Yaren Laal

**Laal** yare ne mai haɗari wanda mutane 749 ke magana (kamar yadda na 2000) a ƙauyuka uku a cikin gundumar *ɓoye*-Chari ta Chadi a gefen Kogin Chari, wanda ake kira Gori (lá), Damtar (ɓual), da Mailao . Yana wakiltar rayuwa mai banƙyama na ƙungiyar yaren da ta gabata na Afirka ta Tsakiya. Ba a rubuta shi ba sai dai a cikin rubutun da masu ilimin harshe suka yi. A cewar tsohon memba na Summer Institute of Linguistics-Chad David Faris, yana cikin haɗarin halaka, tare da yawancin mutanen da ke ƙasa da 25 suna motsawa zuwa Bagirmi da ya fi yaduwa a cikin gida.

Wannan harshe ya fara zuwa hankalin masana ilimin harshe a cikin 1977 ta hanyar aikin filin Pascal Boyeldieu   a cikin 1975 da 1978. Aikin filin nasa ya ginu ne, a galibi, akan mai magana daya, Djouam Kadi na Damtar.

## Masu magana da matsayi
The language's speakers are mainly river fishermen and farmers, who also sell salt extracted from the ashes of doum palms and *Vossia cuspidata*. Like their neighbours, the Niellim, they were formerly cattle herders but lost their herds around the turn of the 19th century. They are mainly Muslims, but until the latter half of the 20th century, they followed the traditional *Yondo* religion of the Niellim.  The area is fairly undeveloped; while there are Qur'anic schools in Gori and Damtar, the nearest government school is 7&nbsp;km away, and there is no medical dispensary in the region ().

Ƙauyen Damtar a da yana da yare dabam dabam, wanda ake kira Laabe ( *la: bé* ), tare da masu magana biyu ko uku a cikin 1977; An maye gurbinsa da yaren Gori bayan wasu iyalan Gori guda biyu sun gudu zuwa wurin a karshen karni na 19 don tserewa yakin . Ba a san wasu yarukan Laal ba.

A karkashin dokar Chadi, Laal, kamar duk harsunan Chadi ban da Faransanci da Larabci, ana ɗaukarsa a matsayin harshen ƙasa . Duk da cewa kundin tsarin mulki na 1996 ya nuna cewa “doka ta daidaita sharuddan ingantawa da bunƙasa harsunan ƙasa”, ba a amfani da harsunan ƙasa don ilimi, don dalilai na hukuma, ko yawanci don rubutacciyar kafofin watsa labarai, amma wasu daga cikin manya (amma ba Laal ba. ) ana amfani da su a rediyo.

## Rabewa
Laal ya kasance ba a tantance shi ba, kodayake yawan Adamawa (musamman Bua ) kuma a ɗan ƙaranci ana samun tasirin Chadic . Wani lokaci ana haɗa shi da ɗayan waɗannan iyalai guda biyu na harshe, wani lokaci kuma ana ganin shi a matsayin keɓewar harshe . Boyeldieu (1982) ya taƙaita ra’ayinsa da cewa “Rabe-rabensa yana da matsala; yayin da yake nuna wasu ƙamus, kuma babu shakka morphological, halaye tare da harsunan Bua (Adamawa-13, Niger–Congo dangin Joseph H. Greenberg ), ya bambanta da su. tsattsauran ra'ayi ta hanyoyi da yawa waɗanda wasu, *a priori*, suke sa mutum yayi tunanin harsunan Chadic kusa da yankin." Roger Blench (2003), haka ma, ya yi la'akari da cewa "kalmominsa da ilimin halittar jiki kamar an samo su ne daga Chadic (watau Afro-Asiatic ), wani bangare daga Adamawa (watau Niger-Congo) kuma wani bangare daga wani tushe da ba a sani ba, watakila asalinsa na asali. Kungiyar da ta bace daga Afirka ta Tsakiya ." Yiwuwar ƙarshe ce wacce ke jawo sha'awa ta musamman; idan har hakan ya tabbata, Laal na iya kasancewa ita ce kawai taga da ta rage akan yanayin harshe na Afirka ta Tsakiya kafin faɗaɗa manyan iyalai na harsunan Afirka —Afro-Asiatic, Nilo-Saharan, da Niger–Congo—a cikinta.

