open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Protoplasm

, and inside the wall is a cell membrane, then a thin layer of cytoplasm with the nucleus and other organelles in it. The cytoplasm is pressed against the cell wall by the very large vacuole. In this picture the cell nuclei are dark-coloured.]]

"**Protoplasm**" is an old term which means the living substance that makes up a cell. It is no longer much used. Biologists prefer to talk about the cytoplasm and the cell nucleus.

In plant cells, it is surrounded by a cell wall. In animal cells, the whole cell is made of protoplasm, surrounded by a cell membrane. Protoplasm in living beings is made up of about 7580% water. However, this is rather misleading because the cytoplasm is full of structures called organelles, which do various tasks. The endoplasmic reticulum is the largest of these structures; there are many other organelles.  

The word "protoplasm" was first used in 1846 by Hugo von Mohl to describe the substance in plant cells, apart from the cell wall, the cell nucleus and the vacuole. After the invention of the electron microscope it was clear that a living cell is much more complicated than von Mohl knew.
Variegated leaf

A **variegated leaf** is a type of leaf.

## Uses 
A variegated leaf is useful in conducting experiments to show that chlorophyll is needed for photosynthesis to happen. They are also popular in horticulture.

### Experiments 
The easiest of these experiments is to stain the places where starch is produced (starch is a more compact form of glucose).

Place the leaves in boiling water for six minutes to soften the cells, and then in ethanol (alcohol). When the leaves are drained of colour, spread them out on a flat surface. Soak the leaves in iodine and the green parts will turn blue/black and the non green parts will stay the yellowish brown colour of iodine liquid. The green parts contain starch, which makes iodine turn blue/black. The blue/black stain is what shows starch is present. You could take "before & after" photos to prove the black areas were green at the start.
Amylase

**Amylase** is an enzyme which breaks down starch into sugars which the body can use.

More accurately, it is a family of similar enzymes which work in a wide range of animals, plants and fungi. There are two variants in humans: alpha-amylase, and gamma-amylase.

Alpha-amylase is a major digestive enzyme. Its optimum pH is 6.7–7.0. It is found in saliva and pancreatic juice. It takes starch chains and breaks them into smaller pieces with two or three glucose units. It can break down starch into maltose. It works in the mouth and stomach during digestion.

The gamma-amylase has most acidic optimum pH of all amylases because it is most active around pH 3. Therefore, it works best in the stomach, which does have an acidic pH.

## Human evolution
Apparently, early humans did not possess salivary amylase. The closest evolutionary relatives of humans, chimpanzees and bonobos, have either one or no copies of the gene for producing salivary amylase.  A duplication event of the AMY1 gene led to the production of amylase in the saliva. The same event occurred independently in rodents. This shows the importance of salivary amylase in organisms that eat relatively large amounts of starch.

Carbohydrates are a food source rich in energy. After the agricultural revolution, human diet began to rely more on plant and animal domestication in place of hunting and gathering. This shift marked the beginning of a diet composed of 49% carbohydrates as opposed to the previous 35% observed in Paleolithic humans. As such, starch became a staple of human diet. Humans that contained amylase in the saliva would benefit from increased ability to digest starch more efficiently and in higher quantities.

Not all humans have the same number of copies of the AMY1 gene. Populations which rely on carbohydrates have a higher number of AMY1 copies than populations that eat little starch. The number of AMY1 gene copies in humans can range from six copies in agricultural groups such as European-American and Japanese (two high starch populations) to only 2-3 copies in hunter-gatherer societies such as the Biaka, Datog, and Yakuts.

The correlation between starch consumption and number of AMY1 copies suggests that more AMY1 copies in high starch populations is caused by natural selection. It is a favorable phenotype for those individuals. Therefore, it is likely that having more copies of AMY1 in a high starch population increases fitness and produces healthier, fitter offspring. Geographically close populations with different eating habits possess a different number of copies of the AMY1 gene. This offers strong evidence that natural selection has acted on this gene.

## References
Seam ripper

A **seam ripper** is a cutting tool. It is used for removing stitches in sewing and cutting open buttonholes made on a sewing machine. Sometimes it is also called a thread ripper.

The tool usually has a handle, shaft, and head. The head has two points: one flattened to form a pointed blade and the other  forming a small point. 

To use a seam ripper to remove sewn threads, the blade is placed underneath the thread to be cut. The thread slips down between the two points, and the tool is then lifted upwards allowing the blade to cut through the thread. Then the loose thread ends can be removed.
Plaque

**Plaque**: a word meaning a flat, plate-like object.

*a plaque in biology is a flat growth-form, as for example, 
**the growth of bacterial colonies on an agar plate
**a sticky, white film or fluid on the teeth, a mixture of bacteria and food
**in atherosclerosis, a fat layer inside an artery.

*a flat man-made object, such as a memorial plaque or other flat object
Rickets

**Rickets** is a disease that happens in young children.  It happens in children who do not get enough vitamin D and calcium.  It causes larger spaces inside bones, and makes them dry, like sponges.  It can make the legs curve toward each other (so the knees touch) or away from each other.

Rickets in adults is called **osteomalacia**.

The word "rickets" comes from the Greek word *rhakhis*, which means "spine."

## Cause 
People need both vitamin D and calcium to make their bones strong.

Vitamin D helps the bones absorb (take up) calcium.  Low vitamin D makes it hard to absorb calcium.

