open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Valve (disambiguation)

A **valve** is a device that regulates the flow of fluids.

**Valve** may also refer to:
* Valve Corporation, a computer software/games company responsible for the best-selling Half-Life games
* Valve hall, a building which contains the valves of the static inverters of an HVDC plant
* Mercury arc valve, a type of electrical rectifier which converts alternating current into direct current
* Poppet valve, a valve consisting of a hole and a tapered plug on the end of a shaft
* Heart valve, valves in the heart that maintain the unidirectional flow of blood
* Vein valve, valves in veins and other fluid cords in body
* Valve Records, a record label
* Valve Recordings, a record label
* Thermionic valve, an electronic component otherwise known as a vacuum tube
* Valve, a paired clasping process on the male genitalia of a moth
* Valve is one of eight overlapping shells on a chiton mollusc
* Valve Sound System
Mixosaurus

***Mixosaurus*** was a small, common and cosmopolitan Triassic ichthyosaur. It was only about a meter in length. Fossils are known from Alaska, Canada, China, Timor, Indonesia, Italy, Nevada, New Zealand, Spitsbergen, and Svalbard. Thus it lived in the Tethys Sea but also ventured further afield.

*Mixosaurus* seems to have been a transitional form between the more primitive eel-shaped icthyosaurs such as *Cymbospondylus* and the more advanced Shatsasaurs and Euichthyosaurs (the latter including the familiar dolphin- or porpoise-shaped icthyosaurs).
HHH

**HHH** may refer to:

* H. H. Holmes, one of America's first modern-day serial killers
* Hash House Harriers, an international group of running clubs
* Hilton Head Airport, in South Carolina, United States
* Hilton Head Island High School, in South Carolina, United States
* Hog Hoggidy Hog, a South African band
* Holland Heineken House
* Hot Hot Heat, a Canadian band
* Hubert H. Humphrey (1911–1978), the 38th Vice President of the United States
* Hugo's House of Horrors, a computer game
* *Hungry Hungry Hippos*, a tabletop game
* Hyperornithinemia-hyperammonemia-homocitrullinuria syndrome
* Hans-Hermann Hoppe, an Austrian school economist of German origin
* Haven of Hope Hospital, a public hospital in Hong Kong
* Hunter Hunt-Hendrix, musician best known for her project Liturgy
* Hunter Hearst Helmsley, stage name of professional wrestler Paul Levesque

## Related pages
* HHHR Tower, in Dubai
* Triple H (disambiguation)
Judeo-Aramaic languages

**Judeo-Aramaic** is a dialect of Aramaic, which was spoken by many Jews in the Second Temple period from 587 BC to 70 AD, and for a few centuries afterwards.
## Significance
There is a common belief that Judeo-Aramaic was the mother tongue of Jesus, which was influenced by Hebrew.
## Related pages
* Yiddish
* History of Jews
* Ladino language
* Hebrew language
* Aramaic language
* Judeo-Arabic dialects

## References
Philip Carteret

**Philip Carteret** (22 January 1733 – 21 July 1796) was an English officer in the Royal Navy. He was one of the lieutenants on John Byron's circumnavigation (sailing around) of the world in 1764. After this long voyage, he found a liking to this, and he went around the world again as part of the Royal Navy's exploration in 1766. 

## Early life
Carteret joined the Royal Navy in 1747, at the age of 14. He first served on the *Salisbury,* And he  worked with / sailed with the British admiral, John Byron. Carteret worked with John from 1751, to 1755. after finishing work on the *Salisbury,* he set off on a world wide trip with John Bryon, and this trip lasted for 2 years. From 1764, to 1766.

## Discoveries 
As soon as he had returned from his first trip, Carteret was put in charge of *HMS Swallow* to go on a second circumnavigation with Samuel Wallis who sailed in the *HMS Dolphin*. The two ships were separated sailing around Cape Horn, so Carteret continued on alone. He  Pitcairn Island on 2 July 1767. He did not land on the island. He also discovered the Carteret Islands, Mururoa, and the Duke of Gloucester Islands. He got back to England in 1769. The *Swallow* was in bad condition and the success of the long trip shows Carteret's courage and skill.
  
Carteret's health was ruined by his voyage of exploration. He was put on half pay, and in 1773, he wrote the story of the voyage as part of a book about the voyages of Byron, Wallis, Carteret and Cook. The book's editor John Hawkesworth, made changes to the story, so Carteret wrote his own book which was not printed until 1965. In 1779 he took the ship *HMS Endymion* to the West Indies. This was his last trip. He was promoted to Vice-Admiral and he retired to Southhampton in 1794. His personal papers are kept in the National Maritime Museum in Greenwich, England.

## References
Sarah Jane Smith

**Sarah Jane Smith** is a fictional character in the British television series *Doctor Who* and its related spin-offs. She is played by Elisabeth Sladen. Sarah Jane was a companion of the Third and Fourth Doctor. 
She is an investigative journalist. Sarah Jane Smith is one of the companions who travelled the longest with the Doctor; Sarah Jane is also one of the most popular and well known companions. 

Sarah Jane appeared in two spin-offs: *K-9 and Company*, and the as the main character of the ongoing series *The Sarah Jane Adventures*. Sarah Jane also appeared in the new *Doctor Who* series with the Tenth Doctor ("School Reunion", "The Stolen Earth", "Journey's End").

## History 
She first appeared in 1973 in *The Time Warrior*, and then travelled with the Third Doctor. After the Doctor regenerated, she travelled with the Fourth Doctor. At the end of *The Hand of Fear*, the Doctor had to go back to Gallifrey, where Sarah Jane was not allowed to go. Sarah Jane left the TARDIS and the Doctor, and returned to Earth.

