open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Set theory

illustrating the intersection of two sets]]
**Set theory** is the study of sets in mathematics. Sets are collections of s. We refer to these objects as "elements" or "members" of the set. To write a set, one wraps the numbers in {curly brackets}, and separates them with commas. For example. the set \{1,2,3\} holds 1, 2, and 3. Sets are also often referred to using capital roman letters such as A, B, C.

There are three methods one can use to describe a set: Description method, Roster method (tabular form) and Rule method (set builder form).

## History
Set theory was created around 1874 by Georg Cantor. It had to be made better because collections of objects can cause problems if we work with them without explaining them better. Russell's paradox was one of the problems. Think about the set of all sets that are not members of themselves. If it were inside itself, then the rule which defines it would mean that it is *not* inside itself. But, if it were not inside itself, then the rule which defines it would mean that it *is* inside itself. This was a serious problem, and it meant that the old set theory was broken.
It was improved by people including Zermelo and Bertrand Russell.

## Theory
Set theory begins by giving some examples of things that are sets. Then it gives rules in which you can make other sets from the already known sets. Collections of objects that are not sets are called (proper) classes. It is possible to do mathematics using only sets, rather than classes, so that the problems that classes cause in mathematics do not occur.

* Example: An object o and a set A. If o is a *member* (or *element*) of A, we write o\in A. Since sets are objects, the membership relation can relate sets as well.

A binary relation between two sets is the subset relation, also called *set inclusion*. If all the members of set A are also members of set B, then A is a *subset* of B, marking A\subseteq B. For example, \{1,2\} is a subset of \{1,2,3\}, but \{1,4\} is not. From this example, it is clear that a set is a subset of itself. In cases where one wishes not to have this, the term *proper subset* is meant not to have this possibility.

The self-considering objects in set theory was considered too, with some example numbers being 1={1}, 2={1, 2}, 3={1, 2, 3} and so on.

## Related pages 
*Cantor set
*Cantor's theorem
*Cardinality
*Continuum (mathematics)
*Mathematical logic
*Naive set theory
*Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory

## References 
## Further reading 
* Chechulin V. L., Theory of sets with self-considering (foundations and some applications), Publishing by Perm State University (Russia), Perm, 2010, 100 p.  (In this non-predicative theory overcoming the limitations of  predicative formal systems, i.e. Godel's theorems, the text is accessible from the page http://elibrary.ru/item.asp?id=15267103 )
Bangor

**Bangor** is a city name found in several countries.

## Australia
*Bangor, New South Wales
*Bangor, South Australia
*Bangor, Tasmania

## Canada
*Bangor, Nova Scotia
*Bangor, Ontario
*Bangor, Prince Edward Island
*Bangor (city), Saskatchewan
*Bangor (town), Saskatchewan

*Bangor Lodge, Saskatchewan
*Bangor Road, Prince Edward Island

## France
*Bangor, Morbihan

## United Kingdom
*Bangor, County Down
*Bangor, Gwynedd (Wales)

*Bangor-on-Dee, in Wales; also known as **Bangor Is-Coed** or **Bangor-Is-y-Coed**

## United States
*Bangor, Alabama
*Bangor, California
*Bangor, Maine
*Bangor, Michigan *(see also Bangor Township, Michigan, below)*
*Bangor, New York
*Bangor, Pennsylvania
*Bangor, Washington
*Bangor, Wisconsin (village)
*Bangor (town), Wisconsin

*Bangor Township, Iowa
*Bangor Township, Minnesota
*Bangor Township, Bay County, Michigan *(see also Bangor, Michigan, above)*
*Bangor Township, South Dakota
*East Bangor, Pennsylvania
Breton language

**Breton** ('** in Breton) is a Celtic language that is spoken in Brittany, in the north-west of France. Breton is closely related to Welsh, which is spoken in Wales, and to Cornish, which is spoken in Cornwall, in south-western Great Britain. All of them are Brythonic languages.

Breton is less closely related to the Goidelic languages of Scottish Gaelic, which is spoken in Scotland; Irish, which is spoken in Ireland; and Manx, which is spoken on the Isle of Man.

Breton has about 240,000 speakers,111 but that number is falling very quickly because the French government has a policy of using French. As such, Breton is considered to be an endangered language.

## Example
**Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights'''

## References
Hunger strike

A **hunger strike** is a way that people protest by not eating.  Many people have done this to get people's attention, especially the attention of leaders.

Sometimes, hunger strikes are done by people who are in prison. In this case, the hunger strikes are sometimes ended by force feeding, when the prisoners are fed against their will through a feeding tube.

## References
## Related pages 
*Strike action
Dirt

**Dirt** may refer to:
* Soil, on the ground (usually used in North America)
* Waste material, an unwanted mixture of dust, soil, and other solids.
Hermitage Museum

The **Hermitage Museum** (Эрмитаж) in St. Petersburg, Russia is one of the largest and oldest art galleries and museums of human history and culture in the world. The vast Hermitage collections are displayed in six buildings, founded by Catherine II of Russia in 1764 and opened in public since 1852. The main building is the Winter Palace. This was the official residence of the Russian Tsars. 

## Collections 
Strong points of the Hermitage collection of Western art include Michelangelo, Giambattista Pittoni, Leonardo da Vinci, Rubens, Van Dyck, Rembrandt, Poussin, Claude Lorraine, Watteau, Tiepolo, Canaletto, Canova, Rodin, Monet, Pissarro, Renoir, Cézanne, Van Gogh, Gauguin, Picasso, and Matisse. There are several more collections. Among the collections are the Russian imperial regalia, an assortment of Faberge jewellery, and the largest existing collection of ancient gold from Eastern Europe and Western Asia.

## Cats 
Some cats lives on the museum grounds. They are named the Hermitage cats. They are an added attraction for tourists.

