open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Ivan Pavlov

**Ivan Petrovich Pavlov**  (14 September 1849 – 27 February 1936) was a Russian physiologist, psychologist, and physician.

He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1904 for research about the digestive system. Pavlov is widely known for first describing classical conditioning.

## Early life and education 
The son of a priest, and a theology student, Pavlov turned to science after being influenced by progressive ideas.  He took natural sciences at the University of St Petersburg, and got a doctorate in 1878.

## Works 
In the 1890s, Pavlov was investigating the gastric function of dogs by externalizing a salivary gland so he could collect, measure, and analyze the saliva and what response it had to food under different conditions. He noticed that the dogs tended to salivate before food was actually delivered to their mouths, and set out to investigate this "psychic secretion", as he called it. Pavlov performed and directed experiments on digestion, eventually publishing *The work of the digestive glands* in 1897, after 12 years of research. His experiments earned him the 1904 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine.

## Legacy
 at The Pavlov Museum, Ryazan, Russia]]
The concept for which Pavlov is famous is the "conditioned reflex" he developed with his assistant Ivan Tolochinov in 1901.

As Pavlov's work became known in the West, particularly through the writings of John B. Watson, the idea of "conditioning" as an automatic form of learning became a key concept in the developing specialism of comparative psychology, and the general approach to psychology called behaviourism.

The British philosopher Bertrand Russell was an enthusiastic advocate of the importance of Pavlov's work for philosophy of mind.

Pavlov's research on conditional reflexes greatly influenced not only science, but also popular culture. The phrase "Pavlov's dog" is often used to describe someone who merely reacts to a situation rather than using critical thinking. Pavlovian conditioning was a major theme in Aldous Huxley's dystopian novel, *Brave New World*, and also to a large degree in Thomas Pynchon's ''Gravity's Rainbow''.

It is popularly believed that Pavlov always signalled the food by ringing a bell. However, his writings also record the use of many stimuli, including electric shocks, whistles, metronomes, tuning forks, and a range of visual stimuli. Catania did not believe Pavlov ever actually used a bell in his famous experiments. Littman tentatively attributed the popular imagery to Pavlov’s contemporaries Vladimir Bekhterev and John B. Watson, until Thomas found several references that clearly said Pavlov did, indeed, use a bell.

It is less widely known that Pavlov's experiments on the conditional reflex included children, some of whom apparently underwent surgical procedures, similar to the dogs, for the collection of saliva.

## References
Jon Stewart

**Jon Stewart** (born **Jonathan Stuart Leibowitz**; November 28, 1962), is an American comedian, actor, writer, and producer. He is best known as the host of Comedy Central's *The Daily Show* and for his political satire. Stewart started as a stand-up comedian, but later branched out to television, hosting *Short Attention Span Theater* for Comedy Central. He went on to host his own show on MTV, called *The Jon Stewart Show* and then hosted another show on MTV called You Wrote It, You Watch It.” Stewart is Jewish.

In 2014, Stewart directed his first movie, a drama about Iran called “Rosewater.”

## Filmography 
## References 
## Other websites 
*
Quagga

The **Quagga** (*Equus quagga quagga*), also **Cape Quagga**,  is a recently extinct zebra.

It was one of the six subspecies of plains zebra. It was a yellowish-brown zebra with stripes only on its head, neck and forebody, and looks similar to an Okapi.

## References
Nation state

The **nation state** is a form of state that rules mainly one nation.  The state is a political entity (the government, etc.); the nation is a cultural and/or ethnic entity.  The term "nation state" means that both are on the same territory, which distinguishes the nation state from the other types of states that have existed.

## Examples 
Clear examples of nation states include:
* Iceland: although the inhabitants of Iceland are ethnically related to other Scandinavian groups, the national culture and language are found only in Iceland.  There are no cross-border minorities since the nearest land is too far away.
* Japan: Traditionally seen as a good example of a nation-state, Japan includes minorities of ethnically distinct Ryūkyū peoples, Koreans; Chinese; and, on the northern island of Hokkaidō, the indigenous Ainu minority. See also Japanese Demographics .
* Portugal: although surrounded by other lands and people, the Portuguese nation has occupied the same territory for almost 900 years.  A long time ago, Portugal was formed from groups of people that were previously separate.  They all passed through and settled in the area that later became Portugal.  They included native Iberian peoples, Celts, ancient Mediterraneans (Greeks, Phoenicians, Romans), Germanic peoples like the Suebi and the Visigoths, the later invading Berbers and Arabs, and Jews.

## Before nation-states 
 into nation states in 1918
grey solid line: Border of Austria-Hungary in 1914;
black solid line: Borders in 1914;
red solid : Borders in 1920;

]]

In Europe, in the 18th century, the classic non-national states were empires of many ethnicities, (Austria-Hungary, the Russian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, the French Empire and the British Empire).

## Characteristics 
* Nation states have a different attitude to their territory from dynastic monarchies. No nation would swap territory with other states simply, for example, because the king's daughter got married.
* They have a different type of border that is mostly defined by where the cultural/ethnic (nation) group settles, but many nation states have also had borders based on geography like rivers and mountain ranges.
* The most noticeable characteristic is how much nation states use the state as an instrument of national unity in economic, social and cultural life.

