open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
George M. Dallas

**George Mifflin Dallas** (July 10, 1792 – December 31, 1864) was an American politician and diplomat. He was the 11th vice president of the United States from 1845 to 1849, under James K. Polk. Before becoming vice president, he was a senator from Pennsylvania and the mayor of Philadelphia.

Dallas was born in Philadelphia and graduated from the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University) in 1810.

## Early life
Dallas was born in Philadelphia on July 10, 1792. His parents were Alexander James Dallas and Arabella Maria Smith Dallas. George Dallas was given his middle name after Thomas Mifflin, another politician who was good friends with his father.

Dallas was the second of six children. He studied law in his father's office and he was admitted to the bar in 1813.

Dallas served from 13 December 1831 to 3 March 1833. He was the chairman of the Committee on Naval Affairs. Dallas did not try to get re-elected because of a fight over the Second Bank of the United States and his wife's not waning want to leave Philadelphia to move to Washington, D.C. and served as the Grand Master of Freemasons in Pennsylvania in 1835.

Dallas was offered the role of Attorney General but did not accept it, and he went back to being a lawyer.

Dallas returned to Philadelphia, where he lived until his death from a heart attack on Saturday, December 31, 1864. He was 72 when he died.

## References
Yekaterinburg

**Yekaterinburg** (formerly named **Sverdlovsk**) is a big city in the Ural mountains in the Asian part of Russia. It is the administrative center of Sverdlovsk Oblast. It has a population of 1,483,119 people. The city was started in 1723 by Vasily Tatischev and named after empress Catherine I who was the Peter the Great’s wife.

## Twin cities 
 building with the Lenin statue.]]
Yekaterinburg is a sister city of
*  - Pilsen, Czech Republic
*  - San Jose, California, U.S.A., since 1992
*  - Guangzhou, the People's Republic of China, since July 10 2002
*  - Genoa, Italy
*  - Ferentino, Italy

## Related pages 
*List of cities and towns in Russia

## References
Collingwood, Victoria

**Collingwood** is a suburb in Melbourne, Australia. It was named after Baron Cuthbert Collingwood (1748 - 1810), an admiral of the Royal Navy.

## Sport 
The Collingwood Football Club was originally based in Collingwood, but has since moved to the Lexus Centre.

## References
Chatham County, North Carolina

**Chatham County** is a county in the U.S. state of North Carolina.  In 2020, 76,285 people lived there.  Its county seat is Pittsboro.

## History 
The county was made in 1771 from Orange County.

In 1907 parts of Chatham County and Moore County were combined to form Lee County.

## Government 
Chatham County is part of the regional Triangle J Council of Governments.

## Schools 
Chatham County has its own public school system for grades kindergarten to 12.  Central Carolina Community College also has two campuses in the county.

## Coal Mines 
Chatham County has the only coal mines in North Carolina.  Coal mining used to be very important to the county, but in the 1920s a bad accident in one of the mines killed many workers.  By the 1940s all the mines had closed.  Some people have tried to open the mines back up, but the mines are too dangerous.  Right now none of the mines are open.

## New Houses 
Many builders are building new houses in Chatham County right now.  Some people in the county do not like this because they do not want Chatham County to have a lot of people.  A lot of people want to live in Chatham County because they do not have to pay as much tax as people in other North Carolina counties do.  But other people think it is good that a lot of people want to live in the county because then the county will make more money from taxes.

## Connected Counties 
*Orange County, North Carolina - north
*Durham County, North Carolina - northeast
*Wake County, North Carolina - east
*Harnett County, North Carolina - southeast
*Lee County, North Carolina - south
*Moore County, North Carolina - southwest
*Randolph County, North Carolina - west
*Alamance County, North Carolina - northwest

## Cities and Towns 
These cities and towns are in Chatham County:
*Fearrington
*Goldston
*Pittsboro
*Siler City

## Roads 
These are the most important roads in Chatham County:
* U.S. Highway 64
* U.S. Highway 421
*  U.S. Highway 15-501

## References 
## Other websites
*Chatham County Government
*Chatham County Travel Website
*Chatham Journal Newspaper
*Chatham Online Bulletin Board
Roger Penrose

**Sir Roger Penrose** Kt OM FRS (born 8 August 1931) is an English mathematical physicist. He is Emeritus Rouse Ball Professor of Mathematics at the  University of Oxford and emeritus fellow of Wadham College.

Penrose won the Nobel Prize in Physics, jointly, in 2020. Previously he had won the 1988 Wolf Prize in Physics, which he shared with Stephen Hawking for the Penrose–Hawking singularity theorems. He was elected a member of the Academia Europaea in 2019.

## Works
He is renowned for his work in astrophysics with Stephen Hawking, in particular his contributions to general relativity and cosmology. He is also a recreational mathematician and philosopher.

Roger Penrose is the brother of mathematician Oliver Penrose and chess grandmaster Jonathan Penrose. His sister, now Shirley Hodgson, is a notable geneticist. He was born in Colchester, Essex, England. He was awarded the Copley Medal in 2008. 

In 2020, he shared the Nobel Prize in Physics with Reinhard Genzel and Andrea M. Ghez.

## Works
**Techniques of Differential Topology in Relativity*. 1972, 
**Spinors and Space-Time, volume 1: Two-spinor calculus and relativistic fields*. (with Wolfgang Rindler) 1987.  
**Spinors and Space-Time, volume 2: Spinor and twistor methods in space-time geometry*. (with Wolfgang Rindler) 1988.  
*''The Emperor's New Mind: concerning computers, minds, and the laws of physics*. 1989. ; it received the Rhone-Poulenc science book prize in 1990.
**Shadows of the Mind: a search for the missing science of consciousness*. 1994.  
**The nature of space and time* (with Stephen Hawking, 1996,  hardback  (paperback)
**The large, the small, and the human mind*  (with Abner Shimony, Nancy Cartwright, and Stephen Hawking) 1997.  (hardback),  (paperback), Canto edition: )
**White Mars or, the mind set free* with Brian W. Aldiss. 1999.  (hardback)
**The Road to Reality: a complete guide to the laws of the Universe*. 2004.  (hardcover),  (paperback)
**Cycles of Time: an extraordinary new view of the Universe''. 2010. Bodley Head. 

