Neanderthal

The **Neanderthal**, a species of the genus *Homo*, was a near relative of our own species. Its scientific name is *Homo neanderthalensis* or *Homo sapiens neanderthalensis*.

## Discoveries 
### First discoveries 
The first Neanderthal ever discovered was the Engis child from Belgium in 1829. The second discovered was the Forbes Quarry find from Gibraltar in 1848. However, scientists had thought these bones came from modern humans.

In August 1856, a worker found parts of a Neanderthal skeleton in a limestone quarry near Düsseldorf, in the Neander Valley of Germany. They first discovered a skull cap, followed by two femurs, five arm bones, part of the left pelvis, and fragments of a shoulder blade and ribs.

This time, scientists recognized that the bones belonged to a new species. Experts Johann Carl Fuhlrott and Hermann Schaaffhausen announced that the bones belonged to an older form of humans. It became known as Neanderthal 1. 

### Later discoveries 
Neanderthal remains have been found in most of Europe south of land covered by ice, including the south coast of Great Britain. Finds have also been made outside of Europe in the Zagros Mountains and in the Levant.

## Evolution & extinction 
Neanderthals perhaps evolved from *Homo heidelbergensis* (its last common ancestor with *Homo sapiens*) and split off from modern humans between 700,000 and 300,000 years ago.

Recent research suggests Neanderthals became extinct about 40,000 years ago. Earlier research had suggested a later date. Dating is not an exact science because it can be difficult to date the archaeological sites where Neanderthal remains have been found.

There are a number of theories about why the Neanderthals died out. One says they were unable to adapt to the changing climate. Another says they were unable to successfully compete with the ancestors of modern humans.

## Classification 
Neanderthals used to be classified as a subspecies of modern humans (*Homo sapiens neanderthalensis*). Now, they are usually classified as a separate human species (*Homo neanderthalensis*).

## Mental capacity 
### Brain size 
The size of the Neanderthal brain shows that Neanderthals were probably intelligent. On average, they had larger brains than modern humans. 

Large brains have their disadvantages. They use lots of energy, make the skull more likely to be damaged, and cause difficulties during birth. However, Neanderthals' large brains may have brought them many advantages, like better problem-solving, better social co-operation, language, and tool-making.

### Tool use & art 
Neanderthal flint tools (for example, hand axes) were more finely made than those of early man. They were much less varied and finely made than the neolithic tools of modern man. 

Neanderthals did cave paintings and used shells as decorations. However, known Neanderthal art is much less complex than contemporary art from *H. sapiens*.

### The Divje Babe flute 
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The oldest flute ever discovered may be the so-called Divje Babe flute, found in the Slovenian cave Divje Babe I in 1995. It is about 43,100 years old. It is from a juvenile cave bear femur at the Divje Babe archaeological site, near a Mousterian hearth. Archaeologists ask two key questions:

Is it a flute? This has been discussed at length. The best summary is that it is certainly possible for it to be a flute, but it is unproved (not certain).

If it is a flute, was it made by Neanderthals? Again, this is not decided. It is on public display as a flute in the National Museum of Slovenia (Narodni Muzej Slovenije) in Ljubljana. The museum's visitor leaflet says that manufacture by Neanderthals "is reliably proven". This is not a general view, and again it is best to describe the idea as "not proven".

### Capacity for speech 
For a long time, people have wondered whether Neanderthals could talk. Many people believe they could, because their large brain size would be hard to understand if they could not. 

The discovery of an undamaged Neanderthal hyoid bone supported the idea that Neanderthals could talk. That is because, in modern humans, the hyoid is a support for the voice box. Also, computer analysis has shown that the Neanderthal hyoid was very similar to human hyoids. Researchers say "our findings are consistent with a capacity for speech in the Neanderthals".

### Care for others 
In Shanidar Cave, archaeologists found a skeleton of a man with "a disabled arm, deafness and head trauma that likely rendered him partially blind." According to the Australian Museum: Some evidence suggests that they used burial rituals.

## Anatomy 
Neanderthal men were about 164–168&nbsp;cm (5.3&nbsp;ft) tall and averaged 77.6&nbsp;kg (171&nbsp;lbs) in weight. Neanderthal women stood about 152-156&nbsp;cm (5&nbsp;ft)  tall and averaged 66.4&nbsp;kg (146&nbsp;lbs) in weight.

Compared to modern humans, Neanderthals had a stronger (more robust) build and distinctive features, especially of the skull. They were much stronger than modern humans, especially in the upper body.

Neanderthal long bones and joints are thicker than ours, and some long bones have a slight curve. Both the thickness and the curve suggest the need for more strength than our species.

### Young Neanderthals 
Since 2007, scientists have been able to calculate tooth age using noninvasive imaging of growth patterns in tooth enamel by using x-ray synchrotron microtomography.

This research suggests that Neanderthal children physically developed much more quickly than modern human children. This difference may have existed between the two species as far back as 160,000 years before present, according to an x-ray synchrotron microtomography study of early *H. sapiens.*

### Fractures 
Neanderthals seemed to suffer a high frequency of bone fractures. Their skeletons show injuries that look like the ones that modern rodeo professionals get. This shows that Neanderthals had frequent contact with large, combative mammals. The fractures suggest they may have hunted by leaping onto their prey and stabbing or even wrestling it to the ground.

## Lifestyle 
Neanderthals lived in Eurasia during the ice ages of the Pleistocene. They hunted large mammals, such as bison, auroch (an ancestor of cattle), deer, reindeer, musk ox and mammoth.

The skulls are slightly larger than *Homo sapiens*, and this implies intelligence and probably the use of language. The skeleton, on the other hand, suggests they tended to solve their problems (such as hunting) more by force than we do.

Neanderthal stone tools are called Mousterian, and are an advance on the Acheulean tools made by earlier species of man. However, *Homo sapiens* stone tools are even more varied, and suggest that our species relied more on tools than the Neanderthals did.

Neanderthals were almost exclusively meat eaters, although their diet did include cooked vegetables. They made good tools and lived in complex social groups. 

## References 
## Further reading 
*Stringer, Chris and Gamble, Clive 1993. *In search of the Neanderthals: solving the puzzle of human origins*. Thames & Hudson, London. 
*Stringer, Chris and Andrews, Peter 2005. *The complete world of human evolution*. Thames & Hudson, London.
*Dennis O'Neil 2004. Neandertals  retrieved 12/26/2004

## Other websites 
* Smithsonian 
* Archaeology Info 
* Greenwych.ca  - 'Neanderthal Flute: Oldest Musical Instrument's 4 Notes Matches 4 of Do, Re, Mi Scale - evidence of natural foundation to diatonic scale (oldest known musical instrument), Greenwich Publishing
* Neanderthal DNA - 'Neanderthal DNA' Includes Neanderthal mtDNA sequences
* Neanderthal manifactured pitch 
* *Homo neanderthalensis* reconstruction  - Electronic articles published by the Division of Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History.
* Scientists decode Neanderthal genes 
* Scientists build 'Frankenstein' Neanderthal skeleton
* A Neanderthal's DNA tale 
* How Neanderthal molar teeth grew