open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Exoskeleton

: Chitin type]]

An **exoskeleton** supports and protects an animal's body from outside and not like  the internal endoskeleton - of, for example human beings - from inside.  

Many invertebrate animals (such as shelled mollusks) have exoskeletons in the sense of external hard parts. But if one speaks of an exoskeleton one mostly means that of arthropods (i.e. insects, spiders, myriapods and crustaceans). 

Exoskeletons contain rigid and resistant components that fulfil a set of functional roles including protection, excretion, sensing, support, feeding and (for terrestrial organisms) acting as a barrier against desiccation. Exoskeletons first appeared in the fossil record about 550 million years ago, and their evolution has been seen as critical as a driving role in the Cambrian explosion of animals that took place after this time.

The exoskeleton ( exoskeleton suit) is a device intended to restore the lost motion functions of a person or other living being. The exoskeleton also serves to increase human muscle strength and range of motion by means of an external skeleton and drive elements.

## Other websites
### Biology
*Geometry and Pattern in Nature 3: The holes in radiolarian and diatom tests 

### Modern technology
* Bionic Boots 
* PowerSkip 
* Berkeley Lower Extremity Exoskeleton (BLEEX) 
* University of Washington Exo Arm Project
Morphology

**Morphology** may mean:
*Morphology (general), the study of the shape and form of things in general.
*Morphology (linguistics), the study of the structure of word forms.
*Morphology (biology) is the structure of a life-form.
*Morphology (astronomy) is the shape of an astronomical object.
*Morphology (folklore), the structure of narratives.
*Morphology (architecture), the study of the shape and form of buildings.
*Morphology (metallurgy), the study of the microstructure of metals.

*Geomorphology, the study of landforms.
*River morphology, the study of river shape.

*Mathematical morphology, theoretical model based on Lattice theory, used for digital image processing.
*Morphological analysis, a general method for non-quantified modelling.
Woody Allen

**Woody Allen** (born **Allen Stewart Konigsberg**; November 30, 1935) is an American filmmaker, actor, and comedian whose career spans over 50 years. He has won the Academy Award three times, and many others in his very long career. His many works and his cerebral movie style, mixing satire and humour, have made him one of the most respected movie directors in the modern era. Allen writes and directs his movies and has also acted in most of them. To inspire himself for his movies, Allen uses literature, philosophy, psychology, Judaism, European cinema, and New York City, where he was born and has lived all life.

## Early life
Allen was born at Mount of Eden Hospital in The Bronx, He was raised in Brooklyn, New York City. His parents were Nettie (born Cherrie; November 8, 1906 – January 27, 2002), a bookkeeper at her family's delicatessen, and Martin Konigsberg (December 25, 1900 – January 13, 2001), a jewellery engraver and waiter. His family was Ashkenazi Jewish; his grandparents immigrated from Russia and Austria, and spoke Yiddish, Hebrew, and German. Both parents were born and raised on the Lower East Side of Manhattan. Allen has a sister, Letty, who was born in 1943, and was raised in Midwood, Brooklyn.

## Career
Allen started writing scripts for *The Ed Sullivan Show*, *The Tonight Show* and other television shows when he was 19. He started working as a comedian in 1961. His first movie, ''What's New Pussycat?*, was released in 1965. In 1966, he wrote his first play, the Broadway play *Don't Drink The Water''. In 1986. Allen's movie *Hannah and Her Sisters* made $18 million.

## Personal life
Allen is a vociferous atheist, but of Jewish descent.

Allen has had three wives. He dated Mia Farrow for 12 years. However, they never married and lived in different houses. Allen and Farrow adopted Dylan and Mosche Farrow together. Mia said in 1994 that Allen molested her 7-year-old daughter, Dylan Farrow. In February 2014 an open letter by Dylan was published by the *New York Times*. In the letter, Dylan said that Allen had molested her. Her brother Mosche, who is now known as Moses Farrow, said that Allen did not molest her. Allen said the allegations were "untrue and disgraceful". On February 7, 2014, Allen wrote a response to Dylan in the *New York Times*.

In 1992 Farrow realized that Allen was cheating on her with her adopted daughter Soon-Yi Previn. She found naked pictures of Soon-yi in Allen's house. Farrow and Allen broke up. In 1997, Allen married Previn. Previn and Allen have two adopted daughters.
## Filmography
### Movies
## Notes
## References
## Other websites
* 
* 
* 
* IMP Poster Gallery
* Senses of Cinema: Great Directors Critical Database
* Woody Allen Movies
* La De Da: *Annie Hall* as Divine Tragicomedy  Essay Extended version of essay 
* Woody Allen in Barcelona. The shooting of a film.
Backmasking

**Backmasking** (also known wrongly as *backward masking*) is a recording technique. In backmasking, a sound or message is recorded backwards onto a track that is meant to be played forwards. It was made popular by The Beatles. Some people think that backmasking causes subliminal persuasion.

## References
## Other websites
*Jeff Milner's Backmasking Page—a Flash player with forward and backward versions of songs claimed to contain backmasking; the focus of the Wall Street Journal article
*Backmask Flash—flash clips of possible backmasked messages from Albino Blacksheep
*TalkBackwards.com —allows uploaded music to be reversed
*Hidden and Satanic Messages In Rock Music—1981 radio interview with Michael Mills
**Excerpt  with alleged backward messages by Led Zeppelin, The Beatles, Queen
*"Backwards Messages in Rock Music—Revealed! " podcast featuring The Beatles, Led Zeppelin, The Eagles, Rush, Jefferson Starship, Wings, Queen, Phil Collins, Britney Spears, Judas Priest, Pink Floyd, Iron Maiden, Electric Light Orchestra, Prince, and Information Society
Morphology (biology)

::*For other uses, see Morphology (disambiguation).*

**Morphology** is the study of animal or human form or body shape. It is the branch of biology dealing with the study of the form of organisms and their specific structural features. 