The human body makes vitamin D3 in the skin, from cholesterol.  Then the liver changes vitamin D3 into calcitriol, which sends calcium from the blood into the bones.  The bones need calcium to stay strong.  However, the skin will not make vitamin D3 unless enough ultraviolet light shines on it.  Sunlight contains ultraviolet light, so getting enough sun is one way of getting enough D3.

## Prevention 
Rickets can be prevented if a person gets plenty of calcium and vitamin D.
*They are between three and 36 months old.  Children this age are at the.      greatest risk for rickets because their bones are growing so quickly, and are supposed to get bigger and stronger during this time
* They were born prematurely (earlier than normal)
* They live in the Northern parts of the world, where there is less sunshine
*They spend too little time outside

*They always wear sunscreen when going out
** Even mild sunscreen decreases the amount of vitamin D the body makes by 95% (by stopping the body from taking in vitamin D from sunlight)
** However, people should still wear sunscreen when they might get sunburned
*They do not eat enough food that has calcium or vitamin D in it, because of lactose intolerance or a strict vegan diet
*They cannot make or use vitamin D because of a medical disorder, like coeliac disease, or because they take certain anti-seizure medications

## Symptoms
Signs and symptoms of rickets include:
* Brittle (easily broken) bones or teeth
* Bleeding more than normal
* Stunted growth (not growing like a healthy child would)
* Sweating
* Weakness (feeling tired all the time)
* Body pain

## Related pages
* Vitamin D
* Calcium

## References
Cavity

A **cavity** is a hole.

It can also mean:
*Dental cavity, damage to teeth.
*Another hollow area within the body. Such as a nasal cavity.
Evidence

**Evidence** is something that is used to support an argument.  It gives examples of why something is true. 

**Evidence** is defined by Merriam-Webster dictionary as: 
1a : an outward sign : INDICATION
1b : something that furnishes proof : TESTIMONY
specifically: something legally submitted to a tribunal to ascertain the truth of a matter
2 : one who bears witness
especially: one who voluntarily confesses a crime and testifies for the prosecution against one's accomplices

Choo states “Evidence is the information with which the matters requiring proof in a trial are proved.” The study of evidence, therefore, is the study of the process by which such matters are proved in court.” (Choo, 42). 

Peter Achinstein defines evidence as “information that increases probability of a hypothesis” or “information on the basis of which a hypothesis has high probability.” (Achinstein, 44).

The Division of Extension Research and Training at the University of Arkansas defines evidence as “the outward sign, the indication, the proof” (University of Arkansas, 1).

For example, if someone come across a cup of spilled milk, that person could look for evidence as to how the milk was spilled. If hairs of a cat and paw  were found on the ground, they could be evidence that a cat was the cause of the spilled milk. If a witness saw the cat spilling the milk, her testimony would also be evidence.
## References 
Choo, Andrew. Evidence. Oxford ; New York : Oxford University Press, 2006, https://archive.org/details/evidence0000choo/page/n9/mode/2up.

Webster, Merriam. “Evidence.” Merriam Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/evidence.

Miller, Colin. Evidence: Best Evidence Rule. 1st ed., CALI, eLangdell Press, 2012,https://www.cali.org/sites/default/files/BestEvidenceRule_Miller_Dec2014.pdf.

Achinstein, Peter. The Book of Evidence. Oxford University, 2001, https://books.google.com/books?id=cZHflkcvCEUC&q=evidence.&pg=PP9

Forsyth, Stewart. “What Is Opinion and What Is Evidence?” InfoKat, 2019, https://saalck-uky.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01SAA_UKY/ija67f/cdi_webofscience_primary_000486649800003.

What Is Evidence? University of Arkansas, June 1955, https://archive.org/details/CAT10680953/mode/2up.
Dyadic

A **dyadic** is a math function that needs two things in order to give something out.  Addition and multiplication are dyadic.  Powers are also dyadic.  There are many more functions that are dyadic.

**Dyadic** may specifically refer to:

*Dyad
*Dyadic communication
*Dyadic counterpoint, the voice-against-voice conception of polyphony
*Dyadic fraction
*Dyadic product
*Dyadic rational (also known as Dyadic solenoid)
*Dyadic Relation (usually known as a Binary relation)
*Dyadic tensor
*Dyadic transformation
Hill

, England]]
A **hill** is a landform that is higher than the surrounding terrain and that is smaller than a mountain. Hill is a  highland  of much lower elevation than a mountain. Normally it is not as steep as a mountain. By definition, a hill is often described as being lower than 600 meters (about 2,000 feet). However, some definitions say a hill is lower than 300 meters (about 1,000 feet). The surface of a hill is much more stable than that of a dune. Hill have long been used for hill forts

## Pictures

File:View from connors hill panorama.jpg|Panoramic view of Connors Hill in Victoria, Australia
File:Xn ant hill.jpg|Some hills are very small like this ant hill

## Other websites
Air space

**Air space** is the area of the air that is controlled by a country or organisation. You have to have the permission of the controller to enter their air space in an airplane.  The air traffic controllers make sure the planes go in the right place and do not hit each other or something else. Some countries are very protective of their air space.

