સુએઝ નહેર

**સુએઝ નહેર** એ ઇજીપ્તમાંથી પસાર થતી માનવનિર્મીત નહેર છે, જે રાતા સમુદ્ર અને ભુમધ્ય સમુદ્રને જોડે છે. તેને નવેમ્બર ૧૮૬૯માં ખુલ્લી મુકવામાં આવી હતી. સુએઝ નહેરનો મુખ્ય ઉદ્દેશ્ય યુરોપ અને એશીયા વચ્ચે આફ્રીકાનું ચક્કર લગાવ્યા વગર જલ પરીવહનનો હતો. તેનું ઉત્તર ટર્મિનસ છે પોર્ટ સઈદ અને દક્ષિણ ટર્મિનસ છે પોર્ટ તૌફિક, કે જે સુએઝ શહેરમાં આવેલું છે.

 આ નહેર ૧૯૨ કિમી (૧૧૯ માઇલ) લાંબી છે, જે પશ્ચિમ કાંઠે ઇસ્માઇલિયા સાથે જોડાયેલી છે, જે હાફ-વે પોઇન્ટથી ૩ કિમી (૧.૯ માઇલ) ઉત્તરે છે[૧]. તેમાં ૧૯.૫ કિમી (૧૨.૧ માઇલ)* ની ઉત્તરીય પ્રવેશ ચેનલ, ૧૬૨.૨૫ કિમી (૧૦૦.૮૨ માઇલ)* ની નહેર અને ૮.૫ કિમી (૫.૩ માઇલ)* ની દક્ષિણ પ્રવેશ ચેનલનો સમાવેશ થાય છે.[૨] તે બલ્લાહ બાય-પાસ અને ગ્રેટ બિટર લેક[૩] માં પસાર થતી જગ્યાઓ સાથે સિંગલ-લેન છે. તેમાં કોઈ તાળા નથી; દરિયાઈ પાણી નહેર દ્વારા ઉત્તરમાં ભૂમધ્ય સમુદ્ર અને દક્ષિણમાં લાલ સમુદ્ર બંનેમાંથી ગ્રેટ બિટર લેકમાં મુક્તપણે વહે છે, જે બાષ્પીભવનને બદલે છે.[૪]
 
 આ નહેર ઇજિપ્તના આરબ રિપબ્લિકના સુએઝ કેનાલ ઓથોરિટી[૫] (SCA) ની માલિકીની અને જાળવણી હેઠળ છે.
  
યુદ્ધના સમયે અને શાંતિના સમયે, દરેક વાણિજ્યિક કે યુદ્ધના જહાજ દ્વારા, ધ્વજના ભેદભાવ વિના, નહેરનો ઉપયોગ કરી શકાય છે.

## History of Suez Canal 
Ancient west-east canals have facilitated travel from the Nile to the Red Sea. One smaller canal is believed to have been constructed under the auspices of either Senusret III or Ramesses II.)

The reliefs of the Punt expedition under Hatshepsut 1470 BC depict seagoing vessels carrying the expeditionary force returning from Punt. This has given rise to the theory that, at the time, a navigable link existed between the Red Sea and the Nile. 

Evidence seems to indicate its existence by the 13th century BC during the time of Ramesses II.

Remnants of this ancient west-east canal, running through the ancient Egyptian cities of Pi-Ramesses, Bubastis and Pithom were discovered by Napoleon Bonaparte's cadre of engineers and cartographers in 1799.

### Canals dug by Necho, Darius I and Ptolemy 
According to the *Histories* of the Greek historian Herodotus, about 600 BC, Necho II undertook to dig a canal through the Wadi Tumilat between Bubastis and Heroopolis According to Pliny the Elder, Necho's extension to the canal was approximately 57 English miles,

Necho's project was finally completed by Darius I of Persia, who conquered Egypt. We are told that by Darius's time a natural in the vicinity of the Egyptian town of Shaluf or *Shaloof* In Arsinoe,

The Abbasid Caliph al-Mansur is said to have ordered this canal closed so as to prevent supplies from reaching Arabian detractors. culminated in a cadre of archaeologists, scientists, cartographers and engineers scouring the area beginning in the latter months of 1798. Their findings, recorded in the Description de l'Égypte, include detailed maps that depict the discovery of an ancient canal extending northward from the Red Sea and then westward toward the Nile.

