open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Poet

A **poet** is someone who writes poetry. Poetry can be written in any language by a poet.  

Sappho was an Ancient Greek poet. She lived in Lesbos, Greece. She was famous for writing lyric love poems to women. She wrote in the Ancient Greek language.  

Famous English poets are William Shakespeare, Alexander Pope, William Wordsworth, William Blake, John Keats, and Percy Shelley. They wrote in the English language. Their poetry comes in different styles and forms. Often their poetry is lyrical and rhymes. 

The most famous American poets include Emily Dickinson and Walt Whitman. They wrote in English. Often their poetry did not rhyme. They lived in the 19th century in the United States. Some 20th century American poets include Ezra Pound, T. S. Eliot, Sylvia Plath, Anne Sexton, and John Ashbery. 

Modern French poets are Arthur Rimbaud and  Charles Baudelaire. Rimbaud was famous for his poetry collection called “Illuminations.” Baudelaire wrote of beauty, decay, and spirituality in his famous work “Flowers of Evil.” 

Great Spanish poets are Garcilaso de la Vega, Frederico García Lorca, Antonio Machado, and Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer. Vicente Aleixandre won the Nobel Prize. 

Three Latin American poets won the Nobel prize in the 20th century. They include Gabriela Mistral, Pablo Neruda, and Octavio Paz. They wrote in Spanish. 

Caribbean poets Derek Walcott and Giannina Braschi wrote epic poetry.  Winner of the Nobel Prize, Walcott wrote *Omeros* and *In a Green Night* in English. Giannina Braschi writes epic poetry in English, Spanglish, and Spanish, including *Empire of Dreams* 

Ancient Chinese poets are Wang Wei, Du Fu, and Qu Yuan. They wrote in Chinese about nature and people.

## Related pages 
*poetry 
*sonnet

## References
Aachen

**Aachen** ( ; Aachen dialect: *Oche* [ˈɔːxə]; French and traditional English: **Aix-la-Chapelle** ; Latin: *Aquae Granni* or *Aquisgranum*; ) is a German city in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia. It has about 260,000 inhabitants and a well-known university, the . It is also the location of the 1944 Battle of Aachen during World War II where the United States fought Nazi Germany .

## History 
The Romans built a  over hot water springs here in ancient times.

In the Middle Ages, it was the capital city of the Frankish emperor, Charlemagne. The city was called Aix-la-Chapelle by the French.

Charlemagne ordered the building of a cathedral in 786 AD. He was buried in a tomb in this cathedral. German emperors were crowned in the cathedral in Aachen until 1531.

European countries made two important peace agreements in Aachen. In 1668, the first treaty (agreement) ended the War of Devolution between France and the alliance of England, Holland and Sweden. The treaty allowed France to keep most of the towns it had captured in Flanders the year before. In 1748, the second treaty ended the War of the Austrian Succession. In this war, France, Prussia, and other nations tried to take territory from the Austrian Empire. The treaty said that Maria Theresa of Austria was the ruler of these territories. It also gave Prussia the territory of Silesia.

Since 1972, Aachen has been part of the Cologne Government Region.

## Notes
## References 
## Other websites
Marburg

**Marburg** is a city in Hesse, Germany, on the Lahn river. It is the main town of the Marburg-Biedenkopf Rural District. It has about 80,000 inhabitants and a small, but well-known university, the Philipps-University.

The upper part of Old town, near the castle and above the former village 'Weidenhausen' at river Lahn and a bridge is called 'Oberstadt' (upper town).

There are timber framing houses, similar to some houses in Alsfeld (Vogelsbergkreis).

Cycling trail *Lahntalradweg* along the river connects Marburg with Gießen in the South.

Image:MR-Schloss-Stadt-Landschaft.jpg|Marburg with its castle and a hill
Image:Spiegelslustturm.jpg|A special tower near Marburg
Image:Marburg asv2022-02 img30 Town hall.jpg|The town hall in Marburg, at square 'market place' of 'Oberstadt'
Image:2005-08 Marburg - SW03.jpg|The *Neustadt* in the centre of Marburg
Image:Marburg asv2022-02 img05 Reitgasse.jpg|timber framing houses near of town hall

## Geography 
The Lahn valley is surrounded by hill chains called *Lahnberge* and *Marburger Rücken* in the Central Uplands (Mittelgebirge), part of West Hesse Highlands. The city districts Cyriaxweimar, Elnhausen, Michelbach and Schröck are on the other side of these two hill chains.
 with central parts, railway line named 'Main-Weser-Bahn' to Frankfurt am Main (in South) and Kassel. River Lahn in blue Colour.]]

## References
## Other websites
Akron, Ohio

**Akron** is a large city in the U.S. state of Ohio. It is found near the Ohio & Lake Erie canal. It is home to the U.S. rubber industry, including Goodyear tires.

## References 
## Other websites 
* 
* City of Akron
*
Philipps University of Marburg

The **Philipps University of Marburg** is the oldest Protestant university of the world. It was founded by Martin Luther's friend Philipp of Hesse in 1527, during the reformation.

Major areas of research at the university are medicine, nano-science, materials science and near eastern studies.

