Immanuel Kant

**Immanuel Kant** (22.4. 1724. - 12.2. 1804.) njemački je filozof koji se smatra posljednjim velikim misliocem razdoblja Prosvjetiteljstva. Poznat je po filozofskoj doktrini koja se naziva transcendentalni idealizam. Poznat je i po svojim djelima na polju etike, i po tome što je formulirao kategorički imperativ.

On je imao veliki uticaj na romantičke i idealističke filozofe devetnaestog stoljeća, i njegov rad je bio polazna tačka za Hegela. Zajedno sa Hegelom, Fitheom i Šelingom pripadao je klasičnom njemačkom idealizmu ili u njegovom ličnom slučaju transcendentalnom idealizmu. Kantova filozofija se može podijeliti u dva perioda: "do kritički period" i "kritički period". 
* U do-kritičkom periodu Kant se bavi materijalističkim tumačenjem svijeta. Svoju teoriju o nastanku kosmosa iznio je u djelu "Opća historija prirode i teorija neba" (*Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels*, 1755). U ovom djelu on je predvidio postojanje planete Uran, koja će 1881. godine biti i otkrivena. 
* U kritičkom periodu on daje kritiku predhodne filozofije (filozofije svojih predhodnika) i potpuno prelazi na idealizam. U ovom periodu je napisao svoja najveća djela:
# Kritika čistog uma - o spoznaji
# Kritika praktičnog uma - o etici
# Kritika rasudne snage/Kritika moći suđenja- o umjetnosti

## Gnoseologija
U svojoj gnoseologiji (teoriji spoznaje), Kant je napravio tako zvani "kopernikanski obrt". Tvrdio je da se naša spoznaja ne prilagođava predmetima spoznaje već obrnuto, predmeti spoznaje se moraju prilagođavati našim mogućnostima spoznaje. Čitava spoznaja se zasniva na a priornim kategorijama i prolazi kroz tri stupnja:
# Čulna spoznaja
# Razumska spoznaja
# Umska spoznaja

# Čulna spoznaja povezuje osjete u opažaje. To je spoznaja samo pojavnih stvari i suština se ne može spoznati. Čulni sadržaji se uklapaju u *prostor* i *vrijeme* i izvan njih nema nikakvih doživljaja; gdje *prostor* predstavlja oblik vanjskih opažaja a *vrijeme* oblik unutrašnjih opažaja.

# Razumska spoznaja je sinteza čulnih podataka. Ona se sastoji iz dvanaest kategorija razuma i uspostavlja uzročno-posljedične veze. Ovdje se javljaju analitički i sintetički sudovi. Analitički sudovi su a priorni i oni ne proširuju znanje dok sintetički sudovi proširuju znanje.

# U umskoj spoznaji imamo a priorne ideje, i tu se želi preći granice iskustva. Ovdje se ne otkriva "stvar o sebi". Kant je smatrao da je "stvar o sebi" suština svih stvari. Ona je transcendentalna, podstiće savjest na stvaranje kategorija. Ni umska spoznaja ne može otkriti "stvar o sebi".

## Etičko učenje
Kant je dao svoje etičko učenje u djelu "Kritiča praktičnog uma" (*Kritik der praktischen Vernunft*, 1788). U tumačenju etike Kant polazi od pojma dobre volje. Za njega to je dobro po sebi, bez ikakvih ograničenja, koje ima jedinu svrhu ispunjenje dužnosti odnosno poštovanje zakona. Moralno djelovanje se zasniva na samokontroli jer svaki čovjek već ima a priorni zakon koji nam naređuje kako da se ponašamo. Taj moralni zakon Kant naziva kategoričkim imperativom. Kant je dao više definicija kategoričkog imperativa. Jedna od tih je: "Radi tako da princip tvoga rada može postati princip rada svih drugih". Mada svaki čovjek ima u svojoj svijesti moralni zakon od njegove volje zavisi hoće li ga poštovati ili ne. Tako je moralni zakon uslov "praktičnog uma".

