open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Bollington

**Bollington** is a town and civil parish in Cheshire. The village is home to over twenty pubs.  Bollington was home to the biggest water wheel in England and only second in Britain to the Laxey wheel in the Isle of Man. The wheel powered huge mills for the production of cotton. Two of the huge mills were the Adelphi and Clarence.

By 1914 Bollington had a population of around 6000 people and was dominated by fine cotton spinning. The symbol of Bollington has to be White Nancy. A small white cone-like house stands alone on top of a hill overlooking all of Bollington. It was built by the Gaskell family early in the nineteenth century. It has now been sealed. 

Sport has been important in the life of Bollington. Even though the village did not have a football team successful enough to rival the cricket team it was still very popular amongst the people of Bollington. The most popular team was St Johns team which was quite successful in the lower leagues. Today there are good teams competing in the amateur leagues such as Bollington United.
Hermione Granger

**Hermione Jean Granger** (born September 19, 1979) is a character from the *Harry Potter* series. She met Harry Potter and Ron Weasley for the first time on the Hogwarts Express. She is referred to as the smartest witch of her age. In the *Harry Potter* movies, the character is played by Emma Watson and she will be played by Arabella Stanton in the upcoming television series *Harry Potter* for the streaming service HBO Max.

## Character 
Hermione is one of Harry Potter's best friends. She knows almost everything in the magical world. She spends a lot of time with Harry and Ron. Her parents are Muggles (not magical), but she is the smartest witch of her class. She was born on September 19, 1979. When she arrived at Hogwarts for the first time, she was almost 12. Because she was born after September 1, she has to wait another year. Her parents are dentists. She is intelligent and her special skill is the ability to remember all that she has read. Because of this, Hermione is successful in her tests. Although she is smart, she also is brave and has street smarts. She cares about house elves. She made the club S.P.E.W., the Society for the Promotion of Elfish Welfare, which Ron mockingly calls "Spew." She made scarfs and garments to free the elves from the slavery of the wizards. But none of the elves took the garments and Dobby (the old house elf of the Malfoy family) gathered them.

She is one of the prefects of Gryffindor with Ron. She has bushy brown hair, dark brown eyes, and huge front teeth, which Draco Malfoy enlarged in her fourth year. It is also noted at the end of *Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows* that she marries Ron, and they have two children together called Hugo Granger-Weasley and Rose Granger-Weasley. In *Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire* she was the dance partner of Viktor Krum. She belongs to Gryffindor house, which is known for bravery. The Sorting Hat thought about putting her in Ravenclaw house, which is known for wisdom, but finally it put her in Gryffindor. Hermione has a pet cat named Crookshanks.

In the first book, Hermione had the personality of a snob and a geek, and she is not very friendly. With time she improves that. Hermione was teased as a Mudblood (a witch or wizard born with no magical parents, also known as an offensive insult to Muggle-born witch or wizard) by many Slytherins, especially Draco Malfoy. Her name refers to ''The Winter's Tale'' by William Shakespeare.

## References
Cytoplasm

The **cytoplasm** (not to be confused with cytosol) is the protoplasm of a cell outside the cell nucleus. It is the jelly-like material plus the organelles outside the nucleus, and inside the cell membrane. 

Many important functions of a cell take place in organelles, which are like bits of machinery for doing many jobs. The cytoplasm is highly structured: it is not liquidy, but more of a gelatinous substance, even though it is made out of 7580% water. 

The cytosol contains a complex mixture of cytoskeleton filaments, including the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus. It includes dissolved molecules, and water that fills much of the cell. Due to this network of fibres, membranes and the many dissolved macromolecules such as proteins, the cytosol does not act like a simple liquid. The main function of the cytoplasm is to hold the organelles in place.
Saladin

**Salah ad-Din Yusuf ibn Ayyub** (; 25 December 1138–1193), better known as **Saladin**, was a famous Kurdish Muslim Sultan of Egypt and Syria during the Crusades. Some later British reports said he was a Turk. 

A Muslim of Kurdish origin, Saladin led the Muslim opposition to the European Crusaders in the Levant. At the height of his power, his sultanate included Egypt, Syria, Mesopotamia, Hejaz, Yemen and other parts of North Africa.

His father, who worked for the Seljuk governor, decided to raise him in Syria where he received his education. Another influential figure in his life was his uncle Shirkuh who was a military leader and later commanded for Saladin during the wars. The Muslim world consider him a hero for defeating the Crusaders over 20 years of battles and capturing their capital, Jerusalem. The Crusades were a series of battles between Christian Europe and Islamic Middle East over holy land in what is now known as Israel and Palestine. Saladin’s army protected Egypt from the Crusaders in 1168, though more of his fighting in Egypt was either for or against the Zengid dynasty.  

The ruler of the Fatimid Caliphate of Egypt made him Vizier, meaning prime minister, even though he was not a Shia. Just before the Caliph died, Saladin was crowned Sultan of Egypt and Syria. His greatest victory was at the Horns of Hattin in July 1187 AD, after which Jerusalem fell to the Muslim army (October 1187) and was never again recovered by the Crusaders. He is also remembered for his series of battles and wins and losses against King Richard I of England. These were inconclusive and in the end resulted in a moral victory for Sultan Salah ad-Din, when Richard's Crusade failed and returned to Europe.

He founded the Ayyubid Sultanate of Egypt, Syria, Yemen (except for the Northern Mountains), Iraq, Mecca Hejaz and Diyarbakır. Salah ad-Din is a title which translates to *The Righteousness of the Faith* from Arabic.