The concept of morphology was developed by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1790) and independently by the German anatomist and physiologist Karl Friedrich Burdach (1800).

In general use, the word morphology refers to the form and structure of an organism as a whole, including all internal and external structures. This includes aspects of the outward appearance (shape, structure, colour, pattern) as well as the form and structure of the internal parts like bones and organs. Morphology is contrasted to physiology, which deals primarily with function.

## Branches of morphology 
* Comparative morphology compares the structures of organisms.
* Functional morphology is the study of the structure and function of bodily features.
* Anatomy is the study of the form and structure of the features of an organism.

In English-speaking countries, the term "molecular morphology" is used to describe the structure of compound molecules, such as polymers. and RNA. The term "gross morphology" is a general description of the form and structure of an organism.

## References
Domain (biology)

In biological taxonomy, a **domain** (also **superregnum**, **superkingdom**, or **empire**) is a taxon in the highest rank of organisms, higher than a kingdom.

Domain (or its synonyms) is the most inclusive of these biological groupings. The arrangement of taxa reflects the fundamental evolutionary differences in the genomes. There are several modern alternative domain classifications of life. Among them are:
* The 'two-empire' system, with top-level groupings of Prokaryota (or Monera) and Eukaryota empires.
* The six-kingdom system with top-level groupings of Protista, Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia.
* The **three-domain system** of Carl Woese, introduced in 1990, with top-level groupings of Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukaryota domains.
After defining Archaea as a new domain, Woese redrew the taxonomic tree. His three-domain system is based upon genetic relationships. It divides life into 23 main divisions in three domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. Archaea are neither bacteria nor eukaryotes. Looked at another way, they are prokaryotes that are not bacteria.

## Related pages
* Phylogenetics
* Taxonomy
Fibrous protein

A **fibrous protein** or **scleroprotein**  is one of the three main types of proteins. The others are globular and membrane proteins. 

There are many types of scleroprotein, such as  keratin, collagen, elastin, and fibroin. Such proteins protect and support. They form connective tissue, tendons, bone matrices, and muscle fibre.

## References
Taxon

A **taxon** (plural **taxa**) is a **taxonomic group** or **taxonomic unit**. It is a group of organisms which a taxonomist decides belong together.

Taxa can be big or small. A fairly small taxon is the giraffes, and a very big one is the beetles.

A taxonomist can assign a scientific name and rank to a taxon; this places it at a particular level in a hierarchy.  It is not strictly necessary to assign either a name or a rank to a taxon, but a name and rank make it easier to discuss.  However, many taxa have to wait for years before getting a name.

## Ranks
There is no limit to the number of ranks that may exist, but the most important ranks are, in hierarchical order:
:Domain
:Kingdom
:Phylum or Division 
:Class
:Order
:Family
:Genus
:Species
:Subspecies

Note: "Phylum" applies formally to any biologial domain but traditionally it was always used of animals whereas "Division" was traditionally often used of plants, fungi etc.

A simple phrase to remember the order is
"Dignified Kings Play Chess On Fine Green Silk" (there are many other such phrases).

## Taxonomy
A distinction is made between taxonomy and systematics. Systematics deals with how groups relate to each other. Taxonomy deals with making groups (taxa), deciding what belongs together. Taxonomy is also known as classification.

A special part of taxonomy is nomenclature. This consists of rules on what names to use. So a taxonomist first decides what does and does not belong in a group, and then uses nomenclature to decide what name this group should have. If a group is made larger or bigger it may get a different name. On the other hand, the same name may refer to a bigger taxon (according to one particular taxonomist) or a smaller taxon (according to some other taxonomist). This means that scientific names are not guaranteed to be stable. Most names are stable, but for some taxa there is no agreement on its name, because taxonomists do not agree what does belong together and what does not belong together.

A taxonomist can decide for himself what scientific reasons he adopts for making a group (a taxon). If he is not convincing in his choice, other taxonomists will not agree with him, and they will then make other arrangements. These days biological classification is mostly supposed be done according to evolutionary (phylogenetic) relationships, so far as these are known.
Zoospore

A ***zoospore*** is an asexual spore that uses a flagellum for moving around. It is also called a *swarm spore*. These spores are created by some algae and fungi to multiply themselves.

## Flagella
There are two types of flagellated zoospores, *whiplash* and *tinsel* or "decorated".
* *Whiplash* flagella are straight, to power the zoospore through its medium. There is also the 'default' zoospore, which only has the propelling, 'whiplash' flagellum.
* *Tinsellated* flagella have lateral filaments perpendicular to the main axis, which allow for more surface area, and disturbance of the medium, giving it the property of a rudder, which it uses for steering.

Both *tinsel* and *whiplash* flagella beat in a sinusoidal wave pattern, but when both are present, the tinsel will beat in the opposite direction of the whiplash, to give 2 axes of control of motility.
* There can be many combinations for location of the flagella, such as posterior whiplash; posterior whiplash, anterior tinsel; and anterior whiplash.

