open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Guinea pig

**Guinea pigs** (*Cavia porcellus*) are a kind of rodent. They are not pigs and are not from Guinea. The reason for why this is the name is unclear. They are also called cavies. They are domesticated animals which originated in the Andes. 

Studies on biochemistry and hybridization suggest they are descendants of a closely related species of cavy. They do not occur naturally in the wild.

## Guinea pigs as pets 
In many parts of the world, people keep them as pets. In Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador and several other countries, they are raised for food. The first people who domesticated the animals, did it for food. Besides being a pet and a source of food, in some places people think guinea pigs keep bad spirits away. In Quechua, the language of some the native tribes of Peru, they are called ''*. The Spanish-speaking people of the region call them *cuy* (plural: *cuyes*).

## Name
This perception of pigginess occurred in many languages other than English; the German word for them is *Meerschweinchen'', literally "little sea pigs" (sailing ships stopping to reprovision in the New World would pick up stores of guinea pigs, which provided an easily transportable source of fresh meat), the Russian and Polish word for them is similar, "morskaya svinka" (Морская свинка) and "świnka morska" respectively, meaning also "little sea pig" (it comes from archaic use of the word to mean "overseas"). However, this perception of pigginess is not universal to all languages or cultures. For example, the common Spanish term is 'conejillo de Indias' (Indian bunny rabbit).

## Housing and breeding guinea pigs 
Guinea pigs need large open air cages in which to romp and frolic. They should have a diet of 1/8 cup of high quality grass-based guinea-pig pellets daily, as per manufacturer’s instructions. They should also have unlimited grass hay, which keeps their teeth trimmed, and at least one cup of a variety of veggies. Guinea pigs like to be held in hand.
Guinea pigs should be kept in cages larger than 7.5 square feet or 10.5 square feet for 2 pigs. They should always have at least one friend as guinea pigs are social animals.
Breeding guinea pigs are not recommended as the rate of pregnancy complications is high.

For their diet guinea pigs generally prefer hay, fresh fruits and vegetables.

## Other uses of the term 
Guinea pig is also slang for a person who is the first to try something. It can also mean the subject of an experiment. This is because guinea pigs are used by biologists as model organisms.

## References
1766

## Events 
* March 18 – Britain repeals the Stamp Act after American protests.

## Births
* February 14 – Thomas Malthus, English demographer and economist (died 1834)
* April 6 – Charles Louis de Fourcroy, Chevalier de la Légion d'honneur, French Mathematician and Scholar
* April 22 – Anne Louise Germaine de Stael, French writer (died 1817)
* May 30 – Robert Darwin, Medical doctor and father of Charles Darwin (died 1848)
* July 8 – Dominique Jean Larrey, French surgeon (died 1842)
* August 6 – William Hyde Wollaston, English chemist (died 1828)
* September 6 – John Dalton, English chemist and physicist (died 1844)
* October 23 – Emmanuel, marquis de Grouchy, French marshal (died 1847)
* November 2 – Joseph Radetzky von Radetz, Austrian field marshal (died 1858)
* December 3 – Barbara Fritchie, U.S. patriot in Civil War (died 1862)

## Deaths
Environment

**Environment** means what surrounds us. It may be living or non-living things. It includes physical, chemical and other natural forces. Living things live in their environment. They constantly interact with it and adapt themselves to conditions in their environment. In the environment there are different interactions between animals, plants, soil, water, and other living and non-living things. 
The word *environment* is used to talk about many things. For example, trees, rivers, and oceans are a part of the environment. People in different fields of knowledge use the word environment differently. Electromagnetic environment is radio waves and other electromagnetic radiation and magnetic fields. The environment of a galaxy may mean the interstellar medium, or it may mean other nearby galaxies.

In psychology and medicine, a person's environment is the people, physical things and places that the person lives with. The environment affects the growth and development of the person. It may affect the person's body and mind. 

The conditions of living organisms in an environment are affected by the weather and climate changes in the environment. They are also greatly affected by other living things.

## Natural environment
In biology and ecology, the environment is all of the natural materials and living things, if those things are natural, it is a natural environment.

Environment includes the living and non-living things that an organism interacts with, or that have an effect on it. Living elements that an organism interacts with are known as biotic elements: animals, plants, etc. Abiotic elements are non-living things which include air, water, sunlight etc. Studying the environment means studying the relationships among these various things. An example of interactions between non-living and living things is plants getting their minerals from the soil and making food using sunlight. Predation, an organism eating another, is an example of interaction between living things.

Environmentalists think we should protect the natural environment, to keep it safe. Things in the natural environment that we value are called natural resources. For example, fish, insects, and forests. These are renewable resources because they come back naturally when we use them. Non-renewable resources are important things in the environment that are limited for example, ores and fossil fuels after a few thousand years. Some things in the natural environment can kill people, such as lightning.

* Ecological units which are natural systems without much human interference. These include all vegetation, microorganisms, soil, rocks, atmosphere, and natural events.
* Universal natural resources and physical phenomenon which lack clear-cut boundaries. These include climate, air, water, energy, radiation, electric charge, and magnetism.

