Ebolusyon

King biologia, ing **ebolusyon** ing prosesu nung nukarin manikwa lang kauryan 
(trait) deng populasyon da reng mabibye at pámana do reti kareng tutuking 
henerasyun o dai.  I Jean-Baptiste Lamarck ing migmunikala (proposed) king 
metung kareng mumunang teorya ning ebolusyon anyang umpisa ning 
kalabingsyam a siglu (19th century).  Inukul (speculate) nang deng 
tunggal-tunggal a organismu o lelangan (individual organisms) manikwa lang 
kauryan kabang mabye la, at pamana do reti kareng supling da.  Agyang 
mipatunayan neng e tutu ing teoryang iti, miyapag ing pekamaulagang dake ning 
makabayung teorya ketang artikulung dang adwang Charles 
Darwin ampong Alfred Russell Wallace 
(1858), ampo ketang libru nang Darwin a 
*[[:en:The Origin of Species]]* (1859).   

Agpang king teorya ning evolution kapamilatan ning natural selection a pepamunikala da ri Darwin at Wallace, malilyari 
ing evolution uling lalaganap ya ing metung a kauryan a makaragdag king 
pamikatagun (chance) a magparakal ya ing metung a mabibye, kapamilata’ning 
pamagmana, kareng tutuking dai o henerasyun.  Makanyan murin, lumagad ya ing 
metung a kauryan a makabawas king pamikatagun a magparakal ya ing metung a 
mabibye.  Kanitang dekadang [1930], menigobra la reng siyentipiku ba 
reng piyabe ing metuklas pasibayung teorya ning [:en:heredity|puli &ndash; a 
pepamunikala nang Mendel &ndash; ampo ing natural 
selection nang Darwin, at milalang ya ing makabayung pamisanib ning teoryang ebolusyon , a metung kareng 
pekamaulagang (fundamental) teorya ning ciencia ning 
makabayung biologia.  King makabayung pamisanib a iti, ing “ebolusyon” 
mangabaldugan yang pamanaliwa king pangalaganap (frequency) ning metung a 
allele kilub ning metung a gene pool kareng 
tuki-tuking henerasyun o dai.  Myayaliwa la reng kaparalanan a lunto ing 
pamanaliwang iti: natural selection, genetic drift o pamanaliwa king (gene flow) ning balangkas ning 
populasyun (population structure gene flow).            

## Teorya king ciencia

Atlu la reng manimuna nang aspetu ning teoryang nung nu ya makabasi ing 
makabayung pamisanib”

# Menibat la king metung mung pipumpunan deng eganaganang 
mabibye.
# The manifestation of novel traits in a lineage.
# The mechanisms that cause some traits to persist while others perish.

Metung yang teorya ning ciencia ing makabayung pamisanib, kalupa da retang 
penibatan nang teoryang ibat kang Mendel ampong Darwin.  Ing metung a 
teorya ning ciencia, anti neng salamin ning yatu (o metung a dake 
na niti).  Manibat kaniti, malyaring gawang hypothesis a 
malyaring pabulanan o patutwan kapamilatan ning 
empirical observation.  Nung paglalaweng anti kaniti, e la 
misasalungat ding katayang “teorya” (theory) ampong “katutwan” (fact), nun e 
anti mong mipaglibe o mipanablas (reciprocal) ing pamiugnayan da reti &mdash; 
alimbawa, metung a “katutwan” a matulid yang mabaldug papunta king libutad ning 
yatu ing metung a mansanas a nikbag ra king gabun, at ing “teorya” 
a mag-isplika kaniti, yapin ing salukuyan a teorya ning 
gravitation.  Ing bayung pamisanib ing pekamasikan a teoryang mag-isplika king pamiyaliwa-liwa da reng mabibye 
ampong pamanalto da reng bayung uri da reng mabibye, at kilub ning ciencia ning 
biologia, lubusan na nong ayalilan deng minunang pamag-isplika king penibatan da 
reng uri da reng mabibye.                    

### Ing penibatan (ancestry) da reng mabibye

Malyaring masabing metung ya penibatan ing metung a grupu da 
reng mabibye nung para-pareu la pipumpunan.  Sasabyan ning theory of universal 
common descent ning biologia a ibat la king metung a pipumpunan 
o metung a gene pool kanitang minuna deng eganaganang mabibye king yatu.   