Saladin was very famous among Christians. After the more successful wars of Al-Malik al-Zahir Rukn al-Din Baybars al-Bunduqdari he got less attention among Muslims. Baybars not only defeated the Seventh Crusade of King Louis IX of France; he also defeated the Mongol forces of Hulagu Khan who invaded Syria. However, in the 20th century Saladin became as famous as he was among Westerners.

## References
1889

Football clubs such as Sheffield United FC were founded in the year **1889.**

## Events 
* Brazil becomes a republic
* 100th anniversary of the French Revolution. Paris Exhibition, where the Eiffel tower was first open to the public
* June 14 – the Treaty of Berlin (1889) is signed

## Births 
* April 9 – Efrem Zimbalist, Russian violinist
* September 14 – Maria Esther de Capovilla, Worlds oldest woman (d. 2006)
* Alfonso Reyes
* April 20 – Adolf Hitler
* December 3 - Kshudiram Bose - Indian patriot against British Raj (d. 1908)
1877

## Events 
* Asaph Hall discovers the two moons of Mars.

## Births 
* October 29 – Wilfred Rhodes, English cricketer
* November 9 – Muhammad Iqbal, national poet of Pakistan (d. 1938)
* Khan Sahib Abdul Majid Khan Tarin, OBE, British Indian judge, legislator and philanthropist (d. 1939)
* November 24 – Alben W. Barkley, 35th Vice President of the United States (d. 1956)

## Deaths 
* October 29 – Nathan Bedford Forrest, American Confederate general and founder of the Ku Klux Klan
1860

## Events 
* October 6 – The Introduction of the so-called Section 377 of the British Indian penal code (Law) was enacted on the 6th of October, in **British India** respectively.

## Births 
* January 29 – Anton Chekhov, Russian writer (d. 1904)
* May 29 – Isaac Albéniz, Spanish composer (d. 1909)
* August 13 – Annie Oakley, American sharpshooter (d. 1926)
* December 7 – Joseph Cook, 6th Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1947)
Niagara Falls

**Niagara Falls** is the collective, name of three big waterfalls on the Niagara River in eastern North America, on the border between the United States and Canada. The three waterfalls are: the Horseshoe Falls, sometimes called the Canadian Falls, the American Falls, and the smaller Bridal Veil Falls. The American Falls and the Horseshoe Falls are separated with Goat Island, and the Bridal Veil Falls separated from the other waterfalls with Luna Island. Niagara falls is very well known for both its beauty and hydroelectric power. It has been a tourist attraction, commercial site and hydroelectricity source since the 19th century.

It is located near Niagara Falls, New York in the United States and Niagara Falls, Ontario in Canada.The volume of water approaching the falls during peak flow season may sometimes be as much as 225,000 cubic feet (6,400 m3) per second. The cities of Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada, and Niagara Falls, New York, United States, are connected by two international bridges.

Niagara Falls were formed when glaciers receded at the end of the Wisconsin glaciation (the last ice age). Water from the newly formed Great Lakes carved a path through the Niagara Escarpment en route from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario and the Atlantic Ocean. The Escarpment has hard limestone on top and soft shale below.

Although not very high, Niagara Falls is very wide, and is probably the most popular waterfall in the world. The Horseshoe Falls are the largest out of the three falls. It is named the Horseshoe Falls because it looks like a horse shoe. 

Niagara Falls is a very popular tourist destination and many people visit it on holiday in Canada.

## Gallery

File:Horseshoe Falls from 25th floor of Hilton at Niagara Falls.jpg|Horseshoe Falls from 25th floor of Hilton at Niagara Falls
File:Niagara3573.jpg|Horseshoe Falls
File:Niagra Falls.jpg|niagara falls

## Related pages
* Iguaçu Falls
1831

## Events 
* June 13 – James Clerk Maxwell born in Edinburgh
* October 30 – In Southampton County, Virginia, escaped slave Nat Turner is captured and arrested for leading the bloodiest slave revolt in United States history.
Births

November 19 - James A. Garfield, twentieth President of the United States (b. 1831)

Deaths

July 4 - James Monroe, 73, fifth President of the United States, tuberculosis (b. 1758)
1842

## Art, music, theatre, literature 
* March 26 - August Bournonville's *Napoli* is first performed in Copenhagen by the Royal Danish Ballet

## Births 
* January 11 – William James, American philosopher and psychologist
* September 21 – Abdul Hamid II, 34th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire

## Deaths 
* October 30 – Allan Cunningham, Scottish poet and writer.
Huckleberry

**Huckleberry** is a name used in North America for several plants in two closely related genera in the family *Ericaceae*: *Gaylussacia* and *Vaccinium*. The huckleberry is the state fruit of Idaho.

Some *Vaccinium* species, such as the red huckleberry, are always called huckleberries. Other species may be called blueberries or huckleberries in different locations.

There is much confusion in naming of berries in American English. The 'garden huckleberry' (*Solanum melanocerasum*) is not a true huckleberry but a member of the nightshade family.

The fruit of most species of huckleberry can be eaten. The berries are small and round. They are usually less than 5&nbsp;mm in diameter and contain 10 seeds. Berries range in color from bright red, through dark purple, and into the blues. In taste the berries range from  to sweet. They have a flavor similar to that of a blueberry. Huckleberries are well liked by many mammals such as bears and humans.

