open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Contact

**Contact** means to touch physically or to communicate with.

**Contact** could also mean:

## General uses
* Contact lens, a corrective, cosmetic, or therapeutic lens
* Contact process, a method for producing sulfuric acid on an industrial scale
* Contact network, a type of social network
* Contact (law), in Family Law, deals with the right of parents or other significant persons to meet with and relate to a child
* Active component of electric switch or electrical connector
* vCard or hCard, in address books, a contact is the name, address, phone number, and other pertinent information
* Contact paper, in photography, used to print negatives without enlargement
* Contact (mathematics), a mathematical concept, the idea of curves (for example) touching
* Optical contacting, a process in which two highly polished surfaces are permanently or temporarily joined without use of any adhesive
* Contact Energy, an energy company in New Zealand
* The initial fighting with an enemy unit, in a military context
* Contact Conference, an annual interdisciplinary scientific conference
* Contact (social), a person renowned for performing special and often illegal favors for individuals in return for goods or services.
* First contact (anthropology) between different cultures.
* Radar contact, the display of a single radar return from an object as a result of one radar sweep
*CONTACT USA, a crisis hotline.
* Amateur radio contact, an exchange of information between two amateur radio operators
*Contact massage, massage that is done by hands or special electronic aids

## In music
* Contact (musical), a dance musical
### Albums
* *Contact (Fantastic Plastic Machine album)*, an album by Fantastic Plastic Machine
* *Contact!*, an album by Eiffel 65
* *Contact* (Silver Apples album), an album by Silver Apples
* *Contact*, an album by The Benjamin Gate
* *Contact (Thirteen Senses album)*, an album by Thirteen Senses.
* *Contact (Indo G album)*, an album by Indo G
* *Contact (Minori Chihara album)*, an album by Minori Chihara.

### Songs
* "Contact", a song by Thirteen senses from the above album.
* "Contact", a song from the broadway version of the rock opera, "Rent".
* "Contact", a song by The Police from their 1979 album *Reggatta de Blanc*
* "Contact (song)", by the French rock band Kyo.
* "Contact" (Phish song), an early Phish song

## Other media
* *Contact* (novel), a science fiction novel by Carl Sagan
* *Contact* (movie), a movie based on the book
* *Contact* (video game), a Nintendo DS game
* Contact (Dance), a dance production by Paul Mercurio
* Contact (The Culture), in novels by Iain M. Banks, the Exploration (and sometimes military) corp of the Culture
* Contact (game), a word-guessing game.
* Contact is English for Contacto, a publication of the British Interlingua Society.
Notre Dame

**Notre Dame** in French is the name give to a number of religious buildings, consecrated to the Virgin Mary. it was burned in the 2019 Notre Dame fire
## Churches and cathedrals in France
*Notre Dame de Paris, probably the most famous
*Bayeux Cathedral, called Notre-Dame de Bayeux
*Notre-Dame de Chartres
*Notre-Dame de la Garde in Marseille
*Notre-Dame de Reims
*Notre Dame du Haut in Ronchamp
*Strasbourg Cathedral, called Notre-Dame de Strasbourg

## Other
*University of Notre Dame in the U.S. state of Indiana
*Notre Dame College, Dhaka in Bangladesh 
**Notre Dame de Paris*, the original French title of a novel by Victor Hugo published in 1831. In English, this novel is commonly called *The Hunchback of Notre Dame*.
Contact lens

A **contact lens** is a type of lens that are put directly onto the eye in order to help people see better. They are a different option instead of glasses. They have to be prescribed by an eye doctor. Some contact lenses can be used many times, while other types are disposable products used only once and then thrown away.

## Other websites 
* Consumer Guide to Contact Lenses  (Articles)
* British Contact Lens Association 
* Contact Lens History
Chara (singer)

**Chara** (born as  Miwa Watabiki, on January 13, 1968) is a Japanese singer, songwriter, musician and actress. She began performing in 1991. "Swallowtail Butterfly - あいのうた" is one of her popular songs.

## Early life
Chara grew up in Kawaguchi, Saitama. She started learning the piano from age four, and starting composing songs in elementary school.

## References
## Other websites 
* Official Site - CharaWeb
Notre-Dame de Reims

**Notre Dame de Reims** is a cathedral in Reims. It was built in the 13th century. It is not as old as Notre-Dame de Paris or Notre-Dame de Chartres. The building process started in 1211. Most of the works were done in 1275. It was built before the Cathedrals of Strasbourg, Amiens and Beauvais, which are also called Notre Dame.

The cathedral is one of the best examples of Gothic architecture. It has been a World Heritage Site since 1991. In 2006, about 1.5 million people visited it.

The Kings of France were crowned in this cathedral. The last coronation ceremony was that of Charles X of France in 1825.

## References
Bayeux Cathedral

**Bayeux Cathedral**, also called the **Cathedral of Our Lady of Bayeux** (), is a cathedral. It is in Bayeux, in Normandy. The current cathedral was consecrated on July 14, 1077. It is part of a larger complex, a bishop's palace. It was built as a replacement for an earlier church which dated from the Merovingian era. It was here that Harold Godwinson swore an oath that later led to the Norman Conquest.

