Tattaunawar wallafe-wallafen

Wani nau'i na sukar zane-zane, **sukar wallafe-wallafen** ko karatun wallafe-walfe shine nazarin, kimantawa, da fassarar wallafe- wallafe-finai. Sau da yawa ka'idar wallafe-wallafen ta zamani tana rinjayar ka'idar adabi, wanda shine nazarin falsafar manufofi da hanyoyin wallafe-wallo. Kodayake ayyukan biyu suna da alaƙa sosai, masu sukar adabi ba koyaushe ba ne, kuma ba koyaushe ba, masu ra'ayi.

Ko ya kamata a dauki zargi na wallafe-wallafen a matsayin wani bangare na bincike daga ka'idar wallafe-walfen lamari ne na wasu rikice-rikice. Misali, The Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory and Criticism  ba ya nuna bambanci tsakanin ka'idar wallafe-wallafen da sukar wallafe-walfinai, kuma kusan koyaushe yana amfani da kalmomin tare don bayyana wannan ra'ayi. Wasu masu sukar suna la'akari da sukar wallafe-wallafen aikace-aikacen ka'idar wallafe-walfe, saboda sukar koyaushe tana hulɗa kai tsaye da wasu ayyukan wallafe- wallafe-finai, yayin da ka'idar na iya zama mafi yawanci ko abstract.

Sau da yawa ana buga sukar wallafe-wallafen a cikin rubutun ko nau'in littafi. Masu sukar adabi na ilimi suna koyarwa a cikin sassan adabi kuma suna bugawa a cikin mujallu na ilimi, kuma shahararrun masu sukar suna buga sake dubawa a cikin jaridu masu yawa kamar The Times Literary Supplement, The New York Times Book Review, The Nework Review of Books, London Review of Books.

## Tarihi

### Tattaunawar gargajiya da na zamani
Ana zaton sukar wallafe-wallafen ta wanzu tun daga zamanin gargajiya. A cikin karni na 4 BC Aristotle ya rubuta Poetics, nau'i da bayani tare da fahimtar siffofin wallafe-wallafen tare da takamaiman zargi da yawa na ayyukan fasaha na zamani. Poetics sun haɓaka a karo na farko ra'ayoyin mimesis da catharsis, waɗanda har yanzu suna da mahimmanci a cikin karatun wallafe-wallo.

Daga baya zargi na gargajiya da na zamani sau da yawa ya mai da hankali kan matani na addini, kuma al'adun addini da yawa na hermeneutics da fassarar rubutu sun sami tasiri mai zurfi akan nazarin matani na duniya. Wannan shi ne musamman ga al'adun wallafe-wallafen addinan Ibrahim guda uku: wallafe-walfen Yahudawa, wallafe- wallafe-xallafen Kirista da wallafe-kashen Islama.

An kuma yi amfani da sukar wallafe-wallafen a wasu nau'ikan wallafe-finai na Larabci na zamani da Waƙoƙin Larabci daga karni na 9, musamman ta Al-Jahiz a cikin *al-Bayan wa-'l-tabyin* da *al-Hayawan*, da kuma Abdullah ibn al-Mu'tazz a cikin *Kitab al-Badi* .

### Tattaunawar Renaissance
Tattaunawar wallafe-wallafen Renaissance ta haɓaka ra'ayoyin gargajiya na hadin kan tsari da abun ciki a cikin wallafe-walfinai na wallafe-finai, suna shelar wallafe- wallafe-rubuce a matsayin tsakiya ga al'adu, suna ba da mawaƙa da marubucin tare da adana doguwar al'adun wallafe-kashen. Haihuwar zargi na Renaissance ya kasance a cikin 1498, tare da dawo da matani na gargajiya, musamman, fassarar Latin na Giorgio Valla na Aristotle's Poetics . Ayyukan Aristotle, musamman Poetics, shine mafi mahimmancin tasiri a kan sukar adabi har zuwa ƙarshen karni na sha takwas. Lodovico Castelvetro na ɗaya daga cikin masu sukar Renaissance masu tasiri waɗanda suka rubuta sharhi game da Poetics na Aristotle a cikin 1570.