Maƙwabtansu na kusa suna magana da Bua, Niellim, da Ndam . Laal ya ƙunshi adadin lamuni da yawa daga Baguirmi, wanda tsawon ƙarni da yawa shine harshen yare na yankin da ke ƙarƙashin daular Baguirmi, kuma wataƙila tushen Chadic dozin guda, waɗanda ba su da kama da harsunan Chadi da a halin yanzu maƙwabta Laal. Bugu da kari, kusan dukkan Laal suna magana da Niellim a matsayin yare na biyu, kuma 20% – 30% na ƙamus ɗinsu suna da alaƙa da Niellim, musamman ƙamus na aikin gona (Boyeldieu 1977, Lionnet 2010). Kamar Baguirmi, Laal Musulmi ne ; wani bangare saboda wannan, ana kuma samun wasu kalmomin larabci . Duk da haka wasu 60% na ƙamus, gami da mafi yawan ƙamus, ba za a iya gano su tare da kowane sanannen dangin harshe (Lionnet 2010). Lallai, wasu kalmomin da suka haɗa da Niellim, gami da wasu ƙamus na asali, ba su da alaƙa da Bua masu alaƙa, suna nuna cewa waɗannan ba tushen Adamawa bane amma lamuni a cikin Niellim daga Laal substrate (Lionnet 2010). Pozdniakov (2010) ya yi imanin Laal wani reshe ne na Nijar – Kongo tare da wani sashe na tsarin sunan sa wanda aka aro daga yaren Chadic kamar Kera.

A madadin, yana iya zama yaren da ya fito daga yaren ƙungiyar Neolithic Near Eastern manoma waɗanda suka yi ƙaura zuwa Chadi, tun da binciken kwayoyin halitta na baya-bayan nan ya gano cewa mutanen Laal suna da mahimmin admixture na Eurasian kama da Natufians da Neolithic Levantines.   &#x5B; **' &#x5D;</sup>

An haɗa Laal tare da [[Yarukan Chadi|harsunan Chadic]] a cikin nazarin lissafi mai sarrafa kansa ( ASJP 4) ta Müller et al. (2013), yana ba da shawarar tuntuɓar farko da Chadic. 

== Fassarar sauti ==
Ana rubuta sautunan Laal anan ta amfani da alamomin Haruffan Haruffan Waya na Ƙasashen Duniya .

=== Consonants ===

Implosives da prenasalised tasha da h ana samun su kawai da farko. Tsayawa mara murya haka s ba zai iya faruwa a ƙarshen sila ba. </link> yana faruwa ne kawai ta hanyar tsaka-tsaki da kuma kalma-ƙarshe. </link> ya bayyana musamman a cikin kalmomin lamuni da wasu lambobi. Prenasalized tsayawa kamar yadda implosive </link> suna da wuya sosai.

=== Wasula ===
Tsarin wasali na kalmomin da ba na farko ba shine </link> da diphthong </link> , ba tare da tsayin daka ba. Don kalmomin farko, duk da haka, ya fi rikitarwa, yana ba da damar bambance-bambancen tsayi da bambanta ƙarin ƙarin diphthong masu zuwa: </link> (amma biyun na ƙarshe sun bayyana ne kawai azaman yanayin yanayin yanayin yanayin </link> da </link> don haka ana iya ganin su a matsayin allophonic).

Bugu da kari, </link> na iya faruwa sosai lokaci-lokaci; Boyeldieu ya kawo misalin ''mỳlùg'' "ja (pl.)".

