Falsafar zamani

**Falsafar zamani** ita ce lokacin da ake ciki a cikin tarihin falsafar Yammacin Turai tun daga farkon karni na 20 tare da haɓaka ƙwarewar horo da haɓakar nazari da falsafar nahiyar . 

Kalmar "falsafa ta zamani" wani yanki ne na fasaha na fasaha a falsafa wanda ke nufin wani lokaci na musamman a cikin tarihin falsafar Yammacin Turai (wato falsafar karni na 20 da 21).  Duk da haka, kalmar sau da yawa tana rikicewa da falsafar zamani (wanda ke nufin wani lokaci na farko a falsafar Yammacin Yamma), falsafar zamani (wanda ke nufin sukan falsafar falsafar falsafar zamani), tare da amfani da kalmar da ba ta fasaha ba tana nufin kowane abu. aikin falsafa na baya-bayan nan.

## Ƙwarewa
 

### Tsari
Ƙwarewa shine tsarin zamantakewa wanda kowane kasuwanci ko sana'a ya kafa ƙa'idodin ƙungiya, cancantar cancanta don zama memba na sana'a, ƙwararrun ƙungiya ko ƙungiya don kula da halayen membobin sana'a, da kuma wani mataki na ƙaddamar da cancanta daga wadanda basu cancanta ba. Canji zuwa sana'a yana haifar da sauye-sauye masu yawa a fagen bincike, amma ɗayan mafi saurin ganewa na ƙwarewa shine ƙara rashin mahimmancin "littafin" ga filin: "bayanin bincike zai fara canzawa ta hanyoyi wanda na zamani karshen kayayyakin ne bayyananne ga kowa da kowa da kuma zalunta ga mutane da yawa Ba za a ƙara yawan binciken [memba] a cikin littattafan ga duk wanda zai iya sha'awar batun na filin maimakon haka yawanci suna fitowa ne a matsayin taƙaitaccen labarai da ake magana da su ga abokan aikin ƙwararru kawai, mutanen da za a iya ɗaukan ilimin da aka haɗa da su kuma waɗanda ke tabbatar da cewa su kaɗai ne ke iya karanta takaddun da aka yi musu magana."  Falsafa ta gudanar da wannan tsari a ƙarshen karni na 19, kuma yana ɗaya daga cikin mahimman abubuwan banbance-banbance na zamanin falsafar zamani a falsafar Yammacin Turai.

Jamus ita ce ƙasa ta farko da ta haɓaka ilimin falsafa.  A ƙarshen 1817, Hegel shine masanin falsafa na farko da aka nada Farfesa ta Jiha, wato ta Ministan Ilimi na Prussian, a matsayin tasirin sake fasalin Napoleon a Prussia . A {asar Amirka, ƙwararrun ƙwararrun ta taso ne daga gyare-gyare ga tsarin ilimin Amirka, wanda ya dogara da tsarin Jamusanci.  James Campbell ya bayyana ƙwarewar falsafar a Amurka kamar haka:

Kwarewar ƙwarewa a Ingila ta kasance daidai da ci gaba a cikin babban ilimi. A cikin aikinsa a kan TH Green, Denys Leighton ya tattauna waɗannan canje-canje a falsafar Burtaniya da da'awar Green ga taken ƙwararren masanin falsafa na farko na Biritaniya:

