Arkeoloġija

L-**arkeoloġija** hija l-istudju xjentifiku tal-attività umana permezz tal-irkupru u l-analiżi tal-kultura materjali. Reġistru arkeoloġiku jikkonsisti mill-artefatti, l-arkitettura, il-bijofatti jew l-ekofatti, is-siti, u l-pajsaġġi kulturali. L-arkeoloġija tista' titqies kemm bħala xjenza soċjali kif ukoll bħala fergħa tal-umanitajiet. Fl-Ewropa spiss titqies jew bħala dixxiplina jew inkella bħala sottoqasam ta' dixxiplini oħra, filwaqt li fl-Amerka ta' Fuq l-arkeoloġija hija sottoqasam tal-antopoloġija.

L-arkeologi jistudjaw il-preistorja u l-istorja umana, mill-iżvilupp tal-ewwel għodod tal-ġebel f'Lomekwi fil-Lvant tal-Afrika 3.3 miljun sena ilu sal-aħħar deċennji. L-arkeoloġija hija distinta mill-paleontoloġija, li hija l-istudju tal-fdalijiet tal-fossili. L-arkeoloġija hija partikolarment importanti biex nitgħallmu dwar soċjetajiet preistoriċi, li dwarhom ma hemm l-ebda tagħrif bil-miktub. Il-preistorja tinkludi iktar minn 99 % tal-imgħoddi tal-bniedem, mill-Paleolitiku sal-litteriżmu fis-soċjetajiet madwar id-dinja. L-arkeoloġija għandha diversi għanijiet, li jvarjaw mill-fehim tal-istorja kulturali, għar-rikostruzzjoni tal-istili ta' ħajja tal-imgħoddi, għad-dokumentazzjoni u l-ispjegazzjoni tat-tibdil fis-soċjetajiet umani maż-żmien. It-terminu "arkeoloġija" oriġina mill-Grieg u litteralment ifisser "l-istudju tal-istorja tal-qedem".

Id-dixxiplina tinvolvi l-istħarriġ, l-iskavi u eventwalment l-analiżi tad-*data* li tinġabar biex wieħed jitgħallem iktar dwar l-imgħoddi. F'ambitu wiesa', l-arkeoloġija tiddependi fuq ir-riċerka bejn dixxiplini differenti.

L-arkeoloġija żviluppat mill-antikwarjaniżmu fl-Ewropa matul is-seklu 19, u minn dak iż-żmien saret dixxiplina pprattikata madwar id-dinja kollha. L-arkeoloġija ntużat min-nazzjonijiet u mill-istati biex jinħolqu viżjonijiet partikolari tal-imgħoddi. Mill-iżvilupp bikri tagħha, żviluppaw diversi sottodixxiplini speċifiċi tal-arkeoloġija, inkluż l-arkeoloġija marittima, l-arkeoloġija femminista u l-arkeoastronomija. Barra minn hekk, ġew żviluppati bosta tekniki xjentifiċi differenti biex jgħinu fl-investigazzjoni arkeoloġika. Minkejja dan, illum il-ġurnata, l-arkeologi jiffaċċjaw bosta problemi, bħall-psewdoarkeoloġija, is-serq tal-artefatti, nuqqas ta' interess pubbliku, u l-oppożizzjoni għall-iskavi ta' fdalijiet umani.

## Biblijografija
·        *Aldenderfer, M.S.; Maschner, H.D.G., eds. (1996), Anthropology, Space, and Geographic Information Systems, New York: Oxford University Press*

·        *Ascher, R. (1961), "Analogy in archaeological interpretation", Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, University of New Mexico, vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 317–25, JSTOR 3628943*

·        *Ascher, R. (1961), "Experimental Archeology", American Anthropologist, vol. 63, no. 4, pp. 793–816, doi:10.1525/aa.1961.63.4.02a00070*

·        *Billman, B.R.; Feinman, G. (1999), Settlement Pattern Studies in the Americas—Fifty Years Since Virú, Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution Press*

·        *Binford, L. (1962), "Archaeology as Anthropology", American Antiquity, Society for American Archaeology, vol. 28, no. 4, pp. 217–25, doi:10.2307/278380, JSTOR 278380, S2CID 162242910*

·        *Denning, K. (2004), "The Storm of Progress' and Archaeology for an Online Public", Internet Archaeology, vol. 15*

·        *Ebrey, Patricia Buckley (1999), The Cambridge Illustrated History of China, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, , OCLC 223427870*

·        *Fash, William (2001), "Archaeology", in David L. Carrasco (ed.), The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Cultures, vol. 1, New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 25–35, , OCLC 82141470*

·        *Flannery, K.V. (1967), "Culture History v. Culture Process: A Debate in American archaeology", Scientific American, vol. 217, no. 2, pp. 119–22, doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0867-119*

·        *Flannery, K.V. (1982), "The Golden Marshalltown: A Parable for the Archaeology of the 1980s", American Anthropologist, vol. 84, no. 2, pp. 265–278, doi:10.1525/aa.1982.84.2.02a00010*

