open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Antagonist

An **antagonist** is the character in a story who is against the protagonist. For example, in the Disney movie *The Lion King*, the main antagonist is Scar.

While the most common practice is for a hero to be the protagonist and the villain to be the antagonist this is not always the case. As an example in the manga/anime series Death Note protagonist Light Yagami was the villain as it was his goal to rid the world of criminals in order to create his own ideal "utopia" and rule it like a god while antagonist L was the hero as it was his goal to end Light's psychotic killing spree. Also a good example is the animated series Invader Zim where titular protagonist Zim is the villain as it was his ultimate goal to conquer and take over Earth while antagonist Dib is the hero as it was his goal to stop Zim's diabolical plans. Another example is Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street where the titular protagonist and the antagonist Judge Turpin were both villains. 

A story may also have secondary antagonist, either a partner/accomplice of the main antagonist or an entirely separate threat altogether (though a lesser one). Just like the main antagonist they aren't always villains but they are obstacles towards the goal(s) of the protagonist(s).

It is possible for a protagonist to become an antagonist. A well-known example of this is in the *Star Wars* movie series, when Anakin Skywalker turns from a Jedi to a Sith, to become Darth Vader.
Joe Grant

**Joe Grant** (May 15, 1908 - May 9, 2005) was an American animator, writer and illustrator. He worked for Walt Disney between 1933 and 1949 and again from 1989 until his death just a few days before his 97th birthday.

Joe Grant was born at 1908 in New York City. After school, he began his career as a caricaturist. In 1933, he was hired by Disney for the Mickey Mouse short movie ''Mickey's Gala Premiere''. In the next years, he, Albert Hurter, Dick Huemer and Fred Moore were the studios' most important character animator. He created the witch in *Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs* (1937). Grant and Huemer created books for *Fantasia* and *Dumbo*. Later, he was the head of the "Character Animation Department" at Disney. This department was closed in 1949 and Grant left Disney.

40 years later, in 1989, Grant began working for Disney again. He created characters and sketches for Disney's *Beauty and the Beast*, (1991). The movie was the first animated movie which was  for the Academy Award for "Best Picture". He was the only person who worked on *Fantasia* (1940) and *Fantasia 2000*.

In 2005, his animation short movie *Lorenzo* was nominated for an Academy Award. Just a few weeks later, Joe Grant died while working with his drawing board at the age of 96 in Glendale, California.
Medellín, Spain

**Medellín** is a village in the province of Badajoz, Extremadura, Spain. It is notable as the birthplace of Hernán Cortés in 1485 and the site of the Battle of Medellín, during the Peninsular War.  

The city was named after the Roman general Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius who founded it as a military base for his operations in western Iberia.  It was originally called Metellinum.

## Other websites
*Official website of Medellín
Pterodaustro

***Pterodaustro*** was a pterosaur. It is found in the Lower Cretaceous of South America. *Pterodaustro* most likely fed on tiny invertebrates: zooplankton and krill.

*Pterodaustro* was medium-sized, with an adult wing-span of about two meters. It has only been found in Brazil.

## Paleobiology
*Pterodaustro* probably waded in shallow water like flamingos, straining food with its tooth comb, a method called "filter feeding". Once it caught its food, *Pterodaustro* probably mashed it with the small, globular teeth present in its upper jaw.
 
At least two specimens have been found with gizzard stones in the stomach cavity, the first ever reported for any pterosaur. These clusters of small stones with angled edges support the idea that *Pterodaustro* ate mainly small, hard-shelled aquatic crustaceans using filter-feeding. Such invertebrates are abundant in the sediment of the fossil site

In 2004 a *Pterodaustro* embryo in an egg was reported. The egg was elongated, six centimetres long and 22 millimetres across and its mainly flexible shell was covered with a thin layer, 0.3&nbsp;mm thick, of calcite.

Comparisons between the scleral rings (bony ring round edge of eye) of *Pterodaustro* and modern birds and reptiles suggest that it may have been nocturnal, and may have had similar activity patterns to those modern ducks which feed at night.

## References
Garth Brooks

**Troyal Garth Brooks**, commonly known as Garth Brooks, (born February 7, 1962) is an American country music singer and songwriter. He uses rock elements in his recordings and live performances. Brooks was successful in the country singles and country album charts and later also proved popular in the mainstream pop arena, exposing country music to a larger audience.

Brooks has had one of the most successful careers in popular music history, with over 70 hit singles and 15 charted albums to his credit. Throughout the 1990s he broke records for both sales and concert attendance. In 1999, looking to expand his career boundaries, Brooks began a multimedia project involving a fictitious alter ego known as Chris Gaines.

He started performing at bars while studying advertising in college and also working as a bouncer. In 2001, Brooks officially retired from recording and performing, after having conflicts between his career and family. 

On November 6, 2007, *The Ultimate Hits* was released. Brooks came out of retirement in 2007 when he opened a new arena in Kansas City, Missouri. He left retirement again in 2013 to play at the Encore Casino in Las Vegas.

## Discography
### Studio albums
## References
Baden

**Baden** is a historical state in south-west Germany.

 to 1945:
----

----

 ]]

The Margraviate of Baden () was made in 1112. From 1190 to 1771, Baden was broken up into different smaller states. When the Holy Roman Empire ended in 1806, the Margraviate of Baden became the larger and more powerful Grand Duchy of Baden (). After World War I ended in 1918, the monarchy in Baden ended so Baden became a republic. 