Patune lang metung la mu penibatan deng eganaganang mabibye detang kauryan 
(traits) a atyu kareng eganagana kareti.  Kanitang panaun nang Darwin, makabasi 
mu king pamagumasid kareng pamilupa ning pangabalangkas da reng mabibye, antimo itang deng ayup &mdash; 
agyang e la makasulapo &mdash; atin lang pakpak.  Ngeni, mika masikan a 
pamipatune para king ebolusyon ibat king ciencia ning DNA genetics.  
Alimbawa, gagamit yang  nucelic acid antimong genetic 
material (itang sangkap a magdala kareng kauryan anti ing itsura o kule tamu 
kareng tutuking henerasyun o dai).  Deta muring adwang pulung amino acid ing gagamitan dang building block da reng protina.  Metung 
ya mung genetic code ing genetic code a gagamitan da reng 
eganaganang mabibye (bukud mu kareng mangalagad a alimbawa) ba rong 
ilikas deng pamituki-tuki da reng nucleic acid 
papunta kareng protina.  Uling antimong mikatagun ing pamamili kareng kauryan a 
reti, mapalyaring tanda ne ning metung la mu penibatan deng eganaganang mabibye 
itang pangkabilugan lang mayayakit deti.  

abiogenesis &mdash; ing pamaglalang king bye manibat king 
sangkap a e mabye &mdash; a mangabaldugang misnang lagad ing pamaglalang ning 
bye ibat king kayalang-bye, o malilyari mu iti lalam da reng kabilyan a aliwang-
aliwang kareng atyu king yatu tamu ngeni.  Anti na mong sasabyan ning 
eksperimentung Miller-Urey a malilyari ing 
abiogenesis lalam ning kabilyan kanitang minunang panaun king yatu.      

Uling misna yang lambat ing prosesu ning ebolusyun, kaylangan a matwa neng tutu 
ing yatu bang lunto ing e mu nanung pamiyaliwa-liwa at panga-komplikadu ning bye 
ngening panaun tamu; mapalyaring bilyun-bilyun neng banwa katwa.  Makabage iti 
king katibayan ibat king geologia a migit-kumulang 4.6 neng bilyung banwa. Lon ya ing Timeline of evolution.)
     
Kayabe king balu tamu tungkul king ebolusyun itang datos ibat kareng larangan 
ning geologia ampong planetary science.  Babye lang 
impormasyun tungkul king kasalesayan ning Yatu ampo reng pamanaliwang bunga ning 
bye.  Dakal king impormasyun tungkul king Yatu kanitang minuna ing mewala uling 
kareng geological processes king pangalabas ning panaun.

#### Deng katibayan para king ebolusyon

##### Ing katibayan ibat king pangabalangkas da reng mabibye
Maulaga la reng fossil neng tatantyan tamu nung kapilan la linto 
reng myayaliwang lahi. Uling e karaniwang malilyari ing fossilization, a 
mangaylangang mangasyás a parti (antimo ing butul) at ing pangamate lele ning 
metung a lugal nung nukarin mititipun ing banlik, e kumpletu at 
malagad ing impormasyun a bibye na niti tungkul king ebolusyun ning bye.  
Malagad mu ing katibayan para kareng sadyang mabibyeng alang mangasyas a dake 
antimo reng kapsa, talukab, butul ampong ipan, pero ating ditak kaniti, alimbawa 
itang kareng microfossil o mangalatiktik a fossil ibat kanitang minuna pang 
panaun, ampo ing pamagi rang fossil deng kilkulan da reng minunang animal 
(ancient burrows) ampo reng ditak a mabibye kanitang mangalambut katawan.     

Nanupata, ating katibayan tungkul kareng mabibye kanitang minunang panaun kareng 
fossil a mayayakit king mabilug a Yatu.  Keraklan, malyari yang ulan ing katwa 
da reng fossil king kabilyan da at kauryan deng batu (geologic context) nung nu 
la meyakit; at ita mismung idad da malyari yang makwa kapamilata’ning 
radiometric dating.  Kawangis do reng aliwang fossil 
deng mabibye ngeni, samantalang atin namang aliwang-aliwa.  Gagamitan do reng 
fossil ba rang abalu nung kapilan ya linto ing metung a lahi, at gagamitan do 
reng *[[:en:transitional fossil|transitional fossil]]* ba rang ipakit ing 
pamisuglung o pamiugnayan da reng adwang lahi.  Panigaralan da reng 
paleontologist ing ebolusyun, keraklan king kapamilatan 
ning pamanyuri kareng fossil.  