### Tattaunawar Baroque
Karni na goma sha bakwai ya ga rikici na farko a cikin zamani na ka'idojin ƙwarewa da aka gada daga zamanin d ̄ a, kamar daidaito, jituwa, hadin kai, ladabi, wanda ya daɗe yana mulki, tabbatarwa, da kuma daidaita tunanin Yammacin Turai game da ayyukan fasaha. Kodayake Classicism ya yi nisa da kasancewa a matsayin al'adun al'adu, za a kalubalanci shi a hankali ta hanyar ƙungiyar abokin hamayya, wato Baroque, wanda ya fi son masu laifi da matsananci, ba tare da yin ikirarin hadin kai, jituwa, ko ladabi wanda ake zaton ya bambanta yanayi da mafi girman mai koyi da shi, wato tsohuwar fasaha ba.

Muhimman ra'ayoyin Baroque aesthetic, kamar su "conceit' (concetto), "wit" (acutezza, *Ingegno*), da "wonder" (meraviglia), ba a ci gaba da su a cikin ka'idar wallafe-wallafen ba har sai da aka buga Il *Cannocchiale aristotelico* (The Aristotelian Telescope) na Emanuele Tesauro a cikin 1654. Wannan rubutun mai mahimmanci - wanda aka yi wahayi zuwa gare shi ta hanyar Giambattista Marino's epic *Adone* da aikin masanin falsafar Jesuit na Mutanen Espanya Baltasar Gracián - ya haɓaka ka'idar kwatanci a matsayin harshen duniya na hotuna kuma a matsayin babban aikin ilimi, a lokaci guda dabara da kuma hanyar da ta dace don samun damar gaskiya.

A cikin lokacin Haskakawa (1700s-1800s), sukar wallafe-wallafen ya zama sananne. A wannan lokacin yawan karatu da rubutu ya fara tashi a cikin jama'a;  ba a karantawa na musamman ga masu arziki ko malamai ba. Tare da hauhawar jama'a masu karatu, saurin bugawa da kasuwanci na wallafe-wallafen, zargi ya tashi. Ba a sake kallon karatu kawai a matsayin ilimi ko kuma a matsayin tushen addini mai tsarki; wani nau'i ne na nishaɗi. Karyataccen wallafe-wallafen ya rinjayi dabi'u da rubuce-rubuce na salo, gami da bayyane, ƙarfin zuciya, rubuce-rice daidai da ka'idojin rikice-rikice na imanin addini na marubucin.

An buga waɗannan bita masu mahimmanci a cikin mujallu da yawa, jaridu, da mujallu. Kasuwancin wallafe-wallafen da samar da shi da yawa yana da lahani. Kasuwar wallafe-wallafen da ke tasowa, wacce ake sa ran za ta ilimantar da jama'a kuma ta nisanta su daga camfi da nuna bambanci, ta kara karkatar da ikon masu fafutukar haskakawa don haka kasuwancin haskakawa ya zama kasuwanci tare da haskakawa. Wannan ci gaba - musamman na fitowar wallafe-wallafen nishaɗi - an magance shi ta hanyar karuwar zargi. Ayyuka da yawa na Jonathan Swift, alal misali, an soki su ciki har da littafinsa Gulliver's Travels, wanda wani mai sukar ya bayyana a matsayin "labari mai banƙyama na Yahoos".

Yunkurin Romantic na Burtaniya na farkon karni na sha tara ya gabatar da sababbin ra'ayoyin kyawawan ra'ayoyi ga karatun wallafe-wallafen, gami da ra'ayin cewa abin da ke cikin wallafe-walfinai ba koyaushe yake buƙatar zama kyakkyawa, mai daraja, ko cikakke, amma wannan wallafe- wallafe-xinai da kansa na iya haskakawa da ƙarawa ga ilimin batun gama gari zuwa matakin mai girma. Romanticism na Jamus, wanda ya biyo baya bayan ƙarshen ci gaban classicism na Jamusancin, ya jaddada fahimta da kyakkyawa na raguwa wanda zai iya bayyana da ban mamaki ga mai karatu na wallafe-wallafen Ingilishi, kuma ya kimanta *Witz* - wato, "hasara" ko "humor" na wani nau'i - mafi girma fiye da Romanticism mai tsanani na Anglophone. Ƙarshen ƙarni na goma sha tara ya kawo shahara ga marubutan da aka fi sani da sukar adabi fiye da aikin adabi, kamar Matthew Arnold .