After World War II ended in 1945, Baden was cut in half: the north half became part of Württemberg-Baden and the south half became South Baden. South Baden changed its name to "Baden" in 1947. Baden was one of the original states of the Federal Republic of Germany. In 1952, it joined with Württemberg-Baden and Württemberg-Hohenzollern to make the state of Baden-Württemberg.
Groß-Berlin

**Groß-Berlin** or Greater Berlin was created by an act of the Prussian parliament made on 27 April 1920. The act was called the Greater Berlin Act () for short. Its full name was the "Law Regarding the Reconstruction of the New Local Authority of Berlin" ().

The act said that on 1 October 1920 *Greater Berlin* should be taken away from the Province of Brandenburg and become a new district.

The new district was made up of:
* The city of Berlin (*Alt-Berlin*);
* 7 towns that surrounded Berlin:
** Charlottenburg,
** Köpenick,
** Lichtenberg,
** Neukölln,
** Schöneberg,
** Spandau and
** Wilmersdorf;
* 59 rural areas and 27 estate districts from the surrounding districts of Niederbarnim, Osthavelland and Teltow;
* and the grounds of the Berliner Stadtschloss (the Royal Palace) which had formed an estate district in its own right.

The new Berlin was 13 times bigger than the old. Its area went from  to  and the population doubled from approximately 1.9 million to near 4 million, with almost 1.2 million of these new inhabitants coming from the 7 surrounding towns alone.

Groß-Berlin was divided into 20 boroughs (*Verwaltungsbezirke*):
* from Alt-Berlin:
** Mitte,
** Tiergarten,
** Wedding,
** Prenzlauer Berg,
** Kreuzberg and
** Friedrichshain;
* one borough for each of the 7 previously-independent towns:
** Charlottenburg,
** Köpenick,
** Lichtenberg,
** Neukölln,
** Schöneberg,
** Spandau and
** Wilmersdorf;
* 7 new boroughs named after the largest village in the old areas:
** Pankow,
** Reinickendorf,
** Steglitz,
** Tempelhof,
** Treptow,
** Weißensee and
** Zehlendorf

Apart from minor changes, the city boundary defined in the law is the same as today, except for some changes made during the time of the Berlin Wall. During the 1970s and 1980s three new boroughs were made in East Berlin when other boroughs were split up.

## Other websites
* text of the law (in German)
Hüttlingen, Switzerland

**Hüttlingen** is a municipality of the district of Frauenfeld, in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland.

## References
Hüttwilen

**Hüttwilen** is a municipality of the district of Frauenfeld in the canton of Thurgau in  Switzerland.

The lakes Nussbaumersee, Hüttwilersee and Hasensee are found in the municipality.

## References 
## Other websites
Thebe (moon)

**Thebe** or '''''', is the fourth of Jupiter's known moons (by distance from the planet). It was found by Stephen P. Synnott in images from the *Voyager 1* space probe taken on March 5, 1979 and was given the designation ''''*. Later, it was found on images dating back to February 27, 1979. In 1983 it was officially named after the mythological nymph Thebe who was the daughter of the river god Asopus and a lover of Zeus (the Greek equivalent of Jupiter).

## Orbit 
Thebe is the farthest of the inner Jovian moons. It orbits Jupiter at a distance of ~222,000 km (3.11 Jupiter radii). The orbit of Thebe has an orbital eccentricity of ~0.018 and an inclination of ~1.08° relative to the equator of Jupiter.

## Physical characteristics 
Thebe is not a sphere, with the closest ellipsoidal approximation being 116x98x84 km. Its bulk density and mass are not known but assuming that it mean density is like that of Amalthea (~0.86 g/cm³) its mass can be estimated at ~4.3×1017 kg.

The surface of Thebe is dark and appears to be reddish in color.

## Exploration 
Thebe was found in *Voyager 1* images by Steve Synnott, a member of the Voyager navigation team. However, before the *Galileo* spacecraft arrived at Jupiter, little was known about it. *Galileo'' imaged almost all of the surface of Thebe and put constraints on its composition.

## References 
## Other websites 
* Thebe Profile  by NASA's Solar System Exploration
Ganymede (moon)

**Ganymede**[[#Notes|[p] ]] is the largest of the 95 known moons of the planet Jupiter. It is also the largest moon in the Solar System. Ganymede is larger in diameter than the planet Mercury, but has only about half of its mass as Ganymede is much less dense. Ganymede is part of a group called the Galilean Satellites. These also include Io, Europa and Callisto.

Galileo Galilei discovered this moon in 1610. Simon Marius suggested the name "Ganymede" soon after. In Greek mythology, Ganymede was Zeus' cup-bearer. This name and the names of the other Galilean satellites were not favoured for a long time, and were not put into common use until the mid-20th century. Instead, it is simply referred to by its Roman numeral designation (a system that was introduced by Galileo) as  or as the "third satellite of Jupiter".  Ganymede is the only Galilean moon of Jupiter named after a male figure.

## Structure 
Ganymede is composed of roughly equal amounts of silicate rock and water ice. Its body has an iron-rich, liquid core, and an internal ocean that may contain more water than all of Earth's oceans together. Its surface has dark regions, with impact craters dated to four billion years ago. This covers about a third of the satellite. Lighter regions, crosscut by grooves and ridges and only slightly less ancient, cover the rest. The cause of the light terrain's disrupted geology is not fully known, but was likely the result of tectonic activity caused by tidal heating. Ganymede is also the only known moon to have a magnetic field of its own.

## Notes 
:[p] ^ The name "Ganymede" is said as /*Gan-ee-Meed*/.

## References 
## Other websites 
*Ganymede
Himalia (moon)

**Himalia** is the biggest non-spherical moon of Jupiter. It was found by Charles Dillon Perrine at the Lick Observatory on December 3, 1904. It is named after the nymph Himalia who bore three sons of Zeus (the Greek equivalent of Jupiter).