Later, in the second half of the 19th century, French cartographers would again record the discovery of the remnants of yet another ancient north-south canal running past the east side of Lake Timsah and ending near the north end of the Great Bitter Lake.This second canal may have followed a course along the ancient shoreline of the Red Sea when the Red Sea once extended north to Lake Timsah.
thumb|left|upright|1881 drawing of the Suez Canal.
Though by this time unnavigable,

The British recognised the canal as an important trade route and perceived the French project as a threat to their geopolitical and financial interests. The British Empire was the major global naval force and officially condemned the forced work and sent armed bedouins to start a revolt among workers. Involuntary labour on the project ceased, and the viceroy condemned the slavery, halting the project.

Angered by the British opportunism, de Lesseps sent a letter to the British government remarking on the British lack of remorse a few years earlier when forced workers died in similar conditions building the British railway in Egypt.

Initially international opinion was skeptical and Suez Canal Company shares did not sell well overseas. Britain, the United States, Austria and Russia did not buy any significant amount of shares. All French shares were quickly sold in France. A contemporary British skeptic claimed:

thumb|One of the first traverses in the 19th century.
[thumb|Suez Canal in February 1934. Air photograph taken by Swiss pilot and photographer [Walter Mittelholzer.]]
The canal opened to shipping on 17 November, 1869. Although numerous technical, political, and financial problems had been overcome, the final cost was more than double the original estimate.

The canal had an immediate and dramatic effect on world trade. Combined with the American transcontinental railroad completed six months earlier, it allowed the entire world to be circled in record time. It played an important role in increasing European penetration and colonisation of Africa. External debts forced Said Pasha's successor, Isma'il Pasha, to sell his country's share in the canal for £4,000,000 to the United Kingdom in 1875, but French shareholders still held the majority. Prime minister Benjamin Disraeli was accused by William Gladstone of undermining Britain's constitutional system, due to his lack of reference or consent from Parliament when purchasing the shares with funding from the Rothschilds. 

The Convention of Constantinople in 1888 declared the canal a neutral zone under the protection of the British; British troops had moved in to protect it during a civil war in Egypt in 1882. They were later to defend the strategically important passage against a major Ottoman attack in 1915. Under the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936, the United Kingdom insisted on retaining control over the canal. In 1951 Egypt repudiated the treaty, and in 1954 the UK agreed to remove its troops, and withdrawal was completed in July 1956.

### Suez Crisis 
After the United Kingdom and the United States withdrew their pledge to support the construction of the Aswan Dam due to Egyptian overtures towards the Soviet Union, Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalised the canal in 1956 and transferred it to the Suez Canal Authority, intending to finance the dam project using revenue from the canal, while at the same time closing the Gulf of Aqaba to all Israeli shipping by closure of the Straits of Tiran. This provoked the Suez Crisis, in which the UK, France and Israel hatched a plan to invade Egypt. The intention was for Israel to invade on the ground, and for the Anglo-French partnership to give air and other support, later to intervene to resolve the crisis and control the canal. 

To stop the war from spreading and to save the British from what he thought was a disastrous action, Canadian Secretary of State for External Affairs, Lester B. Pearson, proposed the creation of the very first United Nations peacekeeping force to ensure access to the canal for all and an Israeli withdrawal from the Sinai. On 4 November 1956, a majority of nations at the United Nations voted for Pearson's peacekeeping resolution, which mandated the UN peacekeepers to stay in the Sinai Peninsula unless both Egypt and Israel agreed to their withdrawal. The United States backed this proposal by putting financial pressure on the British government, which then agreed to withdraw its troops. Pearson was later awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.

As a result of damage and ships intentionally sunk under orders from Nasser the canal was closed until April 1957, when it was cleared with UN assistance. A UN force (UNEF) was established to maintain the neutrality of the canal and the Sinai Peninsula.

### Arab-Israeli wars of 1967 and 1973 
In May 1967 President Nasser ordered the UN peacekeeping forces out of the Sinai Peninsula, including the Suez Canal area. Despite Israeli objections in the United Nations, the peacekeepers were withdrawn and the Egyptian army took up positions on the Israeli border, closing the Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping. The canal itself had been closed to Israeli shipping since 1949, except for a short period in 1951-1952.

These actions were key factors in the Israeli decision to launch a pre-emptive attack on Egypt in June 1967, and to capture the Sinai Peninsula to the Suez Canal. After the 1967 Arab-Israeli war, also called the Six Day War, the canal was closed by an Egyptian blockade until 5 June 1975. As a result, fourteen cargo ships known as "The Yellow Fleet" remained trapped in the canal for over eight years. In 1973, during the Yom Kippur War, the canal was the scene of a major crossing by the Egyptian army into Israeli-occupied Sinai, and in the later stage of the war, an crossing by the Israeli army into mainland Egypt. Much wreckage from this conflict remains visible along the canal's edges.

