open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Mai koyo na jirgin ruwa

**Mai koyon aikin matukin jirgi** shine na biyu mafi ƙanƙanta a cikin rundunar sojojin ruwan Amurka, rundunar tsaron gabar tekun Amurka,  da kuma rundunar sojojin ruwan Amurka mai suna US Naval Cadet Corps wacce take sama da ƙungiyar matukin jirgi da kuma ƙasa da matukin jirgi ; wannan matsayi a da ana kiransa da **aji na biyu na matukin jirgi** . 

Bai kamata a rikita matsayin da ake da shi a yanzu na mai koyon aikin matukin jirgi da matsayin mai koyon aikin matukin jirgi wanda shine mafi ƙarancin matsayi a cikin rundunar sojojin ruwa daga 1904 zuwa 1948 ba. [1] A cikin tsohon tsarin, mai koyon aikin matukin jirgi, sai matukin jirgi na aji na biyu da kuma matukin jirgi na aji na farko. (Tsarin matsayi mai matakai uku na matukin jirgi ya samo asali ne daga Rundunar Sojojin Ruwa ta Karni na 18 lokacin da ake kiran sahun matukin jirgi na ƙasa, matukin jirgi na yau da kullun da kuma matukin jirgi mai iya aiki .) [2]

Ainihin taken jirgin E-2 a cikin Rundunar Sojan Ruwa ta Amurka ya bambanta dangane da al'ummar da matukin jirgin yake. Haka kuma, launin alamun ƙimar rukuninsu ya dogara ne da al'ummarsu.

* Waɗanda ke cikin rukunin ma'aikata da kuma al'ummar gudanarwa su ne masu koyon aikin matuƙan jiragen ruwa (SA). Suna sanya fararen riguna a kan kayan aikin shuɗin ruwan teku, da kuma fararen riguna a kan kayan aikin.
* Masu aikin gadin asibiti suna koyon aikin asibiti (HA)  . Su ne kawai masu yawan shiga a cikin wannan al'umma. Suna sanya fararen riguna a kan kayan aikin shuɗin ruwan teku, da kuma fararen riguna a kan kayan aikin.
* Waɗanda ke cikin ƙungiyar injiniya da kuma ƙungiyar hull ana kiransu da mai aikin kashe gobara (FA) kuma suna sanya riguna ja a kan kayan aikin shuɗi mai ruwan teku da fari.
* Waɗanda ke cikin ƙungiyar jiragen sama ana kiransu da ɗan aikin jirgin sama (AA) kuma suna sanya riguna kore a kan kayan aikin shuɗi mai ruwan teku da fari.
* Ana kiran ƙudan zumar teku da mai koyon gini (CA)  kuma suna sanya layukan shuɗi masu haske a kan kayan aiki na shuɗi mai ruwan teku da fari.

## Manazarta
Masu kirkira

**Mai zane** mutum ne da ke da hannu wajen ƙirƙirar fasaha, ko kuma yin aikin fasaha . Amfani da aka fi amfani da shi a cikin jawabai na yau da kullun da tattaunawa ta ilimi yana nufin mai aiki a fannin zane-zane kawai.

Duk da haka, ana amfani da kalmar sosai a cikin kasuwancin nishaɗi don nufin ' yan wasan kwaikwayo, mawaƙa, mawaƙa, masu rawa, da sauran masu wasan kwaikwayo .  Ana amfani da kalmar Faransanci ***artiste*** a Turanci a wannan mahallin, kodayake wannan ya zama tsohon yayi. Amfani da kalmar "artist" don bayyana marubuta yana da inganci, amma ba a saba gani ba, kuma galibi an takaita shi ga mahallin kamar sharhin masu suka;  " marubuci " galibi ana amfani da shi maimakon haka.

Duk da cewa amfani da kalmar 'mai zane' abu ne da aka saba amfani da shi, babu wata ma'anar fasaha da aka yarda da ita [1] — wannan yana sa ma'anar wanene da kuma wanda ba mai zane ba ta da tabbas . Masu fasaha da masana falsafa har yanzu suna muhawara kan fassararsu game da ma'anar fasaha —akan abin da ke da kuma abin da ba ya ɗauka a matsayin fasaha . [1]

*Kamus ɗin Turanci na Oxford* ya bayyana tsoffin ma'anoni masu faɗi na kalmar "mai zane":

* mutum mai ilimi ko kuma digirin Master of Arts ,
* wanda ke neman ilimin kimiyya mai amfani, magani na gargajiya, ilmin taurari, ilmin sunadarai ,
* mai bin wani abu da ƙwarewa ke zuwa ta hanyar karatu ko aiki,
* mai bin fasahar hannu, kamar makaniki ,
* wanda ya sanya sana'arsu ta zama sana'a mai kyau, ko
* wanda ke haɓaka ɗaya daga cikin kyawawan fasahohi - a al'ada, fasahar da muses ke jagoranta

Kamus na Britannica ya fassara "mai zane" a matsayin: 

* mutumin da ke ƙirƙirar fasaha,
* mutumin da ya ƙware a zane, zane, da sauransu,
* ƙwararren mai yin aiki, ko
* mutumin da yake da kyau sosai a wani abu

* wanda ke yin zane, zane, ko yin sassaka,
* wanda ke yin kiɗa, ko
* mutumin da ke ƙirƙirar abubuwa da ƙwarewa da tunani mai kyau

## Etymology - tarihin kalmar

### Tsohuwar Girka (1100 BC-330 AD)

## Manazarta
Eric Drake

**Sir Arthur Eric Courtney Drake** CBE (29 Nuwamba 1910 - 31 Oktoba 1996) ɗan ƙasar Ingila ne mai haƙo mai. Drake shi ne shugaban kwamitin gudanarwa na British Petroleum na biyar, wanda ya yi aiki daga 1969 zuwa 1975.

An haifi Drake a Rochester, Kent, ɗan likita, kuma ya yi karatu a Kwalejin Pembroke, Cambridge, inda ya sami digirin farko a fannin shari'a. 

A shekarar 1975, Sir David Steel ya maye gurbin Drake a matsayin shugaban BP. 

## Manazarta
Peter Cullen

**Peter Claver Cullen** (an haife shi a ranar 28 ga Yuli, 1941) ɗan wasan kwaikwayo ne na muryar Kanada. Ya yi wa Optimus Prime rawar a cikin jerin fina-finai na *[[The Transformers (TV series)|Transformers]]* na asali na shekarun 1980, daga baya ya koma rawar da ya taka a *Transformers* media a 2007, ya fara da fim ɗin farko mai rai .  Ya kuma yi wa wasu haruffa da yawa rawar a cikin kafofin watsa labarai daban-daban, ciki har da Eeyore a cikin *[[Winnie the Pooh (franchise)|Winnie the Pooh]]* franchise, Monterey Jack a cikin *[[Chip 'n Dale: Rescue Rangers (TV series)|Chip 'n Dale: Rescue Rangers]]*, muryar farko ta KARR a cikin *[[Knight Rider (1982 TV series)|Knight Rider]]* da kuma muryar halin taken a cikin ''Predator'' .

An ba shi kyautar Nasara ta Rayuwa daga Kwalejin Fasaha da Kimiyya ta Kasa ta 2023 a matsayin wani ɓangare na kyaututtukan Emmy na Yara da Iyali na Biyu . 

## Rayuwa ta farko
An haifi Cullen a ranar 28 ga Yuli, 1941, a Montreal, Quebec, ga iyayen Amurka Henry da Muriel (née McCann) Cullen. Yana da 'yan'uwa uku: Michaela, Sonny, da Larry. Shi memba ne na farko ajin kammala karatun digiri na Makarantar Wasan Kwaikwayo ta Kasa ta Kanada, wanda ya kammala a shekarar 1963.  Ɗan'uwansa, Larry Cullen, kyaftin ne mai ritaya a Rundunar Sojojin Ruwa ta Amurka, kuma ya taimaka wajen ƙarfafa muryar Optimus Prime. 

