open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Dokar Samun Jirgin Sama

**Dokar Samun Jirgin Sama ta 1986** (ACAA) ita ce Title 49, Sashe na 41705 na Dokar Amurka. 

## Sashe na Shari'a
Dokar ta yi gyare-gyare ga sashi na 404 (b) na Dokar Jirgin Sama ta Tarayya ta 1958 (FAA), wanda Dokar Fitar da Jirgin Sama ta 1978 ta soke shi. ACAA ta haramta Kamfanonin jiragen sama na kasuwanci daga nuna bambanci ga fasinjoji masu nakasa. Majalisa ta Amurka ta zartar da dokar a matsayin martani kai tsaye ga wani takaitaccen fassarar Sashe na 504 na Dokar Rehabilitation na 1973 ta Kotun Koli ta Amurka a Ma'aikatar Sufuri ta Amurka (DOT) v. Paralyzed Veterans of America (*PVA*). A cikin PVA, Kotun Koli ta yanke hukuncin cewa masu zaman kansu, masu jigilar jiragen sama na kasuwanci ba su da alhakin a karkashin Sashe na 504 saboda ba su da "masu karɓar kai tsaye" na kudaden tarayya ga filayen jirgin sama.

## Manufar
An fassara Dokar don ƙunshe da Hakkin sirri na aiki. Koyaya, a cikin shekara ta 2001, Kotun Koli ta Amurka ta yanke shawarar *[./Alexander_v._&#x3C;i&#x20;id= Sandoval]*" id="mwJQ" rel="mw:WikiLink" title="Alexander v. Sandoval">Alexander v. Sandoval,  wanda ya yanke shawarar cewa kotunan tarayya bazai sami haƙƙin sirri ba sai dai idan doka ta ba da alamar cewa Majalisa ta yi niyyar ba da irin wannan haƙƙin. A shekara ta 2004, Kotun daukaka kara ta Amurka ta Gundumar Goma ta bi jagorancin Kotun dawakai ta Amurka ta goma sha ɗaya, wanda ya dogara da shawarar Sandoval don riƙe cewa za'a iya aiwatar da Dokar ne kawai ta hanyar gabatar da korafin gudanarwa tare da DOT.

## Abubuwan da suka faru daga baya
A cikin 2013, DOT ta samar da sabbin dokoki da ke buƙatar duk masu jigilar jiragen sama na cikin gida da na kasashen waje su sami shafukan yanar gizo da kiosks. A ranar 12 ga watan Disamba, 2015, ana buƙatar mahimman ayyukan duk shafukan yanar gizo na masu ɗaukar iska don samun dama, kuma a ranar 12 ga Disamba, 2016, ana buƙatar sauran shafukan yanar gizo don samun dama.

A cikin 2022, an ba da sanarwar cewa DOT ta buga Dokar 'Yancin Fasinjojin Jirgin Sama tare da Naƙasasshe.  (kamar yadda DOT ta bayyana) "ya bayyana ainihin haƙƙin matafiya na iska da ke da nakasa a ƙarƙashin Dokar Samun Jirgin Sama da ƙa'idodinta na aiwatarwa, 14 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Sashe na 382." 

## Dabbobi masu hidima
Tun da wannan dokar ta haramta kamfanonin jiragen sama daga nuna bambanci ga fasinjoji masu nakasa, dole ne su ba su damar kawo dabbobi masu hidima. A cikin 'yan shekarun nan, mutane suna amfani da wannan aikin. Delta Air Lines ta fitar da kididdigar cewa sun ga karuwar kashi 84% a cikin abubuwan da suka faru na dabbobi. Ba duk dabbobin nakasassu da suka zo ta ƙofofin Delta Air Lines ba, duk da haka, a zahiri dabbobi ne masu hidima. Tun daga watan Disamba na 2020, Ma'aikatar Sufuri ta Amurka (DOT) ba ta haɗa da dabbobi masu goyon bayan motsin rai a cikin Dokar Samun Jirgin Sama, wanda shine aikin da ke ba da damar dabbobi masu sabis su tashi a kan jiragen sama idan sun cika buƙatu. Kafin Disamba 2020, sun haɗa da dabbobi masu tallafawa motsin rai a cikin ma'anar dabbobi masu hidima (Ma'aikatar Sufuri ta Amurka, 2020). 

## Manazarta
Daidaiton Babban Taro

**Yarjejeniyar da ta shafi daidaito ga Maza da Mata Ma'aikata don Aiki na Daidaitawa**, ko Yarjejeniyar Daidaitaccen Biya ita ce Yarjejeniyar Kungiyar Kwadago ta Duniya ta 100 kuma babbar da ke da niyyar daidaitaccen albashi don aikin da ya dace ga maza da mata. Jihohi jam'iyyun na iya cimma wannan ta hanyar doka, gabatar da Taron ƙaddamar da albashi da / ko yarjejeniyar sulhu. Yana daya daga cikin manyan tarurruka 8 na ILO.

## Wadanda ba su tabbatar da hakan ba

Ya zuwa Oktoba 2022, 174 daga cikin kasashe 187 na ILO sun tabbatar da yarjejeniyar. Kasashen membobin ILO waɗanda ba su tabbatar da yarjejeniyar ba sune:

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Faransa ta tsawaita Taron don rufe Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, da Réunion. New Zealand ta tsawaita taron zuwa Tokelau. Ba a faɗaɗa shi zuwa Aruba, Curaçao, Sint Maarten, ko Caribbean Netherlands a cikin Masarautar Netherlands ba.

## Manazarta
Kogin da ke tashi

**[[kogin]] da ke tashi** motsi ne na yawan tururi na ruwa da aka ɗauka a cikin yanayi daga Amazon Basin zuwa wasu sassan Kudancin Amurka, da duniya. Itacen gandun daji suna fitar da tururin ruwa a cikin yanayi ta hanyar gumi kuma ana ajiye wannan danshi a wasu wurare a cikin nau'in hazo, yana samar da kogi mai kama da juna.

## Ra'ayi
Wani matsakaicin itace na gandun daji zai saki lita 1000 (220 imp gal; 264 US gal) na tururi na ruwa a cikin yanayi kowace rana. An gano cewa yayin da kowane murabba'in mita na farfajiyar teku ke narkewa lita ɗaya na ruwa a kowace rana, wannan yanki na gandun daji yana narkewa kusan sau takwas saboda nau'ikan ganye da yawa a cikin kambin bishiyoyi. Babban iskar iska a cikin kwandon Amazon yana zuwa kudu maso yamma. Lokacin da wannan iska ta kai Andes, tsaunuka suna aiki a matsayin "kulle na halitta", suna sake tura manyan iska mai laushi zuwa yankunan Amazon na Colombia, Ecuador, arewa da kudancin Peru, tsakiya da kudancin Brazil da kuma arewacin Argentina, Paraguay, da Uruguay, kuma ruwan sama yana fadowa a waɗannan yankuna. Wani ɓangare na wannan iska yana sarrafawa don shawo kan cordillera kuma yana ajiye ruwan sama a yammacin Peru. Sauran iska suna tafiya zuwa arewa daga kwarin Amazon, suna wucewa Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Guiana na Faransa, da Suriname.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;

## Sakamakon yanayi na sare daji

A shekara ta 2009 Antonio Nobre, masanin kimiyyar yanayi na Brazil, ya bayyana cewa ba tare da kogin da ke tashi ba, yawancin kudancin Brazil, wanda ke samar da kusan kashi 70% na GNP na ƙasar, zai zama hamada. Cire da gandun daji na Amazon don katako da aikin gona na iya haifar da ƙananan amfanin gona a wasu wurare. Hayaki daga gobarar da wasu manoma suka kafa don share ƙasa yana aika barbashi cikin yanayi, wanda ke haifar da raguwar hazo, wanda hakan ya bar bishiyoyi, waɗanda suka samo asali a cikin yanayin rigar, masu saukin wuta. An yi imanin cewa fari a kudancin Brazil a shekarar 2010 ya faru ne saboda bushewar koguna masu tashi, kuma mafi munin fari na 2014-5 an danganta shi da wannan.

