Margaret Gowing

**Margaret Mary Gowing** (née Elliott), CBE, FBA, FRS (26 ga Afrilu 1921 - 7 ga Nuwamba 1998) masanin tarihin Ingila ne. Ta shiga cikin samar da kundin da yawa na *Tarihin Yaƙin Duniya na Biyu*, amma an fi saninta da littattafanta, wanda Hukumar Kula da Makamashi ta Ƙasar Ingila ta ba da izini, wanda ke rufe tarihin farko na shirye-shiryen makaman nukiliya na Burtaniya: Burtaniya da Makamashin Nukiliya 1939-1945, wanda aka buga a 1964, da kuma kundin biyu na Independence and Deterrence: Burtaniya and Atomic Energy 1945-52, wanda aka buga.

Ta hanyar aikinta a Ofishin Ma'aikatar daga 1945 zuwa 1959, ta san da kanta da yawa daga cikin mutanen da ke da hannu. A matsayinta na mai adana tarihi a Hukumar Kula da Makamashi ta Burtaniya daga 1959 zuwa 1966 tana da damar yin amfani da takardun hukuma da fayiloli na shirye-shiryen makaman nukiliya na Burtaniya. Ita ce ta farko da ta zauna a kujera a tarihin kimiyya a Jami'ar Oxford, wanda ta rike daga 1972 har zuwa lokacin da ta yi ritaya a 1986. A matsayinta na co-kafa tare da masanin kimiyyar Nicholas Kurti na Cibiyar Nazarin Kimiyya ta zamani a Oxford, ta taimaka wajen tabbatar da adana rubuce-rubucen kimiyya na zamani.

## Rayuwa ta farko
An haifi Margaret Elliott a ranar 26 ga Afrilu 1921 a Kensington, London, ƙarami cikin 'ya'ya uku na Ronald Elliott, injiniyan mota, da matarsa, Mabel née Donaldson, malamin makaranta. Tana da 'yar'uwa, Audrey, da kuma babban ɗan'uwa, Donald. Iyalin matalauta ne; mahaifinta ya sha wahala, kuma a ƙarshe ya mutu, daga tarin fuka kuma yana da rashin aiki akai-akai, yayin da aka hana mahaifiyarta yin aiki a matsayin malamin makaranta bayan ta yi aure. Saboda haka, iyalin sau da yawa dole ne su rayu a kan amfanin rashin lafiya na mako-mako. Don nishaɗi, sun yi amfani da shigarwa kyauta zuwa wuraren zane-zane, gidajen tarihi da ɗakunan karatu. Kwarewar kai tsaye ta Elliot game da talauci ya kai ta ga zama mai kishin gurguzu daga baya a rayuwa. Ta halarci makarantar firamare ta Portobello a Arewacin Kensington, kuma ta sami tallafin karatu na London County zuwa Asibitin Kristi a 1932.  Ta yi fice a ilimi, ta kasance prefect, kuma ta buga wasan hockey a gida.

Elliott ta kammala takardar shaidarta ta makaranta a 1936, inda ta sami bambanci a cikin Latin, Turanci da Faransanci da kuma wucewa a cikin Jamusanci. Ta lashe kyautar Leverhulme Entry Scholarship zuwa Makarantar Tattalin Arziki ta London (LSE), wanda ta shiga a shekarar 1938.  Mai ba da shawara game da karatun ta na shekara ta farko shine masanin tattalin arziki Vera Anstey, wanda ya yi la'akari da cewa Elliott ta yanke shawarar yin amfani da tarihin tattalin arziki,  Elliot daga baya ta danganta sha'awarta ga batun ga laccoci daga mai ba da shawara kan karatun ta na shekaru biyu, Eileen Power, wanda ya bukaci ta ta bi aikin ilimi. Ta lashe lambar yabo ta Gladstone Memorial da kuma Lillian Knowles Scholarship don tarihin tattalin arziki a 1939. Daga baya a wannan shekarar, tare da barkewar Yaƙin Duniya na Biyu, an kwashe LSE zuwa Oxford,  inda Elliott ya kammala karatu a 1941 tare da digiri na BSc a fannin tattalin arziki tare da girmamawa na farko. 