Sarah Jane was a regular companion of the Third and Fourth Doctor, on the programme from 1973 to 1976 (seasons 11 – 14). She returns in the Fifth Doctor story "The Five Doctors" (1983), the 30th anniversary story *Dimensions In Time* (1993), and most recently in the  episodes "School Reunion" (2006), and "The Stolen Earth"/"Journey's End" (2008), alongside the Tenth Doctor, and other companions of his era. The Tenth Doctor also featured in her own TV series "The Sarah Jane Adventures".

## Other websites 
* Sarah Jane Smith at the Tardis Index File
Fold mountain

, Cornwall]]

A f**old mountains** is a mountain that is formed mainly by the effects of folding on layers in the upper part of the Earth's crust. The term is rather out of date but is still fairly common in physical geography literature.

Before plate tectonics became well understood, the term was used for mountain belts, such as the Himalayas, which are not caused by the folding of the Earth's crust. The main mechanism that causes a thickening of the crust at the sites of collisions between continents along their boundaries is thrust faulting.

Fold mountains are formed when two tectonic plates move together (a convergent plate boundary). Fold mountains are usually formed from sedimentary rocks that accumulated along the margins of continents. When plates and the continents that ride on them collide, the accumulated layers of rock may crumple and fold like a tablecloth that is pushed across a table, particularly if there is a mechanicallyweak-basal layer such as salt.
*The Akwapim-Togo ranges in Ghana
*Part of the Appalachians, in the Eastern United States, is known as the "Ridge-and-Valley Appalachians".

## Related pages
*Fold (geology)

## References
Temnodontosaurus

***Temnodontosaurus*** was an ichthyosaur from the early Jurassic, some 196 to 190 million years ago. It was found in England by Mary Anning, and later in Germany. It was, in fact, her first ichthyosaur. Her brother found the skull, and she found the rest of the skeleton, in about 1810. It was described in 1814. 

There are four or five species of *Temnodontosaurus*. They grew to killer whale size, about 30 to 40 feet.

This huge ichthyosaur cruised the  seas hunting. But hunting what? A discussion by Christopher McGowan suggests that other reptiles might have been on the menu. McGowan also mentions that in the museum collections are some teeth and bones which suggest even larger ichthyosaurs existed.

## Eye size 
Ichthyosaurs hold the record for eye size: the largest was 264mm in diameter (~10.4&nbsp;inches), from the species *Temnodontosaurus platyodon*. This is the largest eye ever recorded for any vertebrate; the colossal squid eye is larger still. The eyes are surrounded by sclerotic rings, a kind of bony support.

## References
Ichthyosaurus

***Ichthyosaurus*** was an extinct marine reptile from the Lower Jurassic. It was the first member of the order Ichthyosauria to be discovered. The first complete skeleton was discovered in the early 19th century (1810/11) by Mary Anning in the Dorset Jurassic Coast. Many more specimens were found in Europe, especially from the limestone quarries in Holzmaden, southern Germany.

Ichthyosaurus lived from about 199 to 189 million years ago (mya).
This sleek animal could perhaps swim at speeds up to 25&nbsp;mph (40&nbsp;km/h). 

## Mode of life 
### Live birth 
*Ichthyosaurus* bore live young. This we know from fossil evidence. It was thought at first that *Ichthyosaurus* laid eggs on land, but fossil evidence shows that the females gave birth to live young. Because they did, their life habit could be entirely aquatic. They were well-adapted to life as fully pelagic organisms because they never needed to come onto land. The babies were born tail first to prevent them from drowning in the water.

### Fins 
The German fossils also featured the outline of *Ichthyosaurus* skin, showing it had a fleshy dorsal fin on its back and a large caudal fin. Other ichthyosaur fossils proved this feature was not limited to *Ichthyosaurus*.

### Sense organs 
*Ichthyosaurus* ear bones were solid, probably transferring water vibrations to the inner ear. Still, hunting by sight was the creature's main feeding activity; it had huge, sensitive eyes, protected by bony shields.

### Feeding 
Coprolites (fosillized excreta) of *Ichthyosaurus* show its diet consisted of fish and squid.

## References
Leptictidium

**Leptictidium** (meaning delicate weasel) was a genus of small prehistoric eutherian from Eocene period. this extinct species of mammal lived alongside the dinosaurs, but died out when the tropical forests opened up. 

Leptictidium had long hind legs, and probably used only those two legs when moving fast. Whether it hopped on two legs or ran bipedally is still a matter of debate. It had a long, bare tail which acted as a counterbalance, and a long, mobile snout to help it find its prey.

The leptictids were found right across Eurasia. Leptictidium itself was a specialised hopper with the best preserved specimens found in the Messel shales of Germany.
Horatio Spafford

**Horatio Gates Spafford** (October 20, 1828, Troy, New York – October 16, 1888, Jerusalem) was a prominent American lawyer and Presbyterian church elder.  He is best known for penning the Christian hymn "It Is Well With My Soul". Horatio was a lawyer in Chicago. He lost all of his possessions in the great Chicago fire. After that, he lost his only son to a disease at the age of four. He then planned a family holiday and was held up for business reasons. His family went ahead any way, on the ship all four of his daughters died and his wife survived.

## References 
## Other websites 
*Photos of Horatio Spafford and a MIDI file of the hymn 
*Many details on life of Spafford 
*The Spafford family tragedy
Online schools

A **Online school** (or cyber high school) is a high school on the internet. It teaches students over the Internet. It means that a high school student has the option of receiving their education at home.

## Locations 
In the United States, 38 states have some form of Online school, according to CBS News. These schools often include giving a computer, internet connection, textbooks and Online school software.

## Teachers 
Online school teachers are sometimes able to work from home, depending upon the state's cyber curriculum. If the state is against the idea, then the tutor has to go at a special location to be able to teach.

