open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Sandra Day O'Connor

'''Sandra Day O'Connor''' (March 26, 1930 – December 1, 2023) was an American attorney, politician, and jurist who served as an associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States from 1981 to 2006. O'Connor was the first woman nominated and served as a U.S. supreme court justice. Before becoming an U.S. associate justice, O'Connor's was an Arizona state judge and earlier an elected legislator in Arizona, serving as the first female majority leader in the Arizona Senate.

## Biography
O'Connor was appointed to the Supreme Court in 1981 by President Ronald Reagan. Reagan said while running for president that he wanted a woman to be on the Supreme Court and promised to nominate a woman for the job the first chance he got. One of her biggest supporters was Arizona Senator Barry Goldwater, who helped make sure that all 100 Senators voted to confirm her. 

While on the Supreme Court, she was involved in several major Supreme Court decisions including: Bush v. Gore, which had to do with a disputed election; Planned Parenthood v. Casey, which involved a woman's right to privacy.  

She was also involved in Lawrence v. Texas, a case about whether burning a US flag was free speech. She retired from the court in 2006. Samuel Alito was chosen to replace her. On August 12, 2009, she was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom. This is the highest civilian honor of the United States. It was given by President Barack Obama. 

In October 2018, O’Connor announced her retirement from public life after revealing that she was diagnosed with the early stages of dementia. On December 1, 2023, O'Connor died in Phoenix, Arizona from problems caused by dementia and respiratory failure, aged 93.

## Things named after her 
She has a high school named after her in North Phoenix, Arizona.

## References
## Sources
*Greenburg, Jan Crawford (2007). *Supreme Conflict: The Inside Story of the Struggle for Control of the United States Supreme Court*. Penguin Books.
*Montini, E.J. (2005) "Rehnquist is No. 1, O'Connor is No. 3, Baloney is No. 2.", *The Arizona Republic*. Retrieved August 21, 2009.
*

## Other websites
*

|-
Eva Braun

at the Berghof with Hitler's German Shepherd Blondi]]
**Eva Anna Paula Braun** (6 February 1912 – 30 April 1945) was the longtime German girlfriend of Adolf Hitler. She met him in Munich when she was 17 years old. They married the day before they committed suicide. Braun killed herself by using cyanide. Hitler used cyanide and at the same time shot himself. When she was married, she was known as **Eva Anna Paula Hitler**. She was born in Munich, German Empire and died in Berlin, Germany at the age of 33. Her body was burned, as well as Adolf Hitler's. She also had a brother-in-law named Hermann Fegelein.

## References
Computer recycling

**Computer recycling** means taking things from old computers and using them in new computer things. The phrase is also used to mean that computers need to be thrown away in a special way, as they often have things that are bad for the environment or dangerous inside them that can cause problems if they are thrown away like usual waste (garbage).

## Secure Recycling 
Sometimes people are worried that the information inside a computer will be stolen when the computer is thrown away. For example, if you have a product design on an old computer, somebody might copy your design. Big companies have a lot of computers, with a lot of private information on them. They will often pay other companies to remove all the information from a computer before it is thrown away. This usually involves physically destroying the drive. It is possible to non-destructively erase the data on a hard drive by overwriting the entire drive with random numbers. With this method, only the data is destroyed, not the drive itself. This allows the drive to be reused.
Nagasaki

is the capital city of Nagasaki Prefecture in Japan.

Nagasaki was founded by the Portuguese in the late 16th century.

It has been  as a core city since 1997.

## History
Nagasaki was founded by the Portuguese in the late 16th century. During the Edo period, Nagasaki was the only port in which trade with other countries was permitted

In the 1870s, Nagasaki became the capital city of the prefecture which evolved from the former province.

On August 9, 1945, Nagasaki was the second of two Japanese cities which were destroyed with an atomic bomb near the end of the Second World War.

## Related pages
* Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
* Hashima

## References 
## Other websites 
* Nagasaki official website ; 長崎市
* VISIT NAGASAKI Official Tourism Website for Nagasaki City 
*
Ruth Bader Ginsburg

**Ruth Bader Ginsburg** (March 15, 1933 &ndash; September 18, 2020) was an American jurist. She was an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States from 1993 until her death. She was nominated by President Bill Clinton. She was known as a feminist icon and was nicknamed "The Notorious R.B.G.".

Ginsburg died on September 18, 2020 in Washington, D.C.

## Supreme Court
Ginsburg was appointed by President Bill Clinton and took the oath of office on August 10, 1993. She was the second female justice (after Sandra Day O'Connor) and the first Jewish female justice. Ginsburg was considered a member of the more liberal side of the Supreme Court.

Ginsburg wrote notable majority opinions, including *United States v. Virginia*, and *Friends of the Earth, Inc. v. Laidlaw Environmental Services, Inc.*

She was known as "The Notorious R.B.G.", in reference to the rapper known as "The Notorious B.I.G.".

When John Paul Stevens retired in 2010, Ginsburg became the oldest justice on the court at age 77.

## Health
Ginsburg had surgery for colon cancer in 1999 and for pancreatic cancer in 2009. On November 8, 2018, she was hospitalized after fracturing three ribs in a fall.

On August 24, 2019, it was revealed that Ginsburg underwent radiation treatment for pancreatic cancer over the summer. In July 2020, she announced that she had liver cancer.

On September 18, 2020, Ginsburg died from problems caused by metastatic pancreatic cancer in Washington, D.C. at the age of 87.

