open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Ring

:*For the article about a mathematical concept, see Ring (mathematics)*
 in the British Museum]]

A **ring** is a piece of jewelry that is usually worn on the finger.

It is usually made of metal such as gold, silver, platinum, but can be made of other things, for example, bone or glass. Many rings have gemstones on them, for beauty and decoration on your finger. It is a fashion accessory and sometimes a sign of importance (status). The Lord Chancellors of England were given a ring when taking office, and returned it when leaving the position. The ring identified them as the second most important person in the kingdom.
In most religions, senior clergy have rings of their office. It is standard practice for members of a church to kneel and kiss the ring as a sign of faith and .

## Engagement and wedding rings 
Rings have been used for engagements and weddings since prehistoric times. The engagement ring is meant to be a sign of luck and happiness. Both men and women used to wear an engagement ring to show that they were going to be married, but more recently only women have worn them. A diamond ring is seen as being especially lucky, as the sparkle of the diamond is said to come from the fires of love. A pearl in a ring is unlucky, as the pearl is a sign of tears. Because the ring is round and does not have an end, it is seen as a symbol of love which never ends.

## References 
## Gallery

File:Ring with horses-N 728-Egypte louvre 127.jpg|Gold ring with horses of Rameses II, in the Louvre
File:Wedding ring Louvre AC924.jpg|Byzantine wedding ring, 7th century AD, also from the Louvre
File:Museum of Archdiocese in Gniezno - pierścień JPXIII.JPG|Superb example of an Archbishop's ring, Gniezno (Poland) 1881
File:Wedding rings.jpg|A pair of wedding rings
File:Ruby ring photo by bfishadow.jpg|Ruby ring
Descendant

**Descendant** or **descendent** might mean: 

*The children of a previous generation
**A later evolutionary type in the same line.
*Descendant (astrology), the point directly opposite from the ascendant, or Rising Sign
Gallo-Romance languages

The **Gallo-Romance** are a branch of Romance languages. It includes French and several other languages spoken in modern France and northern Italy and Spain. According to some linguists, it also includes Occitan and Catalan. Others group both together as a separate Occitano-Romance branch or place Catalan within the Ibero-Romance group.  The Gallo-Romance languages, along with the Ibero-Romance and Rhaeto-Romance groups, form Western Romance.

## Examples of Gallo-Romance languages 
*Lombard
*Piedmontese
*Emilian-Romagnol  
*Venetian
*Ligurian  
*Franco-Provençal

## References
Capital accumulation

**Capital accumulation** means the gathering of objects of value; the increase in wealth; or the creation of wealth. In this context capital can be understood as assets used for profit.

In economics capital accumulation is often seen as the same as investment.

But capital accumulation can refer as well to 

*real investment in  means of production.
*financial investment in paper assets.
*investment in *non-productive* physical assets such as residential real estate that appreciate in value.
*"human capital accumulation," i.e., new education and training increasing the skills of the (potential) labour force.

Non-financial capital accumulation is an essential factor for economic growth, since additional investment is essential to enlarge the scale of production and increase employment opportunities.

Rosa Luxemburg insisted that capital accumulation is the cause of the imperialism on her essay ""The Accumulation of Capital".

## Related pages
* Constitution
* Constitutional economics
* Imperialism

## Other websites 
* Growth, Accumulation, Crisis: With New Macroeconomic Data for Sweden 1800-2000 by Rodney Edvinsson
* The Crises caused by Capital Accumulation  - Oxford University publication
* The Accumulation of Capital
Investment

In finance, **Investment** or **investing** means that an asset is bought, or that money is put into a bank to get a future interest from it. Investment is total amount of money spent by a shareholder in buying shares of a company. In economic management sciences, investments means longer-term savings.

It is a term used in business management, finance and economics, related to saving or deferring consumption. Literally, the word means the "action of putting something in to somewhere else" (perhaps originally related to a person's garment or 'vestment').

## Types of investment
There are two major uses of the term investment between the economics field and the finance field. Economists refer to a real investment (such as a machine or a house), while financial economists refer to a financial asset, such as money that is put into a bank or the market which may then be used to buy a real asset. Advisors, who tell people how to manage their investments, might say that even when an investment is losing money because of bad times, not to give up and withdraw it.  Instead, wait for the situation to improve. This is a risk for each person to decide.

## Business management 
The investment decision (also known as *capital budgeting*) is one of the fundamental decisions of business management.

## Related pages
*Gold coin
*Fixed assets investment
*Portfolio management
*Social Investment
*Speculation

## Other websites 
*
*Financial Times
*Wall Street Journal
*NASDAQ
*Good books on investing and value investing
Matchbook

A **matchbook** is a small cardboard container that holds a quantity of matches inside and has a coarse striking surface on the outside. 

A flap on the front is lifted to access the matches, which are attached to the interior base in a comb-like pattern and must be torn away before use. (In the matchbox, by contrast, the matches are arranged loosely in the interior tray.)

Matchbooks are often covered with advertising logos or various artistic decorations, and they have served as collector's items and free souvenirs.
Old English

**Old English** (*Englisċ* or *Ænglisc*) or **Anglo-Saxon**, was spoken in Anglo-Saxon England from 450 AD to 1100 AD. It was spoken by the Anglo-Saxons, who came to Great Britain from what are now Germany and Denmark. Different Anglo-Saxon kingdoms spoke different dialects, but a western dialect became the main literary version. Both modern languages of England and Scotland (English and Scots) came from the language of the Anglo-Saxons.

