Yunkurin kare hakkin bil'adama (1865-1896)

**Yunkurin kare hakkin bil'adama (1865-1896) ** ya yi niyyar kawar da nuna bambancin launin fata ga 'Yan Afirka na Afirka, inganta damar iliminsu da aiki, da kuma kafa ikon zaɓe, bayan kawar da bautar a Amurka. Lokacin daga 1865 zuwa 1895 ya ga babban canji a cikin wadatar al'ummar baƙar fata bayan kawar da bautar a Kudu.

Nan da nan bayan Yaƙin basasar Amurka, gwamnatin tarayya ta kaddamar da shirin da aka sani da Reconstruction wanda ke da niyyar Sake ginawa jihohin tsohuwar Confederacy. Shirye-shiryen tarayya sun kuma ba da taimako ga tsoffin bayi kuma sun yi ƙoƙari su haɗa su cikin al'umma a matsayin 'yan ƙasa. Dukansu a lokacin da kuma bayan wannan lokacin, baƙar fata sun sami iko mai yawa na siyasa kuma da yawa daga cikinsu sun sami damar motsawa daga talauci mai tsanani zuwa mallakar ƙasa. A lokaci guda fushi game da waɗannan nasarorin da fararen mutane da yawa suka samu ya haifar da wani kamfen na tashin hankali wanda ba a taɓa gani ba wanda surori na Ku Klux Klan suka yi, kuma a cikin shekarun 1870 ƙungiyoyin Sojoji kamar Red Shirts da White League suka yi shi.

A cikin 1896, Kotun Koli ta yanke hukunci a *Plessy v. Ferguson*, 163 Amurka 537, [ a ] alamar ƙasa mai tabbatar da "rarrabuwa amma daidaita" wariyar launin fata a matsayin tsarin mulki. Ya kasance babban koma baya ga yancin jama'a, yayin da shari'a, zamantakewa, da siyasa na al'ummar Baƙar fata ya kai wani matsayi . Daga 1890 zuwa 1908, tun daga Mississippi, jihohin kudu sun zartar da sabbin kundin tsarin mulki da dokokin da ke hana yawancin Bakaken fata hakkinsu tare da ware su daga tsarin siyasa, matsayin da aka kiyaye a lokuta da yawa har zuwa 1940s.

Yawancin yunkurin sake fasalin farko a wannan zamanin sun kasance karkashin jagorancin Radical Republicans, wani bangare na Jam'iyyar Republican. A ƙarshen karni na 19, tare da hana 'yanci da ke ci gaba don cire baƙar fata daga tsarin siyasa gaba ɗaya, abin da ake kira lily-white movement ya yi aiki don raunana ikon sauran baƙar fata a cikin jam'iyyar. Manyan shugabannin kare hakkin bil'adama na wannan lokacin sune Frederick Douglass (1818-1895) da Booker T. Washington (1856-1915).

## Sake ginawa

Sake ginawa ya kasance daga Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation na Janairu 1, 1863 zuwa Yarjejeniyar 1877 . 

Manyan batutuwan da Shugaba Ibrahim Lincoln ya fuskanta sune matsayin tsoffin bayi (wanda ake kira "Freedmen"), aminci da haƙƙin farar hula na tsoffin 'yan tawaye, matsayin tsoffin jihohi 11, ikon gwamnatin tarayya da ake buƙata don hana yakin basasa na gaba, da kuma tambayar ko Majalisa ko Shugaban kasa zai yanke manyan yanke shawara.

Babban barazanar yunwa da kuma fitar da 'yanci marasa aikin yi sun hadu da babbar hukumar agaji ta tarayya ta farko, Ofishin' yanci, wanda Sojoji ke sarrafawa.

An zartar da "Gwamnatin sake ginawa" guda uku don fadada haƙƙin ɗan adam ga Baƙar fata na Amirkawa: Kwaskwarima ta goma sha huɗu ta haramta bautar; Kwaskwarimar ta goma sha huɗu ta tabbatar da daidaito ga kowa da kuma zama ɗan ƙasa ga baƙar fata; Kwaskwarar ta goma sha biyar ta hana amfani da launin fata don hana maza.

Daga cikin amfani da sauri fiye da gyare-gyaren kundin tsarin mulki, dokokin da Majalisa ta zartar don ba da damar gwamnatin tarayya, ta hanyar sabon Ma'aikatar Shari'a da kuma ta hanyar kotunan tarayya don tilasta sabbin 'yancin bil'adama Ko da gwamnatocin jihohi sun yi watsi da matsalar. Wadannan sun hada da Ayyukan tilasta aiki na 1870-71 da Dokar 'Yancin Bil'adama ta 1875. 

Tsoffin 'yan jam'iyyar Confederate sun kasance suna kula da yawancin jihohin Kudancin sama da shekaru biyu, amma hakan ya canza lokacin da' yan Republican Radical suka sami iko da Majalisa a zaben 1866. Shugaba Andrew Johnson, wanda ya nemi sauƙin sake haduwa da tsoffin 'yan tawaye, kusan ba shi da iko; ya tsere ta hanyar cire kuri'a daya ta hanyar impeachment. Majalisa ta ba da 'yanci ga baƙar fata kuma ta dakatar da yawancin tsoffin shugabannin Confederate na ɗan lokaci na haƙƙin riƙe mukamin. Sabbin gwamnatocin Jamhuriyar Republican sun zo mulki bisa ga hadin gwiwar 'yanci tare da Carpetbaggers (sabon masu zuwa daga Arewa), da Scalawags (fararen mutanen Kudu). Sojojin Amurka ne suka goyi bayan su. Masu adawa sun ce sun cin hanci da rashawa kuma sun keta haƙƙin fararen fata. Jiha bayan jiha sun rasa iko ga hadin gwiwar masu ra'ayin mazan jiya da na dimokuradiyya, wanda ya sami iko ta hanyar tashin hankali da zamba na duk Kudu a shekara ta 1877. A mayar da martani ga Radical Reconstruction, Ku Klux Klan (KKK) ya fito ne a 1867 a matsayin kungiyar fararen fata mai tsattsauran ra'ayi da ke adawa da 'yancin farar hula da mulkin Jamhuriyar Republican. Shugaba Ulysses Grant ya aiwatar da Dokar Ku Klux Klan ta 1870 ya rufe Klan, kuma ya rushe. Amma daga zaben 1868 a jihohin kudanci da yawa sun kara kewaye da tashin hankali don murkushe kuri'un Black. Kungiyoyin bindigogi suna da dubban mambobi. A shekara ta 1874, kungiyoyin Sojoji, irin su White League da Red Shirts sun fito ne wadanda suka yi aiki a bayyane don amfani da tsoratarwa da tashin hankali don murkushe kuri'un baƙar fata da rushe Jam'iyyar Republican don sake samun ikon siyasa a jihohin da ke fadin Kudu. Rable ya bayyana su a matsayin "ma'aikatar soja ta Jam'iyyar Democrat"

Sake ginawa ya ƙare bayan Zaben 1876 tsakanin dan takarar Republican Rutherford B. Hayes da dan takarar Democrat Samuel J. Tilden . Tare da sulhu Hayes ya lashe Fadar White House, gwamnatin tarayya ta janye dakarunta daga Kudu, ta watsar da 'yanci ga' yan Democrat masu ra'ayin mazan jiya, wadanda suka sake samun iko a gwamnatocin jihohi.

## Fitowar Kansas
Ɗaya daga cikin rukuni shine Kansas Fever Exodus, wanda ya kunshi mutane dubu shida baƙi waɗanda suka ƙaura daga Mississippi, Louisiana da Texas zuwa Kansas. Mutane da yawa a Louisiana sun yi wahayi zuwa gare su su bar jihar lokacin da Yarjejeniyar Tsarin Mulki ta Louisiana ta 1879 ta yanke shawarar cewa haƙƙin jefa kuri'a lamari ne ga jihar, ba tarayya ba, gwamnati, don haka ya share hanyar da za a hana 'yancin baƙar fata na Louisiana.

Ba a yaba da fitowar ba a duk duniya daga 'yan Afirka na Amurka; hakika, Frederick Douglass mai sukar ne. Douglass ya ji cewa motsi ba shi da lokaci kuma ba a tsara shi sosai.

## Ƙungiyar siyasa
Baƙar fata a duk faɗin Kudu sun sami damar yin zabe a 1867, kuma sun shiga Jam'iyyar Republican. Kungiyar ta musamman ta kasance ta hanyar Union League, wata ƙungiya ta sirri da aka shirya a cikin gida amma Jam'iyyar Republican ta ƙasa ta inganta. Eric Foner ya ba da rahoton cewa:

: A ƙarshen shekara ta 1867 ya zama kamar kusan kowane mai jefa kuri'a na Black a Kudu ya shiga cikin Union League, Loyal League, ko kuma wasu ƙungiyoyin siyasa na gida. Ana gudanar da tarurruka a cikin cocin Black ko makaranta.

Kungiyoyin Tarayyar Tarayyar sun inganta kungiyoyi masu kama da 'yan bindiga inda baƙar fata suka haɗu don kare kansu daga masu tayar da hankali. Ba a yarda membobin su jefa kuri'a kan tikitin Democrat ba. Kungiyar Tarayyar Tarayya da irin waɗannan kungiyoyi sun fuskanci mummunan hari daga KKK bayan 1869, kuma sun rushe. Ƙoƙarin da aka yi daga baya don farfado da Union League ya gaza.

Ministocin baƙar fata sun samar da yawancin jagorancin baƙarƙashiya, tare da sababbin masu zuwa waɗanda suka kasance 'yanci baƙar fata a Arewa kafin yakin basasa. Birane da yawa suna da jaridu na Black waɗanda suka bayyana batutuwan kuma suka tara al'umma.