Sakamakon ƙwararrun ƙwararrun falsafa na nufin cewa aikin da ake yi a fannin yanzu kusan malaman jami'o'in da ke da digirin digirgir a fannin buga littattafai a cikin fasahar fasaha, mujallun da aka yi bita na ƙwararru . Duk da yake ya zama ruwan dare a tsakanin al'umma gabaɗaya mutum ya kasance yana da tsarin ra'ayi na addini, siyasa ko falsafa waɗanda suke la'akari da "falsafancinsu", waɗannan ra'ayoyin ba safai ake ba da labari ko alaƙa da aikin da ake yi a cikin falsafar ƙwararru a yau. Bugu da ƙari kuma, ba kamar yawancin ilimin kimiyya waɗanda aka sami ingantacciyar masana'antar littattafai, mujallu, da shirye-shiryen talabijin waɗanda ke nufin haɓaka kimiyya da isar da sakamakon fasaha na filin kimiyya ga jama'a gabaɗaya, ayyukan da kwararrun masana falsafa suka yi umarni a kan Masu sauraro a waje da sana'a sun kasance da wuya. Littafin Philosopher Michael Sandel "Adalci: Menene Abinda Ya Kamata Ya Yi?" da Harry Frankfurt 's " On Bullshit " misalai ne na ayyukan da ke riƙe da bambancin da ƙwararrun masana falsafa suka rubuta amma sun ba da umarni kuma a ƙarshe sun shahara tsakanin ɗimbin masu sauraro na waɗanda ba falsafa ba. Duk ayyukan biyu sun zama New York Times mafi kyawun siyarwa .

### Ƙwararrun falsafar yau
Ba da daɗewa ba bayan kafuwar su, Ƙungiyar Falsafa ta Yamma da wasu sassan Ƙungiyar Ƙwararrun Ƙwararru a Amurka. Ƙungiyar tana da sassa uku: Pacific, Tsakiya da Gabas. Kowane yanki yana shirya babban taro na shekara-shekara. Mafi girma daga cikinsu shi ne taron Sashen Gabas, wanda yawanci ke jan hankalin masana falsafa kusan 2,000 kuma yana faruwa a wani birni na gabas daban-daban a kowane Disamba. Taron Sashen Gabas kuma shine babban taron daukar ma'aikata na Amurka don ayyukan falsafa, tare da jami'o'i da yawa suna aika ƙungiyoyi don yin tambayoyi ga masu neman mukaman ilimi. Daga cikin ayyukanta da dama, kungiyar ce ke da alhakin gudanar da da yawa daga cikin manyan kwarjinin wannan sana’a. Misali, Shugabancin Sashen Ƙungiyar Falsafa ta Amurka ana ɗaukarsa a matsayin ƙwararriyar karramawa kuma lambar yabo ta Ƙungiyar Falsafa ta Amurka tana ɗaya daga cikin tsoffin kyaututtuka a falsafar. Babbar ƙungiyar ilimi da ta keɓe musamman haɓaka nazarin falsafar nahiyar ita ce Society for Phenomenology and Existential Philosophy .

Dangane da mujallolin ƙwararru a yau, wani bincike na 2018 na ƙwararrun masana falsafa ya umarce su da su ba da mafi kyawun mujallolin falsafa na “janar” a cikin Turanci, suna ba da manyan 20 masu zuwa:

Dangane da falsafar nahiyar musamman, wani bincike na 2012 na galibin ƙwararrun masana falsafa ya umarce su da su ba da matsayi mafi girma na mujallolin falsafar falsafa "nahiya ta al'ada". Jerin manyan sakamakon binciken guda 6:

Cibiyar Rubuce-rubucen Falsafa tana buga sanannen Littafin Jagora na Falsafa na Amurka wanda shine daidaitaccen aikin tunani don bayani game da ayyukan falsafa a Amurka da Kanada.  Ana buga littafin a kowace shekara biyu, yana musanya tare da ƙarar abokinsa, Littafin Jagoran Falsafa da Falsafa na Duniya (Madogararsa kaɗai da aka gyara don ɗimbin bayanai kan ayyukan falsafa a Afirka, Asiya, Australasia, Turai, da Latin Amurka).

Tun farkon karni na 21, masana falsafa kuma sun ga karuwar amfani da shafukan yanar gizo a matsayin hanyar musayar sana'a. Wasu fitattun abubuwan ci gaba a cikin wannan ci gaban sun haɗa da jeri na yau da kullun na shafukan falsafa na falsafa wanda masanin falsafa David Chalmers ya fara wanda tun daga lokacin ya zama tushen amfani da wannan sana'a,  kafa haɗin gwiwa tsakanin ɗabi'a blog na PEA Soup da fitacciyar mujallar Ethics to. Buga abubuwan da aka gabatar don tattaunawa akan layi akan blog,  da kuma rawar blogs kamar Menene Kamar zama Mace a Falsafa? wajen kawo hankali ga gogewar mata a cikin wannan sana'a.   