## Sana'a
A shekarar 1968, shi da Joan Stuart sun fito a matsayin "Giles" da "Penelope" a cikin *L'Anglaise*, wani ɓangare mai maimaitawa game da wani mutumin Faransa-Kanada tare da matar Ingila-Kanada, a cikin shirin barkwanci na CBC Radio, *Funny You Should Say That* .

Cullen ya buga wani ɗan sama jannati ɗan ƙasar Faransa da Kanada mai suna Kwamanda Bi Bi Latuque tare da Ted Zeigler a wasan kwaikwayo na yara na 1969, *The Buddies* a CFCF-TV a Montreal.  Ya ƙware a iya muryarsa ta hanyar yin aiki a matsayin mai sanar da rediyo, musamman a garinsu na Montreal a tashar MOR ta CKGM yana yin tafiye-tafiye na dare da kuma ƙarshen mako. Daga 1967 zuwa 1969, shi ne mai sanar da *The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour* .

## manazarta
James Carter Cathcart

**James Carter Cathcart** (Maris 8, 1954 - Yuli 8, 2025), wanda aka fi sani da **Jimmy Zoppi**, ɗan wasan kwaikwayo ne na muryar Amurka, mai daidaita rubutun, darektan murya, mai piano da kuma mawaƙa. Ya fi shahara da samar da muryoyin Turanci ga Gary Oak, James, Meowth da Farfesa Oak a cikin ƙungiyar *[[Pokémon]]* .

## Rayuwa da aiki
An haifi Cathcart a birnin Michigan, Indiana, a ranar 8 ga Maris, 1954.   Ya yi wasa da ƙungiyoyin mawaka tun lokacin da yake makarantar sakandare, ciki har da The Laughing Dogs waɗanda suka fitar da kundin waƙoƙi guda biyu a Columbia a tsakanin 1979–80. 

Cathcart ya fara aikinsa na wasan kwaikwayo a cikin shekarun 1980 lokacin da ya buga halin Cap'n OG Readmore a cikin jerin shirye-shiryen *ABC Weekend Special* .  Ya fi shahara saboda rawar da ya taka a cikin ƙungiyar *Pokémon* a matsayin haruffa kamar Gary Oak, James, Meowth da Farfesa Oak. Ya fito a cikin fina-finai sama da 15 *na Pokémon* da kuma shirye-shirye sama da 700 na anime na  .  Ya kuma yi wasa a cikin shirye-shirye kamar *Sonic X*, *Yu-Gi-Oh!* *Duel Monsters*, *One Piece*, *Kirby: Right Back at Ya!,* *Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles*, *Mission Odyssey* da sauransu.  Ya kuma yi wasa a cikin wasan bidiyo *Shadow the Hedgehog* . 

Cathcart, wanda ya auri Martha Jacobi, ya yi ritaya daga aikin kwaikwayo na murya a shekarar 2023 bayan an gano yana da cutar kansar makogwaro .  Ya mutu a ranar 8 ga Yuli, 2025, yayin da yake karɓar kulawar marasa lafiya a Asibitin Calvary da ke Bronx, birnin New York . Yana da shekaru 71.  Yana da 'ya'ya uku: Nicole, Mackenzie, da Carter. 

## Manazarta
Abinci na sana'a

**Abincin hannu** ya ƙunshi burodi, cuku, kayan adana 'ya'yan itace, nama mai laushi, cakulan, abubuwan sha, mai, da ruwan inabi waɗanda ake yi da hannu ta amfani da hanyoyin gargajiya ta ƙwararrun ma'aikatan hannu da aka sani da masu sana'ar abinci.  Kayan abincin da manoma da masu noman bayan gida ke samarwa na iya haɗawa da 'ya'yan itace, hatsi da fulawa, madarar cuku, nama mai laushi, kifi, abubuwan sha, mai, da ruwan inabi. Wannan motsi ya mayar da hankali kan samar da abinci irin na "gona-zuwa-cokali" tare da samfuran da aka samo daga gida waɗanda ke amfanar masu amfani, ƙananan manoma da masu samarwa, da tattalin arzikin yankin.

## Masu sana'ar abinci
Masu sana'ar abinci suna samar da abinci da kayan abinci waɗanda ba a samar da su da yawa ba. Masu sana'ar abinci sun fi son yin sana'ar hannu . [ ana buƙatar bayani ] Masu sana'ar abinci suna yin cuku, cakulan, burodi da kayan gasa, charcuterie da sauran abinci waɗanda suka haɗa da adana abinci ko fermentation, kiyayewa a gida ko kuma sarrafa gwangwani, da kuma adana 'ya'yan itace, nama mai laushi, abubuwan sha, mai, da vinegar . Masu sana'ar abinci suna da fifikon fermentation ko kuma sarrafa yanayin kiyayewa wanda ke da amfani ga ƙananan halittu. Ana amfani da irin waɗannan dabarun don vinegar, cuku, nama mai laushi, ruwan inabi, shayin oolong, da kimchi . [ ana buƙatar ambato ]

## Amfani da yanki
Ana yin abincin da aka yi da hannu a cikin fasaha a tsawon lokaci sannan a ci shi kusa da inda aka ƙera abincin. 

## Dokoki
A shekarar 2009, an gabatar da Dokar Inganta Tsaron Abinci kuma ta zartar da Majalisar Wakilai, amma ba ta zartar ba. An sake yin shawarwari kan matakin kuma aka san shi da Dokar Zamantakewa da Tsaron Abinci (FSMA). A ranar 4 ga Janairu, 2011, Shugaba Barack Obama ya sanya hannu kan kudirin ya zama doka. 

Sanata Jon Tester (D-MT) da Sanata Kay Hagan (D-NC) sun gabatar da gyare-gyare guda biyu ga FSMA wanda ya cire manoman abinci na gida da masu sarrafa abinci daga kulawar tarayya. Waɗannan manoma da masu samar da abinci za su ci gaba da kasancewa ƙarƙashin ikon dokokin lafiya da tsafta na jiha da na gida.    

## Manazarta
Mai sana'a

Mai **sana'a** (daga French  , Italian   ) ƙwararren ma'aikacin hannu ne wanda ke yin ko ƙirƙirar abubuwa na zahiri wani ɓangare ko gaba ɗaya da hannu . Waɗannan abubuwa na iya zama  ko kuma masu ado sosai, misali kayan daki, zane-zanen ado, sassaka, tufafi, kayan abinci, kayan gida, da kayan aiki da hanyoyin aiki kamar motsi na agogo da aka yi da hannu na mai yin agogo . Masu sana'a suna yin sana'a kuma ta hanyar ƙwarewa da ƙwarewa za su iya kaiwa ga matakin bayyanawa na mai fasaha .

## Tarihi
Ana amfani da kalmar "artisanal" sau da yawa wajen kwatanta sarrafa hannu sabanin tsarin masana'antu, kamar a cikin kalmar hakar ma'adinai ta hannu . Don haka, wani lokacin ana amfani da "artisanal" a cikin tallatawa da talla a matsayin kalma mai ban sha'awa don bayyana ko nuna alaƙa da ƙirƙirar kayayyakin abinci da aka yi da hannu, kamar burodi, abubuwan sha, cuku ko yadi . Da yawa daga cikinsu an yi su ne da hannu, kayan karkara ko na makiyaya, amma kuma yanzu ana yin su ne a babban sikelin tare da injina ta atomatik a masana'antu da sauran yankunan masana'antu.

Masu sana'a su ne suka fi samar da manyan kayayyaki kafin juyin juya halin masana'antu .

A tsohuwar Girka, masu sana'a suna sha'awar agora kuma galibi suna gina bita a kusa. 

