open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Dodo

-ship 'Gelderland' (1601–1603)]]

**Dodo** *(Raphus cucullatus)* is an extinct species of flightless bird from Mauritius. Dodos were in the same family as the pigeon. They became extinct in the late 17th century. Like many other island birds, they could not fly because it was no advantage where they lived. 

The Dodo has become a symbol of extinction caused by the arrival of humans in ecosystems where humans had never before lived. 

## The name 'Dodo' 
The history of the word 'Dodo' is not clear. Dutch admiral Wybrand van Warwijck discovered the island and the bird in 1598 during an expedition to Indonesia. He called the bird 'walgvogel', meaning "disgusting bird" because he disliked the taste of the meat. Four years later, the Dutch captain, Willem van Westsanen, used the word 'Dodo' for the first time.

The *Encarta Dictionary* and the *Chambers Dictionary of Etymology* say "dodo" is a Portuguese word, coming from *doido*. It means "fool" or "crazy". Another idea is that 'dodo' was a  of the bird's own call, a two-note pigeon like sound, "doo-doo". 
In 1606 Cornelis de Jonge wrote a description of the Dodo, and of other animal and plants on the island .

## Description 
The dodo was the largest bird of the Columbiformes, and weighs about . They had grey feathers and yellow feet. Portuguese sailors said that they saw the Dodos eating fish. They also ate rocks and stones which might have helped them digest food. They were eaten by humans who came in the search of treasure or spouting.

## Extinction 
The dodo was not scared of people which made it easy to hunt and kill. Dogs, cats, rats and pigs were left on the island and also killed the dodos. Because dodos built their nests on the ground, the new animals ate their eggs. The forests were chopped down and the dodo lost its habitat. Within 80 years, the dodo was extinct. The last confirmed dodo sighting in Mauritius was 1662, but a 2003 research by David Roberts and Andrew Solow estimated that the dodo lived another few decades unnoticed until around 1690.https://artsandculture.google.com/story/everything-you-ever-wanted-to-know-about-the-dodo/lQKCJWtqLgvEIA

The last known stuffed bird was at Oxford University and was thrown out as rubbish. Only a foot and a head are left. The American Museum of Natural History in New York has a skeleton showing. It was put together out of bones from several different Dodos. The Natural History Museum of Mauritius has the only complete skeleton of a dodo, found in a swamp.

## References 
## Other websites 
* The Dodo Cartoon Blog
Kiwi

The **kiwi** is a type of bird from New Zealand. They are the genus ***Apteryx*** of the family Apterygidae. There are several species and sub-species of kiwi. The kiwi is a symbol for New Zealand. People from New Zealand are nicknamed "Kiwis".

They have a long beak and brown feathers. The feathers look like fur. Kiwi cannot fly, and their wings are so small that they cannot usually be seen. Kiwi cannot see well, but they can hear very well. They are the smallest ratite birds.

## Life 
Kiwi are night (nocturnal) birds. They mostly eat invertebrates, like worms and insects. Kiwi keep a territory where they live alone or with their mate. In their territory they build several burrows where they sleep, or lay their eggs.
Kiwi are monogamous; the male and female stay together until one of them dies. The male and female live in the same territory and raise their children together.
Female kiwi lay between one and three eggs. Compared to the size of the mother, the eggs are the largest of any bird species. Kiwi are mature when they are 2 years old, and they can live more than 20 years. One kiwi kept in a zoo even reached 35 years old.

## Eggs 
The female brown kiwi lays enormous eggs, which are almost one-sixth of her own body weight. These eggs take 11 weeks to incubate, the longest time for any bird. In comparison, eggs of yellow-breasted chats take only 11 days, and chicken eggs take 21 days.

## Habitat 
Kiwi prefer to live in burrows they make in forested areas. They either make their burrows in the ground like rabbits, in between the roots of trees, or in hidden sheltered places such as hollow logs. Kiwi line their burrows with leaves to make them more comfortable and warm. Sometimes they hide the entrance to their burrows using piles of twigs. Kiwi may have more than ten different burrows in their territory and will swap between them sometimes.

Kiwi are threatened by many mammals. Stoats are the main threat for the kiwi chicks.  Ferrets and dogs kill adult kiwi.

## References
Emu

The **emu** (*Dromaius novaehollandiae*) is a large flightless bird. It is native to Australia.  

It is also the second tallest bird in the world, after its ratite relative, the ostrich. The emu is also related to the cassowary which is slightly smaller but heavier.

## Other emus 
There were also two species of dwarf emu, *Dromaius minor*, one living on King Island in Tasmania and the other on Kangaroo Island. They are examples of island dwarfism. The group on King Island became extinct in 1805, that on Kangaroo Island in 1827, and that in Tasmania in 1865.

## Description 
The emu is the second tallest bird in the world, only the ostrich  is taller. The largest individuals can reach up to 150 to 190 cm (59 to 75 in) in height. 

Emus are the fourth or fifth heaviest living bird after the two species of ostrich and two larger species of cassowary. They weigh slightly more on average than an emperor penguin. The soft-feathered, brown birds reach up to 20m (27ft) in height. Their feathers are in a double layer which helps keep the emu cool. They may travel long distances to find food. One emu was found to have travelled . Emus are farmed for their meat, oil and leather. The first emu farms began in Western Australia during the 1970s.