### Rarrabawar Ƙungiya
A cikin jiha bayan jiha a duk faɗin Kudu, rikice-rikice ya fito a cikin Jam'iyyar Republican, tare da mutanen Black da abokansu na kafet sun kafa ƙungiyar Black-and-tan, wanda ke fuskantar ƙungiyar "lily-white" na fararen Scalawag Republicans na gida.  (Sakamako na ƙungiyoyi sun zama ruwan dare bayan 1888, shekaru goma bayan ƙarshen sake ginawa.)  Mutanen baƙar fata sun ƙunshi mafi yawan masu jefa kuri'a na Jamhuriyar Republican, amma sun sami karamin yanki na tallafawa. Sun bukaci karin bayani. Hahn ya bayyana matakan da suka dauka:

: Ƙarfin baki....ya dubi ikon siyasa na gida da 'yancin kai kuma ya fara gina sabon asalin siyasa. Ma'aikatan baƙar fata sun kira shugabannin jam'iyyar fararen fata don lissafawa. Sun koma don sarrafa kayan aikin jam'iyyar gundumar da gundumar. Sun ƙi masu neman fararen ofis kuma sun maye gurbin baƙar fata. Sun zabi dukkan takardun zabe na Black.

Jam'iyyar Black-and-tan yawanci ta lashe yakin basasa, amma yayin da scalawags suka rasa fadace-fadace na cikin jam'iyya, mutane da yawa sun fara jefa kuri'a ga tikitin masu ra'ayin mazan jiya ko Democrat. Jam'iyyar Republican ta zama "Blacker da Blacker a tsawon lokaci", yayin da ta rasa masu jefa kuri'a. Abu mafi ban mamaki shine Brooks-Baxter War a Arkansas a 1874.  Michael Les Benedict ya ce, "Kowane tarihin zamani na sake ginawa yana jaddada gudummawar da ya bayar ga rushewar Jamhuriyar Republicanism ta kudu. "  Game da batutuwan launin fata, Sarah Woolfolk Wiggins ta yi jayayya:

: White Republicans da kuma Democrats sun nemi kuri'un baki amma ba tare da son rai ba sun ba da lada ga baƙar fata tare da gabatarwa ga ofis kawai idan ya cancanta, har ma a lokacin da suke ajiye karin matsayi ga fararen fata. Sakamakon ya kasance mai tsinkaye: waɗannan alamun rabin gurasa ba su gamsar da Black ko fararen Republican ba. Rashin ƙarfi na Jam'iyyar Republican a Alabama, kamar yadda yake a wasu wurare a Kudu, shine rashin iya kirkirar jam'iyyar siyasa ta bambanci. Kuma yayin da suke mulki har ma a takaice, sun kasa kare membobinsu daga ta'addanci na Democrat. 'Yan Jamhuriyar Alabama sun kasance har abada a kan tsaro, baki da jiki.

### Populism

A cikin 1894, an sami babban tashin hankali na manoma a yankunan auduga da taba na Kudancin Amurka. Tasirin mafi girma ya faru ne a Arewacin Carolina, inda talakkawan manoma farar fata waɗanda suka kafa jam'iyyar Populist suka yi kawance da jam'iyyar Republican, wadda a lokacin galibi Bakar fata ne ke sarrafa ta a yankunan ƙasashe masu ƙasƙanci, da kuma talakkawan farar fata a yankunan tsaunuka. Sun karɓi ikon majalisar dokokin jihar a 1894 da 1896, da kuma gwamna a 1896. Majalisar dokokin jihar ta rage buƙatun mallakar dukiya, wanda ya faɗaɗa damar yin zaɓe ga fararen fata mafi rinjaye a jihar da kuma ga Bakar fata. A 1895, Majalisar Dokokin ta saka wa abokan kawancenta Bakar fata da mukamai, inda ta naɗa alƙalai Bakar fata 300 a yankunan gabas, da kuma mataimakan 'yan sanda da 'yan sanda na birni. Sun kuma sami wasu mukamai na tarayya daga ɗan majalisar dokoki na kawancen, da kuma mukamai na jihar daga gwamna.

Da niyyar sake dawo da mulki, fararen fata 'yan Democrat sun kaddamar da kamfen bisa ga farar fata mafi girma da fargabar haɗin jinsi. Kamfen ɗin zaɓen farar fata mafi girma na 1898 ya yi nasara, kuma 'yan Democrat sun sake dawo da ikon majalisar dokokin jihar. Amma Wilmington, birni mafi girma kuma mai yawan Bakar fata, ya zaɓi gwamnatin haɗin gwiwa mai launin fata biyu, tare da farar fata magajin gari da kashi biyu bisa uku na majalisar birni kasancewar fararen fata. 'Yan Democrat sun riga sun shirya don hambarar da gwamnati idan suka rasa zaɓen a nan kuma suka ci gaba da juyin mulkin Wilmington na 1898. 'Yan Democrat sun kori Bakar fata da jami'an Fusionist daga birnin, suna kai hari ga jaridar Bakar fata tilo a jihar; ƙungiyoyin fararen fata sun kai hari yankunan Bakar fata na birnin, suna kashewa da raunata mutane da yawa, da lalata gidaje da kasuwancin da aka gina tun bayan yaƙin. An kiyasta Bakar fata 2100 sun bar birnin har abada, inda suka bar shi birni mai rinjayen fararen fata. Babu wani tashin hankali a kowane jihohin Kudancin da suka sami nasarar haɗin gwiwar Bakar fata-Populist a matakin jiha. A 1899, majalisar dokokin Arewacin Carolina mai rinjayen fararen fata ta zartar da gyaran dokar zaɓe wanda ya hana yawancin Bakar fata damar zaɓe. Ba za su dawo da ikon yin zaɓe ba har sai bayan zartar da Dokar 'Yancin Zabe ta Tarayya ta 1965.

## Yanayin tattalin arziki da zamantakewa
Yawancin bakar fata a wannan lokacin manoma ne. Daga cikinsu akwai manyan rukuni huɗu, uku daga cikinsu suna aiki ga fararen masu mallakar filaye: manoman haya, manoman raba gona, da ma'aikatan noma.   
Rukuni na huɗu sune bakar fata masu mallakar gonakinsu, kuma sun kasance masu cin gashin kai daga ikon tattalin arzikin farar fata. 
### Abubuwan birni
Kudancin Amurka yana da ƴan ƙananan birane a cikin 1860, amma lokacin yaƙin, kuma bayan haka, 'yan gudun hijira baki da fari sun shigo daga yankunan karkara. Yawan baƙar fata da ke ƙaruwa ya samar da jagororin malamai, ƙwararru, da ƴan kasuwa.   Waɗannan shugabannin galibi suna ba da fifiko sosai ga haƙƙin ɗan adam. Tabbas, yawancin bakar fata a biranen Amurka ma'aikata ne marasa fasaha ko marasa ƙwarewa.  Masanin tarihi August Meier ya ruwaito:
:Daga ƙarshen shekarun 1880 an sami ci gaba mai ban mamaki na kasuwancin Negro – bankuna da kamfanonin inshora, masu aikin jana'iza da shagunan sayar da kayayyaki.... Ya faru ne a lokacin da bakar fatan masu gyaran gashi, ƴan dinki, masu dafa abinci, ma'aikatan jirgin ƙasa, baƙaƙen fatan maƙera, da sauran masu sana'a ke rasa abokan cinikinsu farar fata. Dangane da kasuwar Negro, masu haɓaka sabbin kamfanonin a zahiri sun goyi bayan ruhun taimakon kai da haɗin kai na launin fata.  
#### Memphis
File:Black Americans attacked in Memphis Riot of 1866.jpg|thumb|400px|Bakar fata a Memphis karkashin hari, *Harper's Weekly*, 26 ga Mayu 1866
Lokacin yaƙin dubban bayi sun tsere daga gonakin karkara zuwa layin Union, kuma Sojoji sun kafa sansanin ba bisa ka'ida ba kusa da Memphis, Tennessee. Zuwa 1865, akwai bakar fata 20,000 a cikin birnin, karuwa sau bakwai daga 3,000 kafin yaƙin.  Kasancewar sojojin Union bakar fata ya fusata Katolika ƴan Ireland a cikin birnin, waɗanda suka yi gasa da bakar fata don ayyukan aikin da ba su da ƙwarewa. A cikin 1866, an sami babban tarzoma inda farar fata suka kai hari ga bakar fata. An kashe bakar fata arba'in da biyar, kuma kusan ninki biyu na waɗanda suka jikkata; an lalata yawancin gidajensu na ɗan lokaci.  Zuwa 1870, yawan bakar fata ya kai 15,000 a cikin birni mai yawan 40,226. 
Robert Reed Church (1839–1912), wani ƴantacce, shine bakar fata na farko da ya zama miliyoniya a Kudancin Amurka.  Ya samu dukiyarsa daga cinikin kadarorin birni, mafi yawansu bayan Memphis ya zama marar yawan jama'a bayan cututtukan zazzabin rawaya. Ya kafa bankin farko mallakin bakar fata a birnin, Solvent Savings Bank, yana tabbatar da cewa al'ummar bakar fata za su iya samun rancen kafa kasuwanci. Ya shiga sosai cikin harkokin siyasa na jam'iyyar Republican na gida da na ƙasa kuma ya jagoranci goyon baya ga al'ummar bakar fata. Ɗansa ya zama babban ɗan siyasa a Memphis. Ya kasance shugaban al'ummar bakar fata kuma mai bayar da gudummawa a cikin abubuwa da yawa. Saboda raguwar yawan jama'ar birni, bakar fata sun sami wasu damammaki. An ɗauke su aiki a rundunar 'yan sanda a matsayin jami'an sintiri kuma sun riƙe muƙamai a cikinta har zuwa 1895, lokacin da raba-gardama tilas ya fitar da su. 
#### Atlanta
Tarihin Atlanta|Atlanta, Georgia ta lalace a cikin yaƙin, amma a matsayin babban cibiyar jirgin ƙasa ta sake ginawa cikin sauri bayan haka, tana jawo hankalin baƙi da yawa daga karkara. Daga 1860 zuwa 1870 gundumar Fulton (wanda Atlanta shine babban birnin gundumar) ta ninka fiye da yawan jama'a, daga 14,000 zuwa 33,000. A cikin tsarin da aka gani a Kudancin Amurka, yawancin 'yan 'yanci sun ƙaura daga gonaki zuwa garuruwa ko birane don aiki da kuma tattara kansu a cikin al'ummominsu. Gundumar Fulton ta tashi daga kashi 20.5% bakar fata a 1860 zuwa kashi 45.7% bakar fata a 1870.  Atlanta cikin sauri ta zama babbar cibiyar ilimin bakar fata ta ƙasa. Malamai da ɗalibai sun samar da yanayi mai goyon baya don tattaunawa da fafutukar kare haƙƙin ɗan adam. Jami'ar Clark Atlanta#Jami'ar Atlanta|An kafa Jami'ar Atlanta a 1865. Wanda ya fara Kwalejin Morehouse ya buɗe a 1867, Jami'ar Clark Atlanta#Jami'ar Atlanta|Jami'ar Clark ta buɗe a 1869. Abin da ke yanzu Kwalejin Spelman ta buɗe a 1881, da Kwalejin Morris Brown a 1885. Wannan zai zama ɗaya daga cikin abubuwa da yawa da ke taimakawa kafa ɗayan manyan al'ummomin bakar fata mafi daɗewa kuma mafi kafa a ƙasar a Atlanta.
#### Philadelphia
Tarihin Philadelphia|Philadelphia, Pennsylvania tana ɗaya daga cikin manyan birane a arewacin layin Mason–Dixon, kuma ta jawo hankalin bakar fata da yawa kafin Yaƙin Basasa. Galibi suna zaune a yankunan Southwark da Moyamensing. Zuwa shekarun 1890, yankunan sun sami mummunar suna dangane da laifuka, talauci, da mace-mace.  W.E.B. Du Bois, a cikin bincikensa na zamantakewa *The Philadelphia Negro* (1899), ya wargaza ra'ayoyin da ba su dace ba tare da shaidar gwaji. Ya tsara hanyarsa zuwa raba-gardama da mummunan tasirinsa ga rayuwar bakar fata da sunansu. Sakamakon ya sa Du Bois ya gane cewa haɗin kai na launin fata shine mabuɗin daidaiton dimokiraɗiyya a biranen Amurka. 