### Sabon zargi
Duk da haka mahimmancin duk waɗannan ƙungiyoyi masu kyau sun kasance a matsayin abubuwan da suka gabata, ra'ayoyin yanzu game da sukar wallafe-wallafen sun samo asali ne kusan gaba ɗaya daga sabon shugabanci da aka ɗauka a farkon karni na ashirin. A farkon karni makarantar zargi da aka sani da Russian Formalism, kuma dan kadan daga baya New Criticism a Burtaniya da Amurka, sun mamaye nazarin da tattaunawar adabi a duniyar Turanci. Dukkanin makarantun sun jaddada karatun matani, suna ɗaukaka shi sama da tattaunawar gaba ɗaya da hasashe game da ko dai niyyar marubuci [undefined] (don faɗi komai game da ilimin halayyar marubucin ko tarihin rayuwa, wanda ya zama kusan batutuwa masu banƙyama) ko amsar mai karatu: [undefined] tare da aka sani da kuskuren Wimsatt da Beardsley na gangan da kuskurensa. [1][2] Wannan jaddadawa kan tsari da kuma kula da "kalmomi da kansu" ya ci gaba, bayan raguwar waɗannan mahimman koyarwar kansu.

### Ka'idar
A shekara ta 1957 Northrop Frye ya buga wani muhimmin Anatomy of Criticism . A cikin ayyukansa Frye ya lura cewa wasu masu sukar suna rungumar akidar, da kuma yin hukunci da wallafe-wallafen bisa ga bin irin wannan akidar. Wannan ra'ayi ne mai tasiri sosai tsakanin masu tunani masu ra'ayin mazan jiya na zamani. E. Michael Jones, alal misali, ya yi jayayya a cikin Degenerate Moderns cewa Stanley Fish ya rinjayi kansa na zina don ƙin litattafan gargajiya waɗanda suka hukunta zina. Jürgen Habermas, a cikin Erkenntnis und Interesse [1968] (*Ilimi da Sha'awar Dan Adam*), ya bayyana ka'idar mahimmancin wallafe-wallafen a cikin karatun wallafe-walfinai a matsayin nau'i na hermeneutics: ilimi ta hanyar fassara don fahimtar ma'anar matani na ɗan adam da maganganun alama - gami da fassarar matani waɗanda kansu ke fassara wasu matani.

A cikin tsarin wallafe-wallafen Burtaniya da Amurka, Sabon Kotu ya kasance mafi rinjaye har zuwa ƙarshen shekarun 1960. A wannan lokacin sassan wallafe-wallafen jami'o'in Anglo-American sun fara shaida hauhawar ka'idar wallafe-wallo ta falsafa, wanda ya rinjayi Tsarin tsari, sannan post-structuralism, da sauran nau'ikan Falsafar nahiyar. Ya ci gaba har zuwa shekarun 1990 lokacin da sha'awar "ra'ayi" ta kai kololuwa. Yawancin masu sukar daga baya, kodayake babu shakka har yanzu suna da tasiri daga aikin ka'idoji, sun kasance da jin daɗi kawai suna fassara wallafe-wallafen maimakon rubuta a bayyane game da hanyar da tunanin falsafa.

### Yanayin yanzu
A yau, hanyoyin da suka danganci ka'idar wallafe-wallafen da Falsafar nahiyar sun fi kasancewa tare a cikin sassan wallafe-walfen jami'a, yayin da hanyoyin al'ada, wasu sun sanar da Sabbin Masu sukar, suma suna ci gaba da aiki. Rashin jituwa game da manufofi da hanyoyin sukar adabi, wanda ya nuna bangarorin biyu da masu sukar suka dauka a lokacin "tashi" ka'idar, sun ƙi.

Wasu masu sukar suna aiki da yawa tare da matani na ka'idoji, yayin da wasu ke karanta wallafe-wallafen gargajiya; sha'awar litattafan wallafe-walfinai har yanzu suna da yawa, amma yawancin masu sukar suna da sha'awar matani marasa al'ada da wallafe-rikicen mata, kamar yadda wasu mujallu na ilimi kamar Contemporary Women's Writing,  yayin da wasu masu sukar suka rinjayi litattafai masu ban sha'awa kamar littattafan ban dariya ko fiction. Masu sukar muhalli sun jawo alaƙa tsakanin wallafe-wallafen da kimiyyar halitta. Nazarin wallafe-wallafen Darwin yana nazarin wallafe-walfinai a cikin mahallin tasirin juyin halitta akan yanayin ɗan adam. Kuma postcritique ya nemi samar da sabbin hanyoyin karatu da amsawa ga matani na wallafe-wallafen da suka wuce hanyoyin fassarar sukar. Yawancin masu sukar adabi suna aiki a cikin sukar fim ko Nazarin kafofin watsa labarai.

