Linux

**Linux** /ˈlɪnəks/ d iɣes n unagraw n wammud, neɣ d isem i fkan i inagrawen n wammud yenarnan ɣef yiɣes ayi.

Linux d tawacult n yinagrawen n wammud yeldin yebnan ɣef yiɣes Linux, d iɣes n unagraw n wammud i d-yeffɣen i tikkelt tamezwarut ass n 17 ctember 1991, sɣur Linus Torvalds. Linux s umata, d asedger n Linux (distro), ideg yella yiɣes d ukemmus n yiseɣẓanen n unagraw d temkarḍiyin — tuget deg-sen ttaken-ten-id yikabaren wis kraḍ — akken ad d-snulfun anagraw n wammud ummid, yemmugen d aslag n Unix, dɣa yeffeɣ-d ddaw turagt GPL n tenɣelt.

D luluf n uzuzer n Linux i yellan, aṭas i yebnan srid neɣ arusrid ɣef uzuzer-nniḍen ; asedger n Linux yettwassnen deg-s yella Debian, Fedora Linux, Linux Mint, Arch Linux, akked Ubuntu, ma d asedger n tnezzut deg-s RedHat Enterprise Linux, SUSE Linux Enterprise, akked ChromeOS. Izuzren Linux sseqdacen-t aṭas deg tɣerɣertin n uqeddac. Aṭas n izuzer n Linux i yesseqdacen awal "Linux" s yisem-nsen, maca Tasbeddit Free Software tesseqdac u tessemter isem "GNU/Linux" akken ad d-twekked aseqdec d wazal n yiseɣẓanen GNU deg waṭas n uzuzer, d ayen i d-yeglan s kra n lxilaf. Ma mačči d iɣes Linux, iferdisen igejdanen i d-igellun s uzuzer zemren ad d-ilin deg-sen aqeddac n uskan ( anagraw n wusfaylu), d umsefrak n yikemmusen, d amakar n ubuqal akked tjeɣlalt Unix.

Linux d yiwen seg imedyaten yettwassnen akk deg yiseɣẓanen ilelliyen d uɣbalu yeldin. Ma yella deg tazwara, snulfan-t-id i yiselkimen udmawanen yebnan ɣef x86, seg wasmi ay d-yettwasagen ɣer wugar n tɣerɣertin wala anagraw niḍen n wammad, yernu sseqdacen-t ɣef waṭas n yibenkan gar-asen PCs, imahilen n tiɣsar, iframen igejdanen d yinagrawen yettwaselɣen. Linux d anagraw n wammud agejdan i yiqeddacen yernu sseqdacen-t daɣen deg 500 n yiselkimen iruraden akk deg umaḍal. Mi ara ddukklen akked ***Android***, i yebnan ɣef Linux, yemmugen i tiliɣriyin tuḥricin, ɣur-sent azadur meqqren akk deg inagrawen n wammud s yiswi amatu.

## Taskant
Iɣisi n Linux iga-t Linus Torvalds, deffir ma ixuṣṣ uɣis n umahil i GNU, d anagraw n wammud d amṣada akked Unix i yemmugen s useɣẓan ilelli i d-yellan deg usnerni seg 1983 sɣur Richard Stallman. Ssyen sakkin, yeffeɣ-d yiwen n unagraw n Unix ileḥḥun isem-nnes Minix, maca turagt-nnes ur tesɛi ara akk tilelli imir-nni yerna yettweg i yiwen n yiswi n usegmi. Unix amezwaru akk baṭel i yiselkimen udmawanen, 386BSD, ur d-iban ara armi d 1992, deg tallit-nni, Torvalds yebna yakan yerna yessuffeɣ-d s wudem azayez lqem amezwaru n iɣis Linux deg Internet. Am GNU d 386BSD, Linux ur yesεi ara angal Unix, imi d aεawed ajdid, dɣa ur yessinif ara i temsal tizerfanin imir-nni. Azuzer n Linux yuɣal mucaε deg yiseggasen n 1990, dɣa yerra titiknulujiyin Unix ttwakcament ɣer yiseqdacen n uxxam deg yiselkimen udmawanen anda akken i d-yella yakan d tin icudden ɣer leqdicat yennegman.

