ភាសាបាលី

[[ឯកសារ:Sanskrit-Pali Faulmann Gesch T10.jpg|thumb|350px|Plate 10 from C. Faulmann: [Illustrirte Geschichte der Schrift](http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Illustrirte_Geschichte_der_Schrift_(Faulmann)) (1880). The upper half shows a text in Sanskrit (praise of Vishnu), written in Devanagari. For the script, while the lower half shows a text in Pali  from a Buddhist ceremonial scripture called "Kammuwa" from Burma (probably in old Mon script). [pp.485f.](http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Illustrirte_Geschichte_der_Schrift_(Faulmann)_554.jpg) of that book.]]
**បាលី** (**Pāi**)គឺជាភាសាឥណ្ឌូ-អារ្យមជ្ឈិមមួយ (ឬ ប្រាក្រឹត) នៃឧបទ្វីបឥណ្ឌា ។ បាលីជាភាសាបុរាណមួយបែប ដែលមនុស្សជំនាន់​​ដើម​និយាយ​ទាក់ទងគ្នា ។ មនុស្ស​ខ្លះ​និយម​ហៅ​ភាសា​បាលី​ថា​ជា​ភាសារបស់ព្រះពុទ្ធ។ សព្វថ្ងៃ គេឃើញមានភាសានេះនៅក្នុងក្បួនច្បាប់មួយចំនួនធំ ដូចជាក្នុងព្រះពុទ្ធ​វចនៈ (ព្រះត្រៃបិដក) ជាដើម​ និង មាន​ពុទ្ធបរិស័ទខាងនិកាយ​ថេរវាទ​យក​ទៅ​ប្រើ​តាម​ប្រទេស​រៀង​ខ្លួន ។

## ដើមកំណើត និង ការប្រែក្លាយ 
### និរុត្តិសាស្ត្រនៃឈ្មោះ 
ពាក្យថា *បាលី* បានសេចក្តីថា ជួរ ឬដងព្រៃ ,ស្ពាន , របៀប , ភាសាដ៏មានរបៀបមួយ ។ This name for the language seems to have its origins in commentarial traditions, wherein the *Pali* (in the sense of the line of original text quoted) was distinguished from the commentary or vernacular translation that followed it in the manuscript. As such, the name of the language has caused some debate among scholars of all ages; the spelling of the name also varies, being found with both long "ā"  and short "a" , and also with either a retroflex  or non-retroflex  "l" sound, as in the ISO 15919/ALA-LC rendering, **Pāli**. To this day, there is no single, standard spelling of the term; all four spellings can be found in textbooks. R.C. Childers translates the word as "series" and states that the language "bears the epithet in consequence of the perfection of its grammatical structure".

### ចំណាត់ថ្នាក់ 
Pali is a literary language of the Prakrit language family. When the canonical texts were written down in Sri Lanka in the first century BCE, Pali stood close to a living language; this is not the case for the commentaries. Despite excellent scholarship on this problem, there is persistent confusion as to the relation of  to the vernacular spoken in the ancient kingdom of Magadha, which was located around modern-day Bihār.

Pali as a Middle Indo-Aryan language is different from Sanskrit not so much with regard to the time of its origin as to its dialectal base, since a number of its morphological and lexical features betray the fact that it is not a direct continuation of  Vedic Sanskrit; rather it descends from a dialect (or a number of dialects) that was, despite many similarities, different from .

### ប្រវត្តិដើម 
#### នៅក្នុងពុទ្ធសាសនាថេរវាទ 
នៅក្នុងប្រភពនៃ ថេរវាទ ត្រូវបានស្គាល់ភាសាបាលីជាភាសា **មគធៈ** (Magadha). ភាសានេះត្រូវបានសរសេរនៅក្នុងព្រះត្រៃបិដក, អដ្ឋកថា ជាដើម, ហើយ​នឹង​ត្រូវ​បាន​ព្យាយាម​ប្រើ​ប្រាស់​ដោយ​ពុទ្ធ​សាសនិក​ជន​​ជា​ច្រើន ដើម្បី​ងាយ​ស្រួល​ក្នុង​ការ​ប្រាស្រ័យ​ទាក់​ទង​នឹង​សាសន៍​ដទៃ​ដែល​​កាន់​​ព្រះពុទ្ធ​សាសនា​ដូចគ្នា ។ ព្រះ​ពុទ្ធ​បង្រៀន, ប្រទាន​ឱវាទ ដល់​ជន​ទាំង​ឡាយ​ជា​ភាសា​មគធៈ ប៉ុន្តែ​ទី​ស្ថាន​សំខាន់​ៗ​ ៤ ​កន្លែង​របស់​ព្រះអង្គ​ ស្ថិត​នៅ​ក្រៅ​តំបន់​នេះ​ទាំង​អស់ ។ វា​ប្រហែល​ជា​ភាសា​បាលី​ជា​គ្រាម​ភាសា​ដែល​ធ្វើ​អោយ​​មាន​ការ​ងាយ​ស្រួល​ក្នុង​ការ​ពន្យល់​ និង ​ងាយ​យល់​ពីសំណាក់​ប្រជាជន ឥណ្ឌូអារ្យមជ្ឈិម ។ គេ​ពុំ​ទាន់​ឃើញ​មាន​​ភស្តុតាង​​ណា​មួយ​ដែល​អាច​បញ្ជាក់ពីភាសា​ដទៃ​របស់​ពួក​ ឥណ្ឌូអារ្យមជ្ឈិម​ ដែល​ប្រសើរ​​ជាង​​ភាសា​បាលី​ទេ ។ គេ​ឃើញ​មាន​​ភាសា​បាលី​នៅ​ក្នុង​សិលា​ចារឹក​​ជា​ច្រើន​​របស់​ព្រះបាទ​អសោកនៅ ​Girnar​ ផ្នែកខាងលិចប្រទេសឥណ្ឌា, និង c នៅខាងកើត ។ Similarities to the Western inscription may be misleading, because the inscription suggests that the Ashokan scribe may not have translated the material he omreceived from មគធៈ into the vernacular of the people there. Whatever the relationship of the Buddha's speech to Pali, the Canon was eventually transcribed and preserved entirely in it, while the commentarial tradition that accompanied it (according to the information provided by ព្រះពុទ្ធឃោសៈ) was translated into olkភាសាសីហឡៈ and preserved  local languages for several generations.

In Sri Lanka, Pali is thought to have entered into a period of decline ending around the 4th or 5th century (as Sanskrit rose in prominence, and simultaneously, as Buddhism's adherents became a smaller portion of the subcontinent), but ultimately survived. The work of Buddhaghosa was largely responsible for its reemergence as an important scholarly language in Buddhist thought. The Visuddhimagga and the other commentaries that Buddhaghosa compiled codified and condensed the Sinhalese commentarial tradition that had been preserved and expanded in Sri Lanka since the 3rd century BCE.

