اسلام ۽ سائنس

مسلمان عالمن اسلام جي حوالي سان سائنس جي متعلق مختلف نقطه نظر پيش ڪيا آهن. وچئين دور جي اسلامي تهذيب جا سائنسدانن (مثال طور ابن الهيثم، رازي، جابر بن حيان وغيره) سائنس ۾ نيون دريافتون ڪيون. اٺين کان پندرهين صدي تائين، مسلمان رياضيدانن ۽ فلڪيات جي ماهرن رياضي جي ترقي کي اڳتي وڌايو. جديد مسلم دنيا جي ڪجهه حصن ۾ سائنسي خواندگيءَ جي کوٽ بابت خدشا پيدا ڪيا ويا آهن.

اسلامي سائنسي ڪاميابيون مختلف موضوعن تي مشتمل آهن، خاص ڪري طب، رياضي، فلڪيات ۽ زراعت سان گڏو گڏ فزڪس، ڪيميا، اقتصاديات، انجنيئرنگ ۽ بصريات جي ميدانن ۾ مسلمان اسڪالرن جا گهڻا حصا آهن. 

انهن شراڪتن کان علاوه، ڪجهه مسلمان ليکڪ دعويٰ ڪيا آهن ته قرآن مجيد  جنين جي ساخت، نظام شمسي ۽ ڪائنات جي ترقيءَ جي حوالي سان سائنسي واقعن جي باري ۾ اڳواٽ بيان ڪيو آهي.

## اصطلاحيات
ٽوبي هف (Toby Huff) جي مطابق، عربي ۾ سائنس لاءِ اهڙو ڪو به سچو لفظ ڪونهي، جيترو انگريزي ۽ ٻين ٻولين ۾ عام طور تي بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. عربيءَ ۾ ”سائنس“ جي معنيٰ، علم جي مختلف صورتن ۾ آهي. هن نظريي تي ٻين عالمن به تنقيد ڪئي آهي. مثال طور، مظفر اقبال جي مطابق، 
 "هف جي فريم ورڪ جي تحقيق جو بنياد رابرٽ مارٽن جي مصنوعي نموني تي آهي، جيڪو علم يا سماجي تنظيم جي نظريي سان لاڳاپيل ڪنهن به اسلامي ذريعن يا تصورات کي استعمال نه ڪيو هو."
 
سائنس جي هر شاخ جو پنهنجو پنهنجو نالو آهي، پر سائنس جي سڀني شاخن جو هڪ گڏيل اڳڪٿي "علم" آهي. مثال طور، فزڪس جو لفظي معنيٰ ۾ عربي مان ترجمو ڪيو ويو آهي، "علم الطبيعة" يعني ”فطرت جي سائنس“؛ رياضي کي "علم الحساب" يعني "حسابات جي سائنس"؛ اسلام جي ديني مطالعي کي "العلم الديني" (اسلامي علوم جهڙوڪ قرآني تفسير، حديث جي مطالعي وغيره) کي العلم الديني يعني ”دين جي سائنس“ (العلم الديني) چيو ويندو آهي، سائنس لاءِ ساڳيو لفظ استعمال ڪندي ”فطرت جي سائنس“. 

عربي جي هانس وهر (Hans Wehr) ڊڪشنري موجب، جڏهن ته علم جي تعريف ڪئي وئي آهي "سکيا، ڄاڻ، وغيره" لفظ "سائنس" لاء علم جي جمع  علوم آهي. (تنهنڪري، مثال طور، ڪلية العلوم ڪليات العلوم، مصري يونيورسٽي جي سائنس جي فيڪلٽي، لفظي طور تي "فيڪلٽي آف سائنسز ..." آهي).

## تاريخ
### اسلامي دنيا ۾ ڪلاسيڪل سائنس

اسلامي دنيا ۾ سائنس جي استعمال جي ابتدائي احوالن مان هڪ اٺين ۽ سورهين صديءَ ۾ آهي، جنهن کي اسلامي گولڊن ايج چيو وڃي ٿو. وڏي پيماني تي ترجمي جي تحريڪ، جيڪا نائين صدي ۾ شروع ٿي، سائنس جي اسلامي دنيا ۾ انضمام جي اجازت ڏني.  

