open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Realism

, done in 1849. It was lost in a fire, in 1945.]]
, by Albrecht Dürer, done in 1502]]

**Realism** is a way of  or thinking about reality. The word "realism" is used in many liberal arts in many different ways (such as in music, painting, and philosophy). It usually means trying to be true to reality. This is where the word "" comes from. Realism is usually seen as an opposite of romanticism and idealism. It is also sometimes seen as an opposite of liberalism and classicism.

## Origins 
The word "realism" first appeared in 1794, as the opposite of idealism in art and philosophy. The French magazine  () used the word in 1826. It said that realism was the art-style of being accurate to real life, rather than following art of the past.

### In writing 
Realism as a literary movement began in Germany.  The poet and writer Heinrich Heine  tried in his books to accept the world as it is instead of trying to escape from it. Realistic writers tried to find good things about society. The interest in realism led to a movement called naturalism. This meant describing scenes in nature accurately. The novelist Emile Zola was a naturalist.

### In philosophy 
In philosophy, realism is also a way of thinking about knowledge and reality. It is usually the view that a particular thing is real whether or not it is known about. In fact, one person can be a realist about some things and a non-realist about other things. For example, some realists say that the past really happened no matter what we think about it. Other realist philosophers say that there are morals that really exist as facts. This is different from philosophers who say that things only exist because of people who are aware of them. For example, a non-realist philosopher might say beauty only exists because someone sees something that they think is beautiful. A realist philosopher might instead say that beauty is there whether anyone sees it or not.

### Other styles 
The term social realism describes an art form in America in the 1930s which expressed social protest in a naturalistic way.  This is different from what is usually called socialist realism which was a term used by Soviet politicians from 1932 to the mid 1980s to describe art which showed the workers' struggle, glorifying the Soviet Union.

In the early 20th century Realism led to other movements such as Dadaism and Surrealism.

## References
Sagittarius (astrology)

**Sagittarius** is the astrological Zodiac sign that represents the constellation Sagittarius. Sagittarius is from November 22 to December 21.  The opposite sign to Sagittarius is Gemini. In the Tropical zodiac the Sun meets Saggittarius  from May 21 to June 20. It stays within the meteorology of Niocio. 

/centaur]]

## Mythology 
In mythology Sagittarius is related to Greek myth of a centaur.
myths also says that the constellation Sagittarius represents chiron because of his responsible actions unlike all the other sagittarians.

* Birthstone =  Turquoise
* Colours = Yellow, Royal Blue
* Metal = Yellow Gold

## Astrology 
In astrology Sagittarius is ruled by the planet Jupiter.
Noble Energy

**Noble Energy, Inc.** () of Houston, Texas is the modern name of **Noble Affiliates Inc.**, by which it was known through the 1990s, and it is now an oil and natural gas exploration and production company with almost US$3 billion in income at #660 on the 2007 Fortune 1000 list of the largest American companies.

In 1985, Noble Affiliates started its subsidiary Noble Drilling Corporation () to shareholders, and that company in turn went public by the early 1990s, and then became Noble Corporation, an S&P 500 company.

In South America, the company operates in Argentina and Ecuador. In Africa, Noble Energy operates in Equatorial Guinea. And in Eurasia, it operates in the Mediterranean Sea, the North Sea and China.

## References
PCP

**PCP** could mean:

In **politics**:
**Partido Comunista del Peru*, also known as Shining Path
**Partido Comunista Paraguayo*, Paraguayan Communist Party 
**Partido Comunista Peruano*, Peruvian Communist Party
**Partido Comunista Português*, Portuguese Communist Party
**Partido Comunista Puertorriqueño*, Puerto Rican Communist Party
**Partit Català Proletari*, Proletarian Catalan Party
In **science**:
***Phencyclidine**, a recreational drug known by a number of street names including angel dust, supergrass, killer weed, sherm, embalming fluid, and rocket fuel.
*PCP theorem, an important proof in computational complexity theory
*Probabilistically checkable proof, a notion in the theory of computational complexity
*Pentachlorophenol, timber preservative
***P**neumo**c**ystis **p**neumonia, (formerly known as ***P**neumocystis **c**arinii* **p**neumonia)
*Post correspondence problem, an important problem in computability theory
*Priority ceiling protocol, a computer science concept
**Other**:
*Post-coital pill, a form of emergency contraception
*Primary care paramedic
*Primary care physician, a doctor who acts as first point of consultation for patients
*A song by Manic Street Preachers, from their 1994 album *The Holy Bible*
*Purple City Productions, a Harlem-based rap group
*Put-call parity
* Pre-charged Pneumatic, an air-gun technology
* Pharmaceuticals & Consumer Products
* Plumbing Code of Practice
* WikiProject Pokémon, formally known as the Pokémon Collaborative Project
Austrian Empire

The **Austrian Empire** was an empire that lasted in Europe from 1804 to 1867. The empire was centered on present-day Austria and was a remnant of the Holy Roman Empire which collapsed on 1806. The last Holy Roman Emperor, Francis II, became Francis I of Austria and was succeeded by Ferdinand I of Austria and finally Franz Joseph I of Austria. 

In 1867 the Austrian Empire was succeeded by Austria-Hungary, which ended in 1918, defeated in World War I. Parts of it are now in Austria, Hungary, Czech Republic,Slovakia, Romania, Slovenia, Croatia, and Italy.
Pilot fish

.]]

The **pilot fish** (*Naucrates ductor*) is a fish that lives in many places of the world. They live in warm water. They eat parasites on larger fish. 