## References
Glass rod

**Glass rods** are sometimes used as stirrers in laboratory environments.

Glass rods are often used to spread liquids evenly onto something. An example would be to coat glass surfaces with liquids to look at them under a microscope.

Glass rods rubbed with silk or fur were used in early demonstrations of electrical energy. 

Glass rods are commonly manufactured in diameters of 3 mm, 6 mm, and 10 mm.

Glass is used for these rods because it does not react with most laboratory chemicals.
Saskatoon

**Saskatoon** is a city in Saskatchewan, Canada. With a 2021 census population of 266,141, Saskatoon is the largest city in Saskatchewan, but is not the capital, which is Regina.

The South Saskatchewan River flows through the centre of the city, and many people enjoy boating, biking, and walking in the area. The University of Saskatchewan is also in Saskatoon.

The name "Saskatoon" (in Cree: *sâskwatôn*, "Saskatoon") comes from the Cree inanimate noun *misâskwatômina* "saskatoon berries", which refers to the sweet, violet-coloured berry that grows in the area.

## Media 
Radio stations include commercial stations **CKOM-AM** 650 kHz (*“650 CKOM”* News/Talk), **CFMC-FM** 95.1 MHz (*“C95”* Hot AC), **CJDJ-FM** 102.1 MHz (“*Rock 102”* Active Rock), **CJWW- AM** 600kHz (*“Country 600”* Country), **CKBL-FM** 92.9 MHz (*“92.9 The Bull”* Country), **CJMK-FM** 98.3 MHz (“*98 Cool FM*” Classic Hits),  **CFWD-FM** 96.3 MHz (“*96.3 Cruz FM*” - Mainstream Rock)

## References
Area

**Area** is the amount of space a two dimensional (flat) surface takes up. It is useful because it is how much of a material is needed to make a hollow container.  Area is the amount of surface covered by a close object or shape. 

Some units used to measure area are square foot, square mile, square metre and square kilometre. The area of a planar figure is often written as A. Areas of regular shapes such as square, rectangle, triangle and circle can be calculated through formulas. The area of an irregular shape can be approximated through grid or graph paper.

One can use different formulas to find the area of different shapes. For example:
]]

* The area of a rectangle is the length of any two touching sides multiplied together. In other words, length times width.
* The area of a triangle is half of the product of the base and the perpendicular height. In other words, A = \tfrac{1}{2} bh.
* The area of a circle: A = \pi r^2

The area of a flat object is related to the surface area and volume of a three-dimensional object.

The area under a curve can be found using integration, a concept from calculus.

## Perimeter and Area 
As demonstrated with honeycombs, the best shape to have when you want plenty of area with little perimeter is the circle, with the hexagon being a good alternative.

If you want a lot of perimeter and just a little area, simply make the shape into a square, then make it twice as long and half as wide.

## Related pages 
* Mu (unit of area)

## References
Week

A **week** is 7 days in connecting order. There are usually 52 weeks in a year.

In the English language, the days of the week are named after gods in Norse mythology, except for Saturday, which is named after a Roman god.

Depending on the law of a country, the week either starts on Monday and ends on Sunday, or starts on Sunday and ends on Saturday. In most countries, Saturday and Sunday are the weekend. Friday, Saturday, and Sunday is a religious day for Muslims, Jews, and Christians, respectively.

## Other websites 
* The Mysterious 7-Day Cycle (history with Christian editorial) 
* The Week (part of Claus Tøndering's Calendar FAQ)
Thermometer

A **thermometer** is an instrument for measuring or showing temperature (how hot or cold something is). One type of thermometer is a narrow, concealed glass tube containing mercury or alcohol which extends along the tube as it expands. Another type is a digital thermometer, which uses electronics to measure temperature.

Early thermometers from the time of Galileo measured the expansion and contraction of air. After the middle 17th century, people more often used alcohol or mercury thermometers. In the 19th century, a mechanical thermometer was invented that used a bimetallic strip to move a pointer. This type of thermometer is still popular where people like to read temperature from a distance.

## Laboratory thermometers (Lab Thermometer) 
A laboratory thermometer is a tool used in laboratories, places where scientists and science technicians perform experiments and measure things.  A laboratory thermometer can measure temperature very closely. A laboratory thermometer can be put into what the scientist wants to measure. A laboratory thermometer has a long stem with a silver bulb at the end. The silver color in the bulb usually means there is mercury in it. Mercury expands as the temperature becomes hotter. Mercury is a poison to humans if touched, inhaled, or swallowed, which makes it dangerous to use when taking people's temperatures. Mercury-in-glass thermometers are less used in the 21st century. This is because digital thermometers are more accurate, and alcohol-filled and organic-based thermometers are safer to use than mercury thermometers.

## Medical thermometers 
In the 20th century, the traditional clinical thermometer was a mercury-in-glass thermometer. People put the end of this in their mouth (*oral* temperature), under their arm, or in their rectum (*rectal* temperature).

It is only possible to find oral temperatures on patients who can hold the thermometer correctly in their mouth. Mercury thermometers need a long time to measure the temperature, so it would be difficult to get the temperature of small children, people with a cough, or people who are vomiting. Today's digital thermometers are much faster and more accurate. If a person drinks something hot or cold, a person needs to wait before testing their oral temperature. 

Rectal thermometers are usually more reliable since they aren't as much influenced by other factors.

