open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Roper v. Simmons

***Roper v. Simmons***, , was a landmark decision of the United States Supreme Court.  The Court ruled that it is unconstitutional to execute a person for crimes they committed before they were 18 years old. This decision affected 25 states in the country, which still allowed executions of children under age 18.  Also, the decision reversed the Court's past ruling in *Stanford v. Kentucky*, , which had said that executions of children ages 1618 were sometimes legal.  

## History
The first known *juvenile* (child under the age of 18) to be executed in America was Thomas Granger.  In 1642, he was executed at age 16 or 17 for sodomy.  Between 1642 and 2016, 364 juveniles have been executed in the United States.  

 in 1944]]

Until 1988, the Supreme Court had put no limits on how old a person had to be in order to be executed.  This meant each state could set their own rules.  In some states, the minimum age for execution was as low as 14.

Juvenile executions were much more common earlier on.  However, between 1976 and 2005, twenty-two juveniles were executed.

The Supreme Court started to set some limits on juvenile executions in the late 1980s.  In 1988, the Supreme Court ruled in *Thompson v. Oklahoma* that children under the age of sixteen could not be executed.  However, the next year, in *Stanford v. Kentucky*, the Court ruled that juveniles ages 16 and 17 could be given the death penalty. Then the United States Supreme Court decided in *Atkins v. Virginia* 536 U.S. 304 (2002) that executing people with intellectual disabilities was unconstitutional.  Encouraged, Simmons filed a new  to the Supreme Court of Missouri.  That court decided that "a national  has developed against the execution of juvenile offenders," meaning that across the country, most Americans disagreed with executing juveniles.  This decision made it illegal for any state in the country to execute someone who was under the age of 18 when they committed their crime.

 ages for executions before *Roper v. Simmons* ]]

The Court had a few reasons for making this decision.  First, they argued that juveniles are not as  as adults.  They wrote that there is a lot of research showing that:

## Related pages
* Capital punishment in the United States

## References
Boynton v. Virginia

***Boynton v. Virginia***, '''''', was a decision by the Supreme Court of the United States. On December 20, 1958, Bruce Boynton, a senior at Howard Law School, left Washington, D.C. on a bus to go home for Christmas to Montgomery, Alabama. At the bus  in Richmond, Virginia he entered the restaurant and sat in the "white only" section. He then appealed the conviction to the Supreme Court of Virginia. He maintained “that his conviction violated the Interstate Commerce Act and the Equal Protection, Due Process and Commerce Clauses of the Federal Constitution.” But the state Supreme Court upheld his conviction.He next petitioned the United States Supreme Court for certiorari. The U.S. Supreme Court d the conviction of the lower court.

## The decision 
The court ruled in a 7-2 decision in favor of Boynton. It held that interstate passengers were protected by the Interstate Commerce Act and the terminal's restaurant was a part of that facility. 

*Boynton v. Virginia* paved the way and inspired the Freedom Riders to test the new ruling. It ordered the removal of "whites only" signs from all interstate bus terminals. 

## References 
## Other websites 
* *Boynton v. Virginia*,  The 1961 Freedom Rides 
* The Freedom Rides of 1961, Testing *Boynton v. Virginia*
Polearm

s, partisans, spontoons, war scythes, and a ranseur in the center]]
**Polearms** were long sticks that had a blade on the side. They were similar to an axe, but much longer. They were also used by women in ancient Japan.
Gates v. Collier

***Gates v. Collier***, 501 F.2d 1291 (5th Cir. 1974), was a landmark case decided by a United States federal court called the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals.  The case had to do with the rights of prisoners at Mississippi State Penitentiary (usually called "Parchman").

*Gates v. Collier* is a very important case for prisoners' rights.  It was the first case to rule that many types of physical punishment against prisoners are cruel and unusual punishment, and are against the Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution.  It was also the first time that the Supreme Court started  how the country's prisons were being run.

## Background
The Eighth Amendment to the Constitution says that the state cannot give cruel and unusual punishments to anyone.

Parchman opened in 1903.  At the prison, there was a program called the "trusty system."  This was a system where some prisoners had more rights and freedoms than others.  They also had power over the other inmates.

The Governor of Mississippi, James K. Vardaman, said the prison was run “like an  slave plantation.”  With Haber as their lawyer, four prisoners filed a lawsuit in federal court, saying that conditions at the prison were cruel and unusual.  They said that prison trusties and guards punished and tortured prisoners in ways that were painful and  on purpose.  
* Beatings
* Shooting at or around prisoners, sometimes hitting them
* Taking away prisoners' clothes
* Turning fans on prisoners while they were naked and wet
* Not giving inmates food, mattresses, or items for hygiene
* Handcuffing prisoners to fences or bars
* Using a cattle prod on prisoners
* Forcing prisoners to stand for long periods of time
* Putting inmates in stress positions (positions that are painful)

The court ruled that the prison had violated the prisoner's rights under the First, Sixth, Eighth, and Fourteenth Amendments to the Constitution.  Federal Judge William C. Keady wrote that Parchman Farm had violated "modern standards of ".  He ordered an immediate end to all unconstitutional conditions and practices.

The Fifth Circuit Court ruled that Parchman was using cruel and unusual punishments on its prisoners.  It was violating their rights to be protected by the laws  which apply to prisoners, too.  

### Effects
After the court decision, Parchman had to end its trusty system.  It also stopped segregating its prisoners.

After the court decision, other states that used the trusty system had to stop using it too.  These states included Arkansas, Alabama, Louisiana, and Texas.