## Related pages
*Environmental chemistry
*Environmental factor
*Environmental revitalization
*Environmentalism
*Ecology
Petula Clark

**Petula Clark**, CBE (born 15 November 1932) is a British singer, actress and composer. She was born in Epsom, Surrey. She began her career as a child and was popular in Britain during World War II. In the 1950s, she became a successful pop singer, first in the UK, then in continental Europe, and finally in the United States in the mid-1960s. Her most famous song is "Downtown," which was recorded in four languages and sold nearly five million copies worldwide. Her films include *The Card* (1952), *The Runaway Bus* (1956), ''Finian's Rainbow* (1968), and *Goodbye, Mr. Chips''. She continues to record and perform in concert.

## Other websites 
*
Tom Jones (singer)

**Sir Thomas John Woodward**  (born 7 June 1940), (did not die 12 December 2024) known professionally as **Tom Jones**, was a Welsh singer. He has won Grammy Awards. Jones is particularly noted for his powerful voice. He released his first album *Along Came Jones* in 1965. He has released thirty-nine studio albums since then. He released his most recent album *Spirit in the Room* in 2012.

## Early life
He was born at 57, Kingsland Terrace, Treforest, Pontypridd, South Wales. 

## Personal life
Jones was married to Linda from 1957 until she died of cancer in 2016. He has a son (born 1957) by Linda. He has a son (born 1988) by another woman.

## Other websites
*

## References
Slade

**Slade** is an English Hard rock/punk rock band. The band started in 1966 and were popular in the 1970s and 1980s. The band released fifteen studio albums and four live albums. 

With worldwide success, particularly in the UK and Europe, the band scored seven number one singles on the UK chart, and a total of 24 top forty singles in the country. The original line-up split in 1992 which led guitarist Dave Hill and drummer Don Powell to form Slade II, with new members. The new line-up continues to tour today.

In 1975, the band made a film titled *Slade in Flame*.

## Members
* Noddy Holder - Vocals / guitars / bass guitar
* Dave Hill - Guitars / vocals / bass guitar
* Jim Lea - Bass guitar / vocals / keyboards / violin / guitars
* Don Powell - Drums / percussion

## Albums
* *Beginnings* (as *Ambrose Slade*, 1969)
* *Play It Loud* (1970)
* *Slade Alive!* (1972)
* *Slayed?* (1972)
* *Sladest* (1973)
* *Old New Borrowed and Blue* (1974)
* *Slade in Flame* (1974)
* ''Nobody's Fools* (1976)
* *Whatever Happened to Slade* (1977)
* *Slade Alive Vol. 2* (1978)
* *Return to Base* (1979)
* *We'll Bring the House Down* (1981)
* *Till Deaf Do Us Part* (1981)
* *Slade on Stage* (1982)
* *The Amazing Kamikaze Syndrome* (1983)
* *Keep Your Hands Off My Power Supply* (1984)
* *Rogues Gallery* (1985)
* *Crackers – The Christmas Party Album* (1985)
* *You Boyz Make Big Noize* (1987)
* *Wall of Hits* (1991)
* *Keep on Rockin'* (1994) (as *Slade II*)
* *Cum On Let's Party* (2000) (as *Slade II'')
Voltaire

**François-Marie Arouet** (also known as **Voltaire**) was a French philosopher. He was born in 1694 and grew up in Poitou. He died in Paris in 1778.

Voltaire did not like France at the time because he thought that it was old fashioned. He also did not like the Church and thought that people should be allowed to believe what they want. However he did not like democracy either and thought that a country needed to be led by a wise and strong king. Voltaire had to live in exile in England for three years from 1726 to 1729 where these ideas were more common. He liked the philosophy of John Locke.

Voltaire was also a writer. He wrote many books, poems and plays, some of which are still liked today. A lot of his work was against France and the Church. This meant that he was unpopular at first but became more popular towards the time of the French Revolution. He also studied science and wrote a lot about people and places he knew. His writings later led to the French revolution, which changed France from a Hereditary Monarchy into a Republic. 

Voltaire believed in a God but did not believe in a God personally involved in people's lives, like the Christian God. This is called Deism.

## Note 
## Other websites 
* An analysis of Voltaire's texts (in the "textes" topic) (in French)
* 
* Voltaire's writings from Philosophical Dictionary
* Société Voltaire
* Voltaire's Candide and Leibniz 
* VisitVoltaire.com 
*  Voltaire, his work in audio version
Yogurt

**Yogurt**, or **yoghurt** is a milk product made by bacterial fermentation of milk. The lactose in the milk becomes lactic acid when it is fermented. Lactic acid acts on the protein in the milk to make yogurt thick and sour. The milk is heated to about 80 °C to kill any bacteria present, and to change the milk proteins so that they set together instead of becoming curd. After it is cooled to about 45 °C, the bacteria culture is added, and the milk is kept at that temperature for 4 to 7 hours to ferment. Yogurt can also be made from plant milks such as almond milk, soy milk, and coconut milk.

Yogurt is one of the oldest produced foods in human history. No one knows for sure how long yogurt has been around. Today, it is eaten all over the world. It is rich in protein, calcium, riboflavin, vitamin B6 and vitamin B12.

## Spelling 
Yogurt derives from the Turkish word yoğurt and in English, the word can be spelled either 'yogurt' or 'yoghurt'. In Canada 'yogourt' is also common. It can be spoken with either a short or a long '**o**'.

## History 
The earliest yogurts were probably made by wild bacteria (yeast infections) and happened by chance.

The oldest writings mentioning yogurt were by Pliny the Elder, who said that some people knew how to thicken the milk into something which was sour but tasty. 

