open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
1489

## Births 
* April 15 – Sinan, Turkish architect (died 1588)
* June 4 – Antoine, Duke of Lorraine (d. 1544)
* July 2 – Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury (died 1556)
* August 10 – Jacob Sturm von Sturmeck, German statesman and reformer (died 1553)
* November 28 – Margaret Tudor, queen of James IV of Scotland) (died 1541)
* August – Antonio da Correggio, Italian painter (died 1534)
* William Farel, French evangelist (died 1565)
* Francesco Ferruccio, Florentine captain (died 1530)
* Juan de Grijalva, Spanish conquistador (died 1527)
* Thomas Muentzer, German pastor and rebel leader (died 1525)
* Hosokawa Sumimoto, Japanese warlord (died 1520)
* Tsukahara Bokuden, Japanese swordsman (died 1571)
1457

## Events 
*
*

## Births 
* January 28 – Henry VII of England
* February 2 – Peter Martyr d'Anghiera

## Deaths 
* March 14 – Jingtai Emperor of China (born 1428)
* May 22 – Saint Rita of Cascia, Italian saint (born 1381)
* August 1 – Lorenzo Valla, Italian humanist
* November 23 – King Ladislaus Posthumus of Bohemia and Hungary (born 1440)
* Andrea del Castagno, Italian painter
* Peter II, Duke of Brittany (born 1418)
* László Hunyadi, Hungarian statesman and warrior (born 1433)
* Babur Ibn-Baysunkur, ruler of Khurasan (born 1422)
Amiga CD32

The **Amiga CD32** was a game console made by Commodore International release in 1993. It was based around the Amiga A1200 Computer. 

Using third party devices, it is possible to upgrade the CD32 with keyboard, floppy drive, hard drive, RAM and mouse, turning it into the equivalent of an Amiga 1200 personal computer.

In the Christmas period of 1993, the CD32 accounted for 38% of all CD-ROM drive sales in the UK, exceeding sales of the Mega-CD; however, it was soon overshadowed by CD-ROM based games consoles from other companies, and was discontinued as Commodore went into bankruptcy in 1994.

175 known game discs were released for the Amiga CD32
GX4000

The **GX4000** was a console made by Amstrad in 1990. At first, it was successful. But it did not continue its early success. The GX4000 games could be used with other Amstrad computers. The GX4000 was made to package the CPC+ computer line into Video Game Consoles. Only 40 games were made for it. Soon it disappeared into the mist of history. These days it is very rare to see one that is still in working condition.
ApeXtreme

**ApeXtreme** is a console created by Apex Digital Inc. It was released January 9, 2004.

It can do many things, like play computer games, DVDs, CDs, VCDs and use the Internet.

What it can do:
* games
* videos
* pictures
* slide shows
* music
* DVD
* VCD
* CD
* MP3
* Internet radio
1494

## Events 
*
*

## Births 
* February 2 – Bona Sforza, queen of Sigismund I of Poland (died 1557)
* April 20 – Johannes Agricola, German Protestant reformer (died 1566)
* May 24 – Pontormo, Italian painter (d. 1557)
* September 5 – Hans Sachs, German *Meistersinger* (died 1576)
* September 12 – King Francis I of France (died 1547)
* November 6 – Suleiman the Magnificent, Ottoman Sultan (died 1566)
* Purandara Dasa, Indian poet and composer (died 1564)
* Saito Dosan, Japanese warlord (died 1556)
* John Sutton, 3rd Baron Dudley (died 1554)
* Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda, Spanish philosopher and theologian (died 1573)
* Ambrosius Holbein, German painter (died 1519)
* Lucas van Leyden, Dutch engraver and painter (died 1533)
* Alonso Alvarez de Pineda, Spanish explorer and cartographer (died 1519)
* Hans Tausen, Danish religious reformer (died 1561)
* Qiu Ying, Chinese painter (died 1552)

## Deaths 
*
*
1623

## Deaths 
*February 8 – Thomas Cecil, 1st Earl of Exeter, English politician (b. 1546)
*March 19 – Uesugi Kagekatsu, Japanese samurai and warlord (b. 1556)
*June 16 – Christian, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg-Wolfenbüttel, German Protestant military leader (b. 1599)
*July 4 – William Byrd, English composer
*July 8 – Pope Gregory XV (b. 1554)
*October 21 – William Waad, English statesman and diplomat (b. 1546)
*November 9 – William Camden, English historian (b. 1551)
*November 11 – Philippe de Mornay, French writer (b. 1549)
*November 12 – Josaphat Kuncevyc, Lithuanian archbishop
*Andrea Andreani, Italian engraver (b. 1540)
1556

**1556** (MDLVI) was a leap year starting on Wednesday in the Julian calendar and a leap year starting on Sunday in the proleptic Gregorian calendar.

## Events 
* January 23 – Most devastating recorded earthquake in Shaanxi, China. Over 850,000 deaths.

## Births 
* January 8 – Uesugi Kagekatsu, Japanese samurai and warlord (died 1623)
*February 21 – Sethus Calvisius, German calendar reformer (d. 1615)
* March 7 – Guillaume du Vair, French statesman and philosopher (died 1621)
* June 6 – Edward la Zouche, 11th Baron Zouche (died 1625)
* November 15 – Jacques-Davy Duperron, French cardinal (died 1618)
* Henry Briggs, English mathematician (died 1630)
* Margaret Clitherow, English Catholic martyr (died 1586)
* Shibata Katsutoyo, Japanese military commander (died 1583)
* Nakagawa Kiyohide, Japanese military commander (died 1583)
* Ahmad Baba al Massufi, Sudanese writer and political leader
* James Melville, Scottish divine and reformer (died 1614)
* Maria of Nassau, second daughter of William the Silent (died 1616)