Azuzer n Linux deg-s anagraw n yisfuyla am X11 neɣ Wayland akked twennaḍt n tnarit am GNOME, KDE Plasma neɣ Xfce. Tigrummiwin i d-yettwaheggan i yiqeddacen ahat ur sεint ara agrudem n useqdac udlifan neɣ ad ilint deg-sent tnebdant n tifrat am LAMP.

Tangalt aɣbalu n Linux tezmer ad tettwaseqdec, ad tettwabeddel, ad tettwabḍu, ad tt-tefreq deg tnezzut neɣ deg war tnezzut sɣur yal yiwen ddaw tewtilin n turagt-is yettuqadren, am Turagt tazayezt GNU (GPL). Turagt anamek-is d asnulfu n uzuzer amaynut i s-iεemmed yiwen, yeshel ugar n unagraw n wammud am MacOS neɣ Microsoft Windows. Iɣis Linux, d amedya, yesɛa turagt ddaw GPLv2, s tsureft i yisawalen n unagraw yettaǧǧan tangalt yessawalen i yiɣis s unagraw ur yessefk ara ad tili ddaw GPL.

Ɣef lǧal n uɣmar n **Android** yebnan ɣef Linux deg tiliɣriyin tuḥricin, Linux, gar-asen Android, ɣur-s azadur n usbeddi meqqren akk deg inagrawen n wammud s umata seg mayyu 2022. 

Linux, seg Meɣres 2024, sseqdacen-t azal n 4 % seg yiselkimen n tnarit. Chromebook i yessefraken ChromeOS yebnan ɣef Linux, yessefrak ulzuz n usegmi amarikani K -12 yernu yettgensis-d qrib 20% seg uzenziɣ n "**notebook**" n ddaw-$300 deg Yiwanaken Yeddukklen. Linux d anagraw n wammud agejdan deg yiqeddacen, yerna sseqdacen-ten deg 500 n yimselkimen iruraden akk deg umaḍal.

Linux yetteddu daɣen ɣef yinagrawen yettwaselɣen, i.e.,Ibenkan yessefraken anagraw n wammad ttwabnan s umata deg uferɣẓan yernu ttwagen mliḥ i unagraw. Deg-s imeglayen, Asenqed awurman, Ibenkan n uxxam, tidiwentin n wurar n uvidyu, tiliẓṛiyin (Samsung d LG smart TVs), tikeṛṛusin (Tesla, Audi, Mercedes-Benz, Hyundai, akked Toyota), akked Aɣerrabu allunan (Falcon 9 rocket, Dragon crew).

## Amezruy

### Imezwura
Anagraw n wammud Unix yella-d deg useggas n 1969, deg Bell Labs n AT&T deg Marikan, sɣur *Ken Thompson*, *Dennis Ritchie*, *Douglas McIlroy*, akked *Joe Ossanna*. Unix yettwaru s lekmal-nnes s tutlayt tajmaεt(assembly), imi tella-d d tigawt icaεen imir-nni. Deg 1973, deg yiwet n tikli tamaynut, εawden uran-tt s tutlayt n usihel C sɣur *Dennis Ritchie* (ala kra n warrum d tigawin I/O). Tilin n useḍru n tutlayt n uswir unnig n Unix yerra asagen-is ɣer tɣerɣarin n uselkim yemgaraden fessus.

S yisem n tamsalt mgal aḥkar n 1956, AT&T ur tkeččem ara ɣer tnezzut n uselkim, AT&T yefka-d angal aɣbalu n unagraw n wammud i kra n win i d-yessutren. Ɣef waya, aseqdec n Unix yennerna s tɣawla yernu yeqqel yettwasmemmi s waṭas deg tisuda d teṛmisin tisdawanin. Deg 1984, AT&T tger-d iman-is seg tkebbaniyin-is n wammud amnaḍan, dɣa yeffeɣ-d seg uḥettem-is ur yekcim ara ɣer tnezzut n uselkim; iserreḥ-as uḥettem-a, Bell Labs yebda yesnuzuy Unix d afaris uslig, Anda iseqdacen ur ttwasirgen ara ad t-beddlen s wudem azerfan.

