Harsunan Afirka da Asiya

Harsunan Afroasiatic (wanda aka fi sani da Afro-Asiatic, Afrasia, Hamito-Semitic, ko Semito-Hamitic) iyali ne na harshe (ko "phylum") na kusan harsuna 400 da ake magana da su a Yammacin Asiya, Arewacin Afirka, da Horn na Afirka, da sassa na Sahara da Sahel . [1] Fiye da mutane miliyan 500 sune masu magana da harshen Afroasiatic, wanda ya zama na huɗu mafi girma bayan Indo-Turai, Sino-Tibetan, da Nijar-Congo.[1] Yawancin masana harsuna sun raba iyali zuwa rassa shida: Berber (Amazigh) , Chadic, Cushitic, Masar, Omotic, da Semitic.[1] Yawancin harsunan Afroasiatic ana ɗaukar su 'yan asalin Nahiyar Afirka, gami da duk waɗanda ba na reshen Semitic ba (wanda ya samo asali ne a Yammacin Asiya).

Harsuna biyar da aka fi magana a cikin iyali sune: Larabci (na dukkan nau'o'in), wanda shine mafi yawan magana a cikin iyalin, tare da kusan masu magana da asali miliyan 411 da suka fi mayar da hankali a Yammacin Asiya da Arewacin Afirka; yaren Chadic Hausa, tare da masu magana da sama da miliyan 58 a Yammaciyar Afirka; yaren Cushitic Oromo, tare da mutane miliyan 45; da yaren Semitic Amharic, tare da miliyan 35; da yarin Cushittic Somali tare da miliyan 24, duk uku na ƙarshe a Horn na Afirka.[1] Sauran harsunan Afroasiatic tare da miliyoyin masu magana da asali sun haɗa da Semitic Tigrinya, Tigre da Ibrananci na zamani, Cushitic Beja, Sidama da Afar harsunan Berber (Shilha, Kabyle, Central Atlas Tamazight, Shawiya da Tarifit), da kuma harshen Omotic Wolaitta. Yawancin harsunan rassan da ba na Semitic ba (musamman Chadic da Omotic) suna da ƙananan masu magana, kuma yawancin harsunan Afroasiatic a Afirka suna da rauni ko haɗari.[1]

Akwai harsunan Afroasiatic da yawa da aka tabbatar da su daga zamanin d ̄ a waɗanda tun sun mutu ko sun ƙare, gami da Masarawa da harsunan Semitic Akkadian, Ibrananci na Littafi Mai-Tsarki, Phoenician, Amori, da Ugaritic. Babu wata yarjejeniya tsakanin masana harsuna na tarihi game da ainihin inda ko lokacin da aka fara magana da kakannin dukkan harsunan Afroasiatic, wanda aka sani da Proto-Afroasiatic. Koyaya, yawancin sun yarda cewa ƙasar Afroasiatic tana wani wuri a arewa maso gabashin Afirka, tare da takamaiman shawarwari ciki har da Horn of Africa, Misira, da gabashin Sahara. Ƙananan ƙalilan malamai suna jayayya da asalin Levant.[1] Ko da kwanan nan mai yiwuwa ga yaren sa ya sa Afroasiatic ya zama tsohuwar iyalin harshe da masana harsuna na zamani suka karɓa.[1] Tsarin lokaci na sake ginawa na lokacin da aka yi magana da Proto-Afroasiatic ya bambanta sosai, tare da kwanakin da suka kasance daga 18,000 BC zuwa 8,000 BC.[1]

Nazarin kwatankwacin Afroasiatic yana da cikas saboda bambance-bambance masu yawa a cikin shaidar rubutu tsakanin rassanta: yayin da aka tabbatar da rassan Semitic da Masar a rubuce tun farkon karni na huɗu BC, Berber, Cushitic, da yarukan Omotic galibi ba a rubuta su ba har zuwa ƙarni na 19 ko 20.[1] Duk da yake ba a riga an kafa dokoki masu kyau don bayyana alaƙar da ke tsakanin rassa daban-daban na Afroasiatic ba, harsunan suna da siffofi da yawa. Ɗaya daga cikin mafi mahimmanci don kafa memba a cikin reshe shine saiti na kowa na sunaye.[1] Sauran fasalulluka da aka raba sun haɗa da prefix m- wanda ke haifar da sunaye daga kalmomi, shaidar don sauye-sauye tsakanin wasula "a" da babban wasula a cikin siffofin aikatau, irin waɗannan hanyoyin nuna jinsi da yawa, da wasu cikakkun bayanai game da phonology kamar kasancewar Fricatives na pharyngeal. Sauran fasalulluka da aka samo a cikin rassa da yawa sun haɗa da ƙayyadaddun kalma ta musamman ta amfani da ƙayƙwalwa (Masar Masar, Semitic, Berber, Cushitic), ƙayyadadden kalma ta musamman da ke amfani da ƙididdigar (Masar, Semittic).

## Sunan
A cikin ilimin yanzu, sunayen da aka fi sani da iyali sune Afroasiatic (ko Afro-Asiatic), *Hamito-Semitic*, da *Semito-Hamitic*. Sauran sunayen da aka gabatar da su waɗanda har yanzu ba su sami karɓa ba sun haɗa da *Erythraic* / *Eritrea*, Lisramic, Noahitic, da *Lamekhite*.

Friedrich Müller ya gabatar da sunan *Ham-*Semitic**' don bayyana iyalin a cikin  (1876). Bambancin ''Semito-''Hamitic**' galibi ana amfani dashi a cikin tsofaffin kafofin Rasha. Abubuwan da ke cikin sunan sun samo asali ne daga sunayen 'ya'ya maza biyu na Nuhu kamar yadda aka tabbatar a cikin Littafin warewa na Tebur na Al'ummai: "Semitic" daga Shem na fari, da "Hamitic" daga Ham na biyu (Farawa 5:32). A cikin Tebur na Al'ummai, an gabatar da kowane ɗayan 'ya'yan Nuhu a matsayin kakannin mutane daban-daban da aka ɗauka suna da alaƙa da juna: daga cikin wasu Shem shine mahaifin Yahudawa, Assuriyawa, da Aramawa, yayin da Ham shine mahaifin Masarawa da Cushites. Wannan asalin ba ya nuna ainihin asalin yarukan waɗannan mutane: alal misali, Kan'aniyawa zuriyar Ham ne bisa ga Tebur, duk da cewa Ibrananci yanzu an rarraba shi a matsayin Harshen Kan'ana, yayin da Elamites an danganta su da Shem duk da cewa yarensu ya kasance mai ware, ba shi da alaƙa da Ibrananci. Kalmar Semitic don Harsunan Semitic an riga an ƙirƙira ta a cikin 1781 ta hanyar Agusta Ludwig von Schlözer, biyo bayan shawarar da Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz ya bayar a baya a cikin 1710. Ernest Renan ne ya fara amfani da Hamitic a cikin 1855 don komawa ga harsunan da suka bayyana kamar harsunan Semitic, amma kansu ba su da tabbacin wani ɓangare na iyali. Imani game da alaƙar da ke tsakanin 'yan Afirka da Ham na Littafi Mai-Tsarki, wanda ya wanzu aƙalla tun daga Isidore na Seville a ƙarni na 6 AD, ya jagoranci malamai a farkon ƙarni na 19 suyi magana da harshen "Hamian" ko "Hamitish".&nbsp;

Kalmar Hamito-Semitic ta fi raguwa daga cikin sha'awa tsakanin masu ilimin harshe da ke rubutawa a Turanci, amma har yanzu ana amfani da ita akai-akai a cikin ilimin wasu harsuna daban-daban, kamar Jamusanci.[1][1] Batutuwan da yawa tare da lakabin Hamito-Semitic sun haifar da malamai da yawa su watsar da kalmar kuma su soki ci gaba da amfani da ita. Ɗaya daga cikin ƙiyayya na yau da kullun shine cewa ɓangaren Hamitic ba daidai ba yana nuna cewa reshe na "Hamitic" ya wanzu tare da Semitic. Bugu da kari, Joseph Greenberg ya yi jayayya cewa Hamitic yana da Ma'anar launin fata, kuma cewa "Hamito-Semitic" ya nuna tsakiya na harsunan Semitic a cikin iyali.[1][1][1] Sabanin haka, Victor Porkhomovsky ya ba da shawarar cewa lakabin kawai yarjejeniya ce ta gado, kuma ba ya nuna duality na Semitic da "Hamitic" fiye da Indo-Turai yana nuna duality of Indic da "Turai".[1] Saboda amfani da shi ta hanyar manyan malamai da yawa da kuma cikin sunayen sarauta na manyan ayyukan ilimi, maye gurbin Hamito-Semitic yana da wahala.[1]

Duk da yake Greenberg ya shahara da sunan "Afroasiatic" a cikin 1960, ya bayyana cewa Maurice Delafosse ne ya kirkiro shi, a matsayin Faransanci afroasiatique, a cikin shekara ta 1914.[1] Sunan yana nufin gaskiyar cewa ita ce kawai babbar iyali ta harshe tare da yawan jama'a a Afirka da Asiya.[1] Saboda damuwa cewa "Afroasiatic" na iya nuna hada dukkan harsunan da ake magana a duk faɗin Afirka da Asiya, sunan "Afrasian" (Russian: afrazijskije) Igor Diakonoff ne ya gabatar da shi a cikin 1980. A halin yanzu galibi ana amfani dashi tsakanin malaman Rasha.[1][1]

Sunayen Lisramic - bisa ga tushen Afroasiastic **lis-* ("harshe") da kalmar Masar *rmṯ* ("mutum") - da Erythraean - suna nufin ainihin yankin da ake magana da harsuna, Bahar Maliya - an kuma gabatar da su.