## Deaths 
*
*
1714

## Events 
* George I becomes King of Great Britain
*

## Births 
* January 1 – Kristijonas Donelaitis, Lithuanian poet (d. 1780)
* January 6 – Percivall Pott, English surgeon (d. 1788)
* January 26 – Jean-Baptiste Pigalle, French sculptor (d. 1785)
* February 2 – Gottfried August Homilius, German composer (d. 1785)
* February 22 – Louis-Georges de Bréquigny, French historian (d. 1795)
* February 25 – René Nicolas Charles Augustin de Maupeou, Chancellor of France (d. 1792)
* February 25 – Hyde Parker, British admiral (d. 1782)
* February 26 – James Hervey, English clergyman and writer (d. 1758)
* March 8 – Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, German composer (d. 1788)
* March 27 – Francesco Antonio Zaccaria, Italian theologian and historian (d. 1795)
* April 14 – Adam Gib, Scottish religious leader (d. 1788)
* June 6 – King Joseph I of Portugal (d. 1777)
* June 17 – Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten, German philosopher (d. 1762)
* June 17 – César-François Cassini de Thury, French astronomer (d. 1784)
* July 2 – Christoph Willibald Gluck, German composer (d. 1787)
* July 16 – Marc René, marquis de Montalembert, French military engineer and writer (d. 1800)
* August 1 – Richard Wilson, Welsh painter (d. 1782)
* August 14 – Claude Joseph Vernet, French painter (d. 1789)
* August 28 – Anthony Ulrich II, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg (d. 1774)
* September 10 – Niccolò Jommelli, Italian composer (d. 1774)
* September 19 – Charles Humphreys, American delegate to the Continental Congress (d. 1786)
* October 13 – Pieter Burmann the Younger, Dutch philologist (d. 1778)
* October 16 – Giovanni Arduino, Italian geologist (d. 1795)
* November 13 – William Shenstone, English poet (d. 1763)
* November 25 – Yoriyuki Arima, Japanese mathematician (d. 1783)
* December 16 – George Whitefield, English-born Methodist leader (d. 1770)
* December 19 – John Winthrop, American astronomer (d. 1779)
* December 21 – John Bradstreet, Canadian-born soldier (d. 1774)

## Deaths 
*
*
1561

**1561** (MDLXI) was a common year starting on Wednesday in the Julian calendar and a common year starting on Sunday in the proleptic Gregorian calendar.

## Births 
* January 6 – Thomas Fincke, Danish mathematician and physicist (died 1656)
* January 22 – Sir Francis Bacon, English philosopher, scientist, and statesman (died 1626)
* July 11 – Luís de Góngora y Argote, Spanish poet (died 1627)
* August 20 – Jacopo Peri, Italian composer (died 1633)
* August 24 – Thomas Howard, 1st Earl of Suffolk (died 1626)
* August 25 – Philippe van Lansberge, Dutch astronomer (died 1632)
* September 29 – Adriaan van Roomen, Belgian mathematician (died 1615)
*December 7 – Kikkawa Hiroie, Japanese politician (d. 1625)
* December 9 – Edwin Sandys, English founder of the colony of Virginia (died 1629)
* Jacopo Corsi, Italian composer (died 1602)
* John Harington, English writer (died 1612)
* Samuel Harsnett, Archbishop of York (died 1631)
1625

## Events
*
*

## Births
*
*

## Deaths 
*January 7 – Ruggiero Giovannelli, Italian composer
*March 7 – Johann Bayer, German astronomer (b. 1572)
*March 25 – Giambattista Marini, Italian poet (b. 1569)
*March 27 – King James I of England and Ireland/James VI of Scotland (b. 1566)
*March 29 – Antonio de Herrera y Tordesillas, Spanish historian (b. 1549)
*April 23 – Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange (b. 1567)
*April 27 – Mori Terumoto, Japanese warrior (b. 1553)
*June 1 – Honoré d'Urfé, French writer (b. 1568)
*June 5 – Orlando Gibbons, English composer and organist (b. 1583)
*August – John Fletcher, English writer (b. 1579)
*September 20 – Heinrich Meibom, German historian and poet (b. 1555)
*September 26 – Thomas Dempster, Scottish historian (d. 1579)
*October 22 – Kikkawa Hiroie, Japanese politician (b. 1561)
*December 9 – Ubbo Emmius, Dutch historian and geographer (b. 1547)
*Robert Cushman, Plymouth Colony settler
Coagulation

A **coagulation**, also known as **clot**, is a semi-solid substance blood forms on purpose to stop a leak. Blood does this especially when it is in air. When a person bleeds, the blood turns into a clot at the site of injury so no more blood can escape.

A blood clot called a *thrombus* is one example of a blood clot. 

The clotting process is called *coagulation.* 

If a person gets a cut on their body, they will bleed. To stop the bleeding, the human body first tells the liver to produce chemicals that will help the clot to form, the message coming from the brain. When the chemicals released by the liver arrive at the injury through the circulation, coagulation begins. At the same time, the brain also lessens the blood flow near the site of injury (by tightening the veins and arteries in that area), so that not as much blood is lost. 

There is a limit to how quickly a clot can form. If the cut is very deep and the person is bleeding too much, a clot may not be able to form and a lot of blood may be lost. Losing too much blood too quickly can be fatal. In medical emergencies where the blood circulation needs to be temporarily stopped (like to prevent death by hypovolaemia) they might use a Tourniquet on the limb if they can. 

## The details 
Coagulation begins almost instantly after an injury to the blood vessel has damaged the endothelium lining the vessel. When blood is exposed to proteins such as tissue factor it starts changes to blood platelets and the plasma protein fibrinogen, which is a clotting factor. Platelets immediately form a plug at the site of injury. Proteins in the blood plasma, called *coagulation factors* or *clotting factors*, respond in a complex cascade to form fibrin strands. These strengthen the platelet plug.

