open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Chiang Kai-shek

**Chiang Kai-shek** was a Chinese nationalist politician and military leader who was  President of the Republic of China, born in Xikou on October 31, 1887.  His father was a merchant who died when Chiang was eight years old.  Chiang became an officer in the army of the Manchu empire, but supported the Chinese Xinhai Revolution of 1911 that converted China into a republic. 

He led the Republic of China from 1930 to 1949 on mainland China until he was overthrown by Mao Zedong in the Chinese Civil War. He fled to Taiwan where he ruled from 1950 until his death in 1975.

## Biography 
Chiang Kai-Shek was born on October 31, 1887, in Zhejiang province, China. He received a military education at the Baoding Military Academy and later studied in Japan at the Tokyo Shinbu Gakko. These formative years laid the groundwork for his future role as a military and political leader. Chiang's exposure to different ideologies and military strategies influenced his approach during pivotal moments in Chinese history. After his father died, Chiang joined the army. At first, he went to Baoding in northern China to study military science.  Later, he went to Japan to learn more about the military.   

In 1918, he joined the Nationalist Party of Sun Yat-sen.  Sun Yat-sen helped Jiang Kai-Shek make a military academic school called Huangpu Military School. In 1926 and 1927 he led the Northern Expedition to conquer local warlords and unify China.  After Sun Yat-sen died, he pushed out the Communists in 1927. In 1928, he made a new government in Nanjing, and became head of the state. He focused on fighting the Communists and the Empire of Japan. In 1937, Japan began to invade China, and Chiang was in charge of the Nationalist Chinese Army, until the war ended in 1945. Chiang ruled China until 1949, when Mao Zedong, who led the Communist Party of China, attacked Chiang and his officials, and they were forced to flee to Taiwan. Chiang established the Republic of China on the Island of Taiwan in 1949. He governed Taiwan until his death in 1975, leaving a complex legacy of authoritarian rule and anti-communism.

## Related pages
*National Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall
## References 
## Other websites 
* Chiang Kai-shek, Citizendium
Dark matter

causes multiple images of the same galaxy. A ring of *dark matter* has been suggested to explain this. In this image of galaxy cluster (CL0024+17) the dark matter is seen in blue.|263x263px]]

**Dark matter** is a type of matter thought to be responsible for much of the mass in the universe.

The idea arose when astronomers found that the mass of large astronomical objects, figured out  from their gravitational effects, was much greater than the mass figured out from the "luminous matter" they contain: stars, gas, and dust.

Dark matter was first proposed by Jan Oort in 1932 as a reason for the spinning speeds of stars in the Milky Way. Fritz Zwicky in 1933 used dark matter to explain "missing mass" in the spinning speeds of galaxies in clusters. Later, many other observations have suggested that there is dark matter in the universe. The spinning speeds of galaxies, gravitational lensing of background objects, the temperature distribution of hot gas in galaxies and clusters of galaxies: these are some of the examples that make scientists believe in dark matter.

According to the Planck mission team, and based on the standard model of cosmology, the total mass–energy of the known universe contains 4.9% ordinary matter, 26.8% dark matter and 68.3% dark energy. So, dark matter is estimated to make up 84.5%  of the total matter in the universe, while dark energy plus dark matter make up 95.1% of the total "stuff" in the universe.
 
Because dark matter does not seem to give off or reflect light, x-rays, or any other radiation, the instruments that are used to find normal matter (like hot gas, stars, planets, and us) can't find dark matter. It seems that dark matter is not made of the same thing as the matter we see every day on Earth. The only way we can tell if dark matter is there, is by how it affects things we can "see" by gravity.

In 2006, a group of scientists claimed that they had found a way to find dark matter. Since dark matter is supposedly very different from normal matter, it is expected to act differently. The scientists observed two far-away galaxy clusters that had crashed into each other at high speed: normal matter would have been scattered nearby after the collision, while dark matter would not. By measuring gravity, they were able to detect what looked like two clouds of dark matter, with a cloud of normal matter (hot gas) in between them.

## Related pages 
* Dark energy
* Expansion of the Universe
* Nature timeline

## References
Comb

A **comb** is a tool used to care for hair or other fibers. It has small pieces sticking out of a main frame; these are called "teeth." A comb is usually flat.

Humans have been using combs as a tool for a long time, at least for 5,000 years. Combs are used by humans to separate tangled hairs, to keep their hair clean and to style their hair. They are also used as a decoration for hair.

Combs are used in the making of thread from fibers like wool or cotton. Combing makes all the fibres point the same way so a thread can be spun.

## History 
The first use of the comb was about 5,000 years ago. Different kinds of comb have been found throughout history by archaeologists. The ancient Egyptians carved out combs. In ancient China, combs were worn as hair decorations and accessories. Over time, combs have become into tools for taking care of hair. Today, there are hundreds of different kinds of combs.

## Use 
Combs can be used to fix stray hairs and untangle wet hair. Another common use for the comb is to make hair be put in one position before tying it up. Combs may also be used to part hair for coloring, conditioning and braiding. Combs can also be worn as accessories that hold hair up in a special style.

## Gallery 

Image:Comb.png|A comb.
Image:Comb2.jpg|An old Norman comb, made from horn.
Image:Pierre-Auguste Renoir 072.jpg|Painting of a girl combing her hair.
Image:Stylist 2.jpg|Combing a bride in Nigeria

## References
Journey (band)

**Journey** is an American rock band from San Francisco, formed in 1973. They are known for their hit songs like "Don't Stop Believin", "Anyway You Want It", "Open Arms", "Lovin', Touchin', Squeezin' " and "Faithfully". Some of the members used to be members of the band Santana. The band has sold 75 million albums and were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2017.