 

## References
1081

## Events 
* Corfu taken from Byzantine Empire by Robert Guiscard, Norman King of Southern Italy
* Byzantine emperor Nicephorus III is overthrown by Alexius I Comnenus, ending the Middle Byzantine period and beginning the Comnenan dynasty
* Alexius I helps defend Albania from the Normans (the first recorded mention of Albania), but is defeated at the Battle of Dyrrhachium.
* Beginning of the construction of Saint Canute's Cathedral in Odense.
* May 8 – Alfonso VI of Castile marries Constance of Burgundy.
## Births 
* December 1 &ndash; King Louis VI of France, French royal (died 1137)
Celtic languages

The **Celtic languages** are a language family of the Indo-European languages.  They were once more widespread among the Celts.  Six Celtic languages are still spoken today in north-western Europe.  They are divided into two groups: the Goidelic (or Gaelic) languages and the Brythonic (or British) languages. 

The three Goidelic languages that are still spoken are Irish, Scottish Gaelic and Manx. Scottish Gaelic is the main language spoken in parts of north-eastern Scotland.  Irish is the main language spoken in the Gaeltacht, in Ireland.  Manx is spoken mainly by people interested in the language but used to be spoken on the Isle of Man.

The three Brythonic languages that are still spoken are Welsh, Cornish, and Breton. Cornish became extinct in the 18th century, but some people have started to speak it again in Cornwall, in north-western Great Britain. Welsh is spoken everywhere throughout Wales, but it is the first language for people mainly in the north and the west of Wales, in the area that some people call the *Bro Gymraeg.* Breton is spoken mainly in western Brittany and is the only Celtic language that is not spoken mainly on the British Isles. Because Brittany is part of France, the language is in danger of becoming extinct, just like Cornish, and efforts are ongoing to prevent that from happening.

Scottish Gaelic also has a native community of speakers in Canada, where it was once widely spoken, especially in Nova Scotia, and there are Welsh-speakers in Patagonia, Argentina.

## List of Celtic languages 
### Goidelic languages 
* Scottish Gaelic
* Irish
* Manx

### Brythonic languages 
* Welsh
* Breton
* Cornish

## Related pages 
* Celtic League
Wasilla, Alaska

**Wasilla** is a small city in the U.S. state of Alaska, about 43 miles from Anchorage.  It is one of the ten largest cities in Alaska.  Sarah Palin was once mayor and owns a house with her family there.

The city's population was 9,054 at the 2020 census.

## References
## Other websites
*Official City of Wasilla website
Winter Springs, Florida

**Winter Springs** is a city in Florida. It is sometimes considered a suburb of Orlando.

## Geography 
Winter Springs has a total area of 15 square miles.
Rantoul, Illinois

**Rantoul** is a village in Champaign County, Illinois, United States. Almost 12,000 people were living in Rantoul as of 2020.  Rantoul has an area of 8.6 square miles.

## References
Fredericton, New Brunswick

**Fredericton** is the capital city of New Brunswick, Canada. It is filled with rich history. Fredericton is on the Saint John River. There is a playhouse. There are scenic walking trails. Frederiction is the capital of New Brunswick. The population of Fredericton was 63,116 at the 2021 census.

## References
## Other websites
*City of Fredericton's official website
Googolplex

A **googolplex** is the number 10googol, equivalent to 1010100  or 10Ten duotrigintillion or 1010,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000.

Like the number *googol*, *googolplex* was thought of by Milton Sirotta, the nephew of mathematician Edward Kasner.

The company Google named their , the Googleplex, after the number.

A **googolplexplex / goggolplexian / goggolduplex / goggolplexsquared** is a 1 followed by a Googolplex amount of zeros which is 10googolplex (101010100 ).

A **goggolplexianth** is represented as 10^googolplexian

Though thought to be infinite, it has been theorized that with enough computers and enough time, this number could be written.

## Related pages
* Exponent
* Graham's number 
* Googol
Valley Center, California

**Valley Center** is a census-designated place in San Diego County, California. It has a population of 10,087 people.

## References
Anaheim, California

**Anaheim** is a city in the United States. It was founded by German immigrants in 1857. It is the home of Disneyland, and two professional sports teams, The Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim (baseball) and the Anaheim Ducks (ice hockey).

## References
Chair

A **Chair** is a piece of furniture that is usually made out of wood or plastic. It can also be made out of fabric, metal, wool, and stone. There can be different variants of chairs like stools, rocking chairs, gaming chairs, folding chairs, and armchairs. There are also wide variety of chairs, those with fabric are often called sofas, or couches, while those many without fabric are often referred to as benches. There are also less conventional chairs such as bean bag chairs and swinging chairs. Some of these chairs can be made out of many materials, not just fabric, metal, or wood. They can also be made out of leather, usually found in cars.  

## Other websites
1163

## Events 
* Owain Gwynedd is recognized as ruler of Wales.
* Silesian duchies accept suzerainty of Holy Roman Empire.
* Law of Succession is introduced in Norway.
* Council of Tours is held, names and condemns Albigensians.
* Abbey of Lokkum in Hanover is founded as a Cistercian house by Cornwall
* Egyptian empire re– resurrected for 10 days
Flint

cliffs. The slanting dark lines in the chalk are flint.]]
 from Hoxne, England. This is the first published picture of a handaxe in archaeological history. The handaxe was not a weapon; it was a tool used in butchering the carcasses of mammals.]]

**Flint**, or **flintstone**, is a kind of sedimentary rock, made of silica.

Bands of flint are found embedded in chalk and other kinds  of soft limestone. 

When the chalk is eroded, the hard flint nodules survive as pebbles on a shingle beach. It may happen that the pebbles later get cemented into another rock, such as a puddingstone. In this way, they make up a sedimentary rock for the second time.