#### ទិដ្ឋភាពនៅដើមបស្ចឹម 
T.W. Rhys Davids in his book *Buddhist India*, and Wilhelm Geiger in his book *Pali Literature and Language*, suggested that Pali may have originated as a form of lingua franca or common language of culture among people who used differing dialects in North India, used at the time of the Buddha and employed by him. Another scholar states that at that time it was "a refined and elegant vernacular of all Aryan-speaking people." Modern scholarship has not arrived at a consensus on the issue; there are a variety of conflicting theories with supporters and detractors. After the death of the Buddha, Pali may have evolved among Buddhists out of the language of the Buddha as a new artificial language. R.C. Childers, who held to the theory that Pali was Old Magadhi, wrote: "Had Gautama never preached, it is unlikely that Magadhese would have been distinguished from the many other vernaculars of Hindustan, except perhaps by an inherent grace and strength which make it a sort of Tuscan among the Prakrits."

According to K.R. Norman, it is likely that the viharas in North India had separate collections of material, preserved in the local dialect. In the early period it is likely that no degree of translation was necessary in communicating this material to other areas. Around the time of Ashoka there had been more linguistic divergence, and an attempt was made to assemble all the material. It is possible that a language quite close to the Pali of the canon emerged as a result of this process as a compromise of the various dialects in which the earliest material had been preserved, and this language functioned as a lingua franca among Eastern Buddhists in India from then on. Following this period, the language underwent a small degree of Sanskritisation (i.e., MIA bamhana -> brahmana, tta -> tva in some cases).

#### Modern scholarship 
Bhikkhu Bodhi, summarizing the current state of scholarship, states that the language is "closely related to the language (or, more likely, the various regional dialects) that the Buddha himself spoke." He goes on to write:

According to A.K. Warder, the Pali language is a Prakrit language used in a region of western India. Warder associates Pali with the Indian realm (*janapada*) of Avanti, where the Sthavira sect was centered. Following the initial split in the Buddhist community, the Sthavira branch of Buddhism became influential in western and southern India, while the Mahāsāṃghika branch became influential in central and eastern India. Akira Hirakawa and Paul Groner also associate Pali with west India and the Sthavira sect, citing inscriptions at Girnar in Gujarat, India, which are linguistically closest to the Pali language.

### បច្ចុប្បន្នភាពនៃភាសាបាលី 
បច្ចុប្បន្ននេះ មុខវិជ្ជាភាសាបាលីត្រូវបានបញ្ចូល​ក្នុង​ផ្នែកពុទ្ធសាសនា ដើម្បីអោយ​ពុទ្ធ​សាសនិក​ជន​មាន​ភាព​ងាយ​ស្រូល​ក្នុង​ការ​អាន​គម្ពីរ និង​សូត្រ​នមស្សការជា​ប្រចាំ​រាល់​ថ្ងៃ។  ក្រៅពី​ខាង​ផ្នែក​សាសនា, ​អក្សរសាស្ត្រ កាលប្បវត្តិជាភាសាបាលី, ឯកសារ​ខាង​វិជ្ជាពេទ្យ​ និង​អក្សរ​ចារឹក​មួយ​ចំនួន គឺជា​ប្រវត្តិសាស្ត្រយ៉ាង​សំខាន់​ផង​ដែរ ។ មជ្ឈមណ្ឌល​រៀន​ភាសា​បាលីដែល​គួរ​អោយ​កត់​សំគាល់​ក្នុង​ពេល​បច្ចុប្បន្ន​នេះ​ គឺ​មា​ននៅ​តែ​ក្នុង​ពុទ្ធ​សាសនា​ថេរវាទ នៅ​ប្រទេស​អាស៊ីអាគ្នេយ៍មាន​ដូច​ជា: ភូមា, ស្រីលង្កា, ថៃ, ឡាវ, និង កម្ពុជា។ ចាប់​តាំង​ពី​សតវត្យ​ទី​១៩, various societies for the revival of Pali studies in India have promoted awareness of the language and its literature, perhaps most notably the Maha Bodhi Society founded by Anagarika Dhammapala.

In Europe, the Pali Text Society has been a major force in promoting the study of Pali by Western scholars since its founding in 1881. Based in the United Kingdom, the society publishes romanized Pali editions, along with many English translations of these sources. In 1869, the first *Pali Dictionary* was published using the research of Robert Caesar Childers, one of the founding members of the Pali Text Society. It was the first Pali translated text in English and was published in 1872. Childers's dictionary later received the Volney Prize in 1876.

The Pali Text Society was in part founded to compensate for the very low level of funds allocated to Indology in late 19th-century England and the rest of the UK; incongruously, the citizens of the UK were not nearly so robust in Sanskrit and Prakrit language studies as Germany, Russia, and even Denmark. Without the inspiration of colonial holdings such as the former British occupation of Sri Lanka and Burma, institutions such as the Danish Royal Library have built up major collections of Pali manuscripts, and major traditions of Pali studies.

## Lexicon 
Virtually every word in  has cognates in the other Prakritic Middle Indo-Aryan languages, e.g., the Jain Prakrits.  The relationship to earlier Sanskrit (e.g., Vedic language) is less direct and more complicated. Historically, influence between Pali and Sanskrit has been felt in both directions.  The Pali language's resemblance to Sanskrit is often exaggerated by comparing it to later Sanskrit compositions which were written centuries after Sanskrit ceased to be a living language, and are influenced by developments in Middle Indic, including the direct borrowing of a portion of the Middle Indic lexicon; whereas, a good deal of later Pali technical terminology has been borrowed from the vocabulary of equivalent disciplines in Sanskrit, either directly or with certain phonological adaptations.

Post-canonical Pali also possesses a few loan-words from local languages where Pali was used (e.g. Sri Lankans adding Sinhalese words to Pali).  These usages differentiate the Pali found in the [[Sutta Pitaka|]] from later compositions such as the Pali commentaries on the canon and  folklore (e.g., the stories of the Jātaka commentaries), and comparative study (and dating) of texts on the basis of such loan-words is now a specialized field unto itself.

ភាសាបាលីមិនត្រូវបានប្រើទាំងស្រុងដើម្បីបង្ហាញការប្រៀនប្រដៅរបស់ព្រះសម្មាសម្ពុទ្ធទេ ដូចដែលអាចសន្និដ្ឋានបានពីអត្ថិភាពនៃអត្ថបទខាងលោកិយមួយចំនួនដូចជា សៀវភៅវិទ្យាសាស្ត្រវេជ្ជសាស្រ្ត/ការណែនាំជាភាសាបាលី។ ទោះជាយ៉ាងណាក៏ដោយ ការចាប់អារម្មណ៍របស់អ្នកប្រាជ្ញលើភាសាត្រូវបានផ្តោតលើអក្សរសិល្ប៍សាសនា និងទស្សនវិជ្ជា ដោយសារតែបង្អួចតែមួយគត់ដែលវាបើកក្នុងដំណាក់កាលមួយក្នុងការអភិវឌ្ឍន៍ព្រះពុទ្ធសាសនា។

## Emic views of Pali 
Although Sanskrit was said in the Brahmanical tradition to be the unchanging language spoken by the gods, in which each word had an inherent significance, this view of language was not shared in the early Buddhist tradition, in which words were only conventional and mutable signs.  Neither the Buddha nor his early followers shared the Brahmins' reverence for the Vedic language or its sacred texts.  This view of language naturally extended to Pali, and may have contributed to its usage (as an approximation or standardization of local Middle Indic dialects) in place of Sanskrit. However, by the time of the compilation of the Pali commentaries (4th or 5th century), Pali was regarded as the natural language, the root language of all beings.

