Mata a Jamus

Matsayin matan Jamus sun canza a cikin tarihi, kamar yadda al'ada da al'umma da suke zaune a ciki suka sami sauye-sauye daban-daban. A tarihi, da kuma a halin yanzu, halin da mata ke ciki ya bambanta tsakanin yankunan Jamus, musamman a cikin karni na 20, lokacin da akwai ƙungiya ta siyasa da zamantakewa da tattalin arziki daban a Jamus ta Yamma idan aka kwatanta da Gabashin Jamus. Bugu da kari, Kudancin Jamus yana da tarihin Tasirin Roman Katolika mai karfi.

## Asalin Tarihi
Matsayin gargajiya na mata a cikin Al'ummar Jamus sau da yawa ana bayyana shi ta hanyar abin da ake kira "Ks huɗu" a cikin harshen Jamusanci: Kinder (*Yara*), *Kirche* (coci), *Küche* (kitchen), da *Kleider* (tufafi), suna nuna cewa manyan ayyukansu suna ɗaukar da kiwon yara, halartar ayyukan addini, dafa Abincin da ba da abinci, da kuma ma'amala da tufafi da kayan ado. Koyaya, matsayinsu ya canza a cikin karni na 20. Bayan samun 'yancin jefa kuri'a a 1918, matan Jamus sun fara daukar nauyin da maza suka yi a baya. Bayan karshen yakin duniya na 2, an lakafta su da *Trümmerfrauen* ko "mata na rushewa" saboda sun kula da "waɗanda suka ji rauni, sun binne matattu, kayan da aka ceto", kuma sun shiga cikin "aiki mai wuya na sake gina Jamus da ta lalace ta hanyar kawai share" rushewa da rushewar yaƙi.

Kodayake mai ra'ayin mazan jiya a hanyoyi da yawa, Jamus duk da haka ta bambanta da sauran yankuna masu magana da Jamusanci a Turai, kasancewar ta fi ci gaba a kan 'yancin mata na shiga siyasa, idan aka kwatanta da makwabciyar Switzerland (inda mata suka sami' yancin jefa kuri'a a 1971 a matakin tarayya, kuma a matakin yanki na gida a 1990 a cikin canton na Appenzell Innerrhoden) da Liechtenstein a 1984. A cikin Jamus, akwai kuma bambance-bambance na yanki masu ƙarfi; alal misali Kudancin Jamus (musamman Bavaria) ya fi ra'ayin mazan jiya fiye da sauran sassan Jamus; yayin da tsohuwar Gabashin Jamus ta fi tallafawa rayuwar ƙwararru ta mata fiye da tsohuwar Jamus ta Yamma.

## Aure da dokar iyali
Dokar Iyali a Yammacin Jamus, ta, har zuwa kwanan nan, ta ba mata matsayi na ƙasa dangane da mazajensu. Sai kawai a cikin 1977 ne canje-canjen majalisa suka samar da daidaito tsakanin jinsi a cikin aure; har zuwa wannan ranar, mata masu aure a Jamus ta Yamma ba za su iya aiki ba tare da izini daga mazajensu ba. A Gabashin Jamus, duk da haka, mata suna da ƙarin haƙƙoƙi.

A shekara ta 1977, dokar kisan aure a Jamus ta Yamma ta sami manyan canje-canje, ta motsa daga tsarin kisan aure na kuskure zuwa wanda ba laifi ba ne. Wadannan sabbin ka'idojin saki, wadanda ke ci gaba da aiki a yau a duk faɗin Jamus, sun tsara cewa za'a iya samun saki ba tare da kuskure ba bisa ga shekara guda na rabuwa ta zahiri idan ma'aurata biyu sun yarda, da shekaru uku na rabuwa na zahiri idan kawai matar daya ta yarda. Har ila yau, akwai tanadi don "kisan aure da sauri" wanda za'a iya samun shi a kan buƙata ta kowane ma'aurata, ba tare da lokacin rabuwa ba, idan an tabbatar da shi a kotu cewa ci gaba da auren zai zama matsala mara ma'ana ga mai shigar da kara saboda dalilai da suka shafi halayyar ɗayan ma'aurita; wannan keɓewa yana buƙatar yanayi na musamman kuma ana la'akari da shi bisa ga shari'a-da- shari'a.

A cikin 'yan shekarun nan, a Jamus, kamar yadda yake a wasu ƙasashen Yamma, an sami karuwar sauri a cikin haɗin kai da haihuwa a waje da aure. Ya zuwa shekara ta 2014, kashi 35% na haihuwa a Jamus sun kasance ga mata marasa aure.Akwai, duk da haka, bambance-bambance masu yawa tsakanin yankunan tsohuwar Jamus ta Yamma da Gabashin Jamus: an haifi yara da yawa ba tare da aure ba a gabashin Jamus fiye da yammacin Jamus: a cikin 2012, a gabashin Jamusanci 61.6% na haihuwa sun kasance ga mata marasa aure, amma a yammacin Jamus kawai 28.4% . 

