Psychometrics

**Psychometrics** wani bangare ne na karatu a cikin ilimin halayyar dan adam wanda ya shafi ka'idar da dabarar aunawa. Psychometrics gabaɗaya yana rufe fannoni na musamman a cikin ilimin halayyar mutum da ilimi waɗanda aka sadaukar da su ga gwaji, auna, kimantawa, da ayyukan da suka shafi. Psychometrics ya damu da ma'auni na ma'aunin da ba a iya lura da shi kai tsaye ba. Misalan gine-ginen da ba a sani ba sun haɗa da hankali, introversion, rikice-rikice na hankali, da nasarorin ilimi. Matsayin mutane a kan masu canji marasa ganuwa ana ƙaddara su ta hanyar ƙirar lissafi bisa ga abin da aka lura daga martani na mutane ga abubuwa a kan gwaje-gwaje da ma'auni.

Ana bayyana masu aiki a matsayin masu ilimin halayyar mutum, kodayake ba duk waɗanda ke shiga binciken halayyar dan adam ba ne ke tafiya da wannan taken. Masu ilimin halayyar dan adam yawanci suna da takamaiman cancanta, kamar digiri ko takaddun shaida, kuma mafi yawansu masu ilimin halayya ne tare da horo na digiri a cikin ilimin halayyi da ka'idar ma'auni. Baya ga cibiyoyin ilimi na gargajiya, masu aiki suna aiki ga kungiyoyi, kamar Pearson da Sabis ɗin Gwajin Ilimi. Wasu masu bincike na psychometric suna mai da hankali kan gina da tabbatar da kayan aikin kimantawa, gami da bincike, ma'auni, da tambayoyin bude- ko kusa. Sauran suna mai da hankali kan bincike da ya shafi ka'idar aunawa (misali, Ka'idar amsawa ta abu, daidaitawa ta cikin aji) ko ƙwarewa a matsayin masu ilmantarwa da ƙwararrun ci gaba.

## Tushen tarihi
Gwajin tunani ya fito ne daga raƙuman tunani guda biyu: na farko, daga Darwin, Galton, da Cattell, akan ma'auni na bambance-bambance na mutum kuma na biyu, daga Herbart, Weber, Fechner, da Wundt da ma'aunin su na irin wannan gini. Saiti na biyu na mutane da bincikensu shine abin da ya haifar da ci gaban ilimin halayyar gwaji da daidaitaccen gwaji.

### Kogin Victorian
Charles Darwin shine wahayi a bayan Francis Galton, masanin kimiyya wanda ya ci gaba da ci gaban psychometrics. A shekara ta 1859, Darwin ya buga littafinsa On the Origin of Species . Darwin ya bayyana rawar da zabin halitta ke takawa a fitowar, a tsawon lokaci, na yawan nau'ikan shuke-shuke da dabbobi daban-daban. Littafin ya nuna yadda kowane memba na jinsin ya bambanta da juna da kuma yadda suke da halaye waɗanda suka fi dacewa da mahallinsu. Wadanda ke da halaye masu dacewa suna iya tsira don haihuwa kuma su haifar da wani tsara. Wadanda ba su da halaye masu daidaitawa ba su da tabbas. Wadannan ra'ayoyin sun motsa sha'awar Galton a cikin nazarin 'yan adam da kuma yadda suka bambanta da juna da kuma yadda za a auna waɗannan bambance-bambance.

Galton ya rubuta littafi mai taken Hereditary Genius wanda aka fara bugawa a 1869. Littafin ya bayyana halaye daban-daban da mutane ke da su da kuma yadda waɗannan halaye ke sa wasu "daidaitawa" fiye da wasu. A yau waɗannan bambance-bambance, kamar su aiki na ji da motsi (lokacin amsawa, ƙwarewar gani, da ƙarfin jiki), mahimman fannoni ne na ilimin halayyar kimiyya. Yawancin ayyukan farko da aka yi amfani da su a cikin psychometrics an gudanar da su ne a cikin ƙoƙari na auna hankali. Galton sau da yawa ana kiransa "mahaifin psychometrics," ya tsara kuma ya haɗa da gwaje-gwaje na tunani a cikin matakan anthropometric. James McKeen Cattell, majagaba a fagen psychometrics, ya ci gaba da fadada aikin Galton. Cattell ya kirkiro kalmar *gwajin tunani*, kuma yana da alhakin bincike da ilimi wanda ya haifar da ci gaban gwaje-gwaje na zamani.