## References
Langur

The **Gray langur** or **Hanuman langur** (***Semnopithecus***) is a genus of colobine monkey. They are found in southeast Asia. The word "langur" means 'having a long tail'. It is commonly called the **leaf monkey**. They usually live in small groups of between 2 and 10 individuals. They mainly eat leaves, as well as some fruit. Langur spend most of their time in trees. They have white fur and black faces. They are considered sacred animals therefore the "National social mammal of India".

## References
Arthur (TV series)

***Arthur*** is an American animated television series developed by Kathy Waugh and Marc Brown and produced by WGBH Boston for PBS. Based on Brown's *Arthur* book series, it is set in the fictional American city of Elwood City and resolves around the lives of Arthur Read, an anthropomorphic aardvark, his friends and family, and their daily interactions with each other.

The series concluded during its 25-season run, the series broadcast 253 half-hour episodes (including specials and a film ''Arthur's Missing Pal*) ran from October 7, 1996 to February 21, 2022 on PBS Kids (formerly PBS Kids Go!) in the US and January 6, 1997 to May 19, 2022 on TVOKids in Canada.

It was the fifth longest-running animated series in the United States, behind *The Simpsons*, *South Park*, *Family Guy*, and *SpongeBob SquarePants*.

## Episodes
## Characters
Arthur Timothy Read is the main character and protagonist of the series, who focuses the immediate family with most episodes involving Arthur, his youngest sister Dora Winifred and Kate, their parents David and Jane, and their dog Pal. His closest friends include Alan "The Brain" Powers, Binky Barnes, Buster Baxter, Francine Frensky, Mary Alice Crosswire, and Sue Ellen Armstrong, along with others as Fern Walters, George Lundgren, Jenna Morgan, and Prunella Deegan as frequent supporting characters.

The adults in *Arthur'' play important roles: Mr. and Mrs. Read display a significant amount of stress from parenting, Arthur's friends' parents are shown struggling in middle-class jobs, and Mr. Ratburn's endures and expectations of teaching elementary school. Even in difficult, adult situations, these grownups maintain a cheerful attitude. Arthur, Dora Winifred, and Kate also visit their paternal grandmother, Thora Read, and maternal grandfather, Grandpa Dave.

## Broadcast
*Arthur* became one of the highest-rated shows on PBS Kids for several years since its debut, averaging almost 10 million viewers weekly in the U.S. It is aired in a total of 83 countries, including on: PBS in the United States; Radio-Canada, Knowledge Network, TVOntario, TFO, and CBC in Canada; several ABC channels in Australia; and BBC One/CBBC/CBeebies in the UK and PBS Kids in South Africa. It also aired in Ireland on TnaG (now TG4) in an Irish dubbed version.

## Notes
## References
## Other websites
* 
*
Carteret County, North Carolina

**Carteret County** is a county in the U.S. state of North Carolina.  In 2020, 67,686 people lived there.  Its county seat is Beaufort. Most of the county is part of the Crystal Coast.

## Government 
Carteret County is part of the Eastern Carolina Council of Governments.

## Connected Counties
*Craven County (north)
*Pamlico County (north)
*Onslow County (west-southwest)
*Jones County (west-northwest)

## Cities and Towns 
These cities and towns are in Carteret County:
*Atlantic Beach
*Beaufort
*Bogue
*Cape Carteret
*Cedar Point
*Emerald Isle
*Indian Beach
*Morehead City
*Newport
*Peletier
*Pine Knoll Shores

## Schools
The county has its own public school system called Carteret County Schools.

## References
## Other websites
* Official website
* Carteret County *News-Times*
Moomba

The **Moomba Waterfest** is a yearly  in Melbourne, Australia. It takes place over the Labor Day weekend.
Wittgenstein (disambiguation)

**Wittgenstein** may refer to:

## Place names 
* Kreis Wittgenstein, a former district in North Rhine-Westphalia, now incorporated into Kreis Siegen-Wittgenstein
* Wittgenstein Castle, near Bad Laasphe
* Haus Wittgenstein, a building in Vienna

## Surnames 
* Karl Wittgenstein, Austrian entrepreneur, father of:
** Ludwig Wittgenstein, philosopher; and
** Paul Wittgenstein, pianist

* Heinrich von Wittgenstein, German entrepreneur and politician

* Members of the German noble family Sayn-Wittgenstein
** Heinrich Prinz zu Sayn-Wittgenstein, World War II German flying ace 
** Prince Peter Wittgenstein, Russian Field Marshal
** Ludwig zu Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg, Russian aristocrat
** Botho Prinz zu Sayn-Wittgenstein-Hohenstein, German politician
** Casimir Graf zu Sayn-Wittgenstein, German politician
** Princess (Fürstin) Carolyne von Sayn-Wittgenstein (Carolyne zu Sayn-Wittgenstein, or Marie zu Sayn-Wittgenstein) (1819–1887), Russian nobility, Franz Liszt's mistress and patron, and a close friend of Berlioz (She is not Marie Catherine Sophie de Flavigny, ''Comtesse (Gräfin) Marie d'Agoult'', known by her pen name, "Daniel Stern") http://ungarninfo.org/home/kultur/liszt/liszt6.htm
Michael Dante DiMartino

.]]
**Michael Dante DiMartino** (born July 18, 1974) is an American animation director. He is best known as the co-creator, executive producer, and story editor of the TV series *Avatar: The Last Airbender* on Nickelodeon.

