open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Pygmy marmoset

**Pygmy marmosets** are the smallest marmosets and one of the smallest of all primates. They inhabit Brazil, Ecuador, Peru and Colombia. Most pygmy marmosets lives in troops of two to nine individuals, with a dominant male, a breeding female, and up to four successive litters of offspring. The modal size of a standard stable  troop would be 6 individuals.
 
Pygmy marmosets have tawny agouti fur (the tip of the hair is a different color to the base) with an indistinctly dark-ringed tail. They can range in size from 4.6 in to 6 in but could possibly be half that size when they are first born since they are the size of a human thumb.

They are expected to live as long as 15-20 years. 

## Habitat 
They live in flooded forest near rivers, bamboo thickets and the edges of agricultural fields. They're mostly native in South Africa but can also be found around the western part of the amazon rainforest. Can also be found in Bolivia, Peru, Columbia, and Western Brazil. 

## Diet 
Pygmy marmosets mainly feed on gum (tree exudates, sap), but they also eat fruit, nectar and insects. They gouge holes in the bark of trees, and revisit these holes daily to collect the sap. The marmosets hang on with specially adapted claws.

## References 
2. Tardif , S., Smucny , D., Abbott , D., Mansfield , K., Darkin, N. S., & Yamamoto , M. E. (2003). National Library of Medicine . Reproduction in Captive Common Marmosets (Callithrix Jacchus), 364–368.

3. University of Salford. (2018, February 27). Smallest monkey's evolutionary secret. ScienceDaily. Retrieved October 19, 2021 from www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/02/180227094726.htm

4. Jean P. Boubli, Maria N.F. da Silva, Anthony B. Rylands, Stephen D. Nash, Fabrício Bertuol, Mário Nunes, Russell A. Mittermeier, Hazel Byrne, Felipe E. Silva, Fabio Röhe, Iracilda Sampaio, Horacio Schneider, Izeni P. Farias, Tomas Hrbek, How many pygmy marmoset (Cebuella Gray, 1870) species are there? A taxonomic re-appraisal based on new molecular evidence, Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, Volume 120
Patras

**Patra** () is the third biggest Greek city. Patra is in southwest Greece on the west coast of the Peloponnese. It is the capital of the prefecture of Achaia and also the capital of the Greek perifereia (district) of Western Peloponnese. 171,616 lived there in 2001. The total population of Patra, including all its suburbs, is over 200,000 people. Patra is a coastal city, so it has a big port. Patra's port connects Greece with east-facing Italian ports such as Bari, Brindisi and Ancona. 

## History 
Patra developed in the third century BC. During the Roman period, Patra became an important city. In Patra Christianity arrived quite early, approximately in the first century AD, by St Andrew, who was martyred there. During the Middle Ages Patra was not very significant. Patra developed again after the Greek liberation from the Turks, in 1830 following the Greek revolution of 1821.

## Sights 
The most important site in Patra is the contemporary Bridge Rion-Antirion which links Peloponnese and Sterea Ellada. This bridge is located a short distance from Patra's center, in the district of Rio. Opposite Rio is Antirio and it ends at the bridge. Other significant sites in Patra are the church of Agios Andreas and the Apollon theater. The cathedral of Agios Andreas is the third biggest churches in Greece. Patra is known for its wines, with the famous and oldest Winery in Greece, Achaia Clauss founded in 1861.

## References
Santiago de Compostela

**Santiago de Compostela** (also **Saint James** of Compostela) is the capital of the autonomous community of Galicia. It is a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Site. The city is in the northwest of Spain in the Province of A Coruña.

The city's Cathedral is the destination of an important pilgrimage route, the Way of St. James (Galician: *Camiño de Santiago*, Spanish: *Camino de Santiago*). Pilgrims have been following this route since the ninth century.

The cathedral is believed to be where James, son of Zebedee is buried. Saint James was one of the apostles of Jesus Christ.

Santiago de Compostela-134-Strasse-1983-gje.jpg
Santiago de Compostela-114-Kathedrale-Turm-Front-1983-gje.jpg
Santiago de Compostela-116-Kathedrale-Seitenteil-1983-gje.jpg
Santiago de Compostela-212-Kathedrale-Portalfigur Jakob-1996-gje.jpg
Santiago de Compostela-214-Kathedrale-Totale innen-1996-gje.jpg
Santiago de Compostela-226-Kathedrale-Rauchfass Artischocke als Seilgewicht-1996-gje.jpg
Santiago de Compostela-236-Muschel-1996-gje.jpg
Santiago de Compostela-136-Musikant mit Akkordeon und Frau-1983-gje.jpg

## Other websites
Foucault pendulum

.]]

The **Foucault pendulum**, or '''Foucault's pendulum''' (named after the French physicist Léon Foucault) was a pendulum created as an experiment to show the rotation of the Earth.

## The experiment 
On  January 3, 1851, Foucault did the following experiment: He mounted a 2 metre long pendulum, and let it swing, in the basement of his house. On the floor, he marked the axis, along which the pendulum was swinging. After some time, he noticed, that the pendulum no longer swung along the axis he had marked on the floor, but on an different axis. When he tried to explain this, he considered, what could have caused the axis to change. He considered gravity. Gravity could not have caused the axis to change, as it only acts vertically. There were no other forces acting on the pendulum. So: according to Newton's laws, the pendulum did not change the axis it was swinging in. So it was the floor (or the earth) that changed this axis, because it rotated. 

Vincenzo Viviani (1662-1703) had made similar observations, but he didn't attribute them to the rotation of the earth.  