## Rarraba da rassa

Masana gabaɗaya suna la'akari da Afroasiatic don samun tsakanin rassa biyar zuwa takwas. Biyar da aka amince da ita a duniya sune Berber (wanda ake kira "Libyco-Berber"), Chadic, Cushitic, Masar, da Semitic.[1] Yawancin kwararru suna la'akari da yarukan Omotic don zama reshe na shida.[1] Saboda nisa da ake tsammani tsakanin rassa daban-daban, masana da yawa sun fi son komawa ga Afroasiatic a matsayin "harshe na harshe" maimakon "iyali na harshe".[1]

M. Victoria Almansa-Villatoro da Silvia Štubňová Nigrelli sun rubuta cewa akwai kusan harsuna 400 a cikin Afroasiatic; Ethnologue ya lissafa harsuna 375. [1][1] Yawancin malamai sun kiyasta ƙananan harsuna; ainihin lambobin sun bambanta dangane da ma'anar "harshe" da "harshe".[1]

### Berber
 
Harsunan Berber (ko Libyco-Berber) ana magana da su a yau ta watakila mutane miliyan 16.[1] Sau da yawa ana ɗaukar su a matsayin yare ɗaya tare da yare da yawa.[1] Sauran malamai, duk da haka, suna jayayya cewa su rukuni ne na kusan harsuna goma sha biyu, kusan kamar yadda suka bambanta da juna kamar Romance ko Jamusanci harsuna.[1] A baya, ana magana da yarukan Berber a duk faɗin Arewacin Afirka sai dai a Misira; tun daga karni na 7 AZ, duk da haka, Larabci ya shafe su sosai kuma an maye gurbinsu a wurare da yawa. [1][1][1]

Akwai harsuna biyu da ba su da masaniya da za su iya danganta da Berber na zamani.[1] Na farko shine Harshen Numidian, wanda aka wakilta da fiye da dubban gajerun rubuce-rubuce a cikin haruffa na Libyco-Berber, wanda aka samo a ko'ina cikin Arewacin Afirka kuma ya kasance daga karni na 2 KZ zuwa gaba.[1] Na biyu shine Harshen Guanche, wanda aka yi magana a Tsibirin Canary kuma ya ƙare a karni na 17 AZ.[1] Misalai na farko da aka rubuta na nau'ikan Berber na zamani sun kasance ne kawai daga ƙarni na 16 ko 17 AZ.[1]

### Chadic
 
Lambar yarukan Chadic tsakanin 150 da 190, yana mai da Chadic mafi girma a cikin Afroasiatic ta yawan harsunan da ke akwai.[1] Harsunan Chadic yawanci an raba su zuwa manyan rassa uku, Gabashin Chadic, Tsakiyar Chadic, da Yammacin Chadic.[1] Yawancin yarukan Chadic suna cikin Chadi Basin, ban da Hausa.[1] Hausa ita ce mafi girman yaren Chadic da masu magana da asali suka yi, kuma mutane da yawa suna magana da ita a matsayin harshen magana a Arewacin Najeriya.[1] Yana iya samun masu magana da harshe miliyan 80 zuwa 100 na farko da na biyu.[1] Sauran harsuna takwas na Chadic suna da kusan masu magana 100,000; wasu harsunan Chadic galibi suna da masu magana kaɗan kuma suna iya kasancewa cikin haɗarin ɓacewa.[1] Kimanin harsuna 40 ne kawai aka bayyana su da cikakkun masana harsuna.[1]

### Cushitic

Akwai kusan harsuna 30 na Cushitic, da yawa idan an haɗa Omotic, ana magana da su a kusa da Horn of Africa da Sudan da Tanzania.[1][1] Iyalin Cushitic a al'ada sun kasu kashi huɗu: yaren Beja (c. masu magana da miliyan 3), yarukan Agaw, Eastern Cushittic, da Southern Cushitric.[1][1] Harshe guda ɗaya na Cushitic, Oromo, yana da masu magana sama da miliyan 25; wasu harsuna da masu magana fiye da miliyan ɗaya sun haɗa da Somaliya, Afar, Hadiyya, da Sidaama.[1] Yawancin harsunan Cushitic suna da masu magana kaɗan.[1] Cushitic ba ya bayyana yana da alaƙa da rubuce-rubucen tsoffin harsuna da aka sani daga yankinsa, Meroitic ko Tsohon Nubian.[1] Tsohon rubutu a cikin harshen Cushitic mai yiwuwa ya kasance daga kusan 1770; rubuce-rubucen rubuce-riji an haɓaka su ne kawai don zaɓaɓɓun harsunan Cushittic a farkon karni na 20. [1][1]

### Masarawa

Ofishin Masar ya ƙunshi yare ɗaya, Masarawa (wanda ake kira "Masar Masar ta Dā"), wanda aka yi magana a tarihi a cikin kwarin Nilu.[1] An fara tabbatar da Masar a rubuce a kusa da 3000 KZ kuma a ƙarshe ya ƙare a kusa da 1300 AZ, yana mai da shi harshen da ke da tarihin rubuce-rubuce mafi tsawo a duniya.[1] Masarawa yawanci ana raba shi zuwa manyan lokuta biyu, Masarawa ta farko (c. 3000-1300 KZ), wanda aka kara raba shi zuwa Tsohon Masarawa da Tsakiyar Masarawa, da Daga baya Masarawa (1300 KZ-1300 AZ), wanda aka sake raba shi zuwa Late Egyptian, Demotic, da Coptic.[1] Coptic shine kawai mataki da aka rubuta a cikin haruffa don nuna wasula, yayin da aka rubuta Masar a baya a cikin rubutun Masar, wanda kawai ke wakiltar consonants.[1] A cikin zamanin Coptic, akwai shaidu ga manyan yaruka shida, waɗanda watakila sun wanzu a baya amma an rufe su da rubuce-rubucen pre-Coptic; Bugu da ƙari, Masar ta Tsakiya ta bayyana ta dogara ne akan yaren daban-daban fiye da Tsohon Masar, wanda hakan ke nuna kamanceceniyar yaren zuwa Late Egyptian.[1] An maye gurbin Masar da Larabci a matsayin harshen magana na Masar, amma Coptic ya ci gaba da kasancewa harshen liturgical na Cocin Orthodox na Coptic.[1][1]

### Omotic
Har yanzu harsunan Omotic 30 ba a bayyana su ba ta hanyar masana harsuna.[1] Dukansu ana magana da su a kudu maso yammacin Habasha ban da Harshen Ganza, wanda ake magana a Sudan.[1] Omotic yawanci ya rabu zuwa Arewacin Omotic (ko Damotic) da Kudancin Omotic, tare da ƙarshen da ya fi rinjayar yarukan Nilotic; ba a san ko ƙungiyar Dizoid na yarukan Omotic na Arewa ko Kudancin ba.[1] Harsunan Omotic guda biyu tare da mafi yawan masu magana sune Wolaitta da Gamo-Gofa-Dawro, tare da kusan masu magana miliyan 1.2 kowannensu.[1]

Yawancin kwararru suna la'akari da Omotic don zama reshe na shida na Afroasiatic.[1] Omotic an yi la'akari da shi a matsayin wani ɓangare na reshen Cushitic; wasu malamai suna ci gaba da la'akari dashi a matsayin wani bangare na Cushittic.[1][1] Sauran malamai sun yi tambaya ko yana da Afroasiatic kwata-kwata, saboda rashin al'amuran da yawa na yanayin Afroasianic.[1]

### Semitic
Akwai harsuna tsakanin 40 zuwa 80 a cikin dangin Semitic.  A yau, ana magana da harsunan Semitic a duk faɗin Arewacin Afirka, Yammacin Asiya, da kuma yankin Afirka, da kuma tsibirin Malta, wanda hakan ya sa su ne kawai reshen Afroasiatic tare da membobi da suka fito daga wajen Afirka.   Larabci, wanda ake magana da shi a Asiya da Afirka, shine harshen Afroasiatic da aka fi amfani da shi a yau,  tare da kusan masu magana da harshen asali miliyan 300, yayin da harshen Amharic na Habasha yana da kusan miliyan 25; gabaɗaya, Semitic shine babban reshen Afroasiatic ta hanyar adadin masu magana da shi a yanzu. 

