open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
David James

**David James** (born 1 August 1970) is an English retired footballer. He last played for Kerala Blasters FC and England national team.

## Career statistics 
### Club 
### International 
### Managerial 
## Honours 
**Liverpool**
* Football League Cup: 1994–95

**Portsmouth** 1995–96 Premier League, 2007–08 Premier League
* Toulon Tournament Best Goalkeeper: 1991

## References
Ice age

over the last 400,000 years]]

An **ice age** is a period that for a long time the temperature of Earth's climate is very low. That leads to an expansion of the continental ice sheets, polar ice sheets and mountain glaciers.

'Ice age' is a term used in palaeoclimatology for the period of extensive ice sheets in the recent Pleistocene period. We now know that ice ages have happened a number of times in the past, the greatest and longest of which took place in the Proterozoic era, before multicellular eukaryotes evolved.

During ice ages, the sea level drops as water is held in the great ice sheets at the poles. How much it drops depends on several factors, such as the length of time that a cold period lasts.

## Stages 
Within an ice age, there are stages. The longer cold stages are called **glacials** or glacial periods. The shorter warm periods are called **interglacials**. The last glacial ended about 11,000 years ago, when the present interglacial started. The Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets still exist. The last two million years have been the Pleistocene ice age. During glacials, large and thick ice sheets covered much of North America and Eurasia.

Many glacial periods that have occurred during the last few million years are initially at 40,000-year frequency, but more recently ice ages have occurred at 100,000-year frequency.

This data come from a time that human beings had no large effect on the climate. Therefore, it is technically correct to say that humans had no effect on global climate in the Earth's history. However, in recent centuries they have burned much fossil fuel, which has partly been responsible for the present temperature rise. 

## Related pages 
*Snowball Earth
*Ice core
*Milankovitch cycle
*Orbital forcing
*Pleistocene
*Glaciation
*Global warming

## References 
## Other websites 
* Cracking the Ice Age from PBS
* Climate patterns
Saxons

, Eider, and Elbe Rivers: ''Freeman's Historical Geography*.]]
, in the days of the early Saxons.]]

The **Saxons**, or **Saxon people**, are (today) part of the German people, with their main areas of settlements in the German States of Schleswig-Holstein, Lower Saxony, Westphalia, and the northeastern part of the Netherlands (Groningen, Drenthe, Twente, Salland, Veluwe and Achterhoek).  

First mentioned by the Ancient Greek geographer Ptolemy, the pre-Christian area of the Saxon people first covered an area a little more to the northwest, with parts of the southern Jutland Peninsula, Old Saxony and small parts of the eastern Netherlands. During the 5th century AD, the Saxons were part of the people invading the Romano-British province of Britannia and so formed the Anglo-Saxons.

Before Christianization, the Saxons had much in common with other native pre-Christian Germanic paganism. After Christianization, parts of the religion have remained in people who came from the Saxons.

The word "Saxon" is thought to come from the word *seax*, a mixture of single-edged knives. The Saxons were thought by Charlemagne and historians to be very war-like and angry.  

Many words like "radish" that are used today were created by the Saxons. 

The Finnish and Estonian name for Germany, *Saksa*, comes from the Saxons.

## Other websites 
* James Grout: *Saxon Advent''. Part of the Encyclopædia Romana
* Saxons and Britons
Pittsburgh Steelers

The **Pittsburgh Steelers** are an American football team in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, U.S.. They have won six Super Bowls in eight appearances. That is  most that any team has won, tied with the New England Patriots. They have a rivalry with the Baltimore Ravens. Pittsburgh plays in the AFC North with Baltimore, the Cincinnati Bengals, and the Cleveland Browns.

The Steelers are most famous for their defense. In the 1970s, their defense was nicknamed the "Steel Curtain". It helped the Steelers to four Super Bowl wins. Other well-known Steelers defenses include the 1990s "Blitzburgh" defense and the 2000s defense (which was not nicknamed). The Steelers always have success so they are considered the best NFL team of all time.

## Other websites 
* Official Website
Heterotroph

is autotroph, **heterotroph**, or a subtype]]

A **heterotroph** (Greek *heteros* = another and *trophe* = nutrition) is an organism that requires organic substrates to get its carbon for growth and development.

## In food chains 
A heterotroph is known as a **consumer** in the food chain. Consumers are organisms that cannot make their own food supply. They use the food that producers make, or they eat other organisms. Animals are consumers. To stay alive, consumers must get food from other organisms. There are three types of consumers:Herbivores, Carnivores, and Omnivores.

### Herbivores 
Consumers that only eat plants are called herbivores. The word herbivore comes from the Latin words *herba*, which means "grass or herb," and *vorare*, which means "to eat."  A giraffe is an example of a herbivorous consumer.

### Carnivores 
Consumers that only eat animals are called carnivores. The word comes from the Latin *carnis*, which means "flesh", and *vorare*, which means "to eat." A tiger is an example of a carnivorous consumer.

### Omnivores 
Consumers that eat both plants and animals are called omnivores. The word comes from the Latin *omnis*, which means "all" and *vorare*. Humans are a good example of an omnivorous consumer.

