Kimiyyar muhalli

**Kimiyyar Muhalli,** wani fanni ne na ilimi na tsaka-tsaki wanda ya haɗa da ilimin kimiyyar lissafi, ilmin halitta, da kuma yanayin ƙasa (ciki har da ilimin halittu, sunadarai, kimiyyar shuka, ilimin dabbobi, ma'adinai, oceanography, limnology, kimiyyar ƙasa, geology da yanayin ƙasa, da kimiyyar yanayi ) zuwa nazarin muhalli, da magance matsalolin muhalli. Ilimin muhalli ya fito ne daga fagagen tarihin halitta da likitanci a lokacin wayewa. A yau yana ba da haɗin kai, ƙididdigewa, da tsarin tsaka-tsaki don nazarin tsarin muhalli . 

Nazarin muhalli ya ƙunshi ƙarin ilimin zamantakewa don fahimtar alaƙar ɗan Adam, hasashe da manufofi game da muhalli. Injiniyan muhalli yana mai da hankali kan ƙira da fasaha don haɓaka ingancin muhalli ta kowane fanni.

Masana kimiyyar muhalli suna neman fahimtar tsarin duniya ta zahiri, sinadarai, nazarin halittu, da tsarin ƙasa, da kuma amfani da wannan ilimin don fahimtar yadda al'amurran da suka shafi madadin tsarin makamashi, kula da gurɓata yanayi da ragewa, sarrafa albarkatun ƙasa, da tasirin dumamar yanayi da sauyin yanayi. tasiri da tasiri ga tsarin halitta da tafiyar matakai na duniya. Matsalolin muhalli kusan koyaushe sun haɗa da hulɗar tsarin jiki, sinadarai, da nazarin halittu. Masana kimiyyar muhalli suna kawo tsarin tsarin zuwa nazarin matsalolin muhalli. Mahimman abubuwan ƙwararrun masanin kimiyyar muhalli sun haɗa da ikon danganta sararin samaniya, da dangantakar lokaci da kuma nazarin ƙididdiga.

Kimiyyar muhalli ta zo da rai a matsayin wani muhimmin fanni mai aiki na binciken kimiyya a cikin 1960s da 1970s wanda (a) buƙatun tsarin ladabtarwa da yawa don nazarin matsalolin muhalli masu rikitarwa, (b) zuwan ƙa'idodin muhalli masu mahimmanci waɗanda ke buƙatar takamaiman ka'idojin muhalli. na bincike da (c) karuwar wayar da kan jama'a game da bukatar yin aiki don magance matsalolin muhalli. Abubuwan da suka haifar da wannan ci gaba sun haɗa da buga littafin Rachel Carson na muhalli *Silent Spring * tare da manyan batutuwan muhalli sun zama jama'a sosai, kamar 1969 Santa Barbara da malalar mai, da kogin Cuyahoga na Cleveland, Ohio, "kamawa. wuta" (har ila yau a cikin 1969), kuma ya taimaka wajen kara ganin abubuwan da suka shafi muhalli da kuma haifar da wannan sabon fannin nazarin.

## Kalmomi
A cikin amfani da aka saba, ana amfani da "kimiyyar muhalli" sau da yawa, amma a fasahance, ilimin halittu yana nufin nazarin halittu ne kawai da mu'amalarsu da juna da kuma yadda suke cudanya da muhalli. Ana iya la'akari da ilimin halittu wani yanki na kimiyyar muhalli, wanda kuma zai iya haɗawa da sinadarai kawai ko al'amurran kiwon lafiyar jama'a (misali) masana ilimin halittu ba zai yi yuwuwa su yi karatu ba. A aikace, akwai kamanceceniya da yawa tsakanin aikin masanan muhalli da sauran masana kimiyyar muhalli. Akwai babban cikas tsakanin ilimin halitta da kimiyyar muhalli tare da fannonin kiwon kifi, dazuzzuka, da namun daji.