Coagulation is highly conserved throughout biology; that means its genetics is almost the same in all species of mammal. In all mammals, coagulation involves both a cellular (platelet) and a protein (coagulation factor) component. The system in humans has been the most extensively researched and is the best understood.

## Fibrin 
Fibrin is a white insoluble fibrous protein formed by the action of thrombin on fibrinogen when blood clots. it forms a network that traps red cells and platelets.

## Vitamin K 
Vitamin K is an essential factor in blood clotting. Then, vitamin K is oxidized. Another enzyme, Vitamin K epoxide reductase, (VKORC) reduces vitamin K back to its active form. This reactivation is important as a target of anticoagulant drug warfarin. Vitamin K can be found in green vegetables, such as spinach, lettuce, broccoli or cabbage.

## Related pages 
* Haemophilia
* Heart

## References
Turkish

**Turkish** might mean:

*Something related to the country Turkey
*Something related to the Ottoman Empire, also called the Turkish Empire
*Turkish language
*Turkish people
*Turkish alphabet
1440

## Events 
* February 21 &ndash; The Prussian Confederation is formed.
* September &ndash; Gilles de Rais, an early known serial killer, is arrested and taking into custody on orders from the Bishop of Nantes.

## Births 
* January 22 – Ivan III of Russia (d. 1505)
* February 10 &ndash; Henry of York, elder brother of Edward IV of England and Richard III of England (died 1441)
* February 22 – King Ladislaus Posthumus of Bohemia and Hungary (died 1457)
* Pedrarias Dávila, Spanish colonial administrator (died 1531)
* Kabir, Indian mystic (died 1518)
* Jorge Manrique, Spanish poet (died 1479)

## Deaths 
* September 30 – Reginald Grey, 3rd Baron Grey de Ruthyn (born c.1362)
* October 26 – Gilles de Rais, Marshal of France (born 1405)
New Year's Day

'''New Year's Day''' is a holiday in many countries. It was made to welcome the new year. In most countries, New Year's Day is celebrated on 1 January. This holiday is celebrated the most, with over 200 countries and territories in the world that observe it.

The new year is an event that happens when a culture  the end of one year and the beginning of the next. Cultures that measure yearly calendars all have new year celebrations.

## Modern new year celebrations 2023
## Historical dates for the new year
### Early Christmas 
In Christmas Style dating, the new year started on 25 December. This was used in Germany and England until the thirteenth century, and in Spain from the fourteenth to the sixteenth century.

In Annunciation Style dating the new year started on 25 March, the feast of the Annunciation. This was used in many parts of Europe in the Middle Ages. The style was started by Dionysius Exiguus in AD 525. Annunciation Style was used in England until 1 January 1752, and in Scotland until 1 January 1600, when the kingdom of Scotland changed to Circumcision Style. England, the kingdom of Ireland, and the Thirteen Colonies changed to Circumcision Style on 1 January, after the United Kingdom of Great Britain changed from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian calendar on 3/14 September 1752. This happened because the Parliament of Great Britain made an act of parliament, the Calendar (New Style) Act 1750.

Some Nigerian religious figures have a tradition of reading out prophecies, especially during the last few days of a year or on New Year's Day. According to them, these prophecies come as they relate with God in the place of prayer and fasting.

## References
## Other websites
* New Year's Around the World   – slideshow by *Life magazine*
*
1690

## Events
* January 6 – Joseph, son of Emperor Leopold I becomes King of the Romans
* January 14 – The clarinet is invented in Nuremberg, Germany
* May 20 – England passes Act of Grace, forgiving followers of James II
* July 1 – The Battle of the Boyne, in Ireland
* October 6-12 – Massachusetts Puritans led by Sir William Phips besiege the city of Quebec. The siege ends in failure.
* December 29 – earthquake in Anconer in Papal States, Italy

* Earliest recorded sighting of the planet Uranus, by John Flamsteed, who mistakenly catalogues it as the star 34 Tauri
* Giovanni Domenico Cassini observes differential rotation within Jupiter's atmosphere.
* The French invade the small town of Teignmouth in Southwest England, in their last attack on England.

## Births 
* January 22 – Nicolas Lancret, French painter (d. 1743)
* February 1 – Francesco Maria Veracini, Italian composer (d. 1768)
* February 3 – Richard Rawlinson, English minister and antiquarian (d. 1755)
* March 18 – Christian Goldbach Prussian mathematician (d. 1764)
* April 22 – John Carteret, 2nd Earl Granville, English statesman (d. 1763)
* September 12 – Peter Dens, Belgian Catholic theologian (d. 1775)
* October 29 – Martin Folkes, English antiquarian (d. 1754)
* November 24 – Charles Theodore Pachelbel, German composer (d. 1750)
* November 29 – Christian Augustus of Anhalt-Zerbst, father of Catherine II of Russia (d. 1747)
* December 1 – Philip Yorke, 1st Earl of Hardwicke, Lord Chancellor of England (d. 1764)
890

## Events 
* The sovereignty of prince Svatopluk I in Bohemia is confirmed.
* First ceremonial visit by a Welsh king (Anarawd, King of Gwynedd) to an English court (that of Alfred the Great).
* Founding of Kirby Muxloe. (approximate date)
1617

## Events 
### January&ndash;June 
* February 27 &ndash; The Treaty of Stolbovo ends the Ingrian War between Sweden and Russia. Sweden gains Ingria and Kexholm.

### July&ndash;December 
* November 17 &ndash; A naval battle between the Sicilians and Venetians ends inconclusively.
* November 22 &ndash; Mustafa I succeeds Ahmed I as Sultan of the Ottoman Empire.