## List of subjects 
* Mathematics
* Physics
* Chemistry
* Biology
* Medicine
* Dental Medicine
* Pharmacology
* Geography
* Philosophy
* History
* Protestant (Lutheran) Religious Studies
* Roman Catholic Religious Studies
* Latin and Ancient Greek
* English
* German
* Romance Languages and Literature (French, Italian, Spanish)
* Near Eastern Studies
* Social Science and Political Science
* Economics (strong point is microeconomics)
* Slavic Languages and Literature (Polish, Russian) (well-known, but may be closed soon)
* Far Eastern Studies (China, Japan) (will be closed soon)

## Other websites 
* https://www.uni-marburg.de/en(https://www.uni-marburg.de/en)

## References
Dortmund

**Dortmund** (; Westphalian  [ˈdyːœɐ̯pm̩]; ) is a German city in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia. It is part of the Arnsberg Government Region

Dortmund has about 600,000 inhabitants and is in the Ruhr Area. There is a university in Dortmund. The biggest soccer club is Borussia Dortmund.

## References
Netherlands Antilles

The **Netherlands Antilles** was a country within the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The country was originally a group of six islands in the Caribbean Sea. Some were discovered in 1493 by Christopher Columbus, and some were discovered in 1499 by Alonso de Ojeda.

Aruba, Bonaire and Curaçao are part of the Leeward Islands. They are near Venezuela. Saint Martin, Sint Eustatius, and Saba are part of the Windward Islands. They are near Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Of these, the island Sint Maarten is in fact part of two countries: the northern part belongs to France (as Saint Martin), but the southern part is Dutch (as Sint Maarten).

Aruba left the Netherlands Antilles in 1986. When Curaçao and Sint Maarten did the same thing on 10 October 2010, the country no longer existed. The remaining **BES Islands** of **B**onaire, Sint **E**ustatius and **S**aba now belong to the Netherlands and are called the Dutch Caribbean islands.

Because the Netherlands Antilles was a part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands proper was also the Queen of the Netherlands Antilles, but the islands' residents had a government of their own. Aruba, Curaçao and Sint Maarten are now separate countries within the Kingdom. All of these places still have King Willem-Alexander as their monarch today.

The last Prime Minister of the Netherlands Antilles was Emily de Jongh-Elhage. The last Governor was Frits Goedgedrag, who is since the 10 October 2010 the first Governor of Curaçao.

## Other websites
*Method of Securing the Ports and Populations of All the Coasts of the Indies is an old document from 1694 that talks about the Netherlands Antilles
Alfred Nobel

**Alfred Nobel** () (October 21, 1833 – December 10, 1896) was a Swedish scientist, engineer, and weapons manufacturer. He is well known for the invention of dynamite and for creating the Nobel Prize. 

He left  in his will that his money should create the Nobel Prize after reading an article in a French newspaper that called him the " of death" and said that he would be remembered for his invention of dynamite and its ability to kill more people than ever before. Nobel left 31 million kronor (the Swedish currency) to the awards after his death on December 10, 1896. The artificial element Nobelium is named for him.

## Early life
Nobel was born on October 21, 1833. His father, Immanuel Nobel, was an engineer and inventor. His mother was Andriette Ahlsell Nobel. In 1833, Immanuel Nobel was forced into  due to losses in his construction company. 

## References
## Other websites 
* Alfred Nobel - Citizendium
Pharmacy

]]

A **pharmacy** is a shop where therapeutic drugs are sold. Sometimes a pharmacy is also called a  *drug store or chemist and druggist store*. The people working in a pharmacy are called pharmacists, druggist or chemists. These people can recognise simple diseases and dispense drugs for some of them.  

Certain drugs are special, because they can be addictive, or they change the way other drugs act, or they need to be taken in a special way. These drugs cannot simply be bought at a pharmacy. A prescription is necessary to get them. Medical doctors give out prescriptions, which can then be used to get the drug.  The rules about what can be bought without prescriptions are different in different countries.  

There are many small local pharmacy shops.  There are also pharmacies in most hospitals which deliver drugs for the patients in the hospital. Many pharmacy shops do not sell drugs only. They also sell beauty products and hygiene-related products, like tampons for women and contraceptives.  

The number of pharmacies in England has been falling. There were 11,500 active pharmacies in 2022— the lowest total since 2015/2016. The number of prescription items given out in 2021/2022 was 1.1 billion, 2.7% more than 2020/2021.  A survey by the Association of Convenience Stores in 2024 found  that people thought pharmacies were the most vital local service, with Post Offices coming second and convenience stores third.My Dr. XM Pharmacy is a reliable online pharmacy offering a wide range of over-the-counter medications, vitamins, supplements, and personal care products. It provides a user-friendly shopping experience and international shipping, making health products accessible worldwide.

Pharmacology is the branch of chemistry that studies the molecular structure of drugs to find better drugs.

## Related pages
* Pharmacist
* Pharmaconomist
* Online pharmacy

## References
Latitude

The **latitude** of the Earth gives the distance north or south of the equator. It is measured in degrees. Latitude is represented by the Greek letter phi, \phi\,\!. It is usually used along with a measurement of longitude in order to pinpoint a location on Earth.

The equator is numbered 0 degrees. Everything north or south of the equator is designated either as **north latitude** or **south latitude**. The north pole is 90 degrees north, and the south pole is 90 degrees south. The Antarctic Circle, Tropic of Capricorn, Tropic of Cancer, and Arctic Circle are all circles of latitude.