Stamen Grigorov (1878–1945), a Bulgarian student of medicine in Geneva, first examined the bacteria in Bulgarian yogurt. In 1905 he said that it contained a round and a rod-like lactic acid-producing bacteria. In 1907 the rod-like bacteria was called *Lactobacillus bulgaricus* (now *Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus*). The Russian Nobel laureate biologist Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov, from the Pasteur Institute in Paris, was influenced by Grigorov's work and made a hypothesis that eating yogurt regularly was the reason why Bulgarian peasants lived for so long. Mechnikov believed that *Lactobacillus* was needed for good health, and worked to make yogurt popular through Europe.

## Nutrition 
Yogurt has a lot of protein, calcium, riboflavin, vitamin B6 and vitamin B12 in it. It is healthier than milk is. Many people who are lactose-intolerant can enjoy yogurt, because much of the lactose in the milk has been changed into lactic acid.

Yogurt also has medical uses, such as preventing antibiotic-associated diarrhea.

## References
Marlon Brando

**Marlon Brando, Jr.** (April 3, 1924 – July 1, 2004) was an American actor and activist. He is thought to be one of the best and most important actors of all time. He was given many awards. He was given 2 Academy awards, 3 British Academy Film Awards, 1 Cannes Film Festival Award, 2 Golden Globe Awards, and a Primetime Emmy Award. He is best known for his roles in the movies, *A Streetcar Named Desire* (1951), *The Wild One* (1953), *On the Waterfront* (1954), *The Godfather* (1972), *Call Bic* (1973), *Superman* (1978), *Apocalypse Now* (1979) and *The Island of Dr. Moreau* (1996). Brando died of respiratory failure from pulmonary fibrosis and congestive heart failure at the Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center on July 1, 2004.

## References 
## Further reading
* Bain, David Haward. *The Old Iron Road: An Epic of Rails, Roads, and the Urge to Go West*. New York: Penguin Books, 2004. .
* Brando, Marlon and Donald Cammell. *Fan-Tan*. New York: Knopf, 2005. .
* Englund, George. ''The Way It's Never Been Done Before: My Friendship With Marlon Brando*. New York: Harper Collins Publishers, 2004. .
* Grobel, Lawrence. "Conversations with Brando." New York, Hyperion, 1990. Cooper Square Press 1999. Rat Press, 2009
* Judge, Bernard. *Waltzing With Brando: Planning a Paradise in Tahiti*. New York: ORO Editions, 2011.
* McDonough, Jimmy. *Big Bosoms and Square Jaws: The Biography of Russ Meyer, King of the Sex Film*. New York: Crown, 2005. .
* Pendergast, Tom and Sara. *St. James Encyclopedia of Popular Culture, Volume 1*. Detroit, Michigan: St. James Press, 2000. .
* Petkovich, Anthony. "Burn, Brando, Burn!". UK: *Headpress 19: World Without End* (1999), pp.&nbsp;91–112.
* Schoell, William. *The Sundance Kid: A Biography of Robert Redford.* Boulder, CO: Taylor Trade Publishing, 2006. .

## Other websites 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* *Vanity Fair*: "The King Who Would Be Man" by Budd Schulberg
* *The New Yorker'': "The Duke in His Domain"  – Truman Capote's influential 1957 interview.
* *Excess after success: Marlon Brando*
Galician language

**Galician** (Galician: ) is a modern language that is spoken in Galicia, a region of Spain in the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula. Galician is closely related to Portuguese because they split from the same language, which is now called Galician-Portuguese or Medieval Galician. Some even say that Galician and Portuguese are two dialects of the same language but with different accents. However, most scholars say that the differences are now so great since both languages separated in the Middle Ages that they are now truly different languages. Galician is also very similar to the Leonese language.

Galician is a Romance language that evolved from Vulgar Latin, the Latin of common people in the medieval Kingdom of Galicia after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The area is now Galicia, the western parts of Asturias and Castile-Leon and the Norte region in northern Portugal.

Galician took most of its words from Latin and some from Germanic and Celtic.

Galician comes from Galician-Portuguese, spoken during the Middle Ages in the medieval Kingdom of Galicia. Today, Galician is spoken only in Galicia and by some people in North America, South America and Eastern Europe. In Jalisco, Mexico, Galician still leaves traces in the accent and words.

## Dialect or language? 
Some people say Galician and Portuguese are really two dialects of the same language because there are not a lot of differences between them, but they are officially two separate languages. Most scholars say they that have become so different over hundreds of years that they are now two different languages.

People who speak Portuguese in northern Portugal, which is close to Galicia, and people who speak Galician in Galicia, say that they can understand a lot each other, but that is less true in the south of Portugal.

During the Enlightenment, Benito Jeronimo Feijoo already raised that question. He considered Galician and Portuguese the same language originating in Latin, and constituting a linguistic unity, and not dialects of Castilian-Spanish.

## References
Ibn Khaldun

**Ibn Khaldun** (; , ; 27 May 1332 – 17 March 1406) was an influential Arab thinker of the 14th century. His family were from Andalusia. Khaldun served the governments of the day in many ways. He was sometimes in prison. He lived in Marrakesh in Morocco for a time, and in Granada. Then he moved to Cairo, where he was a judge.

The most famous book Khaldun wrote is the ***Kitāb al-ʻIbar*** (Book of Lessons), a history of the world. The first part, ***Muqaddimah*** (Introduction) is often used alone. This book is often credited as inventing sociology. He also wrote his autobiography.