There are other kinds of medical thermometers: *tympanic* thermometers test the temperature of the tympanic membrane (the eardrum) with infrared; *band* thermometers test a person's temperature on the front of their head.

## Kinds of thermometers 
* Liquid-in-glass thermometer
* Mercury-in-glass thermometer
* Alcohol-in-glass thermometer
* Clinical thermometer
* Digital thermometer
* Rotary thermometer
* Resistance thermometer
* Liquid crystal thermometer
* Infra-red thermometer

## References
Suffix

A **suffix** is a few letters put at the end of a word to change its meaning.  It is a type of affix mostly used to show inflection.

Verb examples:
* -ed
* -or
* -ing
* -s
* es
* -ing
* walk
* walked
* walker
* walking
* walks
* wishes
*

Adjective examples:
* -er
* -est
* -ful
* -ness
* -less

* easy
* easier
* easiest
* handful
* kindness
* baseless 
*
*
*

Compare to prefix. Prefixes are letters put at the beginning of a word to change its meaning.

## References
Spice

]]
**Spice** is an ingredient that adds flavor to food. It is usually used to enrich or alter the quality of something. Spices can be used to give food an interesting and exciting taste.

Examples of a spice would be cinnamon, fenugreek and nutmeg.

Spices can also be used to hide or cover up bad tastes in food which is rotten or affected by fungi, e.g. marzipan.

Indians use a lot of spices like garam masala.

## Related pages 
* Spice trade
* Condiment
Motion sensor

A **motion sensor** is a sensor device. It is used for studying motions. It is connected to a data-logger. The data-logger is connected to a computer. The computer runs a data-logging program. The computer is connected to power, and a security system. Motion sensors have many uses including security.

Applications for movement sensor technology include clinical, workplace safety & athletic sports.

## References
Halley's Comet

'''Halley's Comet''' (Comet Halley) is a comet which comes round every 75 or 76 years. When it is near, it can be seen with the naked eye. It will return in 2061. 

The comet is named after Edmond Halley (1656–1742), an English astronomer, who predicted the comet's return. Halley's Comet was the first comet to be recognized as periodic. (Periodic means that it comes by Earth regularly.)

When the comet came close to the Earth in 1986, it was visited by several space-probes. The probe *Giotto* from the European Space Agency managed the closest approach to the comet.

The number of years that the comet finishes its full cycle can vary depending on the effect of another planet's gravitational pull.

In 1986, Halley's Comet was the first to be observed in detail by spacecraft. It gave the first data on the structure of a comet nucleus and how the *coma* (nebulous envelope around the core or nucleus) and the tail formed. These observations supported Fred Whipple's "dirty snowball" model. This correctly predicted that Halley would be composed of a mixture of volatile ices – such as water, carbon dioxide, ammonia, – and dust. The missions also adjusted these ideas. For example, it is now known that the *surface* of Halley is mostly dusty, non-volatile materials, and that only a small portion of it is icy.

Coming closer to the Sun again: Since 2023, it is closing the distance between the Sun and itself.

## Related pages 
* List of comets

## References
Arm

An **arm** is a limb. Most humans have two arms each, coming out of their body at the shoulder, just below the neck. On the end of each arm is a hand. Humans use arms and hands to do things to other objects, this is called manipulation. The main purpose of the hand is to grasp objects. Some other primates have arms which they use to move around by holding onto trees or supporting themselves as they walk along the ground. Fingers and hand, wrist, forearm, elbow, upper arm and shoulder are parts of the arm.

## Related pages
*Leg
*Trapezius muscle
Spirituality

**Spirituality** is a name given to matters of the spirit. These can be any kind of meaningful personal activity or peaceful experience. There is not one agreed upon way to explain what happens. It is a concept so people can see and understand it in different ways. Some people believe spirituality is a part of religion. Others who are not religious, still seek and have spiritual experiences.

## Matters of the spirit 
"Matters of the spirit" may include the meaning in a person's life (or in all life), and how to find and improve on it. They may also include someone's search for God, the supernatural, a divine influence in their lives, or information about the afterlife, and how to best deal with each. "Matters of the spirit" may also include how to live among others as a group, or in a certain environment.

## "Spiritual, but not religious" 
Some who do not believe in an organized religion may still be interested in the "spirits" of humanity or of nature and live a certain way, or worship ancestors or creation because it gives them a sense of happiness to do so. This is referred to as spiritual but not religious.

Another common usage refers to people who ascribe to ideals "greater than themselves." For many, this leads to a pursuit of some form of enlightenment, often through meditation, yoga, philosophy or, in some cases, a study of Metaphysics.

Many philosophers work to find answers to spiritual questions, although some may deny the existence of a 'god' or any supernatural influences. Throughout the world however, philosophers have often had ideas about spirituality. The following are a few 20th century examples:

*Arne Naess - the founder of deep ecology
*Gregory Bateson - philosopher
*Jiddu Krishnamurti - renowned Indian thinker
*Osho/Shri Rashneesh - Indian scholar who, while a critic of religion, worked to create a new spiritual movement
*Felicitas Goodman - researched the subject of trance

## Related pages
* List of religions and spiritual traditions
* Mysticism
* Piety
* Spiritism

## References 
## Other websites
Flavor

**Flavor** (or **flavour** in British English) is the main quality of anything which affects the taste. When someone remarks on the *flavor* of something they are trying to describe the specific way something tastes.

