Digiri na biyu

**Digiri na biyu,** (daga Latin magister) ya kasance digiri ne na karatun digiri na biyu da jami'o'i ko kwalejoji ke bayarwa bayan kammala karatun da ke nuna gwaninta ko bayyani na musamman na takamaiman fannin karatu ko fannin aikin ƙwararru. Digiri na biyu na buƙatar karatun baya a matakin digiri, ko dai a matsayin digiri na daban ko a matsayin wani ɓangare na kwas ɗin da aka haɗa. A cikin yankin da aka yi nazari, ana sa ran masu digiri na biyu su mallaki ƙwararrun ƙwararrun jigo na ƙa'idodi da batutuwan da aka yi amfani da su; babban tsari a cikin bincike, ƙima mai mahimmanci, ko aikace-aikacen ƙwararru; da ikon magance matsaloli masu rikitarwa da tunani mai tsauri da kuma kai tsaye.

## Ci Gaban Tarihi

### Zamanin tsakiya zuwa karni na 18
Digiri na biyu ya samo asali ne tun daga asalin jami'o'in yankin nahiyar Turai, inda wani Paparoma mai lamba 1233 ya ba da umarnin akan cewa duk wanda ya samu digiri na biyu a jami'ar Toulouse ya kamata a ba shi damar koyarwa kyauta a kowace jami'a. Asalin ma’anar digiri na biyu shi ne, wanda aka ba shi daraja (digiri) na digiri (wato malami) a wata jami’a sai a ba shi matsayi iri daya a wasu jami’o’in. Wannan a hankali ya zama na asali azaman licentia docendi (lasisi na koyarwa). Da farko dai, ba a bambanta masters da likitoci ba, amma a karni na 15 ya zama al'ada a cikin jami'o'in Ingilishi a rika kiran malamai masu karamin karfi (arts and grammar) a matsayin masters da kuma wadanda ke manyan jami'o'i a matsayin likitoci. Da farko, an ba da Bachelor of Arts (BA) don nazarin abubuwan da ba su da mahimmanci da kuma Jagoran Arts (MA) don nazarin quadrivium.

Tun daga ƙarshen Tsakiyar Tsakiya har zuwa karni na 19, tsarin karatun shine don haka samun digiri na farko da na biyu a cikin ƙananan jami'o'i da samun digiri na farko da digiri na uku a manyan jami'o'i. A Amurka, an ba da digiri na farko na digiri (Magister Artium, ko Master of Arts) a Jami'ar Harvard jim kadan bayan kafuwarta. A Scotland, jami'o'in farko na gyarawa (St Andrews, Glasgow, da Aberdeen) sun haɓaka ta yadda Scotland MA ta zama digiri na farko, yayin da a Oxford, Cambridge da Trinity College, Dublin, MA an ba da kyauta ga waɗanda suka kammala digiri na BA na wani matsayi. ba tare da ƙarin jarrabawa ba daga ƙarshen karni na 17, babban manufarsa ita ce ba da cikakken membobin jami'a. A Harvard ka'idojin 1700 sun buƙaci 'yan takarar digiri na biyu su ci jarrabawar jama'a,  amma ta 1835 an ba da wannan nau'in Oxbridge shekaru uku bayan BA.

### Karni na shatara
Ƙarni na 19th ya ga babban haɓaka a cikin nau'ikan digiri na masters da aka bayar. A farkon karni, digiri na biyu kawai shine MA, kuma ana ba da wannan kyauta ba tare da ƙarin karatu ko jarrabawa ba. Jami'ar Glasgow ta gabatar da Jagora a cikin Digiri na tiyata a cikin 1815.. A shekara ta 1861 an karɓi wannan a ko'ina cikin Scotland da Cambridge da Durham a Ingila da Jami'ar Dublin a Ireland. Lokacin da aka kafa Kwalejin Likitoci ta Philadelphia a 1870, ita ma ta ba da Jagoran tiyata, “mai kama da na Turai”.

A cikin Scotland, Edinburgh ya kiyaye digiri na BA da MA daban har zuwa tsakiyar karni na 19,  ko da yake akwai manyan shakku game da ingancin digirin Scotland na wannan lokacin. A cikin 1832 Lord Brougham, Lord Chancellor kuma tsohon dalibi na Jami'ar Edinburgh, ya gaya wa House of Lords cewa "A Ingila Jami'o'in sun ba da digiri bayan wani lokaci mai tsawo, bayan an yi aiki mai yawa, kuma idan ba a kowane bangare ba. Yana da tsauri kamar yadda dokokin Jami'o'i ke buƙata, duk da haka ba za a iya cewa, an ƙirƙiri Masters of Arts a Oxford da Cambridge kamar yadda suke a Scotland, ba tare da wani wurin zama ba, ko kuma ba tare da wani irin jarrabawa ba.A Scotland, duk dokokin daga cikin Jami'o'in da suka tilasta sharuddan bayar da digiri sun kasance matattun haruffa.".

