open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Southern University

**Southern University and A&M College** (**Southern University**, **Southern**, **SUBR** or **SU**) is a public historically black university in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, United States. It is the largest historically black college or university (HBCU) in Louisiana.

## Referenes
Hannah Dodd

**Hannah Dodd** (born 17 May 1995) is an English actress, dancer and model. Her first well known role was in the Hulu teen series *Find Me in Paris* (2018–2020). She is best known for her role as Francesca Bridgerton in the Netflix serious *Bridgerton* (2024–).

Dodd was born in Colchester and grew up in Leavenheath on the Essex–Suffolk border. She graduated with a Bachelor of Arts from the London Studio Centre in 2017.

## References
## Other websites
*
New Jersey's 11th congressional district

'''New Jersey's 11th congressional district''' is a suburban district in northern New Jersey. The district includes parts of Essex, Morris, and Passaic Counties. It is mainly in Morris County. 

## References
American University in Cairo

The **American University in Cairo** (**AUC**) is a private research university in New Cairo, Egypt. The university gives American-style learning programs at undergraduate, graduate, and professional levels. 

## References
Madison Square Garden (1925)

**Madison Square Garden** (1925–1968), often referred to as **MSG III**, was the third venue to bear the iconic name. Located at 8th Avenue and 50th Street in Manhattan, New York City, it was designed by architect Thomas W. Lamb and opened on December 15, 1925. The arena hosted a variety of events, including hockey, basketball, boxing, circuses, and concerts, until its closure in February 1968.

## History 
The third Madison Square Garden was commissioned by promoter Tex Rickard, who envisioned a multipurpose arena that could host boxing matches and large-scale events. Constructed at a cost of $4.75 million, it replaced the second Madison Square Garden, which was located on 26th Street and Madison Avenue.

This iteration of MSG was home to some of the most memorable sports and entertainment events of its time, including the early success of the New York Rangers hockey team and the founding of the New York Knicks basketball franchise.

## References
Valegro

**Valegro** (5 July 2002 &ndash; 1 November 2025) was a dressage horse ridden by British equestrian Charlotte Dujardin. His stable name was Blueberry. He was a double World Champion in dressage. Valegro won the Grand Prix Special and Grand Prix Freestyle.

## Career 
Valegro never lost a race, starting in January 2012.

Dujardin and Valegro won the FEI World Cup grand prix at London Olympia in 2011. They set a world record. Their score was 88.022% in April 2012.

Dujardin and Valegro were for Great Britain in the 2012 Summer Olympics. They set a new Olympic score of 83.784%. On August 7, 2012, Dujardin and Valegro were a part of a team that won the gold medal in the team dressage. They won a gold medal in individual dressage.

At the 2013 European Championships in Herning, Charlotte and Valegro won the Grand Prix and the Grand Prix Special.

Valegro won a gold medal in the individual dressage at the Rio 2016 Olympic Games.

## Retirement and death 
On 14 December 2016, Valegro was retired by Dujardin. Dujardin and Valegro did a goodbye speech at the London International Horse Show 2016. It was on television by the BBC.

Valegro was euthanatized in November 2025 at the age of 23.

## References 
## Other websites 
* Valegro in action, 2016 (video)
Victoria Kjær Theilvig

**Maria Victoria Kjær Theilvig** (born 13 November 2003) is a Danish model and beauty pageant titleholder who was crowned Miss Universe 2024. Kjær Theilvig is the first Danish woman to win Miss Universe.

Kjær Theilvig had previously placed as the second runner-up at Miss Denmark 2021. She also represented Denmark at Miss Grand International 2022, placing in the top twenty.

## Pageantry
### Miss Denmark 2021
Kjaer Theilvig began her beauty contest career in 2021, when she joined Miss Denmark 2021 contest and competed against 32 other candidates in Copenhagen, where she placed as the 2nd runner up.

### Miss Grand International 2022 
The following year, she was appointed Miss Grand Denmark 2022 and represented Denmark at Miss Grand International 2022 in Indonesia, placing in the Top 20 semifinalist.

### Miss Universe 2024 
Kjaer Theilvig represented Denmark at the Miss Universe 2024 and competed against 125 other contestants at the Arena CDMX, Mexico City, Mexico, where she won the competition and was succeeded by Sheynnis Palacios of Nicaragua.

## References
## Other websites
*
Jessica Madsen

**Jessica Shirley Madsen** (born 11 April 1992) is an English actress. She is known for her roles as Clarice in the horror movie *Leatherface* (2017) and Cressida Cowper in the Netflix period drama *Bridgerton* (2020–present).

Madsen was born in London and grew up in Surrey. She trained at the Guildhall School of Music and Drama, graduating in 2013. She is bisexual.

## References
## Other websites
*
Lands Tribunal for Scotland

The **Lands Tribunal for Scotland** is a judicial body in Scotland responsible for resolving disputes involving land and property. Established in 1949 under the Lands Tribunal Act 1949, it operates independently but is supported administratively by the Scottish Courts and Tribunals Service. Its headquarters are located at George House, Edinburgh.

## Jurisdiction and functions 
* Applications to discharge or vary title conditions under the Title Conditions (Scotland) Act 2003.
* Determinations of fair rents under the Rent (Scotland) Act 1984.
* Disputes concerning the Land Compensation (Scotland) Act 1973, including claims for compensation due to compulsory purchase or public works.
* Appeals from decisions of the Keeper of the Registers of Scotland related to land registration.
* Other property disputes referred to it by law or agreement.

