Harsunan Afirka

Littafin "The Languages of Africa" littafi ne na muƙaloli na masanin harsuna Joseph Greenberg na shekarar 1963, inda marubucin ya bayyana rarrabuwar harsunan Afirka ta hanyar kwayoyin halitta, wanda, tare da wasu canje-canje, ya ci gaba da zama wanda aka fi amfani da shi a yau. Sigar da aka faɗaɗa kuma aka sake duba ta sosai ta littafinsa na 1955 Studies in African Linguistic Rarraba, wanda shi kansa tarin muƙaloli takwas ne Greenberg ya buga a cikin Jaridar Southwestern Journal of Anthropology tsakanin 1949 da 1954. An fara buga shi a shekarar 1963 a matsayin Kashi na II na Mujallar Ƙasa da Ƙasa ta Nazarin Harsunan Amurka, Vol. 29, No. 1; duk da haka, bugu na biyu na 1966, wanda aka buga shi (ta Jami'ar Indiana, Bloomington: Mouton & Co., The Hague) a matsayin aiki mai zaman kansa, an fi ambatonsa. [ ana buƙatar ambato ]

Marubucin ya bayyana shi a matsayin bisa ga muhimman abubuwa guda uku na hanya:

* "Daidaitawar da ta fi dacewa idan aka kwatanta kamanceceniya da ta shafi sauti da ma'ana a cikin takamaiman siffofi." 
* " Kwatanta taro kamar kwatantawa tsakanin harsuna biyu." 
* "Shaidar harshe ce kawai ta dace wajen yanke hukunci game da rarrabuwa." 

## Sabbin abubuwa
Iyalan Greenberg na Niger-Congo sun kasance masu nuna fifiko ga " Western Sudanic " na Westermann, amma ya canza rarrabuwar, ciki har da Fulani (a matsayin Yammacin Tekun Atlantika ) da kuma sabuwar Adamawa-Gabas, ban da Songhai, kuma ya rarraba Bantu a matsayin ƙaramin iyali na Benue-Congo (wanda a da ake kira "Semi-Bantu").

An yarda da Semitic, Berber, Masar da Cushitic gabaɗaya a matsayin membobin dangin "Hamito-Semitic", yayin da Chadic, Fulani, " Nilo-Hamitic " da Hottentot duk an gabatar da su a matsayin membobi cikin rashin jituwa. Ya yarda da Chadic (yayin da yake canza membobinsa), kuma ya ƙi sauran ukun, wanda ya tabbatar wa yawancin masana ilimin harsuna cewa an sanya su a matsayin "Hamitic" saboda dalilai na rubutu kawai. Wannan zanga-zangar ta kuma haifar da ƙin yarda (da shi da kuma ta hanyar ilimin harsuna gaba ɗaya) na kalmar Hamitic a matsayin ba ta da ma'ana mai ma'ana a cikin ilimin harsuna na tarihi; sakamakon haka, ya sake wa sabon dangin da aka sake rarrabawa suna " Afroasiatic ".

Bayan Schapera ya ƙi Meinhof, ya sanya Hottentot a matsayin ɗan ƙungiyar harsunan Tsakiyar Khoisan . Ya kuma ƙara Hadza (Hatsa) da Sandawe na arewa.

Matakin da ya fi kawo sauyi shi ne batun dangin Nilo-Saharan . Wannan har yanzu yana da ce-ce-ku-ce, domin har yanzu yunƙurin sake gina wannan iyali bai yi nasara ba, amma yana da alƙawari kuma ana amfani da shi sosai. Masana harsuna na baya sun lura da wata alaƙa tsakanin yawancin harsunan, amma ba su taɓa gabatar da iyali a hukumance ba. Waɗannan harsunan - rassan Gabashin Sudan, Tsakiyar Sudan, Kunama da Berta - Greenberg ya sanya su cikin wani rukuni na asali da ya kira Chari-Nile, wanda ya ƙara duk sauran harsunan Afirka marasa rarrabuwa waɗanda ba su da azuzuwan suna. Tun daga lokacin an yi watsi da bambancin da ke tsakanin Chari-Nile da rassan da ke kewaye. A wani mataki na ƙasa, ya sanya "Nilo-Hamitic" a cikin Nilotic, bayan shawarar Köhler, kuma ya sanya Gabashin Sudan a kan tushe mai ƙarfi.