ڪيترن ئي جديد عالمن جو خيال آهي ته جديد سائنس ۽ سائنسي طريقي کي مسلمان سائنسدانن کان گهڻو متاثر ڪيو ويو آهي، جن سائنسي تحقيق لاءِ جديد تجرباتي، تجرباتي ۽ مقداري انداز متعارف ڪرايو. قرون وسطي جي مسلمان فلڪيات جي ماهرن، جاگرافيدانن ۽ رياضي دانن پاران ڪيل ڪجهه ترقيون اسلامي صحيفن ۾ پيش ڪيل مسئلن کان متاثر هيون، جهڙوڪ الخوارزمي (780-850) اسلامي وراثت جي قانونن کي حل ڪرڻ لاءِ الجبرا جي ترقي، ۽ فلڪيات، جاگرافي، گولائي ۾ ترقي جاميٽري ۽ گولي ٽرگونوميٽري قبله جي رخ، نماز جي نماز جا وقت ۽ اسلامي ڪئلينڊر جي تاريخن جو تعين ڪرڻ لاءِ. 12 هين ۽ 13 صدي عيسويء ۾ اسلامي دوائن ۾ ڊسڪشن جو وڌايل استعمال، اسلامي نظرياتي، الغزالي جي لکڻين کان متاثر ٿيو، جن اناتومي جي مطالعي کي حوصلا افزائي ڪئي ۽ خدا جي مخلوق جي ڄاڻ حاصل ڪرڻ جي طريقي جي طور تي ڊسڪشن جي استعمال کي وڌايو. بخاري ۽ مسلم جي صحيح حديثن جي مجموعن ۾ فرمايو ويو آهي ته: ”اها ڪا به بيماري نه آهي جيڪا الله تعاليٰ پيدا نه ڪئي هجي، سواءِ ان جو علاج به پيدا ڪيو اٿس. (بخاري 7-71:582). اسلامي مذهبي رسمن جي فني ضرورتن جو حل ڳولڻ لاءِ تاريخي طور سائنسي طريقا استعمال ڪيا ويا آهن، جيڪا اسلام جي هڪ خاصيت آهي جيڪا ان کي ٻين مذهبن کان ڌار ڪري ٿي. انهن رسمن جي خيالات ۾ هڪ قمري ڪئلينڊر، سج جي پوزيشن جي بنياد تي نماز جي وقت جي تعريف، ۽ مخصوص هنڌ تي مقرر ڪيل نماز جي هدايت شامل آهي.  

of the earliest accounts of the use of science in the Islamic world is during the eighth and sixteenth centuries, known as the Islamic Golden Age. It is also known as "Arabic science" because of the majority of texts that were translated from Greek into Arabic. The mass translation movement, that occurred in the ninth century allowed for the integration of science into the Islamic world. The teachings from the Greeks were now translated and their scientific knowledge was now passed on to the Arab world. Despite these conditions, not all scientists during this period were Muslim or Arab, as there were a number of notable non-Arab scientists (most notably Persians), as well as some non-Muslim scientists, who contributed to scientific studies in the Muslim world. 

A number of modern scholars such as Fielding H. Garrison, Sultan Bashir Mahmood, Hossein Nasr consider modern science and the scientific method to have been greatly inspired by Muslim scientists who introduced a modern empirical, experimental and quantitative approach to scientific inquiry. Certain advances made by medieval Muslim astronomers, geographers and mathematicians were motivated by problems presented in Islamic scripture, such as Al-Khwarizmi's (c. 780–850) development of algebra in order to solve the Islamic inheritance laws, and developments in astronomy, geography, spherical geometry and spherical trigonometry in order to determine the direction of the Qibla, the times of Salah prayers, and the dates of the Islamic calendar. These new studies of math and science would allow for the Islamic world to get ahead of the rest of the world. ‘With these inspiration at work, Muslim mathematicians and astronomers contributed significantly to the development to just about every domain of mathematics between the eight and fifteenth centuries"

The increased use of dissection in Islamic medicine during the 12th and 13th centuries was influenced by the writings of the Islamic theologian, Al-Ghazali, who encouraged the study of anatomy and use of dissections as a method of gaining knowledge of God's creation. In al-Bukhari's and Muslim's collection of sahih hadith it is said: "There is no disease that God has created, except that He also has created its treatment."
(Bukhari 7-71:582). This culminated in the work of Ibn al-Nafis (1213–1288), who discovered the pulmonary circulation in 1242 and used his discovery as evidence for the orthodox Islamic doctrine of bodily resurrection. Ibn al-Nafis also used Islamic scripture as justification for his rejection of wine as self-medication. Criticisms against alchemy and astrology were also motivated by religion, as orthodox Islamic theologians viewed the beliefs of alchemists and astrologists as being superstitious.

Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (1149–1209), in dealing with his conception of physics and the physical world in his *Matalib*, discusses Islamic cosmology, criticizes the Aristotelian notion of the Earth's centrality within the universe, and "explores the notion of the existence of a multiverse in the context of his commentary," based on the Quranic verse, "All praise belongs to God, Lord of the Worlds." He raises the question of whether the term "worlds" in this verse refers to "multiple worlds within this single universe or cosmos, or to many other universes or a multiverse beyond this known universe." On the basis of this verse, he argues that God has created more than "a thousand thousand worlds (*alfa alfi 'awalim*) beyond this world such that each one of those worlds be bigger and more massive than this world as well as having the like of what this world has." Ali Kuşçu's (1403–1474) support for the Earth's rotation and his rejection of Aristotelian cosmology (which advocates a stationary Earth) was motivated by religious opposition to Aristotle by orthodox Islamic theologians, such as Al-Ghazali.

According to many historians, science in the Muslim civilization flourished during the Middle Ages, but began declining at some time around the 14th to 16th centuries. At least some scholars blame this on the "rise of a clerical faction which froze this same science and withered its progress." Examples of conflicts with prevailing interpretations of Islam and science – or at least the fruits of science – thereafter include the demolition of Taqi al-Din's great Constantinople observatory in Galata, "comparable in its technical equipment and its specialist personnel with that of his celebrated contemporary, the Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe." But while Brahe's observatory "opened the way to a vast new development of astronomical science," Taqi al-Din's was demolished by a squad of Janissaries, "by order of the sultan, on the recommendation of the Chief Mufti," sometime after 1577 CE.

#### Science and religious practice
Scientific methods have been historically applied to find solutions to the technical exigencies of Islamic religious rituals, which is a characteristic of Islam that sets it apart from other religions. These ritual considerations include a lunar calendar, definition of prayer times based on the position of the sun, and a direction of prayer set at a specific location. Scientific methods have also been applied to Islamic laws governing the distribution of inheritances and to Islamic decorative arts. Some of these problems were tackled by both medieval scientists of the Islamic world and scholars of Islamic law. Though these two groups generally used different methods, there is little evidence of serious controversy between them on these subjects, with the exception of the criticism leveled by religious scholars at the methods of astronomy due to its association with astrology.

### Modern science in the Muslim world

At the beginning of the nineteenth century, modern science arrived in the Muslim world, bringing with it "the transfer of various philosophical currents entangled with science" including schools of thought such as Positivism and Darwinism. This had a profound effect on the minds of Muslim scientists and intellectuals and also had a noticeable impact on some Islamic theological doctrines.

While the majority of Muslim scientists tried to adapt their understanding of Islam to the findings of modern science, some rejected modern science as "corrupt foreign thought, considering it incompatible with Islamic teachings", others advocated for the wholesale replacement of religious worldviews with a scientific worldview, and some Muslim philosophers suggested separating the findings of modern science from its philosophical attachments. Among the majority of Muslim thinkers, a key justification for the use of modern science was the benefits that modern knowledge clearly brought to society. Others concluded that science could ultimately be reconciled with faith. A further apologetic trend saw the emergence of theories that scientific discoveries had been predicted in the Quran and Islamic tradition, thereby internalizing science within religion.

According to 2013 survey by the Pew Research Center asking Muslims in different Muslim majority countries in the Middle East and North Africa if there was a conflict between science and religion few agreed in Morocco (18%), Egypt (16%), Iraq (15%), Jordan (15%) and the Palestinian territories (14%). More agreed in Albania (57%), Turkey (40%), Lebanon (53%) and Tunisia (42%).

The poll also found a variance in how Muslim population in some countries are at odds with current scientific theories about biological evolution and the origin of man.  Only four of the 22 countries surveyed that at least 50% of the Muslims surveyed rejected evolution (Iraq 67%, Tajikistan 55%, Indonesia 55%, Afghanistan 62%). Countries with relatively low rates of disbelief in evolution (i.e. agreeing to the statement "humans and other living things have always existed in present form") include Lebanon (21%), Albania (24%), Kazakhstan (16%).

