Ka'idar gine-gine

**Ka'idar gine-gine** ita ce aikin tunani, tattaunawa, da rubutu game da gine-gine. Ana koyar da ka'idar gine-gine a duk makarantun gine-gine kuma manyan gine-ginen duniya ne ke aiwatar da su. Wasu nau'o'in da ka'idar gine-gine ke ɗauka sune lacca ko tattaunawa, rubutun ko littafi, da aikin takarda ko shigarwa. Ka'idar gine-gine galibi tana aiki ne, kuma masu ilimin tauhidi sukan kasance kusa ko aiki daga cikin makarantu. Ya wanzu a wani nau'i tun zamanin da, kuma yayin da wallafe-wallafen ya zama gama gari, ka'idar gine-gine ta sami karuwar wadata. Littattafai, mujallu, da mujallu sun buga ayyukan gine-gine da masu sukar da ba a taɓa ganin irinsu ba a ƙarni na 20. Sakamakon haka, salo da ƙungiyoyi sun samo asali da narkar da su cikin sauri fiye da yanayin dawwama a tarihin baya. Ana sa ran yin amfani da intanet zai kara yin magana kan gine-gine a karni na 21.

## Tarihi

### Dada

#### Roma
Akwai ƙananan bayanai ko shaida game da manyan ka'idar gine-gine a zamanin da, har zuwa karni na farko BC, tare da aikin Vitruvius . Wannan ba yana nufin, duk da haka, irin waɗannan ayyukan ba su wanzu ba, ganin cewa ayyuka da yawa ba su wanzu a zamanin da ba. Vitruvius marubuci ne na Romawa, injiniyanci, kuma injiniya mai aiki a ƙarni na farko BC. Shi ne fitaccen masanin ilimin gine-gine a daular Roma da aka sani a yau, bayan ya rubuta  (wanda aka sani a yau kamar *Littattafai Goma na Gine-gine* ), rubutun da aka rubuta a cikin Latin da Girkanci akan gine-gine, wanda aka keɓe ga sarki Augustus. Wataƙila an rubuta tsakanin 27 da 23 BC,  ita ce kawai babban tushen zamani akan gine-ginen gargajiya da suka tsira. Rarraba zuwa goma sassan ko "littattafai", ya rufe kusan kowane bangare na Roman gine, daga tsarin gari, kayan, kayan ado, temples, ruwa kayayyaki, da dai sauransu Yana rigorously ma'anar gargajiya umarni na gine . Har ila yau, ya ba da shawarar manyan dokoki guda uku waɗanda gine-ginen dole ne su bi, don a yi la'akari da su: *firmitas, utilitas, venustas*, wanda Sir Henry Wotton ya fassara a cikin karni na 17 a cikin kalmar Turanci *, kaya, da jin dadi* (ma'ana isa ga tsari, aiki). dacewa, da kyau).

Sake gano aikin Vitruvius a cikin 1414 yana da tasiri mai zurfi a kan masu gine-gine na Renaissance, yana ƙara ƙarfafa ilimin archaeological zuwa haɓakar salon Renaissance, wanda ya riga ya fara aiki. Masu gine-gine na Renaissance irin su Brunelleschi da Leon Battista Alberti sun sami a *De architectura* dalilinsu na haɓaka reshen ilimin su zuwa ilimin kimiyya.

#### Indiya ta da
Vastu shastra (vāstu śāstra - a zahiri "kimiyyar gine-gine" rubuce-rubuce ne kan tsarin gine-ginen gargajiya na Indiya.  Waɗannan matani sun bayyana ƙa'idodin ƙira, shimfidawa, ma'auni, shirye-shiryen ƙasa, tsarin sararin samaniya, da lissafin sararin samaniya. Ƙirar tana nufin su haɗa gine-gine tare da yanayi, ayyukan dangi na sassa daban-daban na tsarin, da kuma imani na daɗaɗɗen yin amfani da siffofi na geometric ( yantra ), daidaitawa, da kuma daidaitawar shugabanci  .