This decision also set some important precedents.  One is that even prisoners have the right to be protected from cruel and unusual punishment.  Americans' constitutional rights do not all stop when a person goes to prison.  It also limited the type of punishments that prisons can use.

## Notes
## Related pages
* Cruel and unusual punishment

## References
Birch

A **birch** tree is a thinleaved deciduous hardwood tree of the genus ***Betula***. They are in the family Betulaceae, which also includes alders, hazels, and hornbeams.

*Betula* contains 30 to 60 species of which 11 are on the IUCN 2011 Green List of Threatened Species. They are usually rather short-lived pioneer species widespread in the Northern Hemisphere.

## References
Sher-e-Bangla Medical College

**Sher-e-Bangla Medical College** (**SBMC**), is a government medical school in  Bangladesh, established in 1968. It is located in Barisal.

## History
Construction began on the college on 6 November 1964, at that time it was known as Barisal Medical College.

## Campus
There are three hostels for male students and two for the female students. Both male and female intern doctors have each one hostel for them.

## Photo Gallery 

Sher-e-Bangla Medical college.jpg|Sher-e-Bangla Medical college
On Dipaboli night students of SBMC decorate Jamilur Rahman male students House(2013).jpg
Three male students houses of SBMC.jpg
Central Mosque of SBMC.jpg|The Central Mosque of SBMC on the bank of the pond

## References
Benjamin Franklin Tilley

**Benjamin Franklin Tilley** (March 29, 1848 in Bristol, Rhode Island – March 18, 1907 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania) was an admiral in the US Navy who served in the American Civil War and the Spanish-American War. He was the first acting governor of American Samoa. 

## References
Black Hills

National Park]]

The **Black Hills** are a small mountain range from the Great Plains of North America in South Dakota.

Native Americans have a long history in the Black Hills. After conquering the Cheyenne in 1776, the Lakota took over the territory of the Black Hills. 

In 1868, the U.S. government signed the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868. This exempted the Black Hills from all white settlement forever. 

But, when European Americans discovered gold there in 1874, miners swept into the area in a gold rush. The US government reassigned the Lakota, against their wishes, to other reservations in western South Dakota. Unlike most of South Dakota, the Black Hills were settled by European Americans from population centers to the west and south. Miners flocked there from earlier gold boom places in Colorado and Montana.

As the economy shifted from mining and logging, the tourism industry has grown. The Black Hills have two areas: "The Southern Hills" and "The Northern Hills". The Southern Hills is home to Mount Rushmore National Memorial, Wind Cave National Park, Jewel Cave National Monument, Harney Peak (the highest point in the United States east of the Rockies), Custer State Park (the largest state park in South Dakota, and one of the largest in the US), the Crazy Horse Memorial (the largest Mountain sculpture in the world), and the Mammoth Site in Hot Springs, the world’s largest mammoth research facility.

## References
Corn Palace

The **Corn Palace** is an arena in Mitchell, South Dakota. The designs on the buildings are covered in corn and other grains.

The Corn Palace has concerts, sports events, exhibits and other community events. Each year, the Corn Palace is celebrated with a citywide festival, the Corn Palace Festival. Historically it was held at harvest time in September, but now it happens in August. Other popular annual events include the Corn Palace Stampede Rodeo in July and the Corn Palace Polka Festival in September. It is also where the Dakota Wesleyan University Tigers and the Mitchell High School Kernels basketball teams play their games.

## References 
## Other websites 
* Corn Palace Convention & Visitors Bureau
* Corn Palace Stampede Rodeo
* Corn Palace Fan Site
Essential oil

An **essential oil** is a liquid from a plant. Essential oils contain chemical compounds that are useful for their scent. They are used in aromatherapy. Perfumes are made with essential oils.

Around the world, essential oils are being studied in modern clinical trials to test ancient claims of healing. They are being studied for their effectiveness as antibacterial agents, fungicides, insecticides, pain relief, stress reduction, and skin problems.

## Name
The name *essential oil* comes from theories in the Middle Ages of a fifth element. People than believed that there were four basic elements that everything was made of: fire, water, air and earth. The elusive "soul" of things was called the quintessential element or the fifth element. Over time, *quintessential* was shortened to *essential*. Alchemists said that this element could change iron to gold. Some believed it held the planets in their orbits.

## Producing the essential oil
Most essential oils today are steam distilled. This process separates out the aromatic essential oils from the solid plant matter. With steam distillation, it can take thousands of pounds of plant matter to create just one liter of essential oil.

Other methods include expelling and solvent extraction. Expelling is using pressure to squeeze the essential oil out of the plant. This method is generally used for citrus oils. Solvent extraction uses substances such as carbon dioxide to extract the essential oil. This method is used for delicate plants such as rose and jasmine, which can be too fragile to go through the distillation process.
Imre Nagy

**Imre Nagy** (7 June 1896 - 16 June 1958) was a Hungarian communist politician. He was born in Kaposvár. He was chairman on two occasions. He was executed by hanging in Budapest.
China National Space Administration

The **China National Space Administration (CNSA)** is the national space agency of China, and is based in the Haidian District. It is in charge of the national space program and of managing different space-related activities. 

The CNSA has had many successful missions, for example the Tiangong Space Station, and Tianwen-1, which landed a rover on Mars.

The agency has astronauts in space (as of 2025's fourth quarter). The Shenzhou 21 mission, has 3 astronauts at the Tiangong space station. 

