open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Mathematical model

A **mathematical model** is a description of a system using mathematical concepts and language. The process of building a mathematical model is termed **mathematical modeling**. Mathematical models are used in the natural sciences (such as physics, biology, earth science, meteorology) and engineering disciplines (e.g. computer science, artificial intelligence). They are also used in the social sciences (such as economics, psychology, sociology and political science). Physicists, engineers, statisticians, operations research analysts and economists use mathematical models a lot.http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/login.jsp?tp=&arnumber=6550437&url=http%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fxpls%2Fabs_all.jsp%3Farnumber%3D6550437http://www.thinkmind.org/index.php?view=article&articleid=icn_2014_3_40_30195
## Types of mathematical models
Mathematical models can take many forms.  The types of models include: 
*dynamical systems - for systems that change,
*statistical models - for finding patterns in large groups of measurements or data, 
*differential equations - to study how variables change over time, or 
*game theoretic models - for studying how many independent decision makers can interact.
These and other types of models can overlap, with a given model involving a variety of abstract structures. Mathematical models can include logical models.  In many cases, the quality of a scientific field depends on how well the mathematical models built on theory agree with results of repeatable experiments.  When theoretical mathematical models do not match experimental measurements, scientists try to correct the model.  Such corrections lead the way to better theories to explain the facts.

## More reading 
;Books
* Bender, E.A. [ 1978 ] ( 2000 ). *An Introduction to Mathematical Modeling*, New York : Dover. 
* Gershenfeld, N., The Nature of Mathematical Modeling, Cambridge University Press, (1998). 
* Yang, X.-S., Mathematical Modelling for Earth Sciences, Dudedin Academic, (2008). 

;Specific applications
* Peierls, Rudolf. Model-making in physics, Contemporary Physics, Volume 21 (1), January 1980, 3-17
* Korotayev A., Malkov A., Khaltourina D. ( 2006 ). *Introduction to Social Macrodynamics: Compact Macromodels of the World System Growth*. Moscow : Editorial URSS. 

## Other websites 
;General reference material
* McLaughlin, Michael P. ( 1999 )
* Plus teacher and student package: Mathematical Modelling. Brings together all articles on mathematical modeling from *Plus*, the online mathematics magazine produced by the Millennium Mathematics Project at the University of Cambridge.

;Philosophical background
* Frigg, R. and S. Hartmann, Models in Science, in: The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, (Spring 2006 Edition)
* Griffiths, E. C. (2010) What is a model? 

## References
2011 England riots

s put out a shop and flats destroyed by fire during the rioting in Tottenham, London]]
Rioting took place in several English cities, and towns, between 6 and 10 August 2011. Looting and arson also took place at this time. The riots started when a demonstration took place, on 6 August, about the police's shooting of Mark Duggan in Tottenham, North London. It turned into a riot. Over the next few days, the riots spread to other places in London and then to other areas of England. The riots caused five deaths. 186 police officers were hurt. The University of Nottingham found that British people became more racist after the riots. 

## Shooting of Mark Duggan
On 4 August, a police officer shot and killed 29-year-old Mark Duggan during a traffic stop on the Ferry Lane bridge next to Tottenham Hale station. Friends and relatives of Duggan said that he was unarmed, but he was carrying a gun which a man was convicted of supplying to him.

## Causes
On 12 August, historian David Starkey blamed black gangster culture. He said that "whites have become black". Max Hastings of the *Daily Mail* blamed a culture of welfare dependence.

## References
Izu Province

was an old province of Japan in the area of Shizuoka Prefecture on the island of on Honshū. It was also known as . 

Izu had borders with Sagami and Suruga Provinces.  

## History
During the Edo period, the Tōkaidō road passed through northern Izu. Travelers from Edo to Kyoto stopped at the post town (*shuku-eki*) at Mishima. 

In the 1850s, Shimoda was opened to American trade.  The first American Consulate in Japan was opened at the temple of Gyokusen-ji in Shimoda. 

In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures.  The maps of Japan and Izu Province were reformed in the 1870s. 

The Izu Peninsula is today the eastern portion of Shizuoka Prefecture. The Izu Islands are considered part of Tokyo.

## Shrines and Temples
*Mishima taisha* was the chief Shinto shrine (*ichinomiya*) of Izu.  

## Related pages
* Provinces of Japan
* Prefectures of Japan
* List of regions of Japan
* List of islands of Japan

## References
## Other websites 
* Murdoch's map of provinces, 1903
Apuleius

**Apuleius** was a philosopher and rhetorician tried for using magic to win an older and richer bride. He's better known for his novel about the cult of Isis, the tale of Cupid and Psyche, and the adventures of its hero, Lucius.

Apuleius was born in about 125, in Madauros, Numidia. It is not known what his first name was, although writers in the Middle Ages often called him "Lucius Apuleius" because the hero of his novel was called Lucius. Apuleius was educated in Carthage and Athens, and then traveled around the Mediterranean learning about religious cults. In 158 he delivered a speech recorded as *Apologia Apuleii* 'The Apology of Apuleius' in the town of Sabratha, Tripolitania (modern Libya), as a defense against the charge of using magic to win a richer and older bride called Pudentilla. Apuleius, in his Apology, provides a glimpse into second century Roman law, the economic and social conditions of Roman North Africa, and the attitude towards magic.

Apuleius died in about 175 A.D., having written his novel, known as either *The Golden Ass* or *The Metamorphoses* (also Transformations of Lucius), and the Apology, as well as books on Plato, Socrates, and Aristotle.