Comparable to Ancient Egyptian, Latin or Hebrew in the mystic traditions of the West, Pali recitations were often thought to have a supernatural power (which could be attributed to their meaning, the character of the reciter, or the qualities of the language itself), and in the early strata of Buddhist literature we can already see Pali [[dharani|]]s used as charms, e.g. against the bite of snakes. Many people in Theravada cultures still believe that taking a vow in Pali has a special significance, and, as one example of the supernatural power assigned to chanting in the language, the recitation of the vows of [[Angulimala|]] are believed to alleviate the pain of childbirth in Sri Lanka.  In Thailand, the chanting of a portion of the [[Abhidhamma|]] is believed to be beneficial to the recently departed, and this ceremony routinely occupies as much as seven working days.  Interestingly, there is nothing in the latter text that relates to this subject, and the origins of the custom are unclear.

## សូរវិទ្យា 
With regard to its phonology, R.C. Childers compared Pali to Italian: "Like Italian, Pali is at once flowing and sonorous: it is a characteristic of both languages that nearly every word ends in a vowel, and that all harsh conjunctions are softened down by assimilation, elision, or crasis, while on the other hand both lend themselves easily to the expression of sublime and vigorous thought."

### ស្រៈ 
Long and short vowels are only contrastive in open syllables; in closed syllables, all vowels are always short.  Short and long **e** and **o** are in complementary distribution: the short variants occur only in closed syllables, the long variants occur only in open syllables.  Short and long **e** and **o** are therefore not distinct phonemes.

A sound called *anusvāra* (Skt.; Pali: *nigghahita*), represented by the letter '*** (ISO 15919) or **** (ALA-LC) in romanization, and by a raised dot in most traditional alphabets, originally marked the fact that the preceding vowel was nasalized. That is, ****, **** and **** represented ,  and .  In many traditional pronunciations, however, the anusvāra is pronounced more strongly, like the velar nasal , so that these sounds are pronounced instead ,  and .  However pronounced, **** never follows a long vowel; **ā, ī** and **ū** are converted to the corresponding short vowels when  is added to a stem ending in a long vowel, e.g. **** becomes ****, not , **** becomes ****, not *.

### ព្យញ្ជនៈ 
The table below lists the consonants of Pali. In bold is the transliteration of the letter in traditional romanization, and in square brackets its pronunciation transcribed in the IPA.

Of the sounds listed above only the three consonants in parentheses, **ṅ**, **ḷ**, and **ḷh**, are not distinct phonemes in Pali: **ṅ** only occurs before velar stops and **ḷ**, and **ḷh** are allophones of single **ḍ**, and **ḍh*' between vowels.

## រូបសព្ទ 
ស្ទើរតែគ្រប់ពាក្យទាំងអស់ក្នុងភាសាបាលី​ត្រូវបាន​ផ្លាស់​ប្តូរទំរង់​ដើម សម្រាប់ប្រើក្នុងការ​តភ្ជាប់ពាក្យដើម្បី​អោយ​មានន័យ​អាច​ស្តាប់បាន។ គេអាច​យល់​ន័យ​នៅក្នុង​ប្រយោគ​នីមួយៗដោយ​ការ​សំគាល់​លើពាក្យដែលត្រូវ​បាន​បំលែងទាំងនោះ ឧទាហរណ៍ ដូចជា គេ​អាច​ស្គាល់​ប្រធាន ឬស្គាល់កាល តាមរយៈការបំបែក​កិរិយាសព្ទក្នុង​ប្រយោគនោះ ជាដើម។​
### នាមសព្ទ 
ភេទសម្រាប់​សំគាល់​នាមសព្ទ​នៅក្នុងវេយ្យាករណ៍​បាលី មានបី​គឺ បុំលិង្គ (ភេទប្រុស), ឥត្ថីលិង្គ (ភេទស្រី), នបុំសកលិង្គ (ភេទខ្ទើយ ឬភេទមិនប្រុសមិនស្រី)។ នាមនេះ​ត្រូវ​បានបែងចែង​ជាពីរ គឺ ឯកវចនៈ និងពហុវចនៈ។ ម្យ៉ាងទៀត នៅពេល​ប្រើជាប្រយោគ​មួយៗ នាមសព្ទនេះ​ត្រូវបាន​បំបែកដើម្បី​បញ្ជាក់ន័យ​អោយ​ប្រធាន ឬកម្មបទ ដើម្បី​អោយ​​មានសេចក្តី​​ស្តាប់បាន ដែលគេហៅថាវិភត្តិ។ វិភត្តិនេះត្រូវបានចែកជា៨ប្រភេទគឺ បឋមា(ប្រធាន), ទុតិយា(កម្មបទ),តតិយា(អកម្ម,ធ្នាក់), ចតុត្ថី(កម្មបទប្រយោល), បញ្ចមី(ទំរង់បែងចែក), ឆដ្ឋី(បញ្ជាក់កម្មសិទ្ធ), សត្តមី(អាយតនិបាត), អាលបន(សម្ពោធន)។ 
#### អ-ការន្ត 
អ-ការន្ត គឺជាស្រៈទីបំផុតមួយនៃនាមសព្ទដែលប្រព្រឹត្តទៅក្នុងបុំលិង្គ (ភេទប្រុស) និង នបុំសកលិង្គ (ភេទខ្ទើយ)។ គេសំគាល់"អ-ការន្ត" បានដោយពាក្យមាន"អ" (ៈ)នៅ​ខាង​ចុង មាន​ដូច​ជា បុរិស(បុ.រិ.សៈ), លោក(លោកៈ), ធម្ម(ធម្មៈ)ជា​ដើម។ នាម​សព្ទ​ដែល​ជា​ភេទ​ប្រុស និងភេទ​ខ្ទើយ​នេះ មាន​លក្ខណៈ​ខុស​គ្នា​តែនៅ​ក្នុង​សព្វ​នាម, អាលបនៈ, និង​កម្មបទ​ប៉ុណ្ណោះ។

#### អា-ការន្ត 
នាមដែលបញ្ចប់ដោយ "អា" (ា) ភាគច្រើនជាឥត្ថីលិង្គ។ 

#### ឥ-ការន្ត និង ឧ-ការន្ត 
ឥ-ការន្ត និង ឧ-ការន្ត ភាគច្រើនជាបុំលិង្គ(ភេទប្រុស) ឬ នបុំសកលិង្គ(ភេទមិនប្រុស មិនស្រី)។ នាមដែលបំបែកក្នុងទំរង់ (ភេទ) ទាំង​ពីរ​នេះខុសគ្នាតែ​​សព្វនាម និង​កម្មបទ។ ចំណែក​ឯ​អាលបនៈដូចគ្នាទៅនឹង​សព្វនាម។

## ការវិភាគអត្ថបទក្នុងភាសាបាលី 
ខាងក្រោមនេះជាគាថាដកស្រង់ពី គាថាធម្មបទ:

:*មនោបុព្វង្គមា ធម្មា , មនោសេដ្ឋា មនោមយា;*
:*មនសា ចេ បទុដ្ឋេន , ភាសតិ វា ករោតិ វា ,*
:*តតោ នំ ទុក្ខមន្វេតិ , ចក្កំវ វហតោ បទំ។*