Ra'ayoyin game da ƙaddamar da kai na jima'i, kamar yadda yake da alaƙa da aure, sun canza: alal misali, har zuwa 1969, zina laifi ne na laifi a Jamus ta Yamma. Sai kawai a cikin 1997, duk da haka, Jamus ta cire izinin aurenta daga dokar fyade, kasancewar tana ɗaya daga cikin ƙasashen Yammacin Turai na ƙarshe da suka yi haka, bayan doguwar gwagwarmayar siyasa da ta fara a cikin shekarun 1970. Musamman, kafin 1997, ma'anar fyade a Jamus ita ce: "Duk wanda ya tilasta wa mace ta yi jima'i da shi, ko kuma tare da mutum na uku, ta hanyar tilastawa ko barazanar haɗari ga rayuwa ko ga jiki, za a hukunta shi da ba kasa da shekaru biyu ba". A shekara ta 1997 an yi canje-canje ga dokar fyade, fadada ma'anar, ta sa ta kasance mai tsaka-tsaki da jinsi, da kuma cire cire cirewar aure. Kafin, ana iya gurfanar da fyade a matsayin "Sakamako na jiki" (Sashe na 223 na Dokar Laifuka ta Jamus), "Rashin" (Sashi na 185 na Dokar Laifin Jamus) da kuma "Yin amfani da barazanar ko tilas don sa mutum ya yi, ya sha wahala ko ya bar wani aiki" (Nötigung, Sashe na 240 na Dokar Laifukan Jamus) wanda ke ɗauke da ƙananan hukunci, kuma ba a gurfanar su ba.

## Rayuwar sana'a

Yayinda aka karfafa mata a Gabashin Jamus su shiga cikin ma'aikata, wannan ba haka ba ne a Yammacin Jamus, inda aka fahimci aikin mace na farko a gida, kula da iyalinta. A cikin 'yan shekarun nan, mata da yawa suna aiki don biyan kuɗi. Kodayake yawancin mata suna aiki, da yawa suna aiki na ɗan lokaci; a cikin Tarayyar Turai, kawai Netherlands da Austria suna da mata da yawa da ke aiki na ɗan adam.Ɗaya daga cikin matsalolin da mata ke fuskanta shi ne cewa uwaye da ke da ƙananan yara kuma suna so su bi aiki na iya fuskantar zargi na zamantakewa. A cikin shekara ta 2014, hadin gwiwar da ke mulki ta amince da sanya kashi 30% na mata don mukaman Kwamitin sa ido daga 2016 zuwa gaba.

Idan aka kwatanta da sauran kasashen Yamma har ma da wadanda ba na Yamma ba, Jamus tana da ƙananan mata a matsayin shugabancin kasuwanci, ƙasa da Turkiyya, Malaysia, Najeriya, Indonesia, Botswana, Indiya. Ɗaya daga cikin dalilan da ya sa mata ba su da yawa a manyan mukamai shine al'adar zamantakewa wanda ke ganin aikin cikakken lokaci bai dace da mata ba. Musamman Kudancin Jamus mai ra'ayin mazan jiya ne game da matsayin jinsi. A cikin 2011, José Manuel Barroso, shugaban Hukumar Tarayyar Turai a lokacin, ya bayyana cewa "Jamus, har ma da Austria da Netherlands, ya kamata su kalli misalin kasashen arewa [...] wanda ke nufin cire cikas ga mata, tsofaffin ma'aikata, baƙi da masu neman aiki don shiga cikin ma'aikata".

## Cin zarafin mata
Binciken Majalisar Dinkin Duniya na 2013 na hukunce-hukunce 202 na duniya ya gano cewa a Jamus kashi 47.3% na wadanda aka kashe mata ne, kashi 10 mafi girma na mata da aka kashe a duk hukunce-hin-hukuncen, kuma sama da matsakaicin duniya na 21.3%. Adadin mata da aka kashe ya kasance mai yawa a makwabciyar Switzerland (50%) da Austria (40.2%) (duba kididdigar kisan kai ta jinsi). 

## Lafiyar haihuwa da inganci
Yawan mace-mace a Jamus shine mutuwar 7/100,000 haihuwar rayuwa (kamar yadda na 2010). Yawan HIV / AIDS shine 0.1% na manya (shekaru 15-49) - kimantawa na shekara ta 2009.jimlar yawan haihuwa (TFR) a Jamus shine haihuwar 1.44 ga kowace mace (kimanin 2016), ɗaya daga cikin mafi ƙasƙanci a duniya. Rashin yara yana da yawa: daga cikin mata da aka haifa a 1968 a Yammacin Jamus, kashi 25% sun kasance ba tare da haihuwa ba.