## Composition 
The Lands Tribunal for Scotland is chaired by a President, who is usually a senior legal figure, and supported by legal and surveying members. The current President is **Lord Minginish**. Members of the tribunal have expertise in law, surveying, and valuation to ensure informed decisions on complex property issues.

## Independence 
The tribunal operates independently from the judiciary but is part of the broader framework of the Scottish Courts and Tribunals Service. Its decisions can be appealed to the Inner House of the Court of Session.

## Notable cases 
* Major infrastructure projects requiring compulsory purchase of land.
* Challenges to title conditions affecting residential and commercial developments.
* Disputes over the fair valuation of property.

## References 
## Other websites 
* Official website
* Scottish Courts and Tribunals Service
Scottish Courts and Tribunals Service

The **Scottish Courts and Tribunals Service** (**SCTS**) is an independent body responsible for managing Scotland's courts and tribunals. It was established in 2010 under the *Judiciary and Courts (Scotland) Act 2008* to support the Scottish judiciary and ensure the efficient administration of justice. 
## Overview
The SCTS provides services for the Court of Session, High Court of Justiciary, Sheriff Court, Justice of the Peace Court and various tribunals.

## Duties
* Managing court buildings and facilities
* Maintaining the security of courts in partnership with Police Scotland
* Providing administrative support to all courts and tribunals in Scotland
* Ensuring access to justice for all individuals, including accommodations for persons with disabilities
* Supporting the judiciary, including the Lord President of the Court of Session, who also serves as the head of the SCTS Board

## Governance
The SCTS is governed by a board chaired by the Lord President of the Court of Session, the most senior judge in Scotland. Other board members include judicial representatives, tribunal members and lay members with expertise in finance, business and public administration. The Chief Executive, Eric McQueen, oversees daily operations and implements the board's strategic vision.

## Court network
* Superior Courts: Court of Session and High Court of Justiciary
* Justice of the Peace Courts: Handle minor criminal offenses
* Sheriff Courts: Scotland's primary local courts for civil and criminal cases
* Tribunals: Including the Lands Tribunal for Scotland and the Housing and Property Chamber

## Digital transformation
* Digital case management systems
* Online payment systems for fines and fees
* Remote hearing technology, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic
## Budget
For the financial year 2022–2023, the SCTS had an allocated budget of £153 million for court operations, facilities and staff salaries.

## Independence
Although the SCTS works closely with the Scottish Government, it operates independently to ensure judicial impartiality and uphold the rule of law in Scotland within the constitutional framework of the United Kingdom.

## Related pages
* Devolution
* Sheriff Court
* Court of Session
* High Court of Justiciary
* Justice of the Peace Court
* Supreme Court of the United Kingdom

## Other websites
* Judiciary of Scotland
* Official website of the SCTS

## References
Lord President of the Court of Session

The **Lord President of the Court of Session** () is the most senior judge in Scotland, the head of the judiciary, and the presiding judge of the College of Justice, the Court of Session, and the High Court of Justiciary. Since 1836, the office has been combined with the title of **Lord Justice General**, making the Lord President the head of the High Court of Justiciary as well.

The current Lord President is **Lord Carloway**, who has held the position since 18 December 2015. In June 2024, Lord Carloway announced his intention to retire from judicial office in early 2025.

## History 
The position of Lord President was established in 1532 with the formation of the Court of Session by King James V. The first officeholder was Alexander Mylne, Abbot of Cambuskenneth. The role originally presided over Scotland’s highest civil court but was later combined with the title of Lord Justice General, making the officeholder the head of the judiciary in both civil and criminal law.

## Inner House of the Court of Session 
* Outer House of the Court of Session
* Sheriff Appeal Court
* Scottish Land Court
* Court of the Lord Lyon
* Lands Tribunal for Scotland

## Appointment 
The Lord President is appointed by the monarch, acting on the advice of the First Minister. The position is held for life, with mandatory retirement at the age of 75.

## Salary 
The Lord President is paid according to Salary Group 1.1 of the UK Judicial Salaries Scale, which in 2016 amounted to £222,862.

## Notable officeholders 
* Alexander Mylne, Abbot of Cambuskenneth – First Lord President (1532)
* Sir James Dalrymple, 1st Viscount of Stair – Prominent 17th-century jurist
* Lord Carloway – Incumbent, serving since 2015

## Related pages 
* Court of Session
* High Court of Justiciary

## References 
## Other websites 
* Judicial Office for Scotland website
Presidency of Donald Trump

**Presidency of Donald Trump** may mean: 

* First presidency of Donald Trump, from 2017 to 2021
* Second presidency of Donald Trump, starting in 2025
Raghuji I

**Raghuji I** (*Raghuji Bhonsle)*; 1695 &ndash; 14 February 1755) was a Maratha general of the Bhonsle clan who established the Nagpur Kingdom in much of east-central India during the reign of Chhatrapati Shahu I. His successors ruled the kingdom until 1853.

## Notes
## References
Climate crisis

***Climate crisis*** is a term that is used to talk about global warming and climate change and their effects. This term and the term ***climate emergency*** have been used to stress the threat of global warming to Earth's natural environment and to humans.

The term *climate crisis* is used by those who believe it stresses on the threat of greenhouse gas emissions.

