open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Johann Heinrich Schmelzer

**Johann Heinrich Schmelzer** (born in Austria some time between 1620 and 1623; died in Prague some time between 29 February and 20 March 1680) was a German composer. He was one of the most important composers of instrumental music in the mid-17th century. 

Nothing is known about his early life. He became a member of the imperial chapel in the mid 1630’s. His job there was probably a violinist. We know very little about his life, except that over the years he became a famous composer. The emperor must have liked him because he gave him presents of money and gold chains.

In 1671 he became deputy Kapellmeister at the imperial court. In 1673 the emperor gave him the honorary title “von Ehrenruef” which he put after his name. A few years later the court moved to Prague to try to escape the plague that was killing so many people in Vienna. At the end of 1679 the emperor’s Kapellmeister died and Schmelzer became Kapellmeister. It was the first time that the Kapellmeister at the Habsburg court had not been a foreigner but an Austrian. However, the following March Schmelzer died of the plague.

Schmelzer wrote a lot of music for small groups of instruments as well as a lot of ballet music. His dance suites are made up of several dances such as galliard, bourree, sarabande, gigue, gavotte and allemande as well as more unusual dances. He wrote several sonatas for two violins and continuo. They are full of fast scales and arpeggios. He also seems to have written church music, but it has all been lost.

## References
Oireachtas

The **Oireachtas** is the national parliament of Ireland.

There are three parts of the Oireachtas:

*The President of Ireland
*Dáil Éireann - The lower house. It is similar to the House of Commons in the United Kingdom or the House of Representatives in the United States. 
*Seanad Éireann - The upper house. It is similar to the House of Lords and the Senate

Only the Irish names are used, never the English
Quasar

, a very distant quasar powered by a black hole with a mass two billion times that of the Sun. Credit: ESO/M. Kornmesser]]
 X-ray image is of the quasar PKS 1127-145, a highly luminous source of the X-rays and visible light about 10 billion light years from Earth. An enormous X-ray jet extends at least a million light years from the quasar. Image is 60 arcsec on a side. RA 11h 30m 7.10s Dec -14° 49' 27" in Crater. Observation date: May 28, 2000. Instrument: ACIS.]]

**Quasars** or **quasi-stellar radio sources** are the most energetic and distant active galactic nuclei (AGN). 

They are quite small in comparison with the energy they put out. Quasars are not much larger than the Solar System. The mechanism of brightness changes, probably involves relativistic beaming of jets pointed nearly directly toward us. The highest redshift quasar known () has a redshift of 7.085, which means it is about 29 billion light-years from Earth. This estimate is made using the concept of comoving distance.

Scientists now agree that a quasar is a compact region in the center of a massive galaxy surrounding a central supermassive black hole. Its size is 10–10,000 times the Schwarzschild radius of the black hole. The energy emitted by a quasar is gravitational energy, created from mass falling onto the accretion disc around the black hole.

Quasars are extremely luminous. They were first identified as being high redshift sources of electromagnetic radiation, including radio waves and visible light. The light (and other energy) appeared to be similar to stars, rather than large sources like galaxies. On the other hand, their spectra had very broad emission lines, unlike any known from stars, hence "quasi-stellar". Their luminosity can be 100 times greater than that of the Milky Way.

The accretion discs of central supermassive black holes can convert about 10% of the mass of an object into energy.
This mechanism explains why quasars were more common in the early universe, as this energy production ends when the supermassive black hole consumes all of the gas and dust near it. 

This means that most galaxies, including our own Milky Way, may have gone through an active stage as a quasar or some other class of active galaxy. They are now dormant because they lack a supply of matter to feed into their central black holes to generate radiation.

## Brightest quasars
The most luminous (or brightest) thing in space (as of 2024's first quarter), is QSO J0529-4351, a quasar.

## References 
## Related pages 
*Astrophysics
*Black Holes
*Galaxies
Protein biosynthesis

**Protein biosynthesis (synthesis)** is when cells build proteins. The term is sometimes used to refer only to protein translation but more often it refers to a multi-step process.

Amino acids are either synthesised or eaten in food. Then, after the transcription of polypeptide genes, the amino acids are put together. This is done by translation and RNA splicing which produces messenger RNAs. The splicing process produces the final proteins, which then fold up into their protein structure. Then they can function. The plural is used here because, with most genes, the splicing process produces more than one final working protein. One particular Drosophila gene (DSCAM) can be alternatively spliced into 38,000 different mRNA.

Protein biosynthesis differs between prokaryotes and eukaryotes, though parts of the process are the same in both.

## References 
## Other websites 
* Science aid: protein synthesis  For high school
* Protein synthesis
* Transcription 
*: Translation 
* Protein synthesis animation  Wesleyan University Learning Objects animation of protein synthesis.
* Interactive Java simulation of transcription initiation.  From Center for Models of Life  at the Niels Bohr Institute.
Seanad Éireann

**Seanad Éireann** (; *Senate of Ireland*) is the second house of the Irish parliament, the Oireachtas.

## Function 
Seanad Éireann's main business is the revising of legislation sent to it by Dáil Éireann.

It can initiate (start) and revise legislation, except bills for raising tax and spending money (Money Bills).  Financial legislation must start in Dáil Éireann, and the Seannad can only suggest changes, it cannot force the changes to be accepted.

Seanad Éireann slows Dáil Éireann.  All bills must be looked at by the Seannad, so it is a safeguard against laws being passed too quickly.