## Ilimi

Al'ummar bakar fata sun shiga gwagwarmayar dogon lokaci don samun ingantattun makarantun gwamnati. Malamin tarihi Hilary Green ya ce "ba wai kawai gwagwarmaya ce don samun ilimi da karatu ba ce, amma gwagwarmaya ce don 'yanci, zama ɗan ƙasa, da kuma sabon tsarin zamantakewar al'umma bayan yaƙi." Al'ummar bakar fata da fararen fata masu goyon bayansu a Arewa sun jaddada muhimmiyar rawar ilimi a matsayin ginshiƙi don kafa daidaito a haƙƙin ɗan adam. Dokokin hana karatu ga bakar fata masu 'yanci da kuma bayi sun kasance a yawancin jihohin Kudancin Amurka tun daga shekarun 1830s, Yaduwar jahilci ya sa ya zama wajibi a cikin jerin abubuwan da bakar fata suka fi ba da fifiko shine samar da sabbin damammaki na ilimi, ciki har da makarantu masu zaman kansu da makarantun gwamnati ga yaran bakar fata da harajin jihohi ke ba da kuɗi. Jihohin sun kafa dokoki masu dacewa a lokacin Reconstruction, amma aiwatarwa ya kasance mai rauni a yawancin yankunan karkara, kuma tare da sakamako mara daidaito a yankunan birane. Bayan Reconstruction ya ƙare an takaita kuɗin haraji, amma bakar fata na gida da ƙungiyoyin addini na ƙasa da masu bayar da agaji sun taimaka.

Haɗaɗɗun makarantun gwamnati yana nufin fararen malamai na gida ne ke jagoranta, kuma ba a amince da su ba. Jagorancin bakar fata gabaɗaya sun goyi bayan makarantun da aka ware na bakar fata kawai. Al'ummar bakar fata suna so su sami shugabanni da malamai bakar fata, ko (a makarantu masu zaman kansu) fararen fata masu goyon baya da majami'u na arewa ke ɗaukar nauyi. An ware makarantun gwamnati a duk faɗin Kudancin Amurka a lokacin Reconstruction da kuma bayan haka har zuwa shekarun 1950. New Orleans ya kasance banbanci kaɗan: makarantunta galibi suna haɗaɗɗu ne a lokacin Reconstruction.

A zamanin Reconstruction, Freedmen's Bureau ya buɗe makarantu 1000 a faɗin Kudancin Amurka ga yaran bakar fata ta amfani da kuɗaɗen tarayya. Adadin ɗalibai ya yi yawa kuma yana da farin ciki. Gabaɗaya, Bureau ya kashe dala miliyan 5 don kafa makarantu ga bakar fata kuma a ƙarshen 1865, fiye da ɗaliban Freedmen 90,000 sun shiga makarantun gwamnati. Tsarin karatun makarantar ya yi kama da na makarantu a arewa. Amma a ƙarshen Reconstruction, kuɗin jihohi don makarantun bakar fata ya yi kaɗan, kuma wuraren sun kasance marasa kyau.

Yawancin malamai na Freedmen Bureau sun kasance mata masu ilimi daga Yankee waɗanda addini da nuna adawa da bauta suka motsa su. Rabin malamai fararen fata ne daga kudu; kashi ɗaya bisa uku bakar fata ne, kuma kashi ɗaya bisa shida fararen fata ne daga arewa. Maza bakar fata sun ɗan fi mata bakar fata yawa. Albashi shine babban abin motsa rai ban da na arewa, waɗanda galibi ƙungiyoyin arewa ke ba da kuɗi kuma suna da manufar agaji. A matsayin rukuni, ƙungiyar bakar fata ce kaɗai ta nuna jajircewa ga daidaito tsakanin kabilu; sune suka fi dacewa su ci gaba da zama malamai.

### Ilimin sakandare da na kwaleji
Kusan dukkanin kwalejoji a Kudancin Amurka an ware su sosai; wasu 'yan kwalejoji na arewa sun karɓi ɗaliban bakar fata. An kafa makarantu masu zaman kansu a faɗin Kudancin Amurka ta majami'u, musamman ta ƙungiyoyin addini na arewa, don samar da ilimi bayan karatun firamare. Sun fi mayar da hankali kan aikin matakin sakandare (makarantar sakandare) kuma sun samar da ɗan ƙaramin aikin kwaleji. Kuɗin makaranta ya yi kaɗan, don haka majami'u na ƙasa da na gida galibi suna tallafawa kwalejoji da kuɗi, kuma suna ba da tallafin wasu malamai. Babbar ƙungiya mai sadaukarwa ita ce American Missionary Association, wadda majami'un Congregational na New England suka fi ɗaukar nauyi.

A shekarar 1900, majami'u na Arewa ko ƙungiyoyin da suka ɗauki nauyi sun gudanar da makarantu 247 ga bakar fata a faɗin Kudancin Amurka, tare da kasafin kuɗi kimanin dala miliyan 1. Sun yi amfani da malamai 1600 kuma sun koyar da ɗalibai 46,000. A matakin kwaleji, fitattun makarantu masu zaman kansu sune Fisk University a Nashville, Clark Atlanta University|Jami'ar Atlanta, da Hampton University|Hampton Institute a Virginia. An kafa wasu 'yan kaɗan a jihohin arewa. Howard University makarantar tarayya ce da ke Washington.

A shekarar 1890, Majalisar Dokoki ta ƙaru da shirin ba da filaye don haɗawa da tallafin tarayya ga kwalejojin da jihohi ke ɗaukar nauyi a faɗin Kudancin Amurka. Ya buƙaci jihohin Kudancin Amurka da ke da tsarin raba-gardama su kafa kwalejojin bakar fata a matsayin cibiyoyin ba da filaye don duk ɗalibai su sami damar yin karatu a irin waɗannan wurare. Hampton University|Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute yana da mahimmancin ƙasa saboda ya kafa ka'idojin ilimin masana'antu. Har ma da babban tasiri shine Tuskegee University|Tuskegee Normal School for Colored Teachers, wanda jihar Alabama ta kafa a 1881 kuma Booker T. Washington|Booker T. Washington, wanda ya kammala karatu a Hampton, ya jagoranta har zuwa mutuwarsa a 1915. A wani wuri kuma, a 1900 akwai ɗaliban bakar fata kaɗan da suka shiga aikin kwaleji.

Bakar fata 22 ne kawai suka kammala karatun kwaleji kafin Yaƙin Basasa. Oberlin College a Ohio ta kasance majagaba; ta kammala karatun bakar fata na farko a 1844. Adadin bakar fata da suka kammala karatun ya karu cikin sauri: 44 sun kammala a shekarun 1860s; 313 a shekarun 1870s; 738 a shekarun 1880s; 1126 a shekarun 1890s; da 1613 a shekarun 1900–1909. Sun zama ƙwararru; kashi 54% sun zama malamai; kashi 20% sun zama malamai; sauran likitoci ne, lauyoyi ko editoci. Sun sami matsakaicin dukiya kimanin dala 15,000. Mutane da yawa sun ba da tallafin tunani da na tsari don ayyukan farar hula, musamman ayyukan kare haƙƙin ɗan adam a matakin gida. Duk da cewa kwalejoji da makarantun gabaɗaya suna karɓar maza da mata, masana tarihi har zuwa kwanan nan sun yi watsi da rawar mata a matsayin ɗalibai da malamai.