## References
David Falconer

**Sir David Falconer of Newton** (1640 – 15 December 1685) was a Scottish judge and legal scholar who served as the Lord President of the Court of Session from 1682 until his death. He was also a member of the Scottish Parliament, representing the County of Forfar.

## Early life 
David Falconer was born in 1640, the second son of Sir David Falconer of Glenfarquhar, a Commissary of Edinburgh, and Margaret Hepburn. His elder brother was Sir Alexander Falconer of Glenfarquhar. The Falconer family was closely linked to Scottish nobility, with his paternal grandfather being a brother of Sir Alexander Falconer, 1st Lord Falconer of Halkerton.

He studied law under the guidance of his father and became an advocate on 3 July 1661.

## Legal career 
* 24 May 1676: Nominated as a Lord of Session.
* 2 March 1678: Appointed a Lord of Justiciary.
* 5 June 1682: Promoted to Lord President of the Court of Session.

Falconer also served in the Scottish Parliament in 1685, representing the County of Forfar. During this time, he was elected to serve as a Lord of the Articles and participated in commissions on trade, church organization, and judicial reforms.

## Published works 
Falconer is remembered for compiling the decisions of the Court of Session from November 1681 to 9 December 1685. These records were later published in 1705 by John Spottiswood, contributing significantly to Scottish legal literature.

## Death and legacy 
Falconer passed away in Edinburgh on 15 December 1685 following a brief illness. He was buried in Greyfriars Kirkyard, where a monument was erected in his memory. The monument remains at the outer north-east corner of the church.

* His daughter, Catherine Falconer, married Joseph Home of Chirnside and was the mother of David Hume, the renowned philosopher and historian.
* His son, Alexander Falconer, inherited his father's title but left no direct heirs.

## Family 
Falconer married Anne Lindsay, the only child of John, 9th Lord Lindsay of the Byres. They had a daughter, Agnes, who married George Ogilvy, 2nd Lord Banff.

## Related pages 
* Court of Session
* David Hume

## References 
## Other websites 
* Greyfriars Kirkyard website
Justice of the Peace Court

The **Justice of the Peace Court** (**JP Court**) is a summary criminal court in Scotland that deals with less serious criminal offenses. Established in 2008, it replaced the earlier District Courts, creating a unified system under the management of the Scottish Courts and Tribunals Service (SCTS). It is presided over by lay magistrates known as **Justices of the Peace**, supported by legally qualified court clerks.

## Jurisdiction 
* Minor criminal offenses, such as traffic violations, breach of the peace, and petty theft.
* Cases punishable by fines or imprisonment of up to 60 days.
* Local ordinance and bylaw violations.

## Appointment of Justices 
Justices of the Peace are:

* Appointed by the Scottish Ministers on the recommendation of local advisory committees.
* Trained in Scottish criminal law and court procedure.
* Required to undergo regular continuing education to maintain their competence.

## Appeals 
Decisions made by the JP Court can be appealed to the Sheriff Appeal Court, which reviews cases on both legal and procedural grounds.

## History 
The JP Court was created under the Criminal Proceedings etc. (Reform) (Scotland) Act 2007 as part of reforms to streamline Scotland's summary criminal justice system. It replaced the District Courts, which had been managed by local authorities.

## Role in the Community 
The JP Court plays an essential role in ensuring access to justice for minor offenses at a local level. It reflects community values through its lay magistrates, who bring a non-legal perspective to the judiciary.

## Related pages 
* Scottish Courts and Tribunals Service
* Sheriff Court
* High Court of Justiciary
* Judiciary of Scotland

## References 
## Other websites 
* Justice of the Peace Court (SCTS website) 
* Information for court users
Sheriff Court

The **Sheriff Court** is a key component of the judicial system in Scotland, handling the majority of civil and criminal cases in the country. The Sheriff Courts are organized geographically into six sheriffdoms, each overseen by a Sheriff Principal.

## History
The origins of the Sheriff Court date back to the medieval period when local sheriffs were appointed to administer justice and maintain order. The system evolved over centuries, with significant reforms introduced in the 19th and 20th centuries to streamline court procedures and improve efficiency.

## Jurisdiction
The Sheriff Court has jurisdiction over both civil and criminal matters. It is the principal court for many legal issues in Scotland, except for the most serious cases, which are heard by the High Court of Justiciary or the Court of Session.

### Civil Cases
* Debt recovery
* Family law (e.g., divorce and child custody)
* Housing disputes
* Personal injury claims

## Other websites
* Scottish Courts and Tribunals Service
* The Law Society of Scotland

## References
Sheriff principal

The **Sheriff Principal** is a senior judicial officer in the Sheriff Court system of Scotland. 

## Overview
Each of Scotland's six sheriffdoms is headed by a Sheriff Principal, who oversees the work of the courts within their jurisdiction. Their duties include administrative responsibilities, judicial functions and appellate work.

## History
The position of Sheriff Principal originated in medieval Scotland, where sheriffs represented the monarch in local judicial matters. Over time, the role evolved, with Sheriff Principals becoming key figures in Scotland's modern judicial system. Today, they are appointed based on their extensive experience in the legal profession.

## Appointment
Sheriff Principals are appointed by the Judicial Appointments Board for Scotland and must have at least ten years of qualified legal practice as an advocate (a barrister in Scotland) or solicitor. They are part of the judiciary independent of the executive branch of the Scottish Government.