## Rabe-raben nazari – nahiya

### Farkon rarraba
Falsafar nahiyar ta zamani ta fara ne da aikin Franz Brentano, Edmund Husserl, Adolf Reinach, da Martin Heidegger da haɓaka hanyar falsafar abubuwan mamaki . Wannan ci gaban ya yi kusan daidai da aikin Gottlob Frege da Bertrand Russell suna ƙaddamar da sabuwar hanyar falsafa dangane da nazarin harshe ta hanyar dabaru na zamani (don haka kalmar "falsafar nazari"). 

Falsafar nazari ta mamaye Burtaniya, Kanada, Australia da duniyar masu magana da Ingilishi. Falsafa na Nahiyar ta yi rinjaye a Turai, ciki har da Jamus, Faransa, Italiya, Spain, Portugal da wasu sassan Amurka.

Wasu masana falsafa, irin su Richard Rorty da Simon Glendinning, suna jayayya cewa wannan "nazari-nahiyar" rabe yana da ma'ana ga horo gaba ɗaya. Wasu, irin su John Searle, sun yi iƙirarin cewa falsafar Nahiyar, musamman ma falsafar Nahiyar ta bayan-tsari, ya kamata a kawar da ita, bisa dalilin cewa ba ta da tushe kuma ba ta da tushe.

Falsafar nazari da nahiya suna da al'adar falsafar Yammacin Turai gama gari har zuwa Immanuel Kant . Bayan haka, masana falsafa da nahiya sun bambanta a kan mahimmanci da tasirin masana falsafa a kan al'adunsu daban-daban. Misali, makarantar akidar Jamusanci ta samo asali ne daga aikin Kant a cikin 1780s da 1790s kuma ta ƙare a Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, wanda yawancin masana falsafa na nahiyar ke kallonsa sosai. Akasin haka, ana kallon Hegel a matsayin ɗan ƙaramin adadi na aikin masana falsafa.&#x5B; **' &#x5D;</sup>

=== Falsafar nazari ===
Shirin nazarce-nazarce a falsafa ya kasance yana da kwanan watan da aikin masana falsafa na Ingilishi Bertrand Russell da GE Moore a farkon karni na 20, suna gina aikin masanin falsafar Jamus kuma masanin lissafi Gottlob Frege . Sun kau da kai daga manyan nau'o'in Hegelianism (suna fuskantar musamman ga [[Idealism|manufarta]] da kuma tunanin da ba a sani ba)   kuma sun fara haɓaka wani sabon nau'i na nazarin ra'ayi dangane da abubuwan da suka faru a kwanan nan a cikin tunani. Babban misali mafi shahara na wannan sabuwar hanyar nazarin ra'ayi ita ce takarda ta Russell ta 1905 mai suna " On Denoting ", takarda da ake ganin ta zama abin koyi na shirin nazari a falsafa. 

Kodayake masana falsafa na zamani waɗanda suka bayyana kansu a matsayin "nazari" suna da buƙatu daban-daban, zato, da hanyoyin - kuma sun ƙi yarda da mahimman wuraren da suka ayyana motsin nazari tsakanin 1900 da 1960 - falsafar nazari, a cikin halin da ake ciki, yawanci ana ɗauka zuwa ga. za a ayyana shi da wani salo na musamman  wanda ke da madaidaici da cikakku game da ƙunƙuntaccen maudu'i, da juriya ga "tattaunawar da ba daidai ba ko fa'ida na batutuwa masu faɗi." 