Akwai sautunan matakin uku: babba (á), tsakiya (a), ƙananan (à). Haɗuwa na iya faruwa akan wasali ɗaya, yana haifar da haɓakar sautin sauti da faɗuwar sautin, kuma waɗanda jerin sautin sauti ne ta hanyar sauti. Ana rubuta irin waɗannan lokuta a nan ta hanyar maimaita wasali (misali àá); Dogayen wasali ana nuna su ta hanji kawai (misali a:).

Suffessixesanfi na iya tilasta kowane nau'i huɗu na Ablaut akan wasali na kalmomin da suka gabata: haɓaka (ɗaukar </link> ku </link> ), ragewa (dauka </link> zo </link> ), ƙananan zagaye (yana ɗaukar </link> kuma </link> ku </link> ; </link> da </link> ku </link> ; </link> , da </link> ku </link> ), da babban zagaye (yana ɗaukar </link> kuma </link> ku </link> ; </link> da </link> zo </link> ; </link> , da </link> ku </link> ). An rubuta su a cikin sashin layi kamar ↑, ↓, ↗, ↘ bi da bi. A cikin wasu kalmomi, a/ə an "ɗaga" zuwa </link> maimakon, kamar yadda ake tsammani, zuwa </link> .

A cikin suffixes, ə and o suna fuskantar jituwar wasali : sun zama </link> kuma u bi da bi idan wasalin da ya gabata na ɗaya daga cikin {i, </link> ku, ku. Hakanan, r yana fuskantar jituwa, ya zama l bayan kalmomi masu ɗauke da l. Suffixes tare da sautin tsaka tsaki suna kwafi sautin ƙarshe na kalmar da aka saka su zuwa gare shi. [https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/42030562/African_linguistic_isolates.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3A&Expires=1526872805&Signature=QykLYKQ%2BZ0SaMXcREtVAyBJD0rI%3D&response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DAfrican_language_isolates.pdf]</link><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">&#x5B; **' &#x5D;
 

## Ilimin Halitta

### Daidaitawa
Za a iya taƙaita tsarin kalma na yau da kullun a matsayin jigo –( barbashi magana )– fi’ili – abu – kalle-kalle ; preposition - suna ; mai-mallaka ; suna - sifa . Ana iya gabatar da sunaye a gaba lokacin da aka sanya su . Dubi samfurin jumlolin da ke ƙasa don misalai da haɗin gwiwar jumlar jumla.

### Sunaye
Sunaye suna da nau'i nau'i na jam'i da guda ɗaya (watakila ana iya kallon na ƙarshe a matsayin maɗaukaki a wasu lokuta), tare da samuwar jam'i mai wuyar tsinkaya: *ko: g* "kashi" > *kuagmi* "kasusuwa", *tuà:r* "kaza" > *tò:rò* " kaji", *ɲaw* "yunwa" > *ɲə̀wə́r* "yunwa". Sunaye ba su da jinsi na son rai, amma jinsi uku na halitta (namiji, mace, ba mutum) ana bambanta su da karin magana.

Ana bayyana abin mallakar ta hanyoyi biyu:

* " marasa iyawa ", ko kai tsaye, mallaka: ta hanyar bin abin da aka mallaka tare da mai shi (da canza sautin ko ƙarshen abin da aka mallaka a wasu lokuta): *piá:r a'a* "ƙafar mutum" ("mutumin ƙafa");
* mallaka : ta hanyar sanya kalmar haɗi, haɗawa bisa ga lamba da jinsi, tsakanin mai mallaka da mai shi: 

: Ana taƙaita kalmar haɗin wani lokaci zuwa babban sauti mai sauƙi.