## Other websites
* Judiciary of Scotland
* Scottish Courts and Tribunals Service

## References
Sheriff Appeal Court

The **Sheriff Appeal Court** is a court in Scotland that hears appeals from decisions made by the Sheriff Court. Established in 2015, the court is a key part of the Scottish judicial system, providing a route for individuals to challenge decisions in civil and criminal matters made in the Sheriff Court. It plays a vital role in ensuring the consistency and accuracy of legal decisions in Scotland.

## See also 
* Sheriff Court
* Court of Session
* High Court of Justiciary
* Judiciary of Scotland

## References 
## Other websites 
* Sheriff Appeal Court (official website) 
* Information about appeals in Scotland
1970-71 Austrian football championship

The **1970-71 Austrian football championship** was organized by the Austrian Football Association. The regional leagues East (Vienna, **Lower Austria**, Burgenland), Central (Upper Austria, Styria, Carinthia) and West (Salzburg, Tyrol, Vorarlberg) served as second tier to the National League. The respective state leagues of the federal state associations acted as the third level. FC Wacker Innsbruck won their first title. It was a duel with SV Austria Salzburg, which was decided in the penultimate round.

After the season Wacker Innsbruck and WSG Wattens merged. In the next season they played under the name SWW Innsbruck. WSG Wattens played in the Regionalliga. SC Wacker Wien merged with SK Admira at the end of the season.

## Table
## Matches 
### Round 1
### Round 2
### Round 3
### Round 4
### Round 5
### Round 6
### Round 7
### Round 8
### Round 9
### Round 10
### Round 11
### Round 12
### Round 13
### Round 14
### Round 15
### Round 16
### Round 17
### Round 18
### Round 19
### Round 20
### Round 21
### Round 22
### Round 23
### Round 24
### Round 25
### Round 26
### Round 27
### Round 28
### Round 29
### Round 30
### Champion squad 
Herbert Rettensteiner, Leo Tschenett – Roland Eschelmüller, Heinz Binder, Peter Werner, Werner Kriess – Johann Eigenstiller, Franjo Francescin, Helmut Voggenberger, Jozef Obert, Helmut Senekowitsch – Franz Wolny, Johann Ettmayer, Leopold Grausam, Kurt Jara, Boris Sikic, Johann Trenkwalder, Dieter Lederer – Coaches: Branko Elsner, Otto Barić
## Topscorer
## References and notes
Mae Klong

]]
The **Mae Klong** (Thai: แม่น้ำแม่กลอง) is a river in Thailand. It passes through several towns and ends at another town called Samut Songkhram.

## Environment 
### Fish species 
Several fish species, like the giant barb, live in the Mae Klong river basin.

## References
Golden Age of Comic Books

The **Golden Age of Comic Books** was the start of modern comics and the creation of known superheroes like Superman, Batman, Robin, Captain Marvel, Captain America, and Wonder Woman. The Golden Age started with the first appearance of Superman in *Action Comics* #1 (1938) and ended before the first appearance of Barry Allen / Flash in *Showcase* #4 (1956).

## References
First Battle of Eran

. He sacked Kausambi and occupied Malwa of India.]]

A major battle took place in Malwa, where a local Gupta ruler named Bhanugupta was in charge, likely as a governor. According to the Bhanugupta Eran inscription, his army fought in a big battle at Eran in 498 CE, but suffered heavy losses. It is believed that Bhanugupta was defeated by Toramana in this battle, which led to the western Gupta region of Malwa being taken over by the Hunas.

## Battle
According to the 6th-century CE Buddhist text Manjusri-mula-kalpa, Bhanugupta lost the region of Malwa to the powerful Shudra ruler Toramana, who then continued his campaign towards Magadha. This forced Narasimhagupta Baladitya to retreat to Bengal. Toramana, described as a mighty leader with a formidable army, went on to conquer the city of Tirtha in the Gauda region (modern-day Bengal). The text also mentions that Toramana installed a new king in Benares, named Prakataditya, who is depicted as the son of Narasimhagupta.

On his gold coins minted in India in the style of the Gupta Emperors, Toramana presented himself confidently as:

The Alchon Huns issuance of gold coins, such as the Toramana issue, alongside their silver and copper currency, indicates that their empire in India was both wealthy and influential. However this victory was temporary as he was defeated and drown away by Gupta–Aulikara alliance in 515 CE.
## References
Ameerega labialis

The ***Ameerega labialis*** is a frog.  It lives in Peru.  Scientists do not know if it is in danger of dying out.

## References
Abortion in Equatorial Guinea

**Abortion in Equatorial Guinea** is highly restricted and subject to specific legal and cultural conditions. It is legal only under limited circumstances. These include a pregnancy that poses a risk to the health or life of the mother or fetus, or one that results from rape or incest, with a gestational limit of 12 weeks. The country requires spousal consent for abortions. Violations of abortion laws can result in severe penalties, including imprisonment and fines.

## Law 
### Penal code 
The penal code of Equatorial Guinea classifies abortion as a crime. However, the government has stated that this provision is not actively enforced, according to the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights.

### International commitments 
Equatorial Guinea signed the Maputo Protocol, which guarantees women's rights to safe abortion under specific conditions.

## Cultural and religious influence 
Abortion is considered taboo in the dominant Fang culture. It is strongly opposed by the majority of Catholics, who represent the largest religious group in the country. This cultural and religious opposition significantly impacts public opinion and policy enforcement.