## Other websites
*Les Amis de Cathedrale de Bayeux 

## Gallery

Image:Bayeux Historic Centre.jpg|Towers over town
Image:Notre Dame de Bayeux.jpg|Cathedral hall interior
Image:Bayeux_cathedrale_Notre-Dame_crypte.jpg|Crypt under the cathedral
Image:Bayeauxcathedralinterior.jpg|An inside view of the cathedral
Image:Baycript.jpg|A mural in the crypt
Image:Baycrypt.jpg|Another such mural

## References
Mac OS X Tiger

**Mac OS X Tiger** (version 10.4) is the fifth major release of Apple's Mac OS X. It was released on April 29, 2005.

## References
## Other websites
* Ars Technica Mac OS X 10.4 Review and Overview
* Mac OS X Tiger 'Developer' Overview
1107

## Events 
* William Warelwast becomes Bishop of Exeter. 
* Emperor Toba ascends the throne of Japan.
* Chinese money printed in 3 colours to stymie counterfeiting.
* Alexander I inherits the Scottish crown with the death of Edgar of Scotland.
* The highly cultivated emperor of China, Emperor Huizong of Song, writes his *Treatise on Tea*.

## Births 
* June 12 — Emperor Gaozong of Song of China (d. 1187)
* Henry II of Austria (d. 1177)

## Deaths 
* January 8 — King Edgar of Scotland (b. 1074)
* August 9 — Emperor Horikawa of Japan (b. 1079)
* Robert Fitzhamon, Lord of Gloucester
* Kilij Arslan I, Sultan of Rüm
* Roger Bigod, 1st Earl of Norfolk
* Cheng Yi, Song Dynasty Chinese Neo-Confucian philosopher (b. 1033)
* Mi Fu, Chinese poet, painter, and calligrapher (born 1051)
1131

## Events 
* May 9 — Tintern Abbey is founded.
* Ramon Berenguer IV becomes Count of Barcelona.
* Alberich becomes Archdeacon of Reims.
* Fulk of Anjou and Melisende become King and Queen of Jerusalem.
* Construction begins on the Beisi Pagoda in China (completed in 1162).

## Births 
* King Valdemar I of Denmark (d. 1182)

## Deaths 
* March 1 — King Stephen II of Hungary (b. 1101)
* April 30 — Saint Adjutor
* August 21 — King Baldwin II of Jerusalem
* December 4 — Omar Khayyám, Persian poet, astronomer, mathematician, and philosopher (b. 1048)
* Alger of Liège, French monk at Cluny (b. 1055)
* Bohemund II of Antioch (b. 1108)
* Gaston IV of Béarn
* Joscelin I, Count of Edessa
* Peter the Hermit, French priest and crusader
* Ramon Berenguer III, Count of Barcelona (b. 1082)
1039

## Events 
* June 4 — Henry III becomes King of Germany. 
* The Abbey of Bec is founded.
* Bretislav I of Bohemia invades Poland.

## Deaths 
* 10 March — Eudes of Aquitaine, Duke of Gascony
* June 4 — Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor
* Iago ab Idwal ap Meurig, Prince of Gwynedd
* Unsuri, Persian poet
1030

## Events 
### Europe 
* July 29 — Battle of Stiklestad (Norway): Olav Haraldsson loses to the people he ruled and is killed in the fight. The people he lost to were called "*pagan*" because they were not Christian. Later on, Olav is made a saint and is called the patron saint of Norway and *Rex perpetuum Norvegiae* ('the eternal king of Norway', or 'King of Norway forever').
* The city of Kaunas in Lithuania is founded.
* The city of Tartu in Estonia is founded. 
* Thalwil, Switzerland, is talked about for the first time
* Henry I of France fights against his father Robert.

### Asia 
* The Song Dynasty Chinese historian and scholar Ouyang Xiu earned his *jinshi* degree at the age of 22 by passing the highest level tests in the country. This was his third time to take the test. This degree let him work for the government as a scholar-official.
* Byzantine Emperor Romanus III attacks Syria.
* Masud begins to rule the Ghaznavid Empire after the death of his father Mahmud.

## Births 
* July 26 — Stanislaus of Szczepanów, Saint Stanislaw (died 1079)
* Baldwin VI, Count of Flanders (died 1070)
* Roger I de Montgomery, Norman nobleman, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury (died 1093)
* Vsevolod I of Kiev (died 1093)

## Deaths 
* April 30 — Mahmud of Ghazni
* July 19 — Adalberon, bishop of Laon
* July 29 — King Olaf II of Norway (born 995)
* September 30 — William V, Duke of Aquitaine (born 969)

## References
1448

## Events of 1448 
*January 5/ 6 – Christopher of Bavaria, King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden dies with no designated heir, leaving all three kingdoms with vacant thrones. Brothers Bengt Jönsson Oxenstierna and Nils Jönsson Oxenstierna are selected to serve as co-regents of Sweden.
*June 20 – The Regency period of Sweden ends with the election of Karl Knutsson Bonde as King Charles VIII of Sweden.
*June 28 – Charles VIII of Sweden is publicly hailed as king at Mora Stones.
*September 28 – Christian of Oldenburg, betrothed to Queen Dowager Dorothea of Brandenburg, becomes King Christian I of Denmark.
*October 17 – Battle of Kosovo – Hungarian forces under John Hunyadi are defeated by the Turks due to the treachery of Prince Dan of Wallachia and George Brankovic of Serbia.
*Queens' College, Cambridge founded by Margaret of Anjou.
*Vatican Library founded by Pope Nicholas V.
*Vlad III the Impaler becomes reigning Prince of Wallachia for two months before being deposed by Vladislav II.
*After a long episode of drought, flood, locust infestation, and famine in Ming Dynasty China since the year 1434, these natural afflicitions finally wane and agriculture and commerce return to a state of normalcy.