Yawancin hukumomi sun raba Semitic zuwa rassa biyu: Gabashin Semitic, wanda ya haɗa da harshen Akkadian, da Yammacin Semitic، wanda ya haɗa le Larabci, Aramaic, yarukan Kan'ana (ciki har da Ibrananci), da kuma yarukan Semitic na Habasha kamar Geʽez da Amharic. Rarrabawar a cikin Yammacin Semitic ta kasance mai kalubalantar. Ƙungiyar da ke da asalin Afirka ita ce Habasha Semitic .  Tsohon rubuce-rubucen rubuce-buce na harsunan Semitic sun fito ne daga Mesopotamiya, Arewacin Siriya, da Masar kuma kwanan wata tun farkon c. 3000 KZ.

### Sauran rassan da aka tsara
Har ila yau, akwai wasu rassan da aka gabatar, amma babu wanda ya tabbatar da mafi yawan malamai:[1]

* Masanin harshe H. Fleming ya ba da shawarar cewa yaren Ongota da ya kusan ƙare reshe ne na Afroasiatic;  duk da haka, wannan yana ɗaya daga cikin ra'ayoyin da yawa masu gasa.   Kimanin rabin ra'ayoyin masana na yanzu game da asalin Ongota sun daidaita shi da Afroasiatic a wata hanya.
* Robert Hetzron ya ba da shawarar cewa Beja ba wani ɓangare ne na Cushitic ba, amma reshe ne daban. Ra'ayi mai yawa, duk da haka, shi ne cewa Beja reshe ne na Cushitic.
* An gabatar da Harshen Meroitic da ya ƙare don wakiltar reshe na Afroasiatic. Kodayake ana kallon haɗin Afroasiatic a wasu lokuta kamar yadda aka karyata, masana kamar Edward Lipiński suna ci gaba da kare shi.
* Harshen Kujarge yawanci ana ɗaukarsa wani ɓangare na yarukan Chadic;  duk da haka, Roger Blench ya ba da shawarar cewa yana iya zama reshe daban na Afroasiatic.  

### Ƙarin raguwa

Babu wata yarjejeniya game da dangantakar da ke tsakanin da kuma rarraba rassan Afroasiatic daban-daban.[1] Ganin cewa Marcel Cohen (1947) ya yi iƙirarin cewa bai ga wata hujja ba game da ƙungiyoyi na ciki, wasu malamai da yawa sun ba da shawarwari, tare da Carsten Peust ya ƙidaya 27 a shekarar 2012.[1][1]

Abubuwan da aka saba amfani da su a cikin shawarwari har zuwa 2019 sun haɗa da amfani da siffofi na yau da kullun ko waɗanda ba su da siffofinai don jayayya cewa Omotic shine yare na farko da za a raba, sau da yawa Chadic ya biyo baya.[1] Sabanin malaman da ke jayayya game da rabuwa da farko na Chadic daga Afroasiatic, malaman makarantar Rasha suna jayayya cewa Chadic da Masarawa suna da alaƙa da juna, kuma malaman da suka dogara da kashi na ƙamus da aka raba sau da yawa suna haɗa Chadic tare da Berber.[1][1] Masana uku waɗanda suka yarda da rabuwa ta farko tsakanin Omotic da sauran ƙananan, amma kaɗan, sune Harold Fleming (1983), Christopher Ehret (1995), da Lionel Bender (1997).[1] Sabanin haka, malaman da ke dogaro da ƙamus na raba sau da yawa suna samar da ƙungiyar Cushitic-Omotic.[1] Bugu da ƙari, 'yan tsiraru na malaman da ke goyon bayan asalin Asiya na Afroasiatic suna sanya Semitic a matsayin reshe na farko da ya rabu.[1] Rashin jituwa game da waɗanne fasalulluka ne masu ban sha'awa kuma waɗanda aka gada daga Proto-Afroasiatic suna samar da bishiyoyi daban-daban, kamar yadda za'a iya gani ta hanyar kwatanta bishiyoyin da Ehret da Igor Diakonoff suka samar.[1]

Da yake amsawa ga abin da ke sama, Tom Güldemann ya soki yunkurin neman ƙananan rukuni bisa ga al'ada ko rashin yanayin ta hanyar jayayya cewa kasancewar ko rashin siffofin morphological ba hanya ce mai amfani don gane ƙananan rukuni a cikin Afroasiatic ba, saboda ba za a iya cire cewa iyalai a halin yanzu ba su da wasu siffofi a baya; wannan kuma yana nufin cewa ba za a ba za a dauki kasancewar siffofin morphiological a matsayin bayyana ƙaramin rukuni ba.[1] Peust ya lura cewa wasu abubuwan da zasu iya ɓoye dangantakar kwayar halitta tsakanin harsuna sun haɗa da mummunan yanayin takardun yanzu da fahimtar wasu iyalai na harsuna (a tarihi tare da Masarawa, a halin yanzu tare da Omotic).[1] Gene Gragg kuma ya yi jayayya cewa ana buƙatar ƙarin sani game da Omotic har yanzu, kuma masana harsuna na Afroasiatic har yanzu ba su sami isoglosses masu gamsarwa da za a kafa bambancin kwayar halitta ba.[1]

Ɗaya daga cikin hanyoyin kauce wa matsalar ƙayyade waɗanne fasalulluka ne na asali kuma waɗanda aka gada shine amfani da hanyar lissafi kamar lexicostatistics, tare da ɗayan ƙoƙarin farko shine Fleming 1983.[1] Wannan kuma ita ce hanyar da Alexander Militarev da Sergei Starostin suka yi amfani da ita don ƙirƙirar itacen iyali.[1][1] Fleming (2006) wani yunkuri ne na baya-bayan nan da Fleming ya yi, tare da sakamako daban daga Militarev da Starostin.[1] Hezekiah Bacovcin da David Wilson suna jayayya cewa wannan hanyar ba ta da inganci don gano alaƙar harshe.[1] Sun lura da rashin iyawar hanyar don gano wasu nau'o'i masu karfi har ma tsakanin rassan da aka yi nazari sosai na AA.[1]

### Ra'ayi na Natufian
An ba da shawarar cewa idan asalin mutanen Afirka da Asiya sun fito ne daga kudancin Masar, Sudan ta Tsakiya da / ko Habasha cewa suna iya ƙaura zuwa saman Kogin Nilu kuma sun haɗu da mutanen Natufian da ke zaune a Levant da wasu sassan yankin Sinai. Wannan ya haifar da yaduwar yaduwa a ciki da waje na Afirka daidai a cikin Levant, Gabas ta Tsakiya da tsibirin Larabawa wanda ya haifar da reshe mai girma ga duka Cushitic da Semitic. Kamar yadda wadannan al'ummomin za su "rufe" a bakin tekun Bahar Maliya zuwa cikin tsibirin Larabawa wasu sun haye zuwa cikin abin da ke yanzu Djibouti da Habasha da kuma a duk faɗin Horn na Afirka suna ƙirƙirar wani yaduwar da ya zama reshen Cushitic wanda ya fi taimakawa wajen bayyana yadda ake nuna bambancin yare tsakanin wasu rassan a yankin Afirka da Cushit wanda ke da alaƙa da reshe da yawa tare da reshen Semitic wanda ba zai zama lamarin ba idan asalin mutanen da ke magana da Afirka ta Tsakiya sun fito kai tsaye daga Afirka-Central-[1]

Komawa a wancan gefen Bahar Maliya mutanen da ke magana da AA na asali za su fuskanci babban rikici na gaba tare da wasu da ke ƙaura zuwa yammacin Sahara (watakila a lokacin "lokacin kore") suna haifar da reshen Berbero-Chadic wanda aka sake raba shi biyu tsakanin masu magana da asali da kuma yawan mutanen da suka fi duhu. Bambancin da waɗanda suka zauna a Arewa maso gabashin nahiyar suka yi magana zai zama Masarawa a tsawon lokaci.[1]

Omotic na iya kasancewa reshe mai banbanci na "kudancin Cushitic" kamar yadda aka gabatar da shi da farko amma a cikin hasken wannan ra'ayi da kuma rarrabawar yaren da aka ambata a sama Omotic na yiwuwar samo asali ne daga mutanen da suka yi ƙaura zuwa baya zuwa (blue) Nilu zuwa Habasha kafin ko bayan farkon Berbero-Chadic ya rabu don haka yana iya haifar da rassa biyu - Omotic-Masar Masar ko Omotic da Berbero-Shadic-Masar.[1][1]