### Tallafi da agaji
Tallafin ilimi ga bakar fata a Kudancin Amurka ya fito daga tushe daban-daban. Daga 1860 zuwa 1910, ƙungiyoyin addini da masu bayar da agaji sun ba da kimanin dala miliyan 55. Bakar fata da kansu ta hanyar majami'unsu, sun ba da sama da dala miliyan 22. Jihohin Kudancin Amurka sun kashe kimanin dala miliyan 170 na haraji a makarantun bakar fata, kuma kimanin ninki shida na wannan adadi don makarantun fararen fata.

Yawancin tallafin agaji daga masu arziki na Arewa sun mai da hankali kan ilimin bakar fata a Kudancin Amurka. Tallafin farko mafi girma ya fito daga Peabody Education Fund. Kuɗin George Peabody ya ba da shi, wanda asalin sa daga Massachusetts ne, wanda ya sami dukiya mai yawa a fannin kuɗi a Baltimore da London. Ya ba da dala miliyan 3.5 don "ƙarfafa ilimi, ɗabi'a, da ilimin masana'antu na yaran da ba su da galihu a Jihohin Kudancin Amurka."

John F. Slater Fund for the Education of Freedmen an ƙirƙira shi a 1882 tare da dala miliyan 1.5 don "Haɓaka al'ummar da aka 'yanta bisa doka a jihohin Kudancin Amurka da zuriyarsu." Bayan 1900, manyan kuɗaɗe sun fito daga General Education Board na Rockefeller, daga Andrew Carnegie da kuma Rosenwald Fund|Rosenwald Foundation.

Zuwa 1900, yawan bakar fata a Amurka ya kai miliyan 8.8; yawanci suna zaune a yankunan karkara na Kudancin Amurka. Adadin yaran da suka kai shekarun makaranta ya kai miliyan 3; rabin su suna makaranta. Malamai 28,600 ne ke koyar da su, yawancin su bakar fata ne. Ilimi (ga fararen fata da bakar fata) an shirya shi ne don koyar da abubuwa uku (karatu, rubutu, da lissafi) ga yara ƙanana. Akwai makarantun sakandare 86 kawai ga bakar fata a duk faɗin Kudancin Amurka, da kuma 6 a Arewa. Waɗannan makarantu 92 suna da malamai maza 161, da malamai mata 111; sun koyar da ɗalibai 5200 a matakin sakandare. A 1900, bakar fata 646 ne kawai suka kammala karatun sakandare.

## Addini
Cocin bakar fata sun taka muhimmiyar rawa a harkar kare haƙƙin ɗan adam. Sune babbar ƙungiyar al'umma da bakar fata 'yan Republican suka shirya siyasar su. Yawancin manyan cocin Baptist da Methodist na bakar fata sun sami 'yanci da sauri daga manyan ƙungiyoyin ƙasa ko na yanki masu fararen fata bayan 1865. Ikilisiyoyin Baptist bakar fata sun kafa ƙungiyoyin su da taronsu. Malamansu sun zama manyan masu magana a siyasa ga ikilisiyoyinsu. Matan bakar fata sun sami nasu sararin samaniya da ƙungiyoyin da cocin ke tallafawa, tun daga ƙungiyoyin waƙa zuwa ayyukan mishan, zuwa makarantun coci da makarantun Lahadi.

A San Francisco akwai cocin bakar fata uku a farkon shekarun 1860s. Duk sun nemi wakiltar bukatun al'ummar bakar fata, sun samar da jagorancin ruhaniya da al'adu, sun shirya taimako ga mabukata, kuma sun yi yaƙi da yunƙurin hana bakar fata haƙƙin ɗan adam. Cocin bakar fata na San Francisco sun sami gagarumin goyon baya daga jam'iyyar Republican ta gida. A shekarun 1850s, jam'iyyar Democrat ce ke sarrafa jihar kuma ta kafa dokokin adawa da bakar fata. Ko da yake bautar bakar fata ba ta taɓa wanzu a California ba, dokokin sun kasance masu tsanani. Jam'iyyar Republican ta hau mulki a farkon shekarun 1860s, kuma ta ƙi warewa da wariyar launin fata na majalisa. Shugabannin Republican sun haɗa kai da masu fafutukar bakar fata don samun haƙƙin doka, musamman dangane da haƙƙin yin zaɓe, haƙƙin halartar makarantun gwamnati, daidaitaccen magani a cikin jigilar jama'a, da daidaitaccen damar shiga tsarin kotu.

Bakar Amurkawa, da zarar an 'yantar da su daga bauta, sun kasance masu himma sosai wajen kafa nasu coci, yawancin su Baptist ko Methodist, kuma suna ba wa malamansu rawar jagoranci na ɗabi'a da na siyasa. A cikin tsarin ware kai, kusan dukkanin bakar fata sun bar cocin fararen fata don haka 'yan tsirarun ikilisiyoyin da suka haɗa da kabilu sun rage (ban da wasu cocin Katolika a Louisiana). Manyan ƙungiyoyi huɗu sun yi gasa da juna a faɗin Kudancin Amurka don kafa sabbin cocin Methodist da suka haɗa da 'yan 'yanci. Su ne African Methodist Episcopal Church, wadda aka kafa a Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church, wadda aka kafa a Birnin New York; Christian Methodist Episcopal Church|Colored Methodist Episcopal Church (wanda cocin Methodist Episcopal Church, South na fararen fata ya ɗauki nauyi), da kuma cocin Methodist Episcopal Church (Methodist na arewacin fararen fata) mai wadataccen kuɗi. Zuwa 1871, Methodist na Arewa suna da mambobin bakar fata 88,000 a Kudancin Amurka, kuma sun buɗe makarantu da yawa a gare su.

Bakar fata a lokacin Reconstruction Era sun kasance a siyasance babban jigon Republican Party, kuma malamai sun taka muhimmiyar rawar siyasa. Malamansu sun fi iya magana a fili saboda ba su dogara da goyon bayan fararen fata ba, sabanin malamai, 'yan siyasa, 'yan kasuwa, da manoman haya. Aiki bisa ka'idar da Charles H. Pearce, wani malamin AME a Florida ya bayyana: "Mutum a wannan Jihar ba zai iya yin cikakken aikinsa a matsayin malami ba sai dai idan ya kula da bukatun siyasa na mutanensa," an zaɓi malamai bakar fata sama da 100 a majalisun jihohi a lokacin Reconstruction. Wasu da dama sun yi aiki a Majalisa kuma ɗaya, Hiram Rhodes Revels|Hiram Revels, a Majalisar Dattawan Amurka.

### Methodists
File:Henry McNeil Turner.jpg|thumb|180px|Bishop Henry McNeal Turner, shugaban AME a Georgia.

Mafi tsari da kuma mafi himma a cikin cocin bakar fata shine cocin African Methodist Episcopal (AME). A Georgia, Bishop AME Henry McNeal Turner (1834–1915) ya zama babban mai magana don adalci da daidaito. Ya yi aiki a matsayin Fasto, marubuci, editan jarida, mai muhawara, ɗan siyasa, limamin Soja, kuma babban shugaban ƙungiyar Methodist na bakar fata a Georgia da Kudu maso Gabas. A 1863, lokacin Yaƙin Basasa, an naɗa Turner a matsayin bakar fata na farko limamin United States Colored Troops. Bayan haka, an naɗa shi a Freedmen's Bureau a Georgia. Ya zauna a Macon, Georgia, kuma an zaɓe shi a majalisar jihar a 1868 a lokacin Reconstruction. Ya kafa cocin AME da yawa a Georgia. A 1880, an zaɓe shi a matsayin Bishop na farko na kudancin cocin AME bayan gwagwarmaya mai tsanani a cikin ƙungiyar. Ya yaƙi dokokin Jim Crow.

Turner shine shugaban kishin ƙasa na bakar fata kuma ya inganta hijirar bakar fata zuwa Afirka. Ya yi imani da raba kabilu. Ya fara wata harkar koma-baya zuwa Afirka don goyon bayan yankin Amurkawa bakar fata a Laberiya. Turner ya gina girman kai na bakar fata ta hanyar shelanta "Allah bakar fata ne."

Akwai cocin Methodist na bakar fata na biyu, ƙaramin African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church (AMEZ). AMEZ ta kasance ƙarami fiye da AME saboda wasu malamanta ba su da ikon yin aure, kuma yawancin malamanta sun guje wa rawar siyasa. Kudin ta ya kasance mai rauni, kuma gabaɗaya jagorancin ta bai kai na AME ƙarfi ba. Duk da haka ita ce jagora a cikin dukkanin ƙungiyoyin Furotesta wajen naɗa mata da ba su manyan ayyuka. Wani shugaba mai tasiri shine Bishop James Walker Hood (1831–1918) na North Carolina. Ba wai kawai ya ƙirƙira da haɓaka hanyar sadarwar sa ta cocin AMEZ a North Carolina ba, har ma ya kasance babban mai kula da dukkanin Kudancin Amurka na Prince Hall Freemasonry|Prince Hall Masonic Lodge, wata ƙungiya ce ta duniya wacce ke ƙarfafa ikon siyasa da tattalin arziki a cikin al'ummar bakar fata.

Baya ga cocin bakar fata kawai, yawancin Methodist bakar fata suna da alaƙa da Cocin Methodist na Arewa. Wasu kuma suna da alaƙa da Christian Methodist Episcopal Church|Colored Methodist Episcopal Church CME; CME wani bangare ne na cocin Methodist na Kudancin Amurka na fararen fata. Gabaɗaya, malamai bakar fata mafi himma a siyasa sun haɗa kai da AME.