## Foundation and history 
CNSA is a space agency made in 1993 when the Ministry of Aerospace Industry was split into the CNSA and the China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation(CASC). 

Later in 1998 CASC was split into smaller goverment-owned companies.

In 2011 NASA was forced to not work with CNSA. In 2021, China started building the Tiangong space station, which has only three modules made for crew, cargo, and research. In the same year CNSA sent Tianwen-1 to Mars.

## Launch facilities 
* Jiuquan Satelite Launch Center
* Taiyuan Satelite Launch Center
* Xichang Satelite Launch Center
* Wenchang Space Launch Site

## Departments 
CNSA has four departments: 

* Department of General Planning
* Department of System Engineering 
* Department of Science, Technology and Quality Control
* Department of Foreign Affairs
Betts v. Brady

***Betts v. Brady***, , was a landmark case decided by the United States Supreme Court in 1942.  The case had to do with "indigent" (poor) people who were on trial for crimes, but did not have enough money to pay for a lawyer. The Court ruled that a person did not need a lawyer to get a fair trial.  They also ruled that the states did not have to pay for free lawyers for poor defendants.

In 1963, the Court reversed its decision in *Betts* when it decided *Gideon v. Wainwright*, .

## History
The Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution says that "In all criminal [trials], the accused shall ... have the assistance of counsel for his defence."  ("Counsel" is another word for "lawyer.")

However, in the 1930s, the Supreme Court made a few decisions that decreased the number of United States citizens who had the right to a lawyer.

In 1932, the Court decided a case called *Powell v. Alabama*, .  They ruled that the states had to assign free lawyers to poor defendants, but *only* if they were being tried for capital crimes.  (Capital crimes are crimes that can be punished with the death penalty.)

Then, in 1938, the Supreme Court ruled in *Johnson v. Herbst* that in *federal* courts, any person who was charged with a crime and could not pay for a lawyer had to be assigned a lawyer for free.  However, the Court also ruled that the Sixth Amendment applied *only* to federal courts  not to state courts.

This meant that if a person was charged with a crime in a *state* court, and he could not afford a lawyer, he would have to defend himself in court.

Betts had to defend himself, without the help of a lawyer.  He argued that he had been in a different place at the time of the robbery.  He called  who said this was true.  However, the judge did not believe Betts.  He sentenced Betts to eight years in prison.  

Also, the Fourteenth Amendment says that no state can take away any person's "life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person ... the equal protection of the laws."

The Court had already decided that the right to have a lawyer applied to all people in federal criminal trials; people being tried by the states for rape or murder; and anyone who could pay for a lawyer.  Now they needed to decide whether poor people had the right to have lawyers too, even if they could not pay for them.  

They also needed to decide these questions:

The Court ruled that having a lawyer was not a basic right.  Usually, a defendant did not need a lawyer to get a fair trial, the Court said.  In these special cases, not having a lawyer would make it difficult for a defendant to get a fair trial.  In each case, the judge was supposed to talk to the defendant to figure out whether any of these "special circumstances" existed.  For example, was the defendant mentally able to defend himself?  Did he have enough education?  Did he understand what happens during a trial?

## Related pages
* *Gideon v. Wainwright*
* The Sixth and Fourteenth Amendments

## References
Brown v. Board of Education II

***Brown v. Board of Education II*** (often called ***Brown II***) was a Supreme Court case decided in 1955.  The year before, the Supreme Court had decided *Brown v. Board of Education*, which made racial segregation in schools illegal.  However, many all-white schools in the United States had not followed this ruling and still had not integrated (allowed black children into) their schools.  In *Brown II*, the Court ordered them to integrate their schools "with all  speed."  

In *Brown II*, the Supreme Court also set out rules about what schools needed to do to de-segregate.  Finally, it explained how the United States government would make sure the schools did de-segregate.  Segregation in United States schools had existed for centuries.  The Court understood that it would not be easy to get the states to follow its ruling and de-segregate their schools.  

Also, in its ruling in *Brown*, the Court had not given the states any instructions for *how* to end school segregation.  The Court had also not given the states a  for *when* they needed to de-segregate their schools.
# What rules should the Court set about *when* schools had to de-segregate?

### Arguments
The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), whose lawyers had won *Brown*, argued that school de-segregation should begin right away.  The states argued back that this would be too difficult and too expensive, and that they needed more time to de-segregate.

Instead of ordering the states to de-segregate right away, the Court created a slower plan.  It gave federal district courts the power to look after whether schools were de-segregating.  Prince Edward County responded by refusing to  (give any money to) the county's schools.  

Finally, in 1964, the United States Supreme Court ruled that what Prince Edward County was doing was unconstitutional, and ordered the schools to re-open  without segregation.

## Related pages
* *Brown v. Board of Education*
** Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution (makes school segregation illegal)
* Racial segregation in the United States

## Notes
## References
Sea Shepherd Conservation Society

The **Sea Shepherd Conservation Society (SSCS)** is an American organization that works to protect marine life. It was founded in 1977 by activist Paul Watson, a former member of  Greenpeace. One of the things they heavily campaign against is whaling.

## Gallery 

File:Seashepherd small pt.jpg|Sea Shepherds flagg.
File:MV Steve Irwin Melbourne.jpg|M/Y *Steve Irwin* in Melbourne.
File:Paul Watson portrait.jpg|Paul Watson.