### Matsayi na hukuma

## Tarihin rarrabuwa
Dangantaka tsakanin Ibrananci, Larabci, da Aramaic da yarukan Berber an fahimta tun farkon karni na 9 AZ ta hanyar masanin ilimin Ibrananci da likitan Judah ibn Quraysh, wanda aka dauka a matsayin mai gabatarwa na nazarin Afroasiatic.[1] Masanin Gabas na Faransa Guillaume Postel ya kuma nuna kamanceceniya tsakanin Ibrananci, Larabci, da Aramaic a cikin 1538, kuma Hiob Ludolf ya lura da kamanceceniyar Geʽez da Amharic a cikin 1701. An bayyana wannan iyali a hukumance kuma an kira shi "Semitic" ta hanyar Agusta Ludwig von Schlözer a cikin shekara ta 1781.[1] A cikin 1844, Theodor Benfey ya fara bayyana dangantakar da ke tsakanin Semitic da harshen Masar kuma ya haɗa da yarukan Berber da Cushitic (wanda ya kira "Ethiopic"). [1] A cikin wannan shekarar T.N. Newman ya ba da shawarar dangantaka tsakanin Semitic da harshen Hausa, ra'ayin da malaman farko na Afroasiatic suka ɗauka.[1] A cikin 1855, Ernst Renan ya ba da sunan waɗannan harsuna, waɗanda ke da alaƙa da Semitic amma ba Semitic ba, "Hamitic", a cikin 1860 Carl Lottner ya ba da shawarar cewa suna cikin iyali ɗaya na harshe, kuma a cikin 1876 Friedrich Müller ya fara bayyana su a matsayin dangin harshe na "Hamito-Semitic".[1] Müller ya ɗauka cewa akwai wani reshe na "Hamitic" na iyali wanda ya kunshi Masarawa, Berber, da Cushitic.[1] Bai haɗa da harsunan Chadic ba, kodayake masanin kimiyyar Masar na zamani Karl Richard Lepsius ya yi jayayya game da dangantakar Hausa da harsuna Berber.[1] Wasu malamai za su ci gaba da la'akari da Hausa kamar yadda yake da alaƙa da sauran harsunan Afroasiatic, amma ra'ayin ya kasance mai rikitarwa: yawancin malamai sun ki yarda cewa harsunan Chadic da ba a rubuta su ba, "Negroid" suna cikin iyali ɗaya kamar tsoffin wayewar "Caucasian" na Masarawa da Semites.[1][1]

Wani muhimmin ci gaba a cikin tarihin ilimin Afroasiatic - da tarihin ilimin harshe na Afirka - shine kirkirar "Ka'idar Hamitic" ko "ra'ayin Hamitic " ta hanyar Lepsius, ɗan'uwan masanin Masar Christian Bunsen, da masanin harshe Christian Bleek.[1] Wannan ka'idar ta haɗa "Hamites", masu kirkirar harsunan Hamitic, tare da (wanda ake zaton ya fi al'adu) "Caucasians", waɗanda aka ɗauka sun yi ƙaura zuwa Afirka kuma sun haɗu da 'yan asalin "Negroid" Afirka a zamanin d ̄ a.[1] "Ka'idar Hamitic" za ta zama tushen rarrabawar Carl Meinhof mai tasiri sosai na harsunan Afirka a cikin littafinsa na 1912 Die Sprache der Hamiten . [1] A gefe guda, an tabbatar da rarrabawar "Hamitic" a wani bangare bisa ga siffofin harshe: alal misali, Meinhof ya raba dangin Chadic da aka fahimta a yanzu zuwa "Hamito-Chadic", da kuma "Chadic" wanda ba shi da alaƙa da Hamitic bisa ga waɗanne harsuna suna da jinsi na nahawu.[1] A gefe guda, rarrabuwa ta kuma dogara da siffofin da ba na harshe ba ne da al'adu, kamar launin fata, nau'in gashi, da salon rayuwa.[1] Daga ƙarshe, rarrabawar Meinhof na Hamitic ya tabbatar da cewa ya haɗa da harsuna daga kowane dangin harshe da aka sani a yanzu a cikin Afirka.[1]

Masanin farko da ya yi tambaya game da wanzuwar "harsunan Hamitic" shine Marcel Cohen a cikin 1924, tare da shakku kuma wanda A. Klingenheben da Dietrich Westermann suka bayyana a cikin shekarun 1920 da '30s. Koyaya, rarrabawar "Hamitic" ta Meinhof ta kasance mai yawa a farkon karni na 20 har sai Joseph Greenberg ya karyata shi a cikin shekarun 1940, bisa ga bayanan launin fata da ɗan adam.[1][1][1][1] Maimakon haka, Greenberg ya ba da shawarar dangin Afroasiatic wanda ya ƙunshi rassa biyar: Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, Masar, da Semitic.[1][1][1] Rashin amincewa tsakanin wasu malamai don gane Chadic a matsayin reshe na Afroasiatic ya ci gaba har zuwa shekarun 1980.[1] A shekara ta 1969, Harold Fleming ya ba da shawarar cewa ƙungiyar harsuna da Greenberg ya rarraba a matsayin Cushitic a zahiri reshen "Omotic" ne mai zaman kansa - tayin da aka yarda da shi a ko'ina, idan ba a duniya ba.[1] Wadannan rassa shida yanzu sun zama yarjejeniyar ilimi game da tsarin kwayar halitta na iyali.[1]

Greenberg ya dogara da hanyarsa ta kwatanta abubuwa masu yawa maimakon hanyar kwatanta ta nuna takaddun sauti na yau da kullun don kafa iyali.[1] Wani madadin rarrabuwa, wanda ya dogara da tsarin wakilci da tsarin haɗuwa, wanda A.N. Tucker ya gabatar a cikin 1967.[1] Ya zuwa 2023, ba a riga an kafa takardun sauti da aka yarda da su ba tsakanin rassa daban-daban.[1][1] Duk da haka, halaye na morphological da ke tattare da proto-harshe da kafa cognates a duk faɗin iyali sun tabbatar da Ingancin kwayar halitta.[1][1]

## Asalin

### Jerin lokaci
Babu wata yarjejeniya game da lokacin da aka yi magana da Proto-Afroasiati Cikakken kwanan wata na lokacin da Proto-Afroasiatic zai iya kasancewa shine c. , bayan haka an tabbatar da harshen Masar da Semitic. Koyaya, a duk yiwuwar waɗannan harsuna sun fara rarrabuwa sosai kafin wannan iyaka mai wuya. Kimanin da mastana suka bayar game da lokacin da aka yi magana da Proto-Afroasiatic ya bambanta sosai, daga 18,000 KZ zuwa 8,000 KZ. Wani kimantawa a ƙarshen ƙaramin wannan kewayon har yanzu yana sa Afroasiatic ya zama tsohuwar iyalin harshe da aka tabbatar. Da yake bambance-bambance da shawarwari game da fitowar farko, Tom Güldemann ya yi jayayya cewa ana iya buƙatar ƙaramin lokaci don bambancin fiye da yadda ake ɗauka, saboda yana yiwuwa harshe ya sake fasalin saurin saboda hulɗar yanki, tare da juyin halitta na Chadic (kuma mai yiwuwa ma Omotic) yana aiki a matsayin misalai masu dacewa.

### Wurin da yake
 
Hakazalika, babu wata yarjejeniya game da inda proto-Afroasiatic ya samo asali. Masana sun ba da shawarar wurare don ƙasarsu ta Afirka da Yammacin Asiya. Roger Blench ya rubuta cewa muhawara tana da "tsarin akida mai ƙarfi", tare da alaƙa tsakanin asalin Asiya da "babban wayewa". Wani ƙarin abu mai rikitarwa shine rashin yarjejeniya game da ƙananan rukuni na Afroasiatic (duba Ƙarin raguwa) - wannan ya sa haɗakar shaidar archaeological tare da yaduwar Afroasiatics musamman da wahala. Duk da haka, akwai haɗin da aka yarda da shi na dogon lokaci tsakanin masu magana da yarukan Proto-Southern Cushitic da Savanna Pastoral Neolithic na Gabashin Afirka (shekaru 5,000 da suka gabata), kuma shaidar archaeological ta haɗa masu magana da Proto-Cushitic tare da sauye-sauyen tattalin arziki a cikin Sahara wanda ya kasance kusan shekaru 8,500 da suka gabata, da kuma masu magana da nau'ikan Proto-Zenati na yarukan Berber tare da fadada a fadin Maghreb a karni na 5 AZ.