## The history of the name 
The first written description of the emu was under the name of the New Holland Cassowary in Arthur Phillip's *Voyage to Botany Bay*, published in 1788. The species was named by ornithologist (bird expert) John Latham, who worked on Phillip's book. He provided the first descriptions of and names for many Australian bird species. Its scientific name, *Dromaius novaehollandiae*, is from the Latin words, meaning "fast-footed New Hollander". The history of the name, *emu*, is not certain, but is thought to have come from an Arabic word for large bird. This word was later used by Portuguese explorers to describe the related Cassowary in New Guinea.

## References
Tolkāppiyam

**Tolkaapiyam** (தொல்காப்பியம்) is a book on grammar of the Tamil language.

Tol (தொல்) means Old and Kappiyam (காப்பியம்) means a literary work.
The name of the author could not be identified (usually referred as *Tholkappiyar*) and the work apparently relates to Grammar in Tamil.
It is learnt that the author was one of the 12 disciples of Sage Agastya the Father of Tamil Grammar. This sage was living in the south near Madurai, during the visit of Lord Ram to the south in search of his wife, abducted by the Lankan King Ravan.
The age of Lord Ram precedes that of Lord Krishna and hence the work can safely be said to precede 3000 BC (the ideal period of Mahabharat Yudh).
Lord Shiva and his Son Murugan is said to have laid the first tenets for the Tamil Language, probably long long time before sage Agastya could compile the same.
Abbey Road Studios

**Abbey Road Studios**, usually called just "Abbey Road", are the recording studios in EMI's headquarters in St. John's Wood, London, England.

Abbey Road had three different studios for most of its history. Other space was turned into a fourth studio later. Studio One is large, and used to be a . Symphony orchestras and very large bands and groups are recorded there. Studio Two is smaller, and works best for small combos or groups of musicians. Studio Three is much smaller, and is meant for soloists and . Studio Four is mostly for , where changes are made to earlier recordings.

## References
Fachhochschule Düsseldorf

The **Fachhochschule Düsseldorf** is a so-called Fachhochschule (university of applied sciences), that means a special kind of college, with technical, design and business subjects in Düsseldorf.
It was founded in 1971.

## List of Departments
* Architecture
* Design
* Electrical Engineering
* Mechanical and Process Engineering
* Media Sciences
* Social and Cultural Studies (e.g. Sociology)
* Business Studies (applied Economy studies)

## Other websites 
* Official Website
Prisoner

's image of the exercise yard at Newgate Prison&nbsp;(1872)]]

A **prisoner** is a person who is forced to stay in a prison against their will. People who are suspected of a crime, for example, a murder, may be  arrested and held in jail so they will not escape before their trial. After conviction a prisoner may be punished. For example, they may be imprisoned for a fixed number of years, or receive a life sentence meaning they stay in jail until they die. 

A prisoner of war is a person who was captured by the enemy in a war.
Psychoanalysis

, G. Stanley Hall, Carl Jung; Back row: Abraham A. Brill, Ernest Jones, Sándor Ferenczi, at: Clark University in Worcester, Massachusetts]]

**Psychoanalysis** is a field of psychology and medical therapy. It is a set of theories and ways of treating mental disorders. It was started in the early 1890s by the Austrian psychologist Sigmund Freud, with experience from the clinical work of Josef Breuer and others.

Since then, psychoanalysis has expanded and been revised, reformed and developed in different ways. Freud's own colleagues and students, such as Alfred Adler and Carl Jung, had their own ideas. They went on to develop their ideas independently from Freud. Much later, Anna Freud and Melanie Klein used the ideas to treat troubled children.

The basic ideas of psychoanalysis are:
# besides inherited personality, a person's development is determined by events in early childhood;
# human behavior, experience, and thought is largely influenced by unconscious irrational drives;
# attempts to bring these drives into awareness is resisted by defence mechanisms;
# conflicts between conscious and unconscious (repressed) material can result in mental disturbances such as neurosis, neurotic traits, anxiety, depression, etc.;
# liberation from the effects of the unconscious material is achieved by bringing this material into the conscious mind (e.g. by the skilled guidance of the analyst.

## The unconscious mind 
Sometimes people cannot say why they are feeling the way they feel or acting the way they act. What causes the feelings and actions is called the unconscious mind in psychodynamic theory.

## Different methods 
Under the broad umbrella of "psychoanalysis" there are at least 22 different approaches to the theory and clinical treatment. The term also refers to a method of studying child development.

Freudian psychoanalysis uses a type of treatment where the subject (analytic patient) talks, including free associations, fantasies, and dreams. From these the analyst works out the unconscious conflicts which cause the patient's symptoms and character problems. By interpreting them for the patient, the analyst creates insight into the problems. The analyst identifies and clarifies the patient's pathological defences, wishes and guilt.

Psychoanalysis has been criticized on many fronts. It has been called a pseudoscience, and lacking in empirical support. However, it remains influential within psychiatry, more so in some quarters than others.

## References
Windows 3.x

**Windows 3.x** is a no-longer supported family of Microsoft Windows operating system, released in 1990-1994. Notable operating systems in this family include Windows 3.0 and Windows 3.1. This Windows could run in either Standard or 386 Enhanced memory modes. Both of the modes used a Graphical User Interface (or picture-based), and supported a mouse, but 386 Enhanced Mode was faster and was better at multitasking (or doing many things at once). Windows NT 3.x was released in 1993-1996.