A ƙarshe, ya bai wa dangin Nijar-Congo harsunan da ba a rarraba su ba na tsaunukan Nuba na Kudancin Kordofan, yana mai kiran su *Congo-Kordofanian* . An amince da dangantakar, ban da ƙungiyar " Tumtum ", kodayake ba a sake ganin harsunan Kordofanian a matsayin babban reshe ba, kuma ba a amfani da sunan 'Congo-Kordofanian' ba.

Iyalai huɗu na Greenberg sun zama mafi rinjayen fahimtar harsunan Afirka, kodayake rarrabuwar sa ba ta yi kyau ba. Kusan an yarda da Nijar-Congo da Afroasiatic a duk duniya, ba tare da wani tallafi mai mahimmanci ga Hamitic ko 'yancin kai na Bantu ba. Har yanzu ana ɗaukar Nilo-Saharan a matsayin na wucin gadi. Khoisan yanzu ƙwararru sun ƙi shi, sai dai a matsayin kalma mai sauƙi, kodayake ana iya adana shi a cikin littattafan da ba su da ƙwarewa sosai.

## Rarrabawa
Littafin ya raba harsunan Afirka zuwa sassa huɗu waɗanda ba a yi zaton suna da alaƙa da juna ba, kamar haka:

### I. [[Harsunan Nijar-Congo|Kwango-Kordofanian]]

: I.A Niger–Congo
: I.A.1 West Atlantic
: I.A.1.a Northern: Wolof, Serer-Sin, Fulani, Serer-Non, Konyagi, Basari, Biafada, Badyara (Pajade), Dyola, Mandyak, Balante, Banyun, Nalu, Cobiana, Cassanga, Bidyogo
: I.A.1.b Southern: Temne, Baga, Landoma, Kissi, Bulom, Limba, Gola
: I.A.2 Mande
: I.A.2.a Western
: I.A.2.a.1 Malinke, Bambara, Dyula, Mandinka, Numu, Ligbi, Huela, Vai, Kono, Koranko, Khasonke Bobo
: I.A.2.a.3 Mende, Loko, Gbandi, Loma, Kpelle (Guerze)
: I.A.2.a.4 Susu, Dyalonke
: I.A.2.a.5 Soninke, Bozo
: I.A.2.a.6 Duun, Dzuun, Jo, Seenku (Sembla), Kpan, Banka
: I.A.2.b Eastern
: I.A.2.b.1 Mano, Dan (Gio), Guro (Kweni), Mwa, Nwa, Beng, Gban, Tura (Wen), Yaure
: I.A.2.b.2 Samo, Bisa, Busa, Kyenga, Shanga
: I.A.3 Voltaic
: I.A.3.a Senoufo: Minianka, Tagba, Foro, Tagwana (Takponin), Dyimini, Nafana
: I.A.3.b. Lobi-Dogon: Lobi, Dyan, Puguli, Gan, Gouin, Turuka, Doghosie, Doghosie-Fing, Kyan, Tara, Bwamu, Wara, Natioro, Dogon, Kulango
: I.A.3.c Grusi: Awuna, Kasena, Nunuma, Lyele, Tamprusi, Kanjaga (Bulea) (moved to group d), Degha, Siti, Kurumba (Fulse), Sisala
: I.A.3.d Mossi, Dagomba, Kusasi, Nankanse, Talensi, Mamprusi, Wala, Dagari, Birifo, Namnam, Kanjaga (Bulea) (moved from group c)
: I.A.3.e Tem, Kabre, Delo, Chala
: I.A.3.f Bargu (Bariba)
: I.A.3.g Gurma, Tobote (Basari), Kasele (Chamba), Moba
: I.A.3.x Dogon
: I.A.4 Kwa
: I.A.4.a Kru: Bete, Bakwe, Grebo, Bassa, De, Kru (Krawi)