Vastu Shastra su ne ɓangaren rubutu na *Vastu Vidya* - ilimi mai zurfi game da gine-gine da ka'idodin ƙira daga tsohuwar Indiya. Brihat Samhita na Varahamihira wanda aka rubuta zuwa kusan karni na shida AZ yana daga cikin sanannun rubutun Indiya tare da keɓe babi tare da ƙa'idodin gine-gine. Misali, babi na 53 na Brihat Samhita yana da taken "A kan gine-gine", kuma a can da sauran wurare yana magana game da abubuwan da suka shafi vastu sastra kamar "tsara birane da gine-gine" da "tsarin gidaje, fuskantarwa, ɗakunan ajiya, baranda" tare da sauran batutuwa. .  Sauran tsoffin ayyukan Vastu shastra sun haɗa da Manasara da sauransu. 

### Tsakanin Zamani
Biye da al'adar Vastu shastra, malamai da yawa sun rubuta rubutun gine-gine a lokacin zamani na zamani wanda ya hada da Manushyalaya Chandrika, yana hulɗar da gine-ginen gida wanda Thirumangalath Neelakanthan Musath ya rubuta, Samrangana Sutradhara wanda Bhoja na Dhar ya rubuta, wani rubutun waka game da gine-ginen Indiya na gargajiya da sauransu.  

A cikin Tsakiyar Tsakiyar Tsakiyar Tsakiyar Tsakiyar Tsakiyar Tsakiyar Tsakiyar, ilimin gine-gine ya wuce ta hanyar kwafi, kalmar baki da fasaha a cikin ɗakunan magina.  Saboda tsananin ƙwaƙƙwaran rubuce-rubuce, ƴan misalan ka'idar gine-gine an rubuta su a wannan lokacin. Yawancin rubuce-rubucen da aka rubuta a wannan lokacin sune tiyoloji, kuma an rubuta su ne na Littafi Mai-Tsarki. Tun da ka'idodin gine-gine sun kasance akan tsari, kaɗan daga cikinsu an rubuta su. Abbot Suger 's *Liber de rebus in governmente sua gestis* takarda ce ta gine-gine wacce ta fito tare da gine-ginen Gothic . Wani kuma shi ne kundin zane-zane na Villard de Honnecourt daga kusan 1230s.

A cikin daular Song ta kasar Sin, Li Jie ya buga *Yingzao Fashi* a shekara ta 1103, wanda wata kasida ce ta gine-gine da ta tsara abubuwan gine-ginen kasar Sin .  

### Renaissance
Babban aikin farko na ka'idar gine-gine na wannan lokacin shine sabona, *De re aedificatoria*, wanda ya sanya Vitruvius a cikin ainihin al'adar ka'idar mafi girma na zamani. Daga Alberti, kyakkyawan gine-gine yana inganta ta hanyar Vitruvian triad, wanda ke bayyana manufarsa. Wannan uku-uku ya kiyaye duk ingancinsa har zuwa karni na 19. Babban canji a cikin karni na 17 kuma daga ƙarshe zuwa zamanin wayewa ya sami amintaccen ta hanyar ci-gaba na ilimin lissafi da bincike na gani na gine-ginen da aka yi bikin Girard Desargues, tare da mai da hankali kan karatunsa akan conics, hangen zaman gaba da lissafi.

### Fadakarwa

Zamanin wayewar kai ya shaida babban ci gaba a ka'idar gine-gine a nahiyar Turai. Sabbin binciken binciken kayan tarihi (irin su na Pompeii da Herculaneum ) sun kori sabon sha'awar fasahar gargajiya da gine-gine. Don haka, kalmar *neoclassicism*, wanda aka kwatanta da rubuce-rubucen masanin fasaha na Prussian Johann Joachim Winckelmann, ya tashi don tsara gine-gine na karni na 18, wanda ya dubi waɗannan sababbin abubuwan da suka faru na al'ada don ƙarfafawa a cikin ginin gine-gine. 