## Problem estetike
Kant je dao svoje mišljenje o *estetici* u svojoj knjizi "Kritika rasudne snage" ili "Kritika moći suđenja" (*Kritik der Urteilskraft*, 1790). U Kantovoj terminologiji estetika se ne odnosi na filozofiju umjetnosti, već na nešto čulno ili osjetilno. Kant tvrdi da je doživljaj ljepote zasnovan na bezinteresnom sviđanju oblika umjetničkog djela. Lijepo je ono što se svima bez interesa nameće kao takvo.

## Kantova nauka o religiji

Temeljne misli svoje filozofske nauke o religiji Kant razvija u djelu *Religija unutar granica čistoga uma*. On tu razlaže umsku vjeru u njezinom odnosu prema crkvenoj vjeri.

U četiri dijela govori o: 
* radikalnom zlu unutar ljudske naravi 
* borbi dobrog i zlog principa za gospodovanje nad čovjekom
* pobjedi dobrog principa nad zlim i uspostavljanje Božjeg kraljevstva na zemlji 
* pravoj i lošoj službi pod gospodstvom dobrog principa ili o religiji.

## Osnovna terminologija Kantove filozofije
* A priori = nešto što je prije iskustva, odnosno, nešto što je nezavisno od iskustva
* A posteriori = ono što je poslije iskustva, odnosno, ono što je iz iskustva
* Imanentno = unutra, u iskustvu
* Transcendentno = sa one strane; prelazi granice iskustva
* Transcendentalno= uslov iskustva; ono što je izvan iskustva ali omogućava iskustvo
* Estetika = od riječi *aestetos* što znači čulno, osjetilno

