open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Gnathostomata

**Gnathostomata** is the group of vertebrates with jaws.

The group was meant to include all jawed fish, but in modern fashion it also includes all the tetrapods as well, since they evolved from jawed fish. It is the sister group of the Agnatha, the jawless vertebrates.

The Gnathostomata first appeared in the Ordovician period and became diverse in the Devonian period, the 'Age of Fishes'. Land vertebrates appeared in the Carboniferous period.

## Subgroups 
*Chondrichthyes cartilaginous fish
*Acanthodii† 'spiny sharks'
*Placoderms† armoured fish
*Osteichthyes bony fish
**Actinopterygii ray-finned fish
**Sarcopterygii lobe-finned fish and land vertebrates (tetrapods)
Flag of Mali

Flag ratio: 2:3]]
, 1961]]

The **flag of Mali** has three equal vertical stripes. Starting from the flagpole, the colours are green, gold, and red, which are part of the pan-African colours.

The flag became official on March 1, 1961. The original flag became official on April 4, 1959, when Mali joined the Mali Federation. This flag was the same, but the golden stripe had a human "stick figure", called a *kanaga*, in black, with its arms pointing to the sky. The figure was removed because of an Islamic belief against making pictures of humans. (Mali is about 95% Muslim.) 

## References
Giuseppe Piazzi

**Giuseppe Piazzi** (July 7, 1746 – July 22, 1826) was an Italian astronomer who was famous for discovering the asteroid, now dwarf planet *Ceres*.
Coat of arms of Mali

On 20 October, 1973, the **coat of arms of the Republic of Mali** was made. The motto of the Republic of Mali is "Un Peuple, Un But, Une Foi" (One People, One Goal, One Faith).

The coat of arms of the Republic of Mali is a circle. There is a light blue background:
* in the middle, the Mosque of Djenné, in gold
* above the mosque, a flying vulture, in gold
* below, the rising sun, in gold
* in front of the sun, two bows bent by their arrow, in white
* in the surround, the writings "République du Mali" above and "Un Peuple, Un But, Une Foi" below, in black capital letters.
List of heads of state of Mali

This is a **list of heads of state of Mali** since the country gained independence from France in 1960 to the present day.

A total of six people have served as head of state of Mali (not counting one Acting President). Additionally, one person, Amadou Toumani Touré, has served on two non-consecutive occasions.

The office has been vacant since Bah N'Daw was removed from office in a coup.

## List 
## References
Cunnilingus

showing a woman performing cunnilingus on another woman.]]
 in Pompeii, showing cunnilingus. The fresco dates to about 79 AD.]]

**Cunnilingus** is when a person has oral sex with a female. They lick their (the female) sex organs with their lips and tongue. The word comes from a Latin word for the vulva (*cunnus*) and from the Latin word for tongue (*lingua*).

The clitoris is the main part of a female's sex organs that brings the most feeling. Often, a female reaches an orgasm during cunnilingus.

In the past, some thought cunnilingus to be taboo (bad). People in some countries still think of it as taboo. However, many people in western and other cultures have oral sex.

## References
Le Mali

"**Le Mali**" (English: "The Mali") is the national song of Mali. Seydou Badian Kouyate wrote the words and Banzoumana Sissoko wrote the music. It is known as "'''Pour l'Afrique et pour toi, Mali**" (English: "For Africa and for you, Mali") or "**À ton appel Mali'''" (English: "At your call, Mali").

It became Mali's national song in 1962 and it is a normal song of love of the country. It is about how the people of Mali would sacrifice their lives for their nation and for freedom. A common theme in the song is wanting to unite Africa. The chorus is written below:

## Lyrics
### In local languages
## References
## Other websites 
* Mali: *Le Mali* - Audio of the national anthem of Mali, with information and lyrics (archive link)
* Presidency of Mali: Symboles de la République, L'Hymne National du Mali: history and lyrics, updated 13 June 2003.
Henry Cavendish

**Henry Cavendish** FRS (10 October 1731-24 February 1810) was a British scientist. He is famous for discovering hydrogen. Cavendish measured the Earth's mass, density and gravitational constant with the Cavendish experiment.  He studied at Peterhouse, which is part of the University of Cambridge, but he left without graduating.

He built a laboratory in his father's house in London, where he worked for nearly fifty years, but he only published about 20 scientific papers. Even so, he is regarded as one of the greatest scientists of his time.

Cavendish claimed that the force between the two electrical objects gets smaller as they get further apart. If the distance between them doubled, the force would be one quarter what it was before.  This was the basis of the inverse-square law. He explained the concept of electric potential, which he called "the degree of electrification". He developed the thought of all points on a good conductor's surface have the same potential energy beside a common reference point. Having no way to measure electric current, he used his body as a machine which measures strength of electric current. All Cavendish's explorations in his notebook was found and confirmed by James Clerk Maxwell.

Cavendish’s electrical papers from the *Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London* have been reprinted, together with most of his electrical manuscripts, in *The Scientific Papers of the Honourable Henry Cavendish, F.R.S.* (1921).

## References
French Sudan

**French Sudan** (Fr.: *Soudan*) was a colony in French West Africa in actual Mali.

## Existence 
It existed at two separate times. The first time was from 1890 to 1899, and the second was from 1920 to 1960. In 1960 it became the independent nation of Mali.

## Beginning 
It was created as a French territory on September 9, 1880 and its name was "Upper Senegal". 

### Name 
The name changed to the "French Sudan Territory" on August 18, 1890, and its capital was Kayes. On October 10, 1899, French Sudan was broken into pieces: 11 southern provinces became part of French Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire and Dahomey. However, two provinces were returned in 1900.

