Majiya

Subscript text

**Majiya,** na nufin madogara ta bayani ko labari wato inda aka jiyo labari. Majiya ita ce take nuna gaskiyar labari ko batu. Ana saka majiya ne a cikin rubutu kamar na Littafi, Jarida ko Makala domin gamsar da mai karatu ya nutsu da abin da aka fada ko gaskiya ne. A Gaba daya haduwar duka rubutun da ke cikin jiki da kuma rubutun litattafan ya zama abin da yawancin mutane ake daukar a zaman kira (alhali kuwa shigar da *bibliographic* da kansu ba). Abubuwan da aka ambata game da maganganu guda daya, wanda za'a iya karantawa a cikin labaran kimiyya na lantarki ana kiran su *non publications*, wani nau'i na rarraba ''microattribution''.

A Kididdiga suna da mahimman dalilai masu yawa gaske: don tabbatar da gaskiya ta ilimi (ko guje wa satar fasaha ),  don danganta aiki na farko daya samo asali da ra'ayoyi zuwa ingantattun tushe, don bawa mai karatu damar yanke hukunci da kansa ko bayan da aka ambata suna tallafawa ra'ayin marubuci a cikin da'awar hanya, kuma don taimaka wa mai karatu ya auna karfi da ingancin abin da marubucin ya yi amfani da shi. 

Abubuwan da aka ambata a gaba daya suna biyan kudi ne ga dayan tsarin ambaton da aka yarda da su gaba daya, kamar su Oxford, Harvard, MLA, *[[:en:American_Sociological_Association|American Sociological Association]] (ASA), American Psychological Association (APA),* da sauran tsarin ambaton, saboda taronsu na hadin gwiwa sanannen abu ne kuma mai saukin fassarawa daga masu karatu. Kowane dayan wadannan tsarin lissafin yana da fa'ida da amfani. ga Editoci galibi suna ayyana tsarin amfani da su.

Bindiddiki, da sauran jerin abubuwa kwatankwacin nassoshi, galibi ba a daukar ambaton saboda ba su cika hakikanin kalmar ba: ba a yardaba da gangan kadau ko rahoto daga wasu mawallafa game da fifikon ra'ayin mutum.

## Ra'ayi
**A kididdigar kundin tarihi** na nufin littafi, ko labarin, shafin yanar gizo, ko wani abu da aka buga. yakamata subi daki-daki don gano abu musamman. Ana amfani da tsarin gudanar da salona daban a cikin ambaton kimiyya, ambaton shari'a, fasaha ta farko, zane-zane, da kuma ' yan Adam .

## Abun ciki
A Abubuwan da aka ambata na iya bambanta dangane da nau'in tushe kuma suna iya haɗawa da:

* *Littafin:* marubuta (s), taken littafi, wurin bugawa, mai bugawa, ranar fitowar sa, da lambar shafi (idan) ya dace.
* *Jarida:* marubuci (s), taken labarin, taken jarida, ranar da aka buga shi, da lambar shafi (s).
* *Jarida:* marubuta (s), taken labari, sunan jarida, taken yanki da lambar shafin take (idan)  da kuma, ranar da aka buga.
* *Shafin yanar gizo:* marubuta (s), Labari da taken bugawa a inda ya dace, kazalika da URL,da kwanan wata lokacin da aka saka shafin.
* *Kunna:* ambaton layi da suna ba da bangare, na yanayi, da lambobin layi,ba  na biyun an raba shi da lokaci: 4.452 yana nufin yanayi na 4, layi na 452. Misali, "A cikin Eugene Onegin, Onegin cire Tanya lokacin da ta sami 'yanci ya zama nasa, kuma sai kawai ya yanke shawarar yana son ta lokacin da ta riga ta yi aure" (Pushkin 4.452-53).
* *Waka:* ana amfani da irin wannan don nuna layi daban na waka, kuma kididdigar zance yawanci sun hada da lambar layi (s). Misali: "Don dole ne in yi soyayya saboda ina raye&nbsp; / Kuma rayuwa a cikina abin da kuka bayar ne. " (Brennan, layi 15-16).
* *Ganawa:* sunan mai tambaya, mai ba da labari (tsohon hirar sirri) da ranar hira.