### Masu sana'ar hannu na zamanin da
A zamanin Tsakiyar Zamani, kalmar "masana'anta" ana amfani da ita ga waɗanda ke yin abubuwa ko kuma ke ba da ayyuka. Bai shafi ma'aikatan hannu marasa ƙwarewa ba. An raba masu sana'a zuwa ƙungiyoyi biyu daban-daban: waɗanda ke gudanar da kasuwancinsu da waɗanda ba sa yi. Ana kiran na farko masters, yayin da na biyu kuma ma'aikata ne masu tafiya da kuma waɗanda ke koyon sana'o'i .

Wata rashin fahimta da mutane da yawa ke da ita game da wannan rukunin zamantakewa ita ce suna ɗaukar su a matsayin "ma'aikata" a ma'anar zamani: wanda wani ya ɗauke shi aiki. Ƙungiyar da ta fi tasiri a tsakanin masu sana'a ita ce manyan mutane, masu kasuwanci. Masu mallakar sun sami babban matsayi a cikin al'ummominsu,  kuma an tsara su zuwa ƙungiyoyi a cikin birane da birane.

## Manazarta
Manajan al'adu

**Manajan al'adu** ( Spanish   ) mutum ne wanda ci gaban fasaha ke motsa shi, yana aiki da kansa da ƙwarewa tare da ilimin wannan fanni, kuma yana haɓaka aiki a matsayin mai shiga tsakani tsakanin cibiyoyin al'adu na gwamnati da/ko masu zaman kansu tare da masu fasaha daga fannoni daban-daban don bayyana ayyukansu a kasuwa tare da tallatawa da yaɗa su a ƙasa da ƙasa. 

A duniyar da ake magana da Turanci, wannan ma'aunin shine mai gudanar da fasaha (ko manajan fasaha) .

Manajan al'adu yana aiki ne ta hanyar neman takamaiman matakan nasara, koyaushe yana da niyyar inganta matakin al'adu, yana neman haɗin kai tsakanin al'umma, ɓangaren gwamnati, ɓangaren masu zaman kansu, da masu fasaha. Aikin kula da al'adu yana haifar da ƙalubalen ilmantarwa a fannoni daban-daban kamar gudanar da albarkatun tattalin arziki, horo, da sadarwa ta fasaha. [1] [2]

Gudanar da al'adu sabuwar sana'a ce. Mutumin da ya sadaukar da kansa ga wannan aikin yana da ikon hangowa da fassara baiwa, sanin yadda ake kafa tattaunawa da masu fasaha don haɗa su da ayyukan al'adu da za a haɓaka. 

Jami'o'in da ke bayar da shirye-shiryen digiri a fannin gudanar da al'adu sun haɗa da Jami'ar Antioquia,  Cibiyar Kimiyyar Zamantakewa ta Latin Amurka,  Jami'ar Chile,  Jami'ar Córdoba,  Jami'ar Ƙasa ta Colombia,  Jami'ar Barcelona,  Jami'ar Buɗaɗɗiyar Catalonia,  Jami'ar Katolika ta Pontifical ta Valparaíso,  da Jami'ar Piura . 

## Manazarta
Currier

**Currier** ƙwararre ne a fannin sarrafa fata . Bayan aikin tanning, currier  yana amfani da dabarun miya, kammalawa da kuma canza launin fata zuwa fatar da aka yi wa launin ruwan kasa don ya zama mai ƙarfi, mai sassauƙa da kuma hana ruwa shiga.  Ana miƙe fatar kuma an goge ta don samar da kauri da laushi iri ɗaya, kuma rini da sauran sinadarai suna ba wa fatar launin da take so.

Bayan an gama gyaran fata, fatar za ta kasance a shirye don yin kwalliya kamar suttura, yin safa, yin takalma ko yin safar hannu . [ ana buƙatar ambato ]

## Duba kuma

* Fata ta Rasha, wata fata mai mai a tarihi, wadda aka yi wa ado da man birch wanda ya ba ta ƙamshi na musamman.

## Manazarta
Mai ba da izini

**Cordwainer** / / ˈkɔːrd ˌweɪnər / ) wani mai yin takalma ne wanda ke yin sabbin takalma daga sabbin fata. Ana iya kwatanta cinikin cordwainer da cinikin cobbler, bisa ga wata al'ada a Burtaniya wacce ta takaita gyaran takalma ga masu gyaran takalma.  Ba a cika lura da wannan bambancin amfani a ko'ina ba, domin kalmar *cobbler* ana amfani da ita sosai ga masu sana'a waɗanda ke yin ko gyara takalma.   

Kamus na Turanci na Oxford  ya ce kalmar *cordwainer* ta daɗe, "har yanzu ana amfani da ita a cikin sunayen ƙungiyoyi, misali, *Kamfanin Cordwainers*' "; amma ma'anarta ta *masu gyaran gashi* ta ambaci gyara kawai,  tana nuna tsohon bambanci. Ƙungiyar *masu gyaran gashi*, waɗanda aka sani da suna masu gyaran takalma, ta gabatar da Wasan Kwaikwayo na 14 na Wasan Chester Mystery Plays .  

## Asalin Ma'anar
Kalmar *cordwainer* ta shiga Turanci a matsayin *cordewaner(e)*, daga Anglo-Norman *cordewaner* (daga Tsohon  na Faransa, **', **', da sauransu), kuma da farko ana nufin ma'aikaci a cikin cordwain ko cordovan, fatar da aka yi a tarihi a Moorish Córdoba, Spain, a zamanin Tsakiyar Zamani, da kuma, mafi ƙanƙanta, mai yin takalma.  Shaidar farko a Turanci ita ce ambaton "Randolf se cordewan[ere]", *kimanin* 1100.  

A cewar *OED*, yanzu ana ɗaukar kalmar ta tsufa sai dai idan ta ci gaba da kasancewa da sunan ƙungiyar ƙwadago ko kamfani, ko kuma inda ƙungiyoyin ƙwadago ke aiki a wani ɓangaren. 

## Tarihi
Al'adar Birtaniya ta bambanta kalmomin *cordwainer* da *cobbler*, tana iyakance masu gyaran takalma ga gyaran takalma.  A wannan amfani, *cordwainer* shine wanda ke yin sabbin takalma ta amfani da sabon fata, yayin da *cobbler* shine wanda ke gyaran takalma.  Masu gyaran takalma na zamanin da suna amfani da fata cordovan don takalma mafi inganci, amma masu gyaran takalma suma suna amfani da fata da aka samar a cikin gida kuma ba wai kawai masu samar da takalma masu tsada ba ne.

### Tsibiran Burtaniya
A cikin tsarin tarihi na ƙungiyar London, masu yin takalma da masu yin takalma sun kafa ƙungiyoyi daban-daban, [1] kuma Magajin Garin London ya hana masu yin takalma yin aiki da sabbin fata a shekara ta 1395, haka nan kuma masu yin takalman roba sun hana su yin takalma da tsofaffin takalma. A tarihi, masu yin takalman roba suna yin takalma, amma kawai suna amfani da tsofaffin fata da aka samo daga takalman da aka yi watsi da su ko aka gyara. [2] A yau, masu yin takalma da yawa na musamman suma za su gyara nasu aikin, amma masu gyaran takalma ba su da ikon yin sabbin takalma. [ ana buƙatar ambato ]

## Manazarta
Mai yin sutura

**Mai yin corset** ƙwararre ne wajen ɗinki wanda ke yin corsets . Masu yin corset galibi ana kiransu da kalmomin Faransa masu kama da **corsetier** (namiji) da **corsetière** (mace). **Staymaker** sunan da aka daɗe ana amfani da shi wajen yin corsetmaker.