It also had many features from versions of Windows before it. These included a calculator, a notepad, and more.  It also brought in many new features, like the Program Manager (which is still in Windows XP (pre-Service Pack 2) today - Start>Run>progman.exe), and the icons and programs looked better.

Windows 3.x was made better in 1992, with Windows for Workgroups 3.1x (1992-1993), that added networking support.
Woodwind instrument

A **woodwind instrument** is an instrument belonging to the **woodwind family**. Traditionally they were made of wood, and sometimes ivory or bone. Some of them are now made of metal or plastic.

In an orchestra there are four main types of woodwind instruments. Each of these also has related instruments of different sizes:

The flute is the highest of the four main instruments. The lowest note is Middle C and it has a range of 3 octaves.  The piccolo is the smallest and highest instrument in the orchestra. It plays one octave higher than the flute.  There is also an alto flute which sounds a fifth lower than the ordinary flute. Flutes are still sometimes made of wood, but mostly they are metal.

The oboe can play slightly lower than the flute. There is a larger version called the cor anglais (which means: “English horn”).

The clarinet plays nearly an octave lower than the flute. The bass clarinet plays an octave lower than the clarinet.

The bassoon is the lowest of the four main members, but the contrabassoon plays right down to the bottom B flat of the piano.

The recorder is one of the oldest and most popular woodwinds and has been used to great effect by greats, such as Bach, Telemann and Vivaldi. The general public is normally only familiar with the plastic, child's version of the recorder, but professional and high-quality recorders are still made of wood.

The saxophone may look like a brass instrument, but it is played like a clarinet and therefore it is a woodwind instrument.  It is usually played in bands and jazz groups.

## Use
Woodwind instruments are played in several ways. The flute is played by blowing across the top of the mouthpiece. It is like blowing across the top of an empty bottle. The oboe and bassoon both have a double reed. It is like blowing through a drinking straw. Bagpipes have double reeds which are inside the mouthpiece (“enclosed reeds”). The clarinet and saxophone have single reeds which are clamped against the opening of the mouthpiece.

In comparison, brass instruments are all blown in the same way: by blowing against a cup-shaped mouthpiece. This is why the saxophone cannot be called a brass instrument, although it is made of brass.

The way that a player shapes his mouth to blow an instrument is called the “embouchure”. Woodwind instruments have several different embouchures.

In an orchestra there may be two each of flutes, oboes, clarinets and bassoons. In larger orchestras, particularly from the Romantic period onwards, there may be three or four. Sometimes the extra instruments such as the piccolo are used. If, for example, in an orchestral piece the third flute is marked “doubling piccolo”, it means that the person playing flute 3 will also play the piccolo. However, if the piccolo plays at the same time as flute 3 they will obviously need an extra player for the piccolo part.

Woodwind instruments in an orchestra often have short solos. These will be played by the first player (the “section principal”).

## References
Bewitched

[[File:Agnes Moorehead Dick York Elizabeth Montgomery Bewitched 1964.JPG|right|175px|thumb|Agnes Moorehead (Endora) [top], Dick York (Darrin) [left], and Elizabeth Montgomery (Samantha) [right] at the beginning of *Bewitched*.]]
***Bewitched*** is an American television sitcom that was shown on TV by ABC from 1964 to 1972. It is about a man who is married to a witch.

The lead characters are Darrin and Samantha Stephens. Samantha twitches her nose or moves her hands to make a spell happen. Samantha was played by Elizabeth Montgomery. Darrin was played by Dick York from 1964 to 1969. Because of illness, Dick York left the show and was replaced by Dick Sargent who played Darrin from 1969 to 1972. Samantha's mother Endora was played by Agnes Moorehead. Endora dislikes Darrin and often makes things difficult for him.
Great auk

The **great auk** was a large bird, that could not fly. People hunted it for meat and feathers. It grew rare, because it was too easy to kill, and the ones left could not breed fast enough to make up for the lost ones. The last known great auks (there were two auks) were killed on June 3, 1844 in Iceland.  It lived mostly in the water, like a penguin. 

Penguins got their name from the great auk. The word "penguin" was the Celtic word for "great auk". When sailors saw penguins for the first time, they thought they looked like great auks. 

The great auk was covered in black feathers, but had white feathers on its chest and abdomen. It had very short wings, like stubs, which meant it could not fly. On land it stood upright and was about 75&nbsp;cm tall. They spent most of their time at sea, coming to shore in the summer to breed. They lived in large breeding colonies on low rocky islands in the north Atlantic Ocean from Canada to Norway. Females laid one egg on bare rock. In winter they went as far south as Florida and southern Spain. 

## References
's-Hertogenbosch

'**s-Hertogenbosch** () is a municipality in the Netherlands, and also the capital of the province of North Brabant. It is in the southern Netherlands,  south of Amsterdam.

In 2015, Maasdonk became a part to 's-Hertogenbosch.

## References
;Notes

## Other websites 
* The official site of 's-Hertogenbosch
* Municipality of 's-Hertogenbosch
* Map of 's-Hertogenbosch
Anna Seghers

**Anna Seghers** (; born *Anna Reiling,* 19 November 1900 – 1 June 1983), was a German writer notable for exploring and depicting the moral experience of the Second World War.

Seghers' parents were orthodox Jews, but also interested in Christianity. Nelly made her abitur in 1920. Before this, she had served as a nurse during World War I.

She married Hungarian Laszlo Radvanyi in 1925, and obtained Hungarian citizenship.

After the Nazis took over government in Germany, she was arrested and her books were burned.