## Related pages
* Autotroph
* Mixotroph

## References
Mold

A **mold** is a hollow shape which can be filled with a liquid which can harden or set and take the shape of the mold.  
-style silicone and metal pans (2008)|250x250px]]
Molds are used in cooking for jelly and cakes. 

 in Athens, housed in the Stoa of Attalus.|200x200px]]
 & sweets, archaeological museum in Jaffna, Sri Lanka.|200x200px]]
They are also used in manufacturing, sometimes for very complex things.
Substrate

**Substrate** may mean:
*Substrate (biology), the natural environment in which an organism lives, or the surface or medium on which an organism grows or is attached
*Substrate (marine biology), the earthy material in the bottom of a marine habitat, like dirt, rocks, sand, or gravel
**Substrate (aquarium), the material used in the bottom of an aquarium
*The stratum that is covered by another geologic stratum
*Substrate (biochemistry), a molecule an enzyme has an effect on
*Substrate (chemistry), the catalytic material upon which chemical species react
**Substrate** may also mean:
*Wafer (electronics), material upon which integrated circuits are fabricated
*Printed circuit board (electronics), or the electrically insulating portion of a PCB structure
*Substratum, in linguistics, a language that influences but is supplanted by a second language
*Neural substrate, in neuroscience, the set of brain structures that underlies a specific behavior or psychological state
*Substrate (printing), the base material to which images will be printed
Alice Cooper

**Alice Cooper** (born February 4, 1948) is an American rock singer. Originally, there was a band called Alice Cooper led by a singer named **Vincent Damon Furnier**. The band was one of the creators of a very theatrical and violent type of heavy metal music that was designed to shock and would come to be known as "shock rock."

## Life
In 1974, Furnier legally changed his name to Alice Cooper and started making solo music. Cooper's solo career began with the 1975 album *Welcome to My Nightmare*. Over the years Cooper has played many different musical styles.

Alice Cooper is known for his social and witty persona offstage. *The Rolling Stone Album Guide* referred to him as the world's most *"beloved"* heavy metal entertainer. He helped to shape the sound and look of heavy metal. Cooper is also credited as being one of the first to bring movie-like looks to the rock concert stage in the late 1960s.

Away from music, Cooper is also an actor, a golfer, a restaurant owner and a popular radio DJ.

Alice Cooper keeps his professional life and home life separate, to the extent that, when his children see him on television, they say "That's Alice Cooper," and not "That's Dad."

Alice Cooper is one of the few performing artists who still has money earned in the 1970s.

Alice Cooper wears one half of a pair of matching padlocks, and his wife wears the other half.  This was part of their wedding ceremony, and if one wants to leave the marriage, they have to ask the other for the key.

The rock show, as it is known today, originated in Vincent Furnier's belief in what a rock show should be.

Alice Cooper lives on a budget agreed with his accountant.

Alice Cooper believes in personal hygiene, but uses only enough soap to clean himself, as he believes that too much soap is bad for your health.

Alice Cooper's mother used to send him $5.00 per week, as she believed that musicians do not make money.

## References 
## Other websites 
* Official website
Zabrze

**Zabrze** is a city in Poland in the Silesian Voivodeship. It has about 188,000 inhabitants and an area about 109&nbsp;km².
Gorzów Wielkopolski

**Gorzów Wielkopolski** is a city in Poland in Lubusz Voivodeship. It has about 125,000 inhabitants and is  in size.
Zielona Góra

**Zielona Góra**  () is a city in Poland in Lubusz Voivodeship. It has about 118 000 inhabitants and covers 58 km². Zielona Góra received status of city in 1323.
Martin Adams

**Martin Adams** (born 1956) is an English professional darts player.  His nickname is *Wolfie*, referring to his hairy face and the fact that he likes wolves.

Adams is a top-ranked darts player. He is a three-time BDO World Champion and three-time World Masters champion. He was on the board of the British Darts Organisation for a short time.

## World Championship results
### British Darts Organisation 
*1994: Quarter Final: (lost to Magnus Caris 2-4)
*1995: Semi Final: (lost to Raymond van Barneveld 4-5)
*1996: Quarter Final: (lost to Steve Beaton 1-4)
*1997: 1st Round: (lost to Roger Carter 1-3)
*1998: 1st Round: (lost to Robbie Widdows 2-3)
*1999: Quarter Final: (lost to Chris Mason 4-5)
*2000: 1st Round: (lost to Steve Coote 2-3)
*2001: 2nd Round: (lost to Ronnie Baxter 1-3)
*2002: Semi Final: (lost to Tony David 4-5)
*2003: 2nd Round: (lost to Bob Taylor 1-3)
*2004: 1st Round: (lost to Richie Davies 2-3)
*2005: Runner Up: (lost to Raymond van Barneveld 2-6)
*2006: Semi Final: (lost to Raymond van Barneveld 2-6)
*2007: **Winner** (beat Phill Nixon 7-6)
*2008: Semi Final: (lost to Mark Webster 4-6)
*2009: Semi Final: (lost to Ted Hankey 4-6)
*2010: **Winner** (beat Dave Chisnall 7-5)
*2011: **Winner** (beat Dean Winstanley 7-5)
*2012: Quarter Final: (lost to Tony O'Shea 2-5)
*2013: 1st Round: (lost to Jimmy Hendriks 2-3)

## References
## Other websites 
*Wolfie Darts Official Web Site
Opole

**Opole** is the biggest city in Opole Voivodeship in the southwest part of Poland. The German name of the city is **Oppeln**, and the Czech name is **Opolí**. The Oder River goes through the city. It has about 128,000 people living in it and is 149 km² in area. The mayor of the city is Arkadiusz Wiśniewski.

## History 
Opole is over 1000 years old.  It was originally a Slavic town. In 990 it became a Polish city. During the Middle Ages it became a German city. It was called Oppeln for a long time. After the Second World War the city once again became Polish, and the German citizens were forced to leave. It has been called by its Polish name Opole ever since.