## Other websites 
* Sea Shepherd Conservation Society website
LGBT rights in Canada

**Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) rights in Canada** are some of the most advanced in the world. During the British North America era, same-sex relationships were illegal. They were punishable with capital punishment. Homosexual activity became legal in 1969. Same-sex marriage became legal in 2005.

## Legal summary
## References
Swinging (sexual practice)

**Swinging** is a human sexuality based on multi-partner relations. Both singles and partners engage with others for recreational purposes.

In contrast to an affair, both partners are consenting to sexual exchanges. These exchanges create a certain eroticism and even sexual arousal.

There are different types of swinging activities.

## References
Neufchâtel-en-Bray

of **Neufchâtel-en-Bray**.]]

**Neufchâtel-en-Bray** is a commune of Seine-Maritime. It's famous as cheese production: the Neufchâtel.
Caldwell catalogue

, NGC 4755, taken by the VLT]]

The **Caldwell catalogue** is an astronomical catalogue of 109 objects. It includes star clusters, nebulae, and galaxies for observation by amateur astronomers. The list was compiled by English astronomer Patrick Moore as a complement to the Messier catalogue. 

So Moore compiled a list of 109 objects – to match the accepted number of Messier objects.

## References
Ring galaxy

A **ring galaxy** is a kind of galaxy that has a ring shape. Hoag's Object and NGC 1291 are two examples. The ring is made up of many massive, young blue stars, which are extremely bright. The middle of the galaxy contains far less luminous matter. 

Some astronomers believe that ring galaxies are formed when a smaller galaxy passes through the center of a larger galaxy. Because galaxies are mostly made up of empty space, a collision rarely happens between stars. However, the gravitational disruptions could cause a wave of star formation to move through the larger galaxy. Other astronomers think that rings are formed around some galaxies when an accretion disc is formed. Star formation would then result from the shocks and compressions in the newly formed disc.

## References
Knossos

, showing Heraklion]]
  
**Knossos** is a Bronze Age archaeological site on the island of Crete. It is at modern Heraklion. It may be Europe's oldest city.

Many Roman coins found on the site had 'Knosion' or 'Knos' on one side, and an image of a Minotaur or Labyrinth on the reverse. These are symbols from the myth of King Minos, supposed to have reigned at Knossos.

The excavations at Knossos began in 1900 by the English archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans (1851–1941) and his team. They worked there for 35 years. The palace was excavated and partly restored. It was large. The team discovered two ancient scripts, called Linear A and Linear B. From the layering of the palace, Evans developed an idea of the civilization that used it, which he called Minoan. The palace was built over a previous Neolithic town. During the Bronze Age, the town surrounded the hill on which the palace was built.

The palace was abandoned at some unknown time at the end of the late Bronze Age, c. 1380–1100 BC, for reasons which are not known.

## References
Swazi language

**Swati** (also known as Swazi) ( *SiSwati*) is part of the Nguni group of Bantu languages. It is spoken by about 1.5 million people in Eswatini and South Africa. It is the official language of Eswatini and one of the eleven official languages in South Africa. It is taught in the schools of Eswatini, and in some South African schools. Swati is closely related to Phuthi, a language spoken in Lesotho, and to Zulu, Ndebele and Xhosa.

Swati has four main varietes: Shiselweni, Hhohho, Manzini and Shiselweni. They correspond with the four administrative regions of Eswatini.

## References
Mamba

A **mamba** is a fast-moving venomous snake of the genus *Dendroaspis* (means "tree asp"). It belongs to the Elapidae family.

They are native to Africa. The black mamba is one of the well-known species and is also the most feared. Other members include the eastern green mamba, western green mamba and Jameson's mamba.

## Behavior 
Most mambas are arboreal, meaning they live in trees. The only exception is the black mamba, which lives on land. All mamba species hunt during the day. They prey on birds, lizards and small mammals.

There are many stories of mambas chasing humans, but these snakes usually prefer to avoid contact with humans. Humans are actually their main predators, rather than prey. and fasciculins (which cause muscle twitches).

The toxicity of the venom varies. Changes in the toxicity can even be caused by the weather or altitude.

All mamba species have similar venom, but the black mamba has the most toxic venom and is more aggressive. 

Untreated black mamba bites are fatal.

## References
United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit

The **United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit** is one of the 13 appeals courts in the United States's federal court system.  In case citations, the Court's name is abbreviated "**5th Cir.**"

## The 5th Circuit
The Court of Appeals for the 5th Circuit is the appeals court that has jurisdiction, or legal power, to review cases decided by less powerful courts in the 5th Circuit.  These less powerful courts are called United States district courts.  They are federal trial courts.  If someone wants to appeal a decision that one of these courts made, they would have to appeal to the Court of Appeals for the 5th Circuit.

* Eastern District of Louisiana
* Middle District of Louisiana
* Western District of Louisiana
* Northern District of Mississippi
* Southern District of Mississippi
* Eastern District of Texas
* Northern District of Texas
* Southern District of Texas
* Western District of Texas

The Court of Appeals for the 5th Circuit handles appeals from every one of these District Courts.

## The Court
The Court has 17 judges.

## Famous decisions 
The Court of Appeals for the 5th Circuit decided a landmark case called *Gates v. Collier*, which stopped the severe physical abuse of prisoners by "trustys" at Mississippi State Penitentiary (then called Parchman).