## Births 
*November 4 – King Alphonso II of Naples (died 1495)
**date unknown*
**Baeda Maryam of Ethiopia (died 1478)
**Nicholas I, Duke of Lorraine (died 1473)

## Deaths 
*January 6 – Christopher of Bavaria, King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden (born 1418)
*September 23 – Adolph I, Duke of Cleves (born 1373)
*October 31 – John VIII Palaeologus, Byzantine Emperor (born 1390)
**date unknown* – Zhu Quan, Prince of Ning, Chinese general (born 1391)
1277

## Events 
* Burma's Pagan empire begins to disintegrate after being defeated by Kublai Khan at the Battle of Ngasaunggyan, at Yunnan near the Chinese border.
* Some 50,000 leaders and citizens of the Southern Song Dynasty of China become the first recorded inhabitants of Macau, as they seek refuge from the invading Mongol Empire. They also stayed for a short period in Kowloon. Some hundred years later the place where they stayed became Sung Wong Toi.
* Mamluk sultan Baibars invades Anatolia and captures the emirates which once composed the Sultanate of Rüm.
* Llywelyn ap Gruffyd is subdued by King Edward I of England in the First Welsh War.
* St George's cross is first used as the flag of England.
* The philosophical doctrine Averroism is banned from Paris at a condemnation at the University of Paris.
* In Japan, a 20 kilometer stone wall defending the coast of Hakata Bay in Fukuoka is completed; it is built in response to the attempted invasion by the Mongol Empire in 1274.
* November 25 – Pope Nicholas III succeeds Pope John XXI as the 188th pope.
* Third Mongol Golden Horde raid against Lithuania.

## Births 
* Sempad of Armenia (died c. 1310)
* Isabella of Mar, first wife of Robert Bruce (approximate date; died 1296)

## Deaths 
* May 1 – Stefan Uros I of Serbia
* May 20 – Pope John XXI (born 1215)
* July 1 – Baibars, Mameluk sultan of Egypt (born 1223)
* October 27 – Walter de Merton, Lord Chancellor of England and founder of Merton College, Oxford
* Folke Johansson Ängel, Archbishop of Uppsala
1086

## Events 
* The Domesday Book is completed in England.
* Emperor Shirakawa of Japan starts his cloistered rule.
* The Imam Ali Mosque is rebuilt by the Seljuk Malik Shah I after being destroyed by fire.
* May 24 — Pope Victor III succeeds Pope Gregory VII as the 158th pope, though he does not accept election until May 9, 1087.
* October 23 – Battle of az-Zallaqah: Alfonso VI of León and Castile is defeated by the Almoravids, who had been called into Spain by Abbad III of Sevilla.

## Deaths 
* May 21 — Richilde, Countess of Mons and Hainaut
* May 21 — Wang Anshi, Chinese statesman, economist and poet (b. 1021)
* July 17 — King Canute IV of Denmark (b. 1043)
* September 25 — William VIII, Duke of Aquitaine (b. 1025)
* Sima Guang, Chinese historian and statesman (b. 1019)
1449

## Events 
*January 6 – Constantine XI is crowned Byzantine Emperor, at Mistra. He was the last in a line of rulers that can be traced to the founding of Rome.
*April 7 – The last Antipope, Felix V abdicates.
*April 19 – Pope Nicholas V elected by the Council of Basel
*April 25 – The Council of Basel dissolves itself.
*August 13 – Brandenburg Margrave Albrecht Achilles takes the Lichtenau fortress from Nuremberg in the First Margrave War.
*September 8 – Battle of Tumu Fortress – the Oirat Mongols defeat the  Ming Dynasty army and capture the Zhengtong Emperor of China; the latter is officially deposed while his brother ascends as the Jingtai Emperor the next year in 1450.
* October 29 – French recapture Rouen from the English

## Births 
*January 1 – Lorenzo de' Medici, Italian statesman (died 1492)
*October 21 – George Plantagenet, 1st Duke of Clarence, brother of Edward IV of England and Richard III of England (died 1478)
**date unknown* – Domenico Ghirlandaio, Italian artist (died 1494)
**probable* – Ilham Ghali khan of Kazan Khanate, (died 1490)

## Deaths 
*May 20 – Infante Pedro, Duke of Coimbra (born 1392)
*October 27 – Ulugh Beg, Timurid ruler and astronomer (born 1394)
**date unknown*
**Anne Beauchamp, 15th Countess of Warwick (born 1443)
**Alexander of Islay, Earl of Ross, Lord of the Isles
1266

## Events 
### Europe 
* February 26 – In the Battle of Benevento, an army led by Charles, Count of Anjou, defeats a combined German and Sicilian force led by King Manfred of Sicily. Manfred is killed in the battle and Pope Clement IV invests Charles as king of Sicily and Naples.
* July – Mary de Ferrers ordered to surrender land and Liverpool Castle to Edmund, second son of Henry III.
* October – In England, the Second Barons' War winds down as supporters of the slain rebel leader Simon de Montfort make an offer of peace to the king in the Dictum of Kenilworth; after slight modifications to the peace settlement, it is agreed to the following year.
* The war between Scotland and Norway ends as King Alexander III of Scotland and King Magnus VI of Norway agree to the Treaty of Perth, which cedes the Western Isles and Isle of Man to Scotland in exchange for a large monetary payment.
* In France, the gold écu and silver grosh coins are minted for the first time.

### Asia 
* Niccolo and Maffeo Polo, brother and uncle of Marco Polo reach Kublai Khan's capital Khanbaliq (now Beijing) in China, setting the stage for Marco's famous expedition starting five years later. Kublai Khan sends the Polos back with a message requesting the pope dispatch western scholars to teach in the Mongol Empire; however, this request is largely ignored.
* The Mamluk sultan Baibars expands his domain, capturing the city of Byblos (in present-day Lebanon) and the important castle of Toron from crusader states, and defeating the Armenians at Cilicia.