As of 2018, three Muslim scientists have won a Nobel Prize for science (Abdus Salam from Pakistan in physics, Ahmed Zewail from Egypt and Aziz Sancar from Turkey in Chemistry). According to Mustafa Akyol, the relative lack of Muslim Nobel laureates in sciences per capita can be attributed to more insular interpretations of the religion than in the golden age of Islamic discovery and development, when Islamic society and intellectuals were more open to foreign ideas. Ahmed Zewail who won the 1999 Nobel Prize in Chemistry and is known as the father of femtochemistry said that "There is nothing fundamental in Islam against science."

#### Conflict with religion
The conflicts between Islam and science can become quite complicated. It has been argued that "Muslims must be able to maintain the traditional Islamic intellectual space for the legitimate continuation of the Islamic view of the nature of reality to which Islamic ethics corresponds, without denying the legitimacy of modern science within their own confines". While the natural sciences have not been "fully institutionalized" in predominantly Islamic countries, engineering is considered an applied science that can function in conjunction with religion, and it is one of the most popular career choices of Middle Eastern students. Islamic scholar Abu Ammaar Yasir Qadhi has noted that important technological innovations—once "considered to be bizarre, strange, haram (religiously forbidden), bidʻah (innovation), against the tradition" in the Muslim world, were later accepted as "standard".

An issue for accepting scientific knowledge rises from the supposed origin: For Muslims, knowledge comes from God, not from human definition of forms of knowledge. An example of this in the Islamic world is that of modern physics, which is considered to be Western instead of an international study. Islamic values claim that "knowledge of reality [is] based not on reason alone, but also on revelation and inspiration".

A passage in the Quran encourages congruency with the truth attained by modern science: "hence they should be both in agreement and concordant with the findings of modern science". This passage was used more often during the time where "modern science" was full of different discoveries. However, many scientific thinkers through the Islamic word still take this passage to heart when it comes to their work. There are also some strong believers that modern viewpoints, such as social Darwinism, challenged all medieval world views, including that of Islam. Some did not even want to be affiliated with modern science, and thought it was just an outside look into Islam. Many followers tend to see problems regarding the integration of Islam with science, and there are many that still stand by the viewpoints of Ahmad ibn Hanbal, that the pursuit of science is still the pursuit of knowledge:

One of the main reasons the Muslim world was held behind when Europe continued its ascent was that the printing press was banned. And there was a time when the Ottoman Sultan issued a decree that anybody caught with a printing press shall be executed for heresy, and anybody who owns a printed book shall basically be thrown into jail. And for 350 years when Europe is printing, when [[René] Descartes](https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes) is printing, when Galileo is printing, when [[Isaac] Newton](https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton) is printing, the only way you can get a copy of any book in the Arab world is to go and hand write it yourself.

The reluctance of the Muslim world to embrace science is manifest in the disproportionately small amount of scientific output, as measured by citations of articles published in internationally circulating science journals, annual expenditures on research and development, and numbers of research scientists and engineers. Concerns have been raised that the contemporary Muslim world suffers from scientific illiteracy. Skepticism of science among some Muslims is reflected in issues such as the resistance in Muslim northern Nigeria to polio inoculation, which some believe is "an imaginary thing created in the West or it is a ploy to get us to submit to this evil agenda." In Pakistan, a small number of post-graduate physics students have been known to blame earthquakes on "sinfulness, moral laxity, deviation from the Islamic true path", while "only a couple of muffled voices supported the scientific view that earthquakes are a natural phenomenon unaffected by human activity."

In the early twentieth century, Iranian Shia *[[Ulama]]* forbade the learning of foreign languages and the dissection of human bodies in the medical school in Iran. On the other hand, contrary to the current cliché concerning the opposition of the Imamate Shiite *Ulama* to modern astronomy in the nineteenth century, there is no evidence showing their literal or explicit objection to modern astronomy based on Islamic doctrines. They showed themselves the advocates of modern astronomy with the publication of Hibat al-Dīn Shahristānī's *al-Islām wa al-Hayʾa* (*Islam and Astronomy*) in 1910. After that, Shia ulama not only were not against the modern astronomy but also believed that the Quran and Islamic hadiths admit it.