## Zane da rarrabawa
Mafi kyawun masu yin corset ƙwararru ne masu dinki waɗanda ke da ilimin halittar jiki wanda ke ba su damar yin corsets masu dacewa da ɗorewa. Masu yin corset waɗanda ke sake ƙirƙirar salon tarihi dole ne su saba da salon tarihi da kayan sawa waɗanda suka mamaye ƙarni na tarihi. Masu yin corset ɗin mutum ɗaya galibi suna fifita wani salo, kuma galibi suna da ra'ayoyi daban-daban game da tasirin jiki da fa'idodin corsets daban-daban, wanda hakan ke shafar ƙirar corset da ƙirƙirar su.

Babban abin da ake la'akari da shi wajen tsara corset shine tsawon lokacin amfani. Don amfani na ɗan gajeren lokaci, misali, ana amfani da shi don wani biki na musamman kamar bikin aure, za a sa corset na ɗan gajeren lokaci don haka ba za a iya sawa ba, don haka ba lallai ne a yi shi da inganci mafi girma ba. Don amfani na dogon lokaci, misali, ta hanyar ɗaurewa ko motsa kugu, dole ne a yi corsets bisa ga ƙa'idodi na musamman kuma an fi dacewa da su musamman kuma an tsara su ga kowane mai sawa. Rauni ko lahani ɗaya yakan bayyana. Wasu riguna da aka yi musamman suna da corsets da aka gina a cikin ƙirar; mai yin kayan ado mai hazaka kuma zai iya zama ƙwararren mai yin corset.

Wasu kamfanoni suna da mata masu siyarwa masu tafiya, masu siyar da corsets waɗanda suka yi odar corsets ɗin da aka kera daga kamfanin. Shahararru sune Spirella (1904 &#x2013; 1989), Barcley, da Spenser .

## Manazarta
Yin takalma

**Yin takalma** tsari ne na yin takalma .

Da farko, ana yin takalma ɗaya bayan ɗaya da hannu, sau da yawa ta hanyar ƙungiyoyin masu yin takalma, ko *masu yin igiya* (wani lokacin ana kiransu da masu yin takalma ba daidai ba, waɗanda ke gyara takalma maimakon yin su.  ). A ƙarni na 18, mutane da yawa ko ma ɗaruruwa  na masters, matafiya, da masu koyon aiki (maza da mata) za su yi aiki tare a shago, suna raba aikin zuwa ayyuka daban-daban. Abokin ciniki zai iya zuwa shago, a auna shi daban-daban, sannan ya dawo ya ɗauki sabbin takalmansa cikin ƙasa da kwana ɗaya.  Matsakaicin farashin ma'aurata a lokacin shine kusan albashin kwana ɗaya ga matsakaicin mai tafiya. 

Kasuwancin yin takalma ya bunƙasa a ƙarni na sha takwas da farkon ƙarni na sha tara amma masana'antu sun fara shafarsa a ƙarshen ƙarni na sha tara. [1] Yin takalma na gargajiya yanzu an maye gurbinsa da yawan takalman da masana'antu ke samarwa, amma ba lallai ba ne a cikin inganci, kulawa ga cikakkun bayanai, ko sana'a . A yau, yawancin takalma ana yin su ne bisa ga girma, maimakon bisa ga sana'a . [2] Ana iya sayar da takalma na musamman, waɗanda aka yi a shekarar 2020 bisa ga al'adun gargajiya, akan dubban daloli na Amurka. [3]

Masu yin takalma na iya samar da nau'ikan takalma iri-iri, ciki har da takalma, takalma, takalma, santsi da moccasins . Irin waɗannan kayayyaki galibi ana yin su ne da fata, itace, roba, filastik, jute ko wasu kayan shuka, kuma galibi suna ƙunshe da sassa da yawa don ingantaccen dorewar tafin ƙafa, an ɗinka su a saman fata.

Sana'o'in da ke yin takalma sun haɗa da sana'o'in cordwainer da na cobbler. Kalmar *cobbler* da aka fara amfani da ita a matsayin barkwanci don nuna cewa wani bai san sana'arsa ba; a ƙarni na 18, ta zama kalma ga waɗanda ke gyara takalma amma ba su san isassun kayan da za su yi ba. 

## Tarihi

### Hanyoyin gargajiya

## Manazarta
James Carter (mai iyo)

**James Hill Carter** (an haife shi a ranar 12 ga Fabrairu 1957) ɗan ƙasar Scotland ne tsohon mai yin ninkaya mai gasa.

## Aikin ninkaya
James Carter ya wakilci Birtaniya a gasar Olympics, gasar cin kofin duniya ta FINA da gasar zakarun Turai, da kuma Scotland a gasar Commonwealth, a shekarun 1970 da farkon shekarun 1980. Carter ya fafata a gasar ninkaya ta baya da kuma gasar ninkaya ta freestyle, wadda ta kama daga mita 100 zuwa mita 1500.

Carter ya cancanci shiga gasar Olympics sau uku a 1972, 1976 da 1980;  mafi kyawun sakamakonsa shine matsayi na huɗu a matsayin memba na ƙungiyar maza ta Burtaniya a tseren mita 4×100 a 1976.  A matsayinsa na memba na ƙungiyar tseren mita 4x100 ta Burtaniya, ya lashe lambobin tagulla a tseren mita 4x100 a Gasar Cin Kofin Duniya ta 1975 da Gasar Cin Kofin Turai ta 1977. Ya kuma lashe lambar azurfa a tseren mita 1500 a Gasar Cin Kofin Turai ta 1974 .  A gasar cin kofin Burtaniya ta ASA ta kasa, ya lashe gasar tseren mita 1500 ta 1973 da 1974,   gasar tseren mita 200 ta baya a 1976 da 1977,   gasar tseren mita 200 ta 1976 da kuma gasar tseren mita 400 ta 1974.  

Tsakanin 1977 da 1979 ya yi karatu a Jami'ar California, Berkeley, kuma ya yi iyo a ƙungiyar ninkaya da nutsewa ta California Golden Bears ta jami'ar.  Kafin haka an horar da shi a Ryde-Carlile Swimming Club, Putney, New South Wales, Australia.  

## Rayuwa ta sirri
Kamar yadda aka gani a shirin talabijin na Food Network *mai suna DiDrive-Ins and Dives*, Carter yanzu yana da gidan cin abinci mai suna Meal Ticket a Berkeley, California, tare da matarsa Carolyn Del Gaudio. 

## Manazarta
James Carreras

**Sir James "Jimmy" Enrique Carreras** (30 Janairu 1909  – 9 Yuni 1990) furodusan fina-finai ne na Ingila kuma babban jami'i, wanda tare da William Hinds suka kafa kamfanin Hammer Film Productions na Burtaniya. Aikinsa ya ɗauki kusan shekaru 45, a fannoni daban-daban na masana'antar nishaɗi har zuwa lokacin da ya yi ritaya a shekarar 1972.

## Tarihin Rayuwa
An haifi Carreras a Landan a shekarar 1909. Mahaifinsa, Enrique Carreras, ya yi ƙaura zuwa Birtaniya daga Spain, inda ya buɗe wani gidan wasan kwaikwayo a gundumar Hammersmith da ke Landan a shekarar 1913. 

Ƙaramin Carreras ya halarci Makarantar Koyon Grammar ta Manchester kuma daga baya ya jagoranci sinima ta Oxford da ke Manchester kafin ya shiga ɓangaren rarraba fina-finai a shekarar 1934, lokacin da ya shiga Exclusive Films, wanda mahaifinsa Enrique da William Hinds suka kafa wanda aka fi a.k.a. Will Hammer.  A lokacin Yaƙin Duniya na Biyu, Carreras ya ga yaƙi kuma ya kai matsayin Laftanar Kanar.  A shekarar 1946, ya dawo a matsayin manajan darakta na *Exclusive Films*, inda ya shirya fim ɗin *Who Killed Van Loon?* (1947).