: I.A.4.b Avatime, Nyangbo, Tafi, Logba, Likpe, Ahlo, Akposo, Lefana, Bowili, Akpafu, Santrokofi, Adele, Kebu, Anyimere, Ewe, Aladian, Avikam, Gwa, Kyama, Akye, Ari, Abe, Adyukru, Akan (Twi, Anyi, Baule, Guang, Metyibo, Abure), Ga, Adangme
: I.A.4.c Yoruba, Igala
: I.A.4.d Nupe, Gbari, Igbira, Gade
: I.A.4.e Bini, Ishan, Kukuruku, Sobo
: I.A.4.f Idoma, Agatu, Iyala
: I.A.4.g Ibo
: I.A.4.h Ijo
: I.A.5 Benue–Congo
: I.A.5.A Plateau
: I.A.5.A.1
: I.A.5.A.1.a Kambari, Dukawa, Dakakari, Basa, Kamuku, Reshe
: I.A.5.A.1.b Piti, Janji, Kurama, Chawai, Anaguta, Buji, Amap, Gure, Kahugu, Ribina, Butawa, Kudawa
: I.A.5.A.2 Afusare, Irigwe, Katab, Kagoro, Kaje, Kachicheri, Morwa, Jaba, Kamantan, Kadara, Koro, Afo
: I.A.5.A.3 Birom, Ganawuri (Aten)
: I.A.5.A.4 Rukuba, Ninzam, Ayu, Mada, Kaninkwom
: I.A.5.A.5 Eggon, Nungu, Yeskwa
: I.A.5.A.6 Kaleri, Pyem, Pai
: I.A.5.A.7 Yergam, Basherawa
: I.A.5.B Jukunoid: Jukun, Kentu, Nyidu, Tigong, Eregba, Mbembe, Zumper (Kutev, Mbarike), Boritsu
: I.A.5.C Cross-River
: I.A.5.C.1 Boki, Gayi (Uge), Yakoro
: I.A.5.C.2 Ibibio, Efik, Ogoni (Kana), Andoni, Akoiyang, Ododop, Korop
: I.A.5.C.3 Akunakuna, Abine, Yako, Asiga, Ekuri, Ukelle, Okpoto-Mteze, Olulomo
: I.A.5.D Bantoid: Tiv, Bitare, Batu, Ndoro, Mambila, Bute, Bantu
: I.A.6 Adamawa–Eastern
: I.A.6.A Adamawa
: I.A.6.A.1 Tula, Dadiya, Waja, Cham, Kamu
: I.A.6.A.2 Chamba, Donga, Lekon, Wom, Mumbake
: I.A.6.A.3 Daka, Taram
: I.A.6.A.4 Vere, Namshi, Kolbila, Pape, Sari, Sewe, Woko, Kotopo, Kutin, Durru
: I.A.6.A.5 Mumuye, Kumba, Gengle, Teme, Waka, Yendang, Zinna
: I.A.6.A.6 Dama, Mono, Mbere, Mundang, Yasing, Mangbei, Mbum, Kpere, Lakka, Dek
: I.A.6.A.7 Yungur, Mboi, Libo, Roba
: I.A.6.A.8 Kam
: I.A.6.A.9 Jen, Munga
: I.A.6.A.10 Longuda
: I.A.6.A.11 Fali
: I.A.6.A.12 Nimbari
: I.A.6.A.13 Bua, Nielim, Koke
: I.A.6.A.14 Masa
: I.A.6.B Eastern
: I.A.6.B.1 Gbaya, Manja, Mbaka
: I.A.6.B.2 Banda
: I.A.6.B.3 Ngbandi, Sango, Yakoma
: I.A.6.B.4 Zande, Nzakara, Barambo, Pambia
: I.A.6.B.5 Bwaka, Monjombo, Gbanziri, Mundu, Mayogo, Bangba
: I.A.6.B.6 Ndogo, Bai, Bviri, Golo, Sere, Tagbo, Feroge, Indri, Mangaya, Togoyo
: I.A.6.B.7 Amadi (Madyo, Ma)
: I.A.6.B.8 Mondunga, Mba (Bamanga)
: I.B Kordofanian
: I.B.1 Koalib: Koalib, Kanderma, Heiban, Laro, Otoro, Kawama, Shwai, Tira, Moro, Fungor
: I.B.2 Tegali: Tegali, Rashad, Tagoi, Tumale
: I.B.3 Talodi: Talodi, Lafofa, Eliri, Masakin, Tacho, Lumun, El Amira
: I.B.4 Tumtum: Tumtum, Tuleshi, Keiga, Karondi, Krongo, Miri, Kadugli, Katcha
: I.B.5 Katla: Katla, Tima