Onyx Systems yebda yesnuzuy iselkimen udmawanen i yebnan ɣef Unix deg 1980. Syin ɣer da, Sun Microsystems, yesnulfa-d d yiwen n usenfar amaynut deg Unix i yinelmaden deg tesdawit n Stanford, yebda yesnuzuy daɣen iselkimen umahil n tnarit yebnan ɣef Unix deg 1982. d tin i d-yesgensisen aεraḍ amezwaru n tnezzut i d-yewwin akken ad d-yezuzzer yiwen aselkim udmawan i yesεan anagraw n wammud Unix.

S Unix simal "yettwasekkeṛ" s yisem-is d afaris **amli**, asenfaṛ GNU, yebda-t-id Richard Stallman deg useggas n 1983, yesεa iswi ad d-yesnulfu "anagraw n yiseɣẓanen ummid amṣada akked Unix"  i yemmugen s useɣẓan ilelli. Amahil yebda-d deg 1984. Syin ɣer da, deg 1985, Stallman yebda-d Tasbeddit Free Software, yura Turagt tazayezt GNU (GNU GPL) deg 1989. Deg tezwara n yiseggasen n 1990, aṭas seg wahilen ay yessefken deg unagraw n wammud (am temkarḍiyin, isefsu, imaẓragen n yeḍrisen, ajeɣlal n yizirig n tiludna, d unagraw n usfaylu) ay ifuken, ɣas akken iferdisen n uswir yudren am yinuḍafen n yibenk, "*Daemons"*, akked iɣis, umi qqaren **GNU Hurd**, llan ttwaḥebsen yerna ur kemlen ara.

Minix yesnulfa-t-id Andrew S.Tanenbaum, d aselmad n tussna n tsenselkimt, yerna yeffeɣ-d deg 1987 imi d anagraw n wammud am win n Unix yemmugen i yinelmaden d wiyaḍ yebɣan ad lemden imenzayen n unagraw n wammud. Ɣas akken angal n uɣbalu ummid n Minix yella s tlelli, awalen n turagin ur t-ǧǧin ara ad yili d aseɣẓan ilelli alamma ibeddel turagt deg yebrir 2000.

### Asnulfu

Mi yella yeqqar deg tesdawit n helsinki deg umwan n 1990, *torvalds* yekcem ɣer yiwet n temsirt n unix. torvalds yudfen ɣer yiwet n temsirt n Unix. Tamsirt-nni tesseqdec yiwen n uselkim n MicroVAX yessefrak Ultrix, ma d yiwen seg yeḍrisen-nni ay yessefken i tɣuri d "anagraw n Wammud : Asnulfu d useḍru" sɣur *Andrew S.Tanenbaum*. Adlis-a n tɣuri yella deg-s unɣel n unagraw n wammud n Minix n *Tanenbaum*. S temsirt-a i d-yebda Torvalds i Unix i tikkelt tamezwarut. Deg 1991, yuɣal d awnaf ɣef yinagrawen n wammud. S turagt n Minix i tt-yesεan deg teswiεt-nni kan i useqdec n uselmed, yebda ixeddem ɣef iɣisi n unagraw-is n wammud i yuɣalen ɣer tagara d iɣisi Linux.

Ass n 3 Yulyu 1991, akken ad yesseddu tiɣra n unagraw Unix, Linus Torvalds yeɛreḍ ur yessaweḍ ara ad d-yawi tasukint tumḍint n warraten n yilugan n POSIX s usuter i ugraw n yisallen n comp.os.minix. Seld mi ur d-yufi ara arrat POSIX, Torvalds yerra deg tazwara i tifin n **isawalen** n unagraw deg warrat SunOS i tesεa tesdawit i tessexdam deg uqeddac-is n Sun Microsystems. Yelmed daɣen kra n teɣra(isawalen) n unagraw seg uḍris Minix n Tanenbaum.