## References
Rhubarb

**Rhubarb** is one of about 60 plants in the genus ***Rheum***, family Polygonaceae. The vegetable rhubarb is *Rheum rhabarbarum* (or *Rheum x hybridum*). The leaves are somewhat toxic because they have oxalic acid, but the red stalks are baked in pies, with sugar to soften their tart flavor.

There are many varieties grown for eating. The drug *rheum* is prepared from the rhizomes and roots of another species, *R. officinale* or medicinal rhubarb.
Civilization

**Civilization** (or civilisation) comes from the Latin word *civis* meaning someone who lives in a city. The Romans usually wanted conquered people to live in towns. When people are civilized, they have learned from the wisdom, skill, and knowledge gained over centuries of human progress. The opposite of civilization is sometimes said to be entropy, barbarity, rudeness, or animal-like behavior. 

A civilization is generally an advanced stage of organization. That means it has laws, culture, and a regular way of getting food and protecting the people. Most civilizations have agriculture and a system of government like monarchs or elections. They speak a common language and usually have a religion of some kind. They teach their young the knowledge they need. All civilizations since the Sumerians and the Greeks have had some kind of writing. This is because writing lets people store and build up knowledge. Civilizations also have large cities, large and unique architecture, and complex labor divisions. 

## Examples 
Past societies that would be called more primitive compared to today, are still often referred to as civilizations for their time. The Roman Empire is an example of a past large civilization. It was governed by Rome. This empire once stretched from the Scottish borders to North Africa and the eastern Mediterranean. Their language was Latin.  

Latin remained the preferred way of communication among educated people, long after their civilization had vanished. Some scientists, scholars, and others in Western civilization still use Latin in the course of everyday work, even though the Western Roman civilization fell apart more than 1,500 years ago. The Roman civilization lasted almost 1000 years.

Other examples of civilizations are the Incas and Aztecs. They had large territories with complex cities and social structures. The empires were made of city-states. They had advanced agriculture that could feed many people. They also had complex architecture. 

One way a civilization ends is to become part of another civilization. For example, Ancient Egypt was conquered by foreigners who changed the country. It became part  of Persian, Greek, Roman, and Islamic civilization. Another way is to go back to an earlier, simpler way of life. For example, Roman civilization collapsed in the Dark Ages. When people became more civilized again, it was the Medieval civilization.

## References
Mail

]]

**Mail** is part of the **postal system**. The postal system is a  where written s and small to medium packages are sent (delivered) to places around the world. Anything sent through the postal system is called mail or **post**.

A postal  can be private or public.  Governments often make rules about private postal delivery systems. Since the early 19th century, most national postal systems have been controlled entirely by governments.  The governments make people pay a fee to send something.  This fee is usually in the form of stamps.  Some governments only let private postal services deliver parcel (non-mail) packages.

Postal systems often do things other than sending letters. In some countries, the postal system is also in charge of telephone and telegraph systems. The postal systems in other countries can help people apply for government papers such as passports and driver's licenses. Many places the post offices also work like banks. This is so that people can take out money or pay bills at a nearby post office, instead of travelling to a big bank in the nearest town.

People drop letters in a post box to be collected and delivered by the post office.

## Related pages 
* 
* Clapper Post
* Electronic mail
* Envelope
* Letter (paper)
* Letter box
* Postcard
* Telegram
The Righteous Brothers

The **Righteous Brothers** were an American pop group consisting of two men named Bill Medley and Bobby Hatfield. They formed in California in 1962. Some of their hits include "You've Lost That Lovin' Feelin'" and "Unchained Melody".  Phil Spector produced those songs.

## Albums 
* Right Now (1963)
* Some Blue-Eyed Soul (1964)
* This is New (1965)
* You've Lost That Lovin' Feelin' (1965)
* Just Once in My Life… (1965)
* Back to Back (1965)
* Soul & Inspiration (1966)
* Go Ahead an Cry (1966)
* Sayin' Somethin' (1967)
* Souled Out (1967)
* One for the Road (1968)
* Re-Birth (1969)
* Give it to the People (1974)
* Sons of Mrs Righteous (1975)
* The Righteous Brothers (2016)

## Notes
Hertford

**Hertford** (pronounced *Hart-fud*) is a town in Hertfordshire, England. In 2011, it had a population of 26,783 people.

It is Hertfordshire's county town, but the largest town is Watford.

The town centre is 19.2 miles (30.9 km) north of Central London and 16.7 miles (27.02 km) north east of Watford.

## Transport
### Rail
Hertford is served by two train stations, these are Hertford East and Hertford North.
### Road
The A414 is just south of the town centre and runs to Harlow, Essex. The A10 is just east of the town.

## Twin towns
Hertford is twinned with:
* Évron, France
* Wildeshausen, Germany
* Hartford, Connecticut, U.S.

## Gallery

File:Hertford_East_railway_station_-_geograph.org.uk_-_208092.jpg|Hertford East railway station
File:Hertford_Castle.jpg|Hertford Castle
File:HertfordParlSq.jpg|Parliament Square
Federal Bureau of Investigation

The **Federal Bureau of Investigation** (**FBI**) is an agency of the US government that  crime across the country. It is dedicated to national security and to law enforcement and often fights terrorism.

The **Bureau of Investigation** was founded in 1908 and was renamed the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) in 1935. J. Edgar Hoover was the Director of the Bureau from 1924 to his death, in 1972. Although the FBI works worldwide, its headquarters are in Washington DC. It has 56 main offices in cities throughout the United States.