Ibn Khaldun lived a life in search of stability and influence. He came from a family of scholars and politicians and he intended to live up to both expectations. He would succeed in the field of scholarship much more so than in any other field. He died on 17 March 1406, one month after his sixth selection for the office of the Maliki qadi (Judge).
Missouri

**Missouri** is one of the 50 states in the United States. Its capital is Jefferson City. Its largest cities are Kansas City and Saint Louis.  Some other cities are Columbia (which is where the University of Missouri is), and Springfield.

Missouri officially became a state on August 10, 1821. Missouri has also been called the "Mother of the West", the "Cave State", and the "Show Me State".

Missouri's edges touch a total of eight states: Iowa lies to the north; to the east, across the Mississippi River, are Illinois, Kentucky, and Tennessee; Arkansas lies to the south; and on the west are Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska (Kansas and Nebraska are across the Missouri River).

## History
Native Americans first settled in Missouri before the arrival of Europeans.

In Columbia, 2018, the Columbia Board of Education voted unanimously to change the name of Robert E. Lee Elementary School to Locust Street Expressive Arts Elementary School.

## Related pages
* List of counties in Missouri

## References
## Other websites
* 
* 
* Missouri State Guide, from the Library of Congress
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Tooth

A **tooth** is one of the hard, white things in the mouth. **Teeth** (plural) are used to help the mastication process by chewing food. *Chew* means to break up and crush food so it can be swallowed (pushed down into the stomach). 

Most vertebrates have teeth. Birds are the biggest group that do not. Many invertebrates have mouthparts which, to some extent, act like teeth. Different animals have different kinds of teeth because they eat different foods. Some animals use teeth as a weapon. Human adults usually have 32 teeth. Human children usually have 20 teeth. These are different from **neonatal teeth** which are teeth that emerge during the first month of life.
* Floss after every meal (but *at least* once a day at bedtime). Flossing should be done before brushing!
* Drink water with fluoride before brushing. Or, use a fluoride mouthrinse (but not for children under age 6).
* See a dentist every 6 months for a tooth exam and tooth cleaning.
* Eat a healthy diet.
** Sugars like sucrose and glucose are bad for teeth.
** Milk and cheese are good for teeth because they have calcium.
*** However, milk contains lactose which can cause cavities. Due to this, drinking a lot of milk can still cause cavities.
** Unsweetened (no sugar) chewing gum helps clean teeth, and makes salvia and removes food particles. Drink plenty of water every day.

## Disease of teeth 
Plaque is the soft white substance that forms on teeth when they are not cleaned. It has bacteria in it that hurt enamel. If plaque is not cleaned off, after 2 days it can become tartar. Tartar is a hard substance that forms on teeth (mostly near the gums).  Tartar makes gums unhealthy and makes more bacteria grow on the teeth.

Plaque is cleaned off with a toothbrush. If tartar forms on teeth, a dentist must clean it off. 

The bacteria that are on teeth eat into the enamel. Cleaning and flossing teeth, eating good foods, and having a dentist take off plaque make less bacteria on teeth. If there is too much bacteria, they eat enamel faster than teeth make enamel. This makes holes in enamel called cavities. When a person gets cavities, he has the disease dental caries. Making cavities in enamel happens slowly. But once cavities go through enamel, the soft dentine is hurt much faster. Cavities may be fixed by dentists.

## Related pages 
* Dental formula
* Dentition
* Dentures

## References 
## Other websites 
* The New Student's Reference Work Wikisource
* Tooth Citizendium
1776

## Events 
* July 4 – the United States of America say that they are no longer part of England (the Declaration of Independence)
* July 12 – Captain James Cook starts his third, and final, voyage to the Pacific Ocean
* The city of San Francisco is founded in California, USA (San Francisco was then part of Spain).
* The *Wealth of Nations* by Adam Smith is published. It is an important book in the history of economics.

## Births 
* January 24 – E.T.A. Hoffmann, German writer, composer, and painter (died 1822)
* February 11 – Joannis Capodistrias, Greek governor of Troezen (died 1831)
* March 10 – Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Queen of Prussia (died 1810)
* April 1 – Sophie Germain, French mathematician (died 1831)
* June 11 – John Constable, English painter (died 1837)
* August 9 – Amedeo Avogadro, Italian chemist (died 1856)
* Muttusvami Dikshitar, Indian composer

## Deaths 
* August 25 – David Hume, Scotish philosopher
Nerve

A **nerve** is a group of special nerve cells grouped together in parallel. Another word for nerve cell is neuron. The special neurons grouped together in nerves take information (messages) to and from the human body to the central nervous system. The central nervous system (acronym) CNS is the brain and spinal cord. The spinal cord is the big cord that goes from the brain into the back. It carries all the information that goes from the brain to the nerves in the body.

All the nerves in the body make the peripheral nervous system (acronym PNS). The brain and spinal cord are the CNS. All the nerves that come from the spinal cord are the PNS. Together the CNS and PNS are the nervous system.

## Nerve Structure 
The nervous system contains neurons and cells called glia. Glia cells keep the neurons safe and healthy. Neurons take messages to and from the CNS to the rest. The dendrite and axon are fibers that go out from the cell body. Axons take information *away from* the cell body. Dendrites take information to the cell body.

## Types of nerves 
*Afferent* nerves take messages to the CNS (brain) from the body. They take messages about sensation from the skin. They take messages about the position of the body from the muscles. They take messages about the function of organs like the heart and stomach.

