Eduard Bernstein

Eduard Bernstein (  ; 6 January 1850 – 18 December 1932) bụ onye German na-elekọta mmadụ onye kwuo uche Marxist theorist na onye George 1932.  Onye so na Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), Bernstein nwere echiche chiri anya na Karl Marx na Friedrich Engels, ma ọ àmà ihe na-egosi na ọ bụ mmejọ na echiche Marxist wee isi ịkatọ echiche ndị Marxism nwere mgbe ọ na-achọpụtachara.  wee maa echiche nke ihe mere eme nke ịhụ ihe mmetụta n'anya nke Marxist aka.  [1] Ọ akara ndị dị iche ama nke Marxist nke dabere na Hegelian metaphysics ma jụrụ echiche Hegelian nke mkpa na dị mkpa maka socialism.

## Ndụ mbido
A mụrụ Bernstein na Schöneberg (nke bụ akụkụ Berlin ugbu a) nye ndị nne na nna ndị Juu bụ ndị na-arụsi ọrụ ike na Ụlọ Nsọ Reform na Johannistrasse bụ ndị a na-arụ ọrụ na Sunday. Nna ya bụ onye ọkwọ ụgbọ ala. Site na 1866 ruo 1878, e were ya n'ọrụ na ụlọ akụ dịka onye ode akwụkwọ ụlọ akụ mgbe ọ gụsịrị akwụkwọ. 

Ụgbọ njem ụgbọ okporo ígwè Bernstein gosiri na 1872, mgbe ahụ ọkụ n'òtù Socialist na ngwá Marxist, nke a mara nke ọma dị ka Social Democratic Workers' Party of Germany .  Otu ahụ bụ onye na-akwado ụdị Eisenacher nke German socialism, nke aha ya bụ obodo German ebe e hiwere ya.  N'oge na-akpa anya Bernstein bịara mara dị ka onye ngwá agha.  Ndị otu ya gbara abụọ aka ụdị otu ụdị agha na-ama aka, Lassalleans ( Ferdinand Lassalle 's General German Workers' Association ), mana na mbụ aka abụọ ahụ ọ bụ otu ọ elelu nwere ike imeri ọnụ ọgụgụ dị ukwuu nke votu.  aka ekpe.  N'ihi ya, Bernstein, ya na August Bebel na Wilhelm Liebknecht, akwụkwọ Einigungsparteitag ("Unification Party Congress") na ndị Lassalleans na Gotha na 1875. Ihe nkatọ a ma ama nke Karl Marx nke mmemme Gotha katọrọ ihe ọ pụtara dị ka mmeri.  Lassallean meri Eisenachers, onye ọ akwụkwọ.  Bernstein mechaa na ọ bụ Liebknecht, nke ọtụtụ ndị na-ewere dị ka onye Nkwado Marxist okwu ike n'ime otu Eisenacher, onye-alụ aro 4 mụrụ ọtụtụ echiche nke kpasuru Marx iwe.

Na mmalite nke 1877, German Social Democratic Party (SPD) 493,000 votes.  Otú ọ dị, abụọ e mere igbu mmadụ Kaiser Wilhelm nke Mbụ n'afọ na-Soso nyere Chancellor Otto von Bismarck mgba mgbakwụ iwebata iwu machibido òtù ọha mmadụ, ndị na ọkọlọtọ.  Enweghị ike aka na Social Democratic ọ mgba na mbọ igbu ọchụ, mana ji omume na-ewu ewu megide "ndị iro nke Reich" mere ka Reichstag nkwado nke Bismarck's Anti-Socialist Laws .  [1]

## Nchụpụ
Oké mmegide Bernstein dị iche Bismarck mere ka ọ bụrụ ihe na-achọsi ike ka ọ hapụ Jamanị.  [1] N'oge na-adịghị anya tupu Iwu Anti-Socialist abanye n'ahụ, Bernstein gara biri na Zurich, na-anabata akụkụ dị ka onye nkuzi nke Karl Höchberg, onye na-akwado onye kwuo uche ya.  E nyere, akwụkwọ ikike e nyere ya ka e jide ya kwuru na ọ ada ekwe omume Jamanị, ọ ga-anọkwa n'ala ọzọ ruo ihe ọmụmụ afọ 20. Na 1888, Bismarck kwenyesiri ike na Xar Switzerland pụpụ ọtụtụ ndị otu mkpa dị  nke onye kwuo uche German na Bernstein kwagara London, ebe ya na Friedrich Engels na Karl Kautsky akwụkwọ ya.  Ọ bụ n'oge na-ahụ anya ka ọ bịarutere Switzerland ka ọ pụtara iche onwe ya dị ka onye Marxist.  [2] N'afọ 1880, o sooro Bebel gaa London iji jidehie gbasara agụmakwụkwọ aka ya na ndị Höchberg edi nke Marx na Engels katọrọ dị ka "ihura na bourgeois na obere echiche bourgeois".  Nleta ahụ gara nke ọma, ndịdị Engels nwere ike na-eji ọkụ n'obi na echiche Bernstein

