open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Land

y ocean cliffs of Patagonia, Argentina.]]
**Land** can mean some territory, forming part of a country. Dry land is the parts of Earth's surface not covered by the ocean or other permanent body of water. About 29% of the surface of Earth is dry land, while the rest is covered with liquid water. Land can have different types of soil; it may be covered with stones, sand, dirt, etc. Sometimes it is not clear where land ends and a body of water begins.

## Amount and types of land 
The total area of Earth is about 510 million km2. About 149 million km2, which is 29% of the surface, is land. Large masses of ice called glaciers cover 15 million km2, or 10% of the land area. The biggest continuous landmasses are called continents, and smaller landmasses, surrounded by water, are called islands.

19% of land on Earth (28 million km2), is barren: without plants. This includes deserts, beaches, and rocky areas with no soil. 26% of land (39 million km2) is forests. 8% of land (12 million km2) is shrubland or grassland. 1% of land (1.5 million km2) is cities, towns, and land used for infrastructure. The remaining 34% of land (51 million km2) is used for farming: 7% (11 million km2) for crops (plants) 27% (40 million km2) for livestock (animals).

## Formation of land 
Even today, some land is being formed and some land is sinking into the ocean. The surface of the earth, which includes both the land and the ocean floor, is made of large pieces of rock called tectonic plates. Continental plates are thicker and lighter, so they stay at the top and make up the land surface. Oceanic plates are thinner and heavier, so they sink down and make up the ocean surface.

Tectonic plates move over time, which is called continental drift. When two continental plates push into each other, they fold upwards to make mountains. When they move apart, they form a rift valley: the East African rift valley is forming now. Islands can be formed by volcanoes: the Hawaiian islands are a good example. Over time, land can wear away through erosion and sink below sea level. This can be seen with the Hawaiian islands, because the newer islands are taller than the older islands.

## Related pages
* Geology
* Landscape
* Land (economics)

## Other websites
* Conserving Land for People

## References
1825

## Events 
*January 4 – King Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies dies and is succeeded by his son Francis I of the Two Sicilies.
* February 12 – The Creek cede the last of their lands in Georgia to the United States government, and migrate west
*March 4 – John Quincy Adams officially succeeds James Monroe as President of the United States.
* July 6 – The Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sønderborg-Beck gains possession of Glücksburg and changes his title to Friedrich Wilhelm, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg. The line of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg later became the Royal House of Greece, Denmark and Norway.
* July 30 – Malden Island (an uninhabited island in the central Pacific Ocean) discovered. 
* August 6 – Bolivia gains independence from Peru as a republic with the instigation of Simón Bolívar
* August 25 – Uruguay declares independence from Brazil (See Uruguay's independence)
* September 27 – The world's first modern railway, the Stockton and Darlington Railway opens in England.
* October 26 – The Erie Canal opens – passage from Albany, New York to Lake Erie
* December 1 – Nicholas I of Russia succeeds his older brother Alexander I.
* Decembrist Revolt in Russia.
* The first horse-drawn omnibuses established in London
* First roller skates
* Aluminium discovered
* City of Brisbane founded – see History of Brisbane
* The electromagnet was invented by William Sturgeon

## Deaths
* May 2 – Michail Leontievich Bulatov, Russian military
1771

## Events 
* January 17 – Johann Friedrich Struensee and Queen Caroline Matilda are arrested, leading to his execution and her banishment from Denmark
* July 17 – Massacre at Bloody Falls: Chipewyan chief Matonabbee traveling as the guide to Samuel Hearne on his Arctic overland journey, massacre a group of unsuspecting Inuit.
* September 8 – In California, Fathers Pedro Cambon and Angel Somera found Mission San Gabriel Arcangel in what is now San Gabriel, California.
* October 9 – The Dutch merchant ship Vrouw Maria sinks near the coast of Finland. Captain Raymund Lourens and his crew escape unharmed.
* November 16 – During the night the Tyne floods, destroying many bridges and killing several people; the main bridge at Newcastle upon Tyne is not completed until 1781
*Discovery of Oxygen.
*The territory of Baden-Baden is inherited by the Margrave of Baden-Durlach, forming Baden.
*Emperor Go-Momozono ascends to the throne of Japan
* Plague in Moscow – 57,000 dead
* The trade monopoly with Iceland is transferred to the Danish crown.
## Births 
*April 13 – Richard Trevithick, English inventor (d. 1833)
*April 18 – Karl Philipp Fürst zu Schwarzenberg, Austrian field marshal (d. 1820)
*April 27 – Jean Rapp, French general (d. 1821)
*June 5 – Prince Ernest Augustus of Great Britain, King of Hanover (d. 1851)
*August 14 – Sir Walter Scott, Scottish writer (d. 1832)
*September 5 – Archduke Charles of Austria, Austrian general and statesman (d. 1847)
*September 23 – Emperor Kokaku of Japan (d. 1840)
*October 9 – Frederick William, Duke of Brunswick (d. 1815)
*October 23 – Jean-Andoche Junot, French general (d. 1813)
*November 14 – Marie François Xavier Bichat, French anatomist and physiologist (d. U momma)

## Deaths
4 BC

Year **4 BC** was a common year starting on Tuesday or Wednesday of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Sabinus and Rufus**.

## Events
* Herod Archelaus becomes the ruler of Judea. Herod Antipas rules Galilee and Perea.
* Publius Quintilius Varus leads Roman legions to Jerusalem to restore order. He crucifies 2,000 Jewish rebels.