## References
## Other websites
* Issue positions and quotes at OnTheIssues
**Voices on Antisemitism*: Interview with Ruth Bader Ginsburg from the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum
* Ruth Bader Ginsburg, video produced by *Makers: Women Who Make America*
* 
* Supreme Court Associate Justice Nomination Hearings on Ruth Bader Ginsburg in July 1993 United States Government Publishing Office
* Membership  at the Council on Foreign Relations
Cold fusion

**Cold fusion** is a hypothesis about nuclear fusion at room temperature and normal pressure. Nuclear fusion is how many nuclei, the center of an atom, containing protons and neutrons, are forced together to form a heavier nucleus (singular of nuclei) and during that process, energy is released. Some scientists hope that this may be Earth's future energy source, but most scientists do not agree.

For nuclear fusion to take place, a large amount of energy is needed. With this energy, the atoms are pushed together, which are repelled by the electrostatic force (a force between protons which are particles in the nucleus of the atom and have a positive electrical charge). But once this force is overcome and the nuclei are pushed close enough together, another much more powerful force will take over: the strong nuclear force. It only operates at short distances, so when the nuclei are close enough, they attract each other because of the strong nuclear force which is stronger than the electrostatic force. It is hoped that the energy released by cold fusion is much greater than the energy used to push the atoms together.

In 1989 two scientists, Stanley Pons and Martin Fleischmann, published a paper in *Nature*, a reputable science journal, claiming to have created cold fusion. This was a very important story at the time. Other scientists were not able to repeat their experiments. This is why cold fusion is not generally accepted by scientists at the moment. Several dozen scientists are still working on cold fusion research. They publish in peer-reviewed journals and other academic sources regularly, but most are not convinced.

At the time, Cold fusion caused a large disruption in the scientific community, culminating on May 1st 1989 at a session of the American Physical Society where some scientists who unable to reproduce the original results successfully cast Cold fusion out of mainstream science.

## References 
## Other websites 
* Barnhart *et al.* (2009) "Technology Forecast: Worldwide Research on Low-Energy Nuclear Reactions Increasing and Gaining Acceptance," Defense Analysis Report DIA-08-0911-003, *U.S. Defense Intelligence Agency*
* Marwan, Jan and Krivit, Steven B., eds., *Low energy nuclear reactions sourcebook* (American Chemical Society/Oxford University Press, 2008; )
* Kitamura, A. *et al.* (2009) "Anomalous effects in charging of Pd powders with high density hydrogen isotopes" *Physics Letters A* **373**(35):3109-12 doi:10.1016/j.physleta.2009.06.061
* Kim, Y.E. (2009) "Theory of Bose–Einstein condensation mechanism for deuteron-induced nuclear reactions in micro/nano-scale metal grains and particles," *Naturwissenschaften* **96**(7):803-11.
* Szpak S, Mosier-Boss PA, Gordon FE (2007) "Further evidence of nuclear reactions in the Pd–D lattice: emission of charged particles" *Naturwissenschaften*, vol. 94 pp.&nbsp;511–514.
Pathi

The worship centers of Ayyavazhi are called **Pathis**. The activities of Vaikundar is historically joined with these Pathis. There are five Pathis:

*Swamithoppepathi
*Ambalappathi
*Muttappathi
*Thamaraikulampathi
*Pooppathi
Akilattirattu Ammanai

**Akilathirattu Ammanai** (; from *akilam* (world) + *thirattu* (collection) + *ammanai* (ballad)), also called **Thiru Edu** (venerable book), is the main religious book of the Southern Indian Ayyavazhi, officially a branch of Hinduism. The title is shortened as Akilam. This is the largest Ammanai work. it has  more than 15,000 verses. 

## History
According to the book, Hari Gopalan Citar wrote this book on the twenty-seventh day of the Tamil month of Karthikai (November/December) in the year 1016 ME (1839 CE). He says that God woke him up during his sleep and ordered him to take the first words from what he said. Akilathirattu was recorded on palm leaves. Then in 1939 it was printed.

The book is the story of God coming in this age, the Kali Yukam or Iron Age, to rule the world by transforming it into that of Dharma Yukam. This story of faith has woven together the historical facts about Ayya Vaikundar and his activities, with mixing of episodes from the Hindu Puranas (mythologies) and Itihasas (epics). It is presented as if Vishnu is telling the whole story to his consort Lakshmi.

Though the Citar Hari Gopalan wrote the book  he did not know any thing about the contents of the book. He woke up in the morning as usual and he did not know what he had written the day before.

It contains the regulations of the Ayyavazhi sect.  

## References
Planck mass

The **Planck mass** is a small unit of mass used in physics. It is derived using an equation involving Planck's constant, the speed of light in a vacuum, and the gravitational constant. It is approximately 21.76 µg.

The Planck mass can be thought of as an upper bound for the mass of a single particle. A particle with more mass would become a black hole. It's also a lower bound for the smallest possible black hole, since a black hole this small wouldn't be able to emit any Hawking Radiation to evaporate any smaller.

As with all Planck units, the idea was to have a definition based only on fundamental universal constants.

## References
Human sexuality

: Sleep (1866).]]
**Human sexuality** is the ability of people to have sexual experiences and feelings. This involves biological, erotic, physical, emotional, social, or spiritual feelings and behaviors. The most common form of human sexuality is heterosexuality, but homosexuality, bisexuality and asexuality exist too. An abnormal form of sexuality is called a paraphilia, while a normal one is called a normophilia.

