Ma'aunin gurɓataccen iska

**Ma'aunin gurɓataccen iska** shine tsari na tattarawa da auna abubuwan da ke cikin gurɓatawar iska, musamman iskar gas da ƙwayoyin cuta. Na'urorin farko da akayi amfani dasu don auna gurɓata sun haɗa da ma'aunin ruwan sama (a cikin nazarin ruwan sama na acid), sigogi na Ringelmann don auna hayaki, da masu tara tururi da ƙura masu sauƙi da aka sani da ma'anonin ajiya. Auna gurɓataccen iska na zamani yana da sarrafa kansa kuma ana aiwatar dashi ta amfani da na'urori da dabarun daban-daban. Wadannan sun fito ne daga bututun gwajin da aka sani da bututun watsawa har zuwa na'urori masu mahimmanci na sinadarai da na jiki waɗanda ke bada kusan ma'aunin gurɓataccen lokaci, waɗanda ake amfani da su don samar da alamun ingancin iska.

## Muhimmancin auna

Abubuwa da yawa ne ke haifar da gurɓata iska. A cikin birane, yana iya ƙunsar abubuwa dayawa, musamman abubuwa masu ƙarfi da ruwa (kamar su soot daga injuna da toka mai tashi dake tserewa daga incinerators), da iskar gas daban-daban (yawanci sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, da carbon monoxide, duk suna da alaƙa da konewa man fetur). Wadannan nau'o'in gurɓataccen yanayi suna da tasiri daban-daban a kan lafiyar mutane, a kan duniyar halitta (ruwa, ƙasa, amfanin gona, bishiyoyi, da sauran ciyayi), da kuma a kan yanayin da aka gina. Auna gurɓataccen iska shine mataki na farko na gano abubuwan dake  haifar dashi sannan ragewa ko daidaita su don kiyaye ingancin iska a cikin iyakokin doka (wanda masu tsarawa kamar Hukumar Kare Muhalli a Amurka suka ba da umarni) ko jagororin ba da shawara da hukumomi kamar Hukumar Lafiya ta Duniya (WHO) suka ba da shawarar. A cewar WHO, birane sama da 6000 a cikin ƙasashe 117 yanzu suna sa ido kan ingancin iska.

## Nau'o'in aunawa
Ana auna gurɓataccen iska (a gaba ɗaya) ta hanyoyi biyu daban-daban, batare da la'akari ba ko kuma a hankali.

### Ma'auni mai ma'ana

Na'urorin da ba'a  amfani dasu ba suna da sauƙi kuma suna da tsada. Suna aiki ta hanyar tsomawa ko kuma a wasu lokuta tattara samfurin iska, wanda dole ne a bincika shi a cikin dakin gwaje-gwaje. Ɗaya daga cikin siffofin da akafi sani da ma'auni mai wucewa shine bututun watsawa, wanda yayi kama da bututun gwajin dakin gwaje-gwaje kuma an ɗaure shi da wani abu kamar fitilar fitila don shawo kan wani ko fiye da takamaiman iskar gurbataccen mai ban sha'awa. Bayan wani lokaci, ana cire bututun kuma a aika shi zuwa dakin gwaje-gwaje don bincike. Ma'aunin ajiya, ɗaya daga cikin tsofaffin nau'ikan ma'aunin gurɓataccen yanayi, wani nau'in na'urar da bata da amfani. Sune  manyan bututu waɗanda ke tattara soot ko wasu ƙwayoyin kuma suna fitar dasu cikin kwalabe na samfurori, wanda, sake dole ne a bincika su a cikin dakin gwaje-gwaje.

### Ma'auni mai aiki
Na'urorin auna masu aiki suna sarrafa kansu ko rabin-automated kuma suna da rikitarwa da ƙwarewa fiye da na'urorin da ba su da amfani, kodayake ba koyaushe suke da hankali ko abin dogaro ba. Suna amfani da magoya baya don tsotsewa cikin iska, tace shi, kuma ko dai bincika shi ta atomatik a can sannan kuma ko tattara da adana shi don bincike daga baya a cikin dakin gwaje-gwaje. Sensors masu aiki suna amfani da kodai hanyoyin jiki ko na sunadarai. Hanyoyin jiki suna auna samfurin iska batare da canza shi ba, alal misali, ta hanyar ganin yawan wani nau'in haske da yake sha. Hanyoyin sunadarai suna canza samfurin ta wata hanya, ta hanyar halayen sunadarai, kuma suna auna hakan. Yawancin na'urori masu auna sigina masu sarrafa kansu misalai ne na ma'auni mai aiki.

## Sensors na ingancin iska
Sensors na ingancin iska sun fito ne daga ƙananan na'urorin hannu zuwa manyan tashoshin sa ido a cikin birane, da na'urori masu sa ido na nesa da akayi amfani dasu a kan jiragen sama da tauraron dan adam na sararin samaniya.

