open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Queen Letizia o Spain

**Letizia Ortiz Rocasolano** (; born 15 September 1972) is the Queen o Spain as the wife o Keeng Felipe VI, wha ascendit on 19 Juin 2014 on the abdication o his faither Juan Carlos I. Afore her mairiage tae Felipe, Letizia wis a jurnalist an news anchor. Letizia an Felipe hae twa dauchters, Leonor, Princess o Asturias, wha is nou the heir presumptive; an Infanta Sofía.

## Issue

# Leonor, Princess o Asturias  (born 31 October 2005) hier tae the Spaingie throne.
# Infanta Sofía o Spain born 29 April 2007) second in line tae the Spaingie throne.

## Teetles an styles

* **15 September 1972 – 6/7 August 1998** *Miss* Doña Letizia Ortiz Rocasolano.
* **6/7 August 1998 – 1999** *Mrs.* Doña Letizia Ortiz Rocasolano de Guerrero.
* **1999 – 22 Mey 2004**: *Ms.* Doña Letizia Ortiz Rocasolano.
* **22 Mey 2004 – 18 Juin 2014** *[[Her Ryal Highness]]* The Princess o Asturias.
* **19 Juin 2014 – present** *Her Majesty* The Queen

## References
Rhadamanthus

In Greek meethologie, **Rhadamanthus** or **Rhadamanthys** () wis a wise king, the son o Zeus an Europa. Later accoonts mak him oot tae be ane o the judges o the deid. His brithers war Sarpedon an Minos (an aa a king an later a judge o the deid).

## References
Centaur

A **centaur** (, *Kéntauros*, ), or occasionally **hippocentaur**, is a meethological craitur wi the upper bouk o a human an the lawer bouk o a horse.

## References
Bolshoi Theatre

The **Bolshoi Theatre** () is a historic theatre in Moscow, Roushie, designed bi airchitect Joseph Bové, which haulds performances o ballet an opera. The theatre's oreeginal name wis the *Imperial Bolshoi Theatre o Moscow*, while the St. Petersburg Bolshoi Theatre (demolished in 1886), wis cried the *[[Imperial Bolshoi Kamenny Theatre]]*.
Amorites

The **Amorites** (Sumerian 𒈥𒌅 *MAR.TU*; Akkadian *Tidnum* or *Amurrūm*; Egyptian *Amar*; Ebreu אמורי *ʼĔmōrī*; ) war an auncient Semitic-speakin fowk frae Sirie  wha an aa occupied muckle pairts o soothren Mesopotamie frae the 21st century BC tae the end o the 17t century BC, whaur thay established several prominent ceety states in exeestin locations, notably Babylon which wis raised frae a smaw admeenistrative toun tae an independent state an major ceety. The term *Amurru* in Akkadian an Sumerian texts refers tae them, as well as tae thair principal deity.

## References
Queen Sofía o Spain

**Queen Sofía** (;  ; umwhile **Princess Sophia o Greece an Denmark**, born 2 November 1938) is the wife of Keeng Juan Carlos I. Sofia wis the first bairn o King Paul I o Greece an his wife Queen Federica.

## Teetles an styles

***2 November 1938 – 14 Mey 1962** *[[Her Ryal Highness]]* Princess Sophia o Greece an Denmark.
***14 Mey 1962 – 21 Julie 1969** *Her [[Ryal Highness]]* The Princess o Asturies.
***21 Julie 1969 – 22 November 1975** *Her Ryal Highness* The Princess o Spain.
***22 November 1975 – 19 Juin 2014** *Her Majesty* The Queen o Spain.
***19 Juin 2014 – present** *Her Majesty* Queen Sofía o Spain.
Mary McAleese

**Mary Patricia McAleese** (; née **Leneghan**; ; born 27 Juin 1951) served as the aicht Preses o Ireland frae 1997 tae 2011. She wis the seicont female preses an wis first electit in 1997 succeedin Mary Robinson, makin McAleese the warld's first woman tae succeed anither as preses. She wis re-elected unopponed for a seicont term in office in 2004. McAleese is the first Preses o Ireland tae hae come frae either Northren Ireland or Ulster.

## References
Frits Zernike

**Frederik "Frits" Zernike**  (; 16 Julie 1888 – 10 Mairch 1966) wis a Dutch pheesicist an winner o the Nobel Prize for pheesics in 1953 for his invention o the phase-contrast microscope.

## References
Patrick Blackett

**Patrick Maynard Stuart Blackett, Baron Blackett**  (18 November 1897 – 13 Julie 1974) wis an Inglis experimental pheesicist kent for his wirk on clood chambers, cosmic rays, an paleomagnetism, winnin the Nobel Prize for Pheesics in 1948.

## References
Isidor Isaac Rabi

**Isidor Isaac Rabi** (; born **Israel Isaac Rabi**, 29 Julie 1898&nbsp;– 11 Januar 1988)  wis an American pheesicist an Nobel laureate, recognised in 1944 for his discovery o nuclear magnetic resonance, which is uised in magnetic resonance eemagin. He wis an aa ane o the first scientists in the US tae wirk on the cavity magnetron, which is uised in microwave radar an microwave ovens.
Otto Stern

**Otto Stern** (17 Februar 1888 – 17 August 1969) wis a German pheesicist an Nobel laureate in pheesics. He wis the 2nt maist nominatit person for a Nobel Prize wi 82 nominations in the years 1925-1945 (maist times nominatit is Arnold Sommerfeld wi 84 nominations), ultimately winnin in 1943.
Manne Siegbahn

**Karl Manne Georg Siegbahn**  (3 December 1886 – 26 September 1978) wis a Swadish pheesicist wha wis awairdit the Nobel Prize in Pheesics in 1924 "for his discoveries an resairch in the field o X-ray spectroscopy".

## References
Louis de Broglie

**Louis Victor Pierre Raymond, 7t Duke o Broglie** ( or ; 15 August 1892 – 19 Mairch 1987) wis a French pheesicist wha made grundbreakin contreibutions tae quantum theory. In his 1924 PhD thesis he postulatit the wave naitur o electrons an suggestit that aw matter haes wae properties. This concept is kent as the de Broglie hypothesis, an example o wave–pairticle duality, an forms a central pairt o the theory o quantum mechanics.

## References
Donald A. Glaser

**Donald Arthur Glaser** (September 21, 1926&nbsp;– Februar 28, 2013) wis an American physicist, neurobiologist, an the winner o the 1960 Nobel Prize in Physics for his invention o the bubble chamber uised in subatomic pairticle physics.

