Harshe na yau da kullun

Harshe mai daidaituwa (ko daidaitattun iri-iri, daidaitattun yaren, daidaitccen yaren ko kawai daidaitattun) yare ne wanda ya sami tsari mai mahimmanci na ƙamus, ƙamus, tsarin rubutu, ko wasu fasalulluka.[1][2] Yawanci, nau'ikan da ke fuskantar daidaituwa sune waɗanda ke da alaƙa da cibiyoyin kasuwanci da gwamnati, [1] waɗanda masu ilimi ke amfani da su akai-akai da kuma watsa labarai, kuma ana koyar da su a ko'ina a makarantu da kuma waɗanda ba 'yan asalin ƙasar ba.[3] A cikin al'ummar harshe, daidaitawa yawanci yana farawa tare da takamaiman iri-iri da aka zaɓa (sau da yawa zuwa burin ci gaba da daidaita harshe), wanda mutane masu tasiri suka karɓa, a cikin al'umma da al'adu suka bazu, waɗanda aka kafa a adawa da nau'ikan masu fafatawa, ana kiyaye su, ana amfani da su a cikin mahallin daban-daban, kuma an ba su babban Matsayi na zamantakewa sakamakon iri-iri ya zama da alaƙa da mutanen da suka fi nasara.[5] A matsayin tasirin zamantakewar al'umma na waɗannan matakai, yawancin masu amfani da daidaitattun yaren - da masu amfani da wasu yarukan wannan harshe - sun yi imani da cewa daidaitattun ya fi, ko kuma sun yi la'akari da shi tushen harshe wanda za a yi hukunci, sauran yarukan, [1] kodayake wannan ya samo asali ne daga ra'ayoyin zamantakewa maimakon gaskiyar gaskiya.[6]

Daidaita harshe tsari ne na ci gaba, saboda harshe yana canzawa koyaushe kuma ba za a iya daidaita harshe-a-amfani ba har abada kamar sassan na'ura.[7] Daidaitawa na iya samo asali ne daga motsawa don yin rubuce-rubucen harshe mafi daidaituwa, kamar yadda yake da Standard English.[8] Yawanci, matakai na daidaitawa sun haɗa da ƙoƙari don daidaita rubutun yaren mai daraja, don tsarawa amfani da ma'anoni na musamman (denotative) ta hanyar ƙamus da ƙamus na al'ada, da kuma ƙarfafa karɓar jama'a game da ƙididdigar kamar yadda ya dace.[9][10] A cikin wannan hanyar, harshe mai mahimmanci yana da nau'ikan ma'amala.[11][12][13] Misalan sune Turanci, Faransanci, Portuguese, Jamusanci, Koriya, Serbo-Croatian, Mutanen Espanya, Yaren mutanen Sweden, Armeniya da Mandarin Sinanci.[14][15] Harsuna masu tsakiya, kamar Rasha da Jafananci, suna da misali guda ɗaya.[16]

Kalmar ma'auni harshe a wasu lokuta tana nufin dukan harshe wanda ya haɗa da daidaitaccen tsari a matsayin ɗaya daga cikin nau'ikansa.[17][18] A Turai, ana gano harshen rubutu mai daidaituwa tare da kalmar Jamusanci Schriftsprache (harshe mai rubuce-rubuce). Ana amfani da kalmar *harshe na wallafe-wallafen* a wasu lokuta a matsayin ma'anar ma'anar harshe na yau da kullun, yarjejeniyar suna har yanzu tana cikin al'adun harshe na gabashin Turai.[19][20] A cikin amfani da harshe na zamani, kalmomin daidaitattun yaren da *daidaitattun iri-iri* sune ma'anar tsaka-tsaki don kalmar daidaitattun harshe, amfani da ke nuna cewa daidaitattun yare yana ɗaya daga cikin yaruka da nau'ikan harshe, maimakon duka harshe, yayin da yake rage mummunan tasirin ƙasƙantar zamantakewa cewa daidaitaren shine kawai nau'in da ya cancanci lakabin "harshe".[21][22]