## Other websites 
* 
* Interview with Mike and Bryan  at AvatarSpirit.Net
Bryan Konietzko

**Bryan Konietzko** is the co-creator and executive producer of the animated series *Avatar: The Last Airbender*. He has also worked as a character designer for the animated series *Family Guy*. He was a storyboard artist and art director for the Nickelodeon animated series *Invader Zim*.

## Other websites 
* 
* 
* Interview with Mike and Bryan at AvatarSpirit.Net
Hannibal Hamlin

**Hannibal Hamlin** (August 27, 1809 – July 4, 1891) was a politician from Maine. Hamlin served as a lawmaker in Maine, governor of Maine, and member of the U.S. House of Representatives and of the U.S. Senate. He began his career as a Democrat but later became a Republican. He was the first Republican to serve as Vice President of the United States under U.S. President Abraham Lincoln during the 1860 presidential election.

## Early life 
Hamlin was born in Paris, Maine. He was a descendant of James Hamlin, who had lived in the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1639.

Hamlin attended the area's schools and later managed his father's farm. For the next few years, he worked at several jobs. He studied law. He lived in Hampden, Maine, where he practiced law until 1848, when he moved away. Hamlin studied law. He was admitted to the legal profession in 1833 and quickly became known as a good lawyer and a good speaker. 

## Political career 
In politics, Hamlin began as an antislavery Democrat. He was a member of the Maine House of Representatives from 1836 to 1840 and became in charge of it. He was a U.S. Representative from 1843 to 1847 and a U.S. Senator from 1848 to 1856. From the very beginning of his service in Congress he was a well-known opponent of the extension of slavery, a notable supporter of the Wilmot Proviso, and an opponent of the Missouri Compromise. In 1856, he left the Democratic Party and joined the new Republican Party, which had been started two years earlier. 

The Republicans in tjhe state chose him as their cndidate for governor of Maine 1856, and he won a landslide victory. He was inaugurated as governor on January 8, 1857. In late February, however, he gave up the governorship, and he joined the U.S. Senate from 1857 and served until 1861.

From 1861 to 1865, during the American Civil War, he was Vice President of the United States. While in this office he gave much advice to U.S. President Abraham Lincoln and supported both the Emancipation Proclamation and the arming of the slaves. After the war, he served in the U.S. Senate (1869-1881), was minister to Spain (1881-1883), and then left public life. He died at Bangor, Maine, on July 4, 1891.

## References
THU

**Thu** is most often an abbreviation for Thursday.

It can also mean"

* **THU**, Three-letter abbreviation for Tsinghua University, Beijing, China.
* **THU**, Three-letter abbreviation for Tunghai University, Taichung, Taiwan.
* **THU**, IATA airport code for Thule Air Base
* early name for Sauron in J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth legendarium
* Þu, an Old English Pronoun
* suggested gender neutral pronoun
*A dog belonging to Claidi and Argul in The Claidi Journals
*Thu (movie) - a 1961 Burmese movie
*Thu, the abbreviation for the orchid genus *Thunia*
Yui

**Yui** or **YUI** can mean:
* Yui Horie, also known as YUI L or YUI-EL, a J-pop singer, actress and voice actress
* Yui (singer), a Japanese musician
Barbara Meier

**Barbara Meier** (born 25 July 1986 in Amberg, Germany) is a model. She is the winner of the second cycle (season) of ''Germany's Next Topmodel* (GNTM), presented by Heidi Klum.

## Biography 
Meier was born in Amberg. Before *GNTM* she studied mathematics.

While shopping at a mall, she was invited by a model scout to a casting for *GNTM''. Out of 16,421 girls in the casting, she was chosen among 14 other girls to be on the TV show.
During the show she won a role alongside Heidi Klum in a TV commercial for McDonald's.

In the last episode (the finale), she won the show and became "Germany's Next Topmodel".

After ''Germany's Next Topmodel*, Meier was in many magazines around the world such as *Vogue* (Taiwan), *Madame Figaro* (Russia) and *L'Officiel* (France) and worked for many brands such as *Pantene''.

## Other websites 
*Official website
*Barbara Meier  at IMG Models - Milan
*Barbara Meier in the Fashion Model Directory
*Barbara Meier at the Internet Movie Database
Bathymetry

bathymetry (and altimetry).  Data from the National Geophysical Data Center's TerrainBase Digital Terrain Model.]]

**Bathymetry** is the study of the underwater terrain of lakes or ocean floors. It is the same as topography, except that it looks at the underwater topography. It is a field of oceanography. The name comes from Greek  (*bathus*), meaning "deep", and  (*metron*), meaning "measure". Bathymetric (or hydrographic) charts are often made to support the safety of underwater navigation and exploration. Most of these underwater topographic maps use contour lines (called *depth contours* or *isobaths*) to show the terrain of the sea floor, and how deep it is. They usually also give surface navigational information.

Originally, bathymetry involved the measurement of ocean depth through sounding. Early techniques used heavy rope or cable lowered over a ship's side. This method measures the depth of the water at a single location each time. It was not a very accurate method. The data used to make bathymetric maps today usually comes from an echosounder (sonar). This device is attached to the bottom or the side of a boat.

## References
## Other websites
* High resolution bathymetry for the Great Barrier Reef and Coral Sea
John C. Breckinridge

**John Cabell Breckinridge** (January 16, 1821 – May 17, 1875) was a lawyer, U.S. representative, U.S. senator from Kentucky, and the 14th vice president of the United States. He was a member from Kentucky in the House of Representatives from 1851 to 1855. He served as vice president from 1857 to 1861 under President James Buchanan. Breckinridge was the youngest vice president in U.S. history.