## Reference

## Literatura

* C. D. Broad *Kant: an Introduction*. Cambridge University Press, 1978. , 
* Gardner, Sebastian. *Kant and the Critique of Pure Reason*. Routledge, 1999. 
* Martin, Gottfried. *Kant's Metaphysics and Theory of Science*. Greenwood Press], 1955  (elucidates Kant's most fundamental concepts in their historical context)
* Perez, Daniel Omar. *Kant e o problema da significação*. Curitiba: Editora Champagnat, 2008.  (Portuguese)
* Palmquist, Stephen. ''Kant's System of Perspectives''*: an architectonic interpretation of the Critical philosophy*. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1993.  (for availability see link)
* T. K. Seung 2007. *Kant: a Guide for the Perplexed*. London: Continuum. 
* Satyananda Giri. *Kant*. Durham, CT: Strategic Publishing Group, 2010. 
* Roger Scruton. *Kant: a Very Short Introduction*. Oxford University Press, 2001.  (provides a brief account of his life, and a lucid introduction to the three major critiques)
* Uleman, Jennifer. *An Introduction to Kant's Moral Philosophy*. Cambridge University Press, 2010. 
* Luchte, James. *Kant's Critique of Pure Reason*. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2007. 
* 
* Beck, Lewis White. *Early German Philosophy: Kant and his Predecessors.* Harvard University Press, 1969. (a survey of Kant's intellectual background)
* Beiser, Frederick C. *The Fate of Reason: German Philosophy from Kant to Fichte.* Harvard University Press, 1987.
* Beiser, Frederick C. *German Idealism: the Struggle against Subjectivism, 1781–1801.* Harvard University Press, 2002
* Cassirer, Ernst. *Kant's Life and Thought.* Translation of *Kants Leben und Lehre*. Trans., Jame S. Haden, intr. Stephan Körner. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1981.
* Houston Stewart Chamberlain *Immanuel Kanta study and a comparison with Goethe, Leonardo da Vinci, Bruno, Plato and Descartes*, the authorised translation from the German by Lord Redesdale, with his 'Introduction', The Bodley Head, London, 1914, (2 volumes).
* Gulyga, Arsenij. *Immanuel Kant: His Life and Thought*. Trans., Marijan Despaltović. Boston: Birkhäuser, 1987.
* Johnson, G.R. (ed.). *Kant on Swedenborg. Dreams of a Spirit-Seer and Other Writings*. Swedenborg Foundation, 2002. (new translation and analysis, many supplementary texts)
* Josephson, Jason Ānanda. "Specters of Reason: Kantian Things and the Fragile Terrors of Philosophy." *J19: Journal of 19th Century Americanists*, 2015. (Kant reception and the uncanny in American and Germany). 
* Kuehn, Manfred. *Kant: a Biography.* Cambridge University Press, 2001. . (now the standard biography of Kant in English)
* Lehner, Ulrich L., Kants Vorsehungskonzept auf dem Hintergrund der deutschen Schulphilosophie und -theologie (Leiden: 2007) (Kant's concept of Providence and its background in German school philosophy and theology)
* Pinkard, Terry. *German Philosophy, 1760–1860: the Legacy of Idealism.* Cambridge, 2002.
* Sassen, Brigitte (ed.). *Kant's Early Critics: the Empiricist Critique of the Theoretical Philosophy*, Cambridge, 2000.
* Schabert, Joseph A. ''"Kant's Influence on his Successors"'', *The American Catholic Quarterly Review*, Vol. XLVII, January 1922.
* Firestone, Chris L. and Palmquist, Stephen (eds.). *Kant and the New Philosophy of Religion*. Notre Dame: Indiana University Press, 2006. 
* Förster, Eckart (ed.). *Kant's Transcendental Deductions:. The Three 'Critiques' and the 'Opus Postumum' * Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1989. Includes an important essay by Dieter Henrich.
* Guyer, Paul & Cohen, Ted (eds). *Essays in Kant's Aesthetics*, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985.
* Guyer, Paul (ed.). *Kant's Critique of the Power of Judgement. Critical Essays*, Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2003.
* Guyer, Paul (ed.). *The Cambridge Companion to Kant*, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. , . Excellent collection of papers that covers most areas of Kant's thought.
* Mohanty, J.N. and Shahan, Robert W. (eds.). *Essays on Kant's Critique of Pure Reason.* Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1982. 
* Phillips, Dewi et al. (eds.). *Kant and Kierkegaard on Religion.* New York: Palgrave Macmillian, 2000,  Collection of essays about Kantian religion and its influence on Kierkegaardian and contemporary philosophy of religion.
* *Proceedings of the International Kant Congresses.* Several Congresses (numbered) edited by various publishers.
* Allison, Henry. *Kant's Transcendental Idealism.* New Haven: Yale University Press, 1983, 2004. ,  (a very influential defense of Kant's idealism, recently revised).
* Ameriks, Karl. *Kant's Theory of Mind: An Analysis of the Paralogisms of Pure Reason.* Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982 (one of the first detailed studies of the Dialectic in English).