## Daidaita harshe
Kalmar harshe na yau da kullun tana nuna tarin tarurruka masu ganewa a cikin magana da rubuce-rubuce da aka yi amfani da su a cikin al'umma; kalmar ba ta nuna ma'anar zamantakewa ko kuma hanyar magana mafi girma.[23] Wadannan tarurruka sun samo asali ne daga yarukan da suka danganci, yawanci ta hanyar aikin zamantakewa (haɗin kai na kabilanci da al'adu) wanda ke haɓaka alamu na magana da ke da alaƙa da cibiyoyin al'adu, ko kuma da wuya, ta hanyar bayyana ka'idojin daidaitattun harshe tare da zaɓaɓɓun siffofin harshe da aka samo daga yarukan yanzu, kamar yadda yake a cikin Ibrananci na zamani.[24][25]

Ko dai hanyar abubuwan da suka faru yawanci suna haifar da daidaitattun rubutun da aka tsara a cikin ƙamus da ƙamus na al'ada, wanda masu amfani zasu iya samun misalai masu kyau daga rubuce-rubucen adabi, shari'a, ko na addini.[25] Ko harshe da ƙamus sun halicci jihar ko kuma 'yan ƙasa masu zaman kansu (misali Webster's Dictionary), wasu masu amfani suna ɗaukar irin waɗannan ƙididdigar harshe a matsayin iko don gyara maganganun magana da rubuce-rubuce na harshe.[26] Tasirin irin wannan tsarin ya haɗa da rage saurin canjin diachronic a cikin daidaitattun iri-iri da kuma samar da tushe don ci gaban harshe (*Ausbau*).[25] A cikin ayyukan watsa shirye-shirye da sadarwa na hukuma, ma'auni yawanci yana aiki azaman daidaitaccen bayani don magana da rubutu. A cikin yanayin ilimi, yawanci yana sanar da sigar yaren da aka koya wa masu koyo wadanda ba 'yan asalin ƙasar ba.[27]

A cikin waɗannan hanyoyin, daidaitattun iri-iri suna samun Matsayi na zamantakewa da mahimmancin aiki fiye da yarukan da ba na daidaitattun ba, wanda ya dogara da ko suna da heteronomous dangane da daidaitattun idiom.[27] Amfani da daidaitattun yana aiki ne a matsayin ikon harshe, kamar yadda yake game da ƙwararrun ƙwararrun; Bugu da ƙari, daidaitawar siffofin magana yana daidaitawa zuwa ga ma'auni mai tsarawa.[28] A tarihi, daidaitattun harshe ya taso ne a hanyoyi biyu: (i) a cikin yanayin Turanci na yau da kullun, daidaitamar harshe yana faruwa ba bisa ka'ida ba kuma a hankali, ba tare da sa hannun gwamnati ba; (ii) a cikin lokuta na harsunan Faransanci da Mutanen Espanya, daidaitayar harshe yana faru ne a hukumance, wanda cibiyoyin harshe masu ba da umarni, kamar Académie Française da Royal Spanish Academy, waɗanda bi da bi da bi samar da Le bon français da El buen español.[29][27]

Za'a iya tsara daidaitattun iri-iri a hanyoyi biyu: (i) a matsayin zamantakewa zamantakewar da aka ba da tsarin zamantakewa da tattalin arziki ko (ii) a matsayin tsarin tsari na yaren, wani abu mai ban sha'awa.[30] Saboda haka, cikakken daidaitaccen harshe ba shi da amfani, saboda daidaitaccen yaren ba zai iya aiki sosai a matsayin ainihin abu ba, amma yana aiki ne a matsayin saitin ka'idojin harshe da aka lura da digiri daban-daban a yayin usus - yadda mutane ke magana da kuma rubuta harshe.[31][32] A aikace, nau'ikan harsunan da aka gano a matsayin misali ba daidai ba ne ko kuma cikakke, musamman a cikin siffofin magana.[33] Daga wannan hangen nesa, masanin harshe Suzanne Romaine ya ce ana iya kwatanta harsuna masu daidaituwa da al'ummomin da aka yi tunanin *al'umma* da kishin kasa, kamar yadda masanin kimiyyar siyasa Benedict Anderson ya bayyana, wanda ke nuna cewa daidaitawar harshe shine sakamakon tarihin al'umma kuma saboda haka ba sabon abu ne na duniya ba; daga cikin kusan harsuna 7,000 na zamani, yawancin ba su da ma'anar da daidaitattun yaren.[32][32]