## Purpose 
Online school appeals to all students but works especially well for those students with needs that cannot be met in a traditional classroom, such as students who are ill, homebound students, students who travel, or special education students.

## References
Oceanic dolphin

**Oceanic dolphins** are the members of the *Delphinidae* family, of the order Cetacea. They are aquatic mammals. They are found worldwide, mostly in the shallower seas of the continental shelves. These dolphins usually live in the open seas, unlike the river dolphins.

## Taxonomy 
** Family **Delphinidae**
** Genus *Peponocephala*
*** Melon-headed whale, *Peponocephala electra*
** Genus *Orcinus*
*** Orca (Killer whale), *Orcinus orca*
** Genus *Feresa*
*** Pygmy killer whale, *Feresa attenuata*
** Genus *Pseudorca*
*** False killer whale, *Pseudorca crassidens*
** Genus *Globicephala*: Pilot whales
*** Long-finned pilot whale, *Globicephala melas*
*** Short-finned pilot whale, *Globicephala macrorhynchus*
** Genus *Delphinus*
*** Long-beaked common dolphin, *Delphinus capensis*
*** Short-beaked common dolphin, *Delphinus delphis*
** Genus *Lissodelphis*
*** Northern rightwhale dolphin, *Lissodelphis borealis*
*** Southern rightwhale dolphin, *Lissodelphis peronii*
** Genus *Sotalia*
*** Tucuxi, *Sotalia fluviatilis*
** Genus *Sousa*
*** Pacific humpback dolphin, *Sousa chinensis*
*** Indian humpback dolphin, *Sousa plumbea*
*** Atlantic humpback dolphin, *Sousa teuszii*
** Genus *Stenella*
*** Atlantic spotted dolphin, *Stenella frontalis*
*** Clymene dolphin, *Stenella clymene*
*** Pantropical spotted dolphin, *Stenella attenuata*
*** Spinner dolphin, *Stenella longirostris*
*** Striped dolphin, *Stenella coeruleoalba*
** Genus *Steno*
*** Rough-toothed dolphin, *Steno bredanensis*
** Genus *Tursiops*: Bottlenose dolphins
*** Common bottlenose dolphin, *Tursiops truncatus*
*** Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin
** Genus *Cephalorhynchus*
*** Chilean dolphin, *Cephalorhynchus eutropia*
*** Commerson's dolphin, *Cephalorhynchus commersonii*
*** Heaviside's dolphin, *Cephalorhynchus heavisidii*
*** Hector's dolphin, *Cephalorhynchus hectori*
** Genus *Grampus*
*** Risso's dolphin, *Grampus griseus*
** Genus *Lagenodelphis*
*** Fraser's dolphin, *Lagenodelphis hosei*
** Genus *Lagenorhynchus*
*** Atlantic white-sided dolphin, *Lagenorhynchus acutus*
*** Dusky dolphin, *Lagenorhynchus obscurus*
*** Hourglass dolphin, *Lagenorhynchus cruciger*
*** Pacific white-sided dolphin, *Lagenorhynchus obliquidens*
*** Peale's dolphin, *Lagenorhynchus australis*
*** White-beaked dolphin, *Lagenorhynchus albirostris*
** Genus *Orcaella*
*** Irrawaddy dolphin, *Orcaella brevirostris*
*** Australian snubfin dolphin, *Orcaella heinsohni*

## Other websites
Hainish Cycle

The **Hainish Cycle** is the setting for a number of science fiction books and stories that were written by Ursula K. Le Guin. 

## List of books
* *The Dispossessed* (1974) - Urras-Anarres (Tau Ceti)
* *The Word for World is Forest* (1976) - Athshe/New Tahiti
* ''Rocannon's World* (1964) - Rokanan (Fomalhaut II)
* *Planet of Exile* (1966) - Werel (Gamma Draconis III)
* *City of Illusions* (1967) - Terra
* *The Left Hand of Darkness* (1969) - Gethen
* *Four Ways to Forgiveness* (1995) - Yeowe-Werel
* *The Telling'' (2000) - Aka
Fanny Crosby

**Frances Jane Crosby** (usually known as **Fanny Crosby**) (March 24, 1820 – February 12, 1915) was an American poet and lyricist. She wrote Protestant hymns. She was a lifelong Methodist. She wrote over 8,000 hymns in her life, even though she became blind shortly after she was born. She was also known for her preaching and speaking.

Crosby is one of the most famous hymn writers in history. Some of her most well-known and best-loved songs are "Blessed Assurance", "Pass Me Not, O Gentle Saviour", and "To God Be the Glory".

## Related pages 
*List of poets from North America

## Other websites 
*The New York Institute for Special Education page on Fanny Crosby
*Fanny Crosby page at Cyberhymnal  Words and MIDI music for over 400 hymns.
*Biographies at Wholesome Words
Prince of Wales Island (Nunavut)

**Prince of Wales Island** one of the bigger members of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. It is an Arctic island in Nunavut, Canada, between Victoria Island and Somerset Island and south of the Queen Elizabeth Islands.