## Related pages
* Federal judiciary of the United States (the entire federal court system)
** United States Supreme Court
*** United States courts of appeals
**** United States district courts
* *Gates v. Collier*

## References
Steven Sample

**Steven Browning Sample** (November 29, 1940 – March 29, 2016) was the 10th president of the University of Southern California (USC). He became president in 1991 and was succeeded by C.L. Max Nikias on August 3, 2010.

Before he was president at USC, he held the same position at the University at Buffalo (UB) in the State University of New York (SUNY) system from 1982 to 1991.  On March 29, 2016, Sample died at the age of 75.  He had lived in San Marino, California.

## References
## Other websites
* Steven B. Sample University at Buffalo presidential biography 
* University of Southern California, President website
*
Château de Saint Cloud

The **Château de Saint Cloud** was a château in Paris, France. It was sometimes called the **Palace of Saint Cloud**. It was burned down during the Franco-Prussian War in 1870. It was once a private property of Queen Marie Antoinette. Since December 2006, there has been a movement to rebuild the Château de Saint-Cloud.

## Early history
 who bought the property. A descendant of his was Queen Marie Antoinette, who later bought the estate.]]

The building was originally called the "''he Hôtel d'Aulnay*". In the 16h century, it was expanded into a château by the Gondi banking family. The estate was in the hands of the Gondi family till 1658. At that time it was bought by Philippe of France, Duke of Orléans, the only brother of Louis XIV of France. The estate remained the personal property of the descendants of Philippe of France. It was a country residence, as opposed to the Palais Royal in the center of Paris.

## Queen Marie Antoinette
After negotiating for a long time, the Château de Saint-Cloud was bought in 1785 by Louis XVI. He bought it for Marie Antoinette. She thought that the air of Saint-Cloud would be good for her children. Louis Philippe, Duke of Orléans, who had not visited the château since his morganatic marriage to his mistress Madame de Montesson, sold it for 6,000,000 livres. Marie Antoinette started changing Saint-Cloud in 1787-1788. She used her preferred architect Richard Mique. He had also decorated parts of the Palace of Versailles for the queen. 

## Emperor Napoléon III
During the Second Empire, Emperor Napoléon III and Empress Eugénie held their imperial court at Saint-Cloud during the spring and the autumn. There was also a reception for Queen Victoria in honour of her 1855 visit to France. In 1859, a model railway was built in the private park. It was built for Napoléon, Prince Imperial, the 3-year-old son of emperor Napoléon III,. 

## Other websites
**Napoléon III et la reine Victoria. Une visite à l’Exposition Universelle de 1855''
* Official site of the Domaine National de Saint-Cloud
Ricardo Goulart

**Ricardo Goulart Pereira** or simply **Ricardo Goulart** (; born 5 June 1991), is a Brazilian footballer who plays for Guangzhou Evergrande Taobao in the Chinese Super League as an attacking midfielder.
Ryan Drummond

**Ryan Drummond** (born January 10, 1973) is an American actor, voice actor, mime and comedian. He is best known for voicing Sonic the Hedgehog in several installments of the *Sonic the Hedgehog* series from 1998 to 2004. He is also known for being the bass vocalist in the A.Y.U. Quartet since 1991. He has been starring in a musical comedy in San Diego called "Forever Plaid".

## Personal life
Drummond married his wife, Lisa Drummond, on October 8, 2002. They live in San Francisco, California. He and his wife, Lisa Drummond, are divorced in 2019.

## Filmography
### Film
### Television
### Video game roles
## Albums
* *S.C.R.A.M.*, 1994 studio album by the A.Y.U. Quartet - Harmony & Lead Vocals
* *Atomic Young Ultrasonics*, 1996 studio album by The A.Y.U. Quartet - Harmony & Lead Vocals
* *Acappella Yuletide Uproar*, 2010 studio album by The A.Y.U. Quartet - Harmony & Lead Vocals

## References
Selkirk, Manitoba

**Selkirk** is a city in Manitoba. It is west of Winnipeg. It was named after the 5th Earl of Selkirk. It was incorporated as a Town in 1882 and as a City in 1998.

At the 2021 census, Selkirk's population was 10,504.

## Transportation 
The City of Selkirk has 2 taxi services: Wills Taxi and First Rate Taxi.

It also has Selkirk Transit and Selkirk Mobility.

## Ecomony 
Selkirk has many businesses. These include McDonald's, Dairy Queen, and A&W. It also has Sterling Press and International Pipe.

## Sports 
Andrew Murray lives in Selkirk.

Selkirk is home to The MJHL Selkirk Steelers and the KJHL Selkirk Fishermen.

## Demographics 
## References
Dan Green

**James Hadley "Jay" Snyder** (born February 7, 1970) also known by his stage name as **Dan Green**, is an American voice actor, voice director and script adapter who is known for his work with 4Kids Entertainment, DuArt Film and Video, NYAV Post and Central Park Media. He is best known for his voice work as Yugi Mutou in the *Yu–Gi–Oh!* franchise and as Knuckles the Echidna in *Sonic X* and in the *Sonic the Hedgehog* video game franchise from 2005 to 2010.

## Personal life
He married his wife Michal Lura Friedman, a singer and fellow voice actress in 2008. they were married for four years until her death in 2011, from complications during childbirth. They have two children, Jackson James Snyder and Reverie Vivian Snyder.