Sai a 1837 aka sake gabatar da jarabawar daban-daban don MA a Ingila, a sabuwar jami'ar Durham da aka kafa (ko da yake, kamar yadda a cikin tsoffin jami'o'in Ingilishi, wannan shine don ba da cikakken memba), don bi shi a cikin 1840 ta sabon makamancin haka. Jami'ar London, wanda kawai aka ba da izini ta tsarinta don ba da digiri ta hanyar jarrabawa. Koyaya, a tsakiyar karni MA a matsayin digiri na biyu da aka bincika ya sake fuskantar barazana, tare da Durham yana motsawa don ba da ita ta atomatik ga waɗanda suka sami karramawa a cikin BA a 1857, tare da layin Oxbridge MA, da Edinburgh suna bin sauran jami'o'in Scotland wajen ba da MA a matsayin digiri na farko, a madadin BA, daga 1858. A lokaci guda kuma, an kafa sababbin jami'o'i a kusa da daular Burtaniya ta lokacin tare da layin London, ciki har da jarrabawar MA: Jami'ar Sydney a Australia da Jami'ar Sarauniya ta Ireland a 1850, da Jami'o'in Bombay (yanzu da Jami'ar Mumbai), Madras da Calcutta a Indiya a 1857.

A cikin Amurka, farfaɗowar digiri na biyu kamar yadda aka gwada cancantar ya fara ne a cikin 1856 a Jami'ar North Carolina, sannan Jami'ar Michigan a 1859,  ko da yake ra'ayin digiri na biyu a matsayin digiri na biyu bai yi kyau ba. wanda aka kafa har zuwa 1870s, tare da PhD a matsayin digiri na ƙarshe. Wani lokaci yana yiwuwa a sami MA ko dai ta hanyar jarrabawa ko kuma ta hanyar girma a cikin wannan ma'aikata; alal misali, a Michigan an gabatar da "in course" MA a 1848 kuma an ba da shi a ƙarshe a 1882, yayin da aka gabatar da "kan jarrabawa" MA a 1859.

Wataƙila mafi mahimmancin digiri na biyu da aka gabatar a ƙarni na 19 shine Jagoran Kimiyya (MS a Amurka, MSc a Burtaniya). A Jami'ar Michigan an gabatar da wannan a cikin nau'i biyu a cikin 1858: "a cikin shakka", an fara ba da kyauta a 1859, da kuma "a kan jarrabawa", da farko da aka bayar a 1862. An ba da "a cikin shakka" MS a ƙarshe a 1876. A Biritaniya kuwa, digirin ya ɗauki ɗan lokaci kafin ya isa. Lokacin da London ta gabatar da Faculty of Sciences a cikin 1858, an ba Jami'ar sabuwar yarjejeniya da ke ba ta iko "don ba da Digiri da yawa na Bachelor, Master, da Doctor, a Arts, Laws, Science, Medicine, Music",  amma digirin da aka ba shi a fannin kimiyya su ne digiri na farko da kuma likitan kimiyya. Digiri guda biyu iri ɗaya, sun sake tsallake masters, an ba su a Edinburgh, duk da MA kasancewar matakin digiri na farko na Arts a Scotland. A cikin 1862, Hukumar Sarauta ta ba da shawarar cewa Durham ya kamata ya ba da digiri na biyu a cikin ilimin tauhidi da kimiyya (tare da taƙaitaccen ra'ayi na MT da MS, sabanin aikin Biritaniya daga baya na amfani da MTh ko MTheol da MSc don waɗannan digiri),  amma shawarwarinsa sun kasance. ba a kafa ba. A cikin 1877, Oxford ya gabatar da Jagoran Kimiyyar Halitta, tare da Bachelor of Natural Science, don tsayawa tare da digiri na MA da BA kuma a ba shi kyauta ga daliban da suka sami digiri a makarantar girmamawa na kimiyyar halitta. A cikin 1879 an ƙaddamar da wata doka don kafa sashen Kimiyyar Halitta a Oxford,  amma a cikin 1880 an ƙi ba da shawara don sake sunan digiri a matsayin Jagoran Kimiyya tare da shawara don baiwa Masters of Natural Sciences Master of Arts. digiri, domin su zama cikakken membobin jami’a. Wannan makircin zai zama kamar an watsar da shi a hankali, tare da Oxford ya ci gaba da ba da BAs da MAs a kimiyya.

