open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Jack Mansell

**Jack Mansell** (22 August 1927 – 19 March 2016) was a British professional footballer. He made 274 appearances in the Football League as a fullback for Brighton & Hove Albion, Cardiff City and Portsmouth. 

After retiring as a player he joined the coaching staff at Sheffield Wednesday. He coached many clubs with his longest spell being at Reading and had experience overseas with the likes of Blauw-Wit Amsterdam, Boston Beacons and the Israel national football team. In 1982, Mansell was chosen to train Maccabi Haifa, after a year at the Israeli national team.

Mansell died on 19 March 2016 at the age of 88.

## References
## Other websites
* Managerial statistics of Jack Mansell on Soccerbase.com 
* League Managers' Association profile
Strict scrutiny

**Strict scrutiny** is the most  standard of judicial review used by United States courts. It is part of the hierarchy of standards that courts use to weigh the government's interest against a constitutional right or principle. The lesser standards are rational basis review and exacting or intermediate scrutiny. These standards are used to test statutes and government action at all levels of government within the United States.

The idea of "levels of judicial scrutiny", including strict scrutiny, was introduced in *United States v. Carolene Products Co.* (1938), one of a series of decisions testing the constitutionality of New Deal legislation. The first and most notable case in which the Supreme Court applied the strict scrutiny standard and found the government's actions valid was *Korematsu v. United States* (1944). In *Korematsu* the Court upheld the government ruling 6-3 that the need to protect the country from espionage outweighed the rights of Mr. Korematsu.

## Applicability 
U.S. courts apply the strict scrutiny standard in two contexts: when a fundamental constitutional right is infringed, particularly those found in the Bill of Rights and those the court has deemed a fundamental right protected by the Due Process Clause or "liberty clause" of the 14th Amendment, or when a government action applies to a "suspect classification," such as race or national origin.

To pass strict scrutiny, the law or policy must satisfy three tests:

* **Compelling governmental interest**. While the Courts have never clearly defined how to determine if an interest is compelling, the concept generally refers to something necessary or crucial. Examples include national security, preserving the lives of multiple individuals, and not violating explicit constitutional protections.

* **Narrowly tailored** refers to achieve that goal or interest. If the government action includes too much (overbroad) or fails to address important parts of the compelling interest, then the rule is not considered narrowly tailored.

* **least restrictive means** must be used for achieving that interest. That is, there cannot be a less restrictive way to effectively achieve the compelling government interest. The test will be met even if there is another method that is equally the least restrictive. Some legal scholars consider this "least restrictive means" requirement part of being narrowly tailored, though the Court generally evaluates it separately.

## References
Cancer of unknown primary origin

**"Cancer of unknown primary origin"** (**CUP**, "**occult cancer**") is a term used to describe a cancer that is said to be at the metastatic stage at the time of diagnosis, but a primary tumor cannot be identified. A diagnosis of CUP requires a clinical picture  with metastatic disease and one or more biopsy results inconsistent with a primary tumor.

CUP is found in about 3 to 5% of all people diagnosed with invasive cancer, and carries a poor prognosis in most (80 to 85%) of those circumstances.  The other 15 to 20% of patients, however, have a relatively long survival with appropriate treatment.

## References
Joe Garagiola, Sr.

**Joseph Henry Garagiola, Sr.** (February 12, 1926 &ndash; March 23, 2016) was an American professional baseball catcher and later an announcer and television host. 

Garagiola played nine seasons in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the St. Louis Cardinals, Pittsburgh Pirates, Chicago Cubs and the New York Giants. He was also well known outside of baseball for having been one of the regular panelists on *The Today Show* for many years and for his many appearances on game shows both as a host and panelist.

Garagiola died on March 23, 2016 in Phoenix, Arizona at the age of 90.

## References
## Other websites
*Baseball Hall of Fame - Frick Award recipient 
*
*St. Louis Walk of Fame 
*http://appelpr.com/ARTICLES/A-funny.htm 
*Joe Garagiola hosting "Monitor" on the NBC Radio Network, Saturday, February 22, 1969, from 3 to 4 p.m. ET 
*Joe Garagiola at the Internet Movie Database
Peter Brown (actor)

**Peter Brown** (October 5, 1935 – March 21, 2016) was an American television actor. He was known for his four-year role as young Deputy Johnny McKay in the 1958 to 1962 ABC/Warner Brothers western television series, *Lawman* and as Texas Ranger Chad Cooper on *Laredo* from 1965 to 1967.

Brown died on March 21, 2016 in Phoenix, Arizona from complications of Parkinson's disease, aged 80.

## References
## Other websites
*
*
Glen Dawson

**Glen Dawson** (June 3, 1912 &ndash; March 22, 2016) was an American rock climber, mountaineer, antiquarian bookseller, publisher and environmentalist. He was born in California.

In 1929, Glen began serious mountaineering in the Sierra Nevada. On July 6, 1930, during the Sierra Club's annual High Trip, he first teamed up with Jules Eichorn to make the third ascent of Red-and-White Mountain in the Sierra.

Dawson died in Pasadena, California on March 22, 2016, aged 103.