## References
Black Daith

The **Black Daith** wis ane o the maist devastating pandemics in human history, resultin in the daiths o an estimatit  fowk in Eurasie an peakin in Europe in the years 1346–1353. Awtho thare war several competin theories as tae the etiology o the Black Daith, analyses o DNA frae victims in northren an soothren Europe published in 2010 an 2011 indicates that the pathogen responsible wis the *[[Yersinia pestis]]* bacterium, probably causin several forms o plague.

The Black Daith is thocht tae hae oreeginatit in the dry plains o Central Asie, whaur it traivelled alang the Silk Road, reachin Crimea bi 1343. Frae there, it wis maist likely cairied bi Oriental ratton flechs leevin on the black rats that war regular passengers on merchand ships, spreidin ootthrou the Mediterranean Basin an Europe.

The Black Daith is estimatit tae hae killt 30–60% o Europe's tot population. In tot, the plague mey hae reduced the warld population frae an estimatit 450&nbsp;million doun tae 350–375 million in the 14t century. It teuk 200&nbsp;years for the warld population tae rekiver tae its previous level. The plague recurred as ootbraks in Europe till the 19t century.

## References
Owen Willans Richardson

**Sir Owen Willans Richardson**, FRS (26 Aprile 1879 &ndash; 15 Februar 1959) wis a Breetish pheesicist wha wan the Nobel Prize in Pheesics in 1928 for his wirk on thermionic emission, which led tae Richardson's law.

## References
Arthur Compton

**Arthur Holly Compton** (September 10, 1892&nbsp;– Mairch 15, 1962) wis an American pheesicist wha wan the Nobel Prize in Pheesics in 1927 for his 1923 discovery o the Compton effect, which demonstratit the pairticle naitur o electromagnetic radiation. It wis a sensational discovery at the time: the wave naitur o licht haed been well-demonstratit, but the idea that licht had baith wave an pairticle properties wisna easily acceptit. He is an aa kent for his leadership o the Manhattan Project's Metallurgical Laboratory, an served as Chancellor o Washington Varsity in St. Louis frae 1945 tae 1953.
Victor Francis Hess

**Victor Franz Hess** (24 Juin 188317 December 1964) wis an Austrick-American pheesicist, an Nobel laureate in pheesics, that discovered cosmic rays.

## References
James Franck

**James Franck** (26 August 1882 – 21 Mey 1964) wis a German pheesicist wha wan the 1925 Nobel Prize for Pheesics wi Gustav Hertz "for thair discovery o the laws govrenin the impact o an electron upon an atom".

## References
Percy Williams Bridgman

**Percy Williams Bridgman** (21 Aprile 1882 – 20 August 1961) wis an American physicist wha wan the 1946 Nobel Prize in Physics for his wirk on the physics o heich pressurs. He forby wrote extensively on the scienteefic method an on ither aspects o the filosofie o science.

## References
Charles Édouard Guillaume

**Charles Édouard Guillaume** (15 Februar 1861, Fleurier, Swisserland – 13 Mey 1938, Sèvres, Fraunce) wis a Swiss physicist wha received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1920 in recogneetion o the service he haed rendered tae precision meisurments in physics bi his discovery o anomalies in nickel steel alloys.
Edward Victor Appleton

**Sir Edward Victor Appleton**  (6 September 1892 – 21 Aprile 1965) wis an Inglis pheesicist. Nobel Prize winner
an pioneer in radio pheesics.  He studied, an wis an aa employed as a Lab Technician, at Bradford Technical College frae 1909 tae 1911.

He wan the Nobel Prize in Pheesics in 1947 for his seminal wirk provin the exeestence o the ionosphere during experiments carried oot in 1924.

## References
Robert Andrews Millikan

**Robert Andrews Millikan** (Mairch 22, 1868 – December 19, 1953) wis an American experimental pheesicist honoured wi the Nobel Prize for Pheesics in 1923 for the meisurment o the elementar electronic chairge an for his wirk on the photoelectric effect. He wis a Congregationalist.
## References
Johannes Stark

**Johannes Stark** (, 15 Aprile 1874 – 21 Juin 1957) wis a German pheesicist an Pheesics Nobel Prize laureate, wha wis closely involved wi the *[[Deutsche Physik]]* muivement unner the Nazi regime.
William Lawrence Bragg

**Sir William Lawrence Bragg**  (31 Mairch 1890 – 1 Julie 1971) wis an Australie-born Breetish pheesicist an X-ray crystallografer, discoverer (1912) o Bragg's law o X-ray diffraction, which is basic for the determination o crystal structur. He wis jynt winner (wi his faither, William Henry Bragg) o the Nobel Prize in Pheesics in 1915: *"For thair services in the analysis o [[creestal structur]] bi means o [[X-ray]]"*, an important step in the development o X-ray crystallografie.

## References
Wilhelm Wien

**Wilhelm Carl Werner Otto Fritz Franz Wien** (; 13 Januar 1864 – 30 August 1928) wis a German pheesicist wha, in 1893, uised theories aboot heat an electromagnetism tae deduce Wien's displacement law, which calculates the emission o a blackbouk at ony temperatur frae the emission at ony ane reference temperatur.
Clinton Davisson

**Clinton Joseph Davisson** (October 22, 1881 – Februar 1, 1958), wis an American pheesicist wha wan the 1937 Nobel Prize in Pheesics for his discovery o electron diffraction in the famous Davisson-Germer experiment. Davisson shared the Nobel Prize wi George Paget Thomson, wha independently discovered electron diffraction at aboot the same time as Davisson.

## References
George Paget Thomson

**Sir George Paget Thomson**, FRS (; 3 Mey 1892 – 10 September 1975) wis an Inglis pheesicist an Nobel laureate in pheesics recognised for his discovery o the wave properties o the electron bi electron diffraction.

## References
Resairch

**Resairch** comprises "creative wirk unnertaken on a seestematic basis in order tae increase the stock o knawledge, includin knawledge o humans, cultur an society, an the uise o this stock o knawledge tae devise new applications."

## References
Klaus von Klitzing

**Klaus von Klitzing** (born 28 Juin 1943, Schroda) is a German pheesicist, kent for discovery o the integer quantum Hall effect, for which he wis awairdit the 1985 Nobel Prize in Pheesics.

## References
George Boole

**George Boole** (; 2 November 1815&nbsp;– 8 December 1864) wis an Inglis mathematician, eddicator, filosofer an logician. He wirked in the fields o differential equations an algebraic logic, an is best kent as the author o *[[The Laws of Thought]]* (1854) which conteens Boolean algebra. Boolean logic is creditit wi laying the foondations for the information age.