On the 3rd of February 1851, he repeated the experiment, with a 12m pendulum at the Paris observatory. On 26th of March he presented the experiment to the public: At the Panthéon, he used a 67m long pendulum, with a weight of 28kg. At the bottom of the pendulum, there was a tip that left a trace in a sandbox. This was an easy way to show the earth's rotation to common people. The metal ball of this pendulum still exists: Until 1946, it was stored at the Conservatoire national des arts et métiers, then it was returned to the Panthéon.

Caspar Garthe repeated the experiment at Cologne Cathedral, Friedrich Magnus Schwerd did in Speyer Cathedral. Their results were deceptive, and not nearly as good as those obtained in Paris. In 1879, Heike Kamerlingh Onnes wrote his thesis on the subject, doing extra calculations on the exact magnitude of the effect. In his thesis, he  also pointing out the problems the people had encountered in Cologne and Speyer.

An exact copy of the original has been operating in the Panthéon since 1995. It takes 31h 50min to do a full rotation (of 360 degrees). 

Because a Foucault pendulum is an easy way to show the rotation of the earth, such devices can be found in many science museums around the world today.  

## References
Christopher Nolan

**Sir Christopher Edward Nolan**  (born 30 July 1970) is a British-American director, producer and screenwriter. He often works with his brother, author Jonathan Nolan. Nolan rose to prominence for directing the psychological thriller *Memento*, and for reviving the Batman movie franchise as the director of *The Dark Knight Trilogy*. Each of them are *Batman Begins* (2005), *The Dark Knight* (2008), and *The Dark Knight Rises* (2012). He is also the founder of the production company, Syncopy Films through which his movies *Inception* (2010), *Interstellar* (2014), *Dunkirk* (2017), *Tenet* (2020) and *Oppenheimer* (2023) were released.

For directing *Oppenheimer*, he won an Academy Award, Golden Globe Award and BAFTA Award for Best Direction.

In July 2012, Nolan became the youngest director to be honored with a hand and footprint ceremony at Grauman's Chinese Theatre in Los Angeles.

## In the media
Nolan is known for his unique visual style and unconventional narratives. His films often explore themes such as existentialism, ethics, and the nature of memory. Some of his notable films include Inception (2010), Interstellar (2014), Dunkirk (2017), and Oppenheimer (2023). 

## Style 
Christopher Nolan's filmmaking style is characterized by non-linear narratives, mind-bending concepts, complex themes, unconventional characters, strong visuals, sparse music, collaboration, attention to detail, intellectual depth, and genre-blending. His films engage and challenge viewers.

## Casting 
Nolan has frequently cast the following;

## Director filmography 
### Major motion pictures 
* *Following* (1998) (also writer/producer)
* *Memento* (2000) (also writer)
* *Insomnia* (2002)
* *Batman Begins* (2005) (director/also writer/producer)
* *The Prestige*   (2006) (also co-writer/producer)
* *The Dark Knight* (2008) (director/also co-writer/producer)
* *Inception* (2009) (director)
* *The Dark Knight Rises* (2012) (director/co-writer/producer)
* *Man of Steel* (2013) (producer/writer)
* *Transcendence* (2014) (producer)
* *Interstellar* (2014) (director/co-writer/producer)
* *Dunkirk* (2017) (director/writer/producer)
* *Tenet* (2020) (director/co-writer/producer)
* *Oppenheimer* (2023) (director/co-writer/producer)
* *The Odyssey* (2026) (director/co-writer/producer)

### Short movies 
* *Tarantella* (1989) (Also writer/producer)
* *Larceny* (1996) (Also writer/producer)
* *Doodlebug* (1997) (Also writer/producer)

## References 
## Other websites 
*
*
*NolanFans.com Fansite and community for Christopher Nolan. 
* Telegraph.co.uk  Interview with Christopher Nolan and Christian Bale
Griffith's experiment

* bacteria.]]

*'Griffith's Experiment'* was an experiment done in 1928 by Frederick Griffith. It was one of the first experiments showing that bacteria can get DNA through a process.

Griffith used two strains of *Streptococcus pneumoniae''. He then uses the bacteria to infect the mice, which have many different characteristics to humans. He used a type III-S (smooth) and type II-R (rough) strain. The III-S strain covers itself with a polysaccharide capsule that protects it from the host's immune system. This means that the host will die. The II-R strain does not have that protective shield around it and is killed by the host's immune system.

In this experiment, bacteria from the III-S strain were killed by heat, and their remains were added to II-R strain bacteria. While neither harmed the mice on their own, the blend of the two was able to kill mice.

Griffith was also able to get both live II-R and live III-S strains of *S. pneumoniae* from the blood of these dead mice. He concluded that the type II-R had been "transformed" into the lethal III-S strain by a "transforming principle" that was somehow part of the dead III-S strain bacteria.

Today, we know that the "transforming principle" Griffith saw was the DNA of the III-S strain bacteria. While the bacteria had been killed, the DNA had survived the heating process and was taken up by the II-R strain bacteria. The III-S strain DNA contains the genes that form the shielding polysaccharide part from attack. Armed with this gene, the former II-R strain bacteria were now protected from the host's immune system and could kill the host.

The exact nature of the transforming principle was confirmed in one of many experiments done by Avery, McLeod and McCarty, as well as Hershey and Chase.

## Related pages
*Genetics
*Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment
*Hershey–Chase experiment

## References 
*Hartl, Daniel and Jones, Elizabeth 2005. *Genetics: analysis of genes and genomes*. 6th ed, Jones & Bartlett. 
*The original experiment by Griffith. Original article  and 35th anniversary reprint available.
*
Hannes Schäfer

**Dr. Johannes Schäfer**, born 2nd October 1965 in Göttingen, Germany, was the bass player of the German rock band Fury in the Slaughterhouse from the beginning (1987) until 1996. Today (2008) he is a doctor.