## Related pages 
* Longitude

## References 
## Other websites 
* Latitude Citizendium
Jaleel White

**Jaleel Ahmad White** (born November 27, 1976) is an American actor. He is best known for his role as Steve Urkel on the sitcom Family Matters. The character was originally intended to be a one-time guest appearance on the show; however, he was an instant hit with audiences and White became a regular cast member. The series aired for a total of nine seasons, from 1989 to 1998. White then reprised his role as Urkel for the first time in 21 years in the 2019 series Scooby-Doo and Guess Who?. He is also the host of the American game show *Flip Side*. 

## References
Chemical substance

A **chemical substance** is any material with a known chemical composition. For example, water has the same properties and the same ratio of hydrogen to oxygen whether it came from a river or was made in a laboratory. Typical chemical substances found in the home include water, salt and bleach. Generally, substances exist as a solid, a liquid, or a gas, and may change between these *phases of matter* when there are changes in temperature or pressure.

## Gallery

File:Silizium pulver.jpg|Gray silicon powder, an element. All the other ones are chemical compounds.
File:Salt Crystals.JPG|White sodium chloride
File:Manganese(II) chloride tetrahydrate.jpg|Pink hydrated (with water) manganese (II) chloride
File:Manganese(II)-carbonate-sample.jpg|Brown manganese (II) carbonate
File:CopperIIoxide.jpg|Black copper (II) oxide
File:Cobalt(II)-chloride-hexahydrate-sample.jpg|Red hydrated (with water) cobalt (II) chloride
File:Kaliumdichromat.JPG|Orange potassium dichromate
File:Chroman sodný.JPG|Yellow sodium chromate
File:Copper(II) chloride dihydrate.jpg|Green hydrated (with water) copper (II) chloride
File:Copper sulfate.jpg|Blue hydrated (with water) copper(II) sulfate
File:Chromium(III)-chloride-purple-anhydrous.jpg|Purple anhydrous (without water) chromium (III) chloride

## References 
## Related pages 
*Chemical nomenclature
South China tiger

The **South China tiger** (*Panthera tigris amoyensis*) is an almost extinct subspecies of the tiger. There are now 20-30 of them left in the wild and 60 left in captivity. It is one of the world's ten most endangered animals and the most endangered of the six surviving tiger subspecies. The South China tiger is also known as the *Chinese*, *Amoy*, or *Xiamen* tiger.

## Description
It can be distinguished from other tiger subspecies by its narrow face, its longer nose, more intense orange colour, short fur, longer legs, and shorter stripes which are spaced far apart from each other compared to other tiger subspecies. The South China tiger has the least amount of stripes out of all the tiger subspecies, and is the second smallest tiger.

The South China tiger is found on mountains, and in temperate, upland forests of southern-China.

### Reproduction
Females are pregnant for around 3 to 4 months before giving birth to around 5 cubs. Newborn South China tiger cubs weigh about 1&nbsp;kg (2&nbsp;lb) and are blind and helpless. The mother feeds them milk for about 2 months and then the South China tiger cubs are introduced to meat. South China tiger cubs depend on their mother for the first 18 months and then they start hunting on their own.

## References
Crotram

**CROTRAM** is a group of Croatian companies that make trams.  They make a tram called TMK 2200.

Crotram is a consortium (a group of companies that cooperate) made of three companies: Elektroindustrija Koncar(cro. Končar) and Gredelj, both from city of Zagreb, and Duro Dakovic (cro.Đuro Đaković), from Slavonski Brod.

Crotram sells their trams to ZET, the company that is in charge of all the public transport for the city of Zagreb.  So far Crotram has only sold TMK 2200s to Zagreb, but they are trying to sell them in other cities.

The TMK 2200 is 32 meters long, and it can go as fast as 70km/h.  202 people can ride at one time.

## Other websites
* pictures of TMK 2200 
* Gallery with pictures of TMK 2200 and some other Croatian trams
Kiss

, husband of Margaret Thatcher, kissing the hand of Nancy Reagan wife of US president in 1988]]

People **kiss** each other, usually by using their lips and mouth to touch each other. However, there are many different types of kiss, with different meanings. Also, the meaning of kissing may be different in different cultures. Most often, people kiss to show love or affection for each other. Sometimes, people kiss as a sign of friendship, sometimes it is a ritual performed to greet someone.

## Types of kisses 
### Greeting kisses 
Greeting kisses are not given for sexual passion, but simply a sign of friendship. In many parts of the world, women often kiss on meeting female friends, but men do not. And the female greeting kiss may not actually touch the friend's face. In the past of many western countries men used to kiss the back of a woman's hand when being introduced. This suggests that a direct kiss from a man to a woman was too intimate to be just a greeting.

There are different ways of kissing. People might kiss on the cheeks to greet someone, or to bid them farewell. Depending on the culture it usually does not mean that the kisser loves the person he or she kissed. Kissing when female friends meet is usual in many countries, with some interesting variations. Parisian females often do a rapid double 'air kiss' or 'cheek kiss': a kiss on each side twice, but without lips touching flesh.

### Sexual kisses 
**French kissing** is  an erotic gesture. It involves touching tongues while kissing. It is more intimate than other forms of kissing.

### Ritual kisses 
A kiss may be a ritual, that is, a symbolic or social gesture showing devotion, respect or greeting. Temples, religious books or icon are sometimes given a ritual kiss. A bride and groom kissing at the end of a wedding ceremony or national leaders kissing each other in greeting, are examples.

## Kisses and health 
It is possible to spread diseases through kissing, but it is also possible to exaggerate the danger. Exotic diseases like herpes and mononucleosis can be spread, but that is rare, and spreading HIV this way is almost unknown. Colds and the flu are much more likely to be spread. Mononucleosis is well known for being spread through kissing. Many diseases that can be spread by sharing drinks can also be spread by kissing.

