Tsakiyar Tsakiya da farkon Afirka ta zamani

**Tsakanin zamani da na farko na tarihin Afirka** ya taso ne tun daga tsakiyar zamanai da farkon zamani har zuwa lokacin mulkin mallaka a tarihin Afirka. 

## Afirka ta Tsakiya

### Wayewar Sao
Wayewar Sao ta bunƙasa tun daga kusan ƙarni na shida BC zuwa ƙarshen karni na 16 AD a Afirka ta Tsakiya. Sao ya zauna kusa da kogin Chari kudu da tafkin Chadi a cikin yankin da daga baya ya zama yanki na Kamaru da Chadi a yau. Su ne mutanen farko da suka bar bayyanannun alamun kasancewarsu a cikin yankin Kamaru na zamani. A yau, kabilu da dama na arewacin Kamaru da kudancin Chadi - musamman mutanen Sara - suna ikirarin sun fito ne daga wayewar Sao. Kayayyakin kayan tarihi na Sao sun nuna cewa ƙwararrun ma'aikata ne a aikin tagulla, tagulla, da baƙin ƙarfe.  Abubuwan da aka samo sun haɗa da sassaƙaƙen tagulla da mutum-mutumi na terracotta na mutum da dabba, tsabar kudi, kayan jana'izar, kayan gida, kayan ado, tukwane da aka ƙawata sosai, da mashi. An gano mafi girman binciken kayan tarihi na Sao a kudancin tafkin Chadi.

### Kanem Empire

Daular Kanem ta kasance a tsakiyar tafkin Chadi. An san ta da Daular Kanem tun daga karni na 9 AD zuwa gaba kuma ta dade a matsayin masarautar Bornu mai cin gashin kanta har zuwa shekara ta 1893. A tsawonsa ya kewaye yankin da ya mamaye ba kawai Chadi ba, har ma da wasu sassan kudancin Libya na zamani, gabashin Nijar, arewa maso gabashin Najeriya, arewacin Kamaru, wasu sassan Sudan ta Kudu da Jamhuriyar Afirka ta Tsakiya. Tarihin Masarautar an fi saninsa daga Tarihin Sarauta ko *[[Girgam]]* wanda matafiyi na Jamus Heinrich Barth ya gano a 1851.  Kanem ya tashi ne a karni na 8 a yankin arewa da gabashin tafkin Chadi. Daular Kanem ta koma koma baya, ta durkushe, kuma a cikin karni na 14 mahara Bilala daga yankin Tafkin Fitri sun ci nasara. 

Kusan karni na 9 AD, daular Kanem ta tsakiyar Sudan, wacce ke da babban birninta a Njimi, makiyaya masu jin Kanuri ne suka kafa. Kanem ya taso ne ta hanyar yin ciniki a cikin sahara. Ta musanya bayin da aka kama ta hanyar kai hari kudu da dawakai daga Arewacin Afirka, wanda hakan ya taimaka wajen sayan bayi. A karshen karni na 11, Humai (Hummay) ibn Salamna ne ya kafa daular Musulunci Sayfawa (Saifawa). Daular Sayfawa ta yi mulki tsawon shekaru 771, wanda hakan ya sa ta kasance daya daga cikin dauloli mafi dadewa a tarihin dan Adam.  Baya ga kasuwanci, harajin da ake yi wa gonakin gida da ke kewayen Kanem ya zama hanyar samun kudin shiga a jihar. Kanem ya kai kololuwa a karkashin *Mai* (sarki) Dunama Dibalemi ibn Salma (1210-1248). Rahotanni sun ce daular ta samu damar kafa dawakai 40,000, kuma ta taso daga Fezzan da ke arewa zuwa jihar Sao da ke kudu. Musulunci ya kafu a daular. Aikin hajjin Makka ya zama ruwan dare; Alkahira na da dakunan kwanan dalibai da aka kebe musamman ga mahajjata daga Kanem.  

### Daular Borno
Mutanen Kanuri karkashin jagorancin Sayfuwa sun yi hijira zuwa yamma da kudancin tafkin Chadi, inda suka kafa daular Bornu . A karshen karni na 16 daular Bornu ta kara fadada tare da kwato sassan Kanem da Bulala ta mamaye.  Jihohin Bornu na tauraron dan adam sun hada da Damagaram a yamma da Baguirmi a kudu maso gabashin tafkin Chadi.

A wajen shekara ta 1400, daular Sayfawa ta koma babban birninta zuwa Bornu, jihar da ke kudu maso yammacin tafkin Chadi mai sabon babban birnin kasar Birni Ngarzagamu . Yin kiwo ya sa wuraren kiwo na Kanem sun bushe sosai. Bugu da kari, hamayyar siyasa daga dangin Bilala tana kara tsanani. Ƙaddamarwa zuwa Bornu ya fi kyau daular don cin gajiyar cinikayyar sahara da kuma faɗaɗa hanyar sadarwarta a wannan kasuwancin. Haka kuma an kafa dangantakar da ke tsakanin jihohin Hausa, inda aka samar da dawakai da gishiri daga Bilma na zinare na Bonoman .  Mai Ali Gazi ibn Dunama (  - 1503) ya ci Bilala, ya sake kafa cikakken ikon Kanem.  A farkon karni na 16, daular Sayfawa ta karfafa karfinta a kan al'ummar Bornu bayan tawaye da yawa. A cikin rabin karshen karni na 16, *Mai* Idris Alooma ya sabunta sojojinsa, sabanin daular Songhai . An yi amfani da sojojin hayar Turkiyya wajen horar da sojoji. Daular Sayfawa sune sarakunan farko da suka fara shigo da makamai a kudancin sahara.  Masarautar ta mallaki dukkan yankin Sahel tun daga kan iyakokin Darfur da ke gabas zuwa kasar Hausa zuwa yamma. An kafa dangantakar abokantaka tare da Daular Ottoman ta Tripoli . *Mai* ya yi musayar kyaututtuka da Sarkin Daular Usmaniyya . 

A cikin karni na 17 da 18, ba a san da yawa game da Bornu ba. A cikin karni na 18, ta zama cibiyar koyon addinin Musulunci. Duk da haka, sojojin Bornu sun tsufa ta hanyar rashin shigo da sabbin makamai,   kuma Kamembu ya fara raguwa. Ƙarfin mai ya yi rauni saboda fari da yunwa da ta ƙara tsananta, tawaye na cikin gida a arewacin makiyaya, ƙara ƙarfin Hausawa, da shigo da makamai wanda ya sa yaƙi ya fi zubar da jini. A shekara ta 1841, an sauke mai na ƙarshe, wanda ya kawo ƙarshen daular Sayfawa da ta daɗe.   A wurinta, daular al-Kanemi ta shehu ta hau mulki.

### Mulkin Shilluk
Masarautar Shilluk ta kasance a tsakiya a Sudan ta Kudu tun daga karni na 15 daga gefen wani yanki na yammacin gabar kogin White Nile, daga tafkin No zuwa kusan 12° arewa latitude . Babban birni da gidan sarauta yana cikin garin Fashoda . An kafa Masarautar a tsakiyar karni na 15 AD ta sarkinta na farko, Nyikang. A cikin karni na 19, Masarautar Shilluk ta fuskanci koma baya bayan hare-haren soji daga Daular Usmaniyya da kuma mulkin mallaka na Birtaniya da Sudan a Sudan ta Anglo-Masar . 

Masarautar Baguirmi ta kasance a matsayin kasa mai cin gashin kanta a karni na 16 da na 17 kudu maso gabashin tafkin Chadi a kasar Chadi a yanzu. Baguirmi ya fito kudu maso gabas na Daular Kanem–Bornu . Sarkin farko na masarautar shi ne Mbang Birni Besse. Daga baya a mulkinsa, daular Bornu ta mamaye jihar, ta mayar da ita gamayyar kasa. 

Daular Wadai ta kasance a tsakiya kan Chadi da Jamhuriyar Afirka ta Tsakiya tun daga karni na 17. Mutanen Tunjur sun kafa Masarautar Wadai a gabashin Bornu a karni na 16. A karni na 17 an yi tawaye na mutanen Maba wadanda suka kafa daular musulmi. 

Da farko Wadai ya bai wa Bornu da Durfur, amma a karni na 18 Wadai ya samu cikakken 'yancin kai kuma ya zama mai tada hankali ga makwabta.  A yammacin Bornu, a karni na 15 Masarautar Kano ta zama mafi karfi a cikin Masarautar Hausa, a cikin rashin kwanciyar hankali da Masarautar Katsina ta arewa.  Dukansu sun tsunduma cikin Daular Sakkwato a lokacin Jihadin Fulani na 1805, wanda ya yi barazana ga Bornu kanta. 

### Mulkin Baguirmi

Mulkokin Baguirmi ya wanzu a matsayin kasa mai cin gashin kanta tsakanin karni na 16 zuwa 17 kudu maso gabashin Tafkin Chadi a yanzu ƙasar Chadi. Baguirmi ta samo asali ne daga kudu maso gabashin Daular Kanem-Bornu. Sarkin farko na mulkin shi ne Mbang Birni Besse. Daga baya a zamanin mulkinsa, Daular Bornu ta ci ƙasar kuma ta mai da ita mai biya haraji.

File:La ville d'Abéché, vue du poste Français (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|Abéché, babban birnin Wadai, a shekarar 1918 bayan Faransa ta karbe shi

### Daular Wadai

Daular Wadai tana tsakiya ne a Chadi da Jamhuriyar Afirka ta Tsakiya daga karni na 17. Mutanen Tunjur sun kafa Mulkin Wadai a gabashin Bornu a karni na 16. A karni na 17 an yi tawaye na mutanen Maba waɗanda suka kafa daular Musulmi.