ការប្រែពាក្យ:
:មនោ = ចិត្ត, បុព្វ=មុន, គមា=ទៅ, ធម្មា=ធម៌;
:សេដ្ឋ= ប្រសើរបំផុត, មយា=ធ្វើ(សម្រេច);
:មនសា=ចិត្ត, ចេ= បើ, បទុដ្ឋេន=គឺទោសប្រទូស្ត, ភាសតិ=និយាយ, វា=ក្តី, ករោតិ=ធ្វើ;
:តតោ នំ=ព្រោះអំពើនោះ, ទុក្ខមន្វេតិ= ទុក្ខតាម, ចក្ក=កង់(កាំ), វហតោ=នាំទៅ, បទ=ស្នាមជើង

ប្រែថា:
:**មនោបុព្វង្គមា ធម្មា, មនោសេដ្ឋា មនោមយា**;
:ធម៌ទាំងឡាយមានចិត្តជាធំ, មានចិត្តប្រសើរបំផុត សម្រេចមកពីចិត្ត
:
:**មនសា ចេ បទុដ្ឋេន, ភាសតិ វា ករោតិ វា**,
:បើបុគ្គលមានចិត្តត្រូវទោសប្រទូស្តរ៉ាយហើយ, ទោះបីនិយាយក្តី ធ្វើក្តី (ក៏អាក្រក់ដែរ)
:
:**តតោ នំ ទុក្ខមន្វេតិ, ចក្កំវ វហតោ បទំ**.
:ព្រោះអំពើអាក្រក់នោះឯង, សេចក្តីទុក្ខរមែងដេញជាប់​តាមក្រោយបុគ្គលនោះដូចកង់រទេះវិលតាមស្នាមជើងគោដែលអូសនឹមរទេះនោះ។

## បាលី និងអឌ្ឍមគធី 
The most archaic of the Middle Indo-Aryan languages are the inscriptional Aśokan Prakrit on the one hand and បាលី and អឌ្ឍមគធី on the other, both literary languages.

The Indo-Aryan languages are commonly assigned to three major groups - Old, Middle and New Indo-Aryan -, a linguistic and not strictly chronological classification as the MIA languages are not younger than ('Classical') Sanskrit. And a number of their morphophonological and lexical features betray the fact that they are not direct continuations of Ṛgvedic Sanskrit, the main base of 'Classical' Sanskrit; rather they descend from dialects which, despite many similarities, were different from Ṛgvedic and in some regards even more archaic.

MIA languages, though individually distinct, share features of phonology and morphology which characterize them as parallel descendants of Old Indo-Aryan. Various sound changes are typical of the MIA phonology:

(1) The vocalic liquids 'ṛ' and 'ḷ' are replaced by 'a', 'i' or 'u';
(2) the diphthongs 'ai' and 'au' are monophthongized to 'e' and 'o';
(3) long vowels before two or more consonants are shortened;
(4) the three sibilants of OIA are reduced to one, either 'ś' or 's';
(5) the often complex consonant clusters of OIA are reduced to more readily pronounceable forms, either by assimilation or by splitting;
(6) single intervocalic stops are progressively weakened;
(7) dentals are palatalized by a following '-y-';
(8) all final consonants except '-ṃ' are dropped unless they are retained in 'sandhi' junctions.

The most conspicuous features of the morphological system of these languages are: loss of the dual; thematicization of consonantal stems; merger of the f. 'i-/u-' and 'ī-/ū-' in one 'ī-/ū-' inflexion, elimination of the dative, whose functions are taken over by the genitive, simultaneous use of different case-endings in one paradigm; employment of 'mahyaṃ' and 'tubhyaṃ' as genitives and 'me' and 'te' as instrumentals; gradual disappearance of the middle voice; coexistence of historical and new verbal forms based on the present stem; and use of active endings for the passive. In the vocabulary, the MIA languages are mostly dependent on Old Indo-Aryan, with addition of a few so-called 'deśī' words of (often) uncertain origin.

## គីតសទ្ទោ 
Although Pali cannot be considered a direct descendant of either Classical Sanskrit or of the older Vedic dialect , the languages are obviously very closely related and the common characteristics of Pali and Sanskrit were always easily recognized by those in India who were familiar with both.  Indeed, a very large proportion of Pali and Sanskrit word-stems are identical in form, differing only in details of inflection.

The connections were sufficiently well-known that technical terms from Sanskrit were easily converted into Pali by a set of conventional phonological transformations.  These transformations mimicked a subset of the phonological developments that had occurred in Proto-Pali.  Because of the prevalence of these transformations, it is not always possible to tell whether a given Pali word is a part of the old Prakrit lexicon, or a transformed borrowing from Sanskrit.  The existence of a Sanskrit word regularly corresponding to a Pali word is not always secure evidence of the Pali etymology, since, in some cases, artificial Sanskrit words were created by back-formation from Prakrit words.

The following phonological processes are not intended as an exhaustive description of the historical changes which produced Pali from its Old Indic ancestor, but rather are a summary of the most common phonological equations between Sanskrit and Pali, with no claim to completeness.

### ស្រៈ និង ស្រៈផ្សំ 
*Sanskrit **ai** and **au** always monophthongize to Pali **e** and **o**, respectively
::Examples: **maitrī** → **mettā**, **auṣadha** → **osadha**
*Sanskrit **aya** and **ava** likewise often reduce to Pali **e** and **o**
::Examples: **dhārayati** → **dhāreti**, **avatāra** → **otāra**, **bhavati** → **hoti**
*Sanskrit **avi** becomes Pali **e** (i.e. **avi** → **ai** → **e**)
::Example: **sthavira** → **thera**
*Sanskrit **ṛ** appears in Pali as **a**, **i** or **u**, often agreeing with the vowel in the following syllable. **ṛ** also sometimes becomes **u** after labial consonants.
::Examples: **kṛta** → **kata**, **tṛṣṇa** → **taṇha**, **smṛti** → **sati**, **ṛṣi** → **isi**,  **dṛṣṭi** → **diṭṭhi**, **ṛddhi** → **iddhi**, **ṛju** → **uju**, **spṛṣṭa** → **phuṭṭha**, **vṛddha** → **vuddha**

*Sanskrit long vowels are shortened before a sequence of two following consonants.
::Examples: **kṣānti** → **khanti**, **rājya** → **rajja**, **īśvara** → **issara**, **tīrṇa** → **tiṇṇa**,  **pūrva** → **pubba**

### ព្យញ្ជនៈ 
#### បម្រែបម្រួលសម្លេង 
*The Sanskrit sibilants **ś**, **ṣ**, and **s** merge together as Pali **s**
::Examples: **śaraṇa** → **saraṇa**, **doṣa** → **dosa**
*The Sanskrit stops **ḍ** and **ḍh** become **ḷ** and **ḷh** between vowels (as in Vedic)
::Example: **cakravāḍa** → **cakkavāḷa**, **virūḍha** → **virūḷha**