## Ayyukan Jama'a
Ayyukan ilimi a tarihi ba su da sauƙin samun su a 1941, don haka Elliott ya shiga aikin gwamnati, yana aiki a Sashen Farashi da Kididdiga na Daraktan Kula da Karfe da Karfe a Ma'aikatar Sayarwa. Daga baya ta koma Hukumar Ciniki, da kuma Daraktan Gidajen Gidaje, inda ta tashi zuwa matsayin Mataimakin Shugaban, kafin ta koma Ofishin Majalisa a shekarar 1945. A can ta shiga cikin Tarihin Ofishin na Yaƙin Duniya na Biyu, a matsayin mataimaki ga Keith Hancock wanda ya kasance babban editan jerin littattafan Burtaniya a cikin Tarihin hukuma. A matsayinsa na masanin tarihin tarihin yakin duniya na biyu: jerin farar hula na Burtaniya, Gowing yana da damar yin amfani da takardu da fayiloli da ba a buga su ba. Ta san da kanta da yawa daga cikin 'yan siyasa da manyan ma'aikatan gwamnati da ke da hannu.

A ranar 7 ga Yuni 1944, Elliot ta auri Donald James Graham Gowing a Ofishin Registry na Wimbledon .  Ya kasance mai ba da murya wanda ya halarci asibitin Kristi kafin ya sami tallafin karatu a Kwalejin Sarki, Cambridge, a 1939. Ya shiga Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve a 1941, kuma yana aiki a hedkwatar Combined Operations. Sun yi aure jim kadan kafin a tura shi kasashen waje. An koya masa Jafananci a Amurka kuma ya ci gaba da aiki a Pacific a matsayin mai fassara. An dakatar da mashaya na aure na tsawon lokaci kuma an ba Gowing damar kasancewa a cikin Ma'aikatar Jama'a. Suna da 'ya'ya biyu, duka maza biyu: Nicholas Keith (Nik) , ɗan jarida wanda aka haife shi a 1951 kuma an sanya masa suna bayan Hancock, da James, wanda aka haifa a 1954. Mijinta, wanda ya yi takaici da rashin nasarar sana'a idan aka kwatanta da nata, ya zama mashayi, kuma ya mutu daga babban bugun jini a shekarar 1969.

A cikin 1950, Sir Norman Brook ya yi ƙoƙari ta riƙe Gowing a cikin Ofishin Ma'aikatar a matsayin masaniyar tarihi ta dindindin, amma Ma'aikatu da Hukumar Kula da Ayyuka ta hana shi. A shekara ta 1951, an gaya mata cewa ba ta da damar da za a nada ta zuwa matsayin Shugaban, wanda zai dauki fa'idodin ritaya tare da shi. Daga baya ta ce shekarunta a Ofishin Ma'aikatar sune mafi farin ciki a rayuwarta, amma ta fara neman wani matsayi. A shekara ta 1955, ta nemi kujera a tarihin tattalin arziki a Oxford, da kuma matsayi a matsayin mai karatu a LSE, amma ba ta yi nasara ba. Sir Norman ta yi amfani da hanyoyi daban-daban na gudanarwa don ba da damar riƙe ta a Ofishin Ma'aikatar, kuma ta shirya don sanya ta a matsayin Mai adana Ma'aikatu, amma bai iya ba ta fansho ba.

