Harshen Amkoe

**Amkoe** wanda a baya ake kira da sunan yaren Sā, Sā, ko kuma a cikin rubutun asali Sā, yaren Kā da ke cikin haɗari na Botswana. Yammacin Yamma, tare Yau Taa (ko watakila Yammacin Tsaasi na Taa) da Gī, sun zama ainihin Kalahari Basin sprachbund, kuma suna raba siffofi da yawa, gami da mafi girman kayan aiki a duniya.  nuna cewa an danganta shi da yarukan Juu ta Honken da Heine (2010), kuma tun daga lokacin an rarraba su tare a cikin dangin yaren Kx'a..

## Halin harshe
An kashe shi kuma yana cikin haɗari sosai. Akwai 'yan asalin ƙasar da yawa kawai, mafi yawansu an haife su kafin 1960 (an haifi mai magana da Sasi a 1971, mai magana da Niao a 1969), da yawa daga cikinsu ba sa magana da yaren sosai. Harshen farko na ƙarni, har ma da tsofaffi da yawa, masu magana da asali waɗanda ba sa magana da kyau, shine Giaoui, yaren Khoe, a cikin yanayin Niaocriaxe; Kgalagadi, yaren Bantu wanda shine harshen yankin, a cikin batun Ōoan; da yaren Ngwato na Tswana, a cikin Sasi.

## Yaruka
ǂʼAmkoe  ana magana a yankuna uku a kudu maso gabashin Botswana, daidai da yaruka uku. Binciken baya-bayan nan ya gano wurare masu zuwa:

* Ƙarfafa  ana magana ne a yammacin gundumar Kweneng, a ƙauyukan Motokwe, Khekhenye, Tswane, da Dutlwe .
* ǂHoan  ana magana ne a gabashin Kweneng, a ƙauyukan Salajwe, Mathibatsela, da Shorilatholo .
* Sasi (  ko  ) ana magana a gabas, tsakanin gundumar Kweneng da kan iyakar Afirka ta Kudu, a cikin ƙauyukan Dibete, Poloka, da wasu ƙauyuka da ke kusa da ba a samo su akan taswira ba.

Nǃaqriax da ǂHoan sun fi kusanci, tare da ake kira West ǂʼAmkoe; Ana kiran Sasi da Gabas ǂʼAmkoe.

Akwai wasu bambance-bambancen sauti tsakanin Nǃaqrixe da ake magana a kusa da Dutlwe da waɗanda ke magana a kusa da Motokwe da Khekhenye. Sasi shine "harshen fahimtar juna" tare da bambance-bambance a cikin phonology da ƙamus.  Babu wani bincike na tsari na Sasi, a cikin 2015, Collins ya tsunduma cikin aikin fage. Al'ummar Gabas da Yamma ba su da masaniyar juna, amma lokacin da aka tattara su a cikin 1996, sun sami damar yin magana, kuma sun sami bambance-bambancen da ban sha'awa. 

Masana na baya-bayan nan irin su Collins, Gruber, Köhler, da Güldemann sun taƙaita sunan ǂHoan zuwa yaren ǂHoan, kuma suna kiran harshen gaba ɗaya ǂʼAmkoe, wanda ke nufin "mutum" a cikin kowane yare. Kusan duk ayyukan harshe sun kasance akan yarukan ǂHoan da Nǃaqrixe.

Hoan ya tafi da sunaye da haruffan *Gabas ǂHoan, ǂHùã, ǂHũa, ǂHṍã, ǂHoang de Dutlwe* . An ayyana shi azaman *Gabashin ǂHoan* don bambanta shi daga Yamma ǂHuan, yare na yaren Taa mara alaƙa.  Sasi ya tafi ta *Sàsí, Tshasi, Tshasi de Khutse* .  Sunan Tswana ne wanda ya fi daidai da na *Masarwa* "Bushman". Ana amfani da disambiguator *de Khutse* don bambanta shi daga nau'ikan Taa da ake kira *Tshase* da *Sase* . Sunan yare na uku   ko kuma   a cikin Amkoe.