### Date unknown 
* At least seven women are sentenced to death by burning for witchcraft at the Finspång witch trial in Sweden.
* Giambattista Andreini's play *The Penitent Magdalene* is published in Mantua.
Bochum

**Bochum** ( , also  , ; Westphalian: *Baukem*, Low Franconian: *Boochem*, Old Saxon: *Bochem*) is a city in the Ruhr area of the state of North Rhine-Westphalia in Germany. It is part of the Arnsberg Government Region. Bochum is situated between the cities of Essen, Dortmund, Gelsenkirchen, and Hattingen.

Bochum has about 380,000 inhabitants.
The city is formed by the traditional industry of coal mining in the Ruhr area, but today there is no mining in Bochum anymore.
## Education
Today the most important institution in Bochum is the Ruhr-University Bochum, one of the biggest German universities.
It has an extremely wide spectrum of subjects, beginning with mathematics and science, social sciences, economy, engineering, laws, philosophy, historical subjects, theology, medicine, and languages even including Chinese and Polish.
## Culture
Bochum has a rich cultural life and its theatre is one of the most prominent in Germany. The Folkwang University of Art has its well known theatre centre in the Ehrenfeld neighbourhood of Bochum, educating a quite small group of students in the theatrical arts. 

The *Bermuda3eck* (Bermuda Triangle) is a well known area for night life in central Bochum such as bars, nightclubs, and Hookah parlours. It has over 60 bars and restaurants, serving many kinds of food and drinks from both Germany and abroad. Since 1986, the Bochum Total music festival has taken place in the *Bermuda3eck*, with many live music performances. Bochum Total usually takes place for four days around the start of July, and is one of the largest free music festivals in Europe.

The German Mining Museum is also in Bochum, and has a number of permanent and temporary exhibits which cover the history of coal's uses and how it is mined. The Zeiss Planetarium nearby has a number of shows featuring animations and recordings of space, along with music such as Pink Floyd's The Dark Side of the Moon.

## References
San Juan, Puerto Rico

**San Juan** is the capital and largest city of Puerto Rico. The city's population is 321,992. It is the 42nd-largest city and the oldest European settlement in United States territory. Today, San Juan is Puerto Rico's most important seaport.

## History 
San Juan was founded in 1521. It was named after San Juan Bautista, or St. John the Baptist (name given by Christopher Columbus). San Juan is also known as "La Ciudad Amurallada". This means the "walled city". 

Many Spanish explorers came during the Age of Discovery and built forts, churches, and other historical buildings. "La Fortaleza" (also known as "Palacio de Santa Catalina") is an example of a very old fort in San Juan. 

In the sixteenth century, San Juan was a Spanish fortress against Caribs. (These were the people native to the Caribbean islands and Central America.) 

San Juan has many old buildings still standing today. One is the Casas de los Contrasfuertes (House of Buttresses), the oldest residence in Old San Juan.

## References
Progressive rock

**Progressive rock** is a type of rock music with complicated musical technique and composition. This means that the tempo, time signature, and style can change many times in a single song.

Most normal rock songs follow a very simple pattern in the way they are arranged. This pattern is a verse followed by a chorus, then a different verse, and then the same chorus. Progressive rock is more complicated than this, and can require more skill to play.

## Origins
Progressive rock was first made in the late 1960s, but became most popular in the 1970s. It continues to be popular today, too. Progressive rock began in England and spread throughout Europe. It remains most popular in Europe, but there are several notable American and Canadian progressive rock bands. This genre was influenced by classical music and jazz fusion. Over the years, different sub-genres of progressive rock have been created, such as symphonic rock, art rock, math rock, and progressive metal.

Progressive rock artists wished to create music that was not limited to the structures of common popular rock and pop music. They wanted to make rock music that "progressed" to the complexity of jazz and classical music by creating a more serious, complex and sophisticated type of rock music. Progressive rock bands may have influences from psychedelic rock, folk music, traditional music, world music, and jazz or jazz fusion. It is also referred to as "prog rock" as an abbreviation, or as "Hobbit rock" because of frequent medieval or fantasy themes in the lyrics.

Progressive rock bands write and play songs that have many changes during each song. Regular rock songs have verses and a chorus, but progressive songs can have many different sections. For example, instead of having verses and choruses, progressive rock songs may have many different musical themes, solos, and musical moods. A typical progressive song might have a form such as: Introduction-Verse-Chorus-instrumental section-New verse-New chorus-Instrumental section-Ending.
Because of their depth and complexity, progressive rock songs are not played on pop music radio very often.

## Bands
Some of the important progressive rock bands from the late 1960s and early 1970s include The Moody Blues, Jethro Tull, Yes, Genesis; Pink Floyd; Emerson, Lake & Palmer; Rush; Gentle Giant; Kansas: Happy The Man; Van der Graaf Generator, and King Crimson.
, was among the more flamboyant progressive rock personalities]]

## Characteristics of progressive rock
Progressive rock is difficult to define, because progressive rock bands often play different types of progressive rock music which sound different. There are some common elements that are in most progressive rock band music, such as long, complex songs, unusual time signatures, unusual instruments or ways of using them, and use of improvisation, which means making up or inventing music while playing on stage.

Albums by progressive rock groups are often concept albums. In a concept album, the songs have a common theme, are arranged in a certain order and often tell a story or represent a larger concept.

## References
*
Lawrence's goldfinch

The '''Lawrence's goldfinch'* (*Carduelis lawrencei*) is a small songbird of North America. Bigger than the Lesser Goldfinch, and smaller than the American Goldfinch, with less yellow markings than either.

It lives from central California and its southern coast in the United States, to Baja California in Mexico. Females have less yellow and do not have the black cap and chin of the males.

This bird is named after the American *ornithologist'' (bird expert), George Newbold Lawrence.

## References
Rural area

, Brazil]]
 in Westminster, Vermont.]]
**Rural areas** are areas which are not towns or cities. They are often farming or agricultural areas. These areas are sometimes called "the country" or "countryside". People who live "in the country" often live in small villages, but they might also live somewhere where there are no other houses nearby.