Da farko Wadai ta biya haraji ga Bornu da Darfur, amma a karni na 18 Wadai ta zama mai cin gashin kanta kuma ta zama mai cin zarafin maƙwabta. A yammacin Bornu, a karni na 15 Mulkin Kano ya zama mafi ƙarfi a cikin Masarautun Hausa, a cikin sulhu mara tabbas tare da Mulkin Katsina a arewa. Dukansu an haɗa su cikin Halifancin Sakkwato a lokacin Jihadin Fulani na 1805, wanda ya yi barazana ga Bornu da kanta.

### Daular Luba

Wani lokaci tsakanin 1300 zuwa 1400 AZ, Kongolo Mwamba (Nkongolo) daga dangin Balopwe ya haɗa kan mutane daban-daban na Luba, kusa da Tafkin Kisale. Ya kafa daular Kongolo, wanda daga baya Kalala Ilunga ya kore shi. Kalala ya faɗaɗa mulkin yammacin Tafkin Kisale. Wani sabon tsarin siyasa na tsakiya na sarakuna masu ruhaniya (balopwe) tare da majalisar kotu na manyan gwamnoni da ƙananan shugabannin har zuwa shugabannin ƙauyuka. Balopwe shine mai sadarwa kai tsaye da ruhohin kakanni kuma su suka zaɓe shi. Jihohin da aka ci an haɗa su cikin tsarin kuma an wakilce su a kotu, tare da lakabinsu. Ikon balopwe yana cikin ikon ruhaniya maimakon ikon soja. Sojojin sun kasance ƙanana. Luba ta sami damar sarrafa kasuwancin yanki da kuma tattara haraji don rarrabawa. An kafa jihohin reshe da yawa tare da waɗanda suka kafa su suna da'awar zuriyar Luba. Tsarin siyasa na Luba ya bazu a duk faɗin Afirka ta Tsakiya, kudancin Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, da yammacin Kongo. Manyan dauloli biyu da ke da'awar zuriyar Luba sune Daular Lunda da Daular Maravi. Mutanen Bemba da Basimba na arewacin Zambia zuriyar baƙin Luba ne waɗanda suka iso Zambia a karni na 17.

### Daular Lunda

A cikin shekarun 1450s, wani Luba daga gidan sarauta Ilunga Tshibinda ya auri Sarauniya Rweej ta Lunda kuma ya haɗa dukkan mutanen Lunda. Ɗansu mulopwe Luseeng ya faɗaɗa mulkin. Ɗansa Naweej ya faɗaɗa daular kuma an san shi a matsayin sarkin Lunda na farko, tare da lakabin mwato yamvo (mwaant yaav, mwant yav), Ubangijin Macizai. An riƙe tsarin siyasa na Luba, kuma an haɗa mutanen da aka ci cikin tsarin. Mwato yamvo ya naɗa cilool ko kilolo (mai ba da shawara na sarauta) da mai karɓar haraji ga kowace jiha da aka ci.

Jihohi da yawa sun yi iƙirarin zuriyar Lunda. Imbangala na cikin gida na Angola sun yi iƙirarin zuriyar wanda ya kafa, Kinguri, ɗan'uwan Sarauniya Rweej, wanda bai iya jurewa mulkin mulopwe Tshibunda ba. Kinguri ya zama taken sarakunan jihohin da ɗan'uwan Sarauniya Rweej ya kafa. Mutanen Luena (Lwena) da Lozi (Luyani) a Zambia kuma sun yi iƙirarin zuriyar Kinguri. A lokacin karni na 17, wani shugaban Lunda kuma jarumi mai suna Mwata Kazembe ya kafa mulkin Lunda ta Gabas a kwarin Kogin Luapula. Faɗaɗawar Lunda ta yamma kuma ta ga iƙirarin zuriyar Yaka da Pende. Lunda ta haɗa Afirka ta Tsakiya da kasuwancin gabar yamma. Mulkin Lunda ya zo ƙarshe a karni na 19 lokacin da Chokwe suka mamaye shi, waɗanda ke ɗauke da bindigogi.

### Mulkin Kongo

A ƙarni na 15 AZ, mutanen Bakongo masu noma (*ba* shine jam'in gabatarwa) sun haɗu a matsayin Mulkin Kongo ƙarƙashin wani mai mulki da ake kira manikongo, wanda ke zaune a yankin Pool Malebo mai haihuwa a ƙasan Kogin Kongo. Babban birnin shi ne M'banza-Kongo. Tare da ingantaccen tsari, sun sami damar cin nasara kan maƙwabtansu da karɓar haraji. Sun kasance ƙwararru a aikin ƙarfe, tukwane, da saƙaɗɗen zane-zane. Sun ƙarfafa cinikin yanki tsakanin yankuna ta hanyar tsarin haraji wanda manikongo ke sarrafawa. Daga baya, masara da rogo za a shigar da su yankin ta hanyar ciniki da Portuguese a tashoshin su na Luanda da Benguela. Masara da rogo za su haifar da karuwar yawan jama'a a yankin da sauran sassan Afirka, suna maye gurbin gero a matsayin babban abinci.

A ƙarni na 16, manikongo ya riƙe iko daga Tekun Atlantika a yamma zuwa Kogin Kwango a gabas. An sanya wa kowane yanki mani-mpembe (gwamnan lardi) ta hanyar manikongo. A 1506, Afonso I (1506–1542), Kirista, ya karɓi sarauta. Kasuwancin bayi ya ƙaru tare da yaƙe-yaƙe na cin nasara na Afonso. Kusan 1568 zuwa 1569, Jaga sun mamaye Kongo, suna lalata mulkin kuma suka tilasta manikongo zuwa gudun hijira. A 1574, Manikongo Álvaro I an mayar da shi tare da taimakon sojojin haya na Portuguese. A ƙarshen shekarun 1660s, Portuguese sun yi ƙoƙarin samun iko da Kongo. Manikongo António I (1661–1665), tare da sojojin Kongolese 5,000, sojojin Afro-Portuguese sun halaka shi a Yaƙin Mbwila. Daular ta watse zuwa ƙananan siyasa, suna faɗa da juna don kama mutanen yaƙi don sayarwa cikin bauta.

Kongo ta sami bayi daga Mulkin Ndongo a cikin yaƙe-yaƙe na cin nasara. Ndongo an mulki shi ta hanyar ngola. Ndongo kuma za ta yi kasuwancin bayi da Portuguese, tare da São Tomé a matsayin wurin wucewa zuwa Brazil. Mulkin bai kasance mai karɓa kamar Kongo ba; ta kalli Portuguese da babban zato kuma a matsayin abokan gaba. Portuguese a ƙarshen ƙarni na 16 sun yi ƙoƙarin samun iko da Ndongo amma Mbundu suka kayar da su. Ndongo ta fuskanci raguwar yawan jama'a daga hare-haren bayi. Shugabannin sun kafa wata jiha a Matamba, wacce ke da alaƙa da Sarauniya Nzinga, wacce ta yi tsayin daka sosai ga Portuguese har sai da suka yi yarjejeniya da su. Portuguese sun zauna a bakin teku a matsayin dillalan ciniki, ba tare da shiga cikin cin nasara na ciki ba. Bauta ta haifar da barna a cikin gida, tare da jihohin da ke fara yaƙe-yaƙe na cin nasara don kama mutane. Imbangala sun kafa jihar Kasanje mai satar bayi, babban tushen bayi a ƙarni na 17 da 18.

## Ƙahon Afirka

### Somaliya

Haihuwar addinin Musulunci a gabar Tekun Ja ta Somaliya ya sa ’yan kasuwa da masu jirgin ruwa na Somaliya da ke zaune a yankin Larabawa suka fara shigowa cikin sabon addini ta hanyar hulɗa da abokan kasuwancinsu na Larabawa Musulmai. Da zuwan iyalai Musulmi daga duniyar Musulunci zuwa Somaliya a ƙarni na farko-farko na Musulunci, da kuma yadda malamai Musulmai na Somaliya suka wayar da kan jama’a cikin lumana, garuruwan da suka kasance biranen gari a da suka canza zuwa biranen Musulunci kamar Mogadishu, Berbera, Zeila, Barawa da Merka, waɗanda suka kasance ɓangare na wayewar ‘’Barbar’’ (kalmar Larabawa ta da don tsoffin Somalai). Birnin Mogadishu ya zama sananne da suna ‘’Birnin Musulunci’’ kuma ya rike kasuwancin zinari na Gabashin Afirka na tsawon ƙarni.

A wannan lokaci, dauloli irin su daular Ajuran da daular Mogadishu, da kuma ƙasashen jama'a kamar Barawa, Merca da Hobyo da tashoshin jiragen ruwansu, sun bunƙasa kuma sun yi mu’amala da kasuwanci mai riba da ƙasashe irin su Larabawa, Indiya, Venice, Farisa, Masar, Portugal har ma da China. Vasco da Gama, wanda ya wuce Mogadishu a ƙarni na 15, ya lura da cewa birnin babba ne, yana da gine-ginen hawa huɗu ko biyar da manyan faduna a tsakiyar sa, da kuma masallatai da ke da minareti zagaye.

A ƙarni na 16, Duarte Barbosa ya rubuta cewa jiragen ruwa masu yawa daga daular Cambaya a Indiya suna zuwa Mogadishu da kayan dinki da kayan kamshi, wanda suke musanya da zinariya, kasko da hauren giwa. Barbosa ya kuma bayyana yawan nama, alkama, sha'ir, dawakai da 'ya'yan itace a kasuwannin bakin teku, wanda ya sa ’yan kasuwa suka yi arziki sosai. Mogadishu, cibiyar masana’antar yadi mai suna ‘’toob benadir’’ (wanda aka keɓance don kasuwanni a Masar da Siriya), tare da Merca da Barawa, sun kasance matattarar tsayawa ga ’yan kasuwa Swahili daga Mombasa da Malindi da kuma kasuwancin zinari daga Kilwa. ’Yan kasuwa Yahudawa daga Mashigin Hormuz sun kawo kayan yadi da ’ya’yan itace daga Indiya zuwa gabar Somaliya don musanya da hatsi da itace.

