land, a hall, and the throne of the Geats when the current king dies.

Later on in life, Beowulf ruled over his native Geatland for 50 years until a dragon attacked after a golden goblet was stolen from its cave by a slave. He travels to its cave and successfully slays it, but is severely injured in the melee. He was bitten in the neck, and the venom will kill him. The dying Beowulf then crowns a young warrior called Wiglaf as his successor (as he himself does not have children and all his predecessors have died). Wiglaf is one of the 12 soldiers he took with him to fight the dragon, but the only one who stayed when they saw he was losing. He is then burned on a pyre with all of his gold he won by slaying the dragon. 
## In Adaptions
There have been many fictional books and films made based on *Beowulf*. Beowulf appeared in most of them. 
* In 2007, a movie was made about Beowulf.
Clan

A **clan** is a group of people who &ndash; following a tradition &ndash; belong to the same kin. The word comes from the Goidelic languages, and means 'family'. It is similar in meaning to the more general word tribe.

In Europe, the best-known clans system is that in Scotland, which still has some effects today, especially in the Scottish Highlands and Islands. It existed before the land was unified under a Scottish king, and continued long afterwards. Clans also
existed in Ireland.
Consecutive integer

**Consecutive numbers** are numbers that follow each other in order. They have a difference of 1 between every two numbers. In a set of consecutive numbers, the mean and the median are equal.      

If *n* is a number, then the next numbers will be *n+1* and *n+2*. 

;Examples  

Consecutive numbers that follow each other in order:

* 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
* -3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
* 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13

## Consecutive even numbers 
Consecutive even numbers are even numbers that follow each other. They have a difference of 2 between every two numbers.

If *n* is an even integer, then *n,* *n*+2, *n*+4 and *n*+6 will be consecutive even numbers.

For example - 2,4,6,8,10,12,14,18 etc.

## Consecutive odd numbers
Consecutive odd numbers are odd numbers that follow each other. Like consecutive odd numbers, they have a difference of 2 between every two numbers.

If *n* is an odd integer, then *n,* *n*+2, *n*+4 and *n*+6 will be consecutive odd numbers.

;Examples

3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, etc.

−23, −21, −19, −17, −15, -13, -11
Berber

**Berber** might refer to:

*Berber people, an ethnic group from North Africa
*Berber languages, languages spoken by the Berber people
Nomad

]]

 in Botswana]]

**Nomadic people** (or **nomads**) are people who move from one place to another, instead of living in one place. The best known examples in Europe are the Roma, Sinti, and Irish Travellers. Many other ethnic groups and communities are traditionally nomadic, like the Berbers, Kazakhs, and Bedouin.

## Why are people nomadic? 
Most nomads are family men herding their livestock (like cattle or horses) from pasture to pasture. To find food for their stock and avoid bad weather, they have to move their herds from place to place. Nomads who follow their herds (like the Mongols) usually live in tents with few things inside. 

Other nomads are traders and craftsmen (people who make things). They travel to exchange goods or to practice their craft where it is needed. These nomads usually travel in wagons because they are better for carrying goods.

Other nomads follow animals. For example, the Sámi of Lapland are a semi-nomadic tribe that follow a herd of reindeer. The Sámi are a migratory people who lead their own herd of reindeer to winter feeding grounds and then return them in the spring to their feeding ground close to a permanent home base, where their family lives. This cycle happens every year.

## Mobile warfare 
The skills of nomadic life can be useful in mobile warfare, and have been used in attacking sedentary agricultural and urban people. Genghis Khan and the Mongol hordes, for example, conquered vast areas in Asia by organizing themselves as cavalry.

## References
Geodesic dome

, formerly the American Pavilion of Expo 67, by R. Buckminster Fuller, on Île Sainte-Hélène, Montreal, Quebec]]

A **geodesic dome** is a structure shaped like the top half of a sphere, made of many little shapes, usually triangles.  It often is made of glass, concrete, or steel. They are cheap to make, and bigger than square buildings. 

The first geodesic dome was designed after World War I by Walther Bauersfeld, chief engineer of the Carl Zeiss optical company, for a planetarium to house his planetarium projector.  An initial, small dome was patented and constructed by the firm of Dykerhoff and Wydmann on the roof of the Zeiss plant in Jena, Germany. A larger dome, called "The Wonder of Jena", opened to the public in July 1926.

Later, they were promoted by the American engineer, Buckminster Fuller. He coined the term "geodesic". Many kits are available. 

A variation on geodesic domes are monolithic domes

## References
Coprolalia

**Coprolalia** is a condition that affects about 15% of people with Tourette syndrome.  Someone with coprolalia will use words that make people feel uncomfortable so often that it is hard to control. This is often in the form of a stream of curse words.