Agpang king phylogeny o pamanigaral kareng species (uri da 
reng mabibye), malyari lang mika myayaliwang gamit deng dake ning katawan a 
milulupa pangabalangkas (similar internal organization).  Malyaring mika 
vestigial organ a ditak o alang silbi king metung a 
mabibye, agyang malino ing kayang gamit kareng aliwa.  Alimbawa la kareti deng 
wisdom teeth ampong appendix da reng 
tau.             

##### Katibayan ibat king genetic sequence
Papakit ning metung a pamiyanti da reng genetic sequence da reng mabibye a mas 
milulupa la sequence deng mabibyeng mikanlapit basi king phylogeny 
kesa karetang mikandayu. Alimbawa, manga 1.2% ing pamiyaliwa (basi king 
substitution) ning neutral DNA sequence da reng tau kareng pekamalapit dang 
kamaganak, deng chimpanzee, 1.6% kareng 
gorilla 
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstr
act&list_uids=11170892, at 6.6% kareng 
baboonhttp://www.genome.org/cgi/content/full/13/5/813. Mituturing yang 
masikan (robust enough) a panyukad ing sequence comparison a malyari yang 
gamitan ba lang samasan deng pamagkamali king phylogenetic tree nung kulang la 
reng aliwang katibayan. 

Atin pang karagdagang katibayan para king metung mung penibatan da reng mabibye 
ibat kareng genetic detritus (detang “basurang” gene) atni reng 
pseudogene, o rehiyon ning DNA a orthologous king metung 
a gene king aliwang klasing mabibye, dapot  e no magagamit at anti lang taglus-
taglus a mimina at mababawas (degeneration) 
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstr
act&list_uids=10833048.   

Uling e la maglakwan fossil deng prosesung metaboliku, mararapat 
ing pamanyaliksik kareng pekamaulagang kaparalanan da reng cell kapamilatan ning 
pamiyanti (comparison) kareng lelangan a mabibye ngeni.  Uling myayaliwa lang 
panaun mikawa-kawani deng lahi, malyari tamung abalu nung kapilan ya linto ing 
metung a prosesung metaboliku nung piyanti (o ikumpara) ta la reng kauryan da 
reng paliping (descendant) ibat king metung a pipumpunan (common ancestor).     

#### Ing penibatan ning bye

Ditak mu ing balu tamu tungkul king pamagumpisa ning bye.  Nanupata, atin lang 
pamilupa king kauryan deng eganaganang mabibye ngeni, kayabe no reng 
pamibalangkas ning cell (cellular structure) ampo ing genetic 
code.  Para kareng keraklan kareng siyentipiko, mangabaldugan iting metung la 
mu pipumpunan deng eganaganang mabibye ngeni, at atyu no king pipumpunan a ita 
deng pekamaulagang prosesu ning cell.  Nanupata, ala lang pamikasundu deng 
siyentipiku king pamisuglung-suglung da reng atlung domain ning bye, deng 
(Archea, Bacteria, at 
Eukaryota), o ing penibatan ning bye.  
Keraklan, makatutuk king pamangimut (behavior) da reng 
macromolecule, lalu na ing RNA, ampo kareng 
komplikadung sistema, deng tangkang manigaral king mumuna 
nang kasalesayan ning bye.          