## References
United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit

The **United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit** is one of the 13 appeals courts in the United States's federal court system.  In case citations, the Court's name is abbreviated "**1st Cir.**"

## The 1st Circuit
The Court of Appeals for the 1st Circuit is the appeals court that has jurisdiction, or legal power, to review cases decided by less powerful courts in the 1st Circuit.  These less powerful courts are called United States district courts.  They are federal trial courts.  If someone wants to appeal a decision that one of these courts made, they would have to appeal to the Court of Appeals for the 1st Circuit.
*  District of Maine
*  District of Massachusetts
*  District of New Hampshire
*  District of Puerto Rico
*  District of Rhode Island

## About the Court
The Court is based at the John Joseph Moakley Federal Courthouse in Boston, Massachusetts.

The First Circuit is the smallest of the thirteen United States courts of appeals.  As of 2016, the Court has six full-time judges and six judges on senior status.  Senior status is like being partly retired.  Three of the Senior Judges do not hear any cases.  The others may hear cases if they choose to.

After he retired from the United States Supreme Court, the late Justice David Souter regularly sat on the First Circuit "by designation."  Sitting by designation means he acted as a visiting judge who comes to hear cases at the First Circuit, to add his knowledge and experience.

### Schedule
The Court usually "sits" (meets at the Courthouse and hears cases) for one week a month, eleven months per year.  Court sittings are held in the mornings, usually between 9:30 AM and 1:00 PM (EST).  For one month out of the year  either July or August  the Court takes a summer break and does not meet.
* In every month except September and the Court's summer break month: The Court sits for one week each month, starting on the first Monday of the month
* In both March and November: The Court sits for an extra week at the Jose V. Toledo Federal Building and United States Courthouse in Old San Juan, Puerto Rico
* In September: The Court starts on the Wednesday after Labor Day, sits for the three days in that week, and sits for all five days the next week

## History
On March 3, 1891, the United States Congress created the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit.  Congress approved two judgeships for the Court (it allowed two judges to sit on the Court).

On January 28, 1915, Congress passed a law that added the District of Puerto Rico to the First Circuit.  The law said that the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit would hear appeals from Puerto Rico's district court.

Over time, Congress approved more full-time judgeships for the Court:

## Related pages
* Federal judiciary of the United States (the entire federal court system)
** United States Supreme Court
*** United States courts of appeals
**** United States district courts

## References
Zomi Baptist Church

The ***Zomi Baptist Church*** is a christian believer church. In India the  Zomi Baptist Church (ZBC) was established in 1982. 

The ZBC headquarters is at Champhai, India. In Myanmar the ZBC is known as ZBCM (Zomi Baptist Church in Myanmar). Nowadays the ZBC is also present in the United States (Tulsa) and other countries in the world.

## References
Diaeresis

The **diaeresis** plural: **diaereses** is also spelled diæresis or dieresis. It is a diacritical mark: two dots ¨ put over a letter, usually a vowel.

It is most often used in this way:

*With a diacritic, one vowel is sounded separately from its neighbour. So, in the word *zöology*, it is pronounced as a long 'o' followed by a short 'o'. Without the diaeresis, it might be pronounced like the word 'zoo'. It is sometimes described as "two vowel sounds occurring in adjacent syllables". It is often used in names where the last vowel is sounded, as in *Chloë* or *Brontë*.

*Umlauts: A diacritic above a vowel can mark a sound shift, forming a new letter Ä, Ö, Ü

## Notes
Selkirk Transit

**Selkirk Transit** is a public transit system based in Selkirk, Manitoba. The operators are Selkirk and District handi bus.

## Fleet 
Grande west Vicinity+1   

New Flyer XE40 {Part of the rapid transit commuter line owned by Winnipeg}  

## Retired 
CHEVY/ARBOC? 

Vicinity B30A

## History 
In 2011, Selkirk Transit started with a cutaway bus.

In 2016, they have a big 30-foot bus.

In 2020 they will get an XE40 from New flyer as part of the Rapid transit commuter line owned by Winnipeg

## References 
*http://mysta.ca/
United States district court

The **United States district courts** are the trial courts of the federal court system.  

## How they work
United States district courts hold trials, like state courts do.
* Whether a law is constitutional
* Disagreements between two or more states
* Crimes that happen at sea
* Bankruptcy
* United States Ambassadors' treaties

Each trial is heard by a judge and decided by a jury.  

## Organization
There are 94 U.S. district courts in the United States.  Just like with the map, districts that are in the same circuit are the same color.  The colors are the same as the map (for example, districts in the 8th Circuit are orange on the map and on the list).  To sort this table, click on the little triangle on the top row of the table, in the column you want to sort by.

## Related pages
* Federal judiciary of the United States (the whole federal court system)
* United States courts of appeals

## References
Risa Hontiveros

**Ana Theresia Navarro Hontiveros-Baraquel** (born February 24, 1966) is a Filipino politician, socialist activist and journalist serving as a Senator since 2016. She previously served as the representative of Akbayan in the House of Representatives of the Philippines from 2004 to 2010. She is the older sister of journalists and television hosts Gringgay and Pia Hontiveros.

## Sources
Leila de Lima

**Leila de Lima** (born August 27, 1959) is a Filipino lawyer. She was appointed by President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo as Chairperson of the Commission on Human Rights on May 2008 and served until June 30, 2010 when she resigned and appointed by President Benigno Aquino III as Secretary of the Philippine Department of Justice. She resigned October 12, 2015 to focus on her candidacy for the Senate in the 2016 election.

She is Catholic. She is a devotee of Our Lady of Manaoag.