## Related pages
*Human sexual activity
*LGBT
*Pornography

## References
Bay City, Michigan

The American city of **Bay City** is a small city in the state of Michigan, United States. In the 2020 census it had more than 32,000 people living in it.

Although small, Bay City is one of the largest port cities on Lake Huron, one of the North American Great Lakes. It is part of a triangle of small cities in Central Michigan. The other two cities are Saginaw, Michigan, and Midland, Michigan.

Bay City was the birthplace in 1958 of Madonna Ciccone, a well-known American singer. The Scottish Pop group Bay City Rollers are said to have gotten their name from the city as well.

## Other websites 
* City of Bay City, Michigan
Zirconium

**Zirconium** is a chemical elemental metal. It is a greyish-white in color. It is atomic number 40 on the periodic table. Its symbol is Zr. And it is in the family of four (4). Zirconium alloys are used as cladding for nuclear fuel rods.

## Production 
Most zirconium is made from the mineral zircon. Zircon is also called zirconium silicate (). Zirconium is found in many types of sand and rock. These sources of zircon are crushed into a powder, separated using a centrifuge, and then treated with chemicals in a process called leaching. This separates the pure zircon from other minerals.

Zircon needs to be split apart into zirconia and silica in order to purify it further. One way of doing this is alkaline fusion. In this chemical process, zircon is treated with a base like sodium hydroxide or sodium carbonate.

Zirconia is finally treated in the Kroll process to make pure zirconium metal.

Further processing is needed to make nuclear-grade zirconium, because zirconium normally contains small amounts of hafnium, a neutron poison.

## References
1096

## Events
* Vital I Michele is Doge of Venice
* Peter I, King of Aragon, conquers Huesca
* Bernhard becomes Bishop of Brandenburg
* First documented teaching at the University of Oxford
* Phayao, now a province of Thailand, is founded as a kingdom
* Beginning of the People's Crusade, the German Crusade, and the First Crusade
## References
1098

## Events 
* December 12 – massacre of Ma'arrat al-Numan where Crusaders resort to cannibalism.
* First Crusade: end of the siege of Antioch.
* Cîteaux Abbey founded.

## Births 
* September 16 – Hildegard of Bingen, German mystic writer, and composer (d. 1179)

## Deaths 
* January 3 &ndash; Walkelin, first Norman bishop of Winchester
* August 1 &ndash; Adhemar of Le Puy, papal legate
* December 1 &ndash; Domnall Ua hÉnna, Pre-Reformation Bishop of Killaloe
* Baldwin II, Count of Hainaut
* Hugh of Montgomery, 2. Earl of Shrewsbury
Windows 98

**Windows 98** is an operating system for computers. Released on June 25, 1998 by Microsoft, it is the successor of Windows 95. It came before Windows Me. Support for Windows 98 ended on July 11, 2006.

Windows 98 was seen by many as a small upgrade to Windows 95, rather than a rebuilt version of Windows.

## Second Edition 
Windows 98 Second Edition (SE)  was released in 1999. This was an official upgrade to Windows 98 which allowed people to use more types of computer hardware, like monitors and printers, and also let more than one machine on a network use the same Internet connection.

## References
## Other websites
*Windows 98 Homepage. Microsoft. Retrieved on April 22, 2006.
*HPC:Factor Windows 98 / 98SE Patches & Updates Guide
*A discussion board at MSFN  containing links to unofficial upgrades and patches for this system.
*Windows 98 System Requirements
*GUIdebook: Windows 98 Gallery  - A website dedicated to preserving and showcasing Graphical User Interfaces
*Windows 98/98SE UpgradePack  - Accumulative patch for recent Windows 98 updates 
*BBC News: BBC News: Microsoft shuts down Windows 98
*PC World: The shut down of Windows 98 is a cause for concern 
*Daylight Saving Time (DST) Fix  
*Windows 98 Generic USB Mass Storage Device Drivers - enables Windows98 to support most modern USB flash drives.
Republic of the Congo

The **Republic of the Congo**, also known as **Congo-Brazzaville**, is a country in Africa. Its capital city is Brazzaville. The country was a former colony of France; it became independent on 15 August 1960.
The north of the country has very large areas of rainforest, but in the south are many farms which grow cashcrops like bananas, peanuts.

## Geography
Congo is in the central-western part of sub-Saharan Africa.  It is along the Equator.  To the south and east of it is the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is also bordered by Gabon to the west, Cameroon and the Central African Republic to the north, and Cabinda (Angola) to the southwest. It has a short Atlantic coast.
 
The capital, Brazzaville, is on the Congo River, directly across from Kinshasa, the capital of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

## Departments
The Republic of the Congo is divided into 12 Departments. Departments are divided into communes and/or districts.

The districts are:

## Related pages
*Congo at the Olympics
*List of rivers of the Republic of the Congo

## Books about the Republic of the Congo 
* Maria Petringa, *Brazza, A Life for Africa* (2006) 

## References
Tamil Nadu

**Tamil Nadu** () is a state in the South of India. The capital of this state is Chennai. Other large cities in Tamil Nadu include Coimbatore, Tiruchirapalli, Salem, Madurai, Tirunelveli, Thanjavur and Thoothukudi. Tamil is the language spoken in Tamil Nadu. It is surrounded by the Bay of Bengal to the east and the Indian Ocean to the south. A small part of Tamil Nadu borders the Arabian Sea to the west. It borders the Indian states of Kerala, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh. In traditional Indian geography, it is part of the South Indian zone.