It is a low tundra-covered island with an irregular coastline deeply indented by Ommanney Bay in the west and Browne Bay in the east. Its area has been thought to be around 33&nbsp;339&nbsp;km². Prince of Wales Island is the world's 40th biggest island and the 10th biggest in Canada. Its highest known point, found at 73°49'N; 97°50'W – and 320&nbsp;m high – is an unnamed spot in the island's far northeastern end http://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=681 overlooking the Baring Channel, which separates the island from nearby Russell Island.
Southampton Island

**Southampton Island** is one of the bigger members of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. It is a big island at the entrance to Hudson Bay, Canada. It is part of the Kivalliq Region of the Nunavut Territory. The area of the island is 41,214 km². It is the 34th biggest island in the world and Canada's 9th biggest island. The only settlement on Southampton Island is Coral Harbour (pop. 712, Canada 2001 Census), called in Inuit *Salliq*.
Somerset Island

**Somerset Island** is a member of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. It is a big island across the 2&nbsp;km wide Bellot Strait from the Boothia Peninsula in the Qikiqtaaluk Region of Nunavut, Canada.  It has an area of 9,570 square miles (24,786&nbsp;km²), making it the 45th biggest island in the world and Canada's twelfth biggest island. No one lives on **Somerset Island**
Provinces of Ireland

The **Provinces of Ireland** were the main divisions of Ireland prior to 1922 when it was partitioned as a result of the majority of it becoming independent.  Ireland was divided into four different provinces, or territorial divisions.

The four provinces are:

 of the countries and traditional provinces on the island of Ireland]]

## Related pages
* Counties of Ireland
* Counties of Northern Ireland
Mission statement

A **mission statement** tells the purpose of a company or organization.  Basically, it says in a very short way WHO the organization does something for, WHAT is the kind of thing it does, and WHICH WAY it does it (that is, instead of other ways one could do that same thing). It can be used to tell quickly what the organization does. It can also help to give members of the organization a common idea of what they're here to do. 

A mission statement basically sums up everything that something is about. Put very simply, for performance it would sum up what the purpose of the performance is. That might be to entertain.

Examples:

McDonald's - **Mission statement**: "To provide the fast food customer food prepared in the same high-quality manner world-wide that is tasty, reasonably-priced & delivered consistently in a low-key décor and friendly atmosphere." 
* WHO: People who want fast food, all over the world
* WHAT: Good food that tastes good and doesn't cost too much (well...)
* WHICH WAY: The same way anywhere, no bells and whistles in the shop, but friendly employees there.

World Vision - Mission statement (well, part of it): "...working with the poor and oppressed to promote human transformation, seek justice and bear witness to the good news of the Kingdom of God"

* WHO: Poor and oppressed people around the world
* WHAT: Help them get a better chance of being better off and be a good person, too
* WHICH WAY: Work for fair conditions of life and let people know what God has always wanted to give them and how to get it
Philip Bliss

**Philip Paul Bliss** (July 9, 1838 – December 29, 1876) was an American writer of hymns. He was also a Gospel music singer. He wrote many well-known hymns in his lifetime. He also wrote the tune for Horatio Spafford's "It Is Well with My Soul".

## Other websites 
*Christian Biography Resources
*The Memoirs of PP Bliss
*The Music of Philip Paul Bliss
List of European countries by area

This is a **list of European countries**, by geographical area.

Notes: Some of these countries are also considered part of Asia. Their names are given in *italics* and only their European area is given. 

Not all states within the geographical region are part of the European Union, although member states are in the majority. Non-member states are marked with an asterisk (*). This currently includes all of the Asian border states.

Some of the smaller countries, marked (†), are represented indirectly in the EU by larger EU members. 

## Notes
William Wilberforce

**William Wilberforce** (24 August 1759–29 July 1833) was a British evangelical politician and philanthropist. He was a leader of the movement to end the Atlantic slave trade.

## Other websites 

* BBC historic figures: William Wilberforce
Mission

A **mission** can be any of the following:

## Religion 
* Missionary

## Politics and government
* Diplomatic mission, a diplomatic outpost in a foreign territory
* Space mission, the launch of craft into outer space.
** List of human spaceflights, a list of manned space missions.
* Combat mission, a military action.

## Geography
In the **United States**:
*Mission, Kansas
*Mission, Oregon
*Mission, South Dakota
*Mission, Texas
*Mission Ridge Ski Area, Washington
In **Canada**:
*Mission, British Columbia, a district municipality in British Columbia
*Mission, Calgary, a neighbourhood in Calgary, Alberta
*Okanagan Mission, a neighbourhood of Kelowna, British Columbia, is locally known as "the Mission"
Non-English-language equivalents:

In **Argentina**:
*Misiones Province

In **Brazil**:
* Missões, Brazil, a region of Rio Grande do Sul in Brazil that roughly occupies the same area previously dominated by the colonial missions founded by Padre Roque Gonzales.
** São Miguel das Missões, one of the best-preserved of the old colonial missions
** Guarani das Missões
** São Paulo das Missões
** Campina das Missões

In **Paraguay**:
*Misiones Department

## Other uses
* Mission statement, a brief statement of the purpose of an organization
* Mission (grape), a variety of grape
Flag of Romania

The **flag of Romania** is a  tricolour of blue, yellow, and red. The colours stand for the three historical provinces of Romania. The current design was made official in 1994, but the flag has been used since 1989. The first design of the flag was in 1834, but the three colours date from the sixth century. It is very similar to the Flag of Chad, except that this flag is very slightly lighter in color.
List of cities in Romania

This is a **list of cities in Romania**, by population for the first section, and a complete listing in the second section:

## Cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants 
## Complete list 
## References
Coat of arms of Romania

The **Coat of arms of Romania** is the coat of arms that has been  by the Romanian Parliament on 10 September 1992.  The design for it came from the coat of arms that the Kingdom of Romania created back in 1922. It displays a golden aquila that is holding a cross in its beak.  It also shows a mace and a sword in its claws.  It contains the three colors of the Flag of Romania: red, yellow, and blue.
Always Coming Home

***Always Coming Home*** is a book that was written by Ursula K. Le Guin in 1985. This book is a novel about a group of humans called the Kesh, living in the future in California.