## Zoosporangium
A ***zoosporangium*** is the sexual structure in which the zoospores develop in a plant, fungi, or protists.

## Related pages
* Flagellum
* Fern
* Angiosperm
* Chytridiomycota

## References
* C.J. Alexopolous, Charles W. Mims, M. Blackwell et al., *Introductory Mycology, 4th ed.* (John Wiley and Sons, Hoboken NJ, 2004)
Keratin

**Keratin** is one of a family of fibrous proteins. Keratin is what makes up hair in animals, as well as horns, nails, hooves, shells, beaks, and feathers. The name comes from Greek word *keras* meaning "horn".

Keratins are tough and insoluble. They form the hard but non-mineral structures in reptiles, birds, amphibians and mammals. A similar biological toughness is found in chitin.

## Variety of animal uses 
Keratins are the main constituent of structures that grow from the skin: 

* the *α-keratins* in the hair (including wool), horns, nails, claws and hooves of mammals 
* the harder *β-keratins* in the scales and claws of reptiles, their shells (chelonia, such as tortoise, turtle, terrapin), and in the feathers, beaks, and claws of birds. These keratins are formed mainly in beta sheets. However, beta sheets are also found in α-keratins.

Arthropods such as crustaceans often have parts of their exoskeleton made of keratin, sometimes in combination with chitin.

Keratins are also found in the gastrointestinal tracts of many animals, including roundworms (who also have an outer layer made of keratin). 

Although it is now difficult to be certain, the scales, claws, some protective armour and the beaks of dinosaurs would, almost certainly, have been composed of a type of keratin. 

## Silk 
The silk fibroins produced by insects and spiders are often classified as keratins, though it is unclear whether they are phylogenetically related to vertebrate keratins.

Silk found in insect pupae, and in spider webs and egg casings, also has twisted β-pleated sheets incorporated into fibers wound into larger supermolecular aggregates. 

## References 
## Other websites
*Composition and β-sheet structure of silk 
*Spider silk fiber structure
*Hair-Science.com's entry on the miroscopic elements of hair 
*keratin antibody review
Filament

**Filament** could mean:

In *physics and electrical engineering*:
* Electrical filament
* Current filament
* Filament propagation, diffractionless propagation of a light beam

In *astronomy*:
* Galaxy filament
* Solar filament, a structure in a solar corona
* Birkeland current

In *biology*:
* Protein filament
* Filamentation, a long chain of cells
* Part of a stamen, the male part of a flower
* Hypha, in fungi and Actinobacteria

Other uses:
* Fiber or yarn
* 2002 movie by Jinsei Tsuji
Gamete

A **gamete** (or **germ cell, germ-line cells,** pluralː **gametes)** is a specialized sex cell which fuses with another gamete during fertilization (conception) in organisms that reproduce sexually. Gametes are haploid, which means they have only one copy of each chromosome. All other cells in an animal are diploid, which means they have two copies of each chromosome. 

In species which produce two morphologically distinct types of gametes, and in which each individual produces only one type, a female is any individual which produces the larger type of gamete (called an ovum or "egg"), and a male produces the smaller type (called a spermatozoon or "sperm cell").

The name gamete was introduced by the Austrian biologist Gregor Mendel.

## Gametogenesis
Gametogenesis is the development of diploid germ cells into haploid eggs or sperm, (respectively oogenesis and spermatogenesis). It is different for each species but the general stages are similar. The development of eggs (oogenesis) and sperm (spermatogenesis) have many features in common. They both involve:
* Meiosis
* Extensive morphological cell differentiation
* Unable to survive for very long if fertilization does not occur

They also have major differences, especially the different timing of maturation. Oogenic meiosis is interrupted at one or more stages (for a long time) while spermatogenic meiosis is rapid and uninterrupted.
## References
Protein filament

In biology, a **filament** is a long chain of proteins, such as those found in hair, muscle, or in flagella.

## Other websites
* http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/glossary/gloss4cell.html
Lantern

ese paper lantern.]]
A **lantern** is a device that can be moved from one place to another, used to create light and to light up open areas. Lanterns may be used for giving signals, or as general light sources for camping. They can have candles inside, or use other things as fuel, like alcohol or kerosene. Lanterns that give dim light are generally used as decoration. Lanterns are also used in festivals like the Obon festival in Japan.

## Related pages
* Lamp
* Candle
Cherry blossom

A **cherry blossom**, or **sakura** (Japanese kanji and Chinese character: 桜 or 櫻; katakana: サクラ), is a flower of Japanese cherry trees. The cherry fruit is from a different species of tree. Most of the flowers are white or pink with five petals.  

There are about 400 different types of cherry trees. They mutate easily. Somei Yoshino is the most famous type of sakura.  

Cherry blossoms are a symbol of spring for Japanese people. The traditional custom of *Hanami* or *Flower viewing* involves visiting places where sakura are blooming. The word "Sakura" can also be used as a name for women. 

What do cherry blossoms smell like? Cherry blossoms have a smell, but it's very faint and subtle. The scent features light notes of lilac, rose, and magnolia with a powdery vanilla note and almond-like aromas. The aroma isn't overly sweet, fruity, or floral.

## Related terms 
* *Hanafubuki* means a scene when the cherry petals are scattered like snow.
* Cosmos flowers are called Akizakura (autumn cherry blossoms) because the flower's shape is similar to a cherry blossom.