## Famous people from Opole 
* Jerzy Buzek (born 1940), academic and politician, President of the European Parliament, former Prime Minister of Poland
* Bernhard Kempa
* Miroslav Klose

## Twin towns 
* Belgorod (Russia)
* Bruntál (Czech Republic)
* Carrara (Italy)
* Grasse (France)
* Ingolstadt (Germany)
* Ivano-Frankivsk (Ukraine
* Kuopio (Finland)
* Alytus (Lithuania)
* Mülheim (Germany)
* Potsdam (Germany)
* Roanoke County (United States)
* Székesfehérvár (Hungary)
Jutes

The **Jutes** were a Germanic people who are believed to have come from Jutland (Latin:*Iutum*) in modern Denmark, Southern Schleswig in northern Germany, and part of the Frisian coast. The Jutes, along with the Angles, the Saxons and the Frisians, were mentioned as the Germanic tribes that sailed across the North Sea to raid and eventually invade Britain. 

It is believed that most Jutes settled in Kent and the Isle of Wight. The Jutes, Angles, and Saxons settled in the land that became the country of England.

## Other websites 
*Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Jute." Encyclopedia Britannica, December 21, 2016. 
*Were the West Saxons guilty of ethnic cleansing?
Ultrasound

, aged 29 weeks, in a "3D ultrasound"]]
**Ultrasound** is a type of sound with a frequency higher than humans can hear. This frequency, the upper limit of human hearing, is approximately 20,000 hertz (20 kilohertz).

## Hearing ultrasound 
Some animals, such as dogs, dolphins, bats, and mice, are able to hear sounds which have a frequency higher than upper-limit of the human ear. This makes them able to hear ultrasounds. Children can hear some high-pitched sounds that older adults cannot hear, as in humans the upper limit pitch of hearing gets lower as a person gets older. This frequency limit is caused by the middle ear that acts as a low-pass filter. If ultrasound is fed directly into the skull bone and reaches the cochlea without passing through the middle ear, much higher frequencies (up to about 200&nbsp;kHz) can be heard. This effect (sometimes called ultrasonic hearing) was first discovered by divers exposed to a high-frequency (ca. 50&nbsp;kHz) sonar signal.

Medical ultrasonography is commonly used during pregnancy. Ultrasound is generally thought of as a "safe test" because it does not use destructive ionizing radiation like x-rays.

## Ultrasonic cleaning 
Ultrasonic cleaners are sometimes mistakenly called supersonic cleaners. They are used at frequencies from 20 to 40 kHz for jewellery, lenses and other optical parts, watches, dental instruments, surgical instruments and industrial parts. An ultrasonic cleaner works by the energy released from the collapse of millions of tiny (microscopic) bubbles near the dirty surface. The bubbles are formed by cavitation and collapse, forming small jets directed at the surface.
Cannibal Corpse

**Cannibal Corpse** is an American death metal band. The band was formed in Buffalo, New York in 1988 by Bob Rusay, the first guitarist (who left the band in 1993). The band's lyrics draw heavily on horror fiction themes. Some of their songs are about murder, raping people, having sex with dead bodies, and eating people. The band's early releases are highly controversial within the media. The bands' first 3 albums were banned in Europe until 2006 because of their bloody artwork. The band's music is very fast, dark, and angry. Some of the band's later songs have been said to be quite difficult to play. They are considered by many to be one of the most well-known and important death metal bands ever. Since their formation in 1988, they have undergone several line-up changes.

## Band members
### Current
* Paul Mazurkiewicz (1988-present) - drums
* Alex Webster (1988-present) - bass guitar
* Rob Barrett (1993-1997, 2005-present) - rhythm guitar
* George "Corpsegrinder" Fisher (1995-present) - lead vocals
* Patrick O'Brien (1997-present) - lead guitar

### Former
* Chris Barnes (1988-1995) - lead vocals
* Jack Owen (1988-2004) - guitars
* Bob Rusay (1988-1993) - guitars
* Jeremy Turner (2004-2005) - guitars (live)

## Discography
### Studio albums
* *Eaten Back to Life* (1990)
* *Butchered at Birth* (1991)
* *Tomb of the Mutilated* (1992)
* *The Bleeding* (1994)
* *Vile* (1996)
* *Gallery of Suicide* (1998)
* *Bloodthirst* (1999)
* *Gore Obsessed* (2002)
* *The Wretched Spawn* (2004)
* *Kill* (2006)
* *Evisceration Plague* (2009)
* *Torture* (2012)
* *A Skeletal Domain* (2014)
* *Red Before Black* (2017)
* *Violence Unimagined* (2021)
* *Chaos Horrific* (2023)

## References
## Other websites
* Official website
Lorette

**Lorette** may refer to the following places:

* Lorette, Loire, a commune in the Loire department, France
* Lorette, Manitoba, a community in Manitoba, Canada
* Lorette, Pommes, a fried potato dish from French cuisine.
Godfather trilogy

***The Godfather trilogy*** refers to the three Mafia movies directed by Francis Ford Coppola about the fictional Corleone crime family;
**The Godfather* (1972)
**The Godfather Part II* (1974)
**The Godfather Part III* (1990)
Sudeley Castle

of Sudeley Castle]]

**Sudeley Castle** is a castle near Winchcombe, Gloucestershire, England, United Kingdom. It was built in 1441 by Ralph Boteler, who had the castle taken from him by Edward IV of England. Edward gave Sudeley Castle to his brother, who later became Richard III of England, who then gave it to his uncle Jasper Tudor, Duke of Bedford.