## Births 
* Hethum II of Armenia (died 1307)
* Beatrice Portinari, Dante Alighieri's beloved and guide through Heaven in The Divine Comedy (died 1290)

## Deaths 
* February 26 – King Manfred of Sicily
* October 21 – Birger jarl, Swedish regent and founder of Stockholm (born about 1210)
* Berke, khan of the Golden Horde
* Hugh Bigod, Justiciar of England
* Ariq Boke, regent of the Mongol Empire
* Eudes of Burgundy, Count of Nevers (born 1230)
* John of Ibelin, jurist of the Kingdom of Jerusalem (born 1215)
* Duke Świętopełk II of Pomerania
* Marie de Saint-Clair, grand master of the Priory of Sion
* May 7 — Farid-ud-din Ganj Shakar
Maniraptora

**Maniraptors** ("hand snatchers") is a clade of coelurosaurian dinosaurs starting in the Jurassic period.

Many paleontologists believe birds evolved from them some 150 or so million years ago. Hence, according to phylogenetic taxonomy, birds are by definition maniraptors, and the other maniraptors are their closest relatives. It is now known, from the Jehol biota, that many or all of this clade had feathers. They are often called dinobirds.

The most primitive (basal) member of the group may be *Ornitholestes*, and the most advanced (derived) of the non-bird maniraptors is *Velociraptor* and *Deinonychus*.
IEEE 802.1X

**IEEE 802.1** is the name for a number of high-level protocols  for computer networks. In this context, **IEEE 802.1X** helps secure such a network. It defines methods to authenticate devices and to authorise the access to certain resources. A dedicated server checks information received from a "supplicant". Depending on the result of the check, access to the given resource is granted or denied. 

## Other websites
* IEEE page on 802.1X 
* IEEE standard can be retrieved at no charge through the GetIEEE802 program: http://standards.ieee.org/getieee802/download/802.1X-2001.pdf 
* Using 802.1x port authentication to control who can connect to your network 
* Configure RADIUS for secure 802.1x wireless LAN
* How to self-sign a RADIUS server for secure 802.1x PEAP or EAP-TTLS authentication
* Configuring  FreeRADIUS for 802.1x
* WIRE1x  
* Deployment of IEEE 802.1X for Wired Networks Using Microsoft Windows
* Steve Riley's article on the 802.1x vulnerabilities
Software Development Kit

A **software development kit** (**SDK** or "**devkit**") is usually a set of development tools that allows a software developer to create applications for a certain software package, software framework, hardware platform, computer system, video game console, operating system, or similar platform. 

SDKs vary greatly between a simple application programming interface to hardware used to simulate a system.
Tagged Image File Format

**Tagged Image File Format** (also known as **TIFF**) is a container format for storing images, including photographs and line art. It is now under the control of Adobe. Originally created by the company Aldus for use with what was then called "desktop publishing," TIFF is a popular format for color and black and white images. The TIFF format is widely supported by image-manipulation applications, by publishing and page layout applications, by scanning, faxing, word processing, optical character recognition and other applications.  Adobe Systems, which acquired Aldus, now holds the copyright to the TIFF specification. TIFF has not had a major update since 1992, though several Aldus/Adobe technical notes have been published with minor extensions to the format, and several specifications, including TIFF/EP, have been based on the TIFF 6.0 specification.

## References 

## Other websites 
* Adobe TIFF Resources page : Adobe links to the specification and main TIFF resources
* LibTIFF Home Page : Widely used library used for reading and writing TIFF files as well as TIFF file processing command line tools
* TIFF File Format FAQ and TIFF Tag Reference : Everything you always wanted to know about the TIFF File Format but were afraid to ask
* The BigTIFF File Format Proposal : Breaking the 4 gigabyte boundary
* TIFF description at Digital Preservation (The Library of Congress)
* TIFF Revision 4.0: Specification for revision 4.0, in HTML (warning: for historical purposes only, the TIFF 6.0 spec contains the full 4.0 revision)
* TIFF Revision 5.0: Specification for revision 5.0, in HTML (warning: for historical purposes only, the TIFF 6.0 spec contains the full 5.0 revision)
* TIFF Revision 6.0: Specification for revision 6.0, in PDF (warning: there is an outdated and flawed section (jpeg compression), corrected in supplements, and there are additions to this PDF too – for the full specification, see link to Adobe TIFF Resources)
* TIFF Central  More TIFF links and information.
1269

## Events 
### Europe 
* June 19 – King Louis IX of France orders all Jews found in public without an identifying yellow badge to be fined ten livres of silver.
* Pélerin de Maricourt first describes magnetic poles and remarks on the nonexistence of isolated magnetic poles.
* King Otakar II of Bohemia inherits Carinthia and part of Carniola, making him the most powerful prince within the Holy Roman Empire; the empire lacking an emperor during the ongoing *great interregnum*, Otakar II was one of the most powerful men in Europe.
* The construction of Blair Castle in Scotland is begun by John Comyn.

### Africa 
* The Almohad dynasty of caliphs (not universally accepted) that once ruled most of North Africa and Al-Andalus (Moorish Spain) is extinguished when Idris II is murdered in the dynasty's last remaining possession, Marrakesh.
* The Berber Marinid completes the conquest of Morocco, replacing the Almohad dynasty which it defeated in Marrakesh.

### Asia 
* The Eastern Orthodox Patriarchy of Antioch returns to Antioch after a 171-year exile, during which it had been replaced by the Latin Patriarch of Antioch.

## Births 
* Philip of Artois
* Huang Gongwang, Chinese painter (died 1354)
* Vedantadesika, Hindu poet and philosopher

## Deaths 
* John de Balliol, father of John Balliol, King of Scotland
* Svarn, King of Galicia
Camino (web browser)

**Camino** was a free, open source web browser, that was designed for the Mac OS X operating system.  It was developed by the Camin0 Project, a community organization. It was based on Mozilla's Gecko rendering engine.

