Bahasa-bahasa Jerman

**Bahasa-bahasa Jermanik** merupakan sekumpulan bahasa berkaitan yang sebagai cawangan keluarga bahasa Indo-Eropah. Nenek moyang umum untuk bahasa-bahasa dalam cawangan ini ialah Bahasa Proto-Jermanik, dituturkan pada kira-kira ahkir pertengahan milenia pertama Sebelum Masihi di Eropah utara Zaman Besi. Proto-Jermanik, dengan semua keturunannya, disifatkan dengan sebilangan ciri-ciri linguistik yang unik, yang terkenal ialah perubahan konsonan yang dikenali sebagai hukum Grimm. Pelbagai jenis bahasa Jermanik awal memasuki sejarah dengan suku-suku Jermanik yang tinggal di Eropah utara bersempadan dengan Empayar Rom sejak abad ke-2.

Bahasa-bahasa Jermanik yang terbesar ialah Bahasa Inggeris dan Bahasa Jerman, masing-masing dengan kira-kira 400 juta dan 100 juta orang penutur bahasa ibunda. Kumpulan ini juga terdiri daripada bahasa-bahasa utama yang lain, seperti Bahasa Belanda dengan 22 juta dan Bahasa Afrikaans dengan lebih daripada  16 juta orang penutur; dan Bahasa-bahasa Jermanik Utara termasuk Bahasa Norway, Bahasa Denmark, Bahasa Sweden, Bahasa Iceland, dan Bahasa Faroe dengan jumlah kira-kira 20 juta orang penutur. *Etnologi* SIL menyenaraikan 53 bahasa Jermanik yang berbeza.

Ciri- ciri
Bahasa Jerman mempunyai beberapa ciri-ciri yang unik seperi berikut ;  

1.	Kata kerja peringkat Indo-European (IE) dan sistem aspek kedalam kata kerja sekarang (*present tense)* dan kata kerja lampau *(past tense)* (juga dikenali sebagai kata kerja kala lampau *( preterite )* )
2.	Banyak pengkelasan kata kerja yang menggunakan imbuhan dental (/d/ or /t/) sebaliknya huruf vokal pinggiran digunakan (Indo-European ablaut) untuk menunjukkan kata kerja lampau ; perkataan ini dikenali sebagai kata kerja jermanik lemah *the Germanic weak verbs*; baki kata kerja yang lain dengan ablaut vokal adalam kata kerja Jemanik Kuat *theGermanic strong verbs*
3.	The use of so-called strong and weak adjectives: different sets of inflectional endings for adjectives depending on the definiteness of the noun phrase; (modern English adjectives do not inflect at all, except for the comparative and superlative; this was not the case in Old English, where adjectives were inflected differently depending on whether they were preceded by an article or demonstrative)
4.	The consonant shift known as Grimm's Law; (the consonants in High German have shifted farther yet by the High German consonant shift)
5.	A number of words with etymologies that are difficult to link to other Indo-European families, but variants of which appear in almost all Germanic languages, See Germanic substrate hypothesis
6.	The shifting of stress accent onto the root of the stem and later to the first syllable of the word, (though English has an irregular stress, native words always have a fixed stress regardless of what is added to them)
Germanic languages differ from each other to a greater degree than do some other language families such as the Romance or Slavic languages. Roughly speaking, Germanic languages differ in how conservative or how progressive each language is with respect to an overall trend toward analyticity. Some, such as German, Dutch, and Icelandic have preserved much of the complex inflectional morphology inherited from the Proto-Indo-European language. Others, such as English, Swedish, and Afrikaans have moved toward a largely analytic type.
Another characteristic of Germanic languages is the verb second or V2 word order, which is quite uncommon cross-linguistically. This feature is shared by all modern Germanic languages except modern English (which nevertheless appears to have had V2 earlier in its history), but has largely replaced the structure with an overall Subject Verb Object syntax.

## Penulisan

Antara bukti-bukti terawal bahasa Jermanik adalah nama-nama yang direkod oleh Tacitus pada abad pertama( khususnya dari hasil karya beliau iaitu *[[Germania (book)|Germania]]*), tetapi satu-satunya contoh tulisan bahasa Jermanik terawal tercatat pada abad kedua BC  dalam Negau helmet.
Kira-kira pada abad kedua AD, pentutur variasi bahasa Jermanik tertentu telah memperkembangkan Elder Futhark, sejenis susunan abjad yang dikenal sebagai abjad runic atau runic alphabet

Inskripsi runic awal yang sebahagian besarnya terbatas kepada nama peribadi adalah agak sukar untuk diintrepretasi. Bahasa Gothic atau The Gothic language yang ditulis menggunakan abjad Gothic diperkembangkan oleh Bishop Ulfilas untuk penterjemahan Kitab Injil Bible pada Abad ke empat. Selepas itu paderi-paderi yang beragama Kristian/Christian yang ada pengaruh variasi bahasa Jermanik dan juga boleh bertutur, mambaca dan menulis bahasa Latin mula menulis dalam bahasa Jermanik dengan menggunakan abjad Latin yang diubahsuai. Walaubagaimanapun, sepanjang zaman Viking Viking Age, abjad runic masih digunakan dengan meluas di negara-negara Skandinavia.