## Sources
Grace Poe

**Grace Poe** (born September 3, 1968) is the adopted daughter of Filipino actors Susan Roces and Fernando Poe, Jr. She served as chairperson of the Movie and Television Review and Classification Board (MTRCB) from 2010 to 2012 and in the Philippine Senate since 2013.

## References 
## Other websites 
* Official website
Adrienne Corri

**Adrienne Corri** (13 November 1930 – 13 March 2016) was a British actress. She was known for her role as Mrs. Alexander in Stanley Kubrick's *A Clockwork Orange*.

Corri died at her home in London on 13 March 2016 from coronary artery disease at the age of 84.

## References
## Other websites
*
*Adrienne Corri  at HorrorStars
Miriam Defensor Santiago

**Miriam Defensor Santiago** (June 15, 1945 &ndash; September 29, 2016) is a Filipino politician, known for having served in all three branches of the Philippines government – judicial, executive, and legislative. Defensor Santiago was named one of The 100 Most Powerful Women in the World in 1997 by *The Australian*.

## References
Miguel Hernández Agosto

**Miguel Hernández Agosto** (April 5, 1927 – March 18, 2016) was a Puerto Rican politician. He worked with the Popular Democratic Party (PPD). He started his political career as a Cabinet member, but eventually became a Senator at-large. Hernández Agosto served as President of the Senate of Puerto Rico for 12 years (1981-1993).

Agosto died in San Juan, Puerto Rico on March 18, 2016 at the age of 88.

## References
## Other websites
* Official Biography  from the Senate of Puerto Rico
Browder v. Gayle

***Browder v. Gayle***, 142 F. Supp. 707 (1956), was a case heard before a three-judge panel of the United States District Court for the Middle District of Alabama on Montgomery and Alabama state bus segregation laws. The District Court ruled 2-1, with one dissenting, on June 5, 1956 that bus segregation was unconstitutional under the Fourteenth Amendment protections for equal treatment.

The state and city appealed, and the decision was upheld by the United States Supreme Court on November 13, 1956.  A motion for  and for rehearing was denied on December 17, 1956.

## Background
About two months after the Montgomery Bus Boycott began, civil rights activists re the case of Claudette Colvin. She was a 15-year-old girl who had been the first person arrested in 1955 for refusing to give up her seat on a Montgomery, Alabama bus. Black leaders had been looking for a test case to test the constitutionality of the segregation laws of the state of Alabama and the city of Montgomery. One of the attorneys, Clifford Durr, was concerned that an appeal of Mrs. Rosa Parks' case would get tied up in the Alabama state courts. They needed a way to get directly to the federal courts. Colvin and several others who were discriminated against on Montgomery busses, agreed to become plaintiffs in a federal civil action lawsuit, thus ing the Alabama court system. The bus company said segregation was valid on "privately owned busses" which operated according to the laws of the city and state.

### Ruling
On February 1, 1956, the case of *Browder v. Gayle* was filed in U.S. District Court. Browder was a Montgomery housewife; W. A. Gayle was the mayor of Montgomery.

On June 13, 1956, the District Court ruled that "the enforced segregation of black and white passengers on motor buses operating in the City of Montgomery violates the Constitution and laws of the United States," because the conditions deprived people of equal protection under the Fourteenth Amendment. One month later on December 20, after Mayor Gayle was handed official written notice by federal marshals, the Montgomery buses were desegregated.

## Notes 
## References
Roger Cicero

**Roger Marcel Cicero Ciceu** (6 July 1970 &ndash; 24 March 2016) was a German jazz and pop musician. He was born in Berlin, Germany. Cicero represented Germany at the Eurovision Song Contest 2007 in Helsinki his song ''Frauen regier'n die Welt* (Women rule the world). He finished 19th. Cicero made his movie debut in *Hilde'' (2009) as musician Ricci Blum.

Cicero died of a stroke in Hamburg, Germany on 24 March 2016, aged 45.

## References
Richard Bradford (actor)

**Richard Bradford** (November 10, 1934 – March 22, 2016) was an American actor. He was known for his lead role as former CIA agent turned private eye McGill in the British TV adventure series *Man in a Suitcase*, made by ITC in 1967. He was born in Tyler, Texas.

Bradford died on March 22, 2016 at the age of 81.

## References
## Other websites
*
*Richard Bradford (as Dick Bradford) at the Internet Broadway Database
Marie-Claire Kirkland

**Marie-Claire Kirkland-Casgrain** (September 8, 1924 – March 24, 2016) was a Canadian lawyer, judge and politician. She was the first woman elected to the Legislative Assembly of Quebec. She was the first woman appointed a Cabinet minister in Quebec, the first woman appointed acting premier, and the first woman judge to serve in the Quebec Provincial Court.

On March 24, 2016, she died at the age of 91.

## References
## Other websites
Tibor R. Machan

**Tibor Richard Machan** (; 18 March 1939 – 24 March 2016) was a Hungarian-born American philosopher.  He was the professor emeritus in the department of philosophy at Auburn University. Machan held the R. C. Hoiles Chair of Business Ethics and Free Enterprise at the Argyros School of Business & Economics at Chapman University in Orange, California until December 31, 2014.

On 24 March 2015, he died at the age of 77.

## References
Maggie Blye

**Maggie Blye** (October 24, 1942 &ndash; March 24, 2016) was an American actress. She was born in Houston, Texas. She was in the 1967 Paul Newman movie *Hombre* and the 1969 version of *The Italian Job*. Her later television roles included *The Rockford Files*, *Hart to Hart* and *Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman*.