Breckinridge was also a Southern Democratic candidate for president in the 1860 election. The Democratic Party was then split, with the South voting for Breckinridge and the North voting for Stephen Douglas. Breckinridge carried most of the South but lost to the Republican Party's candidate, Abraham Lincoln.

When the South seceded, Breckinridge was briefly a senator from Kentucky, but he was kicked out of the Senate. He theeeeen became active in the Confederacy. During the American Civil War, he was a general in the Confederate States Army. He fought in Tennessee and the Shenandoah Valley. He was the Confederate commander at the Battle of New Market. He was the last Confederate Secretary of War.

After the war, Breckinridge left the country for four years. He returned to Kentucky in 1869 and died in 1875.

## References
Passage tomb

in Ireland]]

A **passage tomb** or **passage grave** is a tomb which can be reached through a (usually low) passage. Most of these tombs were constructed during prehistoric There are many of these tombs in Ireland and Scotland.
Radiocarbon dating

and Austria. The New Zealand curve is representative for the Southern Hemisphere, the Austrian curve is representative for the Northern Hemisphere. Atmospheric nuclear weapon tests almost doubled the concentration of 14C in the Northern Hemisphere.]]

**Radiocarbon dating**, also known as the **C14 dating method**, is a way of telling how old an object is. It is a type of radiometric dating. 

The method uses the radioactive isotope carbon-14. Most organic matter contains carbon. Carbon has different isotopes, which are usually not radioactive. 14C is the radioactive one, its half-life  (time it takes to reduce its radioactivity by half)  is about 5,730 years. This makes it possible to tell the age of substances that contain carbon. The method works to about 60,000 years old. Dates obtained are usually written as *before present* ('present' is 1950). 

Plants take up atmospheric carbon dioxide by photosynthesis, and are eaten by animals, so every living thing is constantly exchanging carbon-14 with its environment as long as it lives. Once it dies, however, this exchange stops.

In 1958 Hessel de Vries showed that the concentration of carbon-14 in the atmosphere varies with time and . The relatively short-lived 14C is constantly renewed by cosmic ray bombardment on atmospheric nitrogen. Since the bombardment is slightly variable, and for other reasons, the 14C taken into organic matter is also slightly variable. That leads to errors in the chronology. However, under about 20,000 years the results can be compared with dendrochronology, based on tree rings. For the most accurate work, variations are compensated by means of calibration curves. 

The method was developed by Willard Libby and his colleagues at the University of Chicago in 1949. In 1960, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for this work. He first demonstrated the accuracy of radiocarbon dating by accurately estimating the age of wood from an ancient Egyptian royal barge of which the age was known from historical documents.

## Related pages
*Nuclear physics
## Other websites 
*Radiocarbon - The main international journal of record for research articles and date lists relevant to 14C 
*C14dating.com - General information on Radiocarbon dating 
*NOSAMS: National Ocean Sciences Accelerator Mass Spectrometry Facility at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution  
*Discussion of calibration 
*Several calibration programs can be found at www.radiocarbon.org 
*CalPal Online (Cologne Radiocarbon Calibration & Paleoclimate Research Package)
*OxCal program (Oxford Calibration) 
*Fairbanks' Radiocarbon Calibration program (for prior to 12400&nbsp;BP) 
*Further basic information on radiocarbon dating (PDF)

## References
La Tène culture

from the 5th century BC (La Tène)]]

The **La Tène culture** existed from about 500 BC to about 100 AD. Named after a town in Switzerland near Neuchâtel, it was greatly influenced by the Roman and the Greek cultures. There are two sources for this:
* Things found
* Romans and Greeks came in contact with the culture and called them Celts, usually. They wrote about them, most notably Julius Caesar's "On the Gallic War" (*De bello gallico*).

The Celts basically lived in clans, which were led by leaders, the druids and the bards. Women were much better off than under the Romans and were of a similar status to men. There were both polygyny  (a man could have several women) and polyandry (a woman could have several men).
Hallstatt culture

and Austria, between 14 and 15 degrees east]]

The **Hallstatt culture** is named after Hallstatt, a city in Austria in which the first artifacts were found. It lasted from about 1200 BC to about 275 BC. 

There were different periods that are now told apart mainly by the kinds of brooches used. The brooches changed rather rapidly and permit a good estimate. Hallstatt culture sites have been found in the east of France, in Switzerland, in the south of Germany, in Austria, in Slovenia and Croatia, northwestern Hungary, southwestern Slovakia and southern Moravia.

In this time, the social structure developed into a hierarchy. That can be documented by various things that were added to graves, such as at Magdalenenberg. In the Bronze Age, people lived in big settlements. As iron became available, trade routes changed. A new upper class could establish itself. Unlike before, the upper class liked to live in big houses in the countryside to show their power.

Funerary cults also changed, from cremation burials, to burials with sarcophagi. The new upper class used its wealth for import goods, mostly from the Mediterranean. People started settling there around the 2nd millennium BC.

## Other websites 
Hallstatt culture: the real thing. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GdKcyxmXzBw
Capitol

**Capitol** can mean:

* Capitol building, a building in which a legislature meets, including:
**Capitoline Hill in Rome (from which the word *capitol* derives)
**United States Capitol in Washington, D.C.
**Capitol of Puerto Rico in San Juan
**Capitole de Toulouse in Toulouse, France
**Capitolio Nacional in Colombia
**Capitolio Federal in Venezuela
**El Capitolio in Havana, Cuba

*Capitol (board game), a Roman-themed board game
**Capitol* (TV series), a U.S. soap opera
*Capitol Air Lines, a U.S. charter airline in the 1970s and 1980s
*Capitol Corridor, an Amtrak railroad corridor
*Capitol Records, a U.S. record label
Cave painting

**Cave paintings** are paintings on cave walls and ceilings. Usually these paintings were made in prehistoric times.

It is not known why these paintings were made. They may have been used in rituals. Some may have provided information. Many paintings in caves are difficult to get to.  