## History 
In 1902 the parts of the colony which were not organised into military districts became Senegambia and Niger, then the name changed to Upper Senegal and Niger in 1904. Finally, the old name of French Sudan returned in a reorganisation in 1920.

In 1933, Upper Volta stopped existing (It began again in 1947.) and French Sudan gained some of its provinces.

## Independence 
After the October 4, 1958 French vote about the constitution, the "République Soudanaise" joined the French Community, again with the name French Sudan, and it gained complete domestic control on 25 November, 1958.

On April 4, 1959, French Sudan was joined with Senegal to form the Mali Federation. This became fully independent but still inside the French Community on June 20, 1960. This union finished on August 20, 1960, when Senegal left. On 22 September, French Sudan changed its name to the Republic of Mali and left the French Community.
Sponge (tool)

A **sponge** is a tool that is used for cleaning and washing. The sponge is made of a special material, with many holes. By rubbing the sponge against dirty surfaces, the dirt can be removed.

Today, there are also artificial sponges. 

Image:Urethane sponge1.jpg|An artificial sponge, made of polyurethane
Image:Urethane sponge2.jpg|Close up of the artificial sponge
Image:Schwamm1.jpg|A natural sponge. This is the skeleton of a sponge from the Demosponges

## Natural sponges for cleaning
Most natural sponges used for cleaning today come from the Mediterranean and the Caribbean. Today Izmir and Tripolis are the main markets where natural sponges are sold.

## Other qualities of natural sponges
### Antibiotic compounds
Sponges have medicinal potential. This is because of antimicrobial compounds in either the sponge itself or their microbial symbionts.

## Dolphin use sponges
Bottlenose dolphins have been seen using live sponges. This was in Shark Bay. Shark bay is in Western Australia. The behaviour has only been observed in the bay. Most likely adult dolphins teach it to their children. The only other marine mammals that use tools are Sea otters.

## References
Vesta (mythology)

**Vesta** was the virgin goddess of the hearth, home, and family in Roman mythology. She rarely appeared in art, as her presence was symbolized by the sacred fire that burned at her temple. The temple was forbidden to all except her priestesses, the Vestal Virgins. The Roman equivalent of the Greek Hestia, Vesta was seen to protect everything that was most important to people's survival. She was not a central figure of many myths. The lack of an easy source of fire in the early Roman community placed a special premium on the ever-burning hearth fire, both publicly and privately maintained; thus, from the earliest times Vesta was assured of a prominent place in both family and state worship. Her worship was observed in every household along with that of the Penates and the Lares, and her image was sometimes encountered in the household shrine.(1) 

The state worship of Vesta was much more elaborate. Her sanctuary was traditionally a circular building, in imitation of the early Italian round hut and symbolic of the public hearth. The Temple of Vesta in the Roman Forum was of great antiquity and underwent many restorations and rebuildings in both republican and imperial times. There burned the perpetual fire of the public hearth attended by the Vestal Virgins. This fire was officially extinguished and renewed annually on March 1 (originally the Roman new year), and its extinction at any other time, either accidentally or not, was regarded as a portent of disaster to Rome.(2)

The asteroid 4 Vesta is named for her.

## Other websites 
References(sorry...on my cell, someone else will have to tidy up....
For (1) & (2) Britannica.com
Osteichthyes

**Osteichthyes** are a taxonomic superclass of fish, also called *bony fish*, that includes the ray-finned fish (Actinopterygii) and lobe finned fish (Sarcopterygii). The split between these two classes occurred around 440 million years ago.  The Osteichthyes are paraphyletic with land vertebrates. This is why some classification schemes put the tetrapods into the Osteichthyes.  Osteichthyes are the most various group of vertebrates, consisting of over 29,000 species, making them the largest superclass of vertebrates in existence today.

## Taxonomy 
Osteichthyes has two classes. They are the Actinopterygii and Sarcopterygii.

* Actinopterygii – these are the **ray-finned fishes**.
* Sarcopterygii – these are the **lobe-finned fishes**. There are only a few sarcopterygians that are still alive today. Most of them have gone extinct.
Tyne and Wear

**Tyne and Wear** is a metropolitan county in North East England.

It was created in 1974, and consists of the five metropolitan boroughs:
* On the north bank of the River Tyne
** Newcastle
** North Tyneside
* On the south bank of the River Tyne
* Gateshead
* South Tyneside
* Spanning the River Wear
** Sunderland

Like all metropolitan counties, the county council was abolished in 1986, and its functions given either to the individual boroughs or shared by new joint committees of the five boroughs.

Schools are now controlled by each borough. The fire brigade is one of several services run on a county-wide basis by a committee made up of members from each borough.

The people from Sunderland and the people from Newcastle did not like being joined in one county. The Royal Commission that recommended changing the county councils of England could not even find a name that the people of the two place liked. Their report just called the new county "area D".

## Other websites
List of prime ministers of Mali

This is a **list of prime ministers of Mali** since the country gained independence from France in 1960 to the present day.

## List of officeholders
## Related pages
*Heads of state of Mali

## References
Alexey Ekimyan

**Alexey Ekimyan** (,  (10 April 1927, Baku - 24 April 1982, Moscow) was a famous Armenian-Russian composer, and author of popular songs. Ekimyan was also a General of Soviet militsia (police) and was the head of Criminal Investigation Department of Moscow region. He was considered the only popular composer in the world who ruled a law-enforcement department at the same time. Ekimyan awarded by the *"Renowned Master of the Arts"* Armenian SSR official title.