By the time of Henry VIII of England the castle was the property of the Crown again. It had been visited by Henry in 1535, with his second wife Anne Boleyn, but it had been empty and unattended for some time. When Henry died the castle became the property of his son, Edward VI of England, who gave it to his uncle, Thomas Seymour. Thomas was made Lord of Sudeley and married the King's stepmother, Catherine Parr. During this time Thomas began to rebuild the castle for Catherine's use, but only one room that he had built remains today.

Seymour and Catherine moved into the castle and brought with them ladies to attend on the Queen Dowager, as well as gentlemen of the household and Yeomen of the guard. The castle was then home to over 100 people. Another famous figure who came to live in the castle of Lady Jane Grey, who was a ward of Seymour's, as well as the young Elizabeth I of England.

Catherine died after she had given birth to a daughter, Mary, at Sudeley Castle and was buried in its St. Mary's Chapel. Her grave was discovered in 1728 after the castle and the chapel had been left in ruins by the English Civil War. She was buried again by the Rector of Sudeley in 1817. 

Seymour's ambitions led to him being arrested and beheaded, after which Sudeley Castle became the property of Catherine's brother William Parr, who was the Marquess of Northampton. Parr had his property and title taken away after being involved in the failed attempt to make Lady Jane Grey Queen of England.

In 1554 Mary I of England gave Sudeley Castle to John Brydges, Lord Chandos and it remained as his property throughout the reign of Elizabeth I of England. Elizabeth was entertained three times at Sudeley Castle, which including a spectacular feast in 1592 to celebrate the anniversary of the defeat of the Spanish Armada.
Diagram

A **diagram** is usually a two-dimensional display which communicates using visual relationships. It is a simplified and structured visual representation of concepts, ideas, constructions, relations, statistical data, anatomy etc. It may be used for all aspects of human activities to explain or illustrate a topic.

## Discussion 
]]
* *visual information device*: Like the term "illustration" the diagram is used as a collective term standing for the whole class of technical genres, including graphs, technical drawings and tables.
* *specific kind of visual display*: This is the genre that shows qualitative data with shapes that are connected by lines, arrows, or other visual links.

In science the term is used in both ways. For example, Anderson (1997) stated more generally: "diagrams are pictorial, yet abstract, representations of information, and maps, line graphs, bar charts, engineering blueprints, and architects' sketches are all examples of diagrams, whereas photographs and video are not". On the other hand, Lowe (1993) defined diagrams as specifically "abstract graphic portrayals of the subject matter they represent".

## Visual thinking 
Diagrams affect the mind so that the viewer comes to understand them, but not in the way one understands words. Visual thinking or problem-solving is very ancient, and largely automatic. One only has to remember that the brain puts together an image of the world around us based on sensory input, mostly sight. We do not make any conscious decisions: it is done without conscious thought. Diagrams most likely "tap in" to some of these ancient – but largely unknown – routines.

In fact these normally hidden brain processes do sometimes become apparent. When brain damage affects the visual cortex, or when visual illusions are created, are two classic examples.

The way some diagrams affect thinking is quite important. Mendeleev's periodic table summarised previous research on the elements. Far more important, though, was the way it suggested the properties of elements which were *not yet discovered*. This diagram stimulated creative thought, and other examples from the history of science could be given: see Feynman diagram.

## Basic diagram types 
* Matrix
* Set
* Network diagram
* Flowchart
* Tree diagram
* Graph
* Exploded view

## Examples 
* Circuit diagram
* Euler diagram
* Family tree
* Feynman diagram
* Gantt chart – shows the timing of tasks or activities (used in project management)
* Mind map – used for learning, brainstorming, memory, visual thinking and problem solving
* Organisation
* Piping and instrumentation diagram
* Venn diagram

## Some main diagram types 
There are at least the following types of diagrams:
* Graph-based diagrams: relationships are expressed as connections between the items or overlaps between the items; examples:

* Chart-like diagram techniques, which display a relationship between two variables that take either discrete or a continuous ranges of values; examples:

Schematics and other types of diagrams, e.g.,

## References
Without You (Badfinger song)

**"Without You"** is a song written by musicians Peter Ham and Tom Evans, which has become a standard since it was first recorded in 1970.

Ham and Evans were members of the rock band Badfinger, and they combined the verse of one unfinished song with the chorus of another, to complete "Without You". Badfinger included their version of the song on their second album, *No Dice*, which was released in 1970. Apple Records was Badfinger's record label, and the song was published by a related company, Apple Music.

The song got little attention at first, but when  Harry Nilsson recorded a  of it, his single became a worldwide hit. Nilsson, Ham and Evans all reached career peaks, and Nilsson won a Grammy Award for his recording.

"Without You" became, and remains, very popular around the world. Many other artists have recorded the song, and several have had hits with it, including Mariah Carey. Apple Music lost the American rights to the song, early in the 21st century.
Apple Records

**Apple Records** was a record label founded in 1968, started by The Beatles. It was a division of the Beatles's company Apple Corps. EMI served as distributors for Apple.

## Artists
Recording artists who appeared on the Apple label included Billy Preston, James Taylor, Mary Hopkin, Badfinger, Yoko Ono, and members of the Beatles before and after their breakup in 1970.

## History
While the Beatles and their business associates had high hopes for Apple at first, the tensions that caused the Beatles to split also hurt the label. Many of the records released on Apple failed to become popular, either because they did not go over well with listeners, or were not given the promotion they needed or deserved to become s. James Taylor "walked out" on his Apple Records contract, and signed with Warner Bros., where he began a long string of hits. Mary Hopkin retired from music after completing her contract. Billy Preston and Badfinger moved on to other record labels.