## Related pages 
* Abortion laws
* Reproductive rights

## Other websites 
* Official United Nations Website
* Maputo Protocol Text

## References
Senator of the College of Justice

The title of **Senator of the College of Justice** refers to a judge of the Court of Session, the supreme civil court of Scotland. Senators also serve as judges of the High Court of Justiciary, the supreme criminal court of Scotland. Collectively, they form part of the College of Justice, which was established in 1532 by King James V of Scotland.

## History 
The College of Justice was created by the College of Justice Act 1532 to ensure justice was administered fairly and efficiently across Scotland. Senators of the College of Justice were originally drawn from the clergy, nobility, and legal professionals. Over time, the role evolved into a professional judiciary, with Senators becoming some of the most senior legal figures in Scotland.

## See Also 
* College of Justice
* Court of Session
* High Court of Justiciary
* Law of Scotland

## References 
## Other websites 
* Official website of the Scottish Courts and Tribunals Service
* Judiciary of Scotland - Official Website
Scottish Land Court

The **Scottish Land Court** (Scottish Gaelic: *Cùirt Fearainn na h-Alba*) is a specialist court in Scotland with jurisdiction over disputes relating to agricultural tenancies and crofting rights. Established in 1912, it plays a pivotal role in resolving matters concerning the management, ownership, and usage of rural land.

## History 
The Scottish Land Court was established under the Scottish Land Court Act 1911 and began functioning in 1912. Its creation was part of wider land reform efforts aimed at addressing issues affecting tenant farmers and crofters, particularly in the Highlands and Islands.

## Jurisdiction and Role 
* Disputes over agricultural tenancies.
* Crofting matters under the Crofters (Scotland) Act 1993.
* Appeals from decisions made by the Crofting Commission.

## Structure and Composition 
The Scottish Land Court is presided over by a President, who must be legally qualified, and other members with expertise in agricultural or crofting matters. The court sits in Edinburgh but frequently holds hearings across Scotland to facilitate access to justice.

The current President is **Lord Minginish**, who has held the position since 2014.

## References 
## Other websites 
* Official website of the Scottish Land Court
Court of Session

The **Court of Session** (Scottish Gaelic: *Cùirt an t-Seisein*) is the supreme civil court of Scotland. It is based in Parliament House, Edinburgh, and serves as both a court of first instance and a court of appeal. Together with the High Court of Justiciary (Scotland’s supreme criminal court), it forms part of the College of Justice established in 1532.

## History 
The Court of Session was established by the College of Justice Act 1532 during the reign of King James V of Scotland. It was modeled on European courts of the time, with influence from France and other civil law systems. Initially, the court included clerical members, but over time, it evolved into a professional judiciary dominated by legal experts.

Parliament House in Edinburgh has been the court's home since 1639, making it one of the oldest courts in continuous operation in the world.

## Related pages 
* Scots law
* High Court of Justiciary
* Supreme Court of the United Kingdom

## References 
## Other websites 
* Official website of the Court of Session
* Court of Session-related legislation at legislation.gov.uk
Bain Capital Ventures

**Bain Capital Ventures LLC** (BCV) is the venture capital division of Bain Capital. It invests in early-stage and growth companies in various industries. BCV manages $10 billion and has offices in New York City, Palo Alto, and San Francisco. The firm is part of Bain Capital, which manages $160 billion in assets worldwide.

## Investments 
Since starting in 2001, BCV has raised over $10 billion across ten funds. Some of its early investments include LinkedIn, DocuSign, Twilio, and Rent the Runway.

Its investments include companies at the seed, early, and growth stages. Examples of recent growth-stage investments are Docker and GoCardless.

### Notable Exits 
Some of Bain Capital Ventures' investments have been very successful. For example:
* LinkedIn became a public company worth $7.8 billion in 2011.
* Twilio became a public company worth $150 million in 2016.
* DocuSign became a public company worth $629 million in 2018.

## References
Habib Bank Limited

**Habib Bank Limited** is a Pakistani commercial bank headquartered in Karachi, Pakistan.

## History 
HBL is the first commercial bank in Pakistan, having been founded in 1941 by the Habib Family. Its first overseas location opened in Colombo, Sri Lanka, in 1951. The Aga Khan Fund for Economic Development obtained a majority stake and administrative control in the bank when it was nationalized by the government in 1974 and then privatized in 2004.

The Aga Khan Fund for Economic Development (AKFED), headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, owns a significant stake in HBL. HBL branches also exchange foreign currency, initiate SWIFT and FEDWIRE transfers, and facilitate RAAST real-time money transfer transactions.

Habib Bank Limited was established as a public limited company in Bombay in 1941 by the Habib family, previously engaged in internal trade and private banking. 

In early 1947, the bank's headquarters were relocated to Karachi on August 7, 1947, just before the Partition of India.

In 2002, Pakistan's Privatisation Commission announced that the Government of Pakistan would grant the Aga Khan Fund for Economic Development (AKFED), a subsidiary of the Aga Khan Development Network, majority ownership of HBL against AKFED's investment in the bank.

In 2003, the Government of Pakistan granted AKFED rights to 51% of the shareholding in the bank against an investment of PKR 22.409 billion (US$389 million). 

In 2004, the Government of Pakistan handed over management control of Habib Bank to AKFED.

In 2013, the bank acquired Citibank Pakistan consumer business for .

In 2015, the bank acquired Barclays's Pakistan operations.

In 2016, HBL received a Licence to operate a subsidiary in Ürümqi, Xinjiang.