Old English is a West Germanic language and developed out of Ingvaeonic, which is very different from Modern English because it is closer to German than to English and has for its closest relatives Old Frisian and Old Saxon. It has many more Germanic words, difficult grammar and complex inflections.

In early centuries, Old English was rarely written down, and even then, it was in runes. After the 8th century, the Latin alphabet was used more often by churchmen like the Venerable Bede. After the Norman conquest of England in 1066, Old English was replaced by Anglo-Norman, which gradually turned into Middle English.

The epic poem *Beowulf* is written in Old English in an alphabetic script.

## References 
## Other websites 
* Old English -Citizendium
My Opposition: The Diaries of Friedrich Kellner

***My Opposition: the Diaries of Friedrich Kellner*** is a 2007 documentary movie by Abella Entertainment Ltd. of Toronto, Canada.  It is produced and directed by Fern Levitt and Arnie Zipursky.  Leonard Asper is an executive producer.  The movie is distributed by CCI Entertainment.

## Subject matter
The documentary tells the story of Chief Justice Inspector Friedrich Kellner  ( pronounce) who wrote a secret diary during World War II.  The diary records the crimes of the Nazis. The movie uses interviews, historical footage, and re-enactments of events to tell how Friedrich Kellner risked his life to write the diary.  The story is also about Kellner’s American grandson, Robert Scott Kellner, who was abandoned as a child but later found his grandfather in Germany.  Part of the movie is about the grandson’s attempt to bring the Friedrich Kellner diary to the attention of the public.

The movie begins with Friedrich Kellner as a political activist for the Social Democratic Party of Germany before the war.  He campaigns against Adolf Hitler and the Nazis.  The re-enactments show Kellner trying to stop the riots against the Jews during Kristallnacht.  Kellner is brought before a tribunal, and he is threatened with imprisonment in a concentration camp.  The movie shows Kellner’s active and passive resistance against the Third Reich.  One scene shows him distributing leaflets that had been dropped from American planes.  When World War II comes to an end, Kellner helps to restore the SPD.  He  becomes the chairman of the party in his region.  Interwoven in the story about Friedrich Kellner is the story of his grandson.

The documentary was filmed on location in Mainz and in  Laubach, Germany, and in Texas.

## Background information
* The Kellner diary was on exhibit at the George Bush Presidential Library in College Station, Texas.
* It was also exhibited in Germany.
* The University of Giessen is the home of the Kellner Project.

## Other websites 
* My Opposition: the Diaries of Friedrich Kellner  at Telefilm Canada movie catalog.
* Diary Entries in German and English
* George Bush Presidential Library - Kellner exhibit 
* Justus Liebig University - Kellner Project
* University of Massachusetts, *A Promise To Keep* 
* Holocaust Museum Houston - Kellner exhibit 
* Heimat Museum, Laubach, Germany - Kellner exhibit 
*
Lindsey Jacobellis

**Lindsey Jacobellis** (born August 19, 1985 in Danbury, Connecticut) is an American snowboarder.  She competed in the 2006 Winter Olympics and won the silver medal. She also competed in the 2010, 2014, and 2018 Winter Olympics, but did not win any medals. In the 2022 Winter Olympics, Jacobellis won two gold medals in snowboard cross and mixed team snowboard cross with Nick Baumgartner.

## References
## Other websites
* 
* Lindsey Jacobellis  at NBC Olympics
* Lindsey Jacobellis at ESPN XGames
* 
* Lindsey Jacobellis  at ESPN XGames
USS Arizona Memorial

The '*USS *Arizona* Memorial*' is in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. It is to remember the sailors killed when Pearl Harbor was attacked on December 7, 1941 by the Japanese. During the attack 1,177 sailors were killed on the USS *Arizona*. The memorial is located on top of the sunken USS *Arizona*. People can walk over the ship to look at it.
List of Nobel Prize winners in Economics

**The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel**, commonly called the **Nobel Prize in Economics**, is a prize awarded each year for outstanding contributions in the field of economics. The prize was not one of the awards set out in the will of Alfred Nobel. The winners of the prize receive their diploma and gold medal from the Swedish monarch at the same December 10 ceremony in Stockholm as the Nobel laureates in physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, and literature. The amount of money awarded  is the same as the other prizes.

## Winners 
## Related pages 
* List of Nobel Prize winners by country
* List of Nobel Prize winners in Chemistry
* List of Nobel Prize winners in Physics
* List of Nobel Prize winners in Physiology or Medicine
* List of Nobel Prize winners in Literature
* List of Nobel Peace Prize winners

## References
## Other websites 
* Laureates  at the Nobel foundation
* Winners of the Prize in Economics
* History of the prize and its controversy
USS Arizona (BB-39)

The '*USS *Arizona* (BB-39)*' was an American battleship from the Pennsylvania Class. The building of the ship was started in 1913 and it was commissioned in 1916. It fought in World War I. The USS *Arizona* is best known for its sinking during the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. The attack was the event that caused the United States to join the fighting in World War II. The wreck is still at the floor of the harbor. It is the site of a memorial to those who died that day.

## Other ships 
USS *Arizona* (BB-39) was one of three ships in the history of the United States Navy to be named USS *Arizona*. It was the only one of the three to be named that after Arizona became a U.S. state. 