## Discography
;Studio albums
* *Journey* (1975)
* *Look into the Future* (1976)
* *Next* (1977)
* *Infinity* (1978)
* *Evolution* (1979)
* *Departure* (1980)
* *Escape* (1981)
* *Frontiers* (1983)
* *Raised on Radio* (1986)
* *Trial by Fire* (1996)
* *Arrival* (2001)
* *Generations* (2005)
* *Revelation* (2008)
* *Eclipse* (2011)
* *Freedom* (2022)
Bruno Brun

**Bruno Brun** (born ) was a Yugoslavian clarinet player and professor at the Music Academy in Belgrade.

He graduated from the Belgrade Music Academy in [[1945|]] and continued his education in Paris. He played as a soloist in Yugoslavia and other countries. He was one of the founders of the "Association of Musical Artists of Serbia".

His most famous students are Milenko Stefanovic, Mihailo Zivanovic, Ernest Ackun, Ante Grgin and Nikola Srdic.

## References
* Blagojevic, Andrija."Bruno Brun () - Founder of the Yugoslav clarinet school."  , Vol. 41/3 (), pp. 46-51.
* Blagojević, Andrija. "The Performance Career of Bruno Brun."  *The Clarinet*, Vol. 47/3 (), pp.&nbsp;34–37.
Rheinstetten

**Rheinstetten** is a city in the south-west of Germany, in the state of Baden-Württemberg. It has about 20,000 inhabitants.

## References
## Other websites
University of Priština (North Mitrovica), Faculty of Arts

The **Faculty of Arts** of Priština (Serbian: Факултет уметности у Приштини or Fakultet umetnosti u Prištini) is the faculty of arts of the University of Priština in Kosovo, Serbia.

## History 
The **Faculty of Arts** of Pristina was founded in 1973 as the Academy of Arts, and got its present name in 1986. Because of Albanian terrorist attacks it was moved in 1999. It first moved to Varvarin and later to Zvečan, where it is now. It is part of the University of Priština temporarily relocated in Kosovska Mitrovica.

## Divisions 
*Art
*Music
*Theatre

## Degrees offered 
### Acting 
* Bachelor of Arts
* Master of Arts

### Music 
* Bachelor of Music
* Master of Music

### Visual arts 
* Bachelor of Arts
* Master of Arts

## Notable teachers 
*Jasmina Novokmet
*Milenko Stefanovic
*Sanja Stijacic

## Other websites 
* Official website
* Infostud 
* Ministry of Education of Republic of Serbia
Catapult

A **catapult** is a type of machine used as a weapon to throw rocks, large arrows, or other things such as hot tar, that would cause damage to something else.  Often, catapults were set on higher ground or on castle towers to let them shoot farther.  They shot rocks to break castle walls, or pitch or hot tar to set the target on fire.

Catapults use weights and levers to send the rocks or other things into the air. They do not throw as far as modern weapons do, and are not useful in modern warfare.  Catapults were common in the past, especially the Middle Ages.

Nowadays catapults are used to study old weapons, and as experiments (for example in physics or engineering classes). Some old ones are kept in museums.

Aircraft carriers use much more powerful steam catapults to throw airplanes into the air.

## References
## Other websites 
*How does a catapult work  - A thorough explanation of different types of catapults with images.
*Animated Catapults Animations of a Roman mangonel and onager and a medieval trebuchet
Magna Carta

]]

**Magna Carta** was a document that was sealed by King John after negotiations with his barons  and their French and Scots allies at Runnymede, Surrey, England in 1215.

There they sealed the Great Charter, called in Latin *Magna Carta*. It established a council of 25 barons to see John keep to the clauses, including access to swift justice, parliamentary assent for taxation, scutage limitations, and protection from illegal imprisonment.

Because he was forced to seal the charter, John sought approval to break it, from his spiritual overlord Pope Innocent III. Denouncing it as "not only shameful and demeaning but also illegal and unjust", the Pope agreed. Magna Carta is still considered one of the most important documents ever written, having inspired the way we view issues of justice and liberty and influenced laws regarding such throughout the world.

Magna Carta has influenced English law right down to the present day. It is one of the most celebrated documents in the History of England. It is recognized as a cornerstone of the idea of the liberty of citizens.

Magna Carta is usually written without the word 'the' before it.

## Content 
Magna Carta contains 63 clauses written in Latin on parchment. Only three of the original clauses in Magna Carta are still law today. One defends the freedom and rights of the English Church, another confirms the liberties  customs of the City of London and other towns. This clause (translated) is the main reason Magna Carta is still famous:

:"No free man shall be seized, imprisoned, stripped of his rights or possessions, outlawed, exiled. Nor will we proceed with force against him except by the lawful judgement of his equals or by the law of the land. To no one will we sell, to no one deny or delay right or justice".

This clause limits the power of rulers, and introduces the idea of lawful process and the idea of a jury. The BBC summarised the main points of the document as: 

## Related pages 
* Loyumba Shinyen

## References
1562

**1562** (MDLXII) was a common year starting on Thursday in the Julian calendar and a common year starting on Monday in the proleptic Gregorian calendar.

## Events 
* May 1 &ndash; Jean Ribault, French navigator, lands in Florida.
* September 22 &ndash; Maximilian becomes King of Bohemia.
* October &ndash; John Hawkins starts the English slave trade. He ships slaves from Sierra Leone to Hispaniola in the Caribbean.
* November 20 &ndash; Maximilian of Bohemia is elected King of the Romans.
* The Mughal Emperor Akbar conquers Malwa.