## References 
## Further reading 
* Hobsbawm, Eric J. (1992). *Nations and Nationalism Since 1780: Programme, Myth, Reality.* 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press. .
* White, Philip L. (2006). "Globalization and the Mythology of the Nation State," In A.G.Hopkins, ed. *Global History: Interactions Between the Universal and the Local* Palgrave Macmillan, pp.&nbsp;257–284. http://www.nationalityinworldhistory.net/ch1.html 

## Related pages
* City-state
* Ethnic group
* Nation
* Nationalism
* Secession
* Sovereignty
* State

## Other websites 
* From Paris to Cairo: Resistance of the Unacculturated  (Identity and the Nation state)
Hamilton College

**Hamilton College** is a private, independent, liberal arts college in Clinton, New York. In 2007, U.S. News & World Report ranked Hamilton the 17th best liberal arts college in the United States.
The college is known for its emphasis on writing and speaking. The school was founded in 1793, chartered as Hamilton College in 1812, and has been coeducational since 1978, when it merged with Kirkland College.

## The Sacerdote Great Names Series at Hamilton 
Starting in 1996 *the Sacerdote Great Names Series* has brought some of the most sought after speakers to campus for presentations. While most of these have been in the form of speeches, they have also included concerts by B. B. King and Aretha Franklin.

To date the speakers that have been part of this series are:

* Jon Stewart, November 14, 2008 (announced)
* Aretha Franklin, April 5, 2008
* Al Gore, April 26, 2007
* Tom Brokaw, April 27, 2006
* Bill Clinton, November 9, 2004
* Bill Cosby, October 15, 2003
* Rudolph Giuliani, September 24, 2002
* Madeleine Albright, March 6, 2002
* Jimmy Carter, April 30, 2001
* Desmond Tutu, April 11, 2000
* Lady Margaret Thatcher, December 9, 1999
* B.B. King, October 20, 1998
* F.W. de Klerk, April 8, 1998
* Elie Wiesel, April 3, 1997
* James Carville, and Mary Matalin October 15, 1996
* Colin Powell, April 1, 1996

## Facts and Figures about the College Community 
## Other websites 
* Official website
* Hamilton College Wiki
* America's Best Colleges 2008, Hamilton College At A Glance 
* Graduates for a Greener Hamilton 
* Hamilton College Alumni for Governance Reform 

## References
Przewalski's horse

'''Przewalski's horse'* (*Equus przewalskii* or *E. ferus przewalskii''),  the Mongolian wild horse, is a close relative of the domestic horse.  The two are the only equids that can cross-breed and produce fertile offspring. Przewalski's horse is a rare and endangered subspecies of the wild horse, *Equus ferus*. It is native to the steppes of central Asia, especially Mongolia.

At one time extinct in the wild, it has been reintroduced to its native habitat in Mongolia from stock in zoos. It is now in several nature reserves and national parks. As of 2002, the world population of these horses was about 1,000.

## Relationships between horses 
Most "wild" horses today, such as the American mustang or the Australian brumby, are feral horses descended from domesticated animals which escaped and adapted to life in the wild. In contrast, Przewalski's horse has never been successfully domesticated, and remains a truly wild animal today.

Przewalski's horse is one of three known subspecies of *Equus ferus*, the others being the domesticated horse, *Equus ferus caballus* and the extinct tarpan, *Equus ferus ferus*. Przewalski's horse is the only remaining truly wild "horse" in the world. There are still a number of other wild equines, including three species of zebra and various subspecies of the African wild ass, onager (including the Mongolian wild ass) and kiang.

### Relation to domestic horse 
Although Przewalski's horse can hybridize with domestic horses to produce fertile offspring, it has an extra pair of chromosomes.

:"Mitochondrial DNA research has shown that Przewalski's horse is not the ancestor of modern domestic horses. [There are] a number of consistent differences in their appearance. Przewalski's horses, unlike domestic horses, shed their tail and mane hair once per year. Thus it is clear that Przewalski's and domestic horses are very closely related and have in the past interbred, but the fixed chromosomal number difference between them indicates that they are distinct populations".

## In zoos 
According to ISIS, about 480 Przewalski's were reported in captivity.

## References
Poet laureate

A **poet laureate** is a poet officially appointed by the government of a country. He or she is responsible for writing poems for special occasions in that country, for example a coronation or military victory.

The first official Poet Laureate was Ben Jonson in 1619. There are also Poets Laureate in the United States, Canada, and New Zealand.

The Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom is Carol Ann Duffy.  She was appointed Poet Laureate on 1 May 2009 to take the place of Andrew Motion.  She is the first British woman Poet Laureate.

## Related pages
*Laurel wreath
## Other websites
*List of poets laureate in the UK
Joseph McCarthy

**Joseph Raymond McCarthy** (November 14, 1908&nbsp;– May 2, 1957) was an American politician who was a Republican U.S. Senator from Wisconsin from 1947 to his death. In 1950, McCarthy began to be the most visible public face of a period of intense anti-communist suspicion, which was inspired by the tensions of the Cold War.

He told Americans that many of communist and Soviet spies and sympathizers were in federal government and elsewhere. McCarthyism is a term that was coined in 1950 to refer to McCarthy's practices, and it was soon applied to similar anti-communist pursuits.

During World War II, he was a captain in the United States Marine Corps.

McCarthy died of hepatitis at the Walter Reed National Military Medical Center.

## Other websites
*
*
* Retrieved on 2008-07-11

|-
List of emperors of Japan

The **list of emperors of Japan** presents the traditional order of . Records of the reigns of the emperors of Japan were  according to the traditional Japanese calendar, and these traditional dates have been converted into the Western calendar format.