## Name
Himalia did not get its present name until 1975; before then, it was simply known as '*** or **Jupiter Satellite VI*', although calls for a full name appeared shortly after its and Elara's discovery. A.C.D. Crommelin wrote in 1905,
Unfortunately the numeration of Jupiter's satellites is now in precisely the same confusion as that of Saturn's system was before the numbers were abandoned and names substituted. A similar course would seem to be advisable here; the designation V for the inner satellite was tolerated for a time, as it was considered to be in a class by itself; but it has now got companions, so that this subterfuge disappears. The substitution of names for numerals is certainly more poetic.

The moon was sometimes called **Hestia**, after the Greek goddess, from 1955 to 1975.

## Orbit
It is the biggest member of the group that bears its name, the moons orbiting between 11.4 and 13 million kilometers from Jupiter at an inclination of about 27.5°. The orbital elements are as of January 2000. Himalia appears grey, like the other members of its group, similar to a C-type asteroid. Measurements by *Cassini* confirm a featureless spectrum, with a slight absorption at 3 μm which could indicate the presence of water.

## Exploration 
In November 2000, the Cassini spacecraft, going to Saturn, made a number of pictures of Himalia, including photos from a distance as close as 4.4 million km. The moon covers only a few pixels, but seems to be a stretched object with axes 150 ± 20 and 120 ± 20&nbsp;km, close to the Earth-based estimations.

In February and March 2007, the New Horizons spacecraft to Pluto made a series of pictures of Himalia, culminating in photos from a distance of eight million km. Again, Himalia appears only a few pixels across.

## References
## Other websites
* Himalia Profile  by NASA's Solar System Exploration
* David Jewitt pages
* Scott Sheppard pages
Kesswil

**Kesswil** is a municipality of the district of Arbon in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland.

The village was the birthplace of the psychiatrist Carl Jung.

## References
Kemmental

**Kemmental** is a municipality of the district of Kreuzlingen in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland.

## History
The municipality was created on January 1, 1996 by mergxer of the formar municipalities of Alterswilen, Altishausen, Ellighausen, Lippoldswilen, Neuwilen, Siegershausen, Dotnacht and Hugelshofen. 

## Images

File:Hugelshofen preghejo 298.JPG|Church of Hugelshofen
File:Dotnacht 313.JPG|Dotnacht

## References
Kradolf-Schönenberg

**Kradolf-Schönenberg** is a municipality of the district of Weinfelden in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland.

## References
Mitsubishi Model A

The **Mitsubishi Model A** is the only car built by the Mitsubishi Shipbuilding Company, a member of the Mitsubishi *keiretsu* which would later become Mitsubishi Motors, and the first automobile made in Japan. Based on the Fiat *Tipo 3*, it was a four-door seven-seat sedan powered by a front-mounted 26kW 2.8&nbsp;litre straight-4 engine driving the rear wheels, and could drive as fast as 20 mph. 22 were built at the company's Kobe shipyard between 1917 and 1921.
Inner moons of Jupiter

The **inner moons of Jupiter**  are four small moons that orbit close to Jupiter. These moons are closely interconnected with the rings of Jupiter and serve as both sources and sinks of the ring's material. Their semi-major axes range between 128,000 and 222,000 km.

The members of the group are (in order from closest to farthest):
* Metis
* Adrastea
* Amalthea, the biggest, after which the group is sometimes named
* Thebe

Metis and Adrastea each orbit Jupiter in less than one Jovian day (the time it takes for Jupiter to rotate once).  Phobos, a moon of Mars, is the only other moon known to orbit its planet in less than the length of that planet's day.

## Gallery of images

Image:Metis.jpg|Image of Metis taken by the Galileo spacecraft
Image:Adrastea.jpg|Galileo image of  Adrastea
Image:Amalthea PIA02532.png|Images of Amalthea taken from the Galileo spacecraft
Image:thebe.jpg|Image of Thebe taken by the Galileo spacecraft

## Related pages
*List of Jupiter's moons

## References
Gopher (protocol)

**Gopher** is a protocol. It was designed for distributing, searching, and retrieving documents over the Internet.  Gopher represented an early alternative to the World Wide Web.

The gopher protocol has some things HTTP-based clients do not have. It is based on menus. An item selected from a menu will either open another menu, or a document.

Because of concern over possible licensing fees, and the relative flexibility of the World Wide Web, the protocol did not get much use. There are less than 200 gopher servers still actively maintained. Many of the remaining gopher servers are run by individuals. Most of them are rarely updated except for the ones run by enthusiasts of the protocol. A handful of new servers are set up every year by hobbyists - over 50 have been set up and added to Floodgap's list since 1999. Today Gopher exists as an almost forgotten corner of the Internet. - one can publish email addresses in plaintext without having to worry about spam, and publish large amounts of data without the risk of the server's bandwidth becoming saturated by overuse.

In the early stages of mobile Internet access, some suggested that the simple interface of Gopher would be a good match for mobile phones and Personal digital assistants (PDAs). Web-based solutions also won in the mobile space, with technologies like Wireless Markup Language (WML)/Wireless Application Protocol (WAP), DoCoMo i-mode, XHTML Basic or other adaptations of HTML and XML.  

Several server software packages are still maintained and updated for the Gopher protocol. For example, the PyGopherd Gopher server provides a built-in WML front-end to Gopher sites served with it. The Motsognir Gopher server provides PHP5 and Plugin support.

Many current web-browsers have stopped supporting the gopher protocol directly, such as Mozilla Firefox. But 3rd-party addons and plugins are still available to replace browser-based Gopher functionality.