Pilot fish usually gather around sharks (also rays and sea turtles). They eat parasites on their host, and small pieces of food that their host does not eat (leftovers). When pilot fish are young, they gather around jellyfish and drifting seaweeds.

Pilot fish follow sharks because other animals which might eat them will not come near a shark. In return, sharks do not eat pilot fish because pilot fish eat their parasites. This is called a "mutualist" relationship. Small pilot fish are often seen swimming into the mouth of a shark to eat small pieces of food from the shark's teeth. Sailors even said that sharks and pilot fish act like close friends. When a ship captured "their" shark, the pilot fish followed the ship. Some people reported that the pilot fish would follow the ship for up to six weeks. And they do show signs of distress in the absence of their shark.

They are also known to follow ships, sometimes for long distances: many pilot fish have been sighted on the shores of England.

The pilot fish has a dark blue to blackish-silver colour, and are slightly lighter in colour underneath. They have between five and seven dark stripes going from top to bottom. When the fish is excited, these stripes disappear, and three large blue patches appear on its back. The pilot fish is usually about 30 cm long, but sometimes they can be as big as 70cm.

The pilot fish will not hurt people, and they are said to be good to eat. They are difficult to catch, though.

## Related pages 
* List of fish common names

## References
## Further reading 

* 
* 
* 
*
*
* NOAA Library Image: http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/historic/nmfs/figb0368.htm

## Other websites 
*Naucrates ductor at FishBase
Bălţi

**Bălţi** is the third-largest city in the country of Moldova. It is the major city in the northern part of the country. During the Russian Empire (1812-1917), and later the Soviet era (1940-1990) the name was also spelled **Beltsy**, from its form in Russian. The city is  north of the capital Chişinău, on the small river Răut, a branch of the Dniester (Nistru). It is located on a hilly landscape that, in the Middle Ages, was covered with forest. This forest has since been almost entirely cut down.

## References
Pakenham railway line

The **Pakenham Railway Line** is a Railway in Melbourne, Victoria. It has 25 stations. It was run by M-Train until April 17, 2004, where Connex took over all Melbourne rail services.

## List of stations
**Bold** stations are places where trains end their journeys, *italic* stations have staff there to help people.

Branches from Frankston line at Caulfield station.

***Zone 1 & City Saver**
****Flinders Street*** (FSS)
**Richmond* (RMD)
***Zone 1**
**South Yarra* (SYR) – Sandringham line branches
*Hawksburn (HKN)
*Toorak (TOR)
*Armadale (ARM)
*Malvern (MAL)
**Caulfield* (CFD)  – Frankston line branches
*Carnegie (CNE)
*Murrumbeena (MRB)
***Zones 1 & 2 overlap**
*Hughesdale (HUG)
****Oakleigh*** (OAK)
*Huntingdale (HUN)
***Zone 2**
**Clayton* (CLA)
*Westall (WTL)
**Springvale* (SPG)
*Sandown Park (SNP)
*Noble Park (NPK)
*Yarraman (YMN)
****Dandenong*** (DNG) – Cranbourne line branches, express services to Pakenham, Cranbourne
* (General Motors, closed)
*Hallam (HLM)
**Narre Warren* (NWA)
**Berwick* (BEW)
*Beaconsfield (BFD)
*Officer (OFC)
**Pakenham* (PKM)
***East Pakenham** (EPH)

The Traralgon regional line follows on from this line.
Óscar Pereiro

**Óscar Pereiro** is a cyclist from Spain.   He was born on 3 August 1977. He came second in the 2006 Tour de France.  On 20 September 2007 he was declared the winner because Floyd Landis was found guilty of doping.

## Related pages
* List of Tour de France winners
* Tour de France
1924 Summer Olympics

became notable when he won three gold medals in swimming at the 1924 games]]

The **1924 Summer Olympics**, officially known as the **Games of the VIII Olympiad**, were held at Paris in France.

The games were thought to be successful, but costly. The events were well attended.

## Participating nations
A total of 44 nations sent athletes to compete at the Paris games.
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
* 
*
*
*
* 
*
*

Germany was not invited to participate.

## Related pages
* List of IOC country codes

## References 
## Other websites
* IOC page for the 1924 Summer Olympics
Shell Oil Company

**Shell Oil Company** is the United States-based  of Royal Dutch Shell. Its parent is a multinational oil company ("oil major") of Anglo Dutch origins. Royal Dutch Shell is one of the largest oil companies in the world. About  22,000 Shell employees are based in the United States The head office in the United States is in Houston, Texas. Shell Oil Company, including its  companies, is one of the US’s largest oil and natural gas producers, natural gas marketers, gasoline marketers and petrochemical manufacturers.

Shell has approximately 25,000 Shell-branded gas stations in the US. They are Shell's most visible public . Shell also owns the Jiffy Lube chain of auto oil change stores. Since 1998, Shell Oil Company is a 50/50 partner with the Saudi Arabian government-owned oil company Saudi Aramco in Motiva Enterprises. Motiva is refining and marketing joint venture which owns and operates three oil refineries on the Gulf Coast of the United States. Motiva also operates 8,000 Shell-branded gas stations in the eastern and southern United States. Shell also used to hold 80% of an exploration firm called Pecten that explores and drills in various offshore locations including the oil basin near Douala, Cameroon. It sold the 80% to Addax Petroleum on 31 October 2011.