*The first *Arizona* was built in 1858. It was made of iron. It served in the American Civil War. The ship was destroyed when it caught on fire in 1865.
*The second USS *Arizona* was a 3850 ton frigate. It was built in 1865 and originally named the USS *Neshamny*. The ship was renamed twice. It used the name USS *Arizona* for less than three months during 1869 before becoming USS *Nevada*. The Navy stopped using the ship in 1874.
Senate

In a modern democracy, a **senate** is a group of  who are part of a legislature. A legislature passes or changes laws for their country, state, or other area. Members of a senate are called senators. Some legislatures are bicameral, meaning they have two groups of people (working in separate places) called *houses*. A senate can be called a *House of Senators*. 

The senate of some such legislatures is weaker than the other house. The other house is called a *House of Representatives*, House of Commons, or Assembly. In bicameral legislatures, both houses must pass the same bill to make it a law. Modern democratic systems having legislatures with senates include the United States of America (U. S.), Canada, Australia and many states in the United States.

The first ever senate was the Roman Senate. The name comes from their word for "elder".

Senate is also the name of the ruling body of some universities.

## Senate chambers 
Sometimes, the senators are split into different groups, who then have different responsibilities. These groups  meet in different rooms; each group is called a *chamber*.
Science fiction movie

**Science fiction movies** are movies which tell stories about the future, outer space, robots, or aliens. Science fiction movies often use special effects to show images of alien worlds or other planets far away.

Science fiction movies are related to science fiction books. Some science fiction movies tell stories about strange or different ways of thinking or ways of living. Other science fiction movies tell stories about the survival.

## Important science fiction novels and films 
All written as books, most later filmed.
* *The Time Machine* (1895), a book by H.G. Wells
* *A Trip to the Moon* (French: *Le Voyage dans la lune*) was made by Georges Méliès in 1902. It was one of the first SF films.
* *The Lost World* by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle in 1912. Dinosaurs still alive on large plateau in South America.
* *Metropolis* is a silent film about a society in the future. That society has two groups: rich thinkers and poor workers. Fritz Lang made the film in 1927.
* *I, Robot* by Isaac Asimov. 1950.
** The *Foundation* series: 1951 to 1986.
* *Jurassic Park* was originally a novel by Michael Crichton in 1990.
* *2001: A Space Odyssey* is a film by Stanley Kubrick. The film shows ideas about human evolution and artificial intelligence. It was released in 1968.
* *Star Wars* movies are amongst the highest grossing science fantasy movies of all time.
* Many works in print by Isaac Asimov are science fiction rather than fantasy.

## Science fiction movies and other genres
Some SF movies can also be another kind of movie, too.
* *Alien* is also a horror movie.
* *The Road Warrior* is both a science fiction movie and an action movie.
* *Men in Black* is comedy and science fiction.

## References
Escherichia coli

***Escherichia coli*** or ***E. coli*** is a bacterium that lives in the intestines of people and other warm-blooded animals. Scientists have studied *E. coli* a lot, and know more about how *E. coli* cells work than any other organism. *E. coli* is usually not harmful. In fact, the only known harmful strain is O156. 

It is named after Theodor Escherich, who discovered it in 1885. It was officially named after him in 1919.

## Signs and symptoms of *E. coli* infection
The following signs and symptoms of an *E. coli* infection normally happen within three days; however, some people may carry the infection and show no signs at all.
* Pain in the abdomen
* Diarrhea
* Nausea
* Vomiting
* Fever
* Fatigue

The best treatment for *E. coli* is plenty of fluids to avoid dehydration.

## References
Battle of Bosworth Field

The **Battle of Bosworth**, or **Battle of Bosworth Field**, was the last important battle during the Wars of the Roses in 15th-century England. It was fought on 22 August 1485 between the Yorkist king, Richard III, the last of the Plantagenet dynasty, and the Lancastrian Henry Tufor, who wanted to become king.

It ended in Richard's defeat and death and the beginning of the Tudor dynasty. Historically, the battle is thought to have marked the end of the Wars of the Roses although smaller battles were fought in the years that followed, as Yorkists unsuccessfully tried to become king again.

The precise place of the battle is unknown. Memorials have been built in some of the possible locations in Lancashire.

## Shakespearian dramatization 
The Battle of Bosworth is an important part of William Shakespeare's play *Richard III*. The action of the play ends with the battle.

## Notes 
## Further reading 
*  - Overview of the battle in its historical context.
* 
*  - The archaeology of the battle
*  - Analysis of the battle by a military expert

## Other websites 
* Bosworth Battlefield visitor info
* Richard III Society, American Branch  with maps, photos, articles presenting several competing theories situating the battle
* The Battle of Bosworth 
* Bosworth Roll Call  Officers there on the day.
Kano

**Kano** is a city in Nigeria. It is the capital of Kano State. Kano is the third largest city in Nigeria, after Ibadan and Lagos. About 3,626,204 people live in Kano.

It has long been the economic centre of northern Nigeria, and a centre for the sale of groundnuts. Kano is known for the Bayero University and a railway station with trains to Lagos and Port Harcourt, moving through Kaduna, while Kano International Airport can be found nearby. Kano has long been a centre for Nigeria's Islamic culture; one of the country's finest mosques lies in the city.

It is also the site where the Kano river project was developed.  This is a large irrigation scheme.