A siyasance, a cikin kafa kasa-jiha, ganowa da haɓaka daidaitattun iri-iri na iya yin ƙoƙari don kafa al'adun da aka raba tsakanin ƙungiyoyin zamantakewa da tattalin arziki waɗanda suka hada sabuwar ƙasa-jiha.[34] Ka'idoji daban-daban na ƙasa, waɗanda aka samo daga ci gaba da yaruka, ana iya bi da su azaman harsuna masu rarrabe (tare da yarukan yaruka masu rarrabewa)  koda kuwa akwai nau'ikan da ke fahimtar juna a cikinsu,   kamar yarukan Arewacin Jamusanci na Scandinavia (Danish, Norwegian, da Swedish).[35][36][37][38] Bugu da ƙari, a cikin ayyukan siyasa, ko dai gwamnati ko jama'ar makwabta na iya ƙin matsayin al'adu na al'ada.[39] Dangane da irin wannan tsangwama ta siyasa, masu ilimin harshe suna haɓaka daidaitattun iri-iri daga abubuwa daban-daban na yaruka da al'umma ke amfani da su.

Misali, lokacin da Norway ta sami 'yanci daga Denmark a 1814, harshen da aka rubuta shi ne Danish. Ana magana da yaruka daban-daban na Norwegian a cikin gundumomi da biranen lardin, amma mutanen da ke da ilimi mafi girma da mutanen birane masu girma sun yi magana da "Danish tare da furcin Norwegian". Dangane da maganganun bourgeois na babban birnin Oslo (Kirista) da sauran manyan biranen, sauye-sauye da yawa na orthographic, musamman a cikin 1907 da 1917, sun haifar da ma'auni na hukuma Riksmål, a cikin 1929 an sake masa suna Bokmål ('harshe na littafi'). Masanin ilimin harshe Ivar Aasen (1813-1896) ya yi la'akari da Dano-Norwegian na birane da na sama da Danish, don haka ya haɓaka Landsmål ('harshe na ƙasa'), ma'auni wanda ya dogara da yarukan yammacin Norway. A cikin 1885 Storting (majalisa) ta ayyana nau'ikan hukuma da daidaito. A shekara ta 1929 an sake masa suna Nynorsk (New Norwegian).

Hakazalika, a Yugoslavia (1945-1992), lokacin da Jamhuriyar Socialist ta Makidoniya (1963-1991) ta haɓaka yarensu na ƙasa daga ci gaba da yaren da Serbia ta tsara zuwa arewa da Bulgaria zuwa gabas, yaren Makidoniya na yau da kullun ya dogara ne akan yaren daga yammacin jamhuriyar, waɗanda yaren da suka fi bambanta da yaren Bulgarian, al'adar harshe ta baya da aka yi amfani da ita a wannan yankin na Yankin Balkan. Kodayake harshen Makidoniya yana aiki a matsayin harshen Jamhuriyar Arewacin Makidoniya, duk da haka, saboda dalilai na siyasa da al'adu, 'yan Bulgaria suna bi da harshen Makideriya a matsayin yaren Bulgarian.[40]

## Misalan

### Sinanci
Sinanci ya ƙunshi daruruwan nau'ikan gida, da yawa daga cikinsu ba su da fahimtar juna, yawanci ana rarraba su cikin manyan kungiyoyi bakwai zuwa goma, gami da Mandarin, Wu, Yue, Hakka da Min. Kafin karni na 20, yawancin Sinanci suna magana ne kawai da nau'ikan yankin.Shekaru dubu biyu, an yi rubuce-rubuce na al'ada a cikin Sinanci na gargajiya, salon da aka tsara akan na gargajiya kuma an cire shi daga kowane magana na zamani.[41]A matsayin ma'auni mai amfani, jami'an marigayi daular sun gudanar da mulkin mallaka ta amfani da harshe na kowa wanda ya dogara da nau'ikan Mandarin, wanda aka sani da *Guānhuà* (a zahiri "magana ta jami'ai").[42]