## Mission and priorities 
The FBI's mission is to protect the US and maintain justice. They do this in many ways:
* They protect the United States from terrorist attacks.
* They protect the United States against foreign intelligence operations and espionage.
* They protect the United States against cyber-based attacks and high-technology crimes like hacking.
* They protect civil rights.
* They combat all national and international criminal organizations.
* They combat major white-collar crime and fraud.
* They combat important violent crime.
* They also support international partners.

## Organization
### Organizational structure
The FBI is organized into es and the Office of the Director. This office contains most  offices. An executive assistant director manages each branch. Each branch is then divided into offices and divisions. Each division is headed by an assistant director. The various divisions are further divided into sub-branches. Each sub-branch is led by deputy assistant directors. Within these sub-branches there are various sections headed by section chiefs. Section chiefs are ranked analogous to special agents in charge.

Four of the branches report to the deputy director while two report to the associate director. The functions branches of the FBI are:
* FBI Intelligence Branch
* FBI National Security Branch
* FBI Criminal, Cyber, Response, and Services Branch
* FBI Science and Technology Branch
* FBI Information and Technology Branch
* FBI Human Resources Branch

## FBI Crisis Negotiation Unit
The FBI Crisis Negotiation Unit (FCNU) is a 24/7 operational response to crisis and to negotiate person(s) who are threatening to commit suicide or other harmful situations after a crime has been committed. The FBI's lead negotiator contacts the person(s) involved, with a hard-wire phone line to communicate with the person(s) to try convincing them to give themselves up to local police who are on stand-by.

## References
1596

## Births 
*March 31 – René Descartes, French philosopher and physicist
*June 29 – Emperor Go-Mizunoo of Japan
*Micheal I of Russia, Russian Tsar

## Deaths 
*January 28 – Sir Francis Drake, English explorer

## Events 
* Warsaw becomes the capital of Poland.
* The Cudel War starts in Finland
Nothofagus

***Nothofagus*** is a kind of plant, also called **southern beech**. It is a tree which can reach 35 m tall. *Nothofagus* is found in South America, New Zealand, Australia and New Guinea.
There are 34 species, considering pollen morphology four sections are recognized, i.e. Brassospora, Fuscospora, Lophozonia, and Nothofagus.
** Nothofagus, Southamerican species;
* Nothofagus Antarctica
* Nothofagus betuloides
* Nothofagus dombeyi
* Nothofagus nitida
* Nothofagus pumilio
** Brassospora, New Guinea and New Caledonia species;
* Nothofagus aequilateralis
* Nothofagus balansae
* Nothofagus baumanniae
* Nothofagus brassii
* Nothofagus carrii
* Nothofagus codonandra
* Nothofagus crenata
* Nothofagus discoidea
* Nothofagus flaviramea
* Nothofagus grandis
* Nothofagus nuda
* Nothofagus perryi
* Nothofagus pseudoresinosa
* Nothofagus pullei
* Nothofagus resinosa
* Nothofagus rubra
* Nothofagus starkenborghii
* Nothofagus stylosa
* Nothofagus womersleyi
** Fuscospora, Southamerican, Australian and in some Oceania Island;
* Nothofagus alessandri
* Nothofagus fusca
* Nothofagus gunnii
* Nothofagus solandri
* Nothofagus truncata

** Lophozonia, in places of Southamerica and Oceania.
* Nothofagus alpina
* Nothofagus cunninghamii
* Nothofagus glauca
* Nothofagus macrocarpa
* Nothofagus menziesii
* Nothofagus moorei
* Nothofagus obliqua
Arnold Schoenberg

**Arnold Schoenberg** (originally written 'Schönberg') (13 September 1874 – 13 July 1951) was an Austrian-born composer. He was known for his twelve-tone system of writing music.

## History
Schoenberg came from a strict Jewish family who had moved to Austria from Hungary. They were quite poor and Schoenberg taught himself about music. When he was grown up he had to do a lot of teaching to try and earn enough money to live. In later life he went to live in the United States. It took a long time before he was recognized world-wide as a great composer. His two most famous pupils were Alban Berg (1885-1935) and Anton Webern (1883-1945). He taught them how to write twelve-tone music and they became famous composers.

When Arnold Schoenberg was a young man he was living in the late 19th century. If you look at the way composers wrote music at this time you will find that their compositions became more and more chromatic. This means that more and more sharps and flats were used during the piece, and the music went from one key to another (modulated) very quickly. Richard Wagner wrote very chromatic music, especially in his opera *Tristan and Isolde*.

### Religion 
In 1898 Schoenberg converted to Christianity in the Lutheran church. According to MacDonald, this was partly to connect with Western European cultural traditions, and partly as a means of self-defence "in a time of resurgent anti-Semitism".

In 1933, after long thought, he returned to Judaism, convert by because he realised that "his racial and religious heritage was inescapable", and to take up an unmistakable position on the side opposing Nazism. He would self-identify as a member of the Jewish religion later in life.

### Early work
Schoenberg’s early works are mostly Late Romantic. His piece *Verklärte Nacht* (which can be played by six string instruments or by a whole orchestra) has very beautiful harmonies which go quickly from one key to another. Gradually Schoenberg’s music changed. It became so chromatic that it was no longer in any key at all. Music like this (called “atonal”) is much harder to understand. His *Five Orchestral Pieces* were played by the conductor Sir Henry Wood at a Promenade Concert in 1912. The audience did not like it at first and took some time to get used to the sound.

### Twelve-tone system
In 1923 Schoenberg developed the twelve-tone system for which he is famous. This is music which is based on a particular row of notes. Twelve-tone music is atonal because there is no feeling of being in any key, because of the equal use of every pitch.

