Fasahar bayanai

**Fasahar bayanai** (**IT**) jeri ne na fannoni masu alaƙa a cikin fasahar bayanai da sadarwa (ICT), wanda ya ƙunshi tsarin kwamfuta, software, harsunan shirye-shirye, bayanai da sarrafa bayanai, da ajiya. Fasahar bayanai aikace-aikace ne na kimiyyar kwamfuta da Injiniyan kwamfuta.

Ana amfani da kalmar a matsayin ma'anar kwamfutoci da cibiyoyin sadarwa na kwamfuta, amma kuma ya ƙunshi wasu fasahohin rarraba bayanai kamar talabijin da wayoyi. Samfurori ko ayyuka da yawa a cikin tattalin arziki suna da alaƙa da fasahar bayanai, gami da kayan aikin kwamfuta, software, kayan lantarki, semiconductors, Intanet, kayan sadarwa, da e-commerce.

**Tsarin fasahar bayanai** (IT system) gabaɗaya tsarin bayanai ne, tsarin sadarwa, ko, musamman ma magana, tsarin kwamfuta - gami da duk kayan aiki, software, da kayan aiki na gefe - wanda iyakantaccen rukuni na masu amfani da IT ke sarrafawa, kuma **Aikin IT** yawanci yana nufin kwamishina da aiwatar da **Tsarin IT**. Tsarin IT yana taka muhimmiyar rawa wajen sauƙaƙe ingantaccen gudanar da bayanai, inganta hanyoyin sadarwa, da tallafawa hanyoyin ƙungiyoyi a duk faɗin masana'antu daban-daban. Ayyukan IT masu nasara suna buƙatar tsarawa sosai da ci gaba da kulawa don tabbatar da aiki mafi kyau da daidaitawa tare da manufofin ƙungiya.

Kodayake mutane suna adanawa, dawo da su, sarrafawa, nazarin su da kuma sadarwa bayanai tun lokacin da aka kirkiro tsarin rubuce-rubuce na farko, kalmar *fasahar bayanai* a cikin ma'anar zamani ta fara bayyana a cikin wata kasida ta 1958 da aka buga a cikin *Harvard Business Review*; marubutan Harold J. Leavitt da Thomas L. Whisler sun yi sharhi cewa "sabuwar fasahar ba ta da sunan da aka kafa ba. Za mu kira ta nau'o'i uku: dabarun sarrafawa, aikace-aikacen hanyoyin lissafi da lissafi don yin shawara na kwamfuta, da lissafi zuwa ga yanke shawara-tsaro. 

## Tarihi

Dangane da fasahar adanawa da sarrafawa da aka yi amfani da ita, yana yiwuwa a rarrabe matakai huɗu daban-daban na ci gaban IT: pre-mechanical (3000 BC - 1450 AD),na inji (1450 - 1840), electromechanical (1840 - 1940), da lantarki (1940 zuwa yanzu).

Tun a shekarun 1950 ne aka fara ambaton ra’ayoyin kimiyyar kwamfuta a karkashin Cibiyar Fasaha ta Massachusetts (MIT) da Jami’ar Harvard, inda suka tattauna kuma suka fara tunanin da’irorin kwamfuta da lissafin lambobi. Yayin da lokaci ya ci gaba, fannin fasahar sadarwa da kimiyyar na'ura mai kwakwalwa ya zama mai rikitarwa kuma ya sami damar sarrafa karin bayanai. An fara buga kasidu na ilimi daga kungiyoyi daban-daban.

A lokacin aikin kwamfuta na farko, Alan Turing, J. Presper Eckert, da John Mauchly an dauke su wasu manyan majagaba na fasahar kwamfuta a tsakiyar shekarun 1900. Ba su irin wannan yabo don ci gaban su, yawancin ƙoƙarinsu sun fi mayar da hankali kan zayyana kwamfutar dijital ta farko. Tare da wannan, an fara kawo batutuwa irin su basirar wucin gadi yayin da Turing ya fara tambayar irin wannan fasaha na lokacin.