Duk da haka, idan ma'abucin karin magana ne, ana saka shi da babban wasali ablaut (a cikin na farko) ko sifofin preposition tare da "a" da zaɓin mahaɗin kuma, ana amfani da shi (a yanayi na biyu): *na:ra ɟá ɗe. :* "mutumina na" ("man CONN. at-me"), *mùlù* "idonta" ("ido-ita", daga *mɨla* "ido"). Wasu sunaye ( *páw-* "aboki") suna faruwa ne kawai tare da ɗaure suna kuma ba su da wani tsari mai zaman kansa. Wannan ake kira mallaka na wajibi kuma ana samunsa a cikin wasu harsuna da yawa, yawanci don kalmomin da ke nuni ga alaƙar mutum. Duba karin magana don maƙasudin da suka dace.

Sunan da ke nuna wanda ya yi, ko yake, ko yana da wani abu ana iya samuwa tare da prefix *màr*, ma'ana kusan "shi/she/shi wanda/na": *màr jùgòr* "mai mallakar ƙasa", *màr ce* "manomi" ( *ce* = noma), *màr pál* "mainci" ( *pál* = zuwa kifi), *màr pàlà ta:* "mai kamun kifi".

Laal ya nuna alamun tsohon tsarin suna na Adamawa, amma baya ga lamuni, fom ɗin ba su yi daidai da tsarin Adamawa ba (Lionnet 2010).

Wasu sunaye guda ɗaya da jam'i a cikin Laal (Blench (2017): 

### Karin magana

#### Na sirri
A cikin tebur masu zuwa, lura da bambanci tsakanin haɗawa da keɓancewar mu, wanda aka samo a cikin wasu harsuna da yawa amma ba Ingilishi ba, da bambancin jinsi na "I" a wasu nau'ikan. Mafi yawan mashahuran matasa masu magana sun jefar da jam'i marar rai don goyon bayan jam'i mai rai, amma duka an ba da su a ƙasa. Siffar abu don fi'ili yana da rikitarwa sosai; biyu kawai daga cikin nau'ikan allomorphs da yawa ana bayarwa a cikin tebur da ke ƙasa. "Shi" da "ita" ana amfani da su ne kawai don masu amfani da mutane; sauran sunaye suna ɗaukar ma'anar ma'anar kalma. Wannan ya bambanta da yarukan da Laal ke musayar kalmomi da su, amma Laal yana da alamun tsohon tsarin suna-aji na Adamawa (Lionnet 2010). Siffofin jam’i na mutum na ɗaya da na biyu sun yi kama da harsunan Chadi (musamman, Kera ) waɗanda a halin yanzu suna da nisa da yankin masu magana da Laal, amma ba su da kamanceceniya da Adamawa.

(Kibiyoyin suna nuna jituwar wasalin da aka jawo a cikin suffix ta tushen.)

#### Maganganu na dangi da mara iyaka

#### Mai tambaya
*jé* "mene?", *ɟè* "wane?", *ɗé* "ina?", *sɨ̀g* "nawa?".

### Gabatarwa
Ƙididdiga suna gaba da abubuwansu: *gɨ̀ pə:l* "a (zuwa) ƙauyen", *kɨ́ jà:ná* "ga jikinsa" (=" zuwa kusa da shi").

### Kalmomi
Kalmar fi’ili ba ta bambanta bisa ga mutum ko jinsin abin ba, amma wasu fi’ili (kusan kashi ɗaya bisa huɗu na fi’ilai da aka tabbatar) sun bambanta bisa ga adadinsu: no kaw “mutum ya ci”, mùáŋ kɨw “mutane suna ci”. Jam'i na fi'ili yana da wuyar tsinkaya, amma galibi yana samuwa ta hanyar ablaut (yawanci ɗaga tsayin wasali) tare da ko ba tare da kari -i(ɲ) ko -ɨɲ da canjin tonal ba. Fi'ili, duk da haka, yana canzawa bisa ga abu kai tsaye . Yana ɗaukar bayanan sirri don nuna wani abu kai tsaye mai magana, kuma yana canzawa sau da yawa lokacin da aka ƙara wani abu wanda ba na magana ba kai tsaye zuwa nau'i mai jujjuyawa tare da ƙaramar sautin ƙarshe (wanda aka yi daidai da "centripetal", wanda ke duba ƙasa): ʔà ná ká "zai yi"; ʔà ná kàrà mɨ́ná "zai yi abu"; ʔà kú na:ra "yana ganin mutum"; ʔà kúù:rùúŋ "he sees you (pl.)".