## Births 
* January 13 &ndash; Mark Alexander Boyd, Scottish poet and soldier of fortune 
* January 20 &ndash; Ottavio Rinuccini, Italian composer 
* Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck, Dutch composer 
* May 6 &ndash; Pietro Bernini, Italian sculptor 
* July 25 &ndash; Katō Kiyomasa, Japanese samurai 
* November 25 &ndash; Lope de Vega, Spanish poet and dramatist
* Isabella Andreini, Italian actress 
* John Bull, English composer
* Henry Constable, English poet
* Maeda Toshinaga, Japanese nobleman 
* Cornelis van Haarlem, Dutch painter

## Deaths 
* January &ndash; Ilie II Rareş, Prince of Moldavia 
* January 9 &ndash; Amago Haruhisa, Japanese samurai and warlord 
* October 9 &ndash; Gabriele Falloppio, Italian anatomist 
* October 13 &ndash; Claudin de Sermisy, French composer 
* November 17 &ndash; Antoine de Bourbon, father of Henry IV of France 
* December 6 &ndash; Jan van Scorel, Dutch painter 
* December 7 &ndash; Adrian Willaert, Flemish composer 
* Matteo Bandello, Italian novelist 
* Nicholas Grimald, English poet and theologian
1552

**1552** (MDLII) was a leap year starting on Friday in the Julian calendar.

## Events
*

## Births
* February 1 &ndash; Edward Coke, English business person (d. 1634)
* February 8 &ndash; Agrippa d'Aubigné, French poet and soldier (d. 1630)
* February 19 &ndash; Melchior Klesl, Austrian statesman and cardinal (d. 1630)
* February 28 &ndash; Joost Bürgi, Swiss clockmaker and mathematician (d. 1632)
* June 18 &ndash; Gabriello Chiabrera, Italian poet (d. 1637)
* July 18 &ndash; Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1612)
* August 24 &ndash; Lavinia Fontana, Italian painter (d. 1614)
* September 22 &ndash; Tsar Vasili IV of Russia (d. 1612)
* October 6 &ndash; Matteo Ricci, Italian Jesuit missionary to China (d. 1610)
* December 29 &ndash; Henri I de Bourbon, prince de Condé (d. 1588)
* December 30 &ndash; Simon Forman, English occultist and astrologer (d. 1611)
* *date unknown*
** Hans von Aachen, German mannerist painter (d. 1615)
** Thomas Aufield, English martyr (d. 1585)
** Jean Bertaut, French poet (d. 1611)
** Miguel de Benavides, Spanish clergyman (d. 1605)
** Richard Hakluyt, English writer, editor and translator (b. c. 1552 or 1553; d. 1616)
** Philemon Holland, English translator (d. 1637)
** Francisco Goméz de Sandoval y Rojas, Duke of Lerma, Spanish politician (d. 1625)
** Dom Justo Takayama, Japanese daimyo (d. 1615)
** Jean Hotman, Marquis de Villers-St-Paul, French diplomat (d. 1636)
** Jack Ward, English pirate (d. 1622)

## Deaths 
* January 10 &ndash; Johann Cochlaeus, German humanist (b. 1479)
* January 22 &ndash; Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset, English politician (b. 1509)
* February 26 &ndash; Heinrich Faber, German composer (b. 1500)
* April 18 &ndash; John Leland, English historian (b. 1502)
* May 26 &ndash; Sebastian Münster, German map maker (b. 1488)
* June 10 &ndash; Alexander Barclay, British poet (b. 1476)
* July 9 &ndash; György Szondy Hungarian soldier
* August 15 &ndash; Hermann of Wied, German Catholic archbishop (b. 1477)
* October 14 &ndash; Oswald Myconius, Swiss Protestant reformer (b. 1488)
* October 17 &ndash; Andreas Osiander, German Protestant theologian (b. 1498)
* December 2 &ndash; Francis Xavier, Spanish Jesuit missionary (b. 1506)
* December 20 &ndash; Katharina von Bora, wife of Martin Luther (b. 1499)
Scherzo

A **Scherzo** is a piece of music which is quite fast. In the 19th century Romantic composers started to write scherzos in their symphonies and sonatas instead of the traditional minuets. They are similar to a minuet, always with three beats in a bar, but they are faster and less “polite”. Some composers like Chopin and Brahms wrote scherzos as separate pieces for the piano.

## References
1563

**1563** (MDLXIII) was a common year starting on Friday in the Julian calendar and a common year starting on Tuesday in the proleptic Gregorian calendar.

## Births 
* January &ndash; Leonhard Hutter, German Lutheran theologian (d. 1616)
* January 30 &ndash; Franciscus Gomarus, Dutch theologian (d. 1641)
* March 5 &ndash; John Coke, English politician (d. 1644)
* April 15 &ndash; Guru Arjan Dev, fifth Sikh leader (A. 1606)
* June 1 &ndash; Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury, English statesman and spymaster (d. 1612)
* September 4 &ndash; Wanli Emperor of China (d. 1620)
* October 14 &ndash; Jodocus Hondius, Flemish artist (d. 1633)
* November 8 &ndash; Henry I, Duke of Lorraine (d. 1624)
* November 19 &ndash; Robert Sidney, 1st Earl of Leicester, English statesman (d. 1626)
* December 19 &ndash; Lord William Howard (d. 1640)
* *date unknown*
** Yi Su-gwang, Korean scholar (d. 1628)
** Charles Blount, 1st Earl of Devonshire (d. 1606)
** John Dowland, English composer (d. 1626)
** Michael Drayton, English poet (d. 1631)
** Scipione Gentili, Italian legal scholar (d. 1616)
** Anna Guarini, Italian virtuoso singer (d. 1598)
** Hosokawa Gracia, Japanese noblewoman (d. 1600)
** Marcin Kazanowski, Polish nobleman (d. 1636)
** Zygmunt Kazanowski, Polish nobleman (d. 1634)
** Robert Naunton, English politician and writer (d. 1635)
** Joshua Sylvester, English poet (d. 1618)
** Jean Titelouze, French organist and composer (d.1633)