Today, there are about 350 caves known to have paintings in them. Many are in France and Spain. The best known are probably the caves of Altamira (in Spain), Lascaux (in France), or Creswell Crags (in England). 

Sometimes, paintings were also done on cliff faces. Fewer of those have survived, though, because of erosion. One such example is the rock paintings of Astuvansalmi (in Finland).

Most cave paintings showed animals or hunting scenes. Sometimes hands are there too. Rarely, there are also more abstract patterns.

The paintings were drawn with red and yellow ochre, hematite, manganese oxide and charcoal. Sometimes the silhouette of the animal was put into the rock first.

## Styles 
André Leroi-Gourhan (19111986) classified the paintings into different styles:

## Theories 
There are different theories about why people created cave paintings.  These are the most common explanations:
* Painting in caves could be a form of hunting magic, meant to make a hunt more successful.
* Perhaps shamans made cave paintings.  The shaman would retreat into the darkness of the cave, enter into a trance state, and then paint images of their visions, perhaps with some notion of drawing power out of the cave walls themselves. This theory is based on studies of modern hunter-gatherer societies. 
* Cave paintings could be some form of graffiti, mostly done by teenage boys of the time.  Figurines have been found that show Venus at roughly the same age.  According to this theory, there were many adolescents in the society at the time. Most of the adolescents who painted were male, but some were female.
* The paintings may have been made for practical reasons: There is some hidden symbolism which may show the techniques of hunting, or the routes the animals took. 
* People may have painted what they wished for or what they had dreamt of. 
*The paintings could have been seen as "art" at the time. There are several societies today who do not have a word for art, but who practice the same type of painting.

## Oldest known 
In general, the dates of these artifacts are not known with any accuracy. Our own dating system was invented long after the artifacts.

A painting on the wall of an Indonesian cave is about 44,000 years old. It shows a buffalo being hunted. Recently, another painting was found in Borneo.

## Gallery 

File:La Pasiega-Galeria A-Ciervas (panel 22).png|from La Pasiega, Spain
File:Bisonte de Altamira.jpg|from Altamira, Spain
File:Lions painting, Chauvet Cave (museum replica).jpg|from Chauvet, France
File:Chauvethorses.jpg|from Chauvet
File:Lascaux, horse.JPG|from Lascaux, France
File:Niaux,_bisons.JPG|from Niaux cave, France
File:Gravure_rupestre_(mammouth).jpg|A mammuth etching, from Pair-Non-Pair, France 
File:Manos_de_Gargas_(Francia).png|Hands in Gargas cave, France

## Related pages 
*Rock art
*Upper Palaeolithic

## References
Beowulf

***Beowulf*** is an Old English heroic epic poem. It is not known who wrote it, and there is no agreement as to when it was written. Estimates for the date range from AD 608 right through to AD 1000, and there is no consensus. The poem has only one manuscript source, written about 1010. *Beowulf* is 3182 lines long.  Tolkien describes and illustrates many of the features of Old English poetry in his 1940 essay *On translating Beowulf*.

The protagonist of the poem is Beowulf. In the poem, Beowulf fights three monsters: Grendel and Grendel's mother, and later in his life an unnamed dragon.
## The contents of the poem 
## Story 
Hrothgar, a Danish king, has built a big mead hall, which is called Heorot. Hrothgar and his people live a good life and celebrate in Heorot. But then they are attacked by Grendel, who comes to Heorot every night and kills some of Hrothgar's people.

Beowulf is a warrior from Geatland (modern southern Sweden). He hears of Hrothgar's troubles with Grendel. Beowulf and his men leave Geatland to help King Hrothgar.

Beowulf and his men stay the night in Heorot. When Grendel comes to kill them, Beowulf fights him. Beowulf tears Grendel's arm off from his body and sticks it on the wall as a trophy. Grendel runs to his home in the marshes, where he dies. Everyone is happy that Grendel is killed and celebrates. 
But the next night, Grendel's mother comes to Heorot and kills many people for revenge and grabs Grendel's arm. Beowulf then goes to the marshes where Grendel and his mother lived. Beowulf fights Grendel's mother and kills her.

Beowulf later becomes a king. He fights a dragon that was living in a barrow. With the help of the young man Wiglaf, Beowulf kills the dragon. Beowulf is wounded in the final battle and dies and crowns Wiglaf as his successor. 

## Adaptations 
The story of *Beowulf* has often been told in books, plays, and films. Sometimes the full story is told, sometimes just parts of the story. Sometimes the plot is altered. Sometimes only ideas or themes are taken from the story. 
Some examples are:
* *Beowulf* (1999 film)
* *Beowulf and Grendel* (2005 film)
* *Grendel* (2007 film)*
* *Eaters of the Dead*, a book by Michael Crichton (1976)
* *Grendel*, a book by John Gardner (1971)
* *The Ring-givers'', a book by W.H. Canaway (1958).

## References
Ringfort

]]
]]
A **ringfort**, **ring fort** or **ring fortress** is a fortified settlement. Ring forts were made to protect villages, mostly in the Middle Ages. In Ireland where many such forts can be found, they are also known as ***ráth, caiseal, cathair*** and ***dún*** in the early Irish sources.

A *ráth* (anglicised rath), was made of earth, *caiseal* (northwestern Ireland, anglicised cashel) and *cathair* (southwestern Ireland) were built of stone. A *dun* is a more prestigious site, the seat of some kind of ruler, the term is applied to promontory forts as well.
Empress Dowager Cixi

**Empress Dowager Cixi**  (November 29 1835 – November 15 1908), often known in China as the **West Dowager Empress**  was from the Manchu Yehe Nara Clan.