Asalin wani wuri a nahiyar Afirka yana da goyon baya mai zurfi na ilimi, kuma ana ganin yana da goyon bayan bayanan harshe. Yawancin malamai sun fi sanya ƙasar kusa da cibiyar rarraba ta yanzu, "a kudu maso gabashin Sahara ko kusa da Horn of Africa". Harsunan Afroasiatic da ake magana a Afirka ba su da alaƙa da juna fiye da yadda suke da Semitic, kamar yadda mutum zai yi tsammani idan kawai Semitic ya kasance a cikin ƙasar Yammacin Asiya yayin da duk sauran rassan suka bazu daga can. Hakazalika, duk harsunan Semitic suna da kama da juna, yayin da rassan Afirka na Afroasiatic sun bambanta sosai; wannan yana nuna saurin yaduwar Semitic daga Afirka. Masu goyon bayan asalin Afroasiatic a cikin Afirka sun ɗauka cewa masu farauta da masu tarawa na Neolithic sun yi magana da yaren proto-harshe, suna jayayya cewa babu wata shaidar kalmomi a cikin Proto-Afroasiatic da ke da alaƙa da noma ko kiwon dabbobi. Christopher Ehret, S.O. Y. Keita, da Paul Newman suma suna jayayya cewa ilimin kimiyyar archaeology ba ya tallafawa yaduwar manoma masu ƙaura zuwa Afirka, amma a maimakon haka a hankali a haɗa kiwon dabbobi a cikin al'adun abinci na asali. Ehret, a cikin wani littafi daban, ya yi jayayya cewa ka'idoji biyu a cikin hanyoyin harshe don tantance asalin harsuna waɗanda su ne ka'idodin mafi ƙarancin motsi da mafi girman bambancin sun sanya "ba tare da wata shakka ba" cewa dangin harshe "ya samo asali ne daga Horn of Africa".

Ƙananan ƙwararrun malamai suna tallafawa asalin Asiya na Afroasiatic,  mafi yawansu ƙwararru ne a cikin karatun Semitic ko Masar. Babban mai goyon bayan asalin Asiya shine masanin harshe Alexander Militarev, wanda ke jayayya cewa masana aikin gona na farko ne suka yi magana da Proto-Afroasiatic a Levant kuma daga baya ya bazu zuwa Afirka. Militarev ya haɗa masu magana da Proto-Afroasiatic tare da Al'adun Levantine Post-Natufian, yana jayayya cewa sake gina ƙamus na flora da fauna, da aikin gona da ƙamus na makiyaya ya nuna cewa dole ne a yi magana da Proto -AA a wannan yanki. Masanin kimiyya Jared Diamond da masanin ilimin kimiyyar tarihi Peter Bellwood sun ɗauki muhawara ta Militarev a matsayin wani ɓangare na babban gardamar su cewa yaduwar iyalan harsuna (kamar Indo-Turai, Bantu, da Austro-Asiatic) na iya haɗawa da ci gaban noma; suna jayayya cewa akwai bayyane goyon bayan archaeological don noma yadawa daga Levant zuwa Afirka ta hanyar kwarin Nilu.

## Halayen sauti

Harsunan Afroasiatic suna da siffofi da yawa.

### Tsarin sautin
Masarawa, Cushitic, Berber, Omotic, da yawancin harsuna a cikin reshen Semitic suna buƙatar kowane syllable don farawa da ma'ana (ban da wasu prefixes na nahawu). Igor Diakonoff ya yi jayayya cewa wannan ƙuntatawa ta koma zuwa Proto-Afroasiatic. Wasu harsunan Chadic suna ba da izinin syllable don farawa da wasali;  duk da haka, a cikin harsunan Shadic da yawa dole ne su fara da ma'ana. A cikin yarukan Cushitic da Chadic, ana iya saka ƙuƙwalwar ƙuƙwalwa ko ƙuƙwasawa don hana kalma farawa da wasali. Yawanci, sassan suna farawa da ma'anar guda ɗaya kawai. Diakonoff ya yi jayayya cewa proto-Afroasiatic ba shi da ƙididdigar ƙididdiga a cikin syllable.

Baya ga wasu harsunan Chadic, duk harsunan Afroasiatic suna ba da izinin sassan budewa (ƙarewa a cikin wasali) da sassan rufewa (ƙarshe a cikin ma'ana); yawancin harsunan Chaadic ba sa izinin sashi ya ƙare a cikin maɓalli. Yawancin kalmomi sun ƙare a cikin wasali a cikin Omotic da Cushitic, suna sa ƙididdigar ƙididdiga ta ƙarshe ta zama da wuya.

Nauyin sauti yana taka muhimmiyar rawa a cikin Afroasiatic, musamman a cikin Chadic; yana iya shafar nau'ikan affixes da aka haɗe da kalma.

### Tsarin sassan
Yawancin harSanya Afroasiatic suna da manyan kayan aiki, kuma mai yiwuwa wannan ya gaji daga proto-Afroasiatic. Dukkanin harsunan Afroasiatic suna dauke da tsayawa da fricative" id="mwBMM" rel="mw:WikiLink" title="Fricative">fricatives; wasu rassan suna da ƙarin nau'ikan consonants kamar affricates da consonants na gefe. Harsunan Afroasiatic suna da ƙwayoyin ƙwayoyin cuta na pharyngeal, tare da Masar, Semitic, Berber, da Cushitic suna raba ħ da ̆. A cikin dukkan harsunan Afroasiatic, consonants na iya zama Bilabal, alveolar, velar, da Glutal, tare da ƙarin wuraren magana da aka samu a wasu rassa ko harsuna. Bugu da ƙari, dakatarwar ƙuƙwalwa () yawanci yana wanzu a matsayin phoneme, kuma babu bambancin sauti tsakanin [p] da [f] ko [b] da [v]. A cikin Cushitic, harshen Semitic na Habasha Tigrinya, da wasu harsunan Chadic, babu wani sauti na asali [p] kwata-kwata.

Yawancin, idan ba duk rassan Afroasiatic ba suna rarrabewa tsakanin ƙayyadaddun murya, murya, da "mai jaddadawa".  Ana samun ƙayyadaddun ƙayyadadden ƙayyadamden ƙayƙwalwa a cikin makogwaro fiye da sauran;  ana iya gane su ta hanyoyi daban-daban kamar yadda aka ƙayyadamsun ƙayƙwalwar ƙayyadatattun ƙayyadagwar ƙayƙatattun ƙayi. Wannan bambanci tsakanin hanyoyi uku na magana ba a sake gina shi ba don ci gaba da hanawa (kamar fricatives), waɗanda aka sake gina su gaba ɗaya kamar yadda ba su da murya a cikin Proto-Afroasiatic.

Wani nau'i na daidaitawa mai nisa da aka sani da jituwa mai ma'ana an tabbatar da shi a cikin Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, da Semitic: yawanci yana shafar fasalulluka kamar pharyngealization, palatalization, da Labialization. Yawancin harsunan Omotic suna da "harmoniya mai saurin ji", ma'ana cewa duk sautin (s, sh, z, ts, da dai sauransu) a cikin kalma dole ne su dace.

### Rashin jituwa na ma'ana

Ana iya samun ƙuntata*w* game da haɗuwa da wasu, yawanci iri ɗaya, ƙwayoyin a cikin tushen magana a duk rassan Afroasiatic, kodayake an tabbatar da su ne kawai a cikin Chadic da Omotic. Ƙuntatawa mafi yaduwa shine game da ƙwayoyin labaran biyu daban-daban (ban da w) da ke faruwa tare a cikin tushen, ƙuntatawa wanda za'a iya samunsa a duk rassan sai Omotic. Wani yaduwar ƙuntatawa shine game da ƙuntatawa biyu na gefen, wanda za'a iya samun su a cikin Masarawa, Chadic, Semitic, kuma mai yiwuwa Cushitic. Irin waɗannan dokoki ba koyaushe suke amfani da sunaye, lambobi, ko aikatau na ƙira ba, kuma ba sa shafar prefixes ko suffixes da aka kara zuwa tushen. Tushen da zai iya ƙunshe da jerin abubuwan da suka yiwu a cikin Proto-Afroasiatic amma an hana su a cikin yarukan 'ya'ya ana zaton sun sha wahala daga rikice-rikice ko daidaitawa.

Saitin ƙuntatawa, wanda Joseph Greenberg ya kirkira da farko bisa larabci, an yi iƙirarin cewa ya dace da harsunan Afroasiatic. Greenberg ya raba sassan Semitic zuwa nau'o'i huɗu: "masu sassan baya" (Glutal, pharyngeal, Uvalar, larynxal, da velar), "masu sautin gaba" (masu saurin hakora ko alveolar), sassan ruwa, da sassan baki. Ya nuna cewa, gabaɗaya, kowane ma'anar daga ɗayan waɗannan ƙungiyoyi na iya haɗuwa da ma'anar ma'anar kowane rukuni, amma ba za a iya amfani da ita tare da ma'ana daga wannan rukuni ba. Bugu da ƙari, ya nuna cewa Proto-Semitic ya ƙuntata jerin nau'o'i biyu iri ɗaya a matsayi na farko da na biyu na tushen triliteral. Wadannan dokoki kuma suna da banbanci da yawa:

# consonants na velar na iya faruwa tare da pharyngeals ko laryngeals; 
# ƙwayoyin hakora na iya haɗuwa *d* Sibilants; Koyaya, babu tushen magana na Proto-Semitic tare da *ḍ* da sibilant, kuma tushen tare da d da sibilante ba su da yawa. A duk lokuta da aka tabbatar da haƙori da sibilant, sibilant yana faruwa a matsayi na farko kuma hakora a matsayi na biyu.