People who have Tourette syndrome are not the only people who experience coprolalia. For example, it can happen in people who have had a stroke, or who have schizophrenia.

## References
`Abdu'l-Bahá

'''`Abdu'l-Bahá''' was a Persian man who was born on 23 May 1844 and died on 28 November 1921. His father was Bahá'u'lláh who founded the religion known as the Bahá'í Faith.

`Abdu'l-Bahá spent most of his adult life in prison or under arrest, because of his father's new religion.  Bahá'u'lláh called him the "Expounder" of his word, meaning that only `Abdu'l-Bahá had the right to say what Bahá'u'lláh's writings mean.  This was to prevent different people from splitting the religion up because they thought Bahá'u'lláh meant different things, the way many other religions have split up.
Bundesautobahn 45

The **Bundesautobahn 45** (*in German: A 45*), is a Motorway from the Ruhr area till Hanau.

The highway begins in Dortmund, North Rhine-Westphalia and crosses Hesse. The **A 45** ends in Bavaria.

## Cities along the A 45 
* Dortmund
* Hagen
* Lüdenscheid
* Siegen
* Wetzlar
* Gießen
* Hanau

## Exits on the A 45 
* *Waltrop (planned)*
* (2) Dortmund-Nordwest  
* (3) Castrop-Rauxel-Ost 
* (4) Dortmund-Hafen
* (5) Dortmund-West  
* (6) Dortmund-Eichlinghofen
* (7) Dortmund/Witten 
* (8) Dortmund-Süd 
* (9) Westhofen  
* (10) Schwerte-Ergste
* (11) Hagen 
* (12) Hagen-Süd
* Rölveder Mühle/Kaltenborn
* (13) Lüdenscheid-Nord
* (14) Lüdenscheid-Mitte
* Sauerland
* (15) Lüdenscheid-Süd
* (16) Meinerzhagen
* (17) Drolshagen
* (18) Olpe 
* (19) Olpe-Süd 
* (20) Freudenberg
* Siegerland
* (21) Siegen 
* (22) Siegen-Süd
* (23) Wilnsdorf
* (24) Haiger/Burbach 
* (25) Dillenburg  
* Dollenberg 
* (26) Herborn-West 
* (27) Herborn-Süd 

List incomplete

* ()
Massospondylus

***Massospondylus*** was a dinosaur from the Upper Triassic to the Lower Jurassic periods. It was described by Richard Owen in 1854. It is one of the first dinosaurs to have been named. The remains were found in South Africa. 

The dinosaur was bipedal. It was probably a plant eater (herbivore).

## References
MIRC

**mIRC** is a popular shareware Internet Relay Chat (IRC) client for Microsoft Windows. It was created in 1995 by Khaled Mardam-Bey in C. Its most recent update (7.25) was made in 2012. It is licensed as Proprietary. It comes free of charge for 30 days and then you have the choice to buy it for US$20, or continue using but the program will ask you to buy it at each launch.

## Related pages
* List of IRC clients

## Other websites 
* Official website
Muon-catalyzed fusion

**Muon-catalyzed fusion** (μCF) is a type of cold nuclear fusion, which means that nuclear fusion can happen at low temperatures and under normal pressure. There need to be 3 particles: a muon, a positively charged triton and a positively charged deuteron. The muon, which has a greater mass (when its not moving) than an electron, drags the heavier triton and the deuteron to it, creating something called a muonic heavy hydrogen ion. This means that the particle is a hydrogen atom with more protons then electrons, that contains a muon, and that contains extra neutrons which make it heavier. This reaction can be done at room temperature or below, such as -270 degrees Celsius.

To create these, a stream of negative muons is sent onto blocks of protium, deuterium and tritium (3 first isotopes of hydrogen). The muon bumps out the electron in the hydrogen atom. Because the electron is replaced, any 2 atoms are bound together. This makes a molecular ion, also called a special muonic molecule. A muon is 207 times more massive then an electron. Because of the difference in mass, the atom changes. Because it is heavier, the atoms in the molecular ion are pressed very tightly together, and then the nuclei, the centers of the atoms, join together. The following process is called nuclear fusion. The 2 nuclei join together and "glue" together. But, their weights do not just add up, a part of their mass is released as energy. This is the energy used.

Now, the process continues because the muon is thrown out of the nuclei when they fuse, so it can join other nuclei, which continues the reaction. Sometimes the muon is attached to something else thrown out from the nucleus, and the muon is lost. This stops the reaction.