### Kogin Jamusanci
Asalin psychometrics kuma yana da alaƙa da fannin ilimin lissafi. A daidai lokacin da Darwin, Galton, da Cattell ke yin abubuwan da suka gano, Herbart yana da sha'awar "farfado da asirin sanin ɗan adam" ta hanyar hanyar kimiyya. Herbart yana da alhakin kirkirar tsarin lissafi na tunani, wanda ke da tasiri a ayyukan ilimi na shekaru masu zuwa.

E.H. Weber ya gina a kan aikin Herbart kuma ya yi ƙoƙari ya tabbatar da wanzuwar ƙofar tunani, yana mai cewa mafi ƙarancin motsawa ya zama dole don kunna tsarin ji. Bayan Weber, G.T. Fechner ya fadada ilimin da ya tattara daga Herbart da Weber, don tsara dokar cewa ƙarfin jin yana girma a matsayin logarithm na ƙarfin motsawa. Mabiyan Weber da Fechner, Wilhelm Wundt an yaba shi da kafa kimiyyar ilimin halayyar dan adam. Tasirin Wundt ne ya shirya hanya ga wasu su bunkasa gwajin tunani.

### Karni na 20
A cikin 1936, masanin ilimin halayyar dan adam L. L. Thurstone, wanda ya kafa kuma shugaban farko na Psychometric Society, ya haɓaka kuma ya yi amfani da hanyar da ake kira dokar hukunci na kwatankwacin, hanyar da ke da alaƙa da ka'idar ilimin halayya ta Ernst Heinrich Weber da Gustav Fechner. Bugu da kari, Spearman da Thurstone dukansu sun ba da gudummawa mai mahimmanci ga ka'idar da aikace-aikacen bincike, hanyar ƙididdiga da aka haɓaka kuma aka yi amfani da ita sosai a cikin psychometrics. A ƙarshen shekarun 1950, Leopold Szondi ya yi kimantawa ta tarihi da kuma ilimin lissafi game da tasirin tunanin kididdiga akan ilimin halayyar dan adam a cikin 'yan shekarun da suka gabata: "a cikin shekarun da suka wuce, an kusan murkushe tunanin halayyar mutum gaba ɗaya kuma an cire shi, kuma an maye gurbinsa da tunanin kididdigar. Daidai a nan muna ganin ciwon daji na gwajin gwaji da gwajin yau".

Kwanan nan, an yi amfani da ka'idar psychometric a cikin ma'auni na mutum, halayen da imani, da nasarorin ilimi. Ba za a iya auna waɗannan gine-ginen da ba a iya aunawa ba, kuma yawancin bincike da kimiyya a cikin wannan horo an haɓaka su ne a ƙoƙarin auna waɗannan abubuwan da ke kusa da ainihin sakamako. 

Siffofin da suka ba da gudummawa sosai ga ilimin halayyar mutum sun hada da Karl Pearson, Henry F. Kaiser, Carl Brigham, L. L. Thurstone, E. L. Thorndike, Georg Rasch, Eugene Galanter, Johnson O'Connor, Frederic M. Lord, Ledyard R Tucker, Louis Guttman, da Jane Loevinger.

## Ma'anar ma'auni a cikin kimiyyar zamantakewa
Ma'anar ma'auni a cikin *Kimiyya* zamantakewa tana da dogon tarihi. Ma'anar da aka fi sani da ita a yanzu, wanda Stanley Smith Stevens ya gabatar, ita ce ma'auni shine "aika lambobi ga abubuwa ko abubuwan da suka faru bisa ga wasu dokoki". An gabatar da wannan ma'anar a cikin labarin Kimiyya na 1946 wanda Stevens ya ba da shawarar matakan ma'auni guda huɗu. Kodayake an karɓa ko'ina, wannan ma'anar ta bambanta da mahimman batutuwa daga ma'anar ma'auni da aka karɓa a cikin kimiyyar jiki, wato cewa ma'aunin kimiyya ya ƙunshi "kimanin ko gano rabo na wasu girman halayen da yawa ga ɗayan halayen iri ɗaya" (shafi na 358) &nbsp;

