Gbe languages

Gbe tɔgum duma (pronounced [ɡ͡bè]) ni naam la cluster N tari tɔgum n paɛ pisiyi ŋwɔna taaba bɔna eastern Gaana la western Nigeria so'olom duma puansin. Nɛresɛba za'a n tɔgerɛ tɔgum wa la de la wuu paɛ "Gbe languages"  (four and eight million). Gbe tɔgesebo ti ba kɔ'ɔm ba'am tara tɔgera de la Ewe (nɛreba 10.3 million n tɔgerɛ bo Gaana wa la Togo tiŋa puan), tɔgesebo mɛ dole poore de la Fon ( ti nɛreba 5 million tɔgera bo, Benin tiŋa puan). Gbe tɔgum duma yuum doose la buuri tuusum puana ze'ele Kwa branch n boi Niger–Congo tɔgum duma, gee nananewa bo nyaa lagum naɛ mɛ dɛna Volta–Niger duma tɔgum duma. Bo de la tɔgum duma banuu n naɛ taaba, tɔgum duma wa de la: Ewe, Fon, Aja, Gen (Mina), and Phla–Pherá.

Gbe nɛreba zo'e zo'e ze'ele la east kiŋɛ ta ki'ira nananewa ti ba ki'ira nananewa "present dwelling-places" (several migrations between the tenth la fifteenth century puan". Gee Phla–Pherá nɛreba wa basɛba ze'ele la "original inhabitants" zisesi ti se'em n yuum "intermingled"  la Gbe immigrants, la Gen people probably originate from the Ga-Adangbe people in Ghana. In the late eighteenth century, many speakers of Gbe were enslaved and transported to the New World: it is believed that Gbe languages played some role in the genesis of several Caribbean creole languages, especially Haitian Creole and Sranantongo (Surinamese Creole).

Around 1840, German missionaries started linguistic research into the Gbe languages. In the first half of the twentieth century, the Africanist Diedrich Hermann Westermann was one of the most prolific contributors to the study of Gbe. The first internal classification of the Gbe languages was published in 1988 by H.B. Capo, followed by a comparative phonology in 1991. The Gbe languages are tonal, isolating languages and the basic word order is subject–verb–object.

## Tɔgum Duma (Languages)

#### Geography And Demography
Gbe tɔgum n boi zi'an boi la west la east du Volta River n boi Gaana wa la Weme River n boi  Benin tiŋa puan. Gee northern border boi la 6 la 8 degrees latitude gee ti southern border bɔna Atlantic coast. Zi'a la nɛreba la tɔgerɛ tɔgum sebo de la Kwa tɔgum duma, gee sadagina ma'a n boi east la north-east, zi'an ti Yorùbá duma tɔgera. Ta paɛ west, Ga–Dangme, Guang la Akan duma tɔgera. Gee mɛ ta paɛ north bɔna, de la bordered doose Adele, Aguna, Akpafu, Lolobi, la Yorùbá.

Yese nɛresɛba za'a n tɔgerɛ Gbe tɔgum duma ti ba dike pa'asɛ. Capo (1988) ba yuum bo bii makɛ nɛreba la ti ba dɛna la "four million", gee ti SIL's Ethnologue (15th edition, 2005) yuum bo "eight million". Tɔgesebo ti ba kɔ'ɔm ba'am tɔgera Gbe tɔgum puan de la Ewe (Gaana la Togo) ti gee ti ba tɔgera Fon (Benin, eastern Togo) gee four million la 3 million nɛreba mɛ nɛreba tɔgera. Ewe n de tɔgesebo ti ba tara zamesa sukuu duma secondary schools la universities sukuu duma n boi Gaana so'olom wa, gee dagi bala ma'a ba kelum tɔgebuna zamesa "non-formal zamesegɔ yɛla sukuu duma n boi Togo tiŋa puan. Gee Benin puan, Aja tɔgereba de la (740,000 ) gee ti Fon mɛ yuum dɛna tɔgum duma bayi yese tɔgum duma bayoobi puan na ti ba yuum loe ti ba dɛna "six national languages" ti government yuum loe bo bumkureba zamesegɔ yɛla 1992 yuuni la puan.

## Classification
Greenberg, dole Westermann (1952), yuum dike Gbe tɔgum iŋɛ la Kwa tɔgum yizuo la puan, Niger–Congo duma tɔgum. Ta paɛ "Kwa branch" tari "fluctuated" ti la paɛ yuuma se'em ma'a, la Roger Blench yuum dike Gbe tɔgum duma beŋe bii iŋɛ la Volta–Niger branch ta naɛ la East Kwa tɔgum duma ta paɛ east.

Gbe de la "dialect continuum". Yese comparative research puan, ba tɔri Capo (1988) iŋɛ yizuto tunuu puan "five clusters", ti cluster woo tara "several mutually intelligible dialects". Gee fole si'a n boi "clusters" duma ni ka bɔna ba tɔka "distinct". clusters duma banuu de la:

Kluge (2011) proposes that the Gbe languages consist of a dialect continuum that can be split into three large clusters.