## References
Carlo Rubbia

**Carlo Rubbia**,  (born 31 Mairch 1934) is an Italian pairticle pheesicist an inventor wha shared the Nobel Prize in Pheesics in 1984 wi Simon van der Meer for wirk leadin tae the discovery o the W an Z pairticles at CERN.

## References
Simon van der Meer

**Simon van der Meer** (24 November 19254 Mairch 2011) wis a Dutch pairticle accelerator pheesicist wha shared the Nobel Prize in Pheesics in 1984 wi Carlo Rubbia for contreibutions tae the CERN project which led tae the discovery o the W an Z particles, twa o the maist fundamental constituents o matter.

## References
Georg Bednorz

**Johannes Georg Bednorz** (born 16 Mey 1950) is a German pheesicist wha, thegither wi K. Alex Müller, discovered heich-temperatur superconductivity in ceramics, for which thay shared the 1987 Nobel Prize in Pheesics.
Charles Glover Barkla

**Charles Glover Barkla** FRS FRSE (7 Juin 1877 – 23 October 1944) wis a Breetish pheesicist, an the winner o the Nobel Prize in Pheesics in 1917 for his wirk in X-ray spectroscopy an relatit auries in the study o X-rays (Roentgen rays).

## References
The Left (Germany)

**The Left** (), an aa commonly referred tae as the **Left Pairty** (), is a democratic socialist an left-weeng populist poleetical pairty in Germany. The pairty wis foondit in 2007 as the merger o the Pairty o Democratic Socialism (PDS) an the Electoral Alternative for Labour an Social Juistice (WASG).

## References
Domenico Ghirlandaio

**Domenico Ghirlandaio** (; 1449&nbsp;– 11 Januar 1494) wis an Italian Renaissance penter born in Florence.  Ghirlandaio wis pairt o the so-cried "third generation" o the Florentine Renaissance, alang wi Verrocchio, the Pollaiolo brithers an Sandro Botticelli. Ghirlandaio led a muckle an efficient wirkshop that includit his brithers  Davide Ghirlandaio an Benedetto Ghirlandaio, his brither-in-law Bastiano Mainardi frae San Gimignano, an later his son Ridolfo Ghirlandaio. Mpny apprentices passed throu Ghirlandaio's wirkshop, includin the famous Michelangelo. Ghirlandaio's pairteecular talent lay in his ability tae posit depictions o contemporary life an portraits o contemporary fowk within the context o releegious narratives, bringin him great popularity an mony muckle commissions.

## References
Lorenzo de' Medici

**Lorenzo de' Medici** (, 1 Januar 1449 – 8 Aprile 1492) wis an Italian statesman an *de facto* ruler o the Florentine Republic, wha wis ane o the maist pouerfu an enthusiastic patrons o the Renaissance.Forby kent as **Lorenzo the [[Magnificence (history o ideas)#Magnificence in Renaissance Italy|Magnificent]]** (*Lorenzo il Magnifico* ) bi contemporary Florentines, he wis a magnate, diplomat, politeecian an patron o scholars, airtists an poets. He is weel kent for his contreibution tae the airt warld bi sponsorin airtists such as Botticelli an Michelangelo. His life coincidit wi the matur phase o Italian Renaissance an his daith coincidit wi the end o the Gowden Age o Florence. The fragile peace that he helped maintain amang the various Italian states collapsed wi his daith. He is buried in the Medici Chapel in Florence.

## References
Moont Etna

**Moont Etna** (or **Etna**;   or *Mongibello* ,   or *â Muntagna*, , 3,357 m) is an active stratovolcano on the east coast o Sicily, Italy, in the Metropolitan City o Catania, atween the cities o Messina an Catania.

## References
William Henry Bragg

**Sir William Henry Bragg**  (2 Julie 1862 – 12 Mairch 1942) wis a Breetish pheesicist, chemist, mathematician an active sportsman wha uniquely shared a Nobel Prize wi his son William Lawrence Bragg – the 1915 Nobel Prize in Pheesics: *"for thair services in the [[X-ray crystallografie|analysis]] o [[creestal structur]] bi means o [[X-ray]]s"*. The mineral Braggite is named efter him an his son. He wis knichtit in 1920.

## References
Suprematism

**Suprematism** () is an airt muivement, focused on basic geometric forms, such as circles, squerrs, lines, an rectangles, pentit in a leemitit range o colours. It wis foondit bi Kazimir Malevich in Roushie, aroond 1913, an annoonced in Malevich's 1915 exhibeetion, The Last Futurist Exhibeetion o Pentins 0.10, in St. Petersburg, whaur he, alangside 13 ither airtists, exheebitit 36 wirks in a seemilar style. The term *suprematism* refers tae an abstract airt based upon "the supremacy o pure airteestic feelin" rather nor on veesual depiction o objects.

## References
Chalcis

**Chalcis** (Auncient Greek & Katharevousa: , *Chalkís*) or **Chalkida** (Modren , ) is the chief toun o the island o Euboea in Greece, situatit on the Euripus Strait at its narraest pynt. The name is preserved frae antiquity an is derived frae the Greek  (copper, bronze), tho thare is na trace o ony mines in the aurie. In the late Middle Ages, it wis kent as **Negropont**, a name that wis applee'd tae the entire island o Euboea as well.

## References
Arthur Harden

**Sir Arthur Harden**, FRS (12 October 1865 Manchester, Lancashire – 17 Juin 1940 Bourne End, Buckinghamshire) wis a Breetish biochemist. He shared the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1929 wi Hans Karl August Simon von Euler-Chelpin for thair investigations intae the fermentation o succar an fermentative enzymes.

## References
Artturi Ilmari Virtanen

**Artturi Ilmari Virtanen** (; 15 Januar 1895 – 11 November 1973) wis a Finnish chemist an recipient o the 1945 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.

He inventit AIV silage which improved milk production an a method o preservin butter, the AIV saut, which led tae increased Finnish butter exports.

## References
Edward Mills Purcell

**Edward Mills Purcell** (August 30, 1912 – Mairch 7, 1997) wis an American pheesicist wha shared the 1952 Nobel Prize for Pheesics for his independent discovery (published 1946) o nuclear magnetic resonance in liquids an in solits.  Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) haes acome widely uised tae study the molecular structur o pure materials an the composeetion o mixturs.