### II. Nilo-Saharan

: II.A Songhai
: II.B Saharan
: II.B.a Kanuri, Kanembu
: II.B.b Teda, Daza
: II.B.c Zaghawa, Berti
: II.C Maban: Maba, Runga, Mimi of Nachtigal, Mimi of Gaudefroy-Demombynes
: II.D. Fur
: II.E. Chari–Nile
: II.E.1 Eastern Sudanic
: II.E.1.1 Nubian
: II.E.1.1.a Nile Nubian (Mahas-Fadidja and Kenuzi-Dongola)
: II.E.1.1.b Kordofanian Nubian: Dair, Dilling, Gulfan, Garko, Kadero, Kundugr
: II.E.1.1.c Midob
: II.E.1.1.d Birked
: II.E.1.2 Murle (Beir), Longarim, Didinga, Suri, Mekan, Murzu, Surma (including Tirma and Zulmanu), Masongo
: II.E.1.3 Barea
: II.E.1.4 Ingassana (Tabi)
: II.E.1.5 Nyima, Afitti
: II.E.1.6 Temein, Teis-um-Danab
: II.E.1.7 Merarit, Tama, Sungor
: II.E.1.8 Dagu of Darfur, Baygo, Sila, Dagu of Dar Dagu (Wadai), Dagu of Western Kordofan, Njalgulgule, Shatt, Liguri
: II.E.1.9 Nilotic
: II.E.1.9.a Western
: II.E.1.9.a.1 Burun
: II.E.1.9.a.2 Shilluk, Anuak, Acholi, Lango, Alur, Luo, Jur, Bor
: II.E.1.9.a.3 Dinka, Nuer
: II.E.1.9.b Eastern
: II.E.1.9.b.1 Bari, Fajulu, Kakwa, Mondari
: II.E.1.9.b.2a Jie, Dodoth, Karamojong, Teso, Topotha, Turkana
: II.E.1.9.b.2b Masai
: II.E.1.9.b.3 Southern: Nandi, Suk, Tatoga
: II.E.1.10 Nyangiya, Teuso
: II.E.2 Central Sudanic
: II.E.2.1 Bongo, Baka, Morokodo, Beli, Gberi, Sara dialects (Madjinngay, Gulai, Mbai, Gamba, Kaba, Dendje, Laka), Vale, Nduka, Tana, Horo, Bagirmi, Kuka, Kenga, Disa, Bubalia
: II.E.2.2 Kreish
: II.E.2.3 Binga, Yulu, Kara [= Tar Gula]
: II.E.2.4 Moru, Avukaya, Logo, Keliko, Lugbara, Madi
: II.E.2.5 Mangbetu, Lombi, Popoi, Makere, Meje, Asua
: II.E.2.6 Mangbutu, Mamvu, Lese, Mvuba, Efe
: II.E.2.7 Lendu
: II.E.3 Berta
: II.E.4 Kunama
: II.F Koman/Coman: Komo, Ganza, Uduk, Gule, Gumuz, Mao