## References
## Other websites 
*Apuleius (123–180 CE) the Famous Berber writer 
*Apulei Opera (Latin texts of all the surviving works of Apuleius) at The Latin Library
*English translation of *Florida* by H. E. Butler (PDF)
*English translation of the *Apologia* by H. E. Butler 
*English translation of the *God of Socrates* by Thomas Taylor 
*English translation of the *Apologia* by H. E. Butler (PDF)
*Apuleius – Apologia: Seminar  (Latin text of the *Apologia* with H. E. Butler's English translation and an English crib with discussion and commentary)
**Apology as Prosecution: The Trial of Apuleius*
* Apuleius' works: text, concordances and frequency list
*
Hitachi Province

) with Hitachi Province highlighted.]]
 was an old province of Japan  in the area of Ibaraki Prefecture on the island of Honshū. It was sometimes called . 

The province had borders with Iwashiro, Iwaki, Shimōsa, and Shimotsuke Provinces.

The ancient capital city of the province was near Ishioka.

## History
, 1830]]
In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures.  The maps of Japan and Hitachi Province were reformed in the 1870s.

## Shrines and Temples
*Kashima jinjū* was the chief Shinto shrine (*ichinomiya*) of Hitachi.  

## Related pages
* Provinces of Japan
* Prefectures of Japan
* List of regions of Japan
* List of islands of Japan

## References
## Other websites 
* Murdoch's map of provinces, 1903
Kai Province

, also known as , is an old province in Japan in the area of Yamanashi Prefecture on the island of Honshū.

## History
, 1853]]
, 1830]]
During the Sengoku period, the warlord Takeda Shingen ruled Kai from his stronghold at Kōfu. After the Takeda, the area was controlled by the Tokugawa clan.

The area was briefly renamed Kōfu Prefecture; and it was renamed Yamanashi Prefecture in 1871.

## Related pages
* Provinces of Japan
* Prefectures of Japan
* List of regions of Japan
* List of islands of Japan

## References
## Other websites 
* Murdoch's map of provinces, 1903
Billy Connolly

**Sir William "Billy" Connolly** CBE (born 24 November 1942) is a Scottish actor, comedian and  musician. Sometimes, he is known as *The Big Yin* (*The Big One* in Scottish).

## Early and personal life 
Connolly was born at home in Anderston, Glasgow. He grew up in a tenement in the same inner-city area. Connolly has five children. He is married to Pamela Stephenson, the mother of his three youngest children. 

In 2013, he was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease and had surgery for prostate cancer. In January 2019, Connolly said he was "nearing the end of his life" as his Parkinson's advanced.

## Career 
Connolly has acted in many movies including: *Indecent Proposal* (1993), *Mrs. Brown* (1997), *The Boondock Saints* (1999), *The Debt Collector* (1999), *The Man Who Sued God* (2001), *The Last Samurai* (2003) and ''Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events* (2004). He provided his voice for the movies *Open Season* (2006) and *Brave'' (2012). 

Connolly has been repeatedly voted Britain's best comedian by television viewers. He is also a folk musician and television presenter. 

Connolly was nominated for a BAFTA award for his role in the movie Mrs. Brown. He was given a CBE in 2003.

## References
## Other websites
*Official website
Rafinha Bastos

**Rafael Bastos Hocsman**, better known by his stage name **Rafinha Bastos** (born December 5, 1976 in Porto Alegre, Brazil) is a Brazilian comedian, journalist and television personality.

## References 
## Other websites
* Official Site  (In Portuguese)
*
Matt Lucas

**Matthew Richard Lucas** (born 5 March 1974) is a British actor, comedian and writer. He is best known for *Little Britain*, a comedy sketch programme he and David Walliams wrote and performed.

## Life
Lucas was born and raised in London. He is from a Jewish family and is openly gay. He has alopecia.

On 16 June 2022, he appeared on the BBC television programme *Who Do You Think You Are?* and discovered that many of his grandmother's cousins had been killed in the Holocaust. In Amsterdam in 1942, his grandmother's cousin Werner Goldschmidt rented a room from Anne Frank's father, Otto Frank. He was living with them just before the family went into hiding.

## References 
## Other websites 
*
Wendy Richard

**Wendy Richard** born Wendy Emerton, (20 July 1943 – 26 February 2009) was a British actress. She is best known for her roles as Miss Brahms in *Are You Being Served?* and as Pauline Fowler in *EastEnders*.

She was born in Middlesbrough, North Riding of Yorkshire. She lived in London for most of her life. She died of metastatic breast cancer there.

## References
## Other websites
*
Alasdair MacIntyre

**Alasdair Chalmers MacIntyre** (12 January 1929 &ndash; 21 May 2025) was a Scottish philosopher. He was best known for work on moral and political philosophy. He was also known for his work in history of philosophy and theology. He was Senior Research Fellow at the Centre for Contemporary Aristotelian Studies in Ethics and Politics (CASEP) at London Metropolitan University, and an Emeritus Professor of Philosophy at the University of Notre Dame. He was born in Glasgow, Scotland.

MacIntyre died on 21 May 2025 in South Bend, Indiana at the age of 96.

## Works 
* *After Virtue* (1981)
* *Whose Justice? Which Rationality?* (1988)
* *Three Rival Versions of Moral Inquiry* (1990)
* *Dependent Rational Animals* (1999)

## References
Palace of Culture and Science

The **Palace of Culture and Science** is the second-tallest building in Poland. It is in Warsaw. It is 237 metres high.

An agreement about the building was signed between the governments of the Polish People's Republic and the Soviet Union on 5 April 1952. The tower was an imposed and unwanted "gift" to the people of Poland. It was erected with great propagandist fanfare and named after Joseph Stalin upon its completion in 1955. Stalin's name was later removed from the colonnade, interior lobby and one of the building's sculptures.