Seanad Éireann also debates important issues. Also, Seanad Éireann can debate these issues with more freedom because the fate of the Government will not be at stake.  If the government loses a vote in Seanad Éireann it could be embarrassing, but under the constitution if the Government loses a vote in Dáil Éireann they might have to call new elections.

Election day
Members of Dáil Éireann are members from the first meeting of Dáil Éireann after a general election until the Dáil is dissolved.  Members of Seanad Éireann are members from the first meeting until the day before the next general election of the Seanad.

Elections for Dáil Éireann must be within 30 days of being dissolved. Elections for the Seanad must be within 90 days of Dáil Éireann's dissolution.  The Seanad must be elected after the Dáil, because new TDs are allowed to vote in a Seanad election.

## Members 
There are sixty Senators.

* 11 are nominated to be members by the new Taoiseach after a general election
* 49 are elected from panels of candidates

## Elected Senators 
* Three senators are elected by the National University of Ireland;
* Three are elected by the University of Dublin;
* 43 are elected from 5 panels of candidates:-
** National Language and Culture, Literature, Art, Education and other professions;
** Agriculture and allied interests, and Fisheries;
** Labour, (organised or unorganised);
** Industry and Commerce, including banking, finance, accountancy, engineering and architecture;
** Public Administration and social services, including voluntary social activities.

At least 5 senators must be elected from each panel, but no more than 11 from any one panel.

About 1.000 people can vote for the Seanad:

* Members of the newly elected Dáil Éireann
* Members of the old Seanad Éireann
* Members of city and county councils

The senators from the Universities are elected by any Irish citizen with a degree from that university.

The university seats shows how much Éamon de Valera, who wrote the Constitution of Ireland was influenced by the British Parliament.  At the time it was written the universities of Oxford and Cambridge had their own MPs in the House of Commons.  Graduates of those universities voted for these MPs as well as for the MP were they lived.

## Related pages
* Dáil Éireann
* Oireachtas

## References
Taoiseach

The **Taoiseach** (), also referred to as **An Taoiseach** (), is the head of the government in Ireland.  The term *prime minister* is not used by the Irish media.

## Appointment 
When a new Dáil Éireann meets after an election it nominates one of its members to be Taoiseach.  He then visits the President, and is appointed.  He then presents a list of ministers to the Dáil and when this is approved they are also appointed by the President.

If the Taoiseach resigns all members of the government are said to have resigned as well.  If a minister does not resign when asked by the Taoiseach, the Taoiseach can ask the President to sack the minister.  The President cannot refuse to do this.

## Department of the Taoiseach 
The Department of the Taoiseach helps the Taoiseach to do his job.  The main duty of the Taoiseach is to start policy and coordinate policy of the rest of government.  Especially policies on Economic and Social Development, Northern Ireland, the European Union and Public Sector Change and Oireachtas Reform.

The Government Chief Whip, who has to make sure the government's policies and ideas are turned into law, is a part of the Taoiseach's department.

The current Taoiseach is Simon Harris since 9 April 2024.

## List
## Notes 
## References
National Weather Service

The **National Weather Service** (also known as **NWS**) is one of the six scientific agencies that make up the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) of the United States government. Its job is to provide "weather, hydrologic, and climate forecasts and warnings for the United States, its territories, adjacent waters and ocean areas, for the protection of life and property and the enhancement of the national economy." This is done through a collection of national and regional centers, and more than 122 local weather forecast offices (WFOs). Since the NWS is a government agency, most of its products are in the public domain.

## Related pages
* NOAA Weather Radio

## References
## Other websites
* National Weather Service
* NOAA Weather Radio All Hazards
* Hydrometeorological Prediction Center 
* Aviation Weather Center
* National Hurricane Center
* Storm Prediction Center
* Climate Prediction Center 
* Free National Weather Service Yahoo! Widget 
* NOAA weather streaming radio - using windows media player, etc.
Baja California Peninsula

The **Baja California Peninsula** (or **Lower California**) is a peninsula of North America. It is west of Mexico. It extends some 1,250 km (775 miles) from Mexicali in the north to Cabo San Lucas in the south, separating the Pacific Ocean from the Gulf of California (or "Sea of Cortés").

## Other websites
*Google maps
*Baja.net 
*Baja California
Sukkot

**Sukkot** (also known as **Feast of Tabernacles**) is a Jewish festival. In this event, people celebrate the gathering of the crops, and remember the time in the past when small shelters were made by the Jews when they were in the wilderness and had no homes. It happens 5 days after the Jewish festival Yom Kippur and lasts for 1 week.

## Dates 
* 2017: October 4-11 (October 12, outside Israel)
* 2018: September 23-30 (October 1, outside Israel)
* 2019: October 13-20 (October 21, outside Israel)
*2020: October 2-9 (October 3, outside Israel)
*2021: September 20-27 (September 21, outside Israel)
*2022: October 9-16
*2023:September 29-October 6

## Other websites 
*Guide for Sukkot
*JewFaq discussion on Sukkot
*Sukkos and Simchas Torah - Torah.org 
*an overview of the laws of Sukkot  from Torah.org, based on the Mishneh Torah 
*Sukkot in Jerusalem
*Free succah construction plans and instructions
*sukkahsoftheworld.org devoted to pictures of Sukkahs from Sharon, Mass USA and throughout the world 
*Sukkot Concepts - Basic through Advanced - OU.org
California Current

The **California Current** is a Pacific Ocean current that starts along the northwestern United States coast and ends on the southern tip of the Baja California peninsula.