## Births 
*Jesus (possible)

## Deaths 
* Herod the Great  14 Jan 1AD (b. 69 BC)
* Marcus Tullius Tiro, freedman of Cicero
1757

## Events 
* January 2 – The United Kingdom captures Calcutta, India.
* March 14 – On board the HMS *Monarch*, Royal Navy Admiral John Byng is executed by firing squad for breach of the Articles of War.
* May 6 – Battle of Prague – Frederick the Great defeats an Austrian army and begins to besiege the city.
* June 18 – Battle of Kolin – Frederick is defeated by an Austrian army under Marshal Daun, forcing him to evacuate Bohemia.
* June 23 – Battle of Plassey – 3000 British troops under Robert Clive defeat a 50,000 strong Indian army under Siraj-ud-Dawlah at Plassey.
* July 26 – Battle of Hastenbeck – An Anglo-Hanoverian army under the Duke of Cumberland is defeated by the French under Louis d'Estrées and forced out of Hanover.
* July 30 – Battle of Gross-Jägersdorf – A Prussian army under Hans von Lehwald is defeated by the Russian army of Marshal Stepan Apraksin.
* October 16 – Austrian raiders plunder Berlin.
* October 30 – Osman III dies and is succeeded as Ottoman Sultan by Mustafa III.
* November 5 – Battle of Rossbach. Frederick defeats the French-Imperial army under the Duc de Soubise and Prince Joseph of Saxe-Hildburghausen, forcing the French to withdraw from Saxony.
* November 22 – Battle of Breslau – An Austrian army under Prince Charles of Lorraine defeats the Prussian army of Wilhelm of Brunswick-Bevern and forces the Austrians behind the Oder.
* December 6 – Battle of Leuthen – Frederick defeats Prince Charles's Austrian army.

## Deaths
Paul McGann

**Paul McGann** (born 14 November 1959) is an English actor. He is best known for his roles in *Withnail and I* (1987) and as the Eighth Doctor in the 1996 *Doctor Who* television movie.
Sylvester McCoy

**Percy James Patrick Kent-Smith** or **Sylvester McCoy** (born 20 August 1943) is a Scottish actor. He is best known for playing the seventh incarnation of the Doctor on *Doctor Who* from 1987 to 1989, he also briefly played the Doctor in beginning of the 1996 TV movie.

## Other websites
*
Georgia O'Keeffe

She is known for her colorful close-up painting of flowers.

She was born on November 15, 1887 on a farm in Sun Prairie, Wisconsin. O'Keeffe studied art at the Art Institute of Chicago and the Art Students League of New York. 

Georgia O'Keeffe married Alfred Stieglitz in 2010. Stieglitz was a famous photographer and he helped O'Keeffe gain success in her career. He owned the gallery which held her first solo exhibition.

O’Keeffe died on March 6, 1986 in Santa Fe at the age of 98.

## Auction record 
O'Keefe holds the world auction record for a painting by a woman (November 2014). Her *Jimson Weed/White Flower No 1* sold for $44.4m (£28.8m) at the O'Keeffe Museum in Santa Fe, New Mexico. O'Keeffe's large-format depictions of flowers which she painted as if they had been seen in close-up.

## Gallery 

File:Georgia O'Keeffe, Sunrise, watercolor, 1916.tif|Sunrise, watercolor 1916.

## References
Deadly nightshade

of the *belladonna*.]]

**Deadly nightshade** or **belladonna** (*Atropa belladonna*) is a well-known, hardy perennial shrub. It is a member of the nightshade family. 

It can be found in a few different continents: Europe; North Africa; Asia; and North America, but is far less common there. Usually it grows in the shade. The plant does not like direct sunlight. Often it grows in places where the soil is rich in limestone. 

## Dangers of belladonna 
Most parts of the plant are known to be very poisonous. Children have died from eating as few as three berries. One leaf contains enough poison to kill an adult. The root usually contains the most poison.

The poison present in the plant is called atropine.

## Effects of the poison 
The effects of atropine are dilated (big) pupils, hallucinations, and difficulty in seeing (the vision may not be as sharp as always, it may be difficult to focus on some object). Other symptoms include: problems keeping upright; feeling like one is flying; and being confused. 
The pulse of the victim grows faster and faster, and the rate at which the heart is beating will go up. Toxic reaction to atropine causes fever, delirium, stupor (nearly being unconscious) and rash on head, neck and upper trunk. There may be agitation, difficulty in speaking and swallowing. Coma and convulsions usually come before death.
Perennial

A **perennial** is a plant that bears leaves and perhaps flowers every year.  

Some plants only bear leaves and flowers once, then they die. Such plants are called *annual*.

Other plants live for two years. They are called *biennial*.

Most trees and shrubs are perennial plants.
List of Pacific hurricane seasons

The following is a **list of Pacific hurricane seasons**. They all began on May 15 in the eastern Pacific and June 1 in the central Pacific in their respective years. There, they end on November 30. These dates are when tropical cyclones usually form in the eastern Pacific Ocean.

Before the satellite age started in the 1960s, data on east Pacific hurricanes is extremely unreliable. Most east Pacific storms are of no threat to land.

## 1900s
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959

1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969

1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979

1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989

1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999

## 2000s
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009

2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019

2020
2021
2022
2023
2024
2025

## Related pages
*List of Atlantic hurricane seasons
*List of Pacific typhoon seasons
Evergreen

, England]]
An **evergreen** is a plant which keeps its leaves throughout the year. This is different from deciduous plants, which lose their leaves during the winter or wet seasons. There are many different kinds of evergreen plants, both trees and shrubs.
Shrub

shrub in flower]] 
A **shrub** or **bush** is a category of plants. A tree usually has one stem, which at some height has branches. A *shrub* can have multiple stems from the bottom up. Usually, bushes do not grow as tall as trees, very often they are less than 1–2 m tall.