## References
Jimmy Riley

**Martin James Norman Riley** (22 May 1954 – 23 March 2016), better known as **Jimmy Riley**, was a Jamaican singer. Along to recording solo, he was also a member of the Sensations and The Uniques. He was the father of Tarrus Riley. 

In September 2013 he released the album *Contradiction*, that featured guest appearances from his son Tarrus, Sizzla, and Fantan Mojah. 

Riley died on the morning of 23 March 2016 in New York City after suffering from cancer, aged 61.

## References
Carolyn Squires

**Carolyn M. Squires** (September 25, 1940 &ndash; March 21, 2016) was an American politician. She was a member of the Democratic Party.

Squires was a member of the Montana House of Representatives for the 96th district from 2010 to 2015. From 2002 to 2010, she was a member of the Montana Senate, representing District 48, where she served as Majority Whip. Earlier she was a member of the Montana House of Representatives from 1987 through 2000.

Squires died in Missoula, Montana from colorectal cancer at the age of 75.

## References
## Other websites
*Project Vote Smart - Senator Carolyn M. Squires (MT) profile
**Follow the Money* - Carolyn Squires
**2008 2006 2002 Senate campaign contributions
**1998 1996 1994 1992 1990 House campaign contributions
Missoula, Montana

**Missoula** is a city in the U.S. state of Montana and is the county seat of Missoula County. , the United States Census Bureau counted 73,489 people living in Missoula, and 122,457 people living in the Missoula Metropolitan Area. It is the second largest city in Montana. It is home of the University of Montana.

## References
Santiago J. Erevia

by President Barack Obama in March 2014]]
**Santiago Jesus Erevia** (December 15, 1946 &ndash; March 22, 2016) was an American U.S. Army-veteran. He was born in Nordheim, Texas. Erevia served in the Vietnam War starting at the age of 22. 

In 1970, Erevia left active service with a two-year reserve obligation. In 1972 he joined the Texas National Guard and went on to serve 17 years. 

Erevia was awarded the Medal of Honor by President Barack Obama in a March 18, 2014 ceremony at the White House.

Erevia died on March 22, 2016 in San Antonio, Texas at the age of 70.

## References
Naked singularity

.]]
In general relativity, a **naked singularity** is a gravitational singularity that is viewable from anywhere in the outside area. The event horizon is like a bubble which surrounds a black hole. Inside the event horizon, the pull of the light cannot escape, so we are unable to view objects inside the event horizon. This includes the event horizon itself. Naked singularities do not have an event horizon, hence the term 'naked'.

The existence of naked singularities is a very important topic in physics, because it would mean we could actually see phenomena made by black holes that we wouldn't be able to see otherwise. In addition, naked singularities would pose big problems for general relativity, since scientists still have not figured out a working idea for what happens to space-time in and around a black hole. Quantum mechanics, the main other scientific theory scientists turn to in physics, is also unable to explain how space-time would behave in such a situation.

Although the cosmic censorship hypothesis says that naked singularities cannot exist, some research says that if loop quantum gravity (a scientific theory that says the universe is made of small 'loops') is correct, naked singularities could exist in nature. Other calculations and arguments have been made to support this.

## Possible formation
There are black holes known as Kerr black holes which have spin (they rotate). But, there is a maximum spin rate. If it spins faster than that maximum, its horizon disappears, leaving the singularity inside it wide open.

Mathematician Demetrios Christodoulou has shown that naked singularities also occur in nature. However, he then showed that such "naked singularities" are unstable.

## References
## Further reading 
* M. C. Werner and A. O. Peters, "Magnification relations for Kerr lensing and testing cosmic censorship", *Physical Review D*, Vol. 76, Issue 6 (2007).
* Marcus Chown, "Fast-spinning black holes might reveal all"  *New Scientist*, August 2009.

* Pankaj S. Joshi, "Naked Singularities" *Scientific American*, May 2013.
Civil Rights Cases

The ***Civil Rights Cases*** ''''*, were a group of five similar cases  into one issue for the United States Supreme Court to review. The Court held that Congress lacked the constitutional authority under the Fourteenth Amendment to outlaw racial discrimination by private individuals and organizations, rather than state and local governments.

The Court held that the Civil Rights Act of 1875, which provided that "all persons within the jurisdiction of the United States shall be d to the full and equal enjoyment of the s, s, , and  of inns, public s on land or water, theaters, and other places of public ; subject only to the s and s ed by law, and  alike to citizens of every race and color, regardless of any previous condition of servitude" was unconstitutional. coming from different lower courts in which Black Americans had sued theaters, hotels and transit companies that had refused them service or excluded them from "white only" facilities.

## Decision of the Court
  The Court, in an 8-1 decision by Justice Joseph P. Bradley, held that the language of the 14th Amendment, which ed  of equal protection by a state, did not give Congress power to regulate these private acts. This was because it was the result of conduct by private individuals, not state law or action, that blacks were suffering. Bradley commented that "individual invasion of individual rights is not the subject-matter of the [14th] Amendment. It has a deeper and broader scope. It nullifies and makes void all state legislation, and state action of every kind, which impairs the privileges and immunities of citizens of the United States, or which injures them in life, liberty or property without due process of law, or which denies to any of them the equal protection of the laws."