*Torvalds* yebda-d asnerni n iɣisi Linux deg Minix d yisnasen yuran i Minix ttwasqedcen daɣen deg Linux. Syin ɣer da, yennerna Linux deg usnerni n iɣisi Linux deg yinagrawen Linux. Isnasen GNU beddlen-d daɣen akk iḥricen n Minix, acku yelha ma sqedcen tangalt yellan s tlelli seg usenfaṛ GNU s unagraw n wammud i d-ilulen; tangalt yellan ddaw n GNU GPL tezmer ad tuɣal ad tettwaseqdec deg wahilen-nniḍen n uselkim skud ula d nutni ttwaserrḥen-d ddaw n turagt am takki neɣ turagt iwatan yemṣadan. Torvalds yebda-d abeddel seg turagt-is tanaṣlit i igedlen azuzzer amzenzi, ɣer GNU GPL. Ineflayen llan xeddmen akken ad skecmen iferdisen GNU akked iɣisi Linux, ad d-snulfun anagraw n wammud ileḥun yerna d ilelli.

Ɣas akken ur d-yeffiɣ ara armi d 1992, ɣef lǧal n yimmeẓḍa usḍifen, asnerni n 386BSD, seg-sen i d-iṣubb NetBSD, OpenBSD d FreeBSD, i d-yezwar win n Linux. Linus Torvalds yenna-d dakken lemmer yella iɣisi GNU neɣ 386BSD deg 1991, tili ahat ur d-yesnulfa ara Linux.

### Isem-is
Linus Torvalds yella yebɣa ad as-iɣer i usnulfu-nnes "Freax", d asagen n "free", "freak", d "x" (am usmekti n Unix). Deg tazwara n leqdic-is ɣef unagraw, llan kra seg yismilen n usenfar-a deg-sen isem n "Freax" azal n uzgen n useggas. Torvalds yella yettwali isem n " linux " maca ur t-yeǧǧi ara ad yili imi iwalat d anasaf mliḥ.

Akken ad tessisheleḍ asnerni, ifuyla ulin ɣer uqeddac FTP n FUNET deg Ctembeṛ 1991. Ari Lemmke, Amdakkel n Turvalds n uxeddim deg Tesdawit n Ttiknulujit n Helsinki (HUT) yellan d yiwen seg yinedbalen iwiziwen n uqeddac FTP imir-nni, ur ixemmem ara dakken "Freax" d isem yelhan, dɣa isemma-as asenfar "Linux" ɣef uqeddac war ma icawer Torvalds. D acu kan, Torvalds yeqbel "Linux".

### Asekcem deg tnezzut d taɣerfant

Asmemmi n Linux deg twennaṭin n ufares, mačči d ayen ara t-sseqdacen kan yimaswaḍen, tebda tettnerni d tamezwarut deg tlemmast n yiseggasen n 1990 deg umɣiwan n uselkim-unnig, anda bdant tuddsiwin am NASA ttbeddilent timacinin-nsent ɣlayen s yigrawen n yiselkimen ur ɣlayen ara iteddun s Linux. Aseqdec amzenzi yebda-d mi d-yebda Dell d IBM, yeḍfer-it Hewlett-Packard, ttaken-d afus n Linux akken ad yerwel seg ufus Microsoft deg ulzuz n wammud n tnarit.

Ass-a, inagrawen n Linux sseqdacen-ten deg wakk iselkimen n tsenselkimt, seg yinagrawen yettwaselɣen ɣer qrib akk imselkimen-unnig, yernu ṭṭfen adeg deg yisebdaden n uqeddac am tanebdant n usnas LAMP mechuṛen. Simmal yettnerni useqdec n uzuzer Linux deg uxxam akked tnarit n unekcum.

Rrbeḥ ameqqran akk n Linux deg uzluz(ssuq), ahat d ssuq n yibenk aziraz, s ***Android*** i d anagraw n wammad anegmar deg tiliɣriyin tuḥricin yernu yettwassen aṭas deg teblaḍin yernu seg melmi kan, ɣef yilsawen d yimseddayen. Ula deg uhric n wurar n Linux, yettali-d s Valve yefka-d tallelt-is i Linux, dɣa yessufeɣ-d SteamOS, azuzer-is n Linux i d-yelhan s wurar, i d-yellan syin d asawen deg tɣerɣert-nsen n Steam Deck. Ula d afraq n Linux yuɣal yettwassen s waṭas n yinabaḍen idiganen d iɣelnawen, am unabaḍ afidirali n Brizil.

