William S. Gray

**William S. Gray** (5 Yuni 1885 - 8 Satumba 1960 ) malami ne a Amurka kuma mai ba da shawara kan karatu da rubutu, wanda aka fi sani da "lakabin ‘Uban Karatu". 

## Rayuwa da aiki
An haifi Gray a garin Coatsburg, Illinois, a ranar 5 ga Yuni, 1885. Ya kammala karatu daga makarantar sakandare a 1904 kuma ya fara koyarwa a gidan makaranta mai ɗaki ɗaya a Adams County, Illinois. Bayan shekaru hudu na koyarwa kuma ya zama shugaban ya tafi Jami'ar Jihar Illinois don karatun horar da malamai na shekaru biyu. Nazarinsa ya sami rinjaye daga ƙungiyar Herbartian ta Arewacin Amurka wacce ta jaddada farawa da abin da yaron ya sani da ci gaba da tsarin koyarwa.

Gray ya ci gaba da inganta karatunsa a Jami'ar Chicago inda ya sami digiri na farko a 1913.

Daga nan ya kwashe shekara guda (1913-1914) a Kwalejin Malamai ta Jami'ar Columbia, ɗayan kwalejin malamai a ƙasar ban da Chicago. A can, ya zo ƙarƙashin tasirin Edward Thorndike da Charles Judd, dukansu biyu sun sami rinjaye daga masu amfani William James da John Dewey. Thorndike da Judd sun kasance daga cikin na farko da suka yi amfani da sabbin hanyoyin kididdiga na ilimin halayyar mutum ga ilimi, an dauke su ci gaba mafi mahimmanci a duk tarihin ilimi a Amurka, kuma daga baya za su motsa aikinsu zuwa Chicago.

A Columbia, Gray "ya juya zuwa ga ma'auni mai ma'ana, daidaito na lissafi, halin da ya dace, inganci a makarantu, bincike bisa ga sakamakon, da kuma amfani da sakamakon bincike wanda ke tallafawa tattalin arzikin karatun shiru, da kuma muhimmancin shirin koyar da karatu a cikin wannan ƙasa kusan rabin karni na gaba".  A ƙarshen shekara a Columbia, ya sami digiri na Master of Arts da difloma na Kolejin Malamai a Ilimi a Makarantar Al'ada.&nbsp; 

Gray ya koma Jami'ar Chicago don samun Ph.D. a 1916 don daya daga cikin takardun digiri uku na farko akan karatu. An kira shi "Studies of Elementary School Reading Through Standardized Tests". Ayyukan Gray na ilimi a Jami'ar Chicago sun kasance daga 1916-1945. Ya yi aiki a matsayin Darakta na Bincike a Karatu a Makarantar Ilimi, a Jami'ar Chicago kuma ya zama shugaban farko na Ƙungiyar Karatu ta Duniya. Jeanne Chall ta kira shi "sanannen jagora, kuma mai magana da yawun, masana karatu na shekaru arba'in. " A lokacin rayuwarsa, an san shi da daya daga cikin mutane da masu bincike masu tasiri a fagen. Mutanen zamaninsa sun hada da Arthur Irving Gates (1890-1972); Ernest Horn (1882-1967); da Ruth Strang (1896-1971).

A cikin 1929, Gray ya fara alakarsa da mai bugawa Scott Foresman . Ya rubuta tare da William H. Elson The Elson Basic Readers (wanda aka sake masa suna Elson-Gray Basic Readers a 1936) kuma ya yi aiki a matsayin darektan Curriculum Foundation Series a Scott Foresman .  Gray ya kuma yi aiki tare da Zerna Sharp, mai ba da shawara game da karatu da editan littafi ga Scott Foresman, kan karatun matani ga yara na makarantar firamare. Sharp ya haɓaka haruffa na "Dick," "Jane," da "Sally" (da dabbobi, "Spot" da "Puff") kuma ya shirya jerin littattafan da suka zama sanannun masu karatu na Dick da Jane. Gray ya rubuta kuma Eleanor B. Campbell ya yi mafi yawan zane-zane ga masu karatu na farko.   Haruffa na "Dick" da "Jane" sun fara fitowa a cikin *Masu Karatu na Elson*-Gray a cikin 1930, sun kai ga girman shahararsu a cikin shekarun 1950, kuma sun ci gaba da bayyana a cikin abubuwan da suka biyo baya har sai an yi ritaya a cikin 1965. A ƙarshen 1970s da farkon 1980s, bayan koyar da miliyoyin Amurkawa yadda za a karanta, an maye gurbin masu karatu na Dick da Jane da wasu matani masu karatu kuma a hankali sun ɓace daga amfani a makarantu. A yau, haruffa "Dick," "Jane," da "Sally" sun zama gumakan al'adun Amurka na tsakiyar ƙarni ga mutane da yawa daga ƙarni na jariri kuma littattafan sun zama abubuwa masu tarawa.