## History
The city of Kano was founded around A.D. 1000 as an Hausa city of its own. Kano remained a big emirate, or Muslim kingdom, until the birth of the country, Nigeria, in 1903. Kano became known for its trade in gold, leather, ivory, salt and slaves within the area. This perhaps is the reason for the city's wealth and power in the 14th century, when Islam gained a growing following. By the 15th century, the first Central Mosque had been built in the city.
## References 
## Other websites 
* Kano Online
Angevin

**Angevin** is the name of the residents of Anjou, a former province of the Kingdom of France, as well as to the residents of Angers. It is also used for three different medieval dynasties which go back to counts (from 1360, dukes) of the western French province of Anjou (of which *angevin* is the adjectival form), but later came to rule far greater areas including England, Ireland, Hungary, Croatia, Poland, *Kingdom of Naples and Sicily*, and Kingdom of Jerusalem (*see Angevin Empire*).  

The first of these Angevin dynasties, the House of Plantagenet, ruled England in some form or another from the reign of Henry II, beginning in 1154, until the House of Tudor came to power when Richard III fell at the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485.
House of Plantagenet

The **House of Plantagenet** ruled England in some form or another from the reign of Henry II, beginning in 1154, until the House of Tudor came to power when Richard III fell at the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485.

It goes back to the Angevin counts (from 1360, dukes) of the western French province of Anjou. Three dynasties belong to it: **Angevins**, **House of Lancaster** (Lancastrians) and **House of York** (Yorkists). Lancastrians and Yorkists fought against each other the Wars of the Roses to get the crown for their dynasty alone.

## Plantagenets
### Angevins
* Empress Matilda (1141)
* Henry II (1154-1189)
* Richard I, the Lionheart (1189-1199)
* John (1199-1216)
* Henry III (1216-1272)
* Edward I (1272-1307)
* Edward II (1307-1327) (deposed, died 1327)
* Edward III (1327-1377)
* Richard II (1377-1399) (deposed, died 1400)

### Lancastrians
* Henry IV (1399-1413)
* Henry V (1413-1422)
* Henry VI (1422-1461 and 1470-1471)

### Yorkists
* Edward IV (1461-1470 and 1471-1483)
* Edward V (uncrowned) (1483) (deposed 1483, most likely assassinated)
* Richard III (1483-1485)

## Further reading
*
*
*
*

## References
Count

A **count** is a nobleman in most of European countries, equivalent in rank to a British earl, whose wife is also still a "countess" (for lack of an Anglo-Saxon term). The word *count* comes from French *comte* which in turn comes from the Latin *comitas*, "companion" (of the emperor). In feudalism the territory ruled by a count was a county.

A woman having this title or the wife of a count is called **countess**.

## Other websites 
*Heraldica.org - here the French peerage
*Italian Titles of Nobility 
*Webster's 1828 Dictionary
Budgerigar

The **budgerigar** (nicknamed ***budgie**,* binomial name ***Melopsittacus undulatus***) is a small parrot. It belongs to the family of Old World parakeets (Psittaculidae). Budgerigars are often called *parakeets*, especially in American English. The term *Parakeet* refers to many types of small parrots with long flat tails. The budgerigar is found in drier parts of Australia. It has lived there for over 5 million years. It is commonly kept as a pet. Budgies are intelligent birds and can be taught to mimic human speech.

## Other websites 
* A True Ambassador: the Budgerigar  Referenced article on budgerigars
* List of Plants & Branches Hazardous to Birds Referenced list oriented toward pet birds
* Budgies Information about the budgerigar as a pet supplies

## References 
## Other websites
Hemoglobin

groups in green]]

**Hemoglobin** (or **haemoglobin**) is a protein in red blood cells which contains iron. It is used to transport oxygen around the human body. 

Hemoglobin is found in the red blood cells of almost all vertebrates. The exceptions are the fish family Channichthyidae, and the tissues of some invertebrates. It does occur in some invertebrates, but most invertebrates use other chemicals, such as hemocyanin.

Hemoglobin is involved in the transport of other gases. It carries some of the body's respiratory carbon dioxide (about 20-25% of the total).

Red blood cells get their color from hemoglobin, which is red. There are millions of hemoglobin molecules in each red blood cell, and millions of red blood cells in the human body. When hemoglobin has oxygen attached, it is called **oxyhemoglobin**.

## Structure
The most common type of hemoglobin in mammals contains four such subunits. Each subunit of hemoglobin is a globular protein (globin) with a heme group inside it. Each heme group has one iron atom. This binds one oxygen molecule. So the complete hemoglobin molecule has four globin chains, four heme molecules, and four iron atoms. When hemoglobin is in the lungs, it picks up oxygen in its hemes, and carries it to the rest of the body.

Its structure took years to work out. Max Perutz and John Kendrew worked out the structure of myoglobin first. That muscle globin is smaller, with only one heme group.

## References
Cornea

The **cornea** is the front part of the eye. It is the clear transparent section of the eye. The cornea covers the iris, pupil, and the eye chamber. It is a special form of tissue. The cornea is clear and has no blood vessels. It has nerves, but with no myelin sheaths on them.

The cornea, with the lens, refracts light. The cornea and the lens bend light so the image strikes the retina. The cornea does about two-thirds of this refraction.

'''Dua's layer''' is a newly discovered layer of the cornea. It was described in June 2013. It is the sixth layer of the cornea to be discovered. Despite its thinness, the layer is very strong, and air does not get through it.