### Asnerni
*Linus Torvalds* d netta ay d amsuddes agejdan i uɣisi n Linux yernu yessefrak anegmu-nnes, ma d *Greg Kroah-Hartman* d netta ay d amsuddes agejdan i ufurk urkid. *Zoë Kooyman* d anemhal aselkam n Tesbeddit tilellit n useɣẓan, s nnuba-s d netta i d anemhal amatu n GNU. Ɣer taggara, imdanen d tkebbaniyin snernayen iḥricen d iferdisen wis kraḍ ur nelli d GNU. Iferdisen-agi n wis kraḍ gebren aṭas n umahil, daɣen zemren ad gebren izegrar n uɣisi akked isnasen n useqdac, d temkarḍiyin.

Imsenziyen n Linux d timɣiwnin sdukklen yerna zuzzren iɣisi, isuddas GNU, akked wid ur nelli ara d GNU, s yiseɣẓanen niḍen n ukemmus n usefrek s talɣa n uzuzer n Linux.

## Asuneɣ-is
Aṭas n yineflayen n yiseɣẓanen n uɣbalu yeldin i iqeblen belli iɣisi Linux ur yesuneɣ ara maca iεedda-d deg ufran agaman. Torvalds iwala dakken  asuneɣ n Unix yella yettwasseqdec d aɣawas, "Linux yemɣi-d s waṭas n tḍermas - yernu imi tiḍermas ur llin-t ara d igacuranen, llan s tɣawla yernu ttwaṣeggmen ugar n tzelɣiwin n *Alpha* deg ADN." Eric S. Raymond yettwali udmawen igrawliwen n Linux akken ad ilin d inmettiyen, mačči d atiknikan : uqbel Linux, aseɣẓan ameẓdu isuneɣ-t-id s leḥder sɣur inagrawen imecṭaḥ n yineflayen, maca "Linux yemhez s wudem nniḍen maḍi. Seg tazwara, ɣas ini d uṭṭunen imeqqranen n yiwiziwen i t-yessefraken kan s walal n *Internet* gar-asen. Taɣara ur tettwaḥrez ara s ilugan iqesḥen neɣ s tmenḍawt maca s tsetratijit taḥerfit n uslelli yal ddurt, d uḍfar n tmuɣliwin seg tmiḍiyin n yimseqdacen deg kra n wussan, ad d-nini d asnulfu n kra n ufran Adarwini arurad ɣef tiḍermas i d-sskecmen ineflayen". Bryan Cantrill, d ajenyuṛ n Unagraw amyezwer, yeqbel dakken "Linux ur yessunuɣ ara, yettwamhez", maca yettwali aya d talast, yenna-d dakken kra n tmahilin, ladɣa tid icudden ɣer tɣellist, ur issefk ara ad ad d-ttwamhez, "aya mačči d anagraw asnudran deg taggara n wass, d anagraw n yiseɣẓanen."

Anagraw yebnan ɣef Linux d anagraw n wammud azegriran am win n Unix, d win i d-yettawin aṭas seg usnulfu-ines agejdan seg yimenzayen i d-yettwasbedden deg Unix deg yiseggasen n 1970 d 1980. Anagraw am wa yesseqdac iɣis aynamek, iɣisi Linux, i d-yelhan d uselḥu n ukala, aẓeṭṭa, anekcum ɣer yibenkan d yinagrawen n yifuyla. Inehhaṛen n yibenk kifkif-iten ddan srid akked uɣisi neɣ rnan-d d izegrar i d-yettεebbi unagraw ma ara yiteddu.

Tallunt n useqdac GNU d aḥric agejdan seg tuget n yinagrawen yebnan ɣef ukernel Linux, S android i d tasureft meqqren. Tamkarḍit GNU C, aseḍru n temkarḍit tizeɣt C, Ixeddem am uɣlaf(tasdurayant) i tiɣriwin n unagraw n uɣisi Linux ilaqen i ugrudem n tallunt n useqdac-iɣisi, Tagrumma n yifecka d tagrumma meqqren n usihel, d tagrumma hrawen i usnerni n Linux (gar-asen wid i d-yelhan s usefsu n uɣisi Linux s timmad-is).