Lalle ne, an gabatar da ma'anar Stevens game da ma'auni ne don mayar da martani ga Kwamitin Ferguson na Burtaniya, wanda shugabansa, A. Ferguson, masanin kimiyyar lissafi ne. An nada kwamitin ne a cikin 1932 ta Ƙungiyar Burtaniya don Ci gaban Kimiyya don bincika yiwuwar ƙididdigar abubuwan da suka faru. Kodayake kujera da sauran mambobinta masana kimiyyar lissafi ne, kwamitin ya hada da masana ilimin halayyar dan adam da yawa. Rahoton kwamitin ya nuna muhimmancin ma'anar ma'auni. Duk da yake amsar Stevens ita ce ta gabatar da sabon ma'anar, wanda ya yi tasiri sosai a fagen, wannan ba shine kawai amsar rahoton ba. Wani, musamman daban, amsar ita ce karɓar ma'anar gargajiya, kamar yadda aka nuna a cikin sanarwa mai zuwa:

: Ma'auni a cikin ilimin halayyar dan adam da kimiyyar lissafi ba su da bambanci. Masana kimiyyar lissafi na iya auna lokacin da za su iya samun ayyukan da za su bi ka'idojin da ake bukata; masu ilimin halayyar dan adam dole ne su yi haka. Ba sa buƙatar damuwa game da bambance-bambance masu ban mamaki tsakanin ma'anar ma'auni a cikin kimiyyar biyu (Reese, 1943, shafi na 49). 

Wadannan martani daban-daban suna nunawa a wasu hanyoyin da za a iya auna. Misali, hanyoyin da suka danganci matrix na covariance yawanci ana amfani da su akan asalin cewa lambobi, kamar ƙididdigar ƙididdigal da aka samo daga kimantawa, ma'auni ne. Irin waɗannan hanyoyin suna haifar da ma'anar Stevens game da ma'auni, wanda ke buƙatar kawai cewa an sanya lambobi bisa ga wasu dokoki. Babban aikin bincike, to, ana ɗaukarsa gabaɗaya shine gano alaƙa tsakanin ƙididdiga, da kuma abubuwan *da aka sanya* don haifar da irin waɗannan ƙungiyoyi.

A gefe guda, lokacin da ake amfani da ƙirar ma'auni kamar samfurin Rasch, ba a sanya lambobi bisa ƙa'ida ba. Madadin haka, a kiyaye bayanin Reese a sama, an bayyana takamaiman ma'auni don aunawa, kuma makasudin shine gina hanyoyin ko ayyuka waɗanda ke ba da bayanan da suka dace da ƙa'idodin da suka dace. Ana ƙididdige ma'auni bisa ga samfuran, kuma ana gudanar da gwaje-gwaje don tabbatar da ko an cika ƙa'idodin da suka dace.[ana yanayi hujja] [citation need]

## Kayan aiki da hanyoyin
An tsara kayan aikin psychometric na farko don auna hankali. Ɗaya daga cikin hanyoyin farko don auna hankali shine gwajin da Alfred Binet da Theodore Simon suka haɓaka a Faransa. Wannan gwajin an san shi da  . An daidaita gwajin Faransanci don amfani a Amurka ta hanyar Lewis Terman na Jami'ar Stanford, kuma an kira shi gwajin Stanford-Binet IQ.

Wani babban abin da aka fi mayar da hankali a cikin psychometrics shine gwajin mutum. An sami hanyoyi da yawa na ka'idoji don tantancewa da auna mutuntaka, kodayake babu wani ka'idar da aka yarda da ita. Wasu daga cikin sanannun kayan aikin sun haɗa da Inventory Multiphasic Personality Inventory, Model Factor Five-Factor (ko "Babban 5") da kayan aiki kamar Nau'in Halin Mutum da Zaɓin Zaɓi da Alamar Nau'in Myers-Briggs. An kuma yi nazarin halaye da yawa ta amfani da hanyoyin tunani.[ana binciken hujja] [citation need] [1] Wata hanya dabam ta haɗa da aikace-aikacen nau'ikan ma'auni masu buɗewa, mafi mahimmanci shine Hyperbolic Cosine Model (Andrich & Luo, 1993).[2]

## Hanyoyin da aka yi amfani da su
Masu ilimin halayyar dan adam sun samar da ra'ayoyin ma'auni daban-daban. Wadannan sun hada da ka'idar gwajin gargajiya (CTT) da ka'idodin amsawa na abu (IRT). Hanyar da ke da alama ta lissafi ta yi kama da IRT amma kuma ta bambanta, dangane da asalinsa da fasalulluka, ana wakilta ta hanyar Rasch model don aunawa. Ci gaban samfurin Rasch, da kuma manyan nau'ikan samfuran da yake ciki, an kafa su ne a bayyane a kan bukatun ma'auni a cikin kimiyyar jiki.