Ekimyan's first song for the Moscow International Festival (1957) was approved by Vano Muradeli ("I don't know if you would become a general, but you would become a composer!"). His songs were performed and recorded by prominent Soviet singers that include Lyudmila Zykina, Iosif Kobzon, Lusine Zakaryan. Some hits by Ekimyan were chosen for the "Song of the Year" all-Soviet festivals during the 1970s-'80s.

The documentary film-concert "Paths of My Memory" (1979, 27 min.) by Yerevan Studio is dedicated to the Alexey Ekimyan. 

Ekimyan died on April 24, 1982. He is buried in Yerevan, Armenia. 

## Discography
*Artashes Avetyan sings: songs by Alexey Ekimyan, U.S.S.R.: Melodiya, 1978 (LP). C60-10619-20
*Alexey Ekimyan. Beregite druzey..., Russia: Melodia, 2006 (CD)
*Alexey Ekimyan. Vot i vstretilis, Russia: Melodia, 2007 (CD)

## Other websites
*Alexey Ekimyan's biography (in Russian)

## References
Bergen

**Bergen** is the second largest city and municipality in Norway. The city has a population of 275,000 in the municipality, and 238,098 in the urban area. Bergen was a county until 1972, when it was merged with Hordaland. The old wharf *Bryggen* is a World Heritage Site.

Bergen is on the west coast of Norway, and it exports a lot of fish. It has a temperate oceanic climate, with high rainfall every month.

The mayor, Marit Warncke, is elected until late 2027.
## References
1456

## Births 
* June 11 – Anne Neville, wife of King Richard III of England
* June 23 - Margaret of Denmark, Queen of Scotland, wife of James III of Scotland (d. 1486)

## References
Mikael Tariverdiev

**Mikael Tariverdiev** (15 August 1931, Tbilisi, Georgia – 24 June 1996, Sochi, Russia) was a prominent Soviet composer. He was born of Armenian parents in Georgia but lived in Russia. 

He is an author of over 100 romances and 2 operas. But most of all he is known for his music in many popular Soviet movies.

Mikael Tariverdiev was a recipient of multiple awards, including the USSR State Prize (1977) and the prize of the American Academy of Music (1975). He was made People's Artist of Russia in 1986.

The Best Music prize at the largest Russian national film festival Kinotaur is named after Tariverdiev.

## Other websites 
* Tariverdiev.Ru
Axial tilt

In astronomy, **axial tilt** is the angle between a planet's rotational axis at its north pole and a line perpendicular to the orbital plane of the planet. It is also called **axial inclination** or **obliquity**. The axial tilt of Earth is the cause of seasons like summer and winter on Earth.

## Axial tilt of bodies in the Solar System 
*Sun 7.25 (to the Ecliptic)
*Mercury ~0.01
*Venus 177.4
*Earth 23.439281
*Moon 1.5424
*Mars 25.19
*Ceres ~4
*Jupiter 3.13
*Saturn 26.73
*Uranus 97.77
*Neptune 28.32
*Pluto 119.61

## Axial tilt of Venus, Uranus, Pluto
The axial tilts of Venus, Uranus and Pluto are greater than 90 degrees for the following reasons:

* **Venus**: Venus is rotating very slowly in a retrograde direction, opposite to the direction of planets like Earth. The north pole of Venus is pointed 'down' (southward); hence the angle between the rotational axis of Venus passing through its north pole and the line perpendicular to its orbital plane is 177.4 degrees. There are various theories as to why this is. Its rotation and lack of a moon may be explained by gigantic impacts early in its life.

* **Uranus**: Uranus, the blue planet, rotates on its side. One result of this axis orientation is that, averaged over the Uranian year, the polar regions get more energy from the Sun than its equatorial regions. Nevertheless, Uranus is colder at its poles than at its equator. What causes this is unknown. The reason for Uranus's unusual axial tilt is also not known for sure, but the usual idea is that during the formation of the Solar System, an Earth-sized protoplanet collided with Uranus, causing the skewed orientation.
* **Pluto**: Like Uranus, Pluto's rotational axis and north pole are pointed slightly downward (southward). Hence the angle between Pluto's rotational axis passing through its north pole and the line perpendicular to its orbital plane is 119.61 degrees.

## Related pages
*Stellar precession

## References
Aquarium (group)

**Aquarium** (Аква́риум in Russian) is a Russian rock band. It was formed in Leningrad in 1972 by Boris Grebenshchikov and Anatoly "George" Gunitsky.

Until 1987 Aquarium recorded all of their albums in a self-assembled underground studio. Despite those hard conditions, the recording quality was rather high and Aquarium's albums between 1980 and 1987 are considered by most fans as their best.

In 1987 they recorded their first album for the state-owned Melodiya record label. With official backing and legalized distribution the album was a hit in USSR, selling well over a million copies within a few months. Aquarium today consists of Boris Grebenshchikov, Boris Rubekin (keyboards), Andrey Surotdinov (violin), Igor Timofeyev (guitars, saxophones and flutes), Andrey Svetlov (bass), Oleg "Shar" Shavkunov (drums and percussion).