## Shirin Kogin Jirgin Sama
Tare da babban yanki da ruwan sama mai yawa, Brazil tana samun ruwan sama da yawa a cikin shekara guda (an kiyasta a 15,000  kilometers (3,600 cu ) fiye da kowane ƙasa. A cikin shekara ta 2007, matukin jirgi na Switzerland-Brazil Gérard Moss ya haɗu da masana kimiyya don fara aikin don kimanta tushen ruwan sararin samaniya a kan Brazil da kuma bincika yiwuwar cewa fari na baya-bayan nan a kasar yana haifar da lalacewar gandun daji na Amazon. Wannan shi ne Flying Rivers Project. Babban manufar aikin shine "gwagwarmayar tabbatar da asalin tururin ruwa, ruwan sama da ruwan kogi a yankunan da koguna masu tashi suka haye". Sauran manufofi sune kimanta hanyoyin da ke cikin wannan canja wurin ruwa da kuma ilimantar da jama'a wajen fahimtar muhimmancin gandun daji na Amazon a matsayin tushen ruwa wanda ke da mahimmanci ga rayuwarsu da tattalin arziki

## Manazarta
Greenhouse gas

**Gas din Greenhouse** ( **GHGs** ) su ne iskar da ke cikin wani yanayi da ke danne zafi, wanda ke kara yawan zafin jiki na sararin samaniya kamar duniya. Ba kamar sauran iskar gas ba, iskar gas ɗin da ke haifar da iska tana ɗaukar radiyon da duniya ke fitarwa, wanda ke haifar da tasirin greenhouse .  Duniya tana ɗumama da hasken rana, wanda ke sa samanta ya haskaka zafi, wanda mafi yawa daga cikin iskar gas ke mamaye shi. Idan ba tare da iskar gas a cikin yanayi ba, matsakaicin zafin jiki na saman duniya zai kasance kusan ,  maimakon matsakaicin halin yanzu na  .  

Gishiri biyar mafi yawa a cikin yanayin duniya, waɗanda aka jera a cikin raguwar tsari na matsakaicin ɓangaren duniya, sune:  tururin ruwa, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone. Sauran iskar gas din da ke damun sun hada da chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs da HCFCs), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbures, SF6, da NF3. Rashin ruwa yana haifar da kusan rabin tasirin greenhouse, yana aiki don mayar da martani ga wasu iskar gas a matsayin ra'ayi na canjin yanay

Ayyukan ɗan adam tun farkon juyin juya halin masana'antu (kusan 1750) sun haɓaka carbon dioxide sama da 50%,  da matakan methane da 150%.  Iskar carbon dioxide yana haifar da kusan kashi uku cikin hudu na dumamar yanayi, yayin da iskar methane ke haifar da yawancin sauran.  Mafi rinjayen iskar carbon dioxide da mutane ke fitarwa suna fitowa ne daga konewar albarkatun mai,  tare da ragowar gudummawar da aka samu daga noma da masana'antu .  Hatsarin methane ya samo asali ne daga noma, samar da man fetur, sharar gida, da dai sauransu.  Tsarin carbon yana ɗaukar dubban shekaru don ɗaukar CO  gaba ɗaya daga yanayin,  yayin da methane ya kasance a cikin yanayi na matsakaicin shekaru 12 kawai. 
 

## Halitta da hanyoyin

Gas din greenhouse suna aiki ne na infrared, ma'ana suna shanyewa da fitar da radiation na infrared a cikin wannan tsawo mai tsawo kamar yadda abin da ke fitowa daga farfajiyar Duniya, girgije da yanayi. 

Kashi 99% na busasshen yanayi na Duniya (ban da tururin ruwa ) ya ƙunshi nitrogen ( N2 ) (78%) da oxygen ( O2 ) (21%). Saboda kwayoyin halittarsu suna dauke da kwayoyin halitta guda biyu guda biyu, ba su da asymmetry wajen rarraba cajin wutar lantarkin su,  don haka kusan ba su shafe su ta hanyar infrared thermal radiation,  tare da wani ɗan ƙaramin tasiri kawai daga haɗuwa ta haifar da haɗuwa .    Ƙarin 0.9% na yanayi yana samuwa ta hanyar argon (Ar), wanda shine monatomic, kuma don haka gaba daya a bayyane ga radiation ta thermal. A daya bangaren kuma, carbon dioxide (0.04%), methane, nitrous oxide da ma iskar iskar iskar gas ba ta kai kashi 0.1% na iskar duniya ba, amma saboda kwayoyin halittarsu na dauke da kwayoyin zarra na abubuwa daban-daban, akwai asymmetry a rarraba cajin wutar lantarki wanda ke ba da damar girgizar kwayoyin don yin mu’amala da hasken lantarki. Wannan yana sa su infrared aiki, don haka kasancewar su yana haifar da tasirin greenhouse. 

## Manazarta
Kasuwancin iska cumulus girgije

Ana samar da girgije na Iska ta kasuwanci (ko cumulus na kasuwanci) ta hanyar sanyaya da kuma shan ruwa na iskar kasuwanci mai bushe a kan yanayin teku mai sanyi a gabashin sassan teku. Waɗannan girgije ne, yawanci Cumulus humilis ko Cumulus mediocris, waɗanda ake la'akari da su a matsayin girgije mai kyau.

Halin girgije na iska na kasuwanci shine daidaitattun tsawo na iyakar girgije na sama, wanda yawanci yana tsakanin mita 1000 da 1500 kuma ta haka ne yana nuna tsawo na juyawa na iska na ciniki. Saboda ɗagawar orographic a duwatsu, girgije na iya tashi sama, amma juyawa na iska na kasuwanci yana iyakance ƙarin tashi a nan, don haka har ma a wannan yanayin ruwan sama mai sauƙi zai iya faruwa a mafi kyau. Da dare, girgije na iska na kasuwanci yawanci yakan sake ɓacewa, musamman a kan ƙasa.

## Bayani game da ci gaba
Canjin iska na kasuwanci ya fi karfi a yankunan gabashin teku masu zafi. A nan, iska mai nutsewa na Hadley ko Walker da iska ta teku suna tabbatar da cewa juyawa ta nutsewa tana da zurfi sosai. A ƙasa da wannan, wani nau'i mai laushi, wanda ya dace sosai na girgije na stratocumulus ya samo asali a cikin iyakar iyakar yanayi na ruwa. A cikin waɗannan yankuna, yanayin zafi na ruwa yana da ƙarancin gaske saboda zuwan ruwa mai sanyi, mai zurfi. A sakamakon juyawa mai zurfi da zafin jiki na ruwa mai sanyi, abun da ke ciki yana ƙaruwa a cikin iyakar teku kuma, tare da saturawa, girgije yana samuwa a kan yanki mai faɗi na tekun zafi na gabashin. Ƙarin yamma, daga bakin tekun, raguwa ya raunana, zafin jiki na teku ya tashi kuma girgije a cikin iyakar iyaka ya zama kamar cumulus, amma sau da yawa ya kasance an rufe shi da stratocumulus da farko. Ko da ci gaba da iska, girgije na stratocumulus ya ɓace kuma girgije na iska na kasuwanci na gargajiya ya bunkasa, watau girgije mai ƙarfi tare da jigilar ruwa da zafi a tsaye. Wadannan sun zama babban abin da ya faru kuma sun shimfiɗa a kan babban yanki har sai convection mai yawa ya mamaye a cikin Yankunan haɗuwa.