Blye died on March 24, 2016 from cancer at her home in West Hollywood, California, aged 73.

## Other websites
*
* Obituary -Variety
Esther Herlitz

**Esther Herlitz** (, 9 October 1921 – 24 March 2016) was an Israeli diplomat and politician. She served as a member of the Knesset for the Alignment between 1973 and 1977 and again from 1979 until 1981. She was also Israel's first female ambassador, having been appointed as the country's ambassador to Denmark in 1966.

Herlitz died on 24 March 2016 in Tel Aviv at the age of 94.

## References
Leonard L. Northrup Jr.

**Leonard "Lynn" L. Northrup Jr.** (March 18, 1918 &ndash; March 24, 2016) was an American engineer. He created the commercialization of solar thermal energy. He was inspired by John Yellott, Dr. Maria Telkes, and Harry Tabor.

Northrup's company designed, patented, developed and manufactured some of the first commercial solar water heaters, solar concentrators, solar-powered air conditioning systems, solar power towers and photovoltaic thermal hybrid systems in the United States.

he company he founded became part of ARCO Solar, which in turn became BP Solar, which became the largest solar energy company in the world.

## References
Paolo Poli

**Paolo Poli** (May 23, 1929 – March 25, 2016) was an Italian theatre actor. He has also acted in movies and on television. He starred in many famous operas such as *Aldino mi cali un filino*, *Rita of Cascia*, *Caterina de Medici*, ''L'asino d'oro*, *Gulliver's Travels*, *La leggenda di San Gregorio*, *Il coturno della ciabatta*, and *La nemica'

## References
## Other websites
* 
*  Poliscena Association: Paolo Poli's Theatre 
*  *Il mare* of Paolo Poli
Imre Pozsgay

**Imre András Pozsgay** (26 November 1933 – 25 March 2016) was a Hungarian Communist politician.

He played a key role in Hungary's fight for democracy after 1988. He served as Minister of Culture (1976–1980), Minister of Education (1980–1982) and Minister of State (1988–1990). He was also a Member of Parliament from 1983 to 1994.

## References
David Snellgrove

**David Llewellyn Snellgrove** (29 June 192025 March 2016) was a British Tibetologist. He was known for his pioneering work on Buddhism in Tibet as well as his many travelogues. He was born in Portsmouth, Hampshire. 

In 1950, after having finishing his studies at Cambridge, he was invited to teach a course in elementary Tibetan at the School of Oriental and African Studies University of London. He was Professor of Tibetan at SOAS until his retirement in 1982.

## References
Alain Decaux

**Alain Decaux** (23 July 1925 − 27 March 2016) was a French writer and historian. He was born in Lille, France. He was elected to the Académie française on 15 February 1979.

In 2005, he was, with others authors as Frédéric Beigbeder, Richard Millet and Jean-Pierre Thiollet, among the Beirut Book Fair's guests in the Beirut International Exhibition & Leisure Center, commonly BIEL.

Decaux died on 27 March 2016 in Paris, France at the age of 90.

## Bibliography
* 1979  '**  (Librairie académique Perrin)
* 1980  **'  (Librairie académique Perrin)
* 1981  '**  (Librairie académique Perrin)
* 1981-1985  **'
* 1982  ''Les Misérables, d'après Victor Hugo'' (screenplay, directed by Robert Hossein)
* 1982  '**  (Librairie académique Perrin)
* 1999  **' (in collaboration with Alain Peyrefitte)
* 1999  '**  (Librairie académique Perrin)
* 2000  **'  (Librairie académique Perrin)
* 2002  '**  (Perrin)
* 2002  **'
* 2005  '**  (Perrin)
* 2007  **'  (Perrin)

## References
## Other websites
* L'Académie française
Cerebrovascular disease

**Cerebrovascular disease**, stroke or cerebrovascular accident, is a vascular disease of the cerebral circulation. Arteries supplying oxygen to the brain are affected which results in one of a number of cerebrovascular diseases. Commonest is a stroke or mini-stroke or sometimes hemorrhagic stroke. Any of these can result in vascular dementia.

## Causes 
Causes of cerebrovascular disease can be divided into: atherosclerosis, embolism, aneurysms, low flow states, and other, rare, causes. Major modifiable risk factors include:
*hypertension 
*smoking 
*obesity 
*diabetes.

## Treatment
Treatment for cerebrovascular disease includes medication, lifestyle changes and surgery.

Examples of these medications are:
*Antiplatelets (Aspirin, Clopidogrel)
*Blood thinners (Heparin, Warfarin )
*Antihypertensives (ACE inhibitors, Beta blockers)
*Anti-diabetic medications

Surgical procedures include:
*Endovascular surgery and Vascular surgery (for future stroke prevention)

## Notable cases
* Walter Cronkite, American news journalist. Died in 2010.
* Roberts Blossom, American actor and poet. Died in 2011.
* Shirley Hufstedler, American judge, first United States Secretary of Education. Died in 2016.

## References
James Noble (actor)

**James Wilkes Noble** (March 5, 1922 – March 28, 2016) was an American actor. He was best known for his role of the sweet-natured but naive Governor on ABC's 1980s sitcom *Benson*. He was born in Dallas, Texas. He retired from acting in 2010. 

Noble died from complications of a stroke at his home in Norwalk, Connecticut on March 28, 2016, aged 94.

## References
## Other websites
*
*James Noble at the University of Wisconsin's Actors Studio audio collection 
*James Noble (Aveleyman)