## Translations
*, Eksmo, 2005
*, Prószyński, 1996

## Other websites 
*Official author book site
Treaty of Berlin

The name **Treaty of Berlin** can be any of the following treaties:

* Treaty of Berlin (1742)
* Treaty of Berlin (1878)
* Treaty of Berlin (1885)
* Treaty of Berlin (1889) 
* Treaty of Berlin (1899)
* Treaty of Berlin (1921) 
* Treaty of Berlin (1926)
Members Church of God International

## Description 
The **Members Church of God International** is an international Christian religious organization widely known for their program named *Ang Dating Daan* (English: The Old Path) by its longest-running religious program in the Philippines. Currently, the church's presiding minister is Daniel S. Razon, and the former presiding minister Eliseo Soriano has passed away in February 10, 2021. The church reject the Roman Catholic belief about Trinity.
The church follows government law/s, and thus Eliseo Soriano signed in with the **Securities and Exchange Commission** (SEC) with the name *Ang Mga Kaanib sa Iglesia ng Dios kay Kristo Hesus, Haligi at Saligan ng Katotohanan, sa Bansang Pilipinas* (English: Members of the Church of God in Christ Jesus, Pillar and Ground of Truth in the Philippines) following the name in 1 Timothy 3:15 of the Ang Dating Biblia (Tagalog) version. In around the year 2004, another name was signed and changed to Members Church of God International (Tagalog: *Ang Mga Kaanib sa Iglesia ng Dios Internasyonal*) by the followed of the church's expansion across the country. The church is known in different Spanish-speaking and Portuguese-speaking countries as *Miembros de la Iglesia de Dios Internacional* and *Membros da Igreja de Deus Internacional* in the order given, shortened as MIDI.

## History 
*Please input sources upon the history simplified in this page. Thank you for the contribution given.*The church is connected from a similar denomination, named *Iglesia ng Dios kay Cristo Jesus, Haligi at Suhay ng Katotohanan* (English: Church of God in Christ Jesus, the Pillar and Support of the Truth) first led by Nicolas Antiporda Perez in 1928. It started as a small group with less than a hundred members.
Sighişoara

**Sighişoara** is a city and municipality in Mureş County, Romania. It is on the Târnava Mare River.  Sighişoara had a population of 28.102 people as of 2011.

## Twin towns 
* Dinkelsbühl (Germany)
* Kiskunfélegyháza (Hungary)
* Baden (Switzerland)
* Blois (France)
* Città di Castello (Italy)

## Other websites 
*Town hall of Sighişoara City
Quechuas

**Quechuas** is the term used for several ethnic groups in South America that use a Quechua language (mainly Southern Quechua). They belong to several ethnic groups in South America, above all in Peru, Bolivia and Argentina.

The Quechuas of Ecuador call themselves and their language *Kichwa*, *Kichwas* or *Quichuas*. The Kichwa-speaking group of Colombia are the Ingas.

Here are some (historic) Quechua peoples:
* Inca
* Chancas (in Huancavelica, Ayacucho y Apurímac)
* Huancas (in Junín; spoke Quechua before the Incas did)
* Cañaris (in Ecuador; adopted the Quechua language from the Incas)

## Related pages
*Q'ero (an Andean Quechua community)
Vilcabamba, Peru

**Vilcabamba**  was founded by Manco Inca in 1539 and was the last city of the Inca Empire until it fell to the Spaniards in 1572. That meant the end of Inca resistance to Spanish rule.

## History 
After the Incan empire fell, the city was burned and the area swiftly became a remote, not very populated or connected part of Peru. The location of Vilcabamba was forgotten.

The ruins of the city were rediscovered by Hiram Bingham in 1909 in a remote forest site 130&nbsp;km west of Cuzco, but he failed to realize its significance, because he believed that Machu Picchu, which he also rediscovered, was the fabled "Lost City of the Incas".  It was not until explorations and discoveries in the 1960s, that many came to see this site at Espíritu Pampa as the real Vilcabamba of legend.

## Sources 
* MacQuarrie, Kim: The Last Days of the Incas. Simon & Schuster, 2007. .
Jōmon period

The  is the time in Japanese prehistory which started in roughly 14,000 BC to 10,000 BC. 

The period ended in roughly 500 BC or 400 BC from the way they decorated their pottery. The Jōmon people were closely related to the ancestors of other East Asians, but became isolated on the Japanese archipelago in 15,000BCE and recived some geneflow from an European-related population from Siberia along a North to South cline. It is suggested that the Jōmon, like other East Asians and Native Americans, ultimately originated in Southeast Asia. Cultural similarities exist with Native Americans.

## Gallery

|Jōmon exhibit at National Science Museum, Tokyo
File:Jōmon Pottery British Museumo.jpg|Jōmon pottery

## Related pages 
* Ainu people

## References 
## Other websites 
* University of Tokyo, Memory of the Jomon Period
* Niigata Prefectural Museum of History, The Prehistoric Archaeology of Japan
Viceroyalty of Perú

The **Viceroyalty of Peru** (in Spanish, *Virreinato del Perú*) was a Spanish colonial administrative district that was created in 1542 and originally contained most of Spanish-ruled South America. It was governed from the capital of Lima. 

## History 
In 1542, the Spanish created the Viceroyalty of New Castilla, that shortly afterwards would be called the Viceroyalty of Peru. In 1544, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V (King Charles I of Spain) named *Blasco Núñez Vela* Peru's first viceroy, but the viceroyalty was not organized until the arrival of Viceroy Francisco de Toledo in 1572. 

Francisco de Toledo, "one of the great administrators of human times", established the Inquisition and created laws that applied to both Indians and Spanish alike. So he broke the power of the encomenderos and reduced the old system of forced native labor. He improved the safety in the viceroyalty with fortifications, bridges and *la Armada del Mar del Sur* (the Southern Fleet) against the pirates. 