## Muhimmancin yanayi
Ana samun girgije na iska a kan kusan kashi 20 cikin 100 na farfajiyar Duniya. Tun da yake suna nuna Hasken rana a saman su, suna rage dumama na duniya ta hanyar hasken rana. Misalai na yanayi na lambobi suna da matukar wahala tare da kwaikwayon ƙananan girgije a kan tekuna masu zafi, musamman girgije na iska. A baya, ana sa ran cewa waɗannan girgije za su ragu saboda dumamar yanayi kuma ta haka ne su karfafa ƙarshen, ma'ana cewa wannan ci gaban yana wakiltar madauki mai kyau. Koyaya, binciken da aka buga a cikin 2022 bisa ga bayanan da aka samu ya kammala cewa girgije na iska na kasuwanci ba su da hankali ga canjin yanayi fiye da yadda aka ɗauka a baya

## Manazarta
Sinem Saban

**Sinem Saban** marubucin fim ne na Australiya, furodusa, darekta, kuma Mai fafutukar kare hakkin dan adam. An fi saninta da jagorantar da kuma samar da fim din Our Generation . 

## Farkon rayuwa
An haifi Saban daga iyayen Turkish Cypriot waɗanda suka ƙaura zuwa Australia a farkon shekarun 1970.[1] Ta yi karatun Harkokin Watsa Labarai, Nazarin Aborijin da Shari’a a Jami'ar RMIT da Jami'ar La Trobe dake malbourne, yayin da take aikin sa kai a cibiyar al’adun Aborijin ta gida a Geelong, Victoria. A shekarar 2000, sha’awarta ta sanin ƙarin game da al’adar gargajiya ta Aborijin ta sa ta koma Darwin inda ta kammala karatun koyarwa na sakandare a Jami'ar Charles Darwin .  A shekarar 2004, an gayyace ta ta haɗu da mawakin Michael Franti don yin fim da rubuce-rubuce game da yadda yakin ya shafi rayuwar mutane a Iraq, Palestine da Isra’ila don fim dinsa *I Know I'm Not Alone*.[2] Bayan dawowarta Australia, ta ci gaba da koyarwa a cikin al’ummomin Yirrkala, Maningrida da Galiwin’ku kuma ta bi burinta na kare haƙƙin asalin mutane. A lokacin hutu, an gayyace Saban ta yi fim da ɗaukar hotunan rayuwar Yolngu, farauta, bukukuwa da labarai. Da lokacin Shirin Kula da Harkokin Yankin Arewa  na 2007, Saban ta fara aikin yin fim mai suna *Our Generation*. 

## Hotunan fina-finai

## Manazarta
Daidaitawar radiative-convective

**Daidaitawar radiative-convective** (**RCE**) ra'ayi ne na ma'aunin radiative na yanayi. Ya bayyana ma'auni tsakanin sanyaya na radiative longwave da dumama saboda convection da yaduwar ƙasa. Babban bambanci ga daidaitattun radiative mai tsabta shine cewa an daidaita ƙimar raguwa a cikin troposphere zuwa mafi mahimmanci.

A cikin samfuran yanayi, ana amfani da manufar don kwaikwayon matsakaicin tsarin zafi na duniya kuma yana ba da damar nazarin ƙwarewar wannan tsarin ga CO2. Syukuro Manabe ya lashe kyautar Nobel ta Physics don samfurinsa na RCE kamar yadda shi ne na farko da ya samar da ƙididdigar gaskiya game da Yanayin Yanayi na Duniya (ECS) .  A Duniya, yanayin zafi yana kan ma'auni da yawa kusa da RCE. Sabili da haka, an kuma yi amfani da manufar don nazarin yaduwar wurare masu zafi da fannoni daban-daban na convection mai laushi 

Manufar tana da iyakokinta a lokuta na Yanayi mai ɗorewa wanda kusan ya kawar da convection.

## Ra'ayi
Yawancin dumama yanayi ana yin sa ne ta fuskar duniya yayin da yanayi ke bayyane ga hasken rana a mafi yawan sassan bakan. Idan aka yi la'akari da daidaitattun radiative kawai, Layer kusa da farfajiyar yana da zafi sosai kuma ya zama mara daidaituwa. Don daidaita wannan rashin daidaituwa, motsi na yanayi, kamar convective updrafts, jigilar zafi sama a cikin yanayi yana haifar da sabon daidaituwa wanda za'a iya gani a cikin adadi. Sabili da haka, farfajiyar da troposphere suna da alaƙa sosai kuma dole ne a ɗauka a matsayin ɗayan. Wannan haɗin gwiwa mai ƙarfi ana la'akari da shi a cikin RCE tare da "gyare-gyare na convective". Ana yin wannan ta hanyar daidaita ƙimar raguwa zuwa adiabatic mai laushi (Γ = 6.5 K km −1) da zaran Layer ya zama mafi rashin daidaituwa fiye da wannan darajar. Wannan gyare-gyare ya kawar da wasu siffofi marasa inganci na yanayin daidaitaccen yanayi mai tsabta, kamar farfajiyar duniya mai dumi (332.3 K), kuma yana haifar da ƙimar da ta fi dacewa (300.3 K).  Haɗin ƙarfi tsakanin farfajiya da troposphere yana nuna cewa ma'aunin makamashi a saman yanayi maimakon ma'auni a farfajiya yana da mahimmanci don nazarin yanayin yanayi.

## Manazarta
Tasirin greenhouse na gudu

Sakamakon greenhouse zai faru lokacin da yanayin duniya ya ƙunshi iskar gas a cikin isasshen adadin don toshe radiation na zafi daga barin duniyar, hana duniyar sanyaya da kuma samun ruwa mai ruwa a samansa. Za'a iya bayyana fasalin tasirin greenhouse ta hanyar iyaka a kan radiation na duniya, wanda aka kai shi ta hanyar asymptotically saboda yanayin zafi mafi girma wanda ke fitar da ruwa a cikin yanayi, yana ƙara zurfin gani. Wannan madauki mai kyau yana nufin duniyar ba za ta iya sanyaya ta hanyar radiation na dogon lokaci ba (ta hanyar Dokar Stefan-Boltzmann) kuma tana ci gaba da zafi har sai ta iya haskakawa a waje da bands na sha  na tururi na ruwa.

Sau da yawa ana tsara tasirin greenhouse tare da tururi na ruwa a matsayin nau'in da za a iya kwantar da su. Rashin ruwa ya kai ga stratosphere kuma ya tsere zuwa sararin samaniya ta hanyar tserewa hydrodynamic, wanda ya haifar da duniyar da ta bushe. Wannan mai yiwuwa ya faru ne a farkon tarihin Venus.

Binciken 2012 game da canjin yanayi ya nuna cewa "Duniya a halin yanzu tana shan kusan 240 W m-2 na hasken rana. Karin maida hankali ga carbon dioxide zai sa farfajiyar ta fi zafi tare da wannan fitowar zafi. Biye da wannan ka'idar, ba mu kusa da ƙofar gidan sharar gida ba. Koyaya, ba a fahimci halayyar zafi, yanayin da ke da wadata da ruwa ba, kuma binciken zurfi na waɗannan ya zama dole. "

Koyaya, marubutan sun yi gargadi cewa " fahimtarmu game da ƙarfin, thermodynamics, canja wurin radiative da kimiyyar girgije na yanayin zafi da tururi ba su da ƙarfi," kuma cewa "ba za mu iya kawar da yiwuwar cewa ayyukan ɗan adam na iya haifar da canji ba, idan ba su cika ba, to aƙalla zuwa yanayin yanayi mai zafi fiye da na yanzu" 

Wani sakamako mai kama da Venus ya bayyana kusan babu damar da ayyukan ɗan adam suka haifar da shi. Wani labarin 2013 ya kammala cewa tasirin greenhouse "zai iya haifar da ka'idar ta hanyar karuwar tilasta greenhouse," amma cewa "hasken mutum mai yiwuwa bai isa ba. " Yanayin Venus-kamar Duniya yana buƙatar babban tilasta na dogon lokaci wanda ba zai yiwu ya faru ba har sai rana ta haskaka da wasu daruruwan kashi, wanda zai ɗauki 'yan biliyan shekaru. " Ana sa ran duniya za ta fuskanci tasirin greenhouse "a cikin kimanin shekaru biliyan 2 yayin da hasken rana ke ƙaruwa".