In 1947 she returned to Berlin, Eastern Berlin, joining the Socialist Party. She worked for the Writers Union of the GDR.

She died in 1983 in Berlin.

## References
Friedrich Schiller

in Weimar.]]

**Johann Christoph Friedrich von Schiller** (November 10, 1759 in Marbach, Württemberg – May 9, 1805 in Weimar), usually known as **Friedrich Schiller**, was a German poet, philosopher, historian, and dramatist.

## Works 
### Plays 
* *Die Räuber* (*The Robbers*) (1781)
* *Kabale und Liebe* (*Intrigue and Love*) (1784)
* *Don Carlos, Infant von Spanien* (*Don Carlos*) (1787)
* *Wallenstein* (1800)
* *Die Jungfrau von Orleans* (*The Maid of Orleans*) (1801)
* *Maria Stuart* (*Mary Stuart*) (1801)
* *Turandot* (1802)
* *Die Braut von Messina* (1803)
* *Wilhelm Tell* (*William Tell*) (1804)
* *Demetrius* (unfinished at his death)

### Poems 
* *An die Freude* or *Ode to Joy* (1785) which became the basis for the fourth movement of Beethoven's ninth symphony
* *The Artists*
* *The Cranes of Ibykus*
* *The Bell*
* *Columbus*
* *Hope*
* *Pegasus in Harness*
* *The Glove*
* *Nänie* which Brahms set to music

## Other websites 
* 
* Friedrich Schiller Chronology
* "Say it loud – it's Schiller and it's proud" by George Steiner
* 2005 is Schiller year: all dates 
* Letters upon the Education of Man at http://www.bartleby.com/32/501.html
* Schiller Monument in Schiller Park, German Village, Columbus, Ohio, USA http://germanvillage.com/schillerpark.htm 
* Schiller multimedial  combines a biographical observation by Norbert Oellers with classic recordings and video clips
* Mobile Schiller  Mobile Java application containing 20 poems of Schiller
Clement Attlee

**Clement Richard Attlee, 1st Earl Attlee**  (3 January 1883 – 8 October 1967) was a British politician. Prime Minister from 1945 to 1951, he was the first Labour prime minister with a majority in government, and was very important in the setting up of the welfare state. He was made a member of the House of Lords after he retired, and became the first Earl Attlee.

Attlee died of pneumonia in 1967. He is buried in Westminster Abbey.

## Early life and education
Attlee was born in Putney. Attlee was educated at Haileybury College. He graduated from University College, Oxford with a Second Class Honours BA in Modern History in 1904. 

## Career
Attlee began a career as a barrister after graduating from Oxford. This lasted for two years. He then worked as manager of Haileybury House in East London. Attlee's work at the House inspired him to become a socialist. In 1907 he joined the Fabian Society. In 1908 he joined the Independent Labour Party. In 1911, he was employed by the UK Government. In 1919 Attlee became Mayor of Stepney. He was elected to Parliament in 1922 as the MP for Limehouse., In 1935 he was elected leader of the Labour Party. From 1942 to 1945 he was deputy prime minister.  Attlee resigned as party leader after Labour lost the 1955 election.  He was made a member of the Order of Merit in 1951 and a Knight of the Garter in 1956. In 1958 he started the Homosexual Law Reform Society with Bertrand Russell.
Octave

An **octave** is the distance between two musical notes that have the same letter name.

If a musician sings or plays a scale (‘do-re-mi-fa-sol-la-si-do’) the first and last ‘do’ are an octave apart. It is called an ‘octave’ because there are eight notes in a scale (‘octo’ is Latin for ‘eight’).

If a musician sings or plays the first two notes of the song “Somewhere over the rainbow” (i.e. the word ‘Somewhere’) these two notes are an octave apart.

Two notes that are an octave apart sound very similar, almost like the same note. The scientific reason for this is that the top note vibrates twice as fast.  For example: if someone plays Middle C on a piano, a hammer hits the Middle C strings inside and makes them vibrate 256 times a second.  The C an octave higher will vibrate 512 times a second. 

Young children who learn the piano will not be able to stretch an octave with one hand, if their hands are too small. Most adults can stretch an octave easily (playing one note with the thumb, and the other with the little finger).

## Related pages
* Interval (music)
Tinder

**Tinder** is a material that is used to start fires easily when lit with a match.
Some materials commonly used as tinder are:
*Dry pine needles, leaves or grass
*Birch bark 
*Dead, standing (usually one season old) goldenrod 
*Cloth, lint, or frayed rope (if made from plant fibers and not treated with fire retardant) 
*Char cloth 
*Cotton swabs, tampons 
*Paper, paper towels, toilet paper, etc. 
*Punk wood (in the process of rotting) or charred wood 
*Some types of fungus (best known is the amadou or horse's hoof fungus) 
*Bird down 
*Small twigs (poor tinder but commonly available)
*Fine-grade soap-coated steel wool 
*Shaved magnesium or other alkaline earth metals
Beresford, South Dakota

**Beresford** is a city in the southeastern part of the U.S. state of South Dakota. Most of the city is located in Union County, but a small part of it is in Lincoln County. Beresford became a city in 1884, and 2,180 people lived there at the 2020 census. The town has a very kind community with small businesses and a separated elementary and high school, which has been changed in some time. Beresford also has a 5 star library with many books to choose from.

