Ancient Rome

For modern historiography, **ancient Rome** encompass the founding of the Italian city of Rome for the 8th century BC, the Roman Kingdom (753–509 BC), Roman Republic (509–27 BC), Roman Empire (27 BC– 395 AD), and the collapse of the Western Roman Empire for 5th century AD.

Ancient Rome begin as an Italic settlement, when traditionally date to 753 BC, beside the River Tiber for the Italian Peninsula. The settlement grow to becometo the city and polity of Rome, and come to control it neighbours through a combination of treaties and military strength. It eventually control the Italian Peninsula, assimilate the Greek culture of southern Italy (Magna Grecia) and the Etruscan culture, come become a dominant power for the Mediterranean region and parts of Europe. It be among the largest empires for the ancient world, with an estimated 50 to 90&nbsp;million inhabitants, roughly 20% of the world's population at the time.

The Roman state evolve from an elective monarchy to a classical republic and then to an increasingly autocratic semi-elective military dictatorship during the Empire. Through conquest, cultural, and linguistic assimilation, for it height it control the North African coast, Egypt, Southern Europe, and most of Western Europe, the Balkans, Crimea, and most of the Middle East, including Anatolia, Levant, and parts of Mesopotamia and Arabia. It often de grouped into classical antiquity together with ancient Greece, and their similar cultures and societies when them sabi as the Greco-Roman world.

Ancient Roman civilisation done contribute to modern language, religion, society, technology, law, politics, government, warfare, art, literature, architecture, and engineering. Rome professionalise and expand it military and create a system of government when them call **res publica**, the inspiration for modern republics such as Nigeria. It achieve impressive technological and architectural feats, such as the empire-wide construction of aqueducts and roads, as well as more grandiose monuments and facilities.

## Early Italy and the founding of Rome

Archaeological evidence of settlement around Rome begin to emerge . Large-scale organisation appear only , with the first graves for the Esquiline Hill's necropolis, along with clay and timber wall for the bottom of the Palatine Hill when date to the middle of the 8th century&nbsp;BC. Starting from , the Romans start to drain the valley between the Capitoline and Palatine Hills, where the Roman Forum de situated today. By the sixth century, the Romans done de construct the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus for the Capitoline and de expand to the Forum Boarium when de between the Capitoline and Aventine Hills.

The Romans themselves get one founding myth, when attribute their city to Romulus and Remus, children of Mars and a princess of the mythical city of Alba Longa. The children, sentenced to die, a wolf come rescue them and them return to restore the Alban king and find a city. After one small disagreement, Romulus kill Remus and become the city sole founder. The story date at least to the third century, and the later Roman antiquarian Marcus Terentius Varro place the city foundation to 753&nbsp;BC. Another legend, when the Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus record, be say Prince Aeneas lead a group of Trojans for a sea voyage to find a new Troy after the Trojan War. Them land for the banks of the Tiber River and one woman when travel with them, Roma, torch their ships to prevent them from leaving again. Them name the settlement after her. The Roman poet Virgil recount this legend for him classical epic poem the *[[Aeneid]]*, where the Trojan prince Aeneas de destined to find a new Troy.


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## Kingdom

Literary and archaeological evidence de clear on the presence of kings for Rome, and this de attested in fragmentary 6th century BC texts. Long after the abolition of the Roman monarchy, them retain a vestigial *rex sacrorum*, to exercise the monarch former priestly functions. The Romans believe say their monarchy de elective, with seven legendary kings who de largely unrelated by blood.

Evidence of Roman expansion de clear for the sixth century&nbsp;BC; by it end, Rome control a territory of some  with a population perhaps as high as 35,000. Them construct a palace, the Regia, ; the Romans attribute the creation of their first popular organisations and the Senate to the regal period as well. Rome also start to extend it control over it Latin neighbours. While later Roman stories like the *[[Aeneid]]* assert say all Latins come from the titular character Aeneas, a common culture when de archaeologically attested to. Attesting to reciprocal rights of marriage and citizenship between Latin cities—the —along with shared religious festivals, further indicate a shared culture. By the end of the 6th century, most of this area done de dominated by the Romans.