Apple Records released the last of its non-Beatles records in 1973, and when their distribution deal with EMI ended in 1975, the label went out of business.

## Reissues
The label came back into business  in the late 1980s, when the Beatles's music first appeared on compact disc. In 1992, most of Apple's other music also began to appear on CD. Yoko Ono's Apple recordings were not reissued by the label, because her husband John Lennon (a member of the Beatles) had to buy them back from Apple as part of a business settlement. After his death in 1980, Ono became the owner of the recordings. She later reissued them through another label, called Rykodisc.

Apple Records no longer signs new artists or groups, but new Beatles issues continue to appear on the Apple label.
May Pang

**May (Fung-Yee) Pang** (born October 24, 1950) is an American former music executive. She was a   to former Beatle John Lennon and his wife Yoko Ono. She later became Lennon's companion and lover, when he separated from Ono in the mid-1970s. Pang was born in New York, New York to Chinese parents.

Pang was a secretary at ABKCO, a management company started by Allen Klein, in New York City. ABKCO's clients included three of the Beatles: Lennon, George Harrison and Ringo Starr. When Lennon and wife Ono needed an assistant, Pang was sent to England to work for them. She dated musician Peter Ham of Badfinger, and helped Lennon and Ono move to the United States, late in 1971.

During 1973, Lennon and Ono began to have problems in their marriage. Ono trusted Pang, and suggested her as a companion for Lennon, knowing he wanted to see other women. Lennon surprised Ono by taking Pang with him to Los Angeles, where he planned to record an album with Phil Spector. Lennon and Pang lived together for over a year, while he worked on new music, and tried to decide whether to divorce Ono or  with her.

Lennon and Ono decided to reconcile early in 1975, and became the parents of Sean Lennon. Even though Pang had been involved with the marketing of several of Lennon's records, and also records by Harry Nilsson and Ringo Starr, she had a hard time finding a new job. She later found out the reason was because many companies were afraid Lennon would not want to do business with them, if he knew she worked there.

Pang finally found a job with Island Records, and later worked for RKO. She married record producer Tony Visconti, and they started a family. After Lennon's death in 1980, Pang wrote a , titled *Loving John*. She also appeared on many talk shows, to discuss her relationship with Lennon.
Germanic peoples

. The hammer is associated with the thunderbolt. Painting by Mårten Eskil Winge, ca. 1872.]]
The **Germanic peoples** are a linguistic and ethnic branch of Indo-European peoples that came from Northern Europe and are identified by their use of the Germanic languages. During the migration period, the Germanic peoples spread throughout Europe and mixed with existing local populations (like the Celts, Slavs/Vends, and Romans). They eventually formed the basis of many nations, which are connected by similar languages, common history, and culture.

The Latin word *Germani* was first used by Julius Caesar.

The Germanic tribes did not have a name for themselves that described all Germanic-speaking people. In English, *German* is first attested in 1520, replacing earlier use of *Almain* or *Dutch*. Today, in English, “Dutch” means the language or people of the Netherlands.

In the 1st century CE, Roman authors like Caesar and Tacitus wrote that Germanic-speaking peoples had divided into tribal groupings. The different tribes lived in different areas:
* The East Germanic tribes lived around the Oder and Vistula Rivers in what is now Poland.
* The Istvaeones lived around the lower Rhine River.
* The Irminones lived around the Elbe River in what is now Germany.
* The Ingvaeones lived in Jutland and other islands in what is now Denmark.

The Irminones, Ingvaeones, and Sons of Mannus Istvaeones are called West Germanic tribes.  The Germanic people who remained in Scandinavia called North Germanic. The groups all developed separate dialects, which eventually developed into different Germanic languages.

The Germanic peoples did not call themselves West Germanic, East Germanic, or North Germanic. Those categories were created in modern times.

Each Germanic tribe was politically independent under a hereditary king. Each tribe had a myth about who first created the tribe.  For example, myths stated:
 riding on Sleipnir (Ardre image stone, 8th century)]]
* Angul created the Angles
* Aurvandil created the Vandals (though historians are not certain this actually happened)
* Burgundus created the Burgundians
* Cibidus created the Cibidi
* Dan created the Danes
* Nór created the Norwegians
* Gothus created the Goths
* Ingve created the Ynglings
* Irmin created the Irminones
* Longobardus created the Lombards
* Saxneat created the Saxons
* Valagothus created the Valagoths
* Suiones created the Swedes (Svear)

Some Germanic kings claimed that they should have power because they were related to their tribe’s mythical founders.

## Origin 
 culture, ca 1200 BC]]

The early Germanic tribes spoke different dialects but could understand each other.  They shared a common culture and mythology (see Germanic mythology). *Beowulf* and the Völsunga saga make that clear.

At this time, the Romans forced the different peoples of Italy to be part of one large empire. Unlike Italy, no large empire forced Germanic people to unite. That caused the various tribes to remain free and to be led by their own hereditary or chosen leaders.

## Other websites 
* Germanic Roots of Great Britain, A Genetic Study
* On the origins of Anglo-Saxons
* Anglo-Saxons and Britons
Indo-European peoples

The **Indo-European peoples** are an ethnolinguistic group that lived in Eastern Europe and Central Asia thousands of years ago. They descended from the Ukrainian steppes and later spread out across Europe, Western Asia, Central Asia, and India.