## Deaths 
* February 1 &ndash; Emperor Menas of Ethiopia (b. 1559)
* February 24 &ndash; Francis, Duke of Guise, French soldier and politician (b. 1519)
* March 24 &ndash; Hosokawa Harumoto, Japanese military leader (b. 1514)
* March 28 &ndash; Heinrich Glarean, Swiss music theorist (b. 1488)
* May 21 &ndash; Martynas Mažvydas, writer of the first printed book in Lithuanian (b. 1510)
* ?June &ndash; Elizabeth Seymour, Marchioness of Winchester, English noblewoman (b. 1513)
* June 6 &ndash; Ikeda Nagamasa, Japanese military commander (b. 1519)
* June 9 &ndash; William Paget, 1st Baron Paget, English statesman (b. 1506)
* August 11 &ndash; Bartolomé de Escobedo, Spanish composer (b. 1500)
* August 18 &ndash; Étienne de La Boétie, French judge and writer (b. 1530)
* September 17 &ndash; Henry Manners, 2nd Earl of Rutland, English soldier (b. 1526)
* November &ndash; Ioan Iacob Heraclid, ruler of Moldavia (b. 1511)
* December 29 &ndash; Sebastian Castello, French theologian (b. 1515)
* *date unknown* &ndash; Odet de Selve, French diplomat (b. c. 1504)
1592

## Events 
* April 13 – The Siege of Busan begins.
* April 24 – Battle of Sangju: The Koreans lose against the Japanese.

## Deaths 
* February – Thomas Cavendish, English sailor and explorer
* February 13 – Jacopo Bassano, Italian painter
* September 3 – Robert Greene, English writer

## Births 
* March 28 – John Amos Comenius, Czech teacher and writer
1599

## Events 
* January 8 &ndash; The Jesuit educational plan known as the *Ratio Studiorum* is issued.
* June 20 &ndash; The Synod of Diamper is convened.
* August 15 &ndash; First Battle of Curlew Pass: Irish forces defeat the English.
* September 21 &ndash; The first reported performance of Shakespeare's *Julius Caesar* at the Globe Theatre in London, is recorded by Swiss traveller Thomas Platter the Younger.
* * October 18 &ndash; Battle of Sellenberk: Michael the Brave, Prince of Wallachia, defeats the army of Andrew Báthory near Șelimbăr, leading to the first recorded uniting of the Romanians.
1612

**1612** (MDCXII) was a leap year starting on Sunday in the Gregorian calendar and a leap year starting on Wednesday in the Julian calendar.

## Events 
*Sasaki Kojiro, a famous swordsmen instructor and general, under Tokugawa Ieyasu, was slain in a duel against legendary swordsman, Miyamoto Musashi at Hesagigawa.
Griffin

The **griffin** (also called gryphon, gryphen, griffon, griffen, and gryphin), is a legendary creature. It has the head, front legs, and wings of an eagle. The rest of the body looks like a part of a lion.

In the past, the griffin was a symbol of strength and dexterity. It often looked after a treasure.

The griffin was first seen in art 3000 B.C., as seen on cylinder seals from Mesopotamia. 
## References
Pyrolysis

**Pyrolysis** is a chemical reaction where heat breaks down organic compounds (chemicals that contain carbon). Pyrolysis happens under pressure and if the temperature is above 430 °C (800 °F). Pyrolysis is different from combustion because it does not use oxygen. Pyrolysis is generally done in an inert atmosphere.

## References
Uri (canton)

**Uri** is one of the twenty-six cantons of Switzerland. Cantons are like states, provinces, or territories, but Swiss. 35,000 people live there. William Tell is from there.

## Municipalities 
The municipalities of the canton of Uri are: Altdorf, Andermatt, Attinghausen, Bauen, Bürglen, Erstfeld, Flüelen, Göschenen, Gurtnellen, Hospental, Isenthal, Realp, Schattdorf, Seedorf, Seelisberg, Silenen, Sisikon, Spiringen, Unterschächen, Wassen

## Other websites 
* Official site 
* Official statistics
Michael Ende

**Michael Andreas Helmuth Ende** (12 November 1929 – 28 August 1995) was a German writer of fantasy and children's fiction. He was born in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Bavaria. He wrote fantasy books for children. He died of stomach cancer in Filderstadt, Baden-Wuerttemberg.

## His books
*Momo (1973)
*The Neverending Story (1979)
Veneto

**Veneto** is one of the twenty regions of Italy, in northeastern Italy on the Adriatic Sea. The capital is Venice.

## Geography
The region is in Northeast Italy, bordered to the north by the Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol region (and Austria in the northeastern corner), to the east by the Friuli Venezia Giulia region, to the southeast and south by the Adriatic Sea, to the southwest by the Emilia-Romagna region, and to the west by the Lombardy region.

Veneto is the 8th largest region in Italy, with a total area of . The main river in the region is the Po. The highest mountain in the region is Marmolada (), in the Belluno province, with an altitude of .

## Provinces 
Veneto is divided in a Metropolitan City (Venice) and six provinces:

### Largest municipalities
The 10 comuni with more people living in it are:

## Gallery

(Venice) Doge's Palace and campanile of St. Mark's Basilica facing the sea.jpg|*Piazza San Marco*, Venice.
File:OrtoBotPadova_Incrocio_viali.jpg|Botanical garden, Padua
Palazzo Chiericati (Vicenza).jpg|The *Palazzo Chiericati*, Vicenza

## References
## Other websites
* Regione del Veneto Official site
Molise

**Molise** is one of the twenty regions of Italy, in Southern Italy on the Adriatic Sea. The capital is the city of Campobasso.

Molise previously formed, with the Abruzzo region, the old region of *Abruzzi e Molise*. Molise was separated from that region in 1963, making Molise the youngest region in Italy.

## Geography 
The region is located in South Italy bordered by Abruzzo to the north, Lazio to the west, Campania to the south, Apulia to the southeast and the Adriatic Sea to the east.

Molise, with a total area of , is the second smallest region after Valle d'Aosta. The main rivers in the region are:
* Fortore,  long.
* Trigno,  long.
* Biferno,  long; it is the main river of those that flow only in the Molise region.
* Volturno, ; it is the main river in South Italy by its length and its discharge.

The highest mountain in the region is La Meta (its eastern summit) (), in the Isernia province, with an altitude of .