Ana iya nuna irin wannan banbanci ga sauran rassan Afroasiatic waɗanda ke da waɗannan ƙuntatawa ga tushen su. James P. Allen ya nuna cewa dokoki daban-daban sun shafi Masar: alal misali, Masar ta ba da izini guda biyu iri ɗaya a wasu tushen, kuma ta hana velars daga faruwa tare da pharyngeals.

### Tsarin sautin
Akwai tsarin murya iri-iri a cikin Afroasiatic,  kuma ƙoƙari na sake gina tsarin murya na Proto-Afroasiatic ya bambanta sosai. Dukkanin rassan Afroasiatic suna da iyakantaccen adadin wasula (tsakanin biyu da bakwai), amma yawan wasula na phonetic na iya zama mafi girma. Ingancin wasula na asali ya bambanta sosai ta hanyar harshe; wasula mafi yawanci a duk faɗin Afroasiatic shine schwa. A cikin harsuna daban-daban, ana saka wasula na tsakiya sau da yawa don raba tarin sassan (wani nau'i na epenthesis).  Harsunan Semitic, Cushitic, Berber, da Chadic daban-daban, gami da Larabci, Amharic, Berber. Somali, da Gabashin Dangla, suma suna nuna nau'ikan jituwa na wasali.

### Sauti
Yawancin harsunan Afroasiatic harsuna ne na sauti: ana samun sautin sauti a cikin harsunan Omotic, Chadic, da Cushitic, amma babu shi a cikin Berber da Semitic. Babu wani bayani game da ko Masarawa suna da sautuna. A cikin harsunan Omotic, Chadic, da Cushitic na zamani, sautin shine ainihin fasalin ilimin lissafi: yana tsara ayyuka daban-daban na ilimin lissafi, kawai yana rarrabe tushen ƙamus a cikin 'yan lokuta. A wasu harsunan Chadic da wasu harsuna na Omotic kowane syllable dole ne ya sami sautin, yayin da a mafi yawan harsunan Cushitic wannan ba haka ba ne. Wasu malamai sun yi iƙirarin cewa Proto-Afroasiatic na iya samun sautin, yayin da wasu suka yi imanin cewa ya tashi daga baya daga faɗakarwa.

## Kamance-kamance a cikin harshe, haɗin kai, da kuma yanayin mutum
A halin yanzu, babu sake fasalin da aka yarda da shi na yaren Proto-Afroasiatic, syntax, ko morphology, ko kuma ɗaya daga cikin rassan ban da Masar. Wannan yana nufin cewa yana da wahala a san waɗanne fasalulluka ne a cikin harsunan Afroasiatic su ne retentions, kuma waɗanne ne sababbin abubuwa. Bugu da ƙari, duk harsunan Afroasiatic sun daɗe suna hulɗa da wasu iyalai na harsuna da juna, wanda ke haifar da yiwuwar karɓar bashi a cikin Afroasianic da kuma daga harsunan da ba su da alaƙa. Duk da haka akwai wasu siffofi da aka saba lura da su a cikin yanayin Afroasiatic da kuma samo asali, gami da amfani da suffixes, infixes, tsawo da kuma gajarta sautin a matsayin canjin morphological, da kuma amfani da canje-canjen sautin don nuna yanayin. Ana bincika ƙarin kamanceceniya da bambance-bambance dalla-dalla a ƙasa.

### Abubuwa na gaba ɗaya

#### Tsarin tushen sautin
Wani fasalin da aka tabbatar da shi a cikin harsunan AA shine tsarin consonantal wanda aka sanya "samfurori" daban-daban. Wannan tsari yana bayyane musamman a cikin aikatau, kuma yana da mahimmanci a cikin Semitic. Baya ga Semitic, an tabbatar da samfurori na murya sosai ga Cushitic da Berber, inda, tare da Chadic, ba shi da amfani; ba shi da shi a Omotic. Ga Masarawa, shaidar tushen-da-tsarin tsari ya wanzu daga Coptic. A cikin Semitic, Masarawa, Berber, aikatau ba su da wasula na asali kwata-kwata; wasula da aka samu a cikin wani tushe da aka ba su sun dogara da samfurin ƙamus. A cikin Chadic, ƙwayoyin aikatau na iya haɗawa da wasula ta asali.

Yawancin kalmomin Semitic suna da triliteral (suna da ƙamus uku), yayin da yawancin kalmomin Chadic, Omotic, da Cushitic suna cikin biliteral (sunan da ƙamus biyu). Matsayin da tushen magana na Proto-AA ya kasance triliteral ana muhawara. Wataƙila da farko ya kasance mafi yawa biconsonantal, wanda aka kara da wasu affixes (kamar kariyar magana) sannan aka ƙayyade su. Kodayake ana iya amfani da kowane tushe don ƙirƙirar suna ko aikatau, akwai shaidar wanzuwar suna da tushen aikatau, waɗanda ke nunawa a hanyoyi daban-daban.

A matsayin wani ɓangare na waɗannan samfuran, sauyawa (apophony) tsakanin manyan wasula (misali i, u) da ƙananan wasula (a) a cikin siffofin magana yawanci ana bayyana su a matsayin ɗaya daga cikin manyan halaye na harsunan AA: wannan canjin yana da lambobin ayyuka daban-daban. Ba a san ko wannan tsarin dabi'ar AA ce ta kowa ba; misalai na Chadic, alal misali, suna nuna alamun asalin da aka samo daga affixes, wanda zai iya bayyana asalin canje-canje a wasu harsuna.

#### Umurnin kalma
Har yanzu ba a san abin da kalmar tsari Proto-Afroasiatic ke da shi ba. Berber, Masar, da kuma mafi yawan harsunan Semitic sune harsuna na farko, yayin da Cushitic, Omotic da wasu ƙananan rukuni na Semitic harsuna ne na ƙarshe. An sake gina Proto-Chadic kamar yadda yake da tsari na kalma na farko, amma yawancin harsunan Chadic suna da tsari na magana-kalma-abu.

#### Reduplication da gemination
Harsunan Afroasiatic suna amfani da matakai na reduplication da gemination (wanda sau da yawa ya haɗu da ma'ana) don samun sunaye, aikatau, adjectives, da adverbs a duk faɗin iyalin yaren AA. Gemination musamman yana daya daga cikin siffofin AA. Cikakken ko raguwa na aikatau ana amfani dashi sau da yawa don samun siffofin da ke nuna maimaitawa (mingi), kodayake ba a san ko wannan fasalin gado ne ko kuma an aro shi sosai ba.

### Sunaye

#### Jima'i da adadi
Aika sunaye da sunaye ga ko dai namiji ko mace jinsi yana nan a duk rassan - amma ba duk harsuna ba - na iyalin Afroasiatic. Wannan tsarin jinsi na jima'i an yarda da shi sosai daga Proto-Afroasiatic. A mafi yawan rassa, jinsi dukiya ce ta sunaye. Bugu da ƙari, koda lokacin da sunaye ba su da alaƙa, suna da jinsi ɗaya a duk faɗin Afroasiatic ("tsayawa tsakanin jinsi"). A cikin Masarawa, Semitic, da Berber, an tabbatar da ma'anar mata -t don nuna alamun mata; a wasu yarukan Cushitic da Chadic, ana amfani da ma'auni na mata -t ko prefix (wanda aka tsara daga nunawa) don nuna alamar bayyanawa. Baya ga waɗannan amfani, -t kuma yana aiki a matsayin ƙarami, mai banƙyama, da / ko alama mai banƙaw a wasu harsuna.

Harsunan Afroasiatic suna da hanyoyi daban-daban na yin alama da yawa; a wasu rassa, sunaye suna canza jinsi daga mutum ɗaya zuwa jam'i (mahimmanci na jinsi), yayin da a wasu, siffofin jam'i ba su da alaƙa. Baya ga yin alama da yawa ta hanyar adadi da yawa (tare da ƙayyadaddun -*uu/-*w da -*n (a) da aka tabbatar da su), harsunan AA da yawa suna amfani da canjin wasali na ciki (apophony) da / ko sakawa (epenthesis). Wadannan da ake kira "na ciki-a" ko "ƙetare" da yawa an tabbatar da su a cikin Semitic, Berber, Cushitic, da Chadic, kodayake ba a san ko misalai na Chadic ci gaba ne mai zaman kansa ba.  Wata hanyar da aka saba amfani da ita wajen samar da jam'i da yawa ita ce reduplication.