#### Ing kasalesayan ning bye

Agyang e malino ing penibatan ning bye, balu ta lang mayap deng aliwang 
maulagang milyari king kasalesayan ning bye.  Malyari ta yang tukyan ing 
pamanalto ning photosynthesis a gagamit king oxygen 
(manga atlung bilyung banwa na ing milabas) ampo ing pamaniral ning atmosperang 
dakal oxygen (lipat ning “reducing” a atmospera) kapamilatan ning pamanalkus 
(formation) da reng depositu ning banded iron, at 
kaybat deng mangalutung sapin a gawa king iron oxide.  
Kaylangang dumalan king anti kaniti bayu mika aerobic :en:cellular respiration, a paniwalan dang linto 
adwang bilyung banwa na ing milabas.  Ketang milabasan a metung a bilyung banwa, 
linto la kareng kadayatan deng simpling tanaman at animal a multicellular (gawa 
king dakal a cell).  E miglwat kaybat ning pamanalto da reng minunang animal, 
milyari ing Cambrian explosion (metung a panaun ning 
alang kapante at makapagmulala, dapot saguli mung, pamanalto da reng asnang 
karakal a uri da reng mabibye a mitatak kareng fossil ning Burgess shale), nung kapilan la milalang deng eganaganang balangkas ning 
katawan, o phylum, da reng mabibye ngeni; paniwalan dang ing 
pamanalto ning Box gene ing megi nang sangkan ning pamikatagung 
iti.  Manga limang dalan a milyun (500 million) a banwa ing milabas, sekupan de 
reng tanaman ampong fungi ing gabun, at e miglwat, 
tikyan do reng :en:arthropod ampo reng aliwang aniamal.  Ini ing pigmulan 
ning pamanalkus (development) ning ecosystem king gabun a balu 
tamu ngeni.

### Ing pamanalto da reng bayung kauryan

#### Ing mutation

E na balung Darwin ing panibatan da ning pamanaliwa (variations) kareng 
indibidwal a mabibye, pero apansinan nang balamu mikatagun mu iti.  Kalabas ning 
panaun, ing mutation ing tiru rang sangkan king keraklan kareti. Deng mutation, 
permanenti lang pamanaliwa king genetic material 
(keraklan ing DNA o RNA ning metung a cell.  Malyari lang manibat king pamagkamali king pamangopya 
(copying error) king genetic material neng mararapat ing cell division, ampo king “pangabilad” king 
radiation, at kareng chemical, kareng virus, o malyaring sasaryan a lunto lalam ning pamanibala ning cell 
neng meiosis o hypermutation.  Kareng lelangan a multicellular, malyari 
lang uryan deng mutation kareng *germline mutation,* a malyaring mipamana 
kareng supling, ampo reng *somatic mutation*, a (nung e la sasaryan) keraklan 
mumuli king pangasira na palakad o pangamate ning cell, at malyari nang 
panibatan ning kanser.           

Mágsilbi lang magdalang pamanaliwa kareng gene (genetic variation) deng 
mutation, a malyari nang impluwensyan ning natural selection (o mapalyaring ali; 
lon ya ing Neutral mutations). Ala 
lang epektu king tsansa o pamikatagun nang kumabye ning lelangan king kayang 
paligid deng neutral mutations, at 
malyari lang mitipun deti king pangalabas ning panaun.     

### Ing pamanatili da reng kauryan (traits)
#### Deng kaparalanan ning pamagmana (Mechanisms of inheritance)
Kanitang panaun nang Darwin, e la mikakasundu reng siyentipiku nung makananu 
lang amamana deng kauryan.  Ngeni, yugne ta la reng kauryan a 
amamana (inherited traits) kareng makakawani (discrete) at lulwat (persistent) a 
bageng awsan dang *[[:en:gene|gene]],* tuglung-tuglung kareng tela-gulis 
(linear) a molecule a awsan dang *[[DNA]]*.  Lipat ning keraklan eksaktu ing 
pamamgopya kaniti, atin yang pamiyaliwa ing DNA ning balang metung a mabibye, at 
dadalan ya king prosesu ning pamanaliwa o mutation a ma-isplika 
king lalam.
         
Nanupata, atin muring paralan ning pamagmana ning pamiyaliwang e makabasi king 
DNA.  E miyayapektwan ing impormasyun kareng gene kareting prosesung deti, at 
keraklan, malyari lang ibalik king sadya (reversible). Epigenetic inheritance ing aus kareti, nung nu la kayabe deng 
alimbawang anti ing DNA methylation, prion, ampong structural inheritance.  Taglus-taglus pa murin ing pamanyaliksik 
nung malyari kareti ing “specific heritable variation” antimong ablas kareng 
sinyal ibat king paligid.  Nung ini pin ing mararapat, mapalyaring ating 
mapilang alimbawa ning ebolusyon a e na sakup ning karaniwan a balu tamung 
balangkas ning teorya nang Darwin, a lilisya king pamiugne kareng sinyal ibat 
king paligid ketang pamipalyari ning pamiyaliwang amamana (production of 
heritable variation).   