## References
## Other websites
*City of Beresford website
Gotthold Ephraim Lessing

**Gotthold Ephraim Lessing** (22 January 1729 in Kamenz (Saxony) &ndash; 15 February 1781 in Braunschweig) was a German poet and philosopher in the time of the enlightenment.

## Life
Lessing was one of twelve children. His father was a Protestant priest. He went to school in Kamenz and got a stipendium for the Higher School in Meißen. From 1746 to 1748, he studied medicine and theology in Leipzig. In 1750, he moved to Berlin, where he met Voltaire. In 1752 he got the Magister (Master) degree from the university in Wittenberg.

He moved back to Leipzig in 1755, but returned later to Berlin. He traveled around in Europe and studied. He worked as a reporter. From 1760 to 1765, he worked as secretary for a general in *Breslau* (today: Wroclaw). Later he worked at the theater and became a librarian. Lessing got married in 1776. But 1778 his wife died.

In 1781, Lessing died.

## Works 
## Other websites 
;In German:
* Fabeln von Lessing  im Literaturnetz
* Lessing-Akademie Wolfenbüttel
* Lessing-Museum in Kamenz
* Biographie
* [Biographie in ADB](http://mdz.bib-bvb.de/digbib/lexika/adb/images/adb019/@ebt-link?target=idmatch(entityref,adb0190758))
* Briefe, die Neueste Literatur betreffend 
* Deutscher Bildungsserver: Pädagogische Materialien zu Gotthold Ephraim Lessing http://www.bildungsserver.de/zeigen.html?seite=4167
* Einführung in die Dramentheorie Lessings
* kostenlose Hörbuchabhandlung als MP3: Über die Wahrheit 
* Das Lessing-Denkmal in Wolfenbüttel
Stephen Harper

**Stephen Joseph Harper**  (born 30 April 1959) is a Canadian economist, entrepreneur, and retired politician who is the 4th and current Chairman of the International Democracy Union since 2018. Harper was previously the twenty-seventhPrime Minister of Canada from 2006 to 2015. He is a member and the former leader of the Conservative Party, after being elected in 2004. He was elected in February 2006 and replaced Paul Martin as Prime Minister.

Harper was born in 1959 in Toronto, Ontario and lives in Calgary, Alberta. He is married to Laureen Teskey and has two children. He is the third Prime Minister, after Pierre Trudeau and John Turner, to send their children to Rockcliffe Park Public School, in Ottawa. Stephen Harper was Prime Minister for nine years, during which Canada hosted both the Vancouver 2010 Olympics and Paralympic Winter Games. Harper also hosted the G8 and G20 meetings.

Harper is a conservative and supports cutting government spending and taxes. As Prime Minister, he has cut the goods and services tax and approved a budget that would cut funding to several government programs. He has also shown support for the military and a bigger Canadian military presence in the northern part of Canada. Harper is an evangelical Christian.

Even though Harper did win the seat in the riding of Calgary Heritage during the 2015 federal election, the Conservative Party was defeated by the Liberal Party of Canada, which was led by Justin Trudeau and who succeeded Harper as Prime Minister. It was thereafter announced Harper would resign as party leader and had requested an interim leader be chosen to serve until a leadership election can be held.

In July 2025, according to Harper, the trade war with the United States is a "wake-up call" that should encourage Canada to diversify its trading partners.

## References
Acoustic guitar

.]]
.]]
**Acoustic guitars** are hollow-bodied string instruments that believe resonance to supply sound. Once you pluck a string or strum a chord, the vibration of the strings is amplified by the highest of the guitar and thru the soundhole. These marks show where to press a string with the fingers of the left hand, to change the note that string plays. The right hand plucks or strums the strings, either with the fingers or using a plectrum ("pick"), to make them sound. Acoustic guitars are used in types of music ranging from classical to rock and roll, to bluegrass and folk. The six strings can be steel or nylon. Nylon strings are typically used for classical and related styles of music. Steel strings are typically used for most other styles.

## How the guitar became a popular instrument
The acoustic guitar came from Spain (an instrument with six strings), created by Antonio Torres Jurado. But at the beginning, the guitar was different with what we see the guitar now. In the 16th to 17th centuries, the guitar became popular in Europe. In the 18th century, the guitar changed to be similar to how it is now. But before the 19th century, many people thought the guitar could not be same as a piano or violin. They thought it could not play classical music. But at the beginning of 19th century, a famous guitar player, Fernando Sor, made the guitar become more popular and he made more people like playing the guitar. the four strings in a ukulele are tuned: G, C, E, and A. Also, the ukulele comes from Hawaii, and the guitar comes from Spain.

## Other websites
## References
Flipper

]]
mer's flippers]]

A **flipper** is a special kind of limb that is flattened like a paddle for moving through water. Many animals that live in water, such as whales and seals have flippers. The flipper of a fish is called a fin.

It can also be an item worn on the foot to help people swim more easily.
Coral fungi

coral fungus]]
 zollingeri*]]

**Coral fungi**, more properly **clavaroid fungi**, are a group of  mushrooms. They are usually shaped like coral, but can also be shaped like forks, worms or clubs. They are rubbery and at times are brightly coloured.

Originally, such fungi were put in the genus *Clavaria*, and called "clavarioid", which means *Clavaria*-like. It is now known that clavarioid species are not all closely related. Since they are often studied as a group, we keep the informal (non-taxonomic) name of "clavarioid fungi", which is frequently used in research papers.