## References
War of the Roses

**War of the Roses** may refer to:

* Wars of the Roses, a civil war in England between the House of York and the House of Lancaster
**The War of the Roses* (movie), a 1989 movie
Full Metal Jacket

***Full Metal Jacket*** is a 1987 British-American war drama movie  directed by Stanley Kubrick. It is based on the Gustav Hasford book *The Short-Timers*. The name of the movie comes from the full-metal jacketed bullets used in the military. The movie follows soldiers who are drafted to fight in the Vietnam War. The story is set in the late 1960s and follows the characters from their time in recruit training and them fighting in the war.

## Other websites 
* *Full Metal Jacket* at the Internet Movie Database (IMDb)
* *Full Metal Jacket* screenplay
Cambridgeshire

**Cambridgeshire** is a county in England. It is located in the East part of the country. The counties around Cambridgeshire are Lincolnshire to the north, Norfolk to the northeast, Suffolk to the east, Essex and Hertfordshire to the south, and Bedfordshire and Northamptonshire to the west. The county town is Cambridge.
English Channel

The **English Channel** is a body of water that separates the island of Great Britain from the rest of Europe. People who live in the UK and want to visit Europe, or people from Europe who want to visit the UK, can take a ferry across or ride a train under the channel in a special tunnel called the Channel Tunnel (nicknamed the *Chunnel*). Both the ferries and trains carry cars. It is 563 km long, 246&nbsp;km wide, and its narrowest part (34&nbsp;km) is the Strait of Dover. On a clear day, it is possible to see the cliffs of Dover from Calais on the French side.

In 1875, Matthew Webb became the first known person to swim the English Channel, crossing it in just under 22 hours. The first woman to do this was Gertrude Ederle. In 2004, over 600 people were recorded making the crossing. The fastest time was achieved by Bulgarian swimmer Peter Stoychev in 2007, who managed it in 7 hours. Recently, officials have outlawed swimming in the **English Channel**.

In France, it is known as *La manche* (The Sleeve).

## Other websites
Upminster

**Upminster** is a suburb in the east London Borough of Havering, England, located 16.5 miles (26.6 km) northeast of Charing Cross. 

It is the eastern end of the London Underground system, on the District line. It is also a station on the c2c railway line, but Oyster cards are valid beyond Upminster station on the Grays via Ockendon route. Nearby places include Hornchurch and Cranham.

Saint Laurence Church in Upminster is where William Derham measured the speed of sound.
Colin Baker

**Colin Baker** (born 8 June 1943) is an English actor. He is most famous as the Sixth Doctor on *Doctor Who* from 1984 to 1986. He has no relation to Tom Baker, who played the fourth incarnation of the Doctor. He also played Paul Merroney in *The Brothers*.

## References
Ancient Greek

**Ancient Greek** was an Indo-European language spoken in Ancient Greece from about 1500 BC to about 300 BC. Ancient Greek and Latin are very important languages. Although they are no longer spoken, they influenced almost all modern European languages.

Greek had many different dialects. Attic Greek was spoken in Athens, the largest city, and in the rest of the region of Attica. It was thought to be the purest form of Greek. Later, in the educated Roman world, children were taught Greek as a second language just as many people now learn English as their second language. **Koine Greek** was the common language of Greeks. It was Attic Greek mixed with several other dialects.

Homer spoke and wrote in an old dialect that was somewhat different from Attic Greek. The *Iliad* and the *Odyssey* are long poems that tell exciting stories about warfare, travel and the Greek gods. In the 5th century BC, some great plays were written by Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides. The Golden Age of Ancient Greece inspired literature that has been read for centuries.

## Attic Greek 
**Attic Greek** was the dialect that was spoken in Athens, the largest city, and in the rest of the region of Attica. It was the dialect that was most similar to later forms of Greek since it was the standard form of the language. It is studied in Ancient-Greek courses because it was the most common dialect.

## Changes 
All languages change with time, and Greek has changed a great deal over 2500 years. Modern Greek is often said to have started in 1453 AD; until then, Medieval Greek was spoken.

Unlike Latin, Ancient Greek did not split into many languages, but it is still considered to be a separate language from Modern Greek. The pronunciation has changed; for instance, the letter beta was pronounced "b" in Ancient Greek but it is pronounced "v" and is called "vita" in Modern Greek. The spelling has not changed much, which gives the appearance of less change than actually happened. Also, many different vowels and diphthongs merged into "i", the vowel sound in the English word "ski". The tonal system of Ancient Greek has disappeared, but Modern Greek has only recently changed its spelling to match that change.

Despite those changes, much of the language has remarkably survived intact through the centuries. A community near Trabzon, Turkey, speaks a dialect that is closer to Ancient Greek than to Standard Modern Greek.
'']]

## Related pages
* Greek alphabet
* Greek language

## References
Boxing

**Boxing** is one of the world's oldest combat sports. It is held in a ring and played by two boxers (people who fight in boxing fights). They wear padded gloves and try to hit one another.

There are different ways to win in boxing. One is by way of a knockout, which is when a fighter is punched and falls to the ground and cannot get back up within ten seconds. Another way is by a technical knockout, which is when the fighter cannot continue fighting thus the referee stops the fight. Technical knockout wins and losses are also knockout wins or losses for a boxer. Another possibility is winning on points, which a boxer gets by outboxing his or her opponent by hitting the opponent more often, harder, and more accurately.