Manyan masanan tsarin gine-gine na Haskakawa sun hada da Julien-David Le Roy, Abbé Marc-Antoine Laugier, Giovanni Battista Piranesi, Robert Adam, James Stuart, Georg Friedrich Hegel  da Nicholas Revett .

### Karni na 19
Wani nau'i mai ban sha'awa na Neoclassicism, wanda aka gada daga Marc-Antoine Laugier 's seminal Essai, ya ba da tushe ga al'ummomi biyu na ayyukan duniya a kusa da ainihin jigogi na classicism, primitivism da "komawa zuwa Halitta."

Ra'ayin adawa da rinjayen gine-ginen neoclassical ya zo kan gaba a cikin 1820s tare da Augustus Pugin yana ba da tushen ɗabi'a da ka'idar gine-ginen Gothic Revival, kuma a cikin 1840s John Ruskin ya haɓaka wannan ɗabi'a.

Masanin sculptor na Amurka Horatio Greenough ya buga maƙalar "Amurka Architecture" a watan Agusta 1843, inda ya ƙi yin koyi da tsofaffin salon gine-gine kuma ya bayyana dangantakar aiki tsakanin gine-gine da kayan ado. Waɗannan ra'ayoyin sun yi tsammanin ci gaban Ayyukan Aiki a cikin gine-ginen zamani .

Kusan ƙarshen ƙarni, an sami bunƙasa na ayyukan ƙididdiga. A Ingila, manufofin Ruskin sun haifar da bullar fasahar Arts da Crafts wanda aka kwatanta da rubuce-rubucen William Morris . Wannan kuma ya kafa tushen Art Nouveau a Burtaniya, wanda aikin Charles Rennie Mackintosh ya misalta, ya kuma yi tasiri ga Secesion Vienna . A Nahiyar, ka'idodin Viollet-le-Duc da Gottfried Semper sun ba da ginshiƙi don babban ƙarfin tunani da aka sadaukar don ƙirar gine-gine da sabunta ra'ayin salo.

Semper musamman ya ci gaba da bin kasa da kasa, a Jamus, Ingila, Switzerland, Austria, Bohemia, Faransa, Italiya da Amurka . Zamanin da aka Haifa a tsakiyar kashi na uku na karni na 19 ya shaku sosai da damar da Semper ya gabatar na fa'idar tarihin tarihi mai ban sha'awa da kuma tsari. Ya bambanta da na baya-bayan nan, kuma ta haka ne "zamani", ayyuka na ka'idar da suka tsara kansu, wannan tsarar ba ta haɗa kai cikin "motsi ba." Sun yi, duk da haka, da alama sun haɗu a kan amfani da Semper na manufar *Realismus*, kuma saboda haka an lakafta su masu goyon baya na gaskiyar gine-gine. Daga cikin masu aikin Gine-ginen Gine-ginen da suka fi aiki sune: Georg Heuser, Rudolf Redtenbacher, Constantin Lipsius, Hans Auer, Paul Sédille, Lawrence Harvey (mai ginin gine-gine)|Lawrence Harvey, Otto Wagner da Richard Streiter.