## Emperors of Japan
## Related pages 
* Japanese imperial family tree
* Line of succession to the Japanese throne

## References 
 symbol of the Japanese emperor and his family.]]
Kalahari Desert

The **Kalahari Desert** is a large arid to semi-arid sandy area in southern Kgalagadi Africa extending 900,000 km² (362,500 sq. mi.), covering much of Botswana and parts of Namibia and South Africa. It has huge tracts of excellent grazing after good rains.

The Kalahari Desert is the southern part of Africa, and the geography is a portion of desert and a plateau. The Kalahari supports some animals and plants because most of it is not a true desert. There are small amounts of rainfall and the summer temperature is very high. The driest areas usually receive  of rain per year, and the wettest just a little over .

The surrounding Kalahari Basin covers over 2.5 million km² extending farther into Botswana, Namibia and South Africa, and encroaching into parts of Angola, Zambia and Zimbabwe. The only permanent river, the Okavango, flows into a delta in the northwest, forming marshes that are rich in wildlife. Ancient dry riverbeds—called omuramba—traverse the Central Northern reaches of the Kalahari and provide standing pools of water during the rainy season. Previously havens for wild animals from elephant to giraffe, and for predators such as lion and cheetah, the riverbeds are now mostly grazing spots, though leopard or cheetah can still be found.

## Game reserves 
 in the Kalahari]]
The Kalahari has a number of game reserves—the Central Kalahari Game Reserve (CKGR, the world's second largest protected area), Khutse Game Reserve and the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park. Animals that live in the region include brown hyenas, lions, meerkats, giraffe, warthogs, jackals and several species of antelope (including the eland, gemsbok, springbok, hartebeest, steenbok, kudu, and duiker), and many species of bird and reptiles. Vegetation in the Kalahari consists mainly of grasses and acacias but there are over 400 identified plant species present (including the wild watermelon or **Tsamma** melon).

## Bushmen 
The Bushmen of the Kalahari were hunter/gatherers. They hunted for meat and gathered the food of the desert to eat. They did not keep animals. They moved from place to place to find food and water. They owned very few things because they had to carry everything themselves. Very few people still live this way anywhere in the world.

## Settlements within the Kalahari 
**Botswana**
* Ghanzi
* Tshane
* Tshabong
* Orapa

**Namibia**
* Gobabis
* Mariental

**South Africa**
* Rietfontein
* Noenieput
* Severn

## References
One of the Boys

***One of the Boys*** is the second studio album by pop singer Katy Perry. Four singles were released from it. The album's first single "I Kissed a Girl" was no.1. However, the title track, "Thinking of You", and "Mannequin" were all written by Perry alone. The EP Ur So Gay, containing the song of the same name, was released in 2007 to generate interest in the singer and the album. 

## Track list 
## Personnel
**Musicians**

* Katy Perry – lead vocals (all tracks), whistles (track 6), piano (11)
* Darren Dodd – drums (tracks 1, 4)
* Dan Chase – keyboards, programming (tracks 1, 4)
* Butch Walker – instrumentation (tracks 1, 4)
* Dr. Luke – guitars, bass, drums, programming (tracks 2, 7)
* Benny Blanco – programming (tracks 2, 7), drums (7)
* Cathy Dennis – background vocals (track 2)
* Steven Wolf – live drums (track 2)
* Greg Wells – all instruments (tracks 3, 5, 12); piano, guitar, bass, beats (6)
* Jerry Hey – horns (track 6)
* Gary Grant – horns (track 6)
* Bill Reichenbach – horns (track 6)
* Dan Higgins – horns (track 6)
* Max Martin –  guitars (track 7)
* Sean Gould – guitars (track 8)
* Dave Katz – guitars, programming (track 8)
* Sam Hollander – programming (track 8)
* Josh Freese – drums (tracks 9, 10)
* Ted Bruner – instrumentation (track 9)
* Paul Bushnell – bass (track 10)
* Dave Levita – guitar (track 10)
* Scott Cutler – guitar (track 10)
* Ned Douglas – programming (track 11)
* Jeff Bova – additional programming (track 11)
* Dave Stewart – guitar, instrumentation (track 11)

**Technical**

* Brian "Big Bass" Gardner – mastering
* Joe Zook – mixing (tracks 1, 3, 4, 6, 8–11)
* Serban Ghenea – mixing (tracks 2, 7)
* Greg Wells – mixing (track 5), engineering (3, 5, 12)
* Paul Hager – engineering (tracks 1, 4)
* Emily Wright – engineering (tracks 2, 7)
* Sam Holland – engineering (tracks 2, 7)
* Nick Banns – engineering (tracks 2, 7)
* Tina Kennedy – engineering (tracks 2, 7)
* Mike Caffrey – engineering, drum recording, additional drum production (track 2)
* Aniella Gottwald – engineering (track 2)
* Luke Tozour – engineering (track 5)
* Drew Pearson – engineering (track 6)
* Tatiana Gottwald – engineering (track 7)
* Sean Gould – engineering (track 8)
* Ted Bruner – engineering (track 9)
* Doug Boehm – engineering (track 10)
* Ned Douglas – engineering (track 11)
* Bill Malina – engineering (track 11)
* John Hanes – mix engineering (tracks 2, 7)
* Mike Fennell – drum engineering (track 9)
* Tim Roberts – mix engineering assistance (tracks 2, 7)
* Kitty Purry – engineering assistance (track 2)
* Jerry Hey – horn arrangement (track 6)

**Visuals**
* Michael Elins – photography
* Ed Sherman – art direction
* Shayne Ivy – design, illustration

Credits adapted from album liner notes.