## Other websites
*Seattle Times: 2005 Warming Event
Yuma, Arizona

**Yuma** is a city in and the county seat of Yuma County, Arizona, United States.  According to the 2020 Census, the population of the city is 95,548.

## References
## Other websites
*City of Yuma Website 
*Yuma Convention and Visitors Bureau Website
*MCAS Yuma Official Website 
*Yuma Stats
Storm surge

A **storm surge** is a sudden rise of water hitting areas close to the coast. Storm surges are usually created by a hurricane or other tropical cyclone. The surge happens because a storm has fast winds and low atmospheric pressure. Water is pushed on shore, and the water level rises. Strong storm surges can flood coastal towns and destroy homes. A storm surge is considered the deadliest part of a hurricane. They kill many people each year.

]]

## Related pages 
* Tropical cyclone
* Tsunami

## References 
## Other websites 
*Data on Bangladesh disasters  from NIRAPAD disaster response organisation.
*NOAA National Hurricane Center storm surge page 
*"The 1953 English East Coast Floods" 
*DeltaWorks.Org  North Sea Flood of 1953, includes images, video and animations.
Translation (genetics)

**Translation** is the second part of protein biosynthesis (the making of proteins). It is part of the process of gene expression.

Before translation comes: 
#transcription, which produces a chain of introns and exons.
#RNA splicing by spliceosomes which remove introns, and
#formulation of the messenger RNA from exons.

In eukaryotes, translation happens on the ribosomes in the cytoplasm and in the endoplasmic reticulum. In bacteria, translation happens in the cell cytoplasm: they have no nucleus.

Ribosomes are made of a small part and a large part which surround the mRNA (messenger RNA). In translation, mRNA has the base sequence to make a specific polypeptide. This sequence is originally specified by the DNA, and copied by the mRNA. The polypeptide can be a whole protein. Or, it can be just a part, waiting to be combined with other polypeptides so it can make a whole protein. The polypeptide also has to be folded before it works as a protein.

Amino acids are carried by specific tRNAs with anticodons to connect with mRNA's matching codons. Each tRNA has its own anticodon and carries an amino acid. An anticodon is always together with the same amino acid.

When the tRNA matches with the mRNA, the amino acid that is connected to the tRNA is unconnected from the tRNA and gets connected to the amino acid brought by the previous tRNA.

So, a ribosome works a lot like a stock ticker and ticker tape. Many ribosomes, together with mRNA, will attach themselves to the outer membrane of the rough endoplasmic reticulum. Any proteins that those ribosomes make go into the inside of the endoplasmic reticulum, where it will probably go into a vesicle later. The vesicles will then bring the proteins to other organelles or even the outside of the cell.

## Four stages 
Translation happens in four stages: activation (make ready), initiation (start), elongation (make longer) and termination (stop). These terms describe the growth of the amino acid chain (polypeptide). 
#Amino acids are brought to ribosomes and assembled into proteins. In the activation stage, the correct amino acid is covalently bonded to the correct transfer RNA (tRNA). When the tRNA is connected to an amino acid, it is "charged". 
#Initiation is when the small part of the ribosome connects to 5' end of the mRNA with the help of initiation factors (IF). 
#Elongation is when the amino acids brought by the "charged" tRNAs are connected to each other to form a polypeptide.

Some antibiotics work by keeping translation from happening. Prokaryotic ribosomes are different from eukaryotic ribosomes. So antibiotics can kill bacteria without hurting the eukaryotic host. For example, antibiotics taken by a human might kill the bacteria that is making the human sick but wouldn't hurt the human.

## References 
* Champe, Pamela C. Harvey, Richard A. and Ferrier, Denise R. 2005. ''Lippincott's illustrated reviews: Biochemistry* 3rd ed, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. .
*  Nelson, David L. Cox, Michael M. and Lehninger, Albert L. 2005. *Lehninger principles of biochemistry'' 4th ed, Freeman. .

## Related pages 
*Genetic code
Curtis (50 Cent album)

***Curtis*** is the third album by rapper 50 Cent. The album was released on September 11, 2007. The album features production from Dr. Dre, Eminem, and Timbaland, among others. Guest appearances include Akon, Justin Timberlake, Nicole Scherzinger, and other notable musicians. 50 Cent divides between "hard" songs and "soft" songs on the album.

*Curtis* was released and sold 691,000 copies in its first week on the *Billboard* 200. It sold the most copies in one week for an East Coast album since Jay-Z's *Kingdom Come* sold 680,000 copies sold. The album's sales competition with Kanye West's *Graduation* was considered to be a "great day for hip hop".

## References
Intermolecular force

In physics, chemistry, and biology, **intermolecular forces**  are forces that act between stable molecules or between functional groups of macromolecules. 

These forces are generally much weaker than the  chemical bonding forces. Their bonding energies are less than a few kcal/mol. But they are responsible for many different physical, chemical, and biological phenomena. In general one distinguishes short and long range intermolecular forces.
(The molecule is a substance are held together by the forces acting between the molecules which are called inter-molecular forces)

## Hydrogen bonding 
Hydrogen bonding is an intermolecular interaction with a hydrogen atom being present in the intermolecular bond. 

## Related pages 
* Chemical bond
* Ionic bond

## Other websites
### Software for calculation of intermolecular forces 
*Quantum 3.2 
*SAPT: An ab initio quantumchemical package.
Théodore Chassériau

**Théodore Chassériau** (September 20, 1819 – October 8, 1856) was a French romantic painter noted for his portraits, historical and religious paintings, and images inspired by his travels to Algeria.