*Efferent* nerves take messages from the CNS to the body. They take messages that tell muscles to move. They take messages to glands. They tell glands like *sweat glands* to make sweat (the water that comes out of your skin when you are hot.)

## Diseases of nerves 
There are many diseases of nerves. A disease of nerves is also called a *neuropathy*.
* Trauma - nerves can be hurt by injury like being cut with a knife or being crushed when a bone is broken (fractured.)
* Toxins – nerves can be hurt by toxins. These are substances also called poisons that can hurt an organism. Some toxins that hurt nerves are: alcohol, lead, and some drugs and medicines.
* Infections – nerves can be hurt by infections.
* Diseases – nerves can be hurt from having some diseases. The most common disease to cause a *neuropathy* is diabetes. This is called *diabetic neuropathy*.
## References 
*Article about the nerve from Encyclopedia Britannica
Swabian Jura

The **Swabian Jura** (German: *Schwäbische Alb*, Bavarian: *Schwobm Alb*) is a plateau in Baden-Württemberg, Germany. The Swabian Jura is situated between the Black Forest (West), Stuttgart (North), Bavaria (East) and Lake Constance (South). A lot of fossils are found here. The highest mountain is the Lemberg (1015 m).

## Tourist information 
* There are many castles, monasteries, churches, ruins, caves and old towns in the region. 
* The river Danube nearly disappears in the porous limestime near Immendingen.
* Important Towns:
** Albstadt
** Balingen
** Hechingen
** Münsingen
** Reutlingen (the "gateway" to the Swabian Jura)
** Sigmaringen
** Ulm

* A National Scenic Byway (*Schwäbische Albstraße*) leads you from the South West (Trossingen/Tuttlingen) to the North East (Aalen/Nördlingen) - length: over 200 kilometres.
Game Boy

The **Game Boy** is an 8-bit handheld video game console, first released in Japan in April 1989. It was later released in North America in September 1989 and then in Europe in September 1990. It is Nintendo's first handheld with switchable games. The Game Boy is also one of the first portable consoles to use game cartridges, meaning the games are interchangeable. The Game Boy family eventually expanded to include the Game Boy Color, Game Boy Advance, Game Boy Advance SP, and Game Boy Micro. The Game Boy was discontinued on 23 March 2003.

The Game Boy has a green screen that displays four shades of dark green (gray for the Game Boy Pocket). Like the NES, the Game Boy has two face buttons, start and select, and a cross-shaped direction pad. The console has a single speaker, and it can be used with stereo headphones. As many as four Game Boys can be connected together with the Game Boy Link Cable.

The Game Boy was invented by Gunpei Yokoi, who was also responsible for creating the unsuccessful Virtual Boy and the successful Game & Watch games.

Recently, the Game Boy was compared to all Nintendo handhelds and systems released between 1989 and 2016 to see how long each one's battery life lasted, and the Game Boy beat all the other systems with 30 hours of battery life. The Game Boy provided the most game play at its time and currently still does.

## Best-selling games
* *Pokémon Red, Blue and Yellow*
* *Tetris* (included with the Game Boy)
* *Pokémon Gold, Silver and Crystal*
* *Super Mario Land*
* *Super Mario Land 2: Six Golden Coins*
* *Dr. Mario*
* *Pokémon Pinball*
* *Wario Land: Super Mario Land 3*
* ''Kirby's Dream Land*
* *Super Mario Bros. Deluxe*
* *The Legend of Zelda: Oracle of Seasons and Oracle of Ages*
* *Donkey Kong Land*
* *The Legend of Zelda: Link's Awakening*
* *Pokémon Trading Card Game*
* *F1 Race*
* *Yoshi*
* *Donkey Kong*
* *Game de Hakken!! Tamagotchi*
* *Yu-Gi-Oh! Duel Monsters 4: Battle of Great Duelists*
* *Yu-Gi-Oh! Dark Duel Stories''

## Sources
Injury

**Injury** means a *harm* or *hurt* to the body of a living thing.

s ]]
Usually, an injury is when the body or a part of the body is damaged by something outside of the body. Another word for injury to a body is *trauma*.

Injury can be by:
*Environmental – Burns from heat or injury from cold
*Penetrating injury – when a sharp object like a knife pierces the body
*Blunt injury – when something hits the body (like punching someone or falling from a tree)
*Chemical – being hurt by chemicals like burns from acid

Injury can be *accidental* or *intentional*. In an intentional injury a person *tries* to hurt another. (Intentional injury is also called *non-accidental* injury). Accidental injury is without meaning to hurt someone. A traffic collision for example may injure someone accidentally.
Stomach

and right gastric artery, left and right gastroepiploic artery and short gastric arteries]]

The **stomach** is part of the digestive system. It is an internal organ between the esophagus and the small intestines. 

The stomach is the third stage in the digestive process. It holds food after eating. Food in the stomach then passes to the small intestine, where most of the food's nutrition is absorbed.

Other words for *stomach* include *belly* and *tummy*.

## Function 
### In humans 
The stomach contains hydrochloric acid of pepsin made by stomach cells. As a useful side-effect, the acid kills bacteria in the food. However, its main function is to help the protein-digesting enzymes called proteases work. In general, the food is churned, squeezed and mixed. This prepares it for digestion. The partially digested food is called chyme.

### In other mammals 
Stomachs of other mammals work differently to human stomachs. Ruminants, for example, have a stomach with multiple compartments. In that system, food goes through the first part of the digestive system twice, and the work of digesting the grass is done by bacteria.