Daga 1949 zuwa 1980, ya kasance shugaban Hammer Film Productions . Ya kula da ci gaban kamfanin mallakar masu zaman kansu zuwa kamfanin fina-finai mai nasara.  A cewar *FIlmink* "ƙalilan daga cikin kamfanonin suna da shugaban shirya fina-finai masu ƙwarewa". 

A shekarar 1971 ya shirya wa Hammer ya sanya hannu kan yarjejeniyoyi da EMI Films da Rank." 

## Daraja
A shekarar 1944, ya sami digirin MBE . An ba shi lambar yabo ta gwarzo a shekarar 1970. An naɗa shi KCVO a bikin karramawa na Sabuwar Shekara ta 1980. Ɗansa shi ne daraktan fina-finai kuma furodusa Michael Carreras .  Ya mutu a Henley-on-Thames, Oxfordshire. 

## manazarta
Hugo Bueno (ɗan wasan ƙwallon ƙafa, 2002)

**Hugo Bueno López** (an haife shi a ranar 18 ga Satumba, 2002) ƙwararren ɗan wasan ƙwallon ƙafa ne ɗan ƙasar Sipaniya wanda ke taka leda a matsayin ɗan wasan baya na hagu ko na hagu a ƙungiyar Wolverhampton Wanderers Premier League .

## Aikin kulob
A shekarar 2019, Bueno ya shiga makarantar matasa ta ƙungiyar Wolverhampton Wanderers ta Ingila.   

Bueno ya fara buga gasar Premier a ranar 15 ga Oktoba 2022, a matsayin wanda ya maye gurbinsa a wasan da suka doke Nottingham Forest da ci 1-0 a Molineux . 

A ranar 20 ga Nuwamba 2023, Bueno ya tsawaita kwangilarsa da Wolverhampton Wanderers har zuwa 2028. 

A ranar 16 ga Maris 2024, Bueno ya zura kwallonsa ta farko a tarihin rayuwarsa ta farko ga Wolverhampton Wanderers, inda ya zura kwallo ta biyu ta Wolves a wasan da suka sha kashi 3-2 a wasan kusa da na karshe na gasar cin kofin FA da Coventry City .

#### Feyenoord (rance)
A ranar 13 ga Agusta 2024, ƙungiyar Feyenoord ta ƙasar Holland ta sanar da cewa ta ɗauki Bueno a matsayin aro har zuwa ƙarshen kakar wasa.  Bueno ya fara bugawa ƙungiyar wasa a ranar 18 ga Agusta, inda ya taimaka wajen zura ƙwallo ta farko a wasan da suka yi da PEC Zwolle da ci 5-1 a waje. 

Bayan shekaru 50, Feyenoord ta cancanci shiga zagaye na 16 na gasar zakarun Turai ta UEFA saboda kunnen doki 1-1 da Milan a Stadio Giuseppe Meazza. Kwallon da Hugo ya ci daga gefen hagu ta taimaka wa kwallon da Feyenoord ta ci a wasan.  Wannan kwallon kuma tana nufin an fitar da Milan daga gasar da aka ambata a baya.

## manazarta
Hugo Burge

**Hugo Burge** (6 ga Afrilu 1972 - 10 ga Mayu 2023) babban jami'in harkokin kasuwanci ne na tafiye-tafiye na Ingila, ɗan kasuwan intanet kuma mai saka hannun jari, kuma wanda ya kafa Marchmont Ventures, wata ƙungiya da ke tallafawa fasaha da sana'o'i.

An haifi Burge kuma ya girma a Landan.   A shekara ta 2000 ya zuba jari a gidan yanar gizo na yin rajistar jiragen sama na Cheapflights a matsayin wani ɓangare na sa hannun gudanarwa wanda banki David Soskin ya jagoranta wanda ya zama shugaban kamfanin.  Burge ya shiga ƙungiyar gudanarwa kuma an naɗa shi babban jami'i a shekara ta 2011. A lokacin aikinsa, kamfanin ya sayi injin binciken balaguro na Denmark, Momondo, tare da Momondo Group ya maye gurbin Cheapflights a matsayin sunan kamfanin iyaye. Bayan nasarar shirya sayar da Momondo ga Priceline Group a watan Yulin 2017, ya sauka daga mukamin babban jami'i.   A matsayinsa na mai zuba jari, ya kafa kamfanin saka hannun jari na HOWZAT a shekara ta 2006; zai zuba jari a wasu harkokin kasuwanci na fannin balaguro na dijital, ciki har da Trivago .  

Mahaifin Burge, Oliver Burge, ya sayi Gidan Marchmont a cikin Scottish Borders a matsayin jari a shekarar 1988.  Babban kadarar da ke wurin , ƙungiyar agaji ta Sue Ryder, har yanzu tana amfani da Gidan Marchmont a matsayin gidan kula da tsofaffi har sai da aka rufe gidan a shekarar 2005. Daga baya Burges ta saya shi a shekarar 2007. Bayan gyara gidan kuma ya zauna a can da kansa, Burge ya kafa Marchmont Ventures a shekarar 2018, wata ƙungiya don tallafawa ƙungiyar fasaha da sana'o'i, wadda ya daɗe yana goyon bayanta. Ya mayar da Gidan Marchmont a matsayin wurin shakatawa ga masu fasaha, inda ya mayar da gidajen situdiyo da gareji zuwa wurin bita.  A shekarar 2019 ya kafa gidauniyar agaji ta Marchmont Makers Foundation don ba da kuɗin zama ga marubuta da masu fasaha, da kuma tallafawa makarantu da ƙungiyoyin agaji na gida.  A shekarar 2022, Burge ya shirya bikin bikin aikin mai fasaha kuma mawaƙi Rory McEwen, wanda ya zauna a Gidan Marchmont tun yana yaro.  Shi ma ya kasance mai tallafawa bikin baje kolin zane-zane na Borders. 

A shekarar 2018, an gane gudunmawar Burge ga fannin tafiye-tafiye lokacin da aka shigar da shi cikin Zauren Tafiya da Baƙunci na Burtaniya.  Saboda aikin gyaran da suka yi a Gidan Marchmont, Hugo da Oliver Burge suma sun sami kyautar 2018 ta Gidajen Tarihi na Sotheby's Restoration Award da kuma kyautar gine-gine ta Georgian Group 2017 don Mafi Kyawun Gyaran Cikin Gida na Georgian. 

## Manazarta
Nigel Brookes

**Nigel Leigh Brookes** (an haife shi a ranar 12 ga Disamba, 1967) tsohon ɗan wasan kurket ne na ƙasar Australiya . Brookes ɗan wasan kurket ne mai hannun dama wanda ke buga ƙwallon hannu da hannu da sauri . An haife shi a Nowra, New South Wales .

Brookes ya buga wasa ɗaya tilo a gasar List A a tsakaninsa da Ingila A a watan Fabrairun 1993.  Ba a buƙatar ya buga ƙwallo a wannan wasan ba, yayin da ya buga ƙwallo sau 9 ba tare da wicket ba, inda Tasmania ta yi nasara da maki 24.  Bai sake buga wasa a ƙungiyar Tasmania ba.

## Manazarta
Nigel Broackes

Sir **Nigel Broackes** (21 ga Yuli 1934 - 29 ga Satumba 1999) ɗan kasuwa ne ɗan Ingila kuma wanda ya kafa Trafalgar House, ɗaya daga cikin manyan kasuwancin kwangila na Burtaniya.