## References
WASSCE

The **West African Senior School Certificate Examination** (WASSCE) is a type of exam in West Africa. It is made by the West African Examinations Council (WAEC). It is only given to students who live in the five English-speaking West African countries: Nigeria, Ghana, Sierra Leone, The Gambia and Liberia

## The exams 
There are two different types of the exam:

:**The WASSCE (November/December):** students from government and private schools are able to take this exam. Uniforms are not needed, but other rules must be obeyed by the students. This exam is only taken in the fall season(November/December), and the grades are available by December. Its old name is the G.C.E. (General Certificate Examinations).

:**The WASSCE (May/June):** This exam is ideally made for students who go to government schools. Students from private schools, that are well known in the country, can only sit for this exam in any government schools. They must also wear a type of uniforms as the teachers want them to wear. This exam is only taken in the spring season, and the grades are usually  available on or before August of the same year. Its old name is the S.S.C.E. (Senior School Certificate Examinations).

## The grades
The grades below are given on the WASSCE certificates for the students who finished their exams. They also depend on how well the students did in their exams.
Tetracycline

**Tetracycline** is an antibiotic discovered as a natural product in 1945. It is a broad-spectrum antibiotic because it works against a range of bacteria. It is made to treat a number of bacterial infections. It is commonly used to treat acne and rosacea. It is a protein synthesis inhibitor.

It is produced naturally by the *Streptomyces* genus of Actinobacteria. In 1950, Harvard University professor Robert Burns Woodward worked out the chemical structure of the related oxytetracycline (Terramycin). Historically it was important in reducing the number of deaths from cholera. 

Tetracycline was patented in 1953 and was approved for prescription use in 1954. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. Tetracycline is available as a generic medication. Tetracycline was originally made from bacteria of the genus *Streptomyces*. 

## References
Synthesizer

A **musical synthesizer** is an instrument that uses electricity to make musical sounds. They are the main instrument for making electronic music. Many synthesizers have a keyboard like that of a piano. When playing a piano keyboard, sounds are made by hitting soft hammers against strings pulled very tight. When playing a synthesizer keyboard, sounds are made by turning electrical oscillators on and off. Since "synthesizer" is such a big word, the word is usually shortened to "synth".

## How synthesizers work
An oscillator is something that "vibrates", or repeats the same pattern. The pendulum of a clock, for example, is a very slow oscillator. A piano string "oscillates" when struck by a hammer.

Electric oscillators might be made using transistors. They turn electricity into electrical patterns, or signals, that repeat over and over. When different keys are pressed, different notes are heard. This is done by making the signal from the oscillator repeat at different rates. 

The signal can be boosted in strength and sent straight to a loudspeaker. But the sound of a simple signal can be boring after a while. Sounds can be made more interesting in many ways.

;For example:
* Signals are often shaped by changing how fast they get loud and then soft again. This method, called "ADSR", helps synthesizers to sound more like older instruments — pianos, trumpets, flutes, and so on.
* The signals from several different oscillators may be combined. This helps to make a richer sound.
* The signal can then be sent to one or more filters. Filters are used to take away parts of the signal. For example, they might make the signal sound "brighter" or "duller", "soft" or "harsh".
* Many synthesizers use special oscillators called "LFOs". For example, an LFO might control how loud and soft the signal is, or control the pitch of the signal. An LFO might even control the actions of the filters.

By combining many of these methods, synths can now sound very much like older instruments. For one example, special synths called "drum synths" are used just to make the sounds a drummer might make. Synths can also make many new sounds never heard before.

In the early 2000s, computers got fast enough so "software synths" could be made. These are computer programs designed to look and work like a synth. They tend to be less expensive, so more can be used. Most of these programs can be downloaded for free, however this may be illegal.

There are special tools available to play synths. For example, a thing called a "wind controller" lets players of wind instruments use their special skills. But there is still a need for more ways to control synths to make them more expressive.

## Other websites
* Sonic State describing 3000 models of Synthesizers
* Analog & Digital Synthesizers museum  - Synthesizers database, resources, user reviews, pictures
* Vintage Synth Explorer - facts and photos of hundreds of old and new synths
* The history of Electronic Music
* 120 years of Electronic Music
Arab Christians

**Arab Christians** are people who practice Christianity and speak Arabic or are from an Arabic-speaking country.

## Region 
Most Christian Arabs live in the Middle East, where Islam is the most popular religion. The largest number of Arab Christians - around 9,500,000 - live in Egypt. 

Many Arabs have emigrated from the Middle East in modern times. In some places like the Americas, a large number of these Arabs are Christians. In Brazil, there are more than 11.6 million Arabs; most of them are Christians.

## History 
### Origins 
Arab Christians existed before Arab Muslims. Several Arab tribes became Christians starting in the first century. (The Prophet Muhammad created Islam during the 7th century.)

The Arab tribes who converted were the Nabateans (whose ancestors were Aramean) and the Ghassanids (who were of Qahtani origin and spoke both Yemeni-Arabic and Greek). They protected the southeastern parts of the Byzantine Empire in north Arabia.

### Persecution 
During various periods in the history of the Islamic world, Arab Christians experienced brutal, humiliating persecution. This increased with the Muslim conquests of Christian countries after the death of the Prophet Muhammad. 