Flavor can also be used to describe the act of adding a taste alteration (to change the taste) to something. This is usually done by adding spices or sugars, though in *processed food* there are oftentimes artificial (fake) flavors. A person who develops natural and/or artificial food additives is called a flavourist or flavorist (US English).
Arrow

An **arrow** is a projectile fired with a **bow**. A bow and arrow is a weapon used before medieval times and later.  For thousands of years, people all over the world have used bows and arrows for hunting and for defense.  Arrows have a sharp point at one end and usually a flight at the other end. The flight is usually made of feathers and helps the arrow go through the air straight. Someone who makes arrows is a **fletcher**.

A picture of an **arrow** is often used to point to something. Arrows look may like this: -->. "Double-headed" arrows look like this: .

## More reading
*
Common year

A **common year** is a calendar year with 365 days.  It is a year that is not a leap year. This means a common year has 52 weeks and one day.  So if a certain year started on a Monday, the following year will start on a Tuesday. Stated differently, a common year always begins and ends on the same day of the week (for example, in 2026, January 1 and December 31 fall on a Thursday). In common years, February has exactly four weeks, so March begins on the same day of the week. November also begins on this day. For example, if February 2026 begins on a Sunday, then March would also begin on a Sunday. November follows the same characteristic. 

In a common year, the corresponding months are January and October, February, March, and November, April and July and September and December. No month corresponds to May, June or August.

In the Gregorian calendar, 303 out of every 400 years are common years. In the Julian calendar, 300 out of every 400 years were common years. All the other years are special and known as leap years. 

## Years 
*2000, a century leap year, began on a Saturday.
*2001 began on a Monday.
*2002 began on a Tuesday.
*2003 began on a Wednesday.
*2004, a leap year, began on a Thursday.
*2005 began on a Saturday.
*2006 began on a Sunday.
*2007 began on a Monday.
*2008, a leap year, began on a Tuesday.
*2009 began on a Thursday.
*2010 began on a Friday.
*2011 began on a Saturday.
*2012, a leap year, began on a Sunday.
*2013 began on a Tuesday.
*2014 began on a Wednesday.
*2015 began on a Thursday.
*2016, a leap year, began on a Friday.
*2017 began on a Sunday.
*2018 began on a Monday.
*2019 began on a Tuesday.
*2020, a leap year, began on a Wednesday.
*2021 began on a Friday.
*2022 began on a Saturday.
*2023 began on a Sunday.
*2024, a leap year, began on a Monday.
*2025, began on a Wednesday.
*2026, began on a Thursday.
*2027 will begin on a Friday.
*2028, a leap year, will begin on a Saturday.
*2029 will begin on a Monday.
*2030 will begin on a Tuesday.

## Months 
These are the 12 months in a year.

* January has 31 days.
* February has 28 days.
* March has 31 days.
* April has 30 days.
* May has 31 days.
* June has 30 days.
* July has 31 days.
* August has 31 days.
* September has 30 days.
* October has 31 days.
* November has 30 days.
* December has 31 days.

There are 7 months with 31 days. There are 4 months with 30 days. There is 1 month with 28 days. In the Julian calendar, introduced by Julius Caesar in 45 BC, every 4 years there are 29 days in February, which is called a leap year. This happens because every year is 365 and 1/4 days but instead of us having a spare quarter of a day in each year we add them all up every 4 years and make an extra day to avoid confusion and make things easier for everyone.
In the Gregorian Calendar, which was introduced in 1582 by Pope Gregory XIII, because the Julian calendar added slightly too many years, three leap years were removed for every 400 years. These are those that are multiples of 100, but not multiples of 400. Thus, in the Gregorian calendar, 2024 is a leap year, but not 2025 and 2026, 2000 is a leap year, but not 1900 and 2100.
21st century

The **21st century** began on January 1, 2001 and will end on December 31, 2100.

## Years 
Note: years before or after the twenty-first century are in *italics*.

## Related pages 
* 11th century (1001-1100)
Ijtihad

**Ijtihad** () is the process of reaching a legal decision on the basis of one's own interpretation of Islamic law. The word is related to the better-known *jihad*. 

Ijtihad appeared  among the Muhammad's companions.
Standard temperature and pressure

In order to be able to reproduce experiments, **standard conditions for temperature and pressure** have been defined in different fields of science. Very often these are also called **standard temperature and pressure**. The table below gives some examples: 

## References
Jungle

mountain range in Central America]]
The **jungle** is a place in a rainforest where the forest floor is covered with plants. Like other rainy places, they have many rivers or streams. Scientists think that more types of animals and plants live in the jungles than everywhere else. When people talk about jungles, they sometimes mean the whole rainforest.

The crowding in a jungle leaves little room to walk.  This may make it dangerous to people.  However, it also has benefits.  The many plants and animals can provide food for foraging. 

The Amazon rainforest is thick and dark jungle in many places in nine countries.  However, most of this forest is in Brazil, South America.