The current chief minister of the state is M. K. Stalin. He is the leader of the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK), a political party. The leader of the opposition is Edappadi K. Palaniswami. He belongs to the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIDMK), another political party. These two political parties have been in power alternately in Tamil Nadu since 1967.

The eastern and western tips of the state are defined by the Point Calimere and Mudumalai wildlife sanctuaries while the southernmost tip is Kanyakumari (also called Cape Comorin) at the tip of the Indian peninsula. Tamil Nadu is the 11th largest state in India, with an area of 129,996&nbsp;km2 and over 62 million people. The major river is Kaveri, which meets the needs of agriculture. Other important rivers include south Pennar, Palar, Vaigai, Tamira bharani, Manimuthar, Noyyal and Bhavani. Tamil Nadu, a South Indian state, is famed for its Dravidian-style Hindu temples. The three ancient Tamil empires of Chera, Chola, and Pandya were of ancient origins. In Tamil Nadu, the Neolithic period had its advent around 2500 BCE.

## Districts of Tamil Nadu 
### Provincial symbols of Tamil Nadu 

File:Chalcophaps indica1.JPG|Common emerald dove, the provincial bird of Tamil Nadu
File:Nilgiri Tahr, Kerala.jpg|Nilgiri Tahr, the provincial animal of Tamil Nadu
File:Palm Tamil Nadu.jpg|Palm tree, the provincial tree of Tamil Nadu
File:Gloriosa rothschildiana 01.jpg|Gloriosa rothschildiana, the provincial flower of Tamil Nadu

## Other websites
Duck

]]

]]

**Ducks** are birds in the family Anatidae. Ducks are closely related to swans and geese, which are in the same family. Ducks are generally black, brown or grey. 

Ducks are not a monophyletic group. They are a 'form taxon'. Swans and geese are in the same family but are not called ducks. The main difference is that ducks have shorter necks, and are smaller. 

Other swimming and diving birds, like grebes and loons, are not ducks. A baby duck is called a *duckling*, and a male duck is called a *drake*. Most ducks are aquatic birds. They can be found in both saltwater and fresh water. 

The subfamily Anatinae ("dabbling ducks") feed on the surface of water or on land, or as deep as they can reach by up-ending without completely submerging. Diving ducks dive deep to get their food.

Many ducks are migratory. This means that they spend the summer months in a different place than the winter months. Ducks show a cosmopolitan distribution, meaning they can be found all over the world, except for Antarctica. Some duck species live on the South Georgia and Auckland Islands, which are subantarctic. Many species have established themselves on remote islands, such as Kerguelen or Hawaii. 

Ducks are sometimes kept as pets. They are often kept by groups of people on public ponds for their beauty and calming nature. People commonly feed ducks in ponds stale bread, thinking that the ducks will like to have something to eat. However, bread is not healthy for ducks and can kill them. In nature, ducks eat grasses, aquatic plants, fish, insects, small amphibians, worms, and small molluscs.

## In poultry 
Some ducks are bred and kept by humans. They are not wild ducks. They are kept to provide food (meat and eggs), or to use their feathers for pillows and other items in the house. Especially in Asia, many people like to eat duck.

Duck meat is high in fat, which helps the bird float in the water.

The eggs from ducks are thought to have a richer taste than chicken eggs.

## Related pages
* Waterfowl
*The Ugly Duckling

## References 
## Other websites 
* 
* 
*
Nightwish

**Nightwish** is a symphonic metal band from Finland. They formed in July 1996 and played acoustic mood music. The band's keyboardist and composer Tuomas Holopainen had the idea of forming a band. He asked Tarja Turunen to sing and Emppu Vuorinen to play guitar.

At the beginning of 1997, the band started playing stronger music. Jukka Nevalainen joined the band to play the drums. Vuorinen used an electric guitar instead of an acoustic guitar. In May 1997, Nightwish signed a contract (binding agreement) with Spinefarm Records and they released their first album 'Angels Fall First'.

In 1998, Sami Vänskä joined the band to play bass guitar. The same year Nightwish released 'Oceanborn', which was quite different to
'Angels Fall First'.

In May 2000 they released 'Wishmaster', which was similar to 'Oceanborn'. They also entered the contest to be Finland's representatives for the Eurovision Song Contest, with the song 'Sleepwalker'. They won the phone vote but the judges disagreed so they came second.

The other band members asked Tarja to leave the group in 2005 after their "End of an Era" tour. Tuomas wrote an open letter to her, stating the reasons why she had to leave. He then put the letter on the official website. In 2007, Swedish singer Anette Olzon became the new singer, and Nightwish released a single, 'Amaranth'. A few months later, they released the album 'Dark Passion Play'.

## Discography 
### Albums
**Angels Fall First* (1997)
**Oceanborn* (1998)
**Wishmaster* (2000)
**Over the Hills and Far Away* EP (2001)
**Century Child* (2002)
**Once* (2004)
**Dark Passion Play* (2007)
**Imaginaerum* (2011) 
**Endless Forms Most Beautiful* (2015)
**Human. :II: Nature.* (2020)
**Yesterwynde* (2024)

### Singles
*The Carpenter (1997)
*Sacrament of Wilderness (1998)
*Walking in the Air (1999)
*Sleeping Sun (Four Ballads of the Eclipse) (1999)
*Deep Silent Complete (2000)
*Ever Dream (2002)
*Bless the Child (2002)
*Nemo (2004)
*Wish I Had an Angel (2004)
*Kuolema tekee taiteilijan (2004)
*The Siren (2005)
*Eva (2007)
*Amaranth (2007)
*Erämaan Viimeinen (2007)
*Bye Bye Beautiful (2008)
*The Islander (2008)
*Storytime (2011)
*The Crow, the Owl and the Dove (2012)
*Élan (2015)
*Endless Forms Most Beautiful (2015)
*Alpenglow (2015) (promo)
*My Walden (2016) (12)
*Noise (2020)
*Harvest (2020)

## References
Door

A **door** is a hard, flat object a person can open and close so that person can go into a room or other place. It is found in houses and other buildings. Doors are also found in cars and cages.