#### Yanayin suna da jihohi
Ana samun lokuta na sunaye a cikin rassan Semitic, Berber, Cushitic, da Omotic. Ba a samo su a cikin yarukan Chadic ba, kuma babu wata shaida game da shari'o'i a cikin Masar. Tsarin da aka saba amfani da shi a cikin harsunan AA tare da shari'a shine don a yi alama da *-u* ko *-i*, kuma mai zargi ya kasance alama da *-a*. Koyaya, adadin da nau'ikan shari'o'i sun bambanta a fadin AA da kuma cikin rassan. Wasu harsuna a cikin AA suna da alamar alama, fasalin da zai iya komawa zuwa Proto-Afroasiatic. Zygmont Frajzyngier ya bayyana cewa halayyar alama ta shari'a a cikin harsunan AA ita ce tana nuna matsayi kamar genitive, dative, locative, da dai sauransu maimakon batun da abu.

Wani rukuni na biyu, wanda ya shafi shari'a, shine rukuni na harshe na AA na "jiha". Masana ilimin harshe suna amfani da kalmar "jiha" don nunawa ga abubuwa daban-daban a cikin harsuna daban-daban. A cikin Cushitic da Semitic, sunaye suna cikin "yanci" ko "yanci". Yanayin gini na musamman ne, yawanci an rage nau'in suna, wanda ake amfani dashi lokacin da sunan ya mallaki wani suna (Semitic) ko kuma an canza shi ta hanyar adjective ko sashi na dangi (Cushitic). Edward Lipiński yana nufin sunayen Semitic kamar yadda suke da jihohi huɗu: cikakke (kyauta / rashin tabbas), gini, ƙuduri, da kuma magana. Harshen Coptic da Masarawa kuma yana nufin sunayen da ke da "yanci" (cikakke), "yanki", da kuma "yanki". Ana amfani da yanayin gini lokacin da sunan ya zama ba a matsa masa ba a matsayin kashi na farko na fili, yayin da ake amfani da yanayin wakilci lokacin da sunan yana da wakilin mallaka. Berber a maimakon haka ya bambanta tsakanin "yanci" da "yanci", wanda ake amfani da shi don dalilai daban-daban, gami da batutuwan da aka sanya bayan aikatau da kuma bayan wasu prepositions.

### Masu gyarawa da yarjejeniya
Babu wani bambanci mai tsauri tsakanin adjectives, sunaye, da adverbs a cikin Afroasiatic. Dukkanin rassan Afroasiatic suna da nau'ikan adjectives ban da Chadic; wasu harsunan Chadic suna da adjectives, duk da haka. A cikin harsunan Berber, adjectives suna da wuya kuma galibi ana maye gurbinsu da sunayen inganci da kalmomin da ke tsaye. A cikin harsuna daban-daban, adjectives (da sauran masu gyara) dole ne su riga ko su bi sunan. A mafi yawan harsunan AA, lambobi suna gaba da sunan.

A cikin waɗannan harsunan da ke da adjectives, suna iya ɗaukar alamun jinsi da lambobi, wanda, a wasu lokuta, ya yarda da jinsi da yawan sunan da suke gyarawa. Koyaya, a cikin Omotic, adjectives ba su yarda da sunaye ba: wani lokacin, suna ɗaukar alamar jinsi da lambar kawai lokacin da aka yi amfani da su azaman sunaye, a wasu lokuta, suna ɗaukar alama ta jinsi da lambar ne kawai lokacin da suka bi sunan (sunan ba ya karɓar alamar).

Tsarin da aka yadu na jinsi da alamar lamba a cikin Afroasiatic, wanda aka samo a kan zanga-zangar, labarai, adjectives, da alamun dangi, shine ma'anar N don namiji, T don mace, da N don jam'i. Ana iya samun wannan a cikin Semitic, Masar, Beja, Berber, da Chadic. Ana iya samun tsarin K (maza), T (mata), da H (jama'a) a cikin Cushitic, Chadic, tare da namiji K kuma yana bayyana a cikin Omotic. Alamar mata T tana ɗaya daga cikin al'amuran da suka fi dacewa a fadin rassan AA.

### Hanyoyin aikatau

#### Tens, fannoni, da kuma yanayi (TAMs)
Babu wata yarjejeniya game da waɗanne lokutan, fannoni, ko yanayi (TAMs) Proto-Afroasiatic na iya samun. Yawancin ƙamus na AA suna nuna bambanci tsakanin cikakke al'amuran magana da marasa cikakkun, waɗanda za a iya samun su a cikin Cushitic, Berber, Semitic, yawancin yarukan Chadic, da wasu yarukan Omotic. Tsarin magana na Masar ya bambanta sosai daga wanda aka samu a sauran rassan. Bugu da ƙari, ya zama ruwan dare a cikin harsunan Afroasiatic don nau'in yanzu / imperfect ya zama nau'in da aka samo (alamu) na aikatau, yayin da a yawancin sauran harsuna da iyalai na harsuna halin yanzu shine nau'in aikatau. Wani hali na yau da kullun a duk faɗin iyali shine amfani da ma'anar ma'anar motsi.

#### "Ƙaddamarwa"
Ana iya samun haɗuwa da aikatau ta amfani da prefixes waɗanda ke nuna mutum, lamba, da jinsi a cikin Semitic, Berber, da kuma Cushitic,   inda ake samun sa ne kawai a kan ƙaramin saiti na aikatau akai-akai. Wadannan prefixes suna da alaƙa a fili a fadin rassan, kodayake amfani da su a cikin tsarin magana na harsuna daban-daban. Akwai tsari na gaba ɗaya wanda ake amfani da n- don mutum na farko jam'i, yayin da ake amfani da t- don duk nau'ikan mutum na biyu ba tare da la'akari da yawa ko jinsi ba, da kuma mace ɗaya. Prefixes na ʔ- (ƙaddamar da ƙashi) don mutum na farko da y- don mutum na uku namiji kuma ana iya sake gina su. Kamar yadda babu wata shaida game da "prefix conjugation" a cikin Omotic, Chadic, ko Masar, ba a san ko wannan fasalin Proto-Afroasiatic ne wanda ya ɓace a cikin waɗancan rassan ko kuma sabon abu ne da aka raba tsakanin Semitic, Berber, da Cushitic. 

#### "Suffix conjugation"
Wasu rassan AA suna da abin da ake kira "suffix conjugation", wanda aka kafa ta hanyar ƙara suffixes don nuna mutum, jinsi, da lamba ga adjective na magana. A cikin Akkadian, Masarawa, Berber, da Cushitic wannan ya zama "ƙaddamarwa mai ɗorewa", wanda aka yi amfani da shi don bayyana jihar ko sakamakon wani aiki; irin ƙarshen kamar yadda yake a cikin Akkadiyan da Masarawa suma suna cikin West Semitic cikakkiyar kalma. A cikin Akkadian da Masarawa, ƙayyadaddun sun bayyana sun zama ƙananan siffofi na wakilan masu zaman kansu (duba Wakilan); an yi jayayya da takaddama tsakanin ƙarshen a cikin rassan biyu don nuna cewa Masarawa da Semitic suna da alaƙa da juna. Duk da yake wasu malamai suna da asalin AA don wannan nau'in, yana yiwuwa cewa siffofin Berber da Cushitic ci gaba ne masu zaman kansu,  yayin da suke nuna bambance-bambance masu mahimmanci daga siffofin Masar da Semitic. Ana iya samo siffofin Cushitic musamman daga yanayin da aka samu a cikin sassan da ke ƙasa.

### Abubuwan da aka saba amfani da su

#### An samo sunan M-prefix
Gabatarwa a cikin m- shine mafi yawan tabbacin da aka fi sani a cikin AA wanda ake amfani dashi don samun sunaye, kuma yana daya daga cikin siffofin da Joseph Greenberg ya yi amfani da su don gano membobin cikin iyali. Yana samar da sunayen wakilai, sunayen wuri, da sunayen kayan aiki. A wasu rassa, yana iya samun sunaye da ƙayyadaddun kalmomi. Omotic, a halin yanzu, yana nuna shaidar ga prefix mai amfani mV- wanda ke da alaƙa da jinsi na mata. Christopher Ehret ya yi jayayya cewa wannan prefix wani ci gaba ne na baya wanda ba ya cikin Proto-Afro-Asiatic, amma an samo shi ne daga wakilin PAA *m- . A. Zaborski da Gábor Takács sun ki amincewa da irin wannan ma'anar, wanda na ƙarshe ya yi jayayya da PAA **ma-* wanda ke haɗa dukkan ko wasu ma'anoni a cikin harsunan zamani.