To decide on the height of the building, Soviet and Polish architects gathered in the area of the Śląsko-Dąbrowski Bridge on the east bank of the Vistula river. Over the site of the future skyscraper flew a small plane pulling a balloon behind it. The group standing near the bridge had radio contact with the pilot of the plane. First, the balloon flew at an altitude of , then higher at  and . The Soviets, led by Lev Rudnev, decided that  was enough for the highest point of the city. The Poles, led by the plenipotentiary for the construction of the building and chief architect of Warsaw, Józef Sigalin, began to shout "Higher!" after every  of balloon height increase. Finally, the tower was set at a height of , with a  main structure, a  turret and a  spire.

In 2024 it is used as an exhibition centre and office complex. There is a multiplex cinema with eight screens, four theatres , the Museum of Evolution and  the Museum of Technology, offices, bookshops, a large swimming pool, an auditorium hall for 3,000 people called Congress Hall, and a university, Collegium Civitas, on the 11th and 12th floors of the building. The terrace on the 30th floor, at , is a well-known tourist attraction with a panoramic view of the city. The Warsaw City Council and city offices are located in the building. 

## Related pages 
* Parade Square

## References
Destroy Rebuild Until God Shows

**Destroy Rebuild Until God Shows** (also known as **D.R.U.G.S.**) is an American post-hardcore band. They formed in 2010. D.R.U.G.S released their debut self-titled album on February 22, 2011. It was met with generally positive reviews. AbsolutePunk gave the album a 78%.

## Self-titled debut album D.R.U.G.S 
On November 11, 2010, Destroy Rebuild Until God Shows released their first song, "If You Think This Song Is About You, It Probably Is." On December 6, 2010, they released their second song, "Mr. Owl Ate My Metal Worm." This was followed by "Sex Life", released on January 18, 2011, which is the first single from the album. The album sold 14,000+ copies and peaked at #29 on the Billboard 200. Since then, it has hit #1 on Billboards Hard Rock charts.

### Track listing
## References
Denise Welch

**Jacqueline Denise Welch** (born 22 May 1958) is an English actress, television personality, writer and broadcaster. She is most famous for portraying the roles of Natalie Barnes in the ITV soap opera *Coronation Street* (1997–2000), and Steph Haydock in the BBC school-based drama series *Waterloo Road* (2006–2010, 2026–present). Welch is also known for her appearances as a regular panellist on the ITV chat show *Loose Women* (2000–2002, 2005–2013, 2018–present). From 2021 to 2022, she portrayed Trish Minniver in the Channel 4 soap opera *Hollyoaks*.

Welch's other acting roles include the television dramas *Spender* (1991–1993), *Soldier Soldier* (1993–1995), and *Down to Earth* (2004–2005). In 2011, she was a contestant on the sixth series of *Dancing on Ice*, where she was partnered with professional skater Matt Evers and in 2012, she won the ninth series of *Celebrity Big Brother*. 

## Personal life
Welch was born in Tynemouth, Northumberland and currently lives in Cheshire.

Welch confessed that her marriage was nearly ruined because of her mental illness, as well as an affair she had during her depression. In April 2010, her 320-page autobiography *Pulling Myself Together* was published, in which she describes how she overcame her problems with alcohol, drugs and depression. It became a best-seller in the UK.

## References
## Other websites
*
Georgia Engel

]]
**Georgia Bright Engel** (July 28, 1948 &ndash; April 12, 2019) was an American actress. She was the voice of Bobbie in the *Open Season* franchise.  She was also on *The Mary Tyler Moore Show* and on *Everybody Loves Raymond*.  She had two Emmy nominations for both shows. She was born in Washington, D.C..

She played a good witch in the 2007 recurring role of Esmeralda on the NBC soap opera *Passions*.

Engel died of unknown causes in Princeton, New Jersey on April 12, 2019 at the age of 70.

## References
## Other websites
*
Equal Vision Records

**Equal Vision Records** is a record label based in Albany, New York. The record label focuses in metal or punk-based rock genres. Equal Vision Records was founded in the early 1990s by Ray Cappo. In July 2009, Equal Vision Records made a sub-label named "Mantralogy." This sub-label will feature bands that "deliver edgy, Krishna-conscious music."

## References
## Other website
*
Kazusa Province

) with Kazusa Province highlighted]]

 was an old province of Japan in the area of Chiba Prefecture on the island of Honshū.  It was also known as  or . 

The ancient capital city of the province was in or near Ichihara, Chiba.

## History
, 1823]]
Kazusa was originally part of a larger territory known as , which was divided into Kazusa Province and Shimōsa Province during the reign of Emperor Kōtoku (645-654). Part of Kazusa was made into Awa Province during the reign of Empress Genshō.  

In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures.  The maps of Japan and Kazusa Province were reformed in the 1870s.

## Shrines and Temples
*Tamasaki jinja* was the chief Shinto shrine (*ichinomiya*) of Kazusa.  

## Related pages
* Provinces of Japan
* Prefectures of Japan
* List of regions of Japan
* List of islands of Japan

## References
## Other websites 
* Murdoch's map of provinces, 1903
Jon Favreau

**Jonathan Kolia** "**Jon**" **Favreau** (; born October 19, 1966) is an American movie director, actor, comedian, screenwriter, and voice actor. He appeared in such movies as *Elf* (in which he was also the director) and *Open Season* (but got replaced by Matt Taylor for the rest of the series). He is also known for directing *Iron Man* and *The Jungle Book*.

## References
## Other websites
*
Crispin Glover

**Crispin Hellion Glover** (born April 20, 1964) is an American actor. He has acted in such movies as *Back to the Future*, *Epic Movie* (where he did a parody of the Willy Wonka played by Johnny Depp) and the *Open Season* series as Fifi. 