## Version history
Ounce

The **ounce** (abbreviated: **oz**, the old Italian word *onza*, now spelled *oncia*) is a unit of mass or of weight in a number of different systems, including various systems of mass that form part of the imperial and United States customary systems. Its size can vary from system to system. The most commonly used ounces used today are the international avoirdupois ounce of about 28.35 grams, and the international troy ounce of about 31.1 grams.

## Related pages 
* Fluid ounce

## Other websites 
* Dictionary of Units: Ounce
ARM

An arm is an upper limb of the body.

**Arm** (or **arms**) can also mean:

* Coat of arms
* Armenia, via its country code
** Armenian language, via its language code
* ARM architecture for computers
Pixels per inch

**Pixels per inch** (**PPI**) or **pixel density** is a measurement of the resolution of a computer display, related to the size of the display in inches and the total number of pixels in the horizontal and vertical directions. This measurement is often referred to as dots per inch, though that measurement more accurately refers to the resolution of a computer printer. PPI may also be used to describe the resolution of an image scanner or digital camera; in this context, it is synonymous with samples per inch.

## Other websites
* All About Photo Printing - The Differences between DPI and PPI
Netscape Navigator

**Netscape Navigator** (or just **Netscape**) was a closed source web browser between 1994 to 1998. In 1999, they made it open source. It was first released in 1994. It was very popular during the 1990s until Internet Explorer gained more market share due to Microsoft bundling Internet Explorer with Windows 98. Netscape Communications Navigator Version 0.9B (Mosaic Netscape Navigator 0.9b) was released June 13, 1994 (at dejavu.org/1994win.htm ). It was no longer supported on 1 March 2008.

## Versions 
The last version of Netscape Navigator was version 9.0.

## References 
## Other websites 
* browser.netscape.com 
* Netscape Navigator -Citizendium
Safari (web browser)

**Safari** is a web browser developed by Apple Inc. which can be downloaded free of charge.  It also comes with a Mac computer.  It is based on the WebKit engine, which is a fork of KDE's KHTML engine.

## History 
Apple Inc. replaced the previous default web browser, Internet Explorer, with their Safari many years ago. Steve Jobs, the founder of Apple, said that it would be released in Jan 2003. Since then, 15 types of Safari have been made. The newest one was made in Sep 2023 for iOS, iPadOS, and macOS.

## Features 
Safari has several features. Some are specific to certain operating systems or platforms.
Here is a list of some of Safari's features:
*Email webpage (macOS only)
*Save webpage
*Topsites (pages most visited)
*Support for HTML5
*Development features
*Extension support
*Profiles
*Opening webpage with another browser
*Changing user agent
*Web Inspector
*Error console
*Disable CSS

## Notes
Coelurosauria

**Coelurosauria** is the clade containing all theropod dinosaurs more closely related to birds than to carnosaurs.

This is a varied group that includes tyrannosaurs, ornithomimosaurs, compsognathids and maniraptors; Maniraptora includes birds, the only descendents of coelurosaurs alive today.

All Paraves discovered so far have been coelurosaurs. It is probable that all coelurosaurs were feathered.

Some diagnostic characteristics of coelurosaurs include elongated arms and well-developed hinge-like ankles (possible rotation of the ankle is reduced, which is helpful during locomotion). These features may be lost or modified by later coelurosaurs (birds, for example).

An increase in the proportion of the brain occupied by the cerebrum seems to have occurred in the Coelurosauria and "continued throughout the evolution of maniraptorans and early birds".

## Fossil history
A few fossil traces of the Coelurosauria date back as far as the Upper Triassic. A possible, but not confirmed, example would be the archosaur *Protoavis*. What has been found between then and the start of the late Jurassic is fragmentary.

Many nearly complete fossil coelurosaurians are known from the late Jurassic. *Archaeopteryx* is known from Solnhofen limestone at 155-150 million years ago (mya). *Ornitholestes*, the troodontid WDC DML 110, *Coelurus fragilis* and *Tanycolagreus topwilsoni* are all known from the Morrison Formation in Wyoming at about 150 mya. *Epidendrosaurus* and *Pedopenna* are known from the Daohugou Beds in China, whose age is still being debated, but may be about 160&nbsp;Ma or 145 mya.

The wide range of fossils in the late Jurassic and morphological evidence suggests that coelurosaurian differentiation was virtually complete before the end of the Jurassic.

In the early Cretaceous, a superb range of coelurosaurian fossils (including avians) are known from the Yixian Formation in Liaoning. All known theropod dinosaurs from the Yixian Formation are coelurosaurs. Many of the coelurosaurian lineages survived to the end of the Cretaceous period (about 65&nbsp;Ma) and fossils of some lineages, such as the Tyrannosauroidea, are best known from the late Cretaceous. Most coelurosaur groups became extinct in the K/T extinction event. Only the Neornithes (modern birds) survived, and continued to diversify into the numerous forms found today.

There is scientific consensus among paleontologists that birds are the descendants of coelurosaurs. Birds are classified by most paleontologists as belonging to the subgroup Maniraptora.

## Related pages
* Origin of birds

## References
List of current heads of state and government

This page lists the **current heads of state and governments** in the world. They are heads of state and heads of government.

In some cases they are de facto leaders not occupying either of those positions or prime ministers who are not heads of government. 196 states (193 UN members + 2 UN observers ) are the basic list.

Also there are leaders of 10 other national entities (quasi and unrecognized states, and of 7 in exile and/or alternative governments (only in exile governments that exercised power or succeeded governments that exercised power).

For local rulers, for example rulers of dependencies and of the main administrative divisions, such as autonomous regions, insular or peninsular regions, successors of historical regions or regions with strong identity, regions in the news, etc.) see List of the main local rulers.