## Reference
**Notes**
*  signifies a co-producer
*  signifies a remixer
If I Were a Boy

"**If I Were a Boy**" is a song by American singer Beyoncé, written by Toby Gad, BC Jean and Beyoncé Knowles for her third studio album, *I Am... Sasha Fierce* (2008).

## Music video
The music video for "If I Were a Boy" was directed by Jake Nava and portrays Knowles as an NYPD officer. It begins with Knowles and her husband reciting words such as "honesty" and "commitment". It later shows Knowles on patrol with her male partner. The video tells of the ways a both men and women hurt each other in a relationship. Knowles stated: "It's about all of the little things that mean so much in a relationship[…] At the end of the clip, you realize that I was acting out his life, and it all starts over again. He was a cop and everything that happened was really him doing the same thing to me."

## Track Listing
## References
Application programming interface

An **application programming interface** (API) is a set of functions, procedures, methods or classes used by computer programs to request services from the operating system, software libraries or any other service providers running on the computer. A computer programmer uses the API to make
computer applications.

An API works by making a structure for computers to interact with each other, including rules for interactions and methods the computers can use to quickly send data to each other. Because an API's goal is to connect computers with other computers, they are different from a user interface, which has the goal of connecting human users with computers.

Main types of web APIs:

* Open APIs - available to the public; they can be accessed by any external users.
* Partner APIs - available to strategic business partners; they are exposed to a public API developer portal.
* Internal APIs - available to a company's internal development teams; they are exposed to a private API developer portal.
* Composite APIs - are a sequence of tasks bundled into a single API call.

Types of API include web services API like the Twitter API, which allows programs to use the API to receive updates on tweets.

## References
Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)

"**Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)**" - is a song by American singer Beyoncé. It was written by The-Dream, Tricky Stewart and Beyoncé for her third album, *I Am... Sasha Fierce* (2008).

## Music video 
The music video for "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)" was shot on September 14, 2008 and directed by Jake Nava and released to major outlets on October 13, 2008. In the video, Knowles is performing as Sasha Fierce. The video features much choreography, showing Sasha with two other female dancers in all black leotards.

The video is based upon a 1960s routine performed by Gwen Verdon.

It was uploaded to YouTube on October 3, 2009.

## Track listing 
## References
Secure Shell

**Secure Shell** (**SSH**) is an Internet communication protocol used mostly to allow users to log into other computers and run commands. It lets people exchange data using a secure channel between two computers. It is used mainly on Linux, Macintosh and Unix computers. It is a lot like Telnet, but is safer. It is less likely to be hacked than Telnet is. 

A person can make a key out of numbers. This key has two parts, a private part that should not be shared and a public part that should be. These parts are mathematically related to each. To send a message to a computer, the message is encrypted with the sender's private key and the receiver's public key. This is done in such a way that the message can only be read if the receiver has their private key and the sender's public key. This means that an attacker cannot read the messages without both keys.  

SSH was designed by Tatu Ylönen in 1995 to replace the less secure protocols rlogin, Telnet and rsh, which were used to access shell accounts on remote computers. 

## Related pages
* Internet protocol suite
* Communications protocol

## Other websites 
* Putty - SSH on Windows
Peregrine falcon

The **peregrine falcon** (*Falco peregrinus*) is a cosmopolitan bird of prey in the family Falconidae. It can also be known just as the **peregrine**, and was once called the "Duck hawk" in North America. In Pakistan, it is officially the military iconic symbol of the PAF and the unofficial territory bird of Gilgit-Baltistan.

The peregrine is a crow-sized falcon, with a blue-grey back, barred white underparts, and a black head and "mustache". It can go up to 322 km/h (200 mph) in a dive, which means it is the fastest animal in the world. As with other bird-eating raptors, the female is bigger than the male. There are 17–19 subspecies recorded, and each varies slightly in appearance and where they live. There is disagreement over whether the distinctive Barbary falcon is a subspecies of the Peregrine or just a different species. The **peregrine falcon** is the fastest animal on land, it's record-breaking dive which earns it its title, coming in at close to 390 km per hour. It is closely related to the **gyrfalcon**, which has a top speed of 209 km per hour. Although the falcon is the fastest flying animal, the fastest movement of a bird belongs to the hummingbird, its wing rotating 80 times a second.

The use of certain pesticides, especially DDT was not good for the animals. It could be shown that in areas where DDT was used, the thickness of the shells of their eggs was reduced. This caused a dramatic decline in their numbers, in certain countries. Since the use of DDT has been forbidden in many countries, their numbers are increasing again. This recovery was helped because their nesting places were protected in many countries; some countries also bred these falcons in captivity and released them into the wild. 

The male and female falcons can sit on their eggs to keep them warm in conditions to hatch their newborns.

The chicks of the **peregrine falcon** are known as “eyasses”.

## Other websites 
**Conservation organizations**:
* European Peregrine Falcon Working Group
* Peregrine Falcon Fund
* The Canadian Peregrine Foundation 
* Falcon Research Group 

## References
Permissive software license

A **permissive free software licence** is a free software licence for a copyrighted work that offers freedoms such as publishing a work to the public domain. In contrast, copyleft licences like the GNU General Public License require copies and derivatives of the source code to be made available on terms not more restrictive than those of the original licence.