* Banham, Gary. *Kant's Transcendental Imagination* London and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.
* Gilles Deleuze|Deleuze, Gilles. *Kant's Critical Philosophy*. Trans., Hugh Tomlinson and Barbara Habberjam. University of Minnesota Press, 1984. , 
* Farias, Vanderlei de Oliveira. *Kants Realismus und der Aussenweltskeptizismus*. OLMS. Hildesheim, Zürich, New York. 2006. (German)
* Gram, Moltke S. *The Transcendental Turn: The Foundation of Kant's Idealism.* Gainesville: University Presses of Florida, 1984. 
* Greenberg, Robert. *Kant's Theory of A Priori Knowledge*. Penn State Press, 2001 
* Guyer, Paul. *Kant and the Claims of Knowledge*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987 (modern defense of the view that Kant's theoretical philosophy is a "patchwork" of ill-fitting arguments).
* Guyer, Paul. *Knowledge, Reason, and Taste: Kant's Response to Hume*. Princeton University Press, 2008.
* Martin Heidegger. *Kant and the Problem of Metaphysics*. Trans., Richard Taft. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997. 
* Henrich, Dieter. *The Unity of Reason: Essays on Kant's Philosophy.* Ed. with introduction by Richard L. Velkley; trans. Jeffrey Edwards *et al*. Harvard University Press, 1994. 
* Kemp Smith, Norman. *A Commentary to Kant's 'Critique of Pure Reason*. London: Macmillan, 1930 (influential commentary on the first Critique, recently reprinted).
* Kitcher, Patricia. *Kant's Transcendental Psychology.* New York: Oxford University Press, 1990.
* Longuenesse, Béatrice. *Kant and the Capacity to Judge.* Princeton University Press, 1998. . (argues that the notion of judgment provides the key to understanding the overall argument of the first Critique)
* Melnick, Arthur. *Kant's Analogies of Experience.* Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973. (important study of Kant's Analogies, including his defense of the principle of causality)
* Paton, H. J. *Kant's Metaphysic of Experience: a Commentary on the First Half of the Kritik der reinen Vernunft*. Two volumes. London: Macmillan, 1936. (extensive study of Kant's theoretical philosophy)
* Robert B. Pippin. *Kant's Theory of Form: an Essay on the Critique of Pure Reason.* New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982. (influential examination of the formal character of Kant's work)
* Sala, Giovanni. Kant, Lonergan und der christliche Glaube  (Nordhausen: Bautz, 2005), ed. by Ulrich L. Lehner and Ronald K. Tacelli
* Schopenhauer, Arthur. *Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung. Erster Band. Anhang. Kritik der Kantischen Philosophie*. F. A. Brockhaus, Leipzig 1859 (In English: Arthur Schopenhauer, New York: Dover Press, Volume I, Appendix, "Criticism of the Kantian Philosophy", )
* 
* T. K. Seung *Kant's Transcendental Logic*. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1969.
* Sgarbi, Marco. *La Kritik der reinen Vernunft nel contesto della tradizione logica aristotelica.* Hildesheim, Olms 2010
* P. F. Strawson. *The Bounds of Sense: an essay on Kant's Critique of Pure Reason.* Routledge, 1989 (the work that revitalized the interest of contemporary analytic philosophers in Kant).
* Sturm,Thomas. *Kant und die Wissenschaften vom Menschen.* Paderborn: Mentis Verlag, 2009. ; . review (Treats Kant's anthropology and his views on psychology and history in relation to his philosophy of science.)
* Tonelli, Giorgio. *Kant's Critique of Pure Reason within the Tradition of Modern Logic. A Commentary on its History.* Hildesheim, Olms 1994
* Werkmeister, W.H., *Kant: The Architectonic and Development of His Philosophy*, Open Court Publishing Co., La Salle, Ill.; 1980  (it treats, as a whole, the architectonic and development of Kant's philosophy from 1755 through the *Opus postumum*.)
* Wolff, Robert Paul. *Kant's Theory of Mental Activity: a Commentary on the Transcendental Analytic of the Critique of Pure Reason.* Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1963. (detailed and influential commentary on the first part of the Critique of Pure Reason)
* Yovel, Yirmiahu. *Kant and the Philosophy of History*. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980. ([review](http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0031-8108(198304)92%3A2%3C288%3AKATPOH%3E2.0.CO%3B2-9))
* Allison, Henry. *Kant's Theory of Freedom.* Cambridge University Press 1990.
* 
* Banham, Gary. *Kant's Practical Philosophy: From Critique to Doctrine.* Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
* Dorschel, Andreas. *Die idealistische Kritik des Willens: Versuch über die Theorie der praktischen Subjektivität bei Kant und Hegel.* Hamburg: Felix Meiner, 1992 (Schriften zur Transzendentalphilosophie 10) .
* Koorsgaard, Christine M. *The Sources of Normativity.* Cambridge University Press, 1996.
* Michalson, Gordon E. *Fallen Freedom: Kant on Radical Evil and Moral Regeneration.* Cambridge University Press, 1990.