Very many  plants can be either shrubs or trees, depending on the growing conditions. Small, low shrubs such as lavender, periwinkle and thyme are often termed subshrubs. Shrubs can be either deciduous or evergreen.

A **shrubbery** is a garden with shrubs as the main feature.

## Shrubs as a botanical structural form 
In botany and ecology a shrub is more specifically used to describe the particular physical structural or plant life-form of woody plants which are less than 8 meters high and usually have many stems arising at or near the base.

For example, a descriptive system widely used in Australia is based on structural characteristics based on life-form, plus the height and amount of foliage cover of the tallest layer or dominant species.

For shrubs 2–8 m high the following structural forms are categorized:
* dense foliage cover (70–100%) — **closed-scrub**
* mid-dense foliage cover (30–70%) — **open-scrub**
* sparse foliage cover (10–30%) — **tall shrubland**
* very sparse foliage cover (<10%) — **tall open shrubland**

For shrubs less than 2 m high the following structural forms are categorized:
* dense foliage cover (70–100%) — **closed-heath**
* mid-dense foliage cover (30–70%) — **heath**
* sparse foliage cover (10–30%) — **low shrubland**
* very sparse foliage cover (<10%) — **low open shrubland**

## References 
## Other websites
*Selecting Shrubs for Your Home (University of Illinois Extension)
Shade

creates shade for the people and fruit underneath]]
**Shade** is produced when the sun is shining and an object, a tree for example, blocks the direct sunlight so that it cannot reach a certain spot. The dark image which the object casts on the ground (or on another object) is called shadow, not *shade*.

**Shade** can also mean a darker or lighter color of the same base color. For example: in a picture of a tree's shadow, the grass in the shade will be a darker *shade* of green than the grass out of the shade.
Deciduous

shed their leaves as temperatures drop in autumn.]]
**Deciduous** means "temporary" or "tending to fall off" (deriving from the Latin word *decidere*, to fall off).
When talking about plants this means that the plant loses its leaves, usually in autumn. The leaves will then grow again in spring.

When referring to teeth, it means the teeth at the front of the mouth that grow and fall out and are replaced in childhood. They are called deciduous teeth.

In botany and horticulture, **deciduous plants** are trees, shrubs and herbaceous perennials which lose all of their leaves for part of the year. This is called abscission. Leaf loss happens in winter in temperate or polar climates.

With evergreens, foliage is shed differently from deciduous trees. They seem green year round. Plants that are intermediate may be called semi-deciduous; they lose old foliage as new growth begins. Other plants are semi-evergreen and lose their leaves before the next growing season, keeping some in winter or dry periods. Some trees, including a few species of oak, have desiccated leaves that stay on the tree through winter. These persistent dry leaves are dropped in the spring as new growth begins.

Many deciduous plants flower during the period when they are leafless, as this increases the effectiveness of pollination. Not having leaves also improves wind transmission of pollen for wind-pollinated plants and increases the visibility of the flowers to insects in insect-pollinated plants.

## References
1553

**1553** (MDLIII) was a common year starting on Sunday in the Julian calendar.

## Events 
* June 26 – Christ's Hospital and King Edward's School, Witley created by Royal Charter
* July 6 – Edward VI of England dies
* July 10 – Lady Jane Grey is proclaimed Queen of England – for the next nine days
* July 18 – Lord Mayor of London proclaims Queen Mary as the rightful Queen – Lady Jane Grey willingly gives up the title of queen.
*August 2 – Battle of Marciano. French forces invading Italy under Marshal Blaise de Monluc are ed by an imperial army under the Marquis of Marignano and are forced to retreat into Siena, which is besieged by the imperial forces.
* August 3 – Queen Mary arrives in London
* August 22 – Duke of Northumberland, supporter of Jane Grey, executed
* September Protestant bishops in England are arrested and Roman Catholic bishops are restored
* September 23 – The Sadians consolidate their power in Morocco by defeating the last of their enemies
* October 27 – Calvinists burn Michael Servetus as a heretic in Geneva
*Battle of Sievershausen – Elector Maurice of Saxony defeats the Catholic forces of Margrave Albert of Brandenburg-Kulmbach. Maurice is mortally wounded.
* Shanghai is fortified for the first time.
1732

**1732** (MDCCXXXII) was a leap year starting on Tuesday in the Gregorian calendar and a leap year starting on Saturday in the Julian calendar.

## Events 
* February 23 –  First performance of Handel's *Orlando*, in London
* June 9 – James Oglethorpe is granted a royal charter for the colony of Georgia.
* December 7 – The original Covent Garden Theatre Royal (now the Royal Opera House) is opened
* Genoa regains Corsica
* 139 members of the Paris Parlement are exiled by order of the King, but are eventually triumphant over the Crown, and secure their recall in December
* Cobalt discovered

## Births 
* February 22 - George Washington, first President of the United States (d. 1799)
* April 5 - Jean-Honoré Fragonard, French artist
* April 13 - Frederick North, Lord North, Prime Minister of Great Britain from 1770 to 1782
* December 6 - Warren Hastings, first Governor-General of India
* Joseph Haydn, Austrian composer

## Deaths
* October 31 - Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia, Duke of Savoy

## References
1768

**1768** (MDCCLXVIII) was a leap year starting on Friday in the Gregorian calendar and a leap year starting on Tuesday in the Julian calendar.