Selain daripada huruf-huruf Latin yang biasa, bahasa-bahasa Jermanik menggunakan abjad-abjad tambahan dan juga tanda-tanda tambahan untuk improvasi sebutan atau dialek tertentu seperti umlaut, huruf ß (*Eszett*), IJ, Ø, Æ, Å, Ä, Ö, Ð, , dan Þ dan , daripada abjad runic. 
Historic printed German is frequently set in blackletter typefaces (e.g. fraktur or schwabacher).

### Diakronik
**Nota umum**: Jadual dibawah menunjukkan kemajuan sejarah paling penting untuk setiap bahasa secara berperingkat (menegak), dan pengelasan secara hampir (approximate groupings) dalam subkeluarga (medatar). Susunan mendatar dalam setiap kelas tidak mengimplikasikan keserupaan bahasa yang lebih besar atau yang lebih kecil.  

**Note 1:** There are conflicting opinions on the classification of Lombardic. Contrary to its isolated position in the table above, it also has been classified as close to either Upper German or Old Saxon. See the article on the Lombardic language for more information.

**Note 2:** *Late* Middle Ages refers to the post-Black Death period. Especially for the language situation in Norway this event was important.

**Note 3:** The speakers of Norn were assimilated to speak the Modern Scots varieties, and the Gutnish language today, is practically a dialect of Swedish.

### Contemporary

Mentioned here are all the principal and some secondary contemporary varieties; individual articles linked to below, may contain larger family trees. For example, many Low Saxon varieties are discussed on Low Saxon besides just Northern Low Saxon and Plautdietsch.