## Habitat 
Most clavaria fungi grow on the ground, but some grow on well-decayed logs and stumps.
They are usually found in forests but some can also be found in fields. Like all mushrooms, they are decomposers.

## Eating 
Although they are not poisonous, some kinds are a laxative and some can cause stomach pain.

## Sources 
Corner E.J.H. 1950. *A monograph of Clavaria and allied genera''. Cambridge: University Press.
Harry Nilsson

**Harry Edward Nilsson III** (June 15, 1941 – January 15, 1994) was an American singer-songwriter. 

Nilsson was born in Bushwick, Brooklyn, New York City. His paternal grandparents were Swedish.

"Without Her" is one of his early hits. This number is nowadays considered one of his standards as Blood, Sweat & Tears did later an jazzy cover on their album. His biggest hits were during the late 1960s and the 1970s. His songs include "Me And My Arrow", "Coconut", "Cuddly Toy", "Spaceman", and "One". "One" was also a hit for the band Three Dog Night. Nilsson's two most famous songs were "Without You" and "Everybody's Talkin'". These songs were  written by other people. "Without You" has been re-recorded many times by other singers. It was written by Peter Ham and Tom Evans of Badfinger. "Everybody's Talkin'" was used in the 1969 movie *Midnight Cowboy*. The song was written by Fred Neil.

Nilsson recorded a tribute to The Beatles on his first album. He used lines from fifteen of their songs in one cover version of "You Can't Do That". Derek Taylor, who worked for the Beatles, sent them copies of the album, and Nilsson became a friend of the band. He later shared a house with John Lennon and Ringo Starr. They worked together on each other's music.

Nilsson also wrote a cartoon movie named *The Point!*. It was broadcast on ABC. It was about tolerance and . *The Point!* was later turned into a musical. One production of the musical starred former Monkees Micky Dolenz and Davy Jones. The Monkees had recorded two of Nilsson's songs, "Cuddly Toy" and "Daddy's Song", after they met him through producer Chip Douglas.

Nilsson died of heart failure in Agoura Hills, California.

The movie ''You've Got Mail'' uses several of Nilsson's songs in its soundtrack.

## Notes 
## Other websites 
*A performance of 'Without Her' from the 1971 BBC Television broadcast.
Stone fruit

A **stone fruit**, also called a **drupe**, is a fruit with a large "stone" inside. The stone is sometimes called the seed, but that is a mistake, as the seed is inside the stone. The stones can also be called a pit. These fruits are edible and used frequently in cooking.

## Identification 
### What makes a fruit? 
A fruit is the matured ovary of a flower. Fruits consist of two main parts: the pericarp, or ovary wall, and the seed(s).

The pericarp has three layers: the exocarp (skin/rind), the mesocarp (bulk of the pericarp), and the endocarp (innermost layer).

### Berries vs. drupes 
The two main classes of fleshy fruits are berries and drupes, or stone fruits.

Berries have a fleshy mesocarp and endocarp, and may have multiple seeds.

Drupes have a fleshy mesocarp, but a tough endocarp, and of course, a "stone" or "pit" at its center. Drupes typically have only a single seed.

## Examples of stone fruits
Humpback whale

A **humpback whale** (*Megaptera novaeangliae*) is a large baleen whale with long flippers and a knobbly head. They can be found in every ocean.

They can grow to 15–16&nbsp;m (49–52&nbsp;ft) long and weigh up to 40 metric tons.

## Life history
Humpback whales can live up to 45 years.  They migrate between the places they feed in the winter and the places they give birth in the summer. They usually live alone.

## Feeding 
Humpback whales eat krill and small fish, for example herring, capelin, and sand lance. They scoop up their food in their large mouths. Sometimes they round up their prey by swimming in tight circles and blowing curtains of bubbles around them. They often hunt in small groups, called pods.

## Whale song 
The male whale is known to sing for up to 22 hours at a time. Because whales do not have vocal cords, they make songs by forcing air through their nasal passages. Every male has a different song. We don't yet know why they sing, it might be to call a female or scare away other males. The songs are made up of a pattern of low notes repeated over a period of hours or days. The whales slowly change their songs over a period of years.

### Other sounds 
Both the male and female humpback whales make other sounds, such as moans and grunts, to communicate with each other.

## References
Tap (valve)

A **tap**, **faucet**, or **spigot** is something that a liquid or gas comes out of. Taps usually have a  that can be turned to start or stop the liquid coming out.

Many taps give water and are used in homes. They are found in kitchens and bathrooms.

Water that comes out of a tap is called *tap water*. At many restaurants, a person can ask for tap water instead of bottled water.
Competition

A **competition** or **contest** is an event where people get together to see who is the best at something.  Someone who takes part in a competition ("enters for a competition") is called a **competitor**.  The competitors compete against one another.  The person who wins may get a prize.  The prize might be a trophy or money.

Competitions can be for lots of different things, for example, sport, writing, music, dancing, science, or chess.

Some competitions need a referee.  The referee will make sure that the game is played fairly and that the competitors obey the rules.  In events like music competitions there will often be an adjudicator who will decide which person they think is the best. for competition.]]

## Forms
*In nature, animals compete with one another for the best food, the best nesting places, etc. According to Charles Darwin, the competition in nature results in evolution.
*In business, firms that make the same things or offer the same services are in competition with one another (see market forms).

The adjective of 'competition' is ***competitive***.
*If persons are "competitive" it means that they like trying to compete with other people.
*Businesses often say that they sell things at "competitive prices".  This means that their prices are lower than those of other businesses which sell similar things.