Nazarin Gray game da karatu da rubutu a duniya don UNESCO ya ɗauki shekaru huɗu na bincike kuma ya haifar da littafin, The koyar da karatu da rubuce-rubuce: Binciken kasa da kasa. Gray shine babban gwani kan karatu a farkon rabin karni na 20. Ya inganta dukkan hanyar koyar da karatun kalma da ke tallafawa ta hanyar mai da hankali ga mahallin, tsari, tsarin da alamun graphophonemic. Malamai kamar Helen Huus sun sami hanyar Gray cikakke, saboda yara na farko sun haddace wasu kalmomi ta hanyar gani, sannan suka haɓaka takardun kalmomi ta hanyar amfani da waɗannan kalmomin da aka sani a matsayin maki.

Gray ya kuma kasance marubucin fiye da 500 karatu, sake dubawa, labarai, da littattafai game da karatu da koyarwa, gami da On Their Own in Reading: How to Give Children Independence in Analyzing New Words.  Ya kasance Daraktan Karatu na Curriculum Foundation Series Scott, Foresman & Company.

A cikin 1935, Gray ya haɗu da Bernice Leary na Kwalejin St. Xavier, Chicago, don buga aikin su na musamman a cikin karantawa, Abin da ke sa Littafin da za a iya karantawa. Ya yi ƙoƙari ya gano abin da ya sa littafi ya zama mai karantawa ga manya masu iyakance ikon karatu.

## Binciken Karatu na Manya
Sashe na farko na binciken ya kunshi binciken karatu da rubutu na manya tsakanin 15 da 50, daya daga cikin binciken farko na fararen hula masu girma a Amurka.

Samfurin ya kunshi manya 1,690 daga cibiyoyi da yankuna daban-daban a fadin kasar. Gwajin ya kunshi sassa biyu. Na farko ya yi amfani da wasu sassan almara da wadanda ba almara ba daga mujallu, littattafai, da jaridu. Sashe na biyu ya yi amfani da gwajin karatu na Monroe Standardized, wanda ya ba da sakamakon a cikin maki.

Sakamakon ya nuna matsakaicin maki na 7.81. Wannan yana nufin cewa manya da aka gwada sun iya karatu tare da matsakaicin ƙwarewa daidai da na ɗalibai a cikin watan takwas na aji na bakwai. Kimanin kashi 44 cikin dari sun kai ko sun wuce matakin karatu na ɗaliban aji na takwas na makarantar firamare.

Kimanin kashi ɗaya bisa uku ya faɗi a cikin digiri 2 zuwa 6, wani ɓangare na uku daga 7 zuwa 12, kuma sauran daga 13 zuwa 17. Wadannan sakamakon kusan suna nuna matakin firamare, sakandare, da kwaleji.

Marubutan sun jaddada cewa rabin yawan manya ba su da kayan da suka dace da aka rubuta a matakin su. "A gare su, "sun rubuta, "an hana dabi'un da ke wadatar karatu, sai dai idan kayan da ke nuna sha'awar manya sun dace don biyan bukatun su. "

Kashi ɗaya bisa uku na yawan jama'a yana buƙatar kayan da aka rubuta a matakin aji na 4, 5, da 6. Masu karatu mafi talauci - kashi ɗaya cikin shida na yawan manya - suna buƙatar "har yanzu kayan aiki masu sauƙi don amfani don inganta ilimin karatu da rubutu da kuma kafa dabi'un karatu na asali".  (shafi na 95) &nbsp;

Ma'auni da Gray da Leary suka yi amfani da shi sun haɗa da zaɓuɓɓuka 48 na kusan kalmomi 100 kowannensu, rabin su fiction, waɗanda aka ɗauke su daga littattafai, mujallu, da jaridu da manya suka fi karantawa. Sun kafa wahalar waɗannan zaɓuɓɓuka ta hanyar gwajin fahimtar karatu da aka ba kimanin manya 800 waɗanda aka tsara don gwada ikon su na samun babban ra'ayin sashi.