## Events 
* January 9 – Philip Astley stages the first modern circus (London)
* May 10 –  John Wilkes is imprisoned for writing an article for the *North Briton* severely criticizing King George III. This action provokes rioting in London
* Secretary of State for colonies appointed in Britain
* Massachusetts Assembly dissolved for refusing to assist collection of taxes.
* Boston citizens refuse to quarter British troops
* France buys Corsica from Genoa
* Gurkhas conquer Nepal
* First of the weekly numbers of the *Encyclopædia Britannica* are published; 100 are planned
* James Cook's first voyage: 1768-1771

## Births 
* 12 February 1768 Francis I of Austria

## Deaths 
* 3 March 1768 Nicola Porpora
Shadow

on a wall]]
, Europa and Io) and their shadows move across Jupiter]]

A shadow is a dark area on a bright surface. It is caused by something that is blocking a  of light. A shadow's outline, called a silhouette, will have the same shape as the object blocking the light. Shadows can't form when it's dark.      

Depending on the light source, or sources, a wide range of effects can be produced. A point source of light casts only a simple shadow, called an "umbra". A "penumbra" is the region in which only a portion of the light source may be blocked. If there is more than one light source, there will be several shadows, with the overlapping parts darker, and various combinations of brightness or even colours. The more diffuse the lighting is, the softer and more indistinct the shadow outlines become, until they disappear. The lighting of an overcast sky produces few visible shadows.

Astronomical shadows are usually sharp. This is because in space the light usually does not go through an atmosphere.Did you know that the sun is a star! And the sun is the biggest  and main light source in our solar system.
Webcam

A **webcam** is a video camera that connects to a computer, and can let people see each other over the Internet. Most people that have webcams use them with an instant messenger to see each other at the same time. Webcams can also be used for recording videos and video blogs. The webcam can be part of a computer, mobile phone or it can be an independent device.

## History 
The first webcam was developed in 1991 at Cambridge University and the first commercial camera started in 1994 and was made by Logitech.
Y-intercept

The **y-intercept** of a line on a graph is where the line touches (or intercepts) the y-axis (the numbered line going straight up).

The equation for straight lines is y=mx+b.  "b" is the y-intercept.

You can find the y-intercept of a graph by seeing where the x-coordinate equals 0. The y-coordinate of a point with a x-coordinate of 0 is the y-intercept.

## Related pages
* Algebra
The Sims

***The Sims*** is a video game released in 2000 . It is a life simulator that imitates real life. Sims can get jobs, have needs, and can get married. It was the third best selling computer and video game of all time (it mostly sold well on the computer).

The Sims was so successful it has created three sequels, (*The Sims 2* in 2004, *The Sims 3* in 2009, and *The Sims 4* in 2014) along with many other spin-offs of the series.

## History
The Sims was created by Will Wright, who worked at Maxis, which was owned by EA Games. It was first released in February 2000. His intention was to make an open-ended game without a set objective. This feature was the reason why it attracted so many gamers.

## Gameplay
The first part of the game is to make a family, or play one of the preexisting families. Every family can have children and adults. A player can choose what they look like from many different clothes and hair styles. Each family must include at least one adult.

Each family starts with $20,000, regardless of how many sims are in the family.  After the family is made, the player can move them into a lot.  Some lots are empty while other lots have houses on them.

There are many different floor coverings, wall coverings and doors to choose from when building a house. After building, the player can purchase objects, such as a refrigerator, bed, or other things.

Players control the Sims in Live Mode.  The main goal is to keep the Sim's eight needs up and in the green.  These needs eventually go down as time goes by.  If Sims have no energy, they will fall to the ground.  If they are swimming and run out of energy they will drown.  If they are too hungry, they will die of starvation.

Other goals include making money (called Simoleons in this game).  Sims must get jobs to get more money so they can pay bills, buy new objects, and expand the house.  If they do not go to work two days in a row, they will be .  Each Sim has eight skill levels to work towards.  Each skill level has 10 points.  For instance, in the military job, the ultimate requirement is 10 body points.  Jobs also require a certain number of friends to receive a promotion.  The higher they go, the more money they make per day.

Children must go to school.  If they do not keep their grades up, they will be sent to military school and will never return.  They can read books to study.

### Expansion packs
*The Sims* is well known for having many expansion packs, or smaller games that add onto the main game.  The player must own the original game to buy and install these packs. The Sims has 7 official expansion packs. 

## Other Sims games
After it sold well on the computer, it was put on other platforms such as the PlayStation 2, PlayStation Portable, GameCube and Xbox. The console releases are:

# *The Sims (console game)*
# ''The Sims Bustin' Out*
# *The Urbz: Sims in the City*
# *The Sims 2 (console Game)''

These all follow a different concept. They are more objective-based rather than free-willed and have not been as popular as the original PC editions.

## References
1436

## Events 
* April – Paris is recaptured by the French
* End of the Hussite Wars in Bohemia.  Sigismund is accepted as King.
* Alexandru I Aldea is replaced as ruler of Wallachia by Vlad II Dracul.
The Last Waltz

**The Last Waltz** was final concert of the Canadian/American rock group The Band. It took place on Thanksgiving (November 26) in 1976 at the Winterland Ballroom in San Francisco, California. It was also made into a movie by Martin Scorsese, that came out in 1978.