In the late 1980s, Glover started his company, Volcanic Eruptions. The company publishes his books and also is the production company for his movies, *What Is It?* and *It is Fine. Everything is Fine!*.

Glover has written between 15 and 20 books. He makes the books by reusing old novels and other publications which are in the public domain due to their age. He rearranges text, blacks out certain standing passages, and adds his own prose and sometimes images.

His father is actor Bruce Glover. His mother was Betty Glover who died in 2016.

## Filmography
## References
## Other websites
*
Gary Sinise

**Gary Alan Sinise** (born March 17, 1955) is an American stand-up comedian, actor, director, voice artist, and comedian. He as in the movies *Of Mice and Men*, *Forrest Gump*, *George Wallace*, and *Open Season*. Since 2004, Sinise has starred in CBS's *CSI: NY* as Detective Mac Taylor.

Sinise has won many awards including an Emmy and a Golden Globe Award and was nominated for an Academy Award. He was awarded the Presidential Citizen Medal by George W. Bush for work he did supporting the U.S. Military and supporting Iraqi children.

## Personal life
Sinise has been married to actress Moira Harris since 1981 and they have three children: Sophie Anne (b. 1988), McCanna Anthony (b. 1990), and Ella Jane (b. 1992).

## Filmography
## References
## Other websites
*
Gemma Arterton

**Gemma Christina Arterton** (born 12 January 1986) is a British actress. She was born and raised in Gravesend, Kent and lives in London.
## Background
Gemma was born on 1986 and studied at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art. She starred in St Trinian's, was a Bond girl in Quantum of Solace and played the title character in Tamara Drewe. She co-starred with Justin Timberlake in the 2013 film Runner Runner.

She was nominated for the Orange Rising Star Award in 2011.

## References 
## Other websites 
*
Paedophryne

***Paedophryne*** is a genus of microhylid frogs from Papua New Guinea. All six species known so far are amongst the smallest frog and vertebrate species.

### Discovery 
The frog species was discovered in August of 2009 by Christopher Austin when exploring Papua New Guinea. The frog mainly lives on land. According to its discoverers, the life cycle of the frog does not include a tadpole stage.

## References
Travis Lane Stork

**Travis Lane Stork, MD** (born March 9, 1972, in Fort Collins, Colorado) is an American emergency physician and television personality. He is best known for being *The Bachelor*, and as the host of the syndicated daytime talk show, *The Doctors*.

## Medical career
Stork graduated *magna cum laude* from Duke University, and earned his M.D. from the University of Virginia. He completed his emergency medicine residency at Vanderbilt University Medical Center in Nashville, Tennessee. Before returning to Vanderbilt as a faculty physician, he worked as an attending physician in a private hospital system in Colorado. Dr. Stork currently splits his time between Nashville and Los Angeles, where he hosts the syndicated television show "The Doctors".

## *The Bachelor*
While Stork was finishing his residency program, he met the producers of *The Bachelor* by chance. They invited him to interview for the show. In 2006, Stork was the bachelor during season 8 of *The Bachelor.* During the season finale of the show, Stork chose school teacher, Sarah Stone, who coincidentally lived only a few blocks away from his residence. He proposed a relationship instead of marriage. After the series ended, they broke up. In May 2011 Travis got engaged to his girlfriend of two years, Dr. Charlotte Brown, a Nashville native.

## *The Doctors*
In 2007 Stork was selected to serve as the lead host on *The Doctors*, a Los Angeles-based daytime medical/talk show, produced by Jay McGraw, son of Dr. Phil McGraw, which debuted in September 2008. On the show, Stork heads a panel of three other physicians from different fields (pediatrics, plastic surgery and obstetrics) as they discuss health issues and answer audience questions. The idea came about from a series of *Dr. Phil* show segments. Stork has been a frequent contributor on *Dr. Phil*.
## Books
*
*
*

## References
## Other websites 
*
Hyundai Motor Company

**Hyundai Motor Company**  (Hangul : 현대 자동차 주식회사; Hanj : 現代自動車株式會社; , *Hyŏndae*, ) is a Korean car company. It is based in Seoul, South Korea. Along with Kia, it makes up the Hyundai Kia Automotive Group. The group is the world's fourth-largest maker of cars as of 2009.  As of 2011, it is the world's fastest growing automaker for two years in a row. In 2008, Hyundai (without Kia) ranked as the eighth-largest automaker. In 2010, Hyundai sold over 3.6&nbsp;million vehicles worldwide. In 2015 Hyundai announced it would spin off its Genesis car as a separate luxury brand, that will compete with other luxury brands like Buick, Lexus, Acura etc. 

## Passenger vehicles 
### Current models 
### Former models 
## Commercial vehicles 
### Current models 
### Former models 
## References
## Other websites
*
Mino Province

) with Mino Province highlighted]]

, one of the List of Provinces of Japan, encompassed part of modern-day Gifu Prefecture on the island of Honshū. It was sometimes called . 

Mino had borders with Echizen, Hida, Ise, Mikawa, Ōmi, Owari, and Shinano Provinces.

The ancient capital city of the province was near Tarui. The main castle town was at Gifu.

## History
, 1856]]
In 713, the road crossing through Mino and Shinano provinces was widened to accommodate increasing numbers of travelers.

In 1600, the Battle of Sekigahara took place at the western edge of Mino, near the mountains between the Chūbu region and the Kinki region.

In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures.  The maps of Japan and Mino Province were reformed in the 1870s.