Some snakes in the Amazon are very dangerous. The jungle is home to a variety of venomous and large constrictor snakes that can pose a threat to humans and other animals. In the Amazon jungle, snakes have plenty of food options due to the rich and diverse environment. Some large Snakes like the Green Anaconda eat animals such as rodents, monkeys, and even larger mammals like deer. They also feed on birds, their eggs, frogs, fish, lizards and some other small snakes.https://snakesworld.info/snakes-diet-and-food/ 

## References
STP

**STP** usually refers to:
* Stone Temple Pilots, an American rock band
* Standard Temperature and Pressure, definition

**STP** may also refer to:

## Commercial 
* Straight Through Processing, banking term where a financial transaction  is automatically completed without manual intervention
* Segment, Target and Position, a marketing acronym
* STP (motor oil company), a brand name and trade name for the automotive additives and performance division of Armored AutoGroup
* STP, New York Stock Exchange symbol for Suntech Power Holdings, a Chinese manufacturer of photovoltaic cells

## Geographical 
* STP, IATA airport code for St. Paul Downtown Airport in Saint Paul, Minnesota
* STP, ISO 3166-1 alpha-3 code, IOC country code, and FIFA country code for São Tomé and Príncipe
* STP, National Rail code for London St Pancras (Domestic) railway station

## Medicine 
* Status post, sometimes abbreviated as st.p., used to discuss sequelae with reference to their cause
* *Sternal puncture*, a form of bone marrow examination
* *Scientist Training Programme*, the postgraduate training for Healthcare scientists in the UK introduced under Modernising Scientific Careers

## Music 
* The Rolling Stones American Tour 1972, popularly referred to as the "STP Tour" for "Stones Touring Party"
* "S.T.P.", a song on the album ''Robbin' the Hood* by ska punk/reggae band Sublime

## Science, math and technology 
* Standard conditions for temperature and pressure, a scientific convention of designating standard conditions
* Scalar triple product
* Sewage treatment plant
* Shielded twisted pair, a type of cable
* Shovel test pit, method for archaeological survey
* Signal Transfer Point, an SS7 packet switch
* Sodium tripolyphosphate, a preservative
* South Texas Nuclear Generating Station, aka South Texas Project, nuclear power station located southwest of Bay City, Texas
* Space Test Program, a program conducted by the USAF Space Development and Test Wing at Kirtland Air Force Base
* Spanning tree protocol, a network protocol providing a loop free topology for a LAN or bridged network
* Steiner tree problem in graphs
* Strategic Technology Plan
* ISO 10303-21, the STEP CAD exchange format, uses the file extension .stp

## Sports and recreation 
* 25 metre standard pistol, a shooting sport
* STP, a brand of bicycles marketed by Giant Bicycles
* Seattle to Portland Bicycle Classic, an annual one- and two-day supported bicycle ride from Seattle, Washington to Portland, Oregon

## Other uses 
* *Sacrae Theologiae Professor'', or Professor of Sacred Theology (possibly archaic)
* Society for Threatened Peoples a human rights group based in Göttingen, Germany
* STP, slang name for the psychedelic 2,5-Dimethoxy-4-methylamphetamine, also known as DOM
Stockholm

**Stockholm** is the capital city of Sweden. It is also the biggest city in Sweden. It is on the east coast of the country. The city is built on islands, with canals and open water in the inner city. Stockholm is found between Sweden's third largest lake, Mälaren, and the Baltic Sea.

Tyresta National Park is near Stockholm.

## Geography 
Central Stockholm has four different parts - Kungsholmen, Södermalm, Norrmalm and Östermalm. It is built on 14 islands connected by 57 bridges.

Gamla Stan is the oldest part of the city - the name means "Old Town", and is usually called that in English. Djurgården is mostly a large park, but there are buildings on the island. Most of these are museums that commemorate Sweden's and Stockholm's past - like Skansen, a zoo with a Swedish theme. Skeppsholmen is an island that used to be a training ground and military school, but most of the buildings are now used for museums and art galleries, such as the Modern Museum, or the East Asian museum. Riddarholmen is a part of Gamla Stan, but actually a different island.

All of the islands in Stockholm are connected by several bridges. The biggest one is Västerbron, going from Kungsholmen to Södermalm.

## History 
Birger Jarl is considered the  of Stockholm. It is believed that he rebuilt a defense building in the 13th century on what is today the island of the Old town. Around the fortification, a town grew. The town grew mainly because of its sea and land trading.

## Wikimania 
The last Wikimania conference is hosted in this city in 2019.

## References
Decade

A **decade** (pronunciation: DEK-aid) is a period of 10 years. The word comes from the Ancient Greek word *deka* ("ten"). Ten decades make a century, while 100 decades make a millennium. 
## Overview
A decade is any 10-year period: There are different ways to refer to different groupings of ten years. For example, the period from 2001 to 2010 can be described as the **1st decade of the 21st century**, the period from 2011 to 2020 is the 2nd decade of the 21st century, and the 3rd decade of the 21st century is the period from 2021 to 2030.
### Applications
An individual who has been alive two full decades is referred to as being in their 20s for the next decade of their life, from age 20 to 29. Decades are also considered specific groups of ten years sharing the same tens digit, identified by name, as in the **nineteen-eighties** (**1980s**) referring to the period from 1980 to 1989 and the **nineteen-nineties** (**1990s**) referring to the period from 1990 to 1999. 