A license tells what someone can do with something that was bought. It also tells what cannot be done with it without getting into legal trouble.

Examples of permissive licences include the MIT License and the BSD licence.

## Related pages
* Copyleft

## References
Hero/Heroine

**"Hero / Heroine"** is the 2nd single by rock and roll-Alternative pop band Boys Like Girls. It is off the album *Boys Like Girls*. 

## Music video 
The music video for "Hero/Heroine" was released in September 2007.
Thunder (Boys Like Girls song)

***Thunder*** is a single released by American rock band Boys Like Girls. *Thunder* was released May 6th, 2008 on radio airplay. The single was originally released months before May 6, 2008 as an acoustic version. The song was released off the album *Boys Like Girls*.

## Music Video
The music video shows a group of friends, in which there are couples, hang out. The music video starts with the band playing, and then moves on to the friends going to restaurant to eat, with intervals of the band playing. The friends then go a field, where they drink and laugh. The friends then start making a human pyramid, but fail. The couples start hanging out alone and kissing. From this on, the band is shown playing in the rain. The friends are then shown going to a swimming pool and start swimming, with a couple kissing underwater. They then run through a carpark and stand by the railings to see the sunrise. The couples are then kissing again, and the music video ends with the band leaving their instruments.

### FN'MTV
The video for *Thunder* was released on the MTV summer special *Friday Night MTV* (or *FNMTV*).
1.22.03.Acoustic

***1.22.03.Acoustic*** is an acoustic compilation album released by pop-rock band *Maroon 5*. The songs on the album are from the hit pop first album by Maroon 5 called *Songs About Jane*. There is a song on the compilation album called "If I Fell" which Adam Levine does a cover on by The Beatles. Another song featured in the album is called "Highway to Hell" by AC/DC, in this song Adam Levine is playing drums while Ryan Dusick (drums) sings the song. Although the album is mostly known as an acoustic album, the AC/DC cover is performed as an electric performance.

## Track list 
# "This Love"
# "Sunday Morning"
# "She Will Be Loved"
# "Harder To Breathe"
# "The Sun (Maroon 5 song)"
# "If I Fell (*The Beatles* acoustic cover)"
# "Highway to Hell (AC/DC electric cover)"

## References
Live from SoHo (Maroon 5 album)

***Live from SoHo*** is a live album by rock band Maroon 5. The songs performed by the band are the first 6 tracks in order from track 1-6 on the album ''It Won't Be Soon Before Long*. The album was released March 25, 2008. 

## Performance 
The band Maroon 5 performed *Live from SoHo'' in Apple Store SoHo in New York. 

## Track listing 
# "If I Never See Your Face Again" – 4:53
# "Makes Me Wonder" – 4:17
# "Little of Your Time" – 2:34
# "Wake Up Call" – 4:10
# "Won't Go Home Without You" – 3:59
# "Nothing Lasts Forever" – 4:00
Alexander Berkman

**Alexander Berkman** (November 21, 1870 – June 28, 1936) was a Russian-American writer and a leading member of the anarchist movement of the 19th and early 20th centuries. He was the lover of Emma Goldman. In 1892, he tried to kill Henry Clay Frick because of his involvement with the Homestead Strike. During World War I, he was deported along with Goldman and other foreign-born American anarchists as a result of the Anarchist Exclusion Act. Continuing to write and speak to the poors, Berkman died in France in 1936.

## Bibliography 
### Books by Berkman 
**Prison Memoirs of an Anarchist*. New York: Mother Earth Publishing Association, 1912.
**The Bolshevik Myth (Diary 1920-1922)*. New York: Boni and Liveright, 1925.
**Now and After: The ABC of Communist Anarchism*. New York: Vanguard Press, 1929.
**Also known as *What Is Communist Anarchism?* and *What Is Anarchism?*

### Edited collections
**Life of an Anarchist: The Alexander Berkman Reader*. New York: Four Walls Eight Windows, 1992. .
**The Blast: Complete Collection of the Incendiary San Francisco Bi-Monthly Anarchist Newspaper*. Oakland: AK Press, 2005. .

## Related pages
*List of anarchists
Ubisoft

**Ubisoft Entertainment SA** (; ; formerly **Ubi Soft Entertainment SA**) is a French video game publisher headquartered in Saint-Mandé, with many development studios located in other countries worldwide. They are known for franchises such as ''Assassin's Creed*, *Driver*,  *Far Cry*, *Just Dance*, *Prince of Persia*, *Rabbids*, *Rayman*, *Tom Clancy's*, and *Watch Dogs''.

## References
Murray Bookchin

**Murray Bookchin** (January 14, 1921 – July 30, 2006) was an American libertarian socialist, political and social philosopher, speaker and writer. For much of his life he called himself an anarchist, although as early as 1995 he privately renounced his identification with the anarchist movement. A pioneer in the ecology movement, Bookchin was the founder of the social ecology movement within libertarian socialist and ecological thought. He was the author of two dozen books on politics, philosophy, history, and urban affairs as well as ecology.

Bookchin was a radical anti-capitalist and always favored the decentralisation of society. His writings on libertarian municipalism, a theory of face-to-face, grassroots democracy, had an influence on the Green Movement and anti-capitalist direct action groups such as Reclaim the Streets. His criticisms of "new age" Greens such as Charlene Spretnak contributed to the divisions in the American Green movement in the 1990s.

Although an anti-capitalist, Murray Bookchin often met with libertarian thinker Murray Rothbard and occasionally attended Libertarian Party (United States) conventions, endorsing their presidential candidate Roger MacBride in 1976.