## References
## Other websites
*[gopher://home.jumpjet.info/1\Gopher_Jewels_2 Gopher Jewels 2] (gopher link)
*The Gopher Project
*The state of Gopher support for common Web browsers
*[gopher://gopher.floodgap.com/1/new List of new Gopher servers since 1999] (gopher link)
*List of Gopher servers
*Gopher Clients 
*An announcement of Gopher on the Usenet  Oct 8 1991
*Old Gopher guide 
*See what gopher looked like.
*This is another website that looks almost like Gopher used to look. You can see what fun it is to move around on a simple website like this.
Passion cantata

A **Passion cantata** is a cantata. The cantata takes its theme from the Passion of Jesus Christ, in other words his suffering until his death at the cross. Larger cantatas with this theme are known as oratorios.

Today, most of them are performed in the week before Easter.

## Famous Passion cantatas
### English
In the English repertoire, the two classics are *The Crucifixion* (1887) by Sir John Stainer and *Olivet to Calvary* (1904) by John Henry Maunder. Other works include Sir Arthur Somervell's *The Passion of Christ* (1914), Charles Wood's *St. Mark Passion* (1921), Eric Thiman's "The Last Supper" (1930) and William Lloyd Webber's "The Saviour" (1942).

### German
The most famous Passion cantatas are probably the two composed by Johann Sebastian Bach: the *St John Passion* (1724) and the *St Matthew Passion* (1727).

### Latin
One notable work in Latin is Arvo Pärt's *Passio Domini Nostri Jesu Christi secundum Joannem* (*The Passion of Our Lord Jesus Christ according to John*) of 1982.

## References
Wireless Application Protocol

The **Wireless Application Protocol** (*WAP*) is a protocol. It was made to allow devices like mobile phones to access the internet.
Himalia group

. Eccentricity is indicated by yellow bars illustrating the object's maximum and minimum distances from Jupiter. Circles illustrate an object's size in comparison to the others.]]
The **Himalia group** is a group of prograde non-spherical moons of Jupiter that follow similar orbits to Himalia and are thought to have a common origin.

The known members of the group are (in order from closest to farthest from Jupiter):
* Leda
* Himalia (the biggest, which gives its name to the group)
* Lysithea
* Elara
The orbit estimate of the recently found moon S/2000 J 11 also qualified it as a member of the group (it appeared to have the same inclination, and a slightly bigger semi-major axis)
but its orbit is not known exactly and the mean orbital elements have not yet been calculated.

The International Astronomical Union (IAU) reserves names in **-a** for the moons in this group.

## Characteristics and origin
The objects in the Himalia group have semi-major axes (distances from Jupiter) in the range of 11,150,000 and 11,750,000&nbsp;km, inclinations between 26.6° and 28.3°, and eccentricities of between 0.11 and 0.25.
All moons in the group are grey similar to C-type asteroids. It has been suggested that the group could be a remnant of the break-up of an asteroid from the main asteroid belt. The radius of the parent asteroid was probably about 89&nbsp;km, only a bit bigger than that of Himalia, which retains approximately 87% of the mass of the original body. This indicates the asteroid was not heavily disturbed.

## References
Naturalization

**Naturalization** is when a person changes their nationality. 

## Overview
Most people have the nationality of the country where they are born and grow up. In other cases, one can be a citizen of a country when the person has a parent or grandparent who was/is a citizen of a different country. If they move to another country, they would keep their own nationality. However, if they stay there for a certain number of years, they may be able to change their nationality.

## Regional differences
Different countries have different laws about naturalization. Usually the person must make a promise in a court of law. He will have to promise to be a good citizen and obey the country's laws. A country may grant citizenship to someone who has not asked for it. 

Usually, a person can keep their first nationality when getting a new one. This is called *dual nationality*. Sometimes children whose parents have different nationalities are allowed to have dual nationality. Someone who has been naturalized will normally have all the rights that any other person who belongs to that country has.

## Denaturalization
The reverse also happens. States sometimes remove the citizenship of certain naturalized citizens, which can leave the former citizen stateless.

## Related pages
* Civil rights
* Immigration
* Human rights
* Egalitarianism

## References
Carme group

The **Carme group** is a group of retrograde non-spherical moons of Jupiter that follow similar orbits to Carme and are thought to have a common origin.

Their semi-major axes (distances from Jupiter) range between 22,900,000 and 24,100,000&nbsp;km, their inclinations between 164.9° and 165.5°, and their orbital eccentricities between 0.23 and 0.27 (with one exception).
. Eccentricity is indicated by yellow bars illustrating the object's maximum and minimum distances from Jupiter. Circles illustrate an object's size in comparison to the others.]]

The core members include (from biggest to smallest):
* Carme (the biggest, which gives its name to the group)
* Taygete
* Eukelade
* S/2003 J 5
and infrared spectra, similar to D-type asteroids.

## References
Rashomon

is a Japanese movie directed by Akira Kurosawa and released in 1950.

The movie is based on two short stories by Ryūnosuke Akutagawa.

## Plot
The fictional plot is set in Japan in the Heian period.
 
There is a murder and rape in a forest: these things happen to different characters.
The movie is famous for having an unusual type of story. The same event is described differently by the four different people involved in it. Most movies describe the same things in one way during the entire movie. The four people said different things. The movie does not say which person is right.

## Similar movies 
The 1964 movie *The Outrage* was a remake of *Rashomon*. Kurosawa was acknowledged for the screenplay.  The movie's concept is also  in many other movies, including *Hero*, *Vantage Point*, *Courage Under Fire* and *Basic*.

## Related pages 
* Rashomon effect
* Unreliable narrator
* Blind men and an elephant

## References 
## Other websites 
* 
* Criterion Collection, *Rashomon*, essays
Pasiphaë group

The **Pasiphaë group** is a group of retrograde non-spherical moons of Jupiter that follow similar orbits to Pasiphaë and are thought of have a common origin.