## References
John Cockcroft

**Sir John Douglas Cockcroft**,  (27 Mey 1897&nbsp;– 18 September 1967)  wis a Breetish pheesicist wha shared the Nobel Prize in Pheesics in 1951 for splittin the atomic nucleus wi Ernest Walton, an wis instrumental in the development o nuclear pouer.
Ernest Walton

**Ernest Thomas Sinton Walton** (6 October 1903 – 25 Juin 1995) wis an Erse pheesicist an Nobel laureate for his wirk wi John Cockcroft wi "atom-smashin"  experiments duin at Cambridge Varsity in the early 1930s, an sae acame the first person in history tae airtifeecially split the atom.
Hans Spemann

**Hans Spemann** (27 Juin 1869 – 9 September 1941) wis a German embryologist wha wis awairdit a Nobel Prize in Pheesiology or Medicin in 1935 for his discovery o the effect nou kent as embryonic induction, an influence, exercised bi various pairts o the embryo, that directs the development o groups o cells intae pairteecular tissues an organs.
Walther Nernst

**Walther Hermann Nernst**,  (25 Juin 1864 – 18 November 1941) wis a German chemist that is kent for his theories ahnit the calculation o chemical affinity as embouked in the third law o thermodynamics, that he won the 1920 Nobel Prize in chemistry. Nernst helped establish the modren field o physical chemistry an contreibutit tae electrochemistry, thermodynamics an solit state pheesics. He is kent for developin the Nernst equation as weel.

## References
Norman Foster Ramsey Jr.

**Norman Foster Ramsey Jr.** (August 27, 1915 – November 4, 2011) wis an American physicist wha wis awairdit the 1989 Nobel Prize in Physics, for the invention o the separatit oscillatory field method, which haed important applications in the construction o atomic clocks.
Owen Chamberlain

**Owen Chamberlain** (Julie 10, 1920 &ndash; Februar 28, 2006) wis an American pheesicist, an Nobel laureate in pheesics for his discovery, wi collaborator Emilio Segrè, o the antiproton, a sub-atomic antipairticle.

## References
Martin Lewis Perl

**Martin Lewis Perl** (Juin 24, 1927 – September 30, 2014) wis an American physicist wha wan the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1995 for his discovery o the tau lepton.
Polykarp Kusch

**Polykarp Kusch** (Januar 26, 1911 &ndash; Mairch 20, 1993) wis a German-American pheesicist. In 1955, the Nobel Committee gae a dividit Nobel Prize for Pheesics, wi ane hauf tae going tae Kusch for his accurat determination that the magnetic moment o the electron wis greater nor its theoretical value, sicweys leadin tae reconseederation o&mdash;an innovations in&mdash;quantum electrodynamics.
John Bardeen

**John Bardeen** (; Mey 23, 1908 – Januar 30, 1991) wis an American pheesicist an electrical ingineer, the anly person tae hae wan the Nobel Prize in Pheesics twace: first in 1956 wi William Shockley an Walter Brattain for the invention o the transistor; an again in 1972 wi Leon N Cooper an John Robert Schrieffer for a fundamental theory o conventional superconductivity kent as the BCS theory.

## References
Walter Houser Brattain

**Walter Houser Brattain** (; Februar 10, 1902 – October 13, 1987) wis an American pheesicist at Bell Labs wha, alang wi fellae scientists John Bardeen an William Shockley, inventit the pynt-contact transistor in December, 1947. Thay shared the 1956 Nobel Prize in Pheesics for thair invention. Brattain devotit much o his life tae resairch on surface states.

## References
William Shockley

**William Bradford Shockley Jr.** (; Februar 13, 1910 – August 12, 1989) wis an American physicist an inventor. Shockley wis the manager o a resairch group at Bell Labs that includit John Bardeen an Walter Brattain. The three scientists inventit the pynt-contact transistor in 1947 an war jyntly awairdit the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics.
Chen-Ning Yang

**Chen-Ning Franklin Yang**, kent as **Yang Zhenning** ( an aw; born October 1, 1922; deed October 18, 2025), wis a Cheenese physicist wha wirks on stateestical mechanics an pairticle physics. He an Tsung-dao Lee received the 1957 Nobel Prize in Physics for thair wirk on parity nonconservation o waik interaction. At the time of his daith, he wis the seicont-langest lived (an langest-lived male) Nobel Prize winner, ahint Rita Levi-Montalcini.

## Notes


## References
Tsung-Dao Lee

**Tsung-Dao Lee** (**T. D. Lee**; ; born 24 November 1926; deed 4 August 2024) wis a Cheenese-American Nobel Prize-winnin physicist, kent for his wirk on parity violation, the Lee Model, pairticle physics, relativistic hivy ion (RHIC) physics, nontopological solitons an soliton starns. He haudit the rank o Varsity Professor Emeritus at Columbia Varsity, whaur he taucht frae 1953 til his retirement in 2012.

## References
Pavel Cherenkov

**Pavel Alekseyevich Cherenkov** ( ,  Julie 28, 1904 – Januar 6, 1990) wis a Soviet pheesicist wha shared the Nobel Prize in pheesics in 1958 wi Ilya Frank an Igor Tamm for the discovery o Cherenkov radiation, made in 1934.

## References
Cherenkov radiation

**Cherenkov radiation**, forby kent as **Vavilov–Cherenkov radiation**, is electromagnetic radiation emittit when a chairged pairticle (such as an electron) passes throu a dielectric medium at a speed greater nor the phase velocity o licht in that medium. The chairactereestic blue glow o an unnerwatter nuclear reactor is due tae Cherenkov radiation. It is named efter Soviet scientist Pavel Alekseyevich Cherenkov, the 1958 Nobel Prize winner wha wis the first tae detect it experimentally. A theory o this effect wis later developed within the framework o Einstein's special relativity theory bi Igor Tamm an Ilya Frank, wha shared the Nobel Prize an aa. Cherenkov radiation haed been theoretically predictit bi the Inglis polymath Oliver Heaviside in papers published in 1888–89.

## Notes


## References
Igor Tamm

**Igor Yevgenyevich Tamm** (; 8 Julie 1895 – 12 Aprile 1971) wis a Soviet physicist wha received the 1958 Nobel Prize in Physics, jyntly wi Pavel Alekseyevich Cherenkov an Ilya Frank, for thair 1934 discovery o Cherenkov radiation.
Eugene Wigner

**Eugene Paul** "**E. P.**" **Wigner** (; November 17, 1902 – Januar 1, 1995), wis a Hungarian-American theoretical pheesicist, ingineer an mathematician. He received hauf o the Nobel Prize in Pheesics in 1963 "for his contreibutions tae the theory o the atomic nucleus an the elementary pairticles, pairteecularly throu the discovery an application o fundamental symmetry principles". His brither-in-law wis Paul Dirac, whose wife wis Wigner's sister.