* Michalson, Gordon E. *Kant and the Problem of God.* Blackwell Publishers, 1999.
* Paton, H. J. *The Categorical Imperative: A Study in Kant's Moral Philosophy.* University of Pennsylvania Press 1971.
* Rawls, John. *Lectures on the History of Moral Philosophy.* Cambridge, 2000.
* T. K. Seung *Kant's Platonic Revolution in Moral and Political Philosophy.* Johns Hopkins, 1994.
* Wolff, Robert Paul. *The Autonomy of Reason: A Commentary on Kant's Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals.* New York: HarperCollins, 1974. .
* Wood, Allen. *Kant's Ethical Thought.* New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
* Allison, Henry. *Kant's Theory of Taste: A Reading of the Critique of Aesthetic Judgment*. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
* Banham, Gary. *Kant and the Ends of Aesthetics*. London and New York: Macmillan Press, 2000.
* Clewis, Robert. *The Kantian Sublime and the Revelation of Freedom*. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
* Crawford, Donald. *Kant's Aesthetic Theory*. Wisconsin, 1974.
* Guyer, Paul. *Kant and the Claims of Taste*. Cambridge, MA and London, 1979.
* Hammermeister, Kai. *The German Aesthetic Tradition*. Cambridge University Press, 2002.
* *Immanuel Kant* entry in Kelly, Michael (Editor in Chief) (1998) *Encyclopedia of Aesthetics*. New York, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
* Makkreel, Rudolf, *Imagination and Interpretation in Kant*. Chicago, 1990.
* McCloskey, Mary. *Kant's Aesthetic*. SUNY, 1987.
* Schaper, Eva. *Studies in Kant's Aesthetics*. Edinburgh, 1979.
* Zammito, John H. *The Genesis of Kant's <u>Critique of Judgment</u>*. Chicago and London: Chicago University Press, 1992.
* Zupancic, Alenka. *Ethics of the Real: Kant and Lacan*. Verso, 2000.
* Palmquist, Stephen. Kant's Critical Religion: Volume Two of *Kant's System of Perspectives*. Ashgate, 2000. 
* Perez, Daniel Omar. "Religión, Política y Medicina en Kant: El Conflicto de las Proposiciones". Cinta de Moebio. *Revista de Epistemologia de Ciencias Sociales*, v. 28, p.&nbsp;91–103, 2007. Uchile.cl  (Spanish)
* Sir Harry Hinsley, *Power and the Pursuit of Peace*, Cambridge University Press, 1962.
* Martin Wight, ''Four Seminal Thinkers in International Theory: Machiavelli, Grotius, Kant and Mazzini'' ed. Gabriele Wight & Brian Porter (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005). 
* 
* Caygill, Howard. *A Kant Dictionary*. Oxford, UK; Cambridge, Mass., US: Blackwell Reference, 1995. , 
* Derrida, Jacques. *Mochlos; or, The Conflict of the Faculties*. Columbia University, 1980.
* Kelly, Michael. *Kant's Ethics and Schopenhauer's Criticism*, London: Swan Sonnenschein 1910. [Reprinted 2010 Nabu Press, ]
* Mosser, Kurt. *Necessity and Possibility; The Logical Strategy of Kant's Critique of Pure Reason*. Catholic University of America Press, 2008. 
* Perez, D. O. . Os significados dos conceitos de hospitalidade em Kant e a problemática do estrangeiro. Revista Philosophica (Chile), v. 31, p.&nbsp;43–53, 2007. Também em Konvergencias, 2007, nro. 15. UCV.cl , Konvergencias.net 
* Perez, D. O. A loucura como questão semântica:uma interpretação kantiana. Trans/Form/Ação, São Paulo, 32(1): 95–117, 2009. Scielo.br
* White, Mark D. ''Kantian Ethics and Economics: Autonomy, Dignity, and Character''. Stanford University Press, 2011. . (Reviewed in The Montreal Review)
* Guyer, Paul. *Kant and The Claims of Taste*. Harvard University Press, 1979. 2nd Edition, Cambridge University Press, 1997.
* Guyer, Paul. *Kant and The Claims of Knowledge*. Cambridge University Press, 1987.
* Guyer, Paul. *Knowledge, Reason, and Taste: Kant's Response to Hume*. Princeton University Press, 2008.
* Hanna, Robert, *Kant and the Foundations of Analytic Philosophy*. Clarendon Press, 2004.
* Hanna, Robert, *Kant, Science, and Human Nature*. Clarendon Press, 2006.
* Herman, Barbara. *The Practice of Moral Judgement*. Harvard University Press, 1993.
* Korsgaard, Christine. *Creating the Kingdom of Ends*. Cambridge; New York, NY, US: Cambridge University Press, 1996. ,  (pbk.) (not a commentary, but a defense of a broadly Kantian approach to ethics)
* John McDowell. *Mind and World.* Harvard University Press, 1994. . (offers a Kantian solution to a dilemma in contemporary epistemology regarding the relation between mind and world)
* Derek Parfit. *On What Matters* (2 vols). New York: Oxford University Press, 2011. 
* Steven Pinker. *The Stuff of Thought*. Viking Press, 2007. . (Chapter 4 "Cleaving the Air" discusses Kant's anticipation of modern cognitive science)
* Wood, Allen. *Kant's Ethical Thought*. Cambridge; New York, NY, US: Cambridge University Press, 1999. . (comprehensive, in-depth study of Kant's ethics, with emphasis on formula of humanity as most accurate formulation of the categorical imperative)