## Discography 
Studio albums:
*Sinii Albom (The Blue Album), 1981
*Treugolnik (Triangle), 1981
*Elektrichestvo (Electricity): History of Aquarium, Vol. 2, 1981
*Akustika (Acoustics): History of Aquarium, Vol. 1, 1982
*Tabu (Taboo), 1982
*Radio Africa, 1983
*Ikhtiologia (Ichthyology), 1984
*Den’ Serebra (The Day of Silver), 1984
*Deti Dekabrya (The Children of December), 1985
*Desyat’ Strel (Ten Arrows), 1986
*Ravnodenstvie (Equinox), 1987
*Archive: History of Aquarium, Vol. 3, 1991
*Russkii Albom (Russian Album), 1991 (under the name *BG-Band*)
*Lyubimie Pesni Ramzesa IV (Favorite Songs of Rameses the IV), 1993
*Library of Babylon: History of Aquarium, Vol. 4, 1993
*Kostroma Mon Amour, 1994
*Peski Peterburga (Sands of Petersburg), 1994
*Navigator, 1995
*Snezhnii Lev (Snow Lion), 1996
*Hyperborea, 1997
*Kunstcamera, 1998
*Lilit (Lilith), 1997 (under the name *BG and The Band* - several members of The Band played on the album; released in the United States under the name *Black Moon*)
*Psi, 1999
*Akvarium. Territoriya (Aquarium. Territory), 2000
*Sestra Haos (Sister Chaos), 2002
*Pesni Ribaka (Fisherman's Songs), 2003
*Zoom Zoom Zoom, 2005
*Bespechny Russkiy Brodyaga (Carefree Russian Tramp), 2006
*Loshad' Belaya (White Horse), 2008
*Pushkinskaya, 10, 2009

## Filmography
### Films about "Akvarium"
*Rok (Rock, 1987), dir. Alexei Uchitel, USSR
*The Long Way Home (1989), dir. Michael Apted, USA

### Soundtracks by "Akvarium"
*Ivanov (1981), dir. A. Nekhoroshev, A. Ilkhovsky
*Assa (1987), dir. Sergei Solovyov
*Zolotoy Son (Golden dream, 1989), dir. Sergey Debizhev
*Chernaya roza - emblema pechali, krasnaya roza - emblema lyubvi (The Black rose..., 1989), dir. Sergei Solovyov
*Dva kapitana - 2 (Two captains - 2, 1992), dir. S. Debizhev

## Other websites
*The official multilingual site of Akvarium (in Russian, English, French, German and Esperanto)
*Official Russian Akvarium web-site
*Semi-official site with lots of information
Agnatha

from the group Osteostraci]]
 agnathan *Neeyambaspis enigmatica*]]

The **Agnatha** is an infraphylum of fish. It is paraphyletic. This means it is a convenient catch-all term, which does not follow the rules of cladistics. 

For example, most extinct agnathans belong to the stem group (ancestral group) of gnathostomes. But according to the rules, one sister group should not contain ancestors of another sister group. 

The living Agnatha (lampreys and hagfish) are known as cyclostomes. Recent molecular data from rRNA, and from mtDNA, show that these living agnathans  are monophyletic. There are about 100 species. Hagfish are vertebrates but do not have vertebrae. It is believed that they lost their vertebrae during their lifestyle adaptations.

The lifestyle of the lamprey (an ectoparasite on other fish) and hagfish (a scavenger) means that they are not typical of the fossil groups, which were free-swimming and often armoured.

## Classification 
* Agnatha: the jawless fish. Cambrian to present day.
** †Pteraspids: the head-shields
** Anaspids: gills opened as holes. Silurian to end-Devonian.
*** †Cephalaspids: early jawless fish
*** Cyclostomes: Lampreys and Hagfish
** †Osteostraci: bony-armoured jawless fish.

## Characteristics 
### Anatomy 
Agnathans do not have jaws, and have a cartilaginous skeleton. There is a notochord in both larvae and adults. They do not have  paired fins. They have seven or more paired gill pouches.

Agnatha have no identifiable stomach and are cold-blooded. The heart is simple, with two chambers.

### Physiology 
There is a light-sensitive pineal eye. Fertilization and development of young are both outside the body, and there is no parental care.

## Fossil agnathans 
The oldest fossil agnathans are found in Cambrian deposits.

Many Ordovician, Silurian, and Devonian agnathans were armoured with heavy bony-spiky plates. The first armoured agnathans were the Ostracoderms ("shell-skinned"). By the upper Silurian the agnathans had reached the high point of their evolution. They declined in the Devonian and never recovered.

## References
Basalt

. See also Giant's Causeway in Northern Ireland, and Fingal's Cave, Inner Hebrides]]

**Basalt**  is a common grey to black rock. It is pushed out (extruded) by volcanos. The lava is rich in magnesium and iron. 

It has olivine and pyroxene minerals which make it dark in colour. Basalt is usually fine-grained because the lava cools rapidly on the Earth's surface. Flood basalts are commonplace, formed by lava pouring out and solidifying.

On Earth, most basalt magmas have formed by the hot molten mantle. Basalt is a type of intrusive rock meaning it forms inside of the volcano. Basalt has also formed on Earth's Moon, Mars, Venus, and even on the asteroid Vesta. 

The crustal portions of oceanic tectonic plates are made mostly of basalt, produced from upwelling mantle below mid-ocean ridges. 

Unweathered basalt is black or grey. Basalt blocks are often used for roads and pavements (sidewalks), and for houses and other buildings. It is hard-wearing and heat resistant. 

Basalt can be made into fibre. Basalt fibre is often used as a safe replacement for asbestos. Intense heat and pressure can change basalt into its metamorphic rock equivalent. The rocks known as greenstone are basalt which has been metamorphised. See metamorphic rock for more details.
Right ascension

**Right ascension** (abbreviated **RA**; symbol **α**) is the astronomical word for one of the two coordinates of a point on the celestial sphere when using the equatorial coordinate system. It is the celestial counterpart to longitude. The other coordinate is the declination.

The moon, planets and stars all have their own right ascension. Many of them are listed in an almanac. Using arithmetic, the object’s right ascension and declination indicate where to look in the sky to see the object.