## Examples of competitions
There are a lot of different kinds of competitions, for example:
* Eating competitions, where people try to eat the most food
* Running competitions, where people see who is the first to run from one place to another
* Sport competitions, where sports teams try to beat each other to win a trophy
* Singing competitions, where someone decides which person sang the best

or see the gallery of images below:

File:David Payne Berlin 2009.JPG
File:OB First Move 2008 Dresden.jpg
File:Cesc Fàbregas Anderson.jpg
File:Seattle - Pie-eating contest 2003.jpg

## Related pages
*International Mathematical Olympiad
*Music competitions
*Science Olympiad
*Spelling bee

## References
Tadpole

A **tadpole** or **polliwog** is the larva of a frog. It breathes water and lives in the water. Tadpoles hatch from small eggs.

Frog eggs are round and toad eggs are laid in long strings.  Like bird eggs, they have nutrients (food) inside them for the young animal to grow before it hatches.

## Movement
Tadpoles swim by lateral undulation: their tails move side to side, not up and down. 

## Food
Most types of tadpole eat only plants, for example algae on rocks. Some types of tadpole eat plants and animals, even other smaller tadpoles.

## Metamorphosis
After some time, the tadpoles begin to grow legs: first the hind legs and then the front legs. Then they are called froglets.  Soon after, froglets grow lungs and begin to breathe air and lose their tails.  The tail disappears because the cells in the tail gently die.  Each tadpole's mouth changes from small to as wide as its head.  Its intestines become shorter.  They grow larger, and eventually become adults.

## Species
How fast or slow the eggs hatch and how fast or slow the tadpole becomes a froglet is different in different frogs.  Some tadpoles take months to become frogs.  Some stay tadpoles all winter and do not become frogs until the next spring, or even three years later. Some frogs lay their eggs in bodies of water that are only there in the spring and dry up in the summer, so the tadpoles must become frogs in only a few weeks.

## References
Zeulenroda-Triebes

**Zeulenroda-Triebes** is a German town in the rural district of Greiz in Thuringia.

It has about 18,000 inhabitants. Most famous sight of the town is the beautiful town hall.

## Other websites 
* Official website of Zeulenroda-Triebes 
* Landkreis Greiz
Doorstop

A **doorstop** (or **door stop** or **doorstopper**) is a tool.

There are two types. One holds a door open (or *stops* it from closing), and the other stops the door from hitting a wall.

Doorstops that keep the door from hitting a wall can be put on the door, or on the wall, or on the floor in front of the wall.

Doorstops that are used to keep a door open come in two varieties:
*Attached to the door they are supposed to stop
*Wedges that can be put under the door they should stop, or anything heavy put in front of the door
Cement

**Cement** is a material that hardens and sticks to other materials to hold them together. Portland cement is a common kind, and made from quicklime (heated limestone) and clay. Cement is used to make concrete and mortar. Cement is widely used for plastering and rendering. Plastering is done for the inner walls, and cement rendering is done for the exterior walls. Cement rendering is also used to clad brickwork on either exterior, interior, or boundary walls. This keeps brickwork protected from rain and water.

Joseph Aspdin developed Portland cement in the 19th century. He heated ground limestone and clay mix and then pulverized the mixture into fine powder. In 1824 he also obtained a patent for his creation. Portland cement is suitable for wet climates and can be used underwater.

The global cement market is estimated to be around $340 billion. China is the top cement producer, followed by India and the USA. The rising population is driving the cement demand. Countries in Asia, the Middle East, and Africa are improving their infrastructure which is resulting in the growth of the global cement industry.

## References
Brown algae

**Brown algae** are a large group of multicellular algae. All the brown algae are multicellular. Most brown algae have fucoxanthin, a chemical that gives them a brown color. They include many seaweeds in colder waters of the Northern Hemisphere. Most brown algae live in marine environments, where they play an important role both as food and as a potential habitat.

There are 2000 species of brown algae. Most species live in the ocean. They are important as food and as homes for many animals and marine life. Some brown algae are gathered by humans for food. The giant kelp *Macrocystis* is a brown alga that forms underwater forests, and it may grow to 60 meters. The Sargasso Sea gets its name from the *Sargassum* seaweed that floats on the surface. Many brown algae grow on rocks at the seashore.

Brown algae are unique among heterokonts in developing into multicellular forms with differentiated tissues. But they reproduce by means of flagellated spores and gametes that look like the cells of other heterokonts. Genetic studies show their closest relatives to be the yellow-green algae (Xanthophyceae).

## Classification
This is a list of the orders in the class Phaeophyceae:

## References
Bacillus

***Bacillus*** is a genus of rod shaped bacteria. They are Gram-positive, meaning they have an extra outside cell layer.

Bacilli are partly or wholly aerobic. They do aerobic respiration. They are every where in nature. *Bacillus* includes both free-living (non-parasitic) and parasitic pathogenic species.

Under stressful conditions, they produce endospores. These are not true spores, but like survival pods they can stay in a dormant state for long periods.

Some species of *Bacillus* are worth noting:

**Bacillus anthracis*, which causes Anthrax.
**Bacillus subtilis* is considered an model organism. It is often used in genetic engineering.
**Bacillus cereus* which is responsible for a form of food poisoning.
**Bacillus thuringensis* which is used in pest control. It produces a toxin which can kill some moths, and certain butterflies.