·        *Fraser, Julius Thomas; Francis C. Haber (1986), Time, Science, and Society in China and the West, Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press*

·        *Glascock, M.D.; Neff, H.; Stryker, K.S. & Johnson, T.N. (1994), "Sourcing Archaeological Obsidian by an Abbreviated NAA Procedure", Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry, vol. 180, pp. 29–35, doi:10.1007/BF02039899, S2CID 97455573*

·        *Gifford-Gonzalez, D.P.; Damrosch, D.B.; Damrosch, D.R.; Pryor, J. & Thunen, R.L. (1985), "The Third Dimension in Site Structure: An Experiment in Trampling and Vertical Dispersal", American Antiquity, vol. 50, no. 4, pp. 803–18, doi:10.2307/280169, JSTOR 280169, S2CID 163218164*

·        *Gladfelter, B.G. (1977), "Geoarchaeology: The Geomorphologist and Archaeology", American Antiquity, Society for American Archaeology, vol. 42, no. 4, pp. 519–38, doi:10.2307/278926, JSTOR 278926, S2CID 163453920*

·        *Gould, R. (1971a), "The Archaeologist as Ethnographer: A Case from the Western Desert of Australia", World Archaeology, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 143–177, doi:10.1080/00438243.1969.9979499*

·        *Gould, R.; Koster, D.A. & Sontz, A.H.L. (1971b), "The Lithic Assemblage of the Western Desert Aborigines of Australia", American Antiquity, vol. 36, no. 2, pp. 149–69, doi:10.2307/278668, JSTOR 278668, S2CID 163617121*

·        *Gould, R.; Yellen, J. (1987), "Man the Hunted: Determinants of Household Spacing in Desert and Tropical Foraging Societies", Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, vol. 6, p. 77, doi:10.1016/0278-4165(87)90017-1*

·        *Haviland, William A.; Prins, Harald E.L.; McBride, Bunny; Walrath, Dana (2010), Cultural Anthropology: The Human Challenge (13th ed.), Cengage Learning, *

·        *Hinshaw, J. (2000), Ethnobotanical and Archaeobotanical Relationships: A Yuman Case Study, Salinas: Coyote Press, pp. 3–7, 38–45*

·        *Hodder, I. (1982), Symbols in Action, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press*

·        *Hodder, I. (1985), "Post-Processual Archaeology", in Schiffer, M.B. (ed.), Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory, New York: Academic Press*

·        *Hodder, I., ed. (1987), The Archaeology of Contextual Meaning, New York: Cambridge University Press*

·        *Hodder, I. (1990), "Style as Historical Quality", in Hastorf, M.C.A.C. (ed.), The Uses of Style in Archaeology, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press*

·        *Hodder, I. (1991), "Interpretive Archaeology and Its Role", American Antiquity, Society for American Archaeology, vol. 56, no. 1, pp. 7–18, doi:10.2307/280968, JSTOR 280968, S2CID 163936790*

·        *Hodder, I. (1992), Theory and Practice in Archaeology, London: Routeldge*

·        *Kuznar, L, ed. (2001), Ethnoarchaeology of Andean South America, Ann Arbor: International Monographs in Prehistory*

·        *Miller, D.; Tilley, C. (1984), "Ideology, Power and Prehistory: An Introduction", in Miller, D.; Tilley, C. (eds.), Ideology, Power, and Prehistory, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, , OCLC 241599209*

·        *Miller, D.; Rowlands, M.; Tilley, C., eds. (1989), Dominion and Resistance, New York: Routledge*

·        *Ogundele, S.O. (2005), "Ethnoarchaeology of Domestic Space and Spatial Behaviour Among the Tiv and Ungwai of Central Nigeria", African Archaeological Review, vol. 22, pp. 25–54, doi:10.1007/s10437-005-3158-2, S2CID 145452535*

·        *Pauketat, T.R. (2001), "Practice and History in Archaeology: An Emerging Paradigm", Anthropological Theory, vol. 1, pp. 73–98, doi:10.1177/14634990122228638*

·        *Renfrew, C.; Bahn, P.G. (1991), Archaeology: Theories, Methods, and Practice, London: Thames and Hudson Ltd., , OCLC 185808200*

·        *Saraydar, S.; Shimada, I. (1971), "A Quantitative Comparison of Efficiency Between A Stone Axe and A Steel Axe", American Antiquity, vol. 36, no. 2, pp. 216–217, doi:10.2307/278680, JSTOR 278680, S2CID 163927190*

·        *Saraydar, S.C.; Shimada, I. (1973), "Experimental Archaeology: A New Outlook", American Antiquity, vol. 38, no. 3, pp. 344–50, doi:10.2307/279722, JSTOR 279722, S2CID 163223665*

·        *Sellet, F.; Greaves, R. & Yu, P.-L. (2006), Archaeology and Ethnoarchaeology of Mobility, Gainesville: University Press of Florida*