In 2020, HBL was designated one of the domestic systemically important banks (D-SIB) of the year by the State Bank of Pakistan.

## Corporate governance 
### List of CEOs 
* R. Zakir Mahmood (2000 – September 28, 2012)
* Nauman K. Dar (September 28, 2012 – December 31, 2017)
* Rayomond Kotwal - Interim CEO (December 31, 2017 – April 30, 2018)
* Muhammad Aurangzeb (April 30, 2018 – 11 March 2024)
* Muhammad Nassir Salim (11 March 2024 – )

## References 
## Related links 
* Habib Bank

__NEWSECTIONLINK__
Railhead Trilogy

The **Railhead Trilogy** by Phillip Reeve is a set of 3 books. The books tell the story of Zen Starling in a fictional, future setting where sentient trains provide travel throughout the galaxy and humanity is overseen by powerful artificial intelligences. 

## Trilogy 
Railhead consists of three books:

* Railhead (2015)
* Black Light Express (2016)
* Station Zero (2018)

## References
Rent the Runway

**Rent the Runway** is an e-commerce service where people can rent, subscribe, or buy designer clothes and accessories. It was started in 2009 by Jennifer Hyman and Jennifer Fleiss.

## History 
Jennifer Hyman and Jennifer Fleiss met at Harvard Business School in 2007. Hyman had the idea to rent dresses for events after her sister spent too much on a wedding dress. They pitched the idea to designer Diane von Fürstenberg, who became an early partner.

The company launched in November 2009 and gained attention after being featured in *The New York Times*. In 2016, it began offering everyday clothing through subscriptions.

Rent the Runway raised over $400 million in funding from major investors like Fidelity Investments and Bain Capital Ventures. In 2019, it was valued at $1 billion, making it a unicorn.

## Business 
Rent the Runway offers clothes from over 700 designers in sizes 00 to 22. The service includes event wear, everyday clothes, children's clothing, ski apparel, home décor, and accessories like handbags and jewelry.

## Challenges 
In 2023, the company struggled as sales failed to meet customer demand. Analysts reported it could face financial trouble, including possible bankruptcy.

## Awards 
Rent the Runway appeared on CNBC's Disruptor 50 list in 2013, 2014, 2015, 2018, and 2019. It was also named one of Fast Company's Most Innovative Companies several times.

## References 
*
Scottish Land Court Act 1911

The **Scottish Land Court Act 1911** (1 & 2 Geo. 5 c. 49) was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that established the Scottish Land Court to address disputes relating to agricultural tenancies and crofting in Scotland. The Act was a pivotal element of early 20th-century land reform in Scotland, particularly for the Highlands and Islands.

## Background 
During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, land issues in Scotland, especially in the Highlands and Islands, caused significant social and economic unrest. Crofters and tenant farmers faced challenges due to high rents, insecure tenancies, and limited access to land. The Act was introduced to provide a legal framework for addressing these issues and to balance the rights of landlords and tenants.

## Other websites 
* Full text of the Scottish Land Court Act 1911 at legislation.gov.uk
Aggregate effects doctrine

The **Aggregate effects doctrine** is an idea about how laws work in the United States of America. The Aggregate effects doctrine is also named the **Cumulative effects doctrine**. The Aggregate effects doctrine is also named the **Substantial effects doctrine**. 

The Aggregate effects doctrine allows a power of the United States of America's Congress to go further than that power could go before. That power is the power to decide about trade between states of the United States of America. The Aggregate effects doctrine is the belief that that power also allows the United States of America's Congress to decide about some trade. That some trade is trade which happens within only 1 state of the United States of America. That some trade is that trade which changes something about trade between states of the United States of America.

Some experts believe that the Aggregate effects doctrine lets Congress decide about trade which does *not* change trade between states, but merely *could*.

## References
Ameerega pulchripecta

The **blue-breasted poison frog**, **beautiful-breasted poison frog**, **beautiful-breasted poison arrow frog**, or '''Silverstone's poison frog'* (*Ameerega pulchripecta'') is a frog.  It lives in Brazil.

## Home
This frog lives in the Amazon. People see it on the dead leaves on the ground in rainforests. Scientists saw the frog between 100 and 310 meters above sea level.

Scientists have only seen this frog in protected parks. Two of them are Floresta Nacional do Amapá and Parque Natural Municipal do Cancão.

## Young
The adult male frogs sit under plant roots no higher than 40 cm above the ground. Then they call to the female frogs. Scientists think the female frog lays her eggs on the dead leaves on the ground and that, after the eggs hatch, the adult frogs carry the tadpoles to water.

## Danger
Scientists say this frog is not in danger of dying out. Humans do cut down trees to get wood to build with and mark farms. People might also catch this frog to sell as a pet. Scientists say this does not happen enough to make the frog die out.

## References
Jericho, New York

**Jericho**  is a hamlet and census-designated place (CDP) in the Town of Oyster Bay in Nassau County, on the North Shore of Long Island, in New York, United States.

It is about 29 miles (47&nbsp;km) east of Manhattan. The population was 14,808 at the time of the 2020 census.

## References
Haverford College

**Haverford College** ( ) is a private liberal arts college in Haverford, Pennsylvania. The college gives Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Science degrees.

## References
Haverford, Pennsylvania

**Haverford** is an unincorporated community located in both Haverford Township in Delaware County, Pennsylvania, United States, and Lower Merion Township in Montgomery County. It is about  west of Philadelphia. 