### Sensors na ingancin iska na mutum

A wani ƙarshen sikelin, akwai ƙananan, masu arha (kuma wani lokacin ana iya sawa), na'urori masu auna gurɓata iska da ke da alaƙa da Intanet, kamar Air Quality Egg da PurpleAir .  Wadannan samfurori da iskar gas koyaushe kuma suna samar da daidaitattun daidaito, kusan ainihin lokacin da za a iya nazarin su ta hanyar aikace-aikacen wayar salula. Hakanan ana iya amfani da bayanan su ta hanyar Jama'a, ko dai shi kaɗai ko tare da wasu bayanan gurɓataccen yanayi, don gina taswirar gurɓatawar wurare masu yawa. Ana iya amfani da su don yanayin cikin gida da na waje kuma yawancin suna mai da hankali kan auna nau'ikan gurɓataccen iska guda biyar: ozone, kwayoyin halitta, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, da nitrogen dioxide. Wasu suna auna abubuwan da ba'a saba amfani dasu ba kamar su radon gas da formaldehyde.

Sensors like this were once expensive, but the 2010s saw a trend towards cheaper portable devices that can be worn by individuals to monitor their local air quality levels, which are now sometimes informally referred to as low-cost sensors (LCS). A recent review by the European Commission's Joint Research Center identified 112 examples, made by 77 different manufacturers

Sensors na mutum na iya bada ƙarfi ga mutane da al'ummomi don fahimtar yanayin bayyanar su da haɗari daga gurɓataccen iska. Misali, ƙungiyar bincike da William Griswold ya jagoranta a UCSD ta bada na'urori masu auna sigina na gurɓata iska ga masu tafiya 16, kuma sun sami "kwari na birane" inda gine-gine suka kama gurɓata. Kungiyar ta kuma gano cewa fasinjoji a cikin bas suna da bayyanar da tafi  na motoci.

### Kula da gurɓataccen gurɓatawar ƙasa

Ba kamar masu sa ido masu tsada ba, waɗanda ake ɗauka daga wuri zuwa wuri, masu sa ido na tsaye suna cigaba da gwadawa da auna ingancin iska a wani wuri, birni. Wuraren jama'a kamar tashoshin jirgin kasa masu aiki a wasu lokuta suna da masu sa ido kan ingancin iska da aka gyara har abada tare da dandamali don auna matakan nitrogen dioxide da sauran gurbatawa. An tsara wasu masu sa ido don bada ra'ayi nan da nan game da ingancin iska na gida. A Poland, masu sa ido kan iska na EkoSłupek suna auna kewayon iskar gas da ƙwayoyin cuta kuma suna da ƙananan fitilu a saman waɗanda ke canza launi daga ja zuwa kore don nuna yadda iska ke da lafiya a kusa.

### Kula da gurɓataccen yanayi

A gefen ƙarshen bakan daga na'urori masu auna sigina masu tsada sune manyan, masu tsada sosai, tashoshin sa ido na kan titi waɗanda ke cigaba da gwada gurbataccen abubuwa daban-daban da ake samu a cikin iska na birane don hukumomin gida kuma waɗanda suka zama tsarin sa ido na birni kamar London Air Quality Network  da kuma cibiyar sadarwa ta Burtaniya da ake kira Automatic Urban and Rural Network (AURN ). A Amurka, EPA tana kula da ajiyar bayanan ingancin iska ta hanyar Air Quality System (AQS), inda take adana bayanai daga masu saka idanu sama da 10,000. Hukumar Kula da Muhalli ta Turai tana tattara bayanan ingancin iska daga tashoshin sa ido 3,500 a fadin nahiyar.

Ma'aunin da na'urori masu auna sigina suka yi kamar waɗannan, waɗanda suka fi dacewa, suma suna kusa da ainihin lokacin kuma ana amfani da su don samar da ƙididdigar ingancin iska (AQIs). Tsakanin matsanancin nau'o'i biyu na manyan na'urori masu auna sigina da ƙananan na'urorin auna amfani da su sune matsakaici, masu saka idanu masu ɗaukar hoto (wani lokacin ana ɗora su a cikin manyan lokuta masu juyawa) har ma da gina su cikin motocin samfurori na "smog-mobile".

Kwanan nan, tsarin sa ido kan gurɓataccen iska ya fito ne a matsayin hanyar da ta dace don saka idanu kan ingancin iska, ta amfani da na'urori masu auna sigina da aka ɗora a kan taksi, bas, trams, da sauran motoci. Musamman, bas din sun sami kulawa mai yawa a matsayin dandalin wayar hannu saboda wadatarsu dayawa da kuma faɗakarwa da ke tattare da ƙasa.