### Baptists
Baptists bakar fata sun rabu da cocin fararen fata kuma sun kafa ayyuka masu zaman kansu a faɗin Kudancin Amurka, suna kafa ƙungiyoyin jihohi da na yanki cikin sauri. Ba kamar Methodist ba, waɗanda ke da tsarin matsayi wanda bishops ke jagoranta, cocin Baptist sun kasance masu zaman kansu da juna, ko da yake sun haɗa albarkatu don ayyukan mishan, musamman mishan a Afirka. Matan Baptist sun yi aiki tuƙuru don sassaƙa wani yanki mai zaman kansa a cikin ƙungiyar.

### Cocin birane
Yawancin bakar fata suna zaune a yankunan karkara inda ake yin ibadu a ƙananan gine-gine na ɗan lokaci. A birane, cocin bakar fata sun fi bayyane. Bayan ayyukan addini na yau da kullun, cocin birane suna da wasu ayyuka da yawa, kamar shirye-shiryen addu'a, ƙungiyoyin mishan, ƙungiyoyin mata, ƙungiyoyin matasa, laccoci na jama'a, da kide-kide. Farfadowa da aka shirya akai-akai sun gudana tsawon makonni suna kaiwa ga manyan jama'a masu godiya da surutu.

Ayyukan agaji sun yi yawa game da kulawa da marasa lafiya da mabukata. Manyan coci suna da tsarin shirin ilimi, ban da makarantun Lahadi, da ƙungiyoyin karatun Littafi Mai Tsarki. Sun gudanar da azuzuwan karatu don baiwa tsofaffin membobin damar karanta Littafi Mai Tsarki. Kwalejoji masu zaman kansu na bakar fata, kamar Fisk a Nashville, galibi suna farawa a ɗakin ƙasa na cocin. Cocin ya tallafa wa ƙananan kasuwancin da ke gwagwarmaya.

Mafi mahimmanci shine rawar siyasa. Cocin sun karɓi bakuncin tarurrukan zanga-zanga, tarurruka, da tarurrukan jam'iyyar Republican. Fitattun shugabanni da malamai sun tattauna yarjejeniyoyin siyasa, kuma galibi suna takarar mukamai har zuwa lokacin da aka hana su zaɓe a shekarun 1890s. A shekarun 1880s, haramcin barasa ya kasance babban abin damuwa na siyasa wanda ya ba da damar haɗin gwiwa tare da fararen Furotesta masu ra'ayi ɗaya. A kowane hali, fasto shine babban mai yanke shawara. Albashinsa ya kasance daga dala 400 a shekara zuwa sama da dala 1500, da kuma gidaje – a lokacin da cents 50 a rana shine albashi mai kyau ga aikin jiki mara ƙwarewa.

Ƙungiyar Methodist sun ƙara yin amfani da waɗanda suka kammala karatun kwaleji ko makarantar addini don malamansu, amma yawancin Baptist sun ji cewa ilimi abu ne mara kyau wanda ke rage tsananin addini da ƙwarewar magana da suke buƙata daga malamansu.

Bayan 1910, yayin da bakar fata suka yi ƙaura zuwa manyan birane a Arewa da Kudancin Amurka, an sami tsarin wasu manyan cocin da yawa da dubban membobi da ma'aikata masu biyan kuɗi, waɗanda wani mai wa'azi mai tasiri ke jagoranta. A lokaci guda kuma akwai cocin "storefront" da yawa da ke da 'yan dozin membobi.

### Fassarar tarihi na addini
Kudancin Amurka masu tsananin addini sun ga hannun Allah a tarihi, wanda ya nuna fushinsa ga zunubansu, ko kuma ladansa ga wahalarsu. Malamin tarihi Wilson Fallin ya bincika wa'azin fararen fata da bakar fata malamai na Baptist bayan Yaƙin. Malamai fararen fata na Kudancin Amurka sun ce:
Allah ya hori su kuma ya ba su wata manufa ta musamman – don kiyaye tsarin addini, tsantsar bin Littafi Mai Tsarki, tsoron Allah na sirri, da alaƙar launin fata na gargajiya. Bauta, sun nace, ba zunubi ba ce. Maimakon haka, 'yantarwa babbar bala'i ce ta tarihi kuma ƙarshen Reconstruction wata alama ce bayyananna ta yardar Allah.
Sabanin haka, malamai bakar fata sun fassara Yaƙin Basasa kamar:
Kyautar 'yanci ta Allah. Sun gode wa damammaki don amfani da 'yancinsu, don yin ibada a hanyarsu, don tabbatar da darajarsu da girman kansu, da kuma shelanta uban Allah da ɗan adam. Mafi mahimmanci, za su iya kafa nasu coci, ƙungiyoyi, da tarurruka. Waɗannan cibiyoyin sun ba da taimakon kai da haɓaka kabilanci, kuma sun samar da wurare inda za a iya shelanta bisharar 'yantarwa. Sakamakon haka, malamai bakar fata sun ci gaba da nace cewa Allah zai kare su kuma zai taimaka musu; Allah zai zama ginshiƙinsu a cikin ƙasa mai guguwa.
## Rashin Inganci

Bayan 1880, yanayin doka ya tabarbare ga bakar fata, kuma kusan ba su da ikon yin tsayayya. Abokan haɗin gwiwa na Arewa a jam'iyyar Republican sun yi ƙoƙari a 1890 don dakatar da tabarbarewar yanayin doka ta hanyar dokokin majalisa, amma sun kasa. Kowace jihar kudu ta zartar da dokoki da ke buƙatar rarrabuwa a yawancin wuraren jama'a. Waɗannan sun ci gaba har zuwa 1964, lokacin da Majalisa ta soke su. An san su da Jim Crow laws. Jihohin Kudancin Amurka a cikin lokacin 1890–1905 sun rage yawan bakar fata da aka ba izinin jefa kuri'a zuwa kimanin kashi 2% ta hanyar takunkumi da suka guje wa gyaran fuska na 15, saboda ba su ambaci launin fata a fili ba. Waɗannan takunkumi sun haɗa da buƙatun karatu, dokokin rajistar masu kaɗa kuri'a, da harajin zaɓe. Kotun Koli ta Amurka a 1896 ta yanke hukunci a madadin Jim Crow a shari'ar Plessy v. Ferguson|Plessy vs. Ferguson, tana bayyana cewa wuraren "daban amma daidai" ga bakar fata sun kasance bisa doka a ƙarƙashin gyaran fuska na 14.

### Dokokin Jim Crow da Rarrabuwa

Galibi a cikin Black Codes (United States)|Black Codes a faɗin jihohi bakwai na ƙananan Kudancin Amurka a 1866 haɗin kai na aure ya kasance ba bisa ka'ida ba. Sabbin majalisun Republican a jihohi shida sun soke dokokin da ke takurawa. Bayan Democrats sun dawo kan mulki, an sake sanya takunkumin. Sai a 1967 ne Kotun Koli ta Amurka, a *Loving v. Virginia*, ussc|388|1,efn|name=fn2 ta yanke hukunci cewa duk tanade-tanade kamar shi a jihohi 16 ba bisa tsarin mulki ba ne. Babban abin damuwa a shekarun 1860s shine yadda za a raba layi tsakanin bakar fata da fararen fata a cikin al'ummar da fararen maza da bakar mata bayi suka haifi yara da yawa. A gefe guda, sunan mutum, a matsayin bakar fata ko farar fata, galibi yana da mahimmanci. A gefe guda kuma, yawancin dokoki sun yi amfani da ma'aunin "digo ɗaya na jini" don tasirin cewa wani bakar fata na gado a bisa doka ya sanya mutum a cikin rukunin bakar fata. Rarrabuwar launin fata ta doka an sanya ta ne kawai a makarantu, da aure, amma hakan ya canza a shekarun 1880s lokacin da sabbin dokokin Jim Crow suka ba da umarnin raba jiki na kabilu a wuraren jama'a.

Daga 1890 zuwa 1908, jihohin kudu sun hana Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction era|mafi yawan masu jefa kuri'a bakar fata da kuma talakawa fararen fata ta hanyar sanya rajistar masu kaɗa kuri'a ta zama mai wahala ta hanyar Poll taxes in the United States|harajin zaɓe, literacy tests, da sauran na'urori masu sabani. Sun zartar da dokokin rarrabuwa kuma sun sanya bakar fata a matsayi na biyu a cikin tsarin da aka sani da Jim Crow laws|Jim Crow wanda ya ɗauki tsawon lokaci har zuwa civil rights movement.

Ayyukan siyasa a madadin daidaito galibi suna mai da hankali kan batutuwan sufuri, kamar rarrabuwa a kan titin jiragen ƙasa da manyan hanyoyin jirgin ƙasa. Tun daga shekarun 1850s, an shigar da ƙararraki game da rarrabuwar titin jiragen ƙasa da manyan hanyoyin jirgin ƙasa a Arewacin Amurka|Arewa da Kudancin Amurka. Wasu fitattun masu shigar da ƙara sun haɗa da Elizabeth Jennings Graham a New York, Charlotte L. Brown da Mary Ellen Pleasant a San Francisco, Ida B. Wells|Ida B.Wells a Memphis, Tennessee  da Robert Fox (activist)|Robert Fox a Louisville, Kentucky.

### Ta'addanci
### Kisa ba bisa ka'ida ba
main|Kisa ba bisa ka'ida ba a Amurka
Hare-haren ƴan daba masu kisa ba bisa ka'ida ba kan bakar fata, musamman a Kudancin Amurka, sun ƙaru a ƙarshen ƙarni na 19. Masu aikata laifin ba a taɓa kama su ko hukunta su ba. Kusan bakar fata 3,500 da fararen fata 1,300 an kashe su ba bisa ka'ida ba a Amurka, galibi daga 1882 zuwa 1901. Shekarar da aka fi yin haka ita ce 1892.