## Life and work
Chassériau was born in El Limón, Samaná, in *Saint Domingue* (now the Dominican Republic). Her mother, Maria Magdalena Couret de la Blagniére, was born in Haiti but she moved with her parents to Santo Domingo when the Haitian revolution. At that time, the eastern part of Hispaniola was a French colony. There she met Bénoit Chassériau and soon they got married and moved to Samaná.

After Ingres left Paris in 1834 to become director of the French Academy in Rome, Chassériau fell under the influence of Eugène Delacroix, a well-known romantic painter. From that moment on, Chassériau tried to combine the two styles.

His works could be grouped in two periods:
*The classical period, with works like
***Portrait of Adéle Chassériau* (1836)
***Christ on the Mount of Olives* (1839)
***The Two Sisters* (1843)
*The romantic period, with works like
***Arab Chiefs Visiting Their Vassals* (1849)
***Jewish Women on a Balcony* (1849)
***The Tepidarium* (1853)

Chassériau died when he was 37 years old in Paris, on October 8, 1856.

## Other websites
Théodore Chassériau exhibition at the Metropolitan Museum of Art http://www.metmuseum.org/special/se_event.asp?OccurrenceId=%7B36C74126-EEF8-11D5-9414-00902786BF44%7D Retrieved on 2007-10-03.

## References
Spineshank

**SpineShank** is a alernative metal band formed in Los Angeles in 1996. They released four albums under Roadrunner Records:
**Strictly Diesel*
**The Height of Callousness*
**Self-Destructive Pattern*
**The Best of Spineshank*

## References
Sim, Chelyabinsk Oblast

**Sim** (, 54°59'N 57°41'E) is town in Chelyabinsk Oblast, Russia. Its population is near 15,900 (2005).

Sim is located on Sim River's bank. Town was founded in 1759 and named *Simsky Zavod* until 1942.

Igor Kurchatov is from Sim.
Yuryuzan, Chelyabinsk Oblast

**Yuryuzan** () is a town in Chelyabinsk Oblast, Russia. Its population is near 13,700 ().

Yuryuzan is located on Yuryuzan River's bank.

## Related pages 
*List of cities and towns in Russia

## References
El Limón, Samaná

**El Limón** (in English, *The Lemon*) is a Municipal district of Santa Bárbara de Samaná, Samaná province, Dominican Republic. It is on the north coast of the Samaná Peninsula, on the Atlantic coast.

It was made a municipal district on July 20, 2001.

There are other two Municipal districts with the same name (El Limón) in the country: one in the Independencia province and the other in the Santiago province.

Théodore Chassériau, a French painter, was born in El Limón on 1819.

## Population
In the last national census (2010), the district had a total population of 7,024: 3,622 men and 3,402 women. The urban population was 66.23% of the total population.

## Economy
The most important economic activities of the province are agriculture, fishing and tourism. Tourism, above all nature tourism, is important here because many tourists visit El Limón Waterfall.

## References
Lipki

**Lipki** (, 53°57'N 37°42'E) is a town in Tula Oblast, Russia. Its population is about 9,700 (2005).  Lipki is located 38&nbsp;km south of Tula.  The village of Lipki has been known since the 17th century.
Sursk

**Sursk** (, 53°05'N 45°42'E) is town in Penza Oblast, Russia. Its population is near 7,500 (2005). The town was founded in 1860.

Sursk is located on the Sura River's left bank. It is 92&nbsp;km from Penza.

## Other websites 
* Site about Sursk
Duff Beer

**Duff Beer** is a fictional alcoholic drink shown in the animated television series *The Simpsons*. Duff Beer is known to be Homer Simpson's favorite drink and has a mascot known as *Duffman*.
Lage

**Lage** is a city in the Lippe district of North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, approximately 8&nbsp;km northwest of Detmold. It has about 36,000 inhabitants.

## Twin Towns 
The town is twinned with
* , Horsham.

## References
## Other websites
* Official website
Multiple choice

**Multiple choice** questions ask people to choose the answer from a list. Tests, elections, and surveys can use multiple choice questions. Frederick J. Kelly made the first multiple choice questions in 1914 at the University of Kansas. This testing method is popular in the United States.

## Method 
Multiple choice questions have 2 parts. The first part is called the stem, which is a problem to be solved or a sentence needing completion. The question is usually *straightforward* (only a few options) and it needs review to get the right answer. The second part, the options, have 2 variations, or differences. The first is called the *key*, and is the correct answer. The other answers are called *distractors*. They are usually very close to the actual answer so they can confuse people. Multiple choice questions are used on standardized tests, and they aren't always questions. They may be math equations, incomplete sentences, or other things.

## Examples
1.  2+2=
A) 0B)	22C) 4D) 2

2.  Where is the Eiffel Tower?A) LondonB) ParisC) SingaporeD) New York

Correct answers:1 C 2 B

## References
Venture capital

**Venture capital** is a type of private equity capital.

Typically it is provided by outside investors to new businesses that promise to grow fast, such as start-up companies. Venture capital investments are usually high risk, but offer the potential for higher returns than other investments. 

A **venture capitalist** (VC) is a person who makes such investments. A **venture capital fund** is a pooled investment vehicle (often a limited partnership) that primarily invests the financial capital of third-party investors in enterprises that are too risky for the standard capital markets or bank loans. 

Venture capital can also include managerial and technical expertise. Most venture capital comes from a group of rich investors, investment banks and other financial institutions that pool such investments or partnerships. This form of raising capital is popular among new companies, or ventures.

