शब्दार्थशास्त्र

**Semantics** is the study of meaning, usually in language.  The word "semantics" itself denotes a range of ideas, from the popular to the highly technical.  It is often used in ordinary language to denote a problem of understanding that comes down to word selection or connotation. This problem of understanding has been the subject of many formal inquiries, over a long period of time.  The word is derived from the Greek word *σημαντικός* (*semantikos*), "significant", from *σημαίνω* (*semaino*), "to signify, to indicate" and that from *σήμα* (*sema*), "sign, mark, token". In linguistics, it is the study of interpretation of signs or symbols as used by agents or communities within particular circumstances and contexts. 

The formal study of semantics intersects with many other fields of inquiry, including proxemics, lexicology, syntax, pragmatics, etymology and others, although semantics is a well-defined field in its own right, often with synthetic properties. In philosophy of language, semantics and reference are related fields. Further related fields include philology, communication, and semiotics. The formal study of semantics is therefore complex.

The word *semantic* in its modern sense is considered to have first appeared in French as *sémantique* in Michel Bréal's 1897 book, ''Essai de sémantique'.
In international scientific vocabulary semantics is also called *semasiology*.
The discipline of Semantics is distinct from Alfred Korzybski's General Semantics, which is a system for looking at the semantic reactions of the whole human organism in its environment to some event, symbolic or otherwise.

## भाषाशास्त्र Linguistics 
In linguistics, **semantics** is the subfield that is devoted to the study of meaning, as inherent at the levels of words, phrases, sentences, and larger units of discourse (referred to as *texts*).
The basic area of study is the meaning of signs, and the study of relations between different linguistic units: homonymy, synonymy, antonymy, polysemy, paronyms, hypernymy, hyponymy, meronymy, metonymy, holonymy, exocentricity / endocentricity, linguistic compounds. A key concern is how meaning attaches to larger chunks of text, possibly as a result of the composition from smaller units of meaning.
Traditionally, semantics has included the study of *sense* and denotative *reference*, truth conditions, argument structure, thematic roles, discourse analysis, and the linkage of all of these to syntax.

Formal semanticists are concerned with the modeling of meaning in terms of the semantics of logic. Thus the sentence *John loves a bagel* can be broken down into its constituents (signs), of which the unit *loves* may serve as both syntactic and semantic head.

In the late 1960s, Richard Montague proposed a system for defining semantic entries in the lexicon in terms of lambda calculus. In these terms, the syntactic parse of the sentence above
would now indicate *loves* as the head, and its entry in the lexicon would point to the arguments as the agent, *John*, and the object, *bagel*, with a special role for the article "a" (which Montague called a quantifier). This resulted in the sentence being associated with the logical predicate *loves (John, bagel)*, thus
linking semantics to categorial grammar models of syntax.
The logical predicate thus obtained would be elaborated further, e.g. using truth theory models, which ultimately relate meanings to a set of Tarskiian universals, which may lie outside the logic. The notion of such meaning atoms or primitives is basic to the language of thought hypothesis from the 70s.

Despite its elegance, Montague grammar was limited by the context-dependent variability in word sense, and led to several attempts at incorporating context, such as:
* situation semantics ('80s): Truth-values are incomplete, they get assigned based on context
* generative lexicon ('90s): categories (types) are incomplete, and get assigned based on context

### The dynamic turn in semantics 
In the Chomskian tradition in linguistics there was no mechanism for the learning of semantic relations, and the nativist view considered all semantic notions as inborn. Thus, even novel concepts were proposed to have been dormant in some sense. This traditional view was also unable to address many issues such as metaphor or associative meanings, and semantic change, where meanings within a linguistic community change over time, and qualia or subjective experience. Another issue not addressed by the nativist model was how perceptual cues are combined in thought, e.g. in mental rotation.

This traditional view of semantics, as an innate finite meaning inherent in a lexical unit that can be composed to generate meanings for larger chunks of discourse, is now being fiercely debated in the emerging domain of cognitive linguistics
and also in the non-Fodorian camp in Philosophy of Language.
The challenge is motivated by:
* factors internal to language, such as the problem of resolving indexical or anaphora (e.g. *this x*, *him*, *last week*). In these situations "context" serves as the input, but the interpreted utterance also modifies the context, so it is also the output. Thus, the interpretation is necessarily dynamic and the meaning of sentences is viewed as context change potentials instead of propositions.
* factors external to language, i.e. language is not a set of labels stuck on things, but "a toolbox, the importance of whose elements lie in the way they function rather than their attachments to things." However, the colours implied in phrases such as "red wine" (very dark), and "red hair" (coppery), or "red soil", or "red skin" are very different. Indeed, these colours by themselves would not be called "red" by native speakers. These instances are contrastive, so "red wine" is so called only in comparison with the other kind of wine (which also is not "white" for the same reasons). This view goes back to de Saussure:
:Each of a set of synonyms like *redouter* ('to dread'), *craindre* ('to fear'), *avoir peur* ('to be afraid') has its particular value only because they stand in contrast with one another. No word has a value that can be identified independently of what else is in its vicinity.
and may go back to earlier Indian views on language, especially the Nyaya view of words as indicators and not carriers of meaning.

An attempt to defend a system based on propositional meaning for semantic underspecification can be found in the Generative Lexicon model of James Pustejovsky, who extends contextual operations (based on type shifting) into the lexicon. Thus meanings are generated on the fly based on finite context.