## Tarihi

### Dadadden wayewa
Damuwa na tarihi game da al'amuran muhalli yana da kyau a rubuce a cikin ɗakunan ajiya a duniya.  Wayewar da ta dade ta shafi abin da a yanzu ake kira kimiyyar muhalli ta fuskar noma da albarkatun kasa. Masana sun yi imanin cewa sha'awar muhalli ta farko ta fara ne a shekara ta 6000 KZ lokacin da tsoffin wayewa a Isra'ila da Jordan suka rushe saboda sare bishiyoyi.  A sakamakon haka, a cikin 2700 KZ an kafa doka ta farko da ta hana sare itatuwa a Mesopotamiya .  Shekaru ɗari biyu bayan haka, a shekara ta 2500 KZ, wata al’umma da ke zaune a kwarin Indus ta lura da tsarin kogin da ke kusa don inganta tsafta.  Wannan ya haɗa da sarrafa magudanar ruwa don kula da lafiyar jama'a. A cikin Yammacin Duniya, yawancin tsoffin jihohin tsakiyar Amurka sun rushe a kusan 1500 KZ saboda zaizayar ƙasa daga aikin noma.  Waɗanda suka rage daga waɗannan wayewar sun mai da hankali sosai kan tasirin ayyukan noma akan dorewar ƙasa da ingantaccen abinci. Bugu da ƙari, a cikin 1450 KZ, wayewar Minoan a tsibirin Crete na Girka ya ragu saboda sare bishiyoyi da sakamakon lalacewar muhalli na albarkatun kasa.  Pliny the Elder ya ɗan yi magana game da matsalolin muhalli na tsoffin wayewa a cikin rubutun *Naturalis Historia*, wanda aka rubuta tsakanin 77 da 79 ACE, wanda ya ba da bayyani game da ɓangarori masu alaƙa da yawa na horo. 

Ko da yake yaƙi da cututtuka sun kasance babban abin damuwa a cikin al'umma ta da, batutuwan muhalli sun taka muhimmiyar rawa wajen rayuwa da ƙarfin wayewa daban-daban. Yayin da al'ummomi da yawa suka fahimci mahimmancin duniyar halitta don samun nasarar su na dogon lokaci, sha'awar nazarin muhalli ta wanzu.

### Farkon kimiyyar muhalli

#### Karni na 18
A shekara ta 1735, Carolus Linnaeus ya gabatar da manufar nomenclature na binomial a matsayin hanyar da za a rarraba dukkanin rayayyun halittu, wanda ayyukan Aristotle suka yi tasiri a baya.  Rubutunsa, *Systema Naturae*, yana wakiltar ɗaya daga cikin farkon ƙarshen ilimi game da batun, yana ba da hanyar gano nau'o'in nau'i daban-daban dangane da yadda suke hulɗa da yanayin su.

#### Karni na 19
A cikin 1820s, masana kimiyya suna nazarin abubuwan da ke tattare da iskar gas, musamman wadanda ke cikin yanayin duniya da kuma mu'amalarsu da zafi daga Rana.  Daga baya wannan karni, bincike ya nuna cewa duniya ta fuskanci zamanin Ice kuma dumamar duniya wani bangare ne na abin da a yanzu ake kira greenhouse gas (GHG).  An gabatar da tasirin greenhouse, duk da cewa har yanzu ba a san kimiyyar yanayi a matsayin wani muhimmin batu a kimiyyar muhalli ba saboda ƙarancin masana'antu da ƙarancin hayaƙi mai gurbata yanayi a lokacin.

#### Karni na 20
A cikin 1900s, ilimin kimiyyar muhalli kamar yadda aka sani a yau ya fara yin tasiri. Ƙarni yana da gagarumin bincike, wallafe-wallafe, da haɗin gwiwar duniya a fagen.

A farkon karni na 20, suka da aka yi ta yaduwa daga masu shakka sun yi watsi da illar dumamar yanayi .  A wannan lokacin, masu bincike kaɗan ne ke nazarin illolin mai. Bayan da aka samu ma'aunin ma'aunin ma'aunin Celsius 1.3 a Tekun Atlantika a cikin shekarun 1940, duk da haka, masana kimiyya sun sabunta bincikensu na tarkowar zafi mai zafi daga tasirin greenhouse (ko da yake kawai carbon dioxide da tururin ruwa an san su ne iskar gas a lokacin).  Ci gaban makaman nukiliya bayan yakin duniya na biyu ya baiwa masana kimiyyar muhalli damar yin nazari sosai kan illolin carbon da samun ci gaba a fagen.  Ƙarin ilimi daga shaidun archaeological ya kawo haske ga canje-canjen yanayi a kan lokaci, musamman samfurin ƙanƙara . 

An kawo kimiyyar muhalli a kan gaba a cikin al'umma a cikin 1962 lokacin da Rachel Carson ta buga wani tasiri mai tasiri na wallafe-wallafen muhalli, *Silent Spring* .  Rubutun Carson ya jagoranci jama'ar Amurka don bin kariyar muhalli, kamar haramcin sinadarai masu cutarwa kamar DDT na kashe kwari.  Wani muhimmin aiki, *The Tragedy of the Commons*, Garrett Hardin ya buga a 1968 don mayar da martani ga hanzarin lalacewa na halitta.  A cikin 1969, kimiyyar muhalli ta sake zama lokaci na gida bayan bala'o'i guda biyu: Kogin Cuyahoga na Ohio ya kama wuta saboda yawan gurbatar ruwa a cikin ruwansa da malalar mai na Santa Barbara ya jefa dubban dabbobin ruwa cikin hatsari, duka biyun suna samun ingantaccen watsa labarai.  Sakamakon haka, Amurka ta zartar da ɗimbin dokoki, gami da Dokar Tsabtace Ruwa da Yarjejeniyar Ingancin Ruwa na Manyan Tafkuna .  A shekara ta gaba, a cikin 1970, an yi bikin Ranar Duniya ta farko a duk duniya kuma an kafa Hukumar Kare Muhalli ta Amurka (EPA), wanda ya halatta nazarin kimiyyar muhalli a manufofin gwamnati.  A cikin shekaru biyu masu zuwa, Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ta kirkiro Hukumar Kula da Muhalli ta Majalisar Dinkin Duniya (UNEP) a birnin Stockholm na kasar Sweden don magance gurbacewar muhalli a duniya. 