## Related pages
* Hanami
* Ume

## References
## Other websites 
* Vancouver Sakura Diary, photos of different Sakura varieties.
* Yeuoido Spring Flower Festival in Seoul 
* Sakura in Kyoto 
* Subaru Cherry Blossom Festival of Greater Philadelphia  Information about cherry trees and Philadelphia's Cherry Blossom Festival.
* Sakura Gallery  From Tokyo & Kyoto.
* Photo Gallery of Cherry Blossoms  Sakura from Kyoto, Tokyo, Miyajima and other places around Japan.
* Photo Gallery of Cherry Blossoms in Washington DC
* Cherry Blossom Spots in Japan 
* Cherry Blossom in Toronto, Canada, High Park
Septum

A **septum** (Latin: *something that encloses*; plural **Septa**) is a partition separating two cavities or spaces. Examples include:
*Nasal Septum: the cartilage wall separating the nostrils of the human nose.Often deviated or perforated through physical injury or cocaine abuse.
*Cephalopod Septa: walls between each chamber, or *siphuncle*, in shells of nautiloids, ammonites, and belemnites; i.e. cephalopods that retain an external shell.
*The wall dividing the right side of the heart from the left side.
Fungi produce septa to partition filamentous hyphae into discrete cells.
National Youth Orchestra of Great Britain

The **National Youth Orchestra of Great Britain** (**NYO**) is an orchestra for young musicians in the United Kingdom. The members of the orchestra are all aged between 13 and 19 years.  

It is a large orchestra with 160 player players. Players have to be at least Grade 8 Distinction standard. Membership comes from a competitive audition. These auditions take place in the autumn across several towns in Britain.

The National Youth Orchestra was started in 1947 by Ruth Railton (later Dame Ruth King).  The current director is Sarah Alexander.

The orchestra meet three times a year during the school holidays at New Year, Easter and Summer for about two weeks. They rehearse before performing several concerts in concert halls across Britain such as Barbican Hall in London, Symphony Hall in Birmingham, Bridgewater Hall in Manchester, St David's Hall in Cardiff and Glasgow Royal Concert Hall in Glasgow.  Every year they play in a Promenade Concert in the Royal Albert Hall.

## Other websites
* National Youth Orchestra Official website
Flag of Canada

The Maple Leaf flag became Canada's flag on 15 February 1965.

Before this, Canada used the British Red Ensign with Canada's coat of arms on it. Flag experts say that the Red Ensign was *defaced* by the coat of arms.

Flag and heraldry experts also call the design of the flag a *Canadian Pale*. This is because the white stripe in the middle (called a pale in heraldry) was not the usual narrow stripe but was half the width of the flag. This was the first time a design like this was used.

On some days the Canadian government flies the *Royal Union Flag* next to the Maple Leaf Flag. The Royal Union Flag is the British Union Jack, and is a symbol that Canada is a member of the Commonwealth, and that Canada and Britain share a history and a monarch.

The Queen of Great Britain, had some say in what the flag was to be. She thought that the maple leaf greatly represents the country of Canada.

## Design and symbolism
The meaning of the colors of the national flag are as follows:

Canadian flag is called by heraldry experts as the flag with Canadian pale design. This is because the white stripe in the middle was not the usual narrow stripe but was half the width of the flag between two minor stripes.

 in London.]]

## History 
Shortly after Canadian Confederation in 1867, the need for distinctive Canadian flags emerged. The first Canadian flag was that then used as the flag of the governor general of Canada, a Union Flag with a shield in the centre bearing the quartered arms of Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, surrounded by a wreath of maple leaves. In 1870, the Red Ensign, with the addition of the Canadian composite shield in the fly, began to be used unofficially on land and sea and was known as the *Canadian Red Ensign*. As new provinces joined the Confederation, their arms were added to the shield. In 1892, the British admiralty approved the use of the Red Ensign for Canadian use at sea. In 1925, Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King established a committee to design a flag to be used at home, but it was dissolved before the final report could be delivered. Despite the failure of the committee to solve the issue, public sentiment in the 1920s was in favour of fixing the flag problem for Canada. New designs were proposed in 1927, 1931, and 1939.

## Related pages
* Canada
* Canadian red ensign

## References
## Other websites
* https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qTMdH9-kmDk The real story behind the Canadian flag CBC
Filamentation

*For other uses see "Filament".*

**Filamentation** is the  (not normal) growth of certain bacteria, such as *E. coli*, in which cells continue to elongate but do not divide (no septa formation). Bacterial filamentation is a defect in completing replication and is observed in bacteria responding to a various stresses. This may happen, for example, when there is extensive DNA damage through the SOS response system. Nutritional change may also cause bacterial filamentation.
The Wee Free Men

***The Wee Free Men*** is the 30th in the *Discworld* book series by Terry Pratchett. It was published in 2003. It is the second *Discworld* book written for children, but it's still liked by many adults.

## Plot 
The Queen of the Elves tries to invade the Discworld again by stealing children and invading dreams.
Tiffany Aching, a 9-year-old girl discovers that her grandmother used to be a witch. Tiffany also discovered that she has a talent for magic, too.
When Tiffany's baby brother is stolen by the evil queen, Tiffany enters the elves' world to save him with the help of "The Wee Free Men" and Miss Tick. "The Wee Free Men" are small blue fairies and they speak with a Scottish accent.
Vandals

(1824–1904), c 1860–80]]

The **Vandals** were an East Germanic tribe located in now southern Poland. They entered the late Roman Empire during the 5th century. The Vandals may have given their name to the region of Andalusia, which according to one of several theories of its etymology was originally called *Vandalusia* or land of the Vandals. This would be the source of *Al-Andalus* — the Arabic name of Iberian Peninsula, in the south of present-day Spain, where they settled before pushing on to create a Vandal Kingdom in North Africa. 