## Provinces 
Molise is divided into two provinces:

### Largest municipalities
The 10 comuni of the region with more people living in it are:

## Gallery

File:Campobasso panorama.jpg|Overview of Campobasso.
Duomo di isernia, esterno 01.jpg|Cathedral of Isernia.
File:Agnone Molise Italy.jpg|Overview of the town of Agnone (IS).
File:Campobasso castello.jpg|*Monforte* castle, Campobasso.
File:Matese.jpg|*Matese* mountain chain.

## References
## Other websites
* Official Site
Philippine Sea

The **Philippine Sea** is the body of water east of the Philippines and Taiwan. It is a part of the western end of the Pacific Ocean.  The Philippine Sea is bounded by china Japan to the north, the Marianas to the east and Palau to the south.

## Geology
It straddles on the Philippine Plate. 

## Related pages 
* Kyushu-Palau Ridge

## References
Chordate

**Chordates**, phylum **Chordata**, are a phylum of animals which have a notochord. The group includes vertebrates, with some closely related invertebrates.

## Classification 
### Taxonomy 
***Phylum Chordata**
** **Tunicata** – (tunicates, formerly Urochordata; 3,000 species)
** †**Vetulicolia** (8 Cambrian species of fossil)
** **Cephalochordata** – (lancelets, 30 species)
** **Vertebrata** (vertebrates – animals with backbones; 57,739 species)
***  **Agnatha** (jawless vertebrates; 100+ species)
**** **Myxini** or Hyperotreti (hagfish; 65 species)
**** **Conodonta** (Conodonts)
**** **Hyperoartia** (Lampreys)
**** †**Cephalaspidomorphi** (Paleozoic jawless fish)
**** †**Pteraspidomorphi** (Paleozoic jawless fish)
*** **Gnathostomata** (jawed vertebrates)
**** †**Placodermi** (Paleozoic armoured forms)
**** **Chondrichthyes** (cartilaginous fish; 300+ species)
**** †**Acanthodii** (Paleozoic "spiny sharks")
**** **Osteichthyes** (bony fishes; 30,000+ species)
***** **Actinopterygii** (ray-finned fish; about 30,000 species)
***** **Sarcopterygii** (lobe-finned fish)
**** **Tetrapoda** (four-legged vertebrates; 18,000+ species)

### Phylogeny 
{{clade| style=font-size:85%;line-height:85%
|label1=**Chordata**
|1={{clade
   |label1=&nbsp;Tunicata&nbsp;
   |1=
   |2=&nbsp;Cephalochordata
   |label3=&nbsp;Craniata&nbsp;
   |3={{clade
      |1=Myxini
      |label2=&nbsp;Vertebrata&nbsp;
      |2=
      }}
   }}
}}

**Note:** Lines show likely evolutionary relationships.  Extinct groups are marked with a "†". Extinct animals are ones that have completely died out.
 is one of the few chordates with a visible backbone]]

### Origin of chordates 
According to a long-standing theory, the origin of chordates may be found in transformed larvae of sea-squirts (tunicates). Adult tunicates are sessile, but their larvae are motile, and have some features found in early vertebrates.  The process of paedomorphosis, where juvenile features are retained in the adult, is the proposed mechanism. Genome analysis shows that tunicates are the closest living relatives of vertebrates.

## References 
## Other websites 
*Chordate node at Tree Of Life 
*Chordate node at NCBI Taxonomy
Visayas

The **Visayas** or **Visayan Islands** (Cebuano and Wáray-Wáray: *Kabisay-an*, Tagalog: *Kabisayaan*, Spanich: *Bisayas*), is one of the three principal geographical divisions of  the Philippines; the other two divisions are Mindanao, to the south, and Luzon, to the north.

People living in this islands are called *Visayans*.

## Geography
The Visayas consists of several islands in central Philippines around the Visayan Sea, with the Philippine Sea to the east and the Sulu Sea to the west.

The main islands (and area) are:
* Bohol, 
* Cebu, 
* Leyte, 
* Negros, 
* Panay, 
* Samar, 

## Regions and provinces
 of the Visayas.

The major islands, from west to east, are Panay, Negros, Cebu, Bohol, Leyte, and Samar.]]
Administratively, the Visayas is divided into 3 regions: Western Visayas, Central Visayas and Eastern Visayas. Each region is headed by a Regional Director.

## List of provinces of Visayas state
The Visayas is composed of 16 provinces, each headed by a governor.

### Western Visayas (Region VI)
Western Visayas consists of the islands of Panay and the western half of Negros; it has a population, in 2010, of 7,102,438. The regional center is Iloilo City. 

### Central Visayas (Region VII)
Central Visayas includes the islands of Cebu and Bohol and the eastern half of Negros; it has a population, in 2010, of 6,800,180. The regional center is Cebu City.

### Eastern Visayas (Region VIII)
Eastern Visayas consists of the islands of Leyte and Samar; it has a population, in 2010, of 4,101,322. The regional center is Tacloban.

## Regions of the Visayas State
### Largest cities of Visayas
## References
## Other websites
* Die Visayas - Inselwelt in der Mitte der Philippinen
1484

## Events 
* July 6 – Portuguese sea captain Diogo Cão finds the mouth of Congo River
* September 15 – Peter Arbues, is assassinated while praying in the cathedral at Saragossa, Spain and he died on September 17.  He had been appointed Inquisitor of Aragon by the Inquisitor General, Tomás de Torquemada, in the campaign against heresy and crypto-Judaism.
* December 5 – Pope Innocent VIII gives the inquisition a mission to hunt heretics and witches in Germany with the lead of Heinrich Kramer and Jacob Sprenger.
* The first sugar mill becomes operational in the Gran Canaria.
* First cuirassier units (kyrissers) formed in Austria.
Austronesian languages

**.]]

The **Austronesian languages''' are a language family. They were originally spoken in Southeast Asia and on islands in the Pacific Ocean.