* **Western Gbe** varieties (Ewe, Gen, and Northwestern Gbe): Adan, Agoi/Gliji, Agu, Anexo, Aveno, Awlan, Be, Gbin, Gen, Kpelen, Kpési, Togo, Vhlin, Vo, Waci, Wance, Wundi (also Awuna?)
* **Central Gbe** varieties: Aja (Dogbo, Hwe, Sikpi, Tado, Tala)
* **Eastern Gbe** varieties (Fon, Eastern Phla–Pherá, and Western Phla–Pherá): Agbome, Ajra, Alada, Arohun, Ayizo, Ci, Daxe, Fon, Gbekon, Gbesi, Gbokpa, Gun, Kotafon, Kpase, Maxi, Movolo, Saxwe, Se, Seto, Tofin, Toli, Weme, Xwela, Xwla (Eastern), Xwla (Western) (also Wudu?)

## Yu'urɛ Sika (Naming)
"Dialect continuum" za'a waabe ba yuum yi'ira 'Ewe' doose Westermann, yele-ɛɛra paaɛ "influential researcher" cluster puan, se'em n yuum tari 'Standard Ewe' yelebire ti de ze'ele yetɔgum buuri buuri gulesegɔ yɛla la. Sɛba e mɛ leregere yetɔgum duma "linguists" mɛ yuum yi'ire Gbe tɔgum duma za'a la 'Aja', sansɛka ti ba yuum sige ba tiŋa tɔgum yu'urɛ la Aja-Tado so'olom n boi Benin puan. Gee nananewa, tɔgebuna buyima wa yu'urɛ sika "language cluster" za'a dagi la nɛreba n yuum to'e la ma'a gee tɔgum la mɛ yuum tari la putitulema. Ze'ele sansɛka ti ba yuum tari tuuma tigere wa'am "West African Languages Congress at Cotonou" 1980 yuuni la ouan, H. B. Capo's yu'urɛ la puti'irɛ la yuum' de la ba za'a waabe sakɛ gee to'e : *Gbe*, se'em n de yelebire bɔ'ɔra 'language/dialect' tɔgum buuri woo puan na la.

## Tuusum

#### Gee ti 1600 paɛ
Ketu, bɔŋa-zi'an zina-beere wa de la Benin Republic (gee mɛ kelum dɛna Dahomey), la ta'am ma'a pɔsega zi'an ti ba dike ti ta'am doose belam pa'alɛ tuusum yɛla ŋwana yese nɛresɛba n tɔgerɛ Gbe-yetɔgum la yɛla ŋwana fii. Ewe buuri puan Ketu de la *Amedzofe* ("nɛreba pɔsega zi'an") bii *Mawufe* n de  Na'ayinɛ bɔŋa zi'a bii Na'ayinɛ tūrɛ ("home of the Supreme Being"). La de la sakire ti nɛresɛba n ki'ire Ketu ("inhabitants of Ketu) yuum ze'ele la westward doose zãba zo'e zo'e puan, ŋwana yuum iŋɛ la (tenth la thirteenth century) tiŋasuka. Ketu puan, sɔ yaabeduma sɛba n yuum tɔgerɛ Gbe-yetɔgum la yuum yelese bamɛŋa ba yuum ze'ele bii boi zi'a la teesum zi'isi pɔsɛ mɛta bii maala ba mɛsi bɔŋa zi'isi ("their own identity)".[*citation needed*]

Dãaŋɔ duma zo'e zo'e ti ba yuum nyɛ (thirteenth la fifteenth century) tiŋasuka ŋwana yuum ta'asɛ ti tigeri la deyima yuum kiŋɛ ta bɔna westward. Ba yuum ta ki'ira la ba sɔnyaaba tiŋa (ancient kingdom) n boi Tado (gee mɛ kelum dɛna Stado bii Stádó) ti Mono kulega (gee ti zina-beere wa nyaa dɛna Togo). Tado tiŋa (Tado kingdom) yuum de la ninmu'urɛ tiŋa bɔna West Africa so'olom wa puan (fifteenth century) saŋa la sa.[*citation needed*]

Gee (thirteenth bii fourteenth century saŋa la, ti Notsie (bii Notsé, Notsye, Wancé) tiŋa (kingdom) yuum mɛ, nɛresɛba n yuum ze'ele Tado kingdom wa'ana la n yuum mɛ zi'a la; Notsie yuum ta wa'am (1500 yuuma la puan) n nyaa ta dɛna nɛresɛba n ze'ele Tado wa'ana la ki'a zi'an, Ewe nɛreba. 1550 yuuma la puan, ti saama n yuum ze'ele Tado wa'ana la yuum mɛ Allada (or Alada) kingdom, se'em n yuum ta wa'ana dɛna "center" bo Fon nɛreba. Tado mɛ kelum dɛna la tuusum ze'ele bii pɔsɛ Aja nɛreba puan wa'ana; gee, Aja-Tado yu'urɛ wa gee kelum dɛna (Adja-Tado) de la se'em n ze'ele bo nɛreba la tɔgum. Ba dike Aja ti ka dɛna la ba ma tiŋa (mother tribe) doose nɛresɛba n tɔgerɛ Gbe tɔgum la za'a, tinsi la zo'e zo'e tuusum ze'ele la Aja Tado(gee mɛ kelum dɛna Azame).[*citation needed*]

Nɛreba basɛba n tɔgerɛ Gbe tɔgum duma la zina beere wa de la Gen nɛreba (Mina, Ge) Anexo saŋa la puan sa, sɛba ti ba ti'isa ti ba ta'am ze'ele la Ga la Fante puan na, ta pa'asɛ la Phla la Pherá nɛreba, sɛba n lagum dɛna buuri lagum ki'ira naɛ la nɛrebana yuum pugum deŋe nɛŋa ze'ele Tado wa'ana la puan.