## Positives and negatives 
The good thing about this is that muon-catalyzed fusion uses little energy, and produces much energy. The only problem is that the reaction is not stable, so it does not last a long time, because the muons are lost. This process is still a long way from being used for business.
The Source (Charmed)

**The Source** is a fictional character in the television series *Charmed*. **The Source of All Evil** is vanquished by the Power of Three in the fourth season of the show. Cole Turner (Phoebe's fiancee) takes his place as the ruler of the Underworld. Once he is killed, the Charmed Ones are free.
Takasaki line

The  is a  railway line that runs from Omiya station in Saitama Prefecture to Takasaki Station in the Gunma Prefecture. It runs diagonally from south to north in Saitama prefecture and is owed and operated by the East Japan Railway Company (JR East Japan). The national highway route 17 and its historical predecessor Nakasendo run near this line.
The fare between Takasaki and Omiya of the Takasaki line is 1280 yen.
The colors of the cars are green and orange. So it looks similar to the Utsunomiya line.
The maximum speed of this train . So it is possible to go Takasaki from Omiya in about an hour and a half.
The Takasaki line including local trains and rapid trains has generally six standard-runs per hour in daytime. According to the time, the train might be crowded with students and company employees in major cities, for example, Ageo, Okegawa, Kitamoto, Kounosu, Kumagaya, Fukaya, Honjo.
Red panda

The **red panda** (*Ailurus fulgens*) is a mammal. It is the only species of the Ailuridae family. There are two subspecies: *Ailurus fulgens fulgens* and *Ailurus fulgens styani*. It is also known as **lesser panda**, **cat-bear**, **bear-cat** and **firefox**.

## Overview 
Most that are bred at Japanese zoos are *Ailurus fulgens styani*. They are called レッサーパンダ (ressaa panda) in Japanese and 小熊貓 (xiǎo xìong māo) in Chinese, literally translating to English as "small bear-cat", or "fox-bear."  The IUCN classes them as endangered. 

The red panda is not closely related to the giant panda: they are in different families, but share a diet of mostly bamboo. They have both adapted to eating plant material, which is unusual for members of the Carnivora. 

French zoologist Frédéric Cuvier first described the western red panda Ailurus fulgens in 1825, 48 years before the giant panda was classified.

A scientist by the name Brian Houghton Hodgson, was one of the first people to look more deeply into the red panda because up until he did, there was not much known about the species. 

## Habitat 
The red panda lives in the southern part of China, Sikkim, Nepal, and the Himalaya mountains in high trees. In the Indian kingdom of Sikkim it is the state animal. As an endangered species it is protected by laws in the countries where it lives. Two nearly complete skeletons have been found at the Gray Fossil Site in Gray, Tennessee.  

## Appearance and life 
Red pandas are about 50-60 centimeters long and weigh between three and five kilograms. They have chestnut colored hair, and their faces have white markings. A red panda's tail can measure from 30 to 50 centimeters long (Almost the length of their body) which provides them with balance while navigating the treetops. They will also use these tails as wraparound blankets in their chilly mountain habitat. They live alone while they are adults. They have thumb-like appendages for grabbing Bamboo, similar to giant pandas. Red pandas feed mainly on bamboo using their opposable thumb. While their thumb-like appendages can be used in the same way as that of giant pandas, it is believed that the red panda’s opposable thumbs may have evolved as an adaptation for grasping branches in trees rather than for stripping bamboo. The red panda can be found spending most of their day on top of tree branches. Their thumb-like appendages make them skilled climbers. They live eight to ten years in the wild and up to 15 years in captivity. They have the digestive system and skeleton of a carnivore, but they mostly eat plants. In addition to Bamboo, the Red Panda also eats fruits, tuberous roots, acorns, small mammals, bugs, grubs, birds, grasses, and beech mast. The Red Panda is classified as crepuscular, which means they are active around dawn and sunset, sleeping during the night and midday instead. Hodgson observed that they are monogamous and only breed once a year.

## References 
Glatston, A. R. (2011). Red panda biology and conservation of the first panda (1st ed.). Academic Press.
Fargo

**Fargo** usually refers to:
* Fargo, North Dakota, United States
* *Fargo* (1996 movie), a crime movie by the Coen brothers
* *Fargo* (TV series), an American black comedy–crime drama television series

**Fargo** may also refer to:

## Other places 
### United States
* Fargo, Arkansas
* Fargo, Georgia
* Fargo, Indiana
* Fargo, Benton County, Indiana
* Fargo, Ohio
* Fargo, Oklahoma
* Fargo, Wisconsin

## Arts, entertainment, and media
* *Fargo* (1952 movie), an American western movie directed by Lewis D. Collins
* Fargo, a character from the anime series *Bubblegum Crisis*
* Fargo, a character from the video game *Chrono Cross*
* Douglas Fargo, a character from the TV-series "Eureka"
* "Fargo", a track by Caravan Palace on the 2019 album *Chronologic*

## Military
* *Fargo*-class cruiser, a ship design of the United States Navy
** , the first *Fargo*-class cruiser
* Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-9 (NATO reporting name: "Fargo"), a Soviet fighter plane
* USS *Fargo* (CL-85), original name for the  aircraft carrier

## Vehicles
* Fargo Trucks, originally made by the Chrysler Corporation, later by Askam
* Isuzu Fargo, a commercial vehicle

## Other uses
* FARGO (programming language)
* Fargo (surname)
Billy Talent

***Billy Talent***, before called **Pezz**, is a Canadian punk rock band from Mississauga, Ontario. The name Billy Talent was inspired by the guitarist "Billy Tallent" from the **Michael Turner** novel *Hard Core Logo*. They performed and recorded together for about 10 years before becoming famous.