### Kulawa daga nesa
Hakanan ana iya auna ingancin iska daga nesa, daga iska, ta hanyar Lidar,  drones,  da tauraron dan adam, ta hanyar hanyoyin kamar daidaitawar gas.  Daga cikin farkon kokarin sa ido kan gurɓataccen tauraron dan adam sune GOME (Global ozone Monitoring Experiment), wanda ya auna matakan ozone na duniya (tropospheric) daga ESA European Remote Sensing Satellite (ERS-2) a cikin 1995,  da kuma NASA's MAPS (Mapping Pollution with Satellites), wanda yaauna rarraba carbon monoxide a cikin ƙananan yanayi na Duniya, kuma a cikin 1990s.

## Hanyoyin auna don gurɓataccen abu daban-daban
Kowane bangare daban-daban na gurɓataccen iska dole ne a auna shi ta hanyar tsari daban-daban, kayan aiki, ko halayen sunadarai. Hanyoyin nazarin sunadarai da akayi  amfani dasu don auna gurɓata sun haɗa da gas chromatography; nau'o'i daban-daban na spectrometry, spectroscopy, da spectrophotometry; da kuma Hasken wuta photometry.

### Kwayoyin cuta
Har zuwa ƙarshen karni na 20, yawan hayaki da aka samar da wani abu kamar hayaki sau da yawa ana auna shi da gani, kuma a hankali, ta hanyar riƙe katunan da layin da akayi musu mulki don nuna launuka daban-daban na launin toka. Wadannan an san su da sigogi na Ringelmann, bayan mai kirkirar su, Max Ringelmann.  An auna hayaki a kan sikelin maki shida.

A cikin tashoshin sa ido na gurɓataccen yanayi na zamani, ana auna ƙwayoyin ƙwayoyin cuta (PM10) da ƙwayoyin (PM2.5) ta amfani da na'urar da ake kira microbalance (TEOM), bisa ga bututun gilashi wanda ke girgiza ko ƙasa yayin da ƙwayoyen da aka tattara suka tara a ciki. Hakanan za'a iya auna ƙwayoyin cuta ta amfani da wasu nau'ikan samfurin ƙwayoyin ƙwayoyin, gami da masu gano hoto na gani, waɗanda ke auna hasken da aka nuna daga samfurori na haske (babban ƙwayoyin suna nuna ƙarin haske) da kuma nazarin gravimetric (an tattara su akan matattara kuma an auna su).  Black carbon yawanci ana auna shi ta hanyar gani tare da kayan aikin Aethalometer.

Ƙananan ƙwayoyin (ƙananan PM0.1, don haka gabaɗaya ƙasa da 100 nanometers a diamita) suna da wuyar ganowa da auna tare da wasu daga cikin waɗannan dabarun. Yawanci, ana auna su (ko ƙidaya su) tare da ƙididdigar ƙwayoyin ƙwayoyin cuta, wanda ke faɗaɗa ƙwayoyin ta hanyar ƙwayoyin tururi a kansu don yin ɗigon ruwa mafi girma da sauƙin ganowa.

Za'a iya auna abun dake cikin atomatik na samfurori tare da dabarun kamar X-ray spectrometry.

### Nitrogen dioxide
Ana iya auna Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) ta hanyar amfani da bututun watsawa, kodayake yana ɗaukar lokaci don tattara samfurori, bincika su, da kuma samar da sakamako. Ana iya auna shi da hannu ko ta atomatik ta Hanyar Griess-Saltzman, kamar yadda aka ƙayyade a cikin ISO 6768:1998, ko Hanyar Jacobs-Hocheiser.

Hakanan ana iya auna shi ta atomatik da sauri, ta hanyar analyzer na chemiluminescence, wanda ke ƙayyade matakan nitrogen oxide daga hasken da suke bayarwa. A cikin Burtaniya, alal misali, akwai shafuka sama da 200 inda ake cigaba da saka idanu kan NO2 ta hanyar chemiluminescence.

### Sulphur dioxide da hydrogen sulphide
Sulphur dioxide () ana auna shi ta hanyar spectroscopy.  Wannan ya haɗa da kunna hasken ultraviolet a samfurin iska da auna hasken da aka samar. Ana kuma amfani da ƙwayoyin ƙwayoyin cuta don auna .  Ana amfani da masu nazarin hoto na wuta don auna wasu mahaɗan sulfur a cikin iska.

### Carbon monoxide da carbon dioxide

Ana auna carbon monoxide () da carbon dioxide (CO2) ta hanyar ɗaukar haske mai haske (NDIR) bisa ga Dokar Beer-Lambert. Hakanan ana iya auna CO ta amfani da na'urori masu auna sigina na electrochemical gel da masu ganowa na ƙarfe-oxide (MOS).

### Ozone
Ana auna ozone (O3) ta hanyar ganin yawan haske da samfurin iska ke sha. Mafi yawan ozone yana shan karin haske bisa ga dokar Beer-Lambert.

