Asụsụ Penutian

**Penutian** bụ otu ìgwè nke Ezinụlọ asụsụ nke gụnyere ọtụtụ asụsụ ndị American Indian nke ọdịda anyanwụ North America, nke a na-asụkarị n'otu oge na British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, na California. Ịdị adị nke Penutian stock ma ọ bụ phylum abụwo isiokwu nke arụmụka n'etiti ndị ọkachamara. Ọbụna ịdị n'otu nke ụfọdụ ezinụlọ ndị mejupụtara ya enweela esemokwu. Ụfọdụ 'ime nsogbu ndị dị na ọmụmụ ihe nke asụsụ dị n'ime phylum bụ nsonaazụ nke mkpochapụ ha n'oge na obere akwụkwọ.

Ụfọdụ n'ime subgroupings ndị a tụrụ aro na nso nso a nke Penutian egosila n'ụzọ doro anya. Catherine Callaghan agbakọtawo asụsụ Miwokan na asụsụ Costanoan n'ime ezinụlọ asụsụ Utian.  nyere ihe akaebe n'oge na-adịbeghị anya na-akwado otu Utian na Yokutsan n'ime ezinụlọ Yok-Utian.  yikwara ka e nwere ihe akaebe doro anya maka ìgwè Plateau Penutian (nke J. N. B. Hewitt na John Wesley Powell kpọrọ *Shahapwailutan* na 1894) nke ga-agụnye Klamath-Modoc, Molala, na Asụsụ Sahaptian (Nez Percé na Sahaptin). [1]

## Akụkọ ihe mere eme nke echiche ahụ

### Okwu mmalite na ịkpọpụta
Aha *Penutian* dabeere na okwu ndị pụtara "abụọ" n'asụsụ Wintuan, Maiduan, na Yokutsan (nke a na-akpọ ihe dị ka [pen]) na Asụsụ Utian (nke a-akpọ ihe dịka ). 

Ọ bụ ezie na ma eleghị anya na mbụ e bu n'obi ịkpọpụta //pɪ'njuːtiən//, nke egosiri na ụfọdụ akwụkwọ ọkọwa okwu, ọtụtụ ndị ọkà mmụta asụsụ na-akpọpụta okwu ahụ /pɪ=njuːʃən/ ma ọ bụrụ na ọ bụghị ha niile.

### Echiche mbụ nke ezinụlọ ise
Echiche mbụ nke Penutian, nke Roland B. Dixon na Alfred L. Kroeber nyere na 1913, dabeere na myirịta ndị a hụrụ n'etiti ezinụlọ asụsụ California ise:

* Asụsụ Maiduan
* Miwok
* Asụsụ ndị dị n'ụsọ oké osimiri
* Asụsụ Wintuan
* Asụsụ Yokutsan

A na-akpọ atụmatụ mbụ ahụ Core Penutian, *California Penutian* ma ọ bụ Penutian Kernel. N'afọ 1919, otu ndị edemede abụọ ahụ bipụtara ihe akaebe asụsụ ha maka atụmatụ ahụ.  Nchịkọta ahụ, dị ka ọtụtụ n'ime atụmatụ phylum ndị ọzọ nke Dixon & Kroeber, dabere n'ụzọ ka ukwuu na njirimara ndị a na-ekerịta ma ọ bụghị usoro a na-ejikarị achọpụta mmekọrịta mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa. Malite site na ụbọchị mbụ a, echiche Penutian bụ arụmụka.

Tupu atụmatụ Penutian nke Dixon na Kroeber nke 1913, Albert S. Gatschet jikọtara Miwokan na Costanoan n'ime otu *Mutsun* (1877). Ìgwè ahụ, nke a na-akpọ Utian ugbu a, Catherine Callaghan mechara gosipụta ya. Na 1903 Dixon & Kroeber kwuru "mmekọrịta dị mma" n'etiti Costanoan, Maidu, Wintun, na Yokuts n'ime "Central or Maidu Type", nke ha wepụrụ Miwokan (Moquelumnan ha).  'afọ 1910, Kroeber mechara mata mmekọrịta chiri anya dị n'etiti asụsụ Miwokan na Costanoan.