## Sana'a
An haife shi a Wakefield, Broackes ɗan lauya ne Donald Broackes da mai zane Nancy Rowland ( née Tansley) Broackes. Mahaifinsa ya mutu a shekarar 1943 yayin da yake aiki a Soja, inda ya bar ƙaramin gida kawai. Bayan mahaifiyarsa ta hana shi fansho na yaƙi saboda mijinta ya mutu saboda dalilai na halitta, Broackes ya girma a cikin mawuyacin hali. Kakansa na uba, duk da cewa yana cikin mummunan yanayi da ɗansa, ya bar kuɗi don ilimin jikansa.  Broackes ya yi karatu a Makarantar Brambletye da ke Makarantar Sussex da Stowe, kuma ya shiga *Stewart & Hughman*, wani kamfani na masu rubuta wa Lloyd aiki, bayan ya bar makaranta.  Daga nan ya yi hidimar ƙasa daga 1951 zuwa 1953 tare da Hussars na 3,   kuma an naɗa shi a matsayin laftanar na biyu a Rundunar Sojojin Sama ta Royal a 1953,  ya tafi a 1954 

Bayan kammala hidimarsa ta ƙasa, Broackes ya koma Stewart & Hughman na ɗan lokaci kafin ya yanke shawarar fara kasuwanci da kansa; "kasuwannin da ba su yi nasara ba kuma iri-iri" guda uku a fannin canza gidaje, siyan haya, da kuma kera kayan aiki sun yi amfani da mafi yawan gadon da ya samu daga kakansa, amma ya fahimci yuwuwar ci gaban wuraren da bama-bamai ke faruwa a London. Ya yi aiki a wani wakilin gidaje na West End na ɗan gajeren lokaci don koyon harkokin kadarori, kuma wani abokinsa mai sayar da hannun jari ya taimaka masa ya haɗu da masu tallafawa kuɗi.  Ta amfani da kadarorinsa na ƙarshe, ƙaramin rukunin gidaje,  kuma tare da goyon bayan *Eastern International*, ƙaramin gidan kuɗi, ya fara siyan wuraren bama-bamai a London.  Eastern International ya zama Trafalgar House kuma Broackes ya ɗauki kashi 21% na hannun jari a cikin kasuwancin lokacin da aka fara sanya shi a kasuwar hannayen jari ta London a 1963.  A shekarar 1964, Kamfanin ya ɗauki kashi 49% na *Bridge Walker*, wani kamfanin gini mallakar Victor Matthews .  Bayan haka, Broackes da Matthews sun yi aiki tare don gina Gidan Trafalgar zuwa ɗaya daga cikin manyan kasuwancin kwangila na Burtaniya.  Gidan Trafalgar ya mallaki Layin Cunard daga 1971 zuwa 1998. Broackes ya yi murabus a 1992 bayan manyan asara da suka shafi rarraba ayyukan ƙasashen waje . 

shekarar 1979, Broackes ya zama shugaban Kamfanin Ci Gaban Docklands na London, inda ya yi murabus daga muƙaminsa a shekarar 1984.  An ba shi lambar yabo ta gwarzo saboda rawar da ya taka a wannan ƙungiyar a shekarar 1984. 

## manazarta
Victor Banerjee

**Victor Banerjee** (an haife shi a ranar 15 ga Oktoba, 1946) ɗan wasan kwaikwayo ne na Indiya wanda ke fitowa a fina-finan Turanci, Hindi, Bengali da Assamese . Ya yi aiki tare da daraktoci kamar Roman Polanski, James Ivory, Sir David Lean, Jerry London, Ronald Neame, Satyajit Ray, Mrinal Sen, Shyam Benegal, da Montazur Rahman Akbar . Ya lashe kyautar fina-finai ta ƙasa don Mafi Kyawun Jarumin Tallafi a fim ɗin *[[Ghare Baire (film)|Ghare Baire]]* . An ba shi kyautar Padma Bhushan, lambar yabo ta uku mafi girma a Indiya, a shekarar 2022 saboda gudummawar da ya bayar ga sinima daga gwamnatin Indiya a fannin fasaha.  

## Rayuwa ta sirri
A lokacin da yake Calcutta, Banerjee ya yi wasa a cikin wasannin kwaikwayo. Ya kuma yi wasa a lokacin da yake Bombay.

Yana da 'ya mace wacce ta kasance mai kula da VFX tsawon shekaru 16. 

### Mai son zane-zane
Banerjee ya kafa Gidan Tarihi na Calcutta a ƙarshen shekarun 1970, wanda shine gidan tarihi na farko na kasuwanci a birnin. 

## Aikin fim
A shekarar 1984, Banerjee ya nuna Dr. Aziz Ahmed a cikin fim ɗin David Lean na *A Passage to India*, wanda hakan ya jawo hankalin masu kallo na ƙasashen yamma.  An zaɓe shi don kyautar BAFTA saboda rawar da ya taka a shekarar 1986, kuma ya lashe kyautar Evening Standard British Film Award da NBR Award (National Board Review, USA) saboda hakan. A watan Afrilun 1985, Banerjee ya sami kyautar "Show-a-Rama Award" daga ƙungiyar Motion Picture Association of America a matsayin "New International Star." 

Ya fito a cikin fina- finan Merchant Ivory Productions *Hullabaloo Over Georgie da Bonnie's Pictures*, *Shatranj Ke Khilari* na Satyajit Ray da *Ghare Baire* da kuma *Mahaprithivi* na Mrinal Sen. A cikin shirin Gunday wanda Priyanka Chopra ta fito a ciki, Banerjee ya ce yana jin "dukkan aiki ƙalubale ne kuma yana da daɗi." 

An kuma nuna shi a cikin rawar da Allah ya taka a shekarar 1988 a cikin shirin York Mystery Plays, wanda darakta Steven Pimlott ya jagoranta. Shi ne ɗan Asiya na farko da ya taka rawa a British Theatre. 

## manazarta
Victor Blank

**Sir Maurice Victor Blank**  (an haife shi a ranar 9 ga Nuwamba 1942) ɗan kasuwa ne ɗan ƙasar Ingila kuma mai taimakon jama'a. Shi ne tsohon shugaban Lloyds TSB kuma shugaban ƙungiyoyin ilimi da agaji da dama da suka haɗa da Gidauniyar Motsi ta Social Mobility, UJS Hillel da Wellbeing of Women . 

## Bayani

### Rayuwar farko da ilimi
An haife shi a ranar 9 ga Nuwamba 1942,  ya yi karatu a Makarantar Grammar Stockport sannan ya sami digiri na biyu a fannin Tarihin Zamani a Kwalejin St Catherine, Oxford .  

A shekarar 1969, yana da shekaru 26, an sanya Blank a matsayin Abokin Hulɗa mafi ƙanƙanta a tarihin kamfanin lauyoyi na Clifford-Turner (wanda yanzu shine Clifford Chance ). A Clifford-Turner, ya ƙware a fannin dokokin kamfanoni, kuma ya rubuta littafi tare kan haɗakar kamfanoni mai taken *Weinberg & Blank on Take-overs and Mergers* . Ya bar Clifford Turner a shekarar 1981 don zama Shugaban Kuɗin Kamfanoni a Bankin Charterhouse (wanda yanzu ɓangare ne na HSBC ), inda ya jagoranci siyan Woolworth's .  Daga 1985 zuwa 1996 ya riƙe muƙaman shugaba da Babban Jami'in Gudanarwa na Charterhouse.  Ya kuma kasance darektan Royal Bank of Scotland daga 1985 zuwa 1993. 

A shekarar 1999, an naɗa Blank a matsayin Shugaban Jaridar Mirror Group  wadda, a lokacin da take kan mulki, ta zama babbar ƙungiyar buga jaridu a Burtaniya a matsayin wani ɓangare na kamfanin Trinity Mirror. 