The Goth Theodoric the Great, king of the Ostrogoths and regent of the Visigoths, was allied by marriage with the Vandals, as well as with the Burgundians and the Franks under Clovis I. 

Byzantine Empire forces under Justinian I conquered the Vandalic African kingdom in 534.

## References
Nasal septum

The **nasal septum** separates the left and right airways in the nose and divides the two nostrils. 

## Composition
The fleshy external end of the nasal septum is sometimes also called *columella*.

The nasal septum is composed of three structures:
* ethmoid bone
* vomer bone
* quadrangular cartilage

## Clinical significance
The nasal septum can depart from the centreline of the nose; this condition is known as a deviated septum. Injury, excessive nose-picking and cocaine usage can cause septum perforations, or holes developing in the septum.

An operation to the nasal septum is known as a septoplasty.

## Additional images

 Image:Gray191.png|Horizontal section of nasal and orbital cavities.
 Image:Gray379.png|Left orbicularis oculi, seen from behind.
 Image:Orrsövény.PNG|Cartilages of the nose, seen from below. 
 Image:Gray859.png|Coronal section of nasal cavities.
 Image:Gray1203.png|Front of nasal part of pharynx, as seen with the laryngoscope.
 Image:Maxillary_sinus_MRI.jpg|MRI image showimg nasal septum.

## Other websites
* Diagram at evmsent.org
Bundesverdienstkreuz

The **Bundesverdienstkreuz** (Federal Cross of Merit) is Germany's only general decoration (award). It is officially called the *Verdienstorden der Bundesrepublik Deutschland* (Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany). This Federal Order of Merit was created on 7 September 1951. Germany gives between 3,000 and 5,200 awards every year, in all classes.

Most of the Länder have their own orders of merit. There are up to three ranks (member, officer, commander). The Cities of Bremen and Hamburg do not have an order, and by old tradition its citizens will refuse any decoration in form of an order.

## Classes 
The Bundesverdienstkreuz has eight classes, in  order:
* Verdienstmedaille (Medal of Merit)
* Verdienstkreuz am Bande (Cross of Merit on ribbon)
** international: Ritterkreuz (Knight's Cross)
* Verdienstkreuz 1. Klasse (Cross of Merit, First class)
** international: Offizierkreuz (Officer's Cross)
* Großes Verdienstkreuz (Halskreuz) (Great Cross of Merit, neck cross)
** international: Komturkreuz (Commander's Cross)
* Großes Verdienstkreuz mit Stern (Great Cross of Merit with star)
** international: Großoffizierkreuz (Great Officer's Cross)
* Großes Verdienstkreuz mit Stern und Schulterband (Great Cross of Merit with Star and shoulder ribbon)
** international: Großkreuz 2. Klasse (Grand Cross of Merit, Second class) oder Großkomturkreuz (Grand Commander's Cross)
* Großkreuz (Grand Cross)
* Sonderstufe des Großkreuzes (Special class of the Grand Cross)

The President of the Federal Republic holds the *Sonderstufe des Großkreuzes* ex officio. It is awarded to him in a ceremony by the President of the Bundestag. The Chancellor, the President of the Bundesrat and the President of the Bundesverfassungsgericht attend this ceremony. Other than the President of the Federal Republic, only a foreign head of state can receive the highest class award. People can also receive the Großkreuze in a special rare design. Only two people have had this award, Konrad Adenauer and Helmut Kohl.

## Insignia 
Except for the lowest class, the badge is the same for all classes. However, the badge and ribbon for women is a little smaller. The badge is a golden Maltese Cross enamelled in red. It has a central disc with a black eagle. The star is golden. It has straight rays and its size and points vary according to class. The badge is on top of it. The ribbon is red with gold-black-gold stripes.
Austin Lightning

The **Austin Lightning** is an amateur soccer team in Austin, Texas. It is in the Mid South division of the South Conference of the Premier Development League of the United Soccer Leagues.

The club was founded in 2003, when it was moved from Lafayette, Louisiana. The team finished last in the division in the 2007 season, due in part to scheduling difficulties caused by record amounts of rain in Austin, which cause fields to be closed on match days. The Austin Lightning are coached by Jaime Mimbela. Their colors are red and white.

## Other websites
* Austin Lightning Official Site 
* Austin Lightning fan blog
Nostril

A **nostril** (or **naris**, pl. *nares*) is one of the two holes of the nose, from the point where they  to the external opening. 

In birds and mammals, they contain branched bones or cartilages called turbinates, whose function is to warm air on inhalation and remove moisture on exhalation. Fish do not breathe through their noses, but they do have two small holes used for smelling which may be called nostrils.

In humans, the nasal cycle means that during the course of a day, the nostrils will switch over approximately every four hours or so, meaning that only one nostril is used at any one time.

## References
Jiří Bělohlávek

**Jiří Bělohlávek** (24 February 1946 – 31 May 2017) was a Czech conductor. He was the principal (main) conductor of the BBC Symphony Orchestra. His name "Bělohlávek" means "Whitehead". It is pronounced "Bye-lo-hla-vek". He was born in Prague.