This is sometimes shortened to simply the *decade*, where the context is clear, as in **the** **eighties** (**80s**) or **the** **nineties** (**90s**). No apostrophe is used before the *s* in the names of these decades. Some decades also have nicknames, such as the **Roaring Twenties** (1920s), the **Naughty Nineties** (1890s) (UK), and the **Swinging Sixties** (1960s).
Monty Python

**Monty Python**, also known as **The Pythons**, is a group of British comic actors. They have acted in several comedy movies (most famously, Monty Python and the Holy Grail). They had a television show, ''Monty Python's Flying Circus* between 1969 and 1974, which is still well-known and watched around the world.

The members of Monty Python are: John Cleese, Eric Idle, Graham Chapman, Terry Gilliam, Terry Jones, and Michael Palin. Carol Cleveland and Neil Innes regularly appeared in their movies. 

Monty Python started with their first movie, *And Now For Something Completely Different*, and finished with their final movie, *Monty Python's The Meaning of Life*.

## Movies
**And Now For Something Completely Different* (1971)
**Monty Python and the Holy Grail* (1975)
**Monty Python's Life of Brian* (1979)
**Monty Python Live at the Hollywood Bowl* (1982)
**Monty Python's The Meaning of Life'' (1983)

## Theatre
*Monty Python's Flying Circus – Between 1974 and 1980 
*Monty Python's Spamalot
*Not the Messiah (He's a Very Naughty Boy)
*Monty Python Live (Mostly)

## Other websites
Rain

**Rain** is a kind of precipitation. Precipitation is any kind of water that falls from clouds in the sky, like rain, hail, sleet and snow. It is measured by a rain gauge. 

## Overview
Rain is part of the water cycle. Clouds will often absorb smoke to create rain, commonly referred to as "nature's laundry" due to this process. Some places have frequent rain. This makes rainforests. Some have little rain. This makes deserts.

## Types
### Rainstorm
A rainstorm is a sudden heavy fall of rain. It may cause flash floods in valleys. Heavy rain for a long time may make floods that destroy houses and cause drowning. Also, landslides may happen.

### Convectional rain
When the Sun heats the Earth's surface, the ground heats the air above it. Convection makes the air rise and  cool. When it cools to the dew point, clouds form and rain follows. This usually occurs on flat land. This type of rainfall often causes summer showers and thunderstorms.

### Relief rain
Relief rain typically occurs along coastal areas where a line of hills runs along the coast. Wet onshore wind from the sea meets a mountain, hill or any other sort of barrier, it is forced to rise along the slope and cools. When the air temperature falls to its dew point, water vapour condenses to form clouds. When the clouds can no longer hold the water droplets, relief rain begins to fall on the windward slope of the mountain.  On the leeward slope, air sinks, it is warmed and further dried by compression. Therefore, the leeward slope is known as rain shadow. Moist winds blow in from the sea and are forced to rise over the land. The air cools and the water vapour condenses, forming raindrops. Places that reactive a lot of rain in the world are places that have relief rainfall. 

### Frontal rain
 causing rain]]

**Frontal rain**, also known as cyclonic rain, happens when cooler air and warmer, humid air meet in a weather front.  The less dense warm air rises and condenses forming clouds. These clouds grow and eventually create rain. In some places on the northern temperate zone the cold air front tends to come from the north west and the warm air front comes from the south west.

## Collection
Rain is often collected in a rainwater tank, which is used for watering plants, cleaning the house, bathing, or drinking. It is not always safe to drink rainwater. It can have bacteria, parasites, viruses, and chemicals that could make people sick.

## Related pages
* Ecology
* Water cycle
* Environmental chemistry

## References
## Other websites
rain water drink

* BBC article on rain-making.
Time zone

**Time zones** give specific areas on the Earth a time of day that is earlier or later than the neighboring time zones. This is because when it is daytime on one side of the earth, it is night-time on the other side. There are 24 time zones dividing the earth into different times, each with its own name, like the North American Eastern Time Zone. The North American Eastern Time Zone contains large cities in North America like New York City and Miami.

Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) began in 1675. This was when the Royal Observatory, Greenwich was built to help ships find their longitude at sea. GMT was a standard reference for time keeping when each city kept a different local time. When railways began carrying many people quickly among cities keeping different time, they adopted time zones to simplify operations. By about 1900, almost all time on earth was in the form of standard time zones. 

Greenwich Mean Time is now called UTC (Coordinated Universal Time). UTC is the time standard of the world. All other parts of the world are offset (plus or minus) according to their longitude. Most of the zones are offset by a full hour, but there are some offset by half an hour or 45&nbsp;minutes.

In some parts of the world they follow the Daylight Saving Time (DST), and during this period of time in summer they add one hour to their normal solar hour.

In the poles, the time is UTC in the North Pole and UTC+12 in the South Pole.

The time zones are numbered in relation to the UTC, so in Los Angeles the time zone will be UTC−8, in London UTC+0, in Rome UTC+1, and in New Delhi UTC+5:30.
Ambassador

An **ambassador** is a person sent by the government of a country to a different country. The ambassador is the official representative of their country.  The ambassador speaks to officials of the other country about any problems and issues between the two countries.

In past years, communication between countries could take days or weeks. It was necessary to have a person in each foreign capital to have meetings and make negotiations between countries. Nowadays, communication is much faster, and often governments can be in direct contact with each other.  However, it is still true that many problems need person-to-person meetings, so ambassadors are still needed.