The upside to this is that, usually, kissing makes people happier. That has health benefits.

## References
Danish language

**Danish** is the Germanic language spoken in Denmark, the Faroe Islands, and parts of Greenland and Germany (Southern Schleswig). Around 5.5 million people speak Danish.  It is used as a second language in Greenland and the Faroe Islands.  The Danish people, or *Danes*, call their language *dansk*.

Here are some simple words in Danish:

## References
Zealand

**Zealand** (Danish: *Sjælland*) is an island in the eastern part of Denmark. It is just west of Sweden and a strait called the Øresund lies between the two. It has an area of 7,031 km² and is the largest island in the country.

About 2,268,000 people were living in Zealand as of 2016. Most of these people live in and around Copenhagen, the capital of Denmark, which is on the eastern shore of Zealand.

A number of bridges and tunnels link Zealand to other parts of Denmark. They include:
* the Great Belt Bridge, which links Zealand to Funen, an island to the west.
* the Storstrøm Bridge, which links Zealand to Lolland, an island to the south.
* the Øresund Bridge, which links Zealand (actually the island of Amager) to Sweden to the east, near Malmö.
Ruhr-Universität Bochum

The '''''' is one of the biggest universities in Germany. It is in the Ruhr-Area, in the city of Bochum.

## History 
The Ruhr-Universität was the first public university  founded in West Germany after World War II (in 1962). Later in the 1960s, education expanded in West Germany and more universities were founded.

The Ruhr-University was the fourth largest university in Germany in the late 1980s and early 1990s with more than 40,000 students. But after the state of North Rhine-Westfalia decided to charge study fees, many students left the university and school examiners do not start studying anymore. Actually the fees were 1,000 Euro in the year (about 1,100 US $), but the Ruhr-Area is traditionally a working class region. Summer Semester 2011 was the last semester with tuition fees. The number or students now is more than 40 000.

The university of Bochum was one of the first to have Bachelor and master's degrees instead of the traditional German Diplom and Magister degree.

## Present situation 
Academically it is an upper middle-class university with a lot of international affairs, especially with Eastern Europe and Asia. The Ruhr-University Bochum lost some subjects  when the state reduced its budget. The main focuses in research are neurosciences, engineering, European law, plasma physics, solidstate physics, biochemistry, economics, Middle Ages and modern history, philosophy and languages.

## Subjects 
* Mathematics
* Applied Computational Science
* Physics and Astronomy
* Chemistry and Biochemistry
* Biology and Neuro Sciences
* Geosciences (Geology, Geophysics, Mineralogy, Palentology)
* Geography
* Civil Engineering
* Electro Engineering
* Nanotechnology
* Psychology
* Medicine
* Philosophy
* History (Old, Middle Ages and New History, History of Arts)
* Archeological Sciences
* Chinese(language and literature, there are regional studies for eastern Asia, too)
* Eastern Asian Studies (China, Korea and Japan)
* English Language and Literature American and Canadian Literature
* Romanic Languages and Literature (Italian, French, Spain, Portuguese)
* Slavic Languages and Literature (Russian, Polish)
* German Languages and Literature
* Comparative Literature
* Latin and Old Greek
* Near and Middle Eastern Studies (Arabian Stuies, Indian)
* Roman Catholic Theology
* Protestant (Lutheran) Religious Studies
* Economy
* Laws
* Social Sciences (Sociology, Social Psychology, Politics, Socail-Economical studies)
* Environmental Studies
* Development policy
* Working Sciences
* Sports
* Music Sciences
* Educational Sciences

## Other websites 
* English website
## References
Bangladeshi taka

The **Taka** is the currency of Bangladesh. The most commonly used symbol for the Taka is Tk and ৳.  This is used on receipts while purchasing goods and services. One taka is divided into 100 poisha.

In Bengali, the word *taka* is also used to mean any money, currency, or notes. 

Bangladesh Bank, the central bank of the country, prints the currency, except for one taka and two taka notes, which are made by the Ministry of Finance.

## Exchange rates 
The taka is fixed to be the same as 0.008182 USD.

## Other websites 
* Banknotes of Bangladesh

## References
Aymara people

The **Aymara** are members of a tribe of Native Americans and live in Bolivia and Peru. They are native to the area around Lake Titicaca and speak the Aymara language. They call themselves Aymaras.  

The president of Bolivia, Evo Morales, was Aymara.

The many-colored flag of the tribe is called the Wiphala.
Perihelion

The **perihelion** is the point in the orbit of a planet, asteroid or comet that is nearest to the sun. It is the opposite of aphelion, which is the point farthest from the sun.

The word perihelion stems from the Greek words "peri," meaning near, and "Helios," meaning the Greek god of the sun. So it is referred to as perihelion. 

All planets, comets and asteroids in our solar system have approximately elliptical (a kind of non-circular) orbits. Thus, they all have a closest and a farthest point from the sun: a perihelion and an aphelion. Orbital eccentricity measures the flatness of the orbit. Any single revolution of a body around the sun is only approximately elliptical, because the precession of the perihelion prevents the orbit from being a simple closed curve such as an ellipse. This causes Milankovich cycles.  