Bělohlávek studied conducting with Sergiu Celibidache. He went to the Prague Conservatory and Academy of Performing Arts in Prague. He won the 1970 Czech National Conducting Competition and soon became famous in his country and abroad.

Bělohlávek was chief conductor of the Prague Symphony Orchestra from 1977-1989. He became principal conductor of the Czech Philharmonic Orchestra in 1990 for a short time. Then he founded the Prague Philharmonia *(Pražskou komorní filharmonii)* in 1994, They gave concerts all over the world together and made many recordings. He is still their conductor laureate (honorary conductor).

From 1995-2000, Bělohlávek was principal guest conductor of the BBC Symphony Orchestra. In 2006 he became their principal conductor. He conducted them at the Proms that year. In 2007 he conducted at the Last Night of the Proms.

Bělohlávek also conducts in the United States. He first conducted at the Metropolitan Opera (Met) in  December 2004, conducting Leoš Janáček's "Káťa Kabanová" with Karita Mattila in the title role. He returned to the Met in January and February of 2007 for the same composer's "Jenůfa", once again with Mattila, and with Anja Silja as the Kostelnička. Other guest conducting appearances in the US have been with the Philadelphia Orchestra and the Saint Louis Symphony Orchestra.

Bělohlávek died on 31 May 2017 in Prague from cancer at the age of 71.

## References
Ethmoid bone

The **ethmoid bone** (from Greek *ethmos*, "sieve") is a bone in the skull that separates the nasal cavity from the brain. As such, it is located at the roof of the nose, between the two orbits. The cubical bone is lightweight due to a spongy construction. 
 section of the skull. Ethmoid bone is labeled with white]]

## Parts 
The ethmoid bone is made up of four parts:
* the horizontal Cribriform plate (*lamina cribrosa*), part of the cranial base
* the vertical Perpendicular plate (*lamina perpendicularis*), which is part of the nasal septum
* the two lateral masses or labyrinths.

Head trauma or insult (such as a blow to the head) can shear off the olfactory nerves that pass though the ethmoid bone and cause anosmia, an irreversible loss of the sense of smell and a great reduction in the sense of taste (because most of this depends on smell). This not only deprives life of some of its pleasures, but can also be dangerous, as when a person fails to smell smoke, gas, or spoiled food.

## Additional images 

 Image:Gray149.png|Ethmoid bone from above. 
 Image:Gray150.png|Perpendicular plate of ethmoid.
 Image:Gray151.png|Ethmoid bone (frontal view).
 Image:Gray152.png|Ethmoid bone from the right side.
 Image:Gray164.png|Sphenoid bone visible center right.
 Image:Gray188.png|Side view of the skull.
 Image:Gray190.png|The skull from the front.
 Image:Gray192.png|Medial wall of left orbit.
 Image:Gray193.png|Base of the skull. Upper surface. 
 Image:Gray195.png|Medial wall of left nasal fossa.
 Image:Gray196.png|Roof, floor, and lateral wall of left nasal cavity.
 Image:Gray153.png |Lateral wall of nasal cavity, showing ethmoid bone in position. 

## Related pages
* Bone terminology

## Other websites 
* http://www.theregister.com/2006/11/17/the_odd_body_nose_compass/
BBC Symphony Orchestra

The **BBC Symphony Orchestra** is the main orchestra of the British Broadcasting Corporation. It is one of the best orchestras in Britain.

## History 
The orchestra started in 1930. Sir Adrian Boult was the main conductor until 1950, when Sir Malcolm Sargent took over until 1957. Since then there have been several conductors. Now the orchestra is conducted by Jiří Bělohlávek.

As well as these principal conductors there have been others, including the famous Arturo Toscanini, who made a series of recordings with the orchestra in the Queen's Hall from 1937 to 1939.

The BBC often ask composers of today to write music for the BBC Symphony Orchestra. Composers whose new works they have performed include Sally Beamish, Harrison Birtwistle Elliott Carter, James MacMillan, John Tavener and Mark-Anthony Turnage. 

The orchestra plays a big part in the BBC Proms, the season of concerts played every summer at the Royal Albert Hall. It plays on both the first and last nights of the prom season. It also plays several concerts in the Barbican during the year. They often make recordings in the BBC studios. They can often be seen on BBC Television. Sometimes they go on tour to other countries. They also play concerts for young people as part of an education programme.

There are other professional BBC orchestras and groups: the BBC Philharmonic Orchestra, the BBC National Orchestra of Wales, the BBC Scottish Symphony Orchestra, the BBC Concert Orchestra, the BBC Big Band and the BBC Singers. There are also two amateur choruses: the BBC Symphony Chorus and the BBC National Chorus of Wales.

## Chief conductors of the BBC Symphony Orchestra 
*Adrian Boult (1930–1950)
*Malcolm Sargent (1950–1957)
*Rudolf Schwarz (1957–1963)
*Antal Doráti (1962–1966)
*Colin Davis (1967–1971)
*Pierre Boulez (1971–1975)
*Rudolf Kempe (1976)
*Gennady Rozhdestvensky (1978–1981)
*John Pritchard (1982–1989)
*Andrew Davis (1989–2000)
*Leonard Slatkin (2000–2004)
*Jiří Bělohlávek (2006–2013)
*Sakari Oramo (2013–present)

## Other websites 
* The
Mapudungun

**Mapudungun** is a language isolate spoken by the Mapuche people in Chile and Argentina. Even after the arrival of the Spaniards, ethnic groups in Argentina such as the Patagonians and the Tehuelche adopted Mapudungun in a process called Araucanization. Today, it has 260,000 speakers, with 250,000 in the Central Valley of Chile and 10,000 in the Argentinian region of Patagonia.