The Court also acknowledged that the 13th Amendment does apply to private actors, but only to the extent that it prohibits people from owning slaves, not exhibiting discriminatory behavior. On October 20, 1883, T. Thomas Fortune, the editor of the *New York Globe'' wrote: "The colored people of the United States feel to-day as if they had been baptized in ice water". Many felt it was the end of an era in which the Federal government would protect the rights of African-American citizens.

The Supreme Court decision severely restricted the power of the federal government to guarantee equal status under the law to blacks. State officials in the South took advantage of the decision and began to enact laws that legalized the treatment of blacks as second-class citizens for another seventy years. The court's decision thus ultimately led to the enactment of state laws, such as Jim Crow laws, which made racial segregation the law.

## Notes 
## References
United States Statutes at Large

The ***United States Statutes at Large***, commonly referred to as the ***Statutes at Large*** and abbreviated **Stat.**, is the official record of Acts of Congress and concurrent resolutions passed by the United States Congress. Each act and resolution of Congress is called a slip law, which is classified as either public law (abbreviated Pub.L.) or private law (Pvt.L.), and designated and numbered accordingly. At the end of a Congress session, slip laws (now commonly called session laws) are compiled into *Statutes at Large*, which are numbered and organised by Congress session. They are part of a three-part model for publication of federal statutes consisting of slip laws, session laws (*Statutes at Large*), and codification (*United States Code*).

## References
Phife Dawg

**Malik Isaac Taylor** (November 20, 1970 &ndash; March 22, 2016), better known by his stage name **Phife Dawg** (or simply **Phife**), was an American rapper, singer and songwriter.

## Career 
He was a member of the group A Tribe Called Quest with high school classmates Q-Tip and Ali Shaheed Muhammad (and for a short time Jarobi White). He was also known as the "Five Foot Assassin" and "The Five Footer", because he stood at .

## Death 
Taylor died on March 22, 2016 due to complications of diabetes at the age of 45.

## References
## Other websites
*
Garner v. Louisiana

***Garner v. Louisiana***, '''''', was an important civil rights case argued by Thurgood Marshall before the Supreme Court. 

## Background
African-American students from Southern University sat at a "whites only" segregated lunch bar at Sitman's Drugstore in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. The manager called the Police after the students quietly remained even though they were asked to move to another counter. After ordering the black patrons to leave, the Police arrested them and charged them with disturbing the peace. The claim was that their behavior could "foreseeably disturb or alarm the public," according to the state's "disturbing the peace" statute.

The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People defended the student demonstrators as did the Kennedy administration's Justice Department, which filed a legal brief on their behalf. 

## Opinion of the Court 
In a 9-0 decision, the court ruled in the African-American students' favor, arguing the state violated due process of law under the Fourteenth Amendment and finding there was no evidence the students' behavior could have foreseeably disturbed the peace. In his written opinion, Justice John Marshall Harlan d sit-in demonstrations to   as a form of free speech. 
Justice William O. Douglas in his concurring opinion said, “For the police are supposed to be on the side of the Constitution, not on the side of discrimination. Yet if all constitutional questions are to be put aside and the problem treated merely in terms of disturbing the peace, I would have difficulty in reversing these judgments. I think, however, the constitutional questions must be reached and that they make reversal necessary.” 

*Garner v. Louisiana* was an important case for the Civil Rights Movement, and one of many civil rights cases argued before the Warren Court (1953-69). 
Eventually, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 "outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion or national origin in hotels, motels, restaurants, theaters, and all other public s engaged in interstate commerce."

## References
Civil Rights Act of 1875

The **Civil Rights Act of 1875** (–337), sometimes called **Enforcement Act** or **Force Act**, was a United States federal law  during the Reconstruction era to guarantee African Americans equal treatment in , public transportation, and to prevent being d from jury duty.  The bill was passed by the 43rd United States Congress and signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant on March 1, 1875.  Several years later, the Supreme Court ruled in *Civil Rights Cases* (1833) that sections of the act were unconstitutional.

## History of Act
### Legislative History
The ing of the bill was done in early 1870 by Senator Charles Sumner. It was with the assistance of John Mercer Langston, a prominent African-American who established the law department at Howard University. The bill was proposed by Senator Sumner and co-sponsored by Representative Benjamin F. Butler, both Republicans from Massachusetts, in the 41st United States Congress in 1870. The act was eventually passed by the 43rd Congress in February 1875 and signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant on March 1, 1875.

### Constitutional challenge
The Supreme Court, in an 8 to 1 decision, declared the act unconstitutional in the *Civil Rights Cases* on October 15, 1883. Justice John Marshall Harlan provided the lone dissent. The Court held the Equal Protection Clause within the Fourteenth Amendment prohibits discrimination by the state and local government, but it does not give the federal government the power to prohibit discrimination by private individuals and organizations. The Court also held that the Thirteenth Amendment was meant to eliminate "the badge of slavery," but not to prohibit racial discrimination in public accommodations. The Civil Rights Act of 1875 was the last civil rights bill to be signed into law in the United States until the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1957.