## List of Austronesian languages 
* Anus
* Indonesian
* Fijian
* Hawaiian
* Javanese
* Malay
* Māori
* Sundanese
* Tagalog
* Tuvaluan
Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints

The **Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints** (FLDS) is a religious group. It broke from the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, a Mormon movement, in the 19th or early 20th century. In 1890, the Latter-Day Saints stopped accepting polygamy.

A few people who believed polygamy was an important part of their religion started the new church. They taught that a man needs more than one wife to be able to get to heaven.

It is believed the church had about 10,000 members in 2009. These live in the sister cities of Hildale, Utah and Colorado City, Arizona; as well as Eldorado, Texas; Westcliffe, Colorado; Mancos, Colorado; Creston and Bountiful, British Columbia; and Pringle, South Dakota.

## In the news 
The church has been in the news because its leader, Warren Steed Jeffs was arrested in southern Nevada in August 2006. Jeffs was arrested because he was accused of rape and molestation. At the time, Jeffs was on the FBI's Ten Most-Wanted list.

There has been another incident in 2008.
Beginning April 4, 2008, over a four-day period, troopers and child welfare officials searched the church's ranch. They took 416 children into the temporary custody of the State of Texas. Originally officials from the Texas Department of Family and Protective Services took 18 girls into temporary custody of the state. They acted because of a phone call from the ranch- it looks like a 16-year-old girl called the police to report she had been raped. She also said she had been married at age 15 to a 49-year-old man, Dale Evans Barlow. On the following day, Judge Barbara Walther of the 51st District Court issued an order authorizing officials to remove all children, including boys, 17 years old and under out of the compound. The children were being held by the Child Protective Services 45 miles away, north of the ranch. 133 women also voluntarily left the ranch with the children. The 16-year-old girl who alerted the authorities could not be located at the time of the raid. It looks like the call was made by a woman in her thirties, who gave a false identity. This woman is known by local police, as she has done similar things before. The woman was arrested for making the call (that triggered the raid) in April.

## References
Democratic Republic of the Congo

The **Democratic Republic of the Congo** (), commonly referred to as **DR Congo**, **Congo-Kinshasa** or the **DRC**, is a country in central Africa. It was known as Zaïre from 1971 to 1997. It is the second largest country in Africa by area and the eleventh largest in the world. With a population of over 71 million, Despite the signing of peace accords in 2003, fighting continues in the east of the country. There, the prevalence of rape and other sexual violence is described as the worst in the world. The war is the world's deadliest conflict since World War II, killing 5.4 million people since 1998. The vast majority died from conditions of malaria, diarrhea, pneumonia and malnutrition.

The Democratic Republic of the Congo was formerly, in chronological order, the **Congo Free State**, **Belgian Congo**, **Congo-Léopoldville**, Congo-Kinshasa, and **Zaire** (*Zaïre* in French). In February, the government lost control of the city of Bukavu and the town of Kavumu and its strategic military airport (map).

The Kivu conflict is ongoing (2025). North Kivu and South Kivu provinces are in the eastern part of the country. Some of the most active rebel groups are the Allied Democratic Forces, CODECO, and some Mai Mai militias. A UN peacekeeping force, MONUSCO, is in the country.

FDLR are supported by the military, in their fight against M23. The group is made up of Hutus. FARDC are the Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

Western DR Congo clashes are a series of attacks; As late as July 2024, 42 Mobondo rebels were killed when they attacked a village; 9 government forces died.

## Geography 
The country is bordered by Angola, the South Atlantic Ocean, the Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, South Sudan, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania across Lake Tanganyika, and Zambia.

The capital of the Democratic Republic of Congo is Kinshasa.

World Heritage Sites in the Democratic Republic of Congo include Virunga National Park (1979), Garamba National Park (1980),
Kahuzi-Biega National Park (1980), Salonga National Park (1984) and Okapi Wildlife Reserve (1996).

### Provinces 
The country is divided into twenty six provinces. The provinces are then divided into districts. The districts are divided into territories.

## Related pages
*DR Congo at the Olympics
*List of rivers of the Democratic Republic of the Congo

## References
Kingdom (biology)

**Kingdom** is the highest rank, after the domain, which is normally used in the biological taxonomy of all organisms. Each kingdom is split into phyla.

There are 5 to 7 kingdoms in taxonomy. Every living thing comes under one of these kingdoms and some symbionts, such as lichen, come under two. There are at least:

*Prokaryotes or Monera  – the most simple living things: bacteria and archaea
*Protista – eukaryotes that are not plants, fungi, or animals
*Fungi – mushrooms, moulds and other fungi
*Plantae – all plants, such as moss, trees and grass
*Animalia – all animals, including people. See List of animal phyla
*Chromalveolata – plastids containing chlorophyll.

## Overview
The kingdom-level classification of life is still widely employed as a useful way of grouping organisms. Sometimes entries in the table, which are next to each other, do not match perfectly. For example, Haeckel placed the red algae (Haeckel's Florideae; modern Rhodophyta) and blue-green algae (Haeckel's Archephyta; modern Cyanobacteria) in his Plantae, but in modern classifications they are considered protists and bacteria respectively. However, despite these differences, the table gives a useful summary.

* There is no agreement at present on how many kingdoms there are in the Eukarya. In 2009, Andrew Roger and Alastair Simpson said this: "With the current pace of change in our understanding of the eukaryote tree of life, we should proceed with caution".

## Related pages
*Tree of Life

## References
Class (biology)

A **class** is a rank used in the biological taxonomy of all organisms. Each class is split into orders. There are multiple classes in each phylum. Mammals, for example, are one of several classes within the Vertebrates, and are subdivided into Monotremes, Marsupials, and Eutheria.