## References
Maria Goeppert-Mayer

**Maria Goeppert Mayer** (Juin 28, 1906 – Februar 20, 1972) wis a German-born American theoretical pheesicist, an Nobel laureate in Physics for proponin the nuclear shell model o the atomic nucleus. She wis the seicont female Nobel laureate in pheesics, efter Marie Curie.
John Robert Schrieffer

**John Robert Schrieffer** (born Mey 31, 1931; deed Julie 27, 2019) wis an American physicist wha, wi John Bardeen an Leon N Cooper, wis a recipient o the 1972 Nobel Prize in Physics for developin the BCS theory, the first successfu quantum theory o superconductivity.
Superconductivity

**Superconductivity** is a phenomenon o exactly zero electrical reseestance an expulsion o magnetic flux fields occurrin in certain materials, cried **superconductors**, whan cuiled ablo a chairacteristic creetical temperatur.
Ivar Giaever

**Ivar Giaever** (, ; born Aprile 5, 1929) is a Norse-American pheesicist wha shared the Nobel Prize in Pheesics in 1973 wi Leo Esaki an Brian Josephson "for thair discoveries regairdin tunnellin phenomena in solits". Giaever's share o the prize wis speceefically for his "experimental discoveries regairdin tunnelling phenomena in superconductors". Giaever is an institute professor emeritus at the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, a professor-at-lairge at the Varsity o Oslo, an the preses o Applee'd Biopheesics.

## References
Anthony James Leggett

**Sir Anthony James Leggett**  (born 26 Mairch 1938), haes been a professor o physics at the Varsity o Illinois at Urbana-Champaign syne 1983. Leggett is widely recognised as a warld leader in the theory o law-temperatur physics, an his pioneerin wirk on superfluidity wis recognised bi the 2003 Nobel Prize in Physics.

## References
Aage Bohr

**Aage Niels Bohr** (; 19 Juin 1922 – 9 September 2009) wis a Dens nuclear pheesicist wha shared the Nobel Prize in Pheesics in 1975 wi Ben Mottelson an James Rainwater "for the discovery o the connection atween collective motion an pairticle motion in atomic nuclei an the development o the theory o the structur o the atomic nucleus based on this connection".

## References
Herbert Kroemer

**Herbert Kroemer** (born August 25, 1928; deed Mairch 8, 2024), a professor o electrical an computer ingineerin at the Varsity o Californie, Santa Barbara, received his Ph.D. in theoretical physics in 1952 frae the Varsity o Göttingen, Germany, wi a dissertation on het electron effects in the then-new transistor, settin the stage for a career in resairch on the physics o semiconductor devices.

## References
Willis Lamb

**Willis Eugene Lamb Jr.** (Julie 12, 1913 – Mey 15, 2008) wis an American physicist wha wan the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1955 "for his discoveries concernin the fine structur o the hydrogen spectrum."
Philip Warren Anderson

**Philip Warren Anderson** (born December 13, 1923; deed Mairch 2020) wis an American pheesicist an Nobel laureate. Anderson haes made contreibutions tae the theories o localisation, antiferromagnetism, symmetry breakin, an heich-temperatur superconductivity, an tae the filosofie o science throu his writins on emergent phenomena.

## References
Sheldon Lee Glashow

**Sheldon Lee Glashow** (; born December 5, 1932) is a Nobel Prize winnin American theoretical physicist. He is the Metcalf Professor o Mathematics and Physics at Boston Varsity an Higgins Professor o Physics, Emeritus, at Harvard Varsity, an is a member o the Buird o Sponsors for the *[[Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists]]*.
Steven Weinberg

**Steven Weinberg** (born Mey 3, 1933; deed Julie 23, 2021) wis an American theoretical pheesicist an Nobel laureate in Pheesics for his contreibutions wi Abdus Salam an Sheldon Glashow tae the unification o the waik force an electromagnetic interaction atween elementary pairticles.

## References
Nicolaas Bloembergen

**Nicolaas Bloembergen** (born Mairch 11, 1920; died 5 September 2017) wis a Dutch-American pheesicist an Nobel laureate.
Leon M. Lederman

**Leon Max Lederman** (born Julie 15, 1922; deed October 3, 2018) wis an American experimental physicist wha received the Wolf Prize in Physics in 1982, alang wi Martin Lewis Perl, for thair resairch on quarks an leptons, an the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1988, alang wi Melvin Schwartz an Jack Steinberger, for thair resairch on neutrinos.

## References
Jerome Isaac Friedman

**Jerome Isaac Friedman** (born Mairch 28, 1930) is an American physicist. He is Institute Professor an Professor o Physics, *Emeritus, *at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He wan the 1990 Nobel Prize in Physics alang wi Henry Kendall an Richard Taylor, for wirk shawin an internal structur for protons later kent tae be quarks.

## References
Burton Richter

**Burton Richter** (born Mairch 22, 1931; deed Julie 18, 2018) wis a Nobel Prize-winnin American pheesicist. He led the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC) team which co-discovered the J/ψ meson in 1974, alangside the Brookhaven Naitional Laboratory (BNL) team led bi Samuel Ting. This discovery wis pairt o the sae-cried November Revolution o pairticle pheesics. He wis the SLAC director frae 1984 tae 1999.

## References
Ben Roy Mottelson

**Ben Roy Mottelson** (born Julie 9, 1926; deed Mey 13, 2022) wis an American-born Dens nuclear pheesicist. He wan the 1975 Nobel Prize in Pheesics for his wirk on the non-spherical geometry o atomic nuclei.
Richard E. Taylor

**Richard Edward Taylor**,  (born November 2, 1929; dee'd 22 Februar 2018) wis a Nobel Prize–winnin professor emeritus at Stanford Varsity. In 1990, he shared the Nobel Prize in Pheesics wi Jerome Friedman an Henry Kendall "for thair pioneerin investigations concernin deep inelastic scatterin o electrons on protons an boond neutrons, which hae been o essential importance for the development o the quark model in pairticle pheesics."

## References
Bertram Brockhouse

**Bertram Neville Brockhouse**,  (Julie 15, 1918 &ndash; October 13, 2003) wis a Canadian pheesicist. He wis awairdit the Nobel Prize in Pheesics (1994, shared wi Clifford Shull) "for pioneerin contreibutions tae the development o neutron scatterin techniques for studies o condensed matter", in pairticular "for the development o neutron spectroscopy".