### Legacy of law
The Civil Rights Act of 1875 is  as one of the major pieces of legislation related to Reconstruction that were passed by Congress after the American Civil War.  These include the Civil Rights Act of 1866, the four Reconstruction Acts of 1867 and 1868, the three Enforcement Acts of 1870 and 1871, and the three Constitutional Amendments adopted between 1865 and 1870.

Provisions contained in the Civil Rights Act of 1875 were later adopted by Congress during the Civil Rights Movement as part of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Civil Rights Act of 1968. This legislation relied on the Commerce Clause  in Article One of the Constitution of the United States.

## References
Federal judiciary of the United States

The **federal judiciary of the United States** is one of the three co-equal branches of the Federal government of the United States organized under the United States Constitution. Article III of the Constitution requires the establishment of a Supreme Court and permits the Congress to create other federal courts, and place limitations on their jurisdiction. The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest court. There is generally no right of appeal to the Supreme Court. In a few situations (like lawsuits between state governments or some cases between the federal government and a state) it sits as a court of original jurisdiction.

The United States courts of appeals are the intermediate federal appellate courts. There are 13 appellate courts that determine if the law was applied correctly in trial courts. In some cases, Congress has diverted appellate jurisdiction to specialized courts, such as the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review.

There are 94 United States district courts. These are general federal trial courts, although in many cases Congress has diverted original jurisdiction to specialized courts, such as the Court of International Trade, the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court, the Alien Terrorist Removal Court, or to Article I or Article IV tribunals. The district courts usually have jurisdiction to hear appeals from such tribunals (unless, for example, appeals are to the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit.)

## References
Biological half-life

A **half life** of a substance is the amount of time it takes to decay into half of its activity. Usually, this refers to the body's getting rid of a substance. This happens by the function of kidneys and liver as well as excretion.

## Related pages 
*Half-life (element)
Der Barbier von Bagdad

***Der Barbier von Bagdad*** (*The Barber of Baghdad*), is an German comic opera with music and libretto by Peter Cornelius. It is based on "The Tale of the Tailor" and "The Barber's Stories of his Six Brothers" in One Thousand and One Nights. It was first performed in Weimar, on December 15, 1858. By far Cornelius' most successful work and his only opera still regularly performed.

## Principal characters
* Nureddin - tenor
* Bostana - mezzo-soprano
* Abdul Hassan Ali Ebn Bekar, *the barber* - bass
* Margiana - soprano
* Baba Mustapha, *the Cadi* - tenor
* The Caliph - baritone

## Discography
* 1952: Rudolf Schock (Nureddin), Hilde Rössl-Majdan (Bostana), Gottlob Frick (Abdul Hassan), Sena Jurinac (Margiana); Chor und Orchester Radio Wien, Heinrich Hollreiser - (Melodram)
* 1956: Nicolai Gedda (Nureddin), Grace Hoffmann (Bostana), Oskar Czerwenka (Abdul Hassan), Elisabeth Schwarzkopf (Margiana); Philharmonia Chorus and Orchestra, Erich Leinsdorf - (EMI Classics)
* 1973: Adlabert Kraus (Nureddin), Trudeliese Schmidt (Bostana), Karl Ridderbusch (Abdul Hassan), Sylvia Geszty (Margiana); Chor des Bayerischen Rundfunks, Münchner Rundfunkorchester, Heinrich Hollreiser - (RCA Records)
* 1974: Horst R. Laubenthal (Nureddin), Marga Schiml (Bostana), Hans Sotin (Abdul Hassan), Helen Donath (Margiana); Kölner Rundfunkchor, Kölner Rundfunk-Sinfonieorchester, Ferdinand Leitner - (Profil)

## Sources
* *The Complete Dictionary of Opera & Operetta*, James Anderson, Wings Books, 1993.
Marcelo Martins Moreno

**Marcelo Martins Moreno** (born 18 June 1987 in Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia), known as **Marcelo Martins** or **Marcelo Moreno**, is a Bolivian former professional footballer. He played as a striker for the Bolivia national football team.

## Career statistics
### Club
### International
## Honours
**Vitória**
* Campeonato Baiano: 2005, 2007

**Cruzeiro**
* Campeonato Brasileiro Série A: 2014
* Campeonato Mineiro: 2008, 2014

**Shakhtar Donetsk**
* Ukrainian Premier League: 2010–11
* UEFA Cup: 2008–09

**Werder Bremen**
* DFL-Supercup: 2009

**Flamengo**
* Copa do Brasil: 2013

**Individual**
*Copa Libertadores de América top scorer: 2008
*China League One top goalscorer: 2017

## References
Hernandez v. Texas

***Hernandez v. Texas***, '''''', was a landmark decision by the United States Supreme Court. In a  ruling, the Court held that Mexican Americans and all other  or national groups in the United States had equal protection under the 14th Amendment of the U.S. Constitution.