Ranks below class and above order are often used. Then the sequence is:

***Class**
***Subclass**
***Infraclass**
***Order**
Biological classification

**Biological classification** is how biologists group organisms.

The classification has its root in the work of Aristotle who invented a multi-ranked system. A great influence was Carolus Linnaeus, who popularized the idea of binomial nomenclature using a  two-part name indicating the genus, and the species. The human species is named *Homo sapiens*. Names of species are often printed in italics, although there is no obligation to do so (this also goes for names of genera, etc., etc.)

Biological classification is also known as taxonomy.  It is a science, and like most sciences has evolved over time. At various times different principles were used, and it is not rare for different scientists to use different methods. Since the early 20th century, groupings are supposed to fit the Darwinian principle of common descent. These days, molecular evolution studies, which use DNA sequence analysis as data, are popular. This is often called "phylogenetics", a branch or form of cladism. This approach creates an evolutionary Tree of life (biology) and uses characters (traits) to decide on the branches of the taxonomy.

Sometimes organisms placed in the same group (taxon) are similar; such similarity may be the result of shared descent from a common ancestor.

## Homology 
Homologous traits are similarities caused by common ancestry.  They are distinct from traits that are analogous.  Birds and bats both can fly, but this is not used to classify them together, because it is not inherited from a common ancestor.

In spite of all the other differences between them, the fact that bats and whales both feed their young on milk is one of the features used to classify both as mammals, since it was inherited from a common ancestor.

When the present system of naming living things was developed, Latin was the language most widely used around the world. So, such names are still in Latin. Latin is also used presently because it is a dead language, so it never changes. The official descriptions and diagnoses of new taxa in Latin are written in Latin as well. Zoologists allow any language for the description of animals. From January 1, 2012, new taxa of algae, fungi and plants may be described in either English or Latin.

## Name endings 
Taxa above the genus level are often given names based on a "type genus", with a standard suffix.  The suffixes used in forming these names depend on the kingdom, and sometimes the phylum and class, as set out in the table below.

## Related pages
* Binomial nomenclature
* Taxonomy
* Systematics
* Cladistics
* Molecular evolution
* Molecular clock
* Phylogeny
* Wastebasket taxon
* Evolutionary grade

## References
Order (biology)

An **order** is a rank used in the biological taxonomy. Each order is split into families. There are many orders in each class. A group of closely related families forms an order. The similar characters are less in number as compared to different genera included in family.

## Examples of order 
* Carnivora is an order of meat-eating mammals. The cat family, dog family and bear family are in this order.
* Rodents are an order. Rats and mice are in one family. Squirrels belong in another family.
*Primates are another order of mammals. Apart from humans, most live in forests.
* Pine trees are a genus in the order Pinales.  The order also includes all other living conifers, such as the cypress and yew families.
Family (biology)

In biology, a **family** is a taxonomic rank. Each family contains one or more genera. The next higher rank is that of order.

Usually, the name of the family ends with an "*idae*" for animals, and "*aceae*" for plants. Sometimes there are also subfamilies and superfamilies. Subfamilies end with "*inae*" or "*oideae*".

For example, walnuts (genus *Juglans*) and hickories (genus *Carya*) both belong to the walnut family (the *Juglandaceae*).
Pharynx

The **pharynx** is an organ in the back of the throat. It is also the meeting point of the digestive and the respiratory systems. The opening of the respiratory system in the pharynx is called the glottis. It is guarded by a cartilagenous flap called the epiglottis which prevents food or liquid from going into the respiratory system. It closes during swallowing action. As such, it is part of the gastrointestinal system. It comes after the mouth and before the esophagus. Food and air go through the pharynx. The pharynx keeps food and liquids out of the lungs.   

The pharynx has 3 parts:  
# Nasopharynx - the upper part of the back of the throat, that leads up into the nose
# Oropharynx - the part at the back of the throat
# Laryngopharynx - the bottom part, before the windpipe and esophagus split from 1 into 2 tubes
Jejunum

The **jejunum** is a section of the small intestine between the duodenum and the ileum. It is between 1 and 2 meters long.The term "jejunum" derives from the Latin "jejunus," which means "empty of food," "meager," or "hungry." The ancient Greeks noticed at death that this part of the intestine was always empty of food. Hence, the name the jejunum. 

The Latin "jejunus" also gave rise to "jejune" means lacking in nutritive value and devoid of substance, significance or interest, that is dull. A jejune argument is one that is empty (like the jejunum) and totally devoid of interest. 

Famous quote...."Have You Ever Been Punched in The Jejunum?"
Cecum

seen from front(cecum colored red)]]
The **cecum** is a part of the large intestine. It helps with fermenting dietary fiber. It comes before the colon and after the ileum in the gastrointestinal system. The appendix is connected to the cecum. The size of the cecum varies in humans and other omnivores but it is large in herbivores and small in most carnivores. 

## References
Romano Prodi

**Romano Prodi** (born 9 August 1939 in Scandiano, Italy) is an Italian politician and leader of a left-wing coalition named ''L'unione* (The Union).

Prodi was "President of the Council of Ministers", that is, Prime Minister of Italy between 1996 and 1998. 

He then served as President of the European Commission from 1999 to 2004.  

He was re-elected Prime Minister of Italy for a second time in 2006, when he defeated Silvio Berlusconi, leader of the right-wing coalition named *Casa delle Libertà'' (House of Freedom).

]]
Digestion

**Digestion** is the process of breaking down food to absorb it. Food is broken down into smaller pieces, which are soluble in water. Only then can the food be absorbed into the bloodstream.

## Phases 
Digestion happens in three phases. 

Mechanical digestion is the physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces, which are made by digestive enzymes. In chemical digestion, enzymes break down food into the small molecules the body can use. Finally, the nutrients are absorbed into the blood stream. Once in the blood stream, the nutrients are taken to the liver, which is a kind of chemical factory for the body.

### Process 
After we swallow food, it travels down a muscular tube to the stomach. There, it is mashed into soupy fluid called chyme. The mixture passes into the small intestine, where tiny bits of food pass into the bloodstream. The food that is still left goes into the large intestine. Finally, waste products leave the body. 