An kulla hulɗar kasuwanci da Malacca a ƙarni na 15, da kaya kamar yadi, ambergris da porcelain su ne kayayyakin kasuwanci na farko. Giwar dawakai da turaren ƙamshi ana fitar da su zuwa daular Ming ta China, wanda hakan ya sa ’yan kasuwa Somalai suka zama manyan jagororin kasuwanci tsakanin Asiya da Afirka kuma hakan ya yi tasiri ga harshen Sinanci da kalmomin da aka aro daga Harshen Somaliya. ’Yan kasuwa Hindu daga Surat da na yankin kudu maso gabashin Afirka daga tsibirin Pate, suna kauce wa shingen Portugal da katsalandan na Oman, sun rika amfani da tashoshin jiragen ruwa na Merca da Barawa (wadda ba su ƙarƙashin iko ba) don gudanar da kasuwancinsu cikin kwanciyar hankali.

### Habasha (Ethiopia)

Daular Zagwe ta mulki sassa da dama na ƙasar Habasha da Eritrea daga kusan shekara ta 1137 zuwa 1270. Sunan daular ya samo asali ne daga mutanen Agaw masu harshe Cushitic da ke arewacin Habasha. Daga shekara ta 1270 kuma, daular Salomoniyawa ta karɓi mulki a daular Habasha na tsawon ƙarnuka.

A farkon ƙarni na 15, Habasha ta fara ƙoƙarin kafa alaƙa da ƙasashen Turai tun bayan zamanin Aksum. Wasikar Sarki Henry IV na Ingila zuwa Sarkin Abyssinia ta wanzu har yanzu. A shekarar 1428, Sarki Yeshaq I na Habasha ya aike da jakadu biyu zuwa Sarki Alfonso V na Aragon, wanda ya mayar da nata jakadun amma ba su iya komawa ba.

A shekara ta 1508 ne Habasha ta fara alaƙa da Portugal a ƙarƙashin Sarki Lebna Dengel, wanda ya gaji sarauta daga mahaifinsa. Wannan ya zama ci gaba mai mahimmanci, domin lokacin da daular ta shiga ƙarƙashin hare-haren Janar Adal kuma limami Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi (wanda ake kira ‘’Grañ’’ ko ‘’Hagu’’), Portugal ta taimaki Sarki ta hanyar aiko da makamai da sojoji dari hudu, waɗanda suka taimaka wa dansa Gelawdewos wajen fatattakar Ahmad da dawo da mulkinsa. Wannan ya kasance daya daga cikin yakin wakilci na farko a yankin, inda Daular Ottoman da Portugal suka shiga daga bangarori daban-daban.

Lokacin da Sarki Susenyos na Habasha ya karɓi addinin Katolika a shekara ta 1624, hakan ya haifar da boren jama’a da rikici na ciki wanda ya yi sanadiyyar mutuwar dubban mutane. ’Yan mishan na Jesuit sun bata imanin Orthodox na mutanen Habasha, kuma a ranar 25 ga Yuni, 1632, dansa Sarki Fasilides ya maido da addinin Orthodox na Habasha a matsayin addinin ƙasa kuma ya kori ’yan mishan na Jesuit da sauran Turawa daga ƙasar.

## Arewa Afirka

### Maghreb

A shekara ta 711 AD, Daular Umayyad ta mamaye dukkan Arewa Afirka. Zuwa karni na 10, yawancin al’ummar Arewa Afirka sun zama Musulmai.

Zuwa karni na 9 AD, hadin kai da ya biyo bayan mamayar Musulunci a Arewa Afirka da yaduwar al’adun Musulunci ya rabu. Rikici ya tashi kan wanda ya kamata ya gaji Annabi. Umayyadu ne suka fara jagorantar halifanci, tare da babban birninsu a Damascus. Daga baya, Abbasiyawa suka karɓa, suka mayar da babban birnin zuwa Baghdad. Mutanen Berber, masu son ‘yanci da rashin amincewa da tsoma bakin waje da kuma fifita Larabawa a cikin Musulunci na gargajiya, suka rungumi Musulunci na Shi’a da na Khawarij, waɗanda ba a yarda da su ba a matsayin masu kishin halifancin Abbasiyawa. Daulolin Khawarij da dama sun taso kuma suka fadi a ƙarni na 8 da 9, suna nuna 'yancinsu daga Baghdad. A farkon ƙarni na 10, wasu gungun Shi’a daga Siriya, suna da’awar sun fito daga jinin Fatima, ‘yar Annabi Muhammad, suka kafa Daular Fatimid a Maghreb. Zuwa 950, sun mamaye duk Maghreb, kuma zuwa 969 sun mamaye duk Masar, kuma sun yanke hulɗa da Baghdad.

A wani yunƙuri don farfaɗo da Musulunci tsantsa a tsakanin Berber Sanhaja, Abdallah ibn Yasin ya kafa harakar Almoravid a inda ake kira Mauritania da Yammacin Sahara a yau. Berber Sanhaja, kamar Soninke, suna cakuda addinin gargajiya da Musulunci. Abdallah ibn Yasin ya sami mabiya a cikin Lamtuna Sanhaja, wanda Soninke ke mulka a kudu, da Zenata Berber a arewa. Zuwa shekarun 1040s, duk Lamtuna sun rungumi Almoravid. Tare da taimakon Yahya ibn Umar da ɗan’uwansa Abu Bakr ibn Umar, ‘ya’yan sarkin Lamtuna, Almoravid suka kafa daula daga Sahel zuwa Tekun Bahar Rum. Bayan rasuwar Abdallah ibn Yasin da Yahya ibn Umar, Abu Bakr ya raba daular gida biyu da Yusuf ibn Tashfin, saboda girman ta. Abu Bakr ya karɓi kudu don ci gaba da yaƙi da Soninke, Yusuf ibn Tashfin ya karɓi arewa, ya kuma faɗaɗa zuwa Kudancin Spain. Bayan rasuwar Abu Bakr a 1087, daular ta rabu, kuma rikice-rikicen soja suka ƙaru a kudu. Wannan ya ba Soninke dama su sake faɗaɗa. Ana zargin Almoravid da rushe Daular Ghana a 1076, amma wannan ra'ayi ba a ɗauke shi da muhimmanci yanzu.

Daga ƙarni na 10 zuwa na 13, akwai ƙaura mai yawa daga larabawa bedouin daga yankin Larabawa. A kimanin 1050, sama da mutum dubu dari biyu da hamsin daga Masar suka shiga Maghreb. Wadanda suka bi bakin gabar teku ana kiran su Banu Hilal, wadanda suka bi ta kudancin tsaunin Atlas ana kiran su Banu Sulaym. Wannan ƙaura ta taimaka wajen yaɗa larabci da raguwar harsunan Berber da kuma ƙara larabta Arewa Afirka. Daga baya wata ƙabila Berber da aka larabtata, Hawwara, ta nufi kudu zuwa Nubia ta hanyar Masar.

A shekarun 1140s, Abd al-Mu'min ya ayyana jihadi akan Almoravid, yana zarginsu da fasadi da barna. Ya haɗa Berber arewa don kifar da Almoravid kuma ya kafa Daular Almohad. A wannan lokaci, Maghreb ta samu cikakken Musulunci, kuma an yaɗa ilimi, lissafi, kirga da zero da tsarin adadi na goma. Zuwa ƙarni na 13, daular Almohad ta rabu gida uku. Ana samun ƙarancin daular Musulunci a Spain sakamakon ƙarfin daular Kirista na Castile, Aragon da Portugal. Kimanin 1415, Portugal ta fara ‘reconquista’ ta Arewa Afirka da kama Ceuta, kuma daga baya Spain da Portugal suka kama wasu tashoshi. A 1492, bayan Yaƙin Granada, Spain ta doke Musulmi a Granada, ta kawo ƙarshen mulkin Musulunci na kusan shekaru 800 a Kudancin Iberia.

Portugal da Spain sun kwace tashoshi kamar Tangiers, Algiers, Tripoli da Tunis. Wannan ya sanya su gaba da Daular Ottoman, wacce ta karɓe su ta hanyar bajamushe Turkiyya (fashin teku). Wadannan bajamushe sun yi amfani da tashoshin wajen kai hari kan jiragen kiristoci. Duk da cewa Arewa Afirka tana ƙarƙashin Ottoman, amma biranen bakin teku ne kawai ke ƙarƙashin ikon Istanbul. Tripoli ta amfana da ciniki da Borno, inda pashan Tripoli ke musayar dawaki, bindiga da kayan yaki da sarkunan Borno domin bayi.

A ƙarni na 16, wata ƙabila ta Larabawa da ta ce ta fito daga jinin ‘yar Annabi Muhammad, Saadi, ta mamaye ta kuma haɗa Morocco. Sun hana Daular Ottoman ta kai ga Tekun Atlantika, sun kuma kori Portugal daga bakin tekun yamma. Ahmad al-Mansur ya kai daular ƙololuwar karfi. A 1591, ya mamaye Songhay don karɓar cinikin zinari wanda aka karkatar zuwa yammacin Afirka da gabas. Ikon Morocco akan Songhay ya ragu a ƙarni na 17. A 1603, bayan mutuwar Ahmad, daular ta rabu gida biyu – Fes da Marrakesh. Daga baya Moulay al-Rashid ya sake haɗa su ya kafa Daular Alaouite (1672–1727). Dan uwansa, Ismail ibn Sharif (1672–1727), ya ƙarfafa haɗin kasar ta hanyar shigo da bayi daga Sudan don gina rundunar soja.

### Kwarin Nilu

#### Masar

A shekara ta 642 AD, Daular Rashidun ta mamaye Masar daga Bizantiyawa.