Often, Arab Christians were forced to convert to Islam if they could not pay an expensive tax known as the 'jizya'. Despite this, many Christians chose not to change their religion to Islam. 

Muslims call Christians and Jews the "People of the Book".

## Persecution today 
In the early 21st century, persecution of Christians in Arab countries increased.  In most countries they are required to obey Islamic "Shari'ah" law.  In some countries, notably Egypt, political approval is required for the construction or renovation of a church. This is not required for the construction of mosques.  

Countries in the Arabian Gulf, most notably Saudi Arabia, do not allow people to build churches or practice Christianity in public. However, that is slowly changing in progressive areas like the UAE. 

Coptic Christians in Egypt continue to face significant discrimination in the workplace and have a hard time reaching the upper echelons in universities, corporations, and government offices.

## Contributions 
Arab Christians have made important contributions to the Arab world, and they still do.  Some of the best poets in past centuries were Arab Christians. Many Arab Christians were and are doctors, writers, government workers, and literature experts.

## Notes
Axis of Evil

, Iraq, and North Korea (darker red)."Beyond the Axis of Evil" included Cuba, Libya, and Syria (orange). The United States is dark blue.]]
**Axis of Evil**, is a term first used by US President George W. Bush in his State of the Union speech on January 29, 2002 to describe the governments of Iraq, Iran, and North Korea and later Cuba, Libya, and Syria. He used this term because he believed that they backed terrorism and were trying to buy weapons of mass destruction. The name "Axis of Resistance" was later adopted by Iran as a response to the "Axis of Evil" name.

## References
920s

The **920s** was a decade that started on 1 January 920, and ended on 31 December 929. It is distinct from the decade known as the ***93rd decade*** which began on January 1, 921 and ended on December 31, 930.

## Births 
* 925: Ferdowsi حکیم ابوالقاسم فردوسی توسی (died 1020), Persian poet
910s

The **910s** was a decade that began on 1 January 910 and ended on 31 December 919. It is distinct from the decade known as the ***92nd decade*** which began on January 1, 911 and ended on December 31, 920.

## Events
* construction begins on the first church at the monastery of Cluny
Canopic jar

**Canopic jars** were used to store the internal organs of a mummy in Ancient Egypt. The lid had the head of a baboon, human, falcon or a jackal&mdash;representing the sons of Horus. These jars were used to store organs which were removed from a dead person, these were the stomach, the intestine, the liver and the lungs, because they were thought to be use less in the afterlife.They only did the mummification process to important people. The jars were placed in the tombs with the bodies.

Names: imesty the (human), Duamutef (Jackal), Hapi (Baboon), Qebehsenuf (Falcon) .
Edwy of England

**Eadwig All-Fair** or *Edwy* (940/941 – 1 October 959) was the King of England from 955 until his death. Edwy was the eldest son of King Edmund I and Saint Elgiva. Edwy was chosen in 955 to succeed his uncle Edred as King.

His short reign as King was marked by conflict. He had problems within his family, the Thanes, and the Roman Catholic Church, under the leadership of  Saint Dunstan and Archbishop Odo. Edwy died at the age of eighteen or nineteen, and was succeeded by his rival brother, Edgar, who re-unified the kingdom.
Fellow

A **fellow** is a member of a group of learned people who work together at university or other academic institutions.  However, there are no precise rules for how the title is used, and each academic institution grants the title as it sees fit.  

## Other websites 
* Nationally Coveted College Scholarships, Graduate Fellowships and Postdoctoral Awards
Magdalen College School, Oxford

**Magdalen College School** is an independent school for boys. It is on the edge of central Oxford, England. It was founded as part of Magdalen College, Oxford by Thomas Becket in 1480

The school was originally founded by William Waynflete to educate the sixteen boy choristers of Magdalen College, Oxford University who sang in the college's chapel. Important Old Waynfletes include William Tyndale, Sam Mendes, Alex Lennox, Tim Hunt, and Ben Goldacre.

## Other websites 
* Magdalen College School website
* ISI inspection report 
* A history of the choristers of Magdalen College School, Oxford
Lincolnshire

**Lincolnshire**  ( or ; abbreviated **Lincs**) is a county in the east of England. It borders Norfolk, Cambridgeshire, Rutland, Leicestershire, Nottinghamshire, South Yorkshire, the East Riding of Yorkshire, and (for just 19 metres or 20 yards, England's shortest county boundary) Northamptonshire. Its county town is the ancient city of Lincoln.

## Related pages
* Grantham
* Lincoln

## Other websites
* Lincolnshire County Council website
* Visitlincolnshire.com
* Official Lincolnshire Flag site 
* Lincolnshire Life magazine
* Extremehorizon a local resource for surfing in Lincolnshire
* Lincolnshire Show official website
* History of the Royal Air Force in Lincolnshire
John Foxe

**John Foxe** (1516/1517 – 18 April 1587), is remembered as the author of ''Foxe's Book of Martyrs''.

## Education and Resignation from Oxford 
Foxe was born in Boston, Lincolnshire, England into a prominent family. In 1535 Foxe was admitted to Magdalen College School. He became a fellow in July 1539.
Foxe resigned from his college in 1545, after referring to it as "a prison." During his time at Oxford he became an evangelical, meaning that he converted to Protestant beliefs not accepted by the Church of England under Henry VIII. As he wanted to leave Oxford, Foxe looked to other evangelicals for help but received only advice and a little money. Foxe married Agnes Randall on February 3, 1547.