### Musamman masu ganowa
A Tare da bayanai kamar marubuta, ranar da aka buga, take da lambobin shafi, kididdigar na iya hadawa da masu ganowa na musamman dangane da nau'in aikin da ake magana a kai.

* Ƙididdigar littattafai na iya hadawa da Lambar Littafi Na Duniya wato (ISBN).hakan na nufun (International Standard Book Number )
* Takamaiman juzu'i, kasidu ko wasu sassan da za'a iya gano su na wani lokaci, na iya kasancewa yana da wani abu da yake nufin Serial Item and Contribution Identifier wato (SICI)da kuma Lambar Serial Ta Duniya dake nufin International Standard Serial Number  (ISSN).
* Takaddun lantarki suna da digital object identifier wanda ata kaice ake cewa (DOI).
* Abubuwan bincike na ilimin kimiyar halittu na iya samun Mai Bayyanar PubMed (PMID).

## Tsarin
A maganar gabadaya, akwai nau'ikan tsarin fadakarwa iri biyu, tsarin Vancouver da ambaton manazartaMajalisar Editocin Kimiyya wato (CSE)dake nufin Council of Science Editors tana saka ma kididdigar, na *tsarin sunan-ambato* . 

### Tsarin Na Vanco
Tsarin Vanco yana nufin amfani da lambobi daki daki a cikin rubutu, ko kuma mai  sakaci  acikin duka biyun Lambobin suna nufin ko dai bayanan rubutu (bayanan kula a karshen shafin) ko bayanan karshe (bayanan kula a shafi a karshen takardar) wadanda ke ba da cikakken Bayani. A Tsarin bayanan kula na iya  bukatan cikakken littafin tarihin ba, ya danganta da ko marubucin yayi amfani da fom na cikakken bayanin kula ko kuma takaitaccen bayanin kula.

Misali, wani yanki na takarda na amfani da tsarin bayanin kula *ba tare* da cikakken littafin tarihi ba zai iya zama kamar:

: "Matakai guda biyar na bakin ciki sune musantawa, fushi, sasantawa, damuwa, da kuma yarda." 1

Bayanin cewa, wanda yake a kasan shafin (karancin rubutu) ko a karshen takardar (karshen rubutun) zai yi kamar wannan:

: 1. Elisabeth Kübler-Ross, *Akan Mutuwa da Mutuwa* (New York: Macmillan, 1969) 45-60.

A cikin takarda tare da cikakken littafin tarihin, a gajeren bayanin kula na iya zama kamar:

: 1. Kübler-Ross, *Kan Mutuwa da Mutuwa* 45-60.

Shigar da littafin, wanda ake bukata tare da takaitaccen bayanin kula, zai yi kamar wannan:

: Kübler-Ross, Elisabeth. *Akan  yana mutuwa da kuma mutuwa* . New York: Macmillan, 1969.

A cikin dabi'un dan adam, marubuta da yawa suna amfani da bayanan kafa ko mahimman bayanai don samar da wani labari na dan lokaci. Ta wannan hanyar, abin da yayi kama da takaddama shine ainihin karin kayan aiki, ko shawarwari don karin karatu. 

### Rubutun iyaye
Nunawa ga iyaye, wanda aka fi sani da Harvard nakaltowa, yana da cikakke ko na juzu'i, a cikin rubutu, bayanan ambaton da ke kunshe a cikin madafan madauwari kuma an saka su a sakin layi. 

Misali na bayanin iyaye:

: "Matakai guda biyar na bakin ciki sune ƙi, fushi, ciniki, damuwa, da yarda" (K acceptancebler-Ross, 1969, shafi na 45-60).

Dogaro da zaɓin salon, nassoshi masu mahimmancin kalmomi na iya bukatar sashin karshe. Sauran salo sun hada da jerin amsoshin, tare da cikakkun bayanan nassoshi, a cikin bangaren karshe, wanda marubucin ya tsara su bisa haruffa. Galibi ana kiran wannan bangaren "Bayani", "Bibliography", "Ayyukan da aka ambata" ko "An nemi shawarwari".

Nassoshi a cikin rubutu don wallafe-wallafen kan layi na iya bambanta da kuma nusar da . Cikakken bayani akan abu, kawai za a iya nuna shi lokacin da mai karatu ke so, a cikin sifofin kayan aiki .  Wannan salon yana sa ambaton ya zama da sauki kuma yana inganta kwarewar mai karatu.