## Background
Pete Hernandez, a Mexican-American agricultural worker, was convicted for the 1950 murder of Joe Espinosa. Hernandez's *pro bono* legal team, including Gustavo C. García, wanted to  what they knew was "the systematic exclusion of persons of Mexican origin" from all types of jury duty in at least seventy counties in Texas. His defense lawyers argued that persons of Mexican descent had not been allowed to serve on juries even though numerous Mexican Americans were citizens and had  for jury duty in Jackson County. Even though 14 percent of the county was Hispanic, none had served on juries for at least the last 25 years. This meant Hernandez had been d of his Fourteenth Amendment rights. Hernandez and his lawyers appealed to the Supreme Court of Texas, then to the United States Supreme Court through a writ of certiorari.

## Ruling
The unanimous majority opinion was delivered by Chief Justice Earl Warren. The Court ruled the Fourteenth Amendment protects persons beyond the racial classes of white or black, and extends  to other racial or national groups, as well as legal classes. Mexican Americans were such a "special class" and were entitled to equal protection under the Fourteenth Amendment.

## Results 
Pete Hernandez was granted a new trial with a jury that included Mexican Americans. Hernandez was found to be guilty of murder. The ultimate effect of this ruling was that the protection of the 14th Amendment was ruled to cover any racial, national and ethnic groups of the United States for which discrimination could be proved. The Court's ruling served as a legal precedent used in legal challenges against unfair housing laws, school segregation, and voting rights of Mexican Americans nationwide.

## References 
## Other websites 
* Majority Opinion written by Chief Justice Earl Warren
* Judge Carlos Cadena, lead petitioner before the US Supreme Court 
* Gustavo C. Garcia, co-petitioner before the US Supreme Court
Tayap

**Tayap** is a small village in Cameroon. It is  from Yaoundé, the capital city. It is  from Douala, the biggest city of the country.

The climate is equatorial. It is usually hot, . It is often wet. There are four different seasons.

In 2005, 272 people lived in Tayap. The village has a primary school. It has 4 classrooms.

Most people work in agriculture. They produce manioc, bananas, oranges, mangoes, vegetables, peanuts, cocoa and palm oil.

The village is surrounded by a large forest but deforestation is a major problem in this area.
 
Since 2011 Tayap focuses on biodiversity and ecology. It tries to develop new activities such as tourism.

## References 
## Other websites 
* Agripo
Ordinary least squares

in macroeconomics states that in an economy the GDP growth should depend linearly on the changes in the unemployment rate. Here the **ordinary least squares** method is used to construct the regression line describing this law. The observed values are shown in blue, the expected ones are shown in black.]]
**Ordinary least squares** or **linear least squares** is a method for estimating unknown parameters in statistics. It is a method used in linear regression. The goal of the method is to minimize the difference between the observed responses and the responses predicted by the linear approximation of the data. A smaller difference means that model fits the data better. Ordinary least squares is a special case of a method commonly called least squares.  The resulting estimator can be expressed by a simple formula.
Justice of the peace

A **justice of the peace** (**JP**) is a judicial officer, elected or ed to a local court that has limited jurisdiction. In some locations a JP deals with traffic violations, parking tickets and may have the authority to perform marriages ceremonies. In many places they are the entry-level courts that most criminal cases pass through. JP courts were popular in early history, but are now found mostly in rural areas. In 1264, "Keepers of the Peace were appointed in every county to serve the king. An  is filled out and usually there is a fee. Justices may be chosen by their s and s. Many have law degrees while others may have taken a few law classes.
 
## References 
## Other websites 
* Justice of the Peace, Texas Association of Counties 
* How to Become a Justice of the Peace in Canada
* Justice of the Peace in Australia
* Becoming a Magistrate in England and Wales
Mount Kenya

**Mount Kenya** is the highest mountain in Kenya. It is  high. It is the second highest mountain in Africa. It is an extinct volcano. It is on the equator. It is  northeast of Nairobi.

## References
Flame fougasse

A **flame fougasse** (**fougasse** or **foo gas**) is a type of mine or improvised explosive device. It uses an explosive charge to put burning liquid onto a target.

The flame fougasse was developed in Britain as an anti-tank weapon in the World War II invasion crisis of 1940. During that period, about 50,000 flame fougasse barrels were put in some 7,000 batteries. Most were in southern England and some in Scotland. Although never used in combat in Britain, the design saw action later in Greece.

## References
Case citation

**Case citation** is a system used by legal professionals to identify past court case decisions. These are found either in series of books called reporters or law reports, or in a neutral style that identifies a decision regardless of where it is reported. Case citations are ted differently in different jurisdictions, but generally contain the same key information.

A **legal citation** is a "reference to a legal precedent or authority, such as a case, statute, or work, that either agrees with or s a given position". Where cases are published on paper, the citation usually contains the following information:
* Report title
* Volume number
* Page, section, or paragraph number
* Publication year

In some report series, for example in England and Australia, volumes are not numbered ly of the year. So the year and volume number (usually no greater than 4) are required to identify which book of the series has the case reported within its covers. In such citations, it is usual in these jurisdictions to apply square brackets "" to the year (which may not be the year that the case was decided, For example, a case decided in December 2001 may have been reported in 2002).