Yawan kisan gilla da abubuwan da suka haifar da su sun bambanta daga jihar zuwa jihar dangane da alaƙar launin fata na gida. Kisan gilla ya fi yawa a cikin yanayin tabarbarewar tattalin arziki ga talakawa fararen fata a gundumomi masu yawan bakar fata, musamman ƙarancin farashin auduga a shekarun 1890s. Ida B. Wells (1862–1931) ta yi amfani da jaridarta a Memphis Tennessee don kai hari kan kisan gilla; saboda tsoron rayuwarta, ta gudu zuwa yankunan Chicago masu zaman lafiya a 1892 inda ta ci gaba da gwagwarmayarta ta mutum ɗaya. Ƙungiyar ƙasa da ke adawa da kisan gilla ta fara ne da kafa NAACP|National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) a 1909. An yi kisan gilla 82 a 1909, da kuma 10 a 1929.

### Hotunan jama'a
A cikin manyan kafofin watsa labarai na ƙasa da na gida a ƙarshen ƙarni na 19, "bakar fata an ci gaba da nuna su a matsayin masu aikata laifuka, ƴan ta'adda, ko kuma masu ban dariya. Sun kasance masu camfi, masu kasala, masu tashin hankali, marasa ɗabi'a, abin dariya, da kuma tushen haɗari ga rayuwar wayewa." Booker T. Washington, matashin shugaban kwaleji daga Alabama, ya shahara saboda ƙalubalensa na sarƙaƙƙiya ga mummunan ra'ayi. A cewar mai tarihin rayuwarsa Robert J. Norrell, Washington:
:ya ƙalubalanci matsayin tunani na fararen fata na Kudancin Amurka a fannoni da dama. Jaddada ci gaban bakar fata ya saba wa nacewar fararen fata masu fifiko kan lalacewar bakar fata da laifuka. Bayyanar da ƙauna da biyayya ga fararen fata na Kudancin Amurka ya saɓa wa imanin fararen fata cewa dukkanin bakar fata abokan gaba ne na kabilanci. A lokaci guda, Washington ya nuna wa fararen fata na Arewa cewa shi da sauran bakar fata 'yan Amurka ne masu aminci, masu kishin ƙasa, masu cancanta da kuma magada na fassarar Lincoln na ƙimar dimokuraɗiyya....Bakar Amurkawa sun karɓi yanayin gasa na al'ummar Amurka kuma suna son damar da za su iya tabbatar da kansu.

## Jagoranci
Yawancin jagorancin siyasar bakar fata a wannan yanki sun fito ne daga ma'aikatar addini, da kuma tsoffin sojojin yakin basasa na Union. Jagorancin siyasar fararen fata ya kunshi tsoffin sojoji da lauyoyi. Matasan bakar fata masu buri sun fuskanci wahala wajen zama lauyoyi, tare da ƴan kaɗan banda James T. Rapier, Aaron Alpeoria Bradley da John Mercer Langston.
Manyan masu arziki a cikin al'ummar bakar fata sun kasance galibi 'yan mulatto kuma sun kasance 'yantattu kafin yakin. A lokacin Reconstruction, 19 daga cikin bakar fata 22 membobin Majalisa sun kasance 'yan mulatto. Waɗannan bakar fata masu wadata, masu gauraye-gauraye sun wakilci yawancin shugabannin yakin neman haƙƙin ɗan adam na ƙarni na 20 ma. Hahn ya ruwaito cewa mulatto sun riƙe iko fiye da kima a cikin al'ummar siyasar bakar fata a South Carolina da Louisiana. Duk da haka, da yawa daga cikin shugabannin, sun kasance masu duhun fata kuma tsoffin bayi ne.
### Anna J. Cooper
A shekara ta 1892, Anna J. Cooper (1858–1964) ta buga *A Voice from the South: By A Woman from the South*. Hakan ya haifar da jawabai da yawa inda ta yi kira ga haƙƙin ɗan adam da haƙƙin mata. *A Voice from the South* na ɗaya daga cikin jawabai na farko na Black feminism. Littafin ya gabatar da hangen nesa na cin gashin kai ta hanyar ilimi da ci gaban zamantakewa ga matan Afirka-Amurka. Babban muhawararta ita ce cewa ci gaban ilimi, ɗabi'a, da ruhaniya na matan bakar fata zai inganta matsayin gabaɗaya na dukkanin al'ummar Afirka-Amurka. Ta ce halayen maza na tashin hankali galibi suna cin karo da manufofin manyan makarantu, don haka yana da mahimmanci a haɓaka ƙwararrun mata da yawa saboda za su kawo ƙarin kyau ga ilimi. Wasu sun soki wannan ra'ayin a matsayin mai biyayya ga Cult of Domesticity|tsarin mata na gaskiya na ƙarni na 19, amma wasu sun kira shi a matsayin ɗaya daga cikin mahimman muhawara ga mata bakar fata a ƙarni na 19. Cooper ta gabatar da ra'ayin cewa wajibi ne ga matan bakar fata masu ilimi da masu nasara su tallafa wa takwarorinsu marasa galihu don cimma burinsu. Kasidu a cikin *A Voice from the South* sun kuma taɓa batutuwa daban-daban, daga wariyar launin fata da yanayin tattalin arziki na iyalai bakar fata zuwa gudanar da Episcopal Church (United States)|Episcopal Church.
file:Frederick Douglass (circa 1879).jpg|thumb|Frederick Douglass, (1818–1895)]]
### Frederick Douglass
Frederick Douglass (1818–1895), bawa da ya tsere, ya kasance mai ƙwazo Abolitionism in the United States|mai adawa da bauta kafin yakin. Ya kasance marubuci, mawallafi, mai lacca, da jami'in diflomasiyya bayan haka. Mai tarihin rayuwarsa ya bayar da hujja:
:Mafi tasirin Ba-Amurke na ƙarni na goma sha tara, Douglass ya yi aiki na tada hankalin Amurkawa. Ya yi magana kuma ya rubuta a madadin dalilai daban-daban na gyare-gyare: haƙƙin mata, tsafta, zaman lafiya, gyaran filaye, ilimi kyauta ga jama'a, da soke hukuncin kisa. Amma ya ba da yawancin lokacinsa, gwaninta mai girma, da kuzari mara iyaka don kawo ƙarshen bauta da samun daidaitattun haƙƙoƙi ga Ba-Amurkawa. Waɗannan su ne manyan damuwar dogon aikinsa na gyare-gyare. Douglass ya fahimci cewa gwagwarmaya don 'yantarwa da daidaito tana buƙatar ƙwazo, dagewa, da rashin yarda. Kuma ya gane cewa Ba-Amurkawa dole ne su taka rawa a fili a cikin wannan gwagwarmaya. Kasa da wata ɗaya kafin mutuwarsa, lokacin da wani matashi Ba-Amurke ya nemi shawararsa ga wani Ba-Amurke da ke fara rayuwa a duniya, Douglass ya amsa ba tare da jinkiri ba: "Tada hankali! Tada hankali! Tada hankali!
### Fitattun Mutane
* Norris Wright Cuney (1846–1898), Galveston, Texas mai shirya ƙungiyar ƙwadago da shugaban Republican Party of Texas.
* Timothy Thomas Fortune (1856–1928), ɗan jarida, mawallafi, kuma wanda ya kafa National Afro-American League
* John Mercer Langston (1829–1897), Attorneys in the United States|lauyan Virginia, wakilin Majalisar Wakilai ta Amurka, kuma shugaban Virginia Normal and Collegiate Institute (yanzu Virginia State University).
* Isaac Myers (1835–1891), ɗan ƙungiyar ƙwadago, wanda ya kafa Colored National Labor Union
* Robert Smalls (1839–1915), gwarzon sojan Union a yakin basasa, wakilin Majalisar Wakilai ta Amurka daga South Carolina da kuma wanda ya kafa South Carolina Republican Party|Jam'iyyar Republican ta South Carolina.
* Josephine St. Pierre Ruffin (1842–1924) edita, mai shirya, mai kare haƙƙin mata, kuma wanda ya kafa Woman's Era, jaridar farko ta mata bakar fata kuma don su.
* Sojourner Truth (1797–1883), mai magana da mai fafutuka
* Booker T. Washington (1856–1915), malami, marubuci, kuma shugaban farko na Tuskegee University|Tuskegee Institute.
* Ida B. Wells (1862–1931), ɗan jarida, editan jarida, kuma mai fafutuka