## Life in London under Edward VI 
With the death of Henry VIII in January 1547 Foxe's prospects (and those of the evangelical cause generally) changed for the better. Foxe was ordained deacon by Nicholas Ridley on June 24, 1550.

## Marian Exile 
In the fall of 1554 Foxe moved to Frankfurt, where he lived with Anthony Gilby in the English colony of Protestant refugees.
Foxe then removed to Basel where he lived and worked with John Bale and Lawrence Humphrey.

## Return to England 
In 1559, when Mary I had died Foxe returned to England. He lived for some time at Aldgate, London, in the house of his former pupil, Thomas Howard. Foxe started publishing works of religious  and worked on a new martyrology, which would become the ''Foxe's Book of Martyrs''.
Foxe was ordained priest by Edmund Grindal, now Bishop of London, on January 25, 1560, and he moved to Norwich to live with its bishop, John Parkhurst. On March 23 of the following year the first edition of Foxe's Book of Martyrs was published.

Foxe was one of the earliest students of Anglo-Saxon, and he and Day published an edition of the *Saxon gospels* with the help of Archbishop Parker.

Foxe died on 8 April 1587 and was buried at St. Giles's, Cripplegate.

## References 
## Other websites 
* Foxe's Book of Martyrs (*Actes and Monuments*) Variorum Edition Online , from the Humanities Research Institute of The University of Sheffield
* Thomas Freeman, John Foxe: A Biography
Norfolk

**Norfolk** is a low-lying county in East Anglia in the east of southern England. It has borders with Lincolnshire to the west, Cambridgeshire to the west and southwest and with Suffolk to the south. Its northern and eastern boundaries are the North Sea coast, including The Wash. The county town is Norwich. Norfolk is home to the Norfolk Broads, a famous tourist and wildlife spot.

## People from Norfolk 
* Horatio Nelson (1758—1805), the English naval commander, was born at Burnham Thorpe, Norfolk. 
* Steve Flint (born 1961) in Thetford, at age 19 became, the first Norfolk athlete to run under four minutes for the mile. He did this at the Inter-County Championships in Birmingham on May 26 1980.

## References 
## Other websites 
* Norfolk County Council
* BBC Norfolk
* NorfolkBroads.com
* Guide to Norfolk businesses 
* Norfolk Guide
* Norfolk And Norwich Online 
* Long Stratton Community Forum 
* Wymondham YFC 
* Norfolk Federation of Young Farmers Clubs 
* An online guided tour of Norfolk in pictures
* http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/3159813.stm
* Norfolk Photos
* Norfolk Watermills & Windmills
Leicestershire

**Leicestershire** (abbreviated **Leics**) is a county in central England. It takes its name from the heavily populated City of Leicester, its traditional administrative centre, although the City of Leicester is today administered separately from the rest of Leicestershire. The county borders onto Lincolnshire, Rutland, Northamptonshire, Warwickshire, Staffordshire, Derbyshire, and Nottinghamshire.

Leicestershire was recorded in the Domesday Book.

## Other websites 
* Leicester Mercury
* Wartime Leicestershire 
* Official tourism website for Leicester & Leicestershire
* The Jitty, an information site for young people in Leicestershire
* Leicestershire Bands website
Northamptonshire

**Northamptonshire** (abbreviated ***Northants*** or '''''N'hants''''') is a county in central England with a population of 629,676 (2001 census). It has borders with Warwickshire, Leicestershire, Rutland, Cambridgeshire, Peterborough, Bedfordshire, Buckinghamshire (including the Borough of Milton Keynes), Oxfordshire, and Lincolnshire (England's shortest county boundary: 19 metres). The county town is Northampton.

Northamptonshire has often been called the county of "squires and spires" due to its wide variety of historic buildings and country houses.

Northampton is by far the largest town in the county, with a population of 194,122. This is followed by Corby (53,174), Wellingborough (48,428), Kettering (47,000), Rushden (25,849) and Daventry (22,367). Most of the county's population is concentrated in a central north-south.

**Cherwell Edge** in Northamptonshire () is near the River Cherwell, north-west of Banbury, England. The once heavily wooded hill and valley was mostly cleared many years ago. The area now also covers the nearby Cherwell Edge Golf Club that was recently built by it too. The golf club is used by various local residents.

## Places 
 in western Northamptonshire. It lies just south east of Banbury in Oxfordshire.]]
 in western Northamptonshire. It is served by both First Great Western and Chiltern Railways servaces to and from Banbury.]]

These are the main settlements in Northamptonshire with a town charter, a population over 5,000, or otherwise notable.
* Brackley
* Braunston
* Brixworth
* Corby
* Daventry
* Kettering
* Long Buckby
* Naseby
* Northampton
* Oundle
* Pitsford
* Raunds
* Rothwell
* Rushden
* Silverstone
* Towcester
* Thrapston
* Weedon Bec
* Wellingborough

Two major canals - the Oxford and the Grand Union — join in the county at Braunston.
A branch of the Grand Union Canal connects to the River Nene in Northampton.
Two trunk railway routes, the West Coast Main Line and the Midland Main Line traverse the county.
Before nationalisation of the railways in 1948 and the creation of British Railways, Northamptonshire was home to three of the "Big Four" railway companies; the London, Midland and Scottish Railway, London and North Eastern Railway and Great Western Railway. Only the Southern Railway was not represented.