## Members
*Benjamin Kowalewicz - vocals
*Ian D'Sa - guitar, vocals
*Jon Gallant - bass, vocals
*Aaron Solowoniuk - drums

## Albums
*Billy Talent (2003)
*Billy Talent II (2006)
*Billy Talent III (2009)
*Dead Silence (2012)
*Afraid of Heights (2016)
*Crisis of Faith (2022)

## Other websites
* Official site
* Billy Talent at MySpace
* Billy Talent exclusive video interview on peta2
For Dummies

The **...for dummies** is a series of books that try to explain something very simply. The series was created in 1991 by Dan Gookin. The first book was about the computer operating system  MS-DOS. Dan Gookin created the book, because in 1987 a person wanted a book that was simple and easy to read, as the person considered computer books to be dull at that time. After MS-DOS for dummies, came PC's for Dummies by Gookin, and Andy Rathbone. Other popular ...For Dummies books are The Internet for Dummies by John Levine, Carol Baroudi, and Margaret Levine Young, and Beginning Programming for Dummies by Wallace Wang. The book cover is usually yellow and black, with the name in white letters on the black part.

## Other websites
*For dummies website
Psychedelic mushroom

**Magic mushrooms** or **psychedelic mushrooms** or **Psilocybin mushrooms** contain the alkaloid psilocybin, or similar  substances.

Psilocybin is a mind-altering chemical. It changes the brain to an altered state of mind, or a different state of consciousness. This can lead to effects like hallucinations or visions. They may be used for medical purposes to treat cluster headaches, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and certain kinds of depression.

*Psilocybe semilanceata* is the classic example of a magic mushroom, but there are quite a few others. These fungi also have some species with psilocybin: *Copelandia*, *Gymnopilus*, *Inocybe*, *Mycena*, *Panaeolus*, *Pholiotina*, *Pluteus*.

Psilocybin can kill in extremely high doses. The LD50 of psilocybin is 280&nbsp;mg/kg for rats, this is about 1.5 times that of caffeine. In normal psychedelic mushrooms, psilocybin makes up about 1% of their weight. Therefore, nearly 1.7 kilograms of dried mushrooms, or 17 kilograms of fresh mushrooms, would be required for a 60&nbsp;kg person to reach the 280&nbsp;mg/kg LD50 rate of rats.

Psilocybin mushrooms have probably been used since prehistoric times. They may be seen in rock art. Many cultures have used these mushrooms in religious rites. Psychedelic mushrooms have been used by native peoples of Mesoamerica for religious communion and healing. Catholic missionaries were against the use of magic mushrooms. In Modern society, they are sometimes used recreationally. Their medical use in psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy is studied, for example, in the treatment for anxiety and depression in patients with life-threatening cancer, the treatment of depression and to help quit smoking.

The function of compounds like this in nature is they reduce the likelihood of the mushroom being eaten before its spores have been scattered. It is a defence against herbivory.

## References
Frank Griswold

**Frank Tracy Griswold III** (born 18 September 1937 in Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania died 6 March 2023) was the 25th Presiding Bishop and Primate of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America.

Griswold went to school at St. Paul's School in Concord, New Hampshire.  He earned an A.B. in English literature from Harvard College (1959). He attended the General Theological Seminary and earned his B.A. and M.A, in theology from Oriel College, Oxford University (1962, 1966). Griswold became a priest in 1963. He became a priest in Pennsylvania. He worked at three churches there. Frank Griswold was the bishop of Chicago from 1987 until he became presiding bishop in 1997.

Griswold is a member of the Joint Standing Committee of the Primates of the Anglican Communion and the Anglican Consultative Council. He was co-chair of the Anglican-Roman Catholic International Commission from 1998 to 2003.  He was a member of the standing committee for the 1998 Lambeth Conference. He has also served on diocesan, national and international committees for liturgy, worship and ecumenism. He is also a member of The Fellowship of Saint John.

His term as presiding bishop ended on November first 2006. He was replaced by the Rt. Reverand Katharine Jefferts Schori. She was elected by the General Convention of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America.