The name of the boldo tree comes from the Mapudungun word *foldo*. The poncho was adopted by Spanish and many other languages. It may have come from the Mapudungun word *pontro* or from the Quechua word *punchu*.

## References
Impurity

Something that has **impurity** is not pure. For example, water that is clean would be called pure water. Water that is dirty would be called impure water. This may result in a change in melting point or boiling point.

## Harmful impurity
Impurities may be harmful. For example, an engine works bad when its fuel is not pure.

## Useful impurity
Impure materials are useful sometimes. Alloys are metals with impurities. Solar cells are made of silicon crystals, but a very small amount of impurity (0.001% to 0.01%) is needed in them to work.

## Removing impurities 
# Removed by distillation for liquids
# Removed by recrystallization for solids
Queen's Hall

The '''Queen's Hall''' was a concert hall in Central London, England.  It opened in 1893.  It is best known for being where the Promenade Concerts were started by Robert Newman in 1895.

The Queen's Hall was built because London needed a new concert hall in the centre of the town.  It stood in Langham Place, just next to where BBC Broadcasting House stands today.  The Queen's Hall had seating for up to 3,000 people (including the orchestra).  The arena (downstairs) had removable seating.  The polished floor could be used for dancing.  The acoustics of the hall were excellent.  There was also a smaller hall, The Queen's Small Hall, which seated 500 people.  This was used for chamber music.  In later years it was used as a recording studio.  The architect who designed the hall was Thomas Edward Knightley.

The first time The Queen's Hall was used was on 25 November 1893 when Newman gave a children's party in the afternoon.  In the evening about 2000 ladies and gentlemen came to a concert given by the Band of the Coldstream Guards, which included vocal music, piano and organ solos.  At 11.00pm the seats in the arena were removed and the dancing began.  The official opening of the hall took place on 2 December.  On 10 August 1895 the first Promenade concert was given with Henry Wood conducting.

On January 14, 1896, the first public movie show was given at the Queen's Hall to members and wives of the Royal Photographic Society.

The seats were uncomfortable because there was not enough leg room, so in 1913 and 1919 some changes were made, after which the hall could seat 2400 people. 

From 1930 to 1941, the BBC Symphony Orchestra regularly gave broadcast concerts in the hall.  Arturo Toscanini, who guest conducted the orchestra during the 1930s, made  some famous recordings in the Queen's Hall in the late 1930s.

On 10 May 1941 (during the World War II)  the Royal Choral Society gave a concert in the Queen's Hall with the London Symphony Orchestra.  They performed Elgar's oratorio *Dream of Gerontius* under the conductor Sir Malcolm Sargent.  It was the last concert ever given there because, later that night, the hall was completely destroyed by bombs. 

After the destruction of Queen's Hall, the BBC Symphony Orchestra moved its broadcast concerts and recording sessions to Bedford School.  Among the great recordings made at the school was Sir Adrian Boult's recording of Elgar's second symphony.  The Proms continued in the Royal Albert Hall.  They also took place in Bristol and Bedford, but after the war they settled in the Royal Albert Hall where they continue today.
American Staffordshire Terrier

The **American Staffordshire terrier** is a breed of dog. 

It was first bred in British colonies of North America in the nineteenth century. Its early ancestors are the bulldog and the terrier, and used to be called the Blue Paul terrier. In the 1930s, dogbreeders bred it with the Pit bull terrier. Its name was changed to the American Staffordshire Terrier in 1972. 

## *Jacob, Mimmi and the Talking Dogs* 
This breed appeared in the 2019 movie *Jacob, Mimmi and the Talking Dogs*; however, it was strangely depicted with a white color, but it has grey eyepatches and looks like an American Bulldog.
Persepolis

**Persepolis** (Old Persian: 'Pars', New Persian: , *Takht-e Jamshid*) was an ancient capital of the second Iranian dynasty, the Achaemenid Empire. Ancient Persians called it Parsa, meaning *the city of Persians*. Persepolis () is the Greek translation of the name. In modern Iran, the city is known as Takht-e-Jamshid (Throne of Jamshid). The largest building in Persepolis is the Apadana Hall with 72 columns. The Tachara palace built by Darius I is also an important building. The Hadish palace in Persepolis was started by Xerxes and finished by his son Artaxerxes.

Persepolis has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1979.
Xerxes I

**Xerxes the Great** was a Shah of Iran (485–465 BC) of the Persian Achaemenid Empire. Xerxes was son of Darius I and Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus the Great. After Darius died, Xerxes became the Shah of Persia. He took up the title of *Shahanshah* (*King of Kings*). In the Graeco-Persian Wars at the Battle of Thermopylae, Xerxes defeated the Greek warriors and annexed parts of Greece. After winning at Thermopylae, Xerxes then took control of Athens with his army.

## References
### Ancient sources
* 
* 
## Other websites
Darius the Great

**Darius the Great** (c. 549 BC– 486/485 BC) was the son of Hystaspes and Persian Shah of Iran from 522 BC to 485 BC. After Darius became Shah of Persia, he divided the Persian Empire into twenty provinces, and appointed a governor for each province. He introduced golden coins and developed commerce within the empire and trade without. He tried to conquer Greece and subjugate the Greeks in the first Greco–Persian war but lost at the Battle of Marathon.