A cikin 1889 Camillo Sitte ya buga *Der Städtebau nach seinem künstlerischen Grundsätzen* (wanda aka fassara a matsayin *Tsarin Gari bisa ga ka'idodin Artistic* ) wanda ba daidai ba ne zargi na tsarin gine-gine amma zargi mai kyau (wanda aka yi wahayi daga tsarin tsakiyar gari da Baroque ) na karni na 19. Babban aikin ka'idar, yana da tasiri nan da nan a kan gine-gine, kamar yadda bangarorin biyu na gine-gine da tsare-tsare suka haɗu. Bukatar hakan ya yi yawa har bugu biyar suka bayyana a cikin Jamusanci tsakanin 1889 zuwa 1922 kuma fassarar Faransanci ta fito a 1902. (Babu bugu na Ingilishi da ya fito sai 1945.) Ga Sitte, batu mafi mahimmanci ba tsarin gine-gine ko tsarin gini ba ne amma ingancin wuraren biranen da gine-ginen suka haɗa tare, gaba ɗaya ya fi jimlar sassansa. Ƙungiyar Zamani ta ƙi waɗannan tunanin kuma Le Corbusier ya yi watsi da aikin da kuzari. Duk da haka, aikin Sitte ya sake duba aikin gine-ginen zamani da masana tun daga shekarun 1970, musamman bayan sake buga shi a cikin 1986 ta Rizzoli, a cikin bugun da Collins da Collins suka buga (yanzu Dover ne suka buga). Sau da yawa ana ambaton littafin ba tare da annabci ba a yau a matsayin abin hawa don sukar Harkar Zamani .

Har ila yau, a kan batun ra'ayi na fasaha game da birni shine Louis Sullivan 's *The Tall Office Gine da Artistically La'akari* na 1896.  A cikin wannan maƙala, Sullivan ya rubuta sanannen karin maganarsa “siffa ta taɓa bin aiki”; Maganar da za a ɗauka daga baya a matsayin babban tushen ka'idar gine-ginen Zamani. Yayin da daga baya masu ginin gine-gine suka karɓi taƙaitaccen jimlar “siffa ta biyo baya” a matsayin ƙa’idar aiki a cikin hidimar koyaswar masu aiki, Sullivan ya rubuta game da ayyuka game da ayyukan halitta na tsarin halitta. Wani masanin tsarin tsarawa mai tasiri na wannan lokacin shine Ebenezer Howard, wanda ya kafa motsi na garin lambu . Wannan motsi ya yi niyya don samar da al'ummomin da ke da gine-gine a cikin Salon Arts da Crafts a Letchworth da Welwyn Lambun City da kuma yada salo a matsayin gine-ginen gida.

A Vienna, ra'ayin sabon tsarin gine-gine na zamani yana da masana da yawa da masu goyon baya. An fara amfani da kalmar *gine-ginen zamani* da aka buga a cikin taken littafi na Otto Wagner,   wanda ya ba da misalan wakilin aikinsa na Secesion Vienna tare da zane-zane na Art Nouveau, da koyarwar didactic ga ɗalibansa. . Ba da da ewa ba, Adolf Loos ya rubuta *kayan ado da Laifuka*, kuma yayin da aka saba ganin salon kansa a cikin mahallin Jugendstil, buƙatarsa na "kawar da kayan ado" ya shiga taken " nau'i ya bi aiki " a matsayin ka'idar tsarin gine-gine. wanda ake kira Modern Movement wanda ya mamaye tsakiyar karni na 20. Walter Gropius, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe da Le Corbusier sun ba da tushen ka'idar Tsarin Tsarin Duniya tare da manufar yin amfani da gine-ginen masana'antu don sake fasalin al'umma. Frank Lloyd Wright, yayin da na zamani ke ƙin farfaɗowar tarihi, ya kasance mai ban mamaki a cikin ka'idarsa, wanda ya isar a cikin rubuce-rubuce masu yawa. Wright bai bi ka'idodin Tsarin Duniya ba, amma ya samo asali ne daga abin da yake fata zai zama Ba'amurke, sabanin tsarin Turai, ci gaba. Salon Wright, duk da haka, ya kasance na sirri sosai, wanda ya haɗa da ra'ayinsa na musamman game da mutum da yanayi. Wright ya kasance mafi waƙa kuma ya tabbatar da ra'ayi na ƙarni na 19 na mai fasaha a matsayin haziƙi na musamman. Wannan ya iyakance dacewa da shawarwarinsa na ka'idar. Zuwa ƙarshen karni na baya-bayanan gine-ginen ya mayar da martani ga matsananciyar ka'idojin Babban Zamani (Salon Ƙasashen Duniya), waɗanda ake kallo a matsayin ƙunci na al'ada da koyarwa.