Boxing may end in a "draw", which is like a "tie" in other sports. A referee can announce a technical draw due to an accidental cut or an accidental wound like a headbutt. Generally, it is considered a "no contest" (NC), in which case the fight is considered as not having taken place at all and not counting as a fight. However, after the fourth round, if the scorecards for both fighters are equal, the fight could be called a draw. 

Each round lasts 3 minutes for men and 2 minutes for women.

## Famous boxers 
* Nicolino Locche
* Muhammad Ali 
* Mike Tyson
* Rubin "Hurricane" Carter
* Nonito Donaire
* Jack Dempsey
* George Foreman
* Joe Frazier
* Evander Holyfield
* Lennox Lewis
* Joe Louis
* Rocky Marciano
* Manny Pacquiao
* Willie Pep
* Sugar Ray Robinson
* Max Schmeling
* Floyd Mayweather, Jr.
* Wilfredo Gómez
* Wilfred Benitez
* Sugar Ray Leonard
* Roberto Duran
* Oleksandr Usyk
* Vasiliy Lomachenko
* Tejash Halai

## Related pages 
*Punching bag
1900s

The **1900s** began on January 1, 1900 and ended on December 31, 1909. It is distinct from the decade known as the  which began on January 1, 1901 and ended on December 31, 1910. 

## Events
* 1900-1901 – Boxer Rebellion.
* 1901 – Independence of Australia.
* 1903 – Orville Wright of the Wright brothers flies an airplane at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, in the United States.
* 1904-1905 – Russo-Japanese War.
* 1905 – First Russian Revolution.

## World leaders
* Prime Minister Edmund Barton (Australia)
* Prime Minister Alfred Deakin (Australia)
* Prime Minister Chris Watson (Australia)
* Prime Minister Sir George Reid (Australia)
* President William McKinley (United States)
* President Theodore Roosevelt (United States)
* President William Howard Taft (United States)

* Shahs of Persia (Qajar dynasty)
# Mozzafar-al-Din Shah, 1896–1907
# Mohammad Ali Shah, 1907–1909
# Ahmad Shah Qajar, 1909–1925
Tux Racer

**Tux Racer** is an open-source winter sports racing video game made by Sunspire Studios. The player moves Tux, the Linux Penguin. In the game, Tux goes down a hill on his belly and collects fish. There are many things that slow Tux down. There are also things that may be hard for Tux to get past.

## Controls 
* Turning: Left and Right buttons
* Paddling (makes Tux go faster): Up button
* Braking (makes Tux slow down): Down button
* Jumping: Hold down the "E" button, then let go
* Hard Turn (makes Tux turn when he is moving fast or when you want him to turn a lot): Down and Right or Left buttons at the same time
* Reset (makes Tux Get out when he is stuck): Backspace Button
* Quit (exits the game): "Q" Button

## Updated version 
The developers of Tux Racer have long abandoned making and programing the game. But some programmers took the source code and they call their new version Extreme Tux Racer, it is much newer and has many improvements over the old Tux Racer.

## Other websites 
* Official website
Straight

The word **straight** means something that goes in one direction without s, s, or curves.  

Lines can bend in a curve. If lines do not bend, they are **straight**. For example, the edge of a circle is not straight. The edge of a circle bends in a curve. 

Light bends in a curve in air and water, but travels in a straight line away from the earth or other bodies in outer space where there is no air.
The word "straight" is also a slang term for "heterosexual"
SS Richard Montgomery

s of the ship, seen at the site of the wreck.]]
The '*SS *Richard Montgomery'''* was an American ship built during World War II. *Montgomery* was wrecked off the coast of Sheerness, near Kent, England in 1944 with around 1,400 tonnes of explosives on board, which continue to be a hazard to the area.

## Controversy
*Montgomery* sank in the Thames estuary on August 20, 1944. It was loaded with 15,000 tons of explosive munitions. The Admiralty decided to leave the wreck and its dangerous cargo untouched. The wreck lies just a few hundred yards offshore between an oil refinery and the several towns. Southend-on-Sea is just a couple of miles away on the other side of the Thames estuary. Rumors about the ship and its cargo have spread in these towns ever since. Denials have been issued by ministers in the House of Commons in response to MPs questions about the fact biological, chemical and gas warheads are on board. Nevertheless, rumors continue that the real reason the wreck was not made safe was because of the fact of "dirty weapons" being on board.

## References
## Other websites
* Information on the SS *Richard Montgomery''
Inno e Marcia Pontificale

The "**Pontifical Anthem**" is the national anthem of the Vatican City, a tiny country located inside the city of Rome. It is also known as the "**Papal Anthem**".

## Lyrics 
### The original Italian version
### The Latin version
### The more common Latin version
## References
Northern Mariana Islands

The **Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands**, usually shortened to the **Northern Mariana Islands**, is a group of islands in the Pacific Ocean that are a political division controlled by the United States. Its capital is Saipan.

Spain owned the islands until 1899 and sold them to the German Empire. Germany lost them to Japan in World War I and the United States took them in World War II.

## Geography
The Northern Mariana Islands, together with Guam to the south, compose the Mariana Islands. The southern islands are limestone, with level terraces and fringing coral reefs. The northern islands are volcanic, with active volcanos on Anatahan, Pagan and Agrihan. The volcano on Agrihan has the highest elevation at . 
Anatahan Volcano is a small volcanic island  north of Saipan. It is about  long and  wide. Anatahan began erupting suddenly from its east crater on May 10, 2003, at about 6 p.m. (0800 UTC). It has since alternated between eruptive and calm periods. On April 6, 2005, approximately  of ash and rock were ejected, causing a large, black cloud to drift south over Saipan and Tinian.