Often an ambassador will live in the  country for a number of years. An embassy is where the ambassador lives. Embassies are most often in the capital of the foreign country. An ambassador may bring people with him to help him and work at the embassy. Some of the high ranking people may be called embassy officials.

It is both tradition and law that the ambassador and many embassy officials have diplomatic immunity. They cannot be arrested or prosecuted in the foreign country. The only possibility is to send a person back to their own country.

## Related pages 
* Diplomacy
Monday

**Monday** is a day of the week. In some countries, it is the second day of the week. In other parts of the world, including some countries in Europe, Monday is the first day of the week.

Monday is the day in which is celebrated Easter Monday.

The International Standards Organization considers Monday the first day of the week.

## Other websites
Nuclear war

mushroom cloud over Nagasaki on August 9, 1945]]
A **nuclear war** is a war in which countries fight with nuclear weapons. Because nuclear weapons are extremely powerful and could cause destruction throughout the world, the possibility of nuclear war has had a great effect on international politics.

So far, two nuclear weapons have been used during warfare. They were used in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and resulted in the deaths of approximately 120,000 people. Thousands of much more powerful bombs were made in later years.  They have not yet been used in war.  

## History 
Nuclear bombs were invented by the United States with Canadian and British help during World War II to help make that war stop.  The destruction of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the Soviet invasion of Manchuria caused Japan to surrender.  They are still the only nuclear weapons that have ever been used in fighting a war.  At that time only the United States had the technology needed to make these bombs, but within a few years the Soviet Union had developed it too. In the new Cold War, the United States and the Soviet Union were enemies and each had many nuclear weapons, but they did not dare to use them against each other, either directly or by attacking the other country's allies. Since either country could be completely destroyed by the other's weapons, nuclear war could no longer be limited to the use of only one or two bombs; if they were used anywhere by one side, the other would attack with its own nuclear weapons, and the fighting would almost certainly become greater. This situation came to be known as the "balance of terror," or Mutually Assured Destruction, and stopped conflicts between the two superpowers from leading to a third world war.

Since the end of Communist rule in Russia and Eastern Europe, tensions between America and Russia have eased and war has become less likely. However, today there is more worry about nuclear proliferation. Countries around the world who already have their own bombs include Britain, France, China, Israel, India, Pakistan and North Korea; as all kinds of technology tend to become cheaper and easier to get and use, there is a fear that nuclear weapons could become available to countries with unstable governments. There is also the possibility that terrorists might be able to capture or build nuclear weapons and use them.  the threat of nuclear war is thought to have increased after the Russian invasion of Ukraine, as Russian threatened to use nuclear weapons during the invasion.

## Nuclear war in fiction 
Ever since the end of World War II, writers, film-makers, and artists have created works of fiction imagining how a nuclear war might happen and what life would be like afterwards. Most have pictured widespread death and destruction, and a grim post-armageddon world where a few survivors struggle to live without power, medicine, or food. Some have pictured civilization breaking down completely, and primitive societies developing; with the past world becoming forgotten.

## Related pages 
*World War III

## References
Tax

**Tax** is money that people have to pay to the government.

The government uses the money it gets from taxes to pay for things. For example, taxes are used to pay for people who work for the government, such as the military and police, provide services such as education and health care, and to maintain or build things like roads, bridges and sewers. The earliest known taxes were those of the Egyptian Old Kingdom.         

## Types of taxes 
There are many different kinds of taxes. They may be direct tax or indirect  tax.
* Taxes that are based on how much money a company earns are called **corporate taxes** 
* Taxes that are based on how much money a person earns are called **income taxes**. 

* Taxes that are based on how much a person buys are called **sales taxes**. 
* Taxes that are based on how much a person owns are called **property taxes**. Things like houses have a property tax on them.
* Taxes that are paid when official documents are approved are called **stamp duties** (because in the past the document would have a stamp put on it). Changing who owns a house will often need a document approving. 
* Taxes that are paid when somebody dies are called **inheritance** or **estate taxes.**

Taxes can also be split into 3 groups:
* **Flat taxes**: Everybody pays the same percentage. Russia has a flat income tax and everybody in Russia has to pay 13% of the income.
* **Progressive taxes**: The more money a person makes, the higher percentage of their income they have to pay. Most countries have progressive income taxes.
* **Regressive taxes**: The less money a person makes, the higher percentage of their income they have to pay. Sales taxes are usually called regressive as poor people spend a higher percentage of their money than rich people.

## Paying lots of different taxes 
Often because different parts of governments use taxes for different things, people end up paying lots of taxes.

In the United States, for example, the national government has an income tax; most states have an income tax or a sales tax, or both; and cities and towns may have a sales tax or a property tax. In some states such as Ohio, the sales tax is different in each county.

## Before Taxes 
In ancient times, people from one city or area would attack another place, and make the people there pay *tribute*. Tribute meant that the attacked people would pay money (or other things), and the attacker would stop attacking them. A famous tribute was the Danegeld, when people from Denmark conquered part of England and made the English pay thousands of silver coins.

## Groups who are against taxes 
Anarchists and Libertarians are against all taxes or against high taxes. As people are paying them unwillingly and under the threat of sanctions, they say that taxation is the same as robbery. (Taxation as theft)

## References 
## Related pages 
*Income tax in the United States
*Tithe