Duk masu magana da Nǃaqrixe suna harsuna biyu a cikin Gǀui, tare da wasu Kgalagadi kuma. Masu magana da hoan suna harsuna biyu a cikin Kgalagadi, da masu magana da Sasi a cikin yaren Ngwato na Tswana. Harshen ǂʼAmkoe yana nuna shaida cewa a baya yana da alaƙa da yawa da Taa. An ɗora akan wannan fasalulluka na Gǀui kamar canjin baƙaƙen alveolar zuwa palatal, har ma a cikin ǂHoan, wanda a halin yanzu ba ya hulɗa da Gǀui.

## Fassarar sauti
ǂʼAmkoe yana da dannawar bibial, waɗanda ake samu a cikin wasu harsuna biyu kawai.  Ya kasance cikin hulɗa mai tsanani tare da Gǀui kuma a baya tare da Taa, kuma wasu daga cikin sautunan ǂʼAmkoe sun bayyana cewa an aro daga Gǀui. A gefe guda kuma, yanayin yanayin harshe yana bayyana a cikin salon sautinsa, kuma sautunan da ba a samo su a cikin Gǀui da alama yawancin sauran masu magana sun ɓace.

### Wasula
Halayen wasulan sune  . Wasalan gaba,  , sun yi kamanceceniya a sararin samaniya, kamar yadda ma wasulan baya,  , amma ƙananan nau'i-nau'i sun bambanta su. Ana iya sanya wasula a hanci, a sanya pharyngealized (an rubuta shi da ƙarshe ⟨ ⟩ a cikin aikin rubutu na zahiri), ko kuma a yi ta glottalized . Gerlach (2015) yana ɗaukar dogayen wasula a matsayin jeri, a cikin abin da wasulan nasalized,  , suna faruwa ta hanyar sauti kawai kamar V2, yayin da pharyngealized da glottalized wasulan,  da  (kuma, a cikin kalmar aro ɗaya,  ) yana faruwa ne kawai kamar V1. Wasan wasali a V1 za a yi amfani da shi ta hanyar sauti idan V2 na hanci ne, ko da yake haɗuwa da glottalized ko pharyngealized tare da wasulan hanci ba kowa bane. Wasu masu iya magana suna ɗaukaka wasulan pharyngeal, amma ba daidai ba, kuma bai bayyana ba. Wasan wasalan numfashi suna faruwa ne bayan baƙaƙe da wasu masu magana a ƙarshen lafuzza. Duk wannan harka ba sauti bane. Hakanan suna iya faruwa akan wasu kalmomi masu ƙarancin sautin murya. Ba duk kalmomin da ke da ƙananan sautin da aka tabbatar da su da wasulan numfashi ba, amma fasalin bai bayyana ba (babu ƙananan nau'i-nau'i), don haka Gerlach (2015) ba ya kula da wasulan numfashi kamar sautin sauti.  diphthong  kafin karshen  (wato, a cikin kalmomin siffa *Com* ), amma yana ɗaukar sauti ɗaya kawai, don haka ana nazarin shi azaman allophone na guda  guda ɗaya. wasali. Wannan diphthongization yana faruwa a duk yarukan uku, da kuma cikin Gǀui, wanda wataƙila ya samo shi daga ǂʼAmkoe.

Honken (2013), wanda ya dogara da Gruber (1973), ya ce halayen ǂHȍã, kuma  , na iya zama modal, numfashi, laryngealized, ko pharyngealized, kuma duk yana iya zama hanci.

A cikin kalmomin sifar CVV, jerin wasula da aka tabbatar (la'akari da ingancin wasali kawai) sune aa, ee, ii, oo, uu, ai, ui, eo, oa, ua. Ainihin, wasali ɗaya yawanci /a/ ko /o/; /o/ ya zama /u/ kafin babban wasali biyu (kamar /i/), yayin da /a/ ya zama /e/ ko /i/ haƙori ne ko kuma idan wasali biyu ya yi girma. Waɗannan alamu na iya zama tasirin ǀGui (Honken 2013).