## Shrines and Temples
*Shitori jinja* was the chief Shinto shrine (*ichinomiya*) of Mino.  

## Related pages
* Provinces of Japan
* Prefectures of Japan
* List of regions of Japan
* List of islands of Japan

## References
## Other websites 
* Murdoch's map of provinces, 1903
Kia Corporation

**Kia Corporation** formerly known as **Kia Motors**, (, ), (stylized as **KИ** or **ΚΙΛ**), is a car company. The headquarters are in Seoul, South Korea. It is the second-largest automobile manufacturer in that country, after Hyundai Motor Company. Kia sold of over 1.4&nbsp;million vehicles in 2010. The company is partly owned by the Hyundai Motor Group. Hyoung-Keun (Hank) Lee has been president since August 2009.

The word *Kia* comes from Korean words meaning "to arise from Asia to the world". 1944

## Passenger vehicles 
### Current models 
### Former models 
## Commercial vehicles 
## References
*
Cody Cameron

**Cody Cameron** (born October 12, 1970) is an American voice actor, writer, animator, director, artist, and screenwriter. He is the voice of many characters; this includes Pinocchio and the Three Little Pigs in the *Shrek* series and Mr. Weenie in the *Open Season* series.

## Career
Cameron first started his career at DreamWorks Animation and wrote dialogue and storyboarding for the *Shrek* movies, *Shark Tale*, and the 2005 *Madagascar* movie.

In 2004, he decided to leave DreamWorks to join a brand new job at Sony Pictures Animation, where he worked as an actor in the *Open Season* series as Mr. Weenie, directed *Open Season 3* and *The ChubbChubbs Save Xmas* (in which he also co-wrote), and worked as a story artist on ''Surf's Up* and the *Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs'' movies.

## Filmography
## Television
## References
## Other websites
*
Fred Stoller

**Frederick "Fred" Stoller** (born March 19, 1958) is an American stand-up comedian, actor, voice artist and writer. He is best known for recurring role on *Everyone Loves Raymond*. He has been in many movies  such as the *Open Season* franchise and *Austin Powers in Goldmember*. Stoller has been very active as a guest star on many  Television series. He has been on *Wizards of Waverly Place*, *Hannah Montana*, *Dharma & Greg*, *Seinfeld*, and *Scrubs* as well as many others. He wrote two episodes of *Seinfeld*.

## Other websites
* Official Website 
*
Kōzuke Province

) with Kōzuke Province highlighted]]

 was an old province of Japan in the area of Gunma Prefecture on the island of Honshū. It is also known as  or .

The ancient capital city of the province was near Maebashi. 

## History
, 1856]]
In the Nara period, Kōzuke was part of Keno Province.  This was changed in the reforms of the Taihō Code in 701.

In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures.  The maps of Japan and Kōzuke Province were reformed in the 1870s.

## Shrines and Temples
*Ichinomiyanukisaki jinja* was the chief Shinto shrine (*ichinomiya*) of Kōzuke.  

## Related pages
* Provinces of Japan
* Prefectures of Japan
* List of regions of Japan
* List of islands of Japan

## References
## Other websites
* Murdoch's map of provinces, 1903
Ryūkyū Domain

was a domain of Japan in the area of Okinawa Prefecture at the Pacific edge of the East China Sea.

## History
In 1609, Japanese forces invaded the Ryūkyū Kingdom.  After this, the Ryukyuan kings were forced to pay annual tribute to the Shimazu clan of Satsuma Province.

After the Meiji Restoration, the kingdom was replaced by the Ryūkyū Domain which existed from 1872 through 1879.

In 1879, Okinawa Prefecture was established.

## Shrines and Temples
*Naminoue Shrine* was the chief Shinto shrine (*ichinomiya*) of the Ryukyu Islands.  In 1890, the shrine was  in the system of State Shinto.  It is among the ranked, nationally significant shrines or  which includes five sanctuaries.

## Related pages
* Provinces of Japan
* Prefectures of Japan
* List of regions of Japan
* List of islands of Japan

## References
## Other websites 
* Murdoch's map of provinces, 1903
Michelle Murdocca

**Michelle Murdocca** (born September 20, 1963) is an American actress, producer, voice artist, and comedienne. She is the voice of Maria in the *Open Season* series.  She produced the 2012 movie series *Hotel Transylvania*.

## References
## Other websites
*
Brad Womack

**Stephen Bradley Womack** (born November 10, 1972 in Atlanta, Georgia) is an American entrepreneur. He is the co-owner of Austin, Texas bars Dizzy Rooster and Chugging Monkey. Brad has an identical twin brother named Chad. He is best known to the American television audience as the bachelor of the eleventh season of the reality dating show *The Bachelor*  in which he became the first Bachelor not to choose either of the two finalists.  In 2011, Womack returned for a second turn as *The Bachelor*.

## References
## Other websites
*ABC Brad Womack bio 
*Brad Womack pictures and bio
Jeff Cardoni

**Jeffrey E. "Jeff" Cardoni** (born January 1972) is an American composer. He can play many different instruments. He studied classical piano before playing drums and guitar in many bands. He was in the rock band Alien Crime Syndicate for a short time. After  James M. Coughlin High School, Cardoni studied engineering at Pennsylvania State University between 1988 and 1991.

He is best known for his work on television projects such as *CSI: Miami*, *The Defenders*, *The League*, and movie scores, such as *Just Friends*, *Firehouse Dog*, *Miss March*, *Open Season 3* and *Harold & Kumar Escape from Guantanamo Bay*. Cardoni performed the music for *Open Season 3*.

## Early life
Cardoni was born in January 1970.

## References
## Other websites
*
Diedrich Bader

**Karl Diedrich Bader** (born December 24, 1966), better known as **Diedrich Bader**, is an American actor, comedian, and voice actor.