#### Assimilations 
##### ក្បួនច្បាប់ទូទៅ 
*Many assimilations of one consonant to a neighboring consonant occurred in the development of Pali, producing a large number of geminate (double) consonants. Since aspiration of a geminate consonant is only phonetically detectable on the last consonant of a cluster, geminate **kh, gh, ch, jh, ṭh, ḍh, th, dh, ph** and **bh** appear as **kkh, ggh, cch, jjh, ṭṭh, ḍḍh, tth, ddh, pph** and **bbh**, not as *khkh, ghgh* etc.
*When assimilation would produce a geminate consonant (or a sequence of unaspirated stop+aspirated stop) at the beginning of a word, the initial geminate is simplified to a single consonant.
::Examples: **prāṇa** → **pāṇa** (not *ppāṇa*), **sthavira** → **thera** (not *tthera*), **dhyāna** → **jhāna** (not *jjhāna*), **jñāti** → **ñāti** (not *ññāti*)
*When assimilation would produce a sequence of three consonants in the middle of a word, geminates are simplified until there are only two consonants in sequence.
::Examples: **uttrāsa** → **uttāsa** (not *utttāsa*), **mantra** → **manta** (not *mantta*), **indra** → **inda** (not *indda*), **vandhya** → **vañjha** (not *vañjjha*)
*The sequence **vv** resulting from assimilation changes to **bb**
::Example: **sarva** → savva → **sabba**, **pravrajati** → pavvajati → **pabbajati**, **divya** → divva → **dibba**

##### Total assimilation 
Total assimilation, where one sound becomes identical to a neighboring sound, is of two types: progressive, where the assimilated sound becomes identical to the following sound; and regressive, where it becomes identical to the preceding sound.

###### Progressive assimilations 
*Internal visarga assimilates to a following voiceless stop or sibilant
::Examples: **duḥkṛta** → **dukkata**, **duḥkha** → **dukkha**, **duḥprajña** → **duppañña**, **niḥkrodha** (=**niṣkrodha**) → **nikkodha**, **niḥpakva** (=**niṣpakva**) → **nippakka**, **niḥśoka** → **nissoka**, **niḥsattva** → **nissatta**
*In a sequence of two dissimilar Sanskrit stops, the first stop assimilates to the second stop
::Examples: **vimukti** → **vimutti**, **dugdha** → **duddha**, **utpāda** → **uppāda**, **pudgala** → **puggala**, **udghoṣa** → **ugghosa**, **adbhuta** → **abbhuta**, **śabda** → **sadda**
*In a sequence of two dissimilar nasals, the first nasal assimilates to the second nasal
::Example: **unmatta** → **ummatta**, **pradyumna** → **pajjunna**
***j** assimilates to a following **ñ** (i.e., **jñ** becomes **ññ**)
::Examples: **prajñā** → **paññā**, **jñāti** → **ñāti**
*The Sanskrit liquid consonants **r** and **l** assimilate to a following stop, nasal, sibilant, or **v**
::Examples: **mārga** → **magga**, **karma** → **kamma**, **varṣa** → **vassa**, **kalpa** → **kappa**, **sarva** → savva → **sabba**
***r** assimilates to a following **l**
::Examples: **durlabha** → **dullabha**, **nirlopa** → **nillopa**
***d** sometimes assimilates to a following **v**, producing vv → **bb**
::Examples: **udvigna** → uvvigga → **ubbigga**, **dvādaśa** → **bārasa** (beside **dvādasa**)
***t** and **d** may assimilate to a following **s** or **y** when a morpheme boundary intervenes
::Examples: **ut+sava** → **ussava**, **ud+yāna** → **uyyāna**

###### Regressive assimilations 
*Nasals sometimes assimilate to a preceding stop (in other cases epenthesis occurs; see below)
::Examples: **agni** → **aggi**, **ātman** → **atta**, **prāpnoti** → **pappoti**, **śaknoti** → **sakkoti**
***m** assimilates to an initial sibilant
::Examples: **smarati** → **sarati**, **smṛti** → **sati**
*Nasals assimilate to a preceding stop+sibilant cluster, which then develops in the same way as such clusters without following nasals (see **Partial assimilations** below)
::Examples: **tīkṣṇa** → tikṣa → **tikkha**, **lakṣmī** → lakṣī →**lakkhī**
*The Sanskrit liquid consonants **r** and **l** assimilate to a preceding stop, nasal, sibilant, or **v**
::Examples: **prāṇa** → **pāṇa**, **grāma** → **gāma**,  **śrāvaka** → **sāvaka**, **agra** → **agga**, **indra** → **inda**, **pravrajati** → pavvajati → **pabbajati**, **aśru** → **assu**
***y** assimilates to preceding non-dental/retroflex stops or nasals
::Examples: **cyavati** → **cavati**, **jyotiṣ** → **joti**, **rājya** → **rajja**, **matsya** → macchya → **maccha**, **lapsyate** → lacchyate → **lacchati**, **abhyāgata** → **abbhāgata**, **ākhyāti** → **akkhāti**, **saṁkhyā** → **saṅkhā** (but also **saṅkhyā**), **ramya** → **ramma**
***y** assimilates to preceding non-initial **v**, producing vv → **bb**
::Example: **divya** → divva → **dibba**, **veditavya** → veditavva → **veditabba**, **bhāvya** → bhavva → **bhabba**
***y** and **v** assimilate to any preceding sibilant, producing **ss**
::Examples: **paśyati** → **passati**, **śyena** → **sena**, **aśva** → **assa**, **īśvara** → **issara**, **kariṣyati** → **karissati**, **tasya** → **tassa**, **svāmin** → **sāmī**
***v** sometimes assimilates to a preceding stop
::Examples: **pakva** → **pakka**, **catvāri** → **cattāri**, **sattva** → **satta**, **dhvaja** → **dhaja**

##### Partial and mutual assimilation 
*Sanskrit sibilants before a stop assimilate to that stop, and if that stop is not already aspirated, it becomes aspirated; e.g. **śc**, **st**,  **ṣṭ** and **sp** become **cch**, **tth**, **ṭṭh** and **pph**
::Examples: **paścāt** → **pacchā**, **asti** → **atthi**, **stava** → **thava**, **śreṣṭha** → **seṭṭha**, **aṣṭa** → **aṭṭha**, **sparśa** → **phassa**
*In sibilant-stop-liquid sequences, the liquid is assimilated to the preceding consonant, and the cluster behaves like sibilant-stop sequences; e.g. **str** and **ṣṭr** become **tth** and **ṭṭh**
::Examples: **śāstra** → śasta → **sattha**, **rāṣṭra** → raṣṭa → **raṭṭha**
***t** and **p** become **c** before **s**, and the sibilant assimilates to the preceding sound as an aspirate (i.e., the sequences **ts** and **ps** become **cch**)
::Examples: **vatsa** → **vaccha**, **apsaras** → **accharā**
*A sibilant assimilates to a preceding **k** as an aspirate (i.e., the sequence **kṣ** becomes **kkh**)
::Examples: **bhikṣu** → **bhikkhu**, **kṣānti** → **khanti**
*Any dental or retroflex stop or nasal followed by **y** converts to the corresponding palatal sound, and the **y** assimilates to this new consonant, i.e. **ty, thy, dy, dhy, ny** become **cc, cch, jj, jjh, ññ**; likewise **ṇy** becomes **ññ**.  Nasals preceding a stop that becomes palatal share this change.
::Examples: **tyajati** → cyajati → **cajati**, **satya** → sacya → **sacca**, **mithyā** →  michyā → **micchā**, **vidyā** → vijyā →  **vijjā**, **madhya** → majhya → **majjha**, **anya** → añya → **añña**, **puṇya** → puñya → **puñña**, **vandhya** →  vañjhya → vañjjha → **vañjha**
*The sequence **mr** becomes **mb**, via the epenthesis of a stop between the nasal and liquid, followed by assimilation of the liquid to the stop and subsequent simplification of the resulting geminate.
::Examples: **āmra** → ambra → **amba**, **tāmra** → **tamba**