Masar a ƙarƙashin Daular Fatimid ta ci gaba. An gyara dam-dam da hanyoyin ruwa, kuma an ƙara yawan noman alkama, sha'ir, auduga da flax. Masar ta zama cibiyar samar da auduga da lilin. Hanyoyin kasuwanci ta Bahar Rum da Bahar Maliya sun bunƙasa. An ƙirƙiri kudin zinari mai suna dinar Fatimid, wanda ake amfani da shi a kasuwancin duniya. Yawancin kuɗaɗen shiga na zuwa ne daga haraji da ake ɗiba daga manoma, kuma harajin ya yi yawa. Ana ba da aikin ɗiban haraji ga jagororin Berber, waɗanda sojoji ne da suka taimaka wajen ƙwace Masar a 969 AD. Wadannan jagorori suna ba halifa wani kaso, sauran kuma su na riƙewa. Daga bisani, sun zama masu ƙasar da ke da iko.

Don cike rundunar soja, an yi amfani da bayi Mamluk daga Turkiyya da bayi daga Sudan. Haka kuma an ɗauki Berber ‘yantakai. A shekarun 1150s, kuɗin haraji daga gona ya ragu. Sojoji suka tayar da tarzoma a ƙauyuka, suka lalata ciniki kuma suka raunana iko da ƙarfin halifofin Fatimid.

A shekarun 1160s, Masar ta fuskanci barazana daga sojojin Kiristoci na Turai. A cikin wannan rikicin, wani Janar ɗan ƙabilar Kurds mai suna Saladin (Ṣalāḥ ad-Dīn Yūsuf ibn Ayyūb), tare da ‘yan sojoji ƙalilan, ya zama babban jagoran Musulmai 

Ya kafa mulkin Ayyubawa, wanda ya share fatimiyawa daga ikon siyasa kuma ya maida Masar cikin mazhabar Sunni (Ash'ari). Saladin ya kafa babban birni a birnin Alkahira, inda ya kafa mulkin Ayyubawa daga 1171 zuwa 1250. Ayyubawa sun yi fice wajen kare Masar daga yakin Crusaders kuma sun yada mulkinsu har zuwa Sham, Kudus, da yankin Hejaz.

A cikin karni na 13, mulkin Ayyubawa ya fadi sakamakon tashin hankali daga cikin gida da kuma barazanar mamayewa daga waje. Sojojin Mamluki, wadanda aka kawo daga matsayin bayi, suka kifar da Ayyubawa kuma suka kafa mulkin Mamluki a 1250. Mulkin Mamluki ya kasance mai karfi a Masar da Sham, yana hana mamayar Mongol da kuma ci gaba da yakar rundunar Crusaders.

Mamluki sun gina katafaren tsarin mulki da tattalin arziki a Masar, sun kuma samar da cigaban ilimi da gine-gine musamman a birnin Alkahira. Amma daga karni na 16, sun fara raunana saboda rashin hadin kai da tabarbarewar tattalin arziki.

A shekara ta 1517, daular Uthmaniyya ta mamaye Masar a karkashin jagorancin Sultan Selim I. Wannan ya kawo karshen mulkin Mamluki, kuma Masar ta shiga cikin Daular Uthmaniyya har zuwa karni na 19, kodayake wasu Mamluki har yanzu suna da karfi a matsayin wakilai.

Masar a karkashin Daular Uthmaniyya ta kasance a matsayin muhimmiyar cibiyar kasuwanci tsakanin Gabas da Yamma. Har ila yau, addinin Musulunci da al’adun Larabawa sun ci gaba da karfafa a wannan lokaci.

## Kogi Nilu

### Sudan

Bayan mamayar Masar da Rashidun a karni na 7, yankin Sudan na yanzu ya kasance karkashin tasirin daular Nubia. Nubia ta rike da addinin Kiristanci har zuwa karni na 14, inda Musulunci ya fara mamaye yankin musamman ta hanyar ciniki da aure tsakanin Hausawa, Larabawa da kuma mutanen yankin.

A cikin karni na 16, Daular Funj ta tukunya ta bayyana a yankin Sennar, inda suka karbi Musulunci kuma suka jagoranci Sudan ta Tsakiya har zuwa karni na 19.

A karni na 19, Muhammad Ali Pasha daga Masar ya mamaye Sudan kuma ya kafa mulkin Masar-Uthmaniyya a yankin. Wannan ya bude kofar cinikayya da kuma sayar da bayi daga Sudan zuwa Masar da sauran yankuna.

### Nubia

Nubia, wadda ke arewacin Sudan da kudu maso gabashin Masar, ta kasance cibiyar daular Kush da Meroe a zamanin da. Bayan karshen wadannan dauloli, Nubia ta dauki addinin Kiristanci kuma ta ci gaba da zaman kansa har zuwa lokacin da Musulunci ya karfafa tasiri a yankin daga karni na 14 zuwa 16.

Nubia ta kasance hanyar mu'amala tsakanin Arewacin Afrika da Gabas ta Tsakiya, inda aka hada-hadar kayan tarihi, ilimi, da addini.

### Afirka ta Kudu da Botswana

#### Sotho–Tswana

Ci gaban daular Sotho–Tswana da ke kan yankin highveld a kudu da Kogin Limpopo ya fara ne kusan shekara ta 1000 CE. Ikon sarki yana dogara ne da dabbobi (shanu) da kuma dangantakarsa da kakanni. Wannan yana bayyane a wuraren zama na Toutswemogala Hill da ke da ginshikan dutse da katangar dutse, a arewacin highveld da kuma kudu da Kogin Vaal. A arewa maso yammacin Kogin Vaal, an samu ci gaban daular Tswana tun daga garuruwa da ke da dubban mutane. Idan akwai sabani ko rashin jituwa, kungiyoyi daban-daban suna barin wuri domin su kafa sabbin dauloli.

#### Mutanen Nguni

A kudu maso gabashin tsaunukan Drakensberg ne mutanen da ke magana da harshen Nguni suke zaune (kamar su Zulu, Xhosa, Swazi, da Ndebele). Su ma sun shiga cikin gina dauloli, inda sabbin dauloli suka samo asali daga rashin jituwa, sabani da kuma karancin ƙasa wanda ya haifar da motsi zuwa sabbin yankuna. Wannan ci gaban yaki da kafa dauloli da hijira da ya faru a ƙarni na 19 ya zama sananne da suna Mfecane (a wurin mutanen Nguni) ko Difaqane (a wurin Sotho). Babban dalilin hakan shi ne hadewar daular Zulu. Su masu aikin ƙarfe ne, manoma gero, kuma makiyaya shanu.

#### Khoisan da Boers

Mutanen Khoisan sun zauna a kudu maso yammacin yankin Cape Province, inda ruwan damina yake da yawa. Wasu daga cikin tsofaffin mutanen Khoisan sun narke cikin mutanen Bantu, kamar Sotho da Nguni, amma ci gaban Bantu ya tsaya a yankin da ruwan damina yake. Wasu harsunan Bantu sun haɗa sautukan 'danna baki' daga harshen Khoisan. Mutanen Khoisan suna yin ciniki da makwabtansu na Bantu, suna basu shanu, tumaki da kuma abubuwan farauta, suna karɓar tagulla, ƙarfe, da taba sigari a madadin haka.

A ƙarni na 16, kamfanin Dutch East India Company ya kafa cibiyar karɓar ruwa da cinikin nama a Table Bay tare da mutanen Khoikhoi. Mutanen Khoikhoi sun karɓi tagulla, ƙarfe, taba da ƙwarya a madadin nama. Domin sarrafa farashin nama da tabbatar da samarwa na dindindin, Dutch sun kafa sansanin dindindin a Table Bay a shekara ta 1652. Sun soma noma ‘ya’ya da kayan lambu, sannan sun kafa asibiti ga matuƙan jirgi masu rashin lafiya. Domin ƙara yawan kayan amfanin gona, Dutch sun yanke shawarar ƙarfafa manoma ‘yan ƙasa (boers) su kafa gonaki a yankin da bayi daga yammacin Afirka suka fara noma. An kwace ƙasa daga ciyawar dabbobin Khoikhoi, wanda ya haifar da yaki na farko tsakanin Khoikhoi da Dutch a shekara ta 1659. Babu wanda ya yi nasara, amma Dutch sun ɗauka cewa suna da 'haƙƙin cin nasara' wanda ya ba su damar ikirarin mallakar Cape. A cikin jerin yaƙe-yaƙe tsakanin su da Khoikhoi, Boers sun mamaye ƙasashen su gaba ɗaya da dabbobinsu. Yaƙin Khoikhoi da Dutch na biyu (1673–1677) ya kasance yunkuri na satar shanu. Mutanen Khoikhoi da dama sun mutu sakamakon cututtukan Turawa.

A ƙarni na 18, mulkin Cape ya faɗaɗa, bayi daga Madagascar, Mozambique, da Indonesia sun fara zuwa. Sansanin ya soma yaduwa zuwa arewa, amma adawar Khoikhoi, hare-hare da yaki na bazata sun rage wannan faɗaɗawa. Boers da suka koma kiwon dabbobi sun zama 'trekboers'. Mafi yawan ma'aikatan trekboer yara marayu ne da aka kama yayin farmaki kuma iyayensu sun mutu.
## Kudancin Afirka Maso Gabas
### Tarihin Farko

Bisa ga ƙa'idar asalin bil'adama na baya-bayan nan a Afirka, wadda ita ce babban ra'ayi a tsakanin masana kimiyya, dukkan bil'adama sun samo asali ne daga Kudancin Afirka Maso Gabas ko kuma Kahon Afirka. A cikin karni na farko AZ, mutanen da ke magana da harsunan Nilotic da Bantu sun koma yankin.