## People
In 2020, 47,329 people lived on the Northern Mariana Islands. This was down from 69,221 in 2000.

The official languages on the Northern Mariana Islands are English, Chamorro, and Carolinian. Only a few people speak the Tanapag language. Many people also speak Philippine languages, Chinese, and other Pacific island languages. Many people still have Spanish family names, but the people do not often speak Spanish, as they did in the past.

Most people in the Northern Mariana Islands are Roman Catholic. There are also communities of Buddhist and Protestant people. Many people have traditional beliefs, also referred to as folk religion.
According to the Pew Research Center, 2010:
* Roman Catholic 64.1%
* Protestants 16%
* Buddhists 10.6%
* Folk religions 5.3%
* Other Christians 1.2%
* Other religions 1.1%
* Unaffiliated 1.0%
* Eastern Orthodox <1%
* Hindu <1%
* Muslim <1%
* Jews <1%
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints reported 865 members in the Northern Mariana Islands.

## References 
## Other websites 
*
*
*Northern Mariana Islands  *official government website*
*The CNMI Covenant 
*The CNMI Constitution 
*CNMI Office of Resident Representative Pedro A. Tenorio 
*H.R. 873 - the Northern Mariana Islands Delegate Act 
*H.R. 5550 - The United States-Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas Human Dignity Act 
**U.S. Census Bureau: Island Areas Census 2000*
*
*
1890s

The **1890s** was the decade that began on January 1, 1890 and ended on December 31, 1899. It is distinct from the decade known as the  which began on January 1, 1891 and ended on December 31, 1900.

## Events 
### Births 
* May 19, 1890 – Ho Chi Minh, prime minister (1946–1955) and president (1955–1969) of North Vietnam
* September 15, 1890 – Agatha Christie, English writer
* October 2, 1890 – Groucho Marx, American comedian
* October 14, 1890 – Dwight D. Eisenhower, president of the United States 1953–1961
* November 22, 1890 – Charles de Gaulle, president of France 1958–1969
* June 9, 1891 – Cole Porter, American musician
* January 3, 1892 – J.R.R. Tolkien, English author
* May 7, 1892 – Josip Broz Tito, president of Yugoslavia 1953–1980
* December 26, 1893 – Mao Zedong, Chairman of the Communist Party of China

### World leaders 
* Prime Minister John Sparrow David Thompson (Canada)
* Prime Minister Sir Wilfrid Laurier (Canada)
* Emperor Franz Josef (Austria-Hungary)
* Kaiser Wilhelm II (German Empire)
* Chancellor Leo von Caprivi (German Empire)
* King Umberto I (Italy)
* Pope Leo XIII
* Czar Alexander III (Russia)
* Czar Nicholas II (Russia)
* Queen Victoria (United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland)
* Prime Minister Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury (United Kingdom)
* Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone (United Kingdom)
* Prime Minister Archibald Philip Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery (United Kingdom)
* President Benjamin Harrison (United States)
* President Grover Cleveland (United States)
* President William McKinley (United States)
* Shahs of Persia (Qajar dynasty)
# Nasser-al-Din Shah, 1848–1896
# Mozzafar-al-Din Shah, 1896–1907
Monkey

**Monkeys** are tree-dwelling (arboreal) simians. They are in the primate order. Monkeys are intelligent, social animals. Monkeys have a tail, even if it is a short one.

The word "monkey" is a common-language term. It includes two different groups of primates. The big difference is between Old World monkeys and New World monkeys. Some examples of monkeys are macaques, baboons, and guenons.
*Old World monkeys: Cercopithecidae. Apes are the descendants of Old World monkeys.
*New World Monkeys: Platyrrhini or Ceboidea (same thing in effect)
Both groups are in the infraorder Simiiformes. That infraorder also includes the great apes and humans.

The simians (monkeys) are a sister group to the tarsiers – the two members in the suborder Haplorhini diverged some 60 million years ago. New World monkeys and catarrhine monkeys appeared within the simians roughly 30 million years ago. Old World monkeys and apes emerged within the catarrhine monkeys about 70 million years ago.

## Lifestyle 
Some monkeys live almost entirely in trees. Others live partly on the ground. Monkeys are mainly vegetarian, with a strong preference for fruit. However, they may eat a wide range of other food, such as insects. Monkeys can live in forests and savannahs, but not in deserts. Some can live in snowy mountains, but more live in rainforests. There are none in the rainforests of Australia and New Guinea. Apparently, they never reached either of those huge islands.

Some monkeys are small, about  long and  in weight. Other monkeys are much larger, about  long and  in weight. A group of monkeys is called a "troop" of monkeys or a "tribe" of monkeys.

The two groups of monkeys live in different places: the *New World Monkeys* in South America and the *Old World Monkeys* live mainly in  Africa and Asia. New World Monkeys are often smaller than Old World Monkeys. Monkeys have long arms and legs to help them swing from trees. The monkeys often climb with the help of their tails. Some monkeys' tails can wrap tightly around branches, almost like a "fifth limb".

In Africa, monkeys can be sold as "bushmeat" (meat of wild animals). Monkey brains are eaten in some parts of Africa, South Asia, China, and Indonesia.