A ƙarshe an gabatar da Digiri na Master of Science (MSc) a Biritaniya a cikin 1878 a Durham,  sannan sabuwar Jami'ar Victoria a 1881. A Jami'ar Victoria duka MA da MSc sun bi jagorancin Durham's MA wajen buƙatar ƙarin jarrabawa ga waɗanda ke da digiri na farko amma ba ga masu daraja ba.

### Karni na ashirin
A farkon karni na 20, saboda haka, akwai nau'o'in digiri na biyu daban-daban a Burtaniya: MA na Scotland, wanda aka ba shi a matsayin digiri na farko; Master of Arts (Oxbridge da Dublin), da aka bai wa duk masu digiri na BA wani ɗan lokaci bayan digiri na farko ba tare da ƙarin karatu ba; digiri na biyu da za a iya samu ta hanyar kara karatu ko kuma ta hanyar samun digiri na girmamawa (wanda a lokacin a Burtaniya ya shafi kara karatu fiye da digiri na yau da kullun, kamar yadda har yanzu a Scotland da wasu kasashen Commonwealth); da kuma digiri na biyu wanda za a iya samu ta hanyar ƙarin karatu (ciki har da duk digiri na biyu na London). A cikin 1903, Jaridar London Daily News ta soki al'adar Oxford da Cambridge, suna kiran MAs su "mafi girman zamba na ilimi" da "digiri na bogus". Wasikun da suka biyo baya sun nuna cewa "A Scotch MA, a mafi yawan, daidai yake da B.A na Ingilishi." ya kuma yi kira da a samar da ka'idojin gama-gari na digiri, yayin da masu kare tsoffin jami'o'in suka ce "Cambridge M.A. ba ya yin kamar ladan koyo ne" don haka "abin banza ne a kwatanta daya daga cikin digirin nasu a matsayin na bogi domin sauran na zamani. Jami'o'i suna ba da digiri iri ɗaya saboda dalilai daban-daban ".

A cikin 1900, Kwalejin Dartmouth ta gabatar da Master of Commercial Science (MCS), wanda aka fara bayar da shi a cikin 1902. Wannan shi ne digiri na farko na digiri a fannin kasuwanci, wanda ya jagoranci MBA na zamani. Tunanin da sauri ya ketare Tekun Atlantika, tare da Manchester ta kafa Faculty of Commerce, tana ba da digiri na Bachelor da Master of Commerce, a cikin 1903. A cikin rabin farkon karni na atomatik digiri na masters ga masu digiri na girmamawa sun ɓace yayin da digiri na girmamawa ya zama daidaitattun cancantar digiri a Burtaniya. A cikin 1960s, sababbin jami'o'in Scotland (sai dai Dundee, wanda ya gaji digiri na farko na MA daga St Andrews) sun sake dawo da BA a matsayin digiri na farko a Arts, suna maido da MA zuwa matsayinsa na digiri na biyu. Oxford da Cambridge sun riƙe MAs ɗinsu, amma sun canza sunan da yawa daga cikin digirin farko na digiri a manyan jami'o'i a matsayin digiri na biyu, misali. Cambridge LLB ya zama LLM a cikin 1982,  da Oxford BLitt, BPhil (sai dai a falsafa) kuma BSc ya zama MLitt, MPhil da MSc.

A cikin 1983, Majalisar Injiniya ta ba da "'Sanarwa game da haɓakawa da tsawaita kwasa-kwasan karatun digiri na digiri", yana ba da shawarar kafa digiri na farko na shekaru huɗu (Master of Engineering). Waɗannan sun tashi kuma suna gudana a tsakiyar 1980s kuma MPhys na ƙwararrun masana kimiyya sun bi su a farkon 1990s kuma tun daga nan sun haɗu da digiri na biyu a wasu ilimin kimiyya kamar MChem, MMath, da MGeol, kuma a wasu cibiyoyi na gaba ɗaya ko takamaiman MSci (Master in Kimiyya) da digiri na MArts (Master in Arts). Rahoton Dearing a UK Higher Education ya lura da wannan ci gaban a cikin 1997, wanda ya yi kira da a kafa tsarin cancantar ƙasa da kuma gano hanyoyi daban-daban guda biyar zuwa digiri na biyu:

* Shekaru hudu (biyar a Scotland) digiri na farko kamar MEng
* Digiri na jujjuyawa, wani lokacin ƙasa da ma'aunin digiri na farko a cikin darasi ɗaya
* Digiri na fasaha na girmamawa na tsoffin jami'o'in Scotland
* ƙwararrun shirye-shiryen digiri na biyu, kamar MA da MSc
* Oxbridge MA, wanda aka bayar ba tare da ƙarin aiki ba

Hakan ya kai ga kafa hukumar tabbatar da inganci, wadda aka dorawa nauyin zana tsarin.