Laa azụ na Zurich, Bernstein, onye na-arụsi ọrụ ike na-arụ ọrụ maka Der Sozialdemokrat ( Social Democrat ) ma enwe ike ịga nke ọma Georg von Vollmar dị ka onye nchịkọta akụkọ akwụkwọ, nke ọ bụ afọ 10. Ọ bụ n  'ime afá ndị ahụ n'etiti 1880 na 1890 ka Bernstein guzobe aha ya dị ka onye isi usoro ihe ọkụ na onye Marxist nke ndị na-egosi.  Enyere ya aka na nke ahụ site na chiri anya na nke anụ ya na Engels.  Visa ahụ nwere nnukwu n'izizi na ọ na-ekerịta Engels wee nabata ọtụtụ atumatu ndị Engels na-ama echiche ndị ga-agụnye.  Na 1887, ndị German mere ka ndị posts Switzerland machibido Der Sozialdemokrat .  Bernstein kwagara London, ebe ọ eguzo ọtọ na ụlọ na Kentish Town .  N'oge na-egosi anya dị ya na Engels n'akpa enyi.  Ya na otu ndị otu na-elekọta mmadụ na bekee dị iche iche kpakwara, ngwaahịa Fabian Society na Henry Mayers Hyndman's Social Democratic Federation .  [1] N'afọ ndị sochirinụ, ndị na-agụ ya na-ekwu nkịtị na " nyogharị " ya bụ site n'ịhụ ụwa "site na nlegharị anya Bekee".  akwụkwọ, Bernstein gọnarị ebubo ahụỌ tụrụ m n'anya ịhụ taa na *Vorwärts* otu akụkụ sitere na 'Mmebata' m nke e *bipụtara n'amaghị ama* ma ghọgbuo ya n'ụzọ dị otú a iji gosi m dị ka onye na-ahụ udo n'anya na-akwado iwu *quand même* (na ụgwọ ọ bụla). Nke bụ ihe ọzọ mere m ga-eji chọọ ka ọ pụta n'ozuzu ya na *Neue Zeit* ka e wee kpochapụ echiche ihere a. M ga-ahapụ Liebknecht n'enweghị obi abụọ banyere ihe m na-eche banyere ya na otu ihe ahụ metụtara ndị, n'agbanyeghị ndị ha nwere ike ịbụ, nyere ya ohere a ịgbagọ echiche m na, ihe ọzọ, na-enweghị nke ukwuu dị ka okwu m. gbasara ya.  Na 1891, Bernstein bụ otu n'ime edemede nke Erfurt Program na site na 1896 ruo 1898, o sie usoro nke isiokwu ya bụ Probleme des Sozialism ( Nsogbu nke Socialism ) nke na-ibu ntụgharị na SPD.  [1] O bipụtakwara akwụkwọ bụ Die Voraussetzungen des Sozialismus und die Aufgaben der Sozialdemokratie ( The Prerequisites for Socialism and the Tasks of Social Democracy ) na 1899. Akwụkwọ ahụ dị iche na ọnọdụ Bebel, Kautsky na Liebknecht.  Mgbanwe nke Rosa Luxemburg 1900 ma ọ bụ Mgbanwe?  bụkwa ihe na-agụ ọnọdụ Bernstein.  Na 1900, Bernstein na Zur Geschichte und Theorie des Sozialism ( History and Theory of Socialism).