## References
Refraction

of light being refracted in a plastic block.|alt=refer to caption]]
**Refraction** is the change in direction of a wave, caused by the change in the wave's  speed. Examples of waves include sound waves and light waves. Refraction is seen most often when a wave passes from one transparent medium to another transparent medium. Different types of medium include air and water. 

When a wave passes from one transparent medium to another transparent medium, the wave will change its speed and its direction. For example, when a light wave travels through air and then passes into water, the wave will slow and change direction. In this property when the light is transmitted through a medium, polarisation of electrons take place, which in turn reduces the speed of light, thus changing the direction of light.

As light goes into a medium which is denser, the light ray will 'bend' toward the normal. When it goes back into the less dense medium (with a lower refractive index), it will bend back through the same angle as when it came in (if the surface at exit is parallel to the surface at entry).

An example of how refraction works is placing a straw in a cup of water, with part of the straw in the water. When looking at a certain angle, the straw appears to bend at the water's surface. This is because of the change in density of the medium and thus, bending of light rays as they move from the air to water.

A good and simple way to understand how light works is to think of it like a car. When the car hits the gravel surface (this is the medium) on an angle, the tire that hits it first will slow, causing it to turn in that direction. Therefore, if light hits a medium on the right having a greater refractive index, it will bend right. The amount of bending is given by Snell's law and corpuscular theory of light. Lenses work by refraction.

When light refracts in a prism, it splits into colours of the rainbow because some wavelengths bend more than others. 

In optics the **refractive index** or **index of refraction** *n* of a substance is a dimensionless number that describes how light, or other radiation, goes through that medium. It is defined as 
:n = \frac{\mathrm{c}}{v},
where c is the speed of light in a vacuum and *v* is the *phase velocity* of light in the medium. Snell's law uses refractive indexes to calculate the amount of refraction.

## Notes
Sign of the cross

making the Sign of the Cross]]
The **sign of the cross** is a physical gesture made by Catholic and Orthodox Christians, and sometimes also Protestants. It is usually done at the start and end of prayers. 

In the Catholic tradition, the right hand goes from the forehead, to the chest, and then to the left and right shoulders (the order of shoulders does not matter). This is sometimes done while saying "Father, Son, Holy Spirit."

In the Orthodox tradition, the tips of the thumb and the middle and index fingers are put together, and the ring finger and little finger are put against the palm. The first three fingers are for faith in the Trinity, and the other two fingers are for the two natures of Jesus, divine and human.

## Other websites 
* Why Do Lutherans Make the Sign of the Cross? - from the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America website
* The Power of the Sign of the Cross  - (Ukrainian church)
* The Sign of the Cross - a Catholic perspective
* Significance of the Sign of the Cross 

## References
Harold Godwinson

: This scene is said to have taken place at *Bagia* (Bayeux, probably in Bayeux Cathedral). It shows Harold touching two altars with the enthroned Duke looking on, and is central to the Norman Invasion of England]]

**Harold Godwinson** (c. 1022 – 14 October 1066) ruled England as **King Harold II of England** after King Edward the Confessor died. Harold ruled from 5 January 1066 until he was killed at the Battle of Hastings. His death marked the Norman conquest of England and the end of Anglo-Saxon England.

## Career 
Harold was the son of Godwin, Earl of Wessex, and Gytha, a Danish noblewoman. His sister, Edith, was married to the king whom he succeeded, Edward the Confessor. About the same time, Harold became the Earl of East Anglia. When his father died in 1053, Harold inherited his earldom of Wessex. Swegen and Gryth. He claimed to have been made King by Edward the Confessor. Before Harold became king, he swore to help William, Duke of Normandy, to become king.

In September 1066, Harold defeated an invasion from the north by Harald Hardrada of Norway.

## References
Jell-O

**Jell-O** is a brand name for a dessert. It is known for a number of gelatin desserts, such as fruit gels, puddings, and unbaked cream pies. including fruit gels, puddings and no-bake cream pies.

## Description 
Jell-O is sold as all prepared (ready to eat) or in powder form, and it is has many different colors and flavors. The powder has powdered gelatin, sugar, and artificial sweeteners. It is melted into hot water, and then chilled and eaten. Sometimes other ingredients are added to make them taste better. Jell-O must be put in a refrigerator until it is served, and usually eaten with a spoon.

There are also pudding and pie under the Jell-O brand. To make pudding, they are cooked on the stove with milk, then eaten.

Though the word *Jell-O* is a name brand, it is commonly used in the United States as a generic name for all gelatin products.

## Other websites 
* Official Kraft Jell-o website
* Upstate, Where It Was First Made, Unwavering Devotion to Jell-O New York Times May 4, 2008
* Thoughts on Jell-O With Antioxidants
Pteranodon

***Pteranodon*** was a large pterosaur from the Upper Cretaceous period. About 1200 partial skeletons have been found, more than any other pterosaur. It lived in the area of the Western Interior Seaway.