A farkon karni na 20, yawancin masu ilimi na kasar Sin sun yi jayayya cewa kasar tana buƙatar daidaitaccen harshe.A cikin shekarun 1920, an maye gurbin wallafe-wallafen Sinanci a matsayin ma'auni na rubuce-rubuce ta Sinanci, wanda ya dogara da yarukan Mandarin.[43]A cikin shekarun 1930, an karɓi Standard Chinese, tare da furcinsa bisa ga Yaren Beijing, amma tare da ƙamus ɗin da aka samo daga wasu nau'ikan Mandarin da kuma haɗin gwiwar da aka rubuta.[44]Harshen hukuma ne na Jamhuriyar Jama'ar Sin (inda ake kira *Pǔtōnghuà* "magana ta yau da kullun"), harshen hukuma na Jamhuriyar Sin da ke mulkin Taiwan (a matsayin *Guóyǔ* "harshe na ƙasa") kuma ɗaya daga cikin harsunan hukuma na Singapore (a matsayin *Huáyǔ* "harshen Sin"). [45]Standard Sinanci yanzu ya mamaye rayuwar jama'a, kuma an fi nazarin shi fiye da kowane nau'in Sinanci.[46]

### Turanci a Ƙasar Ingila
A cikin Ƙasar Ingila, harshen da aka saba amfani da shi shine Turanci na Burtaniya, wanda ya dogara da harshen kotun tsakiya na Chancery na Ingila da Wales.[47] A ƙarshen ƙarni na goma sha bakwai da farkon ƙarni na sha takwas, Standard English ya zama an kafa shi a matsayin al'ada ta harshe na aji na sama, wanda ya ƙunshi peerage da gentry.[48] A cikin jama'a, faɗakarwa na magana na yaren da aka saba amfani da shi ya nuna cewa mai magana namiji ne ko mace da ke da ilimi mai kyau, kuma ta haka ne yana da matsayi mai girma.[49] A Ingila da Wales, Standard English yawanci ana danganta shi da Karɓar Magana, "ma'auni na Turanci kamar yadda ake magana a kudancin Ingila. " , amma ana iya magana da shi tare da wasu maganganu, kuma a wasu ƙasashe har yanzu ana amfani da wasu magunguna (Australiya, Kanada, Amurka, da sauransu) [50]

### Girkanci
Hanyar da aka saba amfani da ita na Girkanci na zamani ya dogara ne akan yarukan Kudancin; ana magana da waɗannan yarukan galibi a cikin Peloponnese, Tsibirin Ionian, Attica, tsibirin Crete da Cyclades.[51]

### Hindi-Urdu
Rubuce-rubuce guda biyu na Harshen Hindustani suna da matsayin doka a Indiya: Standard Hindi (ɗaya daga cikin harsuna 23 na hukuma) da Urdu (harshe na hukuma na Pakistan), sakamakon haka, Hindustani sau da yawa ana kiranta "Hindi-Urdu".[52]

### Irish
An Ca__ckb____ckb________ckb__ 'The Official Standard'), sau da yawa an taƙaita shi zuwa An Ca__kon____ckbando, shi ne ma'auni na hukuma na Harshen Irish. Masu fassara ne suka fara buga shi a cikin Dáil Éireann a cikin shekarun 1950.[53] Ya zuwa watan Satumbar 2013,  babban bita na farko na Ca__ckb____ckb____c____ckb__ yana samuwa, a kan layi  da kuma a bugawa.[54][55][56] Daga cikin canje-canjen da za a samu a cikin fasalin da aka sake sabuntawa sune, alal misali, ƙoƙari daban-daban na kawo shawarwarin Ca__ckb____ckb____c____ckb__ kusa da yaren da ake magana da shi na masu magana da Gaeltacht,  gami da ba da damar ci gaba da amfani da shari'ar da aka zaba inda za a sami asali a tarihi. [57][58]

### Italiyanci
Standard Italian ya samo asali ne daga Yaren Tuscan, musamman daga Nau'ikan Florentine - tasirin Florentine a kan litattafan Italiyanci na farko ya kafa wannan yaren a matsayin tushe ga yaren Italiyanci.[59][60] Musamman, Italiyanci ya zama harshen al'adu ga dukan mutanen Italiya, godiya ga darajar manyan ayyukan marubuta na Florentine kamar Dante Alighieri, da kuma muhimmancin siyasa da al'adu na Florence a lokacin da kuma gaskiyar cewa harshe ne tsakanin yarukan arewa da kudancin Italiyanci.[61] Daga baya zai zama harshen hukuma na dukkan Jihohin Italiya, kuma bayan hadin kan Italiya ya zama harshen ƙasa na Masarautar Italiya.[62] Kalmomin Italiyanci na zamani sun sami tasiri sosai daga kusan dukkanin Harsunan yanki na Italiya.