#### Epenthesis 
An epenthetic vowel is sometimes inserted between certain consonant-sequences.  As with **ṛ**, the vowel may be **a**, **i**, or **u**, depending on the influence of a neighboring consonant or of the vowel in the following syllable. **i** is often found near **i**, **y**, or palatal consonants; **u** is found near **u**, **v**, or labial consonants.
*Sequences of stop + nasal are sometimes separated by **a** or **u**
::Example: **ratna** → **ratana**, **padma** → **paduma** (**u** influenced by labial **m**)
*The sequence **sn** may become **sin** initially
::Examples: **snāna** → **sināna**, **sneha** → **sineha**
***i** may be inserted between a consonant and **l**
::Examples: **kleśa** → **kilesa**, **glāna** → **gilāna**, **mlāyati** → **milāyati**, **ślāghati** → **silāghati**
*An epenthetic vowel may be inserted between an initial sibilant and **r**
::Example: **śrī** → **sirī**
*The sequence **ry** generally becomes **riy** (**i** influenced by following **y**), but is still treated as a two-consonant sequence for the purposes of vowel-shortening
::Example: **ārya** → arya → **ariya**, **sūrya** → surya → **suriya**, **vīrya** → virya → **viriya**
***a** or **i** is inserted between **r** and **h**
::Example: **arhati** → **arahati**, **garhā** → **garahā**, **barhiṣ** → **barihisa**
*There is sporadic epenthesis between other consonant sequences
::Examples: **caitya** → **cetiya** (not *cecca*), **vajra** → **vajira** (not *vajja*)

#### Other changes 
*Any Sanskrit sibilant before a nasal becomes a sequence of nasal followed by **h**, i.e. **ṣṇ**, **sn** and **sm** become **ṇh**, **nh**, and **mh**
::Examples: **tṛṣṇa** → **taṇha**, **uṣṇīṣa** → **uṇhīsa**, **asmi** → **amhi**
*The sequence **śn** becomes **ñh**, due to assimilation of the **n** to the preceding palatal sibilant
::Example: **praśna** → praśña → **pañha**
*The sequences **hy** and **hv** undergo metathesis
::Examples: **jihvā** → **jivhā**, **gṛhya** → **gayha**, **guhya** → **guyha**
***h** undergoes metathesis with a following nasal
::Example: **gṛhṇāti** → **gaṇhāti**
***y** is geminated between **e** and a vowel
::Examples: **śreyas** → **seyya**, **Maitreya** → **Metteyya**

*Voiced aspirates such as **bh** and **gh** on rare occasions become **h**
::Examples: **bhavati** → **hoti**, **-ebhiṣ** → **-ehi**, **laghu** → **lahu**
*Dental and retroflex sounds sporadically change into one another
:: Examples: **jñāna** → **ñāṇa** (not *ñāna*), **dahati** → **ḍahati** (beside Pali **dahati**) **nīḍa** → **nīla** (not *nīḷa*), **sthāna** → **ṭhāna** (not *thāna*), **duḥkṛta** → **dukkaṭa** (beside Pali **dukkata**)

### Excptions 
There are several notable exceptions to the rules above; many of them are common Prakrit words rather than borrowings from Sanskrit.
***ārya** → **ayya** (beside **ariya**)
***guru** → **garu** (adj.) (beside **guru** (n.))
***puruṣa** → **purisa** (not *purusa*)
***vṛkṣa** → rukṣa → **rukkha** (not *vakkha*)

## សំណេរបាលី 
### អក្ខរក្រមបាលី 
ស្តេច អសោក (Ashoka) បានសាងសង់សរសរស្តំ (pillar)​ មួយចំនួន ព្រមទាំង​បាន​បញ្ញត្ត (ហាម)​ សរសេរភាសាប្រាក្រឹតតិចបំផុត ៣ តំបន់ ជាអក្សរ​ព្រាហ្មណ៍, ដែលភាសាទាំងនោះស្រដៀងនឹងភាសាបាលី។ តាមការស្រាវជ្រាវ ផ្អែកលើ​ការ​​សាក​សួរ និង សង្កេត, គេជឿថា ព្រះត្រៃបិដក​​បាលី ​​ត្រូវ​បានសរសេរជាភាសាសីហឡ (Sinhala, Sinhalese) មុនគេ ​។  នៅក្នុងគម្ពីរមហាវង្ស (Mahavamsa) (កាលប្បវត្តិនៃ​ប្រទេស​ស្រីលង្កា), កំឡុងពេលមានទុរ្ភិក្ស (កង្វះ​អាហារ) ក្នុង​ប្រទេស, ព្រះសង្ឃជាសាវ័កនៃព្រះពុទ្ធ បានចារព្រះត្រៃបិដក ក្នុងកំឡុងរាជ នៃ​ស្តេច វដ្តគាមនី អភយៈ (Vattagamani Abhaya) ក្នុងពុទ្ធសករាជ ៤៤៤ (១០០ ឆ្នាំ មុនគ្រិស្ត​សករាជ) ។ ការ​សរសេរ​បាលី ​ត្រូវ​បាន​ថែ​រក្សា​ក្នុងប្រព័ន្ធអក្សរ​សកល តែ​វា​ត្រូវ​បាន​បញ្ជាក់​ពី​តម្លៃ​ជាក់​ស្តែង​គួរ​ឲ្យ​ភ្ញាក់​ផ្អើល​នៃ​អក្សរ​ដទៃ ៗ ។

ប្រទេស​កាន់​តាម​ពុទ្ធសាសនា​និកាយ​ថេរវាទ​នីមួយៗ បាន​កត់ត្រា​សំនៀង​អត្ថបទបាលី​ក្នុង​​ព្រះត្រ័យបិដក​ដោយ​ប្រើ​អក្សរ​នៃ​ជាតិ​របស់​ខ្លួន ដែល​ធ្វើ​ឲ្យ​មាន​សំនឿង​អាន​ ខុស​ប្លែក​ពី​គ្នា​ខ្លះ​ៗ ។ នៅប្រទេសកម្ពុជា អត្ថបទបាលីត្រូវបានសរសេរជាអក្សរ​ខ្មែរ, ប្រទេសស្រីលង្កា ប្រើ​អក្សរ​សីហឡ, នៅ​ប្រទេស​ភូមា (មីយ៉ាន់ម៉ា) ប្រើ​អក្សរ​មន, នៅ​ប្រទេសថៃ​ ប្រើ​​អក្សរ​ថៃ(ឆ្នាំ ១៨៩៣), នៅ​ប្រទេស​ឡាវ ប្រើ​អក្សរ​ឡាវ, នៅ​ប្រទេស​ឥណ្ឌា ប្រើ​ទេវនាគរី(Devanāgarī)។ 

ចាប់តាំងពីសតវត្យទី ១៩, ភាសាបាលីត្រូវបានសរសេរជាអក្សរ​ឡាតាំង (Latin) ទុក​ជា​គោល​សម្រាប់​ផ្ទៀង​ផ្ទាត់ និង​ សម្រាប់​អ្នក​សិក្សាស្រាវជ្រាវ ទូទៅ ។  An alternate scheme devised by Frans Velthuis allows for typing without diacritics using plain ASCII methods, but is arguably less readable than the standard Rhys Davids system, which uses diacritical marks.