### Tsarin sunan-ambato
An saka wasu manyan lambobi a wurin magana, kamar dai yadda yake a cikin tsarin jerin sunayen, amma an kirga ambaton gwargwadon tsarin ayyukan da aka kawo a karshen takarda ko littafin; wannan jerin galibi ana tsara shi ta jerin haruffa ta hanyar marubuci.

## Salo
Salon kididdiga za'a iya rarraba shi zuwa salon da ya dace da Ilimin dan Adam yafa idantu, kodayake akwai dan abin da zai daidaita. Wasu jagororin salo, kamar su the Chicago Manual of Style, suna da sauƙin canzawa kuma suna rufe tsarin magana da rubutu. Sauran, kamar salon kuma sun hada da MLA da kuma APA, suna ayyana fasali a cikin tsarin rubutu guda daya. Wadannan ana iya kiran su tsarin tsaruka da kuma salon kira.Hakanan jagororin daban-daban suna kayyade tsarin bayyana, misali, kwanan watan fitarwa, take, da lambobin shafi na bin sunan marubucin, da tarun alamomina rubutu, amfani da rubutun, girmama, zance, alamun ambato, da sauransu, musamman ga salo.kungiyoyi da yawa sun ƙirƙiri salona dacewa da bukatun su; saboda haka, akwai jagororin da yawa. Masu wallafa kowane ɗayansu suna da nasu bambancin a cikin gida kuma, kuma wasu ayyukan suna da dadewa don suna da nasu hanyoyin ambaton kuma: Stephanus pagination ko Plato; Bekker numbers ko kuma Aristotle; saka Littafi Mai-Tsarki ta hanyar littafi, babi da aya; ko Shakespeare  da kuma wasa.

Harshena Salon Maganan Citation Style Language wato (CSL) yaren budewa ne na XML don bayyana tsarin yadda ake kawo ƙira da litattafan tarihi.

### 'Yan Adam

* Tsarin salona Chicago Style (CMOS) an kirkireshi kuma jagorar sa shine *Chicago Manual of Style* . Anfi amfani dashi sosai a tarihi da tattalin arziki harma da wasu ilimin kimiyyar zamantakewa. Salon alakar Turabiya mai alaka da juna — wanda ya samo asali daga gare ta - don nassoshin dalibai ne, kuma an bambanta ta daga CMOS ta hanyar kin ambaton alamomi a cikin jerin bayanai, da kuma fadakarwar samun damar dole.
* Tsarin Columbia an kirkireshi ne Janice R. Walker da Todd Taylor don bayar da cikakkun bayanai game da ambaton hanyoyin intanet. Yanayin Columbia yana ba da samfuran samfuran dan Adam da na kimiyya.
* *Bayanin: Bayyana Tushen Tarihi daga Abubuwan Tarihi zuwa Gidan yanar* gizo na Elizabeth Shown Mills sun hada da manyan hanyoyin da ba a hada su a cikin CMOS ba, kamar kidaya, kotu, kasa, gwamnati, kasuwanci, da kuma bayanan coci. Ya haɗa da tushe cikin tsarin lantarki. Masana tarihi da tarihi suka yi amfani da shi. 
* Rubutun Harvard (ko tsarin kwanan wata) wani nau'i ne na takamaiman magana na iyaye .British Standards Institution da kumaModern Language Association sukan yi amfani da su wajen shawarar yin nuni ga iyaye. Nuna fassarar Harvard ya kunshi dan gajeren lokacin kwanan wata, misali, "(Smith, 2000)", ana saka shi bayan rubutun da aka ambata a cikin maganan da kuma cikakken bayanin tushen da aka jera a ƙarshen labarin.
* Salona MLA style ya haɓaka ta Modern Language Association Harshe ta Zamani kuma ana amfani dashi mafi yawa a cikin zane-zane da dabi'un dan adam, musamman a cikin karatun Ingilishi, sauran karatun adabi, gami da adabin kwatanta da sukar adabi a cikin yaren Ingilishi (" harsunan waje "), kuma wasu karatun bambance-bambance, kamar karatun al'adu, wasan kwaikwayo da wasan kwaikwayo, fim, da sauran kafofin watsa labarai, gami da talabijin . Wannan salon ambaton da tsarin rubutun yana amfani da rubutacciyar magana tare da shafi na marubuci (Smith 395) ko kuma wani shafi mai suna [short] (Smith, *Contingencies* 42) Acikin wannan aikin na mawallafin nan yake a tsakanin magana cikin rubutuna. *[[:en:The_MLA_Style_Manual|The MLA Style Manual]]* zuwa jerin haruffa na tushe a shafi na "*[[:en:The_MLA_Handbook_for_Writers_of_Research_Papers|The MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers]]*" a ƙarshen Citation and bibliography format.da kuma bayanan kula (alamomi ko ƙarin bayani).*Littafin Jagora na MLA don Marubuta na Takardun Bincike*, musamman Tsarin Magana da tsarin littafin tarihi
* MHRA Style Guide an buga shi ne ta Modern Humanities Research Association(MHRA) kuma mafi yawan amfani da shi a cikin zane-zane da dabi'un dan adam A MHRA. Ana iya  samun abun siyarwa a Birtaniya dana Amurka. Ya yi daidai da salona MLA style, amma yana da wasu bambance-bambance. Misali, salon MHRA yana amfani da bayanan  ƙasa wanda ke nuni da cikakkun bayanai yayin kuma samar da kundin tarihin rayuwa. Wasu masu karatu suna ganin yana da fa'ida ga cewa bayanan suna bukatan cikakkun bayanai, maimakon takaitaccen nassoshi, don haka ba sa bukatar yin nazarin tarihin yayin karatun sauran bayanan da aka buga.