## Republic

By the end of the sixth century, Rome and many of it Italian neighbours enter a period of turbulence. Archaeological evidence imply some degree of large-scale warfare. According to tradition and later writers such as Livy, them establish the Roman Republic ,  when them overthrow the last of the seven kings of Rome, Tarquin the Proud, and establish a system when base on annually elected magistrates and various representative assemblies. A constitution set a series of checks and balances, and a separation of powers. The most important magistrates be the two consuls, when de exercise executive authority together such as *[[imperium]]*, or military command. The consuls get to work with the Senate, when initially be an advisory council of the ranking nobility, or patricians, but grow in size and power.

Other magistrates of the Republic include tribunes, quaestors, aediles, praetors and censors. Them originally restrict the magistracies to patricians, but later open am to common people, or plebeians. Republican voting assemblies include the *[[comitia centuriata]]* (centuriate assembly), when de vote on matters of war and peace and elect people to the most important offices, and the *[[comitia tributa]]* (tribal assembly), when de elect less important offices.

In the 4th century BC, Rome done come under attack by the Gauls, who now extend their power for the Italian peninsula beyond the Po Valley and through Etruria. On 16 July 390&nbsp;BC, a Gallic army under the leadership of tribal chieftain Brennus, defeat the Romans for the Battle of the Allia and march enter Rome. The Gauls loot and burn the city, then lay siege to the Capitoline Hill, where some Romans been barricade themselves, for seven months. The Gauls then agree to give the Romans peace in exchange for 1000 pounds of gold. According to later legend, the Roman when de supervise the weighing notice say the Gauls de use false scales. The Romans then take up arms and defeat the Gauls. Their victorious general Camillus remark "With iron, no be with gold, Rome done buy her freedom."

The Romans gradually subdue the other peoples for the Italian peninsula, including the Etruscans. The last threat to Roman hegemony for Italy come when Tarentum, a major Greek colony, enlist the aid of Pyrrhus of Epirus for 281&nbsp;BC, but this effort fail as well. The Romans secure their conquests by finding Roman colonies for strategic areas, thereby establishing stable control over the region.

## Late Republic
After them defeat the Macedonian and Seleucid Empires for the 2nd century BC, the Romans come become the dominant people of the Mediterranean Sea. The conquest of the Hellenistic kingdoms bring the Roman and Greek cultures in closer contact and the Roman elite, when been de rural, come become cosmopolitan. At this time Rome done become a consolidated empire—for military view—and no get any major enemies.

Foreign dominance lead to internal strife. Senators come become rich at the expenses of the provinces' ; soldiers, when mostly be small-scale farmers, de far away from home longer and no fit maintain their land; and the increased reliance on foreign slaves and the growth of *[[latifundia]]* reduced the availability of paid work. Income from war booty, mercantilism for the new provinces, and tax farming come create new economic opportunities for the wealthy, and form a new class of merchants, when them de call the equestrians. The *[[lex Claudia]]* forbid members of the Senate from engaging in commerce, so while the equestrians theoretically fit join the Senate, them severely de restricted in political power. The Senate squabble perpetually, repeatedly block important land reforms and refuse to give the equestrian class a larger say for the government.

Violent gangs of the urban unemployed, when rival Senators de control, intimidate the electorate through violence. The situation come reach a head in the late 2nd century BC under the Gracchi brothers, a pair of tribunes when attempt to pass land reform legislation when go redistribute the major patrician landholdings among the plebeians. Them kill both brothers and the Senate pass reform when reverse the Gracchi brother's actions. This lead to the growing divide of the plebeian groups (populares) and equestrian classes (optimates).
Gaius Marius soon become a leader of the Republic, and hold the first of him seven consulships (an unprecedented number) for 107&nbsp;BC by arguing that him former patron Quintus Caecilius Metellus Numidicus no fit to defeat and capture the Numidian king Jugurtha. Marius then start him military reform: for him recruitment to fight Jugurtha, him levy the very poor (an innovation), and many landless men enter the army. Them elect Marius for five consecutive consulships from 104 to 100&nbsp;BC, as Rome need a military leader to defeat the Cimbri and the Teutones, when de threaten Rome. After Marius's retirement, Rome get a brief peace, during which the Italian *socii* ("allies" in Latin) request for Roman citizenship and voting rights. The reformist Marcus Livius Drusus support their legal process but them assassinate am, and the *socii* revolt against the Romans for the Social War. At one point them kill both consuls; and appoint Marius to command the army together with Lucius Julius Caesar and Lucius Cornelius Sulla.