## Related pages 
* Sidereal time
Retrograde and direct motion

]]

**Direct motion** is the motion of a planetary body in a direction similar to that of other bodies within its system, and is sometimes called **prograde motion**.

**Retrograde motion** is motion in the opposite direction. In the case of celestial bodies such as the retrograde Carme group of moons, such motion may be real, defined by the natural rotation or orbit of the body. 

Every so often a planet *seems* to change direction and go the other way for a short period of time (in relation to the fixed stars). It makes a "retrograde loop" or squiggle in its track before carrying on as normal. This apparent retrograde motion, however, is only seen because the Earth is moving. It is only seen when outer planets are near opposition. 

## Prograde motion in planetary systems 
Prograde or direct motion is usually the case. That is because *both the star and its planets formed out of the same disk of gas*. By definition the disk rotates all in the sane direction because gravity links all the objects which are formed by the shrinking of the primordial disk of gas.

All eight planets in the Solar System orbit the Sun in the direction of the Sun's rotation, which is counterclockwise when viewed from above the Sun's north pole. Six of the planets also rotate about their axis in this same direction. 

The exceptions – the planets with retrograde rotation – are Venus and Uranus. Venus's axial tilt is 177°, which means it is rotating almost exactly in the opposite direction to its orbit. 

Uranus has an axial tilt of 97.77°, so its axis of rotation is approximately parallel with the plane of the Solar System. The reason for Uranus's unusual axial tilt is not known with certainty. During the formation of the Solar System, it is thought an Earth-sized protoplanet collided with Uranus, causing the skewed orientation. But see also Grand tack hypothesis.

## References
Ripon

**Ripon** is a small cathedral city in North Yorkshire, England. In the 2001 census Ripon had a population of 15,922. In England only Wells, Ely and the City of London are smaller.

Ripon was one of the boroughs reformed by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835. It stayed a borough in the West Riding of Yorkshire until 1974. Under the Local Government Act 1972 it became a parish in the borough of Harrogate, North Yorkshire. Because it is an urban (town) parish Ripon can call its parish council Ripon City Council, the chairman of its parish council is called the City Mayor.

## Other websites
* Photos of Ripon and surrounding area 
* Ripon Tourist, Community and Business Information 
* Ripon Tourist Information and Business Directory
* Ripon & District Amateur Radio Society 
* Ripon Cathedral 
* The Ripon Gazette 
* A history of the choristers of Ripon Cathedral 
* Newby Hall Cricket Club - Nurturing the future of cricket

## References
Ripon (disambiguation)

**Ripon** is a city in North Yorkshire, England.

**Ripon** or **Rippon** may also refer to:

## Places
;Canada
*Ripon, Quebec

;United States
*Ripon, California
*Ripon, Wisconsin
*Ripon (town), Wisconsin
*Rippon Lodge, a historic building in Woodbridge, Virginia

;Australia
*Rippon Lea Estate, a historic property in Elsternwick, Victoria
*Ripponlea, Victoria, a suburb of Melbourne

## Other uses
*Ripon College, several
*Blackburn Ripon, an aircraft
*George Robinson, 1st Marquess of Ripon (Lord Ripon), Viceroy of India
What's It Gonna Be

'''''What's It Gonna Be'''* is a single by Beyoncé from the Japanese edition of her debut album *Dangerously in Love* (2003), the bonus CD of her first DVD *Live at Wembley'' (2004), and the Wal-Mart edition of Destiny's Child's fourth studio album *Destiny Fulfilled* (2004). A 7" promo single containing three different versions of the song plus three different versions of Faith Evans' cover of Donna Summer's 1978 "Heaven Knows" (which was part of the official soundtrack to *The Fighting Temptations*) was released. The song was used in Knowles' adds for L'Oréal.

## Track listing
***7" promo single**
Side A:
#"Heaven Knows" (Main Edit) – Faith Evans
#"Heaven Knows" (Instrumental) – Faith Evans
#"Heaven Knows" (A Cappella) – Faith Evans

Side B:
#"What's It Gonna Be" (Main Edit)
#"What's It Gonna Be" (Instrumental)
#"What's It Gonna Be" (A Cappella)
Diprotodont

The **Diprotodontia** is a large order of about 120 Australasian marsupial mammals. It includes the kangaroos, wallabies, possums, koala, wombats, and many others. 

Extinct members include the giant Diprotodon family, and *Thylacoleo*, the so-called "marsupial lion".

## Classification 
**Order DIPROTODONTIA**

*Family †Thylacoleonidae (marsupial lions)

* **Suborder Vombatiformes**
** Family Phascolarctidae: Koala (1 species)
** Family Vombatidae: wombats (3 species)
** Family †Diprotodontidae
* **Suborder Phalangeriformes**
** Superfamily Phalangeroidea
*** Family Phalangeridae: brushtail possums and cuscuses
*** Family Burramyidae: pygmy possums
** Superfamily Petauroida
*** Family Tarsipedidae:  Honey possum
*** Family Petauridae (Striped possum, Leadbeater's possum, Yellow-bellied Glider, Sugar glider, Mahogany glider, Squirrel glider)
*** Family Pseudocheiridae: ringtailed possums and allies
*** Family Acrobatidae: (Feathertail glider and Feather-tailed possum)
* **Suborder Macropodiformes**
** Family Macropodidae: kangaroos, wallabies and allies
** Family Potoroidae: bettongs, potaroos and rat-kangaroos
** Family Hypsiprymnodontidae: Musky rat-kangaroo

† means extinct family, genus or species.
Carl Barks

**Carl Barks** (March 27, 1901 – August 25, 2000) was a famous cartoonist. He was the inventor of Scrooge McDuck, the Beagle Boys, Gyro Gearloose and many other Walt Disney characters. He was often called the most important artist in Disney comics.