The UNEF mandate expired in 1979. Despite the efforts of the United States, Israel, Egypt, and others to obtain an extension of the UN role in observing the peace between Israel and Egypt, as called for under the Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty of 1979, the mandate could not be extended because of the veto by the USSR in the security council, at the request of Syria. Accordingly, negotiations for a new observer force in the Sinai produced the Multinational Force and Observers (MFO), stationed in Sinai in 1981 in coordination with a phased Israeli withdrawal. It is there under agreements between the United States, Israel, Egypt, and other nations. .

## Capacity 
thumb|right|Ships moored at El Ballah during transit

The canal allows passage of ships up to 62 feet draft or 210,000 deadweight tons and up to a maximum height of 68 m above water level and a maximum beam of 254 ft 3 in (under certain conditions). Improvements are planned to increase draft to 22 m (72 ft) by 2010, allowing passage of fully-laden supertankers. 

Some supertankers are too large. Others can offload part of their cargo onto a canal-owned boat to reduce their draft, transit, and reload at the other end of the canal.

## Alternatives 
The main alternative is travelling around Cape Agulhas at the south of the African continent. This is the route for ships which are too large, and was the route before the canal was constructed and when the canal was closed.
In the early twentyfirst century this route is often taken due to increasing piracy in Somalia and the high canal dues.

Before the canal's opening in 1869 goods were sometimes offloaded from ships and carried overland between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea.

## Operation 
[thumb| [USS Bainbridge (CGN-25)|USS *Bainbridge*, an American warship in the Suez Canal]]
The canal has no locks due to the flat terrain, and the minor sea level difference between each end is inconsequential.

There is one shipping lane with passing areas in Ballah-Bypass near El Qantara and in the Great Bitter Lake.
On a typical day, three convoys transit the canal, two southbound and one northbound. The first southbound convoy enters the canal in the early morning hours and proceeds to the Great Bitter Lake, where the ships anchor out of the fairway, awaiting passage of the northbound convoy. The northbound convoy passes the second southbound convoy, which moors in Ballah-Bypass . The passage takes between 11 and 16 hours at a speed of around . The low speed helps prevent erosion of the canal banks by ships' waves.

By 1955 approximately two-thirds of Europe's oil passed through the canal. About 7.5% of world sea trade is carried via the canal today. In 2008, a total of 21,415 vessels passed through the canal and the receipts from the canal totaled $5.381 billion.

## Connections between the shores 
From north to south connections are:
* The Suez Canal Bridge, also called the Egyptian-Japanese Friendship Bridge, is a high-level road bridge at El Qantara. In Arabic, *al qantara* means "the bridge". It has a  clearance over the canal and was built with assistance from the Japanese government and by PentaOcean Construction.
* El Ferdan Railway Bridge  north of Ismailia was completed in 2001 and is the longest swing span bridge in the world, with a span of 340 m (1100 ft). The previous bridge was destroyed in 1967 during the Arab-Israeli conflict.
* Pipelines taking fresh water under the canal to Sinai, about  north of Suez, at .
* Ahmed Hamdi Tunnel south of the Great Bitter Lake was built in 1983. Because of leakage problems, a new water-tight tunnel  was built inside the old one, from 1992 to 1995.
* The Suez Canal overhead line crossing powerline was built in 1999.

A railway on the west bank runs parallel to the canal for its entire length.

## Environmental impact 
thumb|right|upright|Map of the Red Sea
The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 created the first salt-water passage between the Mediterranean and Red seas. The Red Sea is about  higher than the eastern Mediterranean , so the canal serves as a tidal strait that pours Red Sea water into the Mediterranean. The Bitter Lakes, which are hypersaline natural lakes that form part of the canal, blocked the migration of Red Sea species into the Mediterranean for many decades, but as the salinity of the lakes gradually equalised with that of the Red Sea, the barrier to migration was removed, and plants and animals from the Red Sea have begun to colonise the eastern Mediterranean. The Red Sea is generally saltier and more nutrient-poor than the Atlantic, and the direction of flow is generally from the Red Sea to the Mediterranean, so the Red Sea species have advantages over Atlantic species in the salty and nutrient-poor eastern Mediterranean. Accordingly, most Red Sea species invade the Mediterranean biota, and only few do the opposite. This migratory phenomenon is called Lessepsian migration (after Ferdinand de Lesseps) or *Erythrean invasion*. The construction of the Aswan High Dam across the River Nile in the 1960s reduced the inflow of freshwater and nutrient-rich silt from the Nile into the eastern Mediterranean, making conditions there even more like the Red Sea, worsening the impact of the invasive species.