Rural is the opposite of urban, which means places such as cities where buildings and places where people work and live are all close together.

Many people who live in cities like to go to the country to relax. They go there for recreation, often for their holidays, or to read.

In the U.S., the United States Census Bureau, defines a "rural area" as sparsely populated and far from urban centers, which make up an estimated 3% of the land area of the U.S., but is home to more than 80% of the total population.
 
## Related pages
* Rural United States
George Newbold Lawrence

**George Newbold Lawrence** (October 20, 1806 - January 17, 1895) was an American businessperson and amateur ornithologist (bird expert).

Lawrence counted birds for Spencer Fullerton Baird and John Cassin, and the three men wrote *Birds of North America* in 1858.

Lawrence left his 8,000 bird skins to the American Museum of Natural History. The Lawrence's Goldfinch *Carduelis lawrencei* was named for him by Cassin.
Cinnamon

**Cinnamon** is a spice from the inner bark of *Cinnamomum verum*.

The spice is used in both sweet and savoury foods. It is aromatic. People usually put cinnamon in sweet baked goods (such as cinnamon rolls), hot wine or liquors.

Cinnamon was used to make the spiced wine, claret, in the Middle Ages. In India, cinnamon is commonly used in making flavoured tea. It is either directly added as small pieces or put in powdered form during the preparation of tea. It is known as "Daal-Cheeni (दाल चीनि)" in Hindi.

The Sinhalese name of cinnamon is *kurundu*. Cinnamon is grown as an export crop in Ceylon (Modern Day Sri Lanka.)

## Cinnamon as a herbal remedy 
There is a literature which suggests that cinnamon spice may have positive effects on diabetes type II. This is not the view of the U.S., National Institutes of Health.

## References
Kannada

**Kannada** () is a language, and it is a script used for writing the language. Most people in the southern Indian state of Karnataka speak Kannada. There are also many speakers in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Kerala and Goa. There are some differences in the way Kannada is spoken in these places. There are about 44 million people who speak the language. The oldest Kannada writings that still exist today are called the "Halmidi inscription" from the 5th Century.

## Language profile
Kannada is a Dravidian language, which is a different language family from the Indo-European or Aryan languages of the north, such as Hindi but close to the other southern languages like Telugu. It has about 1200 years of written history. The first version is known as the Old Kannada script, which was used between 450 - 1200 CE. Modern Kannada has existed since about 1700 CE. Printing presses introduced by Christian missionaries at the beginning of the 19th century standardized the Kannada and Telugu scripts. Kannada also has a Braille writing system for people who are blind or visually impaired.

## Script
The Kannada script is a type of writing system called an alphasyllabary. All consonants have a built-in vowel. Other vowels are indicated with diacritics, which appear next to the consonants. When they appear at the beginning of a syllable, vowels are written as separate letters. When consonants appear together without intervening vowels, the second consonant is written as a special joint symbol, usually below the first. The direction of writing: left to right in horizontal lines. Kannada has the highest number of Janapeeta literary awards compared to any Indian language. Kannada had a huge boost during the Vijayanagar period.

## References
## Other websites
1186

## Events 
* John the Chanter becomes Bishop of Exeter.
* January 27 – Constance of Sicily marries Henry (the future Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor).
* The Byzantine Empire recognises the indepence of Bulgaria.
* Guy of Lusignan becomes King of Jerusalem.

## Births 
* May 18 — Konstantin of Rostov, Prince of Novgorod (d. 1218)
* Queen Urraca of Portugal spouse of King Afonso II of Portugal (d. 1220)
* Hugh Bigod, 3rd Earl of Norfolk (d. 1225)
* Iziaslav IV Vladimirovich, Grand Prince of Kiev
* Ögedei Khan, third son of Genghis Khan and second Great Khan of the Mongol Empire (d. 1241)
* Song Ci, Chinese physician and judge (d. 1249)

## Deaths 
* May 29 or June 23 or June 24 — Robert of Torigni
* August 19 — Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany (b. 1158)
* Baldwin V of Jerusalem (b. 1177)
* William of Tyre, Archbishop of Tyre (b. c. 1130)
* Minamoto no Yukiie, Japanese warlord
Egg

**Egg** can mean different things:
* Egg (biology)
** Ovum, the female reproductive cell
*** Zygote, a fertilised ovum
** Cleidoic egg: the type of egg produced by amniotes (reptiles, birds, mammals)
* Egg (food): a type of egg that can be eaten.
Stephen Crane

**Stephen Townley Crane** (November 1, 1871 - June 5, 1900) was an American writer.  He was born on November 1, 1871 in Newark, New Jersey to Jonathan Townley Crane, a clergyman, and Mary Helen Peck Crane. He attended Syracuse University in Syracuse, New York, but did not graduate. He moved to New York City in 1892 to write about the slum life of Manhattan. His major works include the novella *Maggie: A Girl of the Streets* (1893), the war novel *The Red Badge of Courage* (1895), and the short story "The Open Boat" (1897). After the success of *Badge*, his literary reputation declined.  His health was poor. In May 1899, he entered a sanitarium in Badenweiler, Germany. On June 5, 1900, he died of tuberculosis. He is buried in the Evergreen Cemetery in Hillside, New Jersey. 