Carl Barks was born on March 27, 1901, near Merrill, Oregon, as part of a farming family. At the age of 10, he became interested in art for the first time. When he was 15, his mother died, and he began to help his father on the family's farm. In 1935, he took a contract with Disney and started as one of the studio's artists. Some months later, he become a part of Ted Sears "Story Department" at the Disney studios, where he wrote more than two dozen stories for short films with Donald Duck and other characters until 1942.

In 1942 he went to "Western Publishing". There he started drawing comics with Donald Duck and later with other characters - most of them he created by himself. He held this job until 1966, when he retired.

By the early 1990s, Carl Barks had become a comic legend. In 1994, at the age of 93, for the first time in his long life, he traveled to Europe and visited around a dozen countries. Some months earlier, his third wife, Margaret, called Garé, had died at the age of 75.

In 1999, leukemia began to destroy Barks' body. The *Duck Man* died, aged 99, on August 25, 2000, at his home in Grants Pass, Oregon.
Live in Atlanta

'''''Destiny's Child: Live in Atlanta''''' features Destiny's Child performing live in Atlanta, Georgia at Philips Arena on July 15, 2005 during their ''Destiny Fulfilled ... And Lovin' It'' tour which sponsored by McDonald's, it was also known as the last tour of Destiny's Child. It was released on March 28, 2006 in the United States. The DVD debuted at #1 on the *Billboard* Music DVD charts breaking record sales about 500,000 copies at first week, instead of those numbers Nielsen SoundScan tracked sales of 50,000 because the restrictions about retail, international deliveries and e-packages, RIAA already certified the DVD as Platinum.

This was also released as a two-disc CD but only in Japan.

## Track listing
Bambara language

**Bambara** is a language from Mali.  More than 6 000 000 people (including second language users) speak it.  It is called **Bamanankan** in Bambara.  Bambara is very similar to **Dioula**.  Dioula is not spoken by as many people, but it is used in Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, and Gambia.  The Bambara language is spoken mainly by people in the Bambara racial group.  About 2,700,000 people are in this group, but Bambara is also used by other racial groups in Mali.

Bambara is in the Manding language family.  These languages are similar to each other.  This family of languages is in a larger language group.  This group is called the Mandé group.  It is an SOV language (Subject-Object-Verb) and it has two tones (pitches).

There are seven vowels: a, e, , i, o,  and u.

Writing started during the period of French rule.  There is not much written work, but there is a lot of oral literature, which is often stories about kings and heroes.  The people who tell these stories are called *Griot*.  They also sing religious songs.  Many of their songs are very old and some people think the songs are as old as the old Mali Empire.

Bambara is a national language of Mali, and it is also the most widely understood language in Mali.

Bambara has many local dialects.  Somono, Segou, San, Beledugu, Ganadugu and Wasulu and Sikasso are some dialects.

## References
Proboscidea

**Proboscidea** (meaning "trunked beast") is an order containing only one familiy of living animals, Elephantidae, the elephants, with three living species (African forest elephant, African bush elephant, and Asian elephant).

During the period of the last ice age there were more species. They included a number of species of the elephant-like mammoths and mastodons.

The oldest proboscidean dates from the early Palaeogene period, over 50 million years ago. The evolution of the elephant-like animals mainly concerned the proportions of the cranium and jaw and the shape of the tusks and molar teeth. These were adaptations to various kinds of vegetable. food

## Families 
Present-day elephants are the survivors of a once larger and more varied family.
*Elephantidae
*†Gomphotheriidae
*†Mammutidae
*†Stegodontidae
*†Barytheriidae
*†Deinotheriidae
*†Moeritheriidae
*†Numidotheriidae
*†Palaeomastodontidae
*†Phiomiidae

## References
Adrar des Ifoghas

The **Adrar des Ifoghas** is a sandstone high area in the Kidal Region of Mali.  Is has an area of about 250,000 km².

There are wide, shallow valleys, and many granite rocks.  The Tamesna Plain is to the east.  The Telemsi Fosse is to the west  The low, western part of the Azaouak Valley is to the south.  Tanezrouft is to the north.  Kidal, Aguel'hoc, Boughessa, Essouk and Tessalit are cities in this area.

The Adrar des Ifoghas is called "Adagh" in the local language.  "" is the Berber word for mountain, and "Ifogha" is the short name of a rich Tuareg family.  This family (the "Kel Ifoghas") has been very powerful in this area for a long time.  They are nomads and they eat and sell camels, goats and sheep.

The area has many old archaeological places.  The rock drawings showing men hunting, farming, and looking after cows are very important.  Asselar Man's bones were also found here by Théodore Monod.  Recently, the Adrar des Ifoghas has become popular for hiking.

Image:Rocher dans massif de Timidjileline 01.JPG
Image:Une guelta, près d'Oubankort dans l'Adrar des Ifoghas.jpg
Image:Kidal.jpg|Entry into Kidal, a tuareg city in Mali

## References
Senegal River

image of **Senegal River**]]
 at the outskirts of Saint-Louis]]

The **Senegal River** is a river in West Africa. It is 1,800 km long and is the border between Senegal and Mauritania. Pliny the Elder called it *Bambotus* (from a word meaning "hippopotamus") and Claudius Ptolemy called it *Nias*. Hanno the Carthaginian went to the river in about 450 BC when he was going from Carthage to Mount Cameroon in the Gulf of Guinea. Carthage was destroyed in 146 BC, but before that time there was probably trade from here to the Mediterranean Sea.