## Tarihi

Duk da yake masanin kimiyya na Caltech Andrew Ingersoll ne ya fara kirkirar kalmar a cikin takarda wanda ya bayyana samfurin yanayin Venus,  George Simpson ne ya buga ra'ayin farko na iyaka a kan radiation na infrared mai fita daga ƙasa a cikin 1927.  Masanin kimiyyar lissafi da ya dace da abin da daga baya za a kira shi tasirin greenhouse, Makoto Komabayashi ne ya bincika shi a Jami'ar Nagoya. Da yake zaton yanayin da ke cike da tururi, Komabayashi da Ingersoll sun lissafa iyakar radiation na infrared wanda ke fitowa wanda ke bayyana yanayin greenhouse. Wannan iyakar yanzu an san ta da Iyakar Komabayashi-Ingersoll, don gane gudummawarsu.

## Manazarta
Alzira Rufino

**Alzira Rufino** (6 ga watan Yulin shekara ta 1949 - 26 ga watan Afrilu shekara ta 2023) 'yar kasar Brazil ce kuma mai fafutuka wacce ke da alaƙa da Black Movement da Black Women Movement . Ita ce ta kafa Casa de Cultura da Mulher Negra (Gidan Al'adu na Mata Baƙi), cibiyar mata baƙi ta farko a ƙasar.

## manazarta
An haifi Rufino a Santos, São Paulo daga wata iyali mai ƙaramin kuɗi kuma ta yi aiki tun tana ƙarama. Ta lashe kyautar adabi ta farko a lokacin matashiyarta. A lokacin da take da shekara 19, ta fara karatunta a fannin kula da lafiya, daga baya ta kammala makarantar jinya.

A shekara ta 2005, ta kasance ɗaya daga cikin mata 52 na Brazil da aka zaba don aikin mata 1000 don kyautar Nobel ta zaman lafiya ta 2005. 

Rufino ta kasance jagora a cikin motsin adabin Afro-Brazilian da fasahar al'adu.A shekarar 1990, ta kafa Casa de Cultura da Mulher Negra (Gidan Al’adar Mata Baƙar fata), cibiyar mata baƙar fata ta farko a ƙasar.

Rufino ya mutu a Santos a ranar 26 ga Afrilu 2023, yana da shekaru 73. 

## Ayyukan da aka zaɓa

* *Rikicin Gida da Ra'ayi*
* *<nowiki/>'Yancin Dan Adam na Black Women*
* *Ilimi na adawa da wariyar launin fata*
* *Sadarwa*
* *Al'adun Afirka da Brazil*
Shirin Matasa na Duniya

One World Youth Project (OWYP) kamfani ne mai zaman kansa 501 (c) (3)  wanda aka kafa a Massachusetts. Manufarta ita ce ƙirƙirar ƙarni mai ilimi, mai tausayi, ƙwarewa, da fahimtar 'Yan ƙasa na duniya yayin da a lokaci guda, karfafa matasa su ɗauki mataki mai tasiri yanzu.

## Asalin
Kungiyar Massachusetts, ta Amurka an kafa ta ne a shekara ta 2004, ta Jessica Rimington, wacce a lokacin tana da shekaru 18. 

## Shirin
OWYP wani shirin makarantar 'yar'uwa ne ga daliban makarantar sakandare da sakandare, wanda ke haɗa kungiyoyi a Arewacin Amurka, tare da kungiyoyi daga ko'ina cikin duniya a cikin haɗin gwiwar ilmantarwa don manufar sabis na al'umma don cimma burin ci gaban Majalisar Dinkin Duniya. Shirin ilimi na OWYP yana bawa matasa damar bincika da fahimtar al'ummarsu, yayin da suke koyo game da al'ummar ƙungiyar 'yar'uwarsu a ƙasashen waje. Kowace ƙungiya ta 'yar'uwa an sanya ɗaya daga cikin Manufofin Ci gaban Millennium na Majalisar Dinkin Duniya wanda za a mayar da hankali ga karatunsu na shekara-shekara da sadarwa. Kowace ƙungiyar 'yar'uwa ta ƙarshe tana ɗaukar mataki a kan Manufar Ci gaban Millennium ta Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ta hanyar aikin sabis na gida. Fiye da makarantu 60 sun kasance biyu a cikin shekaru hudu na farko na OWYP.

## Dubi kuma

* Jerin kungiyoyin karfafa matasa
* Ayyukan matasa
* Ƙananan koyarwar da ta manyanta
* Mai Canjin Matasa na Duniya
* Ci gaban matasa mai kyau

## Manazarta
Tsibirin zafi na birni

Yankunan birane yawanci suna fuskantar tasirin ****tsibirin zafi** na birane** (**UHI**); wato, suna da zafi sosai fiye da yankunan karkara da ke kewaye da su. Bambancin zafin jiki yawanci ya fi girma da dare fiye da rana,  kuma ya fi bayyane lokacin da iskõki suka raunana, a ƙarƙashin yanayin toshewa, a bayyane a lokacin rani da hunturu. Babban dalilin tasirin UHI shine daga gyaran farfajiyar ƙasa, yayin da zafin sharar da aka samar ta hanyar amfani da makamashi shine mai ba da gudummawa na biyu. Yankunan birane suna da kusan 0.5% na ƙasar duniya amma suna karɓar bakuncin fiye da rabin yawan jama'ar duniya. Yayin da cibiyar yawan jama'a ke girma, tana fadada yankinta kuma tana kara yawan zafin jikinta. Ana kuma amfani da kalmar tsibirin zafi; ana iya amfani da kalmar don komawa ga kowane yanki wanda ya fi zafi fiye da kewayen, amma gabaɗaya yana nufin wuraren da mutane suka dame.

Ruwan sama na kowane wata ya fi girma a cikin birane, wani bangare saboda UHI. Karin zafi a cikin cibiyoyin birane yana ƙara tsawon lokutan girma, yana rage ingancin iska ta hanyar kara samar da gurbataccen abu kamar ozone, kuma yana rage inganin ruwa yayin da ruwan zafi ke gudana cikin raƙuman yankin kuma yana sanya damuwa a kan yanayin halittu.

Ba duka biranen ke da tsibiri na zafi na musamman ba, kuma yanayin tsibiri mai zafi ya dogara da yanayin yanayin yankin da birnin yake.  Tasirin birni na iya canzawa sosai dangane da yanayin gida. Za a iya rage zafi ta hanyar murfin bishiya da koren sarari, waɗanda ke aiki azaman tushen inuwa da haɓaka sanyaya mai fitar da iska .  Sauran zaɓuɓɓukan sun haɗa da rufin kore, aikace-aikacen sanyaya hasken rana, da amfani da filaye masu launin haske, da ƙarancin kayan gini. Waɗannan suna nuna ƙarin hasken rana kuma suna ɗaukar ƙarancin zafi.   

Canjin yanayi ba shine dalilin tsibirin zafi na birane ba, amma yana haifar da raƙuman zafi masu yawa, wanda hakan ke kara tasirin tsibirin zafi a birane (). : Ƙananan ci gaban birane na iya ƙara tasirin tsibirin zafi na birane, wanda ke haifar da yanayin zafi mafi girma da karuwar fallasawa. 