The Indo-Europeans were Bronze Age-speakers of Indo-European languages that had not yet split into the language families we know today, like the Centum and satem dialects (speakers of languages predating Proto-Indo-Iranian, Proto-Greek, Proto-Celtic, Proto-Italic, Proto-Germanic, Proto-Balto-Slavic etc.)

Speakers of Indo-European languages in historical times are not called by the name Indo-Europeans but with often by the name of their language family like Anatolians, Tocharians, Aryans (Iranians, Indo-Aryans), Greeks, Celts, Italic peoples, Germanic peoples, Baltic peoples, Slavic peoples, Armenians, Albanians (or subdivisions of those groups).

## References
Toruń

**Toruń** is a city in Poland in Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship.

## Districts
**Districts of Toruń**
# Starotoruńskie Przedmieście
# Barbarka
# Bielany
# Bydgoskie Przedmieście
# Wrzosy
# Koniuchy
# Chełmińskie Przedmieście
# Rybaki
# Stare Miasto
# Katarzynka
# Mokre
# Jakubskie Przedmieście
# Rubinkowo
# Winnica
# Grębocin nad Strugą
# Bielawy
# Na Skarpie
# Kaszczorek
# Piaski
# Podgórz
# Glinki
# Stawki
# Rudak
# Czerniewice

## References
Champs-Élysées

The **Champs-Élysées** is a long and very famous street in Paris.

The street is 1910 m long and 70 m wide and links the Arc de Triomphe and the Place de la Concorde. It is a very popular street and has many famous cinemas, bars, boutiques, and restaurants. The Tour de France ends on the street. It is the second most expensive street of the world. Rent is more than 900 000 euros per 100m² per year.

On 20 April 2017, two gunmen opened fired and killed one police officer and injured another on the Champs-Élysées in a terrorist attack claimed by ISIS.

## References
Urban area

]]
An **urban area** is an area where many people live and work close together. The population density is higher than in the surrounding area. It is where buildings are close together. Urban is the opposite of rural, where farm lands and nature are. Urban areas are usually cities and towns. Most of the work available in urban areas is factory and office work. Agricultural work is rare because buildings are close together and there is no space for farm lands. 

There are different urban area definitions for each country. The definitions mostly depend on how populated the country is and if the definition shows a true percentage of how urbanized the country is. For example, in Poland an urban area is any place that has the status of a town, whereas in China it is any district, city, or town with a population density higher than 1500 people per square kilometer. The urban population definition for Canadian and Scandinavian countries depends on density. If there is a house every 200 meters it is classified as urban.

A large urban area, with all connected areas (usually developed around some city) is called a Metropolitan area.

## Europe
### Norway
If two buildings are less than 50 m, from other, then both building can be part of an urban area. Exceptions are made due to parks, industrial areas, rivers, and similar things. Groups of houses less than 400 m from the main (group or) body of an urban area, are included in the urban area.

## Related pages
* List of largest cities (includes a list of urban areas)
Tom Evans

**Thomas "Tom" Evans** (5 June 1947 – 19 November 1983) was an English guitarist and songwriter, who had several hit records as a member of Badfinger, during the late 1960s and early 1970s. He was also the cowriter of "Without You", with collaborator Peter Ham, another member of Badfinger.

Evans and Ham wrote most of Badfinger's hits together, including "No Matter What", "Day After Day", and "Baby Blue", which appeared on Apple Records. After leaving Apple, Badfinger's fortunes dipped. Ham committed suicide by hanging in 1975. Evans was , and never got over losing his musical partner. He also hanged himself, in London in 1983.

"Without You" first became a hit in a cover version by Harry Nilsson in 1971, and the song became a standard as time went on. Badfinger's music was mostly forgotten by the 1980s, but became popular again in the 1990s when their old records appeared on compact disc.
Mary Hopkin

**Mary Hopkin** (born 3 May 1950) is a Welsh folk singer. She was born in Pontardawe. She was most famous in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Her first and biggest hit was "Those Were The Days" in 1968.

When The Beatles started their own record label called Apple Records, they were looking for new artists to sign up. Twiggy, a model and friend of the band, recommended her. After Hopkin signed with Apple, Beatle Paul McCartney produced many of the songs for her first album, called *Post Card*. Singer-songwriters Donovan and Harry Nilsson, and record producer George Martin, also gave her songs to record.

"Those Were The Days" was McCartney's choice for Hopkin's first single. He chose well, and the song became a hit worldwide. Hopkin recorded other singles, including "Goodbye", "Temma Harbour", "Knock, Knock, Who's There", and a remake of Doris Day's "Qué Sera, Sera", but they were not as successful as her first record. McCartney moved on to a solo career after the Beatles disbanded, and no longer worked with her. Hopkin's second album, *Earth Song/Ocean Song*, was largely self-produced.

Hopkin disliked the way Apple Records had promoted her, as a kind of "squeaky-clean" schoolgirl. She left the label after two albums and a best-of compilation, also titled *Those Were the Days*. She retired from music after marrying producer Tony Visconti, but she did appear as a background singer on a few of his productions.

During the 1990s, Apple Records reissued many of their old records, including Hopkin's two original albums. She oversaw a new version of *Those Were the Days*, with bonus tracks and a detailed booklet.