The Internet brought with it the opportunity for courts to publish their decisions on websites. Decisions of many courts from all over the world can now be found through the website WorldLII and its member institutes.

Most court decisions are not published on . The large number of court decisions found online  resulted in a flood of information. The result was that a medium-neutral citation system was adopted.  This usually contains the following information:
* Year of decision
* Abbreviated title of the court
* Decision number (not the court file number)
Rather than utilizing page numbers for "pinpoint references", which would depend upon particular printers and browsers, pinpoint quotations refer to paragraph numbers.

The conjunction "versus" is abbreviated to "v" in Commonwealth countries and to "v." in  the United States.

## Pronunciation of case titles
In common law countries with an adversarial system of justice, the names of the opposing parties are separated in the case title by the abbreviation *v.* The abbreviation represents the Latin word ''*, which means *against*. When case titles are read out loud, the *v.* can be d, depending on the context, as *and*, *against*, *versus*, or *vee''.

## References
Barisal Zilla School

**Barisal Zilla School** is a boys school located in Barisal, Bangladesh. It is one of the oldest and top ranked high schools in the country and the first high school in Barisal Division.

It was founded by an Englishman, N. W. Garret, on 23 December 1829 with only 8 students. Now it has more than two thousand students.

## Notable alumni 
* A. K. Fazlul Huq, Prime Minister of Bengal (1937–1943)
* Khan Bahadur Hasem Ali Khan, Bengali nationalist and former minister of United Bengal
* Abdul Jabbar Khan, Speaker of the National Assembly of Pakistan (1965–1969)
* Abdur Rahman Biswas, President of Bangladesh (1991–1996)
* Altaf Mahmud, music composer
* Sardar Fazlul Karim, philosopher
* Buddhadeb Guha, writer
* Golam Mustafa, Ekushey Padak and National Film Award winning actor
* Manzoor Alam Beg, father of the fine art photography movement in Bangladesh, Alokchitracharya (the great teacher of photography), Ekushey Padak awardee
* Lieutenant General Hasan Mashhud Chowdhury, former chief of Army staff of Bangladesh
* Tapan Raychaudhuri, historian, Padma Bhushan awardee
* Promode Dasgupta, communist leader
* Tawfiq-e-Elahi Chowdhury, Bir Bikrom
* Hafizuddin Ahmed, Bir Bikrom
* Siraj Sikder, communist revolutionist

## References
Katzenbach v. McClung

***Katzenbach v. McClung***, 379 U.S. 294 (1964), is a landmark decision by the United States Supreme Court. The Court held that Congress acted within its power under the Commerce Clause of the United States Constitution in forbidding racial discrimination in restaurants as this was a burden to interstate commerce. The ruling was a 9–0 decision in favor of the plaintiff—the United States government. It was also a test case of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. In particular, 

## Background 
Ollie's Barbecue was a family-owned restaurant that operated in Birmingham, Alabama, that seated 220 s. It was located on a state highway and was 11 city blocks from an interstate highway. In a typical year, approximately half of the food it purchased from a local supplier came from out-of-state. It catered to local families and  workers. However, they refused to serve African American customers in the restaurant. About 24 of the 36 employees of the restaurant were black.

Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1964

Justice Clark wrote the majority opinion, with concurrences by Justices Black, Douglas, and Goldberg. In section 2 of the opinion, the Court agreed with McClung that Ollie's itself had virtually no effect on interstate commerce. In section 4 of the opinion, the Court held that racial discrimination in restaurants had a significant impact on interstate commerce, and therefore Congress has the power to regulate this conduct under the Commerce Clause. The Court's conclusion was based on extensive Congressional hearings on the issue. 

## Later developments 
After decades in operation, Ollie's Barbecue moved to the suburb of Pelham in 1999 and closed in 2001.

## Notes 
## References
Proof-of-work system

A **proof-of-work (POW) system** is a system where finding a solution to a given problem is difficult and/or expensive, but verifying the solution to the given problem is simple and/or cheap. 

## Example
Find the positive integer whose sha256 hash value is:

 c75cb66ae28d8ebc6eded002c28a8ba0d06d3a78c6b5cbf9b2ade051f0775ac4

To find this integer, you must compute the sha256 value for every integer starting with zero until you find the right value. While each individual computation is trivial and cheap, cumulatively the work adds up and becomes time consuming and expensive. To successfully reproduce the given hash value, you must do some work.

Find some data whose sha256 hash value begins with at least 8 leading zeros:

 000000000019d6689c085ae165831e934ff763ae46a2a6c172b3f1b60a8ce26f

In the first example, the problem required the original value as proof that work had been done. In this example, it does not matter what the data is, only that it produces a hash value with the given constraints. Finding this data is difficult, but once found, it is trivial to verify by running it through sha256.
University of Barisal

**University of Barisal** (  also known as **Barisal University** or simply **BU**), is a public university located in Barisal, a city in southern Bangladesh. It is the only general public university in Barishal division and the country's 33rd public university. It was established in 2011 and started educational activities on 25 January 2012.
## References
Barisal Sadar Upazila

**Barisal Sadar** () is an Upazila of Barisal District in the Division of Barisal, Bangladesh.

## Population
The population of Barisal Sadar Upazila is 527,017. Males are 52.72% of the population, and females 47.28%. The population density is about 1625 people per km².