Fi'ili yana da nau'i na asali guda uku: mai sauƙi, "centripetal", da "haɗaɗɗen" don ƙaddamar da kalmomin Boyeldieu. An yi amfani da sigar mai sauƙi a cikin sauƙi na yanzu ko kuma wajibi ne : *ʔà duàg jə́w gə̀m* "ya gangara cikin gaɓar kogi" (lit. "ya sauka bakin kogi"). "Centripetal" yana nuna aiki "a nan", ko dai a sarari, motsi zuwa ga mai magana, ko na ɗan lokaci, aiki har zuwa yanzu; ana samuwa ta wurin saka wasali (sau da yawa, amma ba koyaushe, daidai da wasali na ƙarshe a cikin kalmar): *ʔà duàgà jə́w gə̀m* "ya sauko a bakin kogi (zuwa gare ni)". "Masu shiga", gabaɗaya an ƙirƙira su kamar centripetal amma tare da babban sautin ƙarshe, gabaɗaya yana nuna wani abu ko kayan aiki da aka tsallake:
 
Nan da nan kafin fi’ili, za a iya sanya barbashi don nuna wasu sifofi ban da sauƙaƙan halin yanzu; irin wannan barbashi sun haɗa da *ná* (pl. *ní* ) marking future tense, *taá:/teé:* (pl. *tií:* ) marking continuation action, *wáa:* (pl. *wíi:* ) marking motion, *náa:* (pl. *níi:* ) kasancewa a fili a hade *ná* da *wáa:*, *mà* (pl. *mì* ) ma'ana "dole", *mɨ́* marking reporting speech (apparly an evidential ), *mɨ́nà* (pl. *mínì* ) expressing intention, *kò* marking habitual action, *ɓə́l* or *ga* (pl. *gi* ) . alamar aikin da bai cika ba, da *wó* (ko da yaushe yana tare da *ʔàle* bayan fi'ili) ma'ana "wataƙila".

Mediopassives (duba passive voice, middle voice ) za a iya samu daga fi'ili transitive ta ƙara wani suffix *-↑ɨ́ɲ* : *no siár sà:b* "wani ya yage riga" > *sà:b sérɨ́ɲ* "the mayafi yage". Ga inverse, forming transitive fi'ili daga intransitives, canje-canje a sautin ko zuwa jam'i wani lokacin faruwa.

Suna iya zama wani lokaci ana samun sunaye na fi’ili, galibi daga ma’anoni, ta hanyar ƙara waƙa (wasula) *l*, wani lokaci tare da canjin ablaut da sautin: *wal* “fall” > *wàlál* “a fall”, *sùbá* “lie” > *sɨ́blál* (pl. *súbɨ̀r* ) "karya". A *l* ya zama *n* kusa da hanci da *r* kusa da *r* : *mutum* "dadi", *manan* "dandano mai kyau".

#### Alamomi
Siffofin ba su zama nau'i mai zaman kansa a cikin Laal ba; ga dukkan alamu, suna yin kamar fi’ili: *gò: ʔì:r* “akuya baƙar fata ce”. Dalili kuwa, yawanci ana haɗa su azaman jumlar dangi :
 

### Lambobi

### Kalamai
Maganganu gabaɗaya suna zuwa a ƙarshen sashe. Ga wasu muhimman maganganu:

Maganganun wuri:

* "a nan": *ɗágàl, núŋú*
* "a": *ɗa*
* "over there, yonder": *ɗàŋá*

Maganganun lokaci:

* "rana kafin jiya": *tá:r*
* "jiya": *ʔiè:n*
* "yau": *cicam*, *tari-màá*
* "recently": *bèrè*
* "soon": *sugo*
* "gobe": *jìlí-kà:rì*
* "rana bayan gobe": *miàlgà*

### Modals
Anan ga mafi mahimmancin tsari:

* Kafin fi'ili: *mɨ́* "(ce) cewa", *gàná* "sai"
* Bayan fi'ili: *wó* "not", *(ʔà)le* "watakila", *ɓə́l* "gain", *ʔá* or *gà* "already", *à* interrogative, *wá* exclamatory, *ta* "now", *cám* "gain, anew".