## Ma'anar
Ma'anar *tsibirin zafi na birane* shine: "Yadda zafin birni idan aka kwatanta da yankunan karkara da ke kewaye da shi. " : Wannan zafin jiki ya haifar da "kamawar zafi saboda amfani da ƙasa, tsari da ƙirar Yanayin da aka gina, gami da shimfidar tituna da girman gini, kaddarorin da ke shawo kan zafi na kayan gini na birane, rage iska, rage kayan lambu da ruwa, da fitar da zafi na gida da aka samar kai tsaye daga ayyukan ɗan adam. "

## Bayyanawa

### Bambancin rana

## Manazarta
Shirin jariri

Cibiyar Freechild don Matasa ta Matasa kungiya ce mai zaman kanta wacce ke mai da hankali kan ƙirƙirar haɗin kai tsakanin manya da matasa ta hanyar shirye-shirye, taimakon fasaha, wallafe-wallafe, horo, da tsarin karatu. Adam Fletcher shine babban darektan, kuma cibiyar tana cikin Olympia, Washington.  Jaridar Makarantar Laburaren Makarantar ta ce shafin yanar gizon Freechild shine, "Ya zuwa yanzu shine mafi girman ajiyar ayyukan, ra'ayoyi, da haɗin ƙungiyoyi, wannan hanyar tana ba da ƙarin bayani don taimakawa ɗalibai suyi tunanin ra'ayoyin su don fara nasu shirye-shirye".

## Tarihi
Fletcher ya fara kungiyar a matsayin "The Freechild Project" a shekara ta 2001.  Kungiyar ta canza sunanta zuwa Freechild Institute for Youth Engagement a watan Janairun 2018. 

## Ayyuka
Manufar Freechild ita ce "don bayar da shawara, bayar da bayanai, da kuma yin bikin canjin zamantakewa wanda matasa ke jagoranta da kuma tare da su a duniya, musamman wadanda a tarihi aka hana su damar shiga. Suna ba da misalai da albarkatu ga matasa da abokansu manya. "  Kungiyar tana ba da shawara kan "dimokuradiyya mai zurfi. "

Freechild ya yi imanin cewa ba daidai ba ne a ware matasa daga shiga cikin ayyukan da suka fi shafar su. Shirye-shiryen su sun haɗa da ilmantarwa na sabis, takamaiman bita na batutuwa da kuma ƙungiyar masu fafutuka. Kungiyar tana tuntuɓar kungiyoyi masu zaman kansu na gida da na ƙasa a cikin shirye-shiryen dabarun, haɓaka iyawa da haɓaka samfur tare da Ƙarfafawa matasa a tsakiyar abubuwan da suka fi muhimmanci. Suna kuma yin ayyukan sadarwar ta hanyar tarurruka da sadarwa ta kan layi.

Kungiyar tana daidaitawa da ma'aikaci na cikakken lokaci, tana ba da ayyuka ta hanyar cibiyar sadarwa ta masu horarwa, kuma matasa da masana manya daga ko'ina cikin Amurka suna ba da shawara. Gidan yanar gizon SoundOut.org yana daya daga cikin ayyukan su. Darakta na Freechild ya kuma yi magana da kafofin watsa labarai game da matasa.

## Dubi kuma

* Ƙungiyar 'Yancin Matasa ta Kasa
* Matasa
* Zaɓin matasa
* Hakkin matasa
* Shekarar takara

## Manazarta
Manzanni goma sha biyu (Victoria)

**Manzanni goma sha biyu** tarin tarin duwatsun farar fata ne a bakin gaɓar filin shakatawa na Port Campbell, ta Babban Titin Teku a Victoria, Ostiraliya .

kusancinsu da juna ya sa wurin ya zama sanannen wurin yawon bude ido . Duk da sunansu, mai yiyuwa ne ba a taɓa samun tulin dutse 12 ba.  Bakwai na asali tara tara sun kasance a tsaye. Shida daga cikinsu ana iya gani daga mafi shaharar ra'ayi, yayin da na bakwai yana da nisan mil da yawa daga kusurwar babban dandalin kallo.

## Suna
Tun asali an san su da tarkace da Pinnacles; Shuka da Alade (ko Shuka da Piglets, tare da Tsibirin Muttonbird shine Shuka da kuma ƙananan tarin dutsen sune Piglets); da Manzanni goma sha biyu.   An sanya sunan kafawar a matsayin manzanni goma sha biyu, bayan manzannin Yesu, don jawo hankalin masu yawon bude ido,  duk da cewa an taba samun tara tara. 

## Samuwar da tarihi
Ƙungiyar farar ƙasa wadda ta samar da Manzanni goma sha biyu ana kiranta da Port Campbell Limestone, wanda aka ajiye a cikin Mid-Late Miocene, kimanin shekaru 15 zuwa 5 da suka wuce. 

Manzanni goma sha biyu sun kasance ta hanyar zaizawa . Tsananin yanayi da matsananciyar yanayi daga Kudancin Tekun Kudu sannu a hankali ya kawar da dutse mai laushi ya haifar da kogo a cikin tsaunin dutse, wanda daga baya ya zama gandun daji wanda a ƙarshe ya rushe, ya bar dutsen har zuwa  babba. Makullin suna da saurin yashewa daga raƙuman ruwa .

### Tarihin zamani
A cikin Yulin shekarar 2005,  tari ya rushe, ya bar takwas a tsaye. Wani kuma ya ruguje a shekarar 2009, inda ya bar sauran guda bakwai. Sakamakon motsin igiyar ruwa da ke lalata tsaunin, ana sa ran manyan wuraren da ake da su za su zama sabbin tulin dutse a nan gaba. 

A cikin 2002, Port Campbell Professional Fishermen Association yayi ƙoƙari don hana ƙirƙirar wurin shakatawa na manzanni goma sha biyu na Marine National Park a wurin manzanni goma sha biyu.  Ƙungiyar ta amince da wani yanke shawara daga baya da gwamnatin Victorian ta yi don hana bincike mai zurfi a wurin ta Benaris Energy,  gaskanta irin wannan binciken zai cutar da rayuwar ruwa. 

A cikin Maris 2023, Kotun Tarayya ta Ostiraliya ta yanke hukunci (a ƙarƙashin Dokar Lantarki ta 1993 ) na amincewa da mutanen Gabashin Maar bisa ƙa'ida a matsayin masu mallakar gargajiya na 8,578 km 2 na ƙasar da ke kudu maso yammacin Victoria, gami da Manzanni goma sha biyu.    
 

## Manazarta
Yanayin lardin Koshi

Lardin Koshi wani fili ne  mai faɗin murabba'in kilomita 25,905 (sq mi 10,002).  Tana kusa da *gabashin Nepal* yana iyaka da yankin Tibet mai cin gashin kansa na kasar Sin a arewacin lardin Bagmati a yamma, lardin Lardi na 2 a kudu maso yamma, Bihar na Indiya a kudu, Arewacin Bengal na Indiya a kudu maso gabas da Sikkim na Indiya a arewa maso gabas.  Sikkim da wani yanki na Arewacin Bengal na Indiya suna yin alaƙar kabilanci da Nepal.  Geography na Lardin Koshi a gabashin Nepal yana da banbance-banbance, na kololuwar Himalayas a cikin iyakar arewa zuwa yankin terai zuwa kudu.  Ya ta'allaka ne tsakanin 86 digiri 1 minutes da 88 digiri 3 minutes gabas Longitude da 28 digiri 2 minutes da 26 digiri 3 minutes arewa longitude.  Biratnagar, babban birnin masana'antu na Nepal, shine babban birnin wucin gadi na wannan lardin.t

## Yanayin ƙasa
Lardin Koshi yana da tuddai uku; tsaunuka masu tsawo na arewa, tsaunuka na tsakiya da kudancin terai. Ƙananan ƙasar da ke kewaye da tuddai da aka sani da ciki-terai .

### Yankin Himalayas na Sama
Higher Himalayas sune sassan arewacin lardin Koshi wanda ke sama da  m (9,800 . Ya ƙunshi yanayin sub-alpine da alpine. Ya ƙunshi gundumomi 3 na Lardin Koshi: Taplejung, Sankhuwasabha da Solukhumbu .

### Yankin Tsakiyar Tuddai
Yankin tsakiya na tsaunuka ko ƙaramin Himalayas (Pahad) yanki ne na tsakiya tsakanin Himalayas mafi girma da terai na lardin Koshi wanda ke arewacin terai da kudancin himalayas mafi kyau. Har ila yau an san shi da Mahabharat range. Tsawon yankin Mid-hills ya kasance daga 1,000 da 3,000  . Wannan yankin ya ƙunshi gundumomi 8 na Lardin Koshi: Panchthar, Tehrathum, Dhankuta, Bhojpur, Khotang, Okhaldhunga, Ilam da Udayapur .