An yi amfani da na'urori don taimakawa ƙididdiga tsawon dubban shekaru, mai yiwuwa da farko a cikin nau'i mai tsayi. Tsarin Antikythera, wanda ya samo asali tun kusan farkon ƙarni na farko BC, ana ɗaukarsa gabaɗaya a matsayin farkon sanannen kwamfyuta analog ɗin injina, da kuma farkon sanannen kayan aiki. Na'urori masu kwatankwacinsu ba su fito ba a Turai sai karni na 16, kuma sai a shekara ta 1645 aka samar da na'urar lissafi na farko da ke da ikon aiwatar da muhimman ayyukan lissafi guda hudu.

Kwamfutocin lantarki, ta amfani da ko dai relays ko bawul, sun fara bayyana a farkon shekarun 1940. Zuse Z3 na lantarki da aka kammala a shekarar 1941, ita ce kwamfuta ta farko da za a iya tsarawa a duniya, kuma bisa tsarin zamani na daya daga cikin na’urori na farko da za a iya la’akari da su a matsayin cikakkiyar na’ura. A lokacin Yaƙin Duniya na Biyu, Colossus ya ƙirƙiro na'urar kwamfuta ta farko ta dijital don warware saƙon Jamusanci. Ko da yake yana da shirye-shirye, ba manufa ta gaba ɗaya ba ce, an tsara shi don yin aiki ɗaya kawai. Har ila yau, ba ta da ikon adana shirinta a ƙwaƙwalwar ajiya; An gudanar da shirye-shirye ta hanyar amfani da matosai da maɓalli don canza wayoyi na ciki. Na farko da aka gane komfuta na zamani na dijital da aka adana-tsarin kwamfuta ita ce Manchester Baby, wacce ta fara shirinta na farko a ranar 21 ga Yuni 1948.

Haɓaka transistor a ƙarshen 1940s a Bell Laboratories ya ba da damar ƙirƙirar sabbin kwamfutoci tare da rage yawan amfani da wutar lantarki. Kwamfutar shirin da aka tanada ta kasuwanci ta farko, Ferranti Mark I, tana ɗauke da bawuloli 4050 kuma tana da ƙarfin ƙarfin kilowatts 25. Idan aka kwatanta, kwamfuta ta farko da ta fara canzawa a Jami'ar Manchester kuma ta fara aiki a watan Nuwamba 1953, ta cinye watts 150 kawai a sigar ta ta ƙarshe.

Wasu ci gaba da yawa a cikin fasahar semiconductor sun haɗa da haɗaɗɗen da'ira (IC) wanda Jack Kilby ya ƙirƙira a Texas Instruments da Robert Noyce a Fairchild Semiconductor a 1959, Silicon dioxide surface passivation by Carl Frosch da Lincoln Derick a 1955, na farko planar silicon transistors ta Frosch da 57 Derick da Bells ƙungiyar, tsarin tsari na Jean Hoerni a cikin 1959, da microprocessor da Ted Hoff, Federico Faggin, Masatoshi Shima, da Stanley Mazor suka ƙirƙira a Intel a cikin 1971. Waɗannan mahimman abubuwan ƙirƙira sun haifar da haɓakar bayanan sirri da PC9 (1) fasahar sadarwa (ICT).

Sabbin sabbin fasahohi sun riga sun canza duniya a karni na ashirin da daya yayin da mutane suka sami damar yin amfani da sabis na kan layi daban-daban. Wannan ya canza ma'aikata sosai yayin da kashi talatin cikin dari na ma'aikatan Amurka sun riga sun shiga cikin wannan sana'a. Mutane miliyan 136.9 ke da alaƙa da Intanet da kansu, wanda yayi daidai da gidaje miliyan 51. Tare da Intanet, an kuma ƙaddamar da sabbin nau'ikan fasaha a duk faɗin duniya, wanda ya inganta inganci kuma ya sauƙaƙa abubuwa a duk faɗin duniya.