A wasu yankuna na 'Yan Adam, ana amfani da bayanan kafa don kawai nassoshi, kuma an guji amfani da su don bayanan kafa na yau da kullun (bayani ko misalai). Awa Innan yankuna, ana amfani da kalmar "alamar ƙafa" a matsayin ma'anar "tunani", kuma dole ne editoci da masu rubuta abubuwa su kula sosai don tabbatar da cewa sun fahimci yadda marubutan suke amfani da kalmar.

### Doka

* Bluebook tsari ne na ambaton gargajiya da ake amfani da shi a rubuce-rubuce na ilimin Amurka, kuma kotuna da yawa suna amfani da Bluebook (ko makamancin tsari da aka samo shi).  A halin yanzu, labaran doka na ilimi koyaushe suna da tushe, amma motsin da ake gabatarwa ga kotuna da ra'ayoyin kotu a al'adance suna amfani da ambaton layi, wadanda makalar jumla ce daban ko bangarori daban.na Bayanan da ke acikin layi suna ba masu karatu damar tantance karfin tushe ta hanzari, misali, kotun da aka yanke hukunci a ciki da shekarar da aka yanke hukunci.
* Salon ambaton doka da aka yi amfani da shi kusan a ko'ina cikin Kanada ya dogara ne da *Jagoran Kanada don Bayyana Dokar Kaya* (AKA *[[:en:McGill_Guide|McGill Guide]]* ), wanda aka wallafa ta *McGill Law Journal* . 
* Bayyanar da doka ta Burtaniya kusan ta duniya gaba ɗaya tana bin a Tsarina. *[[:en:Oxford_Standard_for_Citation_of_Legal_Authorities|Oxford Standard for Citation of Legal Authorities]]* (OSCOLA)

