Ilimin halittu

Microbiology (daga Tsohon Girkanci μīκρος (mīkros) da   'bincike na') shine binciken kimiyya na microorganisms, wadanda ke da unicellular (ɗaya-cells), multicellular (wanda ya ƙunshi ƙwayoyin halitta masu rikitarwa), ko acellular (marasa kwayoyin cuta). Microbiology ya ƙunshi fannoni da yawa ciki har da virology, bacteriology, protistology, mycology, immunology, da parasitology.

Eukaryotic microorganisms suna da membrane-bound organels kuma sun haɗa da fungi da protists, yayin da kwayoyin prokaryotic - dukansu microorganisms ne - ana rarraba su a al'ada kamar yadda ba su da membrane na organelles kuma suna haɗa da Bacteria da Archaea. Masana ilimin halittu na al'ada sun dogara da al'ada, launi, da microscopy don warewa da gano microorganisms. Koyaya, ƙasa da 1% na microorganisms da ke cikin mahalli na yau da kullun ana iya al'ada a ware ta amfani da hanyoyin yanzu. Tare da fitowar biotechnology, Microbiologists a halin yanzu sun dogara da kayan aikin ilmin halitta irin su ganowar DNA, alal misali, jerin Kwayoyin halitta na 16S rRNA da aka yi amfani da su don gano kwayar cuta.

An rarraba Kwayoyin cuta daban-daban a matsayin kwayoyin halitta  saboda an dauke su ko dai microorganisms masu sauƙi ko kwayoyin da suka rikitarwa. Prions, ba a taɓa la'akari da kwayoyin cuta ba, masu binciken ƙwayoyin cuta sun bincika su; duk da haka, yayin da tasirin asibiti da aka gano a gare su an fara zaton ne saboda cututtukan ƙwayoyin ƙwayoyin halitta, masu binciken ƙwayar cuta sun ɗauki bincike - gano "furotin masu kamuwa".

An yi hasashen wanzuwar microorganisms ƙarni da yawa kafin a fara lura da su, misali ta Jains a Indiya da Marcus Terentius Varro a Roma ta dā. Binciken microscope na farko da aka rubuta shi ne na jikin 'ya'yan itace, na Robert Hooke a cikin 1666, amma firist na Jesuit Athanasius Kircher mai yiwuwa ne na farko da ya ga ƙwayoyin cuta, wanda ya ambaci lura da madara da kayan lalata a cikin 1658. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek an dauke shi uban ilimin microbiology yayin da ya lura kuma yayi gwaji tare da kwayoyin microscopic a cikin shekarun 1670, ta amfani da microscopes masu sauƙi na ƙirar sa. Ilimin kimiyyar microbiology ya bunkasa a karni na 19 ta hanyar aikin Louis Pasteur da kuma ilimin kimiyyar likita Robert Koch .

## Tarihi

An yi la'akari da kasancewar microorganisms na ƙarni da yawa kafin ainihin binciken su. Jainisma ne ya nuna cewa akwai rayuwar microbiological da ba a gani ba wanda ya dogara da koyarwar Mahavira tun farkon karni na 6 KZ (599 KZ - 527 KZ). : 24 Paul Dundas ya lura cewa Mahavira ya tabbatar da wanzuwar halittu masu ban mamaki da ke zaune a ƙasa, ruwa, iska da wuta. 88 nassoshin Jain sun bayyana nigodas waɗanda halittu ne masu ƙarancin ƙwayoyin cuta da ke zaune a cikin manyan ɗakunan kuma suna da ɗan gajeren rayuwa, an ce sun mamaye kowane ɓangare na sararin samaniya, har ma a cikin ƙwayoyin tsire-tsire da nama na dabbobi. Roman Marcus Terentius Varro ya yi nuni ga ƙwayoyin cuta lokacin da ya yi gargadi game da gano gida a kusa da maras kyau "saboda akwai wasu halittu masu ɗan gajeren lokaci waɗanda idanu ba za su iya gani ba, waɗanda ke iyo a cikin iska kuma su shiga jiki ta bakin da hanci kuma ta haifar da cututtuka masu tsanani. "