Ating mapilan a sangkan a mamapektu king frequency da reng allele a atyu na.  
Uli da reng sangkan a reti, malyari lang mas marlas lunto deng mapilan a 
kauryan, kabang mabawas no man o taglus-taglus nong mawala detang aliwa.  Atlu 
la reng balu tamung prosesung mamapektu king pamanatili ning metung a kauryan; 
o, bang lalung partikular, ing frequency na ning allele:   
* Natural selection
* Gene flow
* Genetic drift

#### Ing natural selection

Ing natural selection ing pangabye (survive) pamiparakal uling king kapaligiran.  
Ing differential mortality ing kaugnayan ning dalas ning pangabye da reng 
lelangan king karelang idad a malyari nong mikasupling (reproductive age)  Ing 
differential fertility ing pangkabilugan a ambag a amamana (total genetic 
contribution) king tutuking dai o henerasyun.  Uli ning pekamaulaga nang papil 
(central role) ning natural selection king teorya ning ebolusyon, mika maragul a 
pamisuglung king larangan a ita ampo ing pamanigaral king 
ecologia.  

Malyari yang pitnan ing natural selection kareng adwang kategorya:
* Malilyari ing ecological selection neng 
miraragdagan la reng gene da reng lelangan a mabibye at darakal kumpara karetang 
e ra ikwang kinabye .
* Malilyari naman ing sexual selection neng mas daragul 
la ambag king gene pool deng lelangan a mas abuburi da reng kasumangid a 
kasarian (opposite sex) uling king karelang itsura o kauryan, at uli na niti, 
mas masikan lang dakal.

Kikimut ya murin ing natural selection king myayaliwang paralan:
* Ing pamaglinis (purifying) o background selection lalako no reng mutation a makasira king 
populasyon.
* Ing positive selection dadagdagan ne ing dalas o 
frequency ning metung a mutation a makasaup.
* Ing balancing selection panatilyan na ing 
pamiyaliwa (variation) kilub ning metung a populasyon, kapamilatan ning mapilan 
a kaparalanan (mechanism), alimbawa:
** Ing overdominance o heterozygote advantage, nung nu ing 
heterozygote mas masikan ya o bage (fit) kesa king sanuman 
kareng anyung puru (homozygous forms) (alimbawa king sickle cell anemia kareng tau a babye resistensya king 
malaria)
** Ing frequency-dependent selection, nung 
nu mas matas la “fitness” o pangabage deng uring malagad mu (rare variants). 
* Ing stabilizing selection, a papabor kareng 
uryan a karaniwan king populasyun, anya mibabawasan ing pamiyaliwa at manatili 
ya ing mean o kasantingan  
* Ing directional mutation, a papabor ketang 
metung a sepu o sikoti ning metung a uryan; uli na niti, dudusug ya ing mean o 
kasantingan papunta ketang sepung ita.
* Ing disruptive selection, papabor kareng 
misusumangid o mingatbang sikoti, at magbunga king bimodal distribution ning 
gene frequency.  Malyari yang malis o malyari yang ali ing mean o kasantingan.

neutral mutations ing aus da 
kareng mutation a e na tatalaban ning natural selection.  Bukud mung ing genetic 
drift ampong gene flow ing mamapektu king karelang dalas o frequency king 
populasyun.  Paniwalan dang nung alang selection, ala lang patugut miraragdagan 
deng neutral mutation.  Agpang king probable mutation effect, siran de reng 
mitipun-tipun a mutation ing gene a e miyayapektwan king selection o pamamili.  
Aspetu ne ning genome degradation iti.       

* Ing Baldwinian evolution yapin ing paralan nung makananung deng tau, 
antimong animal a maki kalinangan o kultura, agyu rang mabyasa 
[symbolic (extrasomatic) learning], at uli na niti, agyu reng alilan ing 
karelang paligid, o ing paligid ning sanumang aliwang uri ning lelangan, at iti 
panibatan da reng bayung selective forces o sangkan a mamapektu king pamamili. 
#### Ing gene flow
Ing gene flow (o gene admixture o pamisamut da reng gene) ing 
bukud o magdilidiling kaparalanan o mechanism nung nukarin malyari lang 
mikanlapit (king aspetung genetic o king puli/pamamuli) deng populasyun kabang 
daragul ya la reng gene pool. Ing gene flow ing magbunga nung malis ya ing 
metung a populasyun da reng lelangan king lugal nung nukarin atin nang sadyang 
makatuknang a aliwang populasyun.  Malilyari ing gene flow operates nung e la 
sumbagal deng geografia (lugal) o kalinangan/kultura. 