The reasons for a door are:
* for people, animals, and objects to go through; some doors are for emergencies only (emergency exit)
* to keep cold or hot air outside (or inside, such as the door on a refrigerator)
* so that people cannot see or hear what happens on the other side (privacy and stopping noise)
* so that people do not fall out of the car or other vehicle
* so a person can decide who to let in—many doors have a lock

## Types of doors 
A **revolving door** is a group of doors that turn in a circle as a person pushes one. The person can go through, but wind and rain cannot get in.

A **blind door** is a fake door that is really part of the wall. People use them to make a room look nice.

An **up-and-over door** is often used in garages. Instead of hinges, it rolls up on  so that it stays above the opening.

A **fire door** is a door that does not let fire go through. They are usually made of heavy steel.

A **doggie door** is a small door for dogs or other small pets. They are usually on the bottom of people-sized doors.
 

File:200 years ancient door of Tajhat Palace , Rangpur, Bangladesh.jpg|200-year-old door in Tajhat Palace, Rangpur, Bangladesh
File:200 years ancient wooden door of Tajhat Landlord's Palace.jpg|200-year-old wooden door in Tajhat Landlord's Palace
1540s

The **1540s** was a decade that started on 1 January 1540 and ended on 31 December 1549. 

It is distinct from the decade known as the ***155th decade*** which began on January 1, 1541 and ended on December 31, 1550.

## Events 
* Hernando de Soto is the first European to see the Mississippi River. 
* Ivan IV of Muscovy becomes the first Tsar of Russia. 
* Edward VI succeeds his father Henry VIII as King of England. 
* Wars between Protestants and Catholics in Europe.
* Japan opens up to Europeans.

## Births 
* El Greco, Greek-born artist 
* Mary, Queen of Scots
* Miguel de Cervantes, Spanish writer 

## Deaths 
* Martin Luther, reformer
* Hernando de Soto, Spanish explorer
* Henry VIII, King of England
* Hernán Cortés, Spanish explorer
* Juan Diego Cuauhtlatoatzin, Mexican Catholic saint
John Roberts

**John Glover Roberts Jr.** (born January 27, 1955) is the seventeenth and current Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court. Appointed by President George W. Bush, Roberts is generally considered a member of the more conservative wing of the court. However, since the retirement of Justice Anthony Kennedy, he has been seen as the moderate and tie-breaker in some major Supreme Court cases during the Presidency of Donald Trump.

Before joining the Supreme Court on September 29, 2005, Roberts was a judge on the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit for two years.

Roberts has been portrayed as a consistent advocate for conservative principles by analysts such as Jeffrey Toobin.

Roberts was first nominated by President George W. Bush to replace Sandra Day O'Connor as an Associate Justice, but Chief Justice William Rehnquist died before Roberts's confirmation so Bush nominated Roberts to replace Rehnquist instead. Roberts was confirmed by the full United States Senate on September 29 by a margin of 78–22.

## References
1550s

The **1550s** was a decade that started on 1 January 1550 and ended on 31 December 1559.

It is distinct from the decade known as the ***156th decade*** which began on January 1, 1551 and ended on December 31, 1560.

## Events 
* Helsinki founded in Finland.
* Rule of *Bloody Mary*, or Mary I of England from 1553 to 1558.
* São Paulo founded in Brazil. 
* Religious wars continue in Europe.
* Russia breaks peace with Sweden by attacking Finland. 
* The Shaanxi Earthquake, the deadliest earthquake in history.

## Births 
* Sarsa Dengel, Emperor of Ethiopia
* King Sebastian of Portugal
* Nurhaci, Chinese founder of the Qing Dynasty 

## Deaths 
* Tabinshwehti, King of Burma
* Edward VI, King of England 
* Ignatius of Loyola, Spanish founder of the Jesuit priests
1840

## Events 
* The Great Natchez Tornado: A massive tornado hits Natchez, Mississippi. Before it was over, 317 people had died and 209 were injured.

## Births 
* January 3– Father Damien, priest
* January 18 – Edmund Barton, 1st Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1920)
* May 7 – Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, Russian composer
* Kuroda Kiyotaka, Prime Minister of Japan

## Deaths 
* May 27 – Niccolò Paganini, Italian violinist and composer
Tsar

**Tsar** is a title for the supreme ruler in several countries. In Bulgaria, the title was used in 913–1422 and again in 1908–1946. The last tsar to rule Bulgaria was Boris III, who replaced Ferdinand I of Bulgaria 1918.

In Serbia, the title was used in 1346—1371. The last tsar to rule Serbia was Stephen Uroš V. 

In the Russian Empire, the title was used from 1546 until 1721. Starting in 1721, the title of Russian emperors was *imperator*, but the word *tsar* remained in common use until the Russian Revolution in 1917. The last tsar to rule Russia was Nicholas II, who replaced Alexander III in 1894. The system of government used during the Tsardom of Russia and the Russian Empire was called Tsarist autocracy, also known as Tsarism. *Tsar* is also spelled *tzar*, *czar*, and *csar*. It is the Eastern European word for *caesar*. It can be translated to *emperor*.
Engelbert Dollfuss

**Engelbert Dollfuss** (*German*: **Dollfuß**) (October 4, 1892 – July 25, 1934) was the Chancellor of Austria from 1932 until 1933. He led the country as a dictator from early 1933 until 1934.