The Amazon basin and some large regions nearby had been considered Spanish territory since the Treaty of Tordesillas. But this treaty meant not much during the time Spain controlled Portugal (1580 - 1640). 

, with present political divisions.]]

The first Jesuit reduction to convert and "civilize" the Indigenous population was founded in 1609, but some areas were occupied by Brazilians as Bandeirantes gradually extended their activities throughout much of the basin and adjoining Matto Grosso in the 17th and 18th centuries. These groups had the advantage of remote geography and river access from the mouth of the Amazon (which was in Portuguese territory) making it impossible for the Spanish authorities to control them. One famous attack upon a Spanish mission in 1628 resulted in the enslavement of 60 000 indigenous people. In fact as time passed they were used as a self funding occupation force by the Portuguese authorities in what was effectively a low level war of territorial conquest. Finally the reality of the situation was recognized with the transfer of sovereignty over the much of the basin and surrounding areas to Portugal in the 1750 Treaty of Madrid.

## Related pages
*Colonialism
*Spanish colonization of the Americas
*Spanish Empire

## References
Vere Gordon Childe

**Vere Gordon Childe** (Usually known as **Gordon Childe**) (Sydney, New South Wales, 14 April 1892 – Mount Victoria, New South Wales, 19 October 1957) was an Australian archaeologist. He was best known for his excavation of the unique Neolithic site of Skara Brae in Orkney. He is also credited with coining the terms 'Neolithic Revolution' and 'Urban Revolution'. He attempted to place his discoveries inside a theory of prehistoric development on a wider European and world scale.

## References 
* Neil Faulkner 2007. Gordon Childe and Marxist Archaeology. *International Socialism* **116**. http://www.isj.org.uk/index.php4?id=367&issue=116
Eric Bogosian

**Eric Bogosian** (born April 24, 1953) is an American actor, playwright, monologist, and novelist. 

## Personal life
Bogosian met Jo Bonney in 1980. Six weeks later he married her.
He has two children with her.

## References
## Other websites 
*Bogosian's home website
2007 enlargement of the European Union

The **2007 enlargement of the European Union** joined Bulgaria and Romania to the European Union. It happened on 1 January 2007. The Treaty of Accession was signed on April 25, 2005 at Luxembourg, Neumünster Abbey. It was the seventh time the Union accepted new members.

## Membership 
Since 1989, Bulgaria and Romania wanted to be a part of the European Union (EU) and put forward to become members in 1995.

During the 2000s, Bulgaria and Romania made changes, such as improving their democratic system, human rights acts, freedom of speech acts, economy and laws.

## References
## Other websites 
*Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Romania
*Government of Romania 
*Ministry of European Integration 
*Gateway to the European Union
*Infoeuropa Centre
Treaty of Berlin (1878)

The **Treaty of Berlin** was a part of the Congress of Berlin (June 13-July 13, 1878). In it, the United Kingdom, Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Italy, Russia and the Ottoman Empire wrote the Treaty of San Stefano.

## Problems 
### Bulgaria 
The most important problem in the treaty was deciding what would happen to Bulgaria. However, Russia insisted that Bulgaria should not be mentioned in the treaty. The Treaty of San Stefano had created a huge Bulgarian state, but the United Kingdom and Austria-Hungary strongly opposed that since Russia would become too powerful.

### Independence 
The treaty stated that Romania, Serbia and Montenegro were to become independent. The Ottoman province of Bosnia-Herzegovina was to be occupied by Austria-Hungary.

The three newly-independent states soon declared themselves to be kingdoms (Romania in 1881, Serbia in 1882 and Montenegro in 1910). Austria-Hungary officially took over Bosnia in 1908, which caused the major Bosnian Crisis.

## References
Hominid

::*For a full account of the biological family, see Hominidae*
::*For the novel by Klaus Ebner see Hominid (novel)*

A **hominid** is any member of the biological family **Hominidae**. These are the "great apes", living and extinct. At present there are humans, chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans.

The word "hominid" has been used in various ways. The classification of the great apes has been revised several times in the last few decades. These revisions led to different uses of the word "hominid". The original meaning of the taxon Hominidae meant only humans and their closest relatives. Now this group is called the Hominina.

## Terms 
The primatological term **hominid** is easily confused with a number of similar words:
* A **hominoid** or ape is a member of the superfamily *Hominoidea*: existing members are the lesser apes (gibbons) and great apes.
* A **hominid** is a member of the family *Hominidae*: all of the great apes.
* A **hominine** is a member of the subfamily *Homininae*: gorillas, chimpanzees, and humans (excludes orangutans).
* A **hominin** is a member of the tribe *Hominini*: including chimpanzees and humans.
* A **hominan** is a little used term for a sub-tribe.
* A **human** is a member of *Homo sapiens*. The word is sometimes also used to refer to any extinct member of the genus *Homo* or members from other hominan genera.
* A **humanoid** is a vaguely human-shaped entity; the term is typically used in science fiction.

## Taxonomy 
The dispute is really about whether humans and Australopithecines are sufficiently different from chimpanzees to rank as a separate family. In morphology and life style they are, in genetics they are not.

A move from rainforest to savannah and woodland led first to bipedalism (walking on two feet). Later, hunting and social needs led to larger brains and the making and use of tools. These differences between human beings and the other great apes are certainly important. 

However, a genetically based taxonomic classification shows the genetic differences are not enough to divide us into separate families. Genetics, rather than morphology, is generally more widely accepted as the critical standard. However, many scientists, including anthropologists, use the term "hominid" to mean humans and their direct and near-direct ancestors.
Treaty of Berlin (1899)

The **Treaty of Berlin** was signed on 14 November 1899 between the United States, Germany, and the British. 

Before the treaty was signed, the three countries had wanted to trade with Samoa. Based on the treaty, Samoa was divided between Germany and the United States. Western Samoa went to Germany, and Eastern Samoa went to the United States.