### Mgbasawanye Sapir
N'afọ 1916, Edward Sapir gbasaa ezinụlọ Dixon na Kroeber's California Penutian na nwanne nwanyị, Oregon Penutian, nke gụnyere asụsụ Coosan yana Siuslaw na Takelma:
 
Ịgba e mesịrị Sapir na Leo Frachtenberg gbakwunyere asụsụ Kalapuyan na Asụsụ Chinookan ma mesịa bụrụ ezinụlọ Alsean na Tsimshianic, na-agwụcha na nkewa nke Sapir nwere alaka anọ (Sapir 1921a:60):
 
Ka ọ na-erule oge Sapir bipụtara edemede *Encyclopædia Britannica* nke 1929, ọ gbakwunyere alaka abụọ ọzọ:
 
nke mere ka e nwee ezinụlọ nwere alaka isii:
 
 (A pụrụ ịhụ atụmatụ nkewa zuru ezu nke 1929 nke Sapir gụnyere atụmatụ Penutian ebe a: Nchịkọta nke asụsụ ụmụ amaala nke Amerịka # Sapir (1929[Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji] ) 

## Ihe akaebe maka echiche Penutian
Ikekwe n'ihi na ọtụtụ asụsụ Penutian nwere ablaut, ụdaume siri ike ịmegharị. Otú ọ dị, nkwekọrịta ụdaume bụ ihe a na-ahụkarị.  ọmụmaatụ, proto-Yokuts (Inland Penutian) retroflexes */// kwekọrọ na Klamath (Plateau Penutian), , ebe Proto-Yokut ezé */t̪h/ */tʁʼ/ kwekọrọ n'Klamath alveolar . Kalapuya, Takelma, na Wintu anaghị egosi njikọ doro anya dị otú ahụ.

N'okpuru ebe a bụ ụfọdụ akwụkwọ ozi Penutian nke William Shipley chepụtara,  nke e depụtara na Campbell (1997). 

## Hụkwa

* Asụsụ Hokan
* Asụsụ Macro-Mayan

## Ihe edeturu
maka atụmatụ ahụ.  Nchịkọta ahụ, dị ka ọtụtụ n'ime atụmatụ phylum ndị ọzọ nke Dixon & Kroeber, dabere n'ụzọ ka ukwuu na njirimara ndị a na-ekerịta ma ọ bụghị usoro a na-ejikarị achọpụta mmekọrịta mkpụrụ ndụ ihemaka atụmatụ ahụ.  Nchịkọta ahụ, dị ka ọtụtụ n'ime atụmatụ phylum ndị ọzọ nke Dixon & Kroeber, dabere n'ụzọ ka ukwuu na njirimara ndị a na-ekerịta ma ọ bụghị usoro a na-ejikarị achọpụta mmekọrịta mkpụrụ ndụ ihe