Masu ilimin halayyar dan adam sun kuma samar da hanyoyin yin aiki tare da manyan matrix na daidaituwa da covariances. Hanyoyi a cikin wannan al'ada ta gaba ɗaya sun haɗa da: bincike na dalilai,  hanyar ƙayyade girman bayanai. Ɗaya daga cikin manyan ƙalubalen da masu amfani da bincike na abubuwan da ke faruwa shine rashin yarjejeniya kan hanyoyin da suka dace don ƙayyade yawan abubuwan da ba a sani ba. Hanyar da aka saba amfani da ita ita ce dakatar da factoring lokacin da ƙimar ƙima ta faɗi ƙasa da ɗaya saboda asalin asalin ya ragu. Rashin wuraren yankewa ya shafi wasu hanyoyin da suka bambanta, kuma.

Multidimensional scaling  hanya ce don samun wakilci mai sauƙi don bayanai tare da adadi mai yawa na latent dimensions. Binciken rukuni shine hanyar gano abubuwa masu kama da juna. Binciken abubuwan da suka faru, sikelin da yawa, da nazarin rukuni duk hanyoyin bayyanawa ne da aka yi amfani da su don narkewa daga adadi mai yawa na tsarin bayanai masu sauƙi.

Kwanan nan, tsarin daidaitawa  da nazarin hanya suna wakiltar hanyoyin da suka fi dacewa don aiki tare da manyan matrix. Wadannan hanyoyin suna ba da damar daidaita ƙididdigar ƙididdigat zuwa bayanai kuma a gwada su don sanin ko sun dace. Saboda a matakin bincike na psychometric yana damuwa da girman da yanayin multidimensionality a cikin kowane abu mai ban sha'awa, sabon tsari da aka sani da nazarin bi-factor  na iya taimakawa. Binciken bi-factor na iya rarraba "bambance na tsari na abu dangane da, da kyau, tushe biyu, babban abu da kuma tushen ƙarin bambancin tsari". 

### Muhimman ra'ayoyi
Muhimman ra'ayoyi a cikin ka'idar gwajin gargajiya sune amintacce da inganci. Wani abin dogaro ne wanda ke auna gini a kowane lokaci, mutane, da yanayi. Matsayi mai inganci shine wanda ke auna abin da aka nufa don auna. Amincewa ya zama dole, amma bai isa ba, don inganci.

Dukkanin amintacce da inganci za a iya kimanta su ta hanyar kididdiga. Za'a iya tantance daidaito a kan ma'auni na maimaitawa na wannan gwajin tare da ma'aunin ma'aikatar Pearson, kuma galibi ana kiransa amintaccen gwajin-sake gwadawa. Hakazalika, daidaito na nau'o'i daban-daban na wannan ma'auni za'a iya lissafa su ta hanyar daidaitattun Pearson, kuma ana kiransu *daidaitattun siffofin amintacce* ko irin wannan kalma.

Daidaitawar ciki, wanda ke magance daidaito na nau'in gwaji guda ɗaya, ana iya tantance shi ta hanyar daidaita aikin a kan rabi biyu na gwajin, wanda ake kira *raba-rabu amintacce*; darajar wannan ma'aunin daidaitawar samfurin Pearson don rabin-gwaje biyu an daidaita shi tare da Tsarin tsinkaya na Spearman-Brown don dacewa da daidaituwa tsakanin gwaje-gwaje guda biyu. Wataƙila mafi yawan amfani da alamun amintacce shine Cronbach's α, wanda yayi daidai da ma'aunin duk yiwuwar raba-rabu. Sauran hanyoyin sun haɗa da alaƙar cikin aji, wanda shine rabo na bambancin ma'auni na manufa da aka ba da bambancin duk manufofi.

Akwai nau'o'i daban-daban na inganci. Ingancin da ke da alaƙa da ma'auni yana nufin yadda gwajin ko sikelin ya hango samfurin halayyar, watau, ma'aunin, wanda shine "na waje ga kayan auna da kansa. "  Wannan samfurin halayya na waje na iya zama abubuwa da yawa ciki har da wani gwaji; Matsakaicin matsayi na kwaleji kamar lokacin da ake amfani da SAT na makarantar sakandare don hango aikin da ya faru a baya, misali, lokacin da gwajin alamun halayyar yanzu ake amfani da shi don hango faruwar cutar da ta gabata (wanda zai wakilci bayan haka daidai). Lokacin da aka tattara ma'auni a lokaci guda kamar yadda aka tabbatar da ma'aunin burin shine ya kafa inganci a lokaci guda; lokacin da aka tattare da ma'anar daga baya burin shine kafa *ingancin tsinkaya*. Matakan yana da *ingancin gini* idan yana da alaƙa da matakan wasu gine-gine kamar yadda ka'idar ta buƙaci. *Amincewa da abun ciki* alama ce cewa abubuwan gwajin suna yin isasshen aiki na rufe yankin da ake auna. A cikin misalin zaɓin ma'aikata, abubuwan gwajin sun dogara ne akan bayanin da aka bayyana ko saitin bayanan ilimi, ƙwarewa, iyawa, ko wasu halaye da aka samu daga nazarin aiki.