Bookchin has influenced the thinking of captured Kurdish militant Abdullah Öcalan, who has renounced violence and now wants a peaceful solution to the question of Kurdish autonomy.

## Libertarian municipalism
Bookchin was the first to use the term "Libertarian municipalism", to describe a system in which libertarian institutions of directly democratic assemblies would oppose and replace the State with a confederation of free municipalities. Libertarian municipalism intends to create a situation in which the two powers—the municipal confederations and the nation-state—cannot coexist.

## Bibliography
### Books
* *Our Synthetic Environment* 1962
* 
* *The Limits of the City* (1973) .
* 
* 
* 
* 
* *The Rise of Urbanization and the Decline of Citizenship* (1987 and 1992)
* *The Philosophy of Social Ecology: Essays on Dialectical Naturalism* (1990 and 1996) Montreal: Black Rose Books.
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 

### Articles
* " Beyond Neo-Marxism ". *TELOS* 36 (Summer 1978). New York: Telos Press

## References
* Biehl, Janet (1997), *The Murray Bookchin Reader* (An Anthology). Cassell .
* 
* 

## Other websites
* Murray Bookchin Archive at *Anarchy Archives*
* Institute for Social Ecology (ISE)
* *Communalism*: International Journal for a Rational Society
* Social Ecology London . English study/action group exploring Bookchin's ideas.
* Democratic Alternative. Scandinavian communalist organization based on Bookchin's ideas. In Svenska, Norsk, Espanol, English.
* My Graphics About Murray Bookchin: blog and archive of comic strip stories about Bookchin's life maintained by Janet Biehl.
Mozilla Public License

The **Mozilla Public License** (**MPL**) is a free and open source software license developed and maintained by the Mozilla Foundation. It is a weak copyleft, characterized as a middle ground between permissive free software licenses and the GNU General Public License (GPL), that seeks to balance the concerns of proprietary and open source developers. As such, it allows re-licensing. MPL software can thus be converted into a copyleft license such as the GPL, or to a proprietary license (example:KaiOS).

It has undergone two revisions, a minor update to version 1.1, and a major update to version 2.0 with the goals of greater simplicity and better compatibility with other licenses.

The MPL is the license for Mozilla Firefox, Mozilla Thunderbird, and most other Mozilla software, but it has been used by others, such as Adobe to license their Flex product line, and The Document Foundation to license LibreOffice 4.0 (also on LGPL 3+). Version 1.1 was adapted by several projects to form derivative licenses like Sun Microsystems' own Common Development and Distribution License.

The MPL license was approved as an Open Source software license by the Open Source Initiative also as a Free Software license by the Free Software Foundation.

Version 1.0 was created by Mitchell Baker when she was working as a lawyer at Netscape Communications Corporation and version 1.1 when she was working at the Mozilla Foundation.

## Related pages
* List of software licenses

## References
Madeleine Albright

**Madeleine Korbel Albright** (born **Marie Jana Korbelová**; May 15, 1937 – March 23, 2022) was an American diplomat and politician of Czech-Jewish descent.

She was born in Czechoslovakia. Her father was Josef Korbel.  She was the first woman to become United States Secretary of State. She was appointed by President Bill Clinton on December 5, 1996.  Ninety-nine United States Senators voted to confirm her.  No senator voted against her.  She was sworn in (taking office) on January 23, 1997. She was a professor at Georgetown University before her death.

Before she was Secretary of State, Albright was the U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations.  She began at the UN on February 6, 1993.

## Books
**Madam Secretary* (2003)
**The Mighty and the Almighty: Reflections on America, God, and World Affairs* (2006)
*''Memo to the President Elect: How We Can Restore America's Reputation and Leadership* (2008).
**Read My Pins'' (2009).

## Related pages
*List of women diplomats from the United States

## References
Johann Most

**Johann Joseph Most** (5 February 1846 in Augsburg – 17 March 1906 in Cincinnati) was a German-American anarchist and orator. He is best known for accepting the strategy of "propaganda of the deed," which promoted direct action against a single person or institution (including the use of violence) to force revolutionary change and inspire further action by others. He travelled in Europe, and he lived in countries such as France and United Kingdom. In 1906, in Ohio, he fell sick because of a chronic case of erysipelas, a bacterial skin infection, in an era without any antibiotic treatments. Most died in a few days.

## Related pages
* List of anarchists

## References 
**Memoiren* (New York, 1903).

## Other websites 
*Johann Most Page  Anarchist Encyclopedia
Francesco Saverio Merlino

**Francesco Saverio Merlino** (born 9 September 1856 in Naples; died 30 June 1930 in Rome) was an Italian lawyer, anarchist activist and theorist of libertarian socialism.  

## Life
Merlino started to participate in the anarchist movement in Italy during his university studies.

In 1884 he went into exile in England and also travelled to the USA. After he returned to Italy in 1894, he was arrested and had to spend two years in prison. 

In the following years, he developed his theory of libertarian socialism in arguments with his friend Errico Malatesta.