The Semefé River and Bafing River meet in Bafoulabé and this forms the Senegal River. The Semefé and Bafing rivers' sources are in Guinea. The Bafing River flows through Mali and the Semefé is the Mali-Senegal border.

Near the river's mouth, the Senegal goes through Biffeche and there is an island in the river. The city of Saint-Louis is on this island. The river then turns south. There is a thin line of sand and this separates the river from the Atlantic Ocean. The line of sand is called the Langue de Barbarie. After this, the river enters the Atlantic Ocean. The river has two large dams: the Manantali Dam in Mali, and the Maka-Diama Dam on the Mauritania-Senegal border, near the sea. The Manantali Dam makes a reservoir. The Maka-Diama Dam stops salt water going deep into the countryside.

The Senegal River takes its water from 483,181 km² of land. About 8 000 000 km³ of water goes along the river every year. The Faleme River, Karakoro River, and Gorgol River join the Senegal River.

In 1972, Mali, Mauritania and Senegal made the Organisation pour la mise en valeur du fleuve Sénégal (OMVS). This organisation manages the land around the river. Guinea joined this organisation in 2005.

## References
## Other websites 
* Map of the Senegal River basin 
* Hydrology of Senegal (Powerpoint presentation)
Endocrine gland

**Endocrine glands** are glands that secrete their product (hormones) directly into the blood. This group contains the glands of the endocrine system.  

The main endocrine glands are the pituitary gland, the pancreas, the gonads, the thyroid gland and the adrenal glands.  Other organs which are not so well known for their endocrine activity include the stomach, which produces such hormones as ghrelin.
## Reference 
*Medical definition of Endocrine gland from the medicineneet website
Ub Iwerks

**Ubbe Ert Iwerks** (March 24, 1901 – July 7, 1971), better known as **Ub Iwerks**, was an American animator. He is best known for creating Mickey Mouse, together with Walt Disney.

Ub Iwerks was born in 1901 in Kansas City. His father Eert Ubbe was an immigrant from Germany. In 1919 he met Walt Disney the first time. Some months later, Disney founded his first studio. Ub Iwerks was his first artist, and at this time the only one. Iwerks was called "the fastest animator" of Hollywood, because he could drew more than 700 pictures a day. In fact, he finished the first Mickey Mouse cartoon which was produced in just two weeks.

Disney and Iwerks often had differences. As a result of this differences, Iwerks left Disney in 1930 and founded his own studio. It closed in 1936, after that, Iwerks worked some months for Columbia Pictures, in 1940 he went back to Walt Disney. He did not draw anymore, but became the head of the "Special Processes Department". There he invented the Multiplane camera. For this camera he was awarded in 1960 with a special Oscar.

At the end of his life, Ub Iwerks worked for popular directors, like Alfred Hitchcock, too. In 1963 he was nominated for his work on *The Birds* for a second Oscar.

Ub Iwerks died at age 70 in Burbank, California. His sons Don Iwerks and David Iwerks worked for Disney, too. Ub's great grandson, Michael Iwerks, also works at Disney.
Never Mind the Bollocks, Here's the Sex Pistols

'''''Never Mind the Bollocks: Here's the Sex Pistols''''' is the only studio album by English punk band the Sex Pistols. It was released on 28 October 1977 in the UK and 11 November 1977 in the USA.

## Track listing
#Holidays in the Sun
#Bodies
#No Feelings
#Liar
#Problems
#God Save the Queen
#Seventeen
#Anarchy in the UK
#Submission
#Pretty Vacant
#New York
#E.M.I.
Thyroid

The **thyroid** is one of the largest endocrine glands in the body. This gland is found in the throat. The thyroid controls how quickly the body burns energy, makes proteins, and how sensitive the body should be to other hormones.

The principal hormones it makes are thyroxine (T4) an triiodothyronine (T3), which is more active. These hormones regulate the growth of many systems in the body. T3 and T4 are synthesised from iodine and tyrosine. The thyroid also makes calcitonin, which plays a role in calcium homeostasis.

## Diseases
### Hyper- and hypofunction (affects about 2% of the population)
* Hypothyroidism (underactivity) - Hypothyroidism is a condition in which the thyroid gland does not make enough thyroid hormone.

** Hashimoto's thyroiditis / thyroiditis
** Ord's thyroiditis
** Postoperative hypothyroidism
** Postpartum thyroiditis
** Silent thyroiditis
** Acute thyroiditis
** Iatrogenic hypothyroidism
* Hyperthyroidism (overactivity)
** Thyroid storm
** Graves-Basedow disease
** Toxic thyroid nodule
** Toxic nodular struma (Plummer's disease)
** Hashitoxicosis
** Iatrogenic hyperthyroidism
** De Quervain thyroiditis (inflammation starting as hyperthyroidism, can end as hypothyroidism)

### Anatomical problems
* Goitre
** Endemic goitre
** Diffuse goitre
** Multinodular goitre
* Lingual thyroid
* Thyroglossal duct cyst

### Tumors
* Thyroid adenoma
* Thyroid cancer
** Papillary
** Follicular
** Medullary
** Anaplastic
* Lymphomas and metastasis from elsewhere (rare)

### Deficiencies
*Cretinism

## Additional images

 Image:Gray994.png|Sagittal section of nose mouth, pharynx, and larynx.
 Image:Gray561.png|Diagram showing common arrangement of thyroid veins.
 Image:Gray1176.png|Section of thyroid gland of sheep. X 160.
 Image:Thyroid-histology.jpg|Thyoid histology

## Related pages
* Thymus

## Other websites
* American Thyroid Association (Thyroid Information and professional organization)
* **New Management Guidelines for Patients with Thyroid Nodules and Differentiated Thyroid Cancer'' from the American Thyroid Association Taskforce.
* Thyroid Disease Manager (free online textbook)
* Thyroid Disease (Nuclear Medicine Information)
* The Thyroid Foundation of America (Education about Thyroid Disease)
Pelycosaur

**Pelycosaurs** (meaning "basin lizards") were the earliest synapsids. They were not dinosaurs or reptiles. They are an informal group which were once called the "mammal-like reptiles". 
The term is only used informally, if at all, in the modern scientific literature.