### haɗin gwiwa
Ana iya raba haɗin kai zuwa iri biyar:

* kadai ( main clause - conjunction - subordinate clause }: *mɨ́* "(ce) cewa", *ɓə* "saboda"
* ko dai {babban magana - haɗin kai - juzu'i na ƙasa} ko {haɗin kai - jumlar ƙasa - babban jigo}: *ɟò* "if", *dànngà* (yiwuwar daga Baguirmian) "lokacin"
* kewaye: ko dai {conjunction - main clause - conjunction - subordinate clause} ko {conjunction - subordinate clause - conjunction - main clause}: *ɟò...* *ganin* "idan"
* coordinate clause - conjunction - coordinate clause: *ní* "then afterwards", *ku* "then", *kó* "duk da haka", *á* or *ná* "and", *ɓe:* "ko", *ʔàmá* (daga Larabci ko Baguirmian) "amma".
* kewaye: haɗe-haɗe-haɗe-haɗe-haɗe-haɗin kai: *ku...* *ku* "then", *jàn...* *jàn* "duka..." da".

## Misalin jimlolin
     

## Duba kuma

*  (Wiktionary)

## Manazarta

* Roger Blench. *Archaeology, Harshe, da Tsohon Afirka.* Altamira Press mai zuwa.
* Pascal Boyeldieu. 1977. “Eléments pour une phonologie du laal de Gori (Moyen-Chari), *Etudes phonologiques tchadiennes*, Paris, SELAF (Bibliothèque, 63–64), shafi na 186–198.
* Pascal Boyeldieu. 1982. *Deux études laal (Moyen-Chari, Tchad)*, in *Verbindung mit SELAF, Paris* . Berlin: Reimer. Marburger Studien zur Afrika- und Asienkunde: Ser. A, Afrika; Bd. 29. ISBN&nbsp; .
* Pascal Boyeldieu. 1982. "Quelques questions portant sur la classification du laal (Tchad)". a cikin JUNGRAITHMAYR, H., *Harsunan Chadi a cikin Yankin Hamitosemitic-Nigritic Border Area (Takardun Taro na Marburg, 1979)* . Berlin : Reimer, p.&nbsp;80-93. Col. Marburger Studien zur Afrika- und Asienkunde, Serie A : Afrika.
* Pascal Boyeldieu. 1987. "Ƙaddamar da kai tsaye/madaidaici en laal". in BOYELDIEU, P., *La maison du chef et la tête du cabri : des degrés de la détermination nominale dans les langues d'Afrique centrale* . Paris : Geuthner, p.&nbsp;77-87. ISBN&nbsp;
* David Faris, 19 ga Satumba, 1994. "Taƙaice Cikin Gida: Harshen Laal/Gori". Kungiyar Binciken SIL / Chadi . (Ba a buga ba.)
* Florian Lionnet & Konstantin Pozdniakov, "Laal: harshen keɓewa?", https://web.archive.org/web/20120316222007/http://25images.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr/player/player.php?id=72&id_sequence=425&quality=hd a cikin taron *bitar Harshe a Afirka*, Lyons, Disamba 4, 2010

## Hanyoyin haɗi na waje

* Laal a LLACAN
* Aikin Genographic: Bayanan kula na Zalloua gami da rikodi biyu na rikodin Laal akan layi
* Lissafin Laal Swadesh  Archived   (daga Florian Lionnet)