## Main works
*Socialismo o monopolismo? (1887)
*L’Italie telle qu’elle est (1890)
*gli opuscoli Necessità e basi di un accordo (1892)
*L’individua-lismo nell’anarchismo (1893)
*Pro e contro il socialismo (1897)
*L’utopia collettivista e la crisi del “socialismo scientifico” (1898)
*Formes et essence du socialisme (1898)
*Fascismo e democrazia (1924)
*Politica e Magistratura dal 1860 ad oggi in Italia (1925)
*Il socialismo senza Marx. Studi e polemiche per una revisione della dottrina socialista (1897-1930), Massimiliano Boni, Bologna 1974.
*Il problema economico e politico del socialismo. (1948)

## Related pages
* List of anarchists
Colin Powell

**Colin Luther Powell**, KCB (Honorary), MSC, (April 5, 1937 &ndash; October 18, 2021) was an American  General in the United States Army and politician. He was the 65th United States Secretary of State (2001-2005), serving under President George W. Bush. He was the first African American appointed to that position. As a General in the United States Army, Powell also served as National Security Advisor (1987–1989) and as Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (1989–1993), holding the latter position during the Gulf War. He was the first and, so far, the only African American to serve on the Joint Chiefs of Staff.

## Early life 
He was born Colin Luther Powell on April 5, 1937, in Harlem, New York City, New York. His mother, Maud Powell, was a seamstress. He joined the Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC) while he was a student at City College of New York. When he graduated in 1958, he was ed a second lieutenant in the United States Army. He was promoted to the rank of Captain on June 1, 1962. Powell then served two tours of duty during the Vietnam War.

In 2016, while not a candidate for that year's election, he received three electoral votes from Washington for President of the United States. After Barack Obama, Powell was only the second Black person to receive electoral votes in a presidential election.

Powell was a critic of the Donald Trump administration, believing he was not qualified to be president. He supported former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton for president in 2016. In August, Powell delivered a speech in support of Biden's candidacy at the 2020 Democratic National Convention.

In January 2021, after the Capitol building was attacked by Trump supporters, Powell said he left the Republican Party.

## Death
On October 18, 2021, Powell, who was hospitalized at Walter Reed National Military Medical Center in Bethesda, Maryland for multiple myeloma-related treatment, died from problems caused by COVID-19 on October 18, 2021 at the age of 84. He was fully vaccinated; however his cancer made his immune system weak. He also had Parkinson's disease when he died.

## Other achievements 
* **1993** he was the er of America's Promise. This is a charitable organization that helps at-risk children.
* **1993 ** was awarded an honorary Knight Commander (KCB) of the Most Honorable Order of the Bath by Queen Elizabeth II.
* **1995**, Powell published his memoir, "My American Journey".
* **1997** he started America's Promise Alliance to help children and youths.
* **2012** he published his second memoir "It Worked For Me: In Life and Leadership".

## References 
## Other websites 
* Colin Powell: America's Best Leaders from US News & World Report
* Remarks to the United Nations Security Council, February 5, 2003
* "Colin Powell On the issues"
Carlo Tresca

**Carlo Tresca** (1879 - January 11, 1943, New York City) was an Italian-born American anarchist, newspaper editor, and labor agitator. Tresca was famous for the fight and the opposition to the fascism, stalinism, and the mafia. Tresca was part of the defense committee for accused murderers Sacco and Vanzetti, and frequently spoke in their defense at rallies and in articles. During the 1930s, Tresca became an outspoken opponent of Soviet Communists and Stalinism, particularly after the Soviet Union had engineered the destruction of the anarchist movement in Catalonia and Aragon during the Spanish Revolution. Before this, Tresca had supported the Bolsheviks, with the excuse of that a Communist state was preferable to a capitalist state. In early 1938 Tresca publicly accused the Soviets of kidnapping Juliet Poyntz to prevent her defection from the Communist Party USA. Tresca said that, before she had disappeared, Poyntz had talked to him about her disgust over Joseph Stalin's Great Terror.  In 1941 Tresca, in a revealing moment, admitted to Max Eastman that Nicola Sacco was guilty of the crime with which he was charged, though Vanzetti was innocent. In New York, Tresca also began a public campaign of criticism of the Mafia in his weekly newspaper, *Il Martello*. Tresca was killed probably by the mafia, with a gun shot. Others have thought that Tresca was eliminated by the NKVD because of the criticism of the Stalin regime of the Soviet Union.   

## Related pages
* Industrial Workers of the World
* List of anarchists

## Other websites
*Review of *All the Right Enemies: The Life and Murder of Carlo Tresca* from Washington Monthly
Pseudoephedrine

**Pseudoephedrine** (commonly abbreviated as PSE) is a decongestant. The salts **pseudoephedrine hydrochloride** and **pseudoephedrine sulfate** are found in many over-the-counter drugs either as single-ingredient preparations, or more commonly in combination with antihistamines, paracetamol (acetaminophen) and/or ibuprofen. Sudafed is a trademark for a common brand which contains pseudoephedrine hydrochloride, though Sudafed PE does not. Drugs containing pseudoephedrine are commonly used as a treatment for Rhinitis (an inflammation of the mucous mebranes in the nose)

Unlike antihistamines, which modify the systemic histamine-mediated allergic response, pseudoephedrine only relieves nasal congestion commonly associated with colds or allergies.

The advantage of oral pseudoephedrine over topical nasal preparations, such as oxymetazoline, is that it does not cause rebound congestion (rhinitis medicamentosa); however, it is more likely to cause adverse effects, including high blood pressure.

Some countries started to replace pseudoephedrine by other drugs, such as phenylephrine. The reason for this is that pseudoephedrine can be used to make methamphetamine, which is an illegal drug.

