Hak asasi manusia di Tiongkok

Keberadaan hak asasi manusia yang diakui dan dilindungi di Republik Rakyat Tiongkok ("Tiongkok" atau "RRT") adalah sebuah bahan dari persengketaan antara pemerintahannya dan organisasi-organisasi dan individu-individu di luar pemerintahan tersebut. Otoritas RRT, para pendukungnya, dan lapisan lainnya mengklaim bahwa kebijakan-kebijakan yang ada menentang pelecehan hak asasi manusia. Namun, negara-negara lainnya dan otoritas-otoritas mereka (seperti Departemen Negara Amerika Serikat, Kanada, India, dan lain-lain), organisasi-organisasi non-pemerintah (ONP) internasional, seperti Human Rights in China dan Amnesty International, dan pihak-pihak yang berseberangan dengan negara tersebut menyatakan bahwa otoritas-otoritas di daratan utama Tiongkok telah membiarkan atau melakukan pelecehan hak asasi manusia.

ONP-ONP seperti Amnesty International dan Human Rights Watch, serta institusi-institusi pemerintahan luar negeri seperti Departemen Negara A.S., menyatakan bahwa RRT telah mencederai kebebasan berbicara, pergerakan, dan beragama terhadap para warga sipilnya dan orang-orang lainnya pada yurisdiksinya. Otoritas-otoritas di RRT mengklaim bahwa definisi hak asasi manusia berbeda-beda, seperti yang meliputi hak asasi ekonomi dan sosial serta politik, semuanya berada dalam hubungan terhadap "budaya nasional" dan tingkat perkembangan dari negara tersebut. Otoritas-otoritas di RRT, yang merujuk kepada definisi ini, mengklaim bahwa hak asasi manusia telah diimprovisasikan. Namun, mereka tidak menggunakan definisi yang digunakan oleh kebanyakan negara dan organisasi. Menurut Konstitusi RRT, para politikus RRT menyatakan bahwa "Empat Prinsip Kardinal" memberikan hak-hak kewarganegaraan. Para pejabat RRT menginterpretasikan kebijakan Empat Prinsip Kardinal sebagai basis hukum untuk penangkapan orang yang pemerintah pandang akan meruntuhkan prinsip-prinsip tersebut.

Sejumlah kelompok hak asasi manusia menerbitkan masalah hak asasi manusia di Tiongkok yang mereka anggap gagal ditangani oleh pemerintahan tersebut, yang meliputi: hukuman mati, kebijakan satu anak, status hukum dan politik Tibet, dan pembatasan kebebasan pers di daratan utama Tiongkok.

## Lihat pula

* Hak asasi manusia di Hong Kong
* Hak asasi manusia di Makau
* Hak asasi manusia di Tibet
* Hak asasi manusia di Taiwan
* Protes Lapangan Tiananmen 1989
* Migrasi ekologi