## Technical description 
Flint is a cryptocrystalline (means you can't see the crystals) form of the mineral quartz. It is a variety of chert. It occurs as a line of knobbly masses in  chalk and some limestones. Inside the nodule, flint is usually translucent, and can be various colours. A thin layer on the outside of the nodules is usually different in colour, typically white and rough in texture.

## Uses 
Flintstones often have a rough lumpy surface but when they are broken, they look like dark glass. It has been one of the most useful types of stone to humankind.

Flint was used by hominins for over three million years. Stone tools found at Lake Turkana in Kenya, are dated as 3.3 million years old. This predates the genus *Homo* by half a million years. The oldest known *Homo* fossil is 2.8 million years old compared to the 3.3 million year old stone tools.

When flintstones are broken, they have a sharp edge which could be used as a knife, or a scraper.  When flint and an iron-containing material such as pyrite or steel are hit together, they can make a spark. For many centuries, flint was one of the main ways for people in many countries to make fire. People would carry a little box called a "tinder box" which had some tinder along with flint and pyrite or steel. The tinder was used to catch the spark and start a fire. Tinder could be sawdust, cloth, grass or bark. Flints were later used to make a spark to fire a gun. A gun that used flint was called a "flintlock" gun.

Flintstones are used in some countries for building. In England the flintstones used for building were often "knapped" which means they were broken to show the inside, like the stones used for the tower of Long Melford Church (below). This gave a better finish to the building that the dull knobbly stones would have made.

## Gallery 
 

Image:ALM 05 Dolch.jpg|A flint dagger nearly 5000 years old, from Germany 
Image:Steinschloss.jpg|A "flint-lock" on a gun
Image:Flint & brick detail.JPG|Flint & brick wall
Image:Merton priory flint wall remains.jpg|The flintstone wall of a building in England 
Image:Long Melford Holy Trinity Church 01.jpg|Holy Trinity Church at Long Melford has a tower of knapped flint.

## Related pages 
* Chalk 
* Palaeolithic

## References
The Karate Kid

***The Karate Kid*** is a 1984 American drama movie starring Ralph Macchio and Pat Morita. It tells the story of a boy named Daniel LaRusso who moves with his mother from New Jersey to Los Angeles, California. Daniel has trouble  and is bullied by a teenager named Johnny Lawrence and his friends at his school. Mr. Miyagi (Morita), the mechanic from the apartment building Daniel lives in, teaches Daniel martial arts, so he can fight the bullies in a tournament. The movie was very successful and was  to the boxing movie *Rocky*. It was followed by three sequels: *The Karate Kid Part II*, *The Karate Kid Part III*, *The Next Karate Kid* and a remake in 2010.

## Cast 
* Ralph Macchio as Daniel LaRusso
* Noriyuki "Pat" Morita as Mr. Miyagi
* Elisabeth Shue as Ali Mills
* Billy Zabka as Johnny Lawrence
* Martin Kove as John Kreese
* Randee Heller as Lucille LaRusso
* Ron Thomas as Bobby Brown
* Rob Garrison as Tommy
* Chad McQueen as Dutch
* Tony O'Dell as Jimmy

## Other websites
*
533

## Events 
*January 2 – John II becomes Pope, succeeding Pope Boniface II, who had died in 532.
*Belisarius, a general in the service of Justinian I, lands in North Africa and attacks the Vandals.
*September 13 – Battle of Ad Decimium: Belisarius defeats the Vandals under Gelimer. Gelimer, forced to flee, leaves Carthage unprotected.
*December 15 – The Battle of Ticameron begins.
*December – Battle of Ticameron: Belisarius defeats a new Vandal force under Gelimer and Tzazo. Tzazo is killed in an all-cavalry fight, and Gelimer flees to the mountains of Numidia.
*December 16 – The *Digesta* or *Pandectae*, a collection of jurist writings and other sources, is completed (see Corpus Juris Civilis).
*Theodebert I becomes king of Austrasia.
1185

## Events 
* April 25 – Genpei War – Naval battle of Dan-no-ura leads to Minamoto victory in Japan
* Templars settle in London and begin the building of New Temple Church
* End of the Heian Period and beginning of the Kamakura period in Japan.
* Founding of Katedralskolan in Lund, Sweden. The school is the oldest in northern Europe, and one of the oldest in Europe.
* Peter and Asen led a revolt of the Vlachs and Bulgars against the Byzantine Empire, eventually establishing the Second Bulgarian Kingdom.
* August 15 – The cave city of Vardzia was consecrated by Queen Tamar of Georgia

## Births 
* April 23 – King Afonso II of Portugal (died 1223)
* Inge II of Norway (died 1217)
* Gertrude of Merania, queen of Andrew II of Hungary (died 1213)

## Deaths 
* April 25 – Emperor Antoku, 81st emperor of Japan (b. 1178)
* June 16 – Richeza of Poland, daughter of Wladislaus II the Exile of Poland
* July 18 – Stefan, first Archbishop of Uppsala
* July 25 – King Afonso I of Portugal (born 1109)
* September 12 – Andronicus I Comnenus, Byzantine Emperor
* November 25 – Pope Lucius III
* December 6 – King Afonso I of Portugal (born 1109)
* Baldwin IV of Jerusalem (born 1161)
* Taira no Munemori, Japanese soldier (born 1147)
* Taira no Noritsune, Japanese soldier (born 1160)
* Taira no Shigehira, Japanese soldier (born 1158)
* Taira no Tomomori, Japanese soldier (born 1152)
* Ibn Tufail, Arab philosopher, physician, and courtier