Darius allowed the Jews to rebuild the Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem. He also built many Zoroastrian temples in Egypt. He crowned himself as the *Pharaoh of Egypt*. The largest building that was built by Darius, is the new capital of Persepolis, near Pasargadae. Darius died in Persepolis. His tomb was cut into a rock face near Persepolis. After his death, Xerxes became the Shah of Iran.
## Reference
Shell (zoology)

A **shell** is a hard outer layer, which has evolved in a very wide variety of different animals, including molluscs, sea urchins, crustaceans, turtles and tortoises, armadillos, etc.

## Seashells 
Seashells are perhaps the most familiar and most common shells, both in the wild and for sale as decorative objects. They are usually composed of calcium carbonate, in the form of calcite or aragonite. This can have different forms, one is nacre or mother of pearl.  Other kinds of animal shells are made from chitin, bone and cartilage, or silica.

## Use of Shells 
Shells of many types were popular as human decorations, either used whole or cut into pieces. One  used them for all kinds of pendants, beads, buttons, brooches, rings, and hair combs.

Small pieces of colored shell and iridescent shell have been used to create mosaics and inlays which have been used to decorate larger items such as boxes and furniture. Large numbers of whole seashells, arranged to form patterns, have been used to decorate man-made grottos.

Several kinds of sea animals have exoskeletons which one can find after their death in beach drift. Often beachcombers pick them. But usually only those of molluscs (also spelled "mollusks") are known as seashells.

## Classes 
The majority of shell-forming molluscs belong to two classes: Gastropoda (univalves, or snails) and Bivalvia (bivalves or clams, oysters, scallops, etc.).

## Gallery 

Image:Cypraea chinensis with partially extended mantle.jpg|The marine gastropod *Cypraea chinensis*, the Chinese Cowry, shows a partially extended mantle
Image:Giant_clam_or_Tridacna_gigas.jpg|The *giant clam* (*Tridacna gigas*) is the largest bivalve
Image:Tonicella lineata.jpg|*Tonicella lineata* the "Lined chiton" from the temperate eastern Pacific, a member of the class Polyplacophora
Image:Snail-WA edit02.jpg|The white-lipped snail (*Cepaea hortensis*) is a land snail

## References
## Other websites 
* Shell Hair Pipes used in Indian Adornment
* 110 Photos of various seashells
* Conchologists of America
Sea turtle

**Sea turtles** (*Chelonioidea*) are turtles found in all the world's oceans except the Arctic Ocean, and some species travel between oceans. The term is US English. In British English they are simply called “turtles”; fresh-water chelonians are called “terrapins” and land chelonians are called tortoises.

The earliest known turtles are from the Middle Jurassic. This makes turtles the oldest surviving reptile groups: they are more ancient than snakes or crocodiles. 

There are seven species of sea turtle: Kemp's Ridley sea turtle, the olive Ridley, the flat back, the green, the loggerhead, the hawk's bill and the leatherback. 

All but the leatherback are in the family Chelonioidea. The leatherback belongs to the family Dermochelyidae and is its only member. The leatherback sea turtle is the largest, measuring six or seven feet (2 m) in length at maturity, and three to five feet (1 to 1.5 m) in width, weighing up to 2000 pounds (907.18 kg) (about 900&nbsp;kg).  Most other species are smaller, being two to four feet in length (0.5 to 1 m) and proportionally less wide. The flatback turtle is found only on the northern coast of Australia.

## References 
## Further reading 
*Spotila, James R. 2004. *Sea turtles: a complete guide to their biology, behavior, and conservation.* Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. 
*Davidson, Osha Gray. 2001.* Fire in the turtle house: the green sea turtle and the fate of the ocean*. United States: United States of Public Affairs. 
*Witherington, Blair E. 2006. *Sea turtles: an extraordinary natural history of some uncommon turtles.*

## Other websites 
* SWOT – The state of the world's sea turtles – The most up-to-date information on global sea turtle populations
* Oceana scientists are tracking turtles in the Mediterranean and the Atlantic to find out more about their habits in the deep sea
* *Conserving Turtles on a Global Scale*
* Underwater video  of turtles in the Red Sea, Egypt
* Preserving Turtles
Rudder

(25&ndash;220 AD) Chinese pottery boat fit for riverine and maritime sea travel, with an anchor at the bow, a steering rudder at the stern, roofed compartments with windows and doors, and miniature sailors]]

A **rudder** is used to steer ships, boats, submarines, aircraft, hovercraft or other vehicles that move through air or water.

## History of the rudder
Oars mounted on the side of ships for steering are documented from the 3rd millennium BC in Persia and Ancient Egypt in artwork, wooden models, and even parts of actual boats of that times. An early example of an oar mounted on the stern is found in the Egyptian tomb of Menna (1422-1411 BC). Stern-mounted oars were also quite common in Roman river navigation as proved from reliefs more than a millennium later.

A depiction of a sternpost-mounted rudder can be seen on a pottery model of a Chinese junk dating from the 1st century AD during the Han Dynasty, predating their appearance in the West by a thousand years. The technology of stern-mounted rudder in Europe and Islam World, which was introduced by travelers in the Middle Ages, was transferred from China
## Foot notes
## Literature
* Lawrence V. Mott, *The Development of the Rudder, A.D. 100-1600: A Technological Tale*, Thesis May 1991, Texas A&M University 
*Needham, Joseph (1986). *Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 3, Civil Engineering and Nautics*. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.