Wasu masana falsafa na nazari a ƙarshen karni na 20, irin su Richard Rorty, sun yi kira da a yi wani babban gyara na al'adar falsafar nazari. Musamman ma, Rorty ya bayar da hujjar cewa dole ne masana falsafa na nazari su koyi muhimman darussa daga ayyukan masana falsafa na nahiyar.  Wasu mawallafa, irin su Paul M. Livingston  da Shaun Gallagher sun yi iƙirarin cewa akwai fahimi masu mahimmanci ga al'adun biyu yayin da wasu, irin su Timothy Williamson, suka yi kira ga maƙarƙashiyar riko da manufofin falsafar nazari:

“Danyen ra’ayi” da Williamson ya yi nuni da su a cikin wannan nassi na sama su ne: cewa masana falsafa suna samar da gardama a hankali da tsattsauran ra’ayi na ƙwararrun ƙwaƙƙwaran falsafa, yayin da masana falsafa na nahiyoyi ke samar da sakamako mai zurfi da ƙima amma ta hanyar fitar da su daga faffadan tsarin falsafa waɗanda kansu. rashin dalilai masu goyan baya ko bayyanannu a cikin maganganunsu. Da alama Williamson da kansa a nan ya nisanta kansa daga waɗannan ra'ayoyin, amma yana zargin masana falsafar da yawa da dacewa da mahimmin ra'ayi na falsafar nahiyoyi ta hanyar matsawa "da sauri" don samun sakamako mai mahimmanci ta hanyar rashin fahimta.

=== Falsafar Nahiyar ===

Tarihin falsafar nahiyar an fara farawa ne a farkon shekarun 1900 saboda tushen cibiyoyinta sun zo ne kai tsaye daga na abubuwan da ke faruwa.  A sakamakon haka, Edmund Husserl sau da yawa ana yaba shi a matsayin wanda ya kafa falsafar nahiyar. Ko da yake, tun da analytic da falsafar nahiyoyi suna da irin wannan ra'ayi daban-daban na falsafa bayan Kant, falsafar nahiyoyi kuma ana fahimtar falsafar nahiyoyi ta wata ma'ana mai zurfi don haɗawa da duk wani masana falsafa na bayan Kant ko ƙungiyoyi masu mahimmanci ga falsafar nahiyar amma ba falsafar nazari ba.

Kalmar "falsafar nahiya", kamar "falsafar nazari", tana nuna faffadan ra'ayoyin falsafa da hanyoyin da ba a iya kama su cikin ma'ana ba. Har ma an ba da shawarar cewa kalmar na iya zama mai fa'ida fiye da sifaita, tana aiki azaman lakabin nau'ikan falsafar yammaci waɗanda masana falsafar nazari suka ƙi ko kuma suka ƙi.  Duk da haka, an ga wasu sifofi maimakon juzu'i kawai don yawanci suna nuna falsafar nahiyar: 

* Na farko, masana falsafa na nahiyoyi gabaɗaya sun ƙi kimiyya, ra'ayin cewa kimiyyar halitta ita ce hanya mafi kyau ko mafi inganci ta fahimtar duk abubuwan mamaki. 
* Na biyu, falsafar nahiyar tana ɗaukar gogewa kamar yadda aka ƙaddara aƙalla ta hanyar abubuwa kamar mahallin, sarari da lokaci, harshe, al'ada, ko tarihi. Don haka falsafar nahiyar tana karkata zuwa ga tarihi, inda falsafar nazari ta ke kula da falsafar ta fuskar matsaloli daban-daban, masu iya yin nazari baya ga asalinsu na tarihi. 
* Na uku, masana falsafa na Nahiyar kan yi matukar sha'awar hadin kan ka'ida da aiki, kuma suna ganin bincikensu na falsafa yana da alaka ta kut-da-kut da sauyi na mutum, dabi'u, ko siyasa.
* Na hudu, falsafar nahiyar tana da fifiko kan metaphilosophy (watau nazarin yanayi, manufa, da hanyoyin falsafa). Hakanan ana iya samun wannan girmamawa a cikin falsafar nazari, amma tare da sakamako daban-daban.

Wata hanyar da za ta kusantar da ma'anar falsafar nahiyar ita ce ta jera wasu ƙungiyoyin falsafa waɗanda suke ko kuma sun kasance tsakiya a falsafar nahiyar: manufa ta Jamusanci, phenomenology, [[existentialism]] (da magabatansa, irin su tunanin [[Søren Kierkegaard|Kierkegaard]] da [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]] ), hermeneutics, , hermeneutics. Tsarin tsari, post-structuralism, rushewa, [[Feminism|Faransanci mata]], da kuma mahimmin ka'idar Makarantar Frankfurt da wasu rassa na Marxism na Yamma . 