Image:Bacillus anthracis Gram.jpg|*Bacillus antracis*
Image:Bacillus subtilis Gram.jpg|*Bacillus subtilis*
Image:Bacillus cereus Gram.jpg|*Bacillus cereus*

## Related pages
* Listeria
* Bacillus (shape)

## References
SimCity

***SimCity*** is a computer game where the player has to build a city. They can do whatever they want to their city. It can be built from the ground up or it can be destroyed by a hurricane or a UFO.

## History
*Sim City* was made by game maker Will Wright and first released by the company Maxis. They are now owned by Electronic Arts. The game was first officially released in 1989.

It was very popular because the game had no end. A player could not win or lose. This was the start of all simulation games.

## Gameplay
At the start, the player has to build power plants. Power plants make power so the city can have electricity. By building power lines, power is connected to the different areas of the city. Water needs to be pumped in from a river using pipes to connect them to the city.

Smaller areas are marked out. These are made either residential, commercial, or industrial zones. Zones are the only places where buildings can develop. Every city needs the right amount of each zone otherwise the city will not grow.

Roads, schools and hospitals must all be built for the city to get better. Parks and libraries make more people want to move to the city. Railways and highways provide ways to connect to other neighborhoods.

## Sequels
After the first game, many more were created. These were made up of three games, with spin-offs and expansion packs. These were:
* *SimCity 2000*
* *SimCity 3000*
** *SimCity 3000 Unlimited*
** *SimCity 3000 UK Edition*
* *SimCity 4*
** *SimCity 4 Rush Hour*
** *SimCity 4 Deluxe Edition*
* *SimCity DS*
** *SimCity DS 2*
* *SimCity Societies*
** *SimCity Societies Destinations*
* *SimCity (2013)*

## References
Square Enix

**Square Enix** is a Japanese company that makes video games and manga. It was created on April 1, 2003. Two companies called Square Co., Ltd. and Enix combined to form Square Enix.

Square Enix is famous for its role-playing games. This includes the *Final Fantasy series*, the *Dragon Quest series* and the *Kingdom Hearts series*.They are one of the biggest videogame companies in the world.

## References
## Other websites
* Global Site
Individual

**Individual** can be an adjective or a noun.

As an adjective, a living thing that is individual is not in a group (by him/her/itself). An object that is individual is for only one person or thing (not shared by a group). Something that is individual can also be different from anyone else (unique).

**Some students learn better with tutors because they get individual attention.*
**He has a very individual taste in music.*

As a noun, an individual is only one person or thing, not a group. An individual can also mean someone who is different from anyone else (one a kind).

**The rights of individuals*
**A strange individual*

## Related pages 
*Individualism
*Identity (philosophy)
*Self
Dehydration

**Dehydration** (**hypohydration**) means less water in something. The word comes from the ancient Greek word for water, *hydor*.

People get dehydrated when they lose more water than they take in. The human body needs water to survive. If a person gets badly dehydrated, their body will be unable to work the right way. Bad dehydration can cause organ damage and even death. The key sign of dehydration is sunken eyes, or blac bags under the eyes. It can also cause the skin to lose flexibility when it is in the process of happening.

## What causes dehydration? 
A living organism will get dehydrated if their body is losing water in some way and they do not drink enough to replace the water. The most common causes of dehydration are: 
* Being very thirsty
* Feeling irritable and confused (infants and children may be very fussy or get very sleepy)
* Very dry mouth and mucous membranes
* Shriveled, dry skin that is less elastic than normal (it doesn't "bounce back" when pinched into a fold)
* Urinating very little, with darkly colored urine, or not urinating at all
* Sunken eyes
* In infants, the fontanel (the soft spot on the top of the head) may be sunken
* Low blood pressure (blood pressure may also drop when the person sits up or stands up, making them feel dizzy or faint; this is called orthostasis)
* Fast heartbeat (tachycardia)
* Fast breathing (tachypnea)
* Fever
* In the most serious cases, delirium or unconsciousness

Severe dehydration is a medical emergency. If a person with severe dehydration does not get medical treatment soon enough, they can die.

## What problems may dehydration cause? 
Bad dehydration can cause serious health problems. Some of these problems are:
* Heat injury. When it is very hot outside, or when a person is exercising a lot, fluids like water help keep the body cool. If the person is dehydrated, their body can overheat (it gets too hot and cannot cool itself down). This can cause heat injury. The mildest (least serious) form of heat injury is heat cramps (cramping, or pain, in the muscles). As heat injury gets worse, it becomes heat exhaustion. If the body keeps overheating and the person does not get medical treatment, heat exhaustion becomes heat stroke. Heat stroke is a very serious medical emergency. People with heat stroke can have damage to their organs and even die if they do not get treatment quickly enough.
* Swelling of the brain (cerebral edema). Sometimes the body tries to fix dehydration by pulling a lot of water into its cells. If the body pulls too much water into the cells, those cells can swell and break. If this happens to the cells in the brain, the brain can swell.
* Kidney failure. Bad dehydration can hurt the kidneys. When the kidneys are hurt or not working properly, they cannot remove poisons and extra fluid from the blood.

People with very bad dehydration need emergency medical treatment. They may need to get fluids intravenously (through a needle placed into a vein). This replaces lost fluids and electrolytes much more quickly than drinking. It is also helpful for people who are unable to drink because of nausea and vomiting from dehydration.

## References