## Canjin canji
Sashe na biyu na What Makes a Book Readable bincike ne mai zurfi game da abubuwan da ke cikin salon rubutu wanda ke shafar karantawa (samar karantawa). Har zuwa karatun John Bormuth a cikin shekarun 1970s, babu wanda ya yi nazarin karatu sosai ko kuma ya bincika abubuwa masu yawa ko alaƙar da ke tsakanin su. Marubutan sun fara gano abubuwa 289 da ke shafar iya karatu kuma sun haɗa su a ƙarƙashin waɗannan jigogi huɗu:

1. Abubuwan da ke ciki 2. Hanyar 3. Tsarin 4. Abubuwan da ke tattare da Ƙungiyar

Marubutan sun gano cewa abun ciki, tare da ɗan gajeren gefe akan salon, ya fi muhimmanci. Na uku a muhimmancin shine tsari, kuma kusan daidai da shi, "abubuwan tsari," yana nufin surori, sassan, jigogi, da sakin layi waɗanda ke nuna alaƙar ra'ayoyin.  (shafi na 31) &nbsp;

Sun gano cewa ba za su iya auna abun ciki ba, tsari, ko ƙungiya ta hanyar kididdiga, kodayake da yawa daga baya za su gwada. Duk da yake ba su yi watsi da sauran dalilai uku ba, Gray da Leary sun mai da hankali kan sauye-sauye 82 na salon, 64 daga cikinsu zasu iya ƙidaya. Sun ba da gwaje-gwaje da yawa ga kusan mutane dubu. Kowane gwaji ya haɗa da wurare da tambayoyi da yawa don nuna yadda batutuwan suka fahimce su.

Da yake suna da ma'auni, yanzu, game da wahalar kowane sashi, sun sami damar ganin abin da masu canji suka canza yayin da masu saurin wucewa suka fi wuya. Sun yi amfani da ma'aunin ma'auni don nuna waɗannan alaƙar.

Kodayake babu wani daga cikin masu canji da aka yi nazari da ke da alaƙa mafi girma fiye da .52, marubutan sun sani ta hanyar haɗuwa da masu canji, za su iya kaiwa ga matakan da suka fi girma. Saboda hada masu canji da ke da alaƙa da juna ba su da ma'aunin ma'auni, suna buƙatar gano waɗanne abubuwa ne masu tsinkaya sosai amma ba su da alaƙa le juna.

Gray da Leary sun yi amfani da biyar daga cikin masu canji da ke sama, lambobi 1, 5, 8, 15, da 17, don ƙirƙirar tsari, wanda ke da alaƙa da .645 tare da ƙididdigar ƙarancin karatu. Wani muhimmin halayyar tsarin karatu shine wanda ke amfani da ƙarin masu canji na iya zama kawai daidai amma ya fi wuya a auna da amfani. Daga baya tsarin da ke amfani da ƙananan masu canji na iya samun alaƙa mafi girma (shafi na 137-139).&nbsp;

Ayyukan Gray da Leary sun haifar da babban ƙoƙari don neman cikakkiyar tsari, ta amfani da haɗuwa daban-daban na masu canji. A shekara ta 1954, Klare da Buck sun lissafa tsarin 25 ga yara da kuma wasu 14 ga masu karatu. A shekara ta 1981, George Klare ya lura cewa akwai tsari sama da 200 da aka buga.

Bincike ya tabbatar da cewa masu canji guda biyu da aka saba amfani da su a cikin tsarin karatu-ma'anar ma'auni kamar wahalar ƙamus da ma'aunin syntactic (tsarin jumla) kamar matsakaicin tsawon jumla - sune mafi kyawun masu tsinkaya na wahalar rubutu.

## Bayanan da aka ambata