Other musicians who were in *The Last Waltz* concert were:
* Ronnie Hawkins
* Dr. John
* Bobby Charles
* Neil Young
* Neil Diamond
* Joni Mitchell
* Paul Butterfield
* Muddy Waters
* Eric Clapton
* Emmylou Harris
* Van Morrison
* Bob Dylan
* Ringo Starr
* Ronnie Wood
* Stephen Stills
* Carl Radle
1241

## Events 
* April 5 – Mongols of Golden Horde under the command of Subotai defeat feudal Polish nobility, including Knights Templar, in the battle of Liegnitz
* April 27 – Mongols defeat Bela IV of Hungary in the Battle of Sajo.
886

## Events 
* The Glagolitic alphabet, devised by Cyril and Methodius, missionaries from Constantinople, is  adopted in the Bulgarian Empire.
* Alfred the Great captures London and renames it Lundenburgh. The boundaries between Wessex and the Danelaw are shifted.
* Alfred the Great builds a small harbour called Queenhythe slightly upstream from London Bridge. 
* Alfred the Great mints the first halfpenny. Previous halfpennies had been pennies cut in half.
* Earl Aethelred is given control of London by Alfred the Great. Alfred's sister Ethelfleda marries Aethelred.
* Leo VI succeeds his stepfather Basil I as Byzantine emperor and replaces patriarch Photius with his brother Stephen I.
* Khan Boris I of Bulgaria establishes the Preslav and Ohrid Literary Schools.
* Charles II of France purchases peace with Vikings at Paris.
1204

## Events 
* February – Byzantine emperor Alexius IV is overthrown in a revolution, and Alexius V is proclaimed emperor.
* April 12 – The Fourth Crusade take Constantinople by storm, and pillage the city for three days. End of the Fourth Crusade.
* May 16 – Baldwin, Count of Flanders is crowned emperor of the Latin Empire a week after his election by the members of the Fourth Crusade.
* Theodore I Lascaris flees to Nicaea after the capture of Constantinople, and establishes the Empire of Nicaea; Byzantine successor states are also established in Epirus and Trebizond.
* Boniface of Montferrat, a leader of the Fourth Crusade, founds the Kingdom of Thessalonica.
* The writings of French theologian Amalric of Bena are condemned by the University of Paris and Pope Innocent III.
* Valdemar II, King of Denmark, is recognized as king in Norway.
* Angers and Normandy are recaptured from England by Philip II of France.
* The Cistercian convent of Port-Royal is established.
* The district of Cham becomes subject to Bavaria.
* Philip of Swabia becomes a subject of Hermann I of Thuringia.
* Beaulieu Abbey founded.
* Jersey enjoys self-government thanks to the division of the Duchy of Normandy.
## Births 
* Haakon IV, King of Norway (died 1263)
* Heinrich Raspe, Landgraf of Thuringia (died 1247)
* Abû 'Uthmân Sa'îd Hakam al Qurashi, Ra'îs of Manûrqa (died 1282)

## Deaths 
* January 1 – King Haakon III of Norway
* February 8 – Alexius IV Angelus, Byzantine Emperor
* March 31 – Eleanor of Aquitaine, queen of France and England
* August 11 – King Guttorm of Norway
* August 14 – Minamoto no Yoriie, Japanese shogun (born 1182)
* October 21 – Robert de Beaumont, 4th Earl of Leicester
* December 13 – Maimonides, Spanish rabbi and philosopher (born 1135)
* Ban Kulin – ruler of Bosnia (born 1163)
* Amalric of Bena, French theologian
* William de Burgh, English politician
* Emeric of Hungary (born 1174)
* Isaac II Angelus, Byzantine Emperor
* Suleiman II of Rum
* David Soslani, Prince of Ossetia
681

## Events 
* August 9 – The Bulgars win the war with the Byzantine Empire; the latter signs a peace treaty, which is considered as the birth-date of Bulgaria
* Wilfrid of York is expelled from Northumbria by Ecgfrith and retires into Sussex
1593

## Events
* May 18 – Playwright Thomas Kyd's accusations of heresy lead to an arrest warrant for Christopher Marlowe.
* June 22 – Ottoman Empire defeated in Battle of Sisak, their first defeat in Europe.
* July 25 – King Henry IV of France returns to Catholicism, and is recognized as King in most of France.

## Births
* July 8 - Artemisia Gentileschi, Italian painter
* October 27 - Mumtaz Mahal, Mughal empress
1721

## Events 
* Pope Innocent XIII becomes pope
* Johann Sebastian Bach composes the Brandenburg Concertos
* April 4 – Robert Walpole becomes the first Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
* September 10 – Treaty of Nystad is signed, bringing an end to the Great Northern War
* November 2 – Peter I is proclaimed Emperor of All the Russias

## Births 
* April 19 - Roger Sherman, signer of the American Declaration of Independence (d.  1803)

## Deaths 
* July 18 - Antoine Watteau, French painter (b. 1684)
* September 2 - Kwon Sang-ha, Korean writer
* September 17 - Marguerite Louise d'Orléans, Grand Duchess of Tuscany
* December 13 - Alexander Selkirk, Scottish sailor (original "Robinson Crusoe") (b. 1676)
1777