Cixi was a powerful and charismatic figure who became the *de facto* ruler of the Manchu Qing dynasty and ruled over China for 47 years from 1861 to her death in 1908. She was one of the wives of Emperor Xianfeng and also the mother of Emperor Tongzhi. She quickly took power after the death of Emperor Xianfeng. Though her exact origins are unclear it is very likely that she came from an ordinary Manchu family. She was chosen by Emperor Xianfeng as a concubine. She gained almost total control over the court at the start the rule of her son, Emperor Tongzhi,. He and her nephew, Emperor Guangxu, attempted to rule in their own right.

As onesource tells it, Cixi had a partnership with the top concubine, Zhin, who had been raised to Empress. The two women ruled together, with Cixi being the dominant personality.

She was in charge during the Opium Wars, the First Sino-Japanese War, and the Boxer Rebellion. She was largely conservative during her rule, and some historians consider her reign despotism and think it might have been responsible for the fall of the Qing dynasty and therefore Imperial China.

## References 
* Chung, Sue Fawn. 1979. ''The much maligned Empress Dowager: a revisionist study of the Empress Dowager Tz'u-Hsi (1835-1908)*. *Modern Asian Studies* **13**, 2, 177-96.
* Hummel, Arthur William, ed. *Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period (1644-1912).* 2 vols. Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1943.
* Warner, Marina. 1972. *The Dragon Empress: life and times of Tz'u-his 1835-1908''. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1972.

## Other websites 
* https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/play/favourites/b03bdpl9
* http://womenshistory.about.com/library/bio/blbio_cixi.htm?terms=cixi
* http://www.royalty.nu/Asia/China/TzuHsi.html
* http://www.kings.edu/womens_history/tzuhsi.html 
* http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/eastasia/headland-courtlife.html
* Cixi: The Woman Behind the Throne -- Smithsonian.com
Tegan Jovanka

**Tegan Jovanka** is a fictional character in the long-running British science fiction television series *Doctor Who*. She was played by Janet Fielding. Tegan Jovanka was an Australian airline stewardess who was a companion of the Fourth and Fifth Doctors, she was a regular in the programme from 1981 to 1984. Tegan was the longest-serving companion in terms of years on the series (3 years, 1 month), although Jamie McCrimmon was in the most episodes and stories.

## Character history
Tegan first appears in the Fourth Doctor's last serial, *Logopolis*. On her way to Heathrow Airport to start her new job with Air Australia, her car suffers a flat tyre. She enters a roadside police box to seek help, but she enters and does not realise that it is the Doctor's Tardis. She is present when the Fourth Doctor falls from the Pharos Project radio telescope and regenerates into his fifth incarnation, and continues to travel with the doctor
Eventually, the chaos during the events of *Resurrection of the Daleks* prove too much and she chooses to leave the Doctor and Turlough and stay in 1984 London.

## Trivia
According to David Tennant's video diary of filming *Doctor Who* Series 3, John Barrowman (who plays Captain Jack Harkness in the 21st century series of *Doctor Who* and its spinoff *Torchwood*) has a dog named Tegan, named after the companion.

## List of appearances
### Television
;Season 18
* *Logopolis*
;Season 19
* *Castrovalva*
* *Four to Doomsday*
* *Kinda*
* *The Visitation*
* *Black Orchid*
* *Earthshock*
* *Time-Flight*
;Season 20
* *Arc of Infinity*
* *Snakedance*
* *Mawdryn Undead*
* *Terminus*
* *Enlightenment*
* ''The King's Demons*
;20th anniversary special
* *The Five Doctors*
;Season 21
* *Warriors of the Deep*
* *The Awakening*
* *Frontios*
* *Resurrection of the Daleks*
* *The Caves of Androzani'' (cameo)

## References 
## Other websites
*  at 
* Tegan Jovanka on the BBC's *Doctor Who* website
Controversy

A **controversy** is when many people who have different opinions about something have a strong conflict, then debate for a long time. There may be several groups of people who have different opinions and who cannot agree. Examples for controversial topics are the question of whether abortion should be legal, or whether research on embryonic stem cells should be permitted. Controversies can happen when there is not a lot of understanding about a topic. A controversy may also happen when different people interpret the same information differently based on their own biases.

## References 
## Related pages
*Dispute
German Trade Union Confederation

**Deutscher Gewerkschaftsbund** is a confederation of German trade unions. It was a national trade union center of Germany.

The DGB hat 8 German trade unions with more than 7 million people (31.12.2004). It was founded in Munich in 12 October 1949.

## Trade unions 
* IG BAU - IG Bauen-Agrar-Umwelt (Construction, Agriculture, Environment) 424,808 members = 6.06%
* IG BCE - IG Bergbau, Chemie, Energie (Mining, Chemicals, Energy) 770,582 members = 10.99%
* GEW - Gewerkschaft Erziehung und Wissenschaft (Education and Science) 254,673 members = 3.63%
* IGM - IG Metall (Metalworkers) 2,425,005 members = 34.58%
* NGG - Gewerkschaft Nahrung-Genuss-Gaststätten (Food, Beverages and Catering) 225,328 members = 3.21%
* GdP - Gewerkschaft der Polizei (Police) 177,910 members = 2.54%
* TRANSNET Gewerkschaft (Railway Workers) 270,221 members = 3.85%
* ver.di - Vereinte Dienstleistungsgewerkschaft (United Services Union) 2,464,510 members = 35.14%

( DGB in total: 7,013,037 members = 100% // all values: 31 December 2004 )

## Presidents 
* 1949–1951: Hans Böckler
* 1951–1952: Christian Fette
* 1952–1956: Walter Freitag
* 1956–1962: Willi Richter
* 1962–1969: Ludwig Rosenberg
* 1969–1982: Heinz-Oskar Vetter
* 1982–1990: Ernst Breit
* 1990–1994: Heinz-Werner Meyer
* 1994–2002: Dieter Schulte
* 2002–today: Michael Sommer

## Other websites 
* DGB homepage
The Best Damn Thing (song)

"**The Best Damn Thing**" is the fourth single off the album The Best Damn Thing  by Avril Lavigne. The song was released June 13, 2008.