## References
Institut supérieur de l'aéronautique et de l'espace

The '''Institut supérieur de l'aéronautique et de l'espace** (**ISAE-SUPAERO'*; ) is a renowned graduate engineering school in France. It is in a campus of the University of Toulouse (South France).

Its different curricula lead to the following French & European degrees :
* *Ingénieur SUPAERO* (SUPAERO Graduate engineer Masters level program)
* Master of Science & *Doctorat* (PhD doctorate studies )
* *Mastères Spécialisés* (MS) (In partnership with the French Civil Aviation University)
* Massive Online Open Course

Academic activities and industrial applied research are performed mainly in French and English languages. Students from a lot of nationalities participate to the different curricula at SUPAERO.

Most of the 1600 graduate engineer students at ISAE-SUPAERO live in dedicated residential buildings nearby research labs and metro public transports.

## History 
The school results from the *École nationale supérieure de l'aéronautique et de l'espace* (created In 1909) and the *École nationale supérieure d'ingénieurs de construction aéronautique* (created in 1946).

In June 2025, the school created the Toulouse School of Aviation and Aerospace Engineering with ENAC.

## Admission 
Admission to the *Supaero engineering Programme* implemented at ISAE is possible after two/three year scientific undergraduate studies and requires success to either:
* an admission exam for Bachelors of Sciences ;
* a French nationwide selective exam with *numerus clausus* : concours Mines-Ponts (3-year curriculum including at least 2 years in France)
* a selective application as per *Top Industrial Managers for Europe* (TIME) double degrees procedures applicable in Europe (2+2-year curriculum, including 2 years in France)

The *Supaero Programme'' typically lasts three years and results in a master's degree, augmented with international experience. Thus undergraduate studies + the Supaero Programme account for more than a cumulated 300 ECTS credits as applicable in the European education system.

However, graduate students enrolled in the TIME double degree procedure are required to spend two-years at ISAE and spend two years in the TIME-partner institute for a total of four years resulting in a double master's degree.

## Research labs 
Research activities at ISAE relate to the following topics:
* Aerodynamics, energetics, propulsion
* Mechanics of structure and materials
* Electronics, optronics and signal
* Mathematics, computer science, automatics
* Languages, arts, cultures, societies
* Aeronautics and Space Centre

## Notable graduate 
* Guy du Merle, French aerospace engineer, pilot and writer

## References 
## Further reading 
* Official website
Libertarian Party (Spain)

The **Libertarian Party** (Spanish: Partido Libertario or **P-LIB**) is a Spanish political party. It was formed in 2009. It is currently led by Juan Pina.

The party believes in classical liberalism and that government should stay out of economics. They also believe in objectivism. They believe that governments should only be able to protect people from violence, theft, fraud, and other actions that go against people's rights. The party is open to some more libertarian and anarcho-capitalism ideas. There are two groups within the party; the Objectivist and Radicals. Most party members aren't involved with these groups.

The party took part in the 2011 Spanish general election in Madrid and Zaragoza. They received about 7,000 votes to the Senate and over 2,000 (0.01 %) to the Congress.

## Other websites 
*Official website (in Spanish)

## References
European Canadians

**European Canadians** (sometimes called **Euro-Canadians**) are Canadians with ancestry from Europe. As of 2011, there were 25,186,890 European Canadians in Canada.

The French were the first Europeans to live in Canada permanently. Hélène Desportes was the first "white" person born in New France. She was born in 1620.

In 2006, most European Canadians had English ancestry (21.03%). Other common ancestries were French (15.82%), Scottish (15.11%), Irish (13.94%), German (10.18%) then Italian (4.63%). However, 32.22% of people said they had Canadian ancestry. Because of this, some people think the numbers for the English and French ancestry are too low.

Most European Canadians are Christian. A small number of them are Jews, Deists, Agnostics, Atheists, Muslims, Bahá'ís, Paganists/Wiccas and Unitarian Universalists. Most also speak English and French.

## References
Latin American Canadians

**Latin American Canadians** are Canadians with ancestry from Latin America. They may also be called "Latino Canadian" and "Latin Canadian". As of 2011, there were 381,280 Latin American Canadians in Canada.

Most Latin American Canadians speak two or more languages. They usually speak Spanish and/or Portuguese along with English and French.

A lot of Latin American Canadians came to Canada in the late 20th century. They came to Canada because it has better economic opportunities than their native country. Some Cubans came to Canada to escape Fidel Castro's regime. Other Latino Americans left their country because Canada offered freedom from war.

In 2011, most Latin American Canadians had Mexican ancestry (18.6%). Other common ancestries were Colombian (16.2%), Salvadoran (11.7%), Peruvian (7.1%), Chilean (6.7%) and Brazilian (6.1%).

Almost all Latino American Canadians are Christian.