=== Ƙaddamar da rarraba ===
PAdadin masana falsafa na wannan zamani sun yi adawa da kima da fa'idar bambance falsafar nazari da nahiya.  Wasu masana falsafa, kamar Richard J. Bernstein da AW Moore sun fito fili sun yi ƙoƙarin daidaita waɗannan hadisai, suna ɗaukar wasu jigogi waɗanda manyan malamai suka yi tarayya a cikin kowace al'ada.

== Duba kuma ==

* Falsafar nazari
** Falsafar gwaji&nbsp;– Filin binciken ilimin falsafa da ya kunno kai wanda ke yin amfani da bayanai masu ma'ana - galibi ana tattara su ta hanyar binciken da ke bin diddigin tunanin talakawa - don sanar da bincike kan tambayoyin falsafar da suka daɗe da rashin kwanciyar hankali.
** Ma'ana positivism&nbsp;– Makaranta na farko kuma mafi rinjaye a falsafar nazari na farkon rabin karni na 20.
** Halitta&nbsp;- Ra'ayin cewa dokoki na halitta da karfi ne kawai ke aiki a sararin samaniya.
** Falsafar harshe na yau da kullun&nbsp;– Babbar makaranta a falsafar nazari a tsakiyar karni na 20.
** Natsuwa&nbsp;- A cikin metaphilosophy, ra'ayin cewa aikin falsafar shine warkewa ko gyarawa.
** Falsafar postanalytic&nbsp;- Falsafar bayan nazari ta bayyana rabewa da ƙalubalen falsafar falsafa ta yau da kullun ta masana falsafa kamar Richard Rorty.
* Falsafar Nahiyar
** Rushewa&nbsp;– Hanya (ko a falsafa, nazarin adabi, ko a wasu fagage) inda mutum zai gudanar da karatun nassi da nufin nuna cewa nassin ba cikakke ba ne, a maimakon haka yana kunshe da ma’anoni da dama da ba za su iya daidaitawa ba, masu cin karo da juna.
** [[Existentialism|Halin wanzuwa]]&nbsp;– Falsafar wanzuwa ita ce “bayyanar ra’ayi na zahiri na halin wanzuwa”  wanda ke farawa da yanayin ruɗani da ruɗani a fuskar duniyar da babu ma’ana ko rashin hankali.  
** Ilimin halittu&nbsp;- Phenomenology da farko ya shafi yin sifofin sani, da kuma abubuwan da suka bayyana a cikin ayyukan sani, abubuwa na tunani da bincike na tsari.
** Poststructuralism&nbsp;- Tsarin tsari wani motsi ne na gaye a Faransa a cikin 1950s da 1960s, wanda yayi nazarin tushen tsarin da ke cikin samfuran al'adu (kamar matani), bayan-tsari ya samo asali daga sukar wuraren gine-gine. Musamman, post-structuralism yana riƙe da cewa nazarin tsarin da ke ƙasa yana da yanayin al'ada don haka yana ƙarƙashin ɗimbin son zuciya da fassarori.
** Falsafa ta zamani&nbsp;– Falsafa ta zamani tana da shakku ko tauye wa da yawa daga cikin dabi’u da zato na falsafar da suka samo asali daga zamani, kamar dan’adam yana da ma’anar da ta bambanta mutum da dabbobi, ko kuma zaton cewa wani nau’i na gwamnati ya fi wani.
** Gine-gine na zamantakewa&nbsp;- Mahimmin ra'ayi na tsakiya a cikin falsafar nahiyar, ginin zamantakewa shine ra'ayi ko aiki wanda shine ƙirƙirar (ko kayan tarihi) na wani rukuni.
** Haƙiƙanin Haƙiƙa - Haƙiƙanin haƙiƙanin ƙaƙƙarfan motsi ne na falsafa wanda ke neman ya shawo kan iyakokin tunanin ɗan adam da daidaitawa ta hanyar bincika gaskiyar abubuwa fiye da tsinkayen ɗan adam da wakilci.
** Ka'idar mahimmanci&nbsp;- Mahimman ka'idar ita ce jarrabawa da sukar al'umma da al'adu, ta hanyar ilimi a cikin ilimin zamantakewa da bil'adama.
** Makarantar Frankfurt&nbsp;- Kalmar "Makarantar Frankfurt" kalma ce ta yau da kullun da ake amfani da ita don zayyana masu tunani da ke da alaƙa da Cibiyar Nazarin Zamantakewa ko kuma waɗanda hakan ya rinjaye su.
* Falsafar Yamma