## References
**Notes**

## Related pages
* Primate
* Simian

## Other websites
*"The impossible housing and handling conditions of monkeys in research laboratories", by Viktor Reinhardt, International Primate Protection League, August 2001
*The problem with pet monkeys: reasons monkeys do not make good pets, an article by veterinarian Lianne McLeod on TheSprucePets.com
*Helping hands: monkey helpers for the disabled, a U.S. national non-profit organization based in Boston Massachusetts that places specially trained capuchin monkeys with people who are paralyzed or who live with other severe mobility impairments.
Kingdom of Yugoslavia

The **Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes** later known as the **Kingdom of Yugoslavia** was a state in Southeast and Central Europe which existed from 1918 until 1941.

## History
### Background
In 1903, King Alexander I of Serbia was murdered and replaced with Peter I of Serbia. After this, Serbia became more nationalist. Tensions with Austria-Hungary heightened when it conquered Bosnia in 1908. During this period Serbia managed to extend its borders and reconquer Kosovo and North Macedonia from the Ottoman Empire. Many Serbian nationalists wanted to create a unified state for the Slavs of the Balkans. Covert gangs attempted to assassinate Austro-Hungarian officials, like the Bosnian governor. In June 1914, a Bosnian Serb called Gavrilo Princip killed Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo, Bosnia. This event eventually led to World War I.

### Creation
Yugoslavia came into existence in 1918 after World War I. Most of its northern territories were given to it from Austria-Hungary when it collapsed during the war. Its territories were reconquered by Serbia from the Ottoman Empire during the Balkan Wars (1912–13). The reigning king in Serbia became the king of all Yugoslavia.

For ten years, it was known as the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. It began using the name 'Yugoslavia' in 1929. The name 'Yugoslavia' is Serbo-Croatian for 'Land of the Southern Slavs'. The Kingdom was invaded by the Axis Powers in 1941 and quickly fell during World War II. A Federal Democratic Republic was declared in 1943 with the King's approval, but the monarchy was abolished shortly after.

## References
Northwest Territories

The **Northwest Territories** is a territory in Northern Canada. 45,848 people live there as of 2025. It is 1,171,918 square kilometers.

The capital of the Northwest Territories is Yellowknife. Yellowknife was the capital since 1967. The Northwest Territories have many geographical features, like the Great Bear Lake, the Mackenzie River and Nahanni River, which is a national park and a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

The Northwest Territories entered the Canadian Confederation in 1870. The Hudson's Bay Company gave the land to the Dominion of Canada. The Northwest Territories have one person in the House of Commons and the Canadian Senate. A lot of parts of the Northwest Territories were given to other provinces, including British Columbia, Alberta, Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec. In 1999, the eastern part of the Northwest Territories became the territory of Nunavut.

## Notes and references
## Other websites
Wake Island

**Wake Island** is an atoll (a type of island) in the Pacific Ocean, near Hawaii. It is controlled by the United States Army and United States Air Force. It is a territory of the United States, part of the United States Minor Outlying Islands. From December 1941 to August 1945 the Empire of Japan ruled Wake Island.

## Geography 
Wake is located to the west of the International Date Line and sits in the Wake Island Time Zone, one day ahead of the 50 U.S. states.

Referring to the atoll as an island is the result of a pre-World War II desire by the United States Navy to distinguish Wake from other atolls, most of which were Japanese territory.

## Population
There is no permanent population on Wake Island, so there are no schools for children.  About 100 people live there at any given time, though.  Most are contractors who keep the roads and other infrastructure working.  One man has been there since 1991.

## Reference 
## Other websites 
* Current Weather, Wake Island
* AirNav – Wake Island Airfield – Airport details, facilities and navigational aids
* Rocket launches at Wake Island (link broken)
* The Defense of Wake – United States Marine Corps historical monograph
* Surrender of Wake by the Japanese – Marines in World War II
* U.S. Army Strategic and Missile Defense Command  – Logistics, flight schedules, facilities
* Photographic history of the 1975 Vietnamese refugee camp on Wake Island
* 
* Wake Island – Pacific Wreck Database
* 
*
William McKinley

**William McKinley** (January 29, 1843September 14, 1901) was an American politician who served as the 25th president of the United States from 1897 until his assassination in 1901. Before becoming president, he was the 39th governor of Ohio from 1892 to 1896.

During his presidency, he successfully led the United States in the Spanish–American War, which helped American expansionism by the annexations of Puerto Rico, Guam, the Philippines, and Hawaii.

## Presidency
McKinley was inaugurated in the first presidential inauguration to be filmed.

When the USS *Maine* was sunk, the public wanted war. Congress declared war against Spain. During the Spanish-American War, the Americans conquered Spanish colonies in Latin Ameria and Asia. That started the era of imperialism for the United States.

During his presidency, McKinley also supported higher tariffs, taxes on imports from other countries. During his term, the United States annexed Hawaii, Cuba, the Philippines, and Wake Island.

McKinley was elected to a second term as president in 1900, but it did not last very long.

## Death
McKinley was shot by an anarchist, named Leon Czolgosz, on September 6, 1901. McKinley's abdominal gunshot wounds became infected and resulted in gangrene. He died eight days later, and Czolgosz said that the President had committed war crimes in the Philippines and was an enemy of the people. Czolgosz was executed by the electric chair on October 29, 1901. McKinley was the third American president to be assassinated.

After McKinley's death, he was as president by44by Vice President Theodore Roosevelt became president.

## Praise 
McKinley's biographer H. Wayne Morgan remarks that McKinley died the most beloved president in history.

Kenneth F. Warren emphasizes the national commitment to the pro-business, industrial, and modernizing program that was represented by McKinley.

## Notes
## References 
## Other websites 
* William McKinley's White House biography