Schäfer's first band was 1982 the punk band *Defekt* in Hanover, Germany, where he was singer and bass player. From 1985 until 1987 he played in the jazz rock band *CIT.*, together with Mousse T. and at the same time he worked as a studio musician at the *Stakkato Studio* in Hannover.

In 1987 Schäfer founded the rock band Fury in the Slaughterhouse together with Kai and Christian Wingenfelder, Rainer Schumann and Christoph Stein-Schneider. He played the bass in this band until 1996, when he was followed by Christian Decker. Together with his band Schäfer was awarded golden recording sales certifications for the Fury albums *Fury in the Slaughterhouse* (1988), *Mono* (1992), and *the Hearing and the Sense of Balance* (1995). Fury in the Slaughterhouse sold about three million recordings of albums made in their time with Hannes Schäfer (1987-1996).

After leaving Fury in the Slaughterouse Schäfer studied medicine and today (2008) he works as a doctor in the hospital *Vinzenzkrankenhaus* in Hanover.

## Other websites
*Homepage of Fury in the Slaughterhouse
*the hospital Schäfer works at today
Jaguar S-Type

**Jaguar S-Type** was a car produced by Jaguar from 1998 till 2008. It was first shown at the 1998 Birmingham Motor Show, and shared 'retro' styling with the Rover 75, which was shown at that same show.

## Replacement and discontinuation
The S-Type was replaced by the Jaguar XF in the spring of 2008.
Frederick Griffith

**Frederick Griffith** (1879–1941) was a English medical officer and geneticist. In 1928, during an experiment, he discovered what he called a *transforming principle*, but today we call DNA. 

## Early life
He was born in Hale, Lancashire and attended Liverpool University where he studied genetics. In his younger days he worked at the Liverpool Royal Infirmary, the Thompson Yates Laboratory, and the Royal Commission on Tuberculosis.

## Griffith's experiment
The experiment began when Griffith was trying to make a vaccine to prevent pneumonia infections in the "Spanish flu" influenza pandemic after World War I, by using two strains of the *Streptococcus pneumoniae* bacterium.

## Later life
Griffith was killed at work in his laboratory in 1941, along with longtime friend and bacteriologist William M. Scott in London during an air raid in the London blitz. Years later Griffith's "transforming principle" was identified as DNA by Oswald Avery, along with coworkers Colin MacLeod and Maclyn McCarty, in 1944. The Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment.

## References
## Other websites
*Frederick Griffith *Lancet*, (3 May 1941): 588. Obituary
*The Famous DNA Experiments 
*Griffith's Experiment on Bacterial Transformation
Streptococcus pneumoniae

***Streptococcus pneumoniae***, or **pneumococcus**, is a gram-positive, alpha-hemolytic diplococcus aerotolerant anaerobe and a member of the genus *Streptococcus*. An important human pathogen, *S. pneumoniae* has been known as a major cause of pneumonia in the late 19th century and is the subject of many humoral immunity studies.

## References
Muskrat

**Muskrats** are rodents that live in freshwater and saltwater marshes, lakes, ponds, and streams. Muskrats often build dome-shaped houses in marshes. These houses, made of plants, protect the muskrat from predators, since the only entrance is underwater. Some muskrats live in burrows on the water banks. Muskrats are excellent swimmers but are slow on land. 

Muskrats are native to North America, but have been brought to Europe and Asia, where they now live in the wild. Muskrats got their name because they have musk glands that produce a strong scent.
Running back

.]]
.]]
A **running back** (**RB**) is the position of a player on an American football team. They are the players who carry the ball the most. They receive handoffs, catch passes, and block for other runners.

## References 
* Football 101: Basic Football positions 
* http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/what-the-running-backs-do-in-a-football-game.html
And Now for Something Completely Different

***And Now for Something Completely Different*** is a British movie spin-off from the comedy television series ''Monty Python's Flying Circus''. The movie has favorite sketches from the first two seasons. The title was used as a catchphrase in the series.

## Other websites 
* 
*
Abu Ghraib prison

**Abu Ghraib prison** is a prison in Abu Ghraib, a city 32&nbsp;km west of Baghdad, Iraq. It became known when Saddam Hussein tortured and executed dissidents there. After the United States had invaded Iraq, there was also a scandal where US forces tortured prisoners.

## Under Saddam 
Saddam Hussein's government tortured and executed thousands of political prisoners at Abu Ghraib. Records suggest that in 1984 alone, up to 4,000 prisoners were executed there. 

During the 1990s there were mass executions at Abu Ghraib, according to Amnesty International (an international human rights organization) and the U.S. Department of State. These abuses included physical abuse, sexual humiliation, physical and psychological torture, and rape.

An Iraqi man named Manadel al-Jamadi was tortured to death during a CIA interrogation at Abu Ghraib. After he died, his body was desecrated.

In April 2004, CBS News published pictures of the prisoner abuse at Abu Ghraib. This brought the torture scandal to public attention. There was widespread shock, outrage, and condemnation within the United States and internationally.

## References
Trade (sports)

In professional sports, a **trade** is when one (or more)  contract and/or draft picks is traded between sports teams. Cash is another thing that may be added with contracts and/or draft picks to make a trade.  Most often, trades are done between two teams, but there are times where trades are made between three or more teams.
The Prestige

***The Prestige*** is a 2006 period movie directed by Christopher Nolan. The story follows Robert Angier and Alfred Borden, enemy stage magicians in fin de siècle London.  Obsessed with creating the best stage Magic, they take part in a competition with tragic results.