Many know him for his roles as the self-defense instructor Rex from *Napoleon Dynamite*, Oswald Harvey from *The Drew Carey Show*, Charlie Davies from *Outsourced * and his voice portrayal of Batman on *Batman: The Brave and the Bold*.  Bader is also well remembered in his voice roles as the android Zeta in the *Batman Beyond* spinoff, *The Zeta Project*, Warp Darkmatter in *Buzz Lightyear of Star Command*, the Fiskerton Phantom in *The Secret Saturdays*, and his recurring role as Hoss Delgado in *The Grim Adventures of Billy and Mandy*.

## References
Iwaki Province (718)

was an old province in the area that is today Fukushima Prefecture and Miyagi Prefecture on the island of Honshū.  The history of the province started in 718 and ended between 722 and 724.

## History
Iwaki Province was created during the reign of Empress Genshō.

## Related pages
* Iwaki Province (1868)
* Provinces of Japan
* Prefectures of Japan
* List of regions of Japan
* List of islands of Japan

## References
## Other websites 
* Murdoch's map of provinces, 1903
Iwaki Province (1868)

was an old province of Japan in the area that is today Fukushima Prefecture on the island of Honshū.  It was sometimes called .  The history of the province started in 1868 and ended in 1869.

## History
During the Edo period and early Meiji period, the Date clan were daimyo in the area. 

## Related pages
* Iwaki Province (718)
* Provinces of Japan
* Prefectures of Japan
* List of regions of Japan
* List of islands of Japan

## References
## Other websites 
* Murdoch's map of provinces, 1903
United Kingdom parliamentary expenses scandal

]]
The **United Kingdom parliamentary expenses scandal** was a major political scandal in the United Kingdom. It was caused by leaked expense claims made by members of the United Kingdom Parliament over several years. *The Daily Telegraph* leaked the claims in 2009. The claims showed that MPs had misused the expenses system to gain money. This made the British public very angry. The scandal made lots of MPs leave or be sacked, and it made them apologise and pay money back. Some people were prosecuted and put in prison.
Tane Province

was an island province of Japan in the area of Kagoshima Prefecture on the island of Kyūshū. The history of the province started in 674 and ended in 824.

## History
Kofun burial mounds are found on Tanegashima. Two very old Shinto shrines on Yakushima suggest that these islands were the southern border of the Yamato state.

Annals of the Nara period regard Tane-no-kuni as the name for all the Ryukyu Islands, including Tanegashima and Yakushima. 

### Timeline
* **674** {*Temmu 2*): Ambassadors of *Tane no kuni* were received in the Japanese court.
 
* **702** (*Taihō 2*):  The *Shoku Nihongi* records,  "Satsuma and Tane broke the relation and disobey to the king's order. So (the government) sent an army, conquered them, counted the population, and placed the officials."

* **824** (*Tenchō 1*): Tane was made part of Ōsumi Province.

## Related pages
* Provinces of Japan
* Prefectures of Japan
* List of regions of Japan
* List of islands of Japan

## References
## Other websites 
* Murdoch's map of provinces, 1903
Patrick Warburton

**Patrick John Warburton** (born November 14, 1964) is an American actor and voice artist. He has been in many movies such as the ''Emperor's New Groove* series, the *Space Chimps* movies, the *Open Season* franchise and the *Buzz on Maggie* series. He was on *Family Guy*. He played Jeff Bingham in *Rules of Engagement''.

## Filmography
### Film
### Television
### Video games
### Web
## References
Kevin Michael Richardson

**Kevin Michael Richardson ** (born October 25, 1964) is an American actor, producer, writer and voice artist.

## Filmography
## Personal life 
Richardson married his wife Monica in May 2006. They have two children.

## References
## Other websites
* 
*
Gordon Tootoosis

**Gordon Tootoosis** (born October 25, 1941&nbsp;– July 5, 2011) was a Canadian actor, voice artist, and comedian. He was of Cree and Stoney descent. Tootoosis was a descendant of Yellow Mud Blanket, brother of the famous Cree leader Pitikwahanapiwiyin. In *Open Season* (2006), he voiced Sheriff Gordy. He played the same role in ''Boog and Elliot's Midnight Bun Run'' (2006). In July 2011, he died in the hospital from pneumonia, aged 69.

## References
Craig Owens

**Craigery Michael "Craig" Owens** (b. August 26, 1984) is an American musician from Davison, Michigan. He is best known as the former lead vocalist of Chiodos. He has had many side projects such as Cinematic Sunrise, and the supergroup Isles & Glaciers. He is currently lead vocalist for the supergroup Destroy Rebuild Until God Shows.

## Biography
On July 20, 2008, Owens tried to kill himself by overdosing a drug called Xanax. Owens said he had been suffering from depression, bipolar disorder, and anxiety. Owens also said he did not suffer any permanent damage from the incident.

On December 15, 2008, a new side project was announced and was to be called Isles & Glaciers. It would include Owens, Jonny Craig (from Dance Gavin Dance and Emarosa), Vic Fuentes, Nick Martin, Matt Goddard (from Chiodos), Brian Southall, and Mike Fuentes. Owens is also often featured as a guest vocalist. Florida post-hardcore band, Broadway, had Craig Owens and Jonny Craig as guest vocalists on their debut album *Kingdoms*, which was released July 7, 2009. Owens was also featured in the song "The Road to Hell Is Paved With Good Intentions" for the band In Fear and Faith.

## References
## Other websites
*Official Website 
*
Canada lynx

The **Canada lynx** is a species of lynx which lives on the taiga. It is about twice the size of a domestic cat. 

It eats mice, ground squirrels, lemming and young deer. The lynx's favorite food is the snowshoe hare, which makes up 60% to 97% of its diet. 

This wild animal is not endangered (except in the southern 48 states of the US). It is of "least concern" (IUCN). Humans hunt them for their beautiful, thick fur. 

It has tufts on its ears whose function is probably social signalling.