### Yankin Terai
Yankin kudancin lardin yana da filayen noma mai kyau wanda ake kira Terai. Tsawon tsaunuka na lardin Koshi ya kasance daga 70 da 1,000  . Yankin terai na lardin Koshi ya ƙunshi gundumomi 3: Jhapa, Morang da Sunsari .

#### Yankin Inner-terai
Yankin ƙasa mai laushi tsakanin tuddai na Shiwalik da tuddai na Mahabharat da aka sani da terai na ciki. Gundumar Udayapur ta Lardin Koshi tana da wani ɓangare na Inner terai . Gundumar Udayapur ta kasance daga 360 da 2,310   sama da matakin teku, don haka 360m zuwa 1000m na yankin tsawo na Gundumar udayapur shine Inner terai.
Lokacin hunturu na dutsen wuta

Lokacin **hunturu na dutsen wuta** shine raguwar yanayin zafi na Duniya wanda ya haifar da ɗigon sulfuric acid wanda ke rufe Rana da kuma tada albedo na Duniya (ƙara hasken rana) bayan babban, mai wadataccen sulfur, musamman fashewar dutsen wuta. Tasirin yanayi ya dogara da adadin allurar H2 a cikin stratosphere inda suke amsawa tare da OH da H2O don samar da H2SO4 a kan lokaci na mako, kuma sakamakon H2SO9 aerosols yana samar da tasirin radiative. Aerosols na stratospheric na volcanic suna sanyaya farfajiyar ta hanyar nuna hasken rana da dumi stratosphere ta hanyar shan radiation na duniya na shekaru da yawa. Bugu da ƙari, yanayin sanyaya na iya kara fadadawa ta hanyar hanyoyin amsawar yanayi-ice-ocean. Wadannan ra'ayoyin zasu iya ci gaba da kula da yanayin sanyi na dogon lokaci bayan da aerosols na dutsen wuta suka ɓace.

## Tsarin jiki
Wani fashewar dutsen mai fashewa ya saki kayan a cikin nau'in toka da iskar gas a cikin yanayi. Duk da yake mafi yawan ya zauna a ƙasa a cikin 'yan makonni bayan fashewar, yana tasiri ne kawai a yankin na ɗan gajeren lokaci, SO2 da aka fitar na iya haifar da kafa H2SO4 a cikin stratosphere. Wadannan aerosols na iya kewaye da hemisphere na tushen fashewa a cikin makonni kuma suna ci gaba tare da lokacin lalacewa na e-folding na kimanin shekara guda. A sakamakon haka, suna da tasirin radiative wanda zai iya dadewa na shekaru da yawa.

Rarraba girgije mai tsauri na gaba a cikin stratosphere da tasirinsa akan yanayi yana da tasiri mai ƙarfi da dalilai da yawa, gami da lokacin fashewa,  latitude na dutsen mai aman wuta,  da tsayin allura.  Idan tsayin allura na SO 2 ya kasance a tsare ga troposphere, sakamakon H 2 SO 4 aerosols yana da lokacin zama na 'yan kwanaki kawai saboda ingantaccen cirewa ta hanyar hazo.  Rayuwar H 2 SO 4 aerosols da ke haifar da fashewar yanayi ya fi guntu idan aka kwatanta da wadanda ke fitowa daga wurare masu zafi, saboda hanyar sufuri mai tsawo daga wurare masu zafi don cirewa a cikin tsakiyar ko babban latitude tropopause, amma ƙananan wurare masu zafi suna ƙarfafa tasirin yanayi na hemispheric ta hanyar taƙaita amisphere zuwa guda ɗaya.  Injections a cikin hunturu kuma ba su da ƙarfi sosai fiye da alluran lokacin bazara don fashewar dutsen mai tsayi mai tsayi, lokacin da aka haɓaka kawar da iska mai iska a cikin yankuna na polar. 

Sulfate aerosol yana hulɗa sosai tare da Hasken rana ta hanyar warwatsewa, yana haifar da abubuwan gani na yanayi a cikin stratosphere. Wadannan abubuwan da suka faru sun hada da Hasken rana, coronae ko zoben Bishop, launi na musamman, da duhu na duhu. Tarihin tarihi da suka rubuta waɗannan abubuwan da suka faru a sararin samaniya alamun hunturu ne na dutsen wuta kuma sun koma lokutan da suka gabata kambin zamanin yau da kullun

Binciken zafin jiki na ƙasa bayan fashewar tarihi ya nuna cewa babu wata alaƙa tsakanin girman fashewa, kamar yadda aka wakilta ta VEI ko girman fashewar, da tsananin sanyaya yanayi. Wannan shi ne saboda girman fashewa ba ya da alaƙa da adadin SO2 da aka fitar.

## Manazarta
Shekara Ba tare da bazara ba

Shekarar 1816 an san ta da **Shekara Ba tare da bazara ba** saboda mummunan yanayin yanayi wanda ya haifar da matsakaicin yanayin zafi na duniya ya ragu da 0.4-0.7 ° C (0.7-1 ° F).  Yanayin zafi na lokacin rani a Turai ya kasance mafi sanyi na kowane rikodin tsakanin 1766 da 2000,  wanda ya haifar da gazawar amfanin gona da manyan karancin abinci a fadin Arewacin Hemisphere. 

Shaida ta nuna cewa anomaly ya kasance mafi yawan abin da ya faru a cikin hunturu wanda ya haifar da babban fashewar Dutsen Tambora a watan Afrilu a cikin Indonesia ta zamani (wanda ake kira Dutch East Indies a lokacin). Wannan fashewar ita ce mafi girma a cikin akalla shekaru 1,300 (bayan fashewar da aka yi la'akari da ita wanda ya haifar da hunturu na dutsen wuta na 536); tasirinsa a kan yanayi na iya kara tsanantawa ta fashewar Mayon na 1814 a Philippines. Babban adadin toka da iskar gas da aka saki cikin yanayi sun toshe hasken rana, wanda ya haifar da sanyaya duniya.

Kasashe irin su Ingila da Faransa sun fuskanci matsala mai tsanani, tare da rikice-rikicen abinci da yunwa sun zama ruwan dare. Yanayin ya kara tsanantawa da gaskiyar cewa Turai har yanzu tana murmurewa daga Yaƙe-yaƙe na Napoleon, yana ƙarawa ga damuwa ta zamantakewa da tattalin arziki.

Har ila yau, Arewacin Amurka ta fuskanci matsanancin yanayin yanayi. A gabashin Amurka, "ruwa mai bushe" mai ɗorewa ya rufe hasken rana, yana haifar da sanyi da sanyi mai ban mamaki a cikin watanni na rani. Amfanin gona ya gaza a yankuna kamar New England, wanda ya haifar da karancin abinci da matsalar tattalin arziki. Wadannan yanayi sun tilasta wa iyalai da yawa barin gidajensu don neman damar noma mafi kyau, suna ba da gudummawa ga fadada Yamma.

## Bayyanawa
Shekarar Ba tare da bazara ba bala'in noma ne; masanin tarihi John D. Post ya kira shi "babban rikicin rayuwa na ƙarshe a Yammacin duniya".   Rashin yanayi na 1816 ya sami babban tasiri a New England (Amurka), Atlantic Kanada, da Yammacin Turai.

The main cause of the Year Without a Summer is generally held to be a volcanic winter created by the April 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora on Sumbawa. The eruption had a volcanic explosivity index (VEI) ranking of 7, and ejected at least  of dense-rock equivalent material into the atmosphere. It remains the most recent confirmed VEI-7 eruption to date.