## References
Gregg v. Georgia

***Gregg v. Georgia***, *Proffitt v. Florida*, *Jurek v. Texas*, *Woodson v. North Carolina*, and *Roberts v. Louisiana*,  were a group of landmark cases that the United States Supreme Court decided together in 1976.  They had to do with capital punishment in the United States.

In these cases, the Court ruled that the states could use capital punishment (the death penalty), but only if they followed certain rules.  If the states did not follow these rules when they sentenced people to death, they would be  the Constitution of the United States by giving out a cruel and unusual punishment.

In 1972, the Court had ruled that the way Georgia was using the death penalty was unconstitutional.  After this decision, all of the states stopped using the death penalty while they changed their capital punishment laws.  Because of this, there were no executions in the United States between 1972 and 1976.

However, in *Gregg v. Georgia*, the Court ruled that Georgia's new death penalty law was constitutional, and they gave the state permission to execute Troy Leon Gregg.

The Supreme Court agreed that when Georgia gave the death penalty to these three men, the state violated the Eighth Amendment.  Different Supreme Court Justices said Georgia's death penalty was 'cruel and unusual' for different reasons.  If a certain group, like black people, is more likely to get the death penalty just because of their race, they are not being treated equally under the laws.

### The death penalty stops
After *Furman*, all of the states stopped using the death penalty so they could change their capital punishment laws.  They wanted these new laws to make sure the death penalty would not be given in an arbitrary or discriminatory way.  By early 1975, thirty states had passed new death penalty laws that they thought would satisfy the Supreme Court and let them use the death penalty in a constitutional way. Jerry Jurek, James Tyrone Woodson, and Stanislaus Roberts  were each convicted of murder.  Each was sentenced to death.  Each defendant appealed to their state's Supreme Court.  Each of the five state Supreme Courts said the death sentences were fair and legal.
* It made it clear that the death penalty would remain legal in the United States
** However, it set rules for how the death penalty had to be given
** It also added extra protections for defendants
* It allowed states to start using the death penalty again

## Notes
## Related pages
* Capital punishment in the United States
* Cruel and unusual punishment
* Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution

## References
Peremptory challenge

A **peremptory challenge** is a right during voir dire (the process of selecting a jury) to reject a certain number of  jurors without having to give a reason. The word "peremptory" means without a reason given; allowing no  or refusal. Peremptory challenges may be made by either  to the proceedings. This kind of challenge has been more difficult to use because the Supreme Court of the United States has prohibited peremptory challenges (also called peremptory strikes) based on gender or race.

## History 
The peremptory challenge has its roots in Roman law.
* In *Batson v. Kentucky*, , prosecutors may not use peremptory challenges to exclude jurors based on race as it violates the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.
* In *Tanner v. United States*, , the Court held that a jury verdict would not be overturned even when the jury had been consuming copious amounts of alcohol, marijuana and cocaine during the trial and s. 

## Notes 
## References
Garry Shandling

**Garry Emmanuel Shandling** (November 29, 1949 – March 24, 2016) was an American comedian, actor, writer, producer and director. He was best known for his work in ''It's Garry Shandling's Show* and *The Larry Sanders Show*.

## Early life
Shandling was born **Garry Emmanuel Shandling** in Chicago, Illinois on November 29, 1949. He was raised in Tucson, Arizona. He studied at the University of Arizona.

## Career
Shandling began his career in 1975. He started writing for sitcoms such as *Sanford and Son* and *Welcome Back, Kotter*. He began his career in comedy when he was on *The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson* and was on the show many times. 

Shandling was for a thought to replace Carson (other hopefuls were Joan Rivers, David Letterman and David Brenner). In 1986, he created *It's Garry Shandling's Show*, for the pay cable channel Showtime. It was nominated for four Emmy Awards (including one for Shandling) and lasted until 1990. His second show, *The Larry Sanders Show*, which began airing on HBO in 1992, was even more successful. 

Shandling was nominated for 18 Emmy Awards for the show and won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series in 1998, along with Peter Tolan, for writing the series finale. In movies, Shandling had the same role as Senator Stern in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, appearing in *Iron Man 2* and *Captain America: The Winter Soldier'', as well as a voice in DreamWorks Animation's *Over the Hedge*.

His last movies were *Captain America: The Winter Soldier* (2015) and *The Jungle Book* (2016).

## Personal life
Shandling was in a relationship with Linda Doucett from 1987 through 1994. He lived in Los Angeles, California. 

### Death
Shandling died in Los Angeles from a pulmonary embolism caused by thrombosis in his leg on March 24, 2016. He was aged 66.

## Awards
During his career, Shandling was nominated for 19 Primetime Emmy Awards and two Golden Globe Awards, along with many other awards and nominations. He served as host of the Grammy Awards four times and as host of the Emmy Awards three times.

## References
## Other websites
* 
* 
* 
* Garry Shandling on Charlie Rose  via Google Video (2006)
*  in 2002
* AllMovie.com: Garry Shandling
* Museum of Broadcasting: ''It's Garry Shandling's Show* / *The Larry Sanders Show'' 
* Filmbug.com: Garry Shandling