## References
Douglas J. Mink

**D. Jessica Mink** is an American software developer and a data archivist at the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics. She was part of the team that discovered the rings around the planet Uranus.

Mink was born in Elgin, Illinois in 1951. She graduated from Dundee Community High School in 1969. Mink earned an S.B. degree (1973) and an S.M. degree (1974) in Planetary Science from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

## References
Felicity Kendal

**Felicity Ann Kendal** CBE (born 25 September 1946) is a British actress. She was born in Olton, Warwickshire. She is best known for her role in sitcom *The Good Life*. She was a contestant in the 2010 series of *Strictly Come Dancing*.

## Awards
*1976 – Most Promising Newcomer - Variety Club
*1979 – Best Actress - Variety Club
*1980 – Clarence Derwent Award
*1981 - Rear of the Year 
*1984 – Woman of the Year - Best Actress - Variety Club
*1989 – Best Actress - Evening Standard Theatre Awards

## Publication
**White Cargo* (memoirs) - 1998

## References
## Other websites 
*
Determinism

In philosophy, **determinism** is the thesis that there are conditions that make future events happen the way they happen. Today, the term is mostly used in natural philosophy: there are natural laws and causality that govern certain aspects of nature. Some of those laws are not probabilistic, they apply all the time. The opposite position to this idea is called indeterminism. If there are really conditions that cause future events to be uniquely determined in advance, this will cause problems supporting the idea that there is free will.  Other ideas that need the thesis of determinism are called fatalism and predestination.

## Famous people who supported the idea
*Alfred Jules Ayer (1910–1989)
*Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860)
*Georg Büchner (1813–1837)
*Albert Einstein (1879–1955)
*Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)
*Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679)
*Paul Thiry d'Holbach (1723–1789)
*David Hume (1711–1776)
*William James (1842–1910)
*Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749–1827)
*John Locke (1632–1704)
*Marshall McLuhan (1911–1980)
*Julien Offray de La Mettrie (1709–1751)
*John Stuart Mill (1806–1873)
*Max Planck (1858–1947)
*Baruch de Spinoza (1632–1677)

## Related pages
*Deterministic algorithm
*Deterministic chaos
*Deterministic system
*Cultural determinism
Keno Province

, also known as **Kenu**, was a very old province of Japan before the Nara period. Keno was in the area of Tochigi Prefecture and Gunma Prefecture.

## History
Kōzuke Province and Shimotsuke Province were known as Keno before the reforms of the Taihō Code in the early 8th century.

## Related pages
* Provinces of Japan
* Prefectures of Japan
* List of regions of Japan
* List of islands of Japan

## References
## Other websites 
* Murdoch's map of provinces, 1903
U.S. National Geodetic Survey

**National Geodetic Survey**, formerly called the **U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey** (U.S.C.G.S.), is a United States federal agency that defines and manages a national coordinate system. It measures the land and then draws maps. It also measures magnetic fields and tides. Congress started it in 1807 to draw maps of the coasts. It helps transportation and communication; mapping and charting; and many science and engineering uses. Since 1970, it has been part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), of the United States Department of Commerce.
## References
## Other websites
*National Geodetic Survey website
**early history of the Coast Survey 
**NOAA Office of Coast Survey
**U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Annual Reports, years 1837–1965
*Timeline  at Arlington National Cemetery website
*Explanation of survey monuments
*1858 map: *Preliminary chart of entrance to Brazos River* hosted by the Portal to Texas History.
*1853 map: *Preliminary chart of San Luis Pass, Texas* hosted by the Portal to Texas History.
*1854 map: *Preliminary survey of the entrance to the Rio Grande, Texas* hosted by the Portal to Texas History.
Battle of Arras (1917)

The **Battle of Arras** was a battle of the First World War. The battle was a British attack on the German defences near the French city of Arras on the Western Front. The battle started on 9 April 1917. The British Empire troops went quite far forward but they did not achieve a breakthrough. For the amount of ground gained, the British also lost many soldiers. The battle ended on 16 May 1917 and there was a stalemate.
Amish friendship bread

cinnamon bread, fresh out of the oven]]

**Amish friendship bread** is a type of bread or cake made from a sourdough starter that is often shared in a manner similar to a chain letter.  The starter is a replacement for baking yeast. It can be used to make many kinds of yeast-based breads, shared with friends, or frozen for future use.  The sweet, cake-like **Amish cinnamon bread** is a common bread that is made from this starter. It is a simple, stirred quickbread. It includes a large amount of sugar and vegetable oil, with a mild cinnamon flavor.  It has  of both pound cake and coffee cake. The flavor of the finished product can be changed by not using cinnamon.

A common recipe using this starter uses one cup (240 ml) of it to make bread. A second cup is saved to start a new cycle. The remaining two cups are given to friends.  The process of sharing the starter makes it somewhat like a chain letter.  One cup of starter makes one standard loaf of bread.

It can also be called German friendship cake, or "Herman" the German friendship cake.

The starter mix can be made from a recipe of flour, water and yeast. One cup of the mixture is then passed to other people who get instructions on how to keep it alive, usually just saying to give it more ingredients as time passes.
## References
Uzen Province

is an old province of Japan in the area of Yamagata Prefecture on the island of Honshū.  Along with Ugo Province, it was sometimes called .  The history of the province started in 1868 and ended in 1872.

## History
During the Edo period and early Meiji period, the Uesugi clan were daimyo in the area. 

Copper coins were minted in the province in 1861-1863 (*Bunkyu 1-3*).

In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures.  Maps of Japan and Unzen Province were reformed in the 1870s.