·        *Shanks, M.; Tilley, C. (1987), Reconstructing Archaeology, New York: Cambridge university Press*

·        *Shanks, M.; Tilley, C. (1988), Social Theory and Archaeology, Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, , OCLC 16465065*

·        *Shanks, M. (1991), "Some recent approaches to style and social reconstruction in classical archaeology", Archaeological Review from Cambridge, vol. 10, pp. 164–74*

·        *Shanks, M. (1993), "Style and the design of a perfume jar from an Archaic Greek city state", Journal of European Archaeology, vol. 1, pp. 77–106, doi:10.1179/096576693800731190*

·        *Shott, M.J.; Sillitoe, P. (2005), "Use life and curation in New Guinea experimental used flakes", Journal of Archaeological Science, vol. 32, no. 5, pp. 653–663, doi:10.1016/j.jas.2004.11.012*

·        *Tassie, G J.; Owens, L.S. (2010), Standards of Archaeological Excavations: A Fieldguide to the Methology, Recording Techniques and Conventions, London: GHP, *

·        *Taylor, W.W. (1948), A Study of Archaeology, Menasha: American Anthropological Association, , OCLC 9714935*

·        *Tilley, Christopher, ed. (1993), Interpretive Archaeology, Oxford: Berg, , OCLC 185494001*

·        *Trigger, B.G. (1989), A History of Archaeological Thought, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press*

·        *Watters, M.R. (1992), Principles of Geoarchaeology: A North American Perspective, Tucson: The University of Arizona Press*

·        *Watters, M.R. (2000), "Alluvial stratigraphy and geoarchaeology in the American Southwest", Geoarchaeology, vol. 15, no. 6, pp. 537–57, doi:10.1002/1520-6548(200008)15:6<537::AID-GEA5>3.0.CO;2-E*

·        *Willey, G.R. (1953), Prehistoric Settlement Patterns in the Virú Valley, Perú, Washington DC*

·        *Willey, G. (1968), Settlement Archaeology, Palo Alto: National Press*

·        *Wylie, A. (1985), "The Reaction Against Analogy", in Schiffer, Michael B. (ed.), Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory, Orlando, FL: Academic Press, pp. 63–111*

·        *Yellen, J.; Harpending, H. (1972), "Hunter-Gatherer Populations and Archaeological Inference", World Archaeology, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 244–53, doi:10.1080/00438243.1972.9979535, *

·        *Yellen, J. (1977), Archaeological Approaches to the Present, New York: Academic Press, , OCLC 2911020*

## Iktar qari
·        *Rathje, William; Shanks, Michael; Witmore, Christoper (2013). Archaeology in the Making. London: Routledge. .*

·        *Hodder, Ian; Shanks, Michael; Alexandri, Alexandar; Buchili, Victor; Carman, John; Last, Jonathan; Lucas, Gavin (2008). "Interpreting Archaeology: Finding Meaning in the Past". Routledge. London.*

·        *Olsen, Bjørnar; Shanks, Michael; Webmoor, Timothy; Witmore, Christopher (2012). "Archaeology: The Discipline of Things". University of California Press. Berkeley, Los Angeles, London.*

·        *Shanks, Michael (1992). Experiencing the Past: On the Character of Archaeology. London and New York: Routledge. .*

·        *Archaeology* (rivista)

·        Lewis Binford - *New Perspectives in Archaeology* (1968) 

·        Glyn Daniel – *A Short History of Archaeology* (1991)

·        Kevin Greene – *Introduction to Archaeology* (1983)

·        Thomas Hester, Harry Shafer, and Kenneth L. Feder – *Field Methods in Archaeology* 7th edition (1997)

·        Ian Hodder & Scott Hutson – "Reading the Past" 3rd. edition (2003)

·        *Hutchings Rich, La Salle Marina (2014), "Teaching Anti-Colonial Archaeology", Archaeologies, *'10*' (1): 27–69, doi:10.1007/s11759-014-9250-y, S2CID 154800430*

·        *International Journal of South American Archaeology* - *IJSA* (magazine)

·        Internet Archaeology, e-journal

·        C.U. Larsen - *Sites and Monuments* (1992)

·        Adrian Praetzellis – *Death by Theory*, AltaMira Press (2000).  

·        Colin Renfrew & Paul Bahn – *Archaeology: theories, methods and practice*, 2nd edition (1996)

·        Smekalova, T.N.; Voss O.; & Smekalov S.L. (2008). "Magnetic Surveying in Archaeology. More than 10 years of using the Overhauser GSM-19 gradiometer". Wormianum.

·        David Hurst Thomas – *Archaeology*, 3rd. edition (1998)

·        Robert J. Sharer & Wendy Ashmore – *Archaeology: Discovering our Past* 2nd edition (1993)

·        Bruce Trigger – "A History of Archaeological Thought" 2nd. edition (2007)

·        Alison Wylie – *Thinking From Things: Essays in the Philosophy of Archaeology*, University of California Press, Berkeley CA, 2002

## Referenzi