## Cast and characters 
* Hugh Jackman as Robert Angier, a classy magician with a talent for performance.
* Christian Bale as Alfred Borden, a working-class magician who knows magic.
* Michael Caine as John Cutter, the stage engineer who works for Angier.
* Rebecca Hall as Sarah Borden, Borden's wife.
* Scarlett Johansson as Olivia Wenscombe, Angier's assistant and Borden's lover.
* David Bowie as Nikola Tesla, the inventor (Tesla was a real person) who creates a device for Angier.
* Piper Perabo as Julia McCullough, Angier's wife.
* Andy Serkis as Mr. Alley, Tesla's assistant.
* Ricky Jay as "Milton the Magician", an older magician Borden and Angier work for at the beginning of the story.
* Roger Rees as Owens, a solicitor working for Lord Caldlow.
* W. Morgan Sheppard as Merrit, the owner of a theater where Angier initially performs.

## Other websites 
* Official Website 
* 
* 
* Writer Christopher Priest's website
Get Born

***Get Born*** is the first album by Australian band Jet.  It was recorded in 2003. It was released on September 14, 2003.  The song "Cold Hard Bitch" reached the top spot on the Modern Rock charts.

## Track Listing
# "Last Chance" – 1:52
# "Are You Gonna Be My Girl" – 3:34
# "Rollover DJ" – 3:17
# "Look What You've Done" – 3:50
# "Get What You Need" – 4:08
# "Move On" – 4:21
# "Radio Song" – 4:32
# "Get Me Outta Here" – 2:56
# "Cold Hard Bitch" – 4:03
# "Come Around Again" – 4:30
# "Take It Or Leave It" – 2:23
# "Lazy Gun" – 4:42
# "Timothy" – 4:32
# "Sgt. Major" – 4:04 *

(*) Bonus track in Limited Edition CD

## References
Jet (band)

**Jet** is a hard rock band from Melbourne, Australia. They were formed in 2001. They have made two albums, *Get Born* and *Shine On*. *Get Born* sold over three and a half million copies worldwide.

## References
Tom Wills

**Thomas Wentworth "Tom" Wills** (19 August 1835 – 3 May 1880) was an Australian all-round sportsman who helped invent Australian rules football and helped write the Laws of Australian Football.

Wills was born in south-eastern New South Wales, Australia, near either Gundagai or Queanbeyan. 
 in December 1866.]]
Wills grew up with Indigenous Australians.  He spoke the language of the Djab Wurrung people, who lived near him, and played with their children. It has been suggested that Australian rules football is based in part on *Marn Grook*, an Indigenous game with some rules that are similar to those of to Australian rules football. Because the Djab Wurrung played *Marn Grook*, Wills would have been influenced by the game in creating the rules for Australian rules football.

Willis, an alcoholic, committed suicide by stabbing himself in the heart after he had escaped from a psychiatric hospital.

## References
Simple Plan (album)

***Simple Plan*** is the third, self-titled studio album by pop punk band Simple Plan.

## Track listing
01. When I’m Gone {03:50}

02. Take My Hand {03:51}

03. The End {03:22}

04. Your Love Is A Lie {03:42}

05. Save You {03:46}

06. Generation {03:03}

07. Time To Say Goodbye (02:56}

08. I Can Wait Forever {04:54}

09. Holding On {05:03}

10. No Love {03:15}

11. What If {05:54}

12. Running Out Of Time {03:16}
N-type semiconductor

An **N-type semiconductor** is a type of material used in electronics. 

It is made by adding an impurity to a pure semiconductor such as silicon or germanium. The impurities used may be phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, bismuth or some other chemical element. They are called donor impurities. 
The impurity is called a *donor* because it gives a free electron to a semiconductor. The purpose of doing this is to make more charge carriers, or electron wires  available in the material for conduction. The final material is a lot more conductive than the original silicon or germanium.

## Introduction
Semiconductor materials like silicon and germanium have four electrons in their outer shell. The outer shell of electrons is called the valence shell. The four electrons are used by the semiconductor atom in forming bonds with its neighbouring atoms. This leaves a low number of electrons available for conduction. 

Pentavalent elements are those elements which have five electrons in their outer shell. To make the n-type semiconductor, pentavalent impurities like phosphorus or arsenic are added. Four of the impurities' electrons form bonds with the surrounding silicon atoms. This leaves one electron free. The resulting material has a large number of free electrons. Since electrons are negative charge carriers, the resultant material is called an n-type (or negative type) semiconductor. The pentavalent impurity that is added is called a 'dopant' and the process of addition is called 'doping'.

## Manufacture
N-type semiconductors are manufactured by doping pure semiconductor material. The amount of impurity added is very small compared to the amount of semiconductor. The way this new semiconductor works is changed by controlling the quantity of the dopant.

## Related pages
* Semiconductor
*P-type Semiconductor

## Other websites
* The Doping of Semiconductors - Hyperphysics
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

The **Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers** (or **IEEE**  for short) an international non-profit, professional organization for the advancement of technology related to electricity. It has the most members of any technical professional organization in the world, with more than 400,000 members in more than 160 countries. About 45% of IEEE's members live outside the United States.

It was formed in 1963 by the merger of the Institute of Radio Engineers (IRE, founded 1912) and the American Institute of Electrical Engineers (AIEE, founded 1884).