Their semi-major axes (distances from Jupiter) range between 22,800,000 and 24,100,000&nbsp;km (the same range as the Carme group), their inclinations between 144.5° and 158.3°, and their eccentricities between 0.25 and 0.43.
. Eccentricity is indicated by yellow bars illustrating the object's maximum and minimum distances from Jupiter. Circles illustrate an object's size in comparison to the others.]]
Core members of the group include (from the biggest to the smallest):

* Pasiphae
* Sinope, two-thirds the size of Pasiphaë
* Callirrhoe
* Megaclite
* Autonoe
* Eurydome
* Sponde

The International Astronomical Union (IAU) reserves names ending in **-e** for all retrograde moons, including this group's members.

## Origin
The Pasiphaë group is believed to have been formed when Jupiter captured an asteroid which broke up after a collision. The original asteroid was not disturbed heavily: the original body is calculated to have been 60&nbsp;km in diameter, about the same size as Pasiphaë; Pasiphaë has 99% of the original body's mass. However, if Sinope belongs to the group, the amount is much smaller, 87%.

The differences of colour between the objects (grey for Pasiphaë, light red for Callirrhoe and Megaclite) also suggest that the group could have a more complex origin than a single collision.

## References
Olin J. Eggen

**Olin Jeuck Eggen** (July 9, 1919 – October 2, 1998) was an American astronomer. Some sources incorrectly give his name as **Olin Jenck Eggen**.

## Other websites 
* "A Remembrance of Olin Eggen — 1919–1998" , by Nicholas Suntzeff, 6 October 1998; *NOAO Newsletter*, No. 56, December 1998.
* "Eggen Takes the Papers" , by Nick Kollerstrom, ''Neptune's Discovery: The British Case for Co-Prediction*, Science and Technology Studies, University College London.
* "The Case of the Pilfered Planet", by William Sheehan, Nicholas Kollerstrom, and Craig B. Waff, *Scientific American.com'', December 2004.

### Obituaries 
* BAAS **32** (2000), 1661 (obituary)
Heinrich Louis d'Arrest

'''Heinrich Louis d'Arrest** (13 July 1822 – 14 June 1875) was a Prussian astronomer, born in Berlin. His name is sometimes given as **Heinrich Ludwig d'Arrest**. He died in Copenhagen, Denmark.

## Further reading
* 

## Other websites
* Awarding of RAS gold medal: MNRAS **35** (1875) 265

### Obituaries
* AN **86** (1875) 63/64 (one paragraph, in German)
* MNRAS **36''' (1876) 155
John Herschel

photograph by Julia Margaret Cameron.]]
**Sir John Frederick William Herschel, 1st Baronet** (7 March 1792 – 11 May 1871)
was an English mathematician, astronomer, chemist, and experimental photographer/inventor. He was the son of astronomer Sir William Herschel and the father of 12 children.

## References 

## Other websites 
* http://www-groups.dcs.stand.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Herschel.html
* The Herschel Chronicle
* Photographic Process and Early Photograms
* Herschel Museum of Astronomy
* Wikisource copy of a notice from 1823 concerning the star catalogue, published in Astronomische Nachrichten
Astronomer Royal

**Astronomer Royal** is a senior post in the Royal Household of the Sovereign of the United Kingdom. There are two officers, the senior being the Astronomer Royal dating from 22 June 22 1675, and the second the Astronomer Royal for Scotland, which dates from 1834. No Catholic or Jew has ever held the position. 

King Charles II, who founded the Royal Observatory, Greenwich in 1675 instructed the first Astronomer Royal John Flamsteed, "to apply himself with the most exact care and diligence to the rectifying of the tables of the motions of the heavens, and the places of the fixed stars, so as to find out the so much desired longitude of places for the perfecting of the art of navigation".

From that time until 1972 the Astronomer Royal was Director of the Royal Observatory Greenwich. As Astronomer Royal he receives a stipend of £100 a year and is a member of the Royal Household, under the general authority of the Lord Chamberlain. After the separation of the two offices the position of Astronomer Royal has been largely honorary, though he remains available to advise the Sovereign on astronomical and related scientific matters, and the office is of great prestige.

## List of Astronomers Royal
Royal Observatory, Greenwich

atop the Octagon Room.]]
The **Royal Observatory, Greenwich** (Royal Greenwich Observatory or 'RGO') was commissioned in 1675 by King Charles II.

At this time the king also created the position of Astronomer Royal, for John Flamsteed, to beas the director of the observatory.

He was to "apply himself with the most exact care and diligence to the rectifying of the tables of the motions of the heavens, and the places of the fixed stars, so as to find out the so much desired longitude of places for the perfecting of the art of navigation". 

The Observatory is on a hill in Greenwich Park in Greenwich, London, overlooking the River Thames.

The Greenwich Meridian runs through the site of the Observatory. It is the line at which the longitude is defined as 0°.

## Other websites 
* HM Nautical Almanac Office 
* The Royal Observatory, Greenwich 
* Aerial View of The Royal Observatory, Greenwich at Google Maps
* The National Maritime Museum 
* The RGO at Herstmonceux 
* The Observatory Science Centre
* Isaac Newton Group of Telescopes 

## References
Keira Knightley

**Keira Christina Knightley**,  (; born 26 March 1985) is a Golden Globe and Academy Award  English actress. She is best known for her first major movie role as Elizabeth Swann in the Pirates of the Caribbean movie trilogy, and as Elizabeth Bennet in *Pride & Prejudice*.

## Early life 
Knightley was born on 26 March 1985 in Teddington, London, England. Her mother, Sharman Macdonald, is Scottish. Her father, Will Knightley, is English. He wanted to name his daughter "Kiera", after the Russian ice skater, Kira Ivanova. When her mother went to register her, she misspelt the name. Knightley has an older brother, Caleb. When Knightley lived in Richmond, she studied at Stanley Junior School, Teddington School and Esher College.