By the end of the Social War, Marius and Sulla be the premier military men for Rome and their partisans de in conflict, both sides jostle for power. For 88&nbsp;BC, them elect Sulla for him first consulship and him first assignment be to defeat Mithridates VI of Pontus, whose intentions be to conquer the Eastern part of the Roman territories. However, Marius's partisans manage him installation to the military command, defying Sulla and the Senate. To consolidate him own power, Sulla conduct a surprising and illegal action: him march enter Rome with him legions, kill all those when show support for Marius's cause. In the following year, 87&nbsp;BC, Marius, when been run commot at Sulla's march, return to Rome while Sulla de campaign for Greece. Him seize power along with the consul Lucius Cornelius Cinna and kill the other consul, Gnaeus Octavius, achieving him seventh consulship. Marius and Cinna revenge their partisans by conducting a massacre.

Marius die for 86&nbsp;BC, due to age and poor health, just a few months after him seize power. Cinna exercise absolute power until him die for 84&nbsp;BC. After him return from him Eastern campaigns, Sulla get a free path to reestablish him own power. In 83&nbsp;BC him make him second march for Rome and begin a time of terror: them execute thousands of nobles, knights and senators. Sulla hold two dictatorships and one more consulship, which begin the crisis and decline of Roman Republic.

### Caesar and the First Triumvirate

For the mid-1st century BC, Roman politics come de restless. Political divisions for Rome split into one of two groups, *[[populares]]* (when hope for the support of the people) and *[[optimates]]* (the "best", when want to maintain exclusive aristocratic control). Sulla overthrow all populist leaders and him constitutional reforms remove powers (such as those of the tribune of the plebs) when been support populist approaches. Meanwhile, social and economic stress continue to build; Rome done become a metropolis with a super-rich aristocracy, debt-ridden aspirants, and a large proletariat often of impoverished farmers. The latter groups support the Catilinarian conspiracy—a resounding failure since the consul Marcus Tullius Cicero quickly arrest and execute the main leaders.

Gaius Julius Caesar reconcile the two most powerful men for Rome: Marcus Licinius Crassus, when been finance much of him earlier career, and Crassus' rival, Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (anglicised as Pompey), to whom him allow to marry him daughter. Him form them into a new informal alliance including himself, the First Triumvirate ("three men"). Caesar daughter die for childbirth in 54 BC, and for 53&nbsp;BC, Crassus invade Parthia and them kill am for the Battle of Carrhae; the Triumvirate disintegrate. Caesar conquered Gaul, obtain immense wealth, respect for Rome and the loyalty of battle-hardened legions. Him become a threat to Pompey and many *optimates* come hate am. Confident them fit stop Caesar by legal means, Pompey's party try to strip Caesar of him legions, a prelude to Caesar's trial, impoverishment, and exile.

To avoid this fate, Caesar cross the Rubicon River and invade Rome for 49&nbsp;BC. The Battle of Pharsalus be a brilliant victory for Caesar and in this and other campaigns, him destroy all of the *optimates* leaders: Metellus Scipio, Cato the Younger, and Pompey son, Gnaeus Pompeius. Them murder Pompey for Egypt in 48&nbsp;BC. Caesar done de pre-eminent over Rome: in five years him hold four consulships, two ordinary dictatorships, and two special dictatorships, one for perpetuity. Them murder am for 44&nbsp;BC, on the Ides of March, na the *[[Liberatores]]* kill am.

## References