### Magungunan kwayoyin halitta (VOCs)
Ana auna waɗannan ta amfani da gas chromatography da harshen wuta (GC-FID). 

### Hydrocarbons
Ana iya auna Hydrocarbons ta hanyar gas chromatography da masu gano wutar lantarki. Wani lokaci ana bayyana su a matsayin ma'auni daban-daban na methane (CH4), NMHC (ba na methane hydrocarbons ba), da THC (dukkanin hydrocarbon) fitarwa (inda THC shine jimlar CH4 da NMHC fitarwa). 

### Ammoniya
Ana iya auna Ammoniya (NH3) ta hanyoyi daban-daban ciki har da chemiluminescence . 

## Ma'auni na halitta

Hakanan za'a iya kimanta gurɓataccen iska ta hanyar lura da tasirin gurɓatacciyar iska akan tsire-tsire masu girma kamar lichens da mosses (misali na biomonitoring). Wasu ayyukan kimiyya sunyi amfani da tsire-tsire masu girma na musamman kamar strawberries . 

## Rukunin auna

Adadin gurɓataccen abu dake cikin iska yawanci ana nuna shi azaman maida hankali, wanda aka auna a ko dai sassa-da-bayani (yawanci sassa da biliyan, ppb, ko sassa da miliyan, ppm, wanda akafi sani da rabo na haɗuwa), ko micrograms da mita cubic (μg / m3). Yana da sauƙi a canza ɗaya daga cikin waɗannan raka'a zuwa ɗayan, tare da la'akari da Nauyin kwayoyin daban-daban na iskar gas da yanayin zafi da matsin lamba.

Wadannan raka'a suna nuna yawan gurɓataccen iska dangane da taro ko ƙarar gurɓata, kuma ana amfani dasu don auna gurɓatawar gas, kamar nitrogen dioxide, da ƙarancin (PM10) da ƙwayoyin ƙwayoyin (PM2.5). Wani ma'auni na madadin don barbashi, *lambar* barbashi, yana nuna maida hankali dangane da yawan barbashi a kowane girman iska a maimakon haka, wanda zai iya zama hanya mafi mahimmanci don kimanta cututtukan kiwon lafiya na barbashi masu guba (PM0.1, ƙasa da 0.1 μm a diamita). Za'a iya auna lambar ƙwayoyin tare da kayan aiki kamar ƙididdigar ƙwayoyin ƙwayoyin.

Ana lissafin ƙimar ingancin iska na birane (AQI) ta hanyar haɗawa ko kwatanta maida hankali ga "kwandon" na gurɓataccen iska na yau da kullun (yawanci ozone, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, da duka ƙwayoyin ƙwayoyin cuta da ƙwayoyin) don samar da lamba ɗaya a kan sikelin da ke da sauƙin fahimta (kuma sau da yawa launi).

## Tarihi
An fara auna gurɓataccen iska, a Burtaniya, a karni na 19. A shekara ta 1852, masanin kimiyyar Scotland Robert Angus Smith ya gano (kuma ya sanya masa suna) Ruwan sama mai zafi bayan ya tattara samfurori na ruwan sama wanda ya zama yana dauke da adadi mai yawa na sulphur daga konewar kwal. Dangane da jerin lokuta na gurɓataccen iska da David Fowler da abokan aiki suka yi, Smith shine "masanin kimiyya na farko da yayi ƙoƙari yayi bincike mai yawa, bincike mai yawa game da yanayin sinadarai na gurɓatar yanayi".

A farkon karni na 20, likitan Irish da injiniyan muhalli John Switzer Owens da Kwamitin Binciken Rashin Yanayi, wanda shine sakatare, sun cigaba sosai da auna da saka idanu kan gurɓataccen iska ta amfani da cibiyar sadarwa ta ma'aunin ajiya. Owens ya kuma kirkiro sabbin hanyoyin auna gurɓataccen yanayi.

A watan Disamba na shekara ta 1952, Babban Smog na London ya haifar da mutuwar mutane 12,000. Wannan taron, da makamantansu kamar bala'in smog na Donora na 1948 a Amurka, ya zama daya daga cikin manyan abubuwan da suka faru a tarihin muhalli saboda sun haifar da sake tunani game da kula da gurɓataccen yanayi. A cikin Burtaniya, Babban Smog na London ya kai tsaye ga Dokar Tsabtace Iska, wanda zai iya haifar da sakamako harma da yakai nesa fiye da yadda aka nufa. Abubuwan bala'i kamar wannan sun haifar da auna gurɓataccen yanayi kuma ana sarrafa shi sosai.

## Dubi kuma

* Ƙididdigar ingancin iska
* Kula da muhalli

## Haɗin waje

* Kimiyya & Fasahar Fasahar: Sensors na Ingancin Air