Ba a kai kadai ba, kwamfutoci da fasaha ma sun kawo sauyi a harkar tallace-tallace, wanda ya haifar da karin masu siyan kayayyakinsu. A cikin 2002, Amurkawa sun haura dala biliyan 28 a cikin kayayyaki kawai akan Intanet kadai yayin da kasuwancin e-commerce bayan shekaru goma ya haifar da tallace-tallace dala biliyan 289. Kuma yayin da kwamfutoci ke ci gaba da haɓaka cikin sauri a rana, ana ƙara amfani da su yayin da mutane ke ƙara dogaro da su a cikin ƙarni na ashirin da ɗaya.

## Sarrafa bayanai
### Ma'ajiya

Kwamfutoci na farko na lantarki irin su Colossus sun yi amfani da tef mai naushi, doguwar takarda wadda aka wakilta bayanai da ramuka daban-daban, fasahar da yanzu ta daina aiki. Adana bayanan lantarki, wanda ake amfani da shi a cikin kwamfutoci na zamani, tun daga yakin duniya na biyu, lokacin da aka samar da wani nau'i na ƙwaƙwalwar jinkiri don kawar da ƙugiya daga siginar radar, aikace-aikacen farko da aka yi amfani da shi shine layin jinkirin mercury. Na'urar ma'ajiyar dijital ta farko da za a iya shiga bazuwar ita ce bututun Williams, wanda ya dogara da daidaitaccen bututun ray na cathode. Duk da haka, bayanan da aka adana a cikinsa da ƙwaƙwalwar jinkirin layin sun kasance marasa ƙarfi a cikin gaskiyar cewa dole ne a ci gaba da wartsakewa, don haka ya ɓace da zarar an cire wuta. Farkon nau'i na ma'ajiyar kwamfuta mara maras tabbas ita ce gangunan maganadisu, wanda aka ƙirƙira a cikin 1932 kuma aka yi amfani da shi a cikin Ferranti Mark 1, kwamfuta ta lantarki ta farko ta kasuwanci ta farko a duniya.

Kungiyar IBM ta gabatar da na’urar Hard Disk ta farko a shekarar 1956, a matsayin wani bangare na tsarin kwamfutarsu na RAMAC guda 305.: 6  Yawancin bayanai na dijital a yau har yanzu ana adana su ta hanyar magnetically a kan rumbun kwamfyuta, ko kuma ta hanyar sadarwa kamar CD-ROM. Ya zuwa 2007, kusan kashi 94% na bayanan da aka adana a duk duniya ana yin su ta hanyar lambobi: 52% akan rumbun kwamfyuta, 28% akan na'urorin gani, da 11% akan tef ɗin maganadisu na dijital. An kiyasta cewa ikon adana bayanai akan na'urorin lantarki a duniya ya karu daga kasa da 3 exabyte a 1986 zuwa 295 exabyte a 2007, yana ninka kusan kowane shekaru 3.

### Databases

Tsarin Gudanar da Bayanai (DMS) ya fito a cikin 1960s don magance matsalar adanawa da dawo da adadi mai yawa na bayanai daidai da sauri. Farkon irin wannan tsarin shine IBM's Information Management System (IMS), wanda har yanzu ana tura shi sama da shekaru 50 bayan haka. IMS tana adana bayanai bisa tsari, amma a cikin 1970s Ted Codd ya ba da shawarar madadin ma'ajiyar alaƙa dangane da saita ka'idar da tsinkayar dabaru da sanannun dabarun tebur, layuka, da ginshiƙai. A cikin 1981, Oracle ya fito da tsarin kula da bayanai na farko na kasuwanci (RDBMS). Duk DMS sun ƙunshi sassa; suna ba da damar samun damar bayanan da suke adanawa a lokaci guda ta hanyar masu amfani da yawa yayin da suke kiyaye amincin su. 