#### Ƙarin magana
Yawancin harsunan AA suna amfani da prefixes ko suffixes (ƙarin magana) don ƙayyade bayanai daban-daban game da aikatau. Za'a iya sake gina prefixes guda uku don Proto-Afroasiatic: *s- 'causative', *t- 'matsayi na tsakiya' ko 'mai tunani', da *n- 'mai wucewa'; prefixes sun bayyana tare da ma'anoni daban-daban a cikin yarukan da rassa. Christopher Ehret ya ba da shawarar cewa Proto-Afroasiatic da farko yana da kusan talatin da bakwai daban-daban magana tsawo, da yawa daga cikinsu sun zama burbushin a matsayin na uku. Wasu sun soki wannan ka'idar, kamar Andrzej Zaborski da Alan Kaye, kamar yadda suke da yawa da yawa don zama masu gaskiya, kodayake Zygmunt Frajzyngier da Erin Shay sun lura cewa wasu harsunan Chadic suna da yawa kamar goma sha biyu.

#### An samo asali ne daga "Nisba"
Abin da ake kira "Nisba" ƙayyadaddun ne da aka yi amfani da shi don samun adjectives daga sunaye kuma, a cikin Masarawa, kuma daga prepositions. Ana samunsa a cikin Masarawa, Semitic, kuma mai yiwuwa, a wasu siffofin relic, Berber. Ƙaddamarwa tana da nau'i ɗaya na asali a cikin Masarawa da Semitic,  yana ɗaukar nau'in -i (y) a cikin Semitic kuma ana rubuta shi -j a cikin Masarauta. Shari'ar Semitic da Cushitic a cikin -i/-ii na iya kasancewa da alaƙa da ƙaddamar da adjective "nisba".

Saboda kasancewarsa a cikin tsofaffin rassan AA da aka tabbatar da su, ana tunanin samo asali na nisba a matsayin "mafi yawan fasalin Afroasiatic". Christopher Ehret yayi jayayya game da kasancewarsa a cikin Proto-Afroasiatic da kuma tabbacinsa a wasu nau'o'i a duk rassan, tare da siffar *-*ay* ban da -**iy* a wasu lokuta.

## Kwatanta ƙamus

### Wakilan sunaye
Hanyoyin sunayen suna da kwanciyar hankali sosai a duk faɗin Afroasiatic (ban da Omotic),  kuma an yi amfani da su a matsayin ɗaya daga cikin manyan kayan aiki don tantance ko harshe na iyali ne.  Koyaya, babu wata yarjejeniya game da abin da aka sake gina sunayen Afroasiatic zasu iya zama. Halin da aka saba amfani da shi na harsunan AA shine kasancewar saiti na musamman na sunayen "masu zaman kansu", waɗanda suka bambanta da sunayen sunayen. Za su iya faruwa tare da sunayen sunaye amma ba za su iya cika aikin abu ba. Har ila yau, sunayen masu dogaro / adanawa (wanda aka yi amfani da shi don abubuwa kai tsaye da kuma nuna mallaka). Ga mafi yawan rassa, wakilin mutum na farko yana dauke da ma'anar hanci (n, m), yayin da mutum na uku yana nuna ma'anar sibilant (s, sh). Sauran kamanceceniya sune siffofin namiji da mata da aka yi amfani da su a cikin mutum na biyu da na uku, sai dai a cikin Cushitic da Omotic. Wadannan sunayen suna nuna namiji "u" da mace "i". Hanyoyin Omotic na sunayen mutum sun bambanta da sauran, tare da nau'ikan jam'i kawai a Arewacin Omotic da ke bayyana da yiwuwar zama cognate.

### Lambobin
Ba kamar a cikin iyalan yaren Indo-Turai ko Austronesian ba, ba za a iya gano lambobi a cikin harsunan AA zuwa tsarin asali ba. Tsarin lambobi na Cushitic da Chadic sun bayyana cewa asali ne 5. Tsarin a cikin Berber, Masarawa, da Semitic, duk da haka, yana da kalmomi masu zaman kansu don lambobi 6-9. Don haka, yana yiwuwa lambobi a cikin Masarawa, Berber, da Semitic sun fi alaƙa, yayin da lambobi na Cushitic da Chadic sun fi alaƙar juna. Tsarin lambobi na zamani na Chadic wani lokacin suna da ƙididdiga, suna da sunaye daban-daban don lambobi 1-10, kuma wani lokacin tushe-5, suna samun lambobi 6-9 daga lambobi 1-5 a wasu hanyoyi. Wasu iyalai suna nuna kalma fiye da ɗaya don lamba: Chadic, Semitic, da Berber kowannensu yana da kalmomi biyu don biyu,  kuma Semitic yana da kalmomi huɗu don ɗaya. Andrzej Zaborski ya ci gaba da lura cewa lambobi "ɗaya", "biyu", da "biyar" suna da saukin maye gurbin sabbin kalmomi, tare da "biyar " sau da yawa bisa ga kalma da ke nufin "hannuwa".

Wani abu da ke sa kwatancen tsarin lambobi na AA ya zama da wahala shine yiwuwar aro. Wasu harsunan Berber ne kawai ke kula da tsarin lambobi na Berber, tare da mutane da yawa suna amfani da rance na Larabci don lambobi mafi girma kuma wasu daga kowane lambobi fiye da biyu. A wasu harsunan Berber, tushen daya da biyu an kuma aro su daga Larabci. Wasu lambobi na Kudancin Cushitic an aro su daga yarukan Nilotic, wasu lambobi na Cushittic an aro su ne daga yarukan Semitic na Habasha.

### Cognates
Harsunan Afroasiatic suna da ƙamus na asalin Proto-Afroasiatic zuwa wurare daban-daban. Rubuta a shekara ta 2004, John Huehnergard ya lura da babban wahalar kafa ƙungiyoyi a duk faɗin iyali. Bayyana cognates yana da wahala saboda harsunan da ake tambaya galibi ana raba su da dubban shekaru na ci gaba kuma harsuna da yawa a cikin iyali sun daɗe suna hulɗa da juna, suna haɓaka yiwuwar kalmomin aro. Har ila yau, ana hana aiki saboda mummunan yanayin takardun harsuna da yawa.

Akwai ƙamus guda biyu na Afroasiatic, ɗaya daga Christopher Ehret, kuma ɗaya daga Vladimir Orel da Olga Stolbova, duka daga 1995. Dukkanin ayyukan suna ba da sake fasalin da ya bambanta sosai kuma wasu masana sun soki su sosai. Andrzej Zaborski yana nufin sake gina Orel da Stolbova a matsayin "mai rikitarwa", kuma Ehret a matsayin "ba a yarda da shi ga malamai da yawa". Tom Güldemann ya yi jayayya cewa yawancin aikin kwatankwacin a cikin Afroasiatic yana fama da rashin ƙoƙarin farko don sake gina ƙananan raka'a a cikin rassan, amma a maimakon haka kwatanta kalmomi a cikin harsuna. Duk da haka, duka ƙamus ɗin sun yarda da wasu abubuwa kuma wasu ƙididdigar da aka gabatar ba su da rikici. Irin waɗannan cognates suna dogara ne akan takaddun sauti masu sauƙi.

: Abbreviations: PEC='Proto-Eastern Cushitic'.

## Dubi kuma
 

## Bayani
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## Bayani

## Ayyukan da aka ambata
 

## Haɗin waje

* Afro-Asiatic a Linguist List MultiTree Project: bishiyoyin asali da aka danganta ga Delafosse 1914, Greenberg 1950-1955, Greenberg 1963, Fleming 1976, Hodge 1976, Orel & Stolbova 1995, Diakonoff 1996-1998, Ehret 1995-2000, Hayward 2000, Militarev 2005, Blench 2006, da Fleming 2006
* Bishiyoyin asalin Afro-Asiatic da Semitic, wanda Alexander Militarev ya gabatar a jawabinsa "Tsarin asalin harsunan Afro-Asian bisa ga sabbin bayanai" a taron a ranar cika shekaru 70 na V.M. Illich-Svitych, Moscow, 2004; taƙaitaccen bayanin tattaunawar da aka bayar a can (a cikin Rasha) 
* Tushen fadada da Tushen Tsarin A cikin Semitic da Afrasian, na Alexander Militarev a cikin "Proceedings of the Barcelona Symposium on comparative Semitic", 19-20/11/2004. Aula Orientalis 23/1-2, 2005, shafi na 83-129.&nbsp;
* Wasanni na Akkadian-Masar, na Alexander Militarev a cikin "Sashe kan Semitic da Afroasiatic Linguistics in Honor of Gene B. Gragg. " Ed. na Cynthia L. Miller. Nazarin Gabas ta Tsakiya ta Dā 60. Chicago: Cibiyar Gabas ta Tsakiya, 2007, shafi na 139-145.&nbsp;
* Kwatanta sake gina gine-ginen Afro-Asiatic na Orel-Stolbova da Ehret
* "Shin Omotic Afro-Asiatic?" An adana shi a ranar 24   ta Rolf Theil (2006) 
* Shafin yanar gizon Afro-Asiatic na Roger Blench (tare da itacen iyali ).