The IRE concerned mostly radio engineering. The major interests of the AIEE were wire communications and light and electric power systems. As technology developing, the IRE and the AIEE became difficult to distinguish. And people who belong to both group were increasing gradually. After World War II, the leadership of both the IRE and the AIEE merged the organizations on January 1, 1963.

IEEE says its purpose is "scientific and educational, directed toward the advancement of the theory and practice of electrical, electronics, communications and computer engineering, as well as computer science, the allied branches of engineering and the related arts and sciences." In pursuing these goals, the IEEE serves a major publisher of scientific journals, provides learning opportunities within the engineering sciences, research, and technology and so on.

IEEE consists of 150 countries, 350,000 members, 39 societies, organized around specialized technical fields, with more than 300 local organizations that hold regular meetings. Famous presidents of IEEE and its founding organizations include Elihu Thomson, Alexander Graham Bell, Ernst Weber. In 2008 the president of IEEE was Lewis M. Terman.

IEEE produces 30 percent of the world's literature in the electrical and electronics engineering and computer science fields, publishing well over 100 peer-reviewed journals.  The content in these journals and from several hundred annual conferences are available in the IEEE's online digital library.

## Standards and development process 
IEEE is one of the leading standards-making organizations in the world.  The IEEE Standards Association (IEEE-SA) makes and maintains standards for the IEEE.  IEEE standards affect a wide range of industries including: power and energy, biomedical and healthcare, Information Technology (IT), telecommunications, transportation, nanotechnology, information assurance, and many more.  In 2005, IEEE had close to 900 active standards, with 500 standards under development.  One of the more notable IEEE standards is the IEEE 802 LAN/MAN group of standards which includes the IEEE 802.3 Ethernet standard and the IEEE 802.11 Wireless Networking standard (Wi-Fi).

## References 
## Other websites 
* IEEE Conferences Template – For authors looking to submit to IEEE conferences
* IEEE format template - For authors looking to submit to IEEE journals
Run, Fat Boy, Run

***Run Fat Boy Run*** is a 2007 British romantic comedy directed by David Schwimmer, written by Michael Ian Black and Simon Pegg, and starring Pegg, Dylan Moran, Thandie Newton, Harish Patel, India de Beaufort and Hank Azaria. It was released in the UK on 7 September 2007, in Canada on 10 September 2007 and in the United States on 28 March 2008.

## Characters and cast
* Simon Pegg as Dennis Doyle
* Thandie Newton as Elizabeth Olivia 'Libby' Odell
* Hank Azaria as Whit
* Dylan Moran as Gordon
* Harish Patel as Mr. Goshdashtidar
* India de Beaufort as Maya Goshdashtidar
* Matthew Fenton as Jake
* Simon Day as Vincent
* Ruth Sheen as Claudine
* Tyrone Huggins as Grover
* Nevan Finegan as Mickey

### Guest appearances
* Chris Hollins (sports reporter)
* Peter Serafinowicz (reporter voice over)
* Denise Lewis (British athlete)
* Stephen Merchant (injured runner)
* David Walliams (customer in Libby's shop)

## References
## Other websites
* Official site
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* Official Canadian site 
* Interview with director David Schwimmer at YouTube
Magnetic tape

]]
**Magnetic tape** is a long and narrow strip of plastic that thin magnetic material is coated on. Nearly all recording tape is of this type, whether used for recording audio or video or computer data storage.

Magnetic tape recording uses magnetic tape which moves on a recording head. Electrical signals are fed to the recording head, inducing a pattern of magnetization similar to the signal. A playback head can then pick up the changes in magnetic field from the tape and convert it into an electrical signal.

Devices that record and playback audio and video using magnetic tape are generally called tape recorders and videotape recorders respectively. A device that stores computer data on magnetic tape can be called a tape drive, a tape unit, or a streamer. Autoloaders and tape libraries are frequently used to automate cartridge handling.

## History
Magnetic tape was first invented for recording sound by Fritz Pfleumer in 1928 in Germany. Pfleumer's invention used an iron oxide(Fe2O3) powder coating on a long strip of paper.

Magnetic tape has been used for data storage for over 50 years. In this time, many advances in tape have been made. Modern magnetic tape is most commonly packaged in cartridges and cassettes. 

Today, many other technologies like CD or DVD are replacing magnetic tape. However, innovation in the technology continues and tape is still widely used.

## Strength and Weakness 
When storing large amounts of data, tape can be cheaper than disk or other data storage options. Tape storage has always been used with large computer systems. Modern usage is a high capacity medium for backups and archives. As of 2019, the highest capacity tape cartridge can store 330 TB of data without using compression.

Magnetic tape data storage uses the Sequential access method for reading data. Tape has a longer access time than disk for random accesses since the deck must wind the tape to move from one location to another.

## Related pages
*Audio cassette
*Electrical engineering
*Floppy disk

## Other websites 
* History of Tape Recording Technology
* VidiPax Audio Format Guide 

## References
Cathode

A **cathode** is a type of electrode through which electrons move. Electrodes are an electrical conductor (usually a metal) that is connected to something that is not a metal. Electric current is a flow of charges through a conductor. There are two theories; one theory is conventional current flow and the other is actual current flow. The anode delivers conventional (or customary) current (which travels in the opposite direction as electrons) and the cathode receives that current. This means that electrons come out of the anode and electrons go into the cathode.  

This lets an electric current go into an electrical device such as a battery or other electrical cell. It can also end in a vacuum, like in a cathode ray tube. In this case, the electrons may go into open space.

In other words, a cathode is a positive electrode on a battery and a negative electrode on an electrolytic cell. Electric current is perceived as flowing in the opposite direction that the electrons are flowing. So electrons go into the + (positive) terminal of a battery, but electric current goes out. Electrons go into the + (positive) terminal of an electrolytic cell, but electric current goes out.