During the twentieth century, the Islamic world introduction to modern science was facilitated by the expansion of educational systems. For example, in 1900 and 1925, Istanbul and Cairo opened universities. In these universities, new concerns have emerged among the students. One major issue was naturalism and social Darwinism, which challenged some beliefs. On the other hand, there were efforts to harmonize science with Islam. An example is the nineteenth-century study of Kudsî of Baku, who made connections between his discoveries in astronomy and what he knew from the Quran. These included "the creation of the universe and the beginning of like; in the second part, with doomsday and the end of the world; and the third was the resurrection after death".

##### Late Ottoman Empire and Turkey
Ahmet Hamdi Akseki, supported by the official institute for religious affairs in Turkey (Diyanet), published various articles about the creation of humanity. He emphazises that the purpose of the Quran is to offer parables and moral lessons, not offering scientific data or accounts of history. To demonstrate the ambiguity of the Islamic tradition in regards to the Earth's age he brings forth several narratives embedded in Islamic exegesis.

First, he recounts several narratives about creatures preceding the creation of Adam. Such species include *hinn*, *binn*, *timm*, *rimm*. A second one adds the belief that, before God has created Adam, thirty previous races were created, each with a gap of thousand years in between. During that time, the earth has been empty, until a new creation began to be formed. Lastly, he offers a dialogue between the Andalusian scholar ibn Arabi and a strange man: During his visit to Mecca, he came across a person in strange cloths. When he asked the identity of the strange man, the man said: "I am from your ancient ancestors. I died forty thousand years ago!" Bewildered by this response, Ibn al-‘Arabı¯ asked, "What are you talking about? Books narrate that Adam was created about six thousand years ago." The man replied "What Adam are you talking about? Beware of the fact that there were a hundred thousand Adams before Adam, your ancestor." The latter, so Akseki, underlines that the idea of Young Earth creationism is a challenge of the Judeo-Christian tradition. He admits that material of a young earth does exists among Muslim commentators, as in the case of ibn Arabi himself, but these are used as supplementary materials borrowed from Jewish sources (*Isra'iliyyat*) and are not part of the Islamic canon.

Süleyman Ateş, who was president of the Directorate of Religious Affairs in 1976-1978 and issued a tafsir (Interpretation of the Quran), employed similar arguments to that of Aksesi, while using references to Quranic verses to support his arguments. Pointing at 32:7, stating "He began the creation of man from clay.", he points out that humanity was not, in contrast to the Biblical interpretation, created an instant, but emerged as a process. To further support his argument to be in line with Islamic tradition, rather than a secular one, he looked at the Islamic heritage of previous scholars evoking the idea of an evolutionary process, such as the 9th century theologian Jahiz and the 18th century Turkish scholar İbrahim Hakkı Erzurumi, both utilized as references of pre-Darwinian accounts of evolution.

Hasan Karacadağ in his movie Semum, features the trope of conflict between science and religion. When the victim of the movie (Canan) is possessed by a demon, her husband brings her to a psychiatrist (Oğuz) and later to an excorcist (Hoca). A discussion starts between them, those practise is more beneficial to help Canan. While the psychiatrist symbolizes an anti-theistic attitude, Hoca represents a most faithful believer. The psychiatrist calls the Hoca a charlatan and dismisses his belief-system entire, while the Hoca affirms the validity of science, but asserts that science is limited to the knowable world, thus impotent in supernatural matters (i.e. the "unknown"). The Hoca, by his reconciling approach, is depicted as superior, when the demonic cause of Canan's illness is shown. Yet, the film makes clear that the psychiatrist does not fail on behalf of being a scientist, but by his anti-theistism. Exercised properly, science and religion would go hand in hand. When the director was asked if he himself believes in the existence of demons, he said that in such a "chaotic space" it is unlikely that humans are alone. His popular cultural depiction of demons might be seen as a representation of what lies beyond the limits of science, Islam being a tool to guide people to the unknown and unexplainable.