Invasive species originated from the Red Sea and introduced into the Mediterranean by the construction of the canal have become a major component of the Mediterranean ecosystem, and have serious impacts on the Mediterranean ecology, endangering many local and endemic Mediterranean species. Currently about 300 species from the Red Sea have been identified in the Mediterranean Sea, and there are probably others yet unidentified. The Egyptian government's intent to enlarge the canal have raised concerns from marine biologists, fearing that this will worsen the invasion of Red Sea species in the Mediterranean. .

Construction of the Suez Canal was preceded by cutting a small fresh-water canal from the Nile delta along Wadi Tumilat to the future canal, with a southern branch to Suez and a northern branch to Port Said. Completed in 1863, these brought fresh water to a previously arid area, initially for canal construction, and subsequently facilitating growth of agriculture and settlements along the canal. 

## Timeline 
* Circa 1799 — Napoleon Bonaparte conquered Egypt and ordered a feasibility analysis. This reported a supposed  difference in sea levels and a high cost, so the project was set on standby.
* Circa 1840 — A second survey found the first one incorrect. A direct link between the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea would be possible and not be as expensive as expected.
* 30 November 1854 - The former French consul in Cairo, Ferdinand Marie de Lesseps, obtained the first licence for the construction and subsequent operation during 99 years from the Viceroy.
* 6 January 1856 - Lesseps was provided with a second, more detailed licence.
* 15 December 1858 - Lesseps established the "Compagnie Universelle du Canal Maritime de Suez" (Said Pacha acquired 22% of the Suez Canal Company, the remainder controlled by French private holders).
* 25 April 1859 — Official start of the canal construction .
* 16 November 1869 — The Suez Canal opened; operated and owned by Suez Canal Company.
* 25 November 1875 — Britain became a minority share holder in the Suez Company, acquiring 44% of the Suez Canal Company. The remainder were controlled by French syndicates.
* 25 August 1882 — Britain took control of the canal.
* 2 March 1888 — The Convention of Constantinople renewed the guaranteed right of passage of all ships through the Suez Canal during war and peace (which rights were already part of the licences awarded to Lesseps.
* 14 November 1936 — Suez Canal Zone established, under British control.
* 13 June 1956 — Suez Canal Zone restored to Egypt.
* 26 July 1956 — Egypt nationalised the Suez Canal; all Egyptian assets, rights and obligations of the Suez Canal Company were transferred to the Suez Canal Authority.
* 5 November 1956 to 22 December 1956 — French, British, and Israeli forces occupied the Suez Canal Zone.
* 22 December 1956 — Restored to Egypt.
* 5 June 1967 to 10 June 1975 — Canal closed and blockaded by Egypt, against Israel, sparking the Six-Day War.
* 10 June 1975 — Suez Canal reopened.
* 1 January 2008 — New rules of navigation passed on by the Suez Canal Authority come into force.

### Presidents of the Suez Canal Company (1858-1956) 
Before nationalisation:
* Ferdinand de Lesseps (15 December 1858 – 7 December 1894)
* Jules Guichard (17 December 1892 – 17 July 1896) (acting for de Lesseps to 7 December 1894)
* Auguste-Louis-Albéric, prince d'Arenberg (3 August 1896 – 1913)
* Charles Jonnart (19 May 1913 – 1927)
* Louis de Vogüé (4 April 1927 – 1 March 1948)
* François Charles-Roux (4 April 1948 – 26 July 1956)

### Chairmen of the Suez Canal Authority (1956-present) 
Since nationalisation:
* Doctor Mohamed Helmy Bahgat Badawy (26 July 1956 – 9 July 1957)
* Engineer Mahmoud Younis (10 July 1957 – 10 October 1965)
* Engineer Mashhour Ahmed Mashhour (14 October 1965 – 31 December 1983)
* Engineer Mohamed Ezzat Adel (1 January 1984 – December 1995)
* Admiral Ahmed Ali Fadel (22 January 1996 – Present)

### British Vice-Consuls of Port Suez (1922-1941) 
* G. E. A. C. Monck-Mason, 1922 – 1924
* G. C. Pierides (acting), 1924 – 1925
* Thomas Cecil Rapp, 1925 – 1926
* Abbas Barry (acting), 1926 – 1927
* E. H. L. Hadwen (acting to 1930), 1927 – 1931
* A. N. Williamson-Napier, 1931 – 1934
* H. M. Eyres, 1934 – 1936
* D. J. M. Irving, 1936 – 1940
* R. G. Dundas, 1940 – 1941