### Kimiyya, lissafi, injiniyanci, ilimin kimiyyar lissafi, da magani

* Salon Kamfanin American Chemical Society, ko kuma salo na ACS style, ana amfani da shi sau da yawa a cikin Chemistry da wasu kimiyyar jiki . A cikin salon salon ACS an kidaya su a cikin rubutu da jerin abubuwan tunani, kuma ana maimaita lambobi a cikin rubutun yadda ake bukata.
* A cikin salon American Institute of Physicsa(salon AIP), ana kuma kididdige nassoshi a cikin rubutu da cikin jerin bayanai, tare da lambobin da aka maimaita a cikin rubutun kamar yadda ake bukata.
* Salon da aka kirkira wato American Mathematical Society (AMS), ko kuma nau'ikan AMS, irin su AMS-LaTeX, ana aiwatar da su ta hanyar amfani da kayan aikin BibTeX a cikin tsarina LaTeX .Ana saka shi tare da alamun rubutu na farko da shekara a cikin rubutun da farkon ambaton. Ana lissafin ƙididdiga na al'ada cikin layi tare da tsarin lakabin harafi, misali [AB90]. Wannan nau'in salone ake kiran sa da " *Tasirin marubuta.* "
* Tsarin Vancouver system, wanda Majalisar Editocin Kimiyya wato Council of Science Editors (CSE) ta ba da shawara, ana amfani da shi a cikin likitanci da takardun kimiyya da bincike.
** A cikin wani babban bambance-bambance, wanda wata kungiya da Ake cema American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) ta Amurka ke amfani da shi, an haɗa lambobin faɗakarwa a cikin rubutun a cikin madafun iko ba kamar na babban rubutun ba. Duk bayanan kundin tarihi an hada su ne a cikin jerin nassoshi a karshen takaddar, kusa da lambar ambaton su.
** International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) ita ce asalin kwayar wannan salon ƙirar, wanda ya samo asali daga taron editocina Vancouver 1978.  Bayanan MEDLINE/PubMed  yana amfani da wannan salon faɗakarwa na National Library of Medicine providesasa yana ba da " Kaya wato (ICMJE) nanufin Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals -Samfuran Misali". 
* Salon AMA.
* Salon Cibiyar Injin wato Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers(IEEE), ko salona IEEE style, ya ƙunshi lambobin ambato a cikin manyan kusoshin murabba'i da lambobi a jere, tare da maimaita lambobi a cikin rubutun yadda ake buƙata.
* A bangarorin ilimina kimiyyar halittu wadanda suka fada a cikin ICNafp (wanda shi kansa yake amfani da wannan salon ambaton a ko'ina), wani nau'I daban-daban na ambaton taken marubuci shi ne hanya ta farko da ake amfani da ita yayin yin ambaton kuma wasu lokuta an ambace su gaba daya (misali a cikin shawarwarin da suka shafi lambar da aka buga a *[[:en:Taxon_(journal)|Taxon]]* ), tare da ayyukan da ake magana a kansu waɗanda ba a ambata a cikin littafin tarihin ba sai dai idan an ambace su a cikin rubutun. Take suna amfani da daidaitattun *taƙaitattun kalmomi* masu zuwa bayan *Botanico-Periodicum-Huntianum* don abubuwan zamani da *Littattafan* *Haraji* *2* (daga baya IPNI ) don littattafai.
* Salon Kiran Pechenik wani salo ne wanda aka bayyana a cikin *A Short Guide to Writing about Biology*, 6th ed. (2007), na Jan A. Pechenik . 
* A cikin 1955, Eugene Garfield ya gabatar da tsarin kundin tarihi don adabin kimiyya wato bibliographic system for scientific literature, don inganta mutuncin scientific publications . 

### Kimiyyar zaman jama'a

* Salona American Psychological Association, ko salon APA style, wanda aka buga a cikin Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association,galibi ana amfani da shi a cikin ilimin zamantakewar jama'a wato social sciences. Salon ambaton APA yayi kama da rubutun Harvard referencing, yana lissafa sunan marubucin da shekarar da aka buga shi, kodayake waɗannan na iya ɗaukar nau'i biyu: *ambaton suna* wanda sunayen marubutan suka bayyana a cikin rubutun kuma shekarar da aka buga sannan ta bayyana a cikin iyaye, kuma *marubucin - kwanan wata*, wanda sunan mahaifin marubuta da shekarar wallafawa duk suna bayyana a cikin *iyayen yara* . A kowane yanayi, ambaton cikin rubutu yana nuni zuwa jerin haruffa na tushe a ƙarshen takarda a cikin Sashin Nassoshi.
* American Political Science Associationwallafa takaddar jagora da salon jagora don wallafe-wallafe a wannan fagen.  Salon yana kusa da CMOS.
* American Anthropological Association tana amfani da wani sabon juzu'i na salo na Chicago Style wanda aka shimfida a cikin Jagoran Salo na Bugawa.
* Salona ASA style da American Sociological Association yana ɗaya daga cikin manyan salo da ake amfani da su a cikin wallafe-wallafen zamantakewar jama'a .