Zubar da ciki a Jamus doka ce a lokacin watanni uku na farko a kan yanayin ba da shawara, kuma daga baya a cikin ciki a lokuta na buƙatar likita. A lokuta biyu akwai lokacin jira na kwanaki 3.

Ilimin jima'i a makarantu ya ba da umarni ta doka. Kotun Tsarin Mulki ta Jamus, kuma a cikin 2011 Kotun Kare Hakkin Dan Adam ta Turai, ta ki amincewa da korafe-korafe daga iyayen Baptist da yawa game da ilimin jima'i na makarantar Jamus.

## Duba kuma
 

## Manazarta

## Ƙarin karantawa

* Bernstein, George, and Lottelore Bernstein. "Attitudes toward Women's Education in Germany, 1870-1914." *International Journal of Women's Studies* 2 (1979): 473–488.
* Bock, Gisela, and Patricia Thane, eds. *Maternity and gender policies: Women and the rise of the European welfare states, 1880s-1950s* (Routledge, 2012).
* Chickering, Roger.  “‘Casting their gaze more broadly’: Women's Patriotic Activism in Imperial Germany,” *Past and Present* 118 (1988), 156–85.
* Crance, Cynnthia. *Divided lives: the untold stories of Jewish-Christian women in Nazi Germany* (2001) 
* Dawson, Ruth P. *The Contested Quill: Literature by Women in Germany, 1770-1800* (U of Delaware Press, 2002).
* Freeland, Jane. *Feminist Transformations and Domestic Violence Activism in Divided Berlin, 1968‒2002* (Oxford University Press, 2022)
* Green, Lowell. "The education of women in the Reformation." *History of Education Quarterly* 19.1 (1979): 93–116. online
* Gupta, Charu. "Politics of gender: women in Nazi Germany." *Economic and Political Weekly* (1991): WS40-WS48 online.
* Hagemann, Karen et al. eds. *Gendering Post-1945 German History: Entanglements* (Berghahn Books, 2019)
* Harvey, Elizabeth. "Visions of the volk: German women and the far right from Kaiserreich to Third Reich." *Journal of women's History* 16.3 (2004): 152-167 online.
* Lewis, Gertrud Jaron. *By Women, for Women, about Women: The Sister-Books of Fourteenth-Century Germany* (PIMS, 1996).
* Lewis, Margaret Brannan. *Infanticide and abortion in early modern Germany* (Routledge, 2016).
* Mason, Tim. "Women in Germany, 1925-1940: Family, Welfare and Work. Part I." *History Workshop* 1976 online.
* Moeller, Robert G. *Protecting motherhood: Women and the family in the politics of postwar West Germany* (U of California Press, 1996).
* Petschauer, Peter. "Improving Educational-Opportunities for Girls in 18th-Century Germany." *Eighteenth-Century Life* 3.2 (1976): 56–62.
* Reagin, Nancy. *A German Women’s Movement: Class and Gender in Hanover, 1880–1933* (U of North Carolina Press, 1995).
* Reagin, Nancy.  “The Imagined Hausfrau: National Identity, Domesticity and Colonialism in Imperial Germany,” *Journal of Modern History* 73#1 (2001): 54–86.
* Rottmann,  Andrea. *Queer Lives across the Wall: Desire and Danger in Divided Berlin, 1945-1970* (University of Toronto Press, 2023).
* Rublack, Ulinka. *The crimes of women in early modern Germany* (Oxford University Press, 1999).
* Ruble, Alexandria N. *Entangled Emancipation: Women’s Rights in Cold War Germany* ((University of Toronto Press, 2023) online scholarly review of this book
* Rupp, Leila J. *Mobilizing women for war: German and American propaganda, 1939-1945* (Princeton University Press, 2015).
* Simonton, Deborah, ed. *The Routledge history of women in Europe since 1700* (Routledge, 2006).
* Steffens, Melanie C., and Christof Wagner. "Attitudes toward lesbians, gay men, bisexual women, and bisexual men in Germany." *Journal of Sex Research* 41.2 (2004): 137-149 online.
* Stephenson, Jill. *Women in Nazi Germany* (Pearson Education, 2001).
* Stibbe, Matthew. *Women in the Third Reich* (Arnold, 2003),
* Wildenthal, Lora. *German Women for Empire, 1884–1945* (Duke University Press, 2001)
* Wunder, Heide, and Thomas J. Dunlap, eds. *He is the sun, she is the moon: women in early modern Germany* (Harvard University Press, 1998).

## Haɗin waje