### Gabashin Swahili

Bayan hijirar Bantu, a yankin gabar teku na Kudancin Afirka Maso Gabas, wata al'ummar Bantu ta gauraye ta bunkasa ta hanyar hulda da 'yan kasuwa Musulmi Larabawa da Farisawa, wanda ya kai ga ci gaban biranen birane na Swahili da suka gauraya da Larabawa, Farisawa da Afirka. Al'adun Swahili da suka fito daga waɗannan musayar sun nuna tasirin Larabawa da Musulunci da yawa waɗanda ba a gani a al'adun Bantu na gargajiya ba, haka ma yawancin 'yan Afro-Arab na mutanen Bantu Swahili. Tare da asalin al'ummar masu magana da harshen da ke tsakiyar yankunan gabar teku na Tanzaniya (musamman Zanzibar) da Kenya — yankin teku da ake kira Gabar Swahili — harshen Swahili na Bantu ya ƙunshi kalmomin Larabci da yawa a sakamakon waɗannan hulda.

Mutanen Bantu na farko da suka zauna a gabar kudu maso gabas ta Kenya da Tanzaniya waɗanda waɗannan Larabawa da Farisawa na baya suka ci karo da su an riga an gano su da wuraren kasuwanci na Rhapta, Azania da Menouthias da aka ambata a cikin tsoffin rubuce-rubucen Helenanci da Sinanci daga 50 AZ zuwa 500 AZ, daga karshe suka ba da suna ga Tanzaniya. Waɗannan rubuce-rubucen na farko wataƙila sun rubuta farkon kalaman mazaunan Bantu da suka isa Kudancin Afirka Maso Gabas a lokacin hijirarsu.

A tarihi, mutanen Swahili ana iya samun su har zuwa arewacin Kenya da kuma kudu har zuwa kogin Ruvuma a Mozambique. Masu ilimin yanayin kasa na Larabawa sun kira gabar Swahili a matsayin ƙasar *zanj* (baƙaƙe).

Ko da yake a da an yi imani da cewa su zuriyar Farisawa ne, amma yanzu yawancin masana tarihi, masana ilimin harsunan tarihi, da masana ilimin kayan tarihi sun gane tsoffin Swahili a matsayin mutanen Bantu waɗanda suka ci gaba da yin hulɗa mai mahimmanci da 'yan kasuwa Musulmi, tun daga ƙarshen karni na 7 da farkon karni na 8 AZ.

An san masarautun Swahili na zamanin da suna da tashoshin kasuwanci na tsibiri, waɗanda masana tarihin Helenanci suka bayyana a matsayin "manyan birane", kuma sun kafa hanyoyin kasuwanci na yau da kullun tare da duniyar Musulunci da Asiya. Tashoshin jiragen ruwa kamar Mombasa, Zanzibar, da Kilwa sun shahara ga ma'aikatan jirgin ruwa na China a zamanin Zheng He da masana ilimin yanayin kasa na Islama kamar matafiyi Berber Abu Abdullah ibn Battuta. Manyan kayayyakin da Swahili ke fitarwa sun hada da hauren giwa, bayi, da zinariya. Suna kasuwanci da Larabawa, Indiya, Farisa, da China.

Portuga an iso a shekara ta 1498. A manufar sarrafa tattalin arziki da kuma Krista gabar Swahili, Portuga sun kai hari Kilwa farko a 1505 da sauran birane daga baya. Saboda juriya ta Swahili, ƙoƙarin Portuga na kafa ikon kasuwanci bai taɓa samun nasara ba. A ƙarshen karni na 17, ikon Portuga a gabar Swahili ya fara raguwa. Tare da taimakon Larabawa na Oman, zuwa 1729 an cire kasancewar Portuga. Gabar Swahili daga ƙarshe ta zama wani ɓangare na Masarautar Oman. Kasuwanci ya farfaɗo, amma bai kai matakin da ya gabata ba.

### Urewe

Al'adun Urewe sun bunkasa kuma sun bazu a ciki da kewayen yankin tafkin Victoria na Afirka a lokacin Zamanin Karfe na Afirka. Tsoffin kayan tarihi na al'adar suna cikin yankin Kagera na Tanzaniya, kuma sun kai yamma har zuwa yankin Kivu na Jamhuriyar Dimokiradiyyar Kongo, gabas har zuwa yankunan Nyanza da Yamma na Kenya, da arewa zuwa Uganda, Ruwanda da Burundi. Wurare daga al'adar Urewe sun kasance daga farkon Zamanin Karfe, daga karni na 5 BC zuwa karni na 6 AD.

Asalin al'adar Urewe a ƙarshe tana cikin faɗaɗawar Bantu da ta samo asali daga Kamaru. An gudanar da bincike kan wayewar farkon Zamanin Karfe a Kudancin Sahara tare da nazarin harsunan Afirka kan faɗaɗawar Bantu. Al'adun Urewe na iya dacewa da iyalin harsunan Bantu na Gabas, waɗanda zuriyar farkon kalaman mutanen Bantu da suka zauna a Gabashin Afirka ke magana. Da farko, Urewe tana kama da wayewar kai cikakkiya wadda za a iya gane ta ta hanyar salo mai ban sha'awa na kayan yumɓu da kuma fasahohin aikin ƙarfe masu ci gaba. Dangane da matsayin iliminmu na yanzu, babu ɗayan da ya bunƙasa ko ya canza tsawon kusan shekaru 2,000. Koyaya, ana iya lura da ƙananan bambance-bambance na gida a cikin kayan yumɓu.

Urewe shine sunan wurin a Kenya wanda aka fitar da shi ta hanyar buga littafin binciken kayan tarihi na Mary Leakey a 1948. Ta bayyana farkon lokacin Zamanin Karfe a yankin Manyan Tafkuna a Tsakiyar Gabashin Afirka kusa da tafkin Victoria.

### Madagascar da Merina

Madagascar an fara zama a ciki da masu magana da harsunan Austronesian daga Kudancin Asiya kafin karni na 6 AZ kuma daga baya da masu magana da harsunan Bantu daga yankin gabar Afirka a karni na 6 ko na 7, bisa ga bayanan archaeological da harshe. Austronesians sun gabatar da noman ayaba da shinkafa, kuma masu magana da harsunan Bantu sun gabatar da shanu da sauran ayyukan noma. Kimanin shekara ta 1000, an fara kafa matsugunan kasuwanci na Larabawa da Indiya a arewacin Madagascar don amfani da kasuwancin Tekun Indiya. A karni na 14, 'yan kasuwa sun shigar da Musulunci a tsibirin. Madagascar ta yi aiki a zamanin tsakiyar gabashin Afirka a matsayin tashar sadarwa ga sauran biranen teku na Swahili kamar Sofala, Kilwa, Mombasa, da Zanzibar.

Masarautu da yawa sun fito bayan karni na 15: Masarautar Sakalava (karni na 16) a gabar yamma, Masarautar Tsitambala (karni na 17) a gabar gabas, da Merina (karni na 15) a yankin tsaunuka na tsakiya. A karni na 19, Merina ta sarrafa dukan tsibirin. A 1500, Portuga sune Turawa na farko a tsibirin, suna kai hari ga matsugunan kasuwanci.

Britaniya da daga baya Faransawa sun iso. A lokacin ƙarshen karni na 17, Madagascar ta kasance sanannen wurin wucewa ga 'yan fashi. Radama I na Madagascar (1810–1828) ya gayyaci masu wa'azin Kirista a farkon karni na 19. Sarauniya Ranavalona I "mai ta'addanci" (1828–1861) ta hana addinin Kiristanci a masarautar, kuma an kiyasta Kiristoci 150,000 sun mutu. A ƙarƙashin Radama II na Madagascar (1861–1863), Madagascar ta ɗauki hanyar Faransa, tare da ba da dama mai yawa na kasuwanci ga Faransawa. A 1895, a yakin Faransa-Hova na biyu, Faransawa sun mamaye Madagascar, inda suka mamaye Antsiranana (Diego Suarez) kuma suka ayyana Madagascar a matsayin protectorate.

### Jihar Lake Plateau da Dauloli

Tsakanin karni na 14 da na 15, manyan masarautu da jahohi na Kudancin Afirka sun fito, kamar Masarautun Buganda da Karagwe na Uganda da Tanzaniya.

#### Daular Kitara

Zuwa 1000 AD, jahohi da dama sun tashi a Tafkin Plateau tsakanin Manyan Tafkuna na Gabashin Afirka. Kiwon shanu, noman hatsi, da noman ayaba sune manyan tushen tattalin arzikin waɗannan jahohi. Ayyukan ƙasa na Ntusi da Bigo sune wakilan ɗaya daga cikin farkon jahohi, Masarautar Bunyoro, wadda al'adar baka ta nuna cewa tana cikin Daular Kitara wadda ta mamaye dukan yankin Tafkuna. Elite na Luo, daga dangin Babito, sun yi mulki a kan mutanen Nyoro masu magana da harshen Bantu. Al'ummar ta kasance Nyoro ce a al'adun ta, bisa ga shaidun tukwane, tsarin matsuguni, da kuma kwarewar tattalin arziki.

Dangin Babito sun yi ikirarin halacci ta hanyar zama zuriyar dangin Bachwezi, waɗanda aka ce sun yi mulkin Daular Kitara.

#### Buganda

Masarautar Buganda an kafa ta ne ta hanyar Kato Kimera a kusan karni na 14 AZ. Kato Kintu na iya yin hijira zuwa arewa maso yamma na tafkin Victoria tun farkon 1000 BC. Buganda ta sami mulkin *kabaka* tare da *bataka* wanda ya kunshi shugabannin kabilu. A tsawon lokaci, *kabakas* sun raunana ikon *bataka*, inda Buganda ta zama masarauta mai tsakiya. A karni na 16, Buganda ta fara faɗaɗa amma tana da babban abokin gaba a Bunyoro. A cikin 1870s, Buganda ta kasance kasa mai arziki. *Kabaka* yana mulki tare da *Lukiko* (majalisar ministoci). Buganda tana da rundunar sojojin ruwa na jiragen ruwa dari, kowannensu yana da maza talatin. Buganda ta maye gurbin Bunyoro a matsayin kasa mafi muhimmanci a yankin. Koyaya, a farkon karni na 20, Buganda ta zama lardi na British Protectorate na Uganda.