## References
1377

## Events 
* January 17 – Gregory XI enters Rome.
* January 27 – The Bad Parliament begins sitting.
* February 23 – The Bad Parliament dissolved.
* May – Continuous riots in Rome induce Gregory XI to remove temporarily to Anagui.
* May 22 – Gregory XI issues five Bulls in which the opinions of John Wyclif are condemned.
* June 21 – Edward III dies at age 65.
* July 16 – Coronation of 10-year-old Richard II.
* October 13 – Richard II's first parliament meets.
* October 18 – Andronicus IV Palaeologus crowned emperor in Constantinople.
* Informed that khan Urus of the White Horde has died, Timur Lenk sends Tokhtamish to take the Horde throne, but the successor of Urus defeats him.
* Mamluk sultan Sha'ban II is succeeded by 'Ali II.
* Muhammad al-Mutawakkil I is briefly deposed this year as Abbasid puppet caliph of the Mamluks, Zakariyya' al-Mu'tasim taking the throne for that period.
* A sermon by a German monk states "the game of cards has come to us this year" and prohibitions against cards are issued by John of Castile and the cities of Florence and Basel.
* Papal legate to northern Italy Robert of Geneva (the future Clement VII) pillages Cesena and 4,000 antipapal rebels are massacred.
Fantasia Barrino

**Fantasia Barrino** (born June 30, 1984), known mononymously as   **Fantasia**, is an American singer, songwriter, record producer, model and actress. She was the winner of the third season of *American Idol*.

## References
Cabrillo Beach

**Cabrillo Beach** is a historic beach in San Pedro, California. 
Cabrillo has two separate beach areas.

## Lifeguards 
Los Angeles City  and Los Angeles County Lifeguards are responsible for the beach and ocean safety in and around the Cabrillo Beach area. 

## Geography 
Cabrillo Beach is next to the Los Angeles Harbor and is only a short boat ride away from Catalina Island.

## Water Sports 
Cabrillo Beach is a popular destination for those interested in water sports, such as windsurfing, kayaking and SCUBA diving. 
Cabrillo Beach is known by windsurfers as "Hurricane Gulch" because of its predictably strong winds.

## Landmarks 
It is also home to a few famous landmarks, namely the 1.75 mile Los Angeles Breakwater which ends at the Angeles Gate Lighthouse, the recently restored Cabrillo Beach Bathhouse, and the Cabrillo Marine Aquarium. The Angels Gate Lighthouse is home to the annual Angel's Gate Lighthouse Swim competition, held by Lifeguards and San Pedro residents each summer.
He-Man and the Masters of the Universe

***He-Man and the Masters of the Universe*** is a cartoon series, that first came out in 1983 and ended in 1985. It aired in first run syndication. It was based on a popular toy line and was the first series in the *Masters of the Universe* franchise.

## Story 
The series told the story of He-Man, a superhero wielding a magical sword, and his battle to protect the planet Eternia from the evil demon called Skeletor.

## Cast 
* John Erwin as **He-Man**, **Ram-Man**, **Beast Man** and others
* Alan Oppenheimer as **Skeletor**, **Cringer**, **Man-At-Arms** and others
* Lou Scheimer as **Orko**, **King Randor** and others
* Linda Gary as **Teela**, **Evil-Lyn**, **Queen Marlena**, **Sorceress** and others

## Other websites
*He-Man and the Masters of the Universe on YouTube
*
*
*Masters of the Universe  on Hulu
Konkani language

**Konkani** is a language from India. Konkani belongs to Indo-Aryan family of languages. It is the official language of Goa, a state in India. 

Some people from the part of India known as Konkan speak Konkani language. Konkan is on the west coast of India.

The name *Konkani* means "from the Konkan". The word *Konkan* means corner (**kona**) and piece/part of earth (**kana**). The name of the language comes from the place where it is spoken.

## Writing systems
People write Konkani in many different scripts (writing systems or alphabets). People from different regions use different scripts. Hindu Konkani people from Goa and Maharashtra use Devanagari script. Konkani people from Karnataka use Kannada script. Christains in Goa use Roman script. Konkani Muslims use Arabic script. Konkani people from Kerala use Malayalam script. Devanagari is the official script.

## References
Trench

A **trench** is a long, narrow ditch.

Trench warfare has often been used in defense. Entrenched soldiers can be somewhat safe from enemy fire.  Trench warfare made World War I longer than expected.  The trench coat got its name from there.

Several kinds of trench exist:
* *Utility trench* has pipes, wires, or other infrastructure
* *Road trench* carries vehicles
* *Military trench* provides shelter for soldiers shooting at each other
* *Oceanic trench*: For example, the Mariana Trench
**Rift valley*
*  *Archaeological trench* dug by archaeologists
Trench coat

A **trench coat** (or **trenchcoat**) is a type of outdoor clothing. Trenchcoats are long coats made from stiff material, like heavy-duty cotton. They were invented for soldiers to wear in The First World War to keep them warm. Most trench coats also protect the wearer against rain.

## As a fashion
In the 1950s, trench coats became a popular fashion item. In the 1980s and 1990s, trench coats were worn by punk rock musicians and gothic rock musicians. There have been many remodels of it.
Khartoum

**Khartoum** or **Khartum** ( ; ) is the capital city of Sudan. It is also Sudan's largest city. It is where the Blue Nile and main Nile come together. Its name means "elephant tusk". Two other cities nearby are Omdurman and Khartoum North.

Khartoum has a hot desert climate (*BWh* in the Koeppen climate classification).
## Climate
Khartoum has a hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification *BWh*). It is very dry in the winter. This is normal in the Saharo-Sahelian zone. The climate is very dry for most of the year. In eight months of the year, the average rainfall is less than  of rain.

In August, there is a little bit of rain. The most amount of rainfall in this month is about . The rainy season is usually windy. The average amount of rainfall is very low. There is only  of precipitation on average in a year. The highest temperatures usually are during two main parts of the year. The first is in the late dry season when the temperatures are usually above  from April to June. The second is in the early dry season. Here, the average highs are above  in September and October. Temperatures are usually colder in the night. The lowest average low temperature in the year in January is just above . Khartoum is one of the hottest major cities on Earth. It has an annual mean temperature of . In most months, the monthly average temperatures doesn't get below . This is usually not seen in any other majors cities with hot desert climates like Riyadh, Baghdad and Phoenix.