អក្ខរៈសម្រាប់​ប្រើក្នុងភាសាបាលីមាន៤១តួ គឺ សរៈ(ស្រៈ) ៨ តួ និង ព្យញ្ជនៈ ៣៣ តួ
* ជាអក្សរឡាតំាង **a-ā-i-ī-u-ū-e-o-ṃ-k-kh-g-gh-ṅ-c-ch-j-jh-ñ-ṭ-ṭh-ḍ-ḍh-ṇ-t-th-d-dh-n-p-ph-b-bh-m-y-r-l-ḷ-v-s-h**
* ជាអក្សរខ្មែរ៖
:: ស្រៈនិស្ស័យ= **-ា-ិ-ី-ុ-ូ-េ-ោ**
:: ស្រៈពេញតួ= **អ-អា-ឥ-ឦ-ឧ-ឩ-ឯ-ឱ**
:: ព្យញ្ជនៈ= **ក-ខ-គ-ឃ-ង-ច-ឆ-ជ-ឈ-ញ-ដ-ឋ-ឌ-ឍ-ណ-ត-ថ-ទ-ធ-ន-ប-ផ-ព-ភ-ម-យ-រ-ល-វ-ស-ហ-ឡ-ំ**

### អក្សរសព្ទបាលីលើគណិតូបករណ៍ (កំណត់សូរ) 
There are several fonts to use for Pali transliteration. However, older ASCII fonts such as Leedsbit PaliTranslit, Times_Norman, Times_CSX+, Skt Times, Vri RomanPali CN/CB etc., are not recommendable since they are not compatible with one another and technically out of date. ផ្ទុយទៅវិញ ពុម្ពអក្សរដែលមានមូលដ្ឋានលើស្តង់ដារយូនីកូដត្រូវបានណែនាំ ពីព្រោះយូនីកូដហាក់ដូចជាអនាគតសម្រាប់ពុម្ពអក្សរទាំងអស់ ហើយដោយសារតែវាងាយស្រួលចល័តទៅគ្នាទៅវិញទៅមក។

ទោះយ៉ាងណាក៏ដោយ មិនមែនពុម្ពអក្សរយូនីកូដទាំងអស់មានតួអក្សរចាំបាច់នោះទេ។ ដើម្បីបង្ហាញឱ្យបានត្រឹមត្រូវនូវសញ្ញាសម្គាល់ទាំងអស់ដែលប្រើសម្រាប់ភាសាបាលីរ៉ូម៉ាំង (ឬសម្រាប់បញ្ហានោះជាភាសាសំស្ក្រឹត) ពុម្ពអក្សរយូនីកូដត្រូវតែមានជួរតួអក្សរខាងក្រោម៖

:* Basic Latin: U+0000 – U+007F
:* Latin-1 Supplement: U+0080 – U+00FF
:* Latin Extended-A: U+0100 – U+017F
:* Latin Extended-B: U+0180 – U+024F
:* Latin Extended Additional: U+1E00 – U+1EFF

Some Unicode fonts freely available for typesetting Romanized Pali are as follows:
:* Google's Chrome OS has 3 font families which can be downloaded from Google Font Directory . Even better, they can be used as embedded in websites to show the Pali text that users can view without having the fonts on their machines.
:** *Tinos* is a serif font. Regular, italic, bold and bold italic styles.
:** *Arimo* is a sans-serif font. Regular, italic, bold and bold italic styles.
:** *Cousine* is a monospaced font. Regular, italic, bold and bold italic styles.
:*The Pali Text Society  recommends VU-Times  and Gandhari Unicode  for Windows and Linux Computers.
:*The Tibetan & Himalayan Digital Library  recommends Times Ext Roman, and provides links to several Unicode diacritic Windows  and Mac  fonts usable for typing Pali together with ratings and installation instructions. It also provides macros  for typing diacritics in OpenOffice and MS Office.
:*SIL: International provides Charis SIL and Charis SIL Compact , Doulos SIL, Gentium, Gentium Basic, Gentium Book Basic  fonts. Of them, Charis SIL, Gentium Basic and Gentium Book Basic have all 4 styles (regular, italic, bold, bold-italic); so can provide publication quality typesetting.
:*Libertine Openfont Project provides the Linux Libertine font (4 serif styles and many Opentype features) and Linux Biolinum (4 sans-serif styles) at the Sourceforge.
:*Junicode (short for Junius-Unicode) is a Unicode font for medievalists, but it provides all diacritics for typing Pali. It has 4 styles and some Opentype features such as Old Style for numerals.
:*Thryomanes  includes all the Roman-alphabet characters available in Unicode along with a subset of the most commonly used Greek and Cyrillic characters, and is available in normal, italic, bold, and bold italic.
:*GUST  (Polish TeX User Group) provides Latin Modern  and TeX Gyre  fonts. Each font has 4 styles, with the former finding most acceptance among the LaTeX users while the latter is a relatively new family. Of the latter, each typeface in the following families has nearly 1250 glyphs and is available in PostScript, TeX and OpenType formats.
:** The *TeX Gyre Adventor* family of sans serif fonts is based on the URW Gothic L family. The original font, ITC Avant Garde Gothic, was designed by Herb Lubalin and Tom Carnase in 1970.
:** The *TeX Gyre Bonum* family of serif fonts is based on the URW Bookman L family. The original font, Bookman or Bookman Old Style, was designed by Alexander Phemister in 1860.
:** The *TeX Gyre Chorus* is a font based on the URW Chancery L Medium Italic font. The original, ITC Zapf Chancery, was designed in 1979 by Hermann Zapf.
:** The *TeX Gyre Cursor* family of monospace serif fonts is based on the URW Nimbus Mono L family. The original font, Courier, was designed by Howard G. (Bud) Kettler in 1955.
:** The *TeX Gyre Heros* family of sans serif fonts is based on the URW Nimbus Sans L family. The original font, Helvetica, was designed in 1957 by Max Miedinger.
:** The *TeX Gyre Pagella* family of serif fonts is based on the URW Palladio L family. The original font, Palatino, was designed by Hermann Zapf in the 1940's.
:** The *TeX Gyre Schola* family of serif fonts is based on the URW Century Schoolbook L family. The original font, Century Schoolbook, was designed by Morris Fuller Benton in 1919.
:** The *TeX Gyre Termes* family of serif fonts is based on the Nimbus Roman No9 L family. The original font, Times Roman, was designed by Stanley Morison together with Starling Burgess and Victor Lardent.