#### Ruwanda

Kudancin Bunyoro, kusa da tafkin Kivu a ƙasan tsagin yamma, an kafa Masarautar Ruwanda, wataƙila a cikin karni na 17. Makiyayan Tutsi (BaTutsi) sun zama manyan mutane, tare da sarki da ake kira *mwami*. Hutu (BaHutu) manoma ne. Dukan ƙungiyoyin sun yi magana da yare ɗaya, amma akwai ƙa'idodin zamantakewa masu tsauri game da auren juna da hulɗa. Bisa ga al'adar baka, Mwami Ruganzu II (Ruganzu Ndori) (c. 1600 – 1624) ne ya kafa Masarautar Ruwanda, tare da babban birninsa kusa da Kigali. Ya ɗauki shekaru 200 don samun masarauta mai tsakiya a ƙarƙashin Mwami Kigeli IV (Kigeri Rwabugiri) (1840–1895). Rinƙaya Hutu ya tabbatar da wahala fiye da rinƙaya Tutsi. Babban Tutsi na ƙarshe ya miƙa wuya ga Mwami Mutara II (Mutara Rwogera) (1802–1853) a 1852, amma Hutu na ƙarshe da ya yi juriya an ci nasara a cikin 1920s ta Mwami Yuhi V (Yuli Musinga) (1896–1931).

#### Burundi

Kudu da Masarautar Ruwanda akwai Masarautar Burundi. Wani shugaban Tutsi Ntare Rushatsi (c. 1657 – 1705) ne ya kafa ta. Kamar Ruwanda, Burundi an gina ta ne a kan shanu da makiyayan Tutsi suka kiwo, amfanin gona daga manoman Hutu, cin nasara, da sababbin abubuwan siyasa. A ƙarƙashin Mwami Ntare Rugaamba (c. 1795 – 1852), Burundi ta bi manufar faɗaɗa mai tsauri, wacce ta fi dogaro ga diplomasiyya fiye da ƙarfi.

### Maravi

Maravi sun yi iƙirarin asali daga Karonga (*kalonga*), wanda ya ɗauki wannan taken a matsayin sarki. Maravi sun haɗa Tsakiyar Afirka zuwa ciniki na gabar gabas, tare da Swahili Kilwa. A ƙarni na 17, Daular Maravi ta ƙunshi dukkan yankin tsakanin tafkin Malawi da bakin kogin Zambezi. *Karonga* shi ne Mzura, wanda ya yi ƙoƙari sosai don faɗaɗa daular. Mzura ya yi yarjejeniya da Portuga don kafa rundunar sojoji 4,000 don kai hari ga Shona don samun taimako a cikin cin nasara ga abokin hamayyarsa Lundi, shugaban Zimba. A 1623, ya juyawa Portuga baya kuma ya taimaka wa Shona. A 1640, ya sake maraba da Portuga don ciniki. Daular Maravi ba ta daɗe ba bayan mutuwar Mzura. A ƙarni na 18, ta watse zuwa ga tsofaffin siyasar ta.

## Yammacin Afirka

### Daulolin Sahel da Jahohi

#### Ghana

Daular Ghana na iya kasancewa masarauta mai inganci tun farkon karni na 8 AZ, wadda Dinge Cisse ya kafa a cikin Soninke. Larabawa masanin ilimin kasa Al-Farazi ne ya fara ambaton Ghana a karshen karni na 8. Ghana mazauna birane da manoma ne suka zauna. Mazaunan birane sune masu gudanar da mulkin daular, wadanda Musulmi ne, da kuma *Ghana* (sarki), wadanda suke yin addinin gargajiya. An sami garuruwa biyu, daya inda masu gudanar da mulkin Musulmi da Berber-Arabs suka zauna, wanda aka haɗa shi da titin dutse zuwa gidan sarki. Mazaunan karkara suna zaune a kauyuka, wadanda suka shiga cikin manyan siyasar da suka yi mubaya'a ga *Ghana*. An dauki *Ghana* a matsayin mai tsarki, kuma lafiyarsa ta jiki tana nuna ga daukacin al'umma. Ghana ta musulunta a kusan 1050, bayan da ta ci Aoudaghost.
Daular Ghana ta wadata ta hanyar haraji kan cinikin sahara wanda ya haɗa Tiaret da Sijilmasa zuwa Aoudaghost. Ghana ta sarrafa hanyar shiga ma'adinan zinariya na Bambouk, kudu maso gabashin Koumbi Saleh. An karɓi kaso na gishiri da zinariya da ke wucewa ta yankinta. Daular ba ta shiga cikin samarwa ba.

A karni na 11, Ghana ta fara durkushewa. A da an yi tunanin cewa sace Koumbi Saleh da Berbers suka yi a ƙarƙashin Daular Almoravid a 1076 shine dalili. Ba a yarda da wannan ba yanzu. An ambaci wasu bayanin madadin. Daya daga cikin muhimman dalilai shine canja wurin cinikin zinariya zuwa gabas zuwa Kogin Neja da Hanyar Taghaza, da kuma durkushewar tattalin arzikin Ghana a sakamakon haka. Wani dalili da aka ambata shine rashin zaman lafiya na siyasa ta hanyar hamayya tsakanin jahohi daban-daban masu gadar mulki.
Daular ta kawo karshe a 1230, lokacin da Takrur a arewacin Senegal ya mamaye babban birnin.

#### Mali

Daular Mali ta fara ne a karni na 13 AZ, lokacin da wani shugaban Mandé (Mandingo), Sundiata (Lord Lion) na dangin Keita, ya ci Soumaoro Kanté, sarkin Sosso ko kudancin Soninke, a yakin Kirina a kusan 1235. Sundiata ya ci gaba da cin nasara daga dazuzzuka masu albarka da kwarin Neja, gabas zuwa Lanƙwasa Neja, arewa zuwa Sahara, da yamma zuwa Tekun Atlantika, yana shafe ragowar Daular Ghana. Sundiata ya ɗauki taken *mansa*. Ya kafa babban birnin daularsa a Niani, Mali.

Ko da yake cinikin gishiri da zinariya ya ci gaba da zama muhimmi ga Daular Mali, noma da kiwon dabbobi ma suna da mahimmanci. Noman gero, gero, da shinkafa aiki ne mai mahimmanci. A kan iyakokin arewacin Sahel, kiwon shanu, tumaki, awaki, da raƙuma sune manyan ayyuka. Al'ummar Mande ta shirya a kusa da ƙauye da ƙasa. Ana kiran tarin ƙauyuka *kafu*, wanda *farma* ke mulki. *Farma* yana biyan haraji ga *mansa*. Sojojin da aka keɓe na manyan dakarun doki da na ƙafa sun kiyaye zaman lafiya, waɗanda kotun sarauta ke ba da umarni. Za a iya samun ƙarfin soja mai ban tsoro daga yankunan da ke biyan haraji, idan ya cancanta.

Musulunta ya kasance tsari ne sannu a hankali. Ikon *mansa* ya dogara ne kan riƙe imani na gargajiya da tushen ikon ruhi. Sundiata tun farko ya nisanta Musulunci. Daga baya *mansas* sun kasance Musulmai masu biyayya amma har yanzu suna gane gumakan gargajiya kuma suna shiga cikin al'adun gargajiya da bukukuwa, waɗanda ke da muhimmanci ga Mande. Musulunci ya zama addinin kotu a ƙarƙashin ɗan Sundiata Uli I (1225–1270). *Mansa* Uli ya yi aikin hajji zuwa Makka, inda aka gane shi a cikin duniyar Musulunci. An ba wa kotun Musulmai masu ilimi a matsayin sakatarori da akawu. Matafiyin Musulmi Ibn Battuta ya bar cikakkun bayanai game da daular.

Mali ta kai kololuwar ikonta da fadaɗawa a karni na 14, lokacin da *Mansa* Musa (1312–1337) ya yi shahararren *hajj* dinsa zuwa Makka tare da bayi 500, kowanne yana riƙe da gwal mai daraja mitqals 500. *Hajj* na *Mansa* Musa ya ragu darajar gwal a Masarautar Mamluk (Alkahira) na tsawon shekaru goma. Ya yi babban tasiri a zukatan Musulmai da Turawa. Ya gayyaci malamai da masana gine-gine kamar Ishal al-Tuedjin (al-Sahili) don ƙara haɗa Mali cikin duniyar Musulunci.

Daular Mali ta ga faɗaɗa ilimi da rubuce-rubuce. A 1285, Sakura, bawa da aka 'yanta, ya kwace sarauta. Wannan *mansa* ya fitar da Tuareg daga Timbuktu kuma ya kafa ta a matsayin cibiyar ilimi da kasuwanci. Cinikin littattafai ya karu, kuma kwafin littattafai ya zama sana'a mai daraja da riba sosai. Timbuktu da Djenné sun zama cibiyoyin ilimi masu muhimmanci a cikin duniyar Musulunci.

Bayan mulkin Mansa Suleyman (1341–1360), Mali ta fara rugujewa. Sojojin dawakai na Mossi sun kai farmaki kan iyakar kudancin da ba a kiyaye ba. Tuareg sun addabi iyakar arewacin don sake kwace Timbuktu. Fulani (Fulbe) sun rage ikon Mali a yamma ta hanyar kafa Masarautar Futa Toro mai cin gashin kanta, wadda ta gaji masarautar Takrur. An raba kawancen Serer da Wolof. A 1545 zuwa 1546, Daular Songhai ta mamaye Niani, Daular Mali. Bayan 1599, daular ta rasa ma'adinan zinariya na Bambouk kuma ta watse zuwa kananan siyasa.