An electrode through which electrons flows out of the device is termed a **cathode** because it is negatively charged. A cathode is a negative electrode on a battery and a negative electrode on an electrolytic cell.

## Related pages
*Photocathode
*Cold cathode

## References
*How to Define Anode and Cathode
United States Army Reserve

The **United States Army Reserve** is the reserve force of the United States Army. People in the reserve forces are not full-time soldiers, they also have a civilian career. The reserve forces of the US Army are made of the US Army reserve and the Army National Guard.

The Army Reserve was formed in 1908 to provide a reserve of medical officers to the Army. After the First World War  Congress reorganized the U.S. land forces. The National Defence Act of 4 June 1920 authorized a Regular Army, a National Guard, and an Organized Reserve (Officers Reserve Corps and Enlisted Reserve Corps) of unrestricted size.  The Organized Reserve later became the Army Reserve.

## References
Javon Ringer

**Javon Ringer** (born February 2, 1987, Dayton, Ohio) is an American football running back for the Tennessee Titans of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at Michigan State University. He attended Chaminade Julienne High School, where he set many running records. 

## Other websites 
* Ringer's official site 
* Javon Ringer statistics, ESPN.com
* MSU Spartans Player Profile 
* CBS Player Page
Galvanometer

A **galvanometer** is a type of ammeter. It is an instrument for detecting and measuring electric current. It is named after Luigi Galvani. It is an analog electromechanical transducer that produces a rotary deflection, through a limited arc, in response to electric current flowing through its coil. The term has been expanded to include uses of the same mechanism in recording, positioning, and servomechanism equipment.

## Operation 
The most familiar use is as an analog measuring instrument, often called a meter. It is used to measure the direct current (flow of electric charge) through an electric circuit. The D'Arsonval/Weston form used today is constructed with a small pivoting coil of wire in the field of a permanent magnet. The coil is attached to a thin pointer that traverses a calibrated scale. A tiny torsion spring pulls the coil and pointer to the zero position.

When a direct current (DC) flows through the coil, the coil generates a magnetic field. This field acts against the permanent magnet. The coil twists, pushing against the spring, and moves the pointer. The hand points at a scale indicating the electric current. Careful design of the pole pieces ensures that the magnetic field is uniform, so that the angle of the pointer is proportional to the current. A useful meter generally contains provision for damping the mechanical resonance of the moving coil and pointer, so that the pointer settles quickly to its position without oscillation.

## Tangent galvanometer 
A tangent galvanometer is an early measuring instrument used for the measurement of electric current. It works by using a compass needle to compare a magnetic field generated by the unknown current to the magnetic field of the Earth. It gets its name from its operating principle, the tangent law of magnetism, which states that the tangent of the angle a compass needle makes is proportional to the ratio of the strengths of the two perpendicular magnetic fields. It was first described by Claude Servais Mathias Pouillet in 1837.

A tangent galvanometer consists of a coil of insulated copper wire wound on a circular non-magnetic frame. The frame is mounted vertically on a horizontal base provided with levelling screws. The coil can be rotated on a vertical axis passing through its centre. A compass box is mounted horizontally at the centre of a circular scale. It consists of a tiny, powerful magnetic needle pivoted at the centre of the coil. The magnetic needle is free to rotate in the horizontal plane. The circular scale is divided into four quadrants. Each quadrant is graduated from 0° to 90°. A long thin aluminium pointer is attached to the needle at its centre and at right angle to it. To avoid errors due to parallax a plane mirror is mounted below the compass needle.
Strain (biology)

In biology, a **strain** is a low-level taxonomic rank below the rank of species. This is seen in microbiology where strains are got from a single cell colony, and are quarantined by being in a Petri dish. Strains are also commonly referred to in virology, in horticulture, and with rodents used in experimental studies.

## Microbiology/Virology
A strain is a genetic variant or subtype of a microorganism, that is to say a virus or bacterium or fungus. For example, a "flu strain" is a certain biological form of the influenza or "flu" virus. Properly speaking, bacteria, archaea and viruses do not have species, because they do not have eukaryote-type sexual reproduction. Bacteria do exchange DNA, but they may exchange it between different kinds of bacteria, which shows their difference from eukaryotes. Strains are therefore an essential part of bacterial identification. 

## Plants
In botany, the term is not used to rank plants. It is sometimes used to refer to all the descendants produced from a common ancestor that share a uniform morphological or physiological character. A strain is a designated group of offspring that have descended from a modified plant, produced ether by conventional breeding or by biotechnological means or result from genetic mutation. 

For example, some rice strains are made by inserting new genetic material into a rice plant, all the descendants of the genetically modified rice plant are a strain with a unique genetic code that is passed on to later generations. The strain designation, a number or a formal name, covers all the plants that descend from the originally modified plant. The rice plants in the strain can be breed to other rice strains or cultivars, and if desirable plants are produced, these are further breed to stabilize the desirable traits; the stabilized plants that can be propagated and come true, are given a cultivar name and released into production to be used by farmers.

## Rodents
A mouse or a rat strain is a group of animals that is genetically uniform. Strains are used in laboratory experiments. Mouse strains can be inbred or genetically engineered, while rat strains are usually produced by inbreeding.

## Other websites
*International Mouse Strain Resource (IMSR)
*Rat strain index

## References
Smile, It's the End of the World

'''''Smile, it's the End of the World''''' is the second album by pop punk band Hawk Nelson.  It was released on April 4, 2006.