#### Ing genetic drift

Lalarawa’na ning genetic drift ing pamanaliwa king dalas o frequency ning metung 
a allele manibat king metung a henerasyun o dai papunta king tutuki uli ning 
sampling variance.  Manaliwa ya ing dalas ning metung a allele kareng supling 
agpang king probability distribution ning frequency ning allele king dai da reng 
pengari.

Magdependi la deng dakal a aspetu ning genetic drift king sukad (size) ning 
populasyun (a keraklan papakuyad da king N).  Lalu maulaga iti kareng 
mangalating mating population (grupu da reng malyaring magparakal o mamalipi), 
nung nu maragul ing chance fluctuation (o mikatagun a pamanaliwa manibat king 
metng a henerasyun/dai papunta king tutuki).  Malyaring magbunga king pangawala 
ning allele king populasyun ining pamanaliwa king dalas ning allele king 
pangalabas da reng tuki-tuking henerasyun.   

Ing ulaga da ring natural selection ampong genetic drift kumpara king 
pangkabilugan magdependi mu naman king sukad ning populasyun ampo king sikan 
ning selection: alimbawa, nung malati ya ing N times s (population size times 
strength of selection), ing genetic drift ing mimiral (predominates).  Nu namang 
maragul ya ing N times s, ing selection ing mimiral.  Uli na niti, ‘mas matalab’ 
ya ing natural selection kareng mangaragul a populasyun, samantalang ing genetic 
drift ing mas masikan kareng mangalating populasyun.  Katatawlyan, magdependi 
king sukad ning metung a populasyun ing kaba ning panaun bayu ya manatili kaniti 
ing metung a allele (fixation) kapamilata’ning genetic drift (ing buri nang 
sabyan, bayu la magdala king allele deng balang metung a kayanib ketang 
populasyun); mas malagwa ing fixation nung malati ya mu ing populasyun.        

### Pamakibage
Lalu lang mibabage king karelang paligid deng species o uri da reng lelangan 
kapamilatan ning prosesu ning natural selection. Adaptation ing aus king sanumang prosesu ning ebolusyun a makaragdag 
king pangabage ning balang metung (individual), o neng 
kayi, ing kauryan (trait) a babye karagdagang pamibage (fitness), alimbawa ing 
mas masikan a iking agagamit king pamanalan (prehensile tail), o mas malinong 
panakit (greater visual acuity).  Dapat linawan a magdependi ya ing pamibage 
king kontekstu o paligid (context-sensitive); mapalyaring ing metung a kauryan a 
makaragdag king pamibage king metung a lugal, makabawas ne man king aliwa.

Maniwala la reng keraklan kareng biologist a malilyari ing adaptation o 
pamakibage kapamilatan’ning pamitipun kareng dakal a mutation a balang metung 
kareti malati mu epektu.  Nanupata, metung yang prosesung kaliwas o alternatibu 
king adaptation ing macromutation, nung nukarin metung ya 
mu dapot maragul yang maragul ing metung a mutation. 

### Ing pamanalto da reng bayung uri ampo ing pangawala da reti
Ing speciation ing pamaglalang kareng adwa o migit pang uri o 
species manibat king metung.  Myayaliwa la reng kaparalanan nung makananun 
malyari iti.  Malilyari ing place ing allopatric 
speciation neng mikakawani la lugal deng subpopulation (dake ning 
pangkabilugan a populasyun) king metung at metung, alimbawa uli ning 
habitat fragmentation o pamipitna-pitna ning 
karelang tutuknangan o pamanalis king aliwang lugal (migration).  Malilyari 
naman ing sympatric speciation neng ating laltong 
bayung uri king pareung lugal.  Atyu king pilatan da reng misusumangid a 
allopatry ampong sympatry ing awsan nang peripatric 
speciation Ernst Mayr.  Ing peripatric speciation ing 
maulagang (critical) pun o batayan ning teorya ning punctuated equilibrium. 