## Related pages
* Aynho
* Aynho House
* King's Sutton
* King's Sutton Railway Station

## References
## Other websites 
* 1894/5 description 
* Northants Forum
Earl

at Westminster, 4 February 1512. Left to right: The Marquess of Dorset, Earl of Northumberland, Earl of Surrey, Earl of Shrewsbury, Earl of Essex, Earl of Kent, Earl of Derby, Earl of Wiltshire. From: Parliament Procession Roll of 1512.]]
An **Earl** (or **Jarl**) was a title for nobility used by Anglo-Saxons and Scandinavians. It originally meant "chieftain" and it referred especially to chieftains set to rule a territory in a king's stead. In Scandinavia, it stopped being used in the Middle Ages, whereas, in Britain, it became synonymous with the continental count.
In Anglo-Saxon times the title was similar to that of Ealdorman.

Today, an earl is a member of the British peerage, and is below a Marquess, but above a Viscount. A British Earl is the same as a continental Count. Since there is no feminine form of **Earl**, the wife of an Earl has the rank of Countess (the continental equivalent).
Evangelicalism

__NOTOC__

The word **evangelicalism** refers to a type of Christian belief and practice in conservative Protestantism although some Catholics also call themselves "evangelicals."

Evangelicals believe in spreading their faith (evangelism), the need to be converted (also called being born again), believing what is in the Bible, and the need to live a moral life both personally and in society. In the past 200 years, people, churches and social movements have often been called evangelical. It is different from Liberal Protestantism although it may share some of the same goals.

Outside the United States, the word "evangelical" can mean different things. In Europe and Latin America the word is often used to simply mean Protestant, as different from Roman Catholic religion. Some Christian denominations have the word as part of their official name, which may indicate that they are more conservative than other denominations with a similar name.

In 2016, there were thought to be about 619 million evangelicals in the world and so one in four Christians would be an evangelical. The United States has many evangelicals, who form about one fourth of the nation's population and its largest religious group. There are also many evangelicals in Latin America, Africa, China and Korea. Evangelicals make up most Baptists and Pentecostals; manyMethodists, Presbyterians, and other older denominations; and many independent Christian churches that do not belong to any larger group.

Billy Graham, probably the best-known evangelical of the last 100 years, preached all around the world.

## References 
## Other websites 
* World Evangelical Alliance - list of evangelical organizations from various nations 
* Barna Research Group
Spiny lobster

**Spiny lobsters**, also known as **rock lobsters** are a family (**Palinuridae**) of about 45 species of   crustaceans, in the Decapoda Reptantia. Spiny lobsters are also called *crayfish*, *sea crayfish* or *crawfish*.

Although they superficially resemble true lobsters in terms of overall shape, and that they also have a hard carapace and exoskeleton, the two groups are not closely related. Spiny lobsters can be easily distinguished from true lobsters by their very long, thick, spiny antennae, and by their complete lack of claws (*chelae*); true lobsters have much smaller antennae and claws on the first three pairs of legs, with the first being particularly enlarged. Like true lobsters, however, spiny lobsters are edible and are an economically significant food source; they are the biggest food export of the Bahamas&nbsp;.

Spiny lobsters are found in almost all warm seas, including the Caribbean and the Mediterranean Sea, but are particularly common in Australasia, where they are referred to commonly as crayfish or sea crayfish (*Jasus novaehollandiae* and *Jasus edwardsii*), and South Africa (*Jasus lalandii*). A new species, *Palinurus barbarae* was described in 2006.

The largest spiny lobster on record was over 1&nbsp;m (3&nbsp;ft) long and weighed over 11.8&nbsp;kg (26&nbsp;lb).

Spiny lobsters tend to live in crevices of rocks and coral reefs, only occasionally venturing out at night to seek snails, clams, crabs, sea urchins or carrion to eat. Sometimes, they migrate *en masse*, in long files of lobsters across the sea floor. Potential predators may be deterred from eating spiny lobsters by a loud screech made by the antennae of the spiny lobsters rubbing against a smooth part of the exoskeleton&nbsp;. Spiny lobsters usually exhibit social habit by being together. However recent studies indicate that healthy lobsters move away from infected ones and leaving the diseased lobsters to fend for itself&nbsp;.

The furry lobsters (*e.g.* *Palinurellus*) are sometimes separated into a family of their own, the Synaxidae, but are usually considered members of the Palinuridae. The slipper lobsters (Scyllaridae) are their next closest relatives, and these two or three families make up the Achelata. Genera of spiny lobsters include *Palinurus* and a number of anagrams thereof: *Panulirus*, *Linuparus*, *etc.* (Palinurus was also a helmsman in Virgil's Æneid.)

Image:Palinurus vulgaris(01).jpg|*Panulirus vulgaris*
Image:California_spiny_lobster.JPG|*California spiny lobster*

## Related pages
* American lobster

## References
Cell theory

**Cell theory** is the historic scientific theory, now accepted by everyone, that living organisms are made up of cells. Cells are the basic unit of structure in all organisms and the basic unit of reproduction. 

## History 
With many improvements made to microscopes over time, magnification technology advanced enough to discover cells in the 17th century. This discovery was made by Robert Hooke and began cell biology, the scientific study of cells. Cell theory was eventually made in 1838. This is usually credited to Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann.

## References