## References
## Other websites
*Shell in the United States website
*Royal Dutch Shell  website
*Motiva website
*Saudi Aramco  website
*Shell Invests in Hydrogen from Biomass Production 
*''Controversy Over Shell's Oil Exploration in Arctic Continues''  September 17, 2013 PBS NewsHour
Jean-Pierre Jeunet

**Jean-Pierre Jeunet** (born 3 September 1953 in Roanne, Loire, France) is a French movie director.

## Career 
Jean-Pierre Jeunet bought his first camera at the age of 17 and made short movies while studying animation at Cinémation Studios. He made friends with Marc Caro. Caro was a designer and comic book artist. Caro worked on many of Jeunet's movies with him.

Together, Jeunet and Caro directed award-winning animations. Their first live-action movie was *The Bunker of the Last Gunshots* (1981). It was a short movie about soldiers in a futuristic world. Jeunet also directed numerous television advertisements and music videos.

Jeunet and Caro's first full-length movie was *Delicatessen* (1991). It was a black comedy set in a famine-plagued future. Next came *The City of Lost Children* (1995). It was a dark fantasy movie with a story about a doctor who kidnaps children in order to steal their dreams.

Because *The City of Lost Children* was well liked, Jeunet was asked to direct the fourth movie in the Alien series - *Alien: Resurrection* (1997). Though not well received by critics, *Alien: Resurrection* turned a profit at the box office.

Jeunet returned to France after making *Alien: Resurrection*. The fact that he had made a Hollywood movie gave him freedom on his next movie, *Amélie*. *Amélie* is lighter and more romantic than his earlier movies. This story was a huge success worldwide. It was  for several Academy Awards. For this movie he also got an European Film Award for Best Director.

In 2004, Jeunet released *A Very Long Engagement*. It is based on the novel by Sebastien Japrisot. The movie is set after World War I. It is about a woman (played by Audrey Tautou) looking for her missing lover.

## Filmography 
* ''L'Évasion* (1978)
* *Le Manege* (1980)
* *Le Bunker de la derniere rafale* (1981)
* *Pas de repos pour Billy Brakko* (1984)
* *Foutaises* (1989)
* *Delicatessen* (1991)
* *The City of Lost Children* (1995)
* *Alien: Resurrection* (1997)
* *Amélie* (2001)
* *A Very Long Engagement'' (2004)

## References 
## Other websites 
* Jean-Pierre Jeunet Official Site
Hawksbill sea turtle

The **hawksbill sea turtle** or **hawksbill turtle** (***Eretmochelys imbricata***) is an endangered species of turtle. It is mostly seen in shallow lagoons and coral reefs where its food is. It is smaller than the Australian flatback turtle: it is usually a little more than two feet long. 

It usually weighs about 150 pounds. It has the most pointed beak among sea turtles, which is how it gets its name. The hawksbill gets food from inside coral reefs, eating sponges, shrimp, squid, and other invertebrates. The hawksbill pointy beak helps the turtle get food out of the tiny cracks and holes in which it searches. Though they are sometimes seen in American waters, hawksbill turtles almost always nest in the warmer climates that run along the equator. Because people use the shell to make jewelry and other things, the hawksbill turtle is endangered. 

## Description 
Adults are typically 1 meter (3 ft) long, weighing up to 80 kg (180 lb) on average. Larger ones can weigh up to 127 kg (280 lb). This species was originally named *Testudo imbricata* in 1766. It was moved to the genus *Eretmochelys* in 1843.

There are two known subspecies within the species *Eretmochelys imbricata*: *Eretmochelys imbrica imbrica* and *Eretmochelys imbrica brissa*.

## References
1906 Summer Olympics

The **1906 Summer Olympics**, also called the **1906 Intercalated Games**, were held in Athens, Greece.

These games are not awarded the title of *Olympiad* because they were held between the III and IV Olympiads. Medals were given to the participants during these games, but the medals are not officially recognised by the International Olympic Committee.

## Participants nations 
Athletes from 20 nations took part in the St. Louis games. 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
*  Finland
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
*  Ottoman Empire
* 

## Related pages
* List of IOC country codes

## References 
## Other websites
1952 Summer Olympics

The **1952 Summer Olympics**, officially known as the **Games of the XV Olympiad**, were held at Helsinki in Finland.

Helsinki was chosen as the host city over Amsterdam, Athens, Lausanne, and Stockholm and five American cities: Chicago, Detroit, Los Angeles, Minneapolis and Philadelphia. Helsinki had been given the 1940 Summer Olympics, but they were cancelled because of World War II 

## Participating nations 
A total of 69 nations sent athletes to compete at the Helsinki games.

* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 

* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
*  
* 
*  
* 
*  
*  
* 
* 
*  
* 
* 
*  
* 
*  
* 

 of the 1952 games]]

*  
*  
*  
*  
*  
*  
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
*  
*  
*  
* 
*  
* 
*  
* 
* 
* 

## Related pages
* List of IOC country codes

## References
## Other websites
* IOC page on the 1952 Summer Olympics
2012 Summer Olympics

in London.]]

The **2012 Summer Olympic Games**, officially known as the **Games of the XXX Olympiad**, were held in London, United Kingdom from 27 July to 12 August 2012, followed by the 2012 Paralympic Games from 29 August to 9 September.

London became the first city to host the modern Olympic Games three times; London also hosted the 1908 Summer Olympics and the 1948 Summer Olympics.

## The bidding process 
By the bid submission deadline of 15 July 2003, nine cities had submitted bids to host the 2012 Olympics. These cities were Havana, Istanbul, Leipzig, London, Madrid, Moscow, New York, Paris, and Rio de Janeiro.

On 18 May 2004 the International Olympic Committee (IOC) reduced the number of cities to five: London, Madrid, Moscow, New York, and Paris.