He studied law in Vienna, and Economics in Berlin. During World War I, he served in the Alps and briefly became a prisoner of war in 1918. 

He became Chancellor on May 20, 1932 as head of a right-wing coalition government. He wanted to solve the problems caused by the Depression. He had problems finding majorities in parliament. The measures he liked to take to deal with inflation were not well liked. In March 1933, he suspended the Austrian parliament. He then governed by decree. 

With Adolf Hitler as Chancellor in Germany, Dollfuss feared that the influence of the NSDAP would grow. This would then lead to a growth in popularity for its Austrian counterpart. Because of this, he banned the NSDAP in June 1933. He also banned the SDAPÖ in February 1934. 

In September 1933, he formed an umbrella grouping to support the regime, the *Vaterländische Front* (Fatherland Front) and merged the Christian Social Party with the para-military Heimwehr (Home Guard), a Nationalist paramilitary group. The regime which was put into power by him and remained in power until 1938 is often called *Austrofascism*. The form of state he employed was called the *Ständestaat*.

On July 25, 1934, eight Austrian Nazis entered the Chancellery building and shot and killed Dollfuss in an attempted coup, as a prelude to Anschluss. The Nazis surrendered and were executed. Kurt Schuschnigg became the new dictator of Austria.

## References
## Other websites 
* Video: Dollfuß holds a speech in Burgenland 1933 (mpeg, 6,1 kb)
Ancestor

An **ancestor** is a person (or another organism or thing) from whom (or which) another is . Usually, it refers to a person far in the past, rather than the parents or grandparents in the close family. A very similar word is **forebear**. A female ancestor may be called an **ancestress**. The line of ancestors from which an organism  is referred to as its **ancestry**. 

A second meaning relates to evolution. There, it is used of a species or group of species of animals or plants from which others have evolved. In a similar way, the word ancestor can be used for an early prototype or forerunner of a later device. No blood relationship is necessarily implied. In evolution, species that have evolved from the same ancestor are said to be of common descent. However, this concept of ancestry does not apply to some bacteria and other organisms capable of horizontal gene transfer. DNA testing is used in determining ancestry. This can be for paternity testing, to determine the parents of a child for legal purposes. DNA is also used to better understand the ancestry and history of all humans over the last 50,000 years. This was one of the benefits of the Human genome project.

In some cultures ancestors may have relatively little importance. Many today have no knowledge of their own great-great-grandparents. China is an example of a culture that in general has a deep respect for ancestors. Korea is an example of a culture that engages in ancestor worship where ancestors are . But genealogy (the study of one's ancestors) is growing in popularity and includes both  and  genealogists.

## Related pages
* Ethnicity
* Kinship
* Generation
* Human Genome Project

## References
A Streetcar Named Desire (1951 movie)

***A Streetcar Named Desire*** is a 1951 movie. It is based on the 1947 play by Tennessee Williams. The movie stars Marlon Brando and Vivien Leigh.

## Other websites 
*
River dolphin

**River dolphins** are five species of dolphin which live in fresh water rivers and estuaries. Three species live in fresh water rivers. The La Plata Dolphin lives in salt water estuaries and the ocean.

*South Asian river dolphins (two sub-species)
**Ganges river dolphin, *Platanista gangetica gangetica* – Lives in Nepal, Republic of India and Bangladesh
** Indus river dolphin, *Platanista indicus minor* – Lives in Pakistan; *National mammal of Pakistan*.
*South American river dolphins (three species)
** Amazon river dolphin (or Boto), *Inia geoffrensis* – Largest of river dolphins, lives in Peru and Brazil.
**Araguaia river dolphin, *Inia araguaiaensis*  – Recently discovered in the river basin in Brazil after which it is named. Identified as a separate species by genetic sequence analysis.
** La Plata dolphin (or Franciscana), *Pontoporia blainvillei* – Lives in Argentina.
* Chinese river dolphin (or Baiji), *Lipotes vexillifer* – Lives in the Yangtze River in China (one of the most endangered of all dolphins and whales). Recent counts have come up with 17 remaining individuals. Scientists now want to raise some dolphins in a lake.

## Differences between marine and river dolphins 
Both river dolphins and marine dolphins belong to a group of mammals called cetaceans. The snout of a river dolphin measures about 58 centimeters (2&nbsp;ft) long, approximately four times as long as that of most marine dolphins. They use their long snout to search for fish on the muddy bottom of the river. River dolphins have smaller eyes than marine dolphins, and their vision is poorly developed because they live in dark, muddy water. River dolphins are less active than marine dolphins because they do not need to search so widely to find fish. Marine dolphins work in pods (packs) because when they find a shoal of fish then they work together to make the most of their find. River dolphins work mostly as individuals or small groups.

