Penentuan harga

**Penentuan harga** adalah proses menentukan apa yang bakal diterima sebuah syarikat sebagai pertukaran untuk produknya. Faktor-faktor harga adalah kos pengilangan, tempat pasaran, persaingan, keadaan pasaran, dan kualiti produk. Penentuan harga juga merupakan pembolehubah utama dalam teori peruntukan harga mikroekonomi. Penentuan harga adalah aspek dasar pemodelan kewangan dan adalah salah satu dari "empat P" campuran pemasaran. Tiga aspek lain adalah barangan, promosi dan tempat. Harga merupakan satu-satunya unsur menjana hasil dalam empat P ini, yang lain adalah pusat kos.

Harga adalah nilai yang dibayar oleh pembeli sebagai pertukaran untuk mendapatkan produk atau perkhidmatan yang dijual dalam urusniaga  merujuk kepada harga seperti kadar sewa, premium insurans, bayaran perkhidmatan yang lain dan sebagainya.Faktor yang mempengaruhi keputusan penentuan harga melibatkan persaingan harga dan bukan harga. Persaingan harga adalah polisi menggunakan harga untuk membezakan produk di dalam pasaran, sementara persaingan bukan harga adalah polisi menggunakan faktor bukan harga untuk menjual produk seperti kualiti produk, mutu perkhidmatan, cara gaya promosi dan sebagainya.

## Pertanyaan melibat dalam harga
Harga melibat menanya pertanyaan seperti:
* Berapa banyak hendak mengenakan bayaran untuk produk atau perkhidmatan? Pertanyaan ini adalah bahawa suatu titik permulaan biasa untuk perbincangan tentang harga, sungguhpun, suatu pertanyaan lebih baik untuk seorang penjual adalah untuk bertanya - Berapa banyak pelanggan *menghargai* produk, perkhidmatan, dan intangibles lain yang penjual memperolehi.
* What are the pricing objectives?
* Do we use profit maximization pricing?
* How to set the price?: (cost-plus pricing, demand based or value-based pricing, rate of return pricing, or competitor indexing)
* Should there be a single price or multiple pricing?
* Should prices change in various geographical areas, referred to as zone pricing?
* Should there be quantity discounts?
* What prices are competitors charging?
* Do you use a price skimming strategy or a penetration pricing strategy?
* What image do you want the price to convey?
* Do you use psychological pricing?
* How important are customer price sensitivity (e.g. "sticker shock") and elasticity issues?
* Can real-time pricing be used?
* Is price discrimination or yield management appropriate?
* Are there legal restrictions on retail price maintenance, price collusion, or price discrimination?
* Do price points already exist for the product category?
* How flexible can we be in pricing? : The more competitive the industry, the less flexibility we have.
** The price floor is determined by production factors like costs (often only variable costs are taken into account), economies of scale, marginal cost, and degree of operating leverage
** The price ceiling is determined by demand factors like price elasticity and price points
* Are there transfer pricing considerations?
* What is the chance of getting involved in a price war?
* How visible should the price be? - Should the price be neutral? (ie.: not an important differentiating factor), should it be highly visible? (to help promote a low priced economy product, or to reinforce the prestige image of a quality product), or should it be hidden? (so as to allow marketers to generate interest in the product unhindered by price considerations).
* Are there joint product pricing considerations?
* What are the non-price costs of purchasing the product? (eg.: travel time to the store, wait time in the store, disagreeable elements associated with the product purchase - dentist -> pain, fishmarket -> smells)
* What sort of payments should be accepted? (cash, check, credit card, barter) Pricing

## Apa harga harus lakukan
A well chosen price should do three things:
* achieve the financial goals of the company (e.g., profitability)
* fit the realities of the marketplace (Will customers buy at that price?)
* support a product's positioning and be consistent with the other variables in the marketing mix
** price is influenced by the type of distribution channel used, the type of promotions used, and the quality of the product
*** price will usually need to be relatively high if manufacturing is expensive, distribution is exclusive, and the product is supported by extensive advertising and promotional campaigns
*** a low price can be a viable substitute for product quality, effective promotions, or an energetic selling effort by distributors
From the marketer's point of view, an **efficient price** is a price that is very close to the maximum that customers are prepared to pay. In economic terms, it is a price that shifts most of the consumer surplus to the producer. A good pricing strategy would be the one which could balance between the price floor (the price below which the organization ends up in losses) and the price ceiling (the price beyond which the organization experiences a no demand situation).

## Istilah
There are numerous terms and strategies specific to pricing:
### Harga berkesan
The *effective price* is the price the company receives after accounting for discounts, promotions, and other incentives.
### Line Pricing
*Line Pricing* is the use of a limited number of prices for all product offerings of a vendor. This is a tradition started in the old five and dime stores in which everything cost either 5 or 10 cents. Its underlying rationale is that these amounts are seen as suitable price points for a whole range of products by prospective customers. It has the advantage of ease of administering, but the disadvantage of inflexibility, particularly in times of inflation or unstable prices.