## Demographics
Almost 250,000 Syrians lived in Khartoum in 2019, representing 5% of all of the people in the city. Most of the population are young men who have fled war in Syria. Sudan was the only country in the world to accept travelers that has a Syrian passport but didn't have a visa.

## List of Governors Khartoum 
c.1837                    * Khartoum a province of Egyptian Sudan.

Governors
c.1837 - 1861              ....
*1861 - 1863                Muhammad Rasikh Bey              (b. c.1834 - d. 1883)
*1863 - 1877                ....
1877                       Mustafa Bey Murad
*1877                       Muhammad Ma'ani Bey        Governors      (d. 1881)
*1877 - 1878                `Uthman Rifiq Pasha              (b. 1839 - d. 1886)
*1878                       Busati Bey Madani                (b. 1850 - d. 1883)

*Feb 1991 - Feb 1994        Mohammed Saeed
*Feb 1994 - Dec 1997        Badr al-Din Taha
*Dec 1997 - Feb 2001        Majdhub al-Khalifa
*Feb 2001 -  8 May 2009     Abd al-Halim Ismail al-Muta'afi
*8 May 2009 - Jun 2015     Abdul-Rahman Al-Khidir
*Jun 2015 - 22 Feb 2019     Abdul-Rahim Mohamed Hussein
*24 Feb 2019 - 16 Apr 2019  Hashim Osman al-Hussein
*16 Apr 2019 - 18 Jun 2019  Murtadha Abdalla Warraq
*18 Jun 2019 - 16 Apr 2020  Ahmed Abdoun Hammad
*16 Apr 2020 - 2020         Youssef Adam Aldai (acting)
*27 Jul 2020 - 2022         Ayman Khaled Nimer
*2022 - 2022         Javed Khan King 
*1 Mar 2022 -              Ahmed Osman Hamza

## Related pages
*2023 Sudan conflict

## References
Trumpet

A **trumpet** is a brass instrument used mainly in Classical music and jazz music. The most common type of trumpet is a B♭ trumpet, meaning that if the player plays a C, it will sound like a B♭ in  concert pitch. The trumpet is played by blowing into the mouthpiece and making a "buzzing" sound. The buzzing sound is made by the vibration of the lips blown by the player. An early example of a brass instrument like a trumpet is called a shofar, which is still used in religious ceremonies. Eventually people started making trumpet-like instruments with wood (for example, the cornetto), and later, with brass. Modern bugles are similar to early metal trumpets.

Many years ago, when the use of instrumental music was growing, trumpets became very important. Trumpets were long and without valves. This meant a player had to control the pitch of the sound with only his mouth, which was very difficult. Everyone respected trumpet players because trumpets were just so difficult to play.

The chromatic trumpet was developed in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, good valves made it easier to play notes on the trumpet. Still, trumpet is a difficult instrument to master.

## Music for trumpet
Classical music is written for solo trumpet, and trumpets are included in orchestras. Trumpets play an important part in Jazz music, and other various popular genres. Sometimes, they also play short parts to emphasize sections in rock songs.

## Trumpet players
Some famous classical trumpet players are Adolph Herseth, Sergei Nakariakov and Maurice Andre.

Some famous jazz trumpet players are Miles Davis, Louis Armstrong, Arturo Sandoval, Wynton Marsalis, Dizzy Gillespie, and Maynard Ferguson.

## References
## Other websites
Microwave

A **microwave** is a high-frequency radio wave. They are broadly defined as having a wavelength between 1 millimeter and 1 meter, or narrowly between 3 mm and 300 mm. Microwaves have many uses including radar, radio astronomy, and to heat food in a microwave oven. Unlike longer radio waves, they do not bend around land obstacles but go in line of sight. Still, they are much used for communication because they can have a high bandwidth. Almost all spacecraft communicate by microwave radio.

When something moves, it almost always has a wave pattern to its movement - this can be seen in water most easily, in ripples and ocean waves. A very common type of wave in the universe is electromagnetic waves. Light is an example of an electromagnetic wave, and so is a microwave, for example the cosmic microwave background radiation. We can only see electromagnetic radiation in the visible light spectrum (which is why it's called the visible light spectrum), so microwaves are invisible.

Microwaves were among the first radio waves discovered, in the late 19th century, by Heinrich Rudolf Hertz.

## Microwave Ovens 
Microwave ovens work because microwaves make polar molecules (molecules that act like massive magnets) all face the same direction - to visualize it, imagine that the microwave oven is telling all of the molecules to face left, then right.  Heat is just the movement of molecules, so when the molecules do a great amount of moving, they are hot.  

Like other heat sources, microwave radiation can cause burns. They can go through skin and muscles. If vital organs are burned, the burns can kill. This is why a microwave oven does not work with the door open.  

## References
Cobalt

**Cobalt** (chemical symbol **Co**) is a chemical element. It has an atomic number of 27 and an atomic mass of about 59. It is a metal.

## Properties
Cobalt is a transition metal. It is shiny and conducts electricity. It is magnetic. It is a hard metal. It is moderately reactive. Iron is more reactive and copper is less reactive. It dissolves slowly in acids. This reaction makes hydrogen and a salt of cobalt. Cobalt is normally in its +2 oxidation state as an ion. Some chemical compounds contain cobalt ions in its +4 oxidation state. Cobalt(II) chloride is one of the most common cobalt compounds. Many cobalt compounds are blue or pink. One of them is black.

### Chemical compounds 
Cobalt can have two oxidation states, +2 and +3. Most soluble cobalt compounds are red. They can also be green, blue, brown, and black.