## Track listing 
#"The One Thing I Have Left" – 3:07
#"The Show" – 3:13
#"Bring 'Em Out" – 3:23
#"Everything You Ever Wanted" – 4:04
#"Something On My Mind" – 4:19
#"Is Forever Enough" – 3:22
#"Zero" – 4:38
#"Nothing Left To Show" – 2:54
#"Head On Collision" – 4:07
#"Hello" – 3:00
#"It's Over" – 3:06
#"Fourteen" – 4:50
Letters to the President

***Letters to the President*** is the first album by pop punk band Hawk Nelson.  It was released on October 4, 2005.

## Track listing
#"California" – 2:52
#"Things We Go Through" – 2:31
#"Every Little Thing" – 3:07
#"From Underneath" – 2:45
#"Letters To The President" – 3:13
#"Right Here" – 3:11
#"Recess" – 0:50
#"Take Me" – 3:30
#"Someone Else Before" – 3:17
#"First Time" – 2:37
#"Like A Racecar" – 2:48
#"The Show" – 1:53
#"36 Days" – 3:42
#"Long And Lonely Road" – 3:10
Tonbridge Grammar School

**Tonbridge Grammar School** (or just **TGS**) is a well known grammar school in Tonbridge, Kent. It has about 1050 students who are 11-18 years old. The school was called *Tonbridge Grammar School For Girls* until 2002, when boys were allowed into the 6th form.

## History 
Tonbridge Grammar School started in 1905 on the top floor of the Tonbridge Library with only 13 pupils. The teacher and headmistress was called Mrs Taylor. In 1913 the school moved to the site in Deakin Leas as the school was growing quickly and the library was not big enough.

## Buildings 
These are the buildings found at TGS today:
* The Main Building/ The Hans Building
* The Technology Block ("The Tech Block")
*The Old Building/The Science Building

## Other websites 
* School homepage
Plug-in hybrid

is one of the best selling plug-in hybrid vehicles]]
A **plug-in hybrid car** is similar to a conventional hybrid vehicle—both use a gasoline engine as well as an electric motor. A plug-in hybrid differs primarily in that it can be plugged in to charge the batteries, while a conventional hybrid relies solely on energy generated from braking, coasting or from the gasoline engine.

A plug-in hybrid uses larger battery packs that can be recharged by connecting to common household electricity. Plug-in hybrids can be driven for long distances—from a few miles to as much as 40 miles—without using any gasoline. Plug-in hybrid cars are also known as plug-in hybrid electric vehicles or PHEVs. Plug-in hybrid cars that use a gas engine exclusively for recharging batteries—rather than directly powering the wheels—are also called Extended-Range Electric Vehicles or E-REVs.

Fueling a car with electricity is about 5 times cheaper than fueling it with gasoline. That is equivalent to buying gasoline at less than $1 per gallon. It also reduces greenhouse pollution and helps reduce crude oil imports. Also plug-in hybrids produced substantially lower greenhouse gas emissions than either conventional gasoline cars or unplugged hybrids.  

## Criticisms
Criticisms of the hybrid include the additional cost, weight, and size of a larger battery pack.

## Manufacturing (year 2024 and/or 2025)
BYD made [c. 2.5 million or] 2,503,119 plug-in hybrid vehicles (year 2024).

Brands that made plug-in hybrids in 2024, include

*Audi, Audi A3, A8, Q5, Q7 (year 2024)
*Baojun Yunhai
*Bentley Bentayga
*BMW M5, BMW XM
*BYD, including BYD Shark
*Citroën C5 X
*Fangchengbao Bao 8
*Ford Ranger (T6), Ford Escape
*Honda CR-V
*Hyundai Sonata
*Jeep Renegade, Jeep Wrangler
*Karma Revero
*Lamborghini Urus SE (2024)
*Mercedes-Benz, including Mercedes-Benz GLE
*Mitsubishi Outlander
*Peugeot 508
*Porsche Panamera
*Renault Captur, its length is 4.05 m
*Seat made SEAT León (2024)
*Škoda, including Škoda Superb
*Tank, including Tank 700
*Toyota RAV4
*Volkswagen; Golf Mk8, Passat B9, Tiguan, Tayron, Touareg
*Volvo, including Volvo XC40, Volvo XC90, Volvo S60
*Voyah, including Voyah Free
*Wey, including Wey VV7
*Yangwang, including Yangwang U8
2005 Pacific hurricane season

The **2005 Pacific hurricane season** was a slightly inactive season that produced 17 tropical cyclones. It officially started on May&nbsp;15 and ended on November&nbsp;30, dates which conventionally delimit the period during which most tropical cyclones form in the northeast Pacific Ocean. The first  tropical cyclone, Hurricane Adrian, developed on May&nbsp;17, while the last storm Tropical Depression Sixteen-E, dissipated on October 20. During the year, a total of 17 tropical cyclones, 15 tropical storms, 7 hurricanes and 2 major hurricanes formed. The most intense hurricane, Hurricane Kenneth remained out over open waters for the duration of its existence. However, the remnants of the storm caused minor flooding on the Island of Hawaii. September was the most active month of the year, as 6 of the 17 tropical cyclones formed during this time. 

The pre-season forecast from the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration called for 11-15 named storms and 6-8 hurricanes, of which 2-4 were expected to attain major hurricane status.