## Member and observer states of the United Nations
## Other states
The following states are in free association with a UN member state.

The following states control at least part of their territory and are recognised by at least one UN member state.

The following states control their territory, but are not recognised by any UN member states.

## Other governments
This alternative government controls part of its territory and is recognised as legitimate by at least one UN member state.

These alternative governments control part of their territory, but are not recognized as legitimate by any UN member states.

These alternative governments do not control their territory but are recognized as legitimate by at least one UN member state.

## *Sui generis* entities
## Notes
## References
29 Amphitrite

**29 Amphitrite** is one of the biggest S-type asteroids, probably third in diameter after Eunomia and Juno, although Iris and Herculina are similar in size.

It is probably not a fully solid body, since its density is too low for a solid silicate object and much lower than Eunomia or Juno. Its orbit is less eccentric and inclined than those of its bigger cousins - being indeed the most circular of any asteroid found up to that point - and as a consequence it never becomes as bright as Iris or Hebe, especially as it is much farther from the Sun than those asteroids. It can reach magnitudes of around +8.6 at a favorable opposition, but more usually is around the binocular limit of +9.5.

Amphitrite was found by Albert Marth on March 1, 1854. It was the only asteroid he found. It is named after Amphitrite, a sea goddess in Greek mythology.

A moon is suspected based on the lightcurve data. 

## References 
## Other websites 
* Orbital simulation from JPL (Java) / Ephemeris
31 Euphrosyne

**31 Euphrosyne** is one of the biggest main belt asteroids, found by James Ferguson on September 1, 1854. It was the first asteroid found from North America. It is named after Euphrosyne, one of the Charites in Greek mythology.

It is the eighth biggest main belt asteroid and contains around 1% of the mass of the entire asteroid belt, but is a very dark body near the belt's farther edge. Because of that, Euphrosyne is never visible with binoculars, having a maximum magnitude at the best possible opposition of around +10.2, which is actually fainter than any of the thirty asteroids previously found.

It has not been studied a lot despite being one of the biggest asteroids. It is a normal C-type asteroid with a primitive surface. Its orbit, however, is quite unusual. It's orbit is similar to that of 2 Pallas in its high inclination and eccentricity. Whereas Pallas and Eris - the only bigger bodies with comparably tilted orbits - have nodes near perihelion and aphelion, Euphrosyne's perihelion lies at the northernmost point of its orbit. During a rare perihelic opposition Euphrosyne is very high in the sky from northern latitudes, but invisible from such countries as New Zealand and Chile.

Its apparently low density suggests that, unlike 10 Hygiea, 704 Interamnia and 52 Europa, Euphrosyne is a loosely-packed rubble pile (an asteroid that has been broken apart by a collision with all the pieces pulled together by gravity). Its rotation period is very common for big asteroids, but nothing is known of its axial tilt.

## References 
* Orbital simulation
Chemistry (band)

**Chemistry** is a Japanese band. This group is made up of two members: Douchin and Kawabata.They were the winners of the Asayan audition (similar to the American Idol series) in 2000 organized by Sony Music Entertainment Japan. It was formed in 2001. The first single is "PIECES OF A DREAM".

## Members
* Yoshiyuki Dochin (1978.11.17)
* Kaname Kawabata (1979.1.28)

## Discography 
### Albums 
### Singles 
### Videos 
*2002-04-10 *R.A.W. ~Respect and Wisdom- Chemistry Acoustic Live* (in DVD and VHS)
*2003-02-14 *Chemistry the Videos: 2001-2002 ~What You See is What You Get~* (in DVD and VHS)
*2003-09-10 *Two as We Stand ~Live and Documentary 2002-2003~* (in DVD and VHS)
*2005-01-26 *Chemistry in Suntory Hall ~Hibiki~* (in DVD and Universal Media Disc|UMD)
*2006-08-09 *Chemistry the Videos: 2003-2006 ~We Sing, Therefore We Are~* (in DVD and VHS)
*2006-11-22 *Chemistry 2006 Tour Fo(u)r* (Blu-ray Disc)

## References 
## Other websites
* Chemistry website on Sony Music Online Japan
* Chemistry Official Website
* Chemistry Club 
* Kaname Kawabata Official Website
* Yoshikuni Dohchin Official Website
Pikaia

***Pikaia*** is an extinct genus of prehistoric lancelet. It is regarded as the earliest known primitive chordate from the Middle Cambrian fossil found near Mount Pika in the Burgess Shale of British Columbia. It was discovered by Charles Walcott in 1911. Walcott classified it as a polychaete worm.
It was about 40&nbsp;mm in length and swam above the sea-floor. *Pikaia* may have filtered particles from the water as it swam along. Only 60 specimens have been found to date.
Misia (Japanese singer)

**MISIA** (born July 7, 1978 in Fukuoka, Fukuoka Kyūshū, Japan) is a Japanese singer who is most popular in Japan. One of her most famous songs is called "Everything". She served as an honorary ambassador on the 10th Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (COP10) and the TICAD V (5th Conference on African Development).

In 2001, Misia signed with Avex and formed her label, Rhythmedia Tribe. Her album "Kiss in the Sky" topped the charts. She later returned to BMG Japan, then joined Sony Music Entertainment Japan's subsidiary. Misia has released thirteen studio albums and sold over 20 million records. She's known for her philanthropy, supporting humanitarian and biodiversity causes.

Misia was born Misaki Ito to doctor parents who loved music. She grew up in Nagasaki and moved to Fukuoka for better music opportunities. She began her music journey at a young age, eventually leaving university to pursue her singing career.