### Sautin
Sautin yana da wahalar tantancewa a cikin ǂʼAmkoe, saboda ruɗani na baƙaƙe da ƙarar wasali. Gerlach (2015) yayi nazarin Nǃaqrixe a matsayin yana da sautunan murya guda uku: ƙananan, tsakiya, da babba. Kalmomin CVV, CVN, da CVCV suna da sautuna biyu, amma haɗuwa shida ne kawai ake samun: kalma na iya samun sautin matakin ko sama ko ƙasa tsakanin sautunan da ke kusa, amma * ƙananan&amp;gt; babba da * babba&amp;gt; ba a tabbatar da su ba, kuma sautin faɗuwa kawai shine tsakiyar&amp;gt; ƙasa. Duk sautunan kalmomi suna ƙarewa a cikin ɓangaren faɗuwar sauti a cikin bayanan Gerlach, watakila tasirin furucin-ƙarshe. Tsarin ya yi kama da na Gǀui, binciken Gerlach ya dogara ne akan bayanai daga mai magana ɗaya wanda ke magana da Gǀui fiye da ǂʼAmkoe kuma wanda ba shi da ǂʼAmkoe baƙon da ba a samu a cikin Gǀui ba, don haka ba a bayyana cewa sakamakon yana wakiltar ǂʼAmkoe gaba ɗaya ba. .

Sautunan da aka bincika yayin da suke tashi ta hanyar sauti suna tsomawa cikin sauti (faɗuwa-tashi). Muryar murya da baƙon da ake so su ne masu rage sautin sauti, tare da babban sautin a matakin tsakiyar bayan tenuis ko glottalized baƙar magana, kuma tsakiyar a matakin ƙasa. (Duk da haka, ƙarshen ƙananan sautin> tsakiyar sautin ba ya canzawa, don haka yadda ya kamata ya zama low>high.) Ƙwararrun masu sha'awar (kuma musamman jinkirin dannawa) suna da ƙarin tasirin damuwa a farkon sautin, don haka suna da sautin murya. tashi; Kwakwalwar, duk da haka, yana da kaifi tashi a farkon, maimakon jinkirin saukowa tare da tashi mai kaifi a ƙarshen sautin sautin sauti.

Collins (2012) ya bayyana sautunan kalmomi guda shida don yare ǂHȍã: ƙarin babba, babba>tsakiyar (high level), tsakiya>ƙananan (tsakiyar matakin), babba>ƙananan, ƙarami>tsakiya, da ƙaramin matakin. Ƙarin maɗaukakin sautuna galibi yana faruwa akan manyan wasula,  , wanda ke da tasirin haɓakar sauti na allophonic, wanda ƙananan matakin ke faruwa bayan baƙar magana, waɗanda ke da tasirin rage sautin sauti . Ganin cewa Collins bai mallaki baƙaƙen farko ba a cikin bincikensa, bayaninsa ya yi daidai da yaren Gerlach na Nǃaqrixe.

### Consonants
Gerlach (2012)  ya ba da rahoton ƙididdiga daban-daban don masu magana daban-daban na yaren Nǃaqriax: Karami, kama da na harshen Gǀui maƙwabta da kuma asusun da suka gabata, yawancin masu magana suna amfani da su, gami da waɗanda ke magana da Gǀui fiye da ǂʼAmkoe. An yi imanin cewa mafi girma kayan ƙira ya fi mazan jiya, tare da baƙaƙen murya da aka rigaya sun haɗa da waɗanda ke da alaƙa da harsunan Ju don haka watakila sun fara zuwa proto-Kxʼa, amma an rasa ƙarƙashin tasirin Gǀui yayin da harshen ya zama moribund. (Waɗannan ƙarin baƙaƙe ana inuwa a cikin tebur ɗin da ke ƙasa.) Ana samun irin wannan baƙaƙe a cikin yaren Taa makwabta; Ba a bayyana ba idan sun yi kwanan wata zuwa proto-Tuu, kuma watakila farkon zamanin tuntuɓar, ko kuma idan Taa zai iya samun su daga ǂʼAmkoe.