### Prototype theory प्रतिकृती सिद्धांत 
Another set of concepts related to fuzziness in semantics is based on
prototypes. The work of Eleanor Rosch and George Lakoff
in the 1970s led to a view that
natural categories are not characterizable in terms of
necessary and sufficient
conditions, but are graded (fuzzy at their boundaries) and inconsistent as to
the status of their constituent members.

Systems of categories are not objectively "out there" in the world but are
rooted in people's experience. These categories evolve as learned concepts
of the world — meaning is not an objective truth, but a
subjective construct, learned from experience, and language arises
out of the "grounding of our
conceptual systems in shared embodiment and bodily experience".
A corollary of this is that the conceptual categories
(i.e. the lexicon) will not be identical for
different cultures, or indeed, for every individual in the same culture. This
leads to another debate (see the Whorf-Sapir hypothesis or Eskimo words for snow).

English nouns are found by language analysis to have 25 different semantic features, each associated with its own pattern of fMRI brain activity. The individual contribution of each parameter predicts the fMRI pattern when nouns are considered thus supporting the view that nouns derive their meaning from prior experience linked to a common symbol.

## संगणक विज्ञान 
In संगणक विज्ञान, where it is considered as an application of mathematical logic, semantics reflects the meaning of programs or functions.

In this regard, semantics permits programs to be separated into their syntactical part (grammatical structure) and their semantic part (meaning). For instance, the following statements use different syntaxes, but issue the same instructions:
* x += y (C, Java, Python, etc.)
* x := x + y (Pascal)
* Let x = x + y (early BASIC)
* x = x + y (most BASIC dialects, Fortran)
* (incf x y) (Common Lisp)
Generally these operations would all perform an arithmetical addition of 'y' to 'x' and store the result in a variable called 'x'.

Semantics for computer applications falls into three categories:
* Operational semantics: The meaning of a construct is specified by the computation it induces when it is executed on a machine. In particular, it is of interest *how* the effect of a computation is produced.
* Denotational semantics: Meanings are modelled by mathematical objects that represent the effect of executing the constructs. Thus *only* the effect is of interest, not how it is obtained.
* Axiomatic semantics: Specific properties of the effect of executing the constructs as expressed as *assertions*. Thus there may be aspects of the executions that are ignored.

The Semantic Web refers to the extension of the World Wide Web through the embedding of additional semantic metadata; s.a. Web Ontology Language (OWL).

## मानसशास्त्र Psychology 
In psychology, *semantic memory* is memory for meaning, in other words, the aspect of memory that preserves only the *gist*, the general significance, of remembered experience, while episodic memory is memory for the ephemeral details, the individual features, or the unique particulars of experience. Word meaning is measured by the company they keep; the relationships among words themselves in a semantic network. In a network created by people analyzing their understanding of the word (such as Wordnet) the links and decomposition structures of the network are few in number and kind; and include "part of", "kind of", and similar links. In automated ontologies the links are computed vectors without explicit meaning. Various automated technologies are being developed to compute the meaning of words: latent semantic indexing and support vector machines as well as natural language processing, neural networks and predicate calculus techniques.

## हे सुद्धा पहाहे सुद्धा पहा 
### शब्दार्थशास्त्रातील महत्त्वपूर्ण योगदान Major contributors in the field of Semantics 
* Gottlob Frege
* Bertrand Russell
* Alfred Tarski
* Rudolf Carnap
* P.F. Strawson
* H.P. Grice
* J.L. Austin
* John Searle
* Charles E. Osgood
* Saul Kripke
* John Perry

* Noam Chomsky
* Barbara Partee
* David Kaplan
* Jürgen Habermas
* Ray Jackendoff
* Richard Montague
* Charles Sanders Peirce

* Benjamin Whorf
* S. I. Hayakawa
* Alfred Korzybski
* Ludwig Wittgenstein
* George Lakoff
* W.V.O. Quine
* Donald Davidson (philosopher)
* Michael Dummett

### भाषाशास्त्र आणि शब्दार्थशास्त्र Linguistics and semiotics 
* Asemic writing
* Colorless green ideas sleep furiously
* Computational semantics
* Discourse representation theory
* General semantics
* Hermeneutics
* Natural semantic metalanguage
* Onomasiology
* Pragmatic maxim
* Pragmaticism
* Pragmatism
* Semantic change

* Semantic class
* Semantic feature
* Semantic field
* Semantic lexicon
* Semantic progression
* Semantic property
* Semeiotic
* Sememe
* Semiosis
* Semiotics
* Problem of universals
* Analysis of subjective logics

### तर्कशास्त्र आणि गणित 
* Formal logic
* Game semantics
* Model theory
* Proof-theoretic semantics
* Semantics of logic
* Semantic consequence
* Semantic theory of truth
* Truth-value semantics

### संगणक विज्ञान 
* Formal semantics of programming languages
* Knowledge representation
* Semantic HTML
* Semantic integration
* Semantic link
* Semantic service oriented architecture
* Semantic spectrum
* Semantic analysis
* Semantic Reasoner
* Semantic interpretation
* Semantic Unification
* Semantic Web
## लेखात प्रयूक्त संज्ञा 
### शब्दाचा विशेष संदर्भ/अर्थ छटा 
## इंग्रजी मराठी  संज्ञा 
## संदर्भ 
## बाह्य दुवे 
* semanticsarchive.net
* Teaching page for A-level semantics 
* Noam Chomsky, On Referring, Harvard University, 30 October 2007(video) 
* Ray Jackendoff, Conceptual Semantics, Harvard University,13 November 2007(video) 
* Semantic Systems Biology