Dokar Rubuce-rubucen Jama'a ta 1958 ta buƙaci dukkan sassan gwamnati su kafa ɗakunan ajiya da tsarin gudanar da rikodin. Hukumar Kula da Makamashi ta Atom ta Burtaniya (UKAEA) an cire ta daga dokar, kasancewar kamfani ne na gwamnati maimakon sashen, amma da son rai an nemi a haɗa ta a ƙarƙashin Dokar. Wannan ya haifar da matsayi a UKAEA don masanin tarihi da mai adana bayanai. Gowing ya nemi kuma ya sami aikin a shekarar 1959.  Wannan ya haɗa da shirya tsarin da ka'idoji don zaɓin adana bayanan kimiyya, injiniya da gudanarwa, da kuma rubuta tarihin aikin nukiliya na Burtaniya tun lokacin da aka fara shi a 1939,  UKAEA ta gaji fayilolin kungiyoyin da suka riga ta ciki har da Darakta na Tube Alloys . [1]

A wannan lokacin, UKAEA ta dauki ma'aikata kimanin mutane 40,000 a ofisoshi, dakunan gwaje-gwaje da masana'antu da suka warwatse a Burtaniya. Gowing bai san komai game da makamashi ba; ta taɓa cewa lokacin da aka nada ta, "ba ta san atom daga kwayar halitta ba". An gyara wannan, kuma ta sami girmamawa daga Sir Christopher Hinton da Sir James Chadwick, kuma ta zama aboki da Nicholas Kurti, Sir Rudolf Peierls da Niels Bohr. A wani lokaci ta tambayi Chadwick abin da ya yi niyyar yi tare da dukkan takardun da ke cikin katako a cikin ɗakunansa, kuma kawai ya ce "ƙone su". Irin wannan lokacin da zuciya ta tsaya ya kai ta ga taimakawa wajen kafa Cibiyar Nazarin Kimiyya a shekarar 1972. 

An buga kundi na farko na Gowing, Birtaniya da Atomic Energy 1939-1945, a cikin 1964, kuma ya sami yabo sosai. Stephen Toulmin ya bayyana cewa "Babu misali mafi kyau na tarihin tarihin kimiyya na zamani da ya bayyana". Ya sa Mark Oliphant ya nemi nadin masanin tarihi a Kwalejin Kimiyya ta Australiya a Canberra, da kuma Ofishin Ma'aikatar don ba da sabon jerin tarihin hukuma a lokacin zaman lafiya a shekarar 1966. 

## Kwalejin
A cikin 1966, Gowing ya zama mai karatu a Tarihin zamani a sabuwar Jami'ar Kent, Canterbury, yana rufe tarihin kimiyya, fasaha, tattalin arziki da zamantakewa. UKAEA ta riƙe ta a matsayin mai ba da shawara, tana biyan ta £ 1,000 a kowace shekara na tsawon shekaru uku. Babban aikinta shine rubuta wani nau'i biyu na gaba ga Burtaniya da Atomic Energy 1939-1945 wanda ya shafi lokacin daga 1945 zuwa 1952. Don taimakawa, UKAEA ta kawo Lorna Arnold daga Sashen Lafiya da Tsaro a 1967 don zama Jami'in Rubuce-rubuce na Sashen (DRO) da Mataimakin Masanin Tarihi na Gowing. Duk da cewa an amince da su a matsayin masana tarihi na hukuma, Cibiyar Makamai ta Atom ba za ta bari su dauki bayanan su ba, don haka dole ne su yi rubuce-rubucen su a shafin, a karkashin idon Aldermaston. Don isa can Gowing dole ne ya kama jirgin kasa kowace rana daga Canterbury zuwa Tashar Waterloo ta London, sannan kuma Tube zuwa Paddington da hanyar jirgin ƙasa zuwa Reading, inda Arnold ya ɗauki Gowing a cikin motarta ya tuka zuwa Harwell.

Gowing ya yi ƙoƙari ya tattauna mafi kyawun yanayi a Jami'ar Kent wanda zai ba da ƙarin lokaci don yin aiki a kan littattafan, amma an hana wannan. Ta nemi kujera a Tarihi da Falsafar Kimiyya a Kwalejin Jami'ar London a shekarar 1970, ba tare da nasara ba. Sa'an nan, a watan Fabrairun 1972, Sir Rudolf Peierls da Nicholas Kurti sun sanar da ita cewa Jami'ar Oxford ta kirkiro sabon kujera a tarihin kimiyya,  na farko na irin sa a cikin tarihin jami'ar.  Ba ta tsammanin samun kujera ba, amma Peierls, Sir Frederick Dainton da Hugh Trevor-Roper sun kasance a cikin kwamitin zaɓe, kuma a ƙarshe sun ba da kujera a tarihin kimiyya ga Gowing, mace da ba ta da digiri a tarihi ko kimiyya.