Baƙaƙe masu ƙyalli da aka samu a matsayi-farko (C1) a cikin kalmomin ƙamus sune kamar haka. Wadanda ke cikin baka ana samun su ne kawai a cikin kalmomin aro. Wadanda ke da bangon inuwa kawai masu magana Gerlach (2015) ya yi imanin cewa masu ra'ayin mazan jiya ne:

Baƙaƙen inuwa suna da riƙon murya da sakin murya,  . Gerlach (2015) yayi nazarin canjin murya a matsayin zama dalla-dalla na sauti saboda yanayin sakin maimakon a yi amfani da su ta hanyar sauti. Ƙarshen bayan alveolar (  da dai sauransu) an haɗa su da alveolar affricates (  da sauransu) a cikin yaren Nǃaqriax. Wataƙila tsoho ne bambanci wanda ya ɓace a cikin Nǃaqrixe. Inda suka faru, suna iya zama alveolo-palatal (  , da sauransu), ya danganta da lasifika da wuri.  yana bayyana a cikin lamunin Gúi kawai. Sasi yana da  maimakon  na ǂHoan da Nǃaqriaxe, ko da yake Sasi  wani lokaci yana ɗan damuwa. (Irin wannan tsari yana riƙe da dannawar Sasi contour tare da  .) Mai bambanta  Gruber (1975) ya ruwaito daga kalma ɗaya ko biyu a cikin yaren ǂHoan, amma ba a iya tabbatar da shi a cikin Nǃaqriaxe, kuma kwatankwacin harshe yana ba da dalilin gaskata cewa  da  Baƙi ɗaya ne.

 frequently appears as a fricative ( or further back).  and  have a slightly fricated release,  or  etc., and aspirated  is distinguished primarily in the frication being longer than for .   () is similar, and  might be better analyzed as .  It is sometimes pronounced as a lateral , though not as commonly as in Gǀui.  is not found in many lexical words apart from loans, but does occur in some highly frequent grammatical words.   is rare, and may be restricted to loans (this is not yet clear).  Glottal stop  could be argued to be epenthetic on an onsetless syllable rather than phonemic.

Baƙaƙen da aka samu a matsayin tsaka-tsakin kalma (C2) sune  (yawanci  ),  ; Matsayin sauti na medial  a kalma daya ba a sani ba.  ba kasafai ba ne, ana samun kalma-ƙarshe a cikin ƴan kalmomin lamuni. Ƙarin baƙar fata,  , ana samunsa azaman farkon baƙar fata na wasu alamomin nahawu.

Silsilar palatal, wacce aka fi haɓaka ta cikin yare ǂHȍã, ta samo asali ne daga baƙaƙen hakori. Wannan ya bayyana tasirin yanki ne daga Gǀui, inda kuma ya faru a wasu yarukan fiye da sauran. Daga cikin yarukan ǂʼAmkoe, ba a sami ɓacin rai ba a cikin Sisa (  ), ɓacin rai na yawancin baƙaƙen alveolar a cikin Nǃaqrixe (  ), da cikakken ɓacin rai a cikin ǂHoan (  ). Canjin  kawai ya faru ne a cikin kalmomin ƙamus; a cikin kalmomin nahawu, kawai  ana samunsa.

/h/ yawanci ana yin surutai ( gunaguni)  , kuma an siffanta shi da cewa ana "shanye" cikin wasali mai zuwa.