### Tarihin littafin
Da yake da alaƙa da wasu nau'ikan sukar wallafe-wallafen, Tarihin littafin wani yanki ne na bincike tsakanin fannoni wanda ya samo asali ne daga hanyoyin wallafe-finai, Tarihin al'adu, tarihin wallafe-wallo, da Ka'idar kafofin watsa labarai. Da farko ya damu da samarwa, yaduwa, da karɓar matani da siffofin kayan su, tarihin littafi yana neman haɗa siffofin rubutu tare da fannonin kayan su.

Daga cikin batutuwan da ke cikin tarihin wallafe-wallafen da za a iya ganin tarihin littafi ya haɗu da su sune: ci gaban marubuci a matsayin sana'a, kafa masu sauraro na karatu, ƙuntatawa na tantancewa da haƙƙin mallaka, da tattalin arzikin nau'in wallafe-wallo.

### Manyan makarantu na ƙarni na ashirin na bincike mai mahimmanci

#### Hanyoyin tarihi

* Sabon Tarihi

#### Hanyoyin tsari

* Tsarin Rasha
* Labari
* Tsarin tsari
* Tsarin bayan tsari
* Rashin gina gine-gine
* Rubuce-rubucen zamani
* Post-modernism
* Tattaunawar amsar masu karatu
* Tattaunawar wallafe-wallafen Semiotic
* Sabon zargi
* Nazarin jinsi
* Hermeneutics

#### Hanyoyin siyasa

* Tattaunawar wallafe-wallafen Marxist
* Nazarin al'adu
* Bayan mulkin mallaka
* Tattaunawar adabi na mata
* Rashin amincewa da muhalli

#### Hanyoyin tunani

* Kyakkyawan sukar wallafe-wallafen
* Halin da ake ciki
* Tattaunawar wallafe-wallafen psychoanalytic
* Sabon Halitta

#### Hanyar launin fata da jima'i

* Littattafan Afirka da Amurka
* Ka'idar Queer
* Ka'idar tseren tseren
* Ka'idar tasiri
* Nazarin nakasassu 

### Lokaci na gargajiya da na zamani
 

* Lodovico Castelvetro: Waƙoƙin Aristotle An fassara su kuma An bayyana su*na Aristotle An fassara shi kuma An bayyana shi*
* Philip Sidney: neman gafara ga waka*Neman gafara ga Waƙoƙi*
* Jacopo Mazzoni: A kan Tsaron Comedy na Dante*A kan Tsaro na Comedy na Dante*
* Torquato Tasso: Magana a kan Waƙar Jarumi*Jawabai a kan Waƙar Jarumi*
* Francis Bacon: *Ci gaban Ilimi*
* Henry Reynolds: Tarihi*Labaran Labarai*
* John Mandaville: An rubuta shi a tsakiyar karni na 14 - mai yiwuwa ne ta hanyar likitan Faransa*An kirkiro shi a tsakiyar karni na 14 - mai yiwuwa ne ta likitan Faransa*

### Lokacin haske
 

### Karni na 19

### Karni na 20
 

## Dubi kuma

* Book review
* Comparative literature
* Critical lens
* Genre studies
* History of the book
* Literary critics
* Literary translation
* Philosophy and literature
* Poetic tradition
* Social criticism
* Translation criticism

* Literary Criticism a cikinEncyclopædia Britannica
* Tattaunawar wallafe-wallafen a cikin Dictionary of the History of Ideas*Kalmomin Tarihin Ra'ayoyi*
* 
* 
* Laburaren Jama'a na Intanet: Tarin Bayani na Littattafai na Yanar Gizo da Bayani
* Yadda za a yi Binciken Littattafai: Tunanin Gwaje-gwaje Bisa ga Jaridar Yellow Wall
* Kyautar Truman Capote don Masu Kyautar Rubuce-rubuce
* Richards, I. A. (1928), Ka'idodin sukar adabi. Amurka: Harcourt, Brace da Kamfanin.