## Vanjske veze

* Kant i etika  - mnogo linkova i diskusija Lorensa Hinmana na Univerzitetu u San Dijegu
* Napomene o deontologiji  - Kratka rasprava o Kantovoj deontologiji 
* Severnoameričko Kantovo društvo (NAKS)  (više korisnih linkova)
* Kant na vebu
* Linkovi o Kantu
* Epistemologija i Metafizika
* Kant and the project of enlightenment 
* Nekoliko Kantovih dela u PDF-u 
* Stenfordova enciklopedija filozofije (više unosa o Kantu)
* 
* Sva Kantova dela (na nemačkom) 
* KantPapers, authors and papers database powered by PhilPapers, focused on Kant, and located at Cornell University
* Immanuel Kant at the *[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]*
* Immanuel Kant in the Christian Cyclopedia
* Works by Immanuel Kant  at Duisburg-Essen University
* Stephen Palmquist's Glossary of Kantian Terminology
* Kant's Ethical Theory  – Kantian ethics explained, applied and evaluated
* Kant & Ethics  – Extensive links and discussions from Lawrence Hinman at University of San Diego
* Notes on Utilitarianism – A conveniently brief survey of Kant's Utilitarianism
* ''Kant Studies Online'' 
* Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy (14 sections on Kant)
* Readable versions of Prolegomena, Groundwork for the Metaphysic of Morals, Critique of Pure Reason, Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science, The Form and Principles of the Sensible and Intelligible World, Perpetual Peace, and Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason. (J. Bennett translations)
* Kant's Death Mask
* Kant in the Classroom  – Background information for Kant's lectures
* The *Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy* has multiple entries on Kant:
** Immanuel Kant: An Overview
** Immanuel Kant: Aesthetics
** Immanuel Kant: Metaphysics
** Immanuel Kant: Radical Evil
** Immanuel Kant: Religion
* The *Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy* has several entries on Kant:
** Immanuel Kant
** Kant's Philosophical Development
** Kant's Account of Reason
** Kant's Critique of Metaphysics
** Kant's Theory of Judgment
** Kant's Transcendental Arguments
** Kant's View of the Mind and Consciousness of Self
** Kant's Views on Space and Time
** Kant's Aesthetics and Teleology
** Kant's Philosophy of Mathematics
** Kant's Philosophy of Science
** Kant's Philosophy of Religion
** Kant's Moral Philosophy
** Kant's Social and Political Philosophy
** Leibniz's Influence on Kant
** Kant and Hume on Causality
** Kant and Hume on Morality