#### Songhai

Mutanen Songhai zuriyar masunta ne a kan Kogin Tsakiyar Neja. Sun kafa babban birninsu a Kukiya a karni na 9 AZ kuma a Gao a karni na 12. Songhai suna magana da harshen Nilo-Saharan.

Sonni Ali, wani Songhai, ya fara cin nasara ta hanyar kama Timbuktu a 1468 daga Tuareg. Ya faɗaɗa daular zuwa arewa, zurfi cikin hamada, ya tura Mossi zuwa kudancin Neja, kuma ya faɗaɗa kudu maso yamma zuwa Djenne. Sojojinsa sun kunshi dawakai da jiragen ruwa. Sonni Ali ba Musulmi mai tsarki ba ne, kuma malaman Berber-Arab sun nuna shi a mummunan haske, musamman saboda kai hari ga Timbuktu ta Musulunci bayan ya kare su kuma ya cece su daga mamayar Tuareg. Bayan mutuwarsa a 1492, ɗan uwansa Janar Askia Mohammad I, ɗan kassey, wata 'yar uwar Sonni Ali, ya tumbuke magajinsa.

Muhammad Ture (1493–1528) ya kafa Daular Askiya, *askiya* shine taken sarki. Ya ƙarfafa nasarorin Sonni Ali. An yi amfani da Musulunci don faɗaɗa ikonsa ta hanyar ayyana jihadi akan Mossi, farfado da cinikin trans-Saharan, da kuma sa Abbasid "shadow" caliph a Alkahira ya ayyana shi a matsayin khalifa na Sudan. Ya kafa Timbuktu a matsayin babban cibiyar ilimin Musulunci. Muhammad Ture ya faɗaɗa daular ta hanyar tura Tuareg arewa, kama Aïr a gabas, da kama Taghaza mai samar da gishiri. Ya shigar da Jahar Hausa cikin hanyar kasuwanci ta Songhay. Ya ƙara tsakiyar gudanar da mulkin daular ta hanyar zaɓen masu gudanarwa daga amintattun bayi da iyalai kuma ya sanya su a yankunan da aka ci. Suna da alhakin tattara sojojin gida. Tsakiyar ta sa Songhay ta kasance mai kwanciyar hankali, har ma a lokacin rikice-rikicen daular. Leo Africanus ya bar cikakkun bayanai game da daular a ƙarƙashin Askiya Muhammad. Askiya Muhammad ɗansa ya tumbuke shi a 1528. Bayan gasa mai yawa, ɗan Muhammad Ture na ƙarshe Askiya Daoud (1529–1582) ya hau gadon sarauta.

A 1591, Morocco ta mamaye Daular Songhai a ƙarƙashin Ahmad al-Mansur na Daular Saadi don tabbatar da ma'adinan zinariya na Sahel. A yakin Tondibi, sojojin Songhai sun ci nasara. Moroccans sun kama Djenne, Gao, da Timbuktu, amma ba su iya tabbatar da dukan yankin ba. Askiya Nuhu da sojojin Songhay sun sake haduwa a Dendi a tsakiyar yankin Songhai inda juriya mai ƙarfi ta guerrilla ta lalata albarkatun Moroccans, waɗanda suka dogara ga ci gaba da sake ba da kayayyaki daga Morocco. Songhai ta rabu zuwa jihohi da dama a cikin karni na 17.

Morocco ta ga cewa kasuwancinta bai da riba. An karkatar da cinikin zinariya zuwa Turawa a gabar teku. Yawancin cinikin trans-Saharan yanzu an karkatar da shi zuwa gabas zuwa Bornu. Dole ne a aika kayan aiki masu tsada da aka saya da zinariya a fadin Sahara, lamarin da ba a iya dorewa ba. Moroccans da suka rage sun auri mutanen yankin kuma ana kiran su *Arma* ko *Ruma*. Sun kafa kansu a Timbuktu a matsayin wata ƙungiya ta soja tare da daban-daban fiefs, masu zaman kansu daga Morocco. A cikin rudani, sauran ƙungiyoyi sun fara fitowa, ciki har da Fulani na Futa Tooro waɗanda suka shigo daga yamma. Daular Bambara, ɗaya daga cikin jihohin da suka rabu daga Songhai, ta mamaye Gao. A 1737, Tuareg sun kashe *Arma*.

#### Sokoto Caliphate

Fulani mutane ne masu ƙaura. Sun motsa daga Mauritania kuma sun zauna a Futa Tooro, Futa Djallon, kuma daga baya a cikin sauran Yammacin Afirka. A karni na 14 AZ, sun musulunta. A cikin karni na 16, sun kafa kansu a Macina, Mali a kudancin Mali. A cikin 1670s, sun ayyana jihadi a kan waɗanda ba Musulmi ba. An kafa jihohi da dama daga waɗannan yaƙe-yaƙe na jihadi, a Futa Toro, Futa Djallon, Macina, Oualia, da Bundu. Mafi mahimmanci daga cikin waɗannan jihohi shine Khalifancin Sokoto ko Daular Fulani.

A birnin Gobir, Usman dan Fodio (1754–1817) ya zargi shugabancin Hausa da aikata addinin Islama mara tsarki da kuma lalacewar ɗabi'a. A 1804, ya fara Yaƙin Fulani a matsayin jihadi a tsakanin al'ummar da ba su da kwanciyar hankali game da haraji mai yawa da kuma rashin gamsuwa da shugabanninsu. Zazzabin jihadi ya bazu a arewacin Najeriya, tare da goyon baya mai ƙarfi tsakanin Fulani da Hausawa. Usman ya kafa daula da ta haɗa da sassan arewacin Najeriya, Benin, da Kamaru, tare da Sokoto a matsayin babban birninta. Ya yi ritaya don koyarwa da rubutu kuma ya mika daular ga ɗansa Muhammed Bello. Khalifancin Sokoto ya wanzu har zuwa 1903 lokacin da Birtaniya suka ci arewacin Najeriya.

### Daulolin Dazuzzuka da Jahohi

#### Masarautun Akan da fitowar Daular Asante

Mutanen Akan suna magana da yaren Kwa. An yi imanin cewa masu magana da harsunan Kwa sun fito daga Gabashin Afirka/Tsakiyar Afirka, kafin su zauna a Sahel. A karni na 12, an kafa Masarautar Akan ta Bonoman (Jihar Bono). A karni na 13, lokacin da ma'adinan zinariya a Mali ta zamani suka fara bushewa, Bonoman da sauran jihohin Akan daga baya suka fara fitowa a matsayin manyan 'yan wasa a cinikin zinariya. Bonoman da sauran masarautun Akan kamar Denkyira, Akyem, Akwamu sune magabata, kuma daga baya fitowar Daular Ashanti. Yaushe kuma yaya Ashante suka isa wurin da suke yanzu ana iya muhawara. Abin da aka sani shine cewa a karni na 17 an gano mutanen Akan suna zaune a cikin jihar da ake kira Kwaaman. Wurin jihar yana arewacin Tafkin Bosomtwe. Babban tushen kudin shiga na jihar shine cinikin zinariya da goro da kuma share daji don shuka doya. Sun gina garuruwa tsakanin kogin Pra da Ofin. Sun kafa kawance don tsaro kuma sun biya haraji ga Denkyira, daya daga cikin jihohin Akan masu karfi a wancan lokacin tare da Adansi da Akwamu. A karni na 16, al'ummar Ashante sun sami canje-canje kwatsam, ciki har da karuwar yawan jama'a saboda noman tsire-tsire na Sabuwar Duniya kamar rogo da masara da karuwar cinikin zinariya tsakanin bakin teku da arewa.

A karni na 17, Osei Kofi Tutu I (c. 1695 – 1717), tare da taimakon Okomfo Anokye, sun haɗa abin da ya zama Ashante zuwa tarayya tare da Golden Stool a matsayin alamar haɗin kai da ruhinsu. Osei Tutu ya shiga cikin manyan faɗaɗa yankuna. Ya gina sojojin Ashante bisa ga jihar Akan ta Akwamu, yana gabatar da sabbin tsari da kuma mai da sojojin da aka horar da su zuwa ingantaccen injin yaƙi. A 1701, Ashante sun ci Denkyira, wanda ya ba su damar yin ciniki na bakin teku da Turawa, musamman Hollandawa. Opoku Ware I (1720–1745) ya shiga cikin ƙarin faɗaɗa, yana ƙara wasu jihohin Akan na kudu zuwa daular da ke girma. Ya juya arewa yana ƙara Techiman, Banda, Gyaaman, da Gonja, jihohi a Black Volta. Tsakanin 1744 da 1745, *Asantehene* Opoku ya kai hari ga ƙaƙƙarfan jihar Dagomba ta arewa, yana samun iko akan mahimman hanyoyin kasuwanci na tsakiyar Neja. Kusi Obodom (1750–1764) ya gaji Opoku. Ya ƙarfafa dukkan sabbin yankuna da aka ci. Osei Kwadwo (1777–1803) ya sanya sabbin gyare-gyare na gudanarwa wanda ya ba da damar a gudanar da daular yadda ya kamata kuma ta ci gaba da faɗaɗa sojojinta. Osei Kwame Panyin (1777–1803), Osei Tutu Kwame (1804–1807), da Osei Bonsu (1807–1824) sun ci gaba da haɗa yankuna da faɗaɗa. Daular Ashante ta haɗa da dukan Ghana ta yanzu da manyan sassan Ivory Coast.

Ashantehene ya gaji matsayinsa daga mahaifiyarsa. Ana taimaka masa a babban birnin, Kumasi, ta hanyar ma'aikatan gwamnati na maza masu hazaka a ciniki, diflomasiyya, da soja, tare da shugaba mai suna Gyaasehene. An dauki maza daga Larabawa, Sudan, da Turai a ma'aikatan gwamnati, dukkaninsu Ashantehene ne ya nada su. A babban birnin da sauran garuruwa, ankobia ko 'yan sanda na musamman an yi amfani da su a matsayin masu gadin Ashantehene, a matsayin tushen bayanan sirri, da kuma murkushe tawaye. An kiyaye sadarwa a cikin daular ta hanyar hanyoyin da aka kiyaye da kyau daga bakin teku zuwa tsakiyar Neja da kuma haɗa sauran biranen kasuwanci.