## Lokaci-lokaci

*1863 - Sanarwar ‘yancin bayi ta ‘yantar da miliyan uku daga cikin bayi miliyan hudu, 1863–65.  
*1863 - Daniel Payne ya zama bakar fata na farko da ya zama shugaban kwaleji, a Wilberforce University dake Ohio, lokacin da ta shiga hannun cocin African Methodist Episcopal.  
*1865 - Majalisar Dokoki ta kafa Hukumar Freedman's Bureau.  
*1865 - Gyara na goma sha uku na kundin tsarin mulkin Amurka ya haramta bautar da mutum a sauran jihohin iyaka da ke amfani da bayi.  
*1865 - Shaw Institute an kafa ta a Raleigh, North Carolina, ta zama tarihi a matsayin jami’ar farko ta bakar fata a Kudu.  
*1865 - Kowacce jiha a Kudu ta gabatar da Dokokin Bakar fata (Black Codes) da suka takura wa 'yan Freedmen da aka ‘yantar amma ba a ba su cikakken 'yancin zama 'yan ƙasa ba; Freedman's Bureau ya dakile aiwatar da wadannan dokokin.  
*1865 - Kungiyar American Missionary Association ta kafa jami’ar Atlanta University.  
*1866 - An zartar da Dokar 'Yancin Ƙasa ta 1866, wadda ta tabbatar da cewa duk wanda aka haifa a Amurka 'dan ƙasa ne.  
*1866 - Ƙungiyar Ku Klux Klan ta fara aiki a Pulaski, Tennessee, kungiyar da ke kunshe da tsoffin sojojin Confederate da ke neman tabbatar da fifikon fararen fata.  
*1866 - An kafa rundunar sojin Amurka na Buffalo Soldiers (bakar fata).  
*1866 - Sojojin bakar fata da suka dawo daga yakin basasa sun kafa Lincoln Institute, wadda daga baya aka canza sunanta zuwa Lincoln University.  
*1867 - An kafa jami'ar Howard University a birnin Washington, D.C. da tallafin gwamnatin tarayya.  
*1868 - Gyara na goma sha huɗu na kundin tsarin mulkin Amurka; ya tabbatar da 'yancin zama ɗan ƙasa da buƙatar gwamnoni su bi daidaitaccen tsarin shari’a da kariya daidai ga kowa.  
*1870 - Gyara na goma sha biyar ya haramta takura wa mutum yin zaɓe bisa la’akari da launin fata, launin jiki, ko matsayin bauta da ya fito daga gare ta.  
*1870 - Hiram Rhodes Revels ya zama bakar fata na farko a Majalisar Dattawa; Joseph Rainey ya zama bakar fata na farko a Majalisar Wakilai ta Amurka.  
*1870 - ‘Yan sandan bakar fata Wyatt Outlaw daga Graham, North Carolina an rataye shi ta hannun Ku Klux Klan.  
*1871 - Dokar Klan Act ta 1871, wato Civil Rights Act of 1871, ta zama doka a Amurka.  
*1872 - P.B.S. Pinchback ya zama Gwamnan farko bakar fata a wata jiha ta Amurka.  
*1873 - A shari’ar Slaughterhouse Cases, kotun koli ta Amurka ta yanke hukunci cewa dokokin jihohi ba su shafi gyara na 14 ba.  
*1873 - Kisan gillar Colfax da Coushatta: kashe-kashen 'yan jam’iyyar Republican fararen fata da bakar fata a Louisiana.  
*1874 - An kafa kungiyoyin 'yan ta'adda masu goyon bayan jam’iyyar Democrat kamar White League a Louisiana da Red Shirts a Mississippi, North da South Carolina. Suna tsoratar da bakar fata da jam’iyyar Republican, suna hana su shiga siyasa da zaɓe.  
*1875 - Dokar ‘Yancin Ƙasa ta 1875 ta zama doka.  
*1876 - Harin Hamburg ya faru yayin da mutane suka tasar wa bakar fata da ke bikin ranar 'yancin kai ta Amurka; shugaban 'yan sanda bakar fata James Cook da wasu mutum biyar aka kashe.  
*1877 - Tare da yarjejeniyar Compromise of 1877, an janye dakarun gwamnatin tarayya daga Kudu, wanda ya kawo ƙarshen gyaran gini na Kudu (Reconstruction).  
*1879 - Hijirar 1879 (Exodus of 1879), dubban bakar fata sun bar Kudu zuwa Kansas.  
*1880 - A hukuncin shari’ar Strauder v. West Virginia, Kotun Koli ta yanke cewa ba za a hana bakar fata shiga cikin juri (alƙalai) ba.  
*1880s - Rarrabuwar jama'a a wajen sufuri. Tennessee ta fara raba motocin jirgin ƙasa, sai Florida (1887), Mississippi (1888), Texas (1889), Louisiana (1890), Alabama, Kentucky, Arkansas da Georgia (1891), South Carolina (1898), North Carolina (1899), Virginia (1900), Maryland (1904), da Oklahoma (1907).  
*1881 - Booker T. Washington ya kafa makarantar Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute (HBCU) a Tuskegee, Alabama.  
*1883 - Kotun Koli ta soke Dokar 'Yancin Ƙasa ta 1875, tana cewa gyara na 14 yana hana jihohi ne, ba 'yan ƙasa ba, nuna wariya.  
*1885 - Hadakar jam’iyyu masu launin fata da farare ta samu mulki a Virginia, na ɗan lokaci.  
*1885 - Samuel David Ferguson, bakar fata, an naɗa shi bishop a cocin Episcopal.  
*1886 - Norris Wright Cuney ya zama shugaban jam’iyyar Republican na Texas, matsayin da ya fi ƙarfi da wani bakar fata ya taɓa samu a Kudu a ƙarni na 19.  
*1890 - Jihar Mississippi ta fitar da sabon kundin tsarin mulki da ya hana yawancin bakar fata yin zaɓe ta hanyar harajin zaɓe, zama da kuma gwajin karatu.  
*1892 - Ida B. Wells ta wallafa takardar Southern Horrors: Lynch Law in All Its Phases.  
*1893 - Ida B. Wells, Frederick Douglass, Irvine Garland Penn, da Ferdinand Lee Barnett sun wallafa "The Reason Why the Colored American Is Not At the World's Columbian Exposition" don nuna ƙin amincewa da cire bakar fata daga bikin nuni na duniya a Chicago.  
*1895 - Booker T. Washington ya gabatar da jawabin Atlanta Compromise a wajen Cotton States and International Exposition a Atlanta, Georgia.  
*1895 - W. E. B. Du Bois ya zama bakar fata na farko da ya sami digirin digirgir (Ph.D) daga Jami’ar Harvard.  
*1896 - Wright Cuney ya rasa mukaminsa a matsayin shugaban jam’iyyar Republican ta Texas.  
*1896 - A shari’ar Plessy v. Ferguson, kotun koli ta goyi bayan raba jama’a bisa launin fata, bisa tsarin “bambanci amma daidai” a wuraren jama’a.
## Manazarta

## Bayanin ƙasa

## Ƙarin Karatu
further| Bibliography of the Reconstruction Era
* Brown, Nikki L.M., and Barry M. Stentiford, eds. *The Jim Crow Encyclopedia* (Greenwood, 2008)
* Carle, Susan D. *Defining the Struggle: National Racial Justice Organizing, 1880–1915* (Oxford UP, 2013). 404pp.
* Davis, Hugh. *"We will be satisfied with nothing less": the African American struggle for equal rights in the North during Reconstruction.* (2011).
* Finkelman, Paul, ed. *Encyclopedia of African American History, 1619-1895* (3 vol. 2006) labarai 700 daga masana
* cite book | author=Foner, Eric | title=Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution | publisher=Harper and Row|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l7PtAwAAQBAJ|year=1988| isbn=9780062383235 
* Foner, Eric. "Rights and the Constitution in Black Life during the Civil War and Reconstruction". *Journal of American History* 74.3 (1987): 863–883. online
* Frankel, Noralee. *Break Those Chains at Last: African Americans 1860–1880* (1996). excerpt; ga ɗaliban makarantar sakandare
* Hahn, Steven. *A nation under our feet*: Black political struggles in the rural South, from slavery to the great migration* (2003); Pulitzer Prize; excerpt; online review
* Jenkins, Jeffery A., Justin Peck, and Vesla M. Weaver. "Between Reconstructions: Congressional Action on Civil Rights, 1891–1940." *Studies in American Political Development* 24#1 (2010): 57–89. online Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303234116/http://faculty.virginia.edu/jajenkins/Jenkins-Peck-Weaver.pdf |date=2016-03-03 
* Logan, Rayford. *The Betrayal of the Negro from Rutherford B. Hayes to Woodrow Wilson* (2nd ed. 1965).
* Lowery, Charles D. *Encyclopedia of African-American civil rights: from emancipation to the present* (Greenwood, 1992). online
* Raffel, Jeffrey. *Historical dictionary of school segregation and desegregation: The American experience* (Bloomsbury, 1998) online
* Strickland, Arvarh E., and Robert E. Weems, eds. *The African American Experience: An Historiographical and Bibliographical Guide* (Greenwood, 2001). 442pp; babi 17 masu taken ta masana.
* Swinney, Everette. "Enforcing the Fifteenth Amendment, 1870–1877." *Journal of Southern History* 28#2 (1962): 202–218. in JSTOR.
* Woodward, C. Vann. *Origins of the New South, 1877–1913* (1951).

===Jagoranci===
* Chesson, Michael B. "Richmond's Black Councilman, 1871–96," in Howard N. Rabinowitz, ed. *Southern Black Leaders of the Reconstruction Era* (1982) pp 191–222.
* Dray, Philip. *Capitol men: the epic story of Reconstruction through the lives of the first Black congressmen* (2010).
* Foner, Eric. *Freedom's Lawmakers: A Directory of Black Officeholders during Reconstruction* (1993).
* cite book | title=Aristocrats of color: the Black elite, 1880-1920 | author=Gatewood, Willard B. | year=2000 | publisher=University of Arkansas Press | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CyQEzCEV9XkC| isbn=9781610750257 
* Holt, Thomas. *Black over white: Negro political leadership in South Carolina during Reconstruction* (1979).
* Holt, Thomas C. "Negro State Legislators in South Carolina during Reconstruction," in Howard N. Rabinowitz, ed. *Southern Black Leaders of the Reconstruction Era* (1982) pp 223–49.
* Hume, Richard L. "Negro delegates to the state constitutional conventions of 1867–69," in Howard N. Rabinowitz, ed. *Southern Black Leaders of the Reconstruction Era* (1982) pp 129–54
* Hume, Richard L. and Jerry B. Gough. *Black people, Carpetbaggers, and Scalawags: The Constitutional Conventions of Radical Reconstruction* (LSU Press, 2008); rarraba wakilai ta hanyar kididdiga.
* Jenkins, Jeffery A., and Boris Heersink. "Republican Party Politics and the American South: From Reconstruction to Redemption, 1865–1880." (2016 paper t the 2016 Annual Meeting of the Southern Political Science Association); online.
*Loewenberg, Bert James and Ruth Bogin. *Black Women in Nineteenth-Century American Life: Their Words, Their Thoughts, Their Feelings* (Pennsylvania State UP, 1976).
* Meir, August. "Afterword: New Perspectives on the Nature of Black Political Leadership during Reconstruction." in Howard N. Rabinowitz, ed. *Southern Black Leaders of the Reconstruction Era* (1982) ppe 393–406.
* Pitre, Merline. *Through Many Dangers, Toils, and Snares: The Black Leadership of Texas, 1868–1900* Eakin Press, 1985.
* Rabinowitz, Howard N., ed. *Southern Black Leaders of the Reconstruction Era* (1982), shafuna 422; babi 16 daga masana, kan shugabanni da manyan ƙungiyoyi.
* Rankin, David C. "The origins of Negro leadership in New Orleans during Reconstruction," in Howard N. Rabinowitz, ed. *Southern Black Leaders of the Reconstruction Era* (1982) 155–90.
* Smith, Jessie Carney, ed. *Encyclopedia of African American Business* (2 vol. Greenwood 2006). excerpt 
* Vincent, Charles. "Negro Leadership and Programs in the Louisiana Constitutional Convention of 1868." *Louisiana History* (1969): 339–351. in JSTOR
* cite book | title=African American leadership |author1=Walters, Ronald W. |author2=Robert C. Smith| year=1999 | publisher=SUNY Press | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ejjSNIDNeXEC|isbn=9780791441459