## Related pages 
*List of poets from the United States
## References 
* Stephen Crane biography
* Biography of Stephen Crane
1187

## Events 
* May 1 – Battle of Cresson – Saladin defeats the crusaders
* July 4 – Saladin defeats Guy of Lusignan, King of Jerusalem, at the Battle of Hattin.
* September 20 – October 2 – Siege of Jerusalem – Saladin captures Jerusalem.
* October 29 – Pope Gregory VIII issues the bull *Audita tremendi*, proposing the Third Crusade.
* Alexis Branas attempts to seize Constantinople in defiance of his master Isaac II Angelus.
* Cathedral of St. Jacob consecrated in Szczecin, Pomerania
* Destruction of Sigtuna – archbishop is killed
* Knut Eriksson builds a castle in the island of Stockholm
* Compass in Europe
* The Toltecs are deposed at Chichen Itza
* Zen Buddhism comes to Japan
* King of Ankor Vat, Jayavarman VII defeats Cham conquerors
* Ghorin Muhammed conquers Punjab
* Genoa takes Bonifacio (in Corsica) from Pisa

## Births 
* September 5 — King Louis VIII of France (d. 1226)
* Arthur I, Duke of Brittany (d. 1203)
* Vladimir III Rurikovich, Grand Prince of Kiev (d. 1239)

## Deaths 
* July 4 — Raynald of Chatillon, Prince of Antioch (executed, b. c. 1125)
* October 19 — Pope Urban III
* November 9 — Emperor Gaozong of China (b. 1107)
* December 17 — Pope Gregory VIII (b. c. 1100)
* Gerard of Cremona, Italian translator of scientific works (b. c. 1114)
* Roger de Moulins, Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller
* Count Raymond III of Tripoli (b. 1140)
1188

## Events 
* Saladin unsuccessfully besieges the Hospitaller fortress of Krak des Chevaliers in modern Syria.
* Newgate Prison is built.
* Richard Lionheart allies with Philip II of France against his father, Henry II of England.
* Giraldus Cambrensis and Baldwin of Exeter travel through Wales attempting to recruit men for the Third Crusade.
* The "Saladin tithe" is levied in England.
* Alfonso IX of Castile becomes king of Leon.
* Queen Tamar of Georgia marries David Soslan.
Blaise Pascal

**Blaise Pascal** (19 June 1623 &ndash; 19 August 1662 AD) was a French mathematician, physicist, inventor, philosopher, and Christian theologian. 

Pascal was born in Clermont-Ferrand, France in 1623. When he was only a few years old, his mother died, leaving his father to care for him and his two sisters. In 1631, Pascal's father moved the family to Paris. He wrote two books on Christianity called the *Pensées* (which he never finished) and the *Lettres Provinciales.* He also argued that people should believe in God because it is the logical thing to do (see Pascal's wager, which is an application of game theory).

Pascal was the first recorded person to wear a watch on his wrist.

Pascal died in Paris in 1662.

## References
1193

## Events 
* Saladin dies, and the lands of the Kurdish Ayyubid dynasty of Egypt and Syria are split among his descendants.
* Qutb-ud-Din, a Ghurid slave commander, captures Delhi.
* Muhammad Khilji, a general under the command of Qutb-ud-Din sacks and burns Nalanda, India's greatest Buddhist university.
* Philip II of France marries Ingeborg, daughter of Valdemar I of Denmark.

## Births 
* William de Ferrers, 5th Earl of Derby (d. 1254)
* Albertus Magnus, German philosopher and theologian (d. 1280)
* John III Ducas Vatatzes, Byzantine Emperor (d. 1254)

## Deaths 
* March 4 — Saladin, Sultan of the Kurdish Ayyubid dynasty of Egypt and Syria (b. c. 1138)
* Balian of Ibelin, noble of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem (b. early 1140s)
* Düsum Khyenpa, 1st Gyalwa Karmapa (b. 1110)
* Minamoto no Noriyori, Japanese general (b. 1156)
* Emperor Renzong of Western Xia, 5th emperor of the Western Xia dynasty (b. 1124)
* Fan Chengda, Chinese poet

## Heads of states 
* England — Richard I King of England (reigned 1189–1199)
* France — Philippe II, Auguste King of France (reigned 1180–1223)
* Byzantine Empire — Isaac II Angelus (reigned 1185 to 1195, and 1203–1204)
* Pope — Celestine III (Pope 1191–1198)
* China — Emperor Guangzong of Song (reigned 1189-1194)
Sarah McLachlan

**Sarah Ann McLachlan** (born January 28, 1968) is a Canadian singer-songwriter who is known for her emotional music. She was adopted and raised in Halifax, Nova Scotia. She went to the Nova Scotia College of Art and Design, then moved to Vancouver, British Columbia.

Her recording company, Nettwerk, released her first album in 1988. After recording several albums, she organized the all-female music festival Lilith Fair in 1997, 1998, and 1999. Some of the money made from these concerts went to women's charities. McLachlan received the Elizabeth Cady Stanton Visionary Award in 1998 for helping women's music.

She married her drummer, Ashwin Sood, in 1997. They have a daughter, India, born in 2002.

McLachlan has been written about in magazines such as Rolling Stone, Time, and Entertainment Weekly. She has won Grammy and Juno awards for her music.

She funds a Vancouver program that helps poor children learn music. She has played at charity concerts, such as for victims of the December 26, 2004 tsunami and at the 2005 Live 8 concert in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.

Some of McLachlan's best-known songs include "The Path of Thorns", "Into the Fire", "Possession", "Building a Mystery", "Sweet Surrender", "Adia", "Angel", and "World on Fire".

## Albums 
Albums with only new songs:
* *Touch* (1988)
* *Solace* (1991)
* *Fumbling Towards Ecstacy* (1993)
* *Surfacing* (1997)
* *Afterglow* (2003)

## Live albums 
* *Mirrorball* (1999)
* *Afterglow Live* (2004)
Live EPs (shorter albums) were released in 1992 and 2004.

## Other albums 
* *The Freedom Sessions* (1994)
* *Rarities, B-Sides and Other Stuff* (1996)
* Albums called *Murmers* were released only for her fan club every year from 1995 to 2001.
* Two remix albums were released, in 2001 and 2005.
Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban

***Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban*** is the third book in the *Harry Potter* series by J. K. Rowling. The book was released on 8 July 1999. It covers Harry Potter's third year at Hogwarts. A movie based on the book was released on 31 May 2004. This is the only book where Lord Voldemort does not make an appearance.