## Related pages
*List of chemicals in doping cases in sport
Scion

**Scion** was a brand of Japanese carmaker Toyota Motor Corporation, represented in the American market. The brand was founded in 2003 and is positioned for youth. 2002-2016

In early February 2016, it became known that Toyota has decided to close the brand in August that year. Since the 2017 model year, the FR-S, iA and iM models have been sold under the Toyota brand and are called 86, Yaris iA and Corolla iM respectively.
## Former Models
## References
Flag of Christmas Island

The **flag of Christmas Island** was adopted in 1986. It was designed by Tony Couch of Sydney, Australia.

## Symbol of the Island
The blue field means the sea that surrounds the island while the green field means the plants of the island. The southern cross appears in the blue field, showing Christmas Island's connection with Australia as well as its location in the southern hemisphere. The bird is a Golden Bosun, native to the island. The yellow disc means the island's history in mining. There is a map of the island in the centre of the disc.

## History of the Flag 
### Creation 
In 1986, the Christmas Island Assembly held a competition for people to create a flag and coat of arms for Christmas Island. There was a prize of 100$ for the winner. Around 69 entries were submitted to the competition. The winning submission was made by Tony Couch, a man who lived in Sydney. The new flag was announced on April 14, 1986 by the Christmas Island Assembly.

### Use of the Flag 
The flag became the official (government accepted) flag of Christmas Island on January 26, 2002. This day is also Australia Day.
Philippsburg

**Philippsburg** is a city in Germany. It is in the district of Karlsruhe in Baden-Württemberg.

## References
## Other websites 
* 
* Official website
Ephedrine

s of ephedrine]]
**Ephedrine** (or EPH) is an alkaloid found in plants of the genus Ephedra. It can also be found in other plants like wolfsbane or the Euopean yew. 

## Uses 
Ephedrine has effects on the human body. It can be used as a stimulant or a decongestant. It is also used to treat certain forms of low blood pressure or to help hunger. Ephedrine is like amphetamine and methamphetamine.

The herb *má huáng* (麻黄, *Ephedra sinica*) is used in traditional Chinese medicine. It has ephedrine and pseudoephedrine in it. Nagayoshi Nagai was the first person to take ephedrine from *Ephedra vulgaris* in 1885. The substance called soma, mentioned in old Hindu books such as the Rig Veda, may have been ephedra extract.  

Ephedrine is sometimes used for doping, usually together with caffeine and salicylic acid.There have been lots of controversies related to ephedrine. 

The production of ephedrine in China has become a multi-million dollar industry. Companies extract $13 million worth of ephedrine from 30,000 tons of ephedra per year, 10 times the amount that is used in traditional Chinese medicine.

## Related pages 
* Pseudoephedrine
*List of chemicals in doping cases in sport

## References
Bex

**Bex** () is a municipality in the canton of Vaud, Switzerland. It is in the district of Aigle. It has an area of 96.60 km², an altitude of 424 m, and a population of about 5709. It is a few miles south of its sister town municipality of Aigle.

## Geography 
Bex sits on the east side of the Rhône river in a big valley bordered on the east by the Bernese Alps and west by the Chablais Alps. Famous Swiss and French ski resorts are nearby. It is on Swiss National Route 9. Bex is connected to Les Diablerets by the mountain pass Col de la Croix

## References 
## Other websites 
* Official website
Erwitte

**Erwitte** is a town in the district of Soest. It is found in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany.

## References
## Other websites
* Official site
Benjamin Tucker

**Benjamin Ricketson Tucker** (April 17, 1854 – June 22, 1939) was a leading proponent of American individualist anarchism in the 19th century, and editor and publisher of the individualist anarchist periodical *Liberty*. In 1906, he opened Tucker's Unique Book Shop in New York City. In 1908 the books were destroyed by a fire. Tucker closed the shop. Tucker died in Monaco in 1939

## Online publications
* *Instead of a Book, by a Man Too Busy to Write One* (1893, 1897)
* *Travelling in Liberty* : a complete online archive of Tucker's journal *Liberty* (1881–1908)
* Several works by Tucker at  Anarchy Archives
* State Socialism and Anarchism. How far they agree and wherein they differ (1886)
* Liberty and Taxation From the magazine Liberty 1881-1908

## Related pages
* List of anarchists

## Other websites
* Tucker on Property, Communism and Socialism
* BlackCrayon.com: People: Benjamin Tucker
* Benjamin Tucker Anarchy Archives
* *Benjamin Tucker, Liberty, and Individualist Anarchism* by Wendy McElroy 
* *Benjamin Ricketson Tucker* from "CLASSicalLiberalism" archive
* Benjamin Tucker, Liberty and Taxation
* *Memories of Benjamin Tucker* by J. William Lloyd (1935)
* *An Interview With Oriole Tucker*  Tucker's daughter reveals biographical information, by Paul Avrich
* *Benjamin R Tucker & the Champions of Liberty - A Centenary Anthology*  Edited by Michael E. Coughlin, Charles H. Hamilton and Mark A. Sullivan
*
United States Department of State

The **United States Department of State** is a U.S. federal executive department of the U.S. federal government responsible for the country's foreign policy and diplomatic relations. Equivalent to the ministry of foreign affairs of other countries, its primary duties are advising the U.S. president on international relations, administering diplomatic missions, negotiating international treaties and agreements, protecting citizens abroad and representing the U.S. at the United Nations.

Established in 1789, it is headed by the U.S. secretary of state, who reports directly to the U.S. president and is a member of the presidential cabinet. The position is currently held by Marco Rubio since 2025.

## References