The IOC inspection team visited the five candidate cities during February and March 2005.

On 6 June 2005, the International Olympic Committee released its evaluation reports for the five candidate cities. Although these reports did not contain any scores or rankings, the evaluation report for Paris was seen as the most positive, followed closely by London.

During the process, many thought Paris was most likely to win the nomination, largely because this was its third bid in recent years. In late August 2004, reports came out predicting a London and Paris tie in the 2012 bid.

On 6 July 2005, London was announced as the winner of the bid at the Raffles City Convention Centre in Singapore.

## The Games
Athletes from 204 National Olympic Countries took part. In addition, four individual athletes competed under the Olympic flag—one from South Sudan and three from the region of the former Netherlands Antilles

### Participating nations
Listed below are NOCs who have qualified at least one athlete. As of 7 June 2011, 101 nations have qualified at least one athlete.
 

*  Algeria
*  Andorra
*  Argentina
*  Australia
*  Bosnia and Herzegovina
*  DR Congo
*  Ethiopia 
*  Hungary 
*  Luxembourg 

*  Panama 
*  Switzerland 
*  Uzbekistan 
*  Zambia

* Aquatics
** 
** 
** 
** 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 

* 
** Sprint (12)
** Slalom (4)
* 
** BMX (2)
** Mountain biking (2)
** Road (4)
** Track (10)
* 
** Dressage (2)
** Eventing (2)
** Jumping (2)

* 
* 
* 
* 
** Artistic (14)
** Rhythmic (2)
** Trampoline (2)
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 

* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
** Volleyball (2)
** Beach volleyball (2)
* 
* 
** Freestyle (11)
** Greco-Roman (7)

## Motto 
The official motto for the 2012 Summer Olympics is "Inspire a generation". It was chosen to highlight the organiser's commitment to inspire the world to get involved in sporting events through the olympic games' legacy.

## Mascots 
The official mascots for the Olympics and Paralympic Games were revealed in May 2010. They were called Wenlock and Mandeville.

## Sponsors 
The 2012 Olympics had many sponsors. Some of the most popular ones are McDonald's, Acer, Samsung, Coca-Cola, Adidas, and Panasonic.

## References 
## Other websites 
* Official London 2012 Website 
* London Olympics  All news and info about the Games
1948 Summer Olympics

became notable when he won the gold medal in the marathon at the 1948 games]] 

The **1948 Summer Olympics**, officially known as the **Games of the XIV Olympiad**, were held at London in the United Kingdom. 

These were the first Summer Olympics to be held since the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin, because no Games were held during World War II.

In part, the games were thought to be a success because the Organizing Committee did not go into debt. The final financial report showed a ₤29,000 profit.

## Participating nations 
A total of 59 nations sent athletes to compete at the London Games.

## Related pages
* List of IOC country codes

## References 
## Other websites
* IOC page for the 1948 Summer Olympics
1944 Summer Olympics

The **1944 Summer Olympics**, officially known as the **Games of the XIII Olympiad**, were not held.

The games were cancelled because of World War II. They would have been held in London, England, which won the bid in the June 1939 International Olympic Committee election, over Rome, Detroit, Lausanne, Athens, Budapest, Helsinki and Montreal. 

London hosted the next Olympic Games, the 1948 Summer Olympics, awarded without an election.

In spite of the war, the IOC had many events at its headquarters in Lausanne, Switzerland to celebrate its 50th anniversary. These events happened on 17 June to 19 June 1944 and were called "The Jubilee Celebrations of IOC" by Carl Diem, the man who began the modern tradition of the Olympic torch relay.

Polish POWs in the Woldenberg (Dobiegniew) Oflag II-C POW camp were granted permission by their Nazi captors to have an unofficial *POW Olympics* in 1944, showing that the Olympic spirit can survive even during war.

## Related pages
* 1916 Summer Olympics
* 1940 Winter Olympics
* 1940 Summer Olympics
* 1944 Winter Olympics

## References
## Other websites
* The Olympic Idea  Chris Matthew Sciabarra
1916 Summer Olympics

The **1916 Summer Olympics **, officially known as the **Games of the VI Olympiad**, were not held.

The games were planned for Berlin in Germany.

In 1912, workers began building the sports facilities for the games. The *Deutsches Stadion* ("German Stadium") began in 1912.  In June 1913, the stadium was officially opened with 60,000 people at the ceremonies.

The games were cancelled because of World War I.

## Related pages
*1940 Summer Olympics
*1940 Winter Olympics
*1944 Summer Olympics
*1944 Winter Olympics

## References
## Other websites 
* Vignettes of 1916 at Olympic-museum.de
1920 Summer Olympics

The **1920 Summer Olympics**, officially known as the **Games of the VII Olympiad**, were held at Antwerp in Belgium.

The games were a financial strain for the host country and the participants. The events were not well attended.

## Participating nations 
A total of 22 nations sent athletes to compete at the Antwerp games.

* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
*  
* 
* 
*  
* 

## Related pages
* List of IOC country codes

## References 
## Other websites
* IOC page for the 1920 Summer Olympics
Tamaz V. Gamkrelidze

**Tamaz (Thomas) V. Gamkrelidze** (Georgian თამაზ გამყრელიძე) (October 23, 1929 &ndash; February 10, 2021) was a Georgian linguist, orientalist and public benefactor, Academician (beginning in 1974) and President (2005–2013) of the Georgian Academy of Sciences (GAS), Doctor of Sciences (1963), Professor (1964).

Gamkrelidze was born in Kutaisi. His brother Revaz Gamkrelidze, was also an academician and a famous mathematician.