#### Dannawa
Kamar harsunan Tuu, waɗanda aka ƙirƙira su a baya, ǂʼAmkoe yana da “nau’i” dannawa biyar: bilabial, hakori, alveolar, palatal, da alveolar na gefe. Akwai 14 zuwa 19 "haɗin gwiwa" (haɗin hanya, phonation, da kwane-kwane ), dangane da mai magana. Kamar yadda ba a danna ba, bambancin shine ko mai magana yana riƙe da dannawa da aka rigaya kamar waɗanda aka samo a cikin harsunan Ju da Taa. Sakamakon shine 68 zuwa 77 danna baƙar fata. (A zahiri, lambobi na iya zama 70 da 95, kamar yadda dannawa da yawa da aka nuna a nan ba a tabbatar da su ba a Gerlach 2012 amma tun daga lokacin sun tabbatar da cewa sun zama giɓi na haɗari, kuma wasu ko duk abubuwan da ke ƙasa suna iya zama haɗari kuma. la'akari da cewa danna maɓallin da aka riga aka yi an tabbatar da shi daga mai magana guda ɗaya kawai, wanda ba a samo bayanai masu yawa ba, kuma ba a ba da rahoton jinkirin da aka jinkirta ba daga ǂHoan.) Gerlach (2015) ya samo kaya mai zuwa, la'akari da Nǃaqrixe da Yaren Hoan:

Bambance-bambancen da ba a saba ba tsakanin glottalized da dannawa fitarwa yayi kama da wanda aka samu a Gǀui . Ƙaƙƙarfan saiti na kusa shine  'dumi',  'hard',  'da wari'. Ba a ba da rahoto daga Hoan ba, amma wannan yana yiwuwa ya kasance sa ido. Ba a sanya maƙallan da aka fitar ba a tsakanin wasulan, yayin da maɗaukakin glottalized, da dannawa tare da jinkirin buri, sune. Muryar da aka danna uvular mai murya yana da sauyi. Ana ba da su lokaci-lokaci, har ma a matsayi na farko, wanda yawancin masu bincike suka yi imanin cewa ya faru ne saboda wahalar da ke tattare da murya.

Kamar  da dai sauransu a sama, a fili click affricates  yana bayyana a cikin lamunin Gíui kawai.

Tare da dannawa maras murya, murya yana farawa ta hanyar buri,  , don haka lokacin farawa da murya bai kasance ba idan dai na danna maballin glottalized. Tare da dannawar murya da aka yi niyya, ana yin buri gabaɗaya gabaɗaya, amma sauti yana raguwa yayin riƙe dannawa, kuma sakin kanta ba ta da murya, ba kamar sakin maɓallan murya ba. (Wato, waɗannan an fi bayyana su a matsayin danna maɓallin da aka riga aka yi.) Don dannawa tare da jinkirin buri, burin yana da tsayi sosai, yana farawa da rauni kuma yana ƙaruwa da ƙarfi tare da lokaci (ba kamar buri na dannawa mai sauƙi ba, wanda ya fara farawa. fitar da ƙarfi kuma yana raguwa cikin ƙarfi). Lokacin dannawa yana cikin furucin-wuri na farko, babu murya a riƙe ko a cikin buri. Duk da haka, lokacin da dannawa ya faru bayan wasali, yana da hanci a ko'ina cikin riko, yana ƙarewa kafin a saki, amma tare da ci gaba da murya ko da yake sakin kuma a cikin burin:  vs  . Maƙallan da aka riga aka yi amfani da su suna da gajeriyar jagorar murya (mara kyau VOT) fiye da danna hanci a fili, wani lokacin da wuya a ji.

### Wasan kwaikwayo
Kalmar ƙamus galibi tana cikin sifofin CVV (69% a cikin yaren Nǃaqriaxe), CVN (8%), ko CVCV (22%, yawanci lamuni daga Gǀui), tare da raka'a masu ɗaukar sautin biyu. (Kashi 1% na kalmomin sune CVCVCV, CVVCV, CVVVCV, da sauran hadaddun alamu.) N na iya zama  kawai. a cikin kalmomi na asali, ko da yake na ƙarshe  faruwa a rance. Gerlach (2015) ya yi imanin cewa tsarin CVV da CVN sun samo asali a tarihi daga *CVCV ta hanyar asarar C2 (kamar medial  a cikin harsuna masu alaƙa) ko V2 a kowane yanayi, ba kawai waɗanda za a iya nunawa ba.