### III. Afirka ta Tsakiya

: III.A Semitic
: III.B Egyptian
: III.C Berber
: III.D Cushitic
: III.D.1 Northern Cushitic: Beja (Bedauye)
: III.D.2 Central Cushitic: Bogo (Bilin), Kamir, Khamta, Awiya, Damot, Kemant, Kayla, Quara
: III.D.3 Eastern Cushitic: Saho-Afar, Somali, Galla, Konso, Geleba, Marille, (Reshiat, Arbore), Gardula, Gidole, Gowaze, Burji, Sidamo, Darasa, Kambata, Alaba, Hadya, Tambaro, Mogogodo (added 1966)
: III.D.4 Western Cushitic: Janjero, Wolamo, Zala, Gofa, Basketo, Baditu, Haruro, Zaysse, Chara, Gimira, Benesho, Nao, Kaba, Shako, She, Maji, Kafa, Garo, Mocha, Anfillo (Mao), Shinasha, Bako, Amar, Bana, Dime, Gayi, Kerre, Tsamai, Doko, Dollo
: III.D.5 Southern Cushitic: Burungi (Mbulungu), Goroa (Fiome), Alawa (Uwassi), Iraqw, Mbugu, Sanye [= Dahalo], Ngomvia (added 1966)
: III.E Chad
: III.E.1
: III.E.1.a Hausa, Gwandara
: III.E.1.b Ngizim, Mober [= Kanuri, not Chadic], Auyokawa, Shirawa, Bede
: III.E.1.c
: III.E.1.c.i Warjawa, Afawa, Diryawa, Miyawa, Sirawa
: III.E.1.c.ii Gezawa, Sayawa, Barawa of Dass
: III.E.1.d
: III.E.1.d.i Bolewa, Karekare, Ngamo, Gerawa, Gerumawa, Kirifawa, Dera (Kanakuru), Tangale, Pia, Pero, Chongee, Maha (added 1966)
: III.E.1.d.ii Angas, Ankwe, Bwol, Chip, Dimuk, Goram, Jorto, Kwolla, Miriam, Montol, Sura, Tal, Gerka
: III.E.1.d.iii Ron
: III.E.2 Kotoko group: Logone, Ngala [= Mpade?], Buduma, Kuri, Gulfei, Affade, Shoe, Kuseri
: III.E.3 Bata–Margi group
: III.E.3.a Bachama, Demsa, Gudo, Malabu, Njei (Kobochi, Nzangi, Zany), Zumu (Jimo), Holma, Kapsiki, Baza, Hiji, Gude (Cheke), Fali of Mubi, Fali of Kiria, Fali of Jilbu, Margi, Chibak, Kilba, Sukur, Vizik, Vemgo, Woga, Tur, Bura, Pabir, Podokwo
: III.E.3.b Gabin, Hona, Tera, Jera, Hinna (Hina)
: III.E.4
: III.E.4.a Hina, Daba, Musgoi, Gauar
: III.E.4.b Gisiga, Balda, Muturua, Mofu, Matakam
: III.E.5 Gidder
: III.E.6 Mandara, Gamergu
: III.E.7 Musgu
: III.E.8 Bana, Banana (Masa), Lame, Kulung
: III.E.9
: III.E.9.a Somrai, Tumak, Ndam, Miltu, Sarwa, Gulei [= Tumak?]
: III.E.9.b Gabere, Chiri, Dormo, Nangire
: III.E.9.c Sokoro (Bedanga), Barein
: III.E.9.d Modgel
: III.E.9.e Tuburi
: III.E.9.f Mubi, Karbo, (added 1966: Jegu, Jonkor, Wadai-Birgid)

### IV [[Harsunan Khoisan|Khoisan]]

: IV.A Khoisan Afirka ta Kudu
: IV.A.1 Khoisan Arewacin Afirka ta Kudu
: IV.A.2 Khoisan Afirka ta Kudu ta Tsakiya
: IV.A.3 Khoisan Kudancin Afirka ta Kudu
: IV.B Sandawe
: IV.C Hatsa

## Littattafan tarihi

* Greenberg, Joseph H. (1963) *[https://arcadia.sba.uniroma3.it/bitstream/2307/2747/1/The%20languages%20of%20Africa.pdf Harsunan Afirka]* . Mujallar ƙasa da ƙasa ta ilimin harsunan Amurka, 29, 1, kashi na 2.
* Greenberg, Joseph H. (1966) *Harsunan Afirka* (bugu na 2 tare da ƙari da gyare-gyare). Bloomington: Jami'ar Indiana.

## Nassoshi