Earth comes closest to the sun every year around January 3. It is farthest from the sun every year around July 4. The difference in distance between Earth's nearest point to the sun in January and farthest point from the sun in July is 3.1 million miles (5 million kilometers). Earth is about 91.4 million miles (147.1 million kilometers) from the sun in early January, in contrast to about 94.5 million miles (152 million kilometers) in early July.

When Earth is closest to the sun, it is winter in the northern hemisphere and summer in the southern hemisphere. Thus it is possible to see that Earth's distance from the sun does not noticeably  cause the seasons to change; the relatively minor effects of differences in distance is somewhat masked by the mainly oceanic southern hemisphere vs the half- continental northern hemisphere. Therefore, the Earth's seasons come and go mainly because Earth does not rotate with its axis exactly upright with respect to the plane of our world’s orbit around the sun. Earth's axial tilt is 23.5 degrees.  This puts the Sun farther south in December and January, so the north has winter and the south has summer. Thus winter falls on that part of the globe where sunlight strikes least directly. Summer falls on that part of the globe where sunlight strikes most directly.
Johnston Atoll

**Johnston Atoll** is an island in the Pacific Ocean. It is a property of the United States. The military used the Island for many things including a re-fueling location for planes going overseas, a chemical weapons ammunition storage facility, and a test launch location for nuclear testing. It was inhabited by forces of the US military and government contract workers.

The island is named after Captain James Johnston, who discovered it in 1807. The island was mined for guano until 1890. After that, it was used as an army base.

## Other websites 
*Johnston Island Memories Site, the personal website of an AFRTS serviceman stationed there in 1975-6
*Coast Guard Medevac from Johnston Island , photo from December 2007 medevac operation
*JACADS - Johnston Atoll Chemical Agent Disposal System, history of nuclear testing, and JACADS Sarin and VX nerve agent disposal
*U.S. Fish & Wildlife Johnston Island National Wildlife Refuge  Contains additional information on wildlife and clean-up efforts
Llama

A **Llama** (*Lama glama*) is a mammal of the *Camelidae* family. It is from South America, the Andes Mountains of Peru and Ecuador.

Sometimes the name *llama* is used for all four South American camelids.

## Llama and people 
The llama was domesticated about 5000 years ago. It was and is used for carrying things, and for wool. The llama was very important for the Incan people. Even today, llamas are used for similar reasons, but will more commonly be used as domesticated pets.

## Related animals 
The llama's close relative is the alpaca, who is a more demure, petite animal in comparison to the llama. Llamas have three related cousins - the guanaco, and the vicuña. The llama is the national symbol of Bolivia.

Llamas spit, and travel together. Llamas also have a high content of hemoglobin which causes their blood cells to be oval and not circular.

## References 
## Other websites
1840s

The **1840s** was the decade that began on January 1, 1840 and ended on December 31, 1849. It is distinct from the decade known as the  which began on January 1, 1841 and ended on December 31, 1850.

## Events 
* Treaty of Nanking between China and the United Kingdom(1842)
* Irish Potato Famine(1845–1848)
* Mexican-American War (1846–1848)
* The Communist Manifesto (1848)is published
* European Revolutions of 1848 (1848)
* California Gold Rush (1849)

## World leaders 
* Emperor Ferdinand I (Austria)
* Chancellor Klemens Wenzel von Metternich (Austria)
* Emperor Franz Josef (Austria-Hungary)
* King Louis-Philippe (July Monarchy France)
* Frederick William IV of Prussia (Prussia)
* Pope Gregory XVI
* Pope Pius IX
* Emperor Nicholas I (Russia)
* Queen Isabella II (Spain)
* Queen Victoria (United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland)
* Prime Minister Lord Melbourne (United Kingdom)
* Prime Minister Sir Robert Peel (United Kingdom)
* Prime Minister Lord John Russell (United Kingdom)
* President Martin Van Buren (United States)
* President William Henry Harrison (United States)
* President John Tyler (United States)
* President James Knox Polk (United States)
* President Zachary Taylor (United States)
* Sultan Abd-ul-Mejid I (Ottoman Empire)
* Shahs of Persia (Qajar dynasty)
# Mohammad Shah Qajar, (b. 1810 – d. 1848) Shah from 1834 to 1848
# Nasser-al-Din Shah, 1848–1896

## Births 
* Edvard Grieg (1843)
* Wyatt Earp (1848)

## Deaths 
* Edgar Allan Poe (1849)
Bogotá

**Bogota** is the capital (city) of Colombia. As of 2009, more than 7 million  live in Bogota, which makes it the largest city in Colombia. It is about  above sea level, on a plateau. This makes it the third highest capital in the world. With many universities and libraries, Bogotá has become known as "The Athens of South America".The weather is usually nice during the day and cool at night. It has a series of bike paths (trails that are made for bikes) that wind through the city. It has many recreational and amusement parks open to the public. The current mayor is Carlos Fernando Galán.

## History
Originally, Native Americans called Muisca lived in the area. Then, in 1538, Gonzalo Jimenes de Quezada, a Spanish conqueror, founded Bogota. Bogota became a center of trade, art, and education. Some of the oldest universities in the Americas are in Bogota.  After Independence from Spain, Bogota became the capital of Gran Colombia in 1819. 