Venture Capital firms can go public after they have reached a certain stage of growth. Given that Venture Capital firms are financial investors in portfolio companies, they are expected to add value. 

## Other websites 
*
*National Venture Capital Association
*Venture Capital Glossary 
*Ricafe2  - A Research programme sponsored by the European Commission analysing venture capital.
*Venture Capital News & Blog:

## References
Pseudovector

In physics and mathematics, a **pseudovector** (or **axial vector**) is a quantity that transforms like a vector under a proper rotation, but gains an additional sign flip under an improper rotation (a transformation that can be expressed as an inversion followed by a proper rotation).

## Physical examples 
Physical examples of pseudovectors include the magnetic field, torque, vorticity, and the angular momentum.

## References 

* George B. Arfken and Hans J. Weber, *Mathematical Methods for Physicists* (Harcourt: San Diego, 2001). ()
* John David Jackson, *Classical Electrodynamics* (Wiley: New York, 1999). ()
* Susan M. Lea, "Mathematics for Physicists" (Thompson: Belmont, 2004) ()
Angular frequency

In physics, '*angular frequency,* ω, '''''(also called the angular speed, radial frequency, and radian frequency) is a measure of rotation rate. A high rate of angular frequency means something is turning very fast. The angular frequency is the magnitude of the vector quantity angular velocity which is also known as angular frequency vector \vec{\omega}. 

It is useful in many areas of maths and science as it allows understanding of many properties of physical objects in our world. In SI units, angular frequency is measured in radians per second, with dimensions t−1 since radians are dimensionless. 

## Theory 
Angular frequency is often given in radians per second (t^{-1})  as it is easier to work with. In this way, the angular frequency is given by, 

 \omega = \frac{2\pi}{T} = 2 \pi f 

where T is the time (period) of a single rotation (revolution) and f is the frequency.  This can be derived by considering \theta = \omega t when \theta = 2 \pi and t = T.
 
If a wheel turns by an angle \theta in a time t then the angular frequency at any moment is given by, 

 \omega = \frac{d\theta}{dt}   

If the rotation speed is constant, this becomes, 

 \omega = \frac{\theta}{t} 

and so it is similar to a speed.   

For objects which are going in circles, the angular frequency may also be given as (in radians), 

 \omega = \frac{v}{r} 

where v is the speed and r is the distance from the center of the circle.

This can be derived by considering s=r \theta where s is the distance along the arc.

Thus 

  v = r \frac{d\theta}{dt} =r \omega 

where v is the velocity.

## Examples 
The angular frequency is important in determining whether an object can stay above the ground against gravity, or whether a spinning top can stay standing. It also is important in creating the frequency of mains electricity supplies and reducing the heat due to friction in engines. 

### Satellites 
Objects are pulled towards the earth because of gravity. To oppose this, a satellite must go fast enough it misses the ground. For the forces to equal each other, 

 \frac{GMm}{r^2} = m \omega^2 r 

where M is the mass of the larger body and G is the Gravitational constant. To make a circle, the angular frequency must be equal to, 

 \omega_{circle} = \sqrt\frac{GM}{r^3} 

which leads to one of Johannes Kepler's Laws.

### Mains Supplies 
Generators in power stations rotate at some frequency.  The speed at which they turn gives us the utility frequency of our electricity supply.  These can be slowed by large brakes or big heavy wheels which stop the generators from turning too quickly.

## Units 
### Measurements 
## Related pages
*Frequency
*Radian
*Angular velocity
*Angular momentum
Angular velocity

and the orientation of the axis about which the rotation takes place. The direction of the angular velocity vector will be along the axis of rotation; in this case (counter-clockwise rotation) the vector points toward the viewer.]]

In physics, the **angular velocity** specifies the angular speed at which an object is rotating along with the direction in which it is rotating.

It is a vector quantity. The SI unit of angular velocity is radians per second. But it may be measured in other units as well (such as degrees per second, degrees per hour, etc.). When it is measured in cycles or rotations per unit time (e.g. revolutions per minute), it is often called the rotational velocity and its magnitude the rotational speed. Angular velocity is usually represented by the symbol omega (**Ω** or **ω**). The direction of the angular velocity vector is perpendicular to the plane of rotation, in a direction which is usually specified by the right hand rule.

## Related pages
* Angular momentum
* Angular frequency
* Gyroscope

## References 
* 
*
Examination

)]]

An **examination** (exam) is a test. Many things may be examined, but the word is most often used for an assessment of a person. It measures a test-taker's knowledge, skill, aptitude, physical fitness or ability or standing in some other topic. It is a set of questions designed to measure those things. Examinations change and evolve. They have been used since ancient times.

In its widest sense, to examine is to look at something very carefully, perhaps to find the cause of a problem.  Someone who is ill may need to go to a doctor for a medical examination. A mechanic may examine a machine to find why it is not working properly.

In education an examination is a test to show the knowledge and ability of a student. A student who takes an examination is a candidate. The person who decides how well the student has performed is the **examiner**. An examination may be a written test, an on-screen test or a practical test.  Examples of a practical test may be: driving a car, speaking a language, playing a musical instrument and doing a scientific experiment. An on-screen test is a test which uses the computer.

If the candidate is successful he will have passed the examination. If he is unsuccessful he will have failed. In some cases it is possible for a student who has failed to take the exam again another time.

A student who passes an examination may get a certificate or diploma. Some certificates are professional qualifications, allowing the person to do a particular job, e.g. plumber, teacher, doctor, lawyer.

## References
Spoke

, in Tehran. The wheel is dated to the late 2nd millennium BC and was excavated at Choqa Zanbil.]]
s with metal axle assembly.]]
 in Aliwal North, Eastern Cape. Note the three missing spokes and the metal tyre.]]
A **spoke** is one of several rods radiating from the center of a wheel (the hub where the axle connects), connecting the hub with the round traction surface. 

The term originally meant the portions of a log which one had split lengthwise into four or six sections.  The radial members of a wagon wheel were made by carving a spoke (from a log) into their finished shape.  Eventually, the term spoke was applied to the finished product of the wheelwright's work.

## Other websites 
These pages are in German:
*Hub dynamo assembly instructions with spoke length formula and a nice diagram 
*Online spoke length calculator, uses slightly different measures than the above formula
Twister (1996 movie)

***Twister*** is a 1996 American disaster movie directed by Jan de Bont, and based upon a screenplay by Michael Crichton and Anne-Marie Martin. It follows a group of storm chasers attempting to prevent all tornadoes from destroying everything in Oklahoma. The movie has a famous scene of a flying cattle. It is a scene that was the subject of many parodies. It was the first movie to be commercially released on DVD and the last movie released on HD DVD. A standalone sequel, *Twisters* was released in 2024.

## Cast
## Home media 
*Twister* was released in VHS by Warner Home Video in October 1996. It was later released on DVD on March 26, 1997. It is considered to be the first home release of a movie to use this now widely-used optical media technology.

## References 
## Other websites 
* Official site for the film 
* 
*
Super Smash Bros. Brawl

***Super Smash Bros. Brawl*** (commonly known as **SSBB** or **Brawl**) is the third video game in the *Super Smash Bros.* series. It was made by Sora and published by Nintendo for the Wii video game console.

## Gameplay 
### Characters
There are 39 characters in *Brawl*. 25 characters are unlocked at the start, and 14 characters are hidden and have to be unlocked by the player. Most of the characters from the second game in the series, *Super Smash Bros. Melee*, are also in Brawl. Some characters from *Melee* (Mewtwo, Roy, Dr. Mario, Pichu, and Young Link) are not in Brawl. Two new characters (Solid Snake and Sonic the Hedgehog) were in games that Nintendo did not own. The game is best known for the tripping mechanic (fighters will trip at random when running), introducing third-party characters, and the Smash Ball

### Items
Like the other *Super Smash Bros.* games, items appear in the middle of the game that characters can use. However, *Brawl* adds many more items, such as the "Assist Trophy" (where a character appears to help players defeat opponents) and the "Smash Ball", an item that lets players use a powerful attack called a "Final Smash".

## References
## Other websites
*Super Smash Bros. Wiki
Moment of inertia

of the figure skater is conserved—as she decreases her radius by retracting her arms and legs, her moment of inertia decreases, but her angular velocity increases to compensate.]]
**Moment of inertia** (I), also called "**angular mass**" (kg·m2), is a body's resistance to angular acceleration or deceleration, equal to the product of the mass and the square of its radius measured perpendicularly to the axis of rotation.

## Moments of inertia for a few objects
 *I* = &int;*r*2*dm* of a hoop, disk, cylinder, box, plate, rod, and spherical shell or solid ***can be found*** from this figure. ]]

## Related pages
* Angular momentum
* Torque

## References
## Other websites 
* Angular momentum and rigid-body rotation in two and three dimensions 
* A table of moments of inertia 
* Parallels between rotation and translation *HyperPhysics*
Riding (division)

In the United Kingdom, a **riding** is a division of certain large historic counties.  It is usually one of three parts; the word itself comes from Old English *trithing* (itself from Old Norse *thrithjungr*) which means 'third part'.

Several counties are divided into ridings, but are usually governed by a council bearing the same name as the county.  However, the ridings of Yorkshire are so large that each riding was given its own county council.  Thus there were county councils for the East Riding, the North Riding and the West Riding.  In 1974 when all the administrative counties of England and Wales were reorganised, these councils were replaced by six new ones within Yorkshire (either wholly or in part) called North Yorkshire, South Yorkshire, West Yorkshire, Cleveland, Durham and Humberside.

In Canada, a riding is a federal constituency, or *electoral division* as they are known in Canada.
2001 Pacific hurricane season

The **2001 Pacific hurricane season** officially started on May 15, 2001 in the eastern Pacific, and on June 1, 2001 in the central Pacific, and lasted until November 30, 2001. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean. The first storm formed on May 25 and the last storm dissipated on November 3.

There were no significant storms during the 2001 Pacific hurricane season. Hurricanes Adolph and Hurricane Juliette both reached Category 4 strength, while Juliette made landfall in the Baja California peninsula as a weak Category 1 hurricane, causing two deaths.

## Other websites 
* NHC 2001 Pacific hurricane season archive
* HPC 2001 Tropical Cyclone Rainfall Pages 
* Central Pacific Hurricane Center 
* Gary Padgett's monthly storm summaries and best tracks
2000 Pacific hurricane season

The **2000 Pacific hurricane season** was an event in tropical cyclone meteorology. There were few notable storms this year. Tropical Storms Miriam, Norman, and Rosa all made landfall in Mexico with only small impacts. Hurricane Daniel for a short time, threatened the U.S. state of Hawaii while weakening. Hurricane Carlotta was the strongest storm of the year and the second strongest June hurricane in recorded history. It killed 18 people when it sank a ship.

## Related pages
* Tropical cyclone
* List of Pacific hurricane seasons

## Other websites 
* NHC 2000 Pacific hurricane season archive
* HPC 2000 Tropical Cyclone Rainfall Pages 
* Central Pacific Hurricane Center archive
Pulkkila

]]
**Pulkkila** is a former municipality in Northern Finland. It was in Northern Ostrobothnia, *Pohjois-Pohjanmaa*, Oulu province, Finland, and its original name (with diacritics) is Pulkkila. The population of Pulkkila is about 1,600. Pulkkila is best known for its metal works.
 Pulkkila is about 90 kilometres (56&nbsp;miles) south from Oulu and 250 kilometres (160&nbsp;mi) north from Jyväskylä.

Since 2009, it was merged to form the new municipality of Siikalatva.

It was founded in 1867.

## References
X-Men (movie)

***X-Men*** is a 2000 superhero movie based upon the fictional characters the X-Men. The movie is about mutants who are the next evolutionary step of humanity. These mutants are feared and hated by most of humanity.

The movie was directed by Bryan Singer. It deals with the ideas of prejudice and discrimination in the United States. The screenplay was written by David Hayter. A sequel, *X2*, was released in 2003 and a third movie, *X-Men: The Last Stand*, was released in 2006. A fourth film, *X-Men: Days of Future Past*. A prequel trilogy has been made, the prequel series is currently formed by *X-Men: First Class*, *X-Men: Apocalypse* and *Dark Phoenix*.

## Plot 
Professor Charles Xavier (the world's most powerful telepath) takes gifted children and teaches them to control their powers for good. He does this at Xavier's Academy for Gifted Youngsters, his school for mutants. This school is the home to the X-Men. The story is about the X-Men trying to stop Erik Lehnsherr (also known as Magneto), a mutant who blames humanity for the death of his family during the Holocaust. Magneto does not believe that humans and mutants can live together in peace. He builds a machine that turns humans into mutants.

## Cast 
* Hugh Jackman as Logan / Wolverine
* Patrick Stewart as Professor Charles Xavier
* Anna Paquin as Marie D'Ancanto / Rogue
* Ian McKellen as Erik Lehnsherr / Magneto
* Bruce Davison as Senator Kelly
* James Marsden as Scott Summers / Cyclops
* Famke Janssen as Dr. Jean Grey
* Halle Berry as Ororo Munroe / Storm
* Rebecca Romijn-Stamos as Mystique
* Ray Park as Toad
* Tyler Mane as Sabretooth
* Shawn Ashmore as Bobby Drake / Iceman

### Filming 
Filming took place from September 22, 1999 to March 3, 2000 in Toronto. Wolverine's claws required a full silicone cast of Hugh Jackman's arm, and 700 versions for Jackman and his stunt doubles.

### Music 
Bryan Singer asked John Williams to compose the music for the movie, but Williams was too busy composing for *Saving Private Ryan*.

## Reactions and box office 
The movie was one of the biggest hits of 2000. It earned more than $296 million worldwide and was the 8th highest grossing movie in the United States that year.

## References
## Other websites 
* TheXverse.com:  X-Men Movie News
* 
* 
* X-Men on Disney.com
* X-Men on Marvel.com
* X-Men Comics Message Board
Emmental cheese

**Emmental cheese** (sometimes also called **Emmentaler** or **Emmenthal**) is a Swiss cheese. It first came from Switzerland. It is named after the *Emmental*, the valley of a river, near Berne. Emmental cheese was first made around 1353 when Bern joined the confederacy.  

Today, most cheese-producing countries make a cheese called *Emmental cheese* - These cheeses often have little in common with the original though, except for the holes in the cheese. In 1882 was the first time, products could be protected in Europe. Already at that time, Emmentaler was made in countries other than Switzerland.

Emmental cheese is amongst the best-known types of cheese. It is made from cow's milk. Two of the features that make Emmental distinctive are its holes and sweetness. The holes are there because of the way the cheese is made with bacteria which produce the cheese and over time (usually several months) create bubbles of carbon dioxide gas.

Today, Switzerland, France, Austria, and Germany produce Emmental cheeses that have a Protected Designation of Origin. In Switzerland, Austria and Germany, untreated milk is used; most of the other countries use pasteurized milk. About 12 litres of milk are needed to make 1&nbsp;kg of cheese.

Emmental is produced in loaves of 70–80&nbsp;kg. Usually, Emmental cheese is left to ripen for a period of 6–7 weeks. Ripening it for 8–12 weeks gives a more spicy (salty) cheese. In Europe, about 464 200 tons of Emmental are produced each year. This means that about 6% of the total amount of milk these countries produce is used to make Emmental cheese. France is the biggest producer of Emmental. In 2005, 247 069 tons were produced there. For this, 13.1% of national milk production was used. About 19% of the production was exported.

French and Swiss people eat the most of this kind of cheese, about 3.3&nbsp;kg per person per year. Germans eat about half that amount, 1.7&nbsp;kg per person, per year.

Emmental is also widely used in convenience food products, because it is so widely known.

## References 
## Other websites 
* How to cook Emmental cheese 
* Emmental cheese review  on *Cheese Review*
* Official Website of Swiss Emmental producers
Emmental

**Emmental** is a part of Switzerland. It is made of low hills. Most of it is in the Canton of  Berne.   Its biggest rivers are the Emme and the Ilfis. The biggest  are Burgdorf, Langnau and Huttwil. 

The landscape is mostly made of meadows. There are some forests too. Most of the people live from raising cattle (mostly cows), or from things closely related to cattle-raising. Emmental cheese has its name from this region. Langnau is known for Ceramics. Pottery from the region is also well-known.

There is also some industry. The Emmental had one of the first fully-electric railway lines in Switzerland.

Jeremias Gotthelf was a  famous writer who spent most of his life in the Emmental.
Kronosaurus

***Kronosaurus*** was a large pliosaur, one of the largest. It is named after the leader of the Greek Titans, Kronos. It lived in the Lower Cretaceous.

Body-length estimates, based on the 1959 Harvard reconstruction, had put the total length of *Kronosaurus* at 12.8 meters (42 feet). However, a recent study compared fossil specimens of *Kronosaurus* to other pliosaurs. The Harvard reconstruction may have included too many vertebrae, exaggerating its length. Its true length was probably only 9&ndash;10.9 meters (30&ndash;36 feet).

## References 
## Other websites 
* Genus *Kronosaurus*. The Plesiosaur Directory.
1976 Pacific hurricane season

The **1976 Pacific hurricane season** was an event in tropical cyclone formation. Hurricanes Kathleen, Liza, and Madeline are the most notable storms this year. Hurricane Kathleen caused death and destruction in California and Arizona because of flooding. Hurricane Liza was the deadliest storm of the season when it killed over 600 people in Mexico. Hurricane Madeline is notable for being the second-most intense Pacific hurricane at landfall.

## Hurricane Kathleen
Kathleen was a costly and damaging storm mainly in Nevada, California and Arizona. It also killed 7 people.

## Hurricane Liza
Liza  was very deadly and the third deadliest ever behind Hurricane Paul and the Mexico hurricane.
## Hurricane Madeline
Madeline became the third storm in the row to make landfall in Mexico. It was also the most intense.

## Other websites 
* Central Pacific Hurricane Center archive
* 1976 Unisys Hurricane Archive 
* [Monthly Weather Review](http://ams.allenpress.com/pdfserv/10.1175%2F1520-0493(1977)105%3C0508:EPTCO%3E2.0.CO%3B2)
1987 Pacific hurricane season

The **1987 Pacific hurricane season** officially started May 15, 1987 in the eastern Pacific, and June 1, 1987 in the central Pacific, and lasted until November 30, 1987. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean.

Despite there being twenty cyclones, there were very few notable storms this year. Only three storms came anywhere near to threatening land. Hurricane Eugene was the first Pacific hurricane to make landfall in Mexico in July since at least the 1949 season. Tropical Storm Pilar and Hurricane Norma also came close to land. The remnants of Hurricanes Ramon and Norma caused rain in the Continental United States. Elsewhere, Peke was a central north Pacific hurricane that crossed the dateline and became a typhoon.

## Related pages
* Tropical cyclone
* List of Pacific hurricane seasons

## Other websites 
* Unisys Weather archive for the Eastern Pacific, 1987 
* Central Pacific Hurricane Center archive
Riding

**Riding** has many meanings:
* Riding is a subdivision of a county.
* Riding animal is an animal trained for riding.
* Horse riding is a sport.
* Riding helmet is used for safe riding of animals.
* Riding is a Canadian name for an electoral district
Fermat number

A **Fermat number** is a special positive number. Fermat numbers are named after Pierre de Fermat. The formula that generates them is
:F_{n} = 2^{2^{ \overset{n} {}}} + 1

where *n* is a nonnegative integer. The first nine Fermat numbers are :

:*F*0 = 21 + 1 = 3
:*F*1 = 22 + 1 = 5
:*F*2 = 24 + 1 = 17
:*F*3 = 28 + 1 = 257
:*F*4 = 216 + 1 = 65537
:*F*5 = 232 + 1 = 4294967297 = 641 × 6700417
:*F*6 = 264 + 1 = 18446744073709551617 = 274177 × 67280421310721
:*F*7 = 2128 + 1 = 340282366920938463463374607431768211457 = 59649589127497217 × 5704689200685129054721
:*F*8 = 2256 + 1 = 115792089237316195423570985008687907853269984665640564039457584007913129639937 = 1238926361552897 × 93461639715357977769163558199606896584051237541638188580280321 

As of 2007, only the first 12 Fermat numbers have been completely factored. (written as a product of prime numbers) These factorizations can be found at Prime Factors of Fermat Numbers.

If 2*n* + 1 is prime, and *n* > 0, it can be shown that *n* must be a power of two.  Every prime of the form 2*n* + 1 is a Fermat number, and such primes are called **Fermat primes**. The only known Fermat primes are *F*0,...,*F*4.

## Interesting things about Fermat numbers 
*No two Fermat numbers have common divisors.
*Fermat numbers can be calculated recursively: To get the Nth number, multiply all Fermat numbers before it, and add two to the result.

## What they are used for 
Today, Fermat numbers can be used to generate random numbers, between 0 and some value N, which is a power of 2.

## Fermat's conjecture 
Fermat, when he was studying these numbers, conjectured that all Fermat numbers were prime. This was proven to be wrong by Leonhard Euler, who factorised F_5 in 1732.

## Other websites 
* Sequence of Fermat numbers 
* Prime Glossary Page on Fermat Numbers
* Generalized Fermat Prime search
* History of Fermat Numbers 
* Unification of Mersenne and Fermat Numbers 
* Prime Factors of Fermat Numbers 
* Fermat Number at MathWorld
* Distributed Search for Fermat Number Divisors