Ing extinction o pangawala malilyari neng magisan ne ing 
metung a uri o species (alimbawa, gene pool).  Keraklan, 
tuturing deng pinandit ning pangawala (moment of extinction) itang pangamate 
ning tawling kayanib o indibidwal ning species.  E malagad o katakatakang 
pamikatagun king geological time &mdash; lalto la reng 
species uli ning speciation, at mawawala la uli ning extinction.   

## Ing evolutionary biology
Ing evolutionary biology dake ne ning 
biologia a tungkul king penibatan da at kasalesayan deng 
species, ampo ing karelang pamanaliwa king pangalabas ning 
panaun.  Anti ya mong meta field ing evolutionary biology uling kayabe la keti 
deng siyentipiku ibat kareng myayaliwang tradisyunal a dake ning ciencia a maki 
kaugnayan king taxonomy.  Alimbawa, kayabe la keti deng 
siyentipikung espesyalista kareng partikular a mabibye antimo reng manigaral 
mammalogy, ornithology, o herpetology, pero gagamitan no reng 
mabibyeng deti antimong sistema ba lang pakibatan deng pangkabilugan a kutang 
(general questions) tungkul king evolution.      

Mekilala yang pormal a paksa ning pamanigaral ing 
evolutionary biology kaybat ning makabayung pamisanib king teorya ning evoluton (modern evolutionary synthesis) 
kanitang dekadang 1930 ampong 1940.  Nanupata, e la 
míka departamentung talagang maki lagyung *evolutionary biology* deng dakal 
kareng unibersidad angga kanitang dekadang 1970 ampong 
1980.  

### Ing evolutionary developmental biology

Metung yang bayung dake (subfield) ning evolutionary biology ing 
evolutionary development biology.  
Tungkul ya iti kareng gene da reng mabibyeng mikamaganak ampo 
retang ali.  Malyaring yang abalu at tukyan kapanaunan (trace timelines) ing 
pamanalkus ning metung a uri (species development) kapamilata’ning pamag-
eksperimentu nung ikumpara la o piyanti deng pamitukituki da reng 
nucleotide (nucleotide sequence) ning 
DNA/RNA.  Alimbawa, mamayun o susuporta la 
reng gene sequence king konklusyon a a deng chimpanzee ing pekamalapit a 
kamaganak da reng tau, at saka deng arthropod (alimbawa, deng 
insektu) ampo reng vertebrate (deng maki galugud, alimbawa 
deng tau) metung la mu pipumpunan.        

## Ing kasalesayan ning evolutionary thought

Kanita pang minuna (ancient times), ati’nang mekaisip king ideya ning biological 
evolution o evolution da reng mabibye.  Kayabe ya kareti i 
Epicurus, metung a philosopher a Hellenist.  Nanupata, e linto 
ing makabayung teorya angga kanitang kalabingwalu at kalabingsyam a siglu (18th 
and 19th centuries), kapamilatan da reng siyentipikung kalupa da ri Jean-
Baptiste Lamarck ampo i Charles Darwin.  Agyang tatanggapan da ne reng 
marakal-dakal a siyentipiku ing pamanaliwa da reng species bayu ing 
1859, yapin itang pamilimbag ning *[[The Origin of Species]]* ing 
minyeng masikan at kapani-paniwalang kaparalanan (cogent mechanism) tungkul king 
pangapalyari ning pamanaliwang bunga ning evolution: ing kayang teorya ning 
natural selection.  Meyagyag yang maglimbag i Darwin king sinulat na anyang 
kaybat nang tinanggap sulat kang Alfred Russell 
Wallace, nung nu ne pepabalu ing sarili nang pamanuklas king natural 
selection.  Uli na niti, neng kayi kikilalanan da murin ing inambag nang Wallace 
king teorya ning evolution.        

Agyang ikwa ning teorya nang Darwin a ugunan ing palage da reng siyentipiku 
tungkul king pamanalkus ning bye (development of life), e na agyung isplika ing 
panibatan ning pamiyaliwa-liwa kilub ning metung a species, at e makaing 
makakumbinsi itang pepamunikala nang Darwin a kaparalanan a 
hereditary, itang pangenesis.    