## Events 
* The Cornish language died out
* 2nd edition of *Encyclopædia Britannica* published
* January 3 – American Revolutionary War: American general George Washington defeats British general Charles Cornwallis at the Battle of Princeton.
*January 12 – Mission Santa Clara de Asís is founded in what is now Santa Clara, California
*January 16 – Vermont declares its independence from New York becoming an independent country, a status it retained until it joined the United States as the 14th state in 1791
* June 13 – American Revolutionary War: Marquis de Lafayette lands near Charleston, South Carolina to help the Continental Congress train its army.
* June 14 – Stars and Stripes adopted by the Continental Congress as the Flag of the United States.
* August 16 – American Revolutionary War:  Battle of Bennington – British forces are defeated by American troops.
* September 3 – Cooch's Bridge – Skirmish of American Revolutionary war in New Castle County, Delaware where the Flag of the United States was flown in battle for the first time.
* September 11 – Battle of Brandywine – Major American Revolutionary war victory for British in Chester County, Pennsylvania.
* September 19 – American Revolutionary War: First Battle of Saratoga/Battle of Freeman's Farm/Battle of Bemis Heights.
* October 4 – American Revolutionary War: Battle of Germantown– Troops under George Washington are repelled by British troops under Sir William Howe.
* October 17 – American Revolutionary War: Battle of Saratoga– American troops defeat the British.
* November 15 – American Revolutionary War: After 16 months of debate, the Continental Congress approves the Articles of Confederation in the temporary American capital at York, Pennsylvania.
* November 17 – Articles of Confederation submitted to the states for ratification.
*November 29 – San Jose, California founded.  It is the first *pueblo* in Spanish Alta California.
* December 24 – Kiritimati discovered by James Cook
* The code duello is adopted at the Clonmell Summer Assizes as the form for pistol duels in Ireland.  It is quickly denounced but nevertheless widely adopted throughout the English-speaking world.
Prime Minister of Greenland

The **Prime Minister of Greenland** (, lit *Leader of the Government*; ), officially referred to as the **Premier**, is the head of the Government of Greenland. The incumbent prime minister is Múte Bourup Egede of the Inuit Ataqatigiit party. 

The prime minister is usually leader of the majority party in the Parliament of Greenland. Jonathan Motzfeldt became Prime Minister after home rule was granted to Greenland in 1979.

## List of prime ministers of Greenland
## References
Genesis (band)

**Genesis** is an English progressive rock group. They formed in 1967. They have sold about 150 million albums all over the world. This puts them among the top 30 best-selling recording artists of all time. The group's members have included Peter Gabriel and Phil Collins. Both of them were successful as solo artists as well.

## Members of the group
Over the years, Genesis has changed members more than once. The first line-up was Peter Gabriel (vocals), Anthony Phillips (guitar), Tony Banks (keyboards), Mike Rutherford (bass & guitar), and Chris Stewart (drums).

Other drummers until 1970 were John Silver and John Mayhew. In August 1970, Phil Collins began playing drums for Genesis. In some songs, he also sang. The same year Phillips left, and Steve Hackett joined as a guitarist in 1971.

The band also made a song called "Supper's Ready" which is almost 23 minutes long. Many fans call it their best because it has many different parts.

After the release of the album *The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway* (1974), Gabriel left the band. Collins took over the singing. He was singer for Genesis from 1976 to 1996. When Hackett also left, in 1977 there were only three members left. The 1978 album was called *...And Then There Were Three...* because of this.

The band ended up making lots of well-known songs, like *Abacab*, Invisible Touch and No Son of Mine.

The last studio album with Collins was ''We Can't Dance* in 1991. He left the band in 1996 and was replaced with singer Ray Wilson. Because the album *Calling All Stations* (1997) with Ray Wilson was not very successful, the group disbanded.

After a break of eight years, Genesis started a world tour in 2006. The members now are Phil Collins, Mike Rutherford and Tony Banks. The band disbanded again at 2011 due to Collins retiring and Collins came back from retiring at 2015.

Genesis were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2010.

## Band members
* Peter Gabriel – Lead vocals (1967–1975)
* Tony Banks – Keyboards (1967–1998, 2006–2011)
* Mike Rutherford – Bass guitars, guitars, backing vocals (1967–1998, 2006–2011)
* Anthony Phillips – Guitars (1967–1970)
* Chris Stewart – Drums (1967–1968)
* John Silver – Drums (1968–1969)
* John Mayhew – Drums (1969–1970)
* Phil Collins – Drums, lead vocals, backing vocals (1970–1996, 2006–2011)
* Mick Barnard – Guitars (1970–1971)
* Steve Hackett – Guitars (1971–1977)
* Ray Wilson – Lead vocals (1996–1998)
* Nir Zidkyahu – Drums (1996–1998)

## Discography
;Studio albums
* *From Genesis to Revelation* (1969)
* *Trespass* (1970)
* *Nursery Cryme* (1971)
* *Foxtrot* (1972)
* *Selling England by the Pound* (1973)
* *The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway* (1974)
* *A Trick of a Tail* (1976)
* *Wind & Wuthering* (1976)
* *...And Then There Were Three...* (1978)
* *Duke* (1980)
* *Abacab* (1981)
* *Genesis* (1983)
* *Invisible Touch* (1986)
* *We Can't Dance* (1991)
* *Calling All Stations'' (1997)

## References
Vedas

The **Vedas** are the four holiest books of the Hindu religion. 

Each book has four major kinds of text – the Samhitas (mantras and benedictions), the Aranyakas (text on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices and symbolic-sacrifices), the Brahmanas (commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices), and the Upanishads (texts discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge).  The Vedas are written in *Vedic Sanskrit*.

Later types of Hinduism that are very different from the types of Hinduism that follow the Vedas.

The four Vedas are:

* the Rigveda
* the Yajurveda
* the Samaveda
* the Atharvaveda

## Rigveda
Rigveda is the first of the four Vedas. Rigveda means a *Veda of praise*. This Veda has several verses (hymns).  This Veda is also the oldest Hindu holy book.

## Yajurveda 
Yajurveda is the second of the four Vedas. Yajurveda means the Veda of the Yajus. Yajus were mantras sung during religious activities. Yajurveda is divided into two parts. The name of the first part is Black Yajurveda, called Taittiriya.The Taittirīya Upanishad is a Vedic era Sanskrit text, embedded as three chapters of the Yajurveda. It is a mukhya Upanishad, and likely composed about 6th century BC. The Taittirīya Upanishad is associated with the Taittirīya school of the Yajurveda, attributed to the pupils of sage Tittiri. The name of the second part is White Yajurveda, is called Vajasaneyi.