;Cobalt(II) compounds
*Cobalt(II) chloride, red solid, most common cobalt compound
*Cobalt(II) fluoride, used in dentistry, red solid
*Cobalt(II) hydroxide, red or green-blue solid
*Cobalt(II) oxide, black solid
*Cobalt(II) sulfate, reddish solid, used in pigments

;Mixed oxidation state
*Cobalt(II,III) oxide, black solid, oxidizing agent

;Cobalt(III) compounds
*Cobalt(III) fluoride, brown solid, strong oxidizing agent
*Cobalt(III) oxide, black solid

## Occurrence and preparation
Cobalt is too reactive to occur as a pure element in the earth. It is found in certain minerals. It is found with copper and nickel deposits. Normally the three metals are bonded to arsenic and sulfur. The majority of cobalt mining is in central Africa. 

It is found as a byproduct (left over substance) when copper and nickel are produced. It is made by reaction with the sludge from copper and nickel processing.

## Uses
Cobalt is used in some types of steel. It hardens the steel.  It is also used to make very strong tough alloys.  These alloys are known as superalloys.  Some cobalt compounds are used in the lithium-ion battery.  Cobalt compounds were used as an artificial food coloring until 1971.  It was discovered that it has harmful effects.  It is used to make glass blue.  It is also used as a catalyst, and in some medicines, and for **i**nk, pigments, dyes, and varnishes**.**

The human body needs small amounts of cobalt for certain vitamins. Cobalt compounds are used to stop cyanide from poisoning the body.

## Safety
People need cobalt compounds in small amounts, but cobalt is toxic in large quantities. Sometimes cobalt compounds were added to beer, and people that drank it were poisoned. It can cause skin irritation when touched.

## References
Microwave oven

A **microwave oven** (commonly called a **microwave**) is a machine that cooks food using microwaves, a type of radio wave. The idea was invented when a scientist who was experimenting with radio waves saw his chocolate bar, which was in his pocket, had melted. He then knew that radio waves could cook food and invented the microwave oven. 

## History 
In 1945, the heating effect of a high-power microwave beam was accidentally discovered by Percy Spencer, an American self-taught engineer from Howland, Maine. Hired by Raytheon at the time, he noticed that microwaves from an active radar set he was working on started to melt a chocolate bar he had in his pocket. First, Spencer deliberately cooked popcorn with a microwave oven. And the second time, he cooked an egg, which exploded in the face of one of the experimenters. 

To prove his finding, Spencer created a high-density electromagnetic field by feeding microwave power from a magnetron into a metal box from which it had no way to escape. When food was placed in the box with the microwave energy, the temperature of the food rose rapidly. On 8 October 1945, Raytheon filed a United States patent application for Spencer's microwave cooking process, and an oven that heated food using microwave energy from a magnetron was soon placed in a Boston restaurant for testing.

## How it works 
The microwave oven uses a magnetron, which is a type of vacuum tube. This is similar to a radio transmitter. It makes very short radio waves which go into the food to a depth of about 2.5cm (one inch). This makes water molecules twist about 2.5 billion times a second. This heats up the molecules around it. As they heat up the heat goes to the inside of the food.  This process is called conduction. This also happens in a normal oven, but microwave energy goes deeper so that the food cooks much faster. In an ordinary oven, the energy stays mostly near the surface, so it takes more time.

The microwave oven also has a waveguide, turntable, and a timer switch. When we place the food inside the chamber and turn the timer switch on, it sends a signal to the magnetron to send microwaves, as well as to the turntable to start turning. The microwaves of microwave ovens can heat foods containing polar molecules, such as water, as polar molecules are prone to the vibration effect caused by the microwaves. To heat the food evenly the microwave's turntable spins the food around. 
 being cooked inside an microwave]]
Metals will cause sparks in microwaves, instead of heating. This is because metals like to give away electrons, so when the microwaves "push" at their magnet-like electrons, instead of turning, they just give the electrons away. A bunch of electrons running off of metal is called electricity, and we see it in the form of sparks.  Dry foods like ramen will sometimes burn and start fires in microwave ovens if water is not used with the food. 

## Related pages 
* Frozen dinner
* Induction heating

## References
## Other websites 
* Metamaterials for microwave shielding
Canidae

**Canidae** is a family of carnivorous and omnivorous mammals of the order Carnivora.

Animals that belong to the Dog family Canidae are **canids**. The family Canidae is divided into two tribes: Vulpini (foxes), and Canini (wolves, dogs, coyotes, and jackals). The family Canidae also includes the genus Urocyon (gray foxes and island foxes) and two extinct groups of canids: Borophaginae and Hesperocyoninae.

Canids that belong to Vulpini are "vulpines". Canids that belong to Canini are "canines". Canines are usually pack animals which hunt their prey in a group. Foxes usually hunt alone. However, almost all canids are social animals.

Canids live on every continent on Earth, except for Antarctica. Many of them reached certain areas alongside humans. One kind of canid, the dog, became a domestic animal. This made dogs the most well-known canids, and one of the most widely kept pets.