## References 
* Gray, J. (1960). Amerika Samoa: A History of American Samoa and Its United States Naval Administration Annapolis, Maryland: United States Naval Institute.
* Townsend, M. E. (1921). Origins of Modern German Colonialism: 1871 - 1885 Vol. 98 No. 1. Columbia University, New York: Howard Fertig, Inc. Edition 1974.

## Other websites
*Annexation of Samoa
*WHKMLA: Samoa, 1830-1899
*History of Samoa - R.M. Watson
Treaty of Berlin (1921)

The **Treaty of Berlin (1921)** was between the United States and Germany. The US did not agree with parts of the 1919 Treaty of Versailles and wanted to sign a different treaty.

## Other websites 
*Text of the Treaty
Treaty of Berlin (1742)

The **Treaty of Berlin** was signed on July 28, 1742 between Austrian archduchess Maria Theresa and Frederick II of Prussia. 

## Terms 
Based on the treaty, Maria Theresa gave most of Silesia to Frederick. This treaty, along with the Treaty of Breslau, officially ended the First Silesian War.

## Other websites 
* The Columbia Encyclopedia: War of the Austrian Succession 
* Encyclopedia Britannica: The War of the Austrian Succession 1740-1748
Treaty of Berlin (1889)

The **Treaty of Berlin** was signed on June 14, 1889 between the United States, the British Empire, and the German Empire. 

## Terms 
Based on the treaty, Samoa became independent and was allowed to choose its own king to rule it. However, the king would be advised by the United States, Great Britain, and Germany. In 1899, the treaty was replaced by the Treaty of Berlin (1899). 

## Other websites 
*WHKMLA: History of Samoa, 1830-1899
Treaty of Berlin (1926)

The **Treaty of Berlin** was signed on 24 April 1926 between Germany and the Soviet Union. Each promised to stay neutral if  the other was attacked by another country within five years. 

## Other websites 
*The Text of the Agreement
Nestorius

**Nestorius** (; ) was Archbishop of Constantinople from 10 April 428 to 22 June 431. His views, which are now called Nestorianism, were popular in the East.

## History 
Nestorius objected to the popular custom of calling the Mary, the mother of Jesus, *"Theotokos*", meaning the "mother of God". Nestorius believed that Jesus has two natures: one human and one divine. That belief, now called Nestorianism, was different from that of Cyril of Alexandria, who considered Jesus to be both human and divine at once. Nestorius called Cyril a heretic. 

At the Council of Ephesus, Nestorius wanted Cyril charged with heresy. Most of the bishops who agreed with Nestorius came from the East and did not arrive at the meeting before the decision was made. Most of the bishops at the meeting agreed with Cyril. Nestorius was removed from his position as archbishop and sent into exile in Egypt. 

In the East, the churches still supported Nestorius and did not accept his removal. As a result, they set up their own group of churches, known as the Assyrian Church of the East, in Persia.
Nome, Alaska

**Nome** is a city on the southern Seward Peninsula coast on Norton Sound of the Bering Sea. It is in the Nome Census Area of the U.S. state of Alaska.

The city of Nome claims to be home to the world's largest gold pan.  But the Canadian city of Quesnel, British Columbia also says they do.

In the winter of 1925, there was a diphtheria epidemic among Inuit in the Nome area. Blizzard conditions made delivery of a life-saving serum by airplane from Anchorage impossible. A serum run to Nome by dog sled teams delivered the serum. The sled driver of the final leg of the relay was the Norwegian-born Gunnar Kaasen; his lead sled dog was Balto. The annual Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race commemorates this historic event.

Nome is home to Alaska's oldest newspaper, the *Nome Nugget*.

The reality television series Bering Sea Gold is set and filmed in Nome.

## References
Miaphysitism

**Miaphysitism** (or **henophysitism**) is an idea about the nature of Christ. The idea says that Jesus Christ had two different aspects, one godly, and one human. It says these two aspects are united in one nature. They are indistinguishable, and they co-exist.  This is very close to the idea of dualism which says that the mind and the body are separate things that combine to make one unit, the person. In the case of miaphysitism, the separate things are Jesus' divine and human traits.  

Miaphysitism has often been considered by Chalcedonian Christians to be a form of monophysitism, but the Oriental Orthodox Churches themselves reject this characterization, Recently, the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches have begun to take this position more seriously.

## References
National Bank of Romania

The **National Bank of Romania** (, BNR) is the central bank of Romania. It started in April 1880. It is in the capital city, Bucharest. The bank's first governor was Eugeniu Carada.

## History
### Scandal 
In 1916, the Central Powers invaded Romania. All valuable objects of the National Bank of Romania and the Romanian Treasure were sent to Moscow for safekeeping. They were never returned.

### Robbery 
On July 28, 1959, an armed group of six members of the Romanian Communist Party stole from an armored car of the National Bank of Romania 1,600,000 lei (about US$250,000  at 1959 prices).

## Responsibilities 
The main tasks of the National Bank of Romania are:

# to control the supply of money and its exchange with other currencies
# to control banks and make sure the economy is stable
# to make money
# to control how much money goes in and out of Romania

## Other websites 
*
Monophysitism

**Monophysitism** (from Greek: *Μόνος* "Monos" (Solitary) and *Φύσις* *Physis* (Nature)) is the theology that Jesus Christ either had only one nature – either human or divine, or it approaches the Miaphysitic view and theology and teaches that his humanity and divinity was united in one nature. It thus stands in contrast to Dyophysitism, the theology that Jesus has two distinct and inseparable natures. The denominations, branches, and churches that profess Monophysitism are called the Anti-Chalcedonian Orthodox Churches (Oriental Orthodoxy comprises virtually all of these churches), and stands in contrast to those of the Chalcedonian Creed, which upholds and believes in the Dyophysitic theology of Jesus. 