## References
Vereinte Dienstleistungsgewerkschaft

**ver.di** is a large German trade union. It is the largest trade union in the world, with 2.6 million members. "ver.di" is an abbreviation for **Vereinte Dienstleistungsgewerkschaft**, which means "United Services Union."

In 2001 ver.di was formed when the Deutsche Angestellten Gewerkschaft (DAG) (*German Salaried Employees*) merged with four unions of the Deutscher Gewerkschaftsbund (DGB) (DPG, HBV, ÖTV, IG Medien).

## Other websites 
* ver.di homepage
* Introduction in English on the ver.di homepage
Gewerkschaft Deutscher Lokomotivführer

**Gewerkschaft Deutscher Lokomotivführer** (GDL) () is a trade union of Germany. Its president is Claus Weselsky , who took over from Manfred Schell in 2008.

The GDL has a membership of 34,000.  Most members live in the old East Germany.
GDL is a member of the Deutscher Beamtenbund (dbb).

## Other websites 
*GDL homepage
TRANSNET Gewerkschaft

**TRANSNET**, which stands for Transport, Service, and Networks, is a trade union in Germany. It  283,000 workers, and is one of eight industrial affiliations of the Deutscher Gewerkschaftsbund (DGB). Its president is Norbert Hansen.

## Other websites 
*TRANSNET homepage
Deutscher Beamtenbund

**Deutscher Beamtenbund** (dbb) (*Civil Service Federation*) is a national trade union center of Germany. 

The DBB was started in 1918 and organizes workers of public administration. 

DBB has a membership of 1,250,000 members. President is Peter Heesen

## Other websites 
*dbb homepage
Jacques Offenbach

**Jacques Offenbach** (20 June 1819, in Cologne – 5 October 1880, in Paris) was a French composer and cellist of the Romantic era. He is seen as one of the originators of the operetta form. He was of German-Jewish descent. He was one of the most influential composers of popular music in Europe in the 19th century. Many of his works are still played today.

Offenbach's many operettas, such as *Orpheus in the Underworld*, and *La belle Hélène*, were extremely popular both in France and elsewhere in the 1850s and 1860s.  They combined political and cultural satire with witty grand opera parodies.  His popularity in France declined in the 1870s after the fall of the Second Empire. He fled France, but during the last years of his life, his popularity came back. Several of his operettas are still performed.  While his name remains most closely associated with the French operetta and the Second Empire, it is Offenbach's one fully operatic masterpiece, ''Les contes d'Hoffmann* (*The Tales of Hoffmann''), composed at the end of his career, that has become the most familiar of Offenbach's works in major opera houses.
Shane MacDougall

**Shane MacDougall** is a Canadian stand-up comedian, former columnist, television writer, and documentarian. Best known for his 1999 challenge to Queen Elizabeth II to a kickboxing match or math test for the monarchy of Canada, the challenge resulted in him receiving death threats but also brought much media attention to the burgeoning Canadian republican movement.

He is also known for The Dark Show, which in the late 1990s was Canada's longest running independent comedy show. Held at Toronto's famous Rivoli club, The Dark Show featured some of Canada's top comedians doing material on topics from school shootings to date rape, and also generated protests from some citizens.

For two years Shane was a comedy reporter and humorist for eye Weekly in Toronto, then in 2000 moved to New York City where he worked as a writer for various MTV shows. 

In 2005, MacDougall completed filming on a documentary entitled "Wiener Takes All", which followed the competitive dachshund racing circuit. The documentary screened such venues as the San Francisco Documentary Film Festival, the 27th Atlantic Film Festival, BendFilm, the Laguna Beach Film Society/Museum of Art, and the Oklahoma City Museum of Art.

## References and Reviews
*Variety Review of Wiener Takes All
*SFist coverage of the US Premiere 
*Frank Decaro (Sirius Radio) interview with director Shane MacDougall
*Chronicle Herald front page coverage (Canada) 
*Cinematical report on BendFilm 
*CBC Radio Interview

## Other websites
*
Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles

***Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles*** is a television series that appeared on the Fox Television Network from January 13, 2008 until April 10, 2009. It is a spin-off of *Terminator 2: Judgment Day*. 

It is about Sarah Connor (played by Lena Headey), her teenage son John Connor (played by Thomas Dekker), and a good robot named Cameron Phillips (played by Summer Glau) trying to stop the evil computer Skynet from ever being created.

## Other websites 
* 
* Official site on Fox  (requires Flash)
* Official Wiki  (uses some Flash)
*
Alleghany County, North Carolina

**Alleghany County** is a county in the U.S. state of North Carolina. In 2020, 10,888 people lived there. Its county seat is Sparta.

## History 
The county was made in 1859 from the eastern part of Ashe County, North Carolina.

## Government 
Alleghany County is part of the High Country Council of Governments.

## Weather 
Since it is in the mountains, Alleghany County has cooler summers than most other places in North Carolina. The temperature usually does not go above 85&nbsp;°F in the summer. But in the winter the temperature is colder than most places in North Carolina.