Digestion usually takes about 18 hours. Food stays in the stomach for about three hours. If uncoiled, the small intestine would be about six meters (20 feet) long. Many digestive tracts are about as long as a bus.

Food slowly enters the small intestine from the stomach. This is where nutrients are taken into the blood. It then enters the large intestine. Water is taken away from it. The food that is left is called feces. The feces are stored in the rectum until the waste can leave the body through the anus.

## Organs
*Mouth
**Tooth
**Salivary gland
***Parotid gland
***Submandibular gland
***Sublingual gland
**Tongue
**Palate
***Hard palate
***Soft palate
***Uvula
*Pharynx
*Epiglottis
*Oesophagus
*Stomach
*Small intestine
**Duodenum
**Jejunum
**Ileum
*Large intestine
**Cecum
**Colon
*Rectum
*Anus
*Appendix
*Liver
*Biliary tract
*Pancreas

## Related pages 
* nervous system

## Other websites
*Human Physiology - Digestion 
*NIH guide to digestive system 

## References
Tuscany

**Tuscany** () is a region in the center of Italy. It has an area of  and a population of about 3.6 million people (in 2004). The capital is Florence. 

Tuscany is known for its landscapes and its artistic legacy. Six Tuscan  have been made UNESCO protected sites: the historical center of Florence (1982), the historical center of Siena (1995), the square of the Cathedral of Pisa (1987), the historical center of San Gimignano (1990), the historical center of Pienza (1996) and the Val d'Orcia (2004).

## Geography 
**Tuscany** borders Emilia-Romagna to the north, Liguria to the north-west, Tyrrhenian Sea to the west, Umbria and Marche to the east, and Lazio to the south-east. The territory is two thirds hilly and one fourth mountainous. The rest is made up of the plains that form the valley of the Arno River.

## Economy 
Tuscany is known for its wines (the most famous of which are Chianti, Morellino di Scansano, Vino Nobile di Montepulciano, and Brunello di Montalcino) and has 120 protected regions (nature reserves). Other agricultural products include cattle (particularly the famous "Fiorentina" steak) and the production of olive oil, principally in Lucca.

The subsoil in Tuscany is rich in mineral resources. There are iron ore, copper, mercury and lignite mines, the famous *soffioni* (fumarole) at Larderello, and the vast marble mines in Versilia. Although its share is falling, agriculture is still important. In the region's inland areas, cereals, potatoes, olives and grapes are grown. The swamplands, which used to be marshy, now produce vegetables, rice, tobacco, beets and sunflowers.

Tourism is important to the so-called "Cities of Art" (Florence, Arezzo, Lucca, Pisa, Siena, San Gimignano), as well as on the coast and in the isles (Elba).

## Demographics 
In the 1980s and 1990s the region attracted an intense  of immigrants, in particular from China and Northern Africa. There is also a significant community of British and Americans. As of 2006, the Italian national institute of statistics ISTAT estimated that 215,490 foreign-born immigrants live in Tuscany, about 5.9% of the people in Tuscany.

Towns of Tuscany with a population of 50,000 or more:

## Provinces 
* Florence (Firenze) 
* Arezzo
* Grosseto
* Livorno
* Lucca
* Massa-Carrara
* Pisa
* Pistoia
* Prato
* Siena

## Important points for industry in Tuscany 
## Famous people born in Tuscany 
## Related pages
* Tuscan dialect
* Grand Duchy of Tuscany
* History of Tuscany
* Tuscan food

## Other websites 
* Official Site of Regions Tuscany (Italian site) 

## References
Electric

***Electric*** is the fifth studio album by Jack Ingram. The album was released on June 4, 2002.

## Track listing
## References
Emilia-Romagna

**Emilia-Romagna** (Emilian: *Emégglia-Rumâgna*, *Emîlia-Rumâgna*, Romagnol: *Emélia-Rumâgna*) is one of the twenty regions of Italy, in northeast Italy on the Adriatic Sea. The capital is Bologna.

## Geography
The region is in Northern Italy with an area of . It is bordered to the north by the Veneto and Lombardy regions, to the northwest by the Piedmont and Liguria regions, to the west by the Tuscany, to the south by the Marche region and the republic of San Marino, and the Adriatic Sea to the east.

The main river in the region is the Po. The highest mountain in the region is Monte Cimone, in the northern Apennines, with an altitude of .

### Provinces
Emilia-Romagna has nine provinces grouped in two historical regions:
* Emilia, with the provinces Ferrara, Modena, Parma, Piacenza, Reggio Emilia and part of Bologna.
* Romagna, with the provinces Forlì-Cesena, Ravenna, Rimini and part of Bologna.

### Largest municipalities
The 10 comuni with more people living in it are:

## Gallery

File:Bologna-SanPetronioPiazzaMaggiore1.jpg|The city of Bologna.
File:Cattedrale di San Giorgio a Ferrara.jpg|*San Giorgio* cathedral, Ferrara.
File:MonteCimone1.jpg|The *Monte Cimone* mountain.
File:Dante's tomb (Ravenna) - Facade.jpg|The tomb of Dante Alighieri, Ravenna.
File:Beach of Rimini (14-07-2012).jpg|Beach of Rimini.

## References
## Other websites
* Emilia-Romagna Region Official site
Vasil Levski

**Vasil Levski** is a Bulgarian hero. He was born in Karlovo, Bulgaria in 1837. His real name is Vasil Ivanov Kuncev and *Levski* was his nickname. His father's name was Ivan Kuncev. Vasil Levski struggled for independence of Bulgaria from the Ottoman Empire. He was executed in 1873.
CP/M

**CP/M** (**Control Program for Microcomputers**) was an Operating System for computers used in the 1970s and early 1980. Originally, it supported up to 64 kb of main memory. It was command-line based, and came before MS-DOS.

## Sources