Masana kimiyya na Farisa sun yi la'akari da wanzuwar microorganisms, kamar Avicenna a cikin littafinsa The Canon of Medicine, Ibn Zuhr (wanda aka fi sani da Avenzoar) wanda ya gano ƙwayoyin cuta, da Al-Razi wanda ya ba da bayanin farko da aka sani game da kyanda a cikin littafin sa The Virtuous Life (al-Hawi).  Taoist Baoshengjing na ƙarni na goma ya bayyana "ƙananan ƙwayoyin cuta" waɗanda suka yi kama da tsaba na kayan lambu, wanda ya sa masanin ilimin sinadarai na Dutch Kristofer Schipper ya yi iƙirarin cewa "an san kasancewar ƙwayoyin cutar ga Sinawa na lokacin".

A cikin 1546, Girolamo Fracastoro ya ba da shawarar cewa cututtuka annobar sun samo asali ne daga abubuwan da za a iya canja su waɗanda zasu iya watsa cututtuka ta hanyar kai tsaye ko kai tsaye, ko watsa motar.

A cikin shekara ta 1676, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, wanda ya rayu mafi yawan rayuwarsa a Delft, Netherlands, ya lura da ƙwayoyin cuta da sauran microorganisms ta amfani da microscope guda ɗaya na ƙirar kansa. An dauke shi uban ilimin microbiology yayin da ya yi amfani da microscopes masu sauƙi na ƙirar kansa. Duk da yake ana yawan ambaton Van Leeuwenhoek a matsayin na farko da ya lura da ƙwayoyin cuta, Robert Hooke ya yi rikodin bincikensa na farko na microscopic, na jikin 'ya'yan itace na ƙira, a cikin shekara ta 1665. Duk da haka, an ba da shawarar cewa wani firist na Jesuit mai suna Athanasius Kircher shine na farko da ya lura da microorganisms.

Kircher yana daga cikin na farko da ya tsara fitilu na sihiri don dalilai na tsinkaya, don haka ya saba da kaddarorin ruwan tabarau. Ya rubuta "Game da tsarin abubuwa masu ban mamaki a cikin yanayi, wanda Microscope ya bincika" a cikin 1646, yana mai cewa "wanda zai yi imani da cewa ruwan inabi da madara suna da yawa tare da tsutsotsi masu yawa. " Ya kuma lura cewa kayan da suka lalace suna cike da dabbobi masu yawa. Ya buga littafinsa na *Scrutinium Pestis* (Binciken annoba) a cikin shekara ta 1658, yana mai bayyana daidai cewa ƙwayoyin cuta ne suka haifar da cutar, kodayake abin da ya gani mai yiwuwa ja ne ko fararen ƙwayoyin jini maimakon wakili na annoba kanta.