Yawancin sha'awar kimiyyar muhalli a cikin shekarun 1970s da 1980 sun kasance da manyan bala'o'i da ƙungiyoyin zamantakewa. A cikin 1978, an kwashe daruruwan mutane daga Ƙaunar Canal, New York bayan an gano gurɓataccen gurɓataccen ƙwayar cuta da aka binne a ƙarƙashin ƙasa kusa da wuraren zama.  A shekara ta gaba, a cikin 1979, tashar makamashin nukiliyar da ke tsibirin Mile Uku a Pennsylvania ta gamu da rugujewa kuma ta tayar da hankali game da haɗarin sharar rediyo da kuma amincin makamashin nukiliya.  Dangane da wuraren da ake zubar da ƙasa da kuma sharar guba mai guba galibi ana zubar da su a kusa da gidajensu, ƙungiyar Baƙar fata a Arewacin Carolina ta fara ƙungiyar Adalci ta Muhalli a cikin 1982.  Shekaru biyu bayan haka, an saki iskar gas mai guba na methyl isocyanate ga jama'a daga bala'in wutar lantarki a Bhopal, Indiya, wanda ya cutar da dubban daruruwan mutanen da ke zaune kusa da wurin da bala'in ya faru, wanda har yanzu ana jin tasirinsa a yau.  A cikin wani bincike mai ban mamaki a cikin 1985, ƙungiyar masu bincike na Biritaniya da ke nazarin Antarctica sun sami shaidar wani rami a cikin sararin samaniyar ozone, wanda ya zaburar da yarjejeniyoyin duniya na hana amfani da chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), waɗanda a baya aka yi amfani da su a kusan dukkanin iska da na'urorin refrigerants.  Musamman ma, a cikin 1986, narkewar da aka yi a tashar makamashin nukiliya ta Chernobyl a Ukraine ta fitar da sharar rediyo ga jama'a, wanda ya kai ga nazarin kasa da kasa kan illar bala'o'in muhalli.  A cikin shekaru biyu masu zuwa, Hukumar Brundtland (wanda aka fi sani da Hukumar Kula da Muhalli da Ci gaba ta Duniya) ta buga wani rahoto mai taken *makomarmu ta yau da kullun* da yarjejeniyar Montreal ta kafa kwamitin kasa da kasa kan sauyin yanayi (IPCC) kamar yadda sadarwar kasa da kasa ta mayar da hankali kan nemo mafita. don sauyin yanayi da lalacewa.  A karshen shekarun 1980, an ci tarar kamfanin Exxon Valdez saboda zubar da danyen mai mai yawa a gabar tekun Alaska da sakamakon tsaftace muhalli, wanda ya shafi aikin masana kimiyyar muhalli.  Bayan da aka kona ɗaruruwan rijiyoyin mai a yaƙi a cikin 1991, yaƙi tsakanin Iraqi da Kuwait ya gurɓata yanayin da ke kewaye da shi kusa da iyakar ingancin iska da masana kimiyyar muhalli suka yi imanin cewa yana da haɗari ga rayuwa. 

#### Karni na 21

Yawancin fannonin ilimin kimiyyar muhalli sun bayyana tsawon shekaru, kodayake ilimin yanayin yanayi yana ɗaya daga cikin sanannun batutuwa. Tun daga 2000s, masana kimiyyar muhalli sun mai da hankali kan yin ƙira ga tasirin sauyin yanayi da ƙarfafa haɗin gwiwar duniya don rage yiwuwar lalacewa. A cikin 2002, an kafa Society for Environment da Cibiyar Kula da ingancin iska don raba ilimi da haɓaka mafita a duniya.  Daga baya, a cikin 2008, Ƙasar Ingila ta zama ƙasa ta farko da ta zartar da doka ( Dokar Canjin Yanayi ) da ke da nufin rage fitar da carbon dioxide zuwa ƙayyadadden kofa.  A cikin 2016 Yarjejeniyar Kyoto ta zama Yarjejeniyar Paris, wacce ta tsara maƙasudai na gaske don rage fitar da hayaki mai gurbata yanayi da kuma hana tashin yanayin zafi a duniya zuwa madaidaicin ma'aunin Celsius 2.  Yarjejeniyar dai na daya daga cikin kokarin da kasashen duniya ke yi na takaita illar dumamar yanayi zuwa yau.