Asenfaṛ GNU yesnernay daɣen Bash, d ajeɣlal CLI yettwassnen. Agrudem n useqdac udlif (neɣ GUI) i seqdacen tuget n yinagrawen Linux i yebnan s ufella n useḍru n unagraw X Window(Asfaylu X). Tagara-a, kra seg tmetti Linux nudan ad ddun ɣer useqdec n Wayland d aneggaf n uqeddac n uskan, ad beddlen X11.

Aṭas n yisenfaren-nniḍen n yiseɣẓanen n uɣbalu yeldin i yettekkin deg yinagrawen Linux.

Isuddas ibedden deg unagraw Linux llan deg-sen wigi:

* **Asččaṛ n usenker,** amedya GNU GRUB, LILO, SYSLINUX neɣ *systemd-boot*. Wa d ahil ay d-yessakin iɣisin Linux ɣer tektawt tagejdant n uselkim, syin ad t-yeselkem uselkim, mi ara yekker uselkim, seld awennez n uferɣẓan.
* Ahil initi, am unsay *sysvinit* akked d umaynut systemd, OpenRC akked upstart. D wagi i d akala amezwaru i d-yesenker uɣisi Linux, dɣa attan ɣer uẓar n ttejra n ukala. Ad yebdu akala am yimeẓla n unagraw akked wid n tuqqna(Ama d udlif neɣ deg tdiwent).
* Timkerḍiyin n yiseɣẓanen yellan deg-sent tangalt i izemren ad ttwasqedcent s ikalan iteddun. Deg inagrawen n Linux s useqdec n yifuyla yettwaselkamen ELF, amseɣwen adinamik i yessefraken aseqdec n temkerḍiyin tidinamikin yettwassen s yisem n ld-linux.so. Ma yella anagraw yettwasebded i useqdac akken ad yessewḥal aseɣẓan s timmad-is, ifuyla n uqerru ad kecmen daɣen akken ad d-isefsu agrudem n usihel n temkarḍiyin yettwasbedden. Ɣer tama n temkarḍit n yiseɣẓanen yettwasqedcen s waṭas deg inagrawen n Linux, tamkarḍit GNU C (glibc), llant aṭas n temkerḍiyin nniḍen, am SDL akked Mesa.
* Tamkarḍit tizeɣt C d tamkarḍit ilaqen i useddu n wahilen yuran s C deg unagraw aselkim, s temkarḍit GNU C d tizeɣt. D ayen i d-yettaken aseḍru n API POSIX, am yisiɣzaf n API-nni. I yinagrawen yettwaselɣen, timlellayin am **musl**, **EGLIBC** (d alleqem glibc i sseqdacen Debian) akked **uClibc** (i yemmugen i uClinux) ttwasneflint, ɣas akken sin-a ineggura ur ten-mazal ara ttwaḥerzen. Android yesseqdac tamkarḍit-nnes C, Bionic. D acu kan, **musl** yezmer ad yettwaseqdec s umata d asemselsi n uglibc deg yinagrawen n tnarit d yiselkimen n "*laptop*", akken i t-yettwali deg kra n uzuzer n Linux am Void Linux.
* Tiludna n llsas n Unix, s iɣis n ifecka n GNU(coreutils) d aseḍru n tizeɣt. temlellayin llant i yinagrawen yettwaselɣen, am tenɣelt BusyBox, d "*BSD ToyBox*".
* Afzcku n iwiǧiten d timkarḍiyin yettwasqedcen i lebni n ugrudem n useqdac udlif (GUIs) i yisnasen n yiseɣẓanen. Aṭas n yifeckuten n yiwiǧiten i d-yufraren, gar-asen GTK d Clutter i d-yesnulfa usenfaṛ GNOME, Qt i d-yesnulfa usenfaṛ Qt, dɣa d takebbanit Qt.
* Anagraw n usefrek n ikemmusen, am upkg d RPM. Ikemmusen nniḍen zemren ad yettwasefsu seg imisinen neɣ aɣbalu.
* Ahilen n ugrudem n useqdac am ujeɣlal n tiludna neɣ twennaṭin n usfaylu.