## Problems 
Stomach acid can cause problems. It can make peptic ulcers worse. It can also cause heartburn: pain in the chest when acid from the stomach *refluxes* (backs up into) the oesophagus. These can usually be treated by neutralizing the acid. 

Vomiting occurs when food goes back up the oesophagus and out the mouth. Vomiting can be a symptom of disease.

## Related pages
* Digestive system
* Digestion
* Gastrointestinal disease

## References
King Crimson

**King Crimson** were a progressive rock band. They formed in England in 1968. Their music is usually called progressive rock, but they also have jazz, gamelan, classical music, heavy metal and experimental music in their sound. Their music has influenced a lot of bands and styles of music. King Crimson are most well known for their first album, *In the Court of the Crimson King*, which helped create progressive rock. Only one person has been in the band since they started, guitarist Robert Fripp. 

## History 
### 1960's 
In 1967, drummer Michael Giles and his brother, Peter, a bass guitar player, started a band with Robert Fripp. They recorded one album called The Cheerful Insanity of Giles, Giles and Fripp. This album did not do very well, and a lot of critics wrote bad reviews of it. After this, Ian Mcdonald joined playing keyboards, reeds, and woodwind instruments. Ian McDonald's friend, Peter Sinfield, joined to write lyrics, and Greg Lake replaced Peter Giles on bass guitar. Then they bought a mellotron, which helped them sound more like classical music. They changed their name to King Crimson, and did their first show in Hyde Park, London in 1969. Their first CD, In the Court of the Crimson King, was a huge success. Their original style impressed fans and critics.

### 1970's
Micheal Giles and Ian Mcdonald left the band to do solo work. The three of them still in the band, Robert Fripp, Peter Sinfield, and Greg Lake, released the single *Catfood/Groon*. On the next album, woodwind player Mel Collins, singer Gordon Haskell, and Peter Giles all helped record a few songs with the band. King Crimson released their second album, In the Wake of Poseidon, in 1970. It was not very popular because it sounded too much like the first album.

## Studio albums
* *In the Court of the Crimson King* (1969)
* *In the Wake of Poseidon* (1970)
* *Lizard* (1970)
* *Islands* (1971)
* ''Larks' Tongues in Aspic* (1973)
* *Starless and Bible Black* (1974)
* *Red* (1974)
* *Discipline* (1981)
* *Beat* (1982)
* *Three of a Perfect Pair* (1984)
* *THRAK* (1995)
* *The ConstruKction of Light* (2000)
* *The Power to Believe'' (2003)
The Yardbirds

**The Yardbirds** are a English blues band. They formed in the 1960s. They are famous for having the guitarists, Eric Clapton, Jeff Beck, and Jimmy Page. Eric Clapton left the band after they turned from a blues band to a pop band, in keeping with the moving trend of music in the 1960s. He suggested Jimmy Page, who had been a studio musician at the time (performing on records for many stars but not being a member of a specific band). Unwilling to give up his career as a studio musician, Page suggested Jeff Beck. Shortly thereafter, Page joined the band, playing bass and lead guitar. 

Towards the end of the '60s, the Yardbirds broke up while in the middle of a tour. Page wanted to keep the band going, and eventually put together a band called "The New Yardbirds" consisting of vocalist Robert Plant, bassist John Paul Jones, and drummer John "Bonzo" Bonham. This group would soon gain a new name, allegedly taken from a quote by Who drummer Keith Moon. Moon had said previously said that their band would go over "like a lead zeppelin," and the name "Led Zeppelin" stuck.

## Other websites
*
Fleetwood Mac

**Fleetwood Mac** are a British-American rock band that formed in London, England in 1967. The group was started by Peter Green. The original group included Mick Fleetwood, John McVie, Jeremy Spencer and Bob Brunning. e was then an 18-year-old guitarist and singer. When Welch left he was replaced by Americans Lindsey Buckingham and Stevie Nicks. The band became famous with the  of the album "Fleetwood Mac", their self-titled debut album from February 1968.

## Discography
### Studio albums
* *Fleetwood Mac* (1968)
* *Mr. Wonderful* (1968)
* *Then Play On* (1969)
* *Kiln House* (1970)
* *Future Games* (1971)
* *Bare Trees* (1972)
* *Penguin* (1973)
* *Mystery to Me* (1973)
* *Heroes Are Hard to Find* (1974)
* *Fleetwood Mac* (1975)
* *Rumours* (1977)
* *Tusk* (1979)
* *Mirage* (1982)
* *Tango in the Night* (1987)
* *Behind the Mask* (1990)
* *Time* (1995)
* *Say You Will* (2003)

## References
Grateful Dead

The **Grateful Dead** was a rock band formed in Palo Alto, California, United States in 1965. They are known for their concerts, and devoted followers called Deadheads. The band and their music are sometimes associated with the hippie and drug cultures.  Their music style is psychedelic rock combined with other kinds of music like blues, country, folk, and bluegrass. They are also known for their artwork and logos, which include skeletons and dancing bears. 

The band was named at number 57 on Rolling Stone's *100 Greatest Artists of All Time *and added to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1994. They have sold more than 35 million records worldwide and they have played for 25 million people, more than any other band. 

The group were together from 1965 to 1995 when Jerry Garcia, the group's lead guitarist and singer died. He was seen as the band’s leader. The core members were Bob Weir (guitar and singing), Phil Lesh (bass guitar), Mickey Hart (drums) and Bill Kreutzmann (drums). Two remained in the band until they broke up. Other members includeKeith Godchaux, Donna Godchaux, Brent Mydland and Vince Welnick. 