## Edensibia

* 
* 
* Callaghan, Catherine. (1997). Evidence for Yok-Utian. *International Journal of American Linguistics*, *63*, pages 18–64
* Callaghan, Catherine. (2001). More evidence for Yok-Utian: A reanalysis of the Dixon and Kroeber sets *International Journal of American Linguistics*, *67* (3), pages 313–346
* Campbell, Lyle. (1997). *American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America*. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN&nbsp;
* DeLancey, Scott; & Golla, Victor. (1997). The Penutian hypothesis: Retrospect and prospect. *International Journal of American Linguistics*, *63*, 171–202
* Dixon, Roland R.; & Kroeber, Alfred L. (1903). The native languages of California. *American Anthropologist*, *5*, 1–26
* Dixon, Roland R.; & Kroeber, Alfred L. (1913a). New linguistic families in California. *American Anthropologist*, *15*, 647–655
* Dixon, Roland R.; & Kroeber, Alfred L. (1913b). Relationship of the Indian languages of California. *Science*, *37*, 225
* Dixon, Roland R.; & Kroeber, Alfred L. (1919). *Linguistic families of California* (pp.&nbsp;47–118) Berkeley: University of California
* Goddard, Ives. (1996). "The Classification of the Native Languages of North America" In *Languages*, Ives Goddard, ed., pp.&nbsp;290–324. Handbook of North American Indians Vol. 17, W. C. Sturtevant, general ed. Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. ISBN&nbsp;
* Golla, Victor. (2007). "Linguistic Prehistory" in *California Prehistory: Colonization, Culture, and Complexity*, pp.&nbsp;71–82. Terry L. Jones and Kathryn A. Klar, editors. New York: Altamira Press. ISBN&nbsp;
* Golla, Victor. (2011). *California Indian Languages*. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN&nbsp;
* Grant, Anthony. (1997). Coast Oregon Penutian. *International Journal of American Linguistics*, *63*, 144–156
* Kroeber, Alfred L. (1910). The Chumash and Costanoan languages. *University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology*, *9*, 259–263
* Liedtke, Stefan. (1995). *Wakashan, Salishan and Penutian and Wider Connections Cognate Sets. Linguistic data on diskette series, no. 09. Munich: Lincom Europa, z\v1995*. ISBN&nbsp;
* Liedtke, Stefan. (2007).*The Relationship of Wintuan to Plateau Penutian*. LINCOM studies in Native American linguistics, 55. Munich: Lincom Europa. ISBN&nbsp;
* Mithun, Marianne. (1999). *The languages of Native North America*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN&nbsp; (hbk); .
* Sapir, Edward. (1921a). A Characteristic Penutian Form of Stem. *International Journal of American Linguistics*, 2(1/2): 58–67
* Sapir, Edward. (1921b). A bird's-eye view of American languages north of Mexico. *Science*, *54*, 408
* Sapir, Edward. (1929). Central and North American languages. *Encyclopædia Britannica* (14th ed.; Vol. 5; pp.&nbsp;138–141)
* Sutton, Imre, (2002)  "The Ob-Ugrian/Cal-Ugrian Connection: Rediscovering 'The Discovery of California"", American Indian Culture and Research Journal,26(4): 113–120
* Tarpent, Marie-Lucie. (1996). Reattaching Tsimshianic to Penutian. *Survey of California and Other Indian Languages* 9:91–112
* Tarpent, Marie-Lucie. (1997). Tsimshianic and Penutian: problems, methods, results, and implications. *International Journal of American Linguistics* 63:65–112
* Tarpent, Marie-Lucie & Daythal Kendall. (1998). "On the relationship between Takelma and Kalapuyan: another look at 'Takelman'. Paper presented to the Society for the Study of the Indigenous Languages of the Americas: Annual Meeting, Linguistic Society of America, New York
* Von Sadovszky, Otto J., (1996)  The Discovery of California: A Cal-Ugrian Comparative Study,  Istor Books 3 (Budapest: Akademiai Kiadó and Los Angeles: International Society for Trans-Oceanic Research)

## Njikọ mpụga

* Penutian (ebe nrụọrụ weebụ Scott DeLancey) (nwere akwụkwọ ịntanetị) 
** Bibliography nke Penutian
** The Bipartite Stem Belt: Disentangling Areal na Genetic Correspondences
* Ìgwè Asụsụ Agbụrụ nke Northern na Central California
** California Tribal Linguistics Group map (.gif)
** California Indian Tribal Groups Map (.gif)
* Ndepụta nke asụsụ Penutian a tụrụ aro ya na Oregon
* Agbụrụ, Ìgwè, Ezinụlọ Asụsụ na Asụsụ nke California na 1770 (map mgbe Kroeber gasịrị) 
* Mitochondrial DNA na Prehistoric Settlements: Native Migrations on the Western Edge of North America

Òtù:Pages with unreviewed translations