### Agrudem n useqdac
Agrudem n useqdac, yettwassen daɣen s yisem n ujeɣlal, ama d agrudem n yizirig n tiludna (CLI), agrudem n useqdac udlif (GUI), neɣ isenqaden icudden ɣer warrum, icaεen i yinagrawen ur nesεi tilas. Ɣer yinagrawen n tnarit, agrudem n useqdac amezwer yettili s umata d udlif, ɣas akken CLI yella s waṭas s yisfuyla n userwas n tiludna neɣ s tdiwent tuhlist yemgaraden.

Tijeɣlalin n CLI d agrudem n useqdac yebnan ɣef uḍris, i yesseqdacen aḍris ama i unekcum neɣ i tuffɣa. Tajeɣlalt  yettwasqedcen ugar deg Linux  d *Shell Bourne-Again* (bash), deg tazwara, tennegma i usenfar n GNU; tijeɣlalin niḍen am Zsh sseqdacen-tent daɣen. Tuget n yeḥricen n Linux n uswir yudren, gar-asen iḥricen n Tallunt n useqdac(Userland) sseqdec kan CLI. CLI iwata ladɣa i tfulmant n lecɣal i d-yettuɣalen neɣ iεeṭṭlen, yerna yettak-d taɣwalt fessusen maḍi deg ukala.

Deg yinagrawen n tnarit, agrudem n useqdac yettwassnen akk d ijeɣlal GUI, i d-ijemɛen lwaḥid akked twennaṭin n tnarit meqqren, am KDE Plasma, GNOME, MATE, Cinnamon, LXDE, Pantheon, akked Xfce, ɣas akken aṭas n ugrudem n useqdac i yellan. Tuget n ugrudem n useqdac yettwassnen bnan ɣef unagraw X Window, zgan qqaren-as "X" neɣ "X11". D ayen i d-yettaken tiferwi n uẓeṭṭa u yettaǧǧa asnas udlif iteddu deg unagraw akken ad d-yettwasken ɣef wayeḍ anda aseqdac yezmer ad yeg assaɣ d usnas.

Wayland d aneggaf n uqeddac n uskan yemmugen d asemselsi(d ambeddel) n uneggaf X11; eg 2022, yewweḍ-it-id usmemmi hraw. Mačči am X11, Wayland ur yeḥwaǧ ara Amsefrak n yisfuyla azɣaray d umsefrak n tsuddest. Ihi, amsuddes n Wayland yettawi tamlilt n uqeddac n uskan, amsefrak n yisfuyla akked d umsefrak n tsuddest. Weston d aselkem n temselɣutt n Wayland, ma d *Mutter* n GNOME akked KWin n KDE ttwarefden ɣer Wayland d iqeddacen n uskan.

Enlightenment yettwasagen ɣer Wayland yakan seg lqem 19. Rnu ɣer waya, aṭas n yimsefraken n yisfuyla i yemmugen i Wayland, am Sway neɣ Hyprland, Am wakken daɣen i d-yettili i udlifen-nniḍen am *Waybar* neɣ *Rofi.*

## Taneflit
Amgired amezwaru gar Linux d waṭas n yinagrawen-nniḍen n wammud n tura yettwassnen, d akken iɣisi n Linux d isuddas-nniḍen d iseɣẓanen ilelliyen d uɣbalu yeldin. Linux mačči ala netta i d anagraw n wammud am wa, ɣas akken s waṭas i yettwaseqdac ugar n wiyaḍ yellan s uɣbalu yeldin. Kra n turagt n yiseɣẓanen ilelliyen d uɣbalu yeldin bnant ɣef umenzay n tenɣelt, d yiwen n ṣṣenf n umyager: yal axeddim i d-yekkan seg uḥric n yiseɣẓanen n tenɣelt ilaq daɣen ad yili d anɣel s timmad-is. Turagt n yiseɣẓanen ilelliyen yettwassnen akk, Turagt tazayezt GNU (GPL), d yiwet n talɣa n tenɣelt, tettwaseqdec i uɣisi Linux akked waṭas seg yeḥricen n usenfaṛ GNU.