## Haihuwar ilmin ƙwayoyin cuta

Yankin ilimin ƙwayoyin cuta (daga baya wani yanki na ilimin microbiology) an kafa shi ne a cikin karni na 19 ta hanyar Ferdinand Cohn, masanin ilimin shuke-shuke wanda bincikensa kan algae da kwayoyin photosynthetic ya kai shi ga bayyana kwayoyin cuta da yawa ciki har da Bacillus da *Beggiatoa* . Cohn kuma shine na farko da ya tsara makirci don rarraba kwayar cuta, da kuma gano endospores. Louis Pasteur da Robert Koch sun kasance zamani na Cohn, kuma galibi ana daukar su a matsayin iyaye na microbiology na zamani  da microbiology, bi da bi.  Pasteur ya fi shahara da jerin gwaje-gwajen da aka tsara don karyata ka'idar da aka yi a ko'ina a lokacin na tsara ta kai tsaye, ta haka ne ya karfafa asalin microbiology a matsayin kimiyyar halitta. Ɗaya daga cikin ɗalibansa, Adrien Certes, an ɗauke shi ne wanda ya kafa ilimin microbiology na ruwa. Pasteur ya kuma tsara hanyoyin adana abinci (Pasteurization) da allurar rigakafi akan cututtuka da yawa kamar anthrax, kwalara da rabies. Koch an fi saninsa da gudummawar da ya bayar ga Ka'idar kwayar cuta, wanda ya tabbatar da cewa takamaiman cututtuka sun haifar da takamaiman kwayoyin cuta. Ya haɓaka jerin ka'idoji waɗanda aka sani da Ka'idodin Koch. Koch na ɗaya daga cikin masana kimiyya na farko da suka mai da hankali kan warewar ƙwayoyin cuta a cikin al'ada mai tsarki wanda ya haifar da bayaninsa na sababbin ƙwayoyin ƙwayoyin halitta da yawa ciki har da Mycobacterium tuberculosis, mai haifar da tarin fuka.

Duk da yake Pasteur da Koch galibi ana ɗaukar su waɗanda suka kafa ilimin microbiology, ayyukansu ba su nuna ainihin bambancin duniyar microbial ba saboda mayar da hankali ga kwayoyin da ke da alaƙa da kiwon lafiya kai tsaye. Ba har zuwa ƙarshen karni na 19 da aikin Martinus Beijerinck da Sergei Winogradsky ba ne aka bayyana ainihin faɗin microbiology. Beijerinck ya ba da gudummawa guda biyu ga ilimin microbiology: gano ƙwayoyin cuta da ci gaban dabarun al'adun wadata. Duk da yake aikinsa a kan kwayar cutar mosaic ta taba ya kafa ka'idojin asali na ilmin kwayar cuta, ci gabansa ne na wadatar al'adu wanda ya sami tasiri mafi girma a kan ilmin microbiology ta hanyar ba da damar noma kwayoyin cuta da ke da nau'ikan kwayoyin halitta daban-daban. Winogradsky shine na farko da ya bunkasa manufar chemolithotrophy kuma ta haka ne ya bayyana muhimmiyar rawar da microorganisms ke takawa a cikin hanyoyin geochemical. Shi ne ke da alhakin warewa na farko da bayanin duka nitrifying da nitrogen-fixing kwayoyin cuta. Masanin ilimin microbiology na Faransa-Kanada Felix d'Herelle ya gano Kwayoyin cuta a cikin 1917 kuma yana ɗaya daga cikin masu amfani da microbiologists na farko.

Joseph Lister shine na farko da ya yi amfani da phenol disinfectant a kan raunukan marasa lafiya.

## Rassan

Ana iya rarraba rassan microbiology zuwa kimiyyar da aka yi amfani da ita, ko rarraba bisa ga taxonomy, kamar yadda lamarin yake tare da ilmin ƙwayoyin cuta, mycology, protozoology, ilmin ƙarancin cuta, ilimin lissafi, da ilmin muhalli na microbial. Akwai haɗuwa mai yawa tsakanin takamaiman rassan microbiology tare da juna da sauran horo, kuma wasu fannoni na waɗannan rassan na iya fadada fiye da al'adun gargajiya na microbiology  Wani reshe na bincike mai tsabta na microbiological ana kiransa microbiology na sel.