Ka'idar amsawar abu tana tsara dangantakar da ke tsakanin halaye masu ɓoye da martani ga abubuwan gwaji. Daga cikin wasu fa'idodi, IRT yana ba da tushe don samun kimantawa game da wurin mai gwajin a kan wani hali da aka ba shi da kuma kuskuren ma'auni na wannan wuri. Misali, ana iya cire ilimin dalibi na jami'a game da tarihi daga maki a gwajin jami'a sannan a kwatanta shi da abin dogaro da ilimin dalibi ne na makarantar sakandare wanda aka cire daga gwajin da ba shi da wahala. Sakamakon da aka samo ta hanyar ka'idar gwajin gargajiya ba su da wannan halayyar, kuma kimantawa na ainihin ikon (maimakon ikon da ya danganci sauran masu gwajin) dole ne a tantance shi ta hanyar kwatanta maki da na "ƙungiyar al'ada" da aka zaba daga yawan jama'a. A zahiri, duk matakan da aka samo daga ka'idar gwajin gargajiya sun dogara da samfurin da aka gwada, yayin da, bisa ka'ida, waɗanda aka samo daga ƙa'idar amsawar abu ba haka ba ne.

## Matsayi na inganci
Ana la'akari da inganci da amintacce yawanci a matsayin muhimman abubuwa don ƙayyade inganci kowane gwaji. Koyaya, ƙungiyoyin ƙwararru da masu aiki akai-akai sun sanya waɗannan damuwa a cikin mahallin da ya fi girma yayin haɓaka ƙa'idodi da yin hukunci gaba ɗaya game da ingancin kowane gwaji gaba ɗaya a cikin mahalli da aka ba shi. Yin la'akari da damuwa a cikin saitunan bincike da yawa shine ko ma'aunin da aka ba shi yana da ma'ana ko kuma ba bisa ka'ida ba.

### Ka'idodin gwaji
A cikin shekara ta 2014, Ƙungiyar Binciken Ilimi ta Amirka (AERA), Ƙungiyar Ilimin Ilimin Ilimi ta Amurka (APA), da Majalisar Kasa kan Ma'auni a Ilimi (NCME) sun buga bita na Ka'idojin Nazarin Ilimi da Ilimin Imin Ilimi,  wanda ke bayyana ka'idoji don ci gaban gwaji, kimantawa, da amfani. Ka'idodin sun rufe batutuwa masu mahimmanci a cikin gwaji ciki har da inganci, amintacce / kuskuren auna, da adalci a cikin gwaji. Littafin ya kuma kafa ka'idojin da suka shafi ayyukan gwaji - gami da ƙirar gwaji da ci gaba, ƙididdiga, ma'auni, haɗin ƙididdiga. A ƙarshe, ka'idojin sun rufe batutuwa da suka shafi aikace-aikacen gwaji, gami da Gwajin tunani da kimantawa, gwajin wurin aiki da takaddun shaida, gwajin ilimi da kimantawa, da gwaji a cikin kimantawar shirin da manufofin jama'a.

### Matsayin kimantawa
A fagen kimantawa, kuma musamman kimantawa na ilimi, Kwamitin hadin gwiwa kan ka'idoji don kimantawa  ya buga ka'idojin kimantawa guda uku. An buga ka'idodin kimantawa na ma'aikata  a cikin 1988, an buga ka'idojin kimantawa ta shirin (2nd edition)  a cikin 1994, kuma an buga ka-idojin kimansu na ɗalibai  a cikin 2003.