### Afirka
Ba a sami wata hujja kai tsaye game da yanayin yankin Sahel ba, kodayake yanayin daga yankunan da ke kewaye sun nuna ruwan sama sama da na yau da kullun. A ƙasa da Sahel, yankunan bakin teku na Yammacin Afirka na iya samun matakan ruwan sama na yau da kullun. Guguwa mai tsanani ta shafi bakin tekun Afirka ta Kudu a lokacin hunturu na Kudancin Hemisphere. A ranar 29-30 ga Yuli, 1816, wata guguwa mai tsanani ta faru a kusa da Cape Town, Afirka ta Kudu, wanda ya kawo iska mai karfi daga arewa da ƙanƙara kuma ya haifar da mummunar lalacewa ga sufuri

## Manazarta
Fashewar Ignimbrite na Campanian

**Fashewar Campanian Ignimbrite** (CI, kuma CI eruption) wani babban dutse ne mai aman wuta a tekun Bahar Rum a lokacin ƙarshen Quaternary, wanda aka rarraba shi.&nbsp;7 akan Fihirisar fashewar Volcanic (VEI).   An dangana taron ga dutsen mai aman wuta na Archiflegreo,  caldera na filayen Phlegraean, wanda yake  yammacin Dutsen Vesuvius a ƙarƙashin yammacin yammacin birnin Naples da Gulf of Pozzuoli, Italiya.  Shi ne mafi girman fashewar fashewar tashin wuta a Turai a cikin shekaru 200,000 da suka gabata,  kuma mafi girma fashewar Campi Fleigrei caldera . 

Kimanin kwanan wata da girman fashewar (s), da kuma adadin kayan da aka fitar sun bambanta sosai a cikin ƙarni da yawa an yi nazarin shafin. Wannan ya shafi manyan abubuwan da suka faru na dutsen wuta waɗanda suka samo asali ne a cikin filin Campanian, saboda yana ɗaya daga cikin tsarin dutsen wuta mafi rikitarwa a duniya. Koyaya, ci gaba da bincike, ci gaba na hanyoyin, da tarawa na bayanan volcanological, geochronological, da geochemical sun inganta daidaito na kwanakin.

Sakamakon kwanan nan ta hanyar radiocarbon da argon-argon dating sune, bi da bi, 39,220 zuwa 39,705 kalanda shekara BP  da  shekara BP.  Ƙididdigar ƙarar fashewa a cikin madaidaicin dutsen-rock (DRE) yana cikin kewayon   ,  kuma tephra ya watse a kan yanki kusan   , wanda aka fi sani da ash horizon Y-5.   Daidaiton waɗannan lambobi yana da mahimmanci ga masana ilimin kimiyyar ruwa, masu binciken yanayi, masu binciken burbushin halittu, masu nazarin halittu-anthropologists da masu bincike na fannoni masu alaƙa kamar yadda taron ya zo daidai da al'amuran duniya da na gida, irin su rikice-rikice masu yawa a cikin gyare-gyaren gyare-gyaren halittu na archaeological, yanayin yanayi. 

## Magana
Kalmar Campanian tana nufin bakan dutsen wuta na Campanian wanda ke cikin yankin Campania a kudancin Italiya wanda ya shimfiɗa a kan Yankin subduction wanda ya haifar da haɗuwa da faranti na Afirka da Eurasia. Bai kamata a rikita shi da ƙarshen Cretaceous na Campanian ba.

Kalmar ignimbrite ta samo asali ne daga masanin ilimin ƙasa na New Zealand Patrick Marshall daga Latin ignis (*wuta*) da *imber* (shower)) da -ite. Yana nufin ajiyar da ke samuwa sakamakon fashewar pyroclastic.

## Tarihi
Filin Phlegraean (Italiyanci: Campi Flegrei "Caldera filin ƙonewa wani tsari ne da aka gina shi da diamita na kusan kilomita 12 zuwa 15 (7.5 mi × 9.3 mi). Ya ƙunshi tsohuwar Campanian Ignimbrite caldera, ƙaramin Neapolitan Yellow Tuff caldera kuma mafi tarwatsewa daga ƙasƙanci na baya-bayan nan. Filayen suna zaune a kan Pliocene - Quaternary Extensional domain tare da kurakurai, wanda ke gudana daga Arewa maso Gabas zuwa Kudu-maso-Yamma da Arewa maso Yamma zuwa Kudu-maso-Gabas daga gefen bel na Apennine.

## Manazarta
Ƙungiyar Turai ta Cibiyoyin Kare Hakkin Dan Adam na Kasa

**Ƙungiyar Turai ta [[Cibiyar kare hakkin dan adam ta kasa|Cibiyoyin kare hakkin dan adam na kasa]]** tana ɗaya daga cikin cibiyoyin sadarwa na yanki huɗu na cibiyoyin kare hakkin dan adam na ƙasa a cikin Kwamitin Gudanar da Kasa na NHRIs (ICC).  Ya daina wanzuwa kuma Cibiyar Turai ta Cibiyoyin Kare Hakkin Dan Adam na Kasa (ENNHRI) ta maye gurbinsa a cikin 2013.

Har zuwa lokacin da aka kafa Cibiyar Turai ta Cibiyoyin Kare Hakkin Dan Adam ta Kasa, Ƙungiyar Turai ta haɗa kai da NHRIs a duk faɗin yankin Majalisar Turai, gami da ta hanyar tarurruka da ƙungiyoyin aiki.

## Dubi kuma

* Cibiyar Turai ta Cibiyoyin Kare Hakkin Dan Adam na Kasa
* Kwamitin Gudanarwa na Duniya na Cibiyoyin Kare Hakkin Dan Adam na Kasa
* Taron Asiya Pacific na Cibiyoyin Kare Hakkin Dan Adam na Kasa (APF) 
* Cibiyar Cibiyoyin Kasa a Amurka
* Cibiyar Kula da Kare Hakkin Dan Adam ta Afirka (NANHRI) 

## Manazarta
Babban Ambaliyar 1913 a Columbus, Ohio

Babban Ambaliyar a shekarar 1913 ta shafi Columbus, Ohio sosai. Yankin da ya fi shafa shi ne Franklinton, wanda aka fi sani da Bottoms, saboda ƙananan tsawo kusa da Kogin Scioto. Daga cikin ayyukan ababen more rayuwa da yawa, an gina ganuwar ambaliyar kilomita 7.2 daga 1993 zuwa 2004 don kare mafi yawan Franklinton daga ambaliyar ruwa.

Masanin tarihin Columbus Ed Lentz ya bayyana ambaliyar 1913 a matsayin "mafi munin bala'i a tarihin Columbus".

## Tarihi
Columbus ya yi rikodin abubuwan da suka faru na ambaliyar ruwa tun lokacin da masu mulkin mallaka suka fara zama a yankin a kusa da shekara ta 1797, galibi a bakin Kogin Scioto. Lucas Sullivant ya shimfiɗa kuri'u 220 a wannan shekarar, kodayake ambaliyar ruwa a cikin 1798 ta buge shafin, ta tilasta Sullivant don tsara zamansa, Franklinton, zuwa ciki. Ambaliyar ruwa a cikin 1898 ta kuma shafi yankin sosai, ta haifar da tafkin daga bakin kogi zuwa Asylum Hill, wurin Asibitin Jihar Columbus.

Daga cikin ambaliyar ruwa kusan 10 tsakanin 1798 da 1898, an gina jerin raƙuman ruwa, galibi 30 feet fadi da 15 feet tsawo. Hakanan, an kammala madatsar ruwan Griggs a cikin 1905, a wani bangare don samar da kula da ambaliyar ruwa.

## Ambaliyar ruwa ta 1913

Daga Maris 24 zuwa 27, 1913, ambaliyar ruwa mafi muni ta buge Columbus. Ambaliyar ta kashe akalla 93 a Columbus, kuma ta makale da yawa a cikin gidajensu.