##### Islamist movements
Islamist author Muhammad Qutb (brother, and promoter, of Sayyid Qutb) in his influential book *Islam, the misunderstood religion*, states that "science is a powerful instrument" to increase human knowledge but has become a "corrupting influence on men's thoughts and feelings" for much of the world's population, steering them away from "the Right Path".  As an example, he gives the scientific community's disapproval of claims of telepathy, when he claims that it is documented in hadith that Caliph Umar prevented commander Sariah from being ambushed by communicating with him telepathically. Muslim scientists and scholars have subsequently developed a spectrum of viewpoints on the place of scientific learning within the context of Islam.

Until the 1960s, Saudi Sunni ulama opposed any attempts at modernisation, considering them as innovations (*bidah*). They opposed the spread of electricity, radios, and TVs. As recently as 2015, Sheikh Bandar al-Khaibari rejected the fact that the Earth orbits the Sun, instead claiming that the Earth is "stationary and does not move". In Afghanistan, Sunni Taliban have turned secular schools into Islamic madrasas, valuing religious studies over modern science.

## سائنس ۽ قرآن
ڪيترائي مسلمان ان ڳالهه تي متفق آهن ته سائنس جي ڄاڻ هڪ مذهبي قابليت جو عمل آهي، جيتوڻيڪ مسلمانن جو اجتماعي فرض آهي. ايم شمشير علي جي مطابق، قرآن مجيد ۾ 750 جي لڳ ڀڳ آيتون آهن، جن ۾ فطرتي واقعن جو ذڪر آهي. انسائيڪلوپيڊيا آف قرآن جي مطابق، قرآن جون ڪيتريون ئي آيتون انسان کي فطرت جو مطالعو ڪرڻ لاءِ چون ٿيون، ۽ ان جو مطلب سائنسي تحقيق ۽ سچائي جي تحقيق جي ترغيب ڏيڻ لاءِ ڪيو ويو آهي. ڪجھ شامل آھن، 
 ”سڄي زمين ۾ سير ڪريو ۽ ڏسو ته ڪيئن زندگي پيدا ڪري ٿو“ (ق 29:20)، 

 ”ڏسو، آسمانن ۽ زمين جي پيدائش ۽ رات ۽ ڏينھن جي ڦيرڦار ۾ بيشڪ عقل وارن لاءِ نشانيون آھن" (ق 3: 190) 

محمد هاشم ڪمالي چيو آهي ته ”سائنسي مشاهدو، تجرباتي علم ۽ عقليت“ اهي بنيادي اوزار آهن جن جي مدد سان انسان قرآن ۾ بيان ڪيل مقصدن کي حاصل ڪري سگهي ٿو. ضياءُ الدين سردار دليل ڏئي ٿو ته مسلمانن جديد سائنس جا بنياد وڌا، ”قرآن جي بار بار ڪيل مطالبن کي اجاگر ڪري قدرتي رجحان جو مشاهدو ڪرڻ ۽ ان تي غور ڪرڻ“. فزڪسدان عبدالسلام جو خيال هو ته اسلام ۽ انهن دريافتن ۾ ڪو به تضاد نه آهي جيڪي سائنس انسانيت کي فطرت ۽ ڪائنات بابت ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿي. ۽ اهو ته قرآن ۽ اسلامي روح جو مطالعو ۽ عقلي فڪر غير معمولي تمدن جي ترقي جو ذريعو هو. سلام خاص طور تي ابن الهيثم ۽ البيروني جي ڪم کي نمايان ڪري ٿو، جيئن تجرباتي نظريي جي علمبردارن، جن تجرباتي انداز متعارف ڪرايو، ارسطوءَ جي اثر کان هٽي ڪري، جديد سائنس کي جنم ڏنو.

## پڻ ڏسو
* بو علي سينا
* جديد اسلامي فلسفو 
## ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا

* Islam & Science
* Science and the Islamic world—The quest for rapprochement by Pervez Hoodbhoy.
* Islamic Science by Ziauddin Sardar (2002).
* Can Science Dispense With Religion?  by Mehdi Golshani.
* Islam, science and Muslims by Seyyed Hossein Nasr.
* Center for Islam and Science 
* Explore Islamic achievements and contributions to science
* Is There Such A Thing As Islamic Science? The Influence Of Islam On The World Of Science
* How Islam Won, and Lost, the Lead in Science
* Radicalism among Muslim professionals worries many

زمرو:سماج ۽ سائنس
زمرو:سائنسي مضمون
زمرو:اسلام ۽ سائنس
زمرو:اسلام سان لاڳاپيل تڪرار

## حوالا