## Taxonomy 
* Tribe **Vulpini**, foxes
** Genus *Vulpes*
*** Indian fox, *Vulpes bengalensis*
*** Blanford's fox, *Vulpes cana*
*** Cape fox, *Vulpes chama*
*** Corsac fox, *Vulpes corsac*
*** Tibetan fox, *Vulpes ferrilata*
*** Pale fox, *Vulpes pallida*
*** Rüppell's fox, *Vulpes rueppelli*
*** Swift fox, *Vulpes velox*
*** Kit fox, *Vulpes macrotis*
*** Red fox, *Vulpes vulpes*
*** Fennec, *Vulpes zerda*
** Genus *Alopex*
*** Arctic fox, *Alopex lagopus*
** Genus *Urocyon*
*** Gray fox, *Urocyon cinereoargenteus*
*** Island fox, *Urocyon littoralis*
** Genus *Otocyon*
*** Bat-eared fox, *Otocyon megalotis*
* Tribe **Canini**, Dogs
** Genus *Dusicyon*
*** Falkland Island fox, *Dusicyon australis*†
** Genus *Pseudalopex*
*** Culpeo, *Lycalopex culpaeus*
*** South American grey fox, *Lycalopex griseus*
*** Darwin's fox, *Lycalopex fulvipes*
*** Pampas fox, *Lycalopex gymnocercus*
*** Sechura fox, *Lycalopex sechurae*
*** Hoary fox, *Lycalopex vetulus*
** Genus *Atelocynus*
*** Short-eared dog, *Atelocynus microtis*
** Genus *Cerdocyon*
*** Crab-eating fox, *Cerdocyon thous*
** Genus *Speothos*
*** Bush dog, *Speothos venaticus*
** Genus *Chrysocyon*
*** Maned wolf, *Chrysocyon brachyurus*
** Genus *Nyctereutes*
*** Raccoon Dog (Tanuki), *Nyctereutes procyonoides*
** Genus *Cuon*
*** Dhole, *Cuon alpinus*
** Genus *Lycaon*
*** African wild dog, *Lycaon pictus*
** Genus *Canis*
*** Grey wolf, *Canis lupus*
**** domestic dogs, *Canis lupus familiaris*
*** Red wolf, *Canis rufus*
*** Coyote, *Canis latrans*
*** Golden jackal, *Canis aureus*
*** Black-backed jackal, *Canis mesomelas*
*** Side-striped jackal, *Canis adustus*
*** Ethiopian wolf, *Canis simensis*
*** Eastern wolf, *Canis lycaon*

## Gallery 

Image:Coyote arizona.jpg|Coyote
Image:FemaleYellowLabrador.jpg|Dog (Labrador Retriever)
Image:Golden Jackal Revivim.jpg|Jackals
Image:Marderhund.jpg|Raccoon dog (tanuki)
Image:Vulpes_vulpes_laying_in_snow.jpg|Red Fox
Image:Front view of a resting Canis lupus ssp.jpg|Wolf

## References
## Other websites 
* canids.org
Food pyramid

food pyramid.]]
A **food pyramid** is a chart that can be used to see how many servings of each food should be eaten each day. It is for having good health.

Grains give carbohydrates and some vitamins and minerals. Vegetables and fruits give a lot of vitamins, some minerals, and few fats, but fruits often have more calories and sugar. Dairy products (like milk, cheese, yogurt, etc.) have protein, some fat, and a lot of calcium, an element that helps build strong bones. Meat have protein, some fat, and B vitamins. Fats, oils, and sweets give calories, fats, and sugars but not a lot of nutrition.

## Criticisms 
The food pyramid has been criticized for recommending huge amounts of grains as that is a lot of carbohydrates.

## Related pages
*Healthy diet

## References
Torso

of a (male) human torso. It was found in Miletus. It dates from around 480 - 470 BCE. It is in the Louvre museum, in Paris]]

The **torso** also known as the trunk, is the part of the human body where the limbs are attached.  It is made of chest, back, and abdomen.

## Related pages
*Bodybuilding
*Trapezius muscle
Trunk

**Trunk** may be:
*The nose of an elephant.
*Trunk (botany), the main part of a tree.
*Torso, a term for the human body without the head and limbs.
*Trunk (luggage), a large case.
*Trunk (automobile), a compartment on a car used for storage in American English, called a *boot* in British English.
*Trunk (motorcycle), a case mounted above and behind a motorcycle seat, or the space under the seat
*Trunk (telecommunications) has a number of closely related meanings.
*Trunk (software)
*Trunk build, the section for current development of software using version control
Crazy Horse

**Crazy Horse** (born about 1838 – died September 5, 1877) was an Oglala Sioux Native American chief. There is a huge sculpture being carved of him in South Dakota, United States. 

When Crazy Horse was first born he was given the name 'Curly'. When he was young, he had a vision when he was not supposed to and his family did not know where he was. His father found him and was very unhappy at what young Curly had done.
As Crazy Horse grew into a man, he was given his father's name Crazy Horse. His father then changed his own name to Worm. 

Crazy Horse had good medicine, so he was never killed when he went into battle. He led his people to the Little Bighorn river in northern Montana to join forces with other Sioux bands like the Hunkpapa and Miniconjou, and with other tribes like the Cheyennes and Arapahos. There they fought General George Armstrong Custer, killing and defeating him and his many horsemen.

Eventually Crazy Horse made a tough decision to lead his people, the Oglalas, to a reservation because they were starving. Game was scarce and the bison (buffalo) were nearly gone. He had no choice but to leave the Black Hills. When he arrived at Fort Robinson, he was forced to give up his weapons and horses. This made him very unhappy. One day, even though he was granted time to go on a hunt, he was lied to and, trying to get away, he was stabbed in his liver and died later that night, thus ending the Great Sioux War.

"Once I moved about like the wind. Now I surrender to you and that is all"
Quote by Geronimo, Chief of the Apaches  .

The Sioux Royal Family, the House of Thasunke Witko, are descendants of Crazy Horse. A queen, Queen Wakiyan, was elected Queen of the Kingdom of Lakota (in Sioux, "Oglala Oyanke") and of the Oglala Sioux, and tried to improve the economy at the Pine Ridge Reservation with creativity and imagination, and to bring the Sioux forward into modern times;however, a conspiracy of jealous chieftains who were both male chauvinists opposed to having a female leader and also a corrupt group of men jealous of their own power and who prefer to preside over the poverty of the Sioux People, ruthlessly trumped up false allegations in order to depose this good queen.