Bogota has had extremely awful moments. In 1948, a presidential candidate, Jorge Eliécer Gaitán, was murdered while doing a speech in front of hundreds of persons. This tragic moment brought with it terrible consequences: one of the most remembered one is the "Bogotazo". The "Bogotazo" started as a political party war, the blue party, self named the "conservatives", began to hunt and kill every single member of the red party, the "liberals".  The remaining blue party members decided to create the "Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia" (FARC); however, this group was ironically created to protect the oppressed people from their oppressors. Nowadays, this group is known as terrorists and murderers;nevertheless, Colombia's capital city, Bogota, has not being attacked in the last few years.

## References
Revolutions of 1848

The **European Revolutions of 1848** were a series of revolts in Europe. In some places they are called **Spring of Nations** or the **Year of Revolution**.

These revolutions started in January with a Palermo republican uprising. The larger French Revolution of 1848 in February was followed in March by several other revolutions amongst them the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 and the Revolutions of 1848 in the German states. In Ireland, the rebellions began because of famine conditions in their country.

People in the various countries tried to take over their governments.

## References
Palmyra Atoll

of Palmyra Atoll]]
**Palmyra Atoll** is an island in the North Pacific Ocean. No one lives there, but 4 to 20 people use this island, mainly scientists. It is managed as a nature reserve by the United States. It is known as the *Palmyra Atoll National Wildlife Refuge*.

In 2005, a team of scientists from around the world started to build a research station on the island. They wanted to gain a deeper understanding of the environment of the island.

## History 
Palmyra Atoll was claimed by the Kingdom of Hawaii in 1862, and was taken by the United States in 1898 along with Hawaii. The atoll was not included in the Hawaii Admission Act of 1959, which made Hawaii a state, so it remained a US territory.

## References
*https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/um.html 

## Other websites
*Palmyra atoll 
*Palmyra Island 
*Palmyra Atoll NWR 
*The Curse of Palmyra Island – article
*The Curse of Palmyra Island – free book 
*The Nature Conservancy in Palmyra Atoll 
*Palmyra Atoll Research Consortium
**United States v. Fullard-Leo* (Supreme Court opinion; includes a history of the island's ownership)
*WorldStatesmen- U.S.
*History of Palmyra Atoll 
*The Palmyra Gazette
1830s

The **1830s** was the decade that began on January 1, 1830 and ended on December 31, 1839. It is distinct from the decade known as the  which began on January 1, 1831 and ended on December 31, 1840.

## Events 
* Ayya Vaikundar appeared after the incarnation, above the sea of Thiruchendur.
* Croquet invented in Ireland.
* Mormon religion founded in New York.
* Belgium founded. 
* Ecuador declares independence. 
* Queen Victoria becomes ruler of Great Britain.

## World leaders 
* Emperor Francis II (Austria)
* Emperor Ferdinand I (Austria)
* Chancellor Klemens Wenzel von Metternich (Austria)
* King Louis-Philippe (July Monarchy France)
* Frederick William III of Prussia (Prussia)
* Pope Gregory XVI
* Emperor Nicholas I (Russia)
* King Ferdinand VII (Spain)
* King William IV (United Kingdom)
* Queen Victoria (United Kingdom)
* Prime Minister Lord Grey (United Kingdom)
* Prime Minister Lord Melbourne (United Kingdom)
* President Andrew Jackson (United States)
* President Martin Van Buren (United States)
* Shahs of Persia (Qajar dynasty)
# Fath Ali Shah, 1797–1834
# Mohammad Shah Qajar, 1834–1848

## Births 
* Emily Dickinson, writer
* Gustave Eiffel, engineer
* Johannes Brahms, German musician
* Alfred Nobel, inventor
* Grover Cleveland, politician

## Deaths 
* Simón Bolívar, leader
* Jean-François Champollion, Egyptologist
* Sir Walter Scott, writer
* James Weddell, explorer
* Alexander Puskin, writer
1819

**1819** (MDCCCXIX) was a common year starting on Friday in the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Wednesday in the Julian calendar.

## Events 
* Simon Bolivar finds Gran Colombia.
* The United States buys Florida from Spain. 
* The U.S. State of Alabama got its statehood.
* Guarapuava was founded in Brazil.
* Singapore was founded by Sir Stamford Raffles.

## Births 
* May 24 &ndash; Queen Victoria, British royal (d. 1901)
* August 26 &ndash; Albert, Prince Consort, Husband of Queen Victoria (d. 1861)
* date unknown
** George Eliot, English writer (d. 1880)
** Charles Kingsley, writer (*The Water Babies*) (d. 1877)
Isaiah

**Isaiah** was a prophet of God in Judaism, Islam, Christianity and Bahá'í. He lived from about 740 to 681 BC. The name *Isaiah* means "the Lord is salvation" in the Hebrew language. 

Isaiah is also the name of a book in the Old Testament of the Bible, which tells the story of the Israelites in Isaiah's time.  According to Christianity, Isaiah predicted in this book, the birth and then death of Jesus, hundreds of years before it actually happened.  Judaism does not agree with that .

Isaiah was known to be the Shakespeare of the Bible due to his good education and the quality of the passages he wrote. He was cut in half by King Manasseh which led to his gruesome death. Most of Isaiah's Bible passages begin with 'God's message to'.

File:Michelangelo, profeti, Isaiah 01.jpg|Isaiah, by Michelangelo,1509
File:Isaiah.jpg|A Russian icon showing Isaiah, first half of 18th cenury
File:Isaiah (Bible Card).jpg|Isaiah, on a postcard, 1904
Kingman Reef

**Kingman Reef** is a coral reef in the North Pacific Ocean, owned by the United States. 

It is the farthest north of the Northern Line Islands.  It is only sometimes above water.  