## Aikace-aikacen
Duk da yake wasu mutane suna jin Tsoron ƙwayoyin cuta saboda haɗin wasu ƙwayoyin ƙwayoyin halitta tare da cututtukan ɗan adam daban-daban, ƙwayoyin halittu da yawa suna da alhakin matakai masu amfani kamar fermentation na masana'antu (misali samar da barasa, vinegar da kayan madara), samar da maganin rigakafi na iya aiki azaman motocin kwayoyin don canja DNA zuwa kwayoyin halitta masu rikitarwa kamar shuke-shuke da dabbobi. Masana kimiyya sun kuma yi amfani da ilimin su game da ƙwayoyin cuta don samar da enzymes masu mahimmanci na biotechnology kamar Taq polymerase,  kwayoyin halitta masu rahoto don amfani a wasu tsarin kwayoyin halitta da sababbin dabarun ilmin halitta kamar tsarin yisti biyu. 

Ana iya amfani da kwayoyin cuta don samar da Amino acid na masana'antu. Kwayoyin acid, bitamin, sunadarai, maganin rigakafi da sauran magungunan da aka yi amfani da su a kasuwanci waɗanda microorganisms ke samarwa. *Corynebacterium glutamicum* yana daya daga cikin mahimman nau'ikan ƙwayoyin cuta tare da samar da shekara-shekara na fiye da tan miliyan biyu na amino acid, galibi L-glutamate da L-lysine. Tun da wasu ƙwayoyin cuta suna da ikon hada maganin rigakafi, ana amfani da su don dalilai na magani, kamar *Streptomyces* don yin maganin rigakafin aminoglycoside.

biopolymers iri-iri, kamar su polysaccharides, polyesters, da polyamides, ana samar da su ta hanyar microorganisms. Ana amfani da microorganisms don samar da biotechnological na biopolymers tare da kaddarorin da suka dace da aikace-aikacen likita mai mahimmanci kamar aikin injiniya da isar da magani. Ana amfani da microorganisms misali don biosynthesis na xanthan, Alginate, cellulose, cyanophycin, poly (gamma-glutamic acid), levan, hyaluronic acid, kwayoyin acid, oligosaccharides polysaccharide da polyhydroxyalkanoates.

Microorganisms suna da fa'ida ga microbial biodegradation ko bioremediation na gida, aikin gona da masana'antu da gurɓataccen ƙasa a cikin ƙasa, turɓaya da yanayin ruwa. Ikon kowane microorganism don lalata sharar gida ya dogara da yanayin kowane gurɓataccen abu. Tunda shafukan yawanci suna da nau'ikan gurɓataccen abu da yawa, hanyar da ta fi dacewa da lalacewar ƙwayoyin cuta ita ce amfani da cakuda nau'ikan ƙwayoyin ƙwayoyin halitta da ƙwayoyin fungal da nau'o'in, kowannensu na musamman ga lalacewar nau'ikan masu gurɓata.

Al'ummomin microbial na symbiotic suna ba da fa'idodi ga lafiyarsu ta mutum da dabbobi ciki har da taimakawa narkewa, samar da bitamin da amino acid masu amfani, da kuma hana kwayoyin cuta. Ana iya ba da wasu fa'idodi ta hanyar cin abinci mai yisti, probiotics (bacteria masu iya amfana ga tsarin narkewa) ko prebiotics (abubuwan da aka cinye don inganta ci gaban microorganisms).[1][2] Hanyoyin da microbiome ke tasiri ga lafiyar mutum da dabba, da kuma hanyoyin da za su rinjayi microbiome sune wuraren bincike masu aiki.

Bincike ya ba da shawarar cewa microorganisms na iya zama da amfani a maganin ciwon daji. Nau'o'i daban-daban na clostridia marasa cututtuka na iya shiga da sakewa a cikin kumburi mai ƙarfi. Za'a iya gudanar da vectors na Clostridial lafiya kuma an nuna damar da suke da ita don isar da sunadarai na warkewa a cikin samfuran preclinical daban-daban.

Ana amfani da wasu ƙwayoyin cuta don nazarin mahimman hanyoyin. Misali na samfurin kwayoyin da ake amfani da su don nazarin motsi  ko samar da polysaccharides da ci gaba shine *Myxococcus xanthus* . 

## Duba kuma
 

## Manazarta