## Related pages
* Provinces of Japan
* Prefectures of Japan
* List of regions of Japan
* List of islands of Japan

## Notes
## Other websites 
* Murdoch's map of provinces, 1903
Shimotsuke Province

) with Shimotsuke Province highlighted]]

 is an old province of Japan in the area of Tochigi Prefecture on the island of Honshū. It was sometimes called  or . 

The ancient capital city of the province was near Tochigi.

Tokugawa Ieyasu's tomb and shrine is at Nikkō, in Shimotsuke.

## History
, 1853]]
In the Nara period, Shimotsuke was part of Keno Province.  This was changed in the reforms of the Taihō Code in 701.

Parts of Shimotsuke were held by a several daimyo during the Sengoku period.

### Timeline
* **1150** (*Kyūan 6, 12th month*): Minamoto-no Yoshikane, the head of the Ashikaga clan, was established in Shimotsuke Province.

* **1627** (''Kan'ei 4*): Inaba Masanari took control of Mōka Domain in Shimotsuke.

* **1672** (*Kanbun 12*): Itakura Shigenori was given the fief of Kasuyama Domain in Shimotsuke.

* **1725** (*Kyōhō 10*): A cadet branch of the Ōkubo clan was established in Karasuyama Domain in Shimotsuke, where they stayed until the Meiji Restoration.
 
In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures.  Maps of Japan and Shimotsuke Province were reformed in the 1870s.

## Shrines and Temples
*Futarasan jinja* was the chief Shinto shrine (*ichinomiya'') of Shimotsuke.  

## Related pages
* Provinces of Japan
* Prefectures of Japan
* List of regions of Japan
* List of islands of Japan

## References
## Other websites 
* Murdoch's map of provinces, 1903
Suwa Province

is an old province in the area of Nagano Prefecture on the island of Honshū.  The history of the province started in 721 and ended in 731.

## History
Suwa Province was created during the reign of Empress Genshō. 

According to *Shoku Nihongi*, Suwa only lasted for ten years after it was established in 721.

## Gallery

Image:Suwa Hotspring in Nagano Japan 001.JPG|Geyser in Kamisuwa (上諏訪), Nagano Prefecture

## Related pages
* Provinces of Japan
* Prefectures of Japan
* List of regions of Japan
* List of islands of Japan

## References
## Other websites 
* Murdoch's map of provinces, 1903
Sanriku

is a region of Japan.  It is on the northeastern side of the island of Honshu.  Sanriku combines the area of Aomori, Iwate and parts of Miyagi Prefecture. It was sometimes called .

Sanriku has an irregular coastline with 36 small bays.  Each bay focuses impact power of ocean waves.  This was shown by the damage caused by the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami.

## History
In 1869, the provinces of Mutsu and Dewa were divided. 

Mutsu was split into new five provinces: Rikuōku, Rikuchū, Rikuzen, Iwashiro and Iwaki.  The first three of these collectively known as the "Three Riku", or *Sanriku*. 

The new provinces were abolished in July 1871; however, the regional name is still in use as the Sanriku Coast from Aomori to the Oshika Peninsula in Miyagi.

## Notes
Rikuchū Province

was an old province in the area of Iwate and Akita prefectures on the island of Honshū.  Along with Rikuzen Province and Mutsu Province, it was sometimes called . The history of the province started in 1868 and ended in 1872.

## History
In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures.  Maps of Japan and Rikuchū Province were reformed in the 1870s.

## Gallery

File:10Yen Stanp of Rikuchu Kaigan.JPG|10¥ Stamp showing rocks of Rikuchu at Jodogahama, c. 1955
File:5Yen Stanp of Rikuchu Kaigan.JPG|5¥ Stamp showing shoreline of Rikuchu at Kitayamasaki, c. 1955
File:Jyoudogahama.jpg|Jodogahama beach
File:Kitayamasaki.jpg|Kitayamasaki cliffs

## Related pages
* Provinces of Japan
* Prefectures of Japan
* List of regions of Japan
* List of islands of Japan
* Sanriku

## References
## Other websites 
* Murdoch's map of provinces, 1903
Nature versus nurture

The **nature versus nurture** debate is about the causes of differences between people. The phrase 'nature versus nurture' was suggested by the Victorian polymath Francis Galton. He was influenced by Darwin's *On the Origin of Species*. He investigated the influence of heredity and environment on social advancement.

Galton did not oppose nature to nurture as two alternatives.
## References
Zork II

***Zork II: The Wizard of Frobozz*** is an interactive fiction video game published by Infocom in 1981. It was written by Marc Blank, Dave Lebling, Bruce Daniels and Tim Anderson. It was the second game in the popular *Zork* trilogy. It begins where *Zork I* left off and leads into *Zork III*. It is Infocom's second game.

## Plot
The player starts in the Barrow from *Zork I* armed only with the brass lantern and the elvish sword. The purpose of the game is not initially clear.

The Wizard of Frobozz is soon introduced. The wizard was once a good sorcerer, but when his powers began to go away he was exiled by Lord Dimwit Flathead. Now bordering on insanity, the wizard is a force to be reckoned with. Your goal, as you venture into the wizard's area, is to avoid his tricks and learn to control his magic.

Like its predecessor, *Zork II* is essentially a treasure hunt. Unlike the previous game, the ten treasures are tied together by a crude plot.  Finding the treasures does not end the game, and finding all the treasures is not needed to finish the game. Instead, the adventurer must figure out a way to use the treasures in order to reach the game's finale.

## Other websites 
* View Zork II packaging  and Play Zork II  online at the Gallery of Zork.
*
**Zork II* information and overview 
*Scans of the *Zork II* package, documentation and feelies
*Infocom-if.org's entry for *Zork II*
*The Infocom Bugs List entry for *Zork II*
*The Dot Eaters page  featuring a history of the Zork games and Infocom
* Play *Zork II* online at iFiction.org