## Laghachi na Germany
Na 1901, Bernstein la mfe Germany ka njedebe mmachibido iwu nke gbochiri ya onyinye na mba ahụ mma.  Ọ nchịkọta onye nchịkọta akụkọ nke akwụkwọ akụkọ Vorwärts n'afọ ahụ [1] [2] na onye otu Reichstag site na 1902 ruo 1918. Ọ bụ ihe vootu ụzọ ịtakọta ngwa agha na 1913, yana aka ekpe nke SPD.  Ọ bụ ebe ahụ na ọ votu maka kredit agha na August 1914, ọ bụre Agha Mbụ site na July 1915 na, na 1917, so na ndị ndu Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany (USPD), nke antiwar socialists, ndị reformists dị ka  Bernstein, centrists.  dị ka Kautsky na ndị agha ụkwụ ụkwụ dị ka Karl Liebknecht .  Ọ bụ onye otu USPD ruo 1919, mgbe ọ la ike na SPD.  Site na 1920 ruo 1928, Bernstein bụkwa onye otu Reichstag ọzọ.  Na 4 Maachị 1920, dị ka ihe na-egosi Anglo-German n'okpuru ntọala German, ọ na-enye onye so na kọmitii ndị omeiwu na- ekiri ikpe ikpe agha .  Ọ bụ otu n'ime ndị ekiri ole na ole na kọmitii ahụ iji kweta ọrụ Germany maka ime nke agha, na-ekewa onwe ya n'ọtụtụ ndị òtù Reichstag na ndị bourgeois.  [3] Ọ lara ezumike na ụgbọ ụkwụ na 1928

## Echiche

### Imegide mgbanwe ime ihe ike
Die Voraussetzungen des Sozialismus (1899) bụ ọrụ Bernstein kacha mkpa.  Bernstein lekwasịrị anya nke ọma na ịgbagha hel Karl Marx gbasara mwepu nke ikeketali na nso nso a na atumatu Laissez-faire nke Marx ndị na-ese ihe nke ikpe ọnwụ aka na nsogbu na eze tupu ahụ.  Bernstein eziokwu ndị dị mfe, bụ ndị o weere dị ka ihe na-egosi na pụtara Marx emezu mgbe o kwuru na ọ bụ ebe na nhazi nke ụlọ ọrụ ndị isi obodo dị mfe ama, ọ naghị aghọ ihe zuru oke nakwa na  ikike nke isi obodo na-aghọ ma ọ bụghị obere mgbasa.  .  [1] [2] Nyochaa Bernstein ụgbọ ugbo, dị ka Bernstein tara na ikike nke ala na-adịwanye njọ, dabere na ọrụ Eduard David [3] ma na-achịkọta eziokwu zuru oke nke na onye iro Ọdọks Marxist Karl Kautsky  na ọ bara uru . 

&#x5D;Banyere Henry Marx na mwepu nke onye etiti, Bernstein elele na a na-eweghachi ndị ọchụnta ego site na klaas proletariat yana njikọ , dị ka usoro steeti nke awa ọrụ na ndokwa maka ezumike nka agadi ịbụ.  gbara ume.  N'ihi ya, Bernstein gbara ndị òtù ọrụ ume ka ha na-enwe መሳ siri siri ike na ndị agha.  [1] Bernstein gosikwara ihe ọ lere anya dị ka em ike emezi n'echiche nke uru Marx.  [ kwuo okwu ]

N'ileghachi anya na uto ngwa ngwa na Germany, Bernstein nke ụka na ụlọ ọrụ ndị dị n'etiti ga-eto eto, nha na ike nke etiti etiti ga-eto eto nakwa na ike obodo ga- nke ọma ma ghara isiba.  .  Ɔnɔnɔ aka ná ntĩĩ na nkyɛ ime ihe ike nke proletarian, dị ka ọ dị na France na 1848, rụpụtara nanị ihe ịga nke ọma omume, bụ nke mebiri ndị ọrụ.  Ya mere, ọ izizi ma na-ekwusi ike na-ama zie mma iji nwee ndidi na-ewulite ọha na eze na-adịgide adịgide na-arụ ọrụ maka izi na-agbanwe agbanwe agbanwe

### Echiche Bernstein n'okpuru ọgụ
Ndị Marxists Ọtọdọks nke Karl Kautsky duziri Bernstein yana ndị Rosa Luxemburg na-edu ugbu a ụzọ maka ntụgharị ya.  [1] Ka o sina dị, Bernstein nri onye na-elekọta mmadụ nke ukwuu, ọ bụ ebe na ọ bụ onye na- ike ezi dị ka o ike na a ga-enweta socialism site na nọmba nke ikeketaism na onye kwuo uche.  ya na ihe ndị ọzọ, ọ bụghị site na ịma mma nke capitalism (dị ka ndị ọrụ ji ma ọ bụrụ mmeri ikike, ihe ihe ọṅụṅụ ha. ga-belete ma n'ihi ya, otu ahụ kwa mkpali maka akara).  N'oge amụma intra-party echiche ya, Bernstein na ya ihe ọsọ ikpeazụ nke socialism echebe ihe ọ ALA;  na akara ihe omume ọsọ ahụ bụ ihe niile.