Gowing ya kasance a Kwalejin Linacre .  Naɗin ta, Roy MacLeod ya rubuta, "ya haifar da mummunan rauni ga zamani, kamar yadda ya saba da zamani da zamani na zamani, kimiyya, da kuma karatun tarihi wanda ya fi son zamantakewar zamantakewa, tattalin arziki da siyasa, kamar yadda yake adawa da nazarin aikin kimiyya. "  Ta gabatar da lacca ta farko, *Menene Kimiyya ga Tarihi ko Tarihi ga Kimiyya?*, a ranar 27 ga Mayu 1975 .  A cikin wannan lacca, ta bincika dalilan da ya sa tarihin kimiyya ya girma daban da wasu nau'ikan tarihi, kuma ta yi ƙoƙari ta sulhunta su kuma ta sake haɗa su. A cikin jawabinsa na Wilkins da ya biyo baya a shekara ta 1976 ta bincika tarihin nuna bambanci na Burtaniya game da kimiyya wanda ya samo asali ne daga zamanin Victorian.  

Littafin guda biyu, Independence and Deterrence: Britain and Atomic Energy 1945-52, a ƙarshe ya bayyana a shekara ta 1974.  Buga littattafanta ya kawo yabo. An zabi Gowing a matsayin Fellow na Kwalejin Burtaniya a 1975,  kuma an sanya shi Kwamandan Order of the British Empire (CBE) a 1981.  Ta sami digirin digirin digirgir na girmamawa a fannin adabi daga Jami'ar Leeds a 1976,  Jami'ar Leicester a 1982,  da Manchester a 1985,  kuma a kimiyya daga Jami'an Bath a 1987. Lokacin da aka zabe ta Fellow na Royal Society a cikin 1988 a ƙarƙashin tanadin Dokar 12 na Yarjejeniyarta, wanda ya ba da damar zabar wadanda ba masana kimiyya ba waɗanda suka ba da gudummawa ga kimiyya,  ta zama mutum na uku kawai da ya zama Fellow na Kwalejin Burtaniya da Royal Society, bayan Sir Karl Popper da Joseph Needham.  Gowing bai taba yin rubuce-rubuce na shirin Independence and Deterrence wanda zai dauki labarin har zuwa 1958, lokacin da dangantakar nukiliya ta musamman tsakanin Burtaniya da Amurka ta sake dawowa. Arnold daga baya zai rubuta littattafai uku don cika wannan rata.

### Tarihin Yaƙin Duniya na Biyu: Jerin Bil'adama na Ƙasar Ingila

* *[http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/UK/UK-Civil-WarEcon/ Tattalin Arziki na Yaƙin Burtaniya]* (tare da W.K. Hancock; 1952). London: Ofishin Jakadancin Mai Girma / Longman, Green da Co.
* Masana'antu da Ciniki (tare da Eric L. Hargreaves; 1952). London: Ofishin Jakadancin Mai Girma / Longman, Green & Co.

### Shirye-shiryen makaman nukiliya na Burtaniya

* Burtaniya da Atomic Energy, 1939-1945 (1964) London: Macmillan Publishing .
* Independence and Deterrence: Burtaniya da Atomic Energy, 1945-52. Volume 1: *Yin Manufofin* (tare da taimakon Lorna Arnold). (1974). London: Macmillan Publishing,  . 
* Independence and Deterrence: Burtaniya da Atomic Energy, 1945-52. Volume 2: *Kashe Manufofin* (tare da taimakon Lorna Arnold). (1974). London: Macmillan Publishing,  . 

## Manazarta