## References
## Other websites
*Official page
Solon

**Solon** was a statesman in Ancient Greece. He is one of Seven Sages (or Wise Men) of Greece, because of his political reforms to the laws of Athens. Many of these changes helped the poor people. He lived from 630 B.C.- 560 B.C. He introduced the court and judges. About 594 B.C., the nobles elected Solon to lead Athens. He made reforms that helped prevent a revolt by the poor. First he freed people who had become slaves because of debts. He made a law that no citizen could be enslaved. Solon also organized citizens into four classes based on wealth, not birth. Rich men had more power. Yet this was still a more fair system than the old one that limited power to nobles. Solon allowed all citizens to serve in the assembly and help elect leaders. He also reformed the laws to make them less harsh.

## References
Villars

**Villars** may refer to: 

## In France
*Villars, Dordogne
*Villars, Eure-et-Loir
*Villars, Loire
*Villars, Vaucluse
*Villars-les-Dombes, Ain
*Villars-le-Sec, Territoire de Belfort

## In Switzerland
*Canton of Jura
** Villars, Jura, Switzerland in the municipality Fontenais
*Canton of Fribourg
**Villars-d'Avry in the municipality Pont-en-Ogoz
**Villars-les-Joncs in the municipality Düdingen
**Villars-sous-Mont in the municipality Bas-Intyamon
**Villars-sur-Glâne
**Villars-sur-Marly in the municipality Pierrafortscha
*Canton of Vaud
**Villars-sur-Ollon in the municipality Ollon
**Villars Bozon in the municipality L'Isle
**the municipality Bougy-Villars
**the municipality Lussery-Villars
**the municipality Villars-Bramard 
**the municipality Villars-Burquin
**the municipality Villars-Epeney 
**the municipality Villars-le-Comte 
**the municipality Villars-le-Grand
**the municipality Villars-le-Terroir
**the municipality Villars-Mendraz
**the municipality Villars-Sainte-Croix
**the municipality Villars-sous-Champvent
**the municipality Villars-sous-Yens
**the municipality Villars-Tiercelin

## Related pages
*Claude Louis Hector de Villars, a Marshal of France
*Felix Villars (1921-2002), biophysicist
*Villars-Maitre-Chocolatier
Omelette

An **omelette** (also spelled as **omelet**) is a type of food that is mainly eggs, with various fillings.  In the United States omelettes are usually eaten at breakfast. However omelettes can be eaten as a light lunch or late evening meal.

## Making an Omelette 
 and vegetables.]]
An omelette is prepared from beaten eggs cooked with butter or oil in a frying pan. A thin, flat 'heavy' omelette is usually folded around a filling such as cheese, vegetables, meat, or some combination of these ingredients. In some traditions, omelettes are fried to cook the bottom and then flipped over or in half for final stage of cooking. However, in other traditions, omelettes is baked to cook it evenly or the top is cooked under a broiler. When making an omelette, it is best to use several eggs. Put a little water in with the eggs when you mix them up because the water helps the eggs to produce steam as they cook. The steam makes them lighter and fluffier. Using oil in the bottom of a nonstick omelette pan helps prevent the omelette from sticking.

For a full light and fluffy omolette separate the egg whites and whisk to stiff peaks then fold in the yolks. Cook by frying in a knob of butter on a medium heat until center starts to dry then fold in half and cook until its hot in the middle.

## "Famous" Omelettes 
There are many different types of omelette, often with different names, depending on what is used as a filling.
### Arnold Bennett 
Arnold Bennett (27 May 1867 - 27 March 1931) was a British writer.  Often after having been to the theatre in London he visited the Savoy Hotel's Grillroom.  The chef added haddock, cream and Parmesan cheese to the basic omelette and called the new dish "Omelette Arnold Bennett" in his customer's honour.

### Napoleon 
According to legend when Napoleon Bonaparte and his army were marching through southern France, they stopped for the night near the town of Bessieres. A local innkeeper made Napoleon an omelette.  Napoleon was so impressed by the cooking he ordered the townspeople to collect all the eggs in the village and to prepare a huge omelette for his army the next day.

## References
Angles

The **Angles** were Germanic peoples from northern Germany and Denmark who invaded Britain from around 410 CE. Their name seems to be connected with Angeln, a modern district in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. The Angles, together with the Jutes, the Saxons, and the Frisians, were among the tribes who sailed across the North Sea in the 5th century to invade Britain.  The various tribes were later called "Anglo-Saxon." 

## References 
## Other websites 
* English and Welsh are races apart; BBC; 30 June, 2002.
Andranik Ozanian

**Andranik Toros Ozanian**, or **Zoravar Andranik**, (25 February 1865 – 31 August 1927) was an Armenian military general and freedom fighter. He was seen by Armenian people as a national hero.

## Biography 
He was born in Şebinkarahisar, Ottoman Armenia (present-day Giresun Province, Turkey). After losing his wife and son at an early age, he joined the Armenian freedom movement in the Ottoman Empire, and participated in various political parties.
Andranik participated in the Balkan Wars of 1912-1913, within the Bulgarian army, alongside general Garegin Njdeh as a commander of Armenian auxiliary troops of 1912-1913. After his arrest and jailed; he spent some time in Istanbul. During World War I, he participated in the Caucasus Campaign and was appointed as general of the Armenian volunteer units of the Russian army. He participated in 20 different offensives where he gained fame due to his courage and the tactics he came up with to defeat the opposing forces.
He was the commanding officer of the Armenian volunteer units, which helped the Van Resistance take control of the Van on 6 May 1915. He helped re-capture the city from Ottoman forces during the Battle of Van. He was also the commander of the battalion that took the city of Bitlis (see: Battle of Bitlis) from the Ottoman forces that was under control of Mustafa Kemal. 
After declaration of Democratic Republic of Armenia (DRA), he organized volunteer units against the Ottoman army, and fought alongside those units. Declaration of Treaty of Batum was in diffuse as Andranik, was fighting against the Ottoman Empire with his army. He refused to accept the borders stated by the treaty. His activities were concentrated at the link between Ottoman Empire to Azerbaijan Democratic Republic at Karabakh, Zanghezur and Nakhichevan. Ozanian struck back at the Ottoman Fronts, Army of Islam.
Andranik, tried several times to seize Shusha. Just before the Armistice of Mudros was signed, Andranik was on the way from Zangezur to Shushee,  currently called Shusha. control the main city of Nagorno-Karabakh, historically called Artsakh. In January 1919 Armenian troops advancing, the British forces (Lionel Dunsterville) ordered Andranik back to Zangezur, and gave him the assurances that this conflict can be solved with the Paris Peace Conference, of 1919.
In 1919 he left Armenia in order not to take part in the political struggles for power in the recent Republic of still those its opinions contradicting policy to carry Armenia for the last time and went oneself into exile to Fresno, California, United States.