### Na zamani

A cikin ka'idar magana ta gine-ginen zamani ta ƙara damuwa da matsayinta a cikin al'ada gabaɗaya, da tunani musamman. Wannan shine dalilin da ya sa kwasa-kwasan jami'a kan ka'idar gine-gine na iya ɗaukar lokaci mai yawa kamar tattauna falsafa da nazarin al'adu a matsayin gine-gine, kuma dalilin da ya sa ci gaba da bincike na gaba da digiri na digiri ya mayar da hankali kan batutuwa na falsafa dangane da ilimin ɗan adam. Wasu masana tsarin gine-gine suna nufin tattauna batutuwan falsafa, ko shiga tattaunawa kai tsaye tare da masana falsafa, kamar yadda yake a cikin sha'awar Peter Eisenman 's da Bernard Tschumi ga tunanin Derrida, ko sha'awar Anthony Vidler akan ayyukan Freud da Lacan, ban da sha'awar Gaston Bachelard 's Poetics of Space ko rubutu na Gilles Deleuze . Har ila yau, wannan ya kasance tare da masu ilmantarwa a cikin ilimin kimiyya kamar Dalibor Vesely ko Alberto-Perez Gomez, kuma a cikin 'yan shekarun nan an ƙarfafa wannan ma'anar falsafa ta hanyar bincike na sababbin masu tunani (EG Jeffrey Kipnis ko Sanford Kwinter ). Hakazalika, zamu iya komawa ga masu gine-ginen zamani waɗanda suke sha'awar ilimin falsafa da nazarin al'adu. Wasu suna sha'awar phenomenology da neuroaesthetics, kamar Sarah Williams Goldhagen, Sarah Robinson, da Kirista Norberg-Schulz, ko ƙware a matsayin masana falsafa da masana tarihi na kimiyya, irin su Nader El-Bizri wanda kuma sanannen phenomenologist ne (musamman a cikin nazarin Heidegger ). Wasu, kamar Beatriz Colomina da Mary McLeod, suna faɗaɗa fahimtar tarihi na gine-gine don haɗa da ƙarami ko ƙananan jawabai waɗanda suka yi tasiri ga haɓakar ra'ayoyin gine-gine a kan lokaci. Nazarin ilimin mata a cikin gine-gine, da kuma cikin jima'i da jinsi a matsayin maganganun al'adu masu karfi, ana kuma daukar su a matsayin wani muhimmin bangare na maganganun ka'idar karni na 20 na ƙarshe, kuma suna da alaƙa da irin waɗannan mutane kamar Dolores Hayden, Catherine Ingraham, Jennifer Bloomer da Sylvia Lavin. Ra'ayin cewa ka'idar ta ƙunshi zargi kuma ta samo asali ne daga nazarin adabin da suka biyo bayan tsarin aiki a cikin ayyukan wasu masana da yawa da masu gine-gine, kamar Mark Wigley da Diana Agrest, da sauransu. A tunaninsu, ana kwatanta gine-gine da harshen da za a iya ƙirƙira da sake ƙirƙira duk lokacin da aka yi amfani da shi. Wannan ka'idar ta rinjayi abin da ake kira deconstructivist architecture. Sabanin haka, masu ƙirƙira ƙungiyoyin sadarwar jama'a, musamman masu haɓaka software na Silicon Valley, sun rungumi girmamawar Christopher Alexander akan Hanyar Gine-gine mara lokaci (1979) dangane da yarukan ƙima waɗanda aka inganta akan rukunin yanar gizo yayin da ake buɗe gini.