Yawancin bala'o'in muhalli a cikin wannan lokacin sun haɗa da gurɓataccen ɗanyen mai ko kuma tasirin yanayin zafi. A cikin 2010, BP ne ke da alhakin zubar da mai mafi girma a Amurka a cikin Tekun Mexico, wanda aka sani da Deepwater Horizon spill, wanda ya kashe wasu ma'aikatan kamfanin tare da fitar da danyen mai mai yawa a cikin ruwa.  Bugu da ƙari kuma, a cikin wannan karni, yawancin duniya suna fama da bala'in wutar daji da kuma rashin ruwa, wanda ya haifar da dokoki game da amfani da albarkatun kasa mai dorewa kamar yadda masana kimiyyar muhalli suka ƙaddara. 

Ƙarni na 21 yana da gagarumin ci gaban fasaha. Sabuwar fasaha a kimiyyar muhalli ta canza yadda masu bincike ke tattara bayanai game da batutuwa daban-daban a fagen. Bincike a cikin injuna, ingancin man fetur, da raguwar hayaki daga abubuwan hawa tun lokacin juyin juya halin masana'antu ya rage adadin carbon da sauran gurɓataccen yanayi a cikin yanayi.Bugu da ƙari, saka hannun jari a cikin bincike da haɓaka makamashi mai tsabta (watau iska, hasken rana, wutar lantarki, da wutar lantarki ta ƙasa) ya ƙaru sosai a cikin 'yan shekarun nan, wanda ke nuna farkon karkatar da man fetur daga burbushin mai .  Ana amfani da tsarin bayanan ƙasa (GIS) don lura da tushen iska ko gurɓataccen ruwa ta tauraron dan adam da nazarin hoto na dijital.  Wannan fasaha tana ba da damar haɓaka dabarun noma kamar ingantaccen aikin noma da kuma lura da yadda ake amfani da ruwa don saita farashin kasuwa.  A fagen ingancin ruwa, haɓaka nau'ikan ƙwayoyin cuta na halitta da na ɗan adam suna ba da gudummawa ga bioremediation, maganin sharar gida don amfanin gaba.  Wannan hanya ta fi dacewa da muhalli kuma mai rahusa fiye da tsaftace hannu ko kuma kula da ruwan sharar gida.  Mafi mahimmanci, faɗaɗa fasahar kwamfuta ya ba da damar tattara bayanai masu yawa, bincike mai zurfi, tarihin tarihi, wayar da kan jama'a game da batutuwan muhalli, da sadarwar kimiyyar duniya.   Ƙarfin tattarawa akan Intanet, alal misali, yana wakiltar tsarin tattara ilimi daga masu bincike a duniya don ƙirƙirar ƙarin dama don ci gaban kimiyya.  Tare da taron jama'a, ana fitar da bayanai ga jama'a don nazarin sirri wanda daga baya za'a iya raba su kamar yadda aka samo sabon bayani.  Wani ci gaban fasaha, fasahar sayar da kudi, sa ido da sarrafa kamun kifi na duniya.  Ta hanyar bin hanyar da kasuwancin da ke cikin kasuwannin duniya, masana kimiyya na muhalli na iya tsayar da wasu nau'ikan ana cinye su ne ga lalacewar hallaka.  Bugu da ƙari, ji na nesa yana ba da damar gano fasalulluka na muhalli ba tare da sa hannun jiki ba.  Sakamakon hoto na dijital ana amfani da shi don ƙirƙirar ingantattun samfura na hanyoyin muhalli, canjin yanayi, da ƙari mai yawa. Ci gaba ga fasahar ji mai nisa yana da amfani musamman wajen gano tushen gurɓatawar da ba ta dace ba da kuma nazarin lafiyar halittu ta hanyar nazarin hoto a cikin bakan na'urar lantarki . A ƙarshe, ana amfani da fasahar hoto ta thermal wajen sarrafa namun daji don kamawa da hana mafarauta da sauran masu fataucin namun daji ba bisa ƙa'ida ba daga kashe dabbobin da ke cikin hatsari, wanda ke da amfani ga ƙoƙarin kiyayewa.  An kuma yi amfani da bayanan sirri na wucin gadi don hasashen motsin yawan dabbobi da kuma kare muhallin namun daji. 

## Duba kuma

* Kula da muhalli
* Tsarin muhalli
* Kididdigar muhalli
* Bayanan muhalli
* Kamus na kimiyyar muhalli
* Jerin batutuwan nazarin muhalli

## Manazarta

## Hanyoyin haɗi na waje

* Kamus na sharuddan muhalli - Cibiyar Binciken Ci gaban Duniya