When Knightley was three years old, she asked to her parents to hire an agent for her. They promised to do this, if she studied very well. That's why Keira was a good and diligent pupil.

## Movies 
* *Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace* (1999)
* *Princess of Thieves* (2001)
* *The Hole* (2001)
* *Bend It Like Beckham* (2002)
* *Pure* (2002)
* ''New Year's Eve* (2002)
* *Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl* (2003)
* *Love Actually* (2003)
* *King Arthur* (2004)
* *The Jacket* (2005)
* *Pride & Prejudice* (2005)
* *Domino* (2005)
* *Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest* (2006)
* *Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End* (2007)
* *Silk* (2007)
* *Atonement* (2007)
* *The Edge of Love* (2008)
* *The Duchess* (2008)
* *Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides* (2011)
* *The Nutcracker and the Four Realms'' (2018)

## Other websites 
* 

## References
Ananke group

The **Ananke group** is a group of moons of Jupiter. They are retrograde non-spherical moons that follow similar orbits to Ananke and may have a common origin.

Their semi-major axes (distances from Jupiter) range between 19,300,000 and 22,700,000&nbsp;km, their inclinations between 145.7° and 154.8°, and their orbital eccentricities between 0.02 and 0.28.
. Eccentricity is indicated by yellow bars illustrating the object's maximum and minimum distances from Jupiter. Circles illustrate an object's size in comparison to the others.]]

The core members include (from biggest to smallest):
*Ananke
*Praxidike
*Iocaste
*Harpalyke
*Thyone
*Euanthe
*Euporie
*Hermippe
The International Astronomical Union (IAU) reserves names ending in **-e** for all retrograde moons, including this group's members.

## Origin
The Ananke group is believed to have been formed when an asteroid was captured by Jupiter and broken apart by a collision.

Based on the sizes of the moons, the original asteroid may have been about 28&nbsp;km in diameter. Since this value is near the approximate diameter of Ananke itself, it is likely the parent body was not heavily disrupted.

Three of the moons of the family (Harpalyke, Praxidike and Iocaste) display similar grey colours while Ananke itself is on the boundary between grey and light red.

## References
Semaphore line

A **semaphore line** is an installation used to send optical signals. It is also known as **optical telegraph**.  Common system include signal towers with special installations on them or hand-held flags. The meaning of the signal is determined by the position of the elements, for example the flags. The signal can be read when it is in a stable position. In modern usage, it refers to signalling with a set of flags. 

Signal towers came before the electric telegraph. They were faster than sending out post riders with the information. 

Image:OptischerTelegraf.jpg|Optical telegraph of Claude Chappe on the Litermont near Nalbach, Germany.
Image:Semaphore_Papa.svg|Diagram of person holding 2 semaphore flags as letter "P"
Image:Tour du telegraphe Chappe Saverne 02.JPG|A Chappe semaphore tower near Saverne, France
Image:Chappe telegraf.jpg|A Chappe semaphore telegraph at Louvre, France

## Characters
The following semaphore characters are presented as one would face the flagman:

Image:Semaphore Ready.svg|Rest / Space
Image:Semaphore Numeric.svg|Numerals
Image:Semaphore Error.svg|Error
Image:Semaphore Cancel.svg|Cancel
Image:Semaphore Alpha.svg|A / 1
Image:Semaphore Bravo.svg|B / 2
Image:Semaphore Charlie.svg|C / 3Acknowledge
Image:Semaphore Delta.svg|D / 4
Image:Semaphore Echo.svg|E / 5
Image:Semaphore Foxtrot.svg|F / 6
Image:Semaphore Golf.svg|G / 7
Image:Semaphore Hotel.svg|H / 8
Image:Semaphore India.svg|I / 9
Image:Semaphore Juliet.svg|JLetters
Image:Semaphore Kilo.svg|K / 0
Image:Semaphore Lima.svg|L
Image:Semaphore Mike.svg|M
Image:Semaphore November.svg|NNegative
Image:Semaphore Oscar.svg|O
Image:Semaphore Papa.svg|P
Image:Semaphore Quebec.svg|Q
Image:Semaphore Romeo.svg|R
Image:Semaphore Sierra.svg|S
Image:Semaphore Tango.svg|T
Image:Semaphore Uniform.svg|U
Image:Semaphore Victor.svg|V
Image:Semaphore Whiskey.svg|W
Image:Semaphore X-ray.svg|X
Image:Semaphore Yankee.svg|Y
Image:Semaphore Zulu.svg|Z

## Related articles 
* Railway semaphore signal
Lake Pontchartrain

**Lake Pontchartrain** ( in English; *Lac Pontchartrain,*  [lak pɔ̃ʃaʀtʀɛ̃] in French) is a brackish lake in southeastern Louisiana. It is the second largest salt-water lake in the United States, after the Great Salt Lake in Utah, and the largest lake in Louisiana. 

It has an area of 630 square miles (1630 square km) with an average depth of 12 to 14 feet (about 4 meters). Some shipping channels are kept deeper through dredging. It is roughly oval in shape, about 40 miles (64&nbsp;km) wide and 24 miles (39&nbsp;km) from south to north.