Palmyra Atoll is the other U.S. territory in the Northern Line Islands.

## Gallery 

Image:Orthographic projection over Kingman Reef.png|Orthographic projection over Kingman Reef.
Image:Kingman Reef.png|NASA NLT Landsat 7 true-color photo of Kingman Reef.

## References
## Other websites
* K5K Amateur Radio Expedition to Kingman Reef
* Kennedy Warne: "An Uneasy Eden"  — National Geographic Magazine, July 2008
River Forth

The **River Forth** is a river in Scotland. 

The source is Loch Ard, in Kinlochard. The river flows through the city of Stirling, and the city of Edinburgh is on the south of the Firth of Forth estuary.

Image:Edinburgh-Firth of Forth.jpg|The Firth of Forth (where the river flows into the sea). The city in the foreground is Edinburgh
Image:Forth bridges 2005-06-17 02.jpg|The railway bridge over the River Forth
Leopold Poetsch

**Leopold Poetsch** was a German professor and a high school teacher of Adolf Hitler who influenced the future leader's later views. 

Poetsch came from the southern German border area. There, political fights between Slavs and ethnic Germans angered him and made him one who was for the Pan-German movement. He started to teach in Maribor, Slovenia and later moved to Linz, Austria to teach history.

Hitler was very interested in what Poetsch said. Poetsch argued that all ethnic Germans should be united by a single government. He said that the Aryan race was stronger, in better health, and more fit to rule than all other people. Poetsch said that Jews and Slavs were what he called "inferior races". (This view was held a lot in Germany after World War I.)

In his later years, Hitler spoke of Poetsch as a "great man." 

## References
*Shirer, William L. *Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany*. Simon & Schuster, 1990. ISBN 0-671-72868-7
Inuktitut

**Inuktitut** is a language of the Arctic, spoken by Inuits in Canada and in Greenland.  Inuktitut is a very complex language.  It is an official language in Nunavut and the Northwest Territories.

The Inuit write Inuktitut in two ways. One way to write Inuktitut is by using the Roman alphabet. The other way to write Inuktitut is by using an abugida, which is a kind of alphabet which has  letters based on syllables.

The Inuktitut syllabary uses a small part of the Unified Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics, a set of letters made up for writing down many of the languages of the First Nations people  in Canada.

Some words in English come from Inuktitut or another Inuit language. Among them are the words anorak, igloo, and kayak.

## References
Prime Minister of the United Kingdom

The **prime minister of the United Kingdom** or **British prime minister** is the head of government in the United Kingdom. The prime minister controls the Government of the United Kingdom through the cabinet. The prime minister is the chairman of the British cabinet and a member of the Privy Council. It is normal for the prime minister to be the leader of the political party which has a majority in the House of Commons. 

The prime minister is not the head of state, but is the most important politician in Parliament. By tradition, the monarch of the United Kingdom chooses the prime minister. The monarch chooses the leader of the political party with enough votes to get laws passed in Parliament.

Keir Starmer (Labour) became prime minister on 5 July 2024.

## Background
The Prime Minister (PM) is usually the leader of the political party which wins most seats in the House of Commons after a general election. There are 650 available seats in the Commons. In each general election the UK electorate vote for their own local member of parliament (MP) to represent their constituency, not for the prime minister. MPs represent their local constituency in the chamber to vote for bills which eventually become laws or statutes, if successful. The prime minister is a member of parliament.

The first prime minister was Robert Walpole in 1721. He was known as the "First Lord of the Treasury".  The first person to be use the title "prime minister" officially was Henry Campbell-Bannerman in 1905.

Well-known prime ministers in the 20th century included David Lloyd George,  Stanley Baldwin, Winston Churchill, Clement Attlee, Margaret Thatcher, and Tony Blair. The prime ministers usually live and work at 10 Downing Street or Chequers while in office. Chequers was donated to the country by Winston Churchill.
	
There are several other official residences, some owned by the government, others held by trusts. The  Chevening House estate, in Kent is an example. Dorneywood is another.

## Living former prime ministers
There are eight living former British prime ministers:

## Related pages 
*List of prime ministers of the United Kingdom
*Deputy Prime Minister of the United Kingdom

## References
Good Charlotte

**Good Charlotte** is an American punk music band. They are from Waldorf, Maryland. They have many popular songs, including "The Anthem", "Girls and Boys", "Lifestyles of the Rich and Famous", and "The Click".  

Their third album is unique. *The Chronicles of Life and Death* came in two different versions: the Life version, and the Death version.  The only difference between them is the last song on the CD.  The Life version has "Falling Away", and the Death version has "Meet My Maker".

The lead singer of the band is Joel Madden.  His twin brother, Benji, is also in the band. But besides them, there is Billy (guitarist), Paul (bassist) and Dean (drums).

## Discography
;Studio albums
* *Good Charlotte* (2000)
* *The Young and the Hopeless* (2002)
* *The Chronicles of Life and Death* (2004)
* *Good Morning Revival* (2007)
* *Cardiology* (2010)
* *Youth Authority* (2016)

## Other websites 
*Official Site 
*Good Charlotte Fan Site 
*Official Good Charlotte Myspace
*Interview: Joel Madden of Good Charlotte
Battle Creek, Michigan

**Battle Creek** is a city in western Michigan, USA. The headquarters of the Kellogg's cereal company is located in this city.