Very few storms impacted land throughout the season. Hurricane Adrian was the only landfalling system. It struck El Salvador as a dissipating tropical depression after rapidly weakening from hurricane status. Flooding in Nicaragua caused the only fatality during the season. Tropical Storm Dora and Hurricane Hilary brought tropical storm force winds to coastal Mexico, although no damage was reported. The remnants Tropical Depression One-C caused heavy rainfall on the Island of Hawaii, peaking at 8.8&nbsp;in (223.52&nbsp;mm). Hawaii was also affected by the remnants of Hurricane Kenneth which also caused heavy rains on the Island of Hawaii. The combined storms caused very little damage and only one fatality.
Heisman Trophy

The **Heisman Memorial Trophy Award** (often known simply as the **Heisman Trophy** or **The Heisman**), named after the former college football coach John Heisman, is awarded annually to the most outstanding player in collegiate football.

It was first awarded in 1935 by the Downtown Athletic Club of New York City. At the time, it was known as the DAC Trophy, with only players at colleges east of the Mississippi River eligible. A year later, after the death of Heisman (who had been the club's athletic director), the award was renamed the Heisman Trophy, and all college players became eligible. Since the DAC closed in 2002, the trophy has been presented by the Heisman Trophy Trust. All award ceremonies have been held in New York City except the 2020 ceremony, held virtually at ESPN's studios in Bristol, Connecticut amid COVID-19.

## Other websites 
*The Heisman Memorial Trophy Award website
*StiffArmTrophy.com  (attempts to project the Heisman Trophy winner through "exit polls" of actual Heisman voters)
*HeismanPundit.com  (commentary and discussion)
*New Home of the Heisman - Sports Museum of America
2007 Pacific hurricane season

The **2007 Pacific hurricane season** was a below average Pacific hurricane season with only one major hurricane. It officially started on May 15, 2007 in the eastern Pacific, designated as the area east of 140°W, and on June 1 2007 in the central Pacific, which is between the International Date Line and 140°W, and lasted until November 30, 2007. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Pacific basin.

The season began slowly; through the end of July, the seasonal ACE was the third lowest since the geostationary satellite era began in 1966. The inactivity continued through the next month, which was the third quietest August in terms of ACE since reliable records began in the basin in 1971. Tropical Storm Barbara in June caused $55&nbsp;million (2007&nbsp;USD) in crop damage in southeastern Mexico from heavy precipitation. In August, Hurricane Flossie formed in the Eastern Pacific and crossed into the Central Pacific, threatening Hawaii but causing little damage. In early September, Hurricane Henriette dropped heavy rainfall in southwest Mexico, which caused nine fatalities and $25&nbsp;million (2007&nbsp;USD) in damage.

## Storms
*Tropical Storm Alvin 
*Tropical Storm Barbara 
*Tropical Depression Three-E 
*Tropical Depression Four-E 
*Tropical Depression Five-E 
*Hurricane Cosme 
*Tropical Storm Dalila 
*Tropical Storm Erick 
*Hurricane Flossie 
*Tropical Storm Gil 
*Hurricane Henriette 
*Hurricane Ivo 
*Tropical Depression Thirteen-E 
*Tropical Storm Juliette 
*Tropical Storm Kiko 
## Storm names
### Retirement
No names were retired in 2007.
## References
Government of Balochistan, Pakistan

**Government of Balochistan** is based in the largest province of Pakistan in Quetta. The head of the province is the Governor, who is nominated by the President of Pakistan. While the head of the Government of Balochistan is the Chief Minister who is elected by the Balochistan Assembly.
## Related pages
* List of heads of state of Balochistan
*List of prime ministers of Balochistan
Chief minister

A **chief minister** is the elected head of government of a sub-national or constituent federal state. Leaders with this role are usually elected in India or Australia.

## References
Klingon language

The **Klingon language** (*`tlhIngan Hol`*, ) is a language that was made for the Klingons in the *Star Trek* universe. It is a constructed language, not one that developed naturally. Only a few people can speak the Klingon language well enough to talk in it. The Klingon Language Institute helps people learn Klingon.

## History 
The first Klingon words were made by the actor James Doohan in 1979 for the first Star Trek movie. When they made the third movie in 1984, Gene Roddenberry wanted to have a real language for the Klingons. Marc Okrand, a linguist (a language scientist) made the Klingon language. He has written some books about the Klingon language.

## Grammar 
Marc Okrand wanted the language to be as complicated as possible. He did this to make it sound very alien. The word order in a sentence is always object-verb-subject. This is the opposite of English's word order, which is subject-verb-object. The English sentence "I see the cat" is said as "the cat see I" in Klingon.

This language uses affixation to denote the subject and negation:

## Writing 
When writing in Klingon, some letters are always in uppercase and some are lowercase. This never changes because the letters are spoken differently when they are written differently.

:

## References
Lentil soup

**Lentil soup** ( *shorbit adas* or ''shurba al-'adas*, ,  *nezid adashim'') is a soup. It is served hot and made with lentils. It is popular all over the Middle East.  Usually it is a vegetarian soup, but can also be made with meat stock. Red or green lentils may be used and in some recipes the lentils are boiled with vegetables such as carrots, potatoes, parsley and onion, and then pureed. Things commonly added include garlic, cumin, and lemon juice. Sometimes croutons are added to make it look good.

Lentil soup is mentioned in the Bible: In Genesis 25:34, Esau is prepared to give up his birthright for a pot of fragrant red lentil soup being cooked by his brother, Jacob. 

The ancient Greek dramatist, Aristophanes, mentions lentil soup in his plays: He describes it as the "sweetest of delicacies."

## References
Nightgown

A **nightgown** or **nightdress** is a gown worn for sleeping. It is usually loose-fitting. There are different lengths, hip-length (called *baby-doll*), floor-length (called *négligée*) or knee-length.

Men wore them until about the 1940s when they changed to pajamas. Today, they are mostly worn by women.