## References
Second Battle of Eran

Toramana was ultimately defeated five years after the First Battle of Eran (510 CE) by local Indian rulers, with Bhanugupta, a regional king, sometimes credited for his victory over him. Bhanugupta's inscription from 510 CE, found in Eran, mentions his involvement in "a great battle," and though the details are unclear, it has been interpreted by some as indicating his role in Toramana's defeat.

. He was defeated by a Gupta Ruler of India.]]

## Battle
Toramana was eventually defeated by some local Indian rulers, with specially Bhanugupta sometimes credited with this defeat of Toramana. Bhanugupta's 510 CE inscription from Eran refers to his involvement in a "great battle," but the details of this conflict are vague, leaving room for various interpretations.Some scholars, such as Mookerji, suggest that the inscription, along with references in the Manjusri-mula-kalpa, imply that Bhanugupta was actually defeated by Toramana in the battle at Eran, leading to the western Gupta province of Malwa falling under Huna control. In this scenario, Toramana would have been recognized as the ruler of the region, as noted in the Eran boar inscription.

, commemorating the victory of the Aulikaras against the Alchon Huns.]]
Prakashadharma was a notable king of this dynasty, who assumed the title, *Adhiraja*. The Rīsthal inscription gives us information about his achievements.
 of Prakashadharma]]

The First Hunnic War ended with a defeat for the Huns, and their army reportedly withdrew to the Punjab region. The Manjusri-mula-kalpa just says that Toramana died in Benares while he was heading back west after fighting Narasimhagupta.
## References
Hamidreza Sadri

**Hamidreza Sadri** (born on 3 July 2000, in Tehran ) is an Iranian taekwondo athlete.  He is the holder of the silver medal of the 2017 Asian Youth Championship in Kazakhstan  and the gold medal of the 2018 World Army Championship in Brazil.  He won the title of the most technical player in these competitions.   He is now playing for the national taekwondo team of the Republic of Azerbaijan.  

## Honors 
* Gold medal of the World Army Championship in Brazil 2018 
* Silver medal of Kazakhstan Asian Junior Championship 2017 
* Silver medal of Open Croatia 2012 
* Gold medal of Open Lebanon 2018 
* Silver medal of Fajr Open 2019 
* Bronze medal of Open Albania 2022 
* Bronze medal of Open Netherlands 2022 

## References 
## Other websites 
Hamidreza Sadri on Instagram
Virginia's 7th congressional district

'''Virginia's seventh congressional district''' is a United States congressional district in the Commonwealth of Virginia. The district is currently represented by Democrat Eugene Vindman, first elected in 2024.

## References
Eugene Vindman

**Eugene Semyon Vindman** (born **Yevgeny Semyonovich Vindman**; June 6, 1975) is an American politician, attorney, and retired U.S. Army officer. He is the member of the U.S. House of Representatives for Virginia's 7th congressional district since 2025. He was a deputy legal advisor for the United States National Security Council (NSC) until he was reassigned on February 7, 2020.

Vindman became well known in October 2019 when his twin brother, Lieutenant Colonel Alexander Vindman, testified before the United States Congress about the Trump–Ukraine scandal.

In 2024, Vindman won the Democratic Party nomination for  in the U.S. House of Representatives, Vindman won election to Congress in the general election for that office.

## References
Haverford Township, Pennsylvania

**Haverford Township** is a home rule municipality township in Delaware County, Pennsylvania, United States.  Haverford is named after the town of Haverfordwest in Wales. It is a suburb of Philadelphia.

## References
Glen Allen, Virginia

**Glen Allen** is a census-designated place (CDP) in Henrico County, Virginia, United States. The population was 16,187 as of the 2020 Census.

## References
2025 Virginia gubernatorial election

The **2025 Virginia gubernatorial election** was held on November 4, 2025, to elect the governor of Virginia. Current governor Glenn Youngkin could not run for re-election as the state's constitution doesn't allow it's governors to serve consecutive terms.

Former Congresswoman Abigail Spanberger was elected governor, defeating incumbent lieutenant governor Winsome Earle-Sears. Spanberger is also the first woman to be elected Virginia governor.

## Republican primary 
### Candidates
#### Nominee 
* Winsome Earle-Sears, lieutenant governor of Virginia (2022–present)

#### Failed to qualify 
* Amanda Chase, former state senator for SD-11 (2016–2024), and candidate for governor in 2021
* Dave LaRock, former state delegate for HD-33 (2014–2024), and candidate for SD-1 in 2023
* Rob Wittman, U.S. representative from  (2007–present) *(running for re-election in 2026)*

## Democratic primary 
### Candidates
#### Nominee 
* Abigail Spanberger, U.S. representative from  (2019–2025)

#### Withdrawn
* Levar Stoney, former mayor of Richmond (2017–2025), and former Virginia Secretary of the Commonwealth (2014–2016) *(ran for lieutenant governor)*

#### Declined
* Bobby Scott, U.S. representative from  (1993–present)

## Official websities 
* Winsome Earle-Sears for Governor
* Abigail Spanberger for Governor

## References
Syrian revolution

The **Syrian revolution**, also called the **Syrian Revolution of Dignity**, was a series of protests and uprisings in Syria during the Arab Spring. It began in March 2011 and lasted until mid-2012. Protesters called for the end of the Assad family's rule, which had lasted for decades.