A cikin kalmomin ƙamus, yawancin baƙaƙe suna faruwa a matsayin C1, amma kawai  faruwa a C2 matsayi.  za a iya gane kamar  ko  , da  ana iya gane shi kamar  . (Kadan kalmomi suna da baƙon matsayi na uku, CVCVCV ko CVVCV. Waɗannan sun haɗa da  , kuma yana iya zama ƙaƙƙarfan kari.)  ? yana faruwa kamar C2 a kalma ɗaya,  'jakar', amma bincikensa bai tabbata ba - kalmar na iya zama  , tare da tsarin CVVV, kuma watakila lamuni.  kar a faru a matsayin C1 sai dai a cikin kalmomin lamuni. Na farko  na iya zama trill  lokacin da ya zama trill a cikin harshen tushen.  yana faruwa kamar C1 a cikin ƴan kalmomi na asali,  (C1 kawai) yana da wuya, kuma ƙarshe  ana samunsa ne kawai a cikin lamuni.  ba ya faruwa a cikin kalmomin ƙamus, sai dai ga wasu masu magana kamar yadda fahimtar  .

A cikin kalmomin nahawu, kalmar sifar yawanci CV ne, wani lokacin CVV (gaba ɗaya yana ragewa zuwa CV a cikin saurin magana), ko, a lokuta biyu, N (duka  kuma  ). Shaidar baƙaƙe a cikin kalmomin nahawu sune  . Daga cikin su,  kar a faru azaman C1 a cikin kalmomin ƙamus, yayin da  suna da wuya. Don haka akwai ɗabi'a mai ƙarfi ga wasu baƙaƙe don alamar farkon kalmar ƙamus, wasu kuma su fara kalmomin nahawu. (Ko da yake  ana iya gane shi kamar  kuma yana iya zama ta hanyar waya  . ) A cikin kalmomi na nahawu, dannawa galibi ana samun su a cikin CVV da CVq (pharyngealized) syllables, ko da yake akwai kari na jam'i  .  wani lokaci ana sanya shi cikin pharyngealized zuwa  a cikin suffixes. Akalla  faruwa a matsayin C2 a cikin kalmomin lamuni.

## Nahawu
ǂHõã jigon SVO ne – fi’ili–harshen abu (duba misalai a cikin Collins 2001, 2002, 2003). Tsarin kalma na SVO na ǂHõã na hali na iyalai na harshen Kxʼa da Tuu . ǂHõã yana da matsayi na baya-bayan nan da aka yi amfani da shi don alaƙar wuri (duba Collins 2001), kuma mai shi yana gaba da suna na kai.

ǂHõã nahawu yana da fasaloli da dama da aka saba da su ga harsunan Kxʼa da Tuu. Da farko akwai wani tsari mai sarkakkiya na yawan jama'a na suna da yawan magana. Na biyu, akwai tsarin mahadi na magana. Na uku, akwai maƙasudi na gaba ɗaya (wanda ake magana da shi a matsayin "linker" a cikin Collins 2003) wanda ke bayyana tsakanin abubuwan da suka biyo baya.

## Nassoshi

## Littafi Mai Tsarki

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* Gruber, Jeffrey S. 1975. Plural Predicates in ǂHòã. In Bushman and Hottentot Linguistic Studies, A.S.I. Communication 2, ed. Anthony Traill, 1-50. University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg: African Studies Institute.
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* Gruber, Jeffrey S. 1975. Collected Field Notes. (Published in Collins & Gruber 2013)
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## Hanyoyin haɗi na waje

* Aikin Takardun Harshe na ǂHoan a Cibiyar Max Planck don Juyin Halittar Halitta Leipzig
* Aikin Takardun Harshe na ǂHoan a cikin 'Kalahari Basin Area Project' na Cibiyar Kimiyya ta Turai
* Grammar da phonology na ǂHoan a Jami'ar Cornell
* Hoan asali ƙamus a cikin Global Lexicostatistical Database