Fossil *Pteranodon* have been found in Kansas, Alabama, Nebraska, Wyoming, and South Dakota.

## Appearance
With its wings open it was up to 7 meters across.

Females of both species were smaller than the males, and had small, rounded crests. The crests were probably used in display, though they may have had other functions as well.

## References
Richard II of England

**Richard II** (6 January 1367 – 14 February 1400) was the son of Edward, the Black Prince, Prince of Wales, and Joan of Kent, "The Fair Maid of Kent". He was born in Bordeaux and became his father's successor when his elder brother died in infancy.

Since his father died before him, he became king in 1377. His uncle John of Gaunt, the Duke of Lancaster, became regent until Richard could rule. He was deposed and made to abdicate in 1399 by Henry of Bolingbroke (Henry IV), John of Gaunt's son with Blanche of Lancaster. Richard was taken prisoner; and was killed in captivity later that year.

William Shakespeare wrote a play about Richard II.
Drinker

**Drinker** was a small dinosaur from North America. It was a very small herbivore that grew up to 1 meter long. It was named after Edward Drinker Cope a paleontologist, a dinosaur scientist who found many dinosaur fossils such as *Triceratops*, *Anatotitan* and *Tyrannosaurus rex*.
Kress Stores

**S. H. Kress & Co.** was a group of "five and dime" department stores in the United States between 1896 to 1981. The business was started in Nanticoke, Pennsylvania, by Samuel H. Kress in 1896. **Kress Stores** were common in many cities and towns of the United States. In 1964, S. H. Kress & Co. was bought by Genesco, Inc. Genesco began closing down the stores in 1980.

The Kress chain was known for the architecture of the stores. A number of former Kress stores, now used for other things, are said to be landmarks. Some of the most well-known Kress locations included New York City's Fifth Avenue, Canal Street, New Orleans, and one at Hollywood's Hollywood Boulevard. The one at Hollywood Boulevard is now preserved at a theme park in Florida.

## Other websites 
* Main Street Five-and-Dime: The Architectural Heritage of S. H. Kress & Co. 
* The Kress Building in Fort Worth, Texas 
* Remembering the House of Kress
Henry V of England

**Henry V** (16 Henry V, or Henry of Monmouth (September 1386&nbsp;– 31 August 1422), was the King of England from 1413 to 1422. He was born at Monmouth, Wales. It is not known whether he was born on 9 August 1386 or 16 September 1387. What we know is that Henry V is the second Lancastrian king of England. 

Henry V was the son of Henry Bolingbroke, later Henry IV, and Mary de Bohun, who died before Bolingbroke became king. 

Henry IV was very unpopular, because he was actually not the rightful man to the throne. But his son, Henry V became greatly favored by his people. In the earlier war against Wales, he and his father had fought the 'Prince of Wales', Glyndwen. After the death of Henry IV, Henry V pardoned the Prince, and went to fight France, claiming that *he* should be the king of France. 

A few decades before, England had started a century-long war, the Hundred Years' War with France. Henry IV had lost his part of the war and switched to fighting at home, at the border of Wales. After resuming the war at France, Henry V defeated the French at the famous Battle of Agincourt in 1415. Shakespeare wrote a play about that and made him important in other plays too. 

Henry V was important in British politics too. He created a court system to solve crimes, cases and arguments in justice. Many people liked this democracy. He was also a brilliant military general, who won many battles and ingeniously defeated armies that were far larger than his. Unfortunately, the next king, his infant heir Henry VI, lost all his gains after he died, and turned England to a chaotic nation.
Back

**Back** might refer to:
* Back (anatomy)
* Back (surname)

## Places 
* Back (crater), lunar crater
* Back, Lewis, a village on the Isle of Lewis, Scotland
* Back Peninsula, Nunavut, Canada
* Back railway station, in Back, Manitoba, Canada
* The Backs, an area at the rear of several colleges in Cambridge, England

## Arts, entertainment, and media
### Music
* *Back* (Lynn Anderson album), 1983
* Back (Ohio Players album), 1988
* "Back" (song), a song by Colt Ford from the album *Declaration of Independence*
* *B.A.C.K.*, a 1999 album by Danish thrash metal band Artillery
* "Back", a song by Lil Pump featuring Lil Yachty from the album *Lil Pump*
* Back, in music, accompaniment

### Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media
* *Back* (novel), a 1946 novel by Henry Green
* *Back* (TV series), a 2017 British sitcom
* "Back" (*Louie*), an episode of the American television series *Louie*
* "Back" (*Spaced*), a television episode

## Sports
* Back (American football)
* Back nine, the last nine holes on a golf course
* Fullback (American football), a common position in many football games
* Half back (disambiguation), a position in many football games
* Nickelback (American football), a defensive back in American and Canadian football
* Quarterback, a position in the offensive backfield of American and Canadian football
* Running back, a position in the offensive backfield of American and Canadian football
* Back, another term for the position of defender, in association football and Australian rules football
* Back, a player who is defending the goal, in hockey and many other games who is defending the goal
* Back, a rugby football player who is not involved in the scrum
** Back (rugby league)
** Back (rugby union)
Reflection (physics)

**Reflection** is the change in direction of a wave at a boundary between two different media, so that the wave moves back into the medium it came from.
The most common examples include the reflection of light, sound and water waves.