## Plot 
After accidentally inflating his aunt Marge, Harry leaves the Dursleys, and catches a ride on the street on a magical bus called The Knight Bus. Before he begins his way back to Hogwarts, he learns of Sirius Black, a mass murderer, believed to have killed thirteen people with a single curse. Black has escaped from the wizard prison, Azkaban. Meanwhile, upon meeting the Weasleys, Harry learns that, despite accidentally using magic (which is illegal), he has not been expelled.   Mr. Weasley tells Mrs. Weasley of Sirius Black's motive to kill Harry when Harry overhears this he is told not to go looking for Black. Later in the book, Harry soon realizes why. 

## Other websites
Crohn's disease

'''Crohn's disease''' is a type of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). It can affect any part of the GI system from the mouth to the anus (usually the small bowel and the beginning of the colon). People with Crohn's disease often have abdominal pain, diarrhea, vomiting, fatigue, bloody stool and weight loss. Crohn's can also cause skin , arthritis, and swollen eyes. It is named after Burrill Bernard Crohn, who described cases in 1932. It was first described by Giovanni Battista Morgagni (1682–1771) in the 18th century.

Crohn's disease is a chronic inflammatory and an idiopathic disease which means that we don’t know what exactly causes it. There are several factors that play a role in development of the disease such as genetics and the immune system. Though Crohn's is connected to the immune system, the exact underlying immune problem is not clear. There is disagreement in the medical community as to whether the disease is immune-related, immune-mediated or is an autoimmune disease (the immune system is not triggered by the body itself). There are also some lifestyle risk factors. The autoimmune reaction causes inflammation in the gut, leading to development of the symptoms listed above.

Crohn's disease seems to be connected to the person's genes. People whose brothers or sisters have the disease are the most likely to get it. Men and women can both be affected by Crohn's disease.

Around 20% of people with Crohn’s disease have Inflammatory bowel disease. Environmental factors can increase your risk of disease. For example, people who live in developed countries and urban areas have a higher risk. Studies show that patients who have had appendix surgery may have an increased risk of Crohn’s. It is supposed that the worms modify the immune reactions in the parts of the intestine where they live. Alternative medicine of various kinds has been tried, with uncertain results.

## References 
## Other websites 
*Crohn's disease information and tools for patients 
*Crohn's disease facts from the National Institutes of Health 
*Crohns Disease Resource Site
Fort Knox

**Fort Knox** is an U.S. Army post in Kentucky. Named after Henry Knox, the fort is now the site of the U.S. Bullion Reservatory (where the United States keeps its gold). The fort's fortifications were built in 1862 during the American Civil War; however, after the war the camp became abandoned until 1917.  

It is named for Henry Knox, a general in the American Revolutionary War.
Henry Knox

**Henry Knox** (1750–1806) was a military leader for the Americans during the American Revolutionary War. Originally from Boston, Massachusetts, he was appointed Chief Artillery Officer of the Continental Army. He is best known for transporting cannons and other artillery from Fort Ticonderoga to Boston through icy conditions using oxen. Later, George Washington named him the first Secretary of War. 

Fort Knox in Kentucky & Maine are named after him.
Mark Twain

**Samuel Langhorne Clemens** (November 30, 1835 – April 21, 1910), more widely known as **Mark Twain**, was an American writer. He was born in Florida, Missouri.  He worked mainly for newspapers and as a steamboat pilot on the Mississippi River before he became a writer. He married in 1870, and raised his family in Hartford, Connecticut. In later life he invested and lost the money that his writing had made, and toured the world giving lectures that brought him enough money to pay his debt and recover his fortune. 

Clemens was  best known for his works in fiction, and especially for his use of humour. His first published story, in 1865, was *The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County.*

*Adventures of Huckleberry Finn* is considered by many to be Clemens' best work.  This story of a white boy who helps a black man escape slavery in the southern United States is known for its humanity.

Clemens's style was usually informal and humorous. This made him different from many important 19th century writers whose books he disliked. For example, he greatly disliked Jane Austen's works, such as *Sense and Sensibility* and *Pride and Prejudice*, and famously remarked, "She makes me detest (hate) all her people, without reserve."

Actor Hal Holbrook played Mark Twain on stage in a one-man show called *Mark Twain Tonight*.

Halley's Comet appeared in the sky during the year Twain was born and the year he died. This periodic comet comes back every 74 years, which is how long he lived.

## Bibliography 
* *The Adventures of Tom Sawyer* (1876)
* *The Prince and the Pauper* (1882)
* *Adventures of Huckleberry Finn* (1884)
* ''A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court'' (1889)

## References 
## Other websites 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* The Mark Twain Papers and Project of the Bancroft Library (Archive of Mark Twain's papers and writings)
* Samuel Langhorne Clemens collection of papers at New York Public Library
1775

## Events 
*May – beginning of American Revolutionary War
*May – First Continental Congress
*June – Second Continental Congress
Cream cheese

**Cream cheese** is a soft, mild-tasting, white cheese. Sometimes, it is given extra flavor by adding additional seasonings such as puréed garlic, chopped dill, or chopped olives; as well, some cream cheese has small pieces of fruit or other sweet food blended into it. Cream cheese is different from other cheese in that it is not allowed time to mature. It is either made by cream or a mixture of milk and cream.

## Serving
Cream cheese is often spread on toasted bagels. Waffles with cream cheese and salsa is eaten in some areas of the United States.

## As an ingredient
Cream cheese is used to make cheesecake, a sweet, rich cake that is served for dessert.

## Related pages
* Fromage frais

## References
Shrewsbury

**Shrewsbury** is the county town of Shropshire, a county of England. It is located 9 miles (14&nbsp;km) east of the Welsh border and serves as the commercial centre for Shropshire and mid-Wales.