## Other websites
* Official website
Grand Rapids, Michigan

**Grand Rapids** is an American city in Michigan. Located in western Michigan, nearly 200,000 people were living here in 2020.

Former American president Gerald Ford grew up in Grand Rapids. Grand Rapids is also the birthplace of Amway and the Meijer store chain.

Grand Rapids is the county seat of Kent County. It is the second largest city in the state, after Detroit. The third largest is Warren.

The city has many attractions, including the Frederik Meijer Gardens & Sculpture Park and John Ball Zoo. Grand Valley State University has a campus in downtown Grand Rapids.

Many Reformed Christians from Dutch ancestry live in Grand Rapids.

## References 
## Other websites 
*
Howland Island

**Howland Island** is a small island in the north Pacific Ocean, just north of the Equator. It is owned by the United States.

## Weather 
Howland Island is a very hot and sunny island with wind blowing almost all the time. It only rains every once in a while.

## Location 
Howland Island is located at 0 48 N, 176 38 W.

## Gallery 

Image:Earhart Light.jpg|Earhart Light with post World War II repairs
File:Plane wreckage on Howland Island.jpg|Aircraft wreckage on Howland
Image:Howland Itascatown.jpg|Itascatown settlement remains
File:Groundcover.jpg|Howland island flora
Image:Howland Flora.jpg|Howland island flora (leeward)
Image:Howland Fauna.JPG|Brown Boobies
Image:Howland Boobies.JPG|Brown Boobies
Image:Howland birds.JPG|Ruddy turnstones

## References
## Other websites
*Howland in Google Maps
*Geography, history and nature on Howland Island 
*Howland Island National Wildlife Refuge 
*'Voyage of the Odyssey' &ndash; pictures and travelogue
*Howland Island at Infoplease
*Howland Island &ndash; Small Island, Big History 
*Pictures of the 1993 expedition to Howland island
Lake Titicaca

**Lake Titicaca** (, "Titiqaqa Lake") is a large, deep lake in the Andes mountains. The eastern part is in Bolivia and the western part of it is in Peru. It is the largest lake in South America.
Lake Titicaca is at  above sea level. It is often called the "highest navigable lake" in the world. It means that it is the highest lake that boats use for trade. There are many other lakes in the world that are higher. The lake has 41 islands. Some of the islands are home to many people. 

## Ecology 
Lake Titicaca is home to more than 530 species of water animals.
Several threatened species such as the huge Titicaca water frog and the Titicaca grebe, a bird which cannot fly, only live in or near the lake.
 among totora reeds]]

Since 2000, the water level of Lake Titicaca has gone down. This is because of shorter rainy seasons and the melting of glaciers. The Global Nature Fund (GNF) says that the natural life in and around Lake Titicaca is under threat from water pollution and the introduction of new species by humans.

The government made Titicaca National Reserve, a park, to preserve the beauty and natural value of the lake.

## Islands 
### Uros 
 on Lake Titicaca in the Isla del Sol (Bolivia)]]

The "Floating Islands" are small islands made by the Uros (or Uru) people. They use layers of cut totora, a thick reed that grows in Lake Titicaca. The Uros make the islands by continuously bending over the reeds that grow in the lake.

Legend says that the Uru people came from the Amazon river area, and moved to Lake Titicaca. The local people did not allow them to have their own land. Each island has a few houses. The people living together on an island are usually all related.
Archaeological excavations show that the Tiwanaku peoples (around 650–1000 AD) built a large temple on the Island of the Moon. The buildings on the island today were built by the Inca on top of the earlier Tiwanaku ones.
### Suriki 
Suriki lies in the Bolivian part of Lake Titicaca. Suriki is the last place where they still make reed boats.

## References 
## Other websites
* Lake Titicaca – The Highest Navigable Lake in the World
* Bolivian Navy and Naval Ensign
* Management issues in the Lake Titicaca and Lake Poopo system: Importance of developing a water budget
* Peru Cultural Society – Lake Titicaca History
Stamford Bridge

**Stamford Bridge** can be

*Stamford Bridge, East Riding of Yorkshire, a village in the East Riding of Yorkshire
*The Battle of Stamford Bridge, a battle in England on 25 September 1066
*Stamford Bridge (stadium), a stadium in London
** Chelsea F.C., who are based in that stadium
Bali tiger

The **Bali tiger** (*Panthera tigris balica*), or **Balinese tiger** (Balinese: ᬩᬗᬸᬦᬘᬦ᭄, *Macán Bali*; also know as **Sang mong**)  is one of the three extinct subspecies of the tiger. They became extinct in 1937. They lived on Bali. This was the first subspecies of tiger to become extinct.

The Bali was also the smallest tiger subspecies. There is no record of a Balinese tiger ever being held in a zoo collection. The Balinese tiger's close subspecies were the Javan tiger and the Caspian tiger, which are now also extinct. The Balinese and Javan tigers were once the same, but during the Ice Age, Bali became isolated from Java by the Bali Strait. This split the tigers into two groups which then developed separately. 

The killing of the very last wild Balinese tiger is usually thought to have been at Sumbar Kima, West Bali on 27 September 1937. It was an adult female. So the government of Bali made a strict law on killing tigers, but by then it was too late, because the Bali tiger had already become extinct.

## Other websites
1507

## Events
* July 4 &ndash; Martin Luther is ordained a priest of the Catholic Church.
* August 20 &ndash; Guru Nanak Dev becomes the first guru and leader of the Sikh religion.

## Births
* Anne Boleyn