## Samaveda
Samaveda is the third Veda of the four Vedas. Samaveda means the Veda of sacred songs. This Veda also has many hymns. They were sung by the Hindu priests and other Hindus during religious activities.

## Atharvaveda
Atharvaveda is the fourth of the four Vedas. Atharvaveda means the *Veda of knowledge*.
The Atharvaveda holds key for the massive vedic knowledge on the sciences like medicine, sorcery and has many facts that the present generation is still trying to crack.

## References
* Flood, Gavin.  *An Introduction to Hinduism*. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 1996. .
* Michaels, Axel. *Hinduism: Past and Present*. Princeton University Press: 2004. .
*Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli;  and Moore, Charles A. *A Source Book in Indian Philosophy*.  Princeton University Press, 1957; Princeton paperback 12th edition, 1989. .
*Walker, Benjamin *Hindu World: An Encyclopedic Survey of Hinduism*, (Two Volumes), Allen & Unwin, London, 1968; Praeger, New York, 1968; Munshiram Manohar Lal, New Delhi, 1983; Harper Collins, New Delhi, 1985; Rupa, New Delhi, 2005, .
*Winternitz, Moriz. *History of Indian Literature*. Vol. 1 (of two volumes), p.&nbsp;1. (Calcutta 1926)

## Bibliography
*.

## Other websites
*A translation of Rig Veda 
* The Vedas at sacred-texts.com
* Vedas: Rig, Sama, Yajur, and Artharva
Minister (government)

A **Minister** can be a Member of Parliament, or a Clergyman (person who works as a Minister in the Church).  This article talks about a Minister as a Member of Parliament.

Many countries have Ministers who deal with special things related to how people live.  You can find out about them by looking at the Wikipedia in their own language.  Ministers in the United States are called "Cabinet Secretaries".

## Ministers in the United Kingdom 
In the United Kingdom and other countries that follow the Westminster System, a Minister is a Member of Parliament who has a special role dealing with a certain area of Government.  In the British Government, there are Ministers for lots of different things, like Children, Work & Pensions and Culture, Media & Sport.  There are descriptions (things that describe) of what these people do at the bottom of this page.

Ministers in the government report to the Prime Minister, who also tells them what they need to do in relation to their jobs.  The Deputy Prime Minister also reports to the Prime Minister.

Other Ministers, even though they are not called Ministers, include the Foreign Secretary, and the Home Secretary.

## What are these jobs? 
**Minister for Children**

The Minister for Children looks after children's rights - these are laws which take care of how children are treated by their parents or guardians (a guardian is someone who looks after a child when their parents are not able to), and their care in society.  The job means that this Minister has a special role in the lives of all children in the UK.

**Minister for Work and Pensions**

This Minister looks after jobs (Employment) and money given to people who are in need (Welfare Benefits).  They set the rules saying what people who have no job must do to try and get one, and how much money people who have no job or are in need, get to live on.  The Minister also sets rules about what happens to people who do not do enough to find a job, or who break the law by working while they are getting Welfare Benefits.

**Minister for Culture, Media and Sport**

This Minister has a special role which means they promote (make popular) British Culture and Traditions.  They also take care of Broadcasting laws and laws about what newspapers and television stations can and cannot do.  Also, they have a duty to promote sporting activities which take place in Britain and help the government attract major sports events to Britain (the recent decision to let Britain host the Olympic Games in 2012 is an example of this).

There are a lot of other Ministers in the Government. 

## References
Serbia and Montenegro

**Serbia and Montenegro** (Serbian: Србија и Црна Гора, Srbija I Crna Gora, abbreviated as "SCG") was the name of the union of Serbia and Montenegro that was created after the collapse of Yugoslavia. The two nations were seperated in 2006 after a vote. 

It was on the west-central Balkan Peninsula. It had borders with Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia, to the west, Hungary to the north, Romania and Bulgaria to the east, North Macedonia to the south and Albania to the southwest, with just over 200 km of coast on the Adriatic.

Serbia and Montenegro worked together in only some political areas. The states had separate economic policies and currencies (money). Although both the states now had more freedom to do as they are pleased than they did as Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Serbia and Montenegro were still a Sovereign State united under one government.

The people of Montenegro wanted independence however, and on 21 May 2006 the government held a vote to ask the Montenegrins whether they still wanted to stay in the union. 55.5% of Montenegrins agreed to be independent. On 3 June 2006 Montenegro declared independence; followed by Serbia's declaration of independence two days later on 5 June 2006.

Image:Scg01.png
Image:Scg02.png
Rembrandt

s of his contemporaries, self-portraits and illustrations of scenes from the Bible. His self-portraits are a unique biography, in which the artist surveyed himself without  and with the utmost .p28 When Rembrandt learned she had pawned Saskia's jewellery, which Rembrandt had given her, he had her committed for twelve years to a poorhouse (a 'bridewell') at Gouda.

Rembrandt then lived with a young woman called Hendrickje Stoffels from Bredevoort who had been his maid. They had a daughter called Cornelia. Rembrandt died in Amsterdam on 4 October 1669.

## Works 
Rembrandt painted many famous pictures. The portraits use light and dark colors; people sitting in the pictures are often shown in a calm or thoughtful appearance. He was such a good painter, that many of his pictures make people feel as if they are taking part in what is happening. Paintings by Rembrandt can be seen in art galleries all over the world.