Misia's career took off with hits like "Everything" and collaborations with Dreams Come True. She toured major stadiums in Japan, gaining widespread popularity. She returned to BMG Japan, releasing successful singles and albums. Misia continues to make music and contribute to charitable causes, including supporting earthquake and tsunami victims and promoting biodiversity awareness.

## Other websites 
* Rhythmedia Misia Web Official site (in Japanese)
* Rhythmedia  Official site (in Japanese)
* Rhythmedia Tribe  Label Site (in Japanese)
* Wiki.theppn page on Misia 

## References
Wiwaxia

***Wiwaxia corrugata*** is an extinct species of animal known only from fossils found in Canada's Burgess Shale deposits. 

Wiwaxia somewhat resembles a very small porcupine (about 30&nbsp;mm in diameter) with its quills pulled out. The body is covered by both spines and scales. The spines are believed to have been used for defence purposes. Wiwaxia probably grazed or scavenged by walking or crawling along the sediment. One hundred and forty specimens are known from the Burgess Shale. Similar scales and spines have turned up in similarly aged sediments from elsewhere around the world suggesting that Wiwaxia was widespread during the Cambrian.
Opabinia

***Opabinia*** is a fossil animal found in Cambrian fossil deposits. Its sole species, ***Opabinia regalis***, is known from the Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale (505 million years ago) of British Columbia. The discoverer of *Opabinia*, Charles Doolittle Walcott, named it after a local mountain, Opabin Peak in the Canadian Rockies. Thirty specimens of *Opabinia* are known and each ranges in size from 40 to 70&nbsp;mm.

Whittington found evidence of near-triangular features along the body, saying they were internal structures, most likely sideways extensions of the gut (diverticula). He also thought *Opabinia* had no legs, so he said that it crawled on its lobes and that it could also have swum slowly by flapping the lobes, especially if it timed the movements to create a wave with the metachronal movement of its lobes.

Charles Doolittle Walcott thought it would be an anostracan in 1912. The idea was then followed by G. Evelyn Hutchinson in 1930 with the first reconstruction of *Opabinia* as an anostracan swimming upside down. In 1986, Swedish palaeontologist Jan Bergström, noting the similarity of *Anomalocaris* and *Opabinia*, said the two were related, as they shared many features (lateral flaps, gill blades, stalked eyes, and frontal appendages).

## References 
## Further reading 
* Bergström, J. (1986). Opabinia and Anomalocaris, unique Cambrian arthropods. Lethaia 19, 241–246.
* Bergström, J. (1987). The Cambrian Opabinia and Anomalocaris. Lethaia 20, 187–188.
* Briggs, D. E. G. & Whittington, H. B. (1987). The affinities of the Cambrian animals Anomalocaris and Opabinia. Lethaia 20, 185–186.
* Budd, G. E. (1996). The morphology of Opabinia regalis and the reconstruction of the arthropod stem-group. Lethaia 29, 1–14.
* Whittington, H. B. (1975). The enigmatic animal Opabinia regalis, Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale, British Columbia. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B 271, 1–43.
* Zhang, X. & Briggs, D. E. G. (2007). The nature and significance of the appendages of Opabinia from the Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale. Lethaia 40, 161–173.

## Other websites
Akshobhya

, 13th century]]
**Buddha Akshobhya** is one of the five Dhyani buddhas. In Chinese, he is called *Ah-Chu-For*. In Japanese, he is called Ashuku Nyoral and In Tibetan, he is called Mi Kyu Pa, or Sang Gye.

According to the scripture, *Akobhyavyha Sutra*, it is written that a monk wished to practice the Dharma and made a vow- not to feel angry or disgust at another being and he will manage anger appropriately. When he succeeded, he became Buddha Akshobya, an immovable one. He was given charge over the eastern paradise Abhirati Pure Land (the land of Joyous). It is believed that those who are reborn in this Pure Land will not be born in lower realms of consciousness and are never to be born again. In the Akshobhya sutra, it is also mentioned that the *Buddha Shakyamuni*, himself praised the patience of Akshobhya and making his determination a reality.

Akshobya represents Dharma that changes hatred and dislike into wisdom. He is shown touching the earth with his right hand and holding an upright thunderbolt in his left hand. Akshobya's blessings enables us to develop wisdom and understand the true nature of reality.

Akshobhya, meaning unshakeable, is one of many Buddhas found in Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism. He is described in the Mahayana Sutras of Northern Buddhism and in the Tantra literature. Although a relatively minor figure in the Sutras Akshobhya is of major importance in the Tantras occupying a central role in Vajrayana Buddhism at all levels. He is easily recognized in paintings by having a buddha-like form, blue body colour and the left hand supporting an upright vajra scepter. There are no other Buddhist figures that have this same iconographic appearance. Tantric depictions of Buddhas are commonly shown with jewel ornaments and a crown.

## References
Jambhala

In the Buddhist religion, **Jambhala** is the wealth-giving form of Avalokiteśvara or Chenrezig, the bodhisattva of compassion. 

Jambhala's blessings are to help others by eliminating poverty, so that they may practice the Dharma. There are five Jambhalas - Yellow Jambhala (overcomes pride), White Jambhala (overcomes attachment), Black Jambala (overcomes resentment), Green Jambhala (overcomes jealousy) and Red Jambhala (overcomes greed). For instance, the White Jambhala is shown sitting on a turquoise dragon and his left hand holds a mongoose that spews out precious jewels.
Combinatorics

**Combinatorics** is a branch of mathematics. It is concerned with finite or countable infinite sets. Combinatorics is part of discrete mathematics. Combinatorics are about graph theory, or Partitions of sets. According to George Pólya, combinatorics looks at counting the number of possibilities, and about the questions whether certain configurations exist, and how to get to them.