He was elected a member of the Academia Europaea in 2006.

Gamkrelidze died at the age of 91.

## Some of the main works of Tamaz Gamkrelidze 
* *The Akkado-Hittite syllabary and the problem of the origin of the Hittite script*, "Archiv Orientalni" (vol. 29). 1960
* *Anatolian languages and the problem of Indo-European migration to Asia Minor*, Studies in General and Oriental Linguistics. Tokyo, 1970
* *Alphabetic writing and the old Georgian script*. New York, Caravan Books, 1994
* with V. Vs. Ivanov: "Indo-European language and Indoeuropeans" (vols. I-II). Berlin / New York, 1994-1995

## Related pages
* Glottalic theory
* List of Asian scientists by country

## References
## Other websites 
* Home Page of Tamaz Gamkrelidze
* Georgian Academy of Sciences (GAS) 
* Tbilisi State University
Georgian alphabet

Monastery by Paata Vardanshvili]]
The **Georgian alphabet** is used to write in the Georgian language and other Kartvelian languages. The alphabet is called Khutsuri, first said around in the 11th century. 

Greek and Aramaic influences have been shown, but some Georgian scholars like Tamaz V. Gamkrelidze have said that they were freely invented in imitation of the Greek model rather than directly based upon earlier forms of the Aramaic alphabet even though the Georgian phonological inventory is very different from Greek.

## Other websites 
* Georgian Website / Portal with info on Georgian culture and language 
* Direct transliteration Latin ↔ Georgian
* Georgian fonts, compliant with Unicode 4.0, also available for MAC OS 9 or X
Syntax (disambiguation)

**Syntax** may refer to:
* Syntax, set of rules governing how words combine to form grammatical meanings.
* Syntax (journal), a Blackwell Publishing journal devoted to natural language syntax.
* Syntax (logic)
* Syntax of programming languages
* Syntax (band)
* Syntax (television manufacturer)
* Syntax Records (a San Diego-based record label)
1908 Summer Olympics

The **1908 Summer Olympics**, officially known as the **Games of the IV Olympiad**, were held in London, United Kingdom.

The Olympics were originally scheduled to be held in Rome; however, Mount Vesuvius erupted on 7 April 1906. The natural disaster caused a financial strain on the Italian government. Then the venue was changed to London. The costs of the games were covered by donations.

## Participating nations 
A total of 22 nations sent athletes to compete at the London games. They were:

*  Argentina
*  Australasia
*  Austria
*  Belgium
*  Bohemia
*  Canada
*  Denmark
*  Finland
*  France
*  German Empire
*  Great Britain

*  Greece
*  Hungary
*  Italy
*  Netherlands
*  Norway
*  Russian Empire
*  Union of South Africa
*  Sweden
*  Switzerland
*  Ottoman Empire
*  United States

## Related pages
* List of IOC country codes

## References 
## Other websites
* IOC page for the 1908 Summer Olympics
1912 Summer Olympics

in swimming to Duke Kahanamoku at 1912 games]]

The **1912 Summer Olympics**, officially known as the **Games of the V Olympiad**, were held in Stockholm, Sweden.  

The games were thought to be a success.  For the first time, athletes in the Games came from all five continents symbolised in the Olympic rings. 

## Participating nations 
A total of 22 nations sent athletes to compete at the Stockholm games. They were:

* 
*  
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 

* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 

* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
*  

## Related pages
* List of IOC country codes

## References 
## Other websites
* IOC page for the 1912 Summer Olympics
Morphology (linguistics)

**Morphology** is part of linguistics. It looks at the way words are put together using small pieces called **morphemes**.  A morpheme is the smallest part of a word that has meaning.  Different languages have different morphemes and have different rules for how morphemes are combined.

## Free and bound morphemes 
Words are the smallest pieces of a sentence. Some words only have one morpheme. For example the English words *thank,* *dog,* and *slow* are all words made up of only one morpheme. A morpheme that can stand alone as a word is called a *free morpheme*.

Words can also be made up of more than one morpheme.  English speakers know that one can add the plural(more than one) morpheme, *-s,* to the end of *dog,* and create the word *dogs*.  The new word combines the meanings of the two morphemes, so the meaning of the new word, *dogs* is *more than one dog.*  *Dog* is a free morpheme, but the plural morpheme *-s* is not. It must attach to a word (no native English speaker would use *-s* as a stand alone word).  Morphemes which must be attached to a word are called *bound morphemes*.  Morphemes attached to the front of a word are called *prefixes*. Those attached to the end are called *suffixes*. Some morphemes can attach in the middle of a word and are called *infixes*. An example of this in English would be *abso-freaking-lutley.* Where *freaking* acts as an infix.

## Inflectional and derivational morphemes 
There are two types of bound morphemes: derivational and inflectional. Inflectional morphemes give a listener or reader information about how the word is used in a sentence.  English does not have a lot of inflectional morphemes. An example of an inflectional morpheme in English is the *-ed* suffix for verbs.  This morpheme at the end of a verb lets the speaker know that the action happened in the past.  Another example is the *-s* suffix for nouns to show that there is more than one of the noun.

Derivational morphemes change the part of speech or somehow change the basic meaning of the word they attach to.  Most bound morphemes in English are derivational.

## Examples 
*English Word: "unthankful"*

Morphemes:

*English Word: "songwriter"*

Morphemes:

*English Word: "modernized"*

Morphemes:

## Sources 
## References
Syntax

In linguistics, **syntax** is the study of the rules that govern the structure of sentences. 