## Adjacent Counties 
These counties are connected to Alleghany County:
* Grayson County, Virginia - north
* Surry County, North Carolina - east
* Wilkes County, North Carolina - south
* Ashe County, North Carolina - west

## Important Roads 
These are the biggest roads in Alleghany County:

## Cities and Towns 
These cities and towns are in Alleghany County:
* Sparta

## References
Sparta, North Carolina

**Sparta** is a town in Alleghany County, North Carolina, United States. The population was 1,834 people as of the year 2020. It is the county seat of Alleghany County.

## Teapot Museum 
The Sparta Teapot Museum is being built right now and should be finished by the summer of 2008.

## References
Anson County, North Carolina

**Anson County** is a county in the U.S. state of North Carolina.  In 2020, 22,055 people lived there.  Its county seat is Wadesboro.

## History 
The county was made in 1750 from Bladen County.

In 1753, the northern part of Anson County became Rowan County.  In 1762 the western part of the county became Mecklenburg County.  In 1779 the northern part of the county became Montgomery County, and the part east of the Pee Dee River became Richmond County.  And in 1842 the western part of Anson County was combined with the southeastern part of Mecklenburg County to make Union County.

In 1985 most of the movie The Color Purple (film), starring Oprah Winfrey and Whoopi Goldberg along with Danny Glover, was filmed in Anson county.

## Government 
Anson County is part of the Centralina Council of Governments.

## Connected Counties 
These counties are connected to Anson County:
*Stanly County, North Carolina - north
*Richmond County, North Carolina - east
*Marlboro County, South Carolina - south east
*Chesterfield County, South Carolina -south
*Union County, North Carolina -west

## Cities and Towns 
These cities and towns are in Anson County
*Ansonville
*Lilesville
*McFarlan
*Morven
*Peachland
*Polkton
*Wadesboro

## References 
## Other websites 
*Anson County government official website
Can-can

The **can-can** – also spelled *cancan* – is a music hall dance, performed by a chorus line of female dancers who wear costumes with long skirts, petticoats, and black stockings, like the fashions of the 1890s. 

The can-can was first danced in low class ballrooms of Montparnasse in Paris about 1830. The dancers of the 1890s, such as La Goulue and Jane Avril, were highly paid for their appearances at the Moulin Rouge and elsewhere. The female dancers of the Second French Empire and the fin de siècle developed the various cancan moves.

The Galop from Jacques Offenbach's *Orpheus in the Underworld* is the tune most often played with the can-can (a somewhat simplified form and a more evolved one Can-Can (*Orpheus in the Underworld*). Performed on the accordion ).

## In popular culture
The can-can was adapted as an American movie titled "Can Can"(1960), acted by Frank Sinatra and Shirley MacLaine  with music by Cole Porter.
Ashe County, North Carolina

**Ashe County** is a county in the U.S. state of North Carolina.  In 2020, 26,577 people lived there.  Its county seat is Jefferson.

## History 
Native Americans used to live in Ashe County.  Pieces of broken pottery, arrowheads, and other Native American things have been found in the county.

In 1849, the southwestern part of Ashe County was combined with parts of Caldwell County, Wilkes County, and Yancey County to make Watauga County.  In 1859, the eastern part of Ashe County became Alleghany County.

## Cities and towns 
These cities and towns are in Ashe County:
*Jefferson
*Lansing
*West Jefferson

## Connected counties 
These counties are connected to Ashe County:
*Grayson County, Virginia - north
*Alleghany County, North Carolina - east
*Wilkes County, North Carolina - southeast
*Watauga County, North Carolina - southwest
*Johnson County, Tennessee - west

## References 
## Other websites 
*Ashe County government official website
Harnett County, North Carolina

**Harnett County** is a county in the state of North Carolina, United States.  In 2020, 133,568 people lived there.  Its county seat is Lillington.

## History 
The county was made in 1855 from Cumberland County.  It was named for Cornelius Harnett.

## Government 
Harnett County is a member of the Mid-Carolina Council of Governments.

## Connected Counties 
*Wake County, North Carolina - north-northeast
*Johnston County, North Carolina - east
*Sampson County, North Carolina - southeast
*Cumberland County, North Carolina - south
*Moore County, North Carolina - southwest
*Lee County, North Carolina - northwest
*Chatham County, North Carolina - north-northwest

## Cities and Towns 
These cities and towns are in Harnett County:
*Angier
*Coats
*Dunn
*Erwin
*Lillington

## References 
## Other websites
*Harnett County official website
Avery County, North Carolina

**Avery County** is a county in the U.S. state of North Carolina.  In 2020, 17,806 people lived there.  Its county seat is Newland. It is known for growing Fraser Fir Christmas trees. Avery County is part of the High Council of Governments. 

## History 
The county was made in 1911 from parts of Caldwell County, Mitchell County, and Watauga County.  Avery County was the last county made in North Carolina.

## Bordering counties 
These counties border, or connect to, Avery County:
*Johnson County, Tennessee – north
*Carter County, Tennessee – west
*Caldwell County, North Carolina – southeast
*Burke County, North Carolina – south
*McDowell County, North Carolina – south
*Mitchell County, North Carolina – west
*Watauga County, North Carolina – north

## Cities and towns 
These cities and towns are in Avery County:
*Banner Elk
*Beech Mountain
*Crossnore
*Elk Park
*Grandfather
*Linville
*Minneapolis
*Newland
*Seven Devils
*Sugar Mountain

## References 
## Other websites 
*Avery County government official website
Hersfeld-Rotenburg

**Hersfeld-Rotenburg** is a *Kreis* (district) in the east of Hesse, Germany.

## History 
In 1821 districts were created in Hesse, including the districts Hersfeld and Rotenburg, which stayed nearly unchanged after Hesse-Kassel was taken over by Prussia. In 1972 both districts were joined into one.

## Coat of arms 
## Towns and municipalities
## References 
## Other websites
*Official website 
*Touristic website