Daga 1993 zuwa 2006, ya kasance Mataimakin Shugaba sannan Shugaban Great Universal Stores plc, wani kamfani a cikin FTSE 100,  wanda aka raba shi zuwa kamfanoni huɗu daban-daban (Experian, Argos & Homebase, Burberry da Lewis Stores), waɗanda aka raba hannun jarinsu ga masu hannun jari. An naɗa shi Shugaban GUS a 2000.
Gregg S. Fisher

**Gregg S. Fisher**, CFA, manajan saka hannun jari ne na Amurka. A shekarar 2019, ya kafa Quent Capital kuma yana aiki a matsayin Manajan Fayil na kamfanin kula da kadarori wanda ke da dabarun saka hannun jari na dogon lokaci/na ɗan gajeren lokaci na ƙananan kamfanoni na duniya. Shi ne kuma wanda ya kafa kuma Shugaban Binciken Adadi da Dabarun Fayil na Gerstein Fisher, wani kamfanin kula da saka hannun jari da ba da shawara wanda ya zama wani ɓangare na Bankin Jama'a a 2016. 

## Rayuwar farko da ilimi
Mahaifinsa, mai shagon sayar da tufafi na maza, ya girma a wani iyali Yahudawa a Queens, New York. Yana da digiri a fannin kuɗi daga Jami'ar Buffalo, ya sami takardar shaidar CFA, ya sami takardar shaidar tsare-tsaren kuɗi daga Jami'ar New York kuma ya yi karatu a Makarantar Kasuwanci ta Harvard . 

## Sana'ar saka hannun jari
Fisher ya kafa kamfanin saka hannun jari mai yawa Gerstein Fisher a shekarar 1993.  A shekarar 2006, ya zama ɗaya daga cikin manajojin saka hannun jari na farko da suka bayar da jarin factor .  Daga 2010 zuwa 2014, Fisher ta ƙaddamar da asusun haɗin gwiwa na factor-based a cikin rukunan haɗin gwiwa na duniya da kuma asusun saka hannun jari na gidaje (REIT).  

Fisher yana aiki tare da masana ilimi ciki har da Sheridan Titman . Ya kafa Cibiyar Bincike ta Gerstein Fisher a shekarar 2009.  

A shekarar 2016, tare da kadarori sama da dala biliyan 5 a ƙarƙashin kulawa da shawarwari, Fisher ya sayar da Gerstein Fisher ga Bankin Jama'a, inda ya faɗaɗa bankin zuwa saka hannun jari na adadi sannan ya zama Babban Manajan Fayilolin, Shugaban Binciken Adadi da Dabaru na Fayilolin Fayilolin na sashen saka hannun jarinsu. 

A shekarar 2018, an naɗa Fisher a matsayin memba na kwamitin amintattu na Jami'ar Buffalo kuma yanzu shine Shugaban Kwamitin Zuba Jari na Jami'ar da ke Buffalo Foundation. Ta hanyar gudummawar kuɗi mai yawa da ya bayar, Fisher ya kafa Quent Research Collaborative a Jami'ar da ke Buffalo School of Management don ƙarfafa haɗin gwiwar bincike mai zurfi, wani ɓangare ta hanyar ba wa ɗalibai da malamai damar samun muhimman hanyoyin bayanai da nazari.

A shekarar 2018, Fisher ta fara gabatar da wani shiri mai suna The Q Factor.

A shekarar 2018, Fisher ta ƙaddamar da Quent Capital https://quentcapital.com/#invest_in_global_innovation, wani kamfanin kula da kadarori wanda ya mayar da hankali kan kirkire-kirkire a duniya. 

## Duba kuma

* Jerin Jami'o'in Buffalo

## Manazarta
Mai siyarwa

***Marchand-mercier***  kalma ce ta Faransa ga wani nau'in ɗan kasuwa da ke aiki a wajen tsarin ƙungiyar masu sana'a amma an takaita ta da ƙa'idodin *kamfani* a ƙarƙashin ƙa'idodin da aka tsara a 1613.  Kalmar reduplicative  a zahiri tana nufin ɗan kasuwa mai kaya, amma a ƙarni na 18 ta ɗauki ma'anar ɗan kasuwa mai *kayan aiki* . Ana iya samun farkon ambaton wannan *Corps de la Ville de Paris* a ƙarshen ƙarni na 16,  amma a ƙarni na 18 marchands-merciers masu shago ne amma kuma sun taka muhimmiyar rawa wajen ƙawata gidajen Paris. A zahiri, sun yi aiki a matsayin 'yan kwangila na gabaɗaya, suna tsara da kuma ba da umarnin sassa na kayan daki mafi salo, kuma sau da yawa, ƙari ga haka, suna aiki a wajen shagunansu a matsayin masu ƙawata cikin gida, waɗanda ke da alhakin fannoni da yawa na kayan ado na ɗaki. A Paris, tsarin ƙungiyar, wanda aka kafa tun ƙarshen Zamanin Tsakiya, ya hana masu sana'a yin aiki da duk wani abu da ba su yi aikin koyarwa na yau da kullun ba. Saboda haka, ma'aikacin marchand-mercier ne kawai zai iya ɗora faranti na China masu hannu da tagulla mai launin zinare, ya sanya kayan ɗakin mai yin kabad da lacquer na Japan ko allunan porcelain na Sèvres, sannan ya samar da kayan daki masu tsada da aka yi da tagulla mai launin zinare (ko ormolu ). 

An tsara layukan da aka yarda su yi *amfani* da su a ƙarƙashin Charles IX, a cikin 1570, kamar haka:"'Yan kasuwa masu sayar da kayayyaki, masu labule da masu yin kayan ado, ta yadda a ƙarƙashin wannan matsayin dillali ( *estat de grossier* ) a kowane lokaci ana haɗa su da dillalan yadi na zinariya, azurfa, siliki... tapestries, kayan ado, kayan ƙanshi, yadi, jan ƙarfe da aka ƙera, zare na siliki, kayan aiki da makamantansu, waɗanda ba a yarda a yi wani abu da aka ƙera ba, sai dai kawai a sayar, a saya, a nuna, a yi ado da kuma a ƙawata kowane irin kaya" Don haka an siffanta masu cin amana a cikin Encyclopédie a matsayin "masu sayar da komai, masu yin komai ba tare da wani abu ba". [1] Jacques Savary des Bruslons ya yi cikakken bayani game da wannan magana mai ban dariya kuma ya bayyana yadda tsaransa suka raina sana'o'in hannu:"Wannan kamfani ana ɗaukarsa a matsayin mafi daraja da kuma mafi kyau daga cikin dukkan Kamfanonin 'Yan Kasuwa, musamman saboda waɗanda suka tsara shi ba sa aiki ko kaɗan kuma ba sa yin aikin hannu, idan ba don ƙawata waɗannan abubuwan da aka riga aka yi kuma aka ƙera ba" 

## Manazarta
Mai ilimin lissafi

**Mai aikin lissafi** kalma ce da ake amfani da ita ga wasu masu sana'a, masu fasaha da malamai waɗanda suka yi amfani da lissafi ta hanyar aiki, musamman tsakanin 1485 da 1840. A cikin rubutunta na asali, *Masu Aikin Lissafi na Tudor da Stuart England*, Eva Germaine Rimington Taylor ta gabatar da kalmar a cikin 1954. A cikin wannan littafin ta yi jayayya cewa ba tare da waɗannan "ƙananan mutane ba", manyan masana kimiyya na wannan lokacin ba za su yi tasiri sosai ba.  a cikin wani ƙarin littafi *na Mathematical Practitioners of Hanoverian England, 1714–1840* da aka buga bayan mutuwarsa a 1966, ta yi jayayya cewa zuwa 1840 fannoni daban-daban sun haɓaka a cikin rukunin da ta ayyana, cewa ba shi da ma'ana a yi musu kallon ƙungiya mai haɗin kai ta masu aiki. 

Lesley Cormack ya bayyana mai aikin lissafi a matsayin ɗaya daga cikin "waɗanda suka sani ta hanyar aikatawa", maimakon malami ko masanin falsafa wanda yake ɗaya daga cikin "waɗanda suka sani ta hanyar tunani".  A cikin mahallin Turanci, Stephen Johnston ya nuna bambanci tsakanin aikin masu aikin lissafi da lissafi na kotu da lissafi na ilimi. Ya jaddada yanayin jama'a na aikin lissafi, wanda tasirinsa a wurare da yanayi daban-daban ya fallasa amfaninsa ta hanyar nasarar aikinsa. 