The term *syntax* can also be used to refer to these rules themselves, as in “the syntax of a language”. Modern research in syntax attempts to describe languages in terms of such rules, and, for many practitioners, to find general rules that apply to all languages.

Here are some important points about syntax:

* **Word Order:** Different languages have different rules about the order in which words must appear in a sentence. For example, English generally follows a subject-verb-object (SVO) order in declarative sentences ("She eats apples").
* **Phrase Structure:** Sentences are typically made up of phrases, which are groups of words that function as a unit within a sentence. Common types of phrases include noun phrases (NP), verb phrases (VP), prepositional phrases (PP), etc.
* **Grammatical Relations:** Syntax deals with how different parts of a sentence relate to each other grammatically. This includes subjects and objects of verbs, modifiers of nouns, and other syntactic roles.
* **Sentence Types:** Syntax also covers the formation of different types of sentences (declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamatory) and how they are structured differently.
* **Syntactic Ambiguity:** Sometimes, sentences can be ambiguous because they can be parsed or interpreted in more than one way syntactically. For example, "I saw the man with the telescope" could mean "I used a telescope to see the man" or "I saw a man who had a telescope."
* **Syntax and Meaning:** Syntax is closely related to semantics (the study of meaning). The arrangement of words in a sentence can affect the meaning and interpretation of that sentence.

## Related pages
* Phrase
* Grammar

### Syntactic terms 
* Adjective
* Adverb
* Article
* Clause
* Comparative

* Infinitive
* Noun
* Phrase
* Phrasal verb
* Plural

* Preposition
* Pronoun
* Superlative
* Verb
* Tense
* Word order

## Notes 
## References 
* 
* 
* 

## Other websites 
* The syntax of natural language (Beatrice Santorini & Anthony Kroch, University of Pennsylvania)
* Learn Programming Language Syntax 
* Various syntactic constructs used in computer programming languages
Vyacheslav Vsevolodovich Ivanov

**Vyacheslav Vsevolodovich Ivanov** (21 August 1929 &ndash; 7 October 2017) was a Soviet/Russian historical linguist. His main topic of study is Indo-European languages.  

## Works 
He is best known for his glottalic theory of how consonants are spoken in Indo-European languages and for placing point of origin for these languages in the area of the Armenian Highlands and Lake Urmia. He was born in Moscow.

Vyacheslav Ivanov's father was Vsevolod Ivanov, one of the most famous Soviet writers. His mother was an actress. She worked in the theatre of Vsevolod Meyerhold. His childhood was filled by disease and war, which he spent in Tashkent.

Ivanov died in Moscow on 7 October 2017 at the age of 88.

## References 
## More readings
* Vyacheslav V. Ivanov and Thomas Gamkrelidze, The Early History of Indo-­European Languages, Scientific American, vol. 262, N3, 110­-116, March, 1990.
* Gamkrelidze, Tamaz V.; Vjacheslav V. Ivanov (1995). Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans. Mouton de Gruyter. .
Cytosine

**Cytosine** is one of the 5 main nucleobases used in storing and transporting genetic information within a cell in the nucleic acids DNA and RNA. 

In DNA and RNA, cytosine is paired with guanine. However, it is unstable, and can change into uracil. This can lead to a point mutation if not repaired. The DNA repair enzymes, such as uracil glycosylase, cuts uracil in DNA.

Cytosine is the centre of modern genetic research into epigenetics. Methyl groups added to cytosine change the action of genes during lifetime. These changes are not inherited.

## References 
## Other websites
*Computational Chemistry Wiki 
*
Guanine

**Guanine** is one of the five main nucleobases found in the nucleic acids DNA and RNA.

The others are adenine, cytosine, thymine, and uracil. With the formula C5H5N5O, guanine is a derivative of purine. 

## Basic principles 
Guanine, along with adenine and cytosine, is present in both DNA and RNA, whereas thymine is usually seen only in DNA and uracil only in RNA. 

## References 
* Miyakawa, S., Murasawa, K., Kobayashi, K., Sawaoka, AB. "Abiotic synthesis of guanine with high-temperature plasma." Orig Life Evol Biosph. 30(6): 557-66, Dec. 2000.
* Horton, H.R., Moran, L.A., Ochs, R.S., Rawn, J.D., Scrimgeour, K.G. "Principles of Biochemistry." Prentice Hall (New Jersey). 3rd Edition, 2002.
* Lister, J.H. "Part II Purines." The Chemistry of Heterocyclic Compounds. Wiley-Interscience (New York). 1971.

## Other websites 
* Computational Chemistry Wiki 
* Good Guanine reference
Glottalic theory

The **glottalic theory** is that Proto-Indo-European had ejective stops instead of voiced stops and so it had p’ t’ k’, not b d g, as the traditional version of the Proto-Indo-European sound system.

The glottalic theory was made in the United States by Paul Hopper and in the Soviet Union by Thomas V. Gamkrelidze and Vyacheslav V. Ivanov. The earliest theory was made by the Danish linguist Holger Pedersen that did not have glottalized sounds.

Earlier linguists, such as André Martinet and Morris Swadesh, saw the potential of replacing glottalic sounds for the supposed plain voiced stops of Proto-Indo-European. The idea stayed hypothetical until more evidence for it was published in 1973 by Hopper in the journal *Glossa* and by Gamkrelidze and Ivanov in the journal *Phonetica*.