These tetrapods appeared during the Pennsylvanian and went extinct at the end of the Permian period. They were the dominant land animals for some 40 million years, and were almost wiped out by the P/Tr extinction event. A few survived until the lower Triassic to form the therapsids. The therapsids led to the mammals. 

Because the term "Pelycosaur" does not include their descendants, it is not used much now.

The most notable of these land animals was *Dimetrodon*, the top predator of its time.

## Characteristics 
Pelycosaur fossils have been found mainly in Europe and North America, although some small, late-surviving forms are known from Russia and South Africa.

At least two pelycosaur clades independently evolved a tall sail of elongated vertebral spines. In life, this would have been covered by skin, and possibly was a thermoregulatory device and/or a mating display. 
Unlike lepidosaurian reptiles, pelycosaurs lacked epidermal scales. 

In 1940 the group was reviewed in detail and every species known at the time described (and many illustrated) in an important monograph. Well-known pelycosaurs include the genera *Dimetrodon*, *Sphenacodon*, *Edaphosaurus*, and *Ophiacodon*.

## Possible relatives 
The pelycosaurs were possibly related to the goronopsids. In the Walking with Monsters- Life Before Dinosaurs, the series showed that Dimetrodon evolved into a gorgonopsid. This told many to believe that pelycosaurs are possibly related to the gorgonopsians and the cynodonts.

## Classification 
## References
Aswan

**Aswan** (, population 200,000) is a city in the south of Egypt and the capital of the Aswan Governorate. It is on the east bank of the Nile and is a busy market and tourist center.

Aswan is one of the driest places in the world where people live; as of early 2001, the last rain there was 6 years earlier. As of October 13, 2007, the last rainfall was a thunderstorm on May 13, 2006. In Nubian settlements, the people often do not put a roof over all of the rooms in their houses.

About 16 kilometres (9.9 mi) southwest of Aswan is the Aswan International Airport.
## History 
 or Amenemhat II, with the white crown of Upper Egypt (left), the other with the red crown of Lower Egypt. The 12th dynasty had origins in Ta-Seti, located in the modern Aswan territory.]]

Aswan is the ancient city of **Swenett**. At a later time it was called **Syene**. In antiquity it was the frontier town of Ancient Egypt facing the south. Swenett is supposed to have derived its name from an Egyptian goddess with the same name. This goddess later was identified as Eileithyia by the Greeks and Lucina by the Romans during their occupation of Ancient Egypt. This is because both goddesses were associated with childbirth. In this context, the name was translated as "the opener". The ancient name of the city also is said to be derived from the Egyptian symbol for "trade", or "market".

The Ancient Egyptians oriented themselves toward the origin of the life-giving waters of the Nile in the south. Swenett was the southernmost town in the country. Egypt always was seen as  "opening" or beginning at Swenett. Many ancient weitere mention the city . Among them are Herodotus, Strabo, Stephanus of Byzantium, Ptolemy, Pliny the Elder, Vitruvius, and it appears on the Antonine Itinerary. It may also be mentioned in the Book of Ezekiel and the Book of Isaiah.

The Nile is nearly  wide above Aswan. From this frontier town to the northern extremity of Egypt, the river flows for more than  without bar or cataract. The voyage from Aswan to Alexandria usually took 21 to 28 days in favorable weather.

On 12 November 2021, many scorpions invaded the city as a result of flooding and strong winds in the city. Over 500 people were stung.

## References
## Related pages 
* Aswan Dam
Toccata

**Toccata** is the title that was often given to pieces of music for solo instruments from the Renaissance onwards.  The word comes from the Italian for *to touch*, also meaning *to play a musical instrument*.  These pieces were often quite difficult, with a lot of fast notes which showed off how well the person could play.

The first toccatas were written in northern Italy by composers such as Claudio Monteverdi and Giovanni Gabrieli.  They are pieces for the keyboard (harpsichord or organ) with lots of running scales in the right hand and accompanying chords in the left hand.  

Toccatas became popular in Germany with composers such as Hans Leo Hassler who had studied in Venice with Gabrieli.  Many German Baroque organ composers wrote toccatas: Sweelinck (who was Dutch), Pachelbel, Buxtehude and Johann Sebastian Bach.  Bach wrote a *Toccata and Fugue in D minor*, which is one of the most famous pieces of Baroque organ music, and perhaps the most famous toccata ever written.

After the Baroque period composers did not often write toccatas.  The toccata became popular again in the late 19th century with the French organ composers such as Charles-Marie Widor whose Toccata from his *Symphony No. 5* is very popular today, especially at weddings.  It has lots of quick notes in the right hand (and occasionally in the left) and a big tune in the pedals.  Another famous organ toccata is by Louis Vierne.  It is the last movement of his *Symphony No. 1* (at this time French composers wrote organ works called "symphonies").

In the 20th century several composers wrote toccatas for piano including Prokofiev, Khachaturian, Ravel (part of *Le Tombeau de Couperin*) and Claude Debussy (part of *Suite: Pour le Piano*). 

## Related pages
*Fugue
*Prelude