Specular reflection is a mirror-like reflection of light from a surface, in which light from a single incoming direction is reflected into a single outgoing direction. In the diagram to the right, a light ray is coming from the point P, and meets at the mirror at point O. The ray reflects at the point O outwards in the same medium towards point Q. Reflection is measured relative to a line through point O that is at 90˚ to the mirror. The angles made by the light ray (shown in the diagram as \theta _i and \theta _r) must be equal. Both angles have to be equal whenever reflection occurs. This is known as the "law of reflection".

People make many things to use reflections, including reflecting telescopes, radar, sonar, and lidar and putting light reflectors on things they want to see.
Athlete's foot

'''Athlete's foot''' is a condition where the foot is dry and cracked, which can be mildly painful. It was named athlete's foot because it was common in people who play sports or do exercise. The infection can be spread to other areas of the body, such as the armpit, and the knees and elbows.

## Symptoms 
Athlete's foot causes scaling, flaking, itching, blisters and cracked skin. It can be cured by using antibiotics.

## References
Civil rights

**Civil rights** are rights that all people in a country have. 
## Overview
The civil rights of a country apply to all the citizens within its borders. These rights are given by the laws of the country. Civil rights are sometimes thought to be the same as natural rights.
## Specifics
In many countries, civil rights include freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of religion, and freedom of assembly. Civil rights also include the right to own property and the right to get fair and equal treatment from the government, from other citizens and from private entities. They may prevent discrimination based on race, sexual orientation, gender, gender identity or disability.
### Legal protection
Civil rights are protected by laws and customs. The constitutions of many democracies have a "Bill of Rights" guaranteeing the people's freedom and privileges. A well-known example is the *United States Bill of Rights*.  

A court of law decides if a person's civil rights have been violated. The courts also decide the limits of civil rights, so that people do not use their freedoms to take away the rights of other people.

## Related pages
* Rule of law
* Civil liberties
* Human rights
* Natural rights
* Minority rights
* Women's rights
* Economic, social and cultural rights
Caspian Sea

The **Caspian Sea** is the largest and only closed sea on Earth by both area and volume and is considered a sea. Its name comes from the Caspi people which the Gilaks/Caspis Caspianis are the only decendent of and are the same as. It has a surface area of . Its volume is . The Caspian has for44% of the total lake waters of the world. More than 89% of the seas area belongs to Iran. 

The Caspian sea is an endorheic body of water. It is bordered by Russia, Azerbaijan, Iran, Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan. It has a maximum depth of about . It is called a sea because when the Romans first arrived there, they tasted the water and found it to be salty. It has a salinity of approximately 1.2%, about a third the salinity of sea water.

## References
## Other websites 
* Caspian Sea Region
* Framework Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Caspian Sea (2003)
* Target: Caspian Sea Oil  John Robb, 2004
Franz Ferdinand (band)

**Franz Ferdinand** is a Scottish indie rock band from Glasgow, Scotland. The group is named after Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary. The band has released five albums, *Franz Ferdinand*, *You Could Have It So Much Better With Franz Ferdinand*, *Tonight: Franz Ferdinand*, *Right Thoughts, Right Words, Right Action*, and their most recent release, *Always Ascending*.

The band members are Alex Kapranos, Robert Hardy, Julian Corrie, Dino Bardot, Audrey Tait and touring member Johnny Marr ex-The Smiths and past members are Paul Thompson and Nick McCarthy.       

## Members 
### Current members
*Alex Kapranos – lead vocals, lead guitar (2002–present); piano (2005–present)
*Bob Hardy – bass guitar, percussion (2002–present); backing vocals (2002–2008)
*Julian Corrie – keyboards, synthesisers, lead guitar, backing vocals (2017–present)
*Dino Bardot – rhythm guitar, backing vocals (2017–present)
*Audrey Tait – drums, percussion (2021–present)
*Johnny Marr - lead & rhythm guitar (2025–present) 
### Former members
*Paul Thompson – drums, percussion, backing and occasional lead vocals (2002–2021)
*Nick McCarthy – rhythm guitar, keyboards, synthesisers, backing and occasional lead vocals (2002–2016)

## Discography
*Franz Ferdinand (2004)
*You Could Have It So Much Better (2005)
*Tonight: Franz Ferdinand (2009)
*Right Thoughts, Right Words, Right Action (2013)
*Always Ascending (2018)
*The Human Fear (2025)
Shoghi Effendi

**Shoghi Effendi** (1 March 1897-4 November 1957) was a Persian man. He was the great-grandson of Bahá'u'lláh who founded the religion known as the Bahá'í Faith. 