There are two main doctrines that can be called **Monophysite** ():

## Eutychianism 
**Eutychianism** says that the human and divine natures of Christ were combined into one new single nature, and his human nature was "dissolved like a drop of honey in the sea".

## Apollinarism 
**Apollinarism**, or **Apollinarianism**, says that Christ had a human body and human "living principle" but that the Divine Logos had taken the place of the *nous*, or "thinking principle". That is analogous but not identical to what might be called a mind today.

## Opposition 
After Nestorianism, which was taught by Nestorius, Archbishop of Constantinople, was refused at the First Council of Ephesus, Eutyches, an archimandrite at Constantinople came up with new ideas. Monophysitism and Eutycheism were also refused at the Council of Chalcedon in 451. 

Later, Monothelitism was developed as an attempt to bridge the gap between the Monophysite and the Chalcedonian position, but it was also rejected by the members of the Chalcedonian synod though it had at times the support of the Byzantine emperors and one of the Popes of Rome, Honorius I. Some thought that Monothelitism was at one time held by the Maronite Church, but the Maronite community, for the most part, dispute that by stating that it has never been out of communion with the Catholic Church.

Miaphysitism, the christology of the Oriental Orthodox churches, is sometimes considered a variant of Monophysitism, but those churches view their theology as distinct from Monophysitism and anathematize Eutyches.
Botoșani County

**Botoşani** () is a county (judeţ) of Romania, in Moldavia.  The capital of Botoşani County is Botoşani.

## Geography 
Botoşani County has an area of 4,986 km².

## Divisions 
Botoşani County has 2 municipalities, 5 towns and 67 communes.

### Municipalities 
* Botoşani
* Dorohoi

### Towns 
* Darabani
* Săveni
* Flămânzi
* Bucecea
* Ştefăneşti

### Communes
Bistrița-Năsăud County

**Bistriţa-Năsăud** (; Hungarian: *Beszterce-Naszód*) is a county (judeţ) of Romania, in Transylvania.  The capital of Bistriţa-Năsăud County is Bistriţa.

## Geography 
Bistriţa-Năsăud County has an area of 5,355 km².  The main river that flows through Bistriţa-Năsăud County is the Someşul Mare River. 

## Divisions 
Bistriţa-Năsăud County has 1 municipality, 3 towns and 56 communes.

### Municipalities 
* Bistriţa

### Towns 
* Beclean
* Năsăud
* Sângeorz-Băi

### Communes
Perito Moreno Glacier

The **Perito Moreno Glacier** () is a glacier in the southwest of Santa Cruz province, Argentina and the Magallanes Region of Chile. It is one of the most important tourist attractions in the Argentine Patagonia.

The 250 km² ice formation, of 30&nbsp;km in length, is one of 48 glaciers fed by the Southern Patagonian Ice Field in the Andes system shared with Chile. This icefield is the world's third largest reserve of fresh water.

The Perito Moreno Glacier is one of only three Patagonian glaciers that are not retreating. Periodically the glacier advances over the L-shaped *"Lago Argentino"* ("Argentine Lake").  when it reaches the opposite shore, it forms a natural dam which separates the two halves of the lake. With no escape route, the water-level on the *Brazo Rico* side of the lake can rise by up to 30&nbsp;meters above the level of the main lake. The enormous pressure produced by this mass of waters finally breaks the ice barrier holding it back, in a spectacular rupture event. This dam/rupture cycle is not regular and it naturally recurs at any frequency between once a year to less than once a decade.

The Perito Moreno glacier,  from El Calafate, was named after the explorer Francisco Moreno, a pioneer who studied the region in the 19th century and played a major role in defending the territory of Argentina in the conflict surrounding the international border dispute with Chile.

## Other websites 
* Glacier Perito Moreno LIVE '08  (Español, English, Français, Portugues)
* Associated Press on the March 2006 breach 
* Santa Cruz Sub Secretary Of Tourism 
* Panoramic virtual tour of Perito Moreno
Catania

**Catania** is a city in the region of Sicily in Italy. It is on the east coast of Sicily, between Messina and Syracuse. It is the capital of the Province of Catania. 313.110 people live in and over 800,000 around Catania. This makes it the second largest city in Sicily. It has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (*Csa* in the Köppen climate classification).

## Demographics 
As of December 2007, 298,957 people were living in Catania. 47,2% are male and 52,8% are female. 20,5% are younger than 18 years and 18,9% are pensioners. Between 2002 and 2007 3,35% of the people left the city. Nearly everyone is Catholic.

## Twin towns - sister cities 
Catania is twinned with:

* Phoenix, Arizona, USA
* Grenoble, France (1961)
* Ottawa, Canada

## References
Uhland, Texas

**Uhland** is a city in Caldwell and Hays counties in the U.S. state of Texas. There were 1588 people living in Uhland as of the year 2020.

The United States Census Bureau says that the city has an area of 2.8&nbsp;square miles (7.2&nbsp;km²), all of it land.
## References
Skara Brae (disambiguation)

**Skara Brae** is a Neolithic settlement on the west coast of mainland Orkney, Scotland.

The name may also refer to:

*Skara Brae (band), a traditional Irish music group.
**Skara Brae*, the main settlement in The Bard's Tale computer role-playing game series.
**Skara Brae* is also the name of a town in the Ultima computer role-playing game series.
Messina

**Messina** (in sicilian **Missìna**) is a city in the region of Sicily. It is the capital of the Province of Messina. About 250,000 people live in and about 500,000 people live around Messina. This makes it the third-largest city in Sicily. It has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (*Csa* in the Koeppen climate classification).

## References