The band was known for their stage shows and musical improvisations. Their fans, known as Deadheads, were allowed to record the band’s performances.
Edgar Winter

**Edgar Holland Winter** (born December 28, 1946) is an albino musician and record producer from Beaumont, Texas. He is the brother of Johnny Winter who is also a famous musician.  He mostly plays keyboards and the saxophone.

## Other websites 
*http://www.edgarwinter.com/bio.php
Johnny Winter

**John Dawson Winter III** (February 23, 1944 &ndash; July 16, 2014) was an American albino blues musician from Beaumont, Texas. His brother, Edgar Winter, is also a famous musician. He also worked as producer and produced two Grammy winning albums of Muddy Waters (Hard again, I'm ready).

He died in his hotel room in Zurich, Switzerland, aged 70. It happened two days after his last performance there. The cause of his death is currently unknown.

## Discography
### Official albums
**First Winter* (1969, Buddha)
**The Progressive Blues Experiment* (1968, Sonobeat)
**Johnny Winter* (1969)
**Second Winter* (1969)
**Johnny Winter And* (1970)
**Live Johnny Winter And* (1971)
**Roadwork* (1972) - with Edgar Winter's White Trash
**Still Alive and Well* (1973)
**Saints & Sinners* (1974)
**John Dawson Winter III* (1974)
**Captured Live!* (1976)
**Together* (1976) with Edgar Winter
*''Nothin' But the Blues* (1977)
**White, Hot and Blue* (1978)
**Raisin' Cain* (1980)
**Guitar Slinger* (1984)
**Serious Business* (1985)
**Third Degree* (1986)
**The Winter of '88* (1988)
**Let Me In* (1991)
**Hey, Where's Your Brother?* (1992)
**Scorchin' Blues* (1992)
**Live In NYC '97* (1998)
**I'm A Bluesman* (2004)
**The Johnny Winter Anthology * (2009) via Shout! Factory
**The Woodstock Experience* (2009)

### Compilation albums
**The Johnny  Winter Story* (1969)
**About Blues* (1970)
**Early Times* (1970)
**Before The Storm* (1970)
**Birds Can't Row Boats* (1988)
* The Texas Tornado (1992)
**A Rock n' Roll Collection* (1994)
**White Hot Blues* (1997)
**Winter Blues* (1997)
**Texas Blues: The Early Years* (1998)
*The Return of Johnny Guitar - best of 1984-86 (2000)
**Deluxe Edition * (Alligator) (2001)
**The Best of Johnny Winter* (Sony) (2002)

### Non-official albums
**Austin, TX* also known as The Progressive Blues Experiment (1972)
*Dervish Blues (live San Bernardino, Ca.) (1975)
**Whole Lotta Love* (1978)
**Ready for Winter* (1981)
**Still Blues After All These Years/Live In Chicago* (1990)
**A Lone Star Kind of Day* (Relix- Roy C. Ames production) (1991)
**Jack Daniels Kind of Day* (1992)
**White Lightning* (1996)
**Back in Beaumont* (2000)
**Blues'N' Tattoo'' (recorded Live at Central Park New York - 1980-07-27)

## References
## Other websites 
* Official website
Albinism

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**Albinism** is a condition some people, animals, and plants  are born with. This condition is caused by a lack of pigment melanin (colour) in their hair, eyes, and skin. A person or animal with albinism is called an **albino.** Many albino people prefer to be called a "person with albinism". There are ten different types of albinism.

People with albinism can have white or light blonde hair. They can have very  skin. Their eyes are blue, or rarely pink-ish. People with albinism can have problems such as bad vision, increased sweat and getting sunburnt easily. This is because people with albinism have less pigments in their eyes, skin and hair.

Albinism is rare in the United States. One out of every 20,000 people in the United States has albinism. There are about 15,945 people in the United States who have albinism.

Vision problems in albinism include nystagmus (irregular fast movements of the eyes), strabismus (where the eyes fail to balance) and refractory errors (like being *near-sighted* or *far-sighted*).

In most environments, Albino animals are more easily seen and so may be attacked by predators. They lack the camouflage that the non-albino members of their species have. Also, where colour is a factor in mate selection, they may be at a disadvantage there, too.

## Genetics of albinism 
Albinism is a hereditary condition. It is usually inherited in a recessive pattern; it means, both parents have to give the albinism gene to a child to cause albinism.

## Famous people with albinism 
*Edgar Winter-musician
*Johnny Winter-musician
*Salif Keita-musician

## Other websites 
*National Organization for Albinism and Hypopigmentation (U.S.-based)
*Albinism in Popular Culture 

## References
Hearing

**Hearing** is one of the five senses. Ears detect vibrations in the air. These vibrations are sounds. Most animals can hear. Most land vertebrates hear through ears. Fish hear in several different ways. Many use their swim bladder to hear, and many use their lateral line.

In mammals, sound travels through three main parts of the ear to be heard. These are the outer, middle and inner ear.