## Batutuwa
A cikin binciken da suka yi a kan bayanan kafa a cikin mujallu na ilimi a fagen sadarwa, Michael Bugeja da Daniela V. Dimitrova sun gano cewa ambato ga kafofin yanar gizo suna da saurin lalacewa (kamar yadda aka saukar da shafukan da aka ambata), wanda suke kira "rabin-rai ", wanda ke samar da bayanan kaɗan a waɗancan mujallu marasa amfani ga ƙwarewar karatu a kan lokaci. 

Sauran masana sun gano cewa abubuwan da aka buga ba su da alamun ambato kamar ɗabi'un asali. 

Wani mahimmin batun shine kuskuren lafazi, wanda yawanci ke faruwa saboda rashin kulawa kan ɓangaren mai binciken ko editan jarida a cikin hanyar bugawa. Masana sun gano cewa kariya mai sauƙi, kamar tuntuɓar marubucin wata hanyar da aka ambata game da ambaton da ya dace, yana rage yiwuwar kuskuren faɗakarwa kuma hakan yana ƙara ingancin bincike. 

Bincike yana nuna tasirin labarin na iya zama, a wani bangare, ya bayyana ta abubuwan da ke sama kuma ba wai kawai cancantar ilimin labarin ba.  Abubuwan da suka dogara da filin galibi ana lasafta su azaman batun da za a magance ba kawai lokacin da aka kwatanta kwatankwacin fannoni daban-daban da, har ma yayin da ake kwatanta bangarori daban-daban na bincike na horo daya.Misali, a likitanci, a tsakanin sauran dalilai, yawan marubuta, yawan nassoshi, tsayin labarin, da kasantuwar babban a cikin taken suna tasiri tasirin; yayin fadita hanyar ilimin halayyar dan adam yawan nassoshi, tsayin labarin, da tsawon take suna daga cikin abubuwan. 

*Yanayin*  fahimtar cewa ambaton suna zama masu rikitarwa kuma amma masu mahimmanci ma'auni ga masana. Sun bayar da rahoton hanyoyi guda biyar don haɓaka ƙididdigar ambato: (1) kalli tsawon take da alamun rubutu;  (2) fitar da sakamako da wuri azaman masu gabatarwa;(3) guji ambaton wata ƙasa a cikin take, aciki ko kuma abudin hariffa;  (4) danganta labarin zuwa bayanan tallafi a cikin ma'aji;  da (5) guji barna a cikin taken abubuwan bincike. 

Hakanan sanannun alamu ne waɗanda halayen marubuta da ma'aikatan jarida ke shafar su. Irin wannan halayyan. ana kiranta tasirin haɓaka, kuma an bayar da rahoton ya ƙunshi har ma da manyan mujallu. Musamman ma manyan mujallu na kimiyyar likitanci, gami da ,*The Lancet*, *JAMA,* da ,*The New England Journal of Medicine*, ana tsammanin suna da alaƙa da irin wannan ɗabi'ar, har zuwa kusan kashi 30% na alamomin waɗannan mujallu ana samar da su ne ta hanyar tallan ra'ayi. A gefe guda, lamarin da ke nuna alamun kira yana tashi. yana Kwatanta. bayyana su a matsayin ƙungiyoyin marubuta waɗanda ke ambaton juna ba daidai ba fiye da sauran rukunin marubutan da ke aiki a kan wannan batun. 

## Duba kuma

* Acknowledgment (creative arts)
* Bible citation
* Case citation
* Citation analysis
* Citation creator
* Citation signal
* Citationality
* Coercive citation
* Credit (creative arts)
* Cross-reference
* San Francisco Declaration on Research Assessment
* Scholarly method
* Source evaluation
* Style guide

## Bayanan kula

## Manazarta

## Kara karantawa
 
Armstrong, J Scott (July 1996). "The Ombudsman: Management Folklore and Management Science – On Portfolio Planning, Escalation Bias, and Such". Interfaces. 26 (4): 28–42. doi:10.1287/inte.26.4.25. OCLC 210941768.
Pechenik, Jan A (2004). A Short Guide to Writing About Biology (5th ed.). New York: Pearson/Longman. ISBN 978-0-321-15981-6. OCLC 52166026.
"Why Are There Different Citation Styles?". Yale.edu. 2008. Retrieved 2015-09-28.