### Karni na ashirin
A cikin 2000 an sabunta matsin lamba akan Oxbridge MAs a Majalisar Dokokin Burtaniya, tare da dan majalisar Labour Jackie Lawrence ya gabatar da wani kuduri na ranar farko yana kiran a soke su tare da gaya wa Times Higher Education cewa "aiki ne na nuna wariya" kuma yana "rauta kuma yana lalata kokarin dalibai a sauran jami’o’i”. A wata mai zuwa hukumar tabbatar da ingancin ta sanar da sakamakon wani bincike na manyan ma'aikata 150 da ke nuna kusan kashi biyu cikin uku na kuskuren tunanin Cambridge MA ta kammala karatun digiri na biyu kuma sama da rabin sun yi kuskure iri ɗaya game da Edinburgh MA, tare da babban jami'in QAA John Randall ya kira. Oxbridge MA "masu yaudara da rashin fahimta".

QAA ta fitar da "tsarin don cancantar ilimi mafi girma a Ingila, Wales da Ireland ta Arewa" a cikin Janairu 2001. Wannan ƙayyadaddun sakamakon koyo don digiri na M-level (master's) kuma ya ba da shawarar cewa "Master" ya kamata a yi amfani da shi kawai don cancantar cancantar da cika waɗannan sakamakon koyo gaba ɗaya. Ya magance yawancin abubuwan da ke damun Rahoton Dearing, yana ƙayyadad da cewa guntun darussa a matakin H (girmama), misali. kwasa-kwasan juyi, ya kamata a tsara Diploma Difloma ko Graduate Certificate maimakon a matsayin digiri na biyu, amma ya tabbatar da cewa tsawaita karatun digiri na biyu digiri ne na biyu, yana mai cewa “An ba da wasu digiri na Masters a kimiyya da injiniyanci bayan tsawaita shirye-shiryen karatun digiri na ƙarshe, yawanci, a shekara fiye da shirye-shiryen digiri na girmamawa". Har ila yau, ya yi magana game da batun Oxbridge MA, tare da lura da cewa "MAs da Jami'o'in Oxford da Cambridge suka bayar ba cancantar ilimi ba ne". Na farko "tsarin don cancantar Makarantun Ilimi mafi girma a Scotland", wanda kuma aka buga a cikin Janairu 2001, ya yi amfani da ma'anar cancanta iri ɗaya, yana ƙara a cikin ƙimar kiredit waɗanda ke ƙayyadaddun cewa babban malamin ya kamata ya zama ƙididdigewa 180 da kuma "Masters (bayan haɗaɗɗen haɗakarwa). shirin daga karatun digiri na biyu zuwa karatun matakin Masters)" yakamata ya zama kiredit 600 tare da mafi ƙarancin 120 a matakin M. An kayyade cewa ya kamata a yi amfani da lakabin "Master" kawai don cancantar cancantar da suka dace da sakamakon koyo da ma'anar bashi, kodayake an lura cewa "Ƙananan adadin jami'o'i a Scotland suna da dogon al'ada na lakabin wasu digiri na farko a matsayin 'MA'. Rahotanni na sake dubawa na Hukumar na irin wannan tanadi zai shafi ma'auni na digiri na farko kuma zai bayyana a fili cewa taken yana nuna al'ada da al'ada na Scotland, kuma ba za a dauki duk wani hukunci mai kyau game da ma'auni ba a matsayin ma'anar cewa sakamakon shirin ya kasance a matakin digiri na biyu. "

Sanarwar Bologna a cikin 1999 ta fara Tsarin Bologna, wanda ya haifar da ƙirƙirar Yankin Ilimin Ilimin Turai (EHEA). Wannan ya kafa digiri na uku-master's-digiri na digiri na digiri, wanda ke haifar da karɓar digiri na masters a duk faɗin Nahiyar, sau da yawa maye gurbin tsofaffin cancantar zagayowar lokaci kamar Magister (arts), Diplom (kimiyya) da rajista na jiha (masana'antu). ) kyaututtuka a Jamus. Yayin da tsarin ya ci gaba, an gabatar da masu siffantawa ga duk matakan uku a cikin 2004, kuma an ɓullo da jagororin bashi na ECTS. Wannan ya haifar da tambayoyi game da matsayin haɗin gwiwar digiri na biyu da digiri na biyu na shekara guda a Burtaniya. Koyaya, Tsarin Tsarin Karatun Ilimi mafi girma a Ingila, Wales da Ireland ta Arewa da Tsarin cancantar Makarantun Ilimi mafi girma a Scotland duk sun daidaita tare da babban tsarin EHEA tare da karɓar waɗannan a matsayin cancantar matakin masters.

## Manazarta