Lokacin da aka kafa Kamfanin Muscovy a shekara ta 1551, sun ba Robert Recorde umarnin rubuta littattafan lissafi don amfani da masu binciken su. Sun yi niyyar samar da ingantaccen ilimi don baiwa kamfaninsu damar yin tafiye-tafiye masu mahimmanci a teku. An buga a shekara ta 1551, Pathway to Knowledge ta samar da jadawalin lissafi ta hanyar littattafai huɗu na farko na Euclid's Elements . Wani ƙarin littafi, The Whetstone of Witte (1557), ya ba da bayani game da Algebra, wanda aka keɓe ga gwamnonin Kamfanin Muscovy da fatan ƙarfafa ƙarin bincike da shirye-shiryen kasuwanci. [1]

## Manazarta
Mathieu Debonnaire

**³Mathieu Debonnaire** (an haife shi a ranar 26 ga Afrilu 1987) tsohon ƙwararren ɗan wasan ƙwallon ƙafa ne na ƙasar Switzerland . Yana kuma da takardar zama ɗan ƙasar Faransa .

## Hanyoyin haɗi na waje

* Mathieu Debonnaire at WorldFootball.net

≈Mathieu k
## manazarta
Wheelwright

**Mawallafin keken hannu** maƙeri ne wanda ke gina ko gyara ƙafafun katako . Kalmar ita ce haɗin "wheel" da kalmar " wright " (wanda ya fito daga tsohuwar kalmar Turanci " *wryhta* ", ma'ana ma'aikaci - kamar yadda yake a cikin mawallafin jirgin ruwa da mai rubuta jirgin ruwa ).  Wannan sunan aiki ya zama sunan mahaifi na Ingilishi *Wright*, kuma yana bayyana a cikin sunayen mahaifi kamar *Cartwright* da *Wainwright* .

Waɗannan ƙwararrun sun yi ƙafafun keken hawa (cartwheels), kekunan hawa (wains), tarkuna da kuma kocin. Sun kuma yi ƙafafun, kuma galibi firam ɗin, don yin ƙafafun juyawa, da kuma bel ɗin injinan da ke amfani da tururi. Da farko sun gina cibiyar (wanda ake kira nave), spokes da sassan gefen da ake kira felloes,  sannan suka haɗa su duka zuwa wani yanki da ke aiki daga tsakiyar ƙafafun zuwa waje. Yawancin ƙafafun an yi su ne da itace, amma an yi amfani da wasu kayayyaki, kamar ƙashi da ƙaho, don ado ko wasu dalilai. Wasu gine-gine na baya-bayan nan don ƙafafun kamar waɗanda aka yi amfani da su a cikin karusai na farko an ɗaure su da fatar da za a shafa da ruwa kuma za ta yi laushi yayin bushewa, matsewa da ɗaure aikin katako tare. Bayan ƙarni da yawa, ƙafafun sun samo asali don a ɗaure su da ƙarfe, wata hanyar ƙusa faranti na ƙarfe a kan felloes don kare su daga lalacewa a ƙasa da kuma taimakawa wajen ɗaure ƙafafun tare. An ɗauki matsewa a matsayin aiki mara ƙwarewa kuma ana iya yin shi da ƙarancin ilimi da kayan aiki, wannan ya sa ƙafafun su fi sauƙi a yi aiki ba tare da buƙatar maƙeri ba.

Tsawon shekaru aru-aru, yanayin ƙafafun ya ɗan canza kaɗan, amma canje-canje kaɗan a cikin ƙirar kamar dishing da staggered spokes sun taimaka wajen biyan buƙatun duniya mai canzawa. Waɗannan ƙananan canje-canje a cikin ƙira sun yi babban ci gaba ga ƙarfin tayar yayin da suke rage nauyinta; daga baya motocin suka zama masu inganci wajen ginawa da amfani da ita.

## Tarihi
Tayoyin katako na farko sun yi ƙarfi, an yi su da faranti na bishiyoyi. Suna da nauyi amma sauƙin ginin bai buƙaci ƙwarewa ba. Tayoyin da ke da spokes sun fi sauƙi. Ana iya gina su da ƙananan bishiyoyi kuma a gina su da diamita mafi girma saboda ba a iyakance su da girman bishiyoyi a yankin ba. Duk da haka, tayoyin spokes suna buƙatar takamaiman tazara da lissafi mai kyau don gina da'ira mai kyau. Ana tsammanin cewa sana'ar musamman ta wheelwriter ta fara ne da ƙirƙirar spokes. Yankunan karkara ba tare da samun damar zuwa ga wheelwriter sun ci gaba da yin tayoyi masu ƙarfi ba. [1] : 85–86 

Saboda ƙwarewa da gogewar da ake buƙata don yin ƙafafun, a Turai an ƙirƙiri ƙwararren mai gyaran ƙafafun don ya zama sana'a mai iya ganewa.  &#x3A;&#x200A;149&#x200A;

## Sassan dabaran

## Manazarta
Yanke wasika

Yanke haruffa wani nau'i ne na rubutun haruffan gine-gine da ke da alaƙa da manyan gine-gine da sassaka dutse, waɗanda masu fasaha, masu sassaka, da masu tsara rubutu ke yi. Maimakon sassaka dutse na gargajiya, inda hotuna da alamomi su ne manyan siffofi, yanke haruffa ƙwarewa ce ta musamman "tsari mai kyau da yanke salon haruffa, dangane da ƙira, kusurwa da zurfin haruffa". [1]

## Manazarta
Joseph S. Forte

**Joseph S. Forte** na Broomall, Pennsylvania, ɗan Amurka ne mai zamba wanda ke gudanar da wani shirin Ponzi wanda ya kashe masu zuba jari dala miliyan 50. An ruwaito cewa ya sanya hannu kan ikirari da Hukumar Kula da Saƙonnin Wasiku ta Amurka .  

## Tarihin Rayuwa
Tsarin Ponzi ya fara aiki ne daga akalla Fabrairu 1995. Har zuwa masu zuba jari 80 ne ke da hannu a ciki. Hukumar Ciniki ta Commodity Futures ta shigar da ƙarar farar hula a kotun tarayya da ke Philadelphia a ranar 7 ga Janairu, 2009 tare da taimakon Hukumar Tsaro da Musayar Kuɗi .   Kotun ta daskarar da kadarorin Forte.

An yi zargin cewa Forte ya yi ikirarin kashe dala miliyan 10-12 a kan kansa, yayin da ya yi amfani da dala miliyan 15-20 don biyan wasu masu zuba jari. Sauran kuma wataƙila sun yi asarar kuɗi a cinikin kwangilolin gaba a cikin ma'aunin S&amp;amp;P 500, kuɗaɗen ƙasashen waje, ko ƙarfe. A cewar SEC, Forte ya ba da rahoto ga masu zuba jarinsa cewa darajar asusunsa ta wuce dala miliyan 154, yayin da ainihin sauran ya kai dala 146,814.

A ƙarshen Disamba 2008, ya miƙa kansa ga hukumomi. Duk da cewa lokacin ya yi daidai da shirin Ponzi na Bernard Madoff, babu wata alaƙa a bayyane.

A ranar 5 ga Yuni, 2009, Forte ya amsa laifin zamba ta hanyar waya, zamba ta banki, zamba ta wasiku, da kuma halatta kudaden haram saboda rawar da ya taka a shirin Ponzi.

A ranar 24 ga Nuwamba, 2009, an yanke wa Forte hukuncin ɗaurin shekaru 15 a gidan yari. 

## Duba kuma

* Bernard Madoff
* Arthur Nadel
* Nicholas Cosmo
* Allen Stanford

## Manazarta