## Catatan

## Referensi

* "Country Cousins", *[[The Economist]]*, 8 April 2000.
* "Dalai Lama honours Tintin and Tutu" , *[[BBC News]]*, 2 June 2006.
* "From politics to health policies: why they're in trouble", *[[The Star (South Africa)|The Star]]*, 6 February 2007.
* "Online encyclopedia Wikipedia founder raps firms aiding China censorship", *[[Associated Press]]* Financial Wire, 8 March 2007.
* "Profile: The Dalai Lama" , *[[BBC News]]*, 25 April 2006.
* "Tutu calls on China to 'do the right thing' in Tibet" , *International Campaign for Tibet*, 1 June 2006.
* United States Congressional Serial Set, United States Government Printing Office, 1993.
* "What do we expect the United Kingdom to do?" , Tibet Vigil UK, June 2002. Retrieved 25 June 2006.
* Au Loong-yu, Nan Shan, Zhang Ping. , Committee for Asian Women, May 2007.
* Chan, Anita. *China's Workers Under Assault: The Exploitation of Labor in a Globalizing Economy*, M.E. Sharpe, 2001. ISBN 0-7656-0357-8
* Chan, Anita & Senser, Robert A. "China's Troubled Workers" , *[[Foreign Affairs]]*, March / April 1997.
* Ching, Frank. *China: The Truth About Its Human Rights Record*, Rider Books, 2008. ISBN 978-1-84604-138-9
* Elliott, Mark C. *The Manchu Way: The 8 Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China*, Stanford University Press, 2001. ISBN 0-8047-3606-5
* Goble, Paul. "China: Analysis From Washington – A Breakthrough For Tibet" , *World Tibet Network News*, Canada Tibet Committee , 31 August 2001.
* Laquian, Aprodicio A. *Beyond Metropolis: The Planning and Governance of Asia's Mega-Urban Regions*, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005. ISBN 0-8018-8176-5
* Lasater, Martin L. & Conboy, Kenneth J. "Why the World Is Watching Beijing's Treatment of Tibet" , Heritage Foundation, 9 October 1987.
* Luard, Tim. "China rethinks peasant 'apartheid'" , *[[BBC News]]*, 10 November 2005.
* Macleod, Calum. "China reviews `apartheid' for 900&nbsp;m peasants" , *[[The Independent]]*, 10 June 2001.
* Neville-Hadley, Peter. *[[Frommer's]] China*, Frommers.com, 2003. ISBN 0-7645-6755-1
* Robinson, Thomas W. & Shambaugh, David L. *Chinese Foreign Policy: Theory and Practice*, Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-829016-0
* Rosenthal, A.M. "China's 'Apartheid' Taiwan Policy." *[[The New York Times]]*, 4 December 1995.
* Snow, Phillip. "Third World Report: 'Chinese apartheid' threatens links with Africa", *[[The Guardian]]*, 20 January 1989.
* von Senger, Harro. "Chinese culture and human rights]" (online available: pdf ). In: Wolfgang Schmale (Hrsg.): "Human rights and cultural diversity: Europe, Arabic-Islamic world, Africa, China". Goldbach: Keip, 1993, pp.&nbsp;281–333
* Waddington, Jeremy. *Globalization and Patterns of Labour Resistance*, Routledge, 1999. ISBN 0-7201-2369-0
* Whitehouse, David. , Paper delivered at the Colloquium on Economy, Society and Nature, sponsored by the Centre for Civil Society at the University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2 March 2006. Retrieved 1 August 2007.
* Wildasin, David E. "Factor mobility, risk, inequality, and redistribution" in David Pines, Efraim Sadka, Itzhak Zilcha, *Topics in Public Economics: Theoretical and Applied Analysis*, Cambridge University Press, 1998. ISBN 0-521-56136-1
* Yao, Shunli. "China's WTO Revolution" , *[[Project Syndicate]]*, June 2002

## Bacaan tambahan
* Cheng, Lucie, Rossett, Arthur and Woo, Lucie, *East Asian Law: Universal Norms and Local Cultures*, RoutledgeCurzon, 2003, ISBN 0-415-29735-4
* Edwards, Catherine, *China's Abuses Ignored for Profit*, Insight on the News, Vol. 15, 20 December 1999.
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* Sitaraman, Srini, Explaining China's Continued Resistance Towards Human Rights Norms: A Historical Legal Analysis , ACDIS *Occasional Paper*, Program in Arms Control, Disarmament, and International Security, University of Illinois, June 2008.
* Svensson, Marina, *The Chinese Debate on Asian Values and Human Rights: Some Reflections on Relativism, Nationalism and Orientalism*, in Brun, Ole. *Human Rights and Asian Values: Contesting National Identities and Cultural Representations in Asia*, Ole Bruun, Michael Jacobsen; Curzon, 2000, ISBN 0-7007-1212-7
* Wang, Fei-Ling, *Organizing through Division and Exclusion: China's Hukou System*, Stanford University Press, 2005, ISBN 0-8047-5039-4
* Zweig, David, *Freeing China's Farmers: Rural Restructuring in the Reform Era*, M. E. Sharpe, 1997, ISBN 1-56324-838-7
* *The silent majority; China.* (Life in a Chinese village), The Economist, April 2005
* China's Geography: Globalization and the Dynamics of Political, Economic, and Social Change
* Anwar Rahman. Sinicization Beyond the Great Wall: China's Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region

## Pranala luar
* Review of China  by the United Nations Human Rights Council's Universal Periodic Review, 7 February 2009
* UN Human Development Report 2003 on China  by the United Nations Development Programme
* 2004 Human Rights Report on China  by the United States Department of State
* Freedom House: Freedom in the World 2011 Country Report: China 
* Amnesty.org - Report - China - 2011