====Shugabanni Ɗai-ɗai====
* Anderson, Eric. "James O'Hara of North Carolina: Black Leadership and local government" in Howard N. Rabinowitz, ed. *Southern Black Leaders of the Reconstruction Era* (1982) 101–128.
* Euline W. Brock|Brock, Euline W. "Thomas W. Cardozo: Fallible Black Reconstruction Leader." *Journal of Southern History* 47.2 (1981): 183–206. in JSTOR
* Grosz, Agnes Smith. "The Political Career of Pinckney Benton Stewart Pinchback." Louisiana Historical Quarterly 27 (1944): 527–612.
* Harlan, Louis R. *Booker T. Washington: The Making of a Black Leader, 1856–1901* (1972).
* Harris, William C. "Blanche K. Bruce of Mississippi: Conservative Assimilationist." in Howard N. Rabinowitz, ed. *Southern Black Leaders of the Reconstruction Era* (1982). 3-38.
* Harris, William C. "James Lynch: Black Leader in Southern Reconstruction," *Historian* (1971) 34#1 pp 40–61, DOI: 10.1111/j.1540-6563.1971.tb00398.x
* Haskins, James. *Pinckney Benton Stewart Pinchback* (1973).
* Hine, William C. "Dr. Benjamin A. Boseman, Jr.: Charleston's Black Physician-Politician," in Howard N. Rabinowitz, ed. *Southern Black Leaders of the Reconstruction Era* (1982) pp 335–62.
* Klingman, Peter D. "Race and Faction in the Public Career of Florida's Josiah T. Walls." in Howard N. Rabinowitz, ed. *Southern Black Leaders of the Reconstruction Era* (1982). 59–78.
* Klingman, Peter D. *Josiah Walls: Florida's Black Congressman of Reconstruction* (1976).
* Lamson, Peggy. *The Glorious Failure: Black Congressman Robert Brown Elliott and the Reconstruction in South Carolina* (1973).
* McFeely, William S. *Frederick Douglass* (1995).
* Moneyhon, Carl H. "George T. Ruby and the Politics of Expediency in Texas," in Howard N. Rabinowitz, ed. *Southern Black Leaders of the Reconstruction Era* (1982) pp 363–92.
* Norrell, Robert J. "Booker T. Washington: Understanding the Wizard of Tuskegee," *Journal of Black people in Higher Education* 42 (2003–4) pp. 96–109 in JSTOR
* Norrell, Robert J. *Up from history: The life of Booker T. Washington* (2009).
* Reidy, Joseph P. "Karen A. Bradley: Voice of Black Labor in the Georgia Lowcountry," in Howard N. Rabinowitz, ed. *Southern Black Leaders of the Reconstruction Era* (1982) pp 281–309.
* Richardson, Joe M. "Jonathan C. Gibbs: Florida's Only Negro Cabinet Member." *Florida Historical Quarterly* 42.4 (1964): 363–368. in JSTOR
* Russell, James M. and Thornbery, Jerry. "William Finch of Atlanta: The Black Politician as Civic Leader," in Howard N. Rabinowitz, ed. *Southern Black Leaders of the Reconstruction Era* (1982) pp 309–34.
* Schweninger, Loren. "James Rapier of Alabama and the Noble Cause of Reconstruction," in Howard N. Rabinowitz, ed. *Southern Black Leaders of the Reconstruction Era* (1982). 79–100.
* Woody, Robert H. "Jonathan Jasper Wright, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of South Carolina, 1870–77." *Journal of Negro History* 18.2 (1933): 114–131. in JSTOR
* cite book|title=The Republic for Which It Stands|title-link=The Republic for Which It Stands|last=White|first=Richard C.|year=2017|publisher=Oxford University Press

===Jinsi===
* Bond, Beverly G. "'Every Duty Incumbent Upon Them': African-American Women in Nineteenth Century Memphis." *Tennessee Historical Quarterly* 59.4 (2000): 254.
* Clinton, Catherine. "Bloody terrain: Freedwomen, sexuality and violence during reconstruction." *Georgia Historical Quarterly* 76.2 (1992): 313–332. in JSTOR
* Edwards, Laura F. *Gendered Strife and Confusion: The Political Culture of Reconstruction* (1997).
* Farmer-Kaiser, Mary. *Freedwomen and the Freedmen's Bureau: Race, Gender, and Public Policy in the Age of Emancipation* (Fordham Univ Press, 2010). online review
* Frankel, Noralee. *Freedom's women: Black women and families in Civil War era Mississippi* (1999).
* Hunter, Tera W. *To 'Joy My Freedom: Southern Black Women's Lives and Labors after the Civil War* (Harvard University Press, 1997).
* Oglesby, Catherine. "Gender and History of the Postbellum US South." *History Compass* 8.12 (2010): 1369–1379; tarihin rubuce-rubuce, galibi na fararen mata.
* Olson, Lynne. *Freedom's daughters: The unsung heroines of the civil rights movement from 1830 to 1970* (2001).

===Nazarin Jihohi da Yankuna===
* Cresswell, Stephen. *Multiparty Politics in Mississippi, 1877–1902* (1995).
* Davis, D. F., et al. "Before the Ghetto: Black Detroit in the Nineteenth Century." *Urban History Review* (1977) 6#1 pp. 99–106 in JSTOR
* Doyle, Don H. *New Men, New Cities, New South: Atlanta, Nashville, Charleston, Mobile, 1860–1910* (1990) excerpt
* Drago, Edmund L. *Black Politicians and Reconstruction in Georgia: A Splendid Failure* (1992)
* Green, Hilary. *Educational Reconstruction: African American Schools in the Urban South, 1865–1890* (Fordham UP, 2016), Nazarin shari'o'i na Richmond, Virginia, da Mobile, Alabama. online review
* Hornsby Jr., Alton, ed. *Black America: A State-by-State Historical Encyclopedia* (2 vol 2011) excerpt
* Hornsby Jr., Alton. *A Short History of Black Atlanta, 1847–1993* (2015).
* Jenkins, Wilbert L. *Seizing the New Day: African Americans in Post–Civil War Charleston.* (2003).
* Jewell, Joseph O. *Race, social reform, and the making of a middle class: The American Missionary Association and Black Atlanta, 1870–1900* (2007).
* Rabinowitz, Howard N. *Race Relations in the Urban South: 1865–1890* (1978)
* Wharton, Vernon Lane. *The Negro in Mississippi: 1865–1890* (1947)

===Tushen Farko===
* Foner, Philip, ed. *The Life and Writings of Frederick Douglass: Reconstruction and After* (1955).
* Smith, John David. *We Ask Only for Even-handed Justice: Black Voices from Reconstruction, 1865–1877* (2nd ed. 2014)
* cite book|author=Work, Monroe N. |title=Negro Year Book and Annual Encyclopedia of the Negro|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oc5HAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA13|year=1912, Bugu na farko a 1913.
* cite book|author=Reid, Whitelaw|title=After the War: A Southern Tour.|url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924028782781|year=1866, cikakken bayani daga ɗan jarida na Yankee, tare da mai da hankali kan 'Yan 'Yanci.
* cite journal|author=Richardson, Joe M. |title=The Negro in Post Civil-War Tennessee: A Report by a Northern Missionary.|journal= Journal of Negro Education|volume=34 |issue=4|year=1965|pages=419–424|doi=10.2307/2294093 |jstor=2294093
* Wells-Barnett, Ida B. *Southern horrors and other writings: the anti-lynching campaign of Ida B. Wells, 1892–1900*. Ed. Jacqueline Jones Royster. Bedford Books, 1997.
* cite book|editor=Winegarten, Ruthie |title=Black Texas Women: A Sourcebook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-tSBBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA44|year=2014|publisher=University of Texas Press|pages=44–69|isbn=9780292785564

==Mahaɗa==

* [https://memory.loc.gov/ammem/aap/aaphome.html "African American Perspectives: Pamphlets from the Daniel A. P. Murray Collection, 1818–1907"] Most are from 1875 to 1900.
* [http://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/catalog/43gds9bp9780252004100.html *Booker T. Washington Papers, vol 1-3'']
* "Booker T. Washington: The Man and the Myth Revisited." (2007) PowerPoint presentation By Dana Chandler
*Civil Rights Resource Guide, from the Library of Congress
*"The Long History of the African American Civil Rights Movement in Florida"