### Loss leader
A loss leader is a product that has a price set below the operating margin. This results in a loss to the enterprise on that particular item in the hope that it will draw customers into the store and that some of those customers will buy other, higher margin items.
### Promotional pricing
*Promotional pricing* refers to an instance where pricing is the key element of the marketing mix.
### Hubungan harga/kualiti
The *price/quality relationship* refers to the perception by most consumers that a relatively high price is a sign of good quality. The belief in this relationship is most important with complex products that are hard to test, and experiential products that cannot be tested until used (such as most services). The greater the uncertainty surrounding a product, the more consumers depend on the price/quality hypothesis and the greater premium they are prepared to pay. The classic example is the pricing of  Twinkies, a snack cake which was viewed as low quality after the price was lowered. Excessive reliance on the price/quantity relationship by consumers may lead to an increase in prices on all products and services, even those of low quality, which causes the price/quality relationship to no longer apply.

### Harga premium
*Premium pricing* (also called prestige pricing) is the strategy of consistently pricing at, or near, the high end of the possible price range to help attract status-conscious consumers. Examples of companies which partake in premium pricing in the marketplace include Rolex and Bentley. People will buy a premium priced product because:
# They believe the high price is an indication of good quality;
# They believe it to be a sign of self worth - "They are worth it;" it authenticates the buyer's success and status; it is a signal to others that the owner is a member of an exclusive group;
# They require flawless performance in this application - The cost of product malfunction is too high to buy anything but the best - example : heart pacemaker.

### Harga asas permintaan
*Demand-based pricing* is any pricing method that uses consumer demand - based on perceived value - as the central element.  These include: price skimming, price discrimination and yield management, price points, psychological pricing, bundle pricing, penetration pricing, price lining, value-based pricing, geo and premium pricing. Pricing factors are manufacturing cost, market place, competition, market condition, quality of product.
### Multidimensional pricing
*Multidimensional pricing* is the pricing of a product or service using multiple numbers. In this practice, price no longer consists of a single monetary amount (e.g., sticker price of a car), but rather consists of various dimensions (e.g., monthly payments, number of payments, and a downpayment). Research has shown that this practice can significantly influence consumers' ability to understand and process price information 

## Kecapaian
Harga sebagai pengumpil untung paling berkesan.
Harga dapat dicapai di tiga tahap. Tahap industri, pasar, dan pelaksanaan.  

:Harga di tahap industri berfokus pada ekonomi keseluruhan industri, termasuk perubahan harga pembekal dan perubahan permintaan pelanggan.  
:Harga di tahap pasar berfokus pada kedudukan bersaingan harga dibandingkan dengan kebezaan nilai produk pada yang produk bersaing berdandingan.
:Harga di tahap pelaksanaan berfokus pada mengurus pelaksanaan diskaun jauh dari rujukan, atau harga senarai, yang bermuncul di dan luar invois atau resit.

## Taktik harga
Mikropemasaran adalah amalan menyesuaikan produk, jenama (mikrojenama), dan promosi untuk memenuhi keperluan dan kemahuan  microsegmen dalam sebuah pasar. Ia adalah sejenis kustomisasi pasar yang mengurus dengan harga pelanggan/gabungan produk di taraf gedung atau individu.

## Kesilapan harga
Banyak syarikat membuat kesilapan harga umum. Rencana Bernstein "Supplier Pricing Mistakes" menggaris bentuk beberapa yang termasuk:
* Kawalan lemah pada diskaun
* Sistem tidak cukup untuk mengesan harga jual pesaing dan saham pasar
* Harga Cost-Up
* Tambahan harga dilaksanakan secara lemah
* Ketidaktekalan harga di seluruh dunia
* Membayar pewakilan jualan pada dolar lwn. tambahan ukuran keuntungan

## Kaedah

*Sistem harga
*Pengurusan kitar hidup produk
*Penentuan harga berasaskan nilai
*Sabotaj produk
*Keanjalan harga permintaan
*Penentuan harga berasaskan waktu
*Harga runcit dicadang
*Kuasa membeli
*Penentuan harga psikologi
*Penentuan harga pilihan
*Tuangou
*Cost the limit of price

## Rujukan

## Pautan luar dan bacaan lanjut
* William Poundstone, *Priceless: The Myth of Fair Value (and How to Take Advantage of It)* Hill and Wang, 2010
* Engineering New Product Success: the New Product Pricing Process at Emerson Electric. A case study by Jerry Bernstein and David Macias. As published in Industrial Marketing Management.