After Bahá'u'lláh died, Shoghi Effendi's grandfather, `Abdu'l-Bahá led the Bahá'ís.  When `Abdu'l-Bahá died, he left a "will and testament" that said that Shoghi Effendi was the "Guardian", and that his job was to guard and lead the Bahá'í Faith.  `Abdu'l-Bahá's will said that only Shoghi Effendi could interpret `Abdu'l-Bahá's or Bahá'u'lláh's books and letters.  This was to prevent different people from splitting the religion up because they thought Bahá'u'lláh or `Abdu'l-Bahá meant different things, the way many other religions have split up.
Moscovium

**Moscovium** is a superheavy synthetic radioactive chemical element also known as **eka-bismuth**. It has the symbol **Mc** and the atomic number 115. Moscovium does not exist in nature. It is made from a fusion reaction between americium and calcium.

The element is named in honor of the Russian city of Moscow.

Moscovium is in or near the center of the theoretical island of stability. No stable isotopes of moscovium have yet been found. The most stable isotope with 184 neutrons is 299Mc. The isotope that has been made has only 175 neutrons (290Mc).

## Uses 
There is no use of Moscovium at the moment because of its radioactivity and short half-life.

## History 
On February 2, 2004 a report that moscovium and nihonium were made was written in a journal named Physical Review C. The report was written by a team of Russian scientists at Dubna University's Joint Institute for Nuclear Research and American scientists at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory.,

These people reported that they bombarded americium with calcium to make four atoms of moscovium.

Scientists of Japan also report that they have made moscovium.

In May 2006 at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research this element was made by another method and what the final products from radioactive decay were was found by chemical analysis.

## Name 
The name was changed to Moscovium. It used to be named ununpentium.

## Chemical properties
Not enough moscovium has been made to measure its physical or chemical properties. It is thought that it would be a hard metal. It may be slightly colored.

Moscovium is in the same group as bismuth but its chemical properties will be different. The chemistry of moscovium will be very influenced by special relativity. It will make its properties different to the other elements in the periodic table that have a smaller atomic number. One important difference from bismuth is the presence of a stable oxidation state of +I (Mc+). The (Mc+) ion is thought to have chemical properties like Tl+.

## In popular culture
Moscovium is inside or near the island of stability. This is probably why it is found in popular culture. It is more likely to be talked about in UFO conspiracy theories. 

The most popular story about moscovium is from Bob Lazar. It is not pseudoscience because it is a refutable theory, however Lazar's claims are not backed by any direct experimental evidence at this time.

## References
## Other websites 
* Uut and Uup Add Their Atomic Mass to Periodic Table 
* Apsidium - Ununpentium 
* Discovery of Elements 113 and 115 
* Discovery of New Superheavy Elements 113 and 115 
* Superheavy elements 
* History & Etymology
The World Factbook

***The World Factbook***, also known as the ***CIA World Factbook***, was a book that contained the Central Intelligence Agency's information about the world's countries.  A new book was published every year.  The *Factbook* provided a two- to three-page summary of the demographics, geography, communications, government, economy, and military of 272 countries, dependencies, and other areas in the world. Originally a print document, it went online in 1997. On 5 February 2026, the site closed down without prior notice.  The CIA noted the closing on its Internet page. 

*The World Factbook* was designed to be used by people that work for the United States government, but it was also used by students, on websites, and in other publications that are not made by governments.

## References 
## Other websites 
* Official website
Taco

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**Tacos** are Mexican sandwich-like dishes. It is made from a corn tortilla wrapped around some sort of filling. Traditionally, the tortilla is soft, but some variations from different countries have hard shells and flour tortillas. 

Tacos are filled with a variety of filling such as beef, chicken, fish, pork, cheese, lettuce, onions, guacamole, and salsa. Sauces can also be added to tacos ranging from salsa to hot sauces like Tapatío. People use many different combinations of foods to build the taco.

Tacos are world popular, but especially in Mexico, Central America, China and the United States. In the United States, tacos have been industrialized by fast food businesses such as Taco Bell, Del Taco, and Chipotle.

## History 
The taco predates the arrival of the Spanish in Mexico. Bernal Díaz del Castillo documented the first taco feast enjoyed by Europeans, a meal which Hernán Cortés arranged for his captains in Coyoacán.

## References