According to Frederick Hoxie's 'Encyclopedia of North American Indians' Crazy Horse was the third in his male line of descent to bear the name of Crazy Horse, which in Oglala is Tasunke Witko. Tasunke Witko III was the son of Rattling Blanket Woman and Tasunke Witko II. He married three times: 1st to Black Buffalo Woman, 2nd to Black Shawl, and 3rd to Nellie Larrabee (Laravie). Only his second wife, Black Shawl, bore him any children: a daughter named They Are Afraid of Her, who died aged three.
Fox

(*Vulpes cana*) photographed in southern Israel. It is a small fox with a long, bushy tail. The tail is a counterbalance when running or climbing. This fox occurs in the mountainous parts of the Negev and Judean Deserts, on rocky slopes. They feed mostly on beetles, grasshoppers, ants and termites.]]

A **fox** is a small mammalian carnivore. They hunt and eat live prey, mostly rabbits and rodents (squirrels and mice). They may also eat grasshoppers, birds' eggs, and even fruit and berries. Sometimes they eat carrion. Foxes are the smallest members of the dog family Canidae.

Twelve species belong to the *Vulpes* genus of monophyletic "true foxes". There are about another 25 living or extinct species which are sometimes called foxes.

The fox has pointed ears, narrow snout, and a bushy tail.

Foxes are swift and agile runners which live in family groups. A female fox is called a *vixen*, and a male is called a *dog*. Foxes' tails are multi-purpose organs. Their bushy tail helps them keep warm while they are sleeping in cold weather. It is also part of the animal's food store for wintertime. Foxes' plump, bushy tail is easily seen, and is used for sending signals to its family members. The tail is also used for  while running.

## True foxes 
The informal term 'true fox' refers to members of the ***Vulpes*** genus.

There are 12 species of *Vulpus*. They are:
* Bengal fox, *Vulpes bengalensis*
* Blanford's fox, *Vulpes cana*
* Cape fox, *Vulpes chama*
* Corsac fox, *Vulpes corsac*
* Tibetan sand fox, *Vulpes ferrilata*
* Arctic fox, *Vulpes lagopus*
* Kit fox, *Vulpes macrotis*
* Pale fox, *Vulpes pallida*
* Rüppell's fox, *Vulpes rueppellii*
* Swift fox, *Vulpes velox*
* Red fox, *Vulpes vulpes* (includes silver fox)
* Fennec fox, *Vulpes zerda*

 in Sussex, England]]

The arctic fox is included in this genus as *Vulpes lagopus*. There is genetic evidence that shows it is probably a true fox.

Some species of true fox are extinct. Fossils have been found of:
* *Vulpes hassini*
* *Vulpes praeglacialis* Kormos
* *Vulpes riffautae*

## Related pages 
**The Fox and the Grapes*

## References 
*
Cambridge, Massachusetts

**Cambridge** is a city in the U.S. state of Massachusetts, just outside of Boston.

It is the home of Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT).

## Wikimania
The second Wikimania was hosted in this city in 2006.

## References
1087

## Events 
* May 9 – The remains of Saint Nicholas were brought to Bari.
* September 9 – William II becomes king of England
* End of the formal reign of Emperor Shirakawa, but not of his cloistered rule
* Emperor Horikawa ascends to the throne of Japan
1280s

The **1280s** was a decade that began on 1 January 1280 and ended on 31 December 1289. It is distinct from the decade known as the ***129th decade*** which began on January 1, 1281 and ended on December 31, 1290.

## Events 
* 1282 – March – Dafydd ap Gruffydd, brother to Prince of Wales Llywelyn the Last, attacks an English castle; his brother feels compelled to support him despite poor preparation for war, quickly leading to the final English conquest of Wales by King Edward I of England.
* 1286 – Prussians settled in exile in Serbia stage a famous uprising.
* 1288 – June 5 – John I of Brabant defeats the duchy of Guelders in the Battle of Worringen — one of the largest battles in Europe of the Middle Ages — thus winning possession of the duchy of Limburg. The battle also liberates the city of Cologne from rule by the Archbishopric of Cologne; it had previously been one of the major ecclesiastical principalities of the Holy Roman Empire.
* 1288 – August 8 – Pope Nicholas IV proclaims a crusade against King Ladislaus IV of Hungary, who had lost credibility by favoring his semi-pagan Cuman subjects and in general refusing to conform to the social standards of western Europe.
Age of Mythology

***Age of Mythology*** is a real-time strategy computer game made by Ensemble Studios. The game has an expansion to it named *Age of Mythology: The Titans*. *Age of Mythology* is a spinoff of the *Age of Empires* game series.

## Other websites 
*Official Site 
*Age of Mythology at HeavenGames.com
1672

## Events 
*March 15 – Charles II of England issues the Royal Declaration of Indulgence.
*May 2 – John Maitland becomes Duke of Lauderdale and Earl of March.
* June 12 – French forces under king Louis XIV cross the Rhine to Netherlands
*June 28 – William III of Orange appointed Stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland and Utrecht.
*August 20 – Johan de Witt, Grand Pensionary of Holland is slaughtered by a mob in The Hague.
*England, France, Münster and Cologne invade the United Provinces, therefore this name is known as ´het rampjaar´ (the disaster year) in the Netherlands.

## Births 
*May 1 – Joseph Addison, writer and essayist
1743

## Events 
* February 14 – Henry Pelham becomes British Prime Minister
* February 21 – The premiere in London of George Frideric Handel's oratorio, *Samson*.
*September 13 – Treaty of Worms (1743) – a treaty between Great Britain, Austria and Sardinia
* Battle of Dettingen
1713

## Events 
* First Orrery built by George Graham

## Births 
* May 25 - John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1792)
* September 23 - King Ferdinand VI of Spain (d. 1759)
* October 13 - Allan Ramsay, Scottish painter (d. 1784)
* November 24 - Junipero Serra, Spanish Franciscan missionary (d. 1784)

## Deaths 
* January 8 - Arcangelo Corelli, Italian composer (b. 1653)
* February 25 - King Friedrich I of Prussia (b. 1657)
* August 9 - Ferdinando de' Medici, Grand Prince of Tuscany