Throughout his work Rembrandt used colour which darkens as it approaches the edge of the painting, and lighter towards the center. There is always a certain person, or event, or group of people that is near the center, and they are shown to be brighter than the rest of the picture. The dark backgrounds are painted to be very interesting and important. In most of his paintings, there are deep whites and blacks which shows contrast between different parts of the work.

## References 
## Other websites
Culinary mustard

**Culinary mustard** is a condiment people use when making food. It comes from the seeds of the mustard plant.

## Preparation 
Mustard is prepared by grinding the seeds of the Mustard plant, and mixing them with water or vinegar. Depending on which seeds are taken, and/or how much vinegar is added, the mustard may turn out hotter or less hot.

## Use 
Most mustard is made available as a bottled condiment and can be spread on a slice of sandwich bread, salad, vegetables, meat or squirted onto a hotdog or a potato salad, along with ketchup, horseradish and other spices. It is often found in fast-food restaurants in the form of a small packet which the diner may open and squeeze into the dish of choice.

## Related pages
* Condiment
* Ketchup
* Spice
Light microscope

A **light microscope** or **optical microscope** works like a refracting telescope except that the object is very close to the objective lens. An object to be studied, for example a tiny organism so small it looks like just a dot, is put on a slide, which is usually a flat piece of glass. The clips on the microscope's flat stage hold the slide in place. The stage can be adjusted to add more light.  It also moves to allow different layers of the object to be in focus.  The user looks through the microscope eyepiece.  A mirror at the bottom of the microscope reflects light rays up to the object through a hole in the stage. Objective lenses magnify the image which is made even larger when it is seen through the eyepiece lenses. Some light microscopes are actually digital cameras, made to photograph small things but having no eyepiece.

Many microscopes, often used in colleges and high schools, normally have a top magnification of 40x with the option of having 4x and 8x. This lets the microscope show basic cells and other items.  Others can magnify hundreds of times, or thousands.

## Components 
All modern optical microscopes designed for viewing samples by transmitted light share the same basic components of the light path, listed here in the order the light travels through them. Also almost all microscopes have the same 'structural' components:
* Ocular lens (eyepiece) (1)
* Objective turret or Revolver or Revolving nose piece (to hold multiple objective lenses) (2)
* *Objective* (3)
* Focus wheel to move the stage (4 – coarse adjustment, 5 – fine adjustment)
* Frame (6)
* Light source, a light or a mirror (7)
* Diaphragm and condenser lens (8)
* Stage (to hold the sample) (9)
These entries are numbered according to the image on the right.

## Alternatives 
Optical microscopes cannot show things that are smaller than light waves, because of the diffraction limit. Microscopes which can see smaller things include:
*Atomic force microscope (AFM)
*Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
*Scanning ion-conductance microscopy (SICM)
*Scanning tunneling microscope (STM)
*Transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
*Ultraviolet microscope
*X-ray microscope

## Other websites 
*Antique Microscopes.com A collection of early microscopes
*Historical microscopes , an illustrated collection with more than 3000 photos of scientific microscopes by European makers 
*The Golub Collection, A collection of 17th through 19th Century microscopes, including extensive descriptions
**Molecular Expressions*, concepts in optical microscopy
*Online tutorial of practical optical microscopy
*OpenWetWare
*Antonie van Leeuwenhoek: father of microscopy and microbiology
Vinegar

with spices or herbs—as here, with oregano.]]
**Vinegar** is a liquid containing mainly water and acetic acid and used mostly in cooking. It can be made from wine or other liquids containing alcohol, like cider, fermented fruit juices, or fermented malt. Ethanol is oxidized from the liquid, resulting in vinegar.

Vinegar made from dates is a traditional product of the Middle East. It can also be made through the use of certain bacteria. Vinegar contains about 5% of acetic acid. The acid makes it sour. 

In cooking, it is often used as a condiment to add to salad, fish, french fries and vegetables like pickles and cabbage.  It is much used in salad dressings.

The pH of vinegar depends on how much acid is in it. Apple cider vinegar is typically between pH 4.25 and 5.00 if undiluted. Distilled vinegar has a pH of around 2.4.

There are many types of vinegar, such as balsamic, red wine, and apple cider vinegar. It is also shown above as well as the others.

## Other websites 
* Vinegar -Citizendium

## References
Major movie studios

**Big Five** are the United States's major movie production studios which also distribute their product. All of them have historic flagship production facilities near Hollywood.
All Big Five major studios (Walt Disney Pictures, Warner Bros. Pictures, Paramount Pictures, Sony Pictures and Universal Pictures) are parts of much larger business enterprises, with their corporate headquarters offices far from Hollywood.
The group of major studios long numbered seven, but was reduced to six with the fading from importance of MGM in the 1980s.
They became five when, on November 6, 2017 - Disney announced its deal to buy Fox for $52.4 billion.

## Majors 
### Current 
## Little 4
* Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer - Amazon MGM Studios/Amazon
* Lionsgate Films - Lionsgate Studios
* Amblin Partners
** Amblin Entertainment
*  Signature Entertainment
* ErosSTX
** Eros International
** STXfilms
* A24

## International studios
* Gaumont Film Company
* Pinewood Studios
* Lenfilm
* Nordisk Film
* BBC Films
* Pathé Frères
* Constantin Film
* SF Studios
* Titanus - closed down in 1964; revived as a small studio in 1970.
* Sheperton Studios - sold to Pinewood Group in 2001.
* Rank Organisation - bought by The Rank Group in 1996; motion picture involvement ended in 2006.
* Optimum Releasing - bought by StudioCanal in 2006; later renamed as StudioCanal UK in 2011.

## References