## Other websites
* Lake Pontchartrain Basin Foundation
* United States Geological Survey Lake Pontchartrain Fact Sheet
* Real-time water data for Lake Pontchartrain
* The Lake Pontchartrain Basin Foundation
* New Orleans history of the lake
* Lake Pontchartrain Basin Maritime Museum
* USGS Environmental Atlas of Lake Pontchartrain
* New Orleans District Water Management  
* Washington Post article alleging levee faults, 21 Sept 2005
* National Geographic article about the levees, 2 Sept. 2005
* Salon article about disaster predictions, 31 Aug 2005
* U.S. Geological Survey article about the Lake Pontchartrain Basin, 3 Nov 1995
* BBC article about environmental effects on the lake after the flooding of New Orleans, 8 Sept. 2005
Bianca (moon)

**Bianca** is a closer moon to Uranus. It was found from the images taken by *Voyager 2* on 1986-01-23, and was given the designation **S/1986&nbsp;U&nbsp;9**. It was named after the sister of Katherine in Shakespeare's play *The Taming of the Shrew*. It is also designated **Uranus&nbsp;VIII**.

Bianca belongs to Portia Group of moons, which also includes Cressida, Desdemona, Juliet, Portia, Rosalind, Cupid, Belinda and Perdita. These moons have similar orbits and photometric properties. Other than its orbit, radius of 27&nbsp;km and geometric albedo of 0.08 almost nothing is known about it.

At the Voyager 2 images Bianca appears as a stretched object, the major axis pointing towards Uranus. The ratio of axises of the Bianca's prolate spheroid is 0.7 ± 0.2. Its surface is grey in color.

## References 
## Other websites 
* Bianca Profile  by NASA's Solar System Exploration
Honeydew (disambiguation)

**Honeydew** could mean:

*Honeydew - The sugary liquid created by some insects
*Honeydew (melon) - A type of melon
*Honeydew, California - An American town
Carnosaur

**Carnosauria** are a subgroup of the theropod dinosaurs. They are the clade *Carnosauria*. The term was once used very widely, but is now defined more narrowly.

The group includes some of the main carnivores of the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, such as *Spinosaurus*, *Megalosaurus*, *Torvosaurus*, *Allosaurus*, *Carcharodontosaurus* and *Neovenator*. Modern cladistic analysis defines Carnosauria as those tetanurans which share a more recent common ancestor with *Allosaurus* than with modern birds.

Carnosaurs are characterized by several features. Some features must have been adaptations to their large size, such as their open skull, made of struts rather than solid bone. They had 
large eyes and a long, narrow skull. The femur ("thigh bone") is usually larger than the tibia ("shin bone"). This suggests close-to action was controlled by sight. 

The legs are adapted for running, but not extremely so. They had strong arms, probably used to wrestle prey as the teeth bit in. The structure of an *Allosaurus* suggests a strongly-built general all-round predator. This is a different from a tyrannosaur like *Albertosaurus*, which was better adapted for running on open ground. Tyrannosaurs, with their small two-fingered hands, would use their heads for killing prey, and for head-butting rivals.

## Classification 
***Infraorder Carnosauria**
**Altispinax*?
**Gasosaurus*?
**Monolophosaurus*?
**Poekilopleuron*?
***Megalosauroidea** 
***Allosauroidea**

## References
Squash (sport)

**Squash** is a sport in which two players hit a ball with a racket (or *Racquet*). The aim of the game is to beat the other player by hitting the front wall and making the ball bounce twice on the floor before they can hit their turn, or for them to hit the ball out of play.

## Playing equipment
### The ball
The ball is made of rubber. It is hollow. When it is warm (due to being hit many times) it bounces more. Balls are marked with different coloured dots. They are made to bounce at different speeds depending on the colour of the dots. Balls with two yellow dots are slow, while balls with one yellow dot are a little bit faster. Balls with green or white dots are average. Balls with red or blue dots are fast.

### The racket
The racket (or *Racquet*) is similar to a tennis racket, but it's lighter and smaller.The specifications have changed over the years and now the rackets are becoming larger.  The limit for racquet head size is 500 square centimeters.

### The Rules 
Squash games are played to at least 11 points, and the winning player must win by two points.  Games can go on indefinitely until one player gains a two-point lead.  Matches are won by the first player to win three games (best of five games).  A point is scored when a player hits a shot which strikes the front wall of the court and then bounces twice before that player's opponent hits it to the front wall.  A point is also scored when a player hits the ball too high (called "out") or too low on the front wall (when it will hit the tin, which rises 18 inches off the floor on the front wall).  Every point is started with a serve, which must be hit from one of the small service boxes on either side of the court, must hit the front wall above the service line across the middle of the front wall, and must land in the back quarter of the court on the opposite side from where the serve was hit.

If one player gets in the way of the other who is trying to get to the ball, that player can ask the referee for a "let," which results in the point being replayed.  If a player prevents the other player from swinging at the ball, creating a dangerous situation, that player can appeal for a "stroke," which results in the player who could not safely hit the ball winning the point.  If the referee feels that the swinging player could not have reached the ball, or did not make every effort to get to it, then the referee can award "no let," which means that the point ends as it would have had no one asked for a let or stroke.

## Famous players
Squash was played by Jahangir Khan who had dominated it for 25 years. He had beat Rodney Martin from Australia 15-5, 15-8, and 15-10 in the final round. He can be considered the #1 squash player.  Currently, the most top players come from either Egypt (Ramy Ashour, Mohammed El Shorbagy, Amr Shabana) or England (Nick Matthew, James Willstrop, Deryl Selby, Peter Barker).

## References
## Other websites
* World Squash Federation
Project Runway

***Project Runway*** is a reality television series where clothing designers compete. It is shown on the Bravo network. The winner of the first season was Jay McCarroll. The winner of the second season was Chloe Dao. The winner of the third season was Jeffrey Sebelia.