### River dolphin classification 
* Superfamily Platanistoidea
** Family Platanistidae
*** South Asian river dolphin *Platanista gangetica* (two subspecies)
**** Ganges river dolphin *P. g. gangetica*
**** Indus dolphin *P. g. minor*
** Family Iniidae
*** Amazon river dolphin (or Boto) *Inia geoffrensis*
** Family Lipotidae
*** Chinese river dolphin (or Baiji) *Lipotes vexillifer*
** Family Pontoporiidae
*** La Plata dolphin (or Franciscana) *Pontoporia blainvillei*

## References 
## Other sources 
River-Dolphins-and-their-habitat
Tetrahedron

A **tetrahedron** or **triangular pyramid** is a polyhedron (a three-dimensional shape). It has four corners and six edges. All four of its faces are equilateral triangles. Every two edges meet on one of those corners forming a sixty-degree angle.

## Formulas for a regular tetrahedron 
A **regular tetrahedron** is a tetrahedron whose edges are the same length. If the length of an edge is *a*:

## Other properties 
A regular tetrahedron's faces are all the same, and so are all its edges, as well as its corners. This makes it a regular polyhedron. It is also convex (its faces do not go through one another), which makes it a Platonic solid.

The dual of regular tetrahedron is another regular tetrahedron. This is called being self-dual.

## References
Estuary

An **estuary** is where a river meets the sea. There, saltwater mixes with freshwater. The river becomes wider and wider and flows slowly to the ocean.

Bays, marshes, swamps, and inlets can all have estuaries. A view of an estuary from the air is usually an interesting sight: many estuaries meander (curve and bend) to find their way to the sea. Estuaries come in all sizes and shapes, each according to its location and climate. Where rivers meet the sea and fresh water mixes with salt water, the mixture is called brackish water.

Some estuaries are very large. They may be large ocean bays that have more than one river flowing into them.  For example, Chesapeake Bay is a large estuary, and several different rivers meet the Atlantic Ocean there.
In simple terms it is where a river meets with a large body of water, only with one outlet and not  many like a delta.

## Habitat 
Estuaries are usually filled with shallow waters, and sunlight reaches all levels of the water. Marsh grasses, algae, and other kinds of plants live in estuaries and provide food for a variety of fish, crabs, oysters, and shrimp. Estuaries are especially important since they act as nurseries for many different types of young fish and other animals before they head out toward the open ocean. Many sea birds also nest in estuaries.

The United States government has a program to study and protect the natural environment in many different estuaries, called the National Estuarine Research Reserve System. One reason that the natural environment in so many estuaries is in danger is because they are also good places for people to live and build cities. Unfortunately, many of world's largest cities are at or near estuaries.

## References
Emission

**Emission** is a word that originally comes from Latin. Originally it means something that is sent out. Several things can be sent out:

* The most common use talks about emission of toxic gases. Those gases get produced by factories and motors, like motors in cars.
* People talk about radio emissions. Those are programmes that people can listen to if they have a radio receiver.
* There could be emissions of loud noise, someone might be making loud noises.
* There also are emissions of light.
Leo Tolstoy

Count **Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy** (9 September 1828  20 November 1910) was a Russian novelist and anarchist, famous for writing the books *War and Peace* and *Anna Karenina*, and many other works. He was a Christian and believed in non-violence and practiced simple living. His work *The Kingdom of God is within you* has influenced people like Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King.

## Early life
Tolstoy was born at Yasnaya Polyana, the family estate in the region of Tula, Russia and he married Sofia Andreevna Bers.

## Death
Tolstoy died in 1910, at the age of 82. He died of pneumonia.

## Life and career
When he was young his parents died, so he and his siblings were brought up by relatives. At the age of 16, he began studying law and oriental languages. Unfortunately, he left University in the middle of his studies and spent much of his time in Moscow and Saint Petersburg. Later on in his life, he joined the Army with his brother after running up some heavy gambling debts. It was at that time that he started writing.

His conversion from a wealthy society author to the non-violent and spiritual anarchist of his later days was notable. It was caused by his experience in the army as well as two trips around Europe in 1857 and 1860–61. Others who followed a similar path were Alexander Herzen, Mikhail Bakunin and Peter Kropotkin. During his 1857 visit, Tolstoy saw a public execution in Paris, an experience which marked the rest of his life.

After *Anna Karenina*, Tolstoy concentrated on Christian themes, and his later novels such as *The Death of Ivan Ilyich* (1886) and *What Is to Be Done?* (1886) develop a radical Christian philosophy which led to his excommunication from the Russian Orthodox Church in 1901. 

After shaping both his political and literary development in Europe, he returned to Russia and founded 13 schools for Russia's peasant children.  

## Related pages 
*List of Russian-language novelists
*List of Russian novelists

## References
Mehmed II

**Mehmed II**  (; , ; 30 March 14323 May 1481), commonly known as **Mehmed the Conqueror** (; ), was an Ottoman sultan who ruled from August 1444 to September 1446, and then later from February 1451 to May 1481. In Mehmed II's first reign, he defeated the crusade led by John Hunyadi after the Hungarian incursions into his country broke the conditions of the Peace of Szeged. When Mehmed II ascended the throne again in 1451, he strengthened the Ottoman navy and made preparations to attack Constantinople. At the age of 21, he conquered Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul) and brought an end to the Byzantine Empire, permanently cementing its destruction.

After the conquest Mehmed claimed the title Caesar of the Roman Empire (), based on the fact that Constantinople had been the seat and capital of the surviving Eastern Roman Empire since its consecration in 330 AD by Emperor Constantine I. The claim was only recognized by the Patriarchate of Constantinople. Nonetheless, Mehmed II viewed the Ottoman state as a continuation of the Roman Empire for the remainder of his life, seeing himself as "continuing" the Empire rather than "replacing" it.