Dukkanin ma’ajin bayanai sun zama ruwan dare a lokaci daya cewa tsarin bayanan da suke dauke da su ana fayyace su da kuma adana su daban daga bayanan da kansu, a cikin tsarin tsarin bayanai.

### Watsawa

Wayar da bayanai tana da abubuwa guda uku: watsawa, yadawa, da liyafar. Ana iya rarraba shi gabaɗaya azaman watsa shirye-shirye, inda ake watsa bayanai ba tare da kai tsaye ba, ko kuma sadarwa, tare da tashoshi na sama da na ƙasa.

XML yana ƙara yin aiki azaman hanyar musayar bayanai tun farkon shekarun 2000, musamman don hulɗar da ta dace da na'ura kamar waɗanda ke cikin ka'idojin tushen yanar gizo irin su SOAP, yana bayyana "bayanai-in-shigar fiye da ... data-da-huta".

### Yin magudi

Hilbert da Lopez sun gano saurin sauyin fasaha (wani nau'in dokar Moore): ƙayyadaddun ƙarfin aikace-aikacen inji don ƙididdige bayanan kowane mutum ya ninka kusan sau biyu kowane watanni 14 tsakanin 1986 da 2007; karfin kowane mutum na kwamfutocin duniya gabaɗaya ya ninka kowane watanni 18 a cikin shekaru ashirin ɗin; karfin sadarwar duniya kan kowane mutum ya ninka sau biyu kowane watanni 34; Ƙarfin ajiya na duniya ga kowane mutum yana buƙatar kusan watanni 40 don ninka (kowace shekara 3); kuma bayanan watsa shirye-shiryen kowane mutum ya ninka sau biyu a kowace shekara 12.3.

## Ayyuka
### Imel

Fasaha da sabis na IT suna bayarwa don aikawa da karɓar saƙonnin lantarki (wanda ake kira "haruffa" ko "wasiƙun lantarki") akan hanyar sadarwar kwamfuta da aka rarraba (ciki har da duniya). A cikin sharuddan da abun da ke ciki na abubuwa da ka'idar aiki, lantarki mail kusan maimaita tsarin na yau da kullum (takarda) mail, aro biyu sharuddan (mail, wasika, ambulaf, abin da aka makala, akwatin, bayarwa, da sauransu) da kuma halaye fasali - sauƙi na amfani, saƙon watsa jinkiri, isa AMINCI kuma a lokaci guda babu garantin bayarwa. Fa'idodin i-mel sune: adiresoshin da mutum zai iya fahimta da kuma tunawa da su cikin sauƙi user_name@domain_name (misali, somebody@example.com); da ikon canja wurin duka a sarari rubutu da tsara, kazalika da sabani fayiloli; 'yancin kai na sabobin (a cikin yanayin gaba ɗaya, suna magana da juna kai tsaye); isasshe babban amincin isar da saƙo; sauƙin amfani da mutane da shirye-shirye.

Abubuwan da ke cikin imel ɗin sun haɗa da: kasancewar irin wannan al'amari kamar spam (talla mai yawa da saƙon hoto na hoto); rashin yiwuwar isar da garanti na takamaiman wasiƙa; yiwuwar jinkirin isar da saƙo (har zuwa kwanaki da yawa); iyaka akan girman saƙo ɗaya da kuma kan jimillar girman saƙonni a cikin akwatin saƙo (na sirri na masu amfani).

### Tsarin bincike

A search system is software and hardware complex with a web interface that provides the ability to search for information on the Internet. A search engine usually means a site that hosts the interface (front-end) of the system. The software part of a search engine is a search engine (search engine) — a set of programs that provides the functionality of a search engine and is usually a trade secret of the search engine developer company. Most search engines look for information on World Wide Web sites, but there are also systems that can look for files on FTP servers, items in online stores, and information on Usenet newsgroups. Improving search is one of the priorities of the modern Internet (see the Deep Web article about the main problems in the work of search engines).

## Manazarta