Anyang “metuklas yang pasibayu” ing obra nang Gregor 
Mendel tungkul king pamagmana kanitang kalabingsyan a 
siglu, ya ing penibatan ning gulu pilatan da reng Mendelian (I Charles 
Benedict Davenport) ampo reng biometrician (di Walter Frank Raphael Weldon 
ampo i Karl Pearson), a mamilit a e la tutuki king sistema nang Mendel deng 
keraklan kareng kauryan (trait), at magpalto la reting continuous variation.  E 
miglwat, pikasundu da la at pisanib deting adwang teorya, at utak ing keraklan 
kaniti king obra ning biologist at statistician a i R.A. 
Fisher.  Meyaus yang makabayung pamisanib 
ning teorya ning evoluton (modern evolutionary synthesis) kanitang dekada 
1930 ampong 1940 ining pamisanib a iti, nung nu 
gemitanan deng rigorous a statistical model kareng teorya nang Mendel tungkul 
king pamagmana, king kapamilatan da reng gene.     

Kaybat ning eksperimentu nang Griffith kanitang 
1940, pepatunayan de ri Griffith's experiment, Avery, McCleod at McCarty a 
ing deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) ing “transforming principle” a 
magdala king genetic information (impormasyon tungkul king magi rang itsura deng 
supling).  Ketang :en:1953, pepalimbag de ri Francis 
Crick ampo i James Watson ing sikat dang artikulu tungkul 
king pangabalangkas ning DNA, a makabasi king pamanyaliksik nang Rosalind Franklin ampo I Maurice Wilkins.  
Dening pamikatagun a reti ing migumpisa king panaun ning molecular biology, at pepabayu de ing panintindi tamu king evolution 
antimong prosesung molecular: ing mutation da rang dake ning 
DNA (lon ya ing molecular evolution.  

Tanda ne ning pamidayu king teorya ning group selection papunta ketang 
makabayung paglalawe king gene antimong unit of selection ing sinulat nang 
George C. Williams a *Adaptation and natural selection: A Critique of some 
Current Evolutionary Thought* kanitang 1966. 

Kanitang kalibudtan ning dekada 1970, pepamunikala neng 
Motoo Kimura ing neutral theory of molecular evolution, at 

Taglus-taglus pa murin ing dibati king pamanigaral a iti.  Metung ya kareng 
pekamaulagang publikung dibati itang tungkul king teorya ning punctuated equilibrium, a pepamunikala da reng 
paleontologist a i Niles Eldredge 
ampo i Stephen Jay Gould kanitang 1972 ba 
yang isplika o ustan ing kakulangan da reng fossil a transitional o atyu king 
pilatan da reng myayaliwang phylum.     

## Deng pikwanan
*Darwin, Charles November 24 1859. *On the [[Origin of Species]] by 
means of Natural Selection or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle 
for Life*. London: John Murray, Albemarle Street. 502 pages. Reprinted: 
Gramercy (May 22, 1995). ISBN 0517123207
*Zimmer, Carl. *Evolution: The Triumph of an Idea*. Perennial (October 1, 
2002). ISBN 0060958502
*Larson, Edward J. *Evolution: The Remarkable History of a Scientific Theory* 
(Modern Library Chronicles). Modern Library (May 4, 2004). ISBN 0679642889
*Mayr, Ernst. *What Evolution Is*. Basic Books (October, 2002). ISBN 
0465044263
*Gigerenzer, Gerd, et al., *The empire of chance: how probability changed 
science and everyday life* (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989).
*Williams, G.C. (1966). Adaptation and Natural Selection: A Critique of some 
Current Evolutionary Thought. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
*Sean B. Carroll, 2005, *Endless Forms Most Beautiful: The New Science of 
Evo Devo and the Making of the Animal Kingdom*, W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 
0393060160

## Lon la murin deti

Social implications of the theory of evolution

Creation-evolution controversy

## Suglung a palwal
 
* Talk.Origins Archive — see also talk.origins
* National Academies Evolution 
Resources
* EvoWiki  — A wiki whose goal is to 
promote general evolution education, and provide mainstream scientific responses 
to the arguments of antievolutionists.
* [Evolution by Natural Selection](http://www.chains-of-reason.org/chains/evolution-by-natural-
selection/introduction.htm) — An introduction to 
the logic of the theory of evolution by natural selection
* Evolution — Provided by 
*[[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]]*.
*International 
Journal of Organic Evolution 
* Howstuffworks.com — 
How Evolution Works
* Charles Darwin's writings
* 
Evolution News from Genome News Network (GNN)
* National Academy Press: Teaching 
About Evolution and the Nature of Science
* Evolution for 
beginners