Mehmed continued his conquests in Anatolia with its reunification and in Southeast Europe as far west as Bosnia. After conquering Constantinople and getting the Byzantines out of the way, he started making more conquests in the Balkans and focused on his Balkan campaigns, even unsuccessfully laying siege to Belgrade in 1456 at one point. He was also known for his rivalry with Vlad the Impaler, who grew up at his father's court alongside him. Vlad the Impaler had taken control over Wallachia and rebelled against the Ottoman Empire, thus Mehmed II sent an Ottoman army, resulting in a war between the two. The war ended when Vlad was killed by an Ottoman patrol in Wallachia. He was then beheaded with some saying his head was sent to Mehmed II himself at the capital city Constantinople (modern Istanbul) by the Ottoman soldiers. He was also known for his campaigns against Albanian rebel leader Skanderbeg. For most of his reign, Mehmed II was on campaign against either John Hunyadi, Vlad the Impaler or Skanderbeg. Domestically, he made many political and social reforms, encouraged the arts and sciences, and by the end of his reign, his rebuilding program had changed Constantinople into a thriving imperial capital. He is considered a hero in modern-day Turkey and parts of the wider Muslim world. Among other things, Istanbul's Fatih district, Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge and Fatih Mosque are named after him.

## Related pages
*Byzantine Empire
*Sultan
*Turkey

## References
*

## Other websites
*Biography page at OttomanOnline
California wine

People have made **wine** in the American state of California for a long time. California has become recognized as making some of the world's best wine. California makes most of the wine that is made in America.

## History
People first made wine in California in 1769. Missionaries from Mexico brought their wine plants to produce wine for the mass. Later, people coming from Europe improved the making of wine. They had brought their own kinds of wine plants.

Before 1920, there was more wine made every year. Then Prohibition began. During Prohibition, it was not allowed to sell alcoholic drinks in the United States. It almost ended the making of wine in California. Californian wine-making took a long time to recover.

In 1990, the USA sent less than five percent of its wine to other countries. After that, exports of wine from California increased. Today, the USA is one of the big wine industries.

## Wines 
s of Cabernet-Sauvignon]]
Wine comes in different colors. Most wines are called "red" or "white". White wine is not really white, it just has a very light color.  54 percent of the Californian wines are white wines. Some examples of white wines are Chardonnay and Sauvignon Blanc. Some examples of red wines are Zinfandel, Cabernet-Sauvignon, Merlot, and Pinot Noir.

## Cool climate viticulture 
Grapes for wine used to need warm weather. People wanted to grow more grapes, so they learned how to grow them where the weather was not as warm. That way of growing grapes is called "cool climate viticulture". Vines are now planted in colder places, up to  above sea level. Monterey County was the first place where that was done.

## Wine regions 
In California, there are more than 800 wine cellars. Wine cellars are big rooms were wine is stored. They are part of a winery, the place where wine is produced.

Two of the most famous growing areas for wine in California are Napa County and Sonoma County. The wines from those places are some of the best in the world. Some examples of the wines made there are Chardonnay and Cabernet Sauvignon.

Other known wineries are in Mendocino, in the Lake Counties, Santa Maria and Santa Barbara.

## References
## Other websites 
*3000 word report - Comprehensive overview Pinot Noir Wine
The Bold and the Beautiful

***The Bold and the Beautiful*** is a popular American soap opera. After *The Young and the Restless*, it is the highest-rated soap opera there.

The series is shown in over 100 countries. About 300 million people watch it every day. This makes *The Bold and the Beautiful* the most watched television series in the world. The first episode was shown on March 23, 1987 on the CBS network. The series was created by the soap opera writer William J. Bell and his wife, Lee Phillip Bell. It is the only American soap opera to have its daily episodes translated into Spanish for the Hispanic viewers in the United States.

The series is set in Los Angeles, California. It tells the story of the Forrester family, who owns a fashion empire called Forrester Creations. The major members of the family are Eric Forrester (played by John McCook), the president of Forrester Creations, his wife Stephanie (Susan Flannery), their eldest son Ridge (Ronn Moss) and Brooke Logan (Katherine Kelly Lang), who was married to both the father and the son. She owns most of Forrester Creations. This is because she created *BeLieF*, a formula which earned much money for the company. There used to be a second fashion company called Spectra Fashions. It was Forrester’s main competitor. The conflicts between the Forrester and the Spectra families was one of the major themes of the story.

## List of actors/characters on the show 
## Other websites 
* 
* Official site 
* *The Bold and The Beautiful*
* *The Bold and The Beautiful* CBS Website
Umbilicus

The **umbilicus** (also called **navel** or **bellybutton**) is a place on the body of mammals that is left after a baby loses its umbilical cord. The umbilicus of humans is in the middle of the abdomen. It is usually only easy to see on humans, and is a thin line on many other mammals. In humans, they can be split into two different kinds, the kind that goes in (**innie**) and the kind that goes out (**outie**). Different people have different navels that can be different in size, shape, and looks, but these differences are not genetic (you do not get them from looks passed down in your family). The hepatic portal vein passes from the umbilical vein to the liver. When a person becomes fat, the fat usually goes around the umbilicus.

It marks the water shed line of the body. The venus blood & lymph do not cross the umbilical plane.

## Gallery 

File:T-shaped navel.jpg|A t-shaped navel
File:Navel 2 - Picture by Giovanni Dall'Orto, July 25 2010.jpg|One of many variations of an outie
File:Belly Button.jpg|An innie navel
File:Human navel, female.jpg|alt=|An oval navel

## Related pages
* Navel piercing

## Other websites