### British Consuls of Port Suez (1941-1956) 
* R. G. Dundas, 1941 – 1942
* H. G. Jakins, 1942 – 1944
* W. B. C. W. Forester, 1944 – 1946
* Frederick Herbert Gamble, 1946 – 1947
* E. M. M. Brett (acting), 1947 – 1948
* C. H. Page, 1948 – 1954
* F. J. Pelly, 1954 – 1955
* J. A. D. Stewart-Robinson (acting), 1955 – 1956
* J. Y. Mulvenny, 1956

### Governors of the Suez Canal Zone 
* 14 November 1936 – 24 July 1939: ?
* 24 July 1939 – 7 May 1941: Sir Archibald Wavell
* 7 May 1941 – 7 August 1942: Sir Claude John Eyre Auchinleck
* 7 August 1942 – 19 February 1943: Harold Rupert Leofric George Alexander
* 19 February 1943 – 6 January 1944: Henry Maitland Wilson
* 6 January 1944 – June 1946: Sir Bernard Charles Tolver Paget
* June 1946 – June 1947: Miles Christopher Dempsey
* June 1947 – 25 July 1950: Sir John Tredinnick Crocker
* 25 July 1950 – April 1953: Sir Brian Hubert Robertson
* April 1953 – 28 September 1953: Sir Cameron Gordon Graham Nicholson
* 28 September 1953 – 13 June 1956: Sir Charles Frederic Keightley

### Supreme Allied Commander 
During the Suez Crisis:
* 5 November 1956 - 22 December 1956: Sir Charles Frederic Keightley

## Popular culture 
* *Suez*, a film made in 1938, starred Tyrone Power as de Lesseps and Loretta Young as a love interest. An epic, it is very loosely based on history.
* The Suez Canal appears in the 1962 film *Lawrence of Arabia,* where it marks the end of T. E. Lawrence's march across the Sinai Peninsula to report to his superiors in Cairo.
* The Suez crisis is mentioned in the 1989 hit song, "We Didn't Start the Fire" by Billy Joel
* Michael Palin visited the Suez Canal in 1988 as part of his TV adventure series, Around the World in 80 Days.
* The Suez Canal is also a map in the game Battlefield 2142.
* The idea of the Suez Canal is mentioned in the Asterix book, *Asterix and Cleopatra*, when Asterix offers the future assistance of the Gaulish people should Egypt consider a passage linking the Red Sea and the Mediteranean. 1900 years later, this offer was taken up!

## See also 
* List of Lessepsian migrants
* Panama Canal
* *Pharaoh* (historical novel by Bolesław Prus, incorporating motifs of an ancient Suez Canal)
* Suez Crisis
* Suezmax
* Wikisource:Constantinople Convention of the Suez Canal

## References 
## Sources 
* Britannica (2007) "Suez Canal", in: *The new encyclopaedia Britannica*, 15th ed., **28**, Chicago, Ill. ; London : Encyclopaedia Britannica, ISBN 1-59339-292-3
* Galil, B.S. and Zenetos, A. (2002). "A sea change: exotics in the eastern Mediterranean Sea", in: Leppäkoski, E., Gollasch, S. and Olenin, S. (eds), *Invasive aquatic species of Europe : distribution, impacts, and management*, Dordrecht ; Boston : Kluwer Academic, ISBN 1-4020-0837-6 , p.&nbsp;325–336
* Garrison, Ervan G. (1999) *A history of engineering and technology : artful methods*, 2nd ed., Boca Raton, Fla. ; London : CRC Press, ISBN 0-8493-9810-X
* Oster, Uwe (2006) *Le fabuleux destin des inventions : le canal de Suez* , TV documentary produced by ZDF and directed by Axel Engstfeld (Germany)
* Sanford, Eva Matthews (1938) *The Mediterranean world in ancient times*, Ronald series in history, New York : The Ronald Press Company, 618 p.

## External links 
* સુએઝ નહેરનું અધિકૃત વેબસાઇટ
* Darius the Great's Suez Inscriptions 
* Constantinople Convention of the Suez Canal, 1888 
* Encyclopedia of the Orient: *Suez Canal* * Entrance of the Suez Canal - 1882
* Plan of the Suez Canal - 1882 
* Suez Canal Container Terminal at Port Said 
* સુએઝ નહેરનું ચિત્રદર્શન 
* Opening of the Suez Canal, 1869 
* Bibliography on Water Resources and International Law Peace Palace Library

શ્રેણી:સુએઝ નહેર
શ્રેણી:Macro-engineering