## Sources
*Paul J. Hopper, "Glottalized and murmured occlusives in Indo-European." *Glossa* **7**:2:1973, 141-166.
* Thomas V. Gamkrelidze and Vjacheslav V. Ivanov, *Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans*, translated by Johanna Nichols, 2 volumes. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 1995. 
* Robert S.P. Beekes, *Comparative Indo-European Linguistics*. John Benjamins, 1995.
* Anthony Fox, *Linguistic Reconstruction*. Oxford, 1995.
Anatolian hypothesis

The **Anatolian hypothesis** of Proto-Indo-European origin is that the speakers of the Proto-Indo-European language lived in Anatolia during the Neolithic era. When the Neolithic Revolution took place in the seventh and sixth millennia BC, the speakers spread over Europe. Those who advocate this hypothesis think that the Indo-European languages originated in Anatolia.  They believe that the Proto-Indo-Europeans then migrated north to the location north of the Caucasus Mountains. There is an another hypothesis, called the Kurgan hypothesis. The people who support it say the Indo-European languages came from the Caucasus. One of the best-known advocates of the Anatolian hypothesis is Colin Renfrew.

## Related pages
*Indo-Hittite
*Armenian hypothesis
*Neolithic Europe
*Neolithic revolution
*Kurgan hypothesis

## Other websites 
*Russell D. Gray and Quentin D. Atkinson, Language-tree divergence times support the Anatolian theory of Indo-European origin, Nature 426 (27 November 2003) 435-439
Rafael Ishkhanyan

**Rafayel Avetisi Ishkhanyan** (, 9 March 1922 – 6 February 1995) was an Armenian philologist and historian. He was a professor of the Yerevan State University.

## Biography 
In 1939, Ishkhanyan entered the department of Armenian language and literature of Yerevan State University. He fought in World War II. After the war, he continued his studies and graduated from Yerevan University in 1949.

His works are generally dedicated to the earliest history of the Armenian people, to the comparative linguistic analysis of ancient languages, and to printing. He is one of the authors of Armenian Soviet encyclopedia.

He was a Deputy to the Supreme Soviet Armenia in 1990-1996.

### Publications
Ishkhanyan claims that Armenians "were the aborigines of the Armenian plateau who have been living there continuously since the fourth millennium B.C.E at the latest". Similar claims were promoted in nationalist novels such as those of Sero Khanzatian, published in the 1970s.

## Books 
*Errord Uzhi Batsarman Orenke: Hodvatsner, Azat khosk,  (5-8079-0250-5)
*Girke Khorhrdayin Hayastanum: Matenagitakan Tsank, Hayastani azgayin grapalat,  (99930-50-03-2)
*Mer Inknutyan Glkhavor Nshane: (Grakanagitakan Hetazotutyunner), Nairi,  (5-550-00429-1)
*Patkerazard Patmutyun Hayots, Book 1, 1989, Arevik,  (5-8077-0057-0)
*Rafael Ishkhanian, Hayeri tzagume yev hnaguin patmutiune (The Origins and Most Ancient. History of the Armenians) (Beirut: Altapress 1984))
*Questions of origin and earliest history of Armenian people, Yerevan 1988
*On the Origin and Earliest History of the Armenian People
*Ksiazka Ormianska W Latach 1512 - 1920, Ossolineum

## References 
## Other websites 
*Books of Ishkhanyan
Coroner (band)

**Coroner** was a thrash metal band from Switzerland. The band was formed in 1985.  The band is with Noise record label. The band's most successful albums are *No More Color*, *Mental Vortex* and *Grin*.

## References
## Other websites 
*Coroner at Encyclopaedia Metallum
Ritchies

**Ritchies** is a large supermarket chain in Australia. The chain is owned by a group of private investors. Metcash is a part of that group. The chain is also known as "Ritchies Supa IGA". Most Ritchies stores are in Victoria. Ritchies earns about $1.4b each year. 

In recent years, Ritchies has grown a large amount. In 2000, there were less than 20 Ritchies stores. Ritchies is now on the top 20 Australian retailers list. Other companies on this list include large companies such as Kmart, Myer and Wesfarmers Bunnings.

## References 
## Other websites 
Official Ritchies Web Site
Cross-country race

A **cross-country race** is any  race that takes place on different types of terrain. Different levels of competition include middle school , high school , collegiate men  and , women 5km (3.1 mi) and , amateur, and professional.
.]]
The scoring in these events gives one point to the winner, two points to the person who finished second, and so on. In an *invitational* or *meet* where teams of runners count up the points of their top five finishers. This is their score. The team with the lowest score wins. If there is a tie, the team with the fastest sixth man wins.

Times in races depend on the terrain, weather, and the other runners. This means that two athletes competing in different places in the world who are running the same time might not be at the same  level.

## Related pages
*Long distance race

## Other websites
* U. S. Cross-Country Championships 
* 2008 USATF Competition Rules / Article IV Rules of Competition / Section VIII Cross Country
Blood Tsunami

**Blood Tsunami** is a thrash metal band from Oslo, Norway. The band was formed in 2004.

## Other websites 
*Official website
*Blood Tsunami at Encyclopaedia Metallum
Bates College

**Bates College** is an American liberal arts college in Lewiston, Maine, in the United States.  Bates College was founded in 1855.  1,800 students attend Bates.  Economics, English, Psychology, Biology, and History are popular majors at Bates College.

## References
## Other websites
*Bates College
Suffolk University

**Suffolk University** is an American university in Boston, Massachusetts.  Suffolk was founded in 1906 by Gleason Archer.  The University has three main schools: Suffolk University Law School, Suffolk University College of Arts and Sciences, and Suffolk University's Sawyer Business School.  The University remains best known for its law school. It is featured annually in U.S. News and Annual Report and the Princeton Review.