Luxemburg Juan ụka na socialism nwere njedebe ya na akara ọha na eze na revisionism "ọnụọgụ na omume na mama [...] na anyị na-ahapụ ndị na-elekọta mmadụ 5 ihe mkpesa nke Social Democracy-na- nna  - elekọta mmadụ site n'aka nke klas mgba n'ime ya. Matiu ikpeazụ".  [1] Ọ na-na ntụgharị uche tụfuru socialism uru wee wepụ n'ezi echiche wee tụfuo ike ya.  Ebe ọ bụ na ndị na-eme na-eleda ọgba aghara nke ikeketelizi anya anya  ma kwuo na ọ nwere ngbanwe na ikike, nke ha na-ekwu na ụzọ nke ikeketeke mere eme ka ọ bụrụ mkpa ihe mere eme  na-ebute ya na ọkachamara ya, Luxemburg kwuru na ha ga-ahapụ ihe dị mkpa maka socialism ma hapụ ndị niile maka onye na-elekọta mmadụ.  n'etiti.  Ọ bụrụ na nke ahụ ga-ada ma ọ na akwụkwọ mgbanwe.  Ndị otu akwụkwọ, ndị nwere ike ịhụ ihe ịga nke ọma nke ikekete ego na ọrụ ọrụ na ndị ọchịchị imeziwanye ọrụ ọrụ site n'aka ndị omeiwu, na-esokarị Bernstein ebe ndị na-ekpe , Konstainem N'ozuzu soro Luxemburg

.  Bernstein weere nchegbu (oke tarifụ na mbubata) dị ka inyere ndị mmadụ a ndụ aka, ịbụ fortschrittsfeindlich (mgbochi oriri) maka nri ọkụ ya na ndị mmadụ.  Ọ na-abụ ụka na akara Germany na-adabere na ndị agha, na-ekewa Germany site n'ụwa (karịsịa na Britain), na-ihe ihe na-ahụ mma nke ga-ebute nanị ụfọdụ n'etiti Germany na ụwa ndị ọzọ.  ọzọ.  [1] Bernstein asụ asụsụ Germany ma kwuo na tarifu kaadị ka oka, ọ na-adịghị mma Britain, ebelata uru ugbo ma ghara nkwalite na ọrụ ugbo.  Kama, ọ rịbara ụlọ ụlọ, ọmụrụ nwa na ọnụ ahịa, mebie onye ọ mgbasa ya.  N'ụzọ dị iche, ọlaha ụka na akara n'efu na-eduga n'udo, onye kwuo uche ya, akara na ihe mmetụta na-eme ihe ngosi elu nke mmadụ niile.

Bernstein jụrụ ịhụ mba n'anya bourgeois mmeghachi omume ma kpọọ oku maka ịhụ mba n'anya na mba ụwa. Ọ ghọtara ọrụ akụkọ ihe mere eme nke ihe mba ahụ ma kwuo na proletariat ga-akwado obodo ha megide ihe egwu dị na mpụga. Ọ kpọkuru ndị ọrụ ka ha na-akpakọrịta onwe ha n'ime steeti mba, nke gụnyere nkwado maka atumatu colonial na ọrụ ndị eze. Bernstein nwere ọmịiko n'echiche nke mgbasawanye nke alaeze ukwu dị ka ozi dị mma na nke mmepeanya, nke butere usoro ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị dị ilu na onye na-emegide eze ukwu Ernest Belfort Bax .  Bernstein kwadoro ọchịchị colonial ka o kwenyere na ọ na-ewuli ndị mmadụ azụ azụ ma rụọ ọrụ nke ọma maka ma Britain na Germany. Bernstein kwadoro amụma ndị dị otú ahụ n'ụzọ siri ike nke ịkpa ókè agbụrụ, na-arụ ụka na 1896 na "agbụrụ ndị na-emegide ma ọ bụ ndị na-enweghị ike imepe emepe enweghị ike ikwu na anyị nwere ọmịiko mgbe ha na-enupụ isi megide mmepeanya" nakwa na "ndị na-eme ihe ike [ga-emerịrị] n'okpuru ma mee ka ha kwekọọ n'usoro iwu. iwu nke elu mmepeanya".  Otú ọ dị, atumatu ndị Kaiser na-akpachapụghị anya kpagburu ya. Ọ chọrọ ọbụbụenyi siri ike karịsịa na Britain na France na nchebe megide iyi egwu Russia na Germany. Ọ tụrụ anya ụdị njikọ nke mba dị iche iche.  