## References
Horst Ludwig Störmer

**Horst Ludwig Störmer** (born Aprile 6, 1949) is a German-born American pheesicist, Nobel laureate an emeritus professor at Columbia Varsity.
He wis awairdit the 1998 Nobel Prize in Pheesics jyntly wi Daniel Tsui an Robert Laughlin "for their discovery o a new form o quantum fluid wi fractionally chairged excitations" (the fractional quantum Hall effect). He an Tsui war wirkin at Bell Labs at the time o the experiment citit bi the Nobel committee.

## References
Daniel C. Tsui

**Daniel Chee Tsui** (, born Februar 28, 1939, Henan Province, Cheenae) is a Cheenese-born American pheesicist whase auries o resairch includit electrical properties o thin films an microstructurs o semiconductors an solit-state pheesics.
Wolfgang Ketterle

**Wolfgang Ketterle** (born 21 October 1957) is a German physicist an professor o physics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). His resairch haes focused on experiments that trap an cuil atoms tae temperaturs close tae absolute zero, an he led ane o the first groups tae realize Bose–Einstein condensation in thir seestems in 1995. For this achievement, as well as early fundamental studies o condensates, he wis awairdit the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2001, thegither wi Eric Allin Cornell an Carl Wieman.

## References
Riccardo Giacconi

**Riccardo Giacconi** (born October 6, 1931; deed 9 December 2018) was an Italian Nobel Prize-winnin astropheesicist wha laid the foondations o X-ray astronomy. He is currently a professor at the Johns Hopkins Varsity.
Roy J. Glauber

**Roy Jay Glauber** (born September 1, 1925; deed December 26, 2018) wis an American theoretical pheesicist wha won the Nobel Prize in Pheesics in 2005.

## References
Theodor W. Hänsch

**Theodor Wolfgang Hänsch** (born 30 October 1941) is a German pheesicist. He received ane fowert o the 2005 Nobel Prize in Pheesics for "contreibutions tae the development o laser-based preceesion spectroscopy, includin the optical frequency comb technique", sharin the prize wi John L. Hall an Roy J. Glauber.
Douglas Osheroff

**Douglas Dean Osheroff** (born August 1, 1945) is a physicist kent for his wirk in experimental condensed matter physics, in pairteecular for his co-discovery o superfluidity in Helium-3. For his contreibutions he shared the 1996 Nobel Prize in Physics alang wi David Lee an Robert C. Richardson.

## References
Prince Charles Maurice, Coont o Valentinois

**Prince Charles Maurice o Monaco, Coont o Valentinois** (14 Mey 1727 – 18 Januar 1798) wis a Monégasque prince an member o the Hoose o Grimaldi. He wis a son o Louise Hippolyte, Princess o Monaco an Prince Jacques I.

## Mairiage
On 10 November 1749, he mairit Marie Christine de Rouvroy, ''Mademoiselle de Ruffec'' the couple war mairit in Paris wi the express permission o Keeng Louis XV. Thay separatit in 1766 haein no childer thegither. He focht in the Battle o Fontenoy an wis creatit a knicht o the Order o the Gowden Fleece.
George Smoot

**George Fitzgerald Smoot III** (born Februar 20, 1945; deed September 18, 2025)
wis an American astropheesicist, cosmologist, Nobel laureate, an ane o twa contestants tae win the 1 million preeze on *[[Are You Smarter than a 5th Grader? (U.S. gemme shaw)|Are You Smarter than a 5th Grader?]]*. He wan the Nobel Prize in Pheesics in 2006 fa his wirk on the Cosmic Background Explorer wi John C. Mather that led tae the "discovery o the black bouk form an anisotropy o the cosmic microwave backgrund radiation".

## References
Peter Grünberg

**Peter Andreas Grünberg** (born 18 Mey 1939; deed 7 Apryle 2018) wis a German pheesicist, an Nobel Prize in Pheesics laureate for his discovery wi Albert Fert o giant magnetoreseestance which brocht aboot a breakthrou in gigabyte haurd disk drives.

## References
Yoichiro Nambu

wis a Japanese-born American physicist, a professor at the Varsity o Chicago. Kent for his contreibutions tae the field o theoretical physics, he wis awairdit hauf o the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2008 for the discovery in 1960 o the mechanism o spontaneous broken symmetry in subatomic physics, relatit at first tae the strang interaction's chiral symmetry an later tae the electroweak interaction an Higgs mechanism.

## References
Charles K. Kao

**Sir Charles Kuen Kao**, GBM, KBE, FRS, FREng (born 4 November 1933; deed 23 September 2018) wis a Cheenese-born Hong Kong electrical ingineer an pheesicist wha pioneered the development an uise o fiber optics in telecommunications.

## References
Christian Louis de Montmorency, Duke o Luxembourg

**Christian Louis de Montmorency, Duke o Luxembourg** (Februar 9 1675 – November 23 1746) was a French nobleman an Marshal o Fraunce. He was known as the ***Maréchal de Montmorency***. He also started the contruction o the future *Hôtel Matignon* in Paris. 

## Mairiage

On 7 Decxember 1711 he mairit Madeleine de Harlay. 

## Issue

# Charles François de Montmorency, Duke o Beaumont (1713-1787) mairit Éléonore Joséphine Pulchérie des Laurents an haed issue.
# Éléonore de Montmorency (1715-1755) mairit Louis Léon Potier, Coont o Gandelus an haed issue.
# Marie Louise de Montmorency (1716-1764), mairit Louis Ferdinand de Croÿ, Duke o Havré, Duke o Croÿ an haed issue.
# Maurice de Montmorency (1717-1762) Coont o Luxe married Françoise Thérèse Le Peletier an haed issue.
Naitional Museum o Scotland

The **Naitional Museum o Scotland**, Edinburgh, Scotland, wis formed in 2006 wi the merger o the new **Museum o Scotland**, wi collections relatin tae Scots antiquities, cultur an history, an the adjacent **Ryal Museum** (sae renamed in 1995), wi collections coverin science an technology, naitural history, an warld culturs.
Rosetta Stane

The **Rosetta Stane** is a granodiorite stele, foond in 1799, inscrived wi three versions o a decree issued at Memphis, Egyp, in 196 BC on behauf o King Ptolemy&nbsp;V. The tap an middle texts are in Auncient Egyptian uisin hieroglyphic script an Demotic script, respectively, while the bottom is in Auncient Greek. As the decree is the same (wi some minor differences) in aw three versions, the Rosetta Stane proved tae be the key tae the decipherment o Egyptian hieroglyphs.
Andrea del Sarto

**Andrea del Sarto** (; 1486–1530) wis an Italian penter frae Florence, whase career flourished during the Heich Renaissance an early Mannerism. Tho heichly regairdit during his lifetime as an airtist *senza errori* ("withoot errors"), his renown wis eclipsed efter his daith bi that o his contemporaries, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo an Raphael.
Muddy Waters

**McKinley Morganfield** (Aprile 4, 1913 Aprile 30, 1983), better kent as **Muddy Waters**,  wis an American blues muisicker wha is eften citit as the "faither o modren Chicago blues".