## Permutation 
Permutation is concerned with the following problems:
* Determining how many different ways there are to arrange a number of objects.
* Determining how many ways there are to select a number of objects from a larger set.

There are variations in the problems as follows:
* The objects may or may not be distinguishable.
* The order in which the objects are selected may or may not matter.

### Examples 
* There are 6 different ways to arrange three distinguishable objects (as shown in the graphic).
* There are three different ways to select one particular orange from a basket with three oranges.
* There is only one possible way to select the apple from a basket that has one orange, one apple and one pear in it.
Conjecture

A **conjecture** is an idea in mathematics that appears *likely* to be true but that has not been *proven* to be true.

After a conjecture is proven to be true, it becomes a theorem.

## Famous conjectures
Until recently, one of the most famous conjectures was Fermat's Last Theorem. The name was incorrect, because although Fermat said he had a proof for it, none could be found in his notes. In 1992, British mathematician Andrew Wiles found a proof for it, making it a theorem and not a conjecture.

Other famous conjectures include:

* There are no odd perfect numbers
* Goldbach's conjecture
* The twin prime conjecture
* The Collatz conjecture
* The Riemann hypothesis
* P versus NP
* The Poincaré conjecture (proven by Grigori Perelman)

## Undecidable conjectures
Not every conjecture can be proven true or false. The continuum hypothesis, which describes the size of certain infinite sets, is an example. It was shown to be independent of the generally accepted axioms of set theory, which means that it cannot be proven true or false using those axioms. It is therefore possible to take this statement, or its negation, as a new axiom in a consistent manner (much as we can take Euclid's parallel postulate as either true or false).

In this case, if a proof uses this statement, researchers will often look for a new proof that *does not* require the hypothesis The one major exception to this in practice is the axiom of choice -- unless studying this axiom in particular, the majority of researchers do not usually worry whether a result requires the axiom of choice.
Cambrian

* specimen shows how clear and detailed the fossils are from the Burgess Shale lagerstätte.]]
*, an Ediacaran animal with a quilted appearance.]]
. This specimen of *Olenoides serratus*, from the Burgess shale, preserves 'soft parts'&nbsp;– the antennae and legs. ]]

The **Cambrian** is the first geological period of the Palaeozoic era and the Phanerozoic eon. It lasted from 541 million years ago to 485.4 million years ago. Before it came the Ediacaran, and after it the Ordovician.

Biologists have learnt quite a lot about the soft parts of Cambrian animals. This is because places have been found where soft parts of organisms are preserved as well as their more resistant shells. This means our understanding of the Cambrian biota is better than that of some later periods.

Life on Earth changed greatly during the Cambrian period. Before the Cambrian, life was mostly small and simple. Complex organisms (metazoa) evolved during the Proterozoic era. But during the Cambrian period, some organisms used carbonate minerals for shells, so they had hard parts which could become fossils. There were many different kinds of life during the Cambrian period. This increase in the diversity of lifeforms was relatively rapid, and is called the Cambrian explosion. This adaptive radiation produced the first members of the main groups of animals, called phyla.

Almost all of this new life was in the oceans. There was little life on land except a layer of microbes. There were shallow seas near several continents, because a supercontinent called Pannotia had broken into smaller pieces. The seas were warm, and there was no ice at the North and South Pole. Many animals with hard shells appeared for the first time during the beginning of the Cambrian.

## Change in the sea floor 
At the start of the Cambrian, the earlier animals (the Ediacaran biota) may have become extinct. It seems these older life forms were affected by new types which burrowed into the sea floor. This changed the conditions of life for the older types. The burrowing must have disturbed the mat of bacteria and algae which covered the sea-floor. About this time we find the first examples of many phyla. There are also some fossil traces on what was land at the time, so perhaps a few Cambrian organisms did leave the water.

## Fossils 
Fossils from the Cambrian period sometimes show what the soft parts were like, unlike most fossils where the soft parts disappear. Fossils from the Burgess Shale in Ontario, Canada are examples of fossils with soft parts. Here are some life forms that first appeared in the Cambrian period, with the oldest ones first:
* First Cnidaria, and probable annelids, about 580 million years ago, in the Ediacaran period.
* Small shelly fossils (SSF), including first molluscs and brachiopods, about 537 million years ago.
* First trilobites, about 526 million years ago.
* First echinoderms, about 522 million years ago.
* First crustaceans, about 510 million years ago.

It is not always clear which phylum a fossil should be put into. So there are some fossils which are still being discussed, years after they were discovered.

## References
Joaquín Turina

**Joaquín Turina Pérez** (9 December 188214 January 1949) was a Spanish composer of classical music.

## Biography
Turina was brought up in Seville, and the music of this town always had a big influence on his music. His father was a painter. As a small boy Turina’s favourite toy was a small toy accordion. He started to study medicine, but he wanted to be a musician, so his father let him study music instead. He had piano lessons with Enrique Rodriguez and studied harmony with Garcia Torres, who was in charge of music at the cathedral in Seville.

Soon Turina started to compose. He met Falla and the two musicians became lifelong friends. He moved to Paris in 1905 where he studied with Moskowski and d’Indy. One of the his first works to be performed was piano quintet. The style was similar to César Franck. Albéniz heard it and advised the young composer to make his music sound Spanish.

Turina’s music started to be performed widely. In 1914 both Turina and Falla returned to live in Spain. They were two of the most important Spanish composers. He was choirmaster at the Teatro Real and he had an opera *Jardin de oriente* performed there. He became director of the Madrid Conservatory and received many honours. He died after a long illness.

Turina’s music always sounds very Spanish, although he used the forms of main European composers. He wrote many short piano pieces which often describe a person. He wrote songs, chamber music, string quartets and guitar music.

## References
## Other websites
*
*