A yawancin karni na 19, Daular Ashante ta ci gaba da kasancewa mai iko. Daga baya Birtaniya suka lalata ta a 1900 ta hanyar manyan makamai da tsari bayan yaƙe-yaƙe huɗu na Anglo-Ashanti.

#### Dahomey

Masarautar Dahomey an kafa ta ne a farkon karni na 17 lokacin da mutanen Aja na masarautar Allada suka koma arewa suka zauna a tsakanin mutanen Fon. Sun fara tabbatar da ikonsu 'yan shekaru bayan haka. Ta haka suka kafa Masarautar Dahomey, tare da babban birninta a Agbome. Sarki Houegbadja (c. 1645 – 1685) ya shirya Dahomey zuwa wata kasa mai iko da tsakiya. Ya ayyana dukkan filaye a matsayin mallakin sarki kuma suna biyan haraji. An kafa gadon sarauta, yana kawar da duk wani gudunmawa daga shugabannin kauyuka. An kafa "bautar sarauta". Za a sadaukar da bawa da aka kama kowace shekara don girmama kakannin sarakuna. A cikin 1720s, an mamaye jahohin cinikin bayi na Whydah da Allada, wanda ya bai wa Dahomey damar kai tsaye zuwa bakin teku na bayi da kasuwanci da Turawa. Sarki Agadja (1708–1740) ya yi ƙoƙari ya kawo karshen cinikin bayi ta hanyar riƙe bayi a gonaki masu samar da man dabino, amma ribar Turawa kan bayi da dogaron Dahomey kan bindigogi sun yi yawa. A 1730, a ƙarƙashin sarki Agaja, Daular Oyo ta ci Dahomey, kuma Dahomey ta biya haraji. Yawancin haraji kan bayi an biya su da kuɗaɗen kauri. A cikin karni na 19, man dabino shine babban kayan ciniki.
Faransa ta mamaye Dahomey a lokacin Yaƙin Faransa-Dahomey na Biyu (1892–1894) kuma ta kafa gwamnatin mulkin mallaka a can. Yawancin sojojin da suka yi yaƙi da Dahomey 'yan Afirka ne na asali.

#### Yoruba

A al'adance, mutanen Yarabawa suna kallon kansu a matsayin mazauna daula ɗaya, sabanin halin da ake ciki a yau, inda "Yoruba" ke nuni ga harshe da al'adu ga masu magana da harshe a cikin iyalin Nijar-Kongo. Sunan ya samo asali ne daga kalmar Hausa da ake amfani da ita wajen nufin Daular Oyo. Jahar Yarbawa ta farko ita ce Ile-Ife, an ce an kafa ta ne a kusan 1000 AZ ta wani mutum mai iko na sama, *oni* na farko Oduduwa. 'Ya'yan Oduduwa sune za su zama wadanda suka kafa birane-jahohin Yarbawa daban-daban, kuma 'ya'yansa mata za su zama iyayen *obas* daban-daban na Yarbawa, ko sarakuna. Birane-jahohin Yarbawa yawanci ana mulkar su ne ta wani *oba* da *iwarefa*, majalisar sarakuna waɗanda ke ba da shawara ga *oba*. A karni na 18, birane-jahohin Yarbawa sun kafa wata ƙungiya mara ƙarfi, tare da *Oni* na Ife a matsayin shugaba kuma Ife a matsayin babban birnin. Yayin da lokaci ya ci gaba, kowane birni-jiha ya zama mafi iko tare da *obas* na su suna ɗaukar matsayi na ruhi mafi iko kuma suna raunana ikon *Oni* na Ife. Gasa ta zama mai tsanani a tsakanin birane-jahohin.

Daular Oyo ta tashi a karni na 16. An ci jihar Oyo a 1550 ta masarautar Nupe, wadda take da dawakai, wani muhimmin amfani na dabara. An aika *alafin* (sarki) na Oyo gudun hijira. Bayan dawowa, *Alafin* Orompoto (c. 1560 – 1580) ya gina runduna ta dogara ga dawakai masu nauyi da sojojin da suka yi aiki na dogon lokaci. Wannan ya sa su zama marasa cin nasara a yaƙi a yankin arewacin ciyawa da kuma a cikin dazuzzuka masu ƙarancin itace. A ƙarshen karni na 16, Oyo ta ƙara yankin yamma na Nijar zuwa tsaunin Togo, Yarbawa na Ketu, Dahomey, da kuma al'ummar Fon.

Majalisar mulki ce ta yi wa daular hidima, tare da rabe-raben zartarwa a fili. An sanya wa kowane yanki da aka samu mai gudanarwa na gida. Iyalan gida sun yi hidima a matsayin masu yin sarakuna. Oyo, a matsayin masarautar Yarbawa ta arewa, ta yi aiki a matsayin mai shiga tsakani a cinikin arewa-kudu da kuma haɗa dajin gabas na Guinea da yamma da tsakiyar Sudan, Sahara, da Arewacin Afirka. Yarbawa sun kera zane, kayan ƙarfe, da tukwane, waɗanda aka musanya da gishiri, fata, kuma mafi mahimmanci dawakai daga Sudan don kula da dakarun dawakai. Oyo ta ci gaba da zama mai ƙarfi tsawon shekaru ɗari biyu. Daga baya ta zama yankin mulkin Birtaniya a 1888, kafin ta kara rarrabuwa zuwa ƙungiyoyin yaƙi. Jihar Oyo ta daina wanzu a matsayin wata irin iko a 1896.

#### Benin

Mutanen Edo da ke magana da harshen Kwa na Nijar-Kongo sun kafa Daular Benin tun tsakiyar karni na 15. Daular ta fara da yunƙurin faɗaɗawa da haɗa ƙasa tun daga farko. A ƙarƙashin mulkin Oba Ewuare (kimanin 1450 – 1480 AD), an tsara jihar domin yaƙi da faɗaɗa iko. Ya ƙarfafa ikon cibiyar mulki tare da kaddamar da yaƙi na tsawon shekaru 30 da maƙwabta. Bayan rasuwarsa, Daular Benin ta yaɗu zuwa Dahomey a yamma, zuwa Kogin Niger a gabas, a gefen gabar tekun yammacin Afirka, har zuwa biranen Yarabawa a arewa.

Jikansa Oba Esigie (1504–1550) ya rage karfin uzama (majalisar kasa) kuma ya ƙarfafa hulɗa da kasuwanci da Turawa, musamman Fotigal, waɗanda suka samar da sabon tushen tagulla don aikin fasahar fadar sarauta.  
Oba yana mulki ne tare da shawarar uzama, wata majalisa da ke kunshe da manyan shugabanni daga manyan iyalai da shugabannin garuruwa na ƙungiyoyin sana'o'i daban-daban. Daga baya, an rage ikon majalisar ta hanyar kafa shugabannin gudanarwa. Mata ma suna da tasiri. Uwargidan sarki (queen mother) da ta haifi sarki na gaba tana da babban tasiri a harkokin mulki.

Benin ba ta taɓa zama wata babbar cibiyar fitar da bayi ba, kamar yadda littafin Alan Ryder mai suna *Benin and the Europeans* ya nuna. A farkon karni na 18, rikice-rikicen sarauta da yaƙin basasa sun daidaita daular. Sai dai a ƙarƙashin mulkin Oba Eresoyen da Oba Akengbuda, daular ta samu farfaɗowa. Bayan karni na 16, Benin ta fi fitar da barkono, hauren giwa, gam, da kayan dinki na auduga zuwa ga Fotigal da Holanawa, waɗanda suka sayar da su ga sauran al'ummomi a bakin teku. A shekarar 1897, Birtaniya ta mamaye birnin.

#### Neja Delta da Igbo

Neja Delta da Neja ta ƙunshi birane-masu-mulki da dama masu tsarin mulki daban-daban. Waɗannan birane-masu-mulki suna da kariya daga hanyoyin ruwa da kuma dazuka masu kauri da ke cikin yankin. Ciniki ya sauya fasalin yankin a cikin karni na 17. Birane-masu-mulkin yankin suna da kamanceceniya da na mutanen Swahili a Gabashin Afirka. Wasu kamar Bonny, Kalabari, da Warri suna da sarakuna. Wasu kuma kamar Brass suna da tsarin jamhuriya tare da ƙaramin majalisar dattawa, sannan wasu da ke Cross River da Old Calabar suna ƙarƙashin shugabancin 'yan kasuwa na ƙungiyar ekpe. Ƙungiyar ekpe ce ke kula da ciniki tare da tsara dokoki ga membobinta da ake kira tsarin gida (house systems). Wasu daga cikin waɗannan gidaje, kamar su Pepples na Bonny, sun shahara a Amurka da Turai.

Mutanen Igbo suna zaune a gabashin delta (amma da mutanen Anioma a yammacin Kogin Neja). Masarautar Nri ta taso tun a karni na 9, tare da Eze Nri a matsayin shugabanta. Wata ƙungiyar siyasa ce da ta ƙunshi ƙauyuka, kuma kowanne ƙauye yana da 'yancin cin gashin kansa da sunansa da filinsa, kuma ana girmama su da amincewa daga maƙwabta. Ƙauyuka suna da tsarin dimokuraɗiyya inda duk maza – da wasu lokuta mata – ke da damar yanke shawara. Kaburburan da aka samu a Igbo-Ukwu (800 AD) sun ƙunshi kayan tagulla da aka kera a gida da kuma zobba na gilashi daga Masar ko Indiya, alamar cewa suna da hulɗar kasuwanci da sauran yankuna na waje.

## Manazarta

## Majiaya

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