## References
Moont Aragats

**Mount Aragats** ((), ) is an isolatit fower-peakit volcano massif in Armenie. Its northren summit, at  abuin sea level, is the heichest pynt o the Lesser Caucasus an Armenie. It is ane o the heichest pynts in the Armenie Hielands an aa.

## Notes

## References
Alexey Leonov

**Alexey Arkhipovich Leonov** (; born 30 Mey 1934 in Listvyanka, Wast Siberian Krai, Soviet Union; deed 11 October 2019) wis a reteert Soviet/Roushie cosmonaut, Air Force Major general, a writer an an airtist. On 18 Mairch 1965, he acame the first human tae conduct extravehicular activity (EVA), exitin the capsule during the Voskhod 2 mission for a 12-minute spacewalk.
File:The Soviet Union 1975 CPA 4474 stamp (Apollo Soyuz space test project (Russo-American cooperation). Soviet cosmonauts and American astronauts. Flags and emblem) 1200dpi.jpg
James Brown

**James Joseph Brown** (Mey 3, 1933&nbsp;– December 25, 2006) wis an American sangster, sangwriter, record producer, dancer an baundleader. The creautor o funk muisic an a major figur o 20t century popular muisic an dance, he is eften referred tae as the "Godfaither o Soul". In a career that spanned sax decades, he influenced the development o several muisic genres.

## References
Grossglockner

The **Grossglockner** (;  or just *Glockner*) is, at 3,798 metres abuin the Adriatic (12,461&nbsp;ft), the heichest moontain in Austrick an the heichest moontain in the Alps east o the Brenner Pass.

## References
Monk (TV series)

***Monk*** is an American comedy-drama detective mystery televeesion series creatit bi Andy Breckman an starnin Tony Shalhoub as the eponymous chairacter, Adrian Monk. It oreeginally ran frae 2002 tae 2009 an is primarily a polis procedural series, an an aa exheebits comic an dramatic tones in its sploration o the main chairacters' personal lives. The series wis produced bi Mandeville Films an Touchstone Television in association wi Universal Television.

The series debuted on Julie 12, 2002, on USA Network. It continued for aicht series, wi the final series concludin on December 4, 2009. The series held the record for the maist-watched scriptit drama episode in cable telly history frae 2009 throu 2012 (broken bi *[[The Walking Dead (TV series)|The Walking Dead]]*) wi "Mr. Monk and the End – Part II", its series finale, wi 9.4 million viewers, 3.2 million o them in the 18–49 demografic.

## References
Blattodea

**Blattodea** is an order o insects that conteens the cockroaches an the termites. Umwhile, the termites war conseedert a separate order, Isoptera, but genetic an molecular evidence suggests an intimate relationship wi the cockroaches, baith cockroaches an termites haein evolved frae a common auncestor. The Blattodea an the mantises (order Mantodea) are nou aw conseedert pairt o the superorder Dictyoptera. Thare are approximately 4,400 species o cockroach in awmaist 500 genera, an aboot 3,000 species o termite in aroond 300 genera.

## References
Vitiligo

**Vitiligo** is a lang term skin condeetion chairacterised bi patches o the skin losin thair pigment. The patches o skin affected acome white an uisually hae sharp margins. The hair frae the skin mey an aa acome white. Inside the mooth an neb mey an aa be involved. Teepically baith sides o the bouk are affectit. Eften the patches begin on auries o skin that are exposed tae the sun. It is mair noticeable in fowk wi dark skin. Vitiligo mey result in psychological stress an thae affectit mey be stigmatised.

## References
Insomnia

**Insomnia**, kent as **sleeplessness** an aw, is a sleep disorder whaur fowk hae trooble sleepin. Thay mey hae difficulty fawin asleep, or stayin asleep as lang as desired. Insomnia is teepically follaed bi daytime sleepiness, law energy, irritability, an a depressed muid. It mey result in an increased risk o motor vehicle collisions, as well as problems focusin an learnin. Insomnia can be short term, lastin for days or weeks, or lang term, lastin mair nor a month.

## References
Sylt

**Sylt** (; ; Söl'ring North Frisian: *Söl*) is an island in northren Germany, pairt o Nordfriesland destrict, Schleswig-Holstein, an weel kent for the distinctive shape o its shoreline. It belangs tae the North Frisian Islands an is the lairgest island in North Frisie. 
The northrenmost island o Germany, it is kent for its tourist resorts, notably Westerland, Kampen an Wenningstedt-Braderup, as well as for its  saundy beach. It is frequently covered bi the media in connection wi its exposed situation in the North Sea an its ongangin loss o laund during storm tides.
Gela

**Gela** (; ), is a ceety an *[[comune]]* in the Autonomous Region o Sicily, the lairgest for aurie an population in the island's soothren coast. It is pairt o the Caltanissetta province, bein the anly comune in Italy wi a population an aurie that exceeds thae o the province's caipital. Foondit bi Greek colonists frae Rhodes an Crete in 689 BC, Ghelas wis the maist influent polis in Sicily atween VII an VI centuries an the place whaur Aeschylus lived an dee'd in 456 BC. In 1943 Gela wis the first Italian beach reached bi allies during the Invasion o Sicily frae the allies.

## Twin touns
Gela is twinned wi:
* Eleusina, Greece
* Wittingen, Germany
* Nordkapp, Norawa

## References
Quartu Sant'Elena

**Quartu Sant'Elena**  (), locatit fower mile East frae Cagliari on the auncient Roman road, is a ceety an *[[comune]]* in the Metropolitan Ceety o Cagliari, Sardinie, Italy. It is the third biggest ceety o Sardinie wi a population o 71,216 .

## References
Rheum (plant)

***Rheum*** is a genus o aboot 60 perennial plants in the faimily Polygonaceae. The genus includes the vegetable rhubarub (*Rheum rhabarbarum* or *Rheum x hybridum*.) The species hae muckle somewhit triangular shaped leaves wi lang, fleshy petioles. The flouers are smaw, greenish-white tae rose-red, an grouped in muckle compoond leafy inflorescences. A nummer o varieties o rhubarb hae been domesticatit baith as medicinal plants an for human consumption. While the leaves are toxic, the stalks are uised in pies an ither fuids for thair tart flavour.