## Season 11
Contestants
* Emily Pollard
* James Martinez
* Cindy Marlatt
* Joseph Aaron Segal
* Matthew Arthur
* Benjamin Mach
* Tu Suitwat Nakchat
* Kate Pankoke
* Amanda Valentine
* Samantha Black
* Richard Hallmarq
* Layana Aguliar
* Daniel Esquivel
* Stanley Hudson
* Patricia Michaels
* Michelle Lesniak Franklin

### Episodes
1.
*Best: Daniel Esquivel
*Worst: Cindy Marlatt & Emily Pollard
*Eliminated: Emily Pollard

2.
*Best: Layana Aguliar
*Worst: Cindy Marlatt & James Martinez
*Eliminated: James Martinez

3.
*Best: Daniel Esquivel 
*Worst: Cindy Marlatt & Benjamin Mach
*Eliminated: Cindy Marlatt

4.
*Best: Samantha Black
*Worst: Joseph Aaron Segal & Amanda Valentine
*Eliminated: Joseph Aaron Segal

5.
*Best: Richard Hallmarq
*Worst: Michelle Lesniak Franklin, Daniel Esquivel & Matthew Arthur
*Eliminated: Matthew Arthur

6.
*Best: Stanley Hudson
*Worst: Benjamin Mach & Amanda Valentine
*Eliminated: Benjamin Mach

7.
*Best: Michelle Lesniak Franklin
*Eliminated: Kate Pankoke & Tu Suithwat Nakchat

8.
*Best: None
*Worst: Richard Hallmarq & Amanda Valentine
*Eliminated: Amanda Valentine

9.
*Best: Michelle Lesniak Franklin 
*Worst: Samantha Black & Richard Hallmarq
*Eliminated: Samantha Black

10.
*Best: Stanley Hudson
*Worst: Patricia Michaels & Richard Hallmarq
*Eliminated: Richard Hallmarq

11.
*Best: Stanley Hudson
*Worst: Patricia Michaels & Michelle Lesniak Franklin
*Eliminated: None

12.
*Best: None
*Worst: Patricia Michaels & Layana Aguliar
*Eliminated: Layana Aguliar

13.
*Best: None
*Worst: Daniel Esquivel & Stanley Hudson
*Eliminated: Daniel Esquivel

14.
*Winner: Michelle Lesniak Franklin
*Runners-up: Patricia Michaels & Stanley Hudson
Lommis

**Lommis** is a municipality in Münchwilen in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland.

## References 
## Other websites 
* Official website
Mammern

**Mammern** is a municipality of the district of Frauenfeld in the canton of Thurgau in  Switzerland.

It is by the Lake Constance. It has a population of 560 people.

## References
## Other websites
Berlin Observatory

The **Berlin Observatory** (**Berliner Sternwarte** in German) has its origins in 1700 when Gottfried Leibniz initiated the *Societät der Wissenschaften* (Brandenburgische Science Society) which would later (1744) become the *Preußischen Akademie der Wissenschaften* (Prussian Academy of Sciences). The Society had no observatory, but nevertheless had an astronomer, Gottfried Kirch, who observed from a private observatory in Berlin. A first small observatory was furnished in 1711, financing itself through calendrical computations.

Johann Franz Encke was appointed director by King Frederick William III of Prussia in 1825. With the help of Alexander von Humboldt, Encke got the King to agree to finance a true observatory, but on condition was that the observatory be made accessible to the public two nights per week. The building was designed by Karl Friedrich Schinkel, and began working in 1835. It now has the IAU observatory code 548.
Münsterlingen

**Münsterlingen** is a municipality of the district of Kreuzlingen in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland.

## References
Neunforn

**Neunforn** is a municipality of the district of Frauenfeld in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland.

## References
Salenstein

**Salenstein** is a municipality of the district of Kreuzlingen in the canton of Thurgau in  Switzerland.

Salenstein was the home village of Napoleon III who passed there his youth at Castle Arenenberg.

## References 
## Other websites
Tübingen

**Tübingen** is a city in the German state Baden-Württemberg. It has about 83,000 people (2007). Tübingen is a traditional university town. About one in ten people living in Tübingen is a student.

## History 
Between 1470 and 1483, St. George's Collegiate Church was built. The collegiate church offices provided the opportunity for what soon afterwards became the most significant event in Tübingen's history: the founding of the Eberhard Karls University by Duke Eberhard im Bart of Württemberg in 1477, thus making it one of the oldest universities in Central Europe. The University of Tübingen became soon renowned as one of the most influential places of learning in the Holy Roman Empire, especially for theology. A Protestant faculty, Tübinger Stift, was established in 1535 in the former Augustinian monastery.

## References
Bong

A **bong** or a **water pipe** is a special pipe. When a person smokes with a bong, they pull the smoke through the water in it. This makes the smoke not as hot. Most often, either tobacco or cannabis are smoked with it.

## Related pages 
* Hukah

## References
Low Saxon

**Low Saxon** or **Lower Saxon** may refer to:

## Geography
*Lower Saxony, a State in the Federal Republic of Germany
*Lower Saxony, the name for the duchy Saxe-Lauenburg between the 14th and 17th centuries
*Lower Saxon Circle, a territory of the Holy Roman Empire, which existed from 1500 to 1806

## Linguistics
* Low German, an Ingvaeonic West Germanic language
**West Low German, a group of Low German dialects spoken in the Netherlands, Lower Saxony and most of Schleswig-Holstein
***Northern Low Saxon, the dialect spoken in the Northern parts of the Low Saxon language area
***Dutch Low Saxon, a group of West Low German dialects recognized as a minority language by the European Union

## Other uses 
* Lower Saxon cuisine, a range of regional North German culinary traditions
* Lower Saxon house, a type of German timber-framed house
* Lower Saxon Landtag, the Parliament of Lower Saxony
* Lower Saxon Mill Road, a holiday route that guides visitors to windmills and watermills in Lower Saxony

## Related pages
* Old Saxony, the larger region of which Lower Saxony is a part
* Upper Saxon, a Central German dialect
* Upper Saxony, historic lands in Central Germany