:*John Smith provides IndUni Opentype fonts, based upon URW++ fonts. Of them:
:** *IndUni-C* is Courier-lookalike;
:** *IndUni-H* is Helvetica-lookalike;
:** *IndUni-N* is New Century Schoolbook-lookalike;
:** *IndUni-P* is Palatino-lookalike;
:** *IndUni-T* is Times-lookalike;
:** *IndUni-CMono* is Courier-lookalike but monospaced;
:*An English Buddhist monk titled Bhikkhu Pesala provides some Pali fonts  he has designed himself. Of them:
:** *Akkhara* is a derivative of Gentium with low profile accents, reduced line-spacing and high accents prevented from getting clipped. Maths symbols are the same width as figures. The additional arrows, symbols, and dingbats are designed to match the Caps height.Regular & Italic styles.
:** *Cankama*  is a Gothic, Black Letter script. Regular style only.
:** *Garava*  was designed for body text with a generous x-height and economical copyfit. It includes Small Caps, Bold Small Caps, and Heavy styles besides the usual four styles (regular, italic, bold, bold italic).
:** *Guru* is another font family for body text with OpenType features. Regular, italic, bold and bold italic styles.
:** *Hattha* is a hand-writing font. Regular, italic, and bold styles.
:** *Kabala*  is a distinctive Sans Serif typeface designed for display text or headings. Regular, italic, bold and bold italic styles.
:** *Lekhana*  is a Zapf Chancery clone, a flowing script that can be used for correspondence or body text. Regular, italic, bold and bold italic styles.
:** *Mandala*  is designed for display text or headings. Regular, italic, bold and bold italic styles.
:** *Pali* is a clone of Hermann Zapf's Palatino. Regular, italic, bold and bold italic styles.
:** *Odana*  is a calligraphic brush font suitable for headlines, titles, or short texts where a less formal appearance is wanted. Regular style only.
:** *Talapanna* and *Talapatta* are clones of Goudy Bertham, with decorative gothic capitals and extra ligatures in the Private Use Area. These two are different only in decorative gothic capitals in the Private Use Area. Regular and bold styles.
:** *Veluvana*  is another brush calligraphic font but basic Greek glyphs are taken from *Guru*. Regular style only.
:** *Verajja*  is derived from Bitstream Vera. Regular, italic, bold and bold italic styles.
:** *VerajjaPDA* is a cut-down version of *Verajja* without symbols. For use on PDA devices. Regular, italic, bold and bold italic styles.
:** He also provides some Pali keyboards  for Windows XP.
:*The font section of Alanwood's Unicode Resources have links to several general purpose fonts that can be used for Pali typing if they cover the character ranges above.
Some of the latest fonts coming with Windows 7 can also be used to type transliterated Pali: *Arial*, *Calibri*, *Cambria*, *Courier New*, *Microsoft Sans Serif*, *Segoe UI*, *Segoe UI Light*, *Segoe UI Semibold*, *Tahoma*, and *Times New Roman*. And some of them have 4 styles each hence usable in professional typesetting: *Arial, Calibri* and *Segoe UI* are sans-serif fonts, *Cambria* and *Times New Roman* are serif fonts and *Courier New* is a monospace font.

### បាលីជា ASCII 
The Velthuis scheme was originally developed in 1991 by Frans Velthuis for use with his "devnag" Devanāgarī font, designed for the TeX typesetting system. ប្រព័ន្ធតំណាងឱ្យសញ្ញាសម្គាល់ភាសាបាលីនេះ ត្រូវបានប្រើប្រាស់នៅក្នុងគេហទំព័រ និងបញ្ជីពិភាក្សាមួយចំនួន។ ទោះបីជាយ៉ាងណាក៏ដោយ ដោយសារគេហទំព័រខ្លួនវាផ្ទាល់ និងកម្មវិធីអ៊ីមែលវិវត្តន៍បន្តិចម្តងៗឆ្ពោះទៅរកស្តង់ដារការអ៊ិនកូដយូនីកូដ ប្រព័ន្ធនេះស្ទើរតែមិនចាំបាច់ និងលែងប្រើហើយ។

ខាងក្រោមនេះគឺជាតារាងប្រៀបធៀបន័យនិងការសន្មត់ប្រើឃីផ្សំ(key)

## ឯកសារយោង 
*See entries for "Pali" (written by K. R. Norman of the Pali Text Society) and "India--Buddhism" in *The Concise Encyclopedia of Language and Religion*, (Sawyer ed.) ISBN 0-08-043167-4
*
*
*

## អានបន្ថែម 
*Gupta, K. M. (2006). *Linguistic approach to meaning in Pali*. New Delhi: Sundeep Prakashan. ISBN 81-7574-170-8
*Müller, E. (2003). *The Pali language: a simplified grammar*. Trubner's collection of simplified grammars. London: Trubner. ISBN 1-84453-001-9
*Oberlies, T., & Pischel, R. (2001). *Pāli: a grammar of the language of the *. Indian philology and South Asian studies, v. 3. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-016763-8
*Hazra, K. L. (1994). *Pāli language and literature: a systematic survey and historical study*. Emerging perceptions in Buddhist studies, no. 4-5. New Delhi: D.K. Printworld. ISBN 81-246-0004-X
*American National Standards Institute. (1979). *American National Standard system for the romanization of Lao, Khmer, and Pali*. New York: The Institute.
* Russell Webb (ed.) *An Analysis of the Pali Canon*, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy; 1975, 1991 (see http://www.bps.lk/reference.asp )
*Soothill, W. E., & Hodous, L. (1937). *A dictionary of Chinese Buddhist terms: with Sanskrit and English equivalents and a Sanskrit-Pali index*. London: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co.
*Collins, Steven (2006). *A Pali Grammar for Students*. Silkworm Press.

## តំណភ្ជាប់ខាងក្រៅ 
* Glenn Wallis, *Buddhavacana: A Pali Reader*(Onalaska, Wash: Pariyatti Press, 2011).
* Pali Text Society, London. The Pali Text Society's Pali-English dictionary. Chipstead, 1921-1925.
* Buddhist India by T.W. Rhys Davids, chapter IX, Language and Literature
* Pali at Ethnologue
* Pali Text Society 
* http://www.tipitaka.org Free searchable online database of Pali literature, including the whole Canon
*http://pali.pratyeka.org/  Eisel Mazard's excellent website on Pali resources, including
** Resources for reading & writing Pāli in indigenous scripts: Burmese, Sri Lankan, & Cambodian 
** A textbook to teach yourself Pali (by Narada Thera) 
** A reference work on the grammar of the Pali language (by G Duroiselle) 
* Complete Pāli Canon in romanized Pali and Sinhala, mostly also in English translation (metta.lk)
* Pāli Canon selection 
* A guide to learning the Pāli language 
* "Pali Primer"  by Lily De Silva (requires installation of special fonts) 
* "Pali Primer"  by Lily De Silva (UTF-8 encoded) 
* Free/Public-Domain Elementary Pāli Course--PDF format
* Free/Public-Domain Pāli Course--html format 
* Free/Public-Domain Pāli Grammar (in PDF file)
* Free/Public-Domain Pāli Buddhist Dictionary (in PDF file) 
* Comprehensive list of Pāli texts on Wikisource
* Buddhist Dictionary of Pali Proper Names, HTML version of the book by G.P. Malalasekera, 1937-8
* Pali Text Reader (software)
* Jain Scriptures
* Pali help at Help.com Wiki
* "A Course in the Pali Language,"  audio lectures by Bhikkhu Bodhi based on Gair & Karunatilleke (1998).
* http://www.bps.lk/other_library/pdf_pali_tables.zip  Pali Conjugation and Declension Tables for Students
* http://www.bps.lk/other_library/reference_table_of_pali_literature.pdf  Comprehensive Reference Table of Pali Literature