## References
Termite

**Termites** are eusocial insects that are clessifee'd at the taxonomic rank o infraorder **Isoptera**, or as epifamily Termitoidae within the cockroach order Blattodea. Termites war ance clessified in a separate order frae cockroaches, but recent phylogenetic studies indicate that thay evolved frae close auncestors o cockroaches during the Jurassic or Triassic. Houever, the first termites possibly emerged during the Permian or even the Carboniferous. Aboot 3,106 species are currently descrived, wi a few hunder mair left tae be descrived. Awtho thir insects are eften cried white eemocks, thay are nae eemocks.

Lik eemocks an some bees an wasps frae the separate order Hymenoptera, termites divide labour amang castes conseestin o sterile male an female "wirkers" an "sodgers". Aw colonies hae fertile males cried "keengs" an ane or mair fertile females cried "queens". Termites maistly feed on deid plant material an cellulose, generally in the form o wid, leaf litter, sile, or ainimal dung. Termites are major detritivores, pairteecularly in the subtropical an tropical regions, an thair recyclin o wid an plant matter is o considerable ecological importance.

Termites are amang the maist successfu groups o insects on Yird, colonisin maist laundmasses except for Antarctica. Thair colonies range in size frae a few hunder individuals tae enormous societies wi several million individuals. Termite queens hae the langest lifespan o ony insect in the warld, wi some queens reportitly livin up tae 30 tae 50 years. Unlik eemocks, which unnergang a complete metamorphosis, each individual termite gangs throu an incomplete metamorphosis that proceeds throu egg, nymph, an adult stages. Colonies are descrived as superorganisms acause the termites form part o a sel-regulatin entity: the colony itsel.

Termites are a delicacy in the diet o some human culturs an are uised in mony tradeetional medicines. Several hunder species are economically signeeficant as pests that can cause serious damage tae biggins, craps, or plantation forests. Some species, such as the Wast Indie drywid termite (*Cryptotermes brevis*), are regairdit as invasive species.

## References

### Citit leeteratur
*
Rhubarub

**Rhubarub** (*Rheum rhabarbarum*) is a species o plant in the faimily Polygonaceae. It is a yerbaceous perennial growin frae short, thick rhizomes. It produces muckle pushionous leaves that are somewhit triangular, wi lang fleshy edible stalks an smaw flouers grouped in muckle compoond leafy greenish-white tae rose-reid inflorescences.
Dianthus

***Dianthus*** is a genus o aboot 300 species o flouerin plants in the faimily Caryophyllaceae, native mainly tae Europe an Asie, wi a few species extendin sooth tae north Africae, an ane species (*D. repens*) in airctic North Americae.
Caryophyllaceae

**Caryophyllaceae**, for ordinar cried the **pink faimily** or **carnation faimily**, is a faimily o flouerin plants. It is includit in the dicotyledon order Caryophyllales in the APG III seestem, alangside 33 ither faimilies, includin Amaranthaceae, Cactaceae, an Polygonaceae. It is a lairge faimily, wi 81 genera an aboot 2,625 kent species.

## Genera

* *[[Acanthophyllum]]*
* *[[Achyronychia]]*
* *[[Agrostemma]]*
* *[[Allochrusa]]*
* *[[Alsinidendron]]*
* *[[Ankyropetalum]]*
* *[[Arenaria (plant)|Arenaria]]*
* *[[Bolanthus]]*
* *[[Bolbosaponaria]]*
* *[[Brachystemma]]*
* *[[Bufonia]]*
* *[[Cardionema]]*
* *[[Cerastium]]*
* *[[Cerdia]]*
* *[[Colobanthus]]*
* *[[Cometes (plant)|Cometes]]*
* *[[Corrigiola]]*
* *[[Cucubalus]]*
* *[[Cyathophylla]]*
* *[[Dianthus]]*
* *[[Diaphanoptera]]*
* *[[Dicheranthus]]*
* *[[Drymaria]]*
* *[[Drypis]]*
* *[[Eremogone]]*
* *[[Geocarpon]]*
* *[[Gymnocarpos]]*
* *[[Gypsophila]]*
* *[[Habrosia]]*
* *[[Haya (plant)|Haya]]*
**[[Heliosperma]]*
* *[[Herniaria]]*
* *[[Holosteum]]*
* *[[Honckenya]]*
* *[[Illecebrum]]*
* *[[Kabulia]]*
* *[[Krauseola]]*
* *[[Kuhitangia]]*
* *[[Lepyrodiclis]]*
* *[[Lochia (plant)|Lochia]]*
* *[[Loeflingia]]*
* *[[Lychnis]]*
* *[[Melandrium]]*
* *[[Mesostemma]]*
* *[[Microphyes]]*
* *[[Minuartia]]*
* *[[Moehringia]]*
* *[[Moenchia]]*
* *[[Myosoton]]*
* *[[Ochotonophila]]*
* *[[Ortegia]]*
* *[[Paronychia (plant)|Paronychia]]*
* *[[Pentastemonodiscus]]*
* *[[Petrocoptis]]*
* *[[Petrorhagia]]* (previously kent as *Tunica*)
* *[[Philippiella]]*
* *[[Phrynella (plant)|Phrynella]]*
* *[[Pinosia]]*
* *[[Pirinia]]*
* *[[Pleioneura]]*
* *[[Plettkia]]*
* *[[Pollichia]]*
* *[[Polycarpaea]]*
* *[[Polycarpon]]*
* *[[Polytepalum]]*
* *[[Pseudostellaria]]*
* *[[Pteranthus]]*
* *[[Pycnophyllopsis]]*
* *[[Pycnophyllum]]*
* *[[Reicheella]]*
* *[[Sagina]]*
* *[[Sanctambrosia]]*
* *[[Saponaria]]*
* *[[Schiedea]]*
* *[[Scleranthopsis]]*
* *[[Scleranthus]]*
* *[[Sclerocephalus (plant)|Sclerocephalus]]*
* *[[Scopulophila]]*
* *[[Selleola]]*
* *[[Silene]]*
* *[[Spergula]]*
* *[[Spergularia]]*
* *[[Sphaerocoma]]*
* *[[Stellaria]]*
* *[[Stipulicida]]*
* *[[Thurya]]*
* *[[Thylacospermum]]*
* *[[Uebelinia]]*
* *[[Vaccaria]]*
* *[[Velezia]]*
* *[[Wilhelmsia]]*
* *[[Xerotia]]*

## References