Tun daga shekara ta 2000, ka'idar gine-gine kuma dole ne ta fuskanci saurin haɓakar birane da haɗin gwiwar duniya . Ta hanyar haɓaka sabon fahimtar birni, yawancin masu ilimin tunani sun haɓaka sabbin fahimtar yanayin biranen duniyarmu (EG Rem Koolhaas 's *Bigness* ). Abubuwan sha'awa cikin rarrabuwar kawuna da gine-gine a matsayin abubuwa masu wucewa sun ƙara shafar irin wannan tunanin (misali damuwar yin amfani da fasaha mai zurfi), amma kuma suna da alaƙa da abubuwan da suka shafi gabaɗaya kamar ilimin halitta, kafofin watsa labarai, da tattalin arziki.

A cikin shekaru goma da suka gabata, an sami bullar abin da ake kira "Digital" Architecture. Yawancin igiyoyi da hanyoyin ƙira ana haɓaka su lokaci guda, wasu waɗanda ke ƙarfafa juna, yayin da wasu ke aiki cikin adawa. Ɗaya daga cikin waɗannan yanayin shine Biomimicry, wanda shine tsarin nazarin yanayi, samfurinsa, tsarinsa, matakai, da abubuwa, don yin koyi ko ɗaukar wahayi daga gare su don magance matsalolin ɗan adam.  Masu gine-ginen kuma suna tsara gine-gine masu kama da halitta a ƙoƙarin haɓaka sabon harshe na yau da kullun. Wani yanayin kuma shine binciken waɗannan dabarun ƙididdiga waɗanda algorithms ke tasiri ga hanyoyin nazarin halittu kuma wani lokacin ana kiranta da morphogenesis na Dijital . Ƙoƙarin yin amfani da Ƙirƙirar Ƙirƙirar Ƙirƙirar Ƙirƙira a cikin gine-gine, Ana amfani da Algorithms na Genetic Algorithm da aka haɓaka a kimiyyar kwamfuta don ƙirƙirar ƙira akan kwamfuta, kuma wasu daga cikin waɗannan ana samarwa kuma an gina su azaman ainihin sifofi. Tun lokacin da waɗannan sabbin dabi'u na gine-gine suka bayyana, masana masana da yawa da masu gine-gine suna aiki akan waɗannan batutuwa, suna haɓaka ra'ayoyi da ra'ayoyi irin su Patrick Schumacher's Parametricism.

Duniyar ka'idar gine-ginen zamani jam'i ce kuma tana da launuka iri-iri. Akwai manyan makarantu daban-daban na ka'idar gine-gine waɗanda suka dogara akan nazarin harshe, falsafa, bayan-tsari, ko ka'idar al'adu. Misali, akwai sha'awar sake gano aikin Sam Jacob bayan zamani, a cikin ma'anar sabbin dabi'u masu tsattsauran ra'ayi na gine-gine da tasirinsa a cikin ci gaban birane (Pier Vittorio Aureli), a cikin rungumar ra'ayin. na ladabtarwa da kuma cikin sabon tsarin tsarin gine-gine ta hanyar karkatar da ra'ayoyi daga falsafar Maƙasudin Abu. Ya yi da wuri, duk da haka, a ce ko ɗaya daga cikin waɗannan binciken zai yi tasiri ko tasiri mai dorewa akan gine-gine.

A cikin shekaru goma na biyu na karni na ashirin da ɗaya, an sami fitowar ka'idar gine-gine bisa tsarin ka'idar haifuwa ta zamantakewa da ka'idojin kulawa. An gabatar da wannan hanyar a cikin Doina Petrescu 's da Kim Trogal's editan juzu'i akan Social (Re) Production of Architecture  kuma a cikin ƙarar Kulawa mai Mahimmanci. Gine-gine da Urbanism don Ragewar Duniya wanda Angelika Fitz da Elke Krasny suka shirya. 

## Wasu masana ilimin gine-gine

## Manazarta