Izuzren n Linux yebnan ɣef Linux mmugent sɣur ineflayen ilmend n tegramahalant akked yinagrawen-nniḍen n wammud akked yilugan n tsenselkimt yettwasbedden. Inagrawen Linux teddun ɣer POSIX, "*Single UNIX Specification*" (SUS), "*Linux Standard Base*" (LSB), ISO, akked yilugan ANSI anda yezmer lḥal, ɣas akken ar ass-a, yiwen kan n uzuzer Linux i yettwacerken POSIX. 1, Linux-FT. Agraw yeldin iεreḍ u icerreḍ ma drus sin n uzuzer n Linux i d-yelhan d tnezzut Unix, EulerOS d Inspur K-UX.

Aṭas n uzuzeran n Linux i yessefraken tagrumma tanmeggagt n yiseɣẓanen n unagraw d ikemmusen n yiseɣẓanen n usnas i yellan i usader d usbeddi s tuqqna n uẓeṭṭa. Aya yettaǧǧa iseqdacen ad d-myezgen anagraw n wammud i wayen ḥwaǧen. Izuzeran n Linux ttwaḥerzent sɣur yimdanen ittekkin deg teflit-nnsen, d tirebbuyaɛ n tkadimiyin, d tuddsiwin tiwiziwin, d tuddsiwin tinezzanin. Azuzer n Linux yettili d amasay n twila tamezwert n uɣisi Linux yettwasbedden, taɣellist n unagraw amatu, yernu s umata, asnerni n yikemmusen n yiseɣẓanen yemgaraden s lekmal-nsen. Izuzaren n Linux sseqdacen s umata anemhal n ukemmus am *upt*,*yum*, zypper, pacman Neɣ asader i usebded, tukksa, Daɣen leqqem akk iseɣẓanen n unagraw seg wadig alemmas.

## Amɣiwan
Asedger neɣ azuzer n Linux yettawi-t weḍfer s waṭas sɣur ineflayen-is akked imɣiwanen n iseqdacen-is. Kra n yimsenziyen snernayen yernu sseddayen azuzer-nsen ɣef llsas awizi, Debian d amedya yettwassnen mliḥ. Wiyaḍ sεan lqem amɣiwan n uzuzer-nsen amzenzi, akken ixeddem Red Hat akked Fedora, neɣ *SUSE* akked d *OpenSUSE*.

Deg waṭas n temdinin d temnaḍin, tidukliwin tidiganin yettwassnen s yisem n ugraw n useqdac Linux (GSL) ttnadint ad snernint azuzer-nsent amenyaf d yiseɣẓanen ilelliyen n usiɣzef. Gan timliliyin u ttaken-d asenɛet, asileɣ, tallelt tatiknikant akked usbeddi n unagraw n wammud i yiseqdacen imaynuten. Aṭas n tmettiyin n Internet i d-yettaken daɣen afus i yiseqdacen d yineflayen Linux. Tuget n uzuzeran n Linux d yiseɣẓanen ilelliyen / isenfaren n uɣbalu yeldin sεan tixxamin n udiwenni IRC neɣ igrawen n yisallen(neɣ deg tallit-a tamirant, sɛan tixxamin n udiwenni deg uneggaf n Matrix neɣ inmagaren imeẓliyan deg *internet*). Inmagaren n Internet d allal-nniḍen n tallelt, s imedyaten am wid n Unix & Linux Stack Exchange, LinuxQuestions.org akked tallelt yemgaraden n uzuzer neɣ inmagaren n umɣiwan, am wid n Ubuntu, Fedora, Arch Linux, Gentoo, atg. 

Ulamma s umata, izuzren n Linux ttilin war lexlaṣ, aṭas n tkebbaniyin timeqqranin i yettnuzun, ttεawanent, rennunt deg usnerni n yeḥricen n unagraw d yiseɣẓanen ilelliyen. asleḍt n uɣisi Linux deg 2017 tessken-d dakken ugar n 85% seg tengalin-is snulfan-tt-id yineflayen ay yettwaxellaṣen ɣef umahil-nsen, ǧǧan azal n 8,2% i yineflayen ur ttwaxellaṣen ara(s ufus n tallalt), ggran-d ala 4.1% ur ttwasneɣren ara. Kra seg tkebbaniyin timeqqranin ad d-yefkan ittekkiyen deg-sent Intel, Samsung, Google, AMD, Oracle, akked Facebook. Aṭas n tkebbaniyin, ladɣa RedHat , Canonical, d SUSE i yebnan ccɣel s wazal-is deg uzuzer n Linux.