== Bayanan kula ==


== Bayanan ƙafa da nassoshi ==


* 
*  

== Kara karantawa ==

* Campbell, James, ''Sana'a Mai Tunani: Shekarun Farko na Ƙungiyar Falsafa ta Amirka'' . Buɗe Kotu (2006)

**Rarraba Nahiyar / Nahiyar**

* James Chase & Jack Reynolds, "Analytic vs Continental: Arguments on the Method and Value of Philosophy" Durham: Acumen (2011)
* James Luchte, [http://luchte.wordpress.com/martin-heidegger-and-rudolf-carnap-radical-phenomenology-logical-positivism-and-the-roots-of-the-continentalanalytic-divide/ 'Martin Heidegger da Rudolf Carnap: Radical Phenomenology, Logical Positivism da Tushen Rarraba Nahiyar/Analytic,'] ''Falsafa A Yau'', Vol. 51, Na 3, 241-260 (Faɗuwar, 2007)
* Levy, Neil "Analytic da Nahiyar Falsafa: Bayyana Bambance-Bambance", ''Metaphilosophy'' . Vol. 34, Na 3, Afrilu (2003)
* Prado, CG ''An Rarraba Gida: Kwatanta Litattafan Nazari da Falsafa na Nahiyar'' Dan Adam (2003)
* Weinberg, Justin ''Hanyar Ƙarfafawa ga Rarraba Nahiyar Nahiyar'' (2021) Daily Nous. https://dailynous.com/2021/10/01/empirical-approach-analytic-continental-divide/

**Falsafar Nazari**

* Dummett, Michael ''Asalin Falsafar Nazari'' . Jami'ar Harvard Press (1996)
* Floyd, Juliet ''Future Pasts: Al'adun Nazari a cikin Falsafa na Jami'ar Oxford ta Karni na Ashirin'' (2001)
* Glock, Hans-Johann ''Menene Falsafar Nazari?'' . Jami'ar Jami'ar Cambridge (2008)
* Martinich, AP ''Analytic Falsafa: Anthology (Blackwell Falsafa Anthologies)'' . Wiley-Blackwell (2001)
* Martinich, AP ''Abokin Falsafa na Analytic (Shabbai na Blackwell zuwa Falsafa)'' . Wiley-Blackwell (2005)
* Soames, Scott, ''Nazarin Falsafa a cikin Karni na Ashirin, Juzu'i na 1: Alfijir na Bincike'' . Jami'ar Princeton Press (2005)
* Soames, Scott, ''Nazarin Falsafa a cikin Karni na Ashirin, Juzu'i na 2: Zamanin Ma'ana'' . Jami'ar Princeton Press (2005)
* Stroll, Avrum ''Falsafar Analytic na Karni na Ashirin'' . Jami'ar Columbia Press (2001)
* Williamson, Timothawus ''Falsafar Falsafa (Lectures na Blackwell / Brown a Falsafa)'' . Wiley-Blackwell (2008)

**Falsafar Nahiyar*'

* Cutrofello, Andrew *Nahiyar Falsafa: Gabatarwar Zamani'' . Jagora (2005)

## Hanyoyin haɗi na waje
 

* 
* Contemporary philosophy at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project
* Contemporary philosophy at PhilPapers
* The Philosophical Gourmet Report's description of "Analytic" and "Continental" philosophy