Hasashen yanayi da aka buga a cikin jaridu a ranar 24 ga watan Maris ya yi gargadi game da guguwa da ke tafiya zuwa gabas, kodayake ya bayyana cewa "babu haɗarin lalacewar guguwa a wannan kusa". Birnin yana da hunturu mai sanyi, kuma ƙasa ba ta narke ba, wanda ke haifar da haɗarin ambaliyar ruwa mafi girma. Farawa da marigayi a ranar 24 ga watan Maris kuma ya kai awanni 24, kimanin inci 5 na ruwan sama ya fadi a Tsakiyar Ohio. Ambaliyar ruwa ta faru a fadin Ohio, tare da yawancin manyan koguna ambaliyar ruwa. Da karfe 2 na safe a ranar 25 ga watan Maris, ya bayyana cewa babban ambaliyar ruwa yana tasowa. Da asubahi, gobarar gida da 'yan sanda suna ceto mazauna, kuma matakin ruwa ya kai matakin gwiwa. Da karfe 10 na safe, dutsen Jihar Levee, a fadin gidan yarin Ohio, ya rushe daga matsin ruwa mai yawa. Wannan ya haifar da mafi yawan Franklinton ya kasance a ƙarƙashin ƙafa 7 zuwa 17 na ruwa. Mazauna sun gudu zuwa bene na biyu na gine-gine da ɗakunan, kodayake an ɗaga gidaje da yawa daga tushe. An tilasta wa wasu mutane hawa bishiyoyi don tserewa daga ambaliyar ruwa. Da daddare, zafin jiki ya sauka, kuma wasu mazauna da suka gaji sun fada cikin ruwa

## Tasiri da abubuwan da suka biyo baya
Ambaliyar ta haifar da sake ginawa da ingantaccen ababen more rayuwa a tsawon lokaci. An gina sabbin gadoji da digues, kuma an gina Cibiyar Civic ta Columbus a gefen gabas na kogin a cikin gari. A cikin 1916, masu jefa kuri'a sun amince da shirin dala miliyan 3.5 don sarrafa ambaliyar ruwa, bayan ba a amince da shirye-shiryen jihohi da na ra'ayin mazan jiya ba. Kogin Scioto ya ninka sau biyu a fadin, kuma an zurfafa tasharsa.

## Manazarta
Koguna da Gicciye

**Kogin Boulder** wani yanki ne na Kogin Yellowstone, kimanin kilomita 60 (96), a kudancin tsakiyar Montana a Amurka. Yana daya daga cikin koguna biyu da ake kira Boulder River a Montana .&nbsp;&nbsp;

Ya tashi a cikin gandun daji na Gallatin a cikin Absaroka Range a kudancin Park County. Yana gudana a arewa ta hanyar tsaunuka masu tsaunuka, wani cataract a ƙarƙashin gada ta halitta, da arewa maso yamma a cikin kwarin da ya wuce McLeod. Ya shiga Yellowstone a Big Timber . Yanayin kogin Boulder da kwarin kogi sun cancanci yin fim na fina-finai biyu: A River Runs Through It da The Horse Whisperer . 

## Fitarwa

## Yawon shakatawa
Kogin sanannen wuri ne na kamun kifi. Sauran abubuwan jan hankali a cikin kwarin sun haɗa da sansanin coci da yawa, Ranch na baƙi, da kuma sansanonin USFS da yawa. Har ila yau, Hukumar Kula da dazuzzuka tana kula da tashoshin tsaro da yawa, hanyoyi, da wuraren shakatawa a kwarin.

## Sunayen daban-daban
Kogin Boulder kuma an san shi da: Kogin Cross, Kogin ƙetare, da Kogin da ke gaba.  Kuma, don bambanta shi da sauran kogin Boulder a Montana, wani lokaci ana kiransa "Kogin Gabas Boulder" (kamar yadda yake gabas da ɗayan) ko "Boulder Fork of the Yellowstone," daidai da cokali mai yatsa na Clark na Yellowstone kamar yadda ya bambanta da Kogin cokali na Clark na yammacin Montana.

Tashar yanayi ta Placer Basin SNOTEL tana kusa da asalin Kogin East Boulder, a tsawo na ƙafa 8830 (2691 m).

## Manazarta
Rashin ruwa na guguwa

**Rashin ruwa na guguwa**, ruwan guguwa (United Kingdom, Amurka da Kanada), ruwan babbar hanya,  ruwan da ke ƙasa / ruwan da ke sama (United Kingdom), ko ruwan da ke cikin guguwa da aka tsara don zubar da ruwan sama da ruwan ƙasa daga wuraren da ba su da ruwa kamar tituna, wuraren ajiye motoci, wuraren ajiye ajiye motoci. Rashin guguwa ya bambanta a cikin ƙira daga ƙananan rijiyoyin busassun gida zuwa manyan tsarin birni.

Rashin ruwa yana karɓar ruwa daga magudanar tituna a kan mafi yawan manyan Hanyoyi, manyan hanyoyi da sauran hanyoyi masu yawa, da kuma garuruwa a yankunan da ke da Ruwan sama mai yawa wanda ke haifar da ambaliyar ruwa, da garuruwan bakin teku tare da guguwa na yau da kullun. Ko da ruwan sama daga gidaje da gine-gine na iya haɗawa da ruwan guguwa. Tunda yawancin tsarin zubar da ruwa na guguwa sune magudanar ruwa wanda ke fitar da ruwan guguwa da ba a kula da shi ba zuwa koguna ko rafi, duk wani abu mai haɗari da aka zuba a cikin magudanar zai gurɓata wuraren da ake nufi da ruwa.

Hadari wani lokacin ba zai iya sarrafa yawan ruwan sama da ke faɗuwa a cikin ruwan sama mai ƙarfi ko guguwa ba. Rashin ruwa na iya haifar da ambaliyar ruwa da ambaliwar titi. Yankuna da yawa suna buƙatar tankuna a cikin dukiya wanda ke riƙe da runoff na ɗan lokaci a cikin ruwan sama mai ƙarfi kuma yana ƙuntata fitarwa zuwa ga ragowar jama'a. Wannan yana rage haɗarin mamayewar shara ta jama'a. Wasu ruwan guguwa sun haɗu da ruwan sama (ruwa mai ruwan sama) tare da datti, ko dai da gangan idan aka haɗa magudanar ruwa, ko kuma ba da gangan ba.

## Nomenclature
Ana amfani da kalmomi masu alaƙa da yawa daban-daban a cikin Turanci na Amurka da na Burtaniya.

## Ayyuka

### Inlet
Akwai manyan nau'ikan ruwan sama guda biyu (mai gudana a hanya ko rami a Burtaniya) hanyoyin shiga: hanyoyin shiga gefe da hanyoyin shiga. Ƙofar gefen suna kusa da ƙofar kuma sun dogara da ikon buɗewa a ƙarƙashin dutse na baya ko lintel don kama kwarara. Yawanci suna baƙin ciki a gefen tashar don inganta ƙarfin kamawa.

Yawancin mashigai suna da grid ko grid don hana mutane, motoci, manyan abubuwa ko tarkace fadawa cikin magudanar ruwa. Ana yin tazarar sanduna ta yadda ruwa ba zai tauye ba, amma laka da ƙananan abubuwa da yawa su ma na iya faɗuwa. Koyaya, idan sandunan katako sun yi nisa sosai, buɗewar na iya haifar da haɗari ga masu tafiya a ƙasa, masu keke, da sauran waɗanda ke kusa. Gilashin da ke da dogayen kunkuntar ramukan da ke daidai da zirga-zirgar ababen hawa na da matukar damuwa ga masu keken keke, saboda titin gaban keken na iya makale, yana sa mai keken ya haye sanduna ko ya rasa iko ya fadi. Magudanar ruwan guguwa a tituna da wuraren ajiye motoci dole ne su kasance da ƙarfi sosai don ɗaukar nauyin abin hawa, kuma galibi ana yin su ne da baƙin ƙarfe ko siminti mai ƙarfi.

## Manazarta