#### European traders and the transatlantic slave trade
La ta iŋɛ fii ti baŋɛ Gbe-yetɔgum duma tuusum sansɛka ti Portuguese, Dutch la Danish lɛɛbeduma yuum sigum bii wa'am Gold Coast na la (la yuum iŋɛ 1500 yuuma la puan tari paɛ 1650 yuuma la puan). Ba yuum kɔ'ɔm ba'am bisera salima la kɔa yɛla yelesuma la ba puti'irɛ yuum ka boi tiŋa la ka buuri malema yɛla puan san kana sa puan. La yuum ka iŋɛ ba puti'irɛ puan la fii ti ba ɛ la ba bisɛ tiŋa la tɔgum duma la ba buuri malema yɛla; tɔgeseba ti ba yuum tara ita lɛɛbeko la koose yɛla yuum de la Portuguese la Dutch. Ba yelebɛa asi'a yuum yee la sa kana mɛa nuu puan, magese wuu *atrapoe* 'stairs' ze'ele Dutch *trap* la *duku* '(vuure de) foow' ze'ele Dutch *doek* bii Danish *dug*. Yelesi'a fii ti ba yuum gulesɛ bige sa kana wa puan de la ba yuum kɔ'ɔm bisera lɛɛbeko yɛla "trade". Gee ti European tinsi zo'e zo'e yuum wa'ana mɛ lɛɛbeko yɛla zi'isi ze'ele zi'an la puan, ba yuum sa'e missionaries la mɛ ti ba yese. 1658 yuuni la puan, Spanish missionaries duma la yuum lerege *Doctrina Christiana* *iŋɛ* Allada tɔgum puan, ta'asɛ ti a yuum lagum pa'asɛ gulesegɔ yelesi'a n pugum te'ele bɔna la puan West African tɔgum. Gee Gbe tɔgum gulese-kuna wa basɛ ti tu baŋɛ ti la ze'ele bii la yese (mangled) Gen puan na.

Pupeelum bii suma'asum yɛla yuum tari teere wa'am (transatlantic slave trade) yamene tuuma yuum vaara isekira saa zuo la, se'em n yuum tari paɛ a ba'asegɔ zi'a la "peak" (eighteenth century) yuuma ba'asegɔ pooren la sansɛka ti ba yuum tara yamesi N paɛ 15,000 yuuni wuu zi'ita Benin tara kina bɛba asi'a ti la dɛna sɛla N lagum pa'asɛ dɛna ba (triangular trade) ti la bɔna European mainland tiŋasuka, gee west coast of Africa la colonies n boi New World (notably the Caribbean). Gee nɛresɛba yuum pɔsɛ tuuni wa de la yuum' de la Dutch (ta pa'asɛ la lesser extent English) traders; ba yuum nyɔŋɛ nɛresɛba la ba yuum lagum dike ba mɛ ti bana ka tinsi lagum tɔna tɔta ta pa'asɛ la coastal African tinsi.

Gee Bight n de Benin, zi'a bii zisesi ti ba yuum tɔgera Gbe yetɔgum duma la, yuum de la yamesi dã'a zi'a kayima N bala (eighteenth century) yuuma la puan. Ba yuum tari tiŋa la nɛreba la 5% yuuni wuu kina koosa bii meles ŋwana zuo tiŋa la nɛreba la yuum' sige la tiŋa. Gee kelum pa'asɛ, kɔ'ɔm ze'ele ba nyɔka la saŋa sa la, nɛresɛba zo'e zo'e ti ba yuum nyɔgera yuum de la budaasi ti ba dɛna yamesi, yamene tuuma wa yuum ta ta'asɛ sɛla n dagi ma'a yesera pɔgesi/budaasi tiŋasuka. Yamene tuuma wa zi'isi sisesi (Slave Coast) ba yuum ni dike pɔgesi siyi bo budaa-kayima. Zãba zo'e zo'e N yuum ni ta isege (doose European pãsi puan la wan iŋɛ se'em yelesɛ ti ba sɔna bisera) san le tole nɛŋa pa'asɛ yelesi'a n yuum ni kelum pa'asɛ de la tiŋa la diisi yɛla zi'isi la puansin. Ba yuum ka mi kɔɔsi la tɔgum duma la yuum' basɛ ti la kpe'em ti ba nyaŋɛ doose baŋɛ teeri si'a n boi yɛla puan (turbulent saŋa la puan sa.