The town is very old. It was started around 700 AD. The town centre has almost the exact same medieval street plan and over 660 listed buildings. Many of these buildings have timber framing from the 15th and 16th centuries. There is also Shrewsbury Castle, which was built  in 1074, and Shrewsbury Abbey, which was built in 1083. The town centre is almost completely surrounded by the River Severn.

Charles Darwin was born in Shrewsbury and lived there for 27 years.

The population of Shrewsbury is just over 76,000, making it the second largest town in Shropshire, the biggest being Telford.

The town has a railway station and a professional football club, Shrewsbury Town, who compete in League One.

Shrewsbury is pronounced differently between different people - including the locals - many pronounce the town the town as ‘Shroosbri’ whereas other will pronounce it as ‘Shrowsbri’.

## Twinning
Shrewsbury is twinned with  Zutphen, Netherlands.
## In fiction
Shrewsbury Abbey is the setting of the Brother Cadfael Chronicles by Ellis Peters (Edith Pargeter). The books were later made into a television show.  The story is about a 12th-century monk who solves mysteries.  In 2013, the Abbey honoured Pargeter on the 100th anniversary of her birth.

## Gallery

File:Flag_of_Shrewsbury.png|Flag of Shrewsbury
File:The_Square,_Shrewsbury.JPG|Shrewsbury Square
File:Dingle_Garden_Shrewsbury.jpg|The Dingle Gardens, Shrewsbury
File:Shrewsbury_Station_01.jpg|Shrewsbury station
File:GreenhousMeadowWestStandFebruary2015.jpg|New Meadow, home of Shrewsbury Town

## References
Ludlow

**Ludlow** is a town in Shropshire, a county of England. The town is very old and dates back to around 800 AD. There is a large castle and many other historic buildings. 

There are just over 10,000 people living in the town.

It is the largest town in the South Shropshire area.

The town, though not large, is important in its area, which includes the Welsh Marches, Wales and South Shropshire. Its parish church, St Laurence's, is the largest in the county.

## Transport 
### Road 
The A49, A4117, B4361 and B4365 roads pass through or go near Ludlow.

### Rail 
Ludlow has a train station.

## References
South Shropshire

**South Shropshire** is an area of Shropshire in England.

It is very hilly and has few people living there. The only large town is Ludlow.

The area has many castles and other  features, such as stone circles.
Telford

**Telford** is a large town in the county of Shropshire, England. It is in the borough of Telford and Wrekin.

It is a new town and building began in the 1960s. It is known for its large shopping centre in the town centre. It also has an ice rink and a large park.

The population of Telford is just over 140,000. It is the largest town in Shropshire, however the county town is Shrewsbury.

The town has a railway station, Telford Central. The town also has a football club, A.F.C. Telford United.

## Gallery

File:TelfordPlaza.JPG|Telford Plaza
Horse Power in Telford - geograph.org.uk - 1726376.jpg|Memorial statue honouring Telford's miners
File:Telford_Central_station_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1187488.jpg|Telford Central station
Battle of Saratoga

The **Battle of Saratoga** is considered the turning point of the American Revolutionary War and was fought in late 1777. It was actually two battles: the Battle of Freeman's Farm (September 19) and the Battle of Bemis Heights (October 7). The Americans were led by General Horatio Gates. The British were led by General John Burgoyne.  

On October 17, Burgoyne surrendered his army of nearly 6,000 British soldiers. The American victory helped make France decide to come to the aid of the Continental Army and to recognize the United States.  

## Prelude 
In early 1777, General William Howe asked London to approve his plan to attack Philadelphia to destroy the rebellious American government. In Canada, General John Burgoyne submitted a plan to move down through New York and meet Howe at Albany. This would divide the colonies. London approved both plans. He was joined by about 500 Native Americans, who were allied to the British. The story even reached England. In the House of Commons, Edmund Burke spoke out against the British policy of using Native American allies.

## Battle of Freeman's Farm 
Howe had captured Philadelphia but had taken so long that he did not send any forces north to support Burgoyne.

He again fought Americans at Freeman's Farm, who were riflemen under the command of Daniel Morgan. The marksman killed a large number of British and Hessian officers 

## British surrender 
Finally, Gates offered better terms. On October 17, Burgoyne surrendered his whole army of 5,752. He gave up 42 cannons, 7,000 muskets and all his supplies.

Officers were d from their men and placed on . Unlike their men, they were allowed to keep their pistols. Gates invited Burgoyne to dine with him. The two men were friendly and toasted each other's leader. The British and Hessian soldiers were marched to Boston.

According to the agreement, they were to return to England on their promise not to fight again. While some returned to England, the Continental Congress changed the terms. Many were sent to prisons in the colonies to wait out the war.

## References 
## Other websites 
* Battle Of Saratoga - Sept & Oct 1777
* The Battle of Saratoga 1777; British Battles
Horatio Gates

**Horatio Gates** (1726 - 1806) was an American general during the American Revolutionary War. He fought for the Continental Army and is credited with the decisive American victory at the Battle of Saratoga in 1777. 

During the earlier French and Indian War, he fought along with George Washington against the French as an officer in the British Army.

However, Gates also lost to British General Charles Cornwallis at the Battle of Camden in 1780. He had a child named Robert. He led the Americans at the battle of Saratoga
1189

## Events 
* January 21 – Philip II of France and Richard I of England begin to assemble troops to wage the Third Crusade
* September 3– Richard I of England is crowned as king of England.
* August 29– Ban Kulin wrote "The Charter of Kulin", which become a symbolic "birth certificate" of Bosnian statehood
* This year was fixed as the start of time immemorial in English law in 1276.
* Beginning of the Siege of Acre.
* The Crusader castles of Montreal and Kerak are captured by Saladin.

## Births 
* Yuri II, grand prince of Vladimir (d. 1238)

## Deaths 
* July 6 — King Henry II of England (b. 1133)