Kowane wallafe-wallafen yana gabatar da kuma bayyana ka'idoji don amfani a cikin saitunan ilimi daban-daban. Ka'idodin suna ba da jagororin don tsarawa, aiwatarwa, kimantawa, da inganta tsarin kimantawa da aka gano. Kowane ɗayan ƙa'idodin an sanya su a cikin ɗayan mahimman rukunoni huɗu don inganta kimantawar ilimi waɗanda suka dace, masu amfani, masu yiwuwa, da kuma daidai. A cikin waɗannan ka'idoji, ana rufe inganci da la'akari da amintacce a ƙarƙashin batun daidaito. Misali, ka'idodin daidaito na ɗalibai suna taimakawa wajen tabbatar da cewa kimantawar ɗalibai za ta samar da bayanai masu kyau, daidai, da kuma gaskiya game da ilmantarwa da aikin ɗalibai.

## Rikici da zargi
Because psychometrics is based on latent psychological processes measured through correlations, there has been controversy about some psychometric measures. &#x5B;*nbsp;needed*&#x5D; Critics, including practitioners in the physical sciences, have argued that such definition and quantification is difficult, and that such measurements are often misused by laymen, such as with personality tests used in employment procedures. The Standards for Educational and Psychological Measurement gives the following statement on test validity: "validity refers to the degree to which evidence and theory support the interpretations of test scores entailed by proposed uses of tests". Simply put, a test is not valid unless it is used and interpreted in the way it is intended.

Nau'ikan kayan aiki guda biyu da aka yi amfani da su don auna halaye na mutum sune Gwaje-gwaje masu ma'ana da Matakan nunawa. Misalan irin waɗannan gwaje-gwaje sune: Babban Inventory biyar (BFI), Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2), Gwajin Rorschach Inkblot, Neurotic Personality Questionnaire KON-2006,  ko Eysenck Personality Questionnire. Wasu daga cikin wadannan gwaje-gwaje suna da taimako saboda suna da isasshen amintacce da inganci, dalilai biyu da ke sa gwaje-gaje su kasance daidai da kuma daidaitattun tunani game da ginin da ke tattare da su. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), duk da haka, yana da ingancin shakku kuma ya kasance batun zargi da yawa. Masanin ilimin halayyar dan adam Robert Hogan ya rubuta game da ma'auni: "Yawancin masu ilimin halayya suna ɗaukar MBTI a matsayin ɗan ƙarami fiye da kuki na kasar Sin".

Lee Cronbach ya lura a cikin American Psychologist (1957) cewa, "halayyar halayyar halayen, ko da yake cikakke ne kamar gwaji, ya kasance mai jinkiri don balaga. Ya cancanci daidai a matsayin horo, duk da haka, saboda yana neman nau'in tambaya na musamman kuma yana da hanyoyin fasaha na bincika ko an sanya tambayar yadda ya kamata kuma an fassara bayanan da ba daidai ba. "Hanyar halayyar, a bangarensa, ba, zai iya nazarin abin da mutum bai koyi sarrafawa ba ko kuma ba za su iya sa ran sarrafawa ... Ƙungiyar gaskiya ta ba, ba kawai ba da amsoshi mai zaman kanta.&nbsp;

## Ba mutum ba: dabbobi da injuna
Psychometrics yana magana ne game da iyawar *ɗan adam*, halayen, halaye, da juyin halitta na ilimi. Musamman, nazarin halayyar, matakai na tunani, da iyawar *Dabbobi* da ba na ɗan adam ba yawanci ana magance su ta hanyar ilimin halayyar ɗan adam, ko kuma tare da ci gaba tsakanin dabbobi da ba na mutum ba da sauran dabbobi ta hanyar ilimin juyin halitta. Duk da haka, akwai wasu masu ba da shawara don sauyawa a hankali tsakanin tsarin da aka dauka ga mutane da kuma tsarin da aka ɗauka ga dabbobi (ba mutane ba).

Binciken iyawa, halaye da koyon juyin halitta na injuna galibi ba su da alaƙa da yanayin mutane da dabbobi marasa mutane, tare da takamaiman hanyoyin da ke cikin fannin fasaha na wucin gadi. An kuma ba da shawarar ingantaccen tsari, a ƙarƙashin sunan psychometrics na duniya.

## Dubi kuma
 

## Manazarta

## Ƙarin karantawa

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## Haɗin waje
 

* Ka'idodin APA don Gwajin Ilimi da Zuciya
* Ƙungiyar Mutum ta Duniya
* Kwamitin hadin gwiwa kan ka'idojin kimantawa na ilimi
* Cibiyar Psychometrics, Jami'ar Cambridge
* Psychometric Society da shafin yanar gizon Psychometrika
* Laboratory na London Psychometric