* Proto-Germanic
** West Germanic languages
*** High German languages
**** standard German
**** Central German
***** East Central German
****** Lausitzisch-Neumärkisch
****** Obersächsisch
****** Schlesisch
****** Thüringisch
****** Nordobersächsisch
****** Hochpreußisch
***** West Central German
****** Osthessisch
****** Nordhessisch
****** Mittelhessisch
****** Rheinfränkisch
****** Moselfränkisch
****** Ripuarisch
****** Luxembourgish
****** Pennsylvania German (spoken by the Amish and other groups in southeastern Pennsylvania)
**** Upper German
***** Alemannic German
****** Swabian German, including Stuttgart
****** Low Alemannic German, including the area of Lake Constance and Basel German
******* Alsatian
****** Mittelalemannisch
****** High Alemannic German, including Zürich German and Bernese German
****** Highest Alemannic German, including the Bernese Oberland dialects and Walliser German
***** Austro-Bavarian German
****** North Bavarian (including Nuremberg)
****** Middle Bavarian (including Munich and Vienna)
****** South Bavarian (including Innsbruck, Klagenfurt, and Bolzano, Italy)
****** Hutterite German (aka "Tirolean")
***** Yiddish (with a significant influx of vocabulary from Hebrew and other languages, and traditionally written in the Hebrew alphabet)
**** Wymysorys (with a significant influence from Low Saxon, Dutch, Polish, and Scots)
*** Low Franconian
**** Standard Dutch
***** Old Dutch
****** Middle Dutch
******* Modern Dutch
******** Brabantic
******** Zealandic
******** West Flemish
******** East Flemish
******** Hollandic
******** Limburgish
******** Zuid-Gelders
**** Afrikaans (with a significant influx of vocabulary from other languages)
*** Low German
**** West Low German
***** Northern Low Saxon
****** East Frisian Low Saxon
***** Westphalian language
***** Eastphalian language
**** East Low German
***** Plautdietsch (Mennonite Low Saxon)
***** Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch
***** Mittelpommersch
***** Ostpommersch
***** Niederpreußisch
***** Brandenburgisch
*** Anglo-Frisian
**** Old Frisian
***** Frisian
****** Stadsfries language
****** West Frisian language (spoken in the Netherlands)
******* Clay Frisian (Klaaifrysk)
******* Wood Frisian (Wâldfrysk)
******** Noardhoeks
******* South Frisian (Súdhoeks)
******* Southwest Frisian (Súdwesthoeksk)
******* Schiermonnikoogs
******* Hindeloopers
******* Aasters
******* Westers
****** East Frisian language (spoken in Germany)
******* Saterland Frisian language
******* Several extinct Frisian variants
****** North Frisian language (spoken in Germany)
******* Mainland Frisian
******** Mooring
******** Goesharde Frisian
******** Wiedingharde Frisian
******** Halligen Frisian
******** Karrharde Frisian
******* Island Frisian
******** Söl'ring
******** Fering
******** Öömrang
******** Heligolandic
**** Anglic
***** English language
****** Old English
******* Middle English (significant influx of words from Old French)
******** Early Modern English
********* Modern English
********** British English (English English, including Northern English, Midlands English, Southern English dialects, and others, Welsh English, Scottish English) and Irish English
********** North American English (American English and Canadian English)
********** Australian English and New Zealand English
********** South African English
********** South Asian English (Indian English)
********** South-East Asian English (Singapore English, Malaysian English)
********** West Indian English (Caribbean English)
***** Scots language
****** Early Scots (from Northern Middle English with a significant influx of words from Anglo-Norman and Norse)
******* Middle Scots
******** Modern Scots language (huge influx of Latinate vocabulary, mostly via Norman French, some Scanadinavian influence via Anglo-Norse)
********* Northern Scots
********** North Northern
********** Mid Northern
*********** North East Scots 
************ Doric aka South Northern
********* Central Scots 
********** North East
********** South East Central
********** West Central
********** South West Central Scots
********* South Scots "Border Tongue"
********* Insular Scots
********* Ulster Scots aka "Ullans" (Ulster/Lallans)
***** Yola
** North Germanic
*** Proto-Norse
**** Old Norse
***** West Scandinavian
****** Norwegian (generally Western branch, but heavy influence from Eastern branch)
******* Bokmål (official written standard)
******* Høgnorsk (unofficial written standard)
******* Landsmål (unofficial written standard)
******* Nynorsk (official written standard)
******* Riksmål (unofficial written standard)
******* Vestlandsk
******** Sørlandsk
******** South-West Norwegian
******** Bergen Norwegian/Bergensk
******** North-West Norwegian
******* Nord-Norsk
******** Helgeland Norwegian
******** Nordland Norwegian
******** Troms Norwegian
******** Finnmark Norwegian
******* East Norwegian
******** Vikvær Norwegian
******** Middle East Norwegian
******** Oppland Norwegian
******** Østerdal Norwegian
******* Midland Norwegian
******** Gudbrandsdal Norwegian
******** Valdres and Hallingdal
******** Western Telemark Norwegian
******** Eastern Telemark Norwegian
******* Trøndelag Norwegian
******** Outer Trøndelag Norwegian
******** Inner Trøndelag Norwegian
******** Namdal Norwegian
******** South-eastern Trøndersk
******** Jamtlandic (also considered Norrlandic)
******** Härdalic (also considered Norrlandic)
****** Icelandic
******* Old Icelandic
******** Modern Icelandic
****** Gøtudanskt(*Faroese Street Danish*)
****** Faroese
****** Norn (extinct)
******* Shetland Norn (extinct)
******* Orkney Norn (extinct)
***** East Scandinavian
****** Danish
******* Rigsdansk/Rigsmål
******** Eastern Danish (Amager, Bornholm, Skåne, Halland, Blekinge)
********* Bornholmsk
********* Scanian
******** Island Danish
******** Jutlandic/Jutish
********* North Jutlandic
********* East Jutlandic
********* West Jutlandic
********* Sønderjysk (Danish Slesvig, German Schleswig)
****** Swedish
******* Dalecarlian
******** Elfdalian (considered a Swedish *Sveamål* dialect, but has official orthography and is, because of a lower degree of mutual intelligibility with Swedish, considered a separate language by many linguists, see p. 6 in this reference)
******* Old Swedish
******** New Swedish
********* Modern Swedish
********** Svealand Swedish
********** Norrlandic
********** Götish
********** East Swedish/Finland Swedish
********** South Swedish
********** Götalandic
***** Old Gutnish
****** Modern Gutnish

Alternate classification of contemporary North Germanic languages
* Insular Scandinavian
** Icelandic
** Faroese
* Continental Scandinavian
** Danish
** Norwegian
** Swedish

## Perbandingan kosa kata

## Lihat juga
* Keluarga bahasa dan bahasa
* Jermanisasi dan Anglikisasi

## Catatan

## Pautan luar
* Germanic Lexicon Project
* ''Bibliographie der Schreibsprachen'': Bibliography of medieval written forms of High and Low German and Dutch
* Ethnologue Report for Germanic