## Other websites 
*Suffolk University
Urheimat

**Urheimat** (German: *ur-* original, ancient; *Heimat* home, homeland) is a linguistic term meaning the original homeland of the speakers of a proto-language. Since many peoples tend to wander and spread, there is no exact Urheimat, but there is an Indo-European Urheimat different from the Germanic or Romance Urheimat. Recent studies say the original home of Indo-Europeans was near the Armenian Highlands.

Specific hypotheses:
*Kurgan hypothesis
*Anatolian hypothesis
*Armenian hypothesis
*Out of India theory

## References 
*.
*.

## Other websites 
*Linguistics and Ideology in the Study of Language by E. F. K. Koerner, University of Ottawa  On linguistics and the  search for the original Indo-European homeland
Warsaw Convention

*distinguish the Warsaw Pact, which was a defence treaty between Eastern European nations*

The **Warsaw Convention** is an international convention which regulates  for international carriage of persons, luggage or goods performed by aircraft for reward.

It was signed in 1929 in Warsaw, it was amended in 1955 at The Hague and in 1975 in Montreal.

In particular, the Warsaw Convention has the following rules:
*carriers issue passenger tickets;
*carriers issue baggage checks for checked luggage;
*there is a limitation period of 2 years within which a claim must be brought (Article 29); and
*a carrier's liability is at least:
** 250,000 Francs or 16,600 Special Drawing Rights (SDR) for personal injury;
** 17 SDR per kilogram for checked luggage and cargo,
** 5,000 Francs or 332 SDR for the hand luggage of a traveller.

On April 1, 2007, the exchange rate was 1.00 SDR = 1.135 EUR or
1.00 SDR = 1.51 USD.

The Montreal Convention, signed in 1999, will replace the Warsaw Convention system, once Montreal has been ratified by all states. 

## Footnotes
## Other websites 
* .
*Beginner's guide to the Warsaw Convention
Polish–Lithuanian union

The term "**Polish-Lithuanian union**" means a development from the personal union between the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania to the creation of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, allso called the "Republic of the Two Nations", in 1569 and eventually to the creation of a short-lived  state in 1791.

The most important acts in the process of union were:

* 1385 - Union of Krewo - a personal union;
* 1401 - Union of Vilnius and Radom;
* 1413 - Union of Horodło;
* 1432 (1432-34) - Union of Grodno;
* 1499 - Union of Kraków and Vilnius;
* 1501 - Union of Mielnik;
* July 1, 1569 - Union of Lublin - creation of the Republic of the Two Nations;
* May 3, 1791 - Polish Constitution of May 3, 1791:  the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were abolished, and a common state was created in their place.
Treaty of Warsaw (1970)

The **Treaty of Warsaw** () is a treaty between West Germany and the People's Republic of Poland. It was signed on December 7, 1970 and ratified by the German Bundestag on May 17, 1972.

In the treaty, both sides committed themselves to nonviolence and accepted the existing border - the Oder-Neisse line. This was a very sensitive topic at the time as Poland was concerned that one day a German government would lay claim to some of the territory Germany lost after World War II. Poland took over this territory to replace eastern Poland, which the Soviet Union had conquered in 1939. A lot of that land was east of the Curzon Line, and Poland kept it after the Polish-Soviet War (1919-1921).

Chancellor Willy Brandt was heavily criticized by the conservative CDU/CSU opposition, which indeed were in favour of such a claim, accusing him of abandoning German interests. The Oder-Neisse line was reaffirmed by a reunited Germany in the German-Polish Border Treaty, signed on 14 November 1990.

In the FRG at the time this treaty was signed it was not seen as the last word on the border, because article IV stated that previous treaties like the Potsdam Agreement were not superseded by this latest agreement, so the provisions of this treaty could be changed by a final peace treaty between Germany and the Allies of World War II as provided for in the Potsdam Agreement.

## References
## Other websites
* Text of the treaty (PDF file, )
Long distance race

A **long distance race** is any running event on the track that is longer than 3000m. This includes such events as the 3000m run, the 3000m steeplechase, the 3200m run, the two mile run,  the three mile run, 5000m run, five mile run, six mile run, and 10000m run, and so on.

The original marathon race, created in 1896, paid tribute to the legendary run completed by Greek messenger Pheidippides in 490 BC. Pheidippides gives word of the Greek victory over Persia at the Battle of Marathon to the people of Athens.  That’s when, according to legend, Pheidippides (530-490 BC) ran 26 miles from Marathon to Athens to deliver news of a military victory against the Persians in the Battle of Marathon. 

.]]

## Related pages
* Sprint
* Middle distance race
* Walking race
* Hurdle race
* Relay
* Steeplechase (athletics)
* Cross-country race
* Marathon
2028 Summer Olympics

The **2028 Summer Olympics**, which will be officially known as the **Games of the XXXIV Olympiad**, is a sporting event that will happen from July 21 to August 6 in Los Angeles, California, United States. Football (soccer) will be held at various locations across California, while canoe slalom and softball will be held in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma.

Applying to host the games was supposed to begin in 2019. The host city was supposed to be announced in 2021. In July 2017, The International Olympic Committee decided to award 2024 and 2028 Games at the same time. On July 31, 2017, an agreement was announced that Los Angeles would apply to host the 2028 Summer Olympics. The agreement made Paris, France host the 2024 Summer Olympics. On September 13, 2017, the hosts for both Olympic games was announced at the 131st IOC Session in Lima, Peru.

## Candidate City
* **Los Angeles, California, United States** (chosen)

## Notes
## References
## Other websites
*Official  Los Angeles 2028 Website