### Zionism

## Na-arụ ọrụ

*  Eleanor Marx Aveling, trans. London: Swan Sonnenschein & Co., 1893.
*  [1899] Edith C. Harvey, trans. New York: BW Huebsch, 1909. Asụgharịkwara akwụkwọ a n'asụsụ Bekee dị ka *Preconditions of Socialism* .
* * .* HJ Stenning, trans. London: Allen na Unwin, 1930.
*  , trans. Bernard Miall, New York: Harcourt, Brace na Howe, 1921. 
* *Edemede ahọpụtara nke Eduard Bernstein, 1900–1921.* Akwụkwọ Prometheus, 1996.
* Marius S. Ostrowski (ed.), ''Eduard Bernstein na Social Democracy na International Politics: Essays and Other Edings'' . Ebe nchekwa: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018.
* Marius S. Ostrowski (ed.), ''Eduard Bernstein na German mgbanwe: ahọpụtara ihe odide akụkọ ihe mere eme'' . Ebe nchekwa: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019.
* Marius S. Ostrowski (ed.), ''Eduard Bernstein na Socialism n'oge gara aga na ugbu a: Essays na Lectures on Ideology'' . Ebe nchekwa: Palgrave Macmillan, 2021.

## Ntụaka

## Isi mmalite

* Fletcher, Richard A. "Cobden as Educator: The Free-Trade Internationalism of Eduard Bernstein, 1899–1914." *American Historical Review* 88.3 (1983): 561–578. online
* Fletcher, R. A. "In the interest of peace and progress: Eduard Bernstein's socialist foreign policy." *Review of International Studies* 9.2 (1983): 79–93.
* Fletcher, Roger. "A Revisionist Looks at Imperialism: Eduard Bernstein's Critique of Imperialism and Kolonialpolitik, 1900–14." *Central European History* 12.3 (1979): 237–271.
* Fletcher, Roger. "Revisionism and Nationalism: Eduard Bernstein's Views on the National Question, 1900–1914." *Canadian Review of Studies in Nationalism* 11.1 (1984) pp 103–117.
* Fletcher, Roger. "World Power without War. Eduard Bernstein's Proposals for an Alternative Weltpolitik, 1900–1914." *Australian Journal of Politics & History* 25.2 (1979): 228–236.
* Fletcher, Roger. "An English Advocate in Germany. Eduard Bernstein’s Analysis of Anglo-German Relations 1900–1914." *Canadian Journal of History* 13.2 (1978): 209–236.
* Gay, Peter, *The Dilemma of Democratic Socialism: Eduard Bernstein's challenge to Marx.* (Columbia UP, 1952. online 
* Gustafsson, Bo. "A new look at Bernstein: Some reflections on reformism and history." *Scandinavian Journal of History* 3#1-4 (1978): 275–296.
* Hamilton, Richard F. *Marxism, Revisionism, and Leninism: Explication, Assessment, and Commentary* (Greenwood, 2000) online 
* Hulse, James W. *Revolutionists in London: A Study of Five Unorthodox Socialists.* (Clarendon Press, 1970.
* Ostrowski, Marius S. "Bernstein, Eduard." In Mortimer Sellers and Stephan Kirste (eds.), *Encyclopedia of the Philosophy of Law and Social Philosophy* (Springer, 2021) 
* Ostrowski, Marius S. "Eduard Bernstein and the Lessons of the German Revolution." In James Muldoon and Gaard Kets (eds.), *The German Revolution and Political Theory* (Palgrave Macmillan, 2019): 137–158. online
* Ostrowski, Marius S. "'Reform or revolution, *redux*: Eduard Bernstein on the 1918–19 German Revolution." *Historical Research* 95.268 (2022): 213–239. online
* Ostrowski, Marius S. "Social Democracy and "positive" foreign policy: The evolution of Eduard Bernstein's international thought, 1914–1920." *History of Political Thought* 42.3 (2021): 520–564. online
* Pachter, Henry. "The Ambiguous Legacy of Eduard Bernstein." *Dissent* 28#2 (1981). pp 203–216.
* Rogers, H. Kendall. *Before the Revisionist Controversy: Kautsky, Bernstein, and the Meaning of Marxism, 1895–1898.* (Routledge, 2015).
* Steger, Manfred B. *The Quest for Evolutionary Socialism: Eduard Bernstein and Social Democracy.* (Cambridge UP, 1997).
* Steger, Manfred. "Historical materialism and ethics: Eduard Bernstein's revisionist perspective." *History of European Ideas* 14.5 (1992): 647–663.
* Thomas, Paul. *Marxism & Scientific Socialism: From Engels to Althusser.* (Routledge, 2008).
Òtù:Aha