*Outer Ear - This is the part of the ear that we can see called the pinna as well as the inside of the ear called the ear canal. Sound first travels through the pinna and ear canal then to the eardrum at the end of the canal which the sound makes vibrate.
*Middle Ear - Sound continues to travel deeper into the ear and is helped by three of the smallest bones in the body - hammer, anvil and stirrup - to reach the inner ear. 
*Inner Ear - Here the sound reaches a small tube shaped like a snail shell, called the *cochlea*. Inside the cochlea is a fluid, which moves tiny hairs that send signals to the brain which interprets sounds for you to understand and hear

## References
Caucasian race

**Caucasian** is a word for a person from Europe, West Asia, North Africa and some parts of  South Asia, Central Asia, and the Horn of Africa. The group of these persons was called "Caucasoid race" or **Caucasian race**. In former times, many people divided human beings into three broad categories or races. These races were called *Caucasoid*, *Mongoloid*, and *Negroid*. Today, scientists agree that there is only one human *species* although modern genetic research has shown that different genetic variations and traits do exist, with general overlapping biological features common to these subgroups.

German anthropologist Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (1752 – 1840) invented the name *Caucasian race* because he saw a connection to the Caucasus Mountains. 

In the United States, white people are often called "Caucasian". But the actual "Caucasian race" included people with a skin from white to relatively brown.

## References
Voice

A **voice** is used when a person speaks or sings. It describes human communication, rather than that of animals. 

The sound of the voice is carried by the air, and can be heard. A vocal sound is made when air is passed over the vocal cords, so making a meaningful sound. If a person has no voice, the condition is called muteness. 

The musical part of a song that is sung by a person using their voice is called **vocals**. 

Many terrestrial animals make sounds, especially those that are vertebrates. By extension, this might be called their voice, but another term is "animal sounds". That includes a wider range of noises which animals may produce.
James Madison

**James Madison Jr.** (March 16, 1751  – June 28, 1836) was an American Founding Father and the fourth president of the United States from 1809 to 1817. He was also the most important author of the United States Constitution and a slave owner with a large plantation.

Madison was the shortest president in American history, with a height of .

## Family 
James Madison Jr. was the eldest son of Colonel James Madison Sr. and Nellie Conway Madison.

Madison married Dolley Todd (née Payne) on September 14, 1794 at the age of 43.

Madison had a stepson named John Payne Todd from Dolley's previous marriage.

## Political life 
Madison started his career in the Virginia legislature. Madison learned many things from Thomas Jefferson. Madison wanted a stronger federal government than the Articles of Confederation provided. He was a member of the Constitutional Conventtion, which formed the current United States Constitution. Madison is called the "Father of the Constitution" because he helped write a large part of it and convinced people to pass it.

Madison was elected to the House of Representatives.  Madison helped write the first laws for the United States. Madison also was the main writer of the Bill of Rights, the first ten amendments to the Constitution.

Madison and Jefferson were good friends and helped create the Democratic-Republican Party, which wanted a weak federal government.

Madison was selected by President Jefferson to be his Secretary of State.

## Presidency 
Madison was selected by his political party to be the Democratic-Republican candidate for president in 1808. He won that election and was re-elected in 1812.

The War of 1812 started while Madison was president. Madison still hoped for peace, but Congress wanted war and so he gave in, and the 61-year-old president approved a declaration of war against Britain on June 19, 1812. People who still wanted peace called it "Mr Madison's War."

Madison and his family were forced to flee in 1814 when British forces seized control of Washington, D.C., and burned the White House and many other buildings to the ground. Dolley Madison, his wife, famously saved a portrait of George Washington from the fire.

The war caused Madison to want a stronger government than he had before. While he originally was against a national bank, he decided that it was necessary to fund a war. After the charter of the First Bank of the United States expired, Madison recreated it.

## Later life 
Madison retired to Virginia after his second term. He died there from heart failure on June 28, 1836 at the age of 85.

## References 
## Other websites 
* Madison's White House biography
James Monroe

**James Monroe** (April 28, 1759 – July 4, 1831) was the fifth president of the United States.

He usually agreed with Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, the two presidents before him.

Many cities have been named Monroe. For example, Monrovia, the capital of Liberia, is named after him. Seventeen counties in the United States are named Monroe County.

## Early life 
Monroe was born in Virginia on April 28, 1758. When Monroe was 16, his father died.

At age 18, Monroe joined the Continental Army. He later studied law with Thomas Jefferson.

Monroe married Elizabeth Kotright in 1789.

## Political life 
Monroe was an Anti-Federalist and did not want the United States Constitution to pass.  He was elected to the United States Senate in 1790. He helped form the Democratic-Republican Party with Jefferson and James Madison.

Monroe went to Paris to help negotiate the Louisiana Purchase and later became Ambassador to the United Kingdom.

Monroe was President Madison's Secretary of State and Secretary of War.

## Presidency 
Monroe was president from 1817 to 1825. With Secretary of State John Quincy Adams, Monroe got Spain to give Florida to the United States. Monroe and Adams also agreed on stating the Monroe Doctrine, the policy that the United States did not want Europe to expand its colonies in the Western Hemisphere and did not want to get involved in European affairs.

Monroe signed the Missouri Compromise, which temporarily settled the slavery issue in the United States. Monroe was the last president to have fought in the American Revolutionary War and the last Founding Father of the United States to be alive.

## Post-presidency 
Monroe retired to Virginia. After his wife's death, he moved to New York City, where he died on July 4, 1831 of tuberculosis at the age of 73.

Monroe is the only U.S. president other than Washington to have a country's capital named after him. The capital of Liberia, Monrovia, is named after Monroe.

## References 
## Other websites 
* James Monroe's White House biography
* James Monroe -Citizendium