## Background 
Before the protests, Syria was ruled by President Bashar al-Assad under a strict Ba'ath Party dictatorship. The government limited freedom of speech and arrested critics. Syria was also affected by corruption, poverty, and a severe drought. Protests in other countries during the Arab Spring inspired Syrians to demand change.

## The Uprising 
Protests began in January 2011 and grew by March. Security forces responded with violence, killing and arresting many people. This led to anger and larger protests. By mid-2011, soldiers were defecting, and opposition militias like the Free Syrian Army formed. The peaceful uprising became an armed conflict, eventually leading to a civil war.

## International Reaction 
The United Nations and many countries condemned the government’s actions. Reports accused the Assad government of using extreme violence, including torture and attacks on civilians. In August 2011, the UN said these acts were crimes against humanity and called for President Assad to face trial.

The Syrian Revolution turned into one of the most significant events of the Arab Spring, but it also led to a prolonged and devastating civil war.

## See als
*Arab Spring

## References
Beer Island

**Beer Island** is an island in the South Pacific. It is 1 nautical mile from The Niblets, and was charted and named by the British Graham Land Expedition under John Rymill. It's basically just a lump of ice.

## Related pages 
* List of Antarctic and sub-Antarctic islands
AJR

is an American indie pop band made by brothers  Met. They are a group of singers, multi-instrumentalists, and songwriters. The brothers grew up in New York City. They were mostly focused on busking and singing covers before they changed to writing songs and touring. AJR has recorded more than 100 songs at their studio at home. They have released five studio albums on many record labels and their indie label.

## References
Cesare Bonizzi

**Cesare Bonizzi**, OFM Cap. (15 March 1946 – 19 November 2024), also known as  "**Frate Cesare**" was an Italian Capuchin friar and heavy metal singer. 

Bonizzi was born in Offanengo, in the Province of Cremona, Italy. He was ordained a priest in 1983. 

In 1990, he became interested in using music for spiritual devotion. He released many albums in different styles from new age to rock. He was inspired by Metallica and began producing heavy metal albums. 

Bonizzi died on 19 November 2024 in Milan, Italy at the age of 78.

## References
Barry Hadlee

**Barry George Hadlee** (born 14 December, 1941 in Christchurch) is a former New Zealand cricketer. He played in two one-day internationals for New Zealand in 1975. He is the eldest son of Walter Hadlee, and the brother of Dayle and Richard Hadlee.

## Other websites
*
Arthur Alloo

**Arthur William Alloo** (9 January 1892 – 16 September 1950) was a New Zealand cricketer who was born in Sydney. He was the brother of Albert Alloo and Cecil Alloo.

Alloo played in a total of 51 first-class matches from 1913/14 to 1930/31, representing Otago in the Plunket Shield. He scored two first-class centuries and took 131 wickets in his career.

Arthur Alloo died in Nelson, aged 58.

## Other websites
* 

## References
Howard Lutnick

**Howard William Lutnick** (born July 14, 1961) is an American billionaire businessman, philanthropist and politician who has been the 41st and current United States Secretary of Commerce since 2025. He has been Chairman of Cantor Fitzgerald since 1996. He is also the chairman of BGC Group since 2004. Lutnick survived the September 11 attacks when he was at the World Trade Center. Lutnick owns 60% of Cantor Fitzgerald, with a net worth of "at least $1.5 billion".

In November 2024, President-elect Donald Trump picked Lutnick to be his secretary of commerce for his second administration. on July 14, 1961 in Jericho on Long Island. He studied at Haverford College in Pennsylvania. His parents died of cancer before Lutnick started college. Lutnick graduated from the school with a degree in economics in 1983.

## Business career
Lutnick joined Cantor Fitzgerald in 1983.  In 1991, Lutnick was named president and CEO of the company, and he became chairman in 1996.  None of the employees who were in the Cantor offices that morning survived the attacks. In total, 658 of Cantor's 960 employees died that day, including Lutnick's brother, Gary Lutnick.

After the attacks, Lutnick made several public appearances, and quickly became a well known survivor of the September 11 attacks. In 2006, the firm donated $180 million to the relatives of their employees affected by the 9/11 attack.  Lutnick's sister Edie Lutnick, a former labor lawyer, agreed to join the charity as executive director and co-founder. The fund has given out $180 million to families of Cantor employees and $280 million altogether as the fund has donated to efforts to help victims of natural disasters.

Each year on September 11, or the business day closest to September 11, Cantor Fitzgerald and BGC Partners hold a Global Charity Day event and pledge 100 percent of the day's revenue to charity.  Since 2005, Global Charity Day events have raised about $113 million.

## Support of Donald Trump
On May 17, 2019, Lutnick hosted a fundraiser for Donald Trump at his home in Manhattan, raising some $5 million. On August 2, 2024, Lutnick hosted a fundraiser for Trump and his supporters at his home in Bridgehampton, New York. Two weeks later, Trump hired him and Linda McMahon as co-chairs of his 2024 presidential transition team.

## U.S. Secretary of Commerce
### Nomination
On November 19, 2024, President-elect Donald Trump picked Lutnick to be his secretary of commerce for his second administration.

Lutnick appeared before the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation on January 29, 2025. The committee advanced his nomination in a 16–12 vote on February 5. On February 18 2025, the Senate confirmed Lutnick as the secretary of commerce by a 51–45 vote.

## Personal life
On December 10, 1994, Lutnick married Allison Lambert, a law associate.  They have four children together.

## References
## Other websites
*