He immigrated to Fresno, California. Andranik Ozanian lived in Fresno for 18 years until his death on 31 August 1927. His remains were moved to Paris in 1928, and returned to Armenia in 1999, where he was buried at the Yerablur military cemetery.

## Further reading 
* The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times: Foreign Dominion to Statehood: edited by Richard G Hovannisian
* Zoravar Andranik - Armenfilm 35mm 1989, Director: Levon Mkrtchyan,narration Khoren Abrahamyan
Guayana Esequiba

**Guayana Esequiba** is the name Venezuela gives to a region that it claims in the west of Guyana. Its area is 159,500 square kilometers.  For Guyana, this area is divided into the six administrative regions of Barima-Waini, Cuyuni-Mazaruni, Pomeroon-Supenaam, Potaro-Siparuni, Upper Takutu-Upper Essequibo and Essequibo Islands-West Demerara. 

The dispute over this territory is guided by *the Geneva Agreement*, which was signed by the United Kingdom, Venezuela, and British Guiana in the year of 1966. According to this treaty, all parties are to find a practical, peaceful and satisfactory solution to the dispute. If no progress is made, the matter is to be sent to an "appropriate international organ" or, if this cannot be agreed upon either, to the Secretary-General of the United Nations.

## History 
The Essequibo river was discovered by Spanish explorers and the region was colonized by the Dutch who made settlements and plantations in the area. For hundreds of years, disputes over the land occurred but no official boundary was agreed upon between the Spanish and Dutch. A significant portion of the Dutch land was later given to the British in 1814.  

Historically, Venezuela claimed a majority of the land west of the Essequibo river. Britain and Venezuela argued over the boundary between British Guiana and Venezuela for much of the 19th century. In 1895, after Britain expanded further west, Venezuela sought help from the United States of America to resolve the border dispute. Britain was pressured by the United States of America to negotiate with Venezuela and both presented their case to an arbitration committee in Paris. Britain and Venezuela accepted the decision of the Tribunal in 1899 and finalized their border in 1905.

Venezuela reluctantly agreed to the border but, internally within the country, there was disappointment with the result. Venezuela raised the issue again in 1962, four years before Guyana won independence from Britain. At a meeting in Geneva in 1966, the two countries agreed to hear ideas from a representative of the UN Secretary General on ways to settle the dispute peacefully. There are still diplomatic contacts between the two countries and the Secretary General's representative.

Venezuelan maps drawn since 1970 show all the area from the eastern bank of the Essequibo, including the islands in the river, as Venezuelan territory. On some maps, the western Essequibo region is called the "Zone of Reclamation".

In March 2024, Venezuela passes a law that designates Essequibo as the constituent state of Venezuela.

## References
Angeln

Modern **Angeln**, (Danish: **Angel**; Latin: **Anglia**, which also means in direct translation from Latin: England), is a peninsula in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. 
Ancient Angeln may have been somewhat larger than the Angeln of today, but following the ancient sources it included the territory of modern Angeln.

Angeln has an importance far beyond its small area, as it seems to have been the original home of the Angles who invaded the southern part of Great Britain, which was named after them, England. And so the name of the major world language, English, seems to have taken its name from this little region.

Following the departure of the Angles from Anglia about 350, the region was occupied by Danish settlers not later than the 8th century.

## References 
## Related pages
* Angles
* Germanic peoples
* Anglo-Saxons

## Other websites 
*Crop circles in Angeln 
*Angeln cattle
*[Tourism in Angeln](http://www.germany-tourism.de/ENG/infocenter/german_tourist_boards_dummy.htm?site=search&STYPE=ORT&LAN=EN&REGION=Angeln%20(Ostsee))
*Cinarchea (Archaeological films of Schlesvig-Holstein) 
*County and Municipal Flags (Schleswig-Holstein, Germany) 
*Genealogy in Schleswig Holstein, Germany
Commonwealth

A **commonwealth** is a group of people or of groups with a common aim to improve themselves, help each other and share knowledge and resources.

The word can refer to several organisations:

* The Commonwealth of Nations, the countries linked with the United Kingdom usually speaking English
* The Commonwealth of Independent States was the collection of countries which were part of the Soviet Union

It is also part of the official name of some countries
* The Commonwealth of Australia

or part of the official name of some US states and territories
* The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania
* The Commonwealth of Virginia
* The Commonwealth of Massachusetts
